Full text of "The Journal of heredity"

See other formats

0 4 ere

soared a! se?

Ruanty Hisyeise
teks

Hsseists '
reste?
oor

; Seas i fate if Hens
rat 7
nah hh caeeat fairer te
ea Ths rt ; Iai ihe serdar

ble thtnt) “
at vletet

rr etre et Mote roy Sa i
ys “4 ? a
be t tT H sm ebrssey gee
Bathe } t : tt
fore ita ivee petal otatermshh tt ARs Ssckit tet ety
SRP ated + ie slou peasy:
‘ joins ple bre

Vralatarr et 4 i ’ i 7,
; Habe ladineagi ne Rt i an teh
all i 4 ieiekety
, f AREY rf rit ? ay i
a

y
Veboe

tat ede! bbe ips
it} satan

i een

Se Moat Raibeuen Rennes
tee geabitetat eet reat

SNe M NYE “t ; ! Pigg cle wirt ste
peat tie ihe pith ser stores aya entareetaetiaY
i} : Halyheeateh Bia ease iH

* ?
MIC Mey te ey A i ny

if 4 Ronee ets fedes

i
ply evetalehecele ne
hearers | i ) i at ih ay
ve Lapel nt svete

feleale rie ater! eeeh
CU ya et 4
pane

sel bes
ot ieee oe dinitye
Berets nee pee
Merbybr me apantre peiy &.
vias
‘

seheeeet
Se ey artnet

reed

Dad
ie Op
CPT LD

vee .

Vp ene

ih prin) *
iil ’

* +
Dee Ori
pete

H)} vicigen
Histetetat oho sthstiath
ult

Seta behibee ie bon?

veteet
Valve

re fricel So paerr Tt
is

Cabs
Ceenenee

vie teas
ep hibst any

ea rralh yale Aine sien bb

veleje to
OVE et nt

bee
Pr
oe

ave oes
MEE MPT

ts
a piacedh eerste Ete ts

eae ep
M iio

eacaceineTstee

me UNehe pL TRA Ve nauraa megane
das oad Ce Hk ty AP
+ if ajdt

sre
Sriapeleary

ROR [TH ESP EOREE
FOR EDVCATION
FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY
OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

NATURAL HISTORY

Wr) Cy 4
he AS Oe ele wh
Aah? ahs oe

destin

ig
oe af

ee as.

7 in se J
ah is ia Mis

LA we yeas ol
wi ‘oF

the JORRNAL OF HEREDITY

A MONTHLY PUBLICATION DEVOTED TO PLANT BREEDING,
ANIMAL BREEDING AND EUGENICS

PUBLISHED BY THE
AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION

VOLUME XI

WASHINGTON, D. C.

1920

INDEX FOR VOL. XI

Journal of Heredity, 1920

a2l- 86338 lor

Abacus, for Illustrating the Structure and Mathematics of
the Human Germ-Plasm.

Adherence (in maize), J. H. Kempton, 317.

Alaska, Reindeer Industry in. G. J. Lomen, 243.

Albino Cattle, A Herd of. J. A. Detlefsen, 378.

Almosts, The (review). 333.

American Families, Better—IV. Wilhemine E. Key, 358.

Andalusian Hen Which Changed Color. William A. Lippin-
cott, 342.

Anthropology, An Introduction to (review), 214.

Apple, A Graft-Chimera in the. A B. Stout, 233.

“Applied Eugenics,” and the Question of Heredity vs. En-
vironment. A Discussion of Popenoe and Johnson's,

Assimilation, Race. H.H. Laughlin, 259.

Autocracy, Decline of, and Its Relation to Warfare. Frederick
Adams Woods, 33.

Award of Honor to Walter Van Fleet, 95.

Beef and Dairy Breeds of Cattle, Inheritance in Crosses of.
John W. Gowen, 300, 365.

Better American Families. Wilhelmine E, Key, 358.

Bell, Alexander Graham. Is Race Suicide Possible? 339.

Biology, A Text Book of (review), 214.

Birth Rate in Mixed Marriages, 96.

Birth Rate, To Increase the, 64.

Blackberry of Colombia. Wilson Popenoe, 195.

Blackberry— Dewberry Hybrid, A Mutating. L. R. Detjen, 92.

Blakeslee, Albert F. Mutations in Mucors, 278.

Blueberry, A New Hybrid. Frederick V. Coville, 338.

Bowman, H. H. M. Deterioration in Some Horticultural
Varieties Through Deficient Artificial Selection, 380.

Brachytic Culms. J. H. Kempton, 111.

Breeding and Environment as Factors Influencing Milk
Production. Andrew C. McCandlish, 204.

Breeding Earless Sheep. E. C. Ritzman, 238.

Buffalo, The Water—A Tropical Source of Butter Fat. C. O.
Levine, 51.

Burch, De S. Heredity and Economical Production of Food,

Bush- isyearsm H. K. Heredity in Horses, 215.

Butter-Fat, A Tropical Source of. C. O. Levine, 51.

Butter- Fat. Percentage, Transmission of. John’ W. Gowen,
365.

Catalpa, Teas’ Hybrid. D. F. Jones and W. O. Filley, 16.

Cattle, Albino, A Herd of. J. A. Detlefsen, 378.

Cattle and Horses, Native, in the Orient. C. O. Levine, 147.

Cattle, Inheritance i in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Breeds of.
John W. Gowen, 300, 365.

Census, Physica, in England and Its Lesson. F. A. Woods,

Children, Country, 86.

Chimera, Graft, in the Apple. A. B. Stout, 233.

China, A Disorder of Cotton Plants in: Club-leaf or Cyrtosis.
O. F. Cook, 99.

Chlorophyll Factors of Maize. E. W. Lindstrom, 269.

eno a Disorder of Cotton Plantsin China. O. I’. Cook,

Hilda H. Noyes, 88,

Heritable Characters of

Citizenship, Development of Useful.

Collins, G. N., and Kempton, J. H.
Maize—Linneate Leaves, 3.

Color, Meaning of Continuous Variation of, 84.

Colombian Berry, or Giant Blackberry, Wilson Popenoe, 195.

Coloration, Protective, A Random Test in the Theory of.
Frederick Adams Woods, 284.

Cook,O.F. A Disorder of Cotton Plants in China:
or Cyrtosis, 99.

Cook, O. F. Cotton a Community Crop, 174.

Corn or Gregarious Animals, A System for Breeding. A. N.
Hume, 191.

Cotton, A Community Crop, O. F. Cook, 174.

Club-leaf

Harry H. Laughlin, 185. .

Cotton Plants, A Disorder of in China:
O. F. Cook, 99,

Coville, Frederick V., A New Blueberry Hybrid, 338.

Crosses, Inheritance in, of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle.
John W. Gowen, 365.

Culms, Brachytic—Heritable Characters of Maize. J. H.
Kempton, 111.

Culms, Zigzag—Heritable Characters of Maize. William H.
Eyster, 349.

Cyrtosis, or Club-leaf in Cotton. Cook, 99.

Dahlia, New, of Interest to Plant Breeders, 48.

Dahlia, Tree, of Guatemala. Wilson Popenoe, 265.

Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle, Inheritance in Crosses of.
John W. Gowen, 300, 365.

Darrow, George M. Are Our R: aspberries Derived from Amer-
ican or European Species? 179.

Dasheen, Pioneer Growers of, 46.

Decline of Autocracy and Its Relation to Warfare. Frederick
Adams W. oods, 33.

Deterioration in Some Horticultural Varieties Through Defi-
cient Artificial Selection. H. H. M. Bowman, 380.

Detien, L.R. A Mutating Blackberry-Dewberry Hybrid, 92.

Detjen, L. R. The Herald—A New Type of Prune, 253.

Detlefsen, J. A. A Herd of Albino Cattle, 378.

Development of Useful Citizenship. Hilda H. Noyes, 88.

Dewberry-Blackberry Hybrid. L. R. Detjen, 92.

Dogs, Piebald Spotting in. C. C. Little, 12.

Earless Sheep. E.G. Ritzman, 238.

Educational Tests, Standard (review), 232.

Emerson, R. A. Heritable Characters of Maize—II. Pistil-
late Flowered Maize Plants, 65.

England, Physical Census of. F. A. Woods, 190.

Environment, see Heredity.

Environment and. Breeding as Factors Influencing Milk
Production. Andrew C. McCandlish, 204.

Eugenic Bearing of Taxation, 83.

Eugenics, Applied, 80..

Eugenics and Moral Qualities, 189.

Eugenics and Other Sciences. Frederick Adams Woods, 77.

Eugenics and Patriotism. Henry Fairfield Osborn, 341.

Eugenics Congress, Second International, 384.

Eugenics in Germany, 110.

Eugenics in Scandinavia, 128.

Eugenics Society in Hungary, 41.

Evolution, and World-Power, review of Huntington’s book
by Paul Popenoe, 137.

Eyster, William H. Heritable Characters of Maize, 349.

Fairchild, David. Foreign Plant Introduction Medal, 169.

Families, Better American. Wilhelmine FE. Key, 358.

Filley, W. O., and Jones, D. F. Teas’ Hybrid Catalpa, 16.

Food, Heredity and Economical Production of. D. S$. Burch,
7

Club-leaf or Cyrtosis.

0. F.

Fruit Propagation, The Improvement of Root-Stocks Used
in. H. J. Webber, 291.

Galloway, Beverly T. Some Promising New Pear Stocks, 25.

Genetic Association in Italy, 45.

Geneticists, Interested in Agriculture, Meeting of, 384.

Germ-Plasm, Human, Structure and Mathematics of.
Laughlin, 185.

Germany, Eugenics in, 110.

Giant Blackberry of Colombia or The Colombian Berry.
Wilson Popenoe, 195.

Goats, Swine and Sheep in the Orient. C. O. Levine, 117.

Gowen, John W. Inheritance in Crosses ‘of Dairy and Beef
Breeds of Cattle, 300, 365.

H.H.

Index iil

Graft-Chimera in the Apple. A. B. Stout, 233.

Grapefruit, Origin of a Variety Having Pink Colored Fruits.
A. D. Shamel, 157.

Gregarious Animals or Corn, A System for Breeding. A. N.
Hume, 191.

Guatemala, Tree Dahlia of. Wilson Popenoe, 265.

Half-Man, The Menace of the. Seth K. Humphrey. 228.
Hen Which Changed Color. William A. Lippincott, 342.
‘Herald,’’ A New Type of Prune. L. R. Detjen, 253.

“ Hereditas,’ A New Genetics Journal, 227.

eredity and Economical Production of Food. D.S. Burch,

Heredity and Environment, Discussion of, 80.

Heredity and Environment in the Development of Men
(review), 91.

Heredity and Sex, Lectures on (review), 24.

Heredity in Horses. H. K. Bush-Brown, 215.

Heredity, The Physical Basis of (review), 144.

Hereditary Trades, By American Red Cross, 363.

Heritable Characters of Maize, 3, 65, 111, 161, 317, 349.

Holsteins, Were the Black-and-White Originally Red-and-
White? 155.

Hooker, Joseph. The Heredity and Environment of, 6.

Horses and Cattle, Native, in the Orient. C. O. Levine, 147.

Horses, Heredity in. H. K. Bush-Brown, 215.

Horticultural Varieties, Deterioration Through Deficient
Artificial Selection. H. H. M, Bowman, 380.

Human Germ-Plasm, An Abacus for Illustrating the Structure
and Mathematics of. Harry H. Laughlin, 185.
Hume, A. N. A System for Breeding Corn or Gregarious

Animals, 191.
Humphrey, Seth K. The Menace of the Half-Man, 228.
Hungary, Eugenics Society in, 41.
Hurlin, Ralph G. A Case of Inherited Syndactyly in Man,
334.
Hybrid, Teas’ Catalpa. D. F. Jones and W. O. Filley, 16.
Hybrid, A Mutating Blackberry-Dewberry. L. R. Detjen, 92.
Hybrid, A New Blueberry. Frederick V. Coville, 338.
Hybrids, Natural Wheat-Rye of 1918. Clyde E. Leighty, 129.

Immigration Prollem Today. Robert De C. Ward, 323.

Improvement of Root-Stocks Used in Fruit Propagation.
H. J. Webber, 291.

Inbreeding and Outbreeding (a review of East and Jones’
book by Paul Popenoe), 125.

Inheritance (review), 91.

Inheritance in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle.
John W. Gowen, 300, 365.
Inherited poomcaaty ly in Man, A Case of. Ralph G. Hurlin,

334
Intelligence, Measuring, 86.
Intelligence of the Negro, 45.
Italy, Genetic Association in, 45.
Italy, Hereditary Trades in, 363.

Johnson and Popenoe, Discussion of ‘Applied Eugenics,” 80.
Jones, D. F., and Filley, W.O. Teas’ Hybrid Catalpa, 16.
Jones, D. F. Heritable Characters of Maize—Defective

Seeds, 161.
Journal of Heredity, Letter of Indorsement. Wm. A. Taylor,

377.

petasinS, ‘The, A New Blueberry Hybrid, Frederick V. Co-

ville, 338.

Kempton, J. H. Heritable Characters of Maize—Adherence,
317

Kempton, J. H.
Culms, 111.

Kempton, J. H., and Collins, G. N. Heritable Characters of
Maize—Linneate Leaves, 3.

Key, Wilhemine E. Better American Families—IV., 358

Heritable Characters of Maize—Brachytic

Laboratory Direction in Principles of Animal Biology (re-
view), 214.
Lathrop, Barbour.
Medal, 169.

Recipient of First Meyer Memorial

-Popenoe, Paul.

Laughlin, Harry H. An Abacus for Illustrating the Structure
and Mathematics of the Human Germ-Plasm, 185.

Laughlin, Harry H. Race Assimilation by the Pure-Sire
Method, 259.

Lee, H. Atherton and Scott, L. B. Are Valencia Oranges from
China? 329,

Leighty, Clyde E. Natural Wheat-Rye Hybrids of 1918, 129.

Levine, C.O. Native Horses and Cattle in the Orient, 147.

Levine, C. O. Swine, Sheep and Goats in the Orient, 117.

Levine, C. O. The Water Buffalo—A Tropical Source of
Butter Fat, 51.

Lindstrom, E. W. Chlorophyll Factors of Maize, Aes

Lineate Leaves (heritable characters of maize). . N. Col-
lins and J. H. Kempton, 3.

- Lippincott, William A. A Hen Which Changed Color, 342.

Little, C. C. Note on the Origin of Piebald Spotting in
Dogs, 12.
Lock’s Last Work—a review, 110.

Lomen, G, J. The Reindeer Industry in Alaska, 243.

McCandlish, C. Environment and Breeding as Factors In-
fluencing Milk Production, 204.

Maize, Chlorophyll Factors of. E. W. Lindstrom, 269.

Maize, eens Characters of.

fr Taeate Leaves. G.N. Collins and J. H. Kempton,

. Pistillate Flowered Maize Plants, R. A. Emerson, 65.

. Brachytic Culms. J. H. Kempton, 111.

Lethal Factors—Defective Seeds. D.F. Jones, 161.

Adherence. J. H. Kempton, 317.

. Zigzag Culms, William H. Eyster, 349.

Marjorie, The Book of (review), 336.

Marriages, Birth Rate in Mixed, 96.

Measuring Intelligence, 86.

Medal, Foreign Plant Introduction. David Fairchild, 169.

Medal, Advancement of Horticulture/ 95.

Meeting of Geneticists Interested in Agriculture, 384.

Menace of the Half-Man. Seth K. Humphrey, 228.

Mendelism—a review, 115.

Mental Tests (review), 232.

Meyer Memorial Medal, —David Fairchild, 169.

Milk Production, Environment and Breeding as Factors In-
fluencing. Andrew C. McCandlish, 204.

Milk Yield, Transmission of. John W. Gowen, 300.

Mixed Marriages, The Birth Rate in, 96.

Moral Qualities and Eugenics, 189.

Mortality, Racial Differences in, 336.

Mucors, Mutations in. Albert F. Blakeslee, 278.

Mutating Blackberry-Dewberry Hybrid. L. R. Detjen, 92.

Mutations in Mucors. Albert F. Blakeslee, 278.

Nationality and Race (review), 192.
Negro, Intelligence of the, 45.
Noy es, Hilda H. The Dev elopment of Useful Citizenship, 88.

DUP wr

Oranges, Valencia, Are They from China?
and L. B. Scott, 329.
Osborn, Henry Fairfield. Eugenics and Patriotism, 341.

H. Atherton Lee

Palm Weevil, V: ariation of the, and The Meaning of Contin-
uous Vv ariation in Color, 84.

Parents’ Mutual Protective League (in “‘Development ot
Useful Citizenship”). Hilda H. Noyes, 88.

Patriotism and Eugenics. Henry Fairfield Osborn, 341.

Pear Stocks, Some Promising New. Beverly T. Ge alloway, 25.

Personal Beauty and Racial Betterment. (Review), 258.

Physical Basis of Heredity (review). 144.

Physical Census in England and Its Lesson. I, A. Woods,
190.

Piebald Spotting in Dogs. C.C. Little, 12.

Pistillate Flowered Maize Plants. R.A. Emersa on, 65.

Popenoe and Johnson’s ‘‘ Applied Eugenies”’ and the Question
of Heredity vs. Environment, A Discussion of, "80.

Popenoe, Paul. Inbreeding and Outbreeding—a review, 125.

World Power and Evolution—a review, 137.

Popenoe, Wilson, The Colombian Berry, or Giant Black-
berry of Colombia, 195.

Popenoe, Wilson. The Tree Dahlia of Guatemala, 265.

Protective Coloration, A Random Test in the Theory of.
Frederick Adams Woods, 284.

Prune, ‘The Herald.” A New Type of. L. R. Detijen, 253.

Psychology Tests (Measuring Intelligence), 86, 232.

Pure-Sire Method of Race Assimilation. Harry H. Laughlin,
259.

Race and Nationality (review), 192.

Race Assimilation by the Pure-Sire Method.
Laughlin, 259.

Race Suicide, Is It Possible? Alexander Graham Bell, 339.

Racial Betterment and Personal Beauty. (Review), 258.

Racial Differences in Mortality, 336.

Racial Prospect, The (review), 237.

Raspberries, Are Ours Derived from American or European
Species? George M. Darrow, 179%

Reindeer Industry in Alaska. G. J. Lomen, 243.

Ritzman, E.G. Breeding Earless Sheep, 238.

Root-Stocks Used in Fruit Propagation. H. J. Webber, 291.

Rye, Rosen, The Spread of. Frank A. Spragg, 42.

Scandinavia, Eugenics in, 128.

Schallmayer, W., Death of, 155.

Sciences, Eugenics and Other, Frederick Adams Woods, 77.

Scott, L. B. and Lee, H. Atherton. Are Valencia Oranges
from China? 329.

Seeds, Defective. Heritable Characters of Maize. D. F.
Jones, 161.

Selection, Deficient Artificial, H. H. M. Bowman, 380.

Semon, Richard, The Death of, 78.

Sex and Heredity, Lectures on (review), 24.

Sex Attraction (review), 335.

Sex Control (review), 24.

Shamel, A. D. Origin of a Grapefruit Variety Having Pink
Colored Fruits, 157.

Sheep, Breeding Earless. E. G. Ritzman, 238.

Sheep, Swine and Goats in the Orient. C. O. Levine, 117.

Spotting, Piebald, in Dogs. C. C. Little, 12.

Spragg, Frank A. The Spread of Rosen Rye, 42.

Standard Educational Tests (review), 232.

Stocks, New Pear, Beverly T. Galloway, 25.

Stout, A. B. A Graft-Chimera in the Apple, 233.

Structure and Mathematics of Human Germ-Plasm. H. H,
Laughlin, 185.

Swine, Sheep and Goats in the Orient. C. O. Levine, 117.

Harry H.

1V Index

Srpractely in Man, A Case of Inherited. Ralph G. Hurlin,

Taxation, The Eugenic Bearing of, 83.
Taylor, William A. Letter Regarding Journal of Heredity,
377

dd.
Trades, Hereditary, by American Red Cross, 363.
Tree Dahlia of Guatemala. Wilson Popenoe, 265.

Useful Citizenship, The Development of. Hilda H. Noyes, 88.

Valencia Oranges, Are They from China?
and L. B. Scott, 329.

Van Fleet, Walter, An Award of Honor to, 95.

Variation of the Palm Weevil, 84.

Variation, Meaning of Continuous Variation in Color, 84.

Ward, Robert De C. The Immigration Problem Today, 323.

Warfare, Its Relation to Decline of Autocracy. Frederick
Adams Woods, 33.

Water Buffalo, The,—A Tropical Source of Butter Fat. C.O.
Levine, 51.

Webber, H. J. The Improvement of Root-Stocks Used in
Fruit Propagation, 291. =

Weevil, Palm, Variation of, 84.

Wheat-Rye Hybrids of 1918, Natural. Clyde E. Leighty, 129.

White, George Robert. Medal of Honor, 95.

Woods, Frederick Adams. A Physical Census in England and
Its Lesson, 190.

Woods, Frederick Adams. Eugenics and Other Sciences, 77.

Woods, Frederick Adams. The Decline of Autocracy and
Its Relation to Warfare, 33.

Woods, Frederick, Adams. A Random Test in the Theory of
Protective Coloration, 284.

World Powerand Evolution, a review of Huntington’s book
by Paul Popenoe, 137.

Zigzag Culms, Heritable Characters of Maize, William H.
Eyster, 349,

H. Atherton Lee

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

‘

Vol. XI, No. 1 January, 1920

CONTENTS

Hleritable Characters of Maize—Lineate Leaves, by G. N. Collins

and J. H. Kempton... . FIONA : bray ceive 3
Heredity and Economical Production of Food, by D. S. Burch. . 7
Note on the Origin of Piebald Spotting in Dogs, by C. C. Little. . 12
Teas’ Hybrid Catalpa, by D. F. Jones and W. O. Filley... . 16
Some Promising New Pear Stocks, by Beverly T. Galloway........ in 2D

The Decline of Autocracy and Its Relation to Warfare, by Frederick

Adams Woods........ Shing tind ate ae é = 88)
The Spread of Rosen Rye, by Frank A. Spragg. ... : 12
Pioneer Growers of the Dasheen........ 16
A New Dahlia of Interest to Plant Breeders... .. . 18

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Associa-
tion (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its
members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year,
in addition to their regular membership dues of $2, because of additional postage
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub-
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single
copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-ciass matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity
(Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, February 10, 1920.

A LINEATED MAIZE LEAF

This very fine white striping occurs in the uppermost leaves, usually beginning in
The stripes are ‘‘usually from 1/10 to 1/4 mm,
Being closely spaced,

about the tenth leaf from the seed.
in width and vary from a few millimeters to many in length.”
they give a grayish effect to the upper leaves, in contrast to the normal green of

the lower ones. (Frontispiece).

HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE
I. LINEATE LEAVES

Description and Classification of Lineate Plants—Value of Maize as Material
for Investigation, and Economic Importance of Discovering Latent Variations

G. N. Couiins and J. H. Kempton
Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C.

“ | SHE practice of withholding the
description of new characters
until their genetic behavior has
been thoroughly investigated,

though sometimes desirable, is leading

to much unnecessary duplication of
work, and is delaying the progress of
knowledge of inheritance in maize.

The present article is the first of a

series in which it is planned to describe

and illustrate the heritable variations
of maize as they arise or are discovered.

In order to lessen as far as possible
the number of places in which the new
characters of this one species are
published, and, with the idea of facilitat-
ing reference, it is proposed to inaugu-
rate a numbered series. The liberal
policy of the JourNAL oF HEREDITY
toward the use of illustrations makes it
an especially suitable medium for the
publication of short articles of this
kind in which photographs play an
important part. It was, furthermore,
in The American Breeders Magazine,
the precursor of the present journal,
that a number of new characters of
maize were first published by R. A.
Emerson. It is to be hoped that
other workers with maize will find this
a convenient place in which to publish
illustrations and brief descriptions of
their discoveries.

Abnormalities in maize are of such
frequent occurrence that it is of course
impracticable and probably undesirable
to attempt to describe individual varia-
tions. As soon, however, as it has
been demonstrated that a character is
inherited and a stock of seed capable
of reproducing the character has been
secured, it seems desirable to have the

variations brought to the attention of
other workers. Once attention has
been directed to a variation it is less
likely to be overlooked, and the in-
stances where the same variation occurs
in unrelated stocks are sooner recognized.

IMPORTANCE OF INVESTIGATIONS IN
MAIZE

Our knowledge of the interrelation
of Mendelian characters should proceed
with increasing rapidity as the number
of such characters increases. If the
linear arrangement of characters in
inheritance should be found to hold for
maize as for Drosophila, the proper
location of a new character becomes
easier as the number of characters
whose location is known increases.

Although a majority of the heritable
differences in maize are of such a
complex nature as to make Mendelian
analysis difficult or impossible, alter-
native characters are coming to light
in such numbers as to warrant the belief
that maize will rival Drosophila as
material for the investigation of the
linear arrangement of factors and of
chromosomes as the bearers of the
determinats of characters. A knowl-
edge of the variations latent in the
commercial varieties of maize is further-
more of great economic importance,
since most of the variant forms are
less productive than the normal forms,
and they must be recognized to be
eliminated.

DESCRIPTION OF THE LINEATE PLANTS

The character here described, which
is designated ‘‘lineate leaves,’’ consists
of a very fine striping on the blades of

4 The Journal
the upper leaves. The lower leaves of
plants possessing this character are
normal, the striping first making its
appearance on about the tenth leaf
from the seed. From the tenth to the
uppermost, the blades are marked with
fine, narrow, nearly white stripes which
are usually from 1/10to 1/4 mm. in
width and vary from a few millimeters
to many centimeters in length. In
pronounced cases the stripes are sepa-
rated by not more than their width.
The general effect of the closely spaced
fine stripes is to give the blade a grayish
appearance that contrasts sharply with
the uniform green of normal leaves.
(See frontispiece.)

Lineate plants first appeared, or at
least were first observed, in four prog-
enies of a hybrid sweet corn that was
being grown at Lanham, Md., in 1918.
The sweet corn in which the lineate
plants occurred was a hybrid between
Stowells’ Evergreen and a prolific variety
of field corn from Brownsville, Tex.!

The original cross was made in Texas
in 1912. In 1913 the F, population
was grown in an isolated block at
Victoria, Tex. In 1914 an F: popula-
tion was grown at Lanham, Md., and
fromithe crossing of two plants the
ear designated Ph124 was secured.

Plants from Ph124 were grown in
Chula Vista, Cal., in 1915, and again
in Lanham, Md., in 1916 when one cross-
pollinated ear, Phi24LI1, was secured.
In 1917 seeds of Ph124 were again

of Heredity

planted at Lanham, together with seeds
of Phi24L1. From these plantings
there were secured 16 cross-pollinated
ears of Ph124, 31 cross-pollinated
ears of Ph 12411 and 8 crosses between
Ph124 and Phi2411.

In 1918 the 16 cross-pollinated ears
of the Phi24 progeny and 3 of the
crosses between Ph124 and Ph124L1
were planted. Lineate plants occurred
in 3 of the 16 progenies of Phi24 and
in one of the crosses between Phi124
and Phi24L1. The ratio of lineate
to green plants is shown in Table I.

The ratios are all reasonably close to
the monohybrid 3:1, and the results may
be explained by assuming that one par-
ent of Phi24 was heterozygous for lin-
eate, a simple Mendelian character re-
cessive to the normal green. If the
lineate character was the result of a
mutation in a single gamete this mu-
tation must have occurred in 1913 in
one of the grandparents of Ph124.

This follows from the fact that lineate
plants have been confined to descend-
ants of Ph124, that approximately one-
fourth of the cross-pollinated progenies
of Ph124 produced lineate plants (4 out
of 19) and that in the progenies in
which lineate appeared one-fourth of
the plants exhibited this character.

Six hand-pollinated ears were secured
from the progenies shown in Table I.
One of these six ears represented a
cross between a normal green female
plant and a lineate male, one was the
result of crossing two lineate plants, a

TABLE I.—Showing the Number of Lineate and the Number of Green Plants in Four Progenies Grown
from Hand-Pollinated Ears.

Progeny designation | No. of green plants

LEAL AD Pen 5 cette cote ee Ole 15
PRIA Se cen teal 20
PADAT Sy ore srayertetacens ete tssane 18
121 YAO eee Se Oe 24

Motal a eAeh as. aoe fil

No. of lineate plants Expected 3:1
uf 16.5 Sn)
11 23.3 theat/
6 18.0 6.0
8 24.0 8.0
32 82 27

1 The history of this cross is discussed in ‘‘ Breeding Sweet Corn Resistant to the Corn Ear-
worm,” Collins, G. N.,and Kempton, J.H., Journ. Agri. Res., XI, No. 11, pp. 449-572, December

10, 1917.

Collins and Kempton: Lineate Leaves

third resulted from crossing two normal
green plants, and the remaining three
ears were the result of self-pollinating
lineate plants.

DEGREE OF LINEATION VARIABLE

Seeds from all six ears were planted
in 1919, and all of the progenies pro-
duced some lineate plants. The prog-
enies, however, were not alike, and
it was apparent that this character was
extremely variable in expression. In
classifying the plants an attempt was
made to estimate the degree of linea-
tion. A scale of ten grades was adopted,

re)

accord well with the expectation based
on the assumption that lineate is a
simple Mendelian character recessive
to the normal form. The two green
plants will be tested this coming
season, and while it is within the realm
of possibility that they are in reality
lineate, the fact that they occurred in
the progeny which exhibited the most
intense expression of lineation is an
argument against this explanation.

RESULTS FROM RELATED PROGENIES

In addition to the six ears secured
from progenies which produced lineate

TABLE IIl.—Proportion of Green to Lineate Plants, the Average Degree of Lineation and the Average
Leaf from the Seed on Which Lineations First Appeared.

- :

“ | Aver. leaf on

Designation of Female Male eee Tea | Degree of which linea-

progeny parent parent plants plants lineation le tions 3

* Probable error not calculated, since only three plants are involved in this average.

and although the classes were arbitrary
it was found that independent observers
were able to place the plants in es-
sentially the same grades. The classi-
fication of the plants secured from the
progenies of the six ears is shown in
Table II.

With the exception of the two green
plants, found in the progeny of a self-
pollinated lineate plant, the results

plants in 1918, there were twelve hand-
pollinated ears from related progenies
which produced no lineate plants in
1918. All of these ears are directly
descended from the ear Ph124.

Seeds from the twelve ears were
planted in 1919, and the progeny of
five of these produced some lineated
plants. The five progenies are shown
in Table III.

TABLE III.—Proportion of Green to Lineate Plants in the Progeny of Five Hand-pollinated Ears.

| |
Saale of Female parent Male parent No. of green | No. of lineate
L2H) O00 0 ea Greene eartec cre eli ¢. facrot eas 69 3
121122 Wa 7A 9h ee aera Greener tices: Selfpstearadn saat 18 7
IPHIQ4ATISLI. 2. iso Green’ aan, Self 5) snchcasewdl 7 3
BRIQAT ZOU. 4 3d nu Green Selfie cttiseia 16 9
WAI 2CUOT A. «4 es en Green 2. .-).5 C.at¢ Greentncnkieat 124 1

6 The Journal of Heredity

The fact that five of these twelve
ears produced lineate plants, although
the parental progenies were normal
sreen, involves no genetic complexities.
The progenies which produced these
five ears were all the result of crossing
sister plants, and it seems not un-
reasonable to assume that one parent
in each combination was heterozygous
for lineate and the other homozygous
for normal green.

The ratio of green to lineate plants
in three of the progenies shown in
Table III is as close an approximation
to the Mendelian monohybrid 3:1 as
could be expected with the small
numbers involved, but the remaining
two progenies clearly do not conform.

It may well be that in these two
aberrant progenies we are witnessing
a recurrence of the mutation which will
behave subsequently as a Mendelian
unit character in full accord with the
progenies just discussed. An alterna-
tive explanation lies in the wide varia-

tion in the expression of this character,
indicating the influence of a number of
modifying factors which may obscure
the true nature of most of the lineate
plants.

The variations in expression, how-
ever, are no larger than is found in
most strains of japonica or similar
stripe patterns. Japonica forms of
striping similarly occur in aberrant
ratios, several instances having ap-
peared in our breeding blocks where one
or two plants in several hundred exhibit
white striping. The same progenies
produce a few striped plants in succes-
sive plantings. This behavior has not
interfered with analysis in progenies
where the ratios are Mendelian and the
segregation is sharp. There is, there-
fore, little reason why lineate leaves
should not take their place with the other
chlorophyll variations in maize affording
another character with which to test the
linear arrangement of factors.

The Heredity and Environment of a Great Botanist

The story of Joseph Hooker’s life-
work is, in one aspect, the history of
the share taken by botany in establish-
ing the theory of evolution and the
effect produced upon it by acceptance of
that theory. He began with unrivalled
opportunities and made unrivalled use
of them. As a botanist, he was born
in the purple, for in the realm of
botany his father, Sir William Hooker,
was one of the chief princes, and he
had at hand his father’s splendid herba-
rium and the botanic garden which he
had made one of the scientific glories of
Glasgow University.

Joseph Hooker’s earliest recollections
are preserved in an autobiographical
fragment, set down late in his life.

Noteworthy among the events that
emerge from childish forgetfulness, like
hill-tops above a sea of mist, is the early
love of nature, and especially of plants,
inborn in him and indeed inherited from
both lines of his parentage. His father
and his mother’s father were both
botanists, and singularly enough they
both began their studies as such with
the mosses, quite independently of one
another; so that, being confessedly ‘a
born Muscologist,’’ he playfully dubs
himself ‘‘the puppet of Natural Selec-
tion.”—From Life and Letters of Sir
Joseph Dalton Hooker, by Leonard
Huxley; in 2 vols. London: John
Murray, 1918.

HEREDITY AND ECONOMICAL
PRODUCTION OF FOOD

D. S. Burcu

Bureau of Animal Industry,

". S. Department of Agriculture

ITHIN the last century, evolu-
tion, used in a broad sense, has
been unusually conspicuous in

the field of mechanics and
engineering. Just why that is true,

while evolution among living creatures
has progressed more slowly and has
attracted less general attention, may
be seen from a few well-known facts.

EDUCATION HAS FOSTERED ENGINEERING
PROGRESS

Progress in any field, as a rule, is
approximately in proportion to the
amount of study given that field by
persons of progressive thought and
action. With the gradual development
of the United States, engineering long
ago became the life study of thousands.
Opportunities were plentiful, and well-
trained men were ready to take them.
The examples and the successes of the
first spurred others to similar training.
The result attained was inevitable, and
today the United States has not only
great systems of railroads, irrigation
projects, highways and mechanical in-
dustries, but in addition it has thousands
of people who are expert in various
branches of such work and can press on
to still greater and wider engineering
achievements.

Even in the rather specialized field of
agricultural machinery we must re-
member that the progress made is due
to the work of many minds. A few
conspicuous names, it is true, loom up
above the rest, but countless improve-
ments and refinements rather than a
few revolutionary ideas have contrib-
uted to the present advancement in
labor-saving farm machinery.

I have in mind the experimental staff
of a firm manufacturing farm tractors

and implements Every fall the chief
designer and one or more of his assistants
pack their grips for a circuit of State
fairs. Mingling with farmers at the
machinery exhibits, these specialists
seek for new ideas and suggestions.
In addition they try to learn what new
implements or machines would be
likely to meet with favor.

Such efforts explain why American
farmers are so well equipped with
machinery that multiplies human labor
in a way that has won the wonder of
other nations: It explains also why
with high-priced labor the United States
can produce many, kinds of food, es-
pecially grains, hay, and other bulky
crops, so cheaply. But in the field of
meat food products, so important to
the vigor of a nation, our progress,
though noteworthy, appears capable of
extensive developments.

The drift of thought has been so
gradual as to attract slight attention
by persons interested especially in
evolution in the organic sense. Yet the
enormous preponderance of effort in
mechanical development is seen in the
enrollment of almost any college or
university having a wide range in its
curriculum. A graduating class in a
middle western university a few years
ago included 400 students. Approxi-
mately one-fourth were trained in
engineering, while only sixteen—less
than one-twentieth—were trained in
agriculture, and only one of the sixteen
had made a study of animal genetics.
While such a striking ratio may not be
typical today, especially in universities
having strong agricultural courses, it
indicates at least the subordinate place
the study of genetics—from an agri-
cultural angle—has occupied in the
general field of education.

8 The Journal

The study of heredity as it concerns
the production of livestock in the
United States has gone forward under
the efforts and interest of competent
and energetic investigators. There has
been gratifying achievement. The
champion dairy cow of today seldom
retains her laurels, earned by a large
vield, for more than a few years.
Much the same is true in the show ring.
In fact, with all stock, constant rivalry
among breeders soon displaces the
winners of one year with new champions.
Yet in considering improvement in the
average sense, we are forcibly reminded
that the total number of exhibitors is
rather small in proportion to the total
number of livestock owners. In a
similar way a few high records of pro-
duction have earned world-wide atten-
tion. Such records are merely a few
peaks in a statistical chart where the
general average production is low.

The average yields of milk per dairy
cow in fourteen prominent countries
show that the United States is in the
sixth place, being excelled by the
Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark,
Germany, and Canada. Our ability to
produce scores of cows which yield more
than 20,000 pounds of milk a year is
ample proof that our national produc-
tion of less than 4,000 pounds per year
per cow, in the last analysis, is a reflec-
tion of inattention and average lack of
applied skill. The dairy cow is a good
example—probably the best—because
her production is so readily measured
and because there is so much uniform
evidence in various countries. Yet the
same principle and similar facts apply
to other lines of production.

Even a superficial consideration of
the facts mentioned points to the prog-
gress which livestock raisers in the
United States would make if next
year 1,000 persons began thinking
intelligently about animal breeding for
every one person who thought about
it this year. That would bring about
a condition whereby combined human
effort in studying and applying laws of
heredity to livestock breeding would
approximate the effort being devoted
to mechanical progress. It would help

of Heredity

to attain in livestock evolution a
great average advance without in any
way interfering with success in produc-
ing individual world beaters.

Without going into detail, the
economical production of meat, dairy
products, poultry products, and animal
power is closely related to breeding.
The well-bred steer is economical to
raise because a relatively less proportion
of feed goes into his maintenance and a
greater proportion goes into his gain
in weight. Besides, his quality is
better and the period of growth to
profitable market age is shorter. The
same is true, with some qualifications,
of swine, sheep, poultry, and most
other stock. In short, skillful breeding
results in numerous benefits, including
economy of production, a quicker turn-
over of investment, progressive im-
provement of herds and flocks, and
better meat food products for con-
sumers.

TEACHING HEREDITY TO MANY

Notwithstanding the efforts of agri-
cultural colleges and similar agencies
in the United States, farmers are not
as familiar with the basic laws of
breeding as they are with the basic
laws of mechanics. For every person
who understands Mendel’s law at least
a score know the law of the lever.
This comparison may seem odd because
the law of the lever appears so much
simpler, yet it is simpler chiefly because
civilization has thought in mechanical
terms. Man owned livestock long
before he owned a wheeled cart. Bring-
ing the comparison to modern times we
may safely assert that 1,000 persons
understand a carburetor for every one
who knows a chromosome.

In the endeavor to stimulate interest
in heredity and in the basic principles
of breeding, the United States De-
partment of Agriculture lately has
directed attention to the use of pure-
bred sires for all livestock. Of the
various methods of animal improve-
ment the principle of grading up through
the use of pure-bred males is probably
the most practical and economical.
In June, 1919, the department proposed

A HOLSTEIN BULL AND CALVES SIRED BY HIM

An interesting study in conformation and coat color. Note particularly the head and neck of
the bull calfat the left. America should be better equipped with animals such as these to meet
the increasing needs of the coming years. “‘ Skillful breeding results in numerous benefits,
including economy of production, a quicker turnover of investment, progressive improvement
of herds and flocks, and better meat food products for consumers.’ (Fig. 1.)

to the extension directors of the various
states the desirability of conducting a
nation-wide effort to induce livestock
owners to replace scrub and grade sires
with pure-breds. More than that, the
desirability of improving the quality
of pure-bred sires themselves was pre-
sented. In addition to consulting live-
stock experts of the agricultural colleges,
the Federal Department of Agriculture
presented a tentative plan of the pro-
posed campaign to others also, includ-
ing county agents, agricultural editors,
officers of livestock associations, secre-
taries of boards of agriculture, live-
stock sanitary officials, prominent breed-
ers, and others who might be interested.
Of nearly 600 replies received, approxi-
mately 97% favored such a campaign
without qualifications. Most of the
remaining 3% made specific suggestions
for modifications of the plan, and a few
either were skeptical or presented ad-
verse opinions. The cream of the
suggestions, after careful consideration,
was embodied in the original plan,
which was also altered to meet
various local conditions discussed in a
number of the letters received. The
revised plan of the campaign was
presented in August and has met with
practically unanimcus approval. The
agricultural press has devoted space
freely to the support of the work, and
41 states already have made the cam-
paign, popularly known as the ‘Better
Sires-Better Stock”? movement, a part
of their extension activities. It was
definitely inaugurated as a _ Federal-
State enterprise on October 1, 1919.
Since then more than 25,000 pieces of
literature have been distributed to
meet requests from the field. Two-
thirds of this constituted enrollment
blanks, which when properly filled out
entitle the person using only pure-
bred sires for all his livestock to official
recognition by the United States De-
partment of Agriculture and by the
state in which he lives. The remaining
one-third was miscellaneous literature,
including a plan of the campaign, and
also pointing out the policies under
which the campaign is conducted.

As would be expected, the enrollment
records of persons using pure-bred

The Journal of Heredity

sires show that a majority of them like-
wise have some pure-bred female stock.
A considerable amount of grade stock
is noted, also some cross-breds. This
condition is true in a broad sense of all
the kinds of animals included in the
campaign, namely, cattle, horses, asses,
swine, sheep, goats, and poultry. The
records show that users of pure-bred
sires keep only a few scrub females,
the remnant probably of the first
foundation stock.

FARMERS’ BULLETIN ON BREEDING
PRINCIPLES

Reinforcing the Federal-State effort
to encourage the use of better sires,
Dr. Sewall Wright, of the Animal
Husbandry Division of the Department
of Agriculture, has prepared a manu-
script on breeding principles for the
Farmers’ Bulletin series. This con-
tribution is believed to fill an important
gap in the agricultural literature of the
United States, being of service not only
to breeders directly but likewise to
extension workers and others who
address farmers’ gatherings. The un-
derlying thought in the better-sires
movement is to create in the minds of
thousands, and, if possible, millions,
of livestock raisers an interest in the
basic principles of animal breeding.
The field of improvement in livestock
is as vast as that of mechanics. It is
believed also that thousands of farmers
who have an inherent preference for
working with living things rather than
machinery will welcome the opportunity
to replace their fragmentary and in-
accurate knowledge of livestock breed-
ing with the dependable information
contained in the bulletin menticned.

Thus heredity, in addition to being a
study calling for keen effort by those
who would solve its mysteries, beccmes
an effective agency when presented and
explained to those who as owners of
livestock are expected to supply the
food needs of the country.

Members of the American Genetic
Association may render wide public
service by helping breeders assimilate
and apply principles of heredity already
known but not generally used.

4 PRODUCT OF SELECT BREEDING

To develop a fine type of livestock is as noteworthy an achievement as to complete a fine
piece of engineering. The animal pictured oa has been produced only after careful
selection and proper mating of ancestors. Success‘ul breeders pav rigid attention to the
laws of inheritance. The study of genetics, 16 make more widespread a knowledge of
these laws, is worthy of more prominence in our educational institutions. What would be
the effect on livestock raising in the United States ‘if next year 1,000 persons began think-
ing intelligently about animal breeding for every one person who thought about it this year?
That would bring about a condition whereby combined human effort in studying and
applying laws of he redity to livestock breeding would approximate the effort being devoted
to mechanical progress.’’ (Fig. 2.)

A NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF
PIEBALD SPOTTING IN DOGS

(C5 (C5 Wiassos
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

foxhounds, beagles, Boston terriers,

St. Bernards, and collies, are char-

acterized by the possession of a
piebald coat pattern. In this pattern,
large and relatively regular, and defi-
nitely localized white spots occur on a
colored ground. The extreme form of
such spotting is seen in bull terriers.
Here the entire skin and coat is com-
monly unpigmented, the eyes alone
being colored. The appearance of ex-
ceptional individuals, however, in which
small red or yellowish spots are found
on the head, near the eyes or ears,
shows that the pattern is really one of
greatly reduced spotting and not of
true albinism.

On the other extreme of the spotted
series one finds, among breeds normally
solid colored, certain animals in which
one or more of the feet may be white, or
which may possess a white spot or blaze
on the chest. Data on Great Danes,
collected from the American Kennel
Club Stud Books indicate that such
spots are hereditary and are due to a
factor which is hypostatic to solid
colored coat. (Little and Jones,! 1919.)

Such animals, which show a slight
degree of white spotting, have, by some
been considered as being forms from
which, by rigid selection, spotted breeds
have been developed. That this is also
the case in rodents has been stated by
Castle? (1916, page 125) as follows:
UY . Rarely does it (the degree of
spotting) go beyond these slight and
inconspicuous markings. But under
artificial selection in captivity it is
possible rapidly to increase the extent
of the white areas in the coat, which
then takes on striking and often rather

S texan varieties of dogs such as

1 Little, C. C., and Jones, E. E.,
2 Castle, W. E., ‘‘Genetics and Eugenics.”

definite outlines, as in Dutch marked
rabbits, English rabbits, hooded rats,
and black-eyed white mice. ... The
production of white-spotted races from
small beginnings observed in wild stocks
has been accomplished in the laboratory
by Castle and Phillips in the case of
Peromyscus, and by Little in the case
of the house mouse (unpublished data).”’

Inasmuch as the inference from the
above is that the writer, among others,
has by selection developed from a wild
race of rodents with a small amount of
spotting, a race of heavily spotted
animals, it should be stated that progress
from the original degree of spotting
observed, in the wild mouse used, was
made only after a cross with a tame race
and that following the cross progress was
so rapid that the introduction of modifying
factors by the unspotted race used un-
doubtedly had occurred.

EVIDENCE THAT SPOTTING IN DOGS MAY
OCCUR BY MUTATION

By this I do not mean to assert that
some progress might not be made by
selection alone within the race in which
the spotting originated, but merely to
point out that there is little or no ex-
perimental evidence that the ‘ Dutch”
or “English” rabbits or black-eyed
white mice or hooded rats mentioned by
Castle were developed by selection
alone, within a wild race, showing a
minute degree of spotting. It is pos-
sible that this is the case, and will
remain so until their origin de novo is
demonstrated and analyzed; but in the
meantime it is interesting to review two
cases in dogs which give direct evidence
as to the origin of spotted individuals
and which suggest that a spotted race

JourNAL oF HEREDITY, October, 1919, Vol. x, No. 7.

Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.

Little: Piebald

PIEBALD COAT PATTERNS

Coat patterns, such as these, characterize

several varieties of dogs, but similar
spotting is occasionally found among
breeds that are normally solid colored.
Study of these cases indicates that such
spotting is hereditary. Nos. 1 and 2 above
represent Airedale terriers, and No. 3 a
Scottish terrier puppy. (Fig. 3.)

Spotting in Dogs 13

may arise from a self race, by mutation,
without passing through a series of
minute gradations directed by selection.

The first case to be reviewed is that
of a spotted Scottish terrier puppy
(Fig. 3, No. 3) born in my father’s
kennels, January 22,1909. This puppy,
a bitch, was the only individual born
in the first litter obtained from two
young solid-colored, pedigreed, and
registered Scottish terriers, neither of
which had been out of the kennels
from the time at which they became
sexually mature. The spotted puppy
in question was born dead, a fact not
very suprising in view of the litter
being the first produced by the bitch.
The two parents are far from closely
related as a glance at the pedigree
(Table I) will show. If the spotted
coat of the exceptional puppy is hy-
postatic to solid colored coat, it may be
considered as introduced by the germ
cells of both parents either by parallel
mutations occurring in each of them, or
by being contributed to each of them
by a common ancestor. If the idea of
the occurrence of parallel mutations on
cach side of the pedigree is considered
as far fetched, we must look on both
sides of its pedigree for an ancestor or
ancestors in common. In this connec-
tion, Balmacron Prince occurring in the
fourth generation on the male side and
in the third generation on the female
side appears to be the only possibility.
If this dog was, in respect to hypostatic
piebald spotting, DR in formula, he
might well have introduced this spotting
into the cross. The result would have
been that, after several generations, the
proper DRx DR mating would have
been made, and an RR or spotted
individual would have resulted.

The fact of particular interest from the
wewpoint of the origin of spotting is
that the puppy had white areas of con-
siderable extent and could in no way be
considered a product of selection of
minute variations possessed by lightly
spotted ancestors.

The second case presents even more
interesting features. It deals with the
appearance of spotted individuals in
two litters of Airedale terriers. The

i4 The Journal of Heredity

Tasce I.—Pedieree of Spotied Scottish Terrier Puppy (Fig. 3, No. 3)

Seafield Rascal

Clan Bonnacord Jock

Bonnacord Jewel

(Sire)
Newcastle Carom

[Seafield
| Seafield Nora
{Camowen Laddie
\Gtenhin Beauty
{Balmacron Prince

{Balmacron Thistle {
. |Balmacron Tib

Nosegay Crimson Rambler {

Nosegay Cornflower

Valdora Gem

Undercliffe Sandy

Brynhir Barber

Balmacron Prince
| Baberton Lass {
Lauriston Lass
{Roxburgh
|Loyne Ginger
[Cairn Dhu

"(Corrie Linnhe

{ Kildee
Roulaces sacs. ss at
(Dam) \Zelta
Newcastle Confidence {
. Balmacron Prince
{Baberton Prince..........
| |Baberton Beauty
Morachi.... ¢
| {Guide
NnaNSDO’ . casemate

case was reported to me by Mr.
Frederic Hood of Watertown, Mass.,
owner of the Boxwood Kennels. Mr.
Hood has been most kind in placing
the particulars of the case, as well as
two of the puppies themselves, at my
disposal. The interest which he has
shown might well be taken as a model
by all breeders and fanciers, who by
adopting a similar attitude might do
much to increase opportunities for
cooperation with scientific institutions.

The history of this case is briefly as
follows: A pedigreed and registered
bitch (No. 182), an excellent specimen
of the breed, was bred to a typical
dog (No. 216), pedigreed, registered,
and a bench show-winner. In due
time a litter of seven pups, one male
and six females, was obtained. Of these
two, the male and one female, were
heavily spotted with white. They were,
according to Mr. Hood’s manager, very
similar to, though of course not identical
with, the two spotted pups figured in
Fig. 3, Nos. 1 and 2. The five re-
maining pups were all normal, and
included among their number one which
has developed into one of the best
American bred Airedale bitches now
being shown. This bitch (No. 228)

q
(Ayrshire Beauty

was bred to a different dog (No. 294)
and produced a litter of six puppies,
three males and three females, all dead.
Two of them, both males, were kindly
sent to me in preservative by Mr.
Hood and are figured in Fig. 3, Nos.
1 and 2. In conformation and ground
color they are typical Airedales, but in
size No. 1 is larger and No. 2 a bit
smaller than is the average Airedale
pup at birth. The other four pups in
the litter were entirely typical in color
and conformation and were born before
the spotted pups which were the last
two in the litter. One of the typical
pups had, however, a cowl of his own
skin which stretched bag-like over his
shoulders and head. The head and
neck were far from being properly
developed. This puppy I did not see,
but the description is taken from the
personal observation of Mr. E. War-
burton, the manager of the Boxwood
Kennels, whose accuracy of description
need not be doubted.

The pedigrees of the two litters con-
taining spotted pups are given herewith.
It will be noticed that ~ No. 135 occurs
in both pedigrees and on both sides of
each pedigre. @No. 140 also occurs
on both sides of the second pedigree and

Little: Piebald Spotting in Dogs 15

Table Il.—Pedigree of Spotted Airedale Terriers.

First litler containing spolled pups
(92
(162 {
(103

| (149
*5 typical; 2 spotted }
puppies;

* Including 2 228

on one side of the first. It seems very
likely that if a mutation producing
spotted coat color took place in the
eee of any one individual, that 7

o. 135 or one of its ancestors, was the
animal in question.

Examination of Fig. 3, Nos. 1 and
2, shows that the amount of white on
the coat of these puppies is considerable
and that, like the Scottish terrier puppy

Second litter containing spolled pups

(129 { 140

(117 4

4 typical; 2 spotted | {55
puppies; Fig. 3, Nos. ‘
1 and 2,

(135
(80 4
(98 { 140
(104 4 69

108 { {135
(96 4
{149
already described, there is no possibility
of its having been developed by selection
from minute beginnings.

It is hoped that it will be possible to
obtain certain of the animals from the
spotted Airedale stock for breeding
purposes and thus to ascertain more
definitely the genetic nature of the
variation.

University Wants Photographs of Twin Calves

The Department of Genetics at the
University of Wisconsin is making a
study of twins, particularly in cattle,
and desires to secure photographs of
twin calves. Those of spotted breeds
are especially wanted. In this connec-
tion, particular interest attaches to the
degree of similarity of marking’s on the
duplicated parts of double monsters,
such as those with two heads and a
single body, or two bodies and a single
head. These freaks are often “stuffed”
or otherwise preserved, and the college
will appreciate receiving any informa-

tion relating to the existence of such
specimens in museums or elsewhere,
and how photographs or accurate
sketches might be obtained. It is be-
lieved that a more accurate knowledge
of the conditions in such cases will
help toward an understanding of the
larger problems of inheritance in cattle
and other animals. Those who have
any information that will assist in the
above studies should write to the
Department of Genetics, University of
Wisconsin, Madison.

TEAS HYBRLD CATALPA

An Illustration of the Greater Vigor of Hybrids; Increased Growth and Hardiness
as a Result of Crossing; Illustrating Definite Principles of Heredity

D. F. Jones anp W. O. FILLEY
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven.

ly produced hybrid trees is small,

compared to the number of crosses
among other species, several noteworthy
trees have been described from time to
time which do not conform to any
known kinds, and they have been attrib-
uted to an assumed hybrid ancestry. A
good example is found in the James River
walnut,! considered to be the result of
a natural cross-fertilization of /Juglans
regia by J. cinerea. A similar tree has
been described by Sargent ?. Likewise
the Lucombe oak,* the Carolina poplar, *
the London plane* and the fir trees
which originated at Bulgnéville, France,*
have been regarded, upon reasonably
good evidence, as natural hybrids.
Lastly, Teas’ hybrid catalpa so plainly
exhibited characters of both Catalpa
Kaempferi and C. bignonioides that
Sargent ® was convinced of its double
lineage.

This latter cross has since been made
from known trees of the two suspected
parents. It is of more interest than
as a mere illustration of a hybrid tree,
to note that this plant agrees in every
particular with the tree which was
attributed to the parentage deduced
from the characters it possessed toge-
ther with the circumstances attending
its origin.

\ LTHOUGH the number of artificial-

ORIGIN OF THE HYBRID CATALPA

The history of the original hybrid is
as follows, quoting from Sargent: “J. C.
Teas of Carthage, Mo., while living in
Indiana in 1864, purchased a seedling

1 Peter Bisset, ‘‘ The James River Walnut.”
2C. S. Sargent, ‘‘A Hybrid Walnut Tree.”
3, W. H. Lamb, “Hybrid Trees.”
4 Garden and Forest, 1890, 3:308.

5 C.S. Sargent, ‘‘A Hybrid Catalpa.’’

catalpa from Mahlon Moon of Morris-
ville, Pa., who raised it from seed pro-
cured from Japan by Hovey & Co., the
Boston seedsmen. According to the
statement of Mr. Teas, to whom I am
indebted for the facts in the case, this
tree, which proved to be C. Kaempferi,
was planted in his nursery among or
near plants of C. bignonioides and C.
speciosa, the two North American
species; and it produced in due time one
pod of seeds which were quite unlike
those of any catalpa with which Mr.
Teas was acquainted. The seeds were
planted and gave rise to a tree almost
intermediate in character between C.
Kaempfert and one of the American
species. The appearance of this seed-
ling tree and its progeny suggests that
the pollen from a flower of one of the
American catalpas had fertilized a
flower of the Japanese tree. The Ameri-
can parent was probably C. bignonioides,
although Mr. Teas is inclined to believe
that it was C. speciosa. The latter
flowers two or three weeks earlier than
the Japanese species, whereas the
former flowers contemporaneously with
that species during the first week
of July.

“Whatever may have,been its origin,
the hybrid . . . is an erect, vigorous,
and rapid-growing tree, with the thin,
scaly bark of the American species.
The leaves are sharply three-lobed, or
rarely entire, and more or less cordate
at the base; they are slightly pubescent
on the lower surface, and the mid-rib
and primary veins are covered with
scattered hairs; they are 12 to 15 inches

JOURNAL or Herepirty, 1914, 5:98-101.
Garden and Forest, 1894, 7:434-436,

JOURNAL or Herepiry, 1916, 7:311-319.

Garden and Forest, 1889, 2:303-305.

*
o.

COMPARING THE LEAVES OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF CATALPA

The leaves at the top are those-of C. bignonioides} characterized by their ovate shape, with
entire margin and pubescence only on the lower surfaces. Those in the center 10w are of C.
Kaempferi which are generally three-lobed with velvety pubescence only on their upper sur-
faces. The leaves of the hybrid are shown at the Fottom. Characters of both parents are ex-
pressed in these leaves which are generally three-loted and pubescent on toth surfaces. In
color markings they more nearly represent the Japancse species. (Fig. 4.)

18 The Journal

long and 10 to 12 inches broad. The
inflorescence, which is 18 to 20 inches
long by 10 inches wide, is composed of
two or three hundred fragrant flowers
about an inch long, the corolla slightly
tinged with yellow in the throat, and
handsomely marked with broad purple
stripes. The fruit is from 12 to 15
inches in length and not more than a
quarter of an inch thick in the middle.
The wings of the seed are half an inch in
length and one-eighth of an inch in
width, and, like the others of the genus,
are tufted with long, white hairs.

“The leaves of this tree are much
larger than those of either of its parents,
having, when they first appear, the
velvety character and purple color
peculiar to those of the Japanese plant,
and the reddish spot at the insertion of
the petiole with the leaf-blade which
characterizes that species. They more
generally resemble those of the Japan-
ese species in shape, color and texture,
while the pubescence which covers the
lower surface is almost intermediate in
character between those of the American
and of the Japanese species. The

inflorescence is much larger than that of
the American or of the Japanese plants,
being fully twice as large as that of C.
bignonioides and more than three times
the size of C. Kaempfert.

The flowers

of Heredity

are intermediate in size; in color and
markings they most resemble those of
the American species, although a tinge
of yellow in the throat of the corolla
points to their Japanese descent. The
fruit of the hybrid is almost intermediate
in size between those of the two parents,
as are the seeds, which are perfectly
fertile and often reproduce the original
form in every particular. When, how-
ever, seedlings show a tendency to vary
from the original form the variation is
generally in the direction of the Japanese
rather than of the American parent.

EXCELS JAPANESE SPECIES AS
ORNAMENTAL TREE

“The hybrid is a more vigorous tree
than either of the American or the
Japanese species, and it grows rather
more rapidly. It is too soon to speak
of its value as a timber-tree, as the
largest specimens in the western states
where this tree has been much more
generally planted than at the east,
according to Mr. Teas, only 40 to 50
feet high, with trunks which do not
exceed yet a diameter of 18 inches. Of
its value as an ornamental tree there
can be no doubt. Its larger size and
more rapid growth, its better habit and
more showy inflorescence make it a far
more valuable ornamental tree than the

CATALPA SEEDS

The seeds of the hybrid are intermediate in size between those of the parents but are much
greater in number, and the wings, ‘‘like the others of the genus are tufted with long, white

hairs.” (Fig. 5.)

PODS OF THE HYBRID CATALPA AND PARENT SPECIES

“The fruit is from 12 to 15 inches in length and not more than a quarter of an inch thick in
the middle,”’ and thus intermediate in size, but the pods are numerous and contain many

seeds.

greater on the hybrid than on either of the parent species.

Japanese species; it is more hardy than
either of the North American species,
and, although the flowers are smaller,
the panicles and the number of indi-
vidual flowers are much larger.”

In 1911 Dr. E. M. East, at the Con-
necticut Experiment Station, crossed
Catalpa bignonioides by C. Kaempfert,
this being the reciprocal combination
of Teas’ undoubted hybrid. The actual
pollination was made by Prof. H. K.
Hayes. The trees were grown and
measured by him for the first years of
the experiment and later came into the
hands of the writers. The cross was
made by emasculating the flowers of the
bignonioides parent, enclosing them in
bags and later applying pollen by hand.
Seed was collected from the same trees
as used in making the cross which were
well isolated from each other. The three
lots of seed were sown in the spring of

The number of flower clusters and total amount of seed produced per tree is much

(Fig. 6.)

1912. Later they were transplanted to
their permanent position, ten trees of
each being set at the station farm at
Mt. Carmel, near New Haven, and 75
of each on the upland near Portland in
the central part of the same state. With
these, in each location, were set a like
number of trees of C. speciosa which were
started one year later. It is unfortu-
nate that these were not started at the
same time, but they afford some com-
parison.

VIGOROUS GROWTH OF THE HYBRID

As can be seen in Table I, the plants
grew vigorously. During the summer
of 1915, the plants at Mt. Carmel were
severely damaged by wind, the branches
being badly broken, particularly those
of the cross, as it was growing the most
rapidly. Consequently, in order to
have them start even again, it was

The Journal of Heredity

TABLE I.—Height of Catalpa Bignonioides, of C. Kaempferi, of Their Hybrid, and of C. spectosa

(average, in feet, of ten trees grown, at Mt. Carmel).

C. bignonioides*

* Trees severely damaged by wind breakage so that all plants were cut to the ground and only one sprout allowed

to grow the following year.

decided to cut the trees to the ground
before the following growing season.
It is the usual practice with catalpas,
when they are grown for timber,to cut
them back after one or two years as the
trunks are then straighter and the trees
make fully as much growth in the end
as when they are not cut back. After-
wards the trees were limited to one
sprout.

The greater growth of the hybrid was
easily apparent after the trees were well
started, as shown by the figures in the
table and the trees shown in Fig. 7.
The increased vigor of the hybrid is even
more than that indicated by the figures.
The larger parent at Mt. Carmel, C.
bignonioides, did not flower until 1918,
and then produced only a few pods on
one or two trees. The Japanese species
flowered in 1915 and every following
year. The cross likewise flowered with
it. In addition, therefore, to making a
larger vegetative growth, the cross has
expended energy each year upon seed
formation, which the larger parent has
not done to any appreciable extent. In
the profusion of its bloom and the
abundance of seed this cross is a re-
markably fine illustration of the vigor
frequently derived from species hybrids.
In amount of seed produced, it is from
five to ten times more productive than
either parent, a notable instance of the
temporary advantage given to some
crosses in natural competition.

As grown at Mt. Carmel, in the south-
ern part of the state, both parents and
their offspring have proven to be per-

fectly winter-hardy. At Portland, about
30 miles north, the bignonioides parent
has suffered severely. During the latter
years it has been killed to the ground
every winter, growing from the base
each spring in a mass of sprouts. The
Japanese parent and the cross have so
far been unharmed. Although the dis-
tance is small between these two
localities, it should be remembered that
one passes from one biological zone to
another (Upper Austral to Transitional)
in going from Mt. Carmel to Portland,
Conn. The advantage which the hy-
brid has over both parents is conse-
quently much accentuated as C. Kaemp-
fert is naturally a small grower. The
combination of the two species, possess-
ing the larger growth of one parent
together with the greater viability of the
other, far surpassed either parent in
this location.

INHERITANCE OF PARENTAL
CHARACTERISTICS

The detailed characteristics of each
parent, and the way they are expressed
in the hybrid, are arranged in Table II.
There is an intimate mingling of the
features of both parents, so that this
plant affords a good example of a species
cross of the type studied with so much
interest by the early hybridists such as
K6lreuter, Gartner, Focke and others.
It is not strange that investigators,
working with such material as this, did
not make much progress in arriving
at any definite principles of here dity
While some characters in this illustra-

REPRESENTATIVE TREES AFTER SIX YEARS OF GROWTH

A good illustration of vigor in a tree hybrid (second from left) combining features of both its
parents—the small Japanese catalpa C. Kaempferi and the native C. bignonioides on either

side.

tion are expressed in an alternative
fashion, the hybrid is intermediate for
the most part. In every part of the
tree contributions from both parents
can be made out. This is shown very
clearly in the leaves. The oriental
catalpa is finely pubescent on the upper
surface, the leaves having a velvety
feeling, but are entirely smooth on the
lower surfaces. The native tree is the
reverse of this, being glabrous on the
upper surface and hairy on the lower
side of the leaves, with rather coarse
filiments, especially on the veins. The
hybrid, however, resembles both parents
in these respects, the leaves being vel-
vety on the upper surface and hairy on
the under sides, the latter, sparingly
however, and only on the young leaves.

In the same way, one can trace the

C. speciosa is shown at the extreme right for comparison.

(Fig. 7.)

other characters and find some influence
of both parents on the hybrid in nearly
every part of the tree. On the other
hand, in the nature of the bark, the
margin of the leaves, the coloring in cer-
tain parts of the leaves and flowers, the
inheritance is definitely alternate, the
features of one parent in some parts, and
of the other parent in other parts, being
predominant upon the product of their
union. In dimensional characters the
hybrid is intermediate except in those
parts which are affected by vigorous
development such as height of plant,
diameter of trunk, size of leaves and
inflorescences. In these the hybrid
clearly excels its parents. It is inter-
esting to note that the size of cells, as
shown by tracheid length, at least, is
the same in both parents and the cross

bignontoides at the left and C. Kaempferi at the right.

INFLORESCENCE OF DIFFERENT SPECIES COMPARED

The inflorescence of the hybrid, shown in the center, is larger than that of either parent, C.

(Fig. 8.)

TABLE II.—Comparison of the First Generation Hybrid of Catalpa Bignonioides by C. Kaempferi
with Its Two eee es

C. bignontoides

C. bignonioides
C. kaempferi

C. kaempfert

Bark.

Leaf, upper surface...
lower surface. .

shape....
margin .

IPEtIOlE Sane hs uel:

Insertion of petiole......
Notches in veins.....

Flower, color......

Pods, Tenethermea cet.
breadthinventserseee
Seeds: leneth:>../........

.| Rough

: i Glabrous .

.| Hirsute. .

5 | Generally ovate

| Entire.

| Slightly colored only

WiCltanewe nee eae
haw lenethiy ne ae:

.| Uncolored .
| Uncolored
| White with brownish-
purplish spots and}

on young leaves.

orange stripes.

ST Ou Oc Cts ect ss aveue
DACIUM Sotatscsvale ata Pate atone’

|
| Smooth.
i Pubescent .

| Sparingly hirsute on
; young leaves.
| Generally cordate... ..
| Three-lobed, rarely
| entire.

' Colored.

..| Colored on young
.| Uncolored. .

. [leaves]

White with brownish-
purplish spots and
orange stripes.

“[gO=sOsOUCIN Ss uaterree eG eit

DOGO saya oe eycasvte se

Ss 2O0toraONcmie. so
AST lakers Robe es |

2om..
.3 to 4m. ce
1.5 to 2cm.. eengoe

..| Smooth
.| Pubescent

| Glabrous

Generally cordate
Three-lobed, rarely
entire.

.| Deeply colored

| Colored on all leaves.

Colored.

Pale yellow’ with
brownish-purplish
spots and dark yel-
low stripes.

2 cm.

| 2 cm.

20 to 30 cm.
.3 to .5 cm.

1 cm.

12) tO ont:
-7 to .8 cm.

INDIVIDUAL FLOWERS OF THE CATALPA SPECIES

The flowers of the hybrid are somewhat narrower than those of the larger flowered parent but
are similarly white in the ground color, while the other parent is yellow. Likewise in the orange
color of the large stripes the hybrid resembles C. bignonioides, as the small flowered parent

has dark yellow stripes. (Fig. 9.)

In addition to being resistant to low
temperatures the combined plant is less
affected by the leaf spot, Macro-
' sporitum catalpae, E. & M., which attacks
all catalpas, but, as observed, the
spotting of the leaves has been much
more severe on C. bignonioides than on
the other parent and the cross. Per-
haps there is some relation here to the
pubescence of the leaves.

PRACTICAL USES OF THIS TREE
The value of the hybrid, in its more
rapid growth, greater hardiness and
profuse blooming, recommends itself to
the landscape gardener. The flowers are
not difficult to manipulate and each
pod contains a large number of seeds, so
that it is quite feasible to produce the
first generation crossed trees for use as
ornamental plantings. As a timber tree,

it is rather doubtful whether the hybrid
has a sufficiently greater growth than
C. speciosa, the tree usually grown, to
warrant its production for that purpose.
However, a catalpa grove is a fairly per-
manent investment, the trees growing up
from the stumps after each cutting,
thereby extending the usefulness of
one planting over a long period of time,
so that considerable expense in obtaining
the seed might well be justified. There-
fore, it would be well worth while to
try this hybrid in those localities where
catalpas are more extensively grown for
posts and ties.

The seeds produced by the hybrid
trees are well developed and are fertile.
A sample tested in the incubator gave 51
% viability. None of the second genera-
tion plants have been grown from this

25)

cross. Sargent speaks of their reverting
to Kaempfer’s species in flower color.
It is of course to be expected that they
will show segregation. It is quite
possible that something in the way of a
new catalpa of value can be fixed from
this cross. It would be a matter of grow-
ing a large number of seedlings and
selecting for several generations. The
trees flower young, so that this would
not be as hopelessly slow a proposition
as with most trees. Since the history of
many valuable plants points clearly to
their hybrid beginnings, it seems well
worth continuing this hybrid into later
generations. The likelihood of obtaining
anything of value would depend largely
upon the number of trees grown. For
this reason the Connecticut Station
would be glad to furnish almost any
quantities of seed from the first crossed
plants, which would give the segregating
generation, to anyone who would be
interested in growing them. The trees
require little attention after they are
once started, and in many places catalpa
growing has proven to be a -profitable
commercial venture. The segregating
generation would not give as uniform a
tree as the pure species and probably

The Journal of Heredity

would not be so profitable to grow, but
might ultimately produce a new tree of
real merit. In view of the results secured
from this cross, other crosses of these
two species with C. speciosa would be
worth trying.

Since the hybrid artificially produced
from C. bignonioides and C. Kaempferi
coincides with the natural hybrid de-
scribed under the name of ‘Teas’
hybrid catalpa,” and therefore confirms
its assumed parentage, this fact lends
considerable probability to other cases
of hybrid trees whose ancestry can be
no more than guessed at by a compari-
son of the characters of the new form
with its possible parent species.

As an illustration of hybrid vigor,
it is one more to be added to the long
list of augmentations of growth imme-
diately resulting from crossing. In
this case it is particularly easy to see
how many superficial features have
been contributed by both parents, and
this may be taken as one indication that
the greater size and hardiness possessed
by the hybrid is similarly due to the
combined action of favorable growth
factors contributed by compatible but
diverse parents.

LECTURES ON HEREDITY AND
SEX (delivered in Glasgow, 1917-
18), by F. O. Bower, J. Graham
Kerr, and W. E. Agar Pp. 119,
with 46 illustrations. London: Mac-
millan & Co., Ltd., 1919.

The authors announce that they have
tried “to convey in as simple terms as
possible the leading facts relating to
Sex in Animals and Plants, together
with suggestions bearing on the use and
effect of sexual propagation.” The
evolution of sex is taken up at some
length. Heredity is disposed of in a
conventional manner with a brief ac-
count of Mendelism and a more ex-
tended discussion of correlations be-
tween parent and offspring. The book
contains many sound suggestions, but
is probably too detailed and technical
for the ordinary reader, while for the
serious student the absence of refe1-
ences will be a drawback.—P. P.

William
The

SEX CONTROL, by John
Conway. Pp. 118. Kansas:
Norton Champion, 1919.

Mr. Conway, who is apparently not
familiar with the large amount of care-
ful work that has been done during
recent years on the problem of sex.
control, has brought together a con-
fused mass of information, which he
first published in his local weekly news-
paper. The two tangible theories
which he espouses are the time-honored
ones that (1) the offspring is of the
sex of the weaker or less passionate
parent, and (2) that the offspring is
of the sex of that parent which is best
nourished. Mr. Conway makes no at-
tempt to reconcile the contradictions of
these two theories, and he also drags
in prepotency, atavism, and various
other more or less mystical ideas, to
complicate the situation still further.
No new evidence of value is included
in support of his thesis—P. P.

SOME PROMISING NEW PEAR STOCKS

BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY

Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Washington, D. C.

RACTICALLY all of our im-

portant cultivated fruit crops,

the apple, pear, plum, cherry,

peach, prune, apricot, and nec-
tarine, are in a sense parasites, for
they must get their life and sustenance
from special roots selected and provided
by man. These roots are known as
stocks, and millions of them are im-
ported every year and used by nursery-
men in the conduct of the largest busi-
ness of its kind anywhere in the world.
There are between five and six million
acres of bearing apple, pear, and cherry
trees in this country, and all but an
insignificant portion are being fed and
supportea by roots having their origin
in far-away France or Italy.

We are interested at this time in
pear stocks, stocks coming from free-
seeding, stabilized species; stocks that
will grow vigorously throughout our
principal pear-growing sections; that
may be economically and easily pro-
duced by nurserymen; that will not
leaf-blight; that are highly resistant
to fire-blight; that will produce a large
percentage of No. 1 trees in the nur-
sery; that may be budded any time
from June to September, and that will
give a long-lived tree.

WHY NEW TYPES ARE NEEDED

During the past fifteen years the
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant
Introduction, in the United States
Department of Agriculture, has in-
troduced a good many pears—somewhat
over 350, in fact. During the past
two years special attention has been
given to a restudy of these introductions
with a view to ascertaining their value:
(1) for stocks; (2) for breeding purposes,
that is, their use as a means of securing,
through breeding, new types of pears;
and (3) their use and value as new or

fruiting types just as they were in-
troduced.

The number of pear trees of all ages
in this country is probably not far
from twenty-five million. The total
acreage and production of pears has
remained more or less constant for the
past eight or ten years. “While the
acreage and production have remained
constant, this is only made possible by
extensive new plantings each year.
Fire-blight is the great bane of the pear
in this country. From four to five
million young trees must be raised
each year to meet the losses caused by
fire-blight and the normal increases of
orchard extension. Fully 90% of all
our pear trees are grown on French
seedlings. The production of these
seedlings from the common wild pear,

Pyrus communis, has long been an
important horticultural industry in
France.

No systematic attempt has been

made, so far as we are aware, in this
or any other country to secure new
types of pear stocks suitable for special
needs and particular places. Nor has
any serious attempt been made _ to
study the larger question of congenzality.
We know that the same variety of pear
behaves differently on different types
of stocks. These differences are more
marked in the case of different species,
but they are also noticeable where
seedlings of the same species are used.
Much work, therefore, remains to be
done to find the best stocks for particular
varieties of our cultivated pears and
stocks best suited to particular regions,
soils and climates.

CHINA’S ABUNDANT STOCK MATERIAL

The Orient, and particularly China,
seems to offer the most fruitful field
for new pear stocks. China is pecu-

THE USURI WILD PEAR, PYRUS USURIENSIS, FROM CHINA

This wild pear grows abundantly in China, Korea, Manchuria and Siberia. In the United
States it has proved to bea very slow grower, and of doubtful value asa stock. Budded August
1; photograph August 14, 1919. (Neg. 25436.) (Fig. 10.)

THE KUAN LI, OR CHINESE WATER PEAR

This is a cultivated form of the Usuri pear, and is a very promising stock. Compare the growth
with that shown in Fig. 10 above. Within a year or two, it is expected that seed of this valu-
able type of pear can be furnished from the government plant station at Chico, Cal.; bud-
wood can be secured at an early date. The above photograph made Aug. 14, 1919. (Neg.
25425.) (Fig. 11.)

4 ec, * t “*

THE CHINESE SAW-LEAVED PEAR, PYRUS SERRULATA
A very promising stock. It isa strong grower and has good foliage, comparing favorably with

the Kuan li. This photograph (Aug. 14, 1919) was made of some discarded spec mens, all
the good plants having been cut off to save the buds. (Neg. 25441.) (Fig. 12.)

4° oy

THE BIRCH-LEAVED PEAR,

This is a vigorous grower and free from leaf blight. Compare these with Fig. 14 on page 30,
which shows some Japanese seedlings almost completely defoliated by leaf blight. Photo-
graph Sept. 11, 1919. (Neg. 25482.) (Fig. 13.)

28 The Journal

liarly rich in distinct species of pears,
and we should look to these wild species,
rather than cultivated varieties, for our
best stock material. The most exten-
sive work on pears with particular
reference to the securing of stocks, resist-
ant or immune to fire-blight, has been
done by Mr. F. C. Reimer, of the
Oregon Experiment Station. Mr.
Reimer began his work five or six years
ago and has assembled probably one
of the largest collections of pears in the
world. The special pear station located
at Talent, Ore., where Mr. Reimer is
conducting his investigations, is one
of the great pear-growing sections of the
United States. This is in the Rogue
River Valley. Fire-blight is very de-
structive in this valley and at other
places on or near the Pacific coast. The
blight frequently attacks the bodies or
trunks of the trees, and it was largely
to meet that situation that Mr. Reimer
inaugurated a line of work, having for
its primary object the discovery of
types that would give a blight-resistant
root and body upon which the suscep-
tible tops could be worked. It is be-
lieved by Mr. Reimer that if blight-
resistant or blight-immune trunks could
be secured, the disease might be held
in check among the branches by rigid
attention to surgical and antiseptic
methods. Mr. Reimer’s valuable work
is still in progress, and he is now on a
second trip to the Orient for the purpose
of securing new facts and new pear
material.

THE WORK OF FOREIGN EXPLORERS

We are indebted to two agricultural
explorers for the larger number of
pear species and varieties now at our dis-
posal for study, testing and trial. The
late Frank N. Meyer, of the Office of
Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction,
and Mr. E. H. Wilson, of the Arnold
Arboretum, have rendered horticulture
incalculable service in supplying material
that has already proved very promising.
Mr. Meyer's collections are quite ex-
tensive and have been widely dis-
seminated. Beginning in 1905 and
continuing until his death in 1918,
Mr. Meyer collected and sent in more

of Heredity

than 125 separate and distinct lots ‘of
pears. This represents probably fifteen
or twenty species and twenty-five to
thirty varieties. A good many of
Meyer’s pears are assembled at the
Chico, Calif., Field Station of the
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant
Introduction. Quite a large collection
of Meyer’s and other pear introductions
have been brought together and are
now being grown at the Yarrow Field
Station near Washington, D. C.

Mr. Wilson began his work on pears
more than a dozen years ago and, under
the direction of Dr. C. 5. Sargent, of
the Arnold Arboretum, has assembled a
fine collection of oriental and other
species at the Arboretum near Boston,
Mass. The following notes are based
chiefly on field studies and tests at our
field stations and work in cooperation
with nurserymen and others:

The Usurt Wild Pear, Pyrus usu-
riensis, S. P. I. No. 44237 (see
Fig. 10)—This wild pear, first found
along the Usuri River, north of Korea,
has been known to botanists for more
than fifty years. It has a wide range,
having been found in numerous places
in Korea, China, Manchuria and Siberia.
Meyer reported it in great abundance
from Chihli Province, north of Pekin,
in 1907. In 1916 he revisited the
region and found many of the trees
of this wild pear had been cut down
and Indian corn or maize was being
grown in their place. Wilson found
the pear growing abundantly in northern
Korea. The experiments made by
Reimer with seedlings of this pear gave
much encouragement at first, for they
proved to be very resistant to fire-
blight. With us it has proved a very
slow grower, rather subject to leaf-
blight, and therefore unable to hold
its leaves during the budding and
propagating season. We can _ hardly
class this pear as a promising new stock.
Our object in introducing it here is a
precautionary one. The pear has been
considerably exploited as a stock. Seed
is being offered, and aside from the
question of the authenticity of the
seed, there is the broader problem of
the actual value of the seedlings for

Galloway: New Pear Stocks

stock purposes. Fig. 10 shows the habit
of the seedlings in the nursery row.
We have budded eight or ten of our
principal varieties ef pears on this
stock. Not more than 30% of the
buds took. The bark is tough and
frequently refuses to “slip” easily.
In striking contrast there is shown in
Fig. 11 a cultivated form of the Usuri
pear found by Meyer in 1917, in the
Chihli Province, China.

Kuan li or Chinese Water Pear,
S. P. I. No. 44235 (see Fig. 11) —This
pear unquestionably belongs to the
Usiuriensis group. Meyer reported it
as having small fruits flattened some-
what like an apple and of a rusty,
greenish color. He sent in but one
lot of seed of 17 ounces. From these
seeds several thousand seedlings have
been grown and tested as stocks at
several places. Our first tests were
with grafted stocks. All the pears
worked on this stock, including Bartlett,
Clapp’s Favorite, Anjou, Dutchess, Law-
rence, Seckel, Sheldon, Howell, Clari-
geau, and others, are doing very well
in the nursery row. Unfortunately,
the source of further seed supply from
China is doubtful. In the maze of
Chinese pears it is questionable if
anyone except an expert could relocate
the type from which Meyer obtained
his original supply of seed. In order
to preserve this valuable type of pear
we have had top-worked, at the Chico,
Cal., Station, a part of an old pear
orchard to the Kuan hi, and within a
year or two we should be getting seed
from this source. We shall also be
prepared at an early date to furnish
budwood of this pear to those who may
desire to propagate it for seed produc-
tion. We place the Kuan li as one of
our most promising pear stocks.

The Chinese Saw-leafed Pear, Pyrus
serrulata, S. P. I. Nos. 34567 and 45832
(see Fig. 12).—This pear, first collected
by Wilson in 1907 in the Hupeh Provy-
ince, 800 or 900 miles west and south
of Shanghai, was again found by
Reimer near Ichang, China, in 1917.
Ichang is in Hupeh Province. Reimer
found the pear about 15 miles northwest
of Ichang at elevations from 3,000 to

3,700 feet. Its growth in the nursery
compares favorably with the Kuan li.
It is affected but slightly with leaf-
blight, holds its foliage well in our hot
summers, and has a long budding season.
Our plants are from seeds sent by Mr.
Reimer. The species does not appear
to be common, and for this reason, if
it should prove on further trial to be a
useful stock, sources of supply should
be established here. Authentic seed
may be obtained from the Arnold
Arboretum, but the supply there is
naturally limited. We shall be in
position to supply budwood in limited
quantities from our collection. Buds
from our principal varieties of pears
worked upon this stock took well.
It is too early to determine the value
of the stock in producing an ideal
nursery tree.

The Birch Leaf Chinese Pe Pyrus
betulaefolia, S. P. I. No. 21982 and other
S. P. I. Nos. (see Fig. 13).—This pear
has come to the Office of Foreign Seed
and Plant Introduction from a number
of places and has been listed under
several 5. P. I. numbers. Meyer col-
lected it several times and Reimer
sent in seeds of it. According to the
late Jackson Dawson, it came to the
Arnold Arboretum from the mountains
near Pekin, China, in 1882. Fine speci-
mens are now growing in the Arboretum.
The tree occurs in many parts of China,
and supplies of seeds for commerical
purposes would not be difficult to get.
Reimer reports it as being more or
less susceptible to fire-blight. In the
east we have never seen it blighted.
No attacks of blight, so far as we are
aware, have appeared on the trees at
the Arnold Arboretum, and these are
now more than thirty years old. The
tree has proved practically free from
leaf blight. It is a vigorous grower
and is capable of being budded any
time from July to the middle of Sep-
tember in the region around Wash-
ington. According to Reimer it is
extensively used in China as a stock,
where it is readily grafted, making a
good union and producing vigorous
trees. The pear can be readily grown
from cuttings. Fig. 13 shows the re-

ORDINARY JAPANESE PEAR SEEDLINGS

Pear seedlings such as are commonly used by nurserymen. These are badly leaf blighted and
incapable of being budded. Photograph made Sept. 11, 1919. (Neg. 25484.) Compare
this with Figs. 15 and 16. (Fig. 14.)

”» AC

Yn RS! %

ORDINARY FRENCH PEAR SEEDLINGS

Millions of these are used for stocks in this country. They are weak growers and very
subject to leaf blight. Photograph Aug. 14, 1919. (Neg. 25443). Compare this type with
that in Fig. 16, a photograph made on the same day and at the same distance from the trees
(Fig. 15.)

THE CHINESE CALLERYANA PEAR

This is the most promising of all the Oriental species. It is a fine grower and can be budded
from July to September. Compare it with the French stocks (Fig. 15). Cooperative

planting of trees for seed purposes is now under way to assure a home-grown supply of this
remarkable species. Photograph Aug. 14, 1919. (Neg. 25437.) (Fig. 16.)

ale ee ~ See aS SOR Be Lalit te REAR aa

USE OF THE CALLERYANA PEAR AS A STOCK

Roots of this stock were grafted with a cultivated pear in the spring of 1919, and the above
photograph was taken August 14, 1919. In three and a half months the growth was nearly
six feet. The variety is a new pear supposed to be a cross between Keiffer and La Conte.
(Neg. 25426.) (Fig. 17.)

32 The Journal

markable manner in which this pear
holds its foliage. The photograph was
taken on September 11, 1919. At this
time the leaves on the Japanese seed-
lings (see Fig. 14) and the French seed-
lings (see Fig. 15) were practically all
off, largely as a result of the attacks of
the leaf blight fungus, Entosporium
maculatum.

The Chinese Calleryana Pear, Pyrus
calleryana, S. P. I. No. 44044 and other
S. P. I. Nos. (see Fig. 16).—Of all the
pears tested and studied this remarkable
Chinese species holds out the greatest
promise as a stock. The tree has a
very wide range in China, and several
distinct types have already appeared.
It has stood some very severe winters
during the past twelve years at the
Arnold Arboretum. It grows and
thrives luxuriantly at our Field Station,
Brooksville, Fla., where it is almost an
evergreen. One of the last important
pieces of work of the late Frank Meyer
was the collection of more than 100
pounds of the seed of this pear in the
mountains in and around Ichang, China.
After many trials and heart-breaking
delays, Meyer got the seed to us,
but before it could be put in the ground
his body was floating in the great
Yangtze River, that giant of waters
which for centuries has taken its human
toll. Alone for months, with many
dangers around him, he wrote:

“T am sitting now in a Chinese
house, for the inn I lived in at first was
too noisy and dark, and there was no
room to dry seeds or specimens. Some
mice are running about, mosquitos
buzz, a cricket sings in an old wall,
and the policeman who is stationed to
spy upon me snores on the bench, for
it is well into the night. Tomorrow
we may go to see a lot of pear trees
15 miles from here.”

All who have tested the Calleryana
pear as a stock, report favorably upon

of Heredity

it. It is a vigorous grower under
nearly all conditions. It holds its

leaves well, and it can be budded any
time from July 1 to September 1. All
of our best kinds of pears so far tried
take well upon it. The seedlings are
easily grown and, when from pure
types, run remarkably uniform. Com-
mercial supplies of the seed are not
yet available, but it is believed that
considerable quantities can be obtained
through one or two reliable sources in
China. Meanwhile it is important to
assure ourselves of a home-grown supply
of this most promising species. To this
end codperative planting of trees for
seed purposes, and codperative efforts
in top-working other trees with the
Calleryana species are under way.
Wood is now available for the latter
object. The remarkable uniformity and
vigor of the seedlings are shown in
Fig. 16. This picture was taken August
14, at which time most of the French
seedlings (Fig. 15) were entirely de-
foliated. Fig. 17 shows the growth of
spring-made grafts on this stock. The
variety is a new pear supposed to be
a cross between Kieffer and La Conte.
The grafts were put out May 1 and the
photographs taken August 14, three
and a half months later. By October
1 these grafts averaged 7 feet in height.

Summarizing, it may be said that the
prospect of finding new and valuable
pear stocks among the oriental wild
species seems very good. What the
ultimate life of our principal varieties
of cultivated species on these stocks
may be remains to be determined.
This is a long-time problem. Already
there is sufficient encouragement to go
forward with the work in the hope that
we shall eventually not only be able
to produce all of our own stocks but
produce them, having all the desirable
characteristics set forth at the beginning
of this paper.

THE DECLINE OF AUTOCRACY
AND ITS RELATION TO WARFARE

A Look into the History of the Last Five Centuries—Autocracy Associated with
Wars—Tendencies toward Democracy in Development of Modern Civilization

FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

° x J
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

AN war be abolished? Will auto-
crats disappear? Are democra-
cies less prone to warfare than are
other forms of government? To

what extent have the great tyrants of
the past been responsible for the warfare
that has been waged? These are some
questions to which we would like an
answer.

Without supposing that history can
positively answer these questions, it is
justifiable, considering the importance
of the subject, to seek what light we
may; and so it is interesting to make an
appeal to the extended records of the
past and see if there is any evidence that
autocrats have been long disappearing,
or that they have been a predisposing
cause of war. It will doubtless be of
welcome interest to many persons to
know that history’s answer to both of
these questions is in the affirmative.
European autocrats have been decreas-
ing numerically ever since the twelfth
century—those of the more powerful
sort since the sixteenth.

In regard to their relation to war,
it is highly probable that states of war-
fare, whatever be their cause, are
especially favorable to single-handed
governance. Therefore we ought not
to say that great autocrats are here
shown to be a cause of war, though very
likely to a considerable extent they may
be; but at least we have evidence that
the two are associated. This is proved
by an analysis of the history of eleven
European nations. The nations include
Austria, Denmark, England, France,
Holland (or the Netherlands), Poland,
Prussia, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and
Turkey. The period covered extends

from the present day to as far into the
past as records are available. For most
of these countries, however, it is not
practicable to carry such a study back
of the sixteenth century. For England
and France the records enable us to
extend the research to the beginning of
the twelfth century.

YEARS OF WAR

__ It would of course be of added interest
if something more than the mere years
of war and years of peace could be dis-
cussed, since it may be that great wars
were more associated with autocrats
than were small wars, but in the absence
of sufficient data there can be no harm
in first making the simple analysis and
answering the question: Are autocracies
especially associated with periods of
war? Any book of dates concerning
periods of war will conflict somewhat
with any other book, since a certain
amount of personal judgment necessar-
ily enters into any compilation. Some-
times it is hard to tell a war from a riot
More often it is hard to tell just when a
war begins and ends. Mr. Alexander
Baltzly compiled under my direction
and in association with the Department
of Government in Harvard University
a complete list of all European wars of
modern times. This was published in
1915. It was put together just prior to
the late war with the hope of throwing
light on the question whether there
was any evidence that wars were tending
to disappear. This book, ‘Is War Di.
minishing?”’ is, as far as I know, the only
source of appeal for a comprehensive
study of European wars. Some special
studies concerning the wars of single

nations have been published, but these
are detailed and isolated—often mere
propaganda. In Mr. Baltzly’s lists we
have an excellent basis for making a
first approximation in the study of the
causes of war, since the greatest effort
was made to cover the ground com-
pletely, and, moreover, as the compila-
tion was made without having the
present research in mind, its errors
should cause no bias.

A-LIST OF AUTOCRATS

The next question is: Whom shall we
include in a list of the great autocratic
tulers of recent times? Here, again, it
is necessary to be systematic and to
overlook as few examples as possible.
Some sort of a check-list is essential.
Such a list is, as far as sovereign rules
are concerned, already. published, and
is to be found in the appendix of my
“Influence of Monarchs’’ (1913). It
was formulated for another research,
namely, to measure the magnitude of
the personal influence of one recurring
historical type, and the very fact that
it was made for another purpose makes
it all the better as a basis for the present
discussion.

From this list of sovereigns I first
picked out all those who undoubtedly
should be rightly designated by the
word autocrat: that is, those who were
autocratic not only by nature, but also
actually were able to act in an auto-
cratic manner. To these I added a
few doubtful names,—sovereigns who
wished for personal control but who
did not very well succeed in attaining
their ends.

Names taken from the history of
these same European countries from
the French Revolution to the present
day, and also from the history of the
old kingdom of Poland, were added to
the list in order that the periods covered
in “Is War Diminishing?” should be
completely included here. This pro-
duced a total of about 120. These
were then roughly graded in an order of
eminence and in the following manner:
Mr. T. Lothrop Stoddard, Mr. Alleyne
Ireland and myself each chose separately
the names of: First, the ten seemingly

The Journal of Heredity

greatest autocrats; second, the twenty
greatest; and third, the sixty or leading
half of the whole. I have now ex-
tended this to 100 names and arranged
the first sixty in the order of their auto-
cratic greatness on the combined basis
of our separate ratings. In the lower
portion of the list the order of position
means but little, but in the upper part
the differences are more clearly marked
and are also more important in leading
to significant conclusions. Probably
the first ten or twenty names are not
very different from those that would,
perforce, be chosen by anyone conver-
sant with European history if the test
were to be, as it here is, the grading of
autocrats according to the vastness of
their whilom rule and the extent of their
individual domination, not necessarily
according to their intellectual gifts.

The following twenty monarchs are
given in their order of eminence judged
solely as great autocrats: Napoleon,
Frederick the Great, Peter the Great,
Selim I of Turkey, Suleiman the Mag-
nificent, Ivan the Terrible, Louis XI of
France, Philip II of Spain, Louis XIV
of France, Catherine II of Russia,
Charles XII of Sweden, Charles V (the
Emperor); Gustavus Adolphus, Philip
Augustus, Louis IX of France, Henry
VIII of England, Ivan III of Russia,
Henry IV of France, William II (the late
Kaiser), the Great Elector of Branden-
burg.

It must not be thought that the order
within the group is important, or that
there is any intention of conveying the
idea that each one of these persons
whose name appears ahead of some
other person is known to be a greater
autocrat. Every reader through per-
sonal preference would rearrange this
list; but any rearrangement within the
first ten, or within the second ten,
would make no difference. If many
were transferred from high to low posi-
tions, or if great changes of inclusion
and exclusion were made, then im-
portant differences in the conclusions
might result. It seems unlikely that
such wholesale changes could be jus-
tified.

A list is here given of the 62 sovereign

a
Ssssucezsestesszcestce
BOSRa!

Hatt

Hh
HEH

atzesciGd

HISTORY OF AUTOCRATS AND WARS AS TOLD BY A DIAGRAM

A. Showing the decline of all autocrats.

B. Showing the rise and decline of the twenty greatest autocrats.

C. The dotted line shows the decline in percentage of war-years per century.

rulers who have been selected as es-
pecially representative of autocratic
sway (see Table I). The first 30 are
given ranking numbers, though, as
before stated, this must be considered
only as tentative and approximate.
That this arrangement in a series has
a value seems to be interestingly illus-
trated in this research, for, if the sover-
eigns had not been individually graded,

(Fig. 18.)

the discovery would not have been
made that European history furnishes
actual evidence that great autocrats are
especially associated with periods of
warfare.

If we consider only the evidence
drawn from the entire 62 autocrats, we
find 914.5 years of war out of a total
of 1,779 years of reign. This is 51.4%
and is only slightly greater than the

36 The Journal of Heredity

TasLe I.—Leading Royal Autocrats of Europe

War years Total Years of reign
Austria:

DP Geer xara tl taaieets tar a iiss) 02. 20 eae eteyeets 17.0 26 1493-1519

12 Charles V... 0.0 2 1519-1521

22 Maria Theresa 16.0 40 1740-1780
Francis Joseph 8.5 68 1848-1916

41.5 136
Denmark:
Chnstan ie. oe. : 6.0 10 1513-1523
Christian IV.... 22.0 52 1596-1648
28.0 62
England:
Henry I... 25.0 35 1100-1135
Henry II. 6.5 35 1154-1189
Richard I. 7.0 10 1189-1199

25 Edward I. 16.5 35 1272-1307
Edward ITT. 33.0 47 1330-1377
EleniyiViec eran cite ac 6.0 9 1413-1422
Henry VII. Sn5 24 1485-1509

16 Henry VIIL.. 12.0 38 1509-1547

23 Elizabeth .. 39.0 45 1558-1603

150.5 278
France:
Mots Wiles : j 20.0 29 1108-1137

14 Philip Augustus... 25.0 43 1180-1223

TS IOUIS MeNeaer. c= a 1S 34 1236-1270
@harles’ Viaeies se 12.0 16 1364-1380

ff MbryehS PMI Soe a : 6.0 22 1461-1483
Anne, Regent .... ; 1.0 8 1483-1491
Catherine de Medici. 4.0 11 1560-1571

[eeHenny IV <= 25 say. 10 0 22 1588-1610

9 Louis XIV... . 34.0 54 1661-1715

1 Napoleon 10.0 10 1804-1814
Napoleon III..... at : 8) 18 1852-1870

145.0 267
Holland:

27 Walliam the Silent.......... 9.0 9 1575-1584
IMManimiGenewpe i lseotie apaye aveb = 25.0 41 1584-1625
Frederick Henry 22.0 22 1625-1647
Walliams yee ae ee kek 10) 3 1647-1650
Walliann) eae i ico 30 1672-1702

74.5 105
Poland:!
Casimir IV... Dora's) 45 1447-1492
Sigismund jes -o)- Ret 8 20.5 42 1506-1548
Stephen Bathory... : S55 11 1575-1586
[folakey AN eae ok ; ; 14.0 22 1674-1696
61.5 120
Prussia:

20 The Great Elector...... ' Spence 10.5 48 1640-1688
Frederick William I....... ae 5.0 Ail 1713-1740

2 Frederick the Great... .. prot, eee 11.0 46 1740-1786

LOMWalltan Ul stcie2e hase nebo sae: 4.0 30 1888-1918

30.5 151

1 Poland was not included in the Influence of Monarchs, nor was the history of any European country later than
the Napoleonic period. Data from recent history have therefore been added.

Woods: Decline of Autocracy 37
Russia:
A eelovamtne Great pe hs, cartons odsgczot se orl 24.0 43 1462-1505
6 Ivan the Terrible. . S2E5 37 1547-1584
ombetemibheGreatan. scr ash crite ae 23.0 36 1689-1725

LOpGatherinervUls see ke ase assess pens 13.5 34 1762-1796
(AlexanGenal ny tamed «scot aida Aeatee 5 4.5 15 1810-1825

AAS) IN avel ENS; I ee Sa oe een 29.5 30 1825-1855
Alexander III.. 0 13 1881-1894

127.0 208
Spain:

21 Ferdinand and Isabella............ 175 25 1479-1504
Mercier as she vatnn teeta ti 7 4.0 12 1504-1516
(Shanles vise ee ee 25.0 39 1517-1556

BNE Dilip illic. \rcetinct fee nb eres 39.0 42 1556-1598
(Shawlesmll see metas cictere saat hatae\ersie 2.5 29 1759-1788
88.0 147
Sweden:

28 Gustavus Vasa........ 7.0 37 1523-1560
Charles, Regent. Bar aon ae 0.5 5 1595-1600
Ghaplectient germs Sere ers Ae eee Ne 11.0 11 1600-1611

13 Gustavus Adolphus.............. 13.0 21 1611-1632
Gharles xX Syke sb her tect 5.0 6 1654-1660
(Claveia Sher eS as eee Co tO renee ee 4.0 25 1672-1697

iil (Gis ENa ESC eee ee eee 19.0 21 1697-1718
ERTISLAWIIS PUL lrercierc eis cere faerie 5 2.0 21 1771-1792
ShamleseXGiVing aise e escent as es 0 26 1818-1844

61.5 173

Turkey:

SOmMohammed Tl... i. ilk. .0cee. 30.0 30 1451-1481
G4 13.2 ban) )] Caer een ay then Ret ae orn ie Ave 7.0 8 1512-1520
Gy (S\eilerter eat lees AT Sines etn ere cee 36.5 46 1520-1566
UN CRREYG INVES Cees ares an aM ern ae 17.0 17 1623-1640
icin Wlem mets: fe ot ernie gate aca 16.5 31 1808-1839

107.0 132

average number of years of war per
century, as revealed by the tables in
“Ts War Diminishing?” which is 48.5.
But if we consider only the 30 leading
autocrats, we find that the average
rises to 57.5 war-years per century,
or 565.5 out of 983. For the leading
20 the average is 54.2, and for the ten
greatest the average is 63.4 years of
war per century. The totals here are
212.5 years out of 335. These figures
are large enough to be significant.
Here is shown a rise of roughly 50%
for the most autocratic periods as
against the comparatively non-auto-
cratic periods, of which there are about
300, and whose war record must have
been a little less than 48.5 years per
century.

The true correlation between auto-
crats and war must be somewhat higher
than is here indicated, since oftimes

democratic nations have been unwill-
ingly drawn into conflicts against au-
tocracy, as was the case in the Napo-
leonic period and in the late World War.
In this way non-autocratic periods
must get more years of war than would
have been the case if all countries had
always been free from great autocrats.

WAR-YEARS UNDER DEMOCRACIES

If we turn to the other side of the
question and study the democracies
themselves, it appears that their periods
occupied in warfare have been some-
what less in total duration than the
average. There have not been many
eras of real democracy in European
history, but there have been times when
nations have been more democratic
than at other times. England has, for
instance, been largely governed by the
voice of the people during recent

38 The Journal of Heredity

generations. The same is true of many
European nations during the nine-
teenth century. It is this century, and
especially its last half, that shows the
maximum years of peace.

If we take out for study all periods in
which no monarch or regent is recog-
nized as ruling and the nation is theore-
tically a ‘‘republic,’’ ‘‘commonwealth,”’
“consulate,” or designated by some
such word, we have a definite criterion
for inclusion and can express our results
numerically.

If we omit the doubtful ‘“stadholder-
ship’ in Holland, we have in England
the Commonwealth, 1649-1660, with 10
years of war out of 11. France had
three republics and one consulate with
21 years of war out of 63. Holland
had two republics (1759-1766 and 1795-
1805) and The States which lasted from
1702 to 1747. During these eras it
showed 35 war-years out of 84. Spain
had two years of republic from 1873-1875.
They were filled with internal war-
fare. Russia, since the overthrow
of the Czar, has been in an almost
constant state of either warfare or
anarchy.

The total of all these years of demo-
cratic control is 163. The total years
of war are 72. This is 44.2%. It is
somewhat less than the total for all
autocratic regimes, which was 51.4%.
It is considerably less than the average
for the first ten which was found to be
63.4. Furthermore, in the instances
where the democratic forms of govern-
ment have been associated with an
extremely high percentage of warfare,
these popular governments represent
beginnings in this practice of political
control. Also England during ‘‘The
Commonwealth,’ with 10 years of war
out of 11, was in reality under one of
the greatest of autocrats, though a
non-royal one.

There is some additional argument
that democracies may be associated
with an increased amount of peace
from the fact that the comparatively
democratic nations, Denmark, Switzer-
land, Sweden, and Holland, have been
free from war during the last hundred
years.

It has not been possible to include
in this research non-royal autocrats
like Cromwell and Richelieu. The diffi-
culty would be in knowing when to
stop, since no comprehensive list of
such statesmen has ever been formu-
lated. But the logical conclusion is that,
if royal autocrats predispose towards
belligerency, non-royal ones also do, and
therefore some of the fighting periods
now credited to comparatively non-
autocratic governments should in reality
be taken as exhibiting a further proof
of the truth of the theory here set
forth.

AUTOCRATS DIFFICULT TO ABOLISH

There seems, then, to be no doubt
that great autocrats are associated with
wars probably as a contributory cause.
If they are a cause of war, the question
then becomes one of vital interest: How
are they forever to be abolished? This
is not likely to be an easy matter.
Autocrats work insidiously and, until
they have become strong, they are not
autocrats. By the time they have
become autocrats they are then strong,
and consequently difficult to deal with.
There is much that is permanent in
human nature that makes easy the
development of autocratic sway. Man
is a very exploitable animal, and it is a
long time before he realizes that he is
being made into a machine. By the
time he has been made into a machine
and is part of a greater machine—that
is, precisely what he is then willing to
be or indeed wishes to be—so who is to
stop the process? It is only the outside
and outlying nations that can do this
by uniting for the common cause. This
they do over and over again, and the
force of numbers wins for a time until
again in some unsuspected quarter
another autocrat has welded together
another machine.

False and weak autocracies, like that
of George III, Louis XVI, and Nicholas
II, may break from within, but the
genuine and strong, such as are under
the personal control of some one great
leader, require outside interference,
which only becomes united after the
autocracy has indeed been formed.

Woods: Decline of Autocracy 39

All this may be in some measure
explanatory or not; at any rate the fact
is that, while European history has
shown for the last eight centuries a
tendency for autocrats to become less
numerous, it has not shown the same
tendency towards a disappearance of
autocrats of the first magnitude, those
whom we find especially predisposing
towards war.

In the history of England and France
autocrats can be studied from the
eleventh century onward. These are
countries that have developed demo-
cratic institutions. Let us see if there
is evidence of a gradual decline in the
numbers of autocratic sovereigns
throughout the centuries. Adding the
numbers from both these countries
together, we get the series from the
year 1000 to the year 1900 by centuries
as follows: 2, 4, 4, 2, 3, 4, 2, 0, 2; that
is, there were two autocrats in the
eleventh century, four in the twelfth,
ete. It can be seen that the left-hand
half of this series is heavier than the

right. The ratio of weight is 13.5
to 9.5. Here we have numerical proof

that autocracy has declined in France
and England. This is significant as
far as it goes, though the numbers are
small.

If, on the other hand, we turn to
Russia, Prussia, and Austria, we do not
find the same tendency towards a de-
cline in the number of autocrats. Fig-
ures for the early history of these
countries are not available, but the
records from the beginning of the fif-
teenth century are complete. The totals
for each century are, according to our
chart, 4, 2, 3,5, 5. In these countries,
then, just the opposite has taken place
from what occurred in England and
France. The right-hand, or modern
portion of this series, weighs against
the left in the ratio of 11.5 to 7.5.. Are
these figures significant? They are
quite as likely to be as the reverse
figures, 13.5 to 9.5, which suggested a
decline in autocracy in France and
England.

Both numbers are necessarily small,
as we are dealing with a matter where
only a few examples can be cited; but

the figures warn us against assuming
that democratic tendencies are constant
in their growth or that they are part of
the development of modern civilization.
Here are three great nations whose
territories cover a large portion of
Europe, whose vast populations, if
judged by their achievements, have
unquestionably, at least until recently,
advanced, both intellectually and ma-
terially, since the beginning of the
fifteenth century, yet autocratic gover-
nance has actually been growing.

An answer, much more definite than
this, to the whole question of the magni-
tude and distribution of autocracies in
European history is gained by an appeal
to all available instances from the
eleventh century onward. A table con-
taining such statistics is here given (see
Table II). It shows two facts clearly.
First, that as far as all autocrats are
concerned there has been, in recent cen-
turies, a decline in their numbers, and,
second, it shows that, as far as the
greatest autocrats are concerned, the
reverse process was in operation up to
about the year 1600. Since that date, all
autocrats, both great and small, have
been losing ground. The figures form
such a regular series that little doubt is
left as to their significance. Compare the
earlier and the later halves of the table.
If the totals for the 100 greatest auto-
crats be considered, the four centuries
and a half prior to the year 1450 furnish,
as compared with the subsequent 450
years, autocrats in the ratio of 190.7 to
96.4, or practically twice as many.
From this the ratios change in an almost
perfect gradation. For the first 50 auto-
crats the ratios virtually balance, being
63.5 to 62.8. For the first 40 we find
more in the latter than in the earlier
period. The ratios are 55.1 to 40.8.
These rise for the first 30, being 44.4 to
26.3, sink for the first 20, though they
exceed the first 40, and in final con-
firmation we find the highest ratio for
the first 10 or greatest autocrats still on
the same side of the balance, being 15.9
to 8.6 in favor of the late period or right-
hand half of the chart. In other words,
compared with the 450 preceding years,
the last 450 have produced nearly twice

40 The Journal of Heredity
TABLE II.—Dzistribution of Royal Autocrats by Centuries.
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800-1900
1st Obes 1 0 0 0 1 4 1 Dy = 1
2d 10. 0 0 2 ey 3 i? | toch ag
sisll WKQ)s: 0 0 af 0 1 4 2 1 1
4th 10. 0 1 ® | 3 1 0 1 ae
5th 10. 0 1 2 2 2 1 0 1 1
6th 10.. 1 1 0 2 2 0 4 0 | 0
7th 10 0 2 0 2 1 1 2 0 2
8th 10. . 1 0 2 1 5 0 1 0 0
9th 10.. 0 1 1 5 1 2 0 0 0
10th 10.. 1 3 2 1 2 0 0 ar] 1
HS® UO). cea 4 9 10 16 18 15 12 ee ees | 9
PERCENTAGES OF AUTOCRATS AMONG ALL RoyaL RULERS
- es aa r =i =
Ist 10. Ut 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 7.0 129) 4.1 2
1st 20. ntl ) 00} a) e40) OROMS rarer 12) 31 3.6 S25 ee
Ist 30. iter 0.0 15.0 0.0 oil 19S 08) 1OK2 st ees
ist 40. ie | SONS Wee | SO TOG | OAL iw |) ie
Ist SOe- Wad UST Nt A) 12.8 AS) Al ole 4 ess na 1403 eee
fst elOOR: 30.8 52.9 | 50.0 | 41.0 32.1 | 26-3" | 21.8 14.3 18

as many autocrats of the first magni-
tude.

These are distinctively the autocrats
who are associated with warfare, and so
we see one reason perhaps why in
recent centuries so much fighting has
taken place. In our work, ‘‘Is War Di-
minishing?”’ the conclusion reached by
Mr. Baltzby and myself was that there is
proof for a decline in the number of war
years in the last two centuries, but
that the evidence was not sufficient for
a sound generalization. That was for
two reasons: First, because there was an
increase from 1450 to 1600 and second,
because the history of France and
England, the only history that fur-
nished data extending well into the past,
did not sanction such a generalization.
There was no general or constant de-
cline in war-years. The first four cen-
turies showed no more war-years than
the second.

GRADUAL ELIMINATION OF AUTOCRACIES

Although there has been no constant
or gradual disappearance of war-years
or of great autocrats as might be the

case if these two dreaded things were
being exterminated by the enlightening
processes of education and civilization,
there is nevertheless a way of looking
at all the facts that presents an outlook
not necessarily gloomy. The whole
matter in a nutshell is this: There
occurred during these nine hundred
years one gigantic wave which reached
its peak in the sixteenth century. The
wave of autocracy corresponded with
the wave of war, probably entirely,
though a fragment of one of the curves
is lacking or incomplete. We have no
data for any early war periods (prior to
1450) except for France and England,
but the probability is that the other
nations were not excessively engaged in
war during the twelfth, thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. This is suggested
from the fact that, although small auto-
crats were numerous in these various
countries, very great autocrats were
not, and furthermore it is known that the
war-years in these countries increased
from 1,450 to 1,600. Also the high
average of French and English war-years
culminated in the sixteenth century.

Woods: Decline of Autocracy 41

Since this period, the downward slope
of the wave has been marked for all
degrees of autocracy. The reason why
the second 450 years shows more auto-
crats of the greatest magnitude is
because the sixteenth century falls in
the second or modern portion. If we
compare the last two centuries with
the two preceding, we find the ratio-
weights all heavier for the earlier period,
as shown in the table 8.9 to 6.1; 15.9 to
10.2; 26.6 to 14.2, and 28.4 to 22.2, as we
descend from the ten greatest to the
forty greatest of the dictators. This is
substantiated by a comparison of the
three recent centuries with the three pre-
ceding, for again, the ratios are without
exception heavier for the earlier period:
SECM LOMO cease ato. Loras 2O4e tor Zino
35.9 to 31.3. Comparing these two
sets of ratios, the conclusion is war-
ranted that it is especially during the
last two centuries that the decline in
autocrats is noteworthy.

These figures are much too consis-
tent not to mean something very
definite. Regard also the percentages
for the distribution of all autocrats
from the eleventh century to the nine-
teenth. Omitting fractions, these per-
centages run: 30, 52, 50, 41, 32, 26, 21,
14, 18. From the twelfth century on-
ward each figure is smaller than the
one before, with a slight exception in
that for the nineteenth century.

Autocrats were proportionately most
numerous in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. Great autocrats reached the
acme of their power in the sixteenth, as
did also the gods of war. Perhaps it all
may mean that we are at the bottom of
a wave that will rise again, but if the
records of recent generations are an indi-
cation of forces that are destined to be
continuous, then in a few generations
to come, at least one of the concomitants
of war, the great monarchical autocrats,
will have ceased tofunction on this planet.

New Eugenics Society in Hungary

The Hungarian Commission for
Race-Hygiene, founded in February,
1914, was reorganized in 1917 as the
Hungarian Eugenics Society and is
now publishing a bi-monthly journal
called Nemezctvédelem (Protection of
the Race). A communication from its
acting vice-president, Dr. Geza von
Hoffmann, formerly Austro-Hungarian
consul in Berlin and at one time a resi-
dent of the United States, tells of the
growing eugenic movement in Hungary.

He states that the Hungarian govern-
ment has been carrying on an active
campaign for the increase of eugenic
knowledge by means of pamphlets, pos-
ters, placards, and popular lectures,
both in civilian centers and in military
establishments.

“Much stress is laid upon the posi-
tive side of the question,’ he observes,
“7. e., the propagation of the fit, and
no steps have yet been taken to cut off
the propagation of the unfit.”

THE SPREAD OF ROSEN RYE’

FRANK A. SPRAGG

Michigan Experiment

Station, East Lansing

N 1909, the Michigan Agricultural
College received a sample of pedi-
greed rye from Russia. Since the
Russian name of this rye was un-
known, it was called Rosen rye, after
J. A. Rosen, who sent it. Mr. Rosen
was a Russian student who graduated
from the Agricultural College in 1908.

This sample was selected and tested
by the Michigan Experiment Station,
and 6 bushels of it were distributed in
1912. As it was generally planted
alongside of the common rye, only the
offspring of one of these bushels could
be continued as pedigreed rye, and this
bushel was sent to Jackson County,
Michigan. It was planted on an acre
and yielded thirty-five bushels in 1913.
Soon the whole countryside around
Parma (in western Jackson County)
and around Albion, in eastern Calhoun
County, grew Rosen rye as a winter
crop, and little or no wheat. Other
counties took it up and, with the aid
of an active county agricultural agent,
the new rye spread rapidly. St. Joseph
County early became a _ prosperous
Rosen rye center, having 3,500 acres
in 1917, while Jackson County had
2,000 acres, the whole state having
about 15,000.

It seemed to take three or four years
for this new rye to attract the notice
and the confidence that was needed for
rapid advance. Since 1916, however,
its spread in Michigan has been
almost phenomenal. This has been
due chiefly to the intrinsic merit of the
grain, combined with the aid of the
Michigan Crop Improvement Associa-
tion in maintaining the quality and
purity of the seed produced.

Field inspection began in 1917 under
the leadership of the association’s
secretary, Mr. J. W. Nicolson, East

Lansing, Mich., and certified grain
began to be sold to the farmers of other
states as well as to Michigan farmers.
As the result of this activity in war-
time, when farmers were being urged
to sow the best seed, approximately
250,000 acres of Rosen rye were sown
in Michigan in the fall of 1917. The
trade also began to take notice of the
new rye. It was quoted on the Detroit
market that year, and carload lots
began to be available for other states
as well as in Michigan.

HIGH YIELD AND INCREASED ACREAGE

The inspectors of the Michigan Crop
Improvement Association began work
again in June, 1918, and during the-
following month passed about 1,000
acres. This acreage produced 22,349
bushels, a gcod yield when it is re-
membered that most of it grew on
sandy soil, and that a yield of 15
bushels per acre was considered a high
return before the Rosen rye was in-
troduced. Again, under the stress of
war conditions, the acreage was almost
doubled in one year, as considerably
over 400,000 acres in Michigan were
sown to Rosen rye in the fall of 1918.

Growing Rosen rye in Michigan is
now so general that even the common
rye is mixed with it. It is now difficult
to find the old-fashioned common rye
for class purposes, and the college
may soon be compelled to grow common
rye as a curiosity. About 85% of the
rye acreage of Michigan is more or less
pure Rosen. Of this, less than 1.5%
is pedigreed. Much of it is nearly as
good as the pedigreed, but lost to record
under the association.

The growing of Rosen rye in other
states began commercially as early as
there was a supply. It has gone from

1A detailed account of Rosen rye by Mr. Spragg appeared in the JouRNAL OF HEREDITY for

December, 1918 (Vol. ix, No. 8).—Eb.
42

ET a Eo a 10
| gr fy tS Oia Rita: Ce
A202 143 cal
.< re oe
46 4% 269

SHOWING NUMBER OF BUSHELS OF PEDIGREED ROSEN RYE SOLD AS SEED
FROM MICHIGAN

The upper map indicates the number of bushels sold in 1918, and the lower map shows the fig-
ures for 1919. First introduced in Michigan in 1909, this rye had its first extension into other
states in 1917. The rapid advance from 1918 indicates that its superiority over the common
rye is quickly recognized. (Fig. 19.)

44 The Journal

farm to farm across the state line into
Indiana and Ohio, until the upper
two rows of counties in Indiana have as
much Rosen rye as the southern row of
counties in Michigan. When carloads
began to be available in 1917, the trade
grew rapidly, increasing steadily since
that year, and now several elevators
and seed firms in Michigan count their
sales of Rosen rye for seed in dozens of
carloads. Much of this seed is pur-
chased in sections where the rye is
resonably pure, but, unfortunately,
comparatively few people seem to
realize the fact that rye cross-fertilizes.
A great deal of rye that is now sold
as Rosen is very badly mixed. The
results obtained with this commercial
seed are frequently not equal to those
obtained by the use of seed inspected
in the field and bin by the Michigan
Crop Improvement Association, which
cooperates with the College in main-
taining very high standards of purity.

ALREADY COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT

The extension of pedigree Rosen
rye into other states began in 1917,
when the inspection work began, but
the sales made by the members of
the association were imperfectly re-
ported that year. For that reason
exact figures are unobtainable. How-
ever, a fair proportion of these sales
have been reported in 1918 and 1919.
One outline map, Fig. 19, shows the
sales by states in 1918, and another
shows the corresponding figures for
1919 as far as they are reported to
date. But, as indicated above, this

of Heredity

is a very small portion of the seed sold
as Rosen, as the commercial trade has
assumed vast proportions. The pedi-
greed seed, however, is the only seed of
guaranteed purity, and is therefore the
basis upon which this or other states
must base opinion regarding the value
of Rosen rye.

The figures on the two maps should
be carefully studied. so as not to be
misinterpreted. In 1918 Illinois and
Indiana were the largest purchasers of
pedigreed Rosen rye outside of Michigan
yet it is probable that Michigan bought
more pedigreed Rosen seed than all
other states combined. In 1919, Michi-
gan farmers bought less pedigreed Rosen
seed than certain other states. The
State of Washington, bought almost
twice as much pedigreed Rosen seed
as Michigan itself did. To explain
these facts one must remember that
pedigreed or high-grade Rosen is quite
generally in the hands of Michigan
farmers. They are simply planting
their own seed. It is only the few who
wish to replace their mixed seed with
the pedigreed that are now buying
the pedigreed seed in Michigan.

Several states have obtained pedi-
greed seed for two previous years and
should be growing quantities of pure
Rosen rye, but we have no record at
present. A report comes from Minne-
sota, where a man purchased the pedi-
greed Rosen seed from Michigan in
1918 and sold 3,000 bushels for seed in
1919. Others can do likewise. It is
the more distant states, where a smaller
supply is available, that are purchasing
increased amounts.

A Genetic Association in Italy

Leading Italian men of science have
united in the “Italian Society of Ge-
netics and Eugenics,’ whose object is
“to promote and support all researches
and movements tending to increasing
knowledge of the laws of heredity and
the improvement of races, with special
regard to the human race.”

Dr. Ernest Pestalozza is president
of the organization and Dr. Caesar
Artom secretary. The headquarters
are at the Municipal Zoological Garden,
Villa Umberto I, Rome.

Control of the society is placed by
the by-laws in the hands of fifteen
delegates, to be chosen equally from
the biological, medical and __ social
sciences.

One of the society’s first efforts is to
prevent racial hybridization. It has
sent out a letter to various organizations
such as the American Genetic Associa-
tion, which reads:

“The directing council of the Italian
Society of Genetics and Eugenics has
adopted the following proposal of Pro-
fessor Dr. V. Giuffrida-Ruggieri, pro-

fessor of anthropology in the Royal
University at Naples.

“With the victorious termination of
the world war, the powers of the
entente find themselves more closely
than in the past, in contact with the
African world. It would therefore be
opportune for the various eugenic
societies to codperate by bringing to the
attention of the governments of their
respective countries the desirability,
where it has not already been done,
of securing legislation to prevent mar-
riage between Europeans and members
of the African races. Marriage should
be permitted only with Africans of the
Mediterranean race (Berbers, Egypt-
ians) and Arabs who are not negroes.
Such a prohibition ought to extend to
all the half-breed populations scattered
over the African continent.’

“The intention of the proposal would
be to prevent the increase of a mixed
European-African race, which appears
to be undesirable from various points
of view.”

The Intelligence of the Negro

Applying a group scale of intelligence
to the colored school children in two
small Indiana cities, S. L. Pressey and
G. F. Teter conclude that they show
less intelligence than white children in
the same cities. Their study is pub-
lished in the Journal of Applied
Psychology, Sept., 1919.

Reviewing previous work in this field,
the writers say: “Colored school chil-
dren show a greater school retardation,
less acceleration, and average older for
a given grade, than do white children.
There is some evidence to show that,
grade for grade, they do poorer school
work. Negro children give ratings,
when tested by the Binet and Point
scales, averaging below white children.
Measurements of special abilities have
shown the colored children to do well
in tests of the more simple processes
(as cancellation, rote memory) and
most poorly with tests of the more com-
plex abilities (as opposites, analogies,
sentence completion). There is some

evidence that colored children have
more active imaginations and more
ready associations of an uncontrolled
type than do white children.”
Discussing their own results, the
writers point out that among the colored
children “a poor average ability seems
unmistakably indicated,’ which not
only leads the colored children to be
retarded in school, as compared with
whites of the same age, but leads them
even in the retarded classes to do poorer
work than whites in the same classes.
Is this not perhaps due to some
special defect, rather than to general

inferiority? Apparently not; “the
colored children show poorer ability
than the whites on every test.” There

is the definite suggestion “of a more
elementary and less highly developed
ability among colored children”; but
the writers believe “that the important
racial difference may be, after all,
emotional and temperamental.”

VIEW OF FIELD OF DASHEENS IN FLORIDA

“We have acquired the taste for the dasheen, and it is a part of our regular food: to use the

expression, we seem to flourish on it.”

This is the statement of John F. Groene, formerly Jus-

tice of the Peace at Tarpon Springs, Fla., who stands among his plants in the photograph.
He became so fond of dasheens that on moving to California, he began at once to encourage

experimentation with their cultivation there.

(Fig. 20.)

Pioneer Growers of the Dasheen

In the introduction of a new vegetable
into cultivation, there comes a time
when those pioneers, who believe suf-
ficiently in its future, to risk their own
labor, land and money in its production,
need encouragement. They need to be
helped in popularizing the vegetable,
and in getting their product before a
public that believes in trying new foods.

The dasheen is one of these new
foods. It is now being grown as a
crop quite generally in the South Atlan-
tic and Gulf States, but mostly in
Florida. It is sold by fancy vegetable
dealers in many southern and northern
cities, and the production heretofore
has scarcely kept pace with the growing
demand. This season, for the first
time, there is opportunity for house-
holders to purchase dasheens direct
from growers, or their agents, in the

south. Shipments of one bushel or
more will be made—preferably by
express on account of the danger of
delay and freezing if sent by freight.
To eastern cities having direct steamer
connection with the south, barrel ship-
ments can be safely forwarded by
steamer freight.

Following is a list of three growers,
and one representative of a number of
growers on Lake Okeechobee, with
whom any interested persons may com-
municate. Letters to these men should
specify quantity desired, and ask for

the price: W. BE. Clark (grower),
Torry Island, Fla., Fellsmere Co.,
(grower), Fellsmere, Fla., J. H. Free-

man (representative), Ft. Lauderdale,
Fla., W. C. Greer, (grower) Torry
Island, Fla.

4 HILL OF DASHEENS WEIGHING ELEVEN POUNDS

Each hill of dasheens yields one or more large corms, like the two shown above, and a number
of cormels, or lateral ‘“‘tubers;’’ all are edible. The corms are especially delicious when baked
and eaten immediately upon being taken from the oven. (Fig. 21.)

DASHEEN EN CASSEROLE

This is one of the many delicious dishes made from the dasheen. The vegetable is prepared,
with slight modification, in all the ways in which potatoes are used, and some besides. It
makes an especially excellent filling for fowl. (Fig. 22.)

A NEW DAHLIA OF INTEREST
TO PLANT BREEDERS

Kk. SAFFORD, of the Bureau
of Plant Industry, has pub-
. lished in a recent issue of the
Journal of the Washington
Academy of Sciences (July 19, 1919),
descriptions of two new dahlias from
Guatemala, one of which, D. popenovit,
should be of more than ordinary in-
terest to plant breeders who are work-
ing with this genus. According to Mr.
Safford, this species is probably an
ancestor of the cactus-flowered dahlias,
a group derived from Dahlia juarezi.
The latter species is a hybrid, supposed
to have originated naturally in Central
America through the crossing of 1D). pop-
enovu and some other species.

Mr. Safford, who is at work on a
revision of the cultivated dahlias with
a view to determining their botanical
relationships, writes:

“Tn nearly all the monographs on the
genus Dahlia hitherto published, the
different varieties have been grouped
from the horticulturalist’s point of view.
according to the forms of the flowers,
under such headings as ‘single, duplex,
anemone-flowered, collarette, pompon,
fancy, decorative, peony-flowered, and
cactus dahlias,’ without identifying the
single-flowered forms with botanical
species (except perhaps in Dahlia
coccinea and Dahlia imperialis) or at-
tempting to connect the ‘duplex’ and
double forms with their primitive single
ancestors. It is very probable that the
types upon which several species have
been based were hybrid plants. Dahlia
pinnata itself, the type of the genus,
was probably a hybrid. In the Index

IXewensis its name is discarded as a
synonym for the subsequently described
D. variabilis. In the same way the
handsome Dahla juaresu with large
double heads composed of strap-shaped
florets having their edges turning back-
ward, in sharp distinction to the
involute or quilled floets of the artifi-
cial-looking “‘pompon dahlias’ and the
broad, flat-rayed heads of the ‘century’
type of modern catalogues, is also to
be regarded as a hybrid. Dahlias with
flowers identical in form with the type
of Dahlia juaresii, the ancestor from
which the ‘cactus dahlias’ of our gar-
dens have sprung, are no longer called
‘cactus dahlias’ by specialists, but
‘cactus hybrids.’ One of the ancestors
of Dahlia juarezu must have been a
single-flowered species, with eight
revolute ray-florets. Such a plant has
recently been discovered in the moun-
tains of Guatemala.”

Mr. Safford describes this species,
D. popenovii, as a plant about one meter
high, with slender, purplish stems, the
leaves simply pinnate (except perhaps
the lower ones), and the flower-heads
about 3 inches broad with eight slender,
revolute ray florets, bright scarlet or
cardinal in color. It differs from the
closely allied Dahlia coccinea in the
shape of the ray florets and the scales,
and in the character of its leaves.

This new dahlia is being propagated
by the Office of the Foreign Seed and
Plant Introduction of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, by which it was intro-
duced from Guatemela.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. XI, No. 2 February, 1920

CONTENTS

Peeemine 51
ze
65
eee U7
ERRATA TB
ind
The title of the legend for Figure 9, page 66, 80
should read: ae
NORMAL AND “TASSEL SEED” TYPES OF MAIZE 84
and the title for Figure 11, page 69, should read ~
NORMAL AND “TASSEL EAR” TYPES OF MAIZE.
88
92
95

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Associa-
tion (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its
members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year,
in addition to their regular membership dues of $2.00, because of additional postage
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub-
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single
copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted, upon request, for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to
author and to the JouRNAL oF HEreEpiTy (Organ of the American Genetic Associa-
tion), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, March 26, 1920,

A NEW DAHLIA OF INTEREST
TO PLANT BREEDERS

E. SAFFORD, of the Bureau
of Plant Industry, has pub-
. lished in a recent issue of the
Journal of the Washington
Academy of Sciences (July 19, 1919),
descriptions of two new dahlias from
Guatemala, one of which, D. popenovii,
should be of more than ordinary in-
terest to plant breeders who are work-
ing with this genus. According to Mr.
Safford, thi
ancestor of |
a group der
The latter sj
to have orig
America thro
cnovu and si
Mr. Saffo
revision of |
a view to d
relationships
“In nearly
genus Dahli
different vat
from the hor!
according to
under such |
anemone-flov
fancy, decor:
cactus dahlia
single-flowere =
species (except perhaps in Dahlia
coccinea and Dahlia imperialis) or at-
tempting to connect the ‘duplex’ and
double forms with their primitive single
ancestors. It is very probable that the
types upon which several species have
been based were hybrid plants. Dahlia
pinnata itself, the type of the genus,
was probably a hybrid. In the Index

IKewensis its name is discarded as a
synonym for the subsequently described
D. variabilis. In the same way the
handsome Dahlia juaresti with large
double heads composed of strap-shaped
florets having their edges turning back-
ward, in sharp distinction to the
involute or quilled floets of the artifi-
cial-looking ‘pompon dahlias’ and the
flat-raved heade of thea

,
“pestis

hroaad

cardinal in color. It difters trom the
closely allied Dahlia coccinea in the
shape of the ray florets and the scales,
and in the character of its leaves.

This new dahlia is being propagated
by the Office of the Foreign Seed and
Plant Introduction of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, by which it was intro-
duced from Guatemela.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vel) XT, No. 2 February, 1920

CONTENTS

The Water Buffalo—A Tropical Source of Butter Fat, by C. O. Levine 51

Heritable Characters of Maize—Il. Pistillate Flowered Maize

Plants, by R. A. Emerson. ..............0.00 0200s eeeeues tos
Eugenics and Other Sciences, by Frederick Adams Woods.. . SAK
The Death of Richard Semon................ op Ae ote o hoe 78

A Discussion of Popenoe and Johnson’s ‘“‘Applied Eugenics,”? and

the Question of Heredity vs. Environment.................... 80

Variation of the Palm Weevil, and The Meaning of Continuous Vari-

SUT TOYAGNEUCGOLOL = ctyts x rea slcteyt oe) oes ciel er dae wes hers abages ea: eeiohe tee es8e
Meas) Inteluirence rs. 66 cis dhe een isc ne es diewiers ewes 5 = .. 86
The Development of Useful Citizenship, by Hilda H. Noyes.......... 88
A Mutating Blackberry-Dewberry Hybrid, by L. R. Detjen.......... 92
An Award of Honor to Walter Van Fleet..................... face oe

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Associa-
tion (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its
members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year,
in addition to their regular membership dues of $2.00, because of additional postage
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub-
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single
copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted, upon request, for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to
author and to the JouRNAL oF HErepity (Organ of the American Genetic Associa-
tion), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, March 26, 1920.

(‘aoetdsiqu01g) *sayeqg poyugQ
uJoyynos ut sasodind Airep Jofz oyeynq 10}eM ay} JO saryyiqissod ajqevioavy aie alo, ‘Jooq 1oJ posoyysneys o1e Aoyy ‘spoau Aep 10
YIOM IOF [NJosn Jasuo] OU ole s[eulue ay} Udy AA “pdaZzi[vaI 9q 0} auI0D sey sasodind Anep 10}; souPyIOdunT $71 ‘IaAaMoY ‘sivaX yUdD0I UT
“SpleY A911 94} UT [eUNIUe yYsneIp B se Udaq Sey asn [edioutid st o1ayM ‘eUTYD UJeYyNOs Jo szred [je ut UOWUIOD SI O[eYNG JoyeM ay

GOATIODND NVILSTHHD NOLNVOD LY GHYGH AYIVO AHL WONT MOD OTVSIANE YALVA V

THE WATER BUFFALO—A
TROPICAL SOURCE OF BUTTER FAT

C. O. LEVINE
Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry, Canton Christian College

HE water buffalo (Bubalus
bubalis) is found in all parts of
China as far north as Shanghai.
It is most common in regions
where lowland rice is the main crop
grown by the farmers, where it finds
its chief use as a draught animal in the
wet paddy fields. The estimated com-
mon weight of the water buffalo in
China is about 800 to 1,200 pounds.
Measurements, made by the writer, of
twelve cows kept on the college farm
have given an average height of 49
inches at the withers.
. Like the pig, the water buffalo has
few sweat glands in its skin, and for
this reason cannot endure hard work
in the sun for a long period, unless its
body is wet with water. This accounts
for the desire of the buffalo to wallow
in mud or water. The animals are
easily overcome by heat if worked hard
in the sun, and sometimes they go crazy
and become very dangerous. Not in-
frequently such an animal has to be
killed.

However, animals kept only for milk
production, and not required for any
work do not necessarily require a wa-
ter hole for comfort. This is espe-
cially true of the dairy breeds of
buffalo of India.

As a rule, the water buffalo is a gen-
tle animal—toward Orientals. Euro-
peans usually find this animal difficult
to manage, and all attempts by’ Euro-
peans to raise the buffalo have failed,
except in Italy and some other places
in southern Europe, where it has been
raised for centuries. The dairy water
buffalo of northern India, however,
although of immense size and fierce
looks, is very gentle and can be han-

dled by Europeans as well as by na-
tives of that region.

The horns of the Chinese buffalo are
peculiar in shape. They are large and
much flattened, or somewhat triangular
at the base, deeply grooved on the up-
per surface, directed out and back from
the head and finally curving inward.
The length, measured on the outside
curve of the horn, is usually a little
more than two feet. In walking, the
buffalo carries its head so that the face
is almost level with the back. Its tail
is short, reaching to the hocks. Its
skin is a grey-black, very thinly cov-
ered with grey-black hair, and has
practically no oil or sweat glands. Dean
Bailey, in his Cyclopedia of Agricul-
ture, Vol. III, calls attention to the
fact that the color of the water but-
falo is not unlike that of the elephant,
and that their motions are similar The
resemblance between these two aninals
is so similar that a casual view of a
moving herd of buffalos suggests a
roving band of elephants.

OESTRUS, GESTATION, WEIGHT OF CALVES
AT BIRTH, AND AGE OF USEFULNESS

Oestrus in the female buffalo
does not occur as a rule until the age
of two years. It occurs one month
after parturition, and recurs regularly
every 28 to 30 days until the animal
again becomes pregnant.

Definite records on the exact length
of the gestation period have been
secured only with two cows at Canton
Christian College. In one case it was
310 days, and in the other 314 days.

Three calves, from cows in the col-
lege dairy, weighed, soon after birth

(‘T ‘8tq) ,,4[tur s,00 uvadoimg seop sv splfos [e}0} yonu se aoLM4 ApTeou
puv yey YON sB saumty F]VY B PUL ddI} JNOGe SUILzUOD,, Yl OyeYN JoyeAy ‘“SY}UOUT oUTU Jo portod Wor}ey9RT v IOJ Ye YUAD Jod Cc] pasesoAV YOIYA AITUA
paonpoid (g ‘ON S® Sp1ooa1 dy} UI 0} pedsejer) yy SII oy} UO 9UO BY, “psoy AIvep asaTjoD uPyslIyYO uojUPD ay} WOIZ are aIMgoId siyy UL SMOD OMY By L,

STVINGIHO AG GHOVNVW ATISVA ANV SMOD OTVAANE

(‘Z ‘3iq) ‘woy} Zuoure punoj
udaq aAvY siso[Moroqny Jo sasvo ON ‘uvop daoy 0} Asvo ore sjeuue oy} ‘Apod 944 UO Arey 913}1] AtoA SuAvY PUL ‘UTYS 94} UI Spurs [IO JO ywaA\s
jo oouasqe oy} OJ onq = (‘UdAIS Udeq DAVY SpuNnod QOD] JOAO oIOYM sp1oda1 AueUT Aq UMOYS sotyIqIssod Joysty oy} yUNODOe OVUT “Suryey 70u) spunod
OOT ynoqe soars soyejG poyUQ oY} UL Moo YOU ose1oAv oY, “IvOA v ye} IOy4ynq Jo spunod Q9Z ULY} 910Ur DATS SMOD OTeYNG Axeutpio qoA ‘euryD ut
YIU 10j Surpoorq Ou ussq sey oto, ,,'[eunue Atep vse MOO OyTeYNq oy} Jo osn oY} UT SoInyvoy o[qepUusUIUOD Jo JoquINU B ore 910],

uoronpoid 3
‘SMOD DAVS AHL

TSO NI NAOHS ASOHL S

4 mira cg a3

54 The Journal
and before they had taken any food,
an average of 67 pounds. Their
weights were 64, 70, and 67 pounds.

In order to secure a long lactation
period and the maximum amount of
milk, buffalo cows kept for milk are
usually not bred until three or four
months after freshening. Although
the ordinary buffalo of China gives but
a small amount of milk, it is extremely
rich in fat, and lactation periods of
twelve months are common. ‘The cows
are considered profitable for dairy pur-
poses until they are about 15 years old.

TO TELL THE AGE OF BUFFALO

The age of a buffalo is indicated quite
accurately by the teeth, up to a certain
number of years, similar to the way it is
indicated in European cattle. Like
other members of the bovine group,
the buffalo has no teeth in the front of
the upper jaw. The calf is usually born

of Heredity

with six temporary teeth in the front
of the lower jaw. Two more appear
a few weeks later. At about three
years of age the middle pair of the
temporary teeth are replaced by two
permanent teeth. When four years
old, the ones on either side of the first
pair are up and in use. At five the
next teeth on either side of the fourth-
year teeth are up, and at six the corner
teeth are up and in wear. The age of
animals more than six years old is
roughly estimated by the appearance of
the wearing surface of the teeth in the
front of the lower jaw. In the younger
animals the teeth have a sharp outer
edge, the wearing surfaces slope in-
ward, and the teeth are somewhat an-
gular. As the animals grow older the
sharp edges of the teeth wear down, the
wearing surface becoming more flat and
the teeth more round. After eight to
ten years the enamel has worn away

Note by David Fairchild:

It may be interesting in this connection to
quote here from a letter which I wrote in
Poona, India, in 1901 to the Hon. James
Wilson, then Secretary of Agriculture, re-
garding the Indian breeds of milch water
buffalos which are mentioned by Mr. Levine
in this article. The possibilities of utilizing
these milch breeds in the Philippines so
appealed to Mr. Wilson that he ordered the
letter published, together with others regard-
ing plants, as Bulletin No. 27, Bureau of
Plant Industry, 1902. In this letter the fol-
lowing facts were reported:

“The carabao or water buffalo (Bubalus
bubalis, Lyd.) is a well-known object in
Manila, and its use as a beast of burden
thoroughly understood, but, so far as I am
aware, little attention has been paid to it
as a milk producer.

“Unthinking prejudice, which prevents us
from eating many excellent things, may play
the same role in Manila that it does im
Ceylon, and forbid the employment of buf-
falo milk. If this is so it is a great pity,
for there is a race of water buffalos which
come from Delhi, India, that gives over 30
pounds of milk per day, while the best Sind
cattle give only 18, and this buffalo milk is
so rich in fat that 12 to 13 pounds of it
make a pound of butter, whereas 20 pounds
of milk of a Sind cow are required.

“These Delhi buffalos are easier to keep,
less expensive, and cleaner (having almost
no hair) than ordinary cattle. They sell for
about 180 rupees, or $56 in gold, in Bombay,

and can be bought at Dawans, the buffalo
market, near Grant Road Station, but could
be best secured by applying to Mr. Mollison,
Director-Gemeral of Agriculture for India,
at Poona, who could probably be prevailed
upon to arrange to have good specimens
picked out.

“Tn general, the animals are priced accord-
ing to the amount of milk they give, 10
rupees being added to the price for every
re additional pounds of milk given per
day.

“Another good yariety of milch buffalo
is that from Gujarat, called the Surti. It
yields only about 20 pounds of milk per
day, and is sold at from $33 to $36 gold.
The cost of keeping this variety per day
amounts at Poona to only cents gold, and
it is considered the most @@Onomical race by
Mr. Kelkar, the foreman in charge of the
college herd. According to him, a dairy
should have both buffalos and Sind cattle.
The buffalos are better for butter produc-
tion, and the cattle are superior for milk
purposes, because the milk fetches a better
price, being, in fact, much preferred to that
of the buffalos, which has a bluish color and
a slight, though not disagreeable, odor.

“Both the buffalos from Delhi and Gujarat
and the Sind cattle are well worth introduc-
ing into the Philippines. e buffalos should
be tested for butter making, though they cost
more to feed than the Sind cattle, which
latter will prove, howeyer, especially useful
for milk.”

INDIAN AND CHINESE BUFFALO BULLS

A ‘Ram's Horn” buffalo bull (the name coming from its spiral horns) is shown on the left.
These buffalos are from the region of Delhi, India, and are much larger than the Chinese
animals. The percentage of fat in the cows’ milk is about the same, however. The animal
on the right is a Chinese buffalo bull. (Fig. 3.)

HEAD OF A BREED OF WATER BUFFALO FROM THE GYR HILLS IN GUJARAT,
BRITISH INDIA

It is called the Jaffarabad breed, and is not one of the good milch breeds, being too large in
size and a poor milker. Photograph by David Fairchild, Feb., 1902. (Fig. 4.)

56 The Journal
and yellow centers show on the wear-
ing surface of each tooth.

USES OF THE WATER BUFFALO

Although in the past the principal
use of the water buffalo in China has
been for draught purposes in the rice
fields, during recent years an increasing
number are being used for dairy pur-
poses. When the usefulness of the
animals for work or dairy purposes is
past, they are slaughtered for beef.

CHARACTER OF BUFFALO MILK

The milk of the water buffalo is pure
white in color. Butter made from the
milk is also pure white. It is whole-
some and palatable when produced
under sanitary conditions. Students
and teachers (both Europeans and
Chinese) at the Canton Christian
College, prefer drinking buffalo milk to
European cow’s milk. The objection-
able flavor often found associated with
buffalo milk is usually due to the pro-
duction of the milk under unsanitary
conditions which generally prevail in
most village dairies.

MILK ANALYSIS AND RECORDS

The following tables give the analy-
sis of milk and production records of
cows for which’ we have records ex-
tending over a period of several months,
or for entire lactation periods.

Butter fat analyses of the milk from
each cow were made twice a month with
a Babcock centrifugal tester. The milk
for 24 hours was weighed twice a
month. The average of the two tests
was taken as the average test for the
month.

The total solids (consisting of the
fat, sugar, proteids and ash) were
found by evaporating a weighed sam-
ple of milk in a steam bath until the
weight became constant. The ash was
determined by heating in a crucible
over a gas flame until the weight be-
came constant. The proteids were de-
termined by the Kjeldahl method as
described by Hawk in his “Practical
and Physiological Chemistry,” 4th

of Heredity

edition, pages 438 and 401. The sugar
was found by subtracting the sum of
the ash, proteids, and fat from the total
solids. The percentages in each case
were found by dividing the weight of
the final product by the weight of the
sample of milk analyzed. Analyses and
records of buffalo milk are all from
cows in the college dairy.

The buffalo cows were fed a grain
ration consisting of two pounds wheat
bran and one pound rice chop. Each
cow was fed about a pound of this
mixed feed a day for each pound of
milk given daily. The rice chop was
fed cooked (the Chinese always feed
cooked rice choy. to live stock, never un-
cooked). The grain was fed sepa-
rately to each cow twice a day. About
one and one-half ounces of salt were
fed daily to the cows. ‘The salt was
mixed with the grain. About 40 pounds
of water were mixed with the rice
chop and bran at each feeding, making
a very wet feed, the cows drinking it
down rather than eating it. (This is
the usual method of feeding grain to
cattle by the Chinese.) The cows were
fed all they could consume, four times a
day, of a mixture of green cut grass,
which amounted to from 40 to 60
pounds a day per cow.

COMMON DISEASES OF CATTLE AND
BUFFALO

Rinderpest—Among cattle and buf-
falo the most common disease is rinder-
pest, called by the farmers “ngau wan.”
It is contagious. This disease causes a
loss of millions of dollars every year in
China, as it did in the Philippines be-
fore compulsory vaccination of cattle
with anti-rinderpest serum was adopted |
by the government of the Islands. The
disease is somewhat like the chronic
form of hog cholera, in that it is usually
accompanied with fever and causes
lesions on the inner lining of the in-
testines. It is not as fatal, however,
as cholera is among hogs.

Tick Fever.—Tick fever, commonly
known in the United States as Texas
fever, after the region in which it is

al ‘ee |
A DELHI MILCH WATER BUFFALO

This Indian buffalo cow has given over 30 pounds of milk per day. Thirteen pounds of buffalo
milk yield one pound of butter, whereas it requires 25 pounds of ordinary cow’s milk to yield the
same amount. In Poona, India, these milch carabaos are sold according to their milk yield, 10
rupees being added for each two pounds of increase in yield of milk. Only eight pounds of
milk of the Chinese water buffalo are necessary to produce one pound of butter fat. The Indian
buffalo produces twice as much fat per pound as do ordinary cows, and the Chinese buffalo pro-
duces over three times as much, Photograph by David Fairchild, Poona, India, Feb., 1902.
(Fig. 5.)

most common in the United States, is
prevalent in south China. Native cat-
tle are largely immune to the disease
as they are in Texas, and in India
where the disease is common. The dis-
ease is caused by a protozoan (Piro-
plasma bigeminum) carried by a cat-
tle tick (Boophilis annulatus) in a
way similar to that by which malarial
fever in man is caused by a protozoan
injected into the body of man by the
mosquito. The young ticks hatch from
eggs laid in the grass where cattle
graze. The small ticks emerge from the
egg, crawl up the legs of cows and
buffalos, and attach themselves to the
body of the animal and begin sucking
blood, remaining attached to the animal
until they have grown to full size. The
females, after having been fertilized
by the males, drop to the ground and
lay their eggs, from 1,500 to 3,000
each, which soon hatch and thus com-
plete the life cycle. Tick fever is fa-
tal to cattle imported from tick-free
regions. Fortunately, ticks do not
travel far and live only in grass; cattle
kept in barns and in dry lots are in
little danger from them.

The Journal of Heredity

Tuberculosis. — According to Dr.
Heanley of the Hongkong Bacteriolog-
ical and Vaccine Laboratory, tubercu-
losis has never been found among the
buffalo of south China; and during
13 years of inspection of animals and
carcasses in the Hongkong government
slaughter house where all animals are
slaughtered for food are inspected by
government inspectors, only two cases
in the humped cattle have come to no-
tice. Both cases were bullocks. The
disease is as common among European
cattle in southern China as it is in
America.

DAIRYING

In the past the Chinese
not been consumers of milk. Con-
tact with the Europeans in recent
years, however, has taught them the
value of this product as a food, and
now in the larger cities there is an in-
creasing demand for it. According to
old residents in Canton, there were no
cows used for dairy purposes in that
city 25 years ago. ‘Today there are
about 600 cows of European breeds
and 100 buffalo cows, kept exclusively

IN CHINA

have

TABLE I.—Analysis of Milk from Individual Cows.

(Summarized from detailed records for each cow.)

buffalo cow period by months | pounds | pounds | of fat
1 | Last 6 months only ,520 67.51 12:23

Z 8 months 1,081 | 127.56 11.80

3 Last 6 months only 635 82.23 12.95

4 11 months 1, 332 168.03 12.63

5 Last 5 months only 575 | 75.44 13.12

6 Last 6 months only 555 68.49 12.34

7 Last 5 months only 425 58.74 13.82

8 Last 6 months only 363 56.20 15.48

51 11 months 2,671 257.95 9.65

53 First 7 months only 1,766 185.60 10.51

54 First 9 months only 2,242 271.95 Wee)

55 9 months 1,852 219.65 11.86

60 | First 6 months only 1,531 171.47 11.20

63 | First 6 months only 1,639 167.01 10.19

Note.—When these records began, No. 1 had been milking for 444 months, No. 3 for 244
months, No. 5 for 5 months, No. 6 for 5 months, No. 7 for 8 months, and No. 8 for 8 months.
When these records closed, No. 53 was giving 5 pounds of milk a day, No. 54, 6 pounds, and No.

60, 8.2 pounds.

Levine: The Water Buffalo 59

for milk. All the dairies in Canton are dairies of Canton and the Chinese
managed by Chinese, and their cus- dairies of Hongkong are of mixed
tomers are practically all Chinese. In breeding. All the dairy breeds, and
Hongkong, there are several hundred the Shorthorns are represented, al-
cows kept for dairy purposes. Much though the Shorthorn blood predomi-
condensed milk is also imported and nates. Blood of the other breeds rank
used in China. in the following order: Holstein,
Guernsey, Ayrshire, and Jersey. The
Hongkong Dairy Farm Co., owned and
Most of the European cows in the managed by British, has chiefly Hol-

EUROPEAN BREEDS IN CHINESE DAIRIES

TABLE II.—Complete Analysis of Buffalo Milk.

The samples analyzed were herd samples taken from twelve cows in the College dairy
in November, 1917. The milking in the morning was begun at four, and in the afternoon at two
o'clock.

1. Morning milk........ | aio) j) aye 6.04 4.00 PO) | Tei Loy
2. Afternoon milk....... 12.80 | 90 6.10 3.57 23.37 76.63
3. Afternoon milk....... 13.00 | sift Schl 3.32 22.74 77.26
4, Afternoon milk....... 13.63 | Ni Ap aoe = Sho 23.88 | 76.12
5. Afternoon milk....... 12.10 190) I Gr d4 3.83 22.97 77.03
6. Afternoon milk....... 14.00 3920 1 6-42 3.87 DS) Hil 74.79
fae Wiorning mille. i... .. 11.50 95 5.80 3.70 21.95 78.05
8. Morning milk........ 12.00 94 6.00 | 3.60 22.54 77.45
9. Morning milk........ 12.34 soa "6.38 BTA MeN OSRSIE | TOROS
10. Morning milk........ 12.20 iN) ee) | ANOS len 2oRLO 76.80
EBIKETAR ES 5,01) < slcidiviesis ius eis 12.46 | ah) l) feck) 3.74 Pays abil 76.89

|
{

TABLE III.—Complete Analysis of European Cow's Milk. Analysis Made During January ana °
February of 1917

Bornale Per cent Percent | Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent

ara fat ash protein sugar total solids water
1 3.20 0.845 Sols 6.47 13.70 86.30
2 3.50 840 3.20 5.28 12.82 87.18
3 | 4.50 .736 3.24 | 5.18 13.68 83.32
4 4.60 .900 4.10 5.20 14.80 85.20
5 3.80 .780 3.25 5.54 13.37 86.63
6 4.44 .800 3.10 5.60 13.94 86.06
ff 3.50 .880 3.80 6.00 14.18 85.82
8 4.10 888 3.40 5.63 14.02 85.98
9 5.20 .740 3.20 5.30 14.44 85.56
10 4.00 . 800 3.05 6.10 13.95 86.05

Averages 4.08 .821 3.35 5.63 13.89 86.11

Note.—Samples 1 and 2 are of milk from the Hongkong Dairy Farm Co., in Victoria, Hong-
kong. The samples are taken from bottled milk from a herd of from 500 to 700 European cows, most
of which are Holsteins. Samples 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are from the mixed milk of the Sinkee Dairy in
Canton. In this dairy 90 to 100 foreign cows are kept, Guernsey and Shorthorn blood predomi-
nating.

Samples 8, 9, and 10, are from the mixed milk of four cows in the Canton Christian College
Dairy. These four cows are of mixed breeding, Shorthorn blood predominating.

% er
Bae cara RR ee FOS =

AN INDIAN *“*RAM’S HORN” BUFFALO BULL

The “Ram's Horn” buffalos come from the region of Delhi, India, and differ from the Chinese

buffalos.
Islands.

stein cows. This dairy has from 600 to
900 cows of dairy breeds, but no water
buffalo.

INDIAN DAIRY BUFFALOS

Hongkong, there
about 20 Indian
buffalo cows managed by Indians.
The buffalos in this herd have
been imported from the region of Delhi,
in the northern part of India. These
buffalos are different from the Chinese
buffalos, being much larger, some of
them 5 feet tall at the withers. They
have large spiral horns, and for this
reason they are known as the ‘Ram’s
Horn” buffalo in the Philippine Islands,
where they are being imported in large
numbers for dairy purposes. The
milk, according to Dr. Gibson, the co-
lonial veterinarian of Hongkong, con-
tains about the same per cent of fat
as the Chinese buffalo milk. They are
said to give up to 60 pounds of milk
a day in India when on good feed.
At the Indian dairy in Kowloon, when
visited by the writer in January, 1919,
the average production for twenty
60

At JXowloon,
issa herd) sot

They are being imported in large numbers for dairy purposes in the Philippine
In milk and butter fat production they rank with the best breeds.

(Fig. 6.)

cows, then producing milk, was about
15 pounds. The feed at that time con-
sisted of dry rice straw for roughage,
and a little cooked rice chop and wheat
bran. The cows were crowded into a
dark, poorly ventilated, and dirty barn,
and were very filthy. It is the writer’s
opinion that with proper care and feed,
the production of the cows in this herd
could easily be doubled. The cows have
a well developed mammary system with
large teats.

THE BUFFALO COW AS A DAIRY ANIMAL

number of com-
mendable features in the use of the
buffalo cow as a dairy animal. The
amount of milk in the better buffalo
cows of China (see production tables)
is not insignificant when we consider
that there has been no breeding for pro-
duction. Ordinary cows give more than
2,000 pounds of milk and 260 pounds
of fat a year. The “Ram's Horn”
buffalo from India rank with the best
breeds of modern dairy cattle in produc-
tion of both milk and butter fat. The
fact that the buffalo has practically no

There are a

WATER BUFFALOS TAKING THEIR ‘*TWICE-A-DAY”

“Buffalo cows need a bath twice a day in order to keep at their best,’’ although animals
which are kept for dairy purposes only have appeared to do equally well with less frequent
Animals used for draught purposes cannot work long in the sun without having

bathing.
This is due to the absence of sweat glands in the

their bodies frequently wet with water.
skin. (Fig. 7.)

& eS = Ses

TWO CHINESE WATER BUFFALO COWS AND THEIR CALVES

Note that, while the mature animals have very little hair on their bodies, the calves possess
a thin covering of long hair. (Fig. 8.)

sweat or oil glands in the skin makes
it an easy animal to keep clean. The
scant hair on the body affords a poor
hiding place for lice, so that they can
easily be detected and eradicated. The
absence of tuberculosis among buffalos,
and their resistance to the tick fever,
adds much to their value as dairy cows.
The breeding of the native buffalo of
China for milk production, and the im-
portation of Indian dairy buffalos
should be encouraged in every way pos-
sible, rather than the importation of
European cows to China, because of
the danger from tuberculosis in the
latter.

OBJECTIONS TO THE BUFFALO FOR
DAIRY PURPOSES
The chief reason why so few buffalo

cows are used for dairy purposes in
China is no doubt due to the fact that

The Journal of Heredity

they give but little milk, and that, while
the milk contains about three and one-
half times as much fat and nearly twice
as much total solids as does European
cow's milk, it usually sells for the same
price. However, as soon as the public
knows the value of buffalo milk it
should command a much higher price
than it does at present. Cows which
have not been especially bred for milk
production, but were simply selected
from ordinary buffalo cows, produce
as much as 10 pounds of milk a day for
several months. This fact indicates
that individual cows, giving a much
larger amount of milk, may be secured
in a few generations of selection and
breeding for dairy purposes.

Some authorities claim that buffalo
cows need a bath twice a day in order
to be kept at their best. It is the cus-
tom for animals to be driven to canals

TaBLeE IV.—Analyses of Canton Buffalo Milk and European Cow's Milk Compared.

(The per cent of fat represents the average of about 800 analyses, and the per cent of the other
constituents represents the average of 10 analyses made by the writer.)

Canton Buffalo
milk, per cent

Total solids (including | the ‘fat, ash, pro-

Water..

12
6.
3

teids and popes): Re ie hts j 23%.
ee heres 76.

| European cow's
milk in Canton,

European cow’s
milk in America,

per cent per cent!
60 3.80 3.69
03 Ds) 3.53
74 5.63 4.88
89 82 ar)
11 13.89 12.83
89 86.11 87.17

TABLE V.—Analysis of Buffalo Milk in Southern China Compared with That in Other Countries

Southern China| India? | Phitiine Italy*
per cent | per cent | per cent per cent
| ee
Pe Re etn A Ae Bib hie 7:95 |. SvRRRRRMe| 3 < ope
PROvEM aah tere eae 6.03 4.00 4.97 4.13
Sugar | 3.74 Sats 5.16 | 4.75
ASH. sacnswetwnns suk cinema moe .89 78 83 } 97
Water 76.89 82.09 82.20 82.16

1From Wing: “Milk and Its Products,”’ p. 17.
2,4 from Bailey’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Vol. iii, page 295.
3 Philippine Agriculturalist and Forester, Vol. vi, December, 1917, page 110.

Levine: The Water Buffalo 63

or ponds, places which are not always
clean, for this purpose. To overcome
this objection, tanks might be con-
structed in which clean water could be
kept for their bath, or they may be
washed by pouring clean water over
them with buckets, or with a hose
where water pressure can be secured.
However, animals kept for dairy pur-
poses only, seem to do just as well on
very infrequent bathing, or no bath-
ing at all.
FUTURE OF THE WATER BUFFALO IN
DAIRYING

In India the water buffalo is the
chief source of milk, although it is com-
peting not only with good native breeds
of the “humped” variety, but also with
all the modern breeds of European
dairy cattle.

It is the opinion of the writer that
the water buffalo must become the lead-
ing dairy animal in the southern half
of China, and an important source of
milk for the four hundred million
people of that land. Unlike the In-
dians, the Chinese in the past have not
been users of milk, but are rapidly tak-
ing up the use of this beverage through
the example set by Europeans in China.

With a few generations of intelligent
selection and breeding among the water
buffalos of China, there will be de-
veloped a dairy breed of high produc-
ing ability, especially in butter fat.
The possibility of this is shown in the
work at the Canton Christian College
by the fact that with no breeding or
selection whatever, cows from an or-
dinary village herd, whose ancestors
had never been milked, gave more than
2,000 pounds of mill containing as
much as 270 pounds of fat in less than
a year. The Indian dairy breeds will
also be imported into China

The history of both the dairy and
beef breeds of European cattle in most
parts of the Philippine Islands has been
but little more than keen disappoint-
ment and failure. The climate and
diseases of the islands are such that
European cattle quickly succumb to
diseases or degenerate from generation

to generation. The last legislature of
the Philippine Islands appropriated a
large sum of money for the improve-
ment of live-stock in the islands. Not
any of this money is being used for the
importation of breeding stock of Euro-
pean breeds of cattle. On the other
hand the sum of 200,000 pesos ($100,-
000 U. S. currency) is being used for
the importation of the Delhi dairy buf-
falo from India.

It is difficult:to prophesy as to the
future of the water buffalo in the
United States—if it is to have a future
in this country. There is no doubt that
the buffalo will thrive in most parts of
the South, as far north as the southern
part of Oklahoma. Most regions
farther north will probably prove to be
too cold. The swamps and marshes of
Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana
should be especially adapted to water
buffalo production.

The fact that buffalo is free from
tuberculosis, as well as an excellent pro-
ducer of milk and butter fat, may
result in an attempt at its introduction
in the southern part of the United
States. The development of dairy buf-
falo production in this country will help
meet the increasing shortage of milk
and butter fat supply from animals
absolutely free from tuberculosis. Also,
large areas of swampy land which can-
not be drained but which supply
abundant grasses on which the water
buffalo will no doubt thrive, will be
rendered productive. However, ex-
treme care will be necessary to prevent
introducing with the animals the
diseases which have not yet found a
footing in this country. Further care-
ful study of the water buffalo should
be made in its native land in order that
we may become more acquainted with
this class of bovine before the attempt
is made to raise buffalo in America.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Levine and Cadbury: “A Study of Milk
Produced in Kwangtung,” Canton Christian
College, Bul. No. 18, 1917.

Levine: “Notes on Farm Animals and
Animal Industries of China,” Canton Chris-
tian College Bul. No. 23, 1919, pp. 35-53,

64 The Journal
King: “Farmers of Forty Centuries.”
Pp. 145, 149, 150, 336.
Baldrey: “Indigenous Catttle in Rajpu-
tana.” Pp. 9, 15, 22, 26, 29, 75, 80.

Bailey: Cyclopedia of American Agricul-
ture, Vol. iii, p. 292.

Pease: “Breeds of Cattle Punjab.” Pp.
BV, 7}, Cd, {80
Levine: “Dairying in South China.”

Hoard’s Dairyman, July 14, 1917.
Fairchild: Philippine Agricultural Review.
Vol. iv, p. 486.

of Heredity

Fairchild: “Breeds of Milch Cattle and
Carabaos for the Philippine Islands.” Bul.
No. 27, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, 1902.

Pearson: “Notes on Dairying in Cali-
fornia, and Export of California Butter to
the Orient.” Annual Report Bureau of Ani-
mal Industry, U. S. Dept. Agri., 1899.

Mendoza: Philippine Agriculturalist and
Forester, Vol. vi, December, 1917, p. 134.

Logan: China Medical Journal, Vol. xxvi,
p. 134. :

Wing: “Milk and Its Products,” p. 17.

To Increase the Birth Rate

Changes in taxation, and an insur-
ance plan for parents, as methods of
increasing Germany’s present low birth-
rate, are discussed by Wilhelm Schall-
mayer in Die Umschau (Nos. 32 and
soy,, IEEMKO)):

He properly condemns present income
taxes that fail to make any allowance
(as is apparently the case in Germany )
or that make an inadequate allowance
(as in the United States) for the pres-
ence of children in a family. He cites
with approval the proposal of Max von
Grubin, the Munich hygienist, who pro-
poses that parents shall not be allowed
to bequeath their entire estate to their

children unless the latter number at
least four. Schallmayer and = von
Grubin believe that many well-to-do

parents restrain the size of their family
in order that they may bequeath a com-
petence to each child, and they would
give the parents an incentive to have at
least four children, If they have only
two or three, for instance, the proposed
law would allow these to inherit only
one-half or three-fourths of the estate,
to all of which they are entitled under
the present law. The undistributed
surplus would be distributed, in von
Grubin’s plan, to collateral relatives in
proportion to the size of their families ;
and in Schallmayer’s plan one-half to

the collaterals and one-half to the state
tor eugenic purposes.

Moreover, says Dr. Schallmayer, the
cost of the offspring should be borne by
the state, through the establishment
of a state parenthood insurance bureau,
to which all persons of either sex would
be admitted, premiums to be based on
income. A stipulated benefit would be
paid on the birth of each child, up to a
limited number, this proviso apparently
being to keep poor stock from prolifer-
ating unduly in order to get bonuses.

The author points out that a large
part of the excessive infant mortality is
due to carelessness, and in order to dis-
courage such carelessness he would re-
fuse to pay for a child until it has
passed its first birthday.

He declares that steps must be taken
to keep the racial contribution of each
section of the population proportionate,
in order to keep the inferiors from out-
breeding the superiors. It is unfor-
tunate that he fails to outline effective
steps to this end, since this is in many
ways the most important part of the
plan and the point where most authors
of similar plans have stopped short.

In conclusion Dr. Schallmayer
soundly says that the only real insur-
ance of a properly distributed birth-
rate is the spread of a “eugenic con-
science” in the population.

HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE
I.—PISTILLATE FLOWERED MAIZE PLANTS:

R. A. EMERSON

Professor of Plant Breeding, New York State College of Agriculture.

Corn Show held at Lincoln, Ne-

braska, in the winter of 1913-14,

there was exhibited a corn tassel
with a heavy setting of seeds, A few
seeds are not infrequently found in the
staminate inflorescence of maize, partic-
ularly in pod corn, and tillers of various
corn varieties often end in ears instead
of in tassels or have tassels, the central
spikes of which are ear like. The freak
exhibited at the corn show, however,
was a large, much branched affair,
wholly tassel-like in form except for the
fact that it bore a heavy crop of seed
like a well-filled head of broom corn
or sorghum. It retained no indication
of having had any staminate flowers. It
was apparently a wholly pistillate in-
florescence, though tassel-like in form.

This freak specimen came into pos-
session of the writer, and seeds were
planted at the Nebraska Experiment
Station in the spring of 1914. All the
resulting plants had normal tassels with
no pistillate flowers and normal ears
wholly pistillate, and were typical rep-
resentatives of a large, rather late white
dent variety commonly seen in the Mid-
dle West. The fact that no abnormal
plants appeared was not unexpected,
for the parent plant, being pistillate
flowered, must have been pollinated
throughout by other plants, presumably
normal ones, If the abnormality in
question were recessive, it would not
appear in the first generation from
crosses with normal plants.

One of the normal plants was self-
pollinated. The progeny of this plant,

|: THE “freak” class at the Annuai

grown at Ithaca, N. Y., in 1915 and
later seasons, consisted of both normal
plants and plants with pistillate
flowered tassels like the original tassel
found at the corn show. Evidently the
abnormal tassel is inherited as a reces-
sive to normal. On account of the tassel-
like form of this pistillate inflorescence
and of its position at the top of the
stalk, the abnormality is known as
“tassel seed” and is designated by the
genetic symbol ts, its dominant normal
allelomorph being Ts,

Wholly pistillate flowered plants ap-
peared also in an unrelated lot of maize
grown in 1915. The parent plant was
grown in 1914 along with others of the
variety known as Pride of the North.
All these plants were normal, were
rather small and very early, and had
red-cobbed yellow dent ears typical of
the variety. The seed was from a
bulk sample obtained from the Agron-
omy Department of the Nebraska Ex-
periment Station, the original stock
having come from Mitchell, S, D. Sev-
eral of the 1914 plants were self-polli-
nated, but only one showed abnormal-
ities in the 1915 progenies. The pro-
geny of this one plant consisted of
normal plants and plants that had wholly
pistillate flowered tassels. Evidently this
abnormality also is inherited as a reces-
sive. At first it was assumed to be
identical with the one first described,
but this is now known not to be the
case. To distinguish it from the tassel-
seed type, and because of the more
nearly ear-like form of the tassel, it is
called “tassel ear’? and designated by

1This is the second in a series of papers on the heritable characters of maize, the first
by G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton, on “Lineate Leaves,” having appeared in the January

number of the JouRNAL.

The next will be a brief discussion of “Brachytic Culms.”—Eprror.

NORMAL AND ““‘TASSEL EAR” TYPES OF MAIZE

A pistillate flowered maize plant, called ‘tassel seed’ is shown on the right. That on the left
is a normal plant frsm the same pedigree culture. The silks of tassel seed push out of the
upper sheaths at, abut the same time that tassels appear on normal plants. (Fig. 9.)

A LATER STAGE OF THE TWO TYPES SHOWN IN FIG. 9

A normal plantfon the left and a tassel-seed plant on the right. The silks of the terminal
inflorescence ofythe tassel seed had been pollinated some days before and are withered, while
the silks of the,true ears are still fresh. (Fig. 10.)

68 The Journal

the genetic symbol te, the dominant
normal allelomorph of which is Te.

DESCRIPTION OF TASSEL-SEED AND
TASSEL-EAR TYPES

The peculiarities of tassel seed and
tassel ear are best appreciated by an
examination of the illustrations accom-
paying this account. In Fig. 9 are
shown two nearly entire plants of the
same pedigree culture at the time the
terminal inflorescence is pushing out of
the upper sheaths. At this stage, ear
shoots have not appeared above the
sheaths in either the normal or the
tassel-seed plant. A latter stage in the
growth of such plants is seen in Fig. 10.
The tassels, both staminate (normal)
and pistillate (tassel seed), appear at
about the same time, before the plants
have completed their height growth
and before ear shoots have appeared
trom the sheaths. By the time the
plants have reached their full height
and when the pollen has been largely
shed from normal plants (Fig. 10), the
silks of the terminal inflorescence of
the tassel-seed plants are usually with-
ering on account of having been pol-
linated. True ear shoots have by this
time appeared in the usual position, not
only on the normal but also on the
tassel-seed plants. Since the terminal
silks of tassel-seed plants appear and
are receptive before pollen is shed from
normal plants of the same stage of de-
velopment, they are pollinated at once
from earlier maturing plants, in which
case they soon wither, or if no early
normal plants are near, the silks remain
fresh and continue to grow until pollen
is shed by the normal plants of their
own stage of growth. The terminal
silks of such plants are usually pol-
linated before the silks of the true ears
of the same plants have appeared. The
latter are ultimately pollinated, how-
ever, and soon wither, and seeds begin
to develop. Whether or not the true
ears continue to develop seems to
depend upon how fully the tassel silks
have been pollinated. When the tassels
set a full crop of seed the true ears

of Heredity

usually fail to develop far and ripen no
seed, but when, from one cause or
another, little or no seed forms in the
tassels, the true ears develop normally.

Full-grown tassel-seed plants are
nearly as tall as normal plants of the
same cultures (Fig. 10) and have about
the same number of leaves. ‘Tassel-
ear plants, on the contrary,.are much
shorter than their normal sibs. As
seen in Fig. 11, tassel-ear plants have
nearly as many leaves as normai
plants, but have considerably shorter
internodes. The terminal silks of
tassel-ear plants appear at about the
same stage of plant growth as do those
of tassel-seed plants. True ears also
appear in many cases, but much less
frequently than with tassel-seed plants.
If the tassel silks are removed at an
early stage, true ears usually develop
normally, except that they are often
tardy in appearing. On the whole,
tassel-ear plants are considerably
weaker than tassel-seed plants.

The differences between tassel seed
and tassel ear with respect to the form
of the terminal pistillate inflorescence
are well shown in Figs. 12 to 16. In
tassel seed the inflorescence is loose like
that of most tassels, the individual
spikelets being more or less separated.
The tassels of normal plants of different
strains differ much in the density of
their spikes. It is not surprising, there-
fore, to find variations in the density
of tassel-seed inflorescence in somewhat
unrelated cultures, such as the second
and later generations from crosses
with diverse sorts of normal plants.
Just such diversities are seen in Figs.
12 and 15. In some cases the tassel-
seed inflorescence is fairly dense (Fig.
15), though even here there is little re-
semblance to an ordinary ear. Some are
very loose (Fig. 12), and others in-
termediate. In rare cases (Fig 12)
staminate flowers develop with the pis-
tillate ones throughout the greater part
of the tassel. Whether or not these
staminate flowers are functional has not
been determined. The glumes and
palae of such flowers are long, narrow,

NORMAL AND ‘“‘TASSEL SEED” TYPES OF MAIZE

A‘second type of pistillate flowered maize, called ‘‘tassel ear,’ is shown on the right, with
a normal plant on the left. Tassel-ear plants are much smaller and weaker than tassel-
seed plants. They have about as many leaves as normal plants of the same families but
their internodes are shorter. (Fig. 11.)

70 The Journal
and pointed as in normal tassels, while,
in case of the pistillate flowers, these
parts are shorter, broader, and more
rounded.

The terminal inflorescence in tassel
ear, on the other hand, is always com-
pact and distinctly ear-like (Fig. 16).
The glumes and palae are short, broad,
rounded, and in all respects much like
those of true ears. This can be seen
not only in immature tassel ears (Fig.
14), but in mature ones as well, particu-
larly when poorly pollinated (Fig. 16).

The terminal inflorescences of both
tassel seed and tassel ear are very sub-
ject to attacks of smut, much more so
than normal tassels. When attempts
are made to guard these pistillate flow-
ered tassels against foreign pollen in
artificial pollination experiments, the
smut fungus develops under the paper
bags used in such work even more than
when the inflorescences are exposed.
Moreover, since the silks protrude from
the sheaths while the upper leaves are
still closely crowded together owing to
the short upper internodes at this stage
(Figs. 9 and 11), it is very difficult to
protect the silks against accidental pol-
lination. Either the upper leaves must
be removed or enclosed with the silks
in large paper bags. Again, the weight
of the tassels when the seed has begun
to develop often causes the tassels to
break off in storms. But, fortunately,
it is not necessary to make use of the
terminal inflorescence in artificial pol-
linations. If the tassels are removed
as soon as the silks appear, the true
ears develop with little delay and can
be pollinated just as in case of normal
maize. — Xt

INHERITANCE OF TASSEL SEED. AND
SS, A,
pe TASSEL EAR + m5

Mention has been made above df the
fact that these abnormalities are feces-
sive in inheritance. The original open-
pollinated tassel-seed specimen pro-
duced 28 normal plants. Several tas-
sel-seed plants occurring as segregates
in later generations were crossed with
normals, resulting in 64 normal plants.

of Heredity

Various I’, progenies were grown and
gave a total of 238 normal to 67 tassel
seed. This is a deviation of only 9.3
-+- 5.1 seeds from the 3 : 1 relation
expected when parents differ in a sin-
gle pair of factors. When F, plants of
some of these same crosses were back-
crossed with the recessive tassel seed,
there resulted 368 normals and 381 tas-
sel seed, a deviation of only 6.5 + 9.2
seeds from the expected equality. Four
self-pollinated F, normals bred true in
F,, giving a total of 128 normal plants,
while 10 other F, normals broke up
again, throwing both normal and tassel
seed in F,. Evidently, tassel seed is
differentiated from normal by the single
factor pair Ts ts. It is assumed that
the recessive tassel-seed plants would
breed true if it were possible to test
them. But, owing to the lack of stami-
nate flowers, they can neither be self-
pollinated nor crossed with other plants
of the same type.

Tassel-ear plants crossed with nor-
mals gave 24 normal plants in F, and
total F, progenies of 260 normal to 36
tassel ear. This is too great a deviation
from a 3 : 1 relation to be due to
chance. The expected numbers on a
3 : 1 basis with a total of 296 are 222
and 74, and the deviation is a 38 + 5
plants. Such a deviation could not be
expected to occur by chance even once
in some millions of trials. The possi-
bility is at once suggested that normal
and tassel ear differ by two factor
pairs, and that the F, progenies ap-
proach a 15 : 1 instead of 3 : 1 ratio.
But the numbers calculated on this ex-
pectation are 277.5 and 18.5, a devia-
tion of 17.5 + 2.8. Even such a devia-
tion as this would not occur by chance
more than once in perhaps one hundred
thousand trials. It is, of course, pos-
sible that in some crosses the parents
differ by one factor pair and in others
by two pairs. But no F, family with
large numbers approached closely either
a 3:-1 ora 15 : 1 ratio.

If two factor pairs. are concerned,

-about half of the normal F, plants,

taken at random, should bréed true nor-
mal, while, in case a single factor pair

MATURE INFLORESCENCE OF TASSEL SEED

A loose type like this sometimes has staminate flowers and even a few wholly staminate
spikelets, particularly at the end of the branches, (Fig. 12.)

CPL St) (ey, ‘3tq) “payeredas jam Apirey sjopaxids ayy

aytpieve A[peploop oie sayouriq 94} pue oxtds [erqus0 9} puv Japueys Ayjensn ore soyoueiq oy, ‘“pelamoy azeriysid
yjog “1oyje80} asojo papMord szopoxtds oy YIM ‘yoedur09 AT[OY 4souuye st 4ynq ‘sjuvtd peuriou Jo yey} exI] eporued asogy e
SI ,,J@SSB1,, AY} ‘Tee Jasse} Jo doUadSeOYUT [BUTULIE} oY} UT SI ,,JOSSP1,, 24} ‘poas Jasse} JO ddUa0SaIOBUT TEUTUIIE} oY} UT

AdAL UVA-TASSV.L AO AONAOSAMOTANI TYNINYAL ad4k.L GadS-TASSVL AO FAONAOSAMOTANT TYNIAAAL

Emerson: Pistillate Flowered Maize Plants Als

is involved, only one-third should do
so. Of 17 F, normals tested, 5 bred
true and 12 broke up. This is certainly
nearer the expectation for a single fac-
tor pair than for two pairs, but the
numbers are too small to allow a defi-
nite decision. The F, lots not breed-
ing true consisted of 745 normal and 78
tassel-seed plants. This is a deviation
from a 3 : 1 ratio of 127.8 + 84 and
from a 15: 1 ratio-of: 275" s—- 4:7.
While the observed numbers fit a 15 : 1
ratio much more closely than a 3 : 1
ratio, the fit is too poor to be due to
chance alone. Moreover, if the F, re-
lation were really 15 : 1, in F, some
3: 1 as well as 15 : 1 ratios should
have appeared, but none of these F,
ratios were smaller than 6 : 1, and only
3 of the 17 were smaller than 10 : 1.

A bit of evidence favoring the as-
sumption of two factor pairs differen-
tiating tassel ear from normal is af-
forded by back crosses of F,’s with the
recessive tassel seed. Four such back
crosses gave 121 normal and 49 tassel
ear. A 3:1 relation is expected from
such crosses if two factor pairs are
involved. The deviation from the 3 : 1
ratio is 6.5 + 3.8, not a very bad fit.
Another back cross, in which the F,
plant was not closely related to those
concerned in the back crosses noted
above, gave 53 normal and 43 tassel
ear, a deviation from equality of 5 +
3.3. On the basis of the two-factor
hypothesis, some normal plants are ex-
pected to have one of the two reces-
sive pairs. Such normals when crossed
to tassel ear should, of course, give a
3:1 ratio in F, anda 1 :1 ratio from
a back cross.

While the facts given above are fa-
vorable in part to the idea that tassel
ear is differentiated from some normal
types by two factor pairs, itself being
a double recessive, the evidence is far
from convincing. The writer is much
inclined to think that there is another
way of accounting for the deficiency of
tassel-ear plants below the 25% ex-
pected on ‘the basis of a single factor
pair. Tassel ear is at best a small, weak
type. In this respect it is not greatly

different from “dwarf,” a form de-
scribed by the writer some years ago.
Under ordinary field conditions, dwart
plants almost never appear in numbers
approaching those theoretically ex-
pected. It has been possible, however,
by germinating F, and back cross seeds
in seed pans in the greenhouse, to show
that dwarf is a simple Mendelian re-
cessive. Carefully germinated seeds
grown in large numbers have given al-
most exactly the expected percentage
of dwarfs. Dwarfs are apparently
often unable to germinate under field
conditions or die soon after germina-
tion. This is so well known that
progenies expected to contain dwarfs
are almost always started in the green-
house and later transplanted to the
field.

It is not known as yet whether tassel
ear behaves in this respect like dwarf,
but, since the plants are small and
weak, it seems probable that the de-
ficiency seen in the field may be due to
a failure of tassel-ear plants to survive.
In this connection it is important to note
that most of the records presented
above were made from progenies grown
under unusually adverse conditions.
The soil in which they were grown is
a heavy clay. Even the normal plants
of the same families showed by no
means a perfect stand. Previous in-
breeding, in case of the F,’s particat-
larly, had greatly weakened the whole
stock. A number of F, progenies,
grown from these weak F, normal
plants, were even less vigorous than the
F,’s. Out of 15 such F, lots, involving
486 plants, in only three lots did any
tassel-ear plants appear, and here they
numbered only 6 as against 80 normals.
In two F., families, coming from a cross
of tassel ear with a strong and quite
unrelated normal stock, there appeared
44 normal and 13 tassel-ear plants,
very nearly a 3 : 1 relation. Now the
field notes show that these lots were
the most vigorous of all those grown
that season. It seems likely, therefore,
that observed deficiencies of tassel ear
are to be explained just as similar de-
ficiencies of dwarf are, but this cannot

74 The Journal
be determined until seed-pan germina-
tion is tried out.

TASSEL SEED AND TASSEL EAR AS
GENETICALLY DISTINCT TYPES

It was stated early in this account
that tassel seed and tassel ear were at
first supposed to be identical, but that
they are now known to be distinct
types. The only evidence so far given
in support of this statement, however,
is the fact that the terminal inflo-
rescence of tassel seed is a loose pan-
icle, while that of tassel ear is more
compact, both the central spike and the
branches being ear-like in appearance.
It remains to be shown that these two
abnormalities are genetically distinct.

Crosses of Tassel Seed with Tassel
Ear.—If tassel seed and tassel ear were
fundamentally identical, differing only
in density of the inflorescence, vigor of
growth, and the like, somewhat as
strains of normal corn differ, crosses
between the two should give pistillate
flowered plants. Of course it is im-
possible to cross two wholly pistillate
flowered types directly, but no mere
fact of this kind need bother us long.
Conclusive evidence can be obtained
from crosses of normal plants, the one
heterozygous for tassel seed and the
other for tassel ear. Or, better still,
a plant heterozygous for one recessive
type may be crossed with the other
recessive.

If the two recessive types were the
same, the cross of two heterozygotes
should give 25% of pistillate flowered
plants in the progeny. Or, on the same
assumption, if an F, plant heterozygous
for tassel seed is crossed on to a tassel
ear and a plant heterozygous for tassel
ear is crossed on to a tassel seed, 50%
of the progeny should be pistillate flow-
ered. All these crosses have been made
and progenies grown. The cross of the
two heterozygotes yielded 69 normal
plants. A normal plant heterozygous
for tassel seed crossed on to a tassel ear
gave 40 normals, and a normal plant
heterozygous for tassel ear crossed on
to a tassel seed resulted in 33 normals.
Not a single pistillate flowered plant

of Heredity

appeared among the 142 normals. This
is regarded as conclusive evidence es-
tablishing the genetic distinctness of the
two pistillate flowered types. What the
double recessive will be like cannot be
told until another generation is grown.

Distinct Linkage Relations of Tassel
Seed and Tassel Ear.—The story of the
linkage relations of tassel seed and tas-
sel ear is only partly known, but suffi-
cient information is at hand to prove
that the two abnormalities show dis-
tinetly different linkage relations with
certain other factors of the maize plant.

A back cross involving tassel seed,
Ts ts, and a factor pair for pericarp
color, P p, gave 81 normal plants all
with red pericarp and 77 tassel-seed
plants all with colorless pericarp. The
pair Ts ts is, therefore, very closely
linked with P p or the two pairs are
identical. In a similar back cross in-
volving P p and tassel ear, Te te, there
appeared normals with red and with
colorless pericarp and tassel ears with
red and with colorless pericarp. There
were 50 plants of the parental combina-
tions and 56 of the other two combina-
tions of the two characters in question.
This is a “crossover” percentage of
52.8, or a deviation from 50 of 2.8 +
3.3. Apparently, therefore, tassel ear
is not linked with pericarp color. Cer-
tainly it does not show the same linkage
as tassel seed.

It has long been known that a re-
cessive leaf abnormality called ligule-
less Lg, lg, is linked with a dominant
plant color called sun red, in which the
factor pair B b is involved. The cross-
over percentage commonly observed is
about 30. A back cross involving B b,
Lg lg, and tassel ear, Te te, produced
96 plants with all but one of the eight
possible combinations of these three fac-
tor pairs. The crossover percentage for
B b and Lg lg was 29.2, for B b and
Te te 20.8, and for Lg lg and Te te
45.8. The crossover percentage for
liguleless tassel ear is so near 50, devia-
tion 4.2 + 3.4, that, standing alone,
it affords no satisfactory evidence of
linkage. There can be little doubt, on
the other hand, that B b and Te te’ are

‘spoos AUBUT POAOWOI BABY Sp1IG YOIYM woz ‘ou JOYYO ot} Ut
ie} pue ‘(qJay) ustwitoeds poyeurjod A d oy} ur fom Ayprepnorsed
UdaS ST SIU, ‘Siva [[eUIS OXI] AOA o1e sayourIq oY} puv oytds yeryU0 YT, (ST ‘3ty) ‘oy-ave Ayprey ore soytds oy} WOF OWOI}Xa SIY} UL UOAGT

SUVa THSSVL WYOLVIA OAL aadas TASSVL JO WHOA LOVdINOD AHA V

76 The Journal of Heredity

linked, the deviation from 50% (inde-
pendent inheritance) of 29.2 + 3.4 be-
ing of such a magnitude that it would
not be expected to occur by chance
more than once in millions of trials.
Moreover, there was in this back cross
no great deficiency of tassel ear to mask
the results, since the normals were to
the tassel ears as 53 to 43. Again, the
numbers of all the several classes were
very close to expectation on the basis
of the crossover percentages noted. Of
the 96 plants, 50 were non-crossovers,
' 44 single crossovers, and 2 double
crossovers.

Unfortunately there are no data
available at present with respect to the
possible relations of Ts ts with B b and
Lg lg. There are, however, back cross
data including no less than 3,700 plants
involving P p and Lg lg, and 2,600 in-
volving P p and B 6, all without any
indication of linkage. It follows, there-
fore, that tassel seed and tassel ear are
not only distinct genetically as well as
morphologically, but that they belong
to distinct linkage groups.

Identifying the Double Recessive,
Tassel Seed Tassel Ear—lIt is not
known what sort of plant the double
recessive, tassel seed tassel ear, will be.
There is available abundant material,
in some of which ts ts te te should ap-
pear next season. If it should prove
to be like one of the types described
in this paper. tassel ear for instance,
a9 3 :4 relation should be found to
exist between the three phenotypes.
Ordinarily, in such a case as this. it is
necessary to conduct further breeding
tests in order to distinguish the pheno-
typically alike, but genetically different
single and double recessives. But such
tests might here encounter serious diffi-
culties. The most likely procedure, in

case the double recessive is not distin-
guishable from one or other of the sin-
gle recessives, is to cross random sam-
ples of the recessive plants with both
heterozygous tassel seed and_hetero-
zygous tassel ear. This would involve
considerable difficulty unless two true
ears or one ear and the terminal in-
florescence develop on each plant, a
thing hardly to be expected in plants
so weak as tassel ear. Of course it
would doubtless be possible to make up
the two classes of heterozygotes so that
they differ from each other and from
the recessives by dominant aleurone or
endosperm characters. A single ear of
each recessive could then be pollinated
by both heterozygotes and the resulting
seed separated into two lots corre-
sponding to the two heterozygous par-
ents. But all this would require much
time and no little effort.

Fortunately, no such tests should be
necessary in the particular case under
consideration. The known linkage rela-
tions of tassel seed and tassel ear with
other characters should make the solu-
tion of the problem much less difficult.
To emphasize the aid that some knowl-
edge of linkage affords in such a prob-
lem as this is the only excuse that the
writer can plead for this attempt to
cross an apparently difficult bridge be-
fore he is sure that such exists. It
will not be difficult to introduce both P p
and B b into the cross of tassel seed and
tassel ear. Any resulting pistillate
flowered plant with colorless pericarp
is almost certain to be ts ts, and there
are about four chances in five that any
pistillate flowered plant having the fac-
tor of the pair B b present in the tassel-
ear parent of the tassel-seed tassel-ear
cross will also be fe te.

EUGENICS AND OTHER SCIENCES

Some Comments by Frederick Adams Woods on an Article in the Eugenics Review

HE Eugenics Review, which is

the official organ of the Eugenics

Education Society of London,

contains a comprehensive and

suggestive article on “The Relations of

Eugenics to the Other Sciences,’ by
Harry H. Laughlin.

In regard to genealogy the author
says: “Genealogies and biographies
have existed since civilization began.
At present the genealogist strives to
work out the family net-work, giving
the names, dates, and connections. He
is often content to stop there. The task
of eugenics is to prevail upon all of
these workers to provide a description
of the natural, physical, mental, and
temperamental qualities of each mem-
ber listed in the net-work, When this
is done, the genealogist supplies a
record of practical pedigree-value, one
which can be used in tracing the descent
and re-combination of natural qualities
within the family-tree.”

The author’s remarks on the relation
of eugenics to biography are open to
some question. “The history of man-
kind is equivalent to the biographies of
all of its human units. The different
weights that different men have sup-
plied in making history is so vast that
we often shorten the statement by say-
ing that ‘the history of the race is the
biographies of its great men.’”

This is very likely true, but the rela-
tions of great men to the ages in which
they have lived are doubtless recipro-
cals, and many writers contend that
great men are largely the products of
their times. There has been but little
done in the way of systematic and
quantitive study on this problem. What
little research there is, points towards
the view that great geniuses are born as
such, and lead the way in creating new
epochs, More investigations are much
to be desired.

The author’s following statement we
take exception to, simply because we
do not believe that it is at present prac-
tical: “The eugenicist has the task of
convincing the writer of biographies
that one of his principal duties in the
description of the life of his subject is
to resolve the factors of nature and
nurture—to evaluate the effect of speci-
fic hereditary traits in making the
human machine that turned out the
specific product which he is describing
as a life’s contribution to history.”

It is not possible for a biographer, or
historian, or indeed any writer, even if
he be equipped with the utmost scien-
tific knowledge, to resolve in any one in-
dividual “the factors of nature and
nurture” or to “evaluate the effect of
specific hereditary traits.” This can be
done only when large statistical totals
are available, and then only when
special schemes have been devised.
Any assertion that such and such a trait
was inherited from such and such an
ancestor, or that such and such a char-
acteristic was “clearly the result of
early influence,” etc., etc., is not only
pure dogmatism, but it is often pathet-
ically naive.

Some day we may know so much
about the limits of heredity and en-
vironment, in general, for all kinds of
specific traits, both mental and moral,
that we can rightly suppose that what
is true in the general is probably true in
the indwidual; but for the present it is
idle for the biographer to do more than
carefully trace the complete immediate
pedigree of his subject in all its ramifi-
cations and to record as many as pos-
sible of the facts. These facts can be
made the bases of statistical inquiries.

In regard to sociology the author
says: “There is a tendency on the part
of sociologists to ascribe practically all
of the factors of human destiny to

78 The Journal
matters of environment. On the other
extreme we cannot, of course, ascribe
everything to heredity. The great
problem now, as always, is to make a
true analysis of human reactions,
ascribing to environment its true forces,
and to hereditary qualities which react

to environment their due weight. No
headway can be made in claiming
undue weight, either by biology or

eugenics, for heredity, or by sociology
or euthenics, for environment.”

We should say that perhaps a certain
amount of headway may be gained even
if an undue weight be given to heredity
on the one hand or environment on the

of Heredity

other. But it will be only the headway
that springs from controversy. The
true and scientific headway should be
the evaluation of changed environment
when acting upon comparatively iden-
tical germ plasms, and the evaluation of
differing germ plasms when nourished
in comparatively identical environ-
ments. It should be insisted upon that
we already know, from the confirma-
tory results of a number of researches,
that, as far as important human differ-
ences are concerned, these differences
are probably the result of differences in
the chromosomes of the primary germ
cells.

THE DEATH OF RICHARD SEMON

ARTICULARS regarding the
Pp death of Richard Semon, author

of the mnemic theory of hered-

ity, are given by his intimate
friend, August Forel, in a recent issue
of La Libre Pensée Internationale.

Born in Berlin in August, 1859,
Semon studied zodlogy with Ernst
Haeckel at Jena and secured the de-
grees of Ph.D. and M.D. Then, Dr.
Forel recalls, “he made a trip to Africa,
studied at the zodlogical station in Na-
ples, became assistant to O. Hertwig,
and finally privat docent in anatomy
at Jena.

“After being made professor extra-
ordinary in 1891, he undertook, with
some aid from P. de Ritter, but mainly
at his own expense, a trip to Australia
and the Malay archipelago, to study
the most primitive mammals and the
pulmonary fishes, their manner of life,
their structure, and their development.
It is enough to say (I cite Lubarsch)
that in twenty years seventy-seven dif-
ferent savants have published six huge
volumes in folio with 343 plates and
1,810 text illustrations, in 112 differ-
ent lines of research, on the scientific
results of Semon’s voyage; one can
thus understand the enormous amount

of work he accomplished in the anti-
podes.

“He himself wrote in 1895 (second
edition in 1903) a narrative of his
journey entitled, ‘In the Australian
Bush, published by W. Engelmann,
Leipzig. This narrative is captivating
in the highest degree, as much from the
scientific point of view as from that
of human interest. In it Semon shows
all the delicacy and depth of his feel-
ings, as much as the clear, perspicacious
and assimilative genius of his investi-
gative spirit. I strongly recommend
a perusal of this book to every person
with a little education.

“In 1897 Semon left Jena and his
professorship to go to Munich. In
working over his Australian material,
he reflected on the great problems of
biology, on the problem of life. Real-
izing how idle the sophistic disputes be-
tween “‘vitalists’ and ‘mechanists’ re-
mained as long as the origin of heredity
was not clearly understood, he gave
himself up to a profound study of the
latter and of its relation to the char-
acteristics acquired during every in-
dividual life, vegetative and cerebral.

“With a flash of genius, Ewald Her-
ing had remarked, ‘Instinct is analogous

The Death of Richard Semon 79

to a memory in the species.’ But he
was laughed at, and gave up instead
of developing his idea. Taking up this
suggestion from Hering, Semon tested
the question by a study of the effect
of irritations on living matter, and the
persistence of this effect as an ‘engram,’
either directly in the cells or indirectly
through the nerves and the brain; not
only in the individual, but, passing
through the germ-plasm, in heredity.

“Thus in 1904 he came to write his
fundamental work on the ‘mneme’ as
the conserving principle of organic
life; and in 1909 followed a supplement
on ‘mnemic sensations’ in which the
terms ‘engram,’ ‘ecphory,’ “homophony,’
and the like were applied to the hered-
ity of all living beings as well as to
human mentality.

“Persons as small as they are super-
ficial, slaves of prejudices and phrases,
have been unable to see in all this any-
thing more than ‘new names for old
ideas,’ when as a fact their own lack
of ideas—that is, the routine of their
old psychology and biology—was over-
thrown from top to bottom by Semon.”

“Tn addition,’ Dr. Forel continues,
“Semon had clearly proved the inherit-
ance of acquired characters (which
amount to the ‘mutations’ of de Vries)
by his researches on the origin of the
sole of the human foot, etc. More-
over, he prepared during recent years
a book on the pathology of the mneme,
which I would rejoice to see published.
But he had suffered profoundly from
the death of his wife, which occurred
in 1918. He cherished her the more be-
cause, having no children, they worked
together. In addition, Semon, a de-
clared foe to all chauvinistic hatred
between peoples, had suffered deeply
from the war.

“On December 27, 1918, the day on
which he shot himself, he wrote me the
following letter:

“My very dear friend, it is to you
that I write my last letter. I strongly
suspect that you will blame me for vol-
untarily ending my life. I would not

have done so—I would have sought
and found in my work the needed
strength, strength which I possess, to
endure the atrocious isolation in which
I was plunged by the death of my wife,
the incomparable companion of my ex-
istence. We lived together in the loft-
iest mental intimacy. But work has
become impossible to me, for my mind,
especially its mneme, is failing more
and more. In others, that begins only
at the age of eighty; with me, twenty
years sooner. In this domain I am
marked by heredity.

“Having tasted of the fruit of the
Tree of Knowledge, and noticing in
myself the first traces of evil, I do not
wish to stain the work of my life by
a termination of inferior value. On
the other hand, I cannot exist with-
out work.

““Having no one to support, I leave
no vacancy. Forgive me, then, in un-
derstanding me.

“‘T owe you much, dear friend—
stimulation of ideas, great encourage-
ment of my efforts and of my achieve-
ments. I leave my last work, ‘Self-
consciousness and Brain,’ half finished.
But as it clearly contains, in my opin-
ion, a useful nucleus in the first six
chapters, already completed, I have ar-
ranged for its publication, at least as
a ‘torso.’ I regret that I shall no
longer be able to have your counsels on
this work.

““Adieu! May you and yours live
happily. My heart remains full of es-
teem and gratitude to you.

““Your faithful
““R, SEMON.

In the early years of its appearance,
Semon’s theory attracted much atten-
tion in the biological world. While it
gained a number of eminent adherents,
most geneticists considered it highly
mystical in nature and attached little
value to the experimental and other
evidence which its author cited in its
support. In recent years not much
has been heard of it.

399

ilq

A DISCUSSION OF POPENOE AND

JOHNSON'S

“APPLIED” EUGENICS

AND THE QUESTION OF HEREDITY VS. ENVIRONMENT

Mr. Paut POPENOE,
Washington, D. C.
DEAR SIR:

Your publishers have been kind
enough to send me a copy of ‘Applied
Eugenics,” by yourself and Professor
Johnson, and I have been reading it with
a great deal of interest and satisfaction.
I was a student of Galton many years
ago, and have since, from time to time,
read such works on eugenics as seemed
most significant. I have always given
the subject a large place in my teaching
and have regarded it as of equal prac-
tical importance with sociology proper.

Your book I think much the best
that has appeared for my purposes, and
mainly for two reasons. First, it con-
tains a much larger body of well-con-
sidered social applications, and, second,
there is evident throughout a non-
partisan spirit and a desire to come to
an understanding with students of the
social sciences. It is especially in this
latter connection that I have felt
inclined to write you.

Without doubt eugenics has as yet
made a far slighter impression upon
students of the social sciences than its
intrinsic importance entitles it to make.
Why is this? While mere ignorance
may largely account for it, I think that
with intelligent people an equally im-
portant factor has been the narrow and
particularistic spirit in which eugenics
has commonly been advocated. The
eugenists have seemed not so much to
be proposing a line of research and
practice supplementary to history, eco-
nomics, sociology, education and the
like, as striving to depreciate and prac-
tically to supplant these branches of
learning. A specialist in one of them

would take up a book or article on
eugenics and, observing that the class
of facts with which he was most familiar
were ignored or scoffed at, would
naturally conclude that the author was
some kind of a crank whose ideas could
have no serious interest for himself.

There has been ground for this im-
pression, it seems to me, even in the case
of the ablest eugenists. Take Galton,
for example. I would not call anything
that he wrote sociology, properly speak-
ing, or admit that he saw anything from
a sociological standpoint. He collected
facts of individual and family biography
to throw light on his biological theories,
but I do not think he ever shows that
conception of social organization and
development as a living whole which, I
should say, was the essential thing in
sociology, or, for that matter, in history,
economics, etc. Accordingly learned
and open-minded men, like James,
Bryce and many others, were unfavor-
ably impressed with his views and
perhaps did them less than justice.

I take it that the misunderstanding
between biological and social science is
one that can hardly be healed by an
appeal to specific facts, because it rests
rather on a difference in the presupposi-
tions, the points of view, hypotheses and
problems which control the perception
and interpretation of facts. I seldom
quarrel with the facts put forth by a
eugenist, but can very often see an
entirely different interpretation of them.

Now let me make one or two con-
structive suggestions. I think one thing
necessary is a clearer fundamental
theory of the underlying relation be-
tween the social and biological processes,
in which, perhaps, might be found a

1A nplied Eugenics,” by Paul Popenoe, former editor of THe JouRNAL or Herepity now
Gen’l Sec’y American Social Hygiene Assn., and Roswell H. Johnson, University of Pitts-
burg. Pp. 459, with illus., charts, etc. MacMillan & Co., New York, 1918.

Discussion of ‘‘Applied Eugenics” 81

basis upon which students of both might
build.

The overworking of the ‘nature vs.
nurture’’ antithesis has done incalculable
harm in giving the discussion a partisan
character. It should be supplanted,
I think, by the conception that there are
two parallel and interrelated processes,
the biological and the social, equal in
importance but quite different in charac-
ter, supplementary to each other and
not, properly speaking, in opposition
to each other at all. The chief seat of
the former is the germ-plasm; of the
latter, the stream of psychical com-
munication through which social organi-
zation and development take place.
Sociologists, _ economists, historians,
jurists, political scientists, social workers
and the like are primarily engaged with
the latter, which (let biologists note) is
a real system of organic life and not a
mere “‘environment”’ of the germ-plasm.
But as their whole process, biologically
speaking, is founded on the germ-plasm,
they must study eugenics.

In a similar sense the biological pro-
cess is based upon the social, which in
general determines the environment in
which the germ-plasm lives and, more
particularly, the conditions of selec-
tion which favor some types and sup-
press others. Eugenists, then, should
study sociology.

I think it should be recognized, also,
that human heredity is, in general, far
more plastic than that of the lower
animals. I mean, not that the princi-
ples of heredity are different, but that
the characters inherited are themselves,
for the most part, plastic—teachable
instincts instead of rigid, for example.
A recognition of this would abate many
controversies, reconciling, largely, the
sociologist’s faith in education with the
eugenist’s conviction of the impossibility
of changing inherited traits. This princi-
ple is, of course, good Darwinism, and
you recognize it on page 406, where you
say ‘‘All that man inherits is the capac-
ity to develop along a certain line under
the influence of proper stimuli . a

I may add that a book I have recently
published (‘‘Social Process,’’ Charles
Scribner’s Sons) contains four chapters

dealing with Social Factors in Biological
Survival which deal somewhat more
fully, though inadequately, with this
line of thought. If you care to review
these chapters, or the whole book, in the
JOURNAL oF HEREDITY, I have no doubt
the publishers will send you a copy for
that purpose.

Let me say again that I have read
your book with profit and that 1 find
myself agreeing with most of what you
say relating to “the eugenic aspect of
specific reforms.”’

Sincerely yours,
CuHarLes H. Coo.ey.

JOURNAL OF HEREDITY
Washington, D. C.,
PROFESSOR CHARLES H. CooLey,
Ann Arbor, Mich.

Dear PROFESSOR COOLEY:

Mr. Popenoe, has forwarded to me
your letter to him on the subject of his
book, “Applied Eugenics.” If agree-
able to him and to yourself, I should
like to publish this letter in the JouRNAL
oF Herepiry, or perhaps the greater
part of it, or perhaps you would make
this the basis of a more extended re-
view. I think it would be a fine idea
to have the heredity environment prob-
lem discussed from the sociological
standpoint.

For my part I have believed for a
number of years that the tangle can
only be unravelled by treating both
factors as a problem of differences.

This I had an inkling of, but no clear
conception of at the time I published
“Heredity in Royalty,’ 1906, for there
I sometimes say that 90% is due to
heredity. In another place I say that
all the rough differences are due to
differences in the germ-plasm, in spite
of the considerable differences in the
environment. This latter point of view
is more elaborately worked out in an
article published in the JoURNAL OF
Herepity in 1917, called “Significant
Evidence for Mental Heredity.”

I do not see that your “‘stream of
psychical communication through which
social organization and development

82 The Journal of Heredity

take place’ is anything more than a
part of what we understand as nurture,
or environment. This has varying ef-
fects on different functions, more effect
on some than on others. It undoubt-
edly has a great effect on one’s modes of
speech, and on manners. The question
is, how much on each trait or function?

All true scientists should aim, not at a
partisan discussion, but at a more
measured estimate as to what can be
done, and what cannot be done by fur-
nishing ameliorative environments.

There have not been as yet more than
about a half a dozen researches in this
direction, but they undoubtedly fore-
shadow the future as far as the study of
human heredity has a bearing on psy-
chology, sociology, and history.

I hope you may be brought to ponder
on this point and see that, by the statis-
tical method, sociologists can slowly but
certainly measure the limits of chromo-
some control.

“With pleasant remembrance of former
correspondence that we had some years
ago (I think it was on my “Laws of
Diminishing Environmental Influence,”’
believe me

Sincerely yours,
FREDERICK ADAMS Woops.

Dr. FREDERICK ADAMS Woops,
Washington, D. C.
My Dear Dr. Woops:

I shall be glad to participate in an
informal discussion of the general rela-
tion of social to hereditary process, so far
as I have anything to contribute. I
think that, in the lack of an understand-
ing upon this, discussion of detailed
questions is mostly futile.

It is true, as you say, that the stream
of psychical communication through
which social organization and develop-
ment take place is a part of what biolog-
ists understand as nurture or environ-
ment. But they should understand
also that this, though true from their
standpoint, is a wholly biological con-
ception of the matter and not at all
that of the social sciences. I mean that

it looks upon the germ-plasm and the
growth of biological individuals as the
central interest and regards social life,
so far as it regards it at all, as a surround-
ing condition, or ‘“‘environment.”

Now for the sociologist the matter is
quite turned around. For him social
process, social organization and develop-
ment, is the center of interest. This is
a distinct evolution of organic life, of
the utmost complexity and human
interest, and not only one but many
sciences are preoccupied by it. He sees
the germ-plasm and other biological
phenomena very much as the biologist
sees society, as a sort of side-issue, an
“environment” (although that word is
not used, it might be, logically enough),
a mere conditioning circumstance of the
evolution with which he is familiar.
And he has just as good ground for his
attitude as the biologist has for his.
One process is not more original and
causative than the other. The biologi-
cal controls the social in a certain sense,
in another the social controls the bio-
logical.

I feel sure that no statistical studies
from the merely heredity-environment
standpoint will convince students of the
social sciences, because such studies in-
variably, or almost invariably, involve
premises they do not accept. A classic
example is Galton’s ‘Hereditary Gen-
ius,’’ which seems to a sociologist to beg
the whole question in a paragraph or two,
in which he asserts that great and endur-
ing reputation may be treated as iden-
tical with natural genius.*

The only way I see, then, of making a
start towards a rapproachement is by
agreeing upon the parallel and coérdi-
nate nature of the two life-processes,
each party endeavoring to get the
general point of view of the other, and
then proceeding to investigate the
large class of questions in which they
are bothinvolved. But this will be very
difficult, because habits of thought are
not likely to be changed by argument.

I think, however, that the latter part
of Popenoe and Johnson’s ‘Applied

1 Enduring reputation is certainly not identical with natural genius, but the two are to some
extent correlated. To determine the approximate amount of this correlation would make

interesting subject for research.—F, A.

Eugenic Bearing of Taxation 83

Eugenics’ is much more reconcilable
with the sociological point of view than
anything else I have seen, from biolo-
gists, covering similar ground.

I am quite willing that you should
publish any part of my letters that you
think may interest your readers.

Sincerely yours,
CHARLES H. CooLey.

Nore sy F. A. Woops.—By way of
further discussion I should only like to
make three further comments.

1. I agree with Professor Cooley in
his idea that a social group may be
regarded and studied as if it were a
biological organism, but this idea does
not prevent us from measuring the
differences between individuals who
compose the group and attempting to
devise means of studying the various

reactions of the group or the individual.

2. I do not agree at all with Professor
Cooley’s statement that ‘human hered-
ity is far more plastic than that of the
lower animals,’ as I have already
shown the truth to be quite the contrary
by an analysis of the degrees of arti-
ficial modification obtainable in the or-
ganic series of plants and animals.
This is the above cited ‘‘Laws of Dim-
inishing Environmental Influence.’’

3. I fully agree with Professor Cooley
when he says that habits of thought are
not like to be changed by argument.
No, not by argument which in the past
has been too much the method of the
sociologist but by measurements and
by inductive science which has only
recently become the method of the
biologist, the psychologist and the
philosopher of history.

The Eugenic Bearing of Taxation

Assessment of an income tax by
dividing the total income of a family
among all the members, old or young,
and taxing each separately, is recom-
mended by a committee of the Eugenics
Education Society (London), headed
by the president, Leonard Darwin,
which has been submitted to Parlia-
ment.

As a conclusion to the discussion,
which is printed in the January, 1920,
Eugenics Review, Major Darwin prints
the following summary:

“Taxation should fall on parents and
on the childless in proportion to their
ability to bear the strain. To make the
incidence of the income tax just, the
amount thus now obtained from the
childless should be increased and that
from parents decreased, the transfer of
wealth thus affected should bear some
relationship to the income taxed, and
consideration should be given to the
distinction between wealth which has
been won by the individual taxed and
wealth which he has inherited. Smaller
incomes being less taxed, to allow the

family income to count as several sepa-
rate incomes would produce the desired
differential result, though, in order not
to diminish the revenue, the rate per
pound would have to be raised in all
grades. If such a reform cannot now
be fully adopted, the principles involved
should, we urge, be authoritatively
sanctioned, and when in the future taxa-
tion can be lowered, it should first be
materially lowered on parents before
any burden is taken off the childless.
The winning of a moderate income by
their own work, the saving and con-
version into capital of some of this in-
come, a saving needing care and self-
sacrifice, the preservation of this cap-
ital in succeeding generations in con-
sequence of thrift, temperance, and
perseverance—these have been different
steps in the history of the creation of
that part of the nation which would be
affected by such a reform. Where any
of these conditions exist, there the stock
must generally be sound, and the nation
demands a relatively more rapid multi-
plication of its soundest stocks.” ‘

* Popular Science Monthly, April, 1910, pp. 313-331.

84 The Journal of Heredity

Variation of the Palm Weevil

While collecting in the vicinity of
Daytona, Fla., April 5 to 9, 1919, I
made two visits to a freshly cut cab-
bage palmetto stump, the sap of which
had started to ferment, and captured
ninety-two specimens of the palm wee-
vil (Rhynchophorus cruentus Fabr.).
This large series was taken to show to
what extent the species varies both in
size and color. The males are readily
recognized, regardless of size and color,
by the noticeably thicker and roughened
beaks or rostra. The following figures
show that size and color are in no way
sexual characteristics and that those
referable to the two larger groups are
remarkably uniform in numbers, while
those that might be termed strictly
intermediate are comparatively few.
The entirely black form is known as var-
iety zimmermanni Fabr.

TABLE OF COLORS

Entirely black 38
males and 18 females.

Red present to a greater or less ex-
tent on the rostrum, thorax, elytra (wing
cases), legs and the basal and anal
segments of the abdomen, 42 specimens
(21 males and 21 females).

Thorax and elytra both slightly
marked with red, legs entirely black, 6
specimens (3 males and 3 females).

Thorax only slightly marked with red,
rostrum and tibiae reddish, 5 specimens
(2 males and 3 females).

specimens—20

Elytra only slightly marked with red,
legs black (1 female). Total, 92.

TABLE OF SIZES

Smallest specimens, males and _ fe-
males, 28 mm.

Largest specimens, males and females,
36 mm.

Not exceeding 30 mm., 14 males and
16 females; entirely black, 7 males and
7 females; marked with red, 7 males and
9 females.

Exceeding 30 mm., 32 males and 30
females; entirely black, 13 males and
11 females; marked with red, 19 males
and_19 females. Total, 92.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE

First row: 1, 2 and 3 males; 4 and 5
females.

Second row: 1, 2, 3 and 4 males; 5
females.

Third row: 1 and 2 females; 3, 4 and
5 males.

Fourth row: 1 female; 2
4 and 5 females.

This series shows practically a com-
plete gradation between an almost red
specimen (the first in the series) and
the pure black specimen at the end of
the last row.

male; 3,

CHARLES W. JOHNSON.
Boston Society of Natural History,
Boston, Massachusetts.

The Meaning of Continuous Variation in Color

It is rare to find in the animal world
an example of perfectly continuous
graduation in a color pattern, and all
within a single species inhabitating a
single locality. What is the meaning
of the remarkable series? There seems
to be a mystery here. Something for
the mutationist and protective colora-
tion experts to pay attention to. Are
these beetles, (Rhynchophorus cruen-
tus), in the process of acquiring a
camouflage or are they losing their red
color pattern and becoming all black,
like the last of the series? Perhaps the

color has nothing to do with survival
value, and merely varies through some
direct influence of the environment, to
which surface pigmentation is usually
extremely susceptible. If so, why
should they differ so much although
living in a presumably uniform enyiron-
ment ?

It does not seem that Mendel’s laws
of heredity find a practical illustration
here, since besides these 20 shown in
the plate (Fig. 17), the other 72 in Mr.
Johnson’s collection are quite as impos-
sible to place in any two categories, one

CONTINUOUS VARIATION IN A SINGLE SPECIES
These are specimens of the palm weevil. The color pattern, which is dark red, has been here
painted white. Such continuous variation in color is rarely found among insects. Its meaning
is discussed on the opposite page. (Fig. 17.)

86 The Journal

of which shall be a D and the other an
R. It would at least require the postu-
lation of so many determiners that
Mendel’s laws would fail to have a
pragmatic value. Still, the series is not
an example of unimodal variation since
the most common types are not those of
the two middle rows, with “entire

of Heredity

black” of rare occurrence. Nearly half
of all the specimens are entirely black,
38 out of 92 in Mr. Johnson’s figures.
It would seem that these beetles may be
the recult of a cross between a colored
variety, similar to the first specimen,
with a black variety as seen in the last
specimen.—F, A. W.

A Study of Country Children

That children from a good farming
district are more intelligent than chil-
dren from a poor rural district in Indi-
ana is the conclusion of S. L. Pressey
and J. B. Thomas, who present their
study in the Sept., 1919, issue of the
Journal of Applied Psychology.

“Tt is not infrequently asserted,”
they remark, “that in the country dis-
tricts a constant selective process is
going on, the poorer, less intelligent
stock being pushed back more and more
into the hill country where the land is

Measuring

Next to physical fitness, intelligence
is perhaps the most important single
factor in a soldier’s efficiency. So says
a pamphlet entitled “Army Mental
Tests,’ published in November, 1918.
Mental tests prepared by a committee
of the American Psychological Asso-
ciation and of the National Research
Council were given to recruits during
the two weeks immediately preceding
their entrance into the Army. The rat-
ings which these men earned furnished
a fairly reliable index to their ability
“to learn, to think quickly and accu-
rately, to analyze a situation, to maintain
a state of mental alertness and to com-
prehend and follow instructions. The
score is little influenced by schooling.
Some of the highest records have been
made by men who had not completed
the eighth grade.”

The tests were not, however, the full
measure of a man’s value in the mili-
tary service, nor did they prove that

poorest, while the more able, assertive
elements of the population obtain the
best land and the best opportunities.
That is, on this assumption, there
should, in an agricultural community,
be a positive correlation between land
values and intelligence.”

The assumption is definitely upheld
by the results which the writers
secured; but they also found that all
the country children whether from
prosperous or backward districts, aver-
aged below city children in intelligence.

Intelligence

men of equal mental rating were neces-
sarily of equal military worth. Such
qualities as loyalty, bravery, power to
command, and the other traits which go
to make up a good soldier, could not be
measured by this test of intelligence.
In the long run, however, those traits
are more likely to be found in men of
supeior intelligence than in men who are
intellectually inferior. That a man’s
value in the military service could not
be judged by a test of intelligence alone
has been shown by the fact that many
of the men who earned only low mental
ratings in the tests made good in actual
practice in positions of responsibility.
Nevertheless the intelligence rating was
found to be one of the most important
aids in the selection and assignment of
men to the specialized tasks of the
Army. The accompanying chart graph-
ically illustrates the occupational intel-
ligence standards based on data for ap-
proximately 36,500 men.

Raboend stat seen Peo. JGR Eee h SSeeeeeees
TAILORS... | : SS a _

PES seee=

OBBUEN reas eerie kee

Cee AREAS Fj eee al a | Tt ez I+

TRARISIEROS ee

MINE DRILL RUNNERS. - __ _ _ | A

FARTICHDoeeceener =e eee \ [raat
|

CONCRETE WORKERS._ _ _ - —
HORSE HOSTLERS: S= 2 = —=
BARBERS en ares
GEN.BOILER MAWERS_— _ _

HORSE SHOERS __ _ _- ~ -
RAF. SHOP MECHANICS
CATERER a2 = =
BRICH LAYERS — —

Ghake = = | Bee |_| |
TUNDRYMEN|S = 2 eS iat Tie DSSS oS ne
STAT.GAS ENGINE MEN__ _ - _- TV | eal

5 T

|
eeeeeniaal

BRIDGE CARPENTERS. --_-__ - jet ct} SH
Heavy Truck ORWVERS.-_____ _- RRS ee

PATHE HANDo2 2 2222. ji
GEN. MACHINIST. --. ----_ 1 aia
|

R.R. CONDUCTORS. _ ae
GEN. PIPE FITTER S-
MOTOR CreLisTo_ _
PLUMBERS

AuTo CHAVFFEURS_
GEN./VECHANICS. _
Gen. Avro REPAIRMEN
Tool. Room ExPERTS_ _
DETectives & POLICEMEN =e
AuTo ENGINE MECHANICS. — —— — -
Auto AsseEMBLERS-— —--- - -
Srock CHECKERS... ___.|
SHIP GARPENTENS-------~- -- —
FARRIER X VETERINARIANS— -- — -
ROCK MASTERS === oe = oe
TeLePHone Orefarogs.--_ _ _ _ _
ConcheTe Constaucrion FogeMen— —— -—
FRECEWER X SuipPER- - -~---------
Sroch MEEPER__ __
PHOTOGRAPHER. — ——-
GEN. Evecrmicions_____ ___ _ _
Bano MusiciANS.- ---- ~~ _-_
TELEGRAPHERS.--~ --- TE
RICE RKSS st te eek 7 at
FILING GLERKS___ ___-

GEN. CLERKS.—— ---_- -- Pee
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS__ —
Army NuRSES.---_____ _
SDORHEERANS. saa eae eee et
Denrat Orricens___-__-.-_- --|_ | |
Mecuanicar Orarrsmen_—— —-----_
STENOGRAPHENS & TYPISTS. -— ——____
ACCOUNT AN ISS= seen ee ee |e aa
Civic Enaingens__ — ----~------
YIMLGASECRETARIES.. _-----__ Ba
Mepicat Orricers. ~--~- -------
Any CHAPLAINS. - ---- -----~_
ENGINEER OFFICERS... -—-

Usuauiy gooo privares | Cegram amount or } Lance anount or J Menor cormissioneo | Matnee unrenctce
AND SATISFACTORY 1N FAIR NOM-COMMISSJONED | HON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER | OFFICER TYPE AND A LARGE pestle

WORK OF ROUTINE OFFICER MATERIAL. | MATERIAL WITH OCCASION-J AMOUNT OF (on-ConYNKS= J WITH nL
MATURE. ALLY AMAN FIT FOR | SIONED OFFICER ;
COMMISSIONED RAN. | MATERIAL.

MENTAL RATINGS OF 36,500 MEN CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO
OCCUPATIONS

Mental tests were conducted by the Army to aid in the selection, classification and assign-
ment of men to particular tasks requiring rapid adjustment. The tests of course could not tell
infallibly what kind of soldier a man would make, but they were very useful in indicating
his probable value to the service. (Fig. 18.)

THE DEVELOPMENT
OF USEFUL CITIZENSHIP

It Is Not Enough to Maintain the Standard of the Human Race at Its
Present Level—Public Opinion Now Recognizes Need of Producing
Better Racial Stocks

Hitpa H. Noyes, M.D., Kenwood, N. Y.

lasting improvement in the quality

of a given population, it is necessary

to recognize not only the need for
cutting off the defective lines of descent,
but the positive side of the problem:
that of increasing the production of the
more worthy strains.

There should be a judicious and nec-
essary diminution of births among those
who have the least physically, mentally,
morally and economically with which
to endow their children. Restrictions
should be placed more stringently on
those furthest removed from useful
citizenship, so that the proportion of
the unfit would tend to decrease in each
succeeding generation.

The need for cutting off the defective
lines is coming to be understood and
appreciated. Some practical steps to
accomplish the desired result are being
taken, which show the trend of public
opinion and will lead to further accom-
plishment in the same direction.

But the cutting off of defective lines
alone will only serve to maintain the
standard at its present level. Conklin
states in his “Heredity and Environ-
ment,” p. 425, “If only the very worst
are eliminated in each generation, the
standard of a race is merely main-
tained.” In order to raise the standard
it is necessary to greatly increase the
birth and survival rates among those
above mediocrity who are the useful
citizens of today.

The factors which have acted both
directly and indirectly to reduce the pro-
ductivity of our most gifted and pros-
perous members of society, should be in-

I order to bring about any real and

vestigated that measures may be di-
rected toward removing the cause.

Some practical influences may be
brought to bear, under present social
conditions, which will help to bring
about a differential fecundity in favor
of the better stocks.

Let us consider first, relief of the
over-burdened mother with a further
development of the creche or day
nursery, and a possible extension sery-
ice into the homes. The responsibilities
of the mother might be sufficiently re-
lieved so that no greater effort would
be required for the care and up-bring-
ing of three children than she now ex-
pends on two. (See Note A.)

In order to convince the well-to-do
of their responsibility for the future
development of the race, a great edu-
cational compaign should be inaugu-
rated. Recognition and the bestowal of
honor upon the parents of superior
children might tend to augment the
birth rate in this group.

HOPE IN THE GREAT MIDDLE CLASS

However, it is neither extreme of the
economic ladder which is the hope of
the future, but that great mass of use-
ful citizens between these extremes.
Rational methods of increasing the fer-
tility of the more worthy strains in the
different income groups of this great
ntiddle class should be considered.

As the economic aspect has the wid-
est bearing, some form of prize or bonus
for the greatest number or the best
conditioned children has been among
the first measures advocated, but the
amount has usually been entirely in-

Noyes: Development

adequate and the method has been open
to the objections raised against all
forms of bribery.

Dr. Saleeby, in his, “Method of Race
Regeneration,” mentions three precau-
tions to be observed in giving financial
aid to parents;

“First, the help is not to be a bribe.

“Second, it is to be specific, definitely
reaching the point toward which it is
aimed, and

“Third, it is to be steady and con-
tinuous like the child’s needs.”

It might be possible to form a Par-
ents’ Mutual Protective League in such
a manner as to comply with all three of
Dr. Saleeby’s requirements, with a
fourth stipulation added—that the ap-
plicants be required to measure up to
a certain standard as regards heredity
as well as physical, mental and moral
development.

If 92 children are born annually per
thousand women between 15-45 years,
as was the case in 1913 for New York
City, we may say roughly that one wo-
man in ten between 15-45 years has a
child each year.

Let us suppose that the entire ten
families should be willing to pay a
small sum annually to form a protective
fund so that the annual payment of all
ten families would go as a benefit to
the one family that was productive that
year, to cover the unusual expenses at
child-birth and during confinement, as
well as smaller sums at stated intervals
afterward.

The increased expenses would thus
be carried by a group instead of being
met wholly by the productive parents
concerned.

The benefit payment could not be
considered a bribe, or in the light of
charity, because the beneficiary would
also be one of the contributors.

EXTENSION SERVICE IN THE HOME

It would be specific, reaching the
point toward which it was aimed, if
administered carefully by the agent of
the proposed society, especially if in
connection with prenatal work and the
follow-up visits of a nurse.

of Useful Citizenship 89

It would be reasonable to expect a
reduction in the number of still births
and in the loss of life in early infancy
from accidents and complications which
may thus be avoided. Also maternal
mortality should be influenced for the
better.

The benefit could be steady and con-
tinuous or just to cover the lying-in
period as arranged for and desired.

Compliance with the fourth stipula-
tion would give the plan eugenic value
as it would open the way to increase the
birth and survival rates among those
now shaping the thought and controlling
the affairs of the nation. It is well
known that our captains of industry,
statesmen, soldiers, writers, scientific
and professional classes are not per-
petuating their strains in sufficient num-
bers to keep their stocks intact.

A recent number of the JoURNAL OF
HEREDITY reported an investigation of
the California Society of Mayflower
Descendants showing the utterly inad-
equate fecundity among its members.

The somewhat spectacular statement
was made that if the present rate of less
than two children per family should
continue for another three hundred
years, it would be possible to put all
of the descendants of that rare stock
into a boat no larger than the May-
flower without overcrowding. If this
reproductive rate can be taken as a
criterion of the superior stocks through-
out the country, it is none too soon
to sound the clarion note to awaken a
widespread interest and consideration
of what practical steps may be taken
along constructive lines to prevent
racial decay.

In order to keep a stock from act-
ual decline in numbers, Robert C.
Sprague has shown that there must be
an average of 3 7/10 children per fertile
family to assure the raising of at least
three children to marriageable age.

EFFECT OF INCOME ON FAMILY LIFE

The relation between the amount of
income and the number of children in
a family is definitely known. It is cer-
tain that an inverse ratio exists in most

90 The Journal

sections of our country today; in a gen-
eral way statistics show the larger fam-
ilies to be associated with the smaller in-
come groups and vice versa.

It is shown by the 1918 report of the
Federal Children’s Bureau that the
death rate of infants under one year is
very closely correlated with the earnings
of the father. Where the father re-
ceives less than $550 yearly, one baby
in six does not reach its first birthday,
while only one in sixteen dies before
reaching one year where the father
earns as much as $1,250. The economic
status of the family has a very impor-
tant bearing upon the number of chil-
dren surviving in any one group.

The average amount that the family
“budget” is increased by the advent and
support of each additional child in the
income groups between $800 and $2,000
has been determined by the valuable
research of Wm. F. Ogburn of the Bu-
reau of Labor Statistics. The equations
which he has formulated should prove
very helpful in determining the average
expenditure for different commodities
for families of varying sizes within the
stipulated incomes. (See Note B.) Fur-
ther research may be required to deter-
mine similar averages for the higher
income groups.

It seems reasonable to suppose that
the expenses after the lying-in period
for the first child, would not quite re-
turn to the amount expended to support
the parents alone; and so, with the sec-
ond, third and subsequent children, the
total amount spent should be greater
than when the family was one less in
number, if the established standard of
living is to be maintained.

The dues to form the protective fund
would have a certain definite relation
to the economic status of the family ; the
income group receiving from ,$500 to
$1,000 yearly would have a low annual
fee to pay; the next group receiving
from $1,000 to $1,500 would contribute
a slightly larger amount and so on. Or
groups may be formed by bodies of
people with like interests, such as teach-
ers, college professors, various clubs and
societies organized for other purposes,

of Heredity

as well as young professional and busi-
ness men who might adapt this plan to
meet their needs and thus enable them
to enjoy a protected parenthood among
their most worthy members.

It would be possible to develop the
plan on broader, more comprehensive

‘lines, if eligibility for membership could

be in several classes—associate, active,
and supporting.

Associate members would pay an _
annual fee of $2 and would receive bull-
etins and other printed matter that was
issued.

Active members would pay an annual
fee proportionate to income, and would
be the only class of members to partici-
pate in the benefit.

Conceivably, many who are econom-
ically independent and deeply interested
in the advancement of the race, might
become supporting members contribut-
ing $1,000 or more. These could be
known as “Founders ;” contributors of
$500 could be “Patrons,” and those pay-
ing $100 “Benefactors,” etc.

If the income from the above sources
permitted, a Foundation for the Pro-
motion of Rational Parenthood could
be developed with departments for Re-
search, Education of Public Opinion,
and a magazine devoted to such sub-
jects as Eugenics, Child Welfare, Pub-
lic Health, Sex Education, Voluntary
arenthood etc., all tending directly or
indirectly to advance the cause of race
betterment.

What more fitting memorial to Roose-
velt could be erected as a tribute to his
ideals, than an institution of this sort?

In order to safeguard earners against
the disquietude caused by a rise in the
cost of living, such as that through
which we have just been passing, it is
advisable to adopt measures, by means
of which adjustment of wages to the
cost of living is more or less automatic.
(See Note C.)

WAR’S DRAIN ON WORTILY STOCKS

’

The recent war, with the inevitable
loss of many choice strains of young
manhood, has shown the necessity of
constructive effort to increase the fertil-

Noyes: Development

ity among the remaining worthy strains.

It may and should do much to arouse
public opinion to support measures di-
rected toward the building of a sounder,
saner, more enlightened race.

Note A

A great step toward the solution of the
problems of the care and training of chil-
dren under school age would be taken, if
there could be a development of the creche
or day nursery as a department in our public
school system, in such a way that young chil-
dren could be cared for for an hour or for
the day.

A training school for trained mothers’ as-
sistants could be developed in connection
with the creche, with a force of doctors,
nurses, kindergartners and child psychologists
to instruct in the care and feeding of infants
as well as their physical and mental develop-
ment, by games, exercises, stories etc. The
trained mothers’ assistant would not be a
governess, trained nurse, or kindergartner,
but would partake a little of all three, so as
to be thoroughly competent to care for
healthy children under school age.

It would be an advantage if the course of
study could be standardized by the Board of
Regents and a diploma awarded. Thus a new
and dignified profession for women would be
developed.

If this course should be given in an inter-
mediate year between grammar and high
school, every girl leaving school would have
a legitimate means of earning a livelihood,
and the plan would have a far-reaching effect,
not only in better care of the babies of this
and the next generations, but it might aid
in the solution of social problems as well.

No te B

See, “Financial Cost of Rearing a Child”
by Wm. F. Ogburn, Bureau of Labor
Statistics in the “Report of the Children’s

of Useful Citizenship 91

Bureau Conferences May and June 1919.”
Bureau Publication No. 60, p. 26.

Note C

One firm in Central New York has insti-
tuted what is called the High Cost of Living
Wage Plan after considerable study and
investigation. They put the following plan
into effect in January 1917 after a liberal
raise in wages had already taken place.

They selected Bradstreet’s Index Number
as a basis for calculations, as that figure
formed as it is from the average of 100
commodity values, such as a ton of coal and
a bushel of potatoes, corresponds closely to
the actual changes in living expenses and
does not make sudden, large fluctuations.
The increase during the previous year was
determined, and a 1 to 20 ratio adopted so
that the percentage for the H. C. L. wage
would increase or decrease 1% for each
20-point change in the Bradstreet number,
or 44% for each 5-point change; the changes
being made monthly and the Index Number
for the preceding month being used through-
out the month following. The extra wages
were given in a separate envelope known as
the High Cost of Living Envelope, the
regular wages being given as usual in an-
other.

The percentage of extra wages received
was 16% in Jan. 1917. From this point it
gradually, but steadily rose until it reached
43% in August, 1918, which was the highest
point for 1918. The fluctuations during 1919
have been from 3334% in April to 48%4% in
December.

The index number being determined by a
firm entirely outside of the company is a
factor to be considered from its psychologic
bearing, as the company itself cannot be
held responsible for the fluctuations.

Although this plan, in its entirety, may
not be adapted to all forms of business, still,
it may be of interest to note that in practice
it fully equalled anticipation, and its justice
is unquestioned.

INHERITANCE, by Whitfield G. Howell.
Pp. 190. Boston: The Roxburgh
Publishing Co., Inc., 1919.

It is difficult to say anything for Mr.
Howell except that most damaging oi

all compliments, that “he meant well.”
He has written a novel to convey to
the public the supposed truths of
heredity. But almost everything he
tells about heredity is incorrect. ‘The
book has, moreover, little literary merit.

A MUTATING BLACKBERRY-
DEWBERRY HYBRID

L. R. DetyENn
N.C. Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh.

UTATIONS among the black-
M berries and dewberries, with the

exception of chimeras, have

been seldom reported. Rubus
laciniatus Willd. is considered a cut-
leaved form of the European black-
berry, R. fructicosus L. Whether it
originated from a seed or from a mutat-
ing vegetative bud seems to have never
been recorded, A cut-leaved variety of
dewberry of distinctly trailing habits
has also found its way to the market
and is grown mostly for ornamental
purposes, but, like Rubus laciniatus,
the origin of this dewberry is obscure
and only a matter for speculation.

It was the writer’s good fortune to
discover in the summer of 1915 a
similarly cut-leaved plant arising as a
bud mutation from what appears to be
a wild, natural, blackberry-dewberry
hybrid. As this hybrid form is very
common in the vicinity of Raleigh,
N. C., no especial emphasis need be
laid on the probable parental species.
The plant was found growing on a high
embankment on the railroad right-of-
way of the spur that enters the State
Fair Grounds at West Raleigh, N. C.

The plant when discovered possessed
two canes, one normal, 7. e,. with entire
leaflets, and one abnormal, 7. ¢., with
finely divided leaflets (see Figs. 19 and
20). As the plant possessed all indica-
tions of possible propagation by means
of tip-layers, this method was at once
resorted to and two new plants were
thus secured,

In the late fall of 1915 the mutating
crown was taken up and planted in the
station experimental vineyard. The
two new plants that were secured by
means of tip-layering were planted in
the horticultural grounds among five

varieties of blackberries and three THE CUT-LEAVED MUTATION
varieties of dewberries. All of 2 the A one-year old cane showing the finely
plants grew and reproduced the divided divided leaflets. (Fig. 19.)

A CANE FROM THE ORIGINAL PLANT

This shows well the arched cane. Note also the self-rooted tip-layer and the undivided leaf-
lets. This plant produced the cut-leaved form by means of a mutating vegetative bud. Greatly
reduced. (Fig. 20.)

INTERMEDIATE ATAVISTIC TYPE EXTREME ATAVISTIC TYPE

This constitutes the first visible atavistic The leaflets on this cane are undivided like
step of the cut-leaved form. (Fig. 21.) those on the original wild forms. (Fig. 22.)

94 The Journal
leaflets. The two tip-layered plants
in succeeding years continued to repro-
duce themselves naturally by means oi
suckers and tip-layers, and these also
produced the divided leaflets of the
original mutation.

In the fall of 1919, two atavistic
mutations were observed growing
among the progeny of these plants. By
careful study and root tracing, these
atavistic forms were found associated
only with those plants that had orig-
inated as suckers from the roots of one
of the original tip-layered plants, One
of these atavistic mutations affects the
four lower leaflets only, these being
entire, while the upper leaflet is more
or less divided (see Fig. 21). This
form might be termed an intermediate
type. The other mutation consists of a
complete reversion of all the leaflets to
the original undivided form. This is
the extreme type (se Fig. 22). All of
the leaflets on these later atavistic

of Heredity

plants are uniform, and none exhibit
the tendency toward segmentation.

From a horticultural viewpoint, these
mutations are extremely interesting,
and the finely divided leaf forms may
even be termed ornamental. The canes
normally grow arched, ascending about
Z to 3 feet high with short, leafy
flower clusters. The foliage on the
young canes appears by far the more
ornamental because of the beautifully
five-pointed and much divided leaflets.
On the fruiting canes the leaves are less
divided and less graceful, and therefore
such canes ought to be removed soon
after the flowering season, Fruit on
these mutating plants, especially the
cut-leaved forms, is very seldom pro-
duced, notwithstanding the abundance
of pollen that is borne by the nine dif-
ferent varieties of Rubus that grow in
close proximity—in fact within the
same row.

HerepDITy AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF MeN, by Edwin
Grant Conklin, professor of biology
in Princeton University. Princeton
University Press, 1919. Third re-
vised edition, Pp. 361, with 101
illus,

When Dr. Conklin’s book first ap-
peared in 1914 it met with a warm wel-
come, but much progress has been made
since then in the study of eugenics, and
an examination of this latest revision
shows that the book has hardly been
brought up to date. The principal
changes have been made in the chapter
on “The Cellular Basis of Heredity and
Development,’ and Dr. Conklin’s
authority in this field makes what he
has to say on the subject welcome.
But the sections devoted to eugenics are
inadequate at present, and any serious
discussion of the application of eugenics
is almost lacking. The book is still dis-
figured by a number of old illustrations

that ought not to be allowed to circulate
in the present age of photography,
though their offense is more esthetic
than scientific.

The inadequacy of Dr, Conklin’s
treatment of his subject is more or less
inevitable, since he writes wholly as a
biologist, and the study of heredity and
environment of men from a purely
biological point of view is fraught with
great difficulties. A book on the sub-
ject, to have much practical value, must
be written largely from the biometric
and sociological points of view. The
author has perhaps made as much as
possible out of the material available,
but it will be a long while before the
purely biological data available on man
are sufficient to satisfy an inquisitive
reader. Even of the material available,
a more rigid selection should have been
used, as in the enumeration of charac-
ters in man that are supposed to be
inherited in Mendelian fashion—P. P.

AN AWARD OF HONOR
TO WALTER VAN FLEET

For His Contributions to the Advancement of Horticulture, Especially Roses,
He Is Given the George Robert White Medal of Honor

HE presentation of certificates,
diplomas and medals by societies
as well as by national and inter-
national expositions has been a
recognized practice for many genera-
tions. Usually such trophies are given
in lieu of a money premium in recog-
nition of the excellence or the magni-
tude of an exhibit,

As early as 1871 the American
Pomological Society decided to secure
a die for a medal to be awarded as its
premium in lieu of cash, and_ this
medal has since been awarded to indi-
viduals, firms and societies for speci-
mens or collections of fruit exhibited.
Such awards tend to stimulate compe-
tition among growers for the coveted
prize, the excellence of the exhibit be-
ing gauged by the character of the

metal used (silver or bronze) in strix-
ing the medal.

>It remained for Mr. Georee Robert
White of Boston to make it possible
for the Massachusetts

Horticultural

THE GEORGE ROBERT WHITE MEDAL OF HONOR

Society, through his gift to it in 1909
of $7,500, to award to the man or
woman, commercial firm or inst:tution
in the United States or in some other
country, doing the most im recent years
to advance the interests of horticulture
in its broadest sense, the medal known
as the “George Robert White Medal
of Honor.” Every year since its foun-
dation it has been given to workers in
the field of horticulture, not because
they exhibited a plate of frnit cr as-
sembled a large and noteworthy collec-
tion of varieties, but rather for the
contribution which they as individuals
have made to the horticultural world.

So far, two well-defined motives
have apparently dominated the ideas
of the judges charged with awarding
the George Robert. White Meal of
Honor. One evident motive is to en-
courage and adequately honor produc-
tive horticultural exploration; the
other is to encourage the production
of new plant forms, particularly orna-

a5 MA SAC HUSE
SE

WALTER VAN
~ FLEET-MCMAY

\ SFQke LMUINENT
- SERVIC i
“=. HORT NCOLTUR

(FIG. 23)

96 The Journal

mentals, by means of hybridization.
No less than five of the ten medals so
far awarded have been given in recog-
nition of achievement in the produc-
tion of new plant products.

The award of the medal in 1919 was
made to Dr. Walter Van Fleet of the
United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C., “for advance
in the hybridization of garden plants,
especially of the rose.’ The name
“Van Fleet” is synonymous with meri-
torious climbing roses of American
origin. In the work of producing
roses, Dr. Van Fleet has not been sat-
isfied with a plant that produced a
flower of the quality, size and color
desired; the production was not com-
plete or satisfactory from his point of
view unless the plant possessed a high
degree of vigor, hardiness, resistance
to disease and abundant bloom. Jn
Silver Moon, Dr. W. Van Fleet, Ameri-
can Pillar, Magnafrano, Rugosa Mag-
nifica, Birdie Blye and Bess Lovett
these characteristics are strikingly mani-
fested.

But the crowning achievement . in
the production of roses is yet to be
introduced to the American public.
This we believe will be accredited to
Dr. Van Fleet when his new Multiflora
Rugosa is given to rose lovers who
find themselves situated in territory
where native wild roses once carpeted

of Heredity

the earth with a glory of bloom almost
beyond comprehension in its. beauty
and abundance, but where the horticul-
tural varieties of Europe and the
eastern United States languish and die.
In the great inland empire of the
United States, frequently designated
the “Great Plains,” these new children
of the hardy north European rugose
promise to live, flourish and once more
restore to the prairie the blush of the
rose which it wore as a crown of glory
each spring before the advent of the
plow. These new forms are notable
not only for their flowers but because
they are, when not in bloom, shrubs of
attractive form and foliage.

No contribution of new plant forms
to ornamental horticulture has added
more than these new creations promise.
They are ornamental shrubs with pleas-
ing habit, abundant, glossy, attractive
foliage of the rugosa type, and a wealth
of bloom followed by large ornamental
heps. The production of these rose
shrubs is the tangible expression of a
cherished horticultural ideal, and dem-
onstrates dominance of mind over
matter.

The awarding of the George Robert
White Medal of Honor to Dr. Van
Fleet is the placing of an honor well
deserved. May he live to achieve a
more complete fulfillment of his ideals!

The Birth Rate in Mixed Marriages

An increased birth rate in marriages
between Jews and Lutheran Germans
in Hamburg is described by R. E. May
(Ztschft. f, Sexualwissenschaft, April,
1919). Taking several hundred mar-
riages of each class, contracted in Ham-
burg in 1900, he found the following
results in the birth records of 1901 and
1902: Both partners Jewish, 9.0 births
per 100 marriages; both partners Lu-
therans, 11.7; husband Jewish, 14.0;
wife Jewish, 19.6.

It is of course questionable whether
the numbers involved are large enough
to have any real significance in relation
to fecundity. Professor May thinks
they are and that the explanation is
economic, rather than biological, the
mixed marriages in his opinion repre-
senting cases where money was an im-
portant factor, and these households
therefore being better able to afford
children.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. XI, No. 3 March, 1920

CONTENTS

A Disorder of Cotton Plants in-China: Club-leaf or Cyrtosis, by

ORE Cookie. cote cer eiotas fos 2 > Ree Rae sec mates tees 99
Enigenies/in Gemmaanys 14.1. 2 60:2) aes: + caps bes nosis eee ss are es 110
Rock?s iast Work—a> reviews .s2 = <<. Sarton sie tcc = ai clergy = sie] 8 sve 110
Heritable Characters of Maize—III Brachytic Culms, by J. H.

LISCOSTII OT) he ae os epoca We aA MR” 7 ceo ery eis RARE Ser y Oem BE 111
Mendelism—a reviews. 5.28.0 52 &-, «~ Ween onesie ote eetedel ss pee are 115
Swine, Sheep and Goats in the Orient, by C. O. Levine............ 117
Inbreeding and Outbreeding—a review by Paul Popenoe............ 125
PUI SEMICS iN SCAMOMIAVIA ys ole. 2, ps) 5 SAR, eee hs, crear oi ene ioe 128
Natural Wheat-Rye Hybrids of 1918, by Clyde E. Leighty........... 129
World Power and Evolution—a review by Paul Popenoe............ 137

The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Associa-
tion (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its
members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year,
in addition to their regular membership dues of $2.00, because of additional postage
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub-
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single
copies, 25 cents.

|
The Physical Basis of Heredity—a review.....................0..... 144
Date of issue of this number, May 6, 1920.

COTTON DISE

ASE IN CHINA

A branch of a Chinese cotton plant affected by the club-leaf (cyrtosis) disorder.
In the lower part the internodes are of normal length and the leaves of normal
size and shape, but change abruptly in the upper part to the short internodes and
distorted leaves that characterize the disorder. Photograph natural size. (No,
81.) Nanking, China, Oct. 25, 1919. (Frontispiece.)

A DISORDER OF COTTON PLANTS
IN CHINA: CLUB-LEAF OR CYRTOSIS

A Serious Limiting Factor of Production Not Hitherto Recognized,
Resulting in Abnormal growth and Sterility
O. F. Coox
Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture

HY China does not produce
\ \ / more cotton is a question to be
answered largely in terms of
disease and insect injury. The
total production undoubtedly could be
increased greatly, and the quality im-
proved, if selection and other precau-
tions were applied, but the pests and
diseases are not to be disregarded. In
addition to direct damage by the pink
boll-worm and other insects, there is a
peculiar abnormality or disordered be-
havior of the plants, which undoubtedly
is one of the principal limiting factors
of cotton production in the central
regions of the Yangtze Valley. Though
not showing definitely diseased spots or
other localized injuries that bacteria,
fungi or insect parasites usually inflict,
the plants are crippled, the leaves re-
duced in size, discolored and distorted,
the petioles and internodes shortened,
and the branching habits changed.
Badly affected plants become somewhat
club-shaped, with a dense “witches’-
broom” growth of dwarf branches and
small crumpled leaves at the top, which
has suggested “‘club-leaf” as a name for
the disorder.

OTHER NON-PARASITIC DISORDERS

The word disorder has been applied
to other forms of abnormal behavior of
cotton plants in the United States, such
as the leaf-cut or tomosis, which also
occurs in China and often is associated
with severe cases of club-leaf. The
effect of tomosis is to kill irregular
areas of leaf-tissue, giving a ragged

*A leaf-curl disease of cotton in East Africa has been ascribed to “cicaden.”
1911, Beitraege zur Kenntnis der Kraeusel-Krankheit der Baumwolle, Der
For descriptions of leaf-cut and leaf-curl see Circular 120, Bureau of

Kraenzlin, G.,
Pflanzer, 7 :327.

appearance that may be mistaken for
insect injury. The damage begins with
dead oil-glands and spreads to the neigh-
boring cells, sometimes destroying large
portions of young leaves, which may
regenerate partly to form even rounded
margins, but in very abnormal shapes
(see Fig. 4).

Club-leaf shows a closer analogy, as
well as more resemblance to the leaf-
curl disorder caused by plant-lice. With
both disorders the leaves are distorted,
but in leaf-curl the base of the leaf
is deeply crumpled, while in club-leaf
the margins and lobes are more af-
fected, rather than the base of the
leaf. (Compare Fig. 3 with Fig. 4.)
Leaf-curl affects the seedlings, is most
prevalent in the spring months, and
usually causes only slight and tempo-
rary injury, whereas the Chinese dis-
order does not come in the spring but
is most injurious during hot weather,
at the height of the fruiting season.

Though such disorders may not be
directly transmitted they need to be
studied from the standpoint of heredity.
The different kinds of cotton show
various reactions and degrees of sus-
ceptibility or immunity, which are con-
stitutional in the plants, and undoubt-
edly are inherited. The cause of club-
leaf was not determined, but leaf-hop-
pers were extremely abundant on cot-
ton, soy beans, egg-plants and other
crops that are planted together in
China, and may be suspected of causing
or transmitting the disorder.’

See

Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, issued April 5, 1913.

EXTREME FORM OF THE CLUB-LEAF DISORDER

Branch of a Chinese cotton plant showing very short internodes, many abnormal
branches and closely crumpled leaves forming compact masses like the so-called
“witches brooms.’’ Photograph natural size, Nanking, China, Oct. 25, 1919. (Fig. 1.))

A LESS EXTREME FORM OF THE DISORDER

A tip of a Chinese cotton plant affected by the club-leaf in a less extreme form
than that shown in the preceding illustration. This shows abnormal branching
short internodes and distorted leaves but these symptoms are not developed to
the greatest extent and the growth is less compact than in the worst cases. Photo-
graph natural size, Nanking, China, Oct. 25, 1919. (Fig. 2.)

102 The Journal

RELATION TO EXTERNAL CONDITIONS

The club-leaf disorder is manifested
in many different degrees, depending
upon external conditions and partly
upon the variety. Though all of the
plants become more or less abnormal
in an affected area, individuals that
stand side by side may show different
degrees of deformity or reduction of
the leaves, especially in the Chinese

cotton and other unselected stocks.
(See Figs. 1 and 2.) In severe cases
all of the floral buds are aborted

so that no more fruit can be set, and the
crop is limited to the early bolls. Late-
planted cotton suffers worse than early
plantings, because there is less time to
set a crop before the club-leaf begins.
Plantings that fail to fruit early may
remain completely sterile. With cooler
weather in September or October, flow-
ering and fruiting may be resumed, but
the late bolls are not likely to open
before frost. Hot weather in the spring
is supposed to develop ‘the disorder
early in the season, and the injury is
worse in some years than it was in
1919, according to native growers near
Nanking.

Little injury is done by club-leaf in
the coast districts around Shanghai,
Hangchow and Nantungchow, but very
severe injuries were found at Wusih,
Nanking, Anking, Wuchang, Nan-
chang, and Yochow. In districts to the
north of Nanking, as at Chuchow and
Nanhsuchow, and north of Hankow, at
Chengchow and Changteho, the club-
leaf is generally present, but appears
rather late in the season, so that the
damage is not serious, and cotton is
the chief crop in many districts. The
country around Changteho, visible from
the tomb of Yuan Shi Kai, appeared
as an almost continuous cotton field.
Around Peking and Tientsin club-leaf
apparently ceases to be a factor of
practical importance, only the last
growth of the season being discolored
or distorted.

The relative immunity of the morc
continuously humid rice country along
the eastern coast may be explained by

of Heredity

facts noted at Nanking University,
where one corner of the experimental
field was in lower ground and shaded
from the morning sun by the wall ofa
compound and a row of trees. In this
part of the field no symptoms of club-
leaf disorder could be detected at the
middle of August, though in other parts
of the same field the disorder was
strongly developed, and by the end of
August it had appeared also on the
later growth of the plants in the pro-
tected corner. In another protected and
somewhat shaded planting at Nanchang,
some of the very late growth of the
Upland varieties seemed to be entirely
normal, although somewhat older leaves
of the same plants were discolored and
distorted. Z

ABNORMALITY OF BRANCHING

A general symptom of club-leaf is the
development of many branches from
buds that in normal plants would re-
main dormant. Although vegetative
branches usually are produced only
from the lower joints of the main stalk,
each leaf-axil contains a bud that may
grow into a vegetative branch, follow-
ing an injury or under conditions of
luxuriance. In severe cases of club-
leaf most of the axillary buds develop
into branches, and even adventitious
buds produce branches, sometimes four
or five from the same node, a condition
that might be described as abnormal
proliferation or polyclady. The forma-
tion of extra branches goes farther with
the Chinese cotton than with Upland
varieties, and produces the densely club-
like masses of foliage which suggested
the name of the disease. (See Frontis-
piece and Figs. 1 and 2.) Upland vari-
eties do not not form such dense masses
of foliage, but retain a more open habit
of growth as shown in Fig. 9.

SHORTENING OF INTERNODES AND
PETIOLES

Another element of the changed
appearance of the affected plants is
the shortening of the joints of the stalks
and branches, and the petioles of the

CHINESE COTTON LEAVES AFFECTED BY CLUB-LEAF

Club-leaf or cyrtosis of China somewhat resembles the plant-louse leaf-curl, but instead of the
crumpling of the base of the leaf, the lobes are distorted and the margins rolled, with yellowing
or reddening of tissue between the veins, shortening of petioles and internodes, abnormal branch-
ing and abortion of buds and bolls. Natural size. (Fig. 3.)

104

leaves. In this there is an analogy with
the condition called “clustering” or
“brachysm,”’ which is a feature of some
varieties of Upland cotton in the United
States. In some varieties brachysm is
definitely hereditary, while in others the
shortening of the joints has relation
to external conditions. But in bra-
chysm only the joints of the fruiting
branches are shortened, whereas the
club-leaf disorder also affects the inter-
nodes of the main stalk and the vegeta-
tive branches. The shortening, like the
abnormal branching, is carried farthest
in the Chinese cotton, not so far in the
Upland, and is still less apparent in the
Sea Island and Egyptian types.

REDUCTION AND DISTORTION OF
LEAVES

In severe cases of club-leaf the leaves
are greatly reduced, often to less than
half the normal size, and are twisted
and crumpled over the entire surface,
with a general arching or bending back
of the midrib and principal veins, so
that the lobes and margins of the leaf
are turned under. In the native Chin-
ese cotton these symptoms are carried
somewhat further than in the foreign
varieties, though Upland cotton also is
severely affected, and sometimes the
margins and lobes are rolled under
more abruptly and regularly than with
the Chinese cotton. (Compare Figs.
1 and 2 with Figs. 5 and 9.)

DISCOLORATION OF LEAVES

Though the discoloration differs in
extent with varieties and conditions, an
angular mottling of the web of the
leaves is a regular feature of the club-
leaf disorder, beginning along the
margins and advancing into the thinner
tissue between the lobes, though keep-
ing away from the principal veins. At
first the discoloration is only a paler
and more yellowish-green, which con-
tinues in the Chinese cotton to the end
of the season, but in Upland cotton a
reddish tinge soon becomes appreciable
and gradually becomes more _ pro-
nounced. Late in the season, a deep

The Journal of Heredity

red color renders the fields of Upland
cotton strikingly different from the
native Chinese cotton, even at a dis-
tance.

Among the Upland varieties grown at
Nanking University and at the Wu-
chang Experiment Station, the Durango
reacted most strongly in regard to dis-
coloration and distortion of the leaves,
and Columbia the least, but the Colum-
bia seemed to be less mature than the
other varieties, and maturity may be a
factor in bringing the disorder into ex-
pression.

Connected, perhaps, with the more
pronounced color reaction, is the fact
that when affected plants of Upland
cotton suffer from drought or other
unfavorable conditions, the discolored
portions of the leaves may dry out and
die, the death of the tissue taking the
same course as the discoloration, begin-
ning at the margins, following back be-
tween the principal veins, and leaving
a band of tissue alive along the veins.

The discoloration of the leaves, in
connection with the other symptoms,
suggests that the club-leaf may prove
to be one of the so-called mosaic dis-
eases, the causes of which are still
obscure, though some of them, such as
the sugar-beet disease of the United
States and the sugar-cane disease of
Hawaii, are supposed to be transmitted
through the agency of insects. On the
other hand, analogy with the leaf-curl
caused by the plant-lice might account
for club-leaf without supposing that a
germ or parasitic organism is involved.
Though the injuries are more serious
than those of leaf-curl, there is a similar
limitation to the growing tissues, with
no appreciable effect upon the parts that
have developed earlier in the season.
The injury as a whole may be con-
sidered as a generalized gall-formation
modifying the growth of the plant while
the insects are active, but not affecting
the tissues that are formed before or
after. The discoloration symptom is
lacking in the plant-louse disorder, but
some galls are highly colored and others
not. The club-leaf is not transmitted

LEAF-CUT OR TOMOSIS

Leaf-cut injuries are serious only in the spring when the plants are in the seedling
stage. It begins at the oil glands and is caused by the death of angular areas
of leaf-tissues, spreading to. the neighboring leaf-tissues and resulting in very
irregular mutilations, which, when very young leaves are affected, are some-
times healed by scars or regenerated by new growth. Natural size. (Fig. 4.)

106

The Journal

A DURANGO COTTON PLANT
This plant was in a somewhat protected
situation at Nanchang, China, but shows
the effect of the club-leaf disorder, in a rather
mild form, in its restricted growth, distorted
and discolored leaves, and the fruit aborted.
There is however little reduction in size of
leaves or shortening of petioles. (21761.)
(Fig. 5.)

through the seed, as may be inferred
from the normal growth and fruiting of
the plants early in the season, but if the
disorder is caused by insects which live
also on other plants, as seems not im-
probable, there would be danger of im-

of Heredity

portation with
stock or bulbs.

ornamentals, nursery

GENERAL CONTRAST BETWEEN CHINESE
AND UPLAND VARIETIES

Experiments with American varieties
are being made in many places in China,
in the hope that larger crops and better
quality of fiber can be secured than
from the native stock. The rapidly ex-
panding textile industry of China needs
more cotton, and efforts are now being
made to increase production as rapidly
as possible. The existence of such
plantings made it possible in the season
of 1919 to compare not only the normal
behavior of the Chinese cotton and
American varieties, but to observe the
effects of the club-leaf disorder upon
several kinds of cotton growing under
a wide range of climatic and cultural
conditions, as already noted.

The results of the comparison may be
summarized by saying that the mor-
phological reactions of the club-leaf
disorder are most pronounced in the
Chinese cotton, while in the American
Upland varieties the physiological re-
actions are more striking. The Chinese
cotton shows more pronounced changes
in its habits of growth, while the U:
land cotton shows more discoloraion.
Fruiting is suspended in both types
when the club-leaf disorder is severe,
though it was noted at Wuchang that
the Trice cotton continued to produce
bolls on the club-leaf growth, which
in the neighboring Chinese cotton was
entirely barren. ‘Trice had a general
advantage on account of earliness,
though Lone Star and Acala appeared
promising in some of the drier dis-
tricts, and especially at Peking.

REACTIONS OF EGYPTIAN AND SEA
ISLAND COTTONS

Several of the plantings included
Egyptian and Sea Island cotton so that
the club-leaf reactions could be com-
pared. In general these types agree
with the Chinese and contrast with the
Upland in failing to develop a red dis-

* coloration of the leaves, but the rela-

DISEASED LEAVES OF EGYPTIAN COTTON

Plant-louse leaf-curl or hybosis, on Egyptian cotton, causing different degrees of
distortion through shortening of the principal veins and crumpling or buckling of the
web of the leaves but without mutilation or perforation, none of the leaf-tissue
being killed. The effect of leaf-curl is to retard temporarily the growth of the
plants, which recover completely when conditions become favorable for rapid
growth in warm weather. Natural size. (Fig. 6.)

te sh ae

RUSSELL COTTON AT WUCHANG, CHINA

The club-leaf disorder has affected the plant
in its later growth as shown at the top
contrasting with the older normal leaves
below. (Fig. 2)

tions are reversed in respect to reduc-
tion and distortion, which are less than
in the Upland cotton, and much le
than in Chinese. Another difference is
that the margins of affected Sea Island
and Egyptian leaves usually curve up-
ward, so that the lobes become more
deeply channelled instead of being
turned under. The Egyptian cotton at
Nanking was nearly defoliated by the
black-arm or angular leaf-spot disease,
which also attacked the young involucral
bracts, so that only a few bolls de-
veloped. This was in striking contrast
with the Sea Island cotton in the next
row, which remained vigorous and leafy
and developed a goods crop of bolls,
though only a few were open at the end
of October when frost was expected.
The Upland cottons were less affected
by angular leaf-spot than*the Egyptian,
though more than the Sea -Island,
while the Chinese cotton seemed not to
be attacked.

DEVELOPMENT OF IMMUNITY BY
SELECTION
A disorder that cripples the plants
and distorts the leaves undoubtedly
108

A LONE STAR COTTON PLANT

This plant, at Nanking, China, shows club-
leaf in its later growth in contrast with the
normal leaves of older growth. (Fig. 8.)

must increase the difficulty of selection
and roguing, which are necessary to
develop and maintain pure stocks of
seed, but a possibility of developing
immune varieties of the Chinese cotton
is indicated by individual differences
of reaction to the disorder that were
noted in many cases. At Nanking a
Chinese variety with red leaves showed
much less reduction and distortion of
foliage and grew to twice the size of
the neighboring green-leaved plants.
Another Chinese selection with very
pale foliage and small white, unspotted
flowers that did not open widely,
showed a very extreme form of club-
leaf injury. On the other hand a na-
tive grower east of Nanking consi-
dered a “purple-stem” strain of the
narrow-leaved ‘‘chicken-foot’” cotton
more susceptible to the “wilt” than a
“ereen-stem’’ form. At the Wuchang
Experiment Station many plants of a
slender, hairy, Indian variety did not
appear to be affected at all by club-
leaf, although the neighboring rows of
Chinese cotton were very badly injured.

CLUB-LEAF IN DURANGO COTTON AT NANCHANG, CHINA

This shows that the general effect of the disorder is the same in Upland cotton as
in the Chinese cotton, producing restricted growth, abnormal branching, shortened
internodes and petioles, and rolling of the lobes, the last usually more pronounced
than in the Chinese cotton. Natural size. (Fig. 9.)

110

POSSIBILITIES OF CONTROL

Though of a nature entirely different
from boll-weevil injury, the club-leaf
disorder may have a similarity in rela-
tion to control measures, in that early
setting of a crop may offer the best
possibility of avoiding injury, supposing
that insects are responsible for the
transmission of the disorder. To be rid
of insects in China may be as impos-
sible as to exterminate the boll-weevil
in the United States. Upland cotton

The Journal of Heredity

may have an advantage over the
Chinese in the larger size of the bolls
which may allow a larger crop to
be set before the disease becomes in-
jurious. Restricting the growth of the
plants to insure early fruiting would
be in order, but the usual Chinese meth-
ods do not produce large plants. An
advantage in early fruiting seemed to
have been gained in the vicinity of
Nanking by planting cotton on high
beds, which is supposed to warm the
ground earlier in the spring.

Eugenics in Germany

A prize of 1,000 marks is offered by
the German Medical Society for Sexual
Science and Eugenics to the writer of
the best thesis on the question, “Has
man two kinds of spermatozoa?”

It is generally assumed by geneticists
that the question is to be answered af-
firmatively. This assumption is based
on results of experimental breeding,
which are most satisfactorily interpreted
by such a hypothesis. Cytologists, how-
ever, have not yet been able to offer
satisfactory evidence from their micro-
scopical studies to confirm the hypo-
thesis.

The German society, which is now in
its eighth year, publishes the Archiv
fiir Frauenkunde und Eugenetik, which
is now in its fifth volume.

At the meeting of January 16, 1920,
Dr. Posner was elected president. The
other officers chosen were: Dr. Franz,
first vice-president; Dr. Iwan Bloch,
second vice-president ; Dr. Max Hirsch.
first secretary; Dr. S. Placzek, second
secretary; Dr. Otto Adler, treasurer;
Dr. Blaschko, Dr. Grotjahn, Dr. IH.
Koerber and Dr. Stabel, directors.

The headquarters of the society are
in Berlin W. 30, Motzstrasse 34.

Lock’s Last Work

Recent Process IN THE STUDY OF
VARIATION, HEREDITY, AND Evorwu-
TION, by R. H. Lock, Sc. D. New
(4th) ed., revised by L. Doncaster,
Cen sk RES: Ps 2200, with
glossary and illus. New Work: i. P:
Dutton & Co., 1916.

Dr. Lock published the first edition
of his book in 1906. The second and
third editions were his own revision ;
the fourth shows only slight changes,
which are due to Dr. Doncaster. A
sketch of Dr. Lock’s life, by his wife,

has been added to good advantage. The
author gave up his life as a result of
devotion to war service with the Board
of Agriculture in England, in 1915, at
the untimely age of 36. Most of his
active years were spent at the Royal
Botanic Gardens in Peradeniya, Ceylon,
where he did useful work on rubber
and rice particularly. The book is nec-
essarily considerably out of date, yet it
offers in many respects an excellent
account for beginners in the study of
organic evolution.—P. P.

HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE
Ill. BRACHYTIC CULMS

J. H. Kempton
Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C.

HIS variation consists of a short-

ening of the internodes on the

main culm and lateral branches

without a corresponding reduc-
tion in number or in the number and
size of other organs. It arose in 1917 in
the second generation of the Chinese-
Algerian hybrid designated Dh416'.
This second generation was _ being
grown from self-pollinated seeds. | Ap-
proximately one-quarter of the plants
were brachytic, the actual number
being five brachytic and twenty-one
normal. One of the five brachytic
plants was self-pollinated, and the re-
sulting progeny were all brachytic. The
progeny of a normal sister plant were
all of normal stature. Statistical data
secured for several characters in both
the normal and brachytic progenies
are given in Table I. It will be seen
from the table that the brachytic strain
exceeds the normal in the diameter of
the culm and the total number of nodes,
while the size of the leaves is about
the same. The upper ear is somewhat
smaller in length, but this is apparently
compensated for by the additional ears
as the total ear length is approximately
the same in the two strains.

Eleven hand-pollinated ears were ob-
tained from the brachytic plants that
were the result either of self-pollina-
tions or crosses between sister plants.
The progenies of these eleven ears with-
out exception produced nothing but

brachytic plants. These plants differed
only superficially in their general
dimensions from the parental brachytic
progeny, their mean height being 8.8
decimeters. When crossed with plants
of normal stature the first generation is
as tall or taller than the normal parent,
and in the second generation both nor-
mal and brachytic plants were secured
in the familiar 3 to 1 Mendelain propor-
tion.

Brachytic variations are found in
many agricultural species, as, for ex-
ample, the “bush” varieties of peas,
beans, squashes and tomatoes, and are
popularly known as dwarfs. Cook?
has pointed out a distinction between
dwarfs which have suffered a reduc-
tion in the size and number of many
organs and those in which stature only
is reduced. The designation brachytic
has been suggested for the type where
the internodes have failed to elongate.

Dwarfing involving brachysm and
also true dwarfing or nanism is a varia-
tion which recurs in maize in widely
divergent and wholly independent
stocks. The instances, however, where
brachysm alone is involved are not
numerous. Hartley* apparently pos-
sessed a true breeding brachytic strain,
although it would seem that the leaves
were somewhat shorter and broader than
those of normal plants and Gernert!
describes a single brachytic plant.

‘Kempton, J. H., “Inheritance of Spotted Aleurone Color in Hybrids of Chine-e Maize.”

Genetics, Vol. 4. May, 1919.

* Cook, O. F., “Brachysm—A Heredity Deformity of Cotton and Other Plants.” liarpe

of Research, Vol. 3, No. 5, February 15, 1915.
‘Hartley, C. P., “Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection.”

Agric., 1912.

Year-book, U. S. Dept.

*Gernert, W. B.. “The Analysis of Characters in Corn and their Behavior in Transmis-

sion.” Champaign, IIL, 1912.

111

BRACHYTIC AND NORMAL MAIZE PLANTS

A brachytic plant is distinguished from an ordinary dwarf in that it is reduced in stature
only, while in the dwarf all of the organs have been diminished in size. A brachytic
maize plant is shown at the left compared to a normal plant at the right. The brachytic
plant arose in the second generation of a hybrid and when self pollinated bred true.
It equalled the tall plant in leaf area and produced two more nodes, (Fig. 10.)

“BRACHYTIC AND NORMAL MAIZE PLANTS WITH LEAVES REMOVED

Another view of the same plants shown in Fig. 10. The leaves have been removed to -
show the character of the internodes. Brachytic plants are unusually well adapted for
harvesting with hogs. (Fig. 11.) :

NORMAL AND BRACHYTIC MAIZE STALKS

Showing the internodes just above the svr-ace of the ground. Note that while in the

brachytic stalk six internodes have been “compressed” into the space normally oc-
cupied by one and a half, the thickness of the stalk has not been diminished at all in
the process. With short internodes, more nodes produce roots below the surface of
the ground. Photograph natural size. (Fig. 12.)

Kempton: Brachytic Culms

115

TABLE I,—Measurements of Plants of Two Sister Progenies One of Which Was Brachytic, the
Other Normal in Stature.

Brachytic Normal

Height of plant in decimeters.................
Number of leaves above the ear...............
Motalinumberntorleavesms exc ent chs snc sila cieg> «
Isis ean eran ey PON MON tices Palais Shs Ba was

Number of branches in the tassel... .

Length of the upper earincm................
AROLAWearvenonh Gniy.co mais eee check ee
Number of rows on upper ear.............+---
Diameter of Culm in 16th inches.:............
Hength on faurthleahivcin wsnncge ees v.62 cle he
Wadifivofetciarihi eatin cis... canateyie eters nis oye «ls

In our experiments two other
brachytic variations have appeared.
One of these arose in a hybrid having
as one parent the Chinese wax-
variety, while the other arose in the
progeny of the hairy Esperanza
variety.” Both of these variations were
similar in appearance to the brachytic
type just discussed. In heredity, how-
ever, they were very dissimilar.

The brachytic Esperanza plant was
not self-pollinated but was crossed with
a normal plant of the Chinese waxy
variety. The first generation plants
exceeded in height the normal Esperanza
plants and in the second generation
showed only the normal frequency dis-
tributions with respect to height.

MeEnpvetisM, by Reginald Crundell
Punnett, F. R. S. Pp. 219, Illus.
Fifth ed. London: Macmillan &

Co., Ltd., 1919.

For nearly fifteen years Punnett’s
Mendelism has enjoyed a well-deserved
popularity, because of its simple and
readable account of the elements of
genetics. It has been translated into
German, Swedish, Russian and Japan-
ese; and it has now been issued with
additions calculated to bring it up to
date, the last English edition having
been put out in 1912.

‘Collins, G. N., “Correlated Characters in Maize Breeding.”

Vol. vi, No. 12, June 19, 1916.

PRS io ous Sues 16.30+0.26 21;
cdc guatemametel OP coMs 20.50+0.35 12.40+0.21
«onde cee 62.60+6.20 64.40+8 .90

BP sn fy ct RR 8.66+0.10 14.40+0.24

3.20+0.08 hes
22 .90+0.19 20.80+0.27
0.06+0.02 0.58+0.13
15.30+0.64 25.90+1.01
14.20+0.27 16.40+0.23
27 .60+0.98 28.10+0.71

9.20+1.40 12.30+1.50

The other brachytic variation, also
contrary to the usual behavior, did not
breed true when self-pollinated, but
some brachytic plants were again
secured.

The strain breeding true for brachy-
tic culms is of interest in that it is as-
sociated with few or none of the un-
desirable features which commonly
accompany such variations and may
therefore be of some agricultural value.
This strain would also seem to provide
one more true breeding simple Men-
delian character with which to test the
linear arrangement of factors. A stock
of seed has been obtained, and small
samples will be furnished to those who
may wish to experiment further with
this variation.

By American standards, however, it
is far from up to date, for Professor
Punnett is not willing to accept the
conclusions which American geneticists
draw from the work that has been
done here during the last decade. He
clings to a terminology that in the
United States is confusing because
obsolete, and to conceptions that in the
United States were long ago discarded.

English conservatism is doubtless
useful in science; but in this case it
has prevented a well-written book from
being of much use to American stu-
dents.—P. P.

Journal Agric. Research.

Cel ) spaseiq uvedoing jo yuowdojaaap AyIva 3y4
ul pasn Ajesie] sea yey} SOY Sty} St 4T,, ‘sISO[NoJeqn} WO, do1f ‘IOAOMOY ‘gre ss0y oy, ‘su O Jatyo s}t Suowe pue ‘paeiq sIy} JO o1fSMojoe
-Ieyo ole Sol]jeq esre] pue syowq MOT “Ys oy} Ut Apepnorjzed euryo Jo szied sou ur uouru0s soy PIE] oy} Jo adX4 poos Ajitey eB yUesoidos osay L,

TOUTIOD NVLLSIEHD NOLINVD AHL LV Gasiva S9OH ASANTHO TVOIdAL

oes a

SWINE, SHEEP AND GOATS

IN THE ORIENT

Important Factors in the Animal Industries of China Which Show Need for the
Application of Modern Principles of Animal Breeding—Average Village
Farmer Knows Little About Proper Feeding and Selection of Best Types
C. O. LEVINE
Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry, Canton Christian College

in importance to that of raising poul-

try. It is difficult to ascertain the

number of pigs raised each year in
that country, and all estimates are little
more than rough guesses. Prof. King,
in his interesting book, “Farmers of
Forty Centuries,” estimates the number
of pigs in Shantung at 25,000,000, a
number equal to one for each inhabitant
in that province. A conservative esti-
mate of pigs raised annually in China
would be 100,000,000. At the low price
of $12 (Mex.)! each, which is the
amount received for the average pig
sold on the market, the annual pig crop
would have a value of $1,200,000,000
(Mex.). During the years from 1915
to 1917 the average annual exports of
swine exceeded the imports to the
amount of 2,000,000 taels.? Most of the
hogs exported were sent to Kongkong
and to Russia. A large number of
those sent to Hongkong are butchered
and converted into lard, which is then
shipped to Liverpool.

The exportation of bristles, a by-
product of the swine industry, is of con-
siderable importance, the amount of this
product from Shantung province alone
amounting to about 500,000 pounds a
year. The prices paid by exporters for
cleaned, sorted and dried bristles varie:
from $20 to $220 (Mex.) for 100
pounds.

|]: CHINA the swine industry is next

DESCRIPTION OF CHINESE LARD HOGS

Hogs in different parts of China vary
considerably in size and type. The com-

mon lard hog is found in most places of
the South. They range in color from
nearly white to black, or black with
white points. In some localities the
pigs’ ears are large and pendulent, while
in others they are small and erect
Then again, these two types may be
found in the same community.

A peculiar characteristic of the lard
hogs of China is their straight tails.
They do not have the “kink” which is
characteristic of the tails in modern
breeds. It is this hog that was largely
used in the early development of Euro-
pean breeds. The meat is of good qual-
ity and cures fairly well. As a rule the
hogs are fine-boned and smooth; those
with wrinkled sides are seldom seen.
They are slow in maturing. Twelve
hogs at the Canton Christian College in
1917 made an average gain, at six
months of age, of about 0.65 of a pound
a day on full feed. When one year
old they usually weigh from 200 to 250
pounds. The average dressing per cent
of thirty-two hogs butchered at the Col-
lege in 1917 and 1918 was 72.5%. The
chief objection to this hog is its low
back, scant hams, large belly, low dress-
ing percentage, and weak pasterns,
which easily break down in the animal
that is being fattened.

CHINESE METHODS OF RAISING PIGS

Most farmers who raise hogs keep
from one to five or six brood sows.
The litters are large. A sow is sup-
posed to be able to nurse at least ten
pigs, which seems to be the average

1$1.40 Mex. is equal to about $1 U. S. currency.
*With the present rate of exchange, one tael is equal to about $1 U. S. currency.

117

118 The Journal

number in the Canton region, although
as many as fifteen are frequently seen
with one sow.

During the day the sow and pigs
roam at will in the narrow, stone streets
of the villages, picking up what edible
garbage they can find. Sometimes,
however, the sow is muzzled when thus
turned out with her family of pigs.

Pigs are usually castrated and spayed
when they are six to ten weeks old and
still sucking, although animals weigh-
ing as much as 100 pounds are some-
times thus operated on. The Chinese
consider it just as necessary to spay
gilts as to castrate boars. Meat from
unspayed gilts is somewhat coarser than
that from spayed animals, and better
growth is also obtained by spaying.

Both operations are considered art;
and practiced only by a few experts.
Spaying is never attempted by the
farmer himself, and castration only
when the services of an expert cannot
be secured. A professional usually has
an apprentice along to assist him. After
a time the apprentice performs the op-
erations himself and becomes an ex-
pert provided he can work rapidly
enough. The methods used are the same
as those in western countries. Spaying,
however, is somewhat different.

No disinfectants are used, nor is the
operator particular about the pig, or
his own hands being clean. No doubt
many of the few losses which do occur
are due to this lack of sanitary precau-
tion on the part of the operator, and
because of the fact that feed is not re-
duced either before or after the opera-
tion. In the fall of 1918 the service of
a local hog “veterinarian’”—if he should
be referred to by such an honorable
title—was secured by the College, and
four gilts weighing about forty pounds
each were spayed. The operator was
allowed to use his own methods. No
disinfectants were used, nor was the
amount Of feed reduced, either before
or after the operation. The operations
were successful in every case. Very

of Heredity

little discomfort was shown by the pigs
after the operation, and they did not get
“off feed.”

HOG FEEDING PLANTS IN CONNECTION
WITH DISTILLERIES

Hog feeding plants, feeding from 100
to 300 hogs at a time, are usually found
in connection with rice wine distilleries.
In Honam, south of Canton, there is a
representative plant of this kind. This
is a rice wine distillery, with a hog feed-
ing plant run in connection. The writer
last visited the plant on November 2,
1918. At that time about 200 hogs
were being fed, which was the full
capacity of the plant. No brood sows
are kept, but pigs weighing about 50
catties* are purchased from the village
farmers. Brewer’s grains from the dis- |
tillery form the largest part of the ra-
tion fed, although some rice chop and
wheat bran is also fed. About 600
catties of dry feed are required in this
plant to make 100 catties of gain in
weight. The hogs are fed for from 200
to 250 days, and, when sold, weigh
from 140 to 200 catties. The size of the
hogs when sold and the length of the
feeding period depend on the individual
hogs and on the market prices and de-
mands.

The price paid for rice chop varies
from $3.00 to $4.00 (local silver *) for
100 catties. Brewer’s grains sell for
40 cents for 100 catties. Manure from
the plant sells for 30 cents for 100
catties. The price received for the
hogs on the market is variable. The
average price during the years from
1916 to 1918 was $20.00 (local silver)
for 100 catties, varying from $16.00 to
$24.00. The prices paid for market
hogs depend on the size, condition, and
the demand at different seasons. Hogs
weighing about 150 catties usually bring
the best prices; and the prices are
usually higher during the winter than
at other times of the year. Stags and
sows, even when fat and in good condi-
tion sell for about three-fourths the

8A catty, the common unit of weight in China, is equal to 1 1/3 pounds avoirdupois.
4During past two years about $1.30 local silver has equalled $1 U. S. currency.

A TYPICAL CHINESE LARD HOG

Chinese hogs vary a great deal in type according to the part of the country from which they

come.
a year old is from 200 to 250 pounds. (Fig.
price of good barrows and spayed gilts.
Unspayed gilts also sell at a cut price.
The hogs in the plant described above
are kept in a brick building across the
street from the brewery. They are all
kept in one room, about 30 feet wide
and 80 feet long. Pens are arranged
along the sides of the room with an
alley about 6 feet wide in the center.

These pens are 12 feet square, and
each contains from ten to fourteen
hogs. A pen of hogs usually represents

one litter. The floor of the entire room
is paved with brick tile, sloping from
the pens to the alley-way, on either side
of which is a gutter. The floor
kept very clean, being washed twice a
day, and the pigs themselves get washed
in the process of washing out the pens.
The solid manure is cleaned from the
pens before each washing and stored in

The straight tail is one of their peculiar characteristics.

The usual weight when
14.)

a brick and concrete tank at the end of
the room where it remains until it is re-
moved by buyers.

THE FEED OF VILLAGE PIGS

Three times a day the village sow and
pigs are fed a mixture of a cheap grade
of rice chop and rice bran, and some-
times wheat bran, about the proportion
of half and half. Wheat bran is con-
sidered a better feed than rice bran,
but it is usually higher in price. In
the vicinity of breweries, brewer's grain,
a by-product of the rice wine industry,
forms a part of the ration. Vegetables
and green cut grasses are fed. The rice
is always fed cooked. Other kinds of
feed are uncooked. In regions where
corn is as available and cheap as rice,
it furnishes the main fattening part of
the ration. At night the hogs are kept

119

A CHINESE HOG ON ITS WAY TO MARKET

in a room, which is usually next to the
owner’s living quarters. The floor is
usually paved with tile or brick. Some-
times a corner of the living rooms is
fenced off for the sow and her family.
The floor is usually kept very clean.

From the time they begin to eat, the
pigs are given all their feed in the form
of a very wet swill. Three times a day
they are allowed to drink all they can
hold of this feed, which permanently
enlarges the belly and tends to pull the
animals down in the back. By proper
feeding and intelligent selection of
breeding stock of the best type, these
two undesirable characteristics, sway-
back and pot-belly, could be remedied.

The average hog in China is raised
on as clean food as the hog in America
is. It is not a scavenger like the native
hogs in India and the Philippine
Islands, and it is fairly free from dis-
eases, except for hog cholera, which is
very prevalent.

FRESH MEAT AND “WATERED MEAT”
About 1,000 hogs are killed every day

in the small Canton butcher shops. The
120

(Fig. 15.)

hogs are butchered early in the morn-
ing in small slaughter houses and de-
live ered immediately to the retail shops.
In some shops the hogs are butchered
in the rear of the retail store, which
opens directly on the street.

Dishonest butchers who do not mind
putting their reputation at stake have
an interesting method of injecting water
into the hogs just after they have been
killed and bled. The water is forced
in through the vena cava. The carcass
of a hog may be increased in weight
by several pounds by thus “watering”
the meat. It is difficult to detect such
meat until it is eaten. It has a poo~
flavor compared with normal meat an]
will not cure well. This practice is so
general that it is difficult to secure pork
in Canton which has not been thus
treated.

HOG CHOLERA IN CHINA

Among the diseases of swine, hog
cholera, known in England as swine
plague, and common in all parts of the
world where pigs are raised, is prevalent
in all parts of China, where it is known

IN A CHINESE VILLAGE STREET

“During the day the sow and pigs roam at will in the narrow stone streets of the villages

picking up what edible garbage they can find.
when thus turned out with her family of pigs.”

as Chue Waan. During the months
of March, April, and May, it
most prevalent in the south of China.
In the delta region of Canton about 40%
of the spring pigs die each year or are
marketed because of this widespread
disease. The farmers recognize the
disease by the characteristic deep red
or reddish-purple spots on the abdomen,
gummy eyes, spotted kidneys, and in-
flamed intestines, which are the com-
mon symptoms in this region. It 13
usually accompanied by a high fever.
The Chinese have learned by experi-
ence that there is no cure for the
disease, and know that it is very in-
fectious. It usually proves fatal. Ex-
perienced veterinarians, and laboratories
for the production of vaccine for. the
prevention of the disease, are badly
needed. ,

Keeping brood sows to an extreme
old age, or until they become sterile, is
probably the salvation of the hog in-
dustry in China. Such sows have either
had mild attacks of cholera when young

Sometimes, however, the sow is muzzled
(Fig. 16.)

and have become immune or are highly
resistant to the disease, for, according
to village farmers, very seldom does a
sow more than 3 years old get the dis-
ease. Further study is necessary to de-
termine the extent of this natural or
acquired immunity. Evidently it
quite common, as none of the old sows
observed in the villages surrounding
Canton, where cholera rages nearly
every year, have any of the appearance ;
common to hogs that have recovered
from a severe case of cholera.

TUBERCULOSIS AND PARASITES

Tuberculosis, a disease quite common
among hogs and other livestock in
America and Europe, gives very little
trouble to native livestock of southern
China. According to Dr. A. Gibson,
who has been the Colonial Veterinarian
of Hongkong for thirteen years, and
who has examined the carcasses of
thousands of hogs in the government
slaughter house, tuberculosis in Chin-
ese hogs is very rare; in cases that have

121

A FAT-TAILED SHEEP

This breed of sheep is common in all parts of northern China.

The large tail characteristic

of this variety contains a very considerable amount of fat and thus the breed has been called

the fat-tailed sheep.

In arid regions, when food is not plentiful enough, the fat in the tail

is drawn on to supply nourishment for the rest of the body. (Fig. 17.)

been observed, they are invariably the
animals that have been closely housed
with the European hogs. This freedom
from disease is indeed fortunate, for
tuberculosis is one of the few diseases
in animals which we dread, not only
because of the effect of the disease on
the animal itself, but because of the
possibility of its being transmitted to
man.

Fewer internal parasites are common
in the native hogs than one would ex-
pect. A number of tapeworm cysts
have been found in nearly every hog we
have butchered at the college during
the past three years, but, according to
Prof. Howard of the Biology Depart-
ment of the Canton Christian College,
they are not the cysts of the tapeworm
that is found in man. Dr. Gibson also
reports he has not yet found the cyst of
the human tapeworm in the native hog.
Here again we are fortunate, and great

122

care should be taken not to introduce
this parasite from other regions.

Kidney worms and liver flukes,
usually common in hogs, have not been
found in the hogs of southern China.
A skin disease in the form of a pox
is very common. It, however, does not
seem to be a serious disease. With the
exception of cholera, the native hog in
South China is, as a whole, a fairly
healthy animal.

YUNNAN HOGS

In the hilly and wooded regions of
the western provinces of Yunnan and
Szechwan the type of hog chiefly
raised is the bacon hog.. This type pro-
duces a good meat for curing. Accord-
ing to Dr. Gibson, attempts so far to
raise this hog in Hongkong have
shown that it cannot compete with the
common lard hog in the efficiency of
utilizing feed. However, if allowed to

NATIVE GOATS IN SOUTH CHINA

Goats are raised in China for meat only.

introduced into some of the provinces but not to any great extent.

graze, as in Yunnan and Szechwan, it
might make a better showing in south-
ern China. The Yunnan ham, found in
the Canton and Hongkong shops, and in
other parts of China, and exported to
the Philippine Islands, is well known
in all parts of China because of its ex-
cellent qualities.

BREEDING OF SWINE

One has only to study the breeding
stock in the villages about Canton to
realize that the average village farmer
knows very little about the breeding of
animals. Some of the sows are fairly
good, but the boars are usually very in-
ferior. About the only good thing that
can be said about the boars is that they
are sure breeders, and very prolific.
The prevalent idea is that any animal is
good enough for breeding. Often the
poorest male is reserved for stud pur-

Swiss and Indian breeds of milk goats have been

(Fig. 18.)

poses. From the time he is weaned he
is kept tied with a sort of rope harness
fitted around his neck and chest. He
is lead about from village to village by
his owner. On Honam Island, across
the river from Canton, one boar is used
for from 200 to 300 sows. The boars
are always undersized, thin, gaunt and
weak looking, but they are unusually
gentle and do not have the vicious tem-
perament so commonly seen in boars of
improved modern breeds.

MODERN BREEDS OF HOGS IN CHINA

Modern breeds of hogs have not yet
been introduced into China to any ex-
tent. The Hongkong Dairy Farm has
done considerable experimenting with
different breeds, and now uses the
Midyorkshire hog of England almost
exclusively, both pure and in crossing
with the native hogs. The farmer usually

123

124 The Journal
has on hand from 600 to 900 of this
breed of hogs. The Berkshire hog, an
English breed whose early development
was brought about largely through the
use of Chinese and Siamese blooded
stock, may prove a success in this
climate, as it has done in the Philippine
Islands, where most breeds up to the
present have been little more than
failures, due largely to the readiness
with which they succumb to the kidney
worm. The Berkshire hogs seem to
be able to resist the kidney worm better
than any other of the modern breeds.
However, as the kidney worm does not
seem to be common in China, other
breeds may also prove a success.

CHINESE SHEEP AND GOATS

Sheep.—Sheep of the fat-tailed, horn-
less variety which is supposed to have
criginated in Afghanistan, are found
in nearly all parts of northern China,
especially in the provinces of Shantuny
and Chihli. These sheep are so named
because of their large tail which carries
a large amount of fat. The tail is
usually 8 to 10 inches long, 6 inches
wide, and 3 inches thick. It serves as
a store for food, and in seasons of
drought and scarcity of feed the fat
contained in the tail is used up in the
body. It is said that after a few genera-
tions of rich feeding in lands where
nourishing feed is more available, the
size of the tail gradually diminishes,
approaching the size common to other
breeds of sheep.

The fat-tailed sheep produce fair wool,
though it is inferior in both quantity
and quality when compared with that of
modern breeds of wool sheep. Accord-
ing to the Japanese investigators in 1916
the annual amount of wool produced in
Shantung amounts to 39,000,000
pounds. Most of the wool produced in
this region is sold to Japan at about 20

5A picul equals 133 1/3 pounds.

of Heredity

taels a picul®, the annual sales amount-
ing to 6,000,000 taels. The Japanese
use most of the wool for making cloth-
ing for the soldiers. It is estimated
that each sheep will yield in jone year
with two shearings four catties of wool.
At this rate the total number of sheep
in Shantung must be at least 7,500,000.
The customs authorities give a value of
5 taels a head for sheep. The mature
sheep alone in Shantung at this rate
have an annual value of 35,000,000
taels.

Goats—The native black and white
goat of China is raised for meat
only. In Shantung a Swiss breed of
milk goats, known as the Saanen goat,
has been introduced by the Germans.
and seems to thrive well in that region.
Indians have brought with them to
Hongkong an Indian. breed of milk goat
which is doing well in that region.

SHEEP AND GOATS IN SOUTHERN CHINA

Canton imports from the north 8,000
fat-tail sheep, and 4,000 meat goats for
slaughter each year, or at the rate of
thirty a day. Hongkong also iniports in
large numbers from the north. Goats of
the meat breed are raised to a small
extent in South China, but no sheep
are raised in the southern provinces.
Dr. Adam Gibson, reports that attempts
to raise sheep in the south have failed
because of the readiness with which
they become infested with the liver
fluke. Goats butchered at the college in
1917 by the writer were found to be
badly infested with this parasite, but
evidently the affect on goats is not as
serious as with sheep.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chinese Customs Reports.

King: “Farmers of Forty Centuries,” pp.
3,01, 70; 135: 233 and! 353,

Report of Military Investigations in Tsing-
tau, 1916, Shantung Province.

fl.

INBREEDING AND OUTBREEDING

Review of the Evidence by East and Jones Shows that the Influence of these
Factors Depends Wholly on the Inherited Traits Present

Paut PoPpENOE

XW phases of genetics have in the
Fk past been surrounded with more

superstition and ignorance than

inbreeding, and few phases have
been more thoroughly cleared up by
experimental breeding during recent
years. A comprehensive book on the
subject is therefore timely, and Dr.
East and Dr. Jones are well qualified
to assemble and weigh the evidence on
the subject, for they themselves have
provided some of the best of it.2

The importance of an understanding
of inbreeding and outbreeding is by no
means limited to the plant-breeders and
animal husbandmen. The authors
suggest three questions which will show
what important sociological bearings
exist :

1. Do marriages between near rela-
tives, wholly by reason of their consan-
guinity, regardless of the inheritance
received, affect the offspring adversely ?

2. Are consanguineous marriages
harmful through the operation of the
laws of heredity?

3. Are hereditary differences in the
human race transmitted in such a man-
ner as to make matings between mark-
edly different peoples desirable or un-
desirable, either from the standpoint
of the civic worth of the individual, or
of the stamina of the population as a
whole?

After discussing briefly the question
of reproduction and the mechanism of
heredity, the authors turn to a consid-
eration of the experiments on which
modern ideas of inbreeding and out-

breeding are based. These experiments
are well known to readers of the
JourNAL oF Hereprry and need not be
rehearsed. Some of them have lasted
for nearly fifteen years of the closest
possible inbreeding, the most valuable
data being derived from maize, rats and
guinea-pigs.

IS INBREEDING INJURIOUS ?

lew students will differ from the
authors when they conclude that “in-
breeding has but one demonstrable
effect on organisms subjected to its
action—the isolation of homozygous
types. The diversity of the resulting
types depends directly upon the number
of heterozygous hereditary factors pres-
ent in the individuals with which the
process is begun; it is likely, therefore,
to vary directly with the amount of
cross-breeding experienced by their
immediate ancestors. The rapidity of
the isolation of homozygous types is a
function of the intensity of the inbreed-
ing.”

“Are, then, the immediate results of
inbreeding sometimes injurious? In
naturally cross-fertilized organisms they
most emphatically are—nay, more, even
disastrous—when we recall the reduc-
tion to over one-half or one-third in
production in grain and a corresponding
decrease in size of plant and rate of
growth in maize. But maize is prob-
ably an extreme case. With other
organisms the results are not so bad,
and in some cases, especially when
selection has been made, no evil effects

1Tnbreeding and Outbreeding: Their genetic and sociological significance,” by Edward
M. Fast, Ph.D., Harvard University, Bussey Institution, and Donald F. Jones, D.Sc.
Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station. Pp. 285, with 46 illus. Monographs on Ex-
perimental Biology, J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia and London, 1919. Price, $2.50 net.

125

126 The Journal

are apparent. In fact, there may be an
actual improvement. But the truth is,
we did not set out to answer that ques-
tion. It had already received a correct
answer. What we wndertook to inquire
was whether inbreeding 1s imjurious
merely by reason of the consanguinity.
We answer, “No!” The only injury
proceeding from inbreeding comes from
the inheritance received. The constitu-
tion of the individuals resulting from a
process of inbreeding depends upon the
chance allotment of characters pre-ex-
isting in the stock before inbreeding
was commenced. If undesirable char-
acters are shown after inbreeding, it is
only because they already existed in the
stock and were able to persist for gen-
erations under the protection of more
favorable characters which dominated
them and kept them from sight. The
powerful hand of natural selection was
thus stayed until inbreeding tore aside
the mask and the unfavorable charac-
ters were shown up in all their weak-
ness, to stand or fall on their own
merits.

AS A MEANS OF IM-
PROVEMENT

INBREEDING

“Tf evil is brought to light, inbreeding
is no more to be blamed than the detec-
tive who unearths a crime. Instead of
being condemned it should be com-
mended. After continued inbreeding
a crossbred stock has been purified and
rid of abnormalities, monstrosities, and
serious weaknesses of all kinds. Only
those characters can remain which
either are favorable or at least are not
definitely harmful to the organism.
Those characters which have survived
this ‘day of judgment’ can now be esti-
mated according to their true worth.
As we shall see later, vigor can be
restored immediately by crossing, Not
only is the full vigor of the original
stock restored, but it may even be in-
creased, due to the elimination of many
unfavorable characters. If this in-
creased vigor can be utilized in the first
generation, or if it can be fixed so that
it is not lost in succeeding generations,
then inbreeding is not only not inju-

of Heredity

rious, but is highly beneficial. As an
actual means of plant and animal im-
provement, therefore, it should be given
its rightful valuation.”

Heterosis or hybrid vigor has already
been alluded to, What is its explana-
tion? Evidently, since it is the reverse
of inbreeding, it merely means a stimu-
lation due to the presence and comple-
mentary action of dominant factors.

After a brief discussion of sterility,
and of the role of inbreeding and out-
breeding in evolution and in breed-
improvement, the authors pass on to
man—a subject with which they show
less familiarity, although their general
conclusions are for the most part
sounder than their illustrations.

After describing some of the strains
of degenerates which have practiced
inbreeding, and also mentioning the
Athenians of the Golden Age, whose
superiority they believe to have been
largely due to inbreeding, they con-
clude:

“Owing to the existence of serious
recessive traits there is objection to in-
discriminate, irrational, intensive in-
breeding in man; yet inbreeding is the
surest means of establishing families
which as a whole are of high value to
the community. On the other hand,
owing to the complex nature of the
mental traits of the highest type, the
brightest examples of inherent mental
ability have come and will come from
chance mating in the general popula-
tion, the common people so called, be-
cause of the variability there existent.”
The latter proposition is not supported
by adequate evidence, and it is doubt-
ful whether the authors could support
it if they tried.

POPULATION AND FOOD SUPPLY FORC-
ING RACIAL COMBINATIONS

Turning to cross-breeding, the
authors discuss “the intermingling of
races and national stamina.” They look
forward to a continual increase in the
process of racial amalgamation.

“The truth is,” they declare, “that the
world is approaching a population limit

A Review: Inbreeding and Outbreeding

faster even than Malthus supposed, and
the result of applying new methods to
field culture is merely to exploit the
natural fertility of the soil at a higher

rate. The supposed increase in the
amount of food is illusory. In the
United States, naturally the richest

country on the globe, the per capita pro-
duction of all the important meat ani-
mals and some of the great agricultural
crops is decreasing.

“At present the situation is this:
China, having reached the limit of her
food supply, and having little or no
foreign trade, has become stationary in
population. Large portions of Europe
and the country of Japan have reached
the limit of sustenance within them-
selves, but are increasing at a rate of
from 10 to 15 per 1,000 annually be-
cause their commerce is such as to per-
mit importation to supply the deficit.
Australia and Asia are increasing at a
rate which neither their agriculture nor
their commerce can sustain. The
Americas and Africa are left as the
great centers of colonization. Each will
support a large additional number of
people, but when they have reached
their limit—and that limit will come
within a very few centuries, three at
most—each country, or at least each
continent, must support its own popula-
tion.

“The world faces two types of racial
combination: one in which the races
are so far apart as to make hybridiza-
tion a real breaking down of the in-
herent characteristics of each; the other,
where fewer differences present only
the possibility of a somewhat greater
variability as a desirable basis for
selection. Roughly, the former is the
* color-line problem; the latter is that of
the White Melting Pot, faced particu-
larly by Europe, North America and
Australia.”

The authors conclude that the first
kind of crossing is undesirable, even if
the two races are both superior, because
it would tend “to break apart those
compatible physical and mental qualities
which have established a smoothly oper-

127

ating whole in each race by hundreds of
generations of natural selection.” It is
still more objectionable in a cross be-
tween two races one of which (as the
Negro) is genetically of inferior capac-
ity to the other (as the white).

Their “second thesis is somewhat
paradoxical. It asserts that the founda-
tion stocks of races which have im-
pressed civilization most deeply have
been produced by intermingling peoples
who through one cause or another be-
came genetically somewhat unlike.” This
thesis is supported by some very weak
evidence, often little more than sup-
position. Indeed, many of the anthro-
pological data presented should be
backed up by proof: what is the evi-
dence, for example, which indicates that
the mulatto shows “extraordinary
physical vigor?” And the authors are
likely to get a challenge from some son
of Erin, for they state that the true
Irish “are in the main descended from
two savage tribes, the Iberian and the
Turanian,. both probably Mongolian ad-
mixtures,” and that their descendents
“have hardly a single individual merit-
ing a rank among the great names of
history, or a contribution to literature,
art, or science of first magnitude.”

A MORE CAREFUL SELECTION OF IM-
MIGRANTS IS NECESSARY

“To produce greatness,” the authors
conclude, “a nation must have some
wretchedness, for such is the law of
Mendelian recombination: but the na-
tion that produces wretchedness is not
necessarily in the way of producing
greatness. There must be racial mix-
ture to induce variability, but these
racial crosses must not be too wide, else
the chances are too few and the time
required is too great for the proper re-
combinations making for inherent
capacity to occur. Further, there must
be periods of more or less inbreeding
following racial mixtures if there is to
be any high probability of isolating
desirable extremes. A third essential in
the production of racial stamina is that

128 The Journal
the ingredients in the melting pot be
sound at the beginning, for one does not
improve the amalgam by putting in
dross.”

of Heredity

They therefore hold that the indis-
criminate admission of alien immigrants
to the United States should be slowed

up.

Eugenics in Scandinavia

“We are going to start this month a
weekly or monthly review under the
title Den Nordiske Race. ‘The review
will be printed in Kjobenhayn and ed-
ited from Winderen Laboratorium in
Kristiania. The time has come to or-
ganize a work for the Nordic race,
especially based on applied race-biologie
or race-hygiene. Some of the best
scientists in our Scandinavian countries
are my fellow-workers. The review will
be printed in the Scandinavian lan-
guages, but will contain short transla-
tions of the original articles into English
or German, so that the Scandinavian
workers will be able to come in con-
tact with fellow-workers all the world
over.”

This is a portion of a letter written
by Dr. Jon Alfred Mjoen of the Win-
deren Laboratory, Christiana, Norway,
to the chairman of the Eugenics Re-
search Committee of the American
Genetic Association, who replied as
follows:

“The idea of founding a journal con-
cerned with the Nordic race should
meet with earnest and widespread en-
couragement. It is particularly fitting
that such a journal should emanate
from Scandinavia, the original home of
this dominant race, which many waves
of migration have carried forth to all
parts of the world.

“Doubtless other races than the Nor-
dic possess many desirable traits of
emotion and imagination, but the far-
flung Northern race is the only one
that excels in practical administration
and devotion to scientific discovery. The

Normans were great administrators.
They came from Scandinavia. Prob-
ably the ruling and noble classes among
the Greeks, northern Italians, Spanish
and Portuguese came from the north,
though somewhat mixed with southern
blood. For a thousand years the royal
families of Europe have exerted great
influence and have acted and reacted on
its history in an important way. The
genealogies of these people can be
traced through long generations, and
these lineages lead almost without ex-
ception directly back to the shores of
the Baltic.

“As regards science, both pure and
applied, the history of science proves
that, barring the work of the Greeks,
original advances have been made al-
most entirely by peoples of Nordic ori-
gin. England, Scotland, France, Ger-
many, Norway, Sweden, Denmark—
all exceed their share in the production
of men of scientific eminence. Russia,
Treland, Austria, Spain, Portugal, the
Balkan countries and all Eastern lands
fall short of non-Nordic countries.
Switzerland alone exceeds its quota.

“Tf one is interested in the develop-
ment of the world in practical adminis-
tration, or the advancement of pure or
applied science, one should feel not
only a devotion towards the Great Race,
on account of its past achievements, but~
should never cease to realize the high
obligation towards posterity, and the
need for preserving and forwarding its
traditions, by understanding its past
and expanding its future.”

NATURAL WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS OF 1918

Nineteen First Generation Hybrids Found Growing in Wheat Plots on the U. S.
Government Experimental Farm at Arlington. Vigorous Second Genera-
tion Plants are now Being. Grown from a Portion of the Seed

Crybe E. Leicuty
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

four natural wheat-rye hybrid plants

found in 1914. Three of these were

found growing in the wheat plots
on the Arlington Experiment Farm, of
the United States Department of Agri-
culture, near Washington, D. C., and
the fourth was sent me for identification
from Tennessee. In each of the three
following years, 1915, 1916, and 1917,
one or two plants of this unusual hy-
brid combination were found in the
wheat plots on the Arlington Farm.
All these plants found in the four years
were of the F, generation, and all were
compieteiy steriie, with the exception ot
one kernel on one of the plants found
in 1915.

In 1918, Mr. William C. Eldridge and
I found nineteen natural wheat-rye hy-
brid plants on the Arlington Farm, and
three were found by me in the wheat
nursery at the Virginia Agricultural
Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va.
A few other such hybrid plants may
have escaped notice on the Arlington
Farm, although all plots were carefully
searched, and others possibly may have
been destroyed by a laborer not familiar
with their appearance who assisted in
rogueing the wheat plots.

The finding of so many of these hy-
brids is believed to be a matter of sufh-
cient interest to justify this record of
their occurrence and this description of
them. The plants are further note-
worthy because such natural hybrids

I: a previous article’ | have described

1“Natural Wheat-rye Hybrids.” Journal Amer. Soc. Agron., 7:

of wheat and rye apparently have been
observed very infrequently. So far
as I am aware, no one else in this
country has reported in any pub-
lication the finding of one of them,
but Prof. R. R. Childs recently showed
me such a hybrid found by him on the
farm of the State College of Agricul-
ture, Athens, Ga. One or more such
natural hybrids had also been found by
him at that place in both the years 1916
and 1917. In my previous article |
cited? a possible record of such a hybrid
that had been found by Miczynski.
Since then I have come across the bare
statement by H. Nilsson-Ehle* that he
had twice seen a spontaneous occur-
rence of the hybrid between wheat and
rye in two varieties of winter wheat
which had been pollinated by winter
rye growing near by.

WHEAT AND RYE TESTING METHODS
AT ARLINGTON FARM

It has been the custom for several
years in the variety tests of wheat and
rye at Arlington farm to sow the dif-
ferent varieties of rye in plots, usually
1 rod wide and 8 rods long (1/20 acre),
separated 4 or 5 rods from each other.
This method of sowing is followed in
order to reduce the chances for cross-
pollination between the different va-
rieties. In the intervening spaces be-
tween the rye plots different varieties
of wheat are sown, usually in fortieth-
acre plots, being separated from each

209-216, 1915.

2Fruwirth, C., Die Ziichtung der landwirtschaftlichen Kulturpflanzen, Band 4, pp. xvi

+ 460. Berlin, 1910.

3In Beitrage zur Pflanzenzucht, p. 59. Berlin, 1913.

129

NATURAL WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS NO. 7 AND No. 9

In the group of four heads shown at the left, the two in the center are hybrids and the two
on the outside are heads of the parent wheat. When found in a plot of bearded wheat the
hybrid is bearded Wheat-rye hybrid No. 9 is the left one of the two heads shown at the
right of the illustration. Most wheat-rye hybrid plants of the first generation (Fl) produce
no seed but this head produced nine seeds. On the right of it is a head of the parent wheat
variety. The illustration is approximately two-thirds natural size. (Fig. 19.)

NATURAL WHEAT-RYE HYBRID NO. 13

. Two heads of the parent wheat variety are shown on the outside with two hybrid heads
on the inside, the views being taken across and with the spikelets. When found in a
~ plot of beardless wheat the hybrid is beardless. Approximately natural size. (Fig. 20.)

12 The Journal

other and from the rye by unsown bor-
ders 18 inches in width. The wheat and
rye plants growing along the common
borders between adjoining wheat and
rye plots thus easily may come into
actual contact at blooming time. A few
rye plants also usually grow among the
wheat plants, due to volunteering of the
rye or accidental mixing of the seed.
These are removed before harvest, but
after they have bloomed. Rye pollen
is also carried by the wind for consid-
erable distances. It is not an unusual
sight to see such pollen being carried
by. the wind from aé_ rye plot
in a thin, dust-like cloud that can be
followed by the eye for several hundred
feet. There is little doubt that some of
this rye pollen at some time or other
may fall on every wheat plant in the ex-
perimental plots. Many of the wheat
and rye flowers bloom at the same time,
the blooming periods of certain of the
varieties of each coinciding to greater
or less extent. There exists then, in the
actual contact of wheat and rye plants
and in the distribution
the wind, abundant opportunity for the
pollination of wheat flowers by rye
pollen.

All of these natural wheat-rye hy-
brids have been found growing in wheat
plots and must have had wheat plants
as the seed parents. No such hybrids
have been found in rye plots, although
I have often looked for them. Neither
has any one, so far as I am aware, ever
made a hybrid between these two species
in which the rye was other than the
pollen parent. Many hybrids have been
made, however, with rye as the pollen
parent.

of rye pollen by

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HYBRIDS

The hybrid plants found in 1918 are
taller than the surrounding wheat plants.
Even the shortest culm of a hybrid plant
is nearly always taller than the highest
neighboring wheat culm. This. greater
height of the hybrids facilitates their
discovery. But the height of the hybrids
is less than that of rye plants, being
about intermediate in height between
wheat and rye.

The hybrid heads are nearly always

of Heredity

from 1 to 3 centimeters longer than even
the longest nearby wheat head, and the
number of rachis nodes of the hybrids
is usually from a fifth to a half greater
than in the longest wheat head. The
hybrids here again in these two respects
appear to be intermediate between
wheat and rye.

When the wheat in the plot where the
hybrid is found is awned the hybrid is
awned; when the wheat is awnless the
hybrid is awnless or semi-awned. All
rye varieties are awned, so the char-
acters found are what would be ex-
pected in F, hybrids between wheat and
Tye:

The chaff color of the hybrids is light
brown in all cases where the wheat of
the plot has brown chaff. In most cases
it is white where that of the wheat is
white, but in a few cases the hybrid
heads are light brown where the wheat
chaff was either white or white with a
mixture of brown or light brown heads.
In these few cases the chaff of either
the wheat or rye parent may have been
Peon brownish in color, as rye

oe wines
heads often have chaff of a darker
brown than that of any of the hybrids,

The peduncle of the rye plant is usu-
ally rough and pubescent or hairy
for some distance, usually an inch
or more, below its junction with
the spike or head. It is also solid
for about the same distance downward.
Plants with entirely smooth peduncle
are found occasionally, in certain va-
rieties rather frequently.

Common wheat has a smooth, hollow
peduncle of greater diameter than that
of rye. These hybrids, with the excep-
tion of three, have the upper portions of
the peduncles more or less roughened
and hairy, but less so than is usual in
rye. The three exceptions have smooth
peduncles as in wheat. The diameter of
the hybrid peduncles is greater than rye
and less than or equal to wheat, while
usually they have thicker walls and re-
duced cavity in comparison with wheat.
In the smaller culms the peduncles may
be solid near the head. There is usually
strong evidence of both wheat and rye
parentage in the peduncles of the hy-
brids.

NATURAL WHEAT-RYE HYBRID NO 18

Four hybrid heads are shown in the center with two heads of the pare
When the wheat variety has rather small |
Reduced to approximately two-thirds natural size.

side.
Compare this with hybrid No. 19.
(Fig. 21.)

are usually en-
tirely sterile. already stated, only
one kernel was produced by all the
natural hybrids found at Arlington pre-
vious to 1918. Of the nineteen plants
found in that year seven produced one
or more. kernels. .Four of them pro-
duced only one, the other three pro-
duced five, nine, and twenty-two res-
pectively. Of the forty kernels

Wheat-rye hybrids

wheat on the o

the hybrid | are rather

were classed as
seventeen as fairly well
developed, and seventeen as _ poorly
developed, shriveled or misshapen.
Probably most of them will grow, for
out of thirteen planted in the green-
house twelve have produced plants now
vigorously growing.

All these kernels are the results of
open pollinations. No attempt was made

produced, six
developed,

133

134 The Journal

to pollinate or control the pollination of

any of the flowers. It is not known
whether the seeds formed are due to
self-fertilization or to fertilization by
wheat or rye pollen from neighboring
plants.

The spikelets of the hybrid plants are
from three to five flowered, as in wheat.
Rye has two flowers, rarely three, to a
spikelet. The shape and size of glumes
and lemmas, the several-nerved glumes
with ciliate keel as found in the hybrids,
all furnish evidence that these are in-
deed first generation. hybrids between
wheat and rye.

The conclusion is inevitable that the
plants found and here described are first
generation hybrids of wheat and rye,
the seeds from which they grew having
been produced by the natural fertiliza-
tion of wheat flowers with rye pollen.

THE STERILITY OF WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS

The nineteen hybrid plants found on
Arlington farm bore about 3,500 flowers
while only forty seeds were produced.
About 1% of the flowers on these
plants set seed. Hybrid No, 14 pro-
duced twenty-two seeds, a fertility of
about 5% of the flowers. This percent-
age of setting seed is considerably larger
than in my previous natural and artifi-
cial hybrids of wheat and rye. One ar-
tificial and seven natural F, hybrids pre-
viously examined bore about 1,500 flow-
ers, yet only two seeds were produced,
or less than a tenth of 1% of the
possible seed production.

Several other experimenters have re-
ported a small amount of fertility in
the first generation hybrids of wheat
and rye. Carman* secured nineteen
seeds on ten heads of such a plant, from
which he grew large numbers of plants

of Heredity

of later generations and finally intro-
duced a wheat variety probably de-
scended from this cross. Rimpau® har-
vested several seeds from a first genera-
tion, open-pollinated plant derived by
crossing the red Saxony wheat and
Schlanstedt rye, from which he grew
plants of later generations. Wheat
forms segregating out were distributed
by him and were grown for several
years by several persons and are prob-
ably still grown at certain European
experiment stations.

Miczynski® harvested some seed from
a first generation plant, but apparently
was not able to get beyond the third
generation because of sterility. Jes-
enko? describes four generations de-
scended from certain wheat-rye hybrids
made by him, Nakao® states that a
“few seeds, generally one seed to a few
ears,” were obtained from an F, hybrid,
but he could not be certain whether
or not they were due to fertilization
by the pollen of the hybrid.

Love and Craig,® in their work at
Cornell University, have secured two
fertile wheat-rye hybrids that have now
been carried beyond the fourth genera-
tion.

McFadden"® also reports the produc-
tion of three seeds on an F, wheat-rye
hybrid plant with twenty-five heads,
following the pollination of a few late
spikes with wheat pollen. The plants
of the F, generation winterkilled.

There are probably others who have
secured viable seed from F, wheat-rye
hybrids. Many others are known to
have effected the hybrid between these
species of cereals, but found the F, en-
tirely sterile. From these instances of
partial fertility it is evident that seed
is occasionally formed, but practically

4For an account of Carman’s wheat-rye hybrids see article by C. E. Leighty, in

JourNAL oF Herepity, Vol. 7: 420-427. 1916.

5Reference to Rimpau’s hybrid is made in Fruwirth, C., Die Ziichtung landwirtschaftli-
chen Kulturpflanzen, Band 4, p. 183. Berlin, 1910.

5Miczynski: Kosmos r, xxx Lwow. 1905.

Citation from Fruwirth loc. cit.

7Jesenko, F., Uber Getreide—Speziesbastarde (Weizen-Roggen) Zeit. fiir Induk Abs.

u. Vererbungslehre, 10: 311-326. 1910.

8Nakao, M., “Cytological Studies on the nuclear division of the pollen mother-cells of

some cereals and their hybrids,” Jour. of the Col. of Agri.

9Love,
Vol. 9: 67-76. 1918.

Sapporo, Japan, 4: 173-190. 1911.

H. H., and Craig, W. T., “Small Grain Investigations.” JourNAL or HeErepIty,

10McFadden, E. A. “Wheat-rye hybrids. Journar or Herepity, Vol. 8: 335-336, 1917.

NATURAL WHEAT-RYE HYBRID NO. 19

The two hybrid heads are shown in the center and the wheat heads on the outside. When
the wheat variety has large heads the heads of the hybrid are large. Reduced to three-
fourths natural size. (Fig. 22.)

136 The Journal
always in very few of the flowers.
Partial or entire sterility of such

hybrids is the rule. The 1% fertility
in the nineteen natural hybrids here
reported, and especially the 5% fertility
in hybrid No. 14, is believed to be un-
usually high,

THE FREQUENCY OF HYBRID OCCUR-

RENCE

It is interesting to note here that eight
of the nineteen hybrids here described
were found in the practically identical
varieties of wheat, Fulcaster and Dietz;
four others were found in selections
from a hybrid wheat, Crimean x Spelt,
and three others in the Purple Straw
variety. In only three other varieties
were such hybrids found, although sev-
eral hundred other varieties and strains
were growing on the farm No reason
for this is known, It cannot be deter-
mined from the location of the plots or
time of blooming the previous year that
greater facilities for crossing occurred
in the case of varieties in which hybrids
were found. The Purple Straw is one
of the first wheat varieties to bloom,
while the Fulcaster and Dietz are about
average in blooming time.

The season of 1917 at Arlington
farm seemed to be uncommonly favor-
able for cross pollination of cereal
varieties. In addition to these wheat-
rye hybrids a great many cross-pollina-
tions occurred between different varie-
ties of wheat growing in the cereal
nursery, as was evidenced by the num-
ber of such hybrids found in the
nursery there in 1918. Dr. H. V. Har-
lan, Agronomist in Charge of Barley
Investigations, also reports the finding
of a considerable number of F, barley
hybrids in his 1918 Arlington nursery.
These were especially noticeable in a
plot of beardless barley.

Of the nineteen natural wheat-rye
hybrids described in this paper eighteen
were from seed that was grown the
previous year on Arlington farm,
Hybrid No. 18 was from seed that had
been produced at the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Stillwater, Okla. A

of Heredity

head of the Malakoy variety was sent
to the Office of Cereal Investigations in
the fall of 1917, and seeds from it were
sown in a 5-foot row. In this row
hybrid No. 18, shown in Fig. 21 was
found.

As stated above, three natural wheat-
rye hybrids were found in the cereal
nursery of, the Virginia Experiment
Station at Blacksburg, Va., in 1918.
No data were obtained on these, Mr. F.
K. Wolfe reporting that, on account of
lodging, the hybrid plants could not be
found at harvest time.

Several natural wheat-rye hybrids
have been found, as stated above, on
the farm of the State College of Agri-
culture, Athens, Ga.

In my previous article (loc, cit.) I
reported on a hybrid sent to me from
Brush Creek, Tenn.

Natural wheat-rye hybrids have
occurred, then, in five different locali-
ties of the United States. I examined
a considerable number of wheat fields
in which rye was mixed in New York
State in 1918, and a few such fields in
Kentucky, but did not find hybrids of
wheat and rye.

Summary.—Nineteen natural wheat-
rye hybrids were found on Arlington
farm in 1918, and three were found at
the Virginia Agricultural Experiment
Station. From a study of the plants
and comparison with wheat and rye and
with known hybrids between these
species, it is evident that these hybrids
are all of the first generation (F),
They must have developed from seeds
formed by the natural fertilization of
wheat flowers with rye pollen.

Forty seeds were produced by these
plants, approximately 1% of the flow-
ers setting seed. Vigorous plants of the
second generation are being grown
from a portion of this seed, -

The natural hybridization of wheat
and rye is now known to have. occurred
in five different localities of the United
States—in northern and southwestern
Virginia, in Tennessee, in Georgia, and
in Oklahoma.

WORLD-POWER AND EVOLUTION

A Review of Dr. Ellsworth Huntington’s Evidence of how Climate has Affected
the Development of the Human Race and Determined the Periods of
Greatest Achievement

PauL PorpENOE

HE effect of changes of climate

on human activity, not only

physical but more particularly

mental, is the thesis of this’ as

of several preceding books by Ells-
worth Huntington.

Beginning with present-day condi-
tions, he shows that business cycles, as
measured by bank clearings, financial
depressions, periods of credit expan-
sion, and the like, correlate with the
general conditions of health in the
eastern United States. He measures
health, for this purpose, by fluctuations
in the death-rate, and then proceeds to
show that these fluctuations correlate
positively with changes in temperature,
so that even a small deviation from
the optimum temperature in either
direction causes an increase of deaths.

The most favorable conditions under
which human beings can live, he con-
cludes, are a mean temperature of
64°F, for physical activity, with a good
deal of humidity and frequent changes
in temperature, while for mental
activity he finds a mean of 40°F. better
suited.

These conclusions are based on ex-
tensive statistical data, partly analysed
in the book under review and partly
in previous volumes. ‘The statistical
methods used are somewhat crude, but
probably the data available are not suf-
ficiently precise to justify more refined
treatment. Dr. Huntington has made
out a plausible and interesting case for
the importance of climatic changes .in
daily life; future and more exact in-
vestigation will determine the limits.

In his latest book, Dr. Huntington

inquires why there is a difference be-
tween the most favorable temperature
for mental activity and that for physical
activity. He explains by saying that
these adaptations were made at differ-
ent periods in the history of the race,
when the air was different.

THE IMPORTANCE OF AIR

“Long before man’s earliest ancestors
had become different from the beasts
the whole world of life had realized the
necessity of air,” he remarks. “Even
the creatures that inhabit the water can
live only by taking from it the dissolved
air. Otherwise the chemical activities
which are the basis of all life come
promptly to an end. Before these
primitive animals could give rise to
higher forms, however, it was neces-
sary that they should pass through a
series of crises. Each of these crises
was a step forward in the estate of man.
Each has left its impress not only upon
the animal world but upon the human
race.

“A few of these crises, such as the
development of vertebrates from in-
vertebrates, were due to causes other
than climate, but most arose directly
from the conditions of the air which we
call climate. Let us consider three of
the chief crises.

“The first was the emergence of the
earliest vertebrates from the water.
This was a most momentous step, for
only in the highly varied environment
of the land does brain power develop
rapidly. Creatures like the seal, the
whale, and the manatee, which have
gone back to the water from the land,

*World-Power and Evolution,” by Ellsworth Huntington, Ph. D., Research Associate

in Geography, Yale University; author of “Civilization and Climate,” ete.
Price $2.50. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1919.

maps, etc.

Pp. 287, with

137

138 The Journal

fall behind in the mental race, for they
are not sufficiently stimulated.

“The second great crisis was the
change which caused certain forms of
life to become warm-blooded. This not
only enabled man’s animal ancestors to
continue their vital activities at all sea-
sons and in almost all parts of the
world, but it gave rise to the close bond
between mother and child which has
been the greatest of all factors in pro-
moting the higher qualities of love and
altruism.

“The third great crisis was the sep-
aration of man—the two-handed, two-
footed, big-brained creature—from his
four-handed and smaller-brained rela-
tives. This was the time when mental
qualities evolved most rapidly. There-
fore it interests us most of all because
the conditions which fostered the evo-
lution of our minds are those which
today stimulate them most strongly.

“Tt is perhaps a misnomer to speak of
these as crises, for each of these three
steps in evolution required a long time
for its consummation. Yet as we look
backward into the dim vistas of the
past, the steps are so foreshortened that
they appear like genuine crises. They
are, as it were, great slopes in a ter-
raced plain. For long periods the life
of the world was confined to the waters.
Then during a relatively brief period, as
geology counts time, there came a trans-
formation. The highest forms that in-
habited those ancient seas—that is,
the fishes—gave rise to a stock which
left the water and made its home on
land. Then our ancestors, for such
they were, moved on once more across
the vast plain, rising here and there
over smaller terraces, until at last they
began to climb to the warm-blooded
condition. Another vast stretch of
plain and minor terraces brought them
to the final steep upward slope. At its
base our ancestors were animals; at its
top they were men.

MORE- PROGRESS TO COME

“But have we yet reached the top?
More likely we are now upon the very
steepest part of the terrace. Hitherto

of Heredity

we have climbed upward because some
unknown force kept driving us. Now
we are conscious of ourselves, and are
able to direct our movements. It is
for us to say whether we will climb
straight upward, or whether, like many
of the creatures of the past, we will
wander this way and that, and perhaps
fail to be among the chosen few who
finally emerge at tthe highest level.”

It was the aridity of the air during
the Devonian period which caused the
development of amphibians with legs
and lungs, Dr. Huntington surmises;
while a second long drought in the
Mississippian period, millions of years
later, caused all those to perish except
the ones that could lay their eggs on
land and did not have to return to the
water. Thus the reptiles were estab-
lished and the first crisis, the ‘transi-
tion from water to land, had been
weathered.

“Not till millions of years later did
the next great step in evolution occur.
That step was the rise of the warm-
blooded mammals. We do not find
their fossil record until the time known
as the Upper Triassic, but they must
have originated farther back, appar-
ently in the Permian. The date of the
Permian Period is estimated as any-
where from 10,000,000 to 200,000,000
yearsago. The break between the types
of life before and after this great crisis
is the most profound anywhere in the
history of evolution. It is therefore
highly important to find that this was
also the time of the greatest changes of
climate. Vast glaciers descended to
sea level within 30° of the equator.
Perhaps at no other time during the
evolution of man’s ancestors has there
been such a succession of cold, stormy,
glacial epochs alternating sharply with
mild, interglacial epochs.

“Let us consider the effect of such
climatic stress upon other forms of life
as well as upon our ancestors. Previous
to the Permian Period the vegetation
of all parts of the earth’s surface, in-
cluding even the far north, was much
alike. In general the lands were cov-
ered with forests, averaging perhaps

A Review: World-Power and Evolution

40 feet in height, but with some
trees towering to 100 feet. Schuchert
describes it as a forest of rapid growth,
of soft and even spongy woods, in
which evergreen trees with compara-
tively small, needle-like leaves were
prominent. Associated with these were
thickets of rushes, also of very rapid
growth, which in habit resembled
modern cane-brakes and bamboo
thickets. Here and there stood majestic
tree-like ferns, while many smaller
ferns and similar plants thrived in the
shady places or climbed among the
trees. Flowers of a certain sort were
sparingly present, but of insignificant
size and’ unattractive color. Spores
took the place of seeds to such a degree
that when the trees and ferns were
liberating them the entire forest was
covered with a_ greenish-yellow or
brown dust. During the Permian
Period the sharp transitions from cold
to warm, or from moist to dry, caused
these ancient forests to die out. Coni-
fers much like those of today came into
existence. Seeds largely took the place
of spores. These changes were accom-
panied by a general reduction in the
size and variety of plants, and by a
tendency for them to become hardier
and to have thicker and less ornate
leaves.

CHANGES IN ANIMAL LIFE

“During the great climatic changes
of the Permian, animal life suffered an
even greater transformation than plant
life. For example, previous to that
time the insects had been of truly
astonishing size. Out of the 400 forms
known in the early and middle parts of
the Pennsylvanian Period which pre-
ceded the Permian, the smallest had
wings over a third of an inch long.
The wings of more than twenty species
were 6 inches long, six attained. to
nearly 8 inches, and three were giants
of 12 inches. Imagine a spore-dusted
forest full of insects as large as crows!
The cold and changeable climate of
Permian times apparently caused the
extinction of all these forms. Their
place was taken by small species re-

139

sembling those of today. Moreover,
the very nature of insects was ‘pro-
foundly modified by the introduction
of metamorphosis. That is, where there
had formerly been merely a gradual
growth from the egg to the adult, there
was now a growth from egg to maggot
or caterpillar, then a resting period,
and finally a transformation from
maggot to fly or from caterpillar to
butterfly. At the same time the insects
acquired the power to become dormant
and thus persist for months at a time.
All these changes were apparently due
to the necessity for adapting themselves
to sudden periods of drought or cold
during the time of growth in summer,
or to the necessity for enduring long,
severe winters. Thus the climatic varia-
bility of the Permian Period not only
caused a remodeling of the earth’s gar-
ment of vegetation, but introduced a
unique stage into the life history of
insects.

“For our present purpose another
change is far more important. At this
time apparently there occurred one of
the most vital steps in the evolution of
our direct ancestors, the mammals, Ex-
treme aridity and low temperature were
both characteristic of certain epochs of
the Permian Period. Among the more
progressive types of land animals
aridity has a tendency to accelerate de-
velopment. It places a premium upon
the power to travel, and especially upon

speed. As Lull puts it: ‘Not only are
food and water scarce and _ far
between, but the strife between

pursuer and pursued becomes intensi-
fied—neither can afford to be outdis-
tanced by the other. This means in-
creased metabolism, which in turn gen-
erally implies not only greater motive
powers but higher temperature. With
increasing cold a premium would be
placed upon such creatures as could
maintain their activity beyond the
limits of shortening summers, and this
could he accomplished only by the de-
velopment of some mechanism whereby
a relatively constant temperature could
be maintained within the animal regard-
less of outside conditions.’ In other

140 The Journal
words, there arose warm-blooded ani-
mals whose temperature was more or
less independent of the surrounding air
instead of varying with it as is the case
in cold-blooded animals. | Among
mammals this led to the production of
the young within the body of the
mother, instead of from eggs in which
the mother took little or no interest
after they were laid. Among birds it
forced the mother to care for the eggs
if they were to be hatched. Thus the
relation of mother and child became
firmly established. The latter develop-
ment of this relation has been the chief
source of all that is best in mankind.”

THE AGE .OF REPTILES

All this, of course, was a slow de-
velopment. Gigantic reptiles lorded it
on the earth in those days, and the
mammals were little beasts skulking
in out-of-the-way corners, perhaps in
the hills rather than on the lowland
plains.

“Once more we must skip millions
of years. The mammals have grown
in size and variety until they range
from the mouse to the mammoth. They
have ousted the reptiles from the best
parts of the earth. They have taken to
the air with the wings of the bat, they
have gone back to sea with the whale,
they have learned to run like the ante-
lope, to burrow like the mole, and to
climb trees like the squirrel. Their
limbs have become hoofs, claws, wings,
flippers, and hands. The Age of Mam-
mals has come to its epiphany. Then
as in Permian times, there once more
comes a widespread period of climatic
stress, the last Glacial Period. A new
element enters into its evolution, for
at last man appears and intelligence be-
comes dominant.

“When the mammals had reached a
condition of complete dominance they
were suddenly wiped out wholesale. In
North America the whole family of
horses was destroyed; the elephant
tribe, including the mammoth and
mastodon, disappeared; the camel,
which had formerly been abundant,
passed away, leaving no trace save his

of Heredity

bones. Still other great families such
as the giant beaver, the sloth, the tapirs,
and the so-called glyptodonts were like-
wise exterminated. In Europe there
was a similar appalling destruction of
life.

“Directly or indirectly all this de-
struction arose from the severe climatic
oscillations of the Glacial Period, for
this one period included four great
‘epochs.’ It was apparently the
Glacial Period which chiefly stimulated
man’s mental development and caused
his intelligence to dominate the earth.
Previous to the Glacial Period the
brain of man’s animal ancestors had
been evolving very slowly for hundreds
of millions of years. During the half
million years more or less of the Glacial
Period previous to the time we have
now reached, that is, previous to the
last Interglacial Epoch, it had been in-
creasing at a rate vastly faster than
formerly. Yet at the time of the Pilt-
down Man [100,000 to 150,000 B. C.?]
the human animal, as we may perhaps
still call him, had made almost no ad-
vance in the use of material resources.
His weapons were probably nothing but
stones, bones, and sticks that he broke
with his hands. His most elaborate
manufactured instruments were flints
of the rudest sort. These were merely
thick chips roughly flaked a little to in-
crease their cutting power. So far as
we yet know, man was still ignorant of
the use of fire.

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

“In those days the climate of Central
Europe was apparently somewhat
milder than at present. This mild
climate continued for a long time, ap-
proximately 50,000 years according to
Osborn’s chronology, which we are now
following. During this time the region
from northern Spain and Italy to south-
ern England and western Austria,
whence our knowledge of early man is
chiefly derived, {was peopled by the
Neanderthal race. These people ap-
pear to have been a little more ad-
vanced than the Piltdown type, but
their brains were distinctly smaller than

A Review: World-Power and Evolution

those of the Europeans of today. Lit-
tle by little their power and skill in-
creased. Yet even at the end of the
period of mild interglacial climate, they
were still extremely primitive. They
had no esthetic art so far as we know.
Their greatest exhibition of skill was in
‘flaking’ the edges of flints to produce
sharp cutting edges. This they did with
great: skill, producing implements of
beautiful symmetry and considerable
utility. Doubtless they had other arts,
such as the dressing of skins, the build-
ing of huts, and the making of wooden
clubs. Yet how little this represents in
proportion to the hundreds of thou-
sands of years since man first began to
chip the flints that he picked up from
the ground! Only at the end of this
last Interglacial Epoch do we find the
first positive evidence that man had
learned to use fire.

“We now come to a strange and
most significant fact. Man had lived
through three great glacial epochs, but
he had never been subjected to a really
severe climate. Now for the first time
he endured one, for the last epoch was
much more rigorous than its predeces-
sors. At the same time his evolution
proceeded much more rapidly than ever
before.

“The approach of this severe climate
was gradual. First there was a long
period of relatively cool, dry conditions.
Central France, for example, may have
been something like what southeastern
Russia now is. This caused the dis-
appearance of two rather sensitive
Asiatic mammals, the hippopotamus
and the southern mammoth. Then, as
the Scandinavian ice-sheet accumulated
farther north, the climate became more
severe. Men repaired to the shelter of
grottos and caverns as they had not for
tens of thousands of years. The hardy,
broad-nosed rhinoceros and the straight-
tusked elephant both disappeared, while
animals of the cold Arctic tundra, such
as the reindeer, the wooly mammoth,
and the wooly rhinoceros, and the
Arctic lemming, migrated all over
southern Britain, Belgium, France,
Germany and Austria.

141

PROGRESS IS CHILLED

“This condition was too severe for
early man. The stage of human de-
velopment, which coincides with the
beginning of refrigeration, ‘is seen to
present the climax of a gradual and
unbroken development’ not only in in-
dustries but in ideas. The next indus-
trial stage, which certainly presents the
closing workmanship of the same
Neanderthal race, and which coincides
with the main cold period of the Fourth
Glaciation, ‘shows a marked retrogres-
sion of technique in contrast to the
steady progression which we have ob-
served up to this time.’

“The climatic conditions which were
unfavorable to development in central
Europe seem to have been highly fa-
vorable in other places where they were
not quite so severe. Thus somewhere
in central Asia there appears to have
developed during this period the great
Cro-Magnon race. These highly gifted
people had brains as large as those of
modern Europeans. They invaded
southern Europe after the most severe
part of the fourth Glacial Epoch had
passed away. ‘After prolonged study
of the works of the Cro-Magnons, one
cannot avoid the conclusions that their
capacity was nearly if not quite as high
as our own; that they were capable of
advanced education; that they had a
strongly developed esthetic.as well as a
religious sense; that their society was
quite highly differentiated along the
lines of talent for work of different
kinds.’ The civilization, such as it was,
of the Cro-Magnons ‘was very widely
extended. This marks an important
social characteristic, namely, the read-
iness and willingness to take advantage
of every step in human progress, where-
ever it may have originated.’

“These fine people lived in Europe
from about 25,000 years ago until 7,-
000 years ago. Their art was perhaps
their greatest claim to fame, for their
drawings and paintings on the walls
and roofs of caverns were wonderful,
considering the primitiveness of the
tools they employed. Why they -dis-

142 The Journal

appeared we do not know. They were
not the ancestors of most of the modern
Europeans. They may have been fair-
haired like the Nordics, but they had
peculiarly broad faces and _ relatively
narrow heads unlike any of the present
great races.

THE GREAT MODERN RACES APPEAR

“They were displaced by other races,
the long-headed dark Mediterraneans,
the broad-headed, brown-haired Alpine
people, and the tall, fair-haired, blue-
eyed, long-headed Nordics. These later
races, which have carried civilization
forward by leaps and bounds, appear
to have risen to their present mental
power during this same last Glacial
Epoch. The place of their origin is not
quite certain, but their common center
was quite surely in Central Asia not
far from where the Cro-Magnons de-
veloped. In that same region dwelt the
ancestors of the races that evolved the
early civilizations of China, India, and
Asia Minor, and at least a part of the
Mesopotamian civilization. There, in
an environment not quite so severe as
that of central Europe, these early peo-
ple developed the art of smoothing
stone implements and evolved other
capacities which enabled them to con-
quer the artistic Cor-Magnons. There,
too, or else in the not greatly dissimilar
climate which then prevailed in North
Africa, the art of copper smelting was
invented. A little later, in essentially the
same Asiatic regions, the far greater
art of making iron tools was developed,
and man took still another of the great
steps which mark his advance toward
civilization.

“In view of these facts and many
others it is hard to avoid the conclusion
that the last Glacial Epoch and the
succeeding period of less pronounced
climatic changes were peculiarly stimu-
lating to mental development. The cold-
est places were not favorable, but on
their borders where the climate was
severe enough to be highly bracing, but
not benumbing, there occurred an ex-
traordinary development of — brain
power. As evolution counts the years

of Heredity

we are still too near to see this develop-
ment in its true light. Yet it can
scarcely be mere chance that man rose
above the animals during a great glacial
period such as that which directed the
wonderful evolutionary changes of the
far earlier Permian Period.

“Still less is it likely to be mere
chance that the evolution of the powers
of the human brain was relatively slow
until the last of the four great epochs
into which the Glacial Period is divided.
That last epoch was colder and more
severe than any of the others. Close
to the ice-sheets it was apparently so
severe that it caused retrogression, but
farther away it apparently provided
conditions such that man changed a
thousand times faster than the animals
had changed during the vast periods
of relatively uniform climate in earlier
geological times. . . . Clearly a severe
climate is wonderfully potent in hasten-
ing the course of evolution.”

SEEKING AN EXPLANATION

This last conclusion would doubtless
be accepted by all biologists, since a
rigorous climate means an intensity of
natural selection that perpetuates
favorable variations. But Dr. Hunting-
ton seeks a more direct intervention of
climate in evolution and devotes a chap-
ter to “New Types among Animals,”
in which he argues that the effect of
climatic changes is to induce sudden,
inheritable mutations.

This, of course, is an old stamping-
ground for biologists, and they will not
consider that he has made out a strong
case; nor does he claim that the evi-
dence is now conclusive. He bases his
hopes on a few well-known experi-
ments stich as: (1) the effects of
changes of temperature on the pupae
of butterflies; (2) W. L. Tower’s
work on potato-beetles; (3) experi-
ments on drosophila under extremes of
temperature; (4) P. Kammerer’s work
on toads; (5) F. B. Sumner’s experi-
ments with mice; and (6) A. H.
Clark’s observations on crinoids from
different regions. Some of these ex-

A Review: World-Power and Evolution

periments are not taken very seriously
by biologists in general, while the good
ones are susceptible of various explana-
tions, and it is by no means evident
that they are of a character to produce
the great evolutionary effect that Dr.
Huntington would ascribe to them.

The long quotations that have been
given are sufficiently illustrative of the
manner in which Dr. Huntington inter-
prets the facts, and it is impossible here
to review the chapters in which he in-
geniously applies his hypotheses to an-
cient and modern history, taking up
the Greeks,-the Romans, the Jews, the
Negroes, the Germans, the Turks, and
indeed most of the races and nations
of the earth, and seeking to show that
their achievements coincide with favor-
able climatic conditions, their failures
correspond to unfavorable ones. The
book must be read, and few will re-
gret reading it.

“Some readers,’ Dr. Huntington
warns, “may feel that the importance
of environment is exaggerated in this
book. That will be largely because
they do not attach as much weight as
does the author to the qualifying
phrases which he has used. A few gen-
erations ago the emphasis was all upon
the various agencies which combine to
furnish training. Ina broad sense these
include the Church, the Home, the
School, the State, and other institu-
tions. Recently tremendous emphasis
has justly been given to another factor,
namely, heredity. We are told that
heredity plays nine parts and training
one in determining what a man’s char-
acter shall be. According to such an
extreme view physical environment is
scarcely worthy of mention. Yet train-
ing, heredity, physical environment, are
like food, drink, air. One or another
of these may be placed first, according
to the individual preferences, and one
or another may demand more atten-
tion according to the circumstances. It
is idle, however, to say that one is any
more important than the others. All are
essential. Until the world learns this
vital lesson, it will be necessary that

143

some students should lay special stress
upon heredity because its importance is
not yet so fully recognized as is that of
training. Other students must lay still
greater stress upon physical environ-
ment because its importance is still less
appreciated. When the world realizes
that the human race must be bred as
carefully as race horses, and that even
when people inherit perfect constitu-
tions their health must receive as much
care as does that of consumptives, it
will be time for a book in which train-
ing, heredity, and environment receive
exactly equal emphasis.”

THE AUTHOR’S POSITION

Again, at the close of the book, Dr.
Huntington makes a final effort to
avoid misunderstanding. “Today the
swing of evolutionary thought is all to-
ward the side of heredity,” he explains.
“Therefore scores of biologists will feel
that in placing so much emphasis upon
the effect of environment I have com-
mitted a cardinal sin. They will say
with justice that there is far more
proof of the importance of heredity
in causing stability from generation to
generation than of the importance of
environment in creating mutations.

“Undoubtedly the evidence as to the
cause of mutations is still slight. That
is inevitable when a subject first comes
into the realm of scientific investiga-
tion. On the basis of such scattered
facts as are yet available we have
framed the hypothesis that the com-
monest cause of mutations and thus of
the origin of species is germinal change
due to the action of extremes of heat
and cold upon the organism in its early
stages of growth. If such an hypothe-
sis is accepted, it will doubtless de-
mand a readjustment of many old ideas,
but there is nothing about it at all in-
consistent with the strongest possible
belief in the importance of heredity.

“The scales have swung too far in
one direction because one side has
been weighted with some of the most
important and interesting facts that
have ever been discovered. Now we

144

must find facts of other kinds and
throw them into the scales. It hap-
pens that the facts set forth in this
book fall into the side of the scale
marked environment. By and by we
shall have more facts. As we dig them
out we must carefully inspect them to
see whether they belong in one scale
or the other. It is easy to mistake the
scale in which a given fact should fall,
and sometimes we may have done so in
this book. Yet even so there remain
many facts which indicate that ex-
tremes of heat and cold, moisture and
dryness, are somehow associated with
pronounced changes in the form and
function of organs of the body. This
single fact, if it be a fact, is more
important than all else that we have

The Journal of Heredity

here discussed. Part of its importance
lies in that it opens up the possibility
that some day mankind may learn not
only how to select the best variations
in a given plant or animal, but how to
cause a great number of widely diverse
mutations from which he may select.
“Tn all this the human race is merely
one among the species of animals. For
aught we know, his migrations and the
many new and artificial conditions to
which he subjects himself may be alter-
ing some of his most deep-seated quali-
ties. We spend millions in the attempt
to improve plants and animals. Is it
not time that we learned how the high-
est of all the animals is being changed
and how his future evolution may be
directed along the right path?”

Morgan on

Tue PuysicaL Basis oF Herepity, by
Thomas Hunt Morgan, professor of
experimental zoology in Columbia
University. Monographs of Experi-
mental Biology; the J. B. Lippin-
cott Co., Philadelphia, 1919. Pp. 305,
with 117 illus. Price, $2.50.

During the past twenty years the na-
ture of the process of inheritance has
been demonstrated in detail to the satis-
faction of nearly every one, and no man
has had a larger part in this grea
accomplishment than Dr. Morgan, The
present book is the most complete ac-
count extant of the mechanism of
heredity, and it will therefore be indis-
pensable to every serious student of the
subject, even though in some respects
it will not at once supplant “The Mech-
anism of Mendelian Heredity,’ which
Dr. Morgan and his associates published
in 1915.

All of the important or moot points
of the subject are discussed, and diffi-
culties are met squarely, except in a
few instances, as in a discussion (p. 36)

Heredity

of the objection that Mendelism deals
only with superficial characters, such as
color, This is on its face a fundamen-
tal objection, and the only answer Dr.
Morgan makes is to cite the well-known
lethal factors that destroy the individual
when homozygous. “There can be no
question as to: the fundamental impor-
tance of such factors,’ he truthfully
states; but certainly this does not an-
swer the attack, and it might as well be
admitted that the characters whose in-
heritance has so far been worked out
satisfactorily are in general superficial
characters. It is easy enough to see
that any important structure or func-
tion must be due to the interaction of a
large number of factors, and it is no
cause for apology that geneticists have
not yet been able to isolate all the fac-
tors that go to make such a character.

The book contains a good _ bibli-
ography, which brings a fresh realiza-
tion of the great amount of work that
has been done in genetics in the brief
time that it has existed as a science.—
pee:

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vol. XI, No. 4 April, 1920

CONTENTS

Special Notice to Members...................0.-2+0:: Inside front cover
Native Horses and Cattle in the Orient, by C. O. Levine........... 147

Origin of a Grapefruit Variety Having Pink Colored Fruits, by A. D.
POL eon 0 Cl lee etree GBI ©. os Ger, SACRE Re tee ee sp eae ritegias Eee 157

Defective Seeds, by D. F. Jones... .. 161

Heritable Characters of Maize

Foreign Plant Introduction Medal, by David Fairchild. ....... .. 169
Cotton a Community Crop, by O. F. Cook... .............. wee a

Are Our Raspberries Derived from American or European Species, by

Ceor Mi Marrowave cis aoe ces ee. yal is naheed evel eo ee sos So etk
An Abacus for Illustrating the Structure and Mathematics of the

Human Germ-Plasm, by Harry H. Laughlin... . 1 .. 185
Moral Qualities and Eugenics.....................-- Shae 189
A Physical Census in England and [ts Lessen, by F. A. Woods...... 190

A System for Breeding Corn or Gregarious Animals, by A. N. Hume. 191

Race and Nationality—a Review........ 0.0.5.6. .000 cc ceeeseeeees de LOD

The JOURNAL OF HEREDITY is published monthly by the American Genetic As-
sociation (formerly called the American Breeders’ Association) for the benefit of its
members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year,
in addition to their regular membership dues of $2.00, because of additional postage
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub-
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single
copies, 25 cents.

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing-
ton, D. C., under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per-
mitted, upon request, for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to
author and to the JoURNAL OF HErRepITy (Organ of the American Genetic Associa-
tion), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, June 6, 1920.

(acatdsuo01g) “so8spiiq uotsuedsns pue speor Morzeu 94} 0} poydepe [jam 41 oyeUL
‘ssouq yt] Sit YJIM peutquioo ‘Auod aatyeu ay} JO ssoupunos ay} pur ‘sutA11eo Yowd puv sutplt oF Aperyo a1oy} pesn oie sasioyy “suorsar
asoyy JO SUOT}IPUOD puUe spoou oY} 07 pays [Jom AyIeMoNsed st 41 pue ‘eurYyD Jo Jopiog UsoJsoM oY} SUOTe PUR JoqL] Ul St etMoY eAtzeU ST

NOLNVO LY ANOd NV.LAELL YO ASANIHO AALLYN V¥

NATIVE HORSES AND
CATTLE IN THE ORIENT

Future of the Livestock Industries of China Outlined—Possibilities for Development
of Great Meat and Dairy Resources if Modern Methods of Care
and Breeding Are Introduced

C. O. LEVINE
Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry, Canton Christian College

ORSES, donkeys and mules have
H been little used in China, except

in the northern and western

provinces where they are used
almost solely as pack animals and for
riding. The southwest and western
border of China, and Tibet, is the native
home of the Chinese pony, which in
literature is referred to as the Tibetan
pony. Up to the present time no horses
have been raisedin Kwangtung. Horses
from the western provinces are shipped
to Kwangtung chiefly from Yunnan.
The Chinese, or Tibetan pony, is an
excellent pony for this region. It
thrives well in this climate, and its size—
it usually weighs about 500 pounds—
is well suited to the narrow roads and
“coffin-board”’ bridges. It is a beauti-
ful animal, and the better ones are
intelligent and easily trained by one who
understands horses, provided the horses
have not been previously spoiled by
improper handling. They have good
enduring powers, and seem quite free
from diseases and unsoundnesses. They
have colors common among other
horses—black, white, sorrel, bay, pie-
bald, gray, white, iron gray, with bay
predominating.

THE MONGOLIAN HORSE

The Mongolian horse is quite common
in the north of China. Itisconsiderably
larger than the Chinese pony, weighing
about 700 to 800 or more pounds. It is
of interest to students of horse breeding
because of the fact that it is supposed
to be the ancestor of most of our modern
breeds of horses. It is raised in Mon-
golia in a semi-wild manner, much as
the mustangs or Indian ponies were

raised in the United States on the west-
ern plains up to recent years. It is a
strong and swift horse, and is said to
be fairly free from diseases, but does not
do well in the south. As a rule those
observed by the writer have not appeared
as handsome as the Chinese ponies.
It is the horse that is used in the annual
races of Shanghai and Hongkong. It
is not very popular in Canton, where
there are only about 50 Mongolian
horses as compared with about 250
Chinese ponies.

HORSES IN CANTON

While the number of horses in Canton
is at present small the demand for horses
for riding and carriage use in Canton is
rapidly increasing. Some of the livery
barns recently have imported mares
from the western part of China and have
begun to raise ponies in Canton. There
are few mares in Canton other than those
recently imported for breeding purposes.
The males are seldom castrated.

As a rule the Cantonese take good
care of their horses, keeping their animals
in good condition.

The usual concentrated feed for horses
in Canton is corn, rice chop, and wheat
bran, Green grass and rice straw are fed
as roughage. The grass and straw are
usually cut into short lengths before
feeding. Rice is always cooked for the
horses, as well as for other classes of
livestock.

CHINESE CATTLE

Shantung, Chihli, and Honan _ pro-
vinees in the north, and Szechwan,
Yunnan and Kwangsi provinces in the
southwest, produce cattle in largest

147

148 The Journal

numbers. Conservative estimates would
place the number of native cattle at
50,000,000. The total value of these at
$30.00 (Mex.) a head would be $1,500.-
000,000 (Mex.). The export of cattle
from China to other countries is small
but is increasing from year to year.
According to the customs reports, ex-
portation has increased from 1,000 to
nearly 100,000 cattle a year during the
past four years.

Shantung is one of the biggest cattle
producing provinces in China. The
Japanese report referred to above has
the following to say about the cattle in
this region:

“Generally speaking the Shantung
cattle are large in build. As for the ox,
it usually weighs from 600 catties (1.33
pounds equal one catty) to 1,000
catties, with we!l developed loins and
legs which almost form a rectangle
shape. According to a native, a Ger-
man missionary once imported here
cows of a foreign breed with which he
undertook the improvement of cattle
in this locality, and that was the founda-
tion of our cattle of the present day... .
Judging from the fact that the Shantung
cattle have a comparatively thin hide
and have a tendency to early growth
and fattening, we can safely infer that
they are not a pure breed but improved
species. Most cattle now in Shantung
were brought over from Honan. AI-
though they are called Shantung cattle
there is no doubt but that they are the
product of Central China. That is to
say, they have gradually migrated east-
ward from Honan, Shonsi, Shansi and
Kansu which are situated in the center
of continental China. The Yellow River
which passes through these territories
makes the vicinity of its water course
unfit for cultivation by the tremendous
overflow of the river which takes
place every year. In consequence the
district forms one vast pastureland
of thick weeds. Any person going
through there will notice the thriving
industry of cattle raising. As explained
above the territories from which Shan-
tung cattle come cover vast areas and
naturally the number of cattle available
may be said to be almost limitless.

of Heredity

“The method of raising cattle is very
simple. In the country districts it is
not uncommon for one to find from
thirty to sixty head in one small village.
Every farmer usually keeps from five to
six head which are usually taken care
of by one coolie. When cattle are not
employed they are turned loose on the
fields where they feed as they like.
The coolie usually is a young lad who is
called ‘Cattle watcher.’ His wage is
usually 5 to 6sen per day. At night he
sleeps in the cattle shed. Cattle are fed
three times a day, morning, noon, and
evening, during the busiest season of
farming. In seasons when farming is
not in full swing they are fed twice a day
—morning and evening. The feed then
consists of about 16 catties of straw
and 4 catties of mixed feed a day. The
straw fed is mostly millet, but wheat
straw is fed also. In some places dry
peanut stems and sweet potato vines are
fed. The mixed feed mentioned above
is composed of kaoliang, beans and the
like, mixed with cut straw or hay and
water.

“Although Shantung cattle may not
be as good as Japanese cattle for beef,
yet it is an established opinion that they
are far better than Korean or Mongolian
cattle. At the time of the German
administration in Tsingtau efforts were
made to improve the cattle. They
always kept cattle of foreign breeds in
their slaughterhouse with which they
undertook to better the Chinese cattle.
Promising calves were purchased by the
authorities. When they were one year
old the German doctors brought them
together and held an exhibition. Prizes
were awarded for good cows, which were
later bred to cattle of foreign breeds.
By means of such encouragement and
others, the improvement of cattle in
this district was induced.”’

THE NATIVE ‘“HUMPED”’ CATTLE

The méthods of caring for and feeding
cattle in Shantung, described by the
Japanese authorities, are the same as
those generally followed by the Chinese.
The feed, however, differs in the various
localities. In the Canton region the
grain fed is usually rice chop and wheat

(‘] ‘3tq) ‘eouempus jo siamod 3uo1s ssossod puv ‘spunod
00S Inoqe ATjensn y8Iem Ao “soyeutuopaid Aeq ynq ‘sos1oy JO specdiq JoYy}O OF UOWIWIOD a1v VEY} S10]09 sutsiea ay} [[e oAvy soiuod asoulyD oAr}eU oy,

ANOd ASANIHD AALLVN YO NV.LAELL

Pa
Ye

150

bran. The cattle in the Canton region
are not as large as the Shantung cattle,
if the Japanese estimates are correct.
The average cow in the south weighs
500 catties, and the average bull 800
catties, though some individual cattle
have been noted that weigh as much as
1,000 catties when fat.

The native cattle of southern China
are of the .humped species com-
mon in the Orient. In most of the
natural histories they are called Zebus.
The main difference between these
cattle and the European cattle (Bos
taurus) is in the enlargement or pro-
tuberance on the top of the shoulders.
This prominence in the bulls sometimes
is as much as ten inches above the level
of the back. The females of the variety
common in China haye, as a rule, only
a small enlargement on the shoulders.
The meat in the hump is said to be of
good quality. The breeds of a related
species in India (Bos indicus) are char-
acterized by a larger hump and by a
heavy fold of skin which hangs like a
curtain from the throat to the brisket
of the animal.

The color of the cattle in China is
much like the color of Jerseys. It
varies from a yellow red to a brown red
and almost pure black. Spotted or
white cattle are not common, chiefly
because the meat of an animal with
white color markings is considered
inferior. Fawnis quite a common color.
The nostrils are black with a grey or
mealy colored ring around the muzzle
just above the nostrils. The tongue is
black. It is a peculiar coincidence that
all of the above color characteristics of
these cattle are also true of the Jerseys.
While the amount of milk yielded is very
small—so small that cows are seldom
used for milking—the fat content is
high, varying from 5 to 8 per cent.

“HUMPED” CATTLE IN HONGKONG
MARKETS

Although the cattle from different dis-
tricts of southern China, are much alike
in color and conformation, there is some
difference in types in different com-
munities.

There are three distinct grades of

THE

The Journal of Heredity

cattle, for instance, that reach the Hong-
kong market, coming from different
regions. Those coming from the east
coast of Kwangtung province, from the
region south of Swatow, are superior
in size and beef characteristics to those
raised in the region of Canton, and their
dressed meat sells on the average for 27
cents (Mex.) when Canton beef sells for
24 cents. Cattle from the west river
region, or above Wuchov, are of a type
just between the Canton and Swatow
cattle. They are somewhat better than
the Canton cattle, but not as good as
those from the Swatow region. Cattle
are sold by the head, and not weighed.
The usual price for a fair individual
weighing from 600 to 800 pounds is
from $28.00 to $50.00 (Mex.).

THE FUTURE FOR LIVESTOCK IN CHINA

The production of better and more
live stock in China must come as the
country develops industrially and com-
mercially. Good police protection. good
roads and railways, a demand for export
products and an increasing demand for
milk, will all be incentives to expansion
of the livestock industries. There is
enough grass on the hills of China, now
not being utilized except for fuel, to
produce at least twice as many cattle
as are being produced today. Cattle
sell for about one-half the price they sell
for in America. Better prices offered
for export beef, which will come with
development, will stimulate the becf
industry, and the demand for milk
within China itself must be met. With
the present prices received for milk
(12 to 18 cents local currency per pound)
and the price at which imported butter
is sold, ($1.20 local currency per pound)
there are few other industries that offer
better opportunities for young men well
trained in the principles of dairying and
breeding and with a thorough knowledge
of the methods of producing sanitary
milk, butter, and other dairy products.

IMPROVEMENT OF LIVESTOCK

With the development of agricultural
industries will come a demand for the
improvement of the different classes of
livestock now raised in China. Three

Levine: Horses and Cattle in the Orient

methods of improvement suggest them-
selves.

The first method, and no doubt the
best, is that of improvement within
the breed, without the introduction of
foreign blood. A few generations of
intelligent selection of individuals for
breeding purposes should greatly im-
prove the cattle for beef purposes.
Because of the smal! amount of milk
given by native humped cows, draft
and beef production will probably
always remain the function of this class
of cattle. Breeding for improvement
without the introduction of foreign
blood should be followed with all classes
of live stock, no matter how extensive
the use of modern breeds may become.

The buffalo in China has been chiefly
a draft animal to be used for beef as
soon as its usefulness for work is ended.
In recent years some dairies in the south
have begun to use the buffalo for milk,
and now have cows that give more than
12 pounds of milk a day, testing from 10
per cent to 15 per cent fat. Six buffalo
cows at the Canton Christian College,
for which records for complete lactation
periods are available, have produced an
average of more than 250 pounds of
butter fat.

A second method of improvement
would be to introduce males of im-
proved breeds for mating with native
cows.

Crossing the native cattle with mod-
ern breeds of beef cattle should no doubt
improve the native cattle for beef
purposes. However, such crossing of
native humped breeds of cattle with
European breeds has not proven popu-
lar in the Philippines and in India for
the reason that while the cross produces
better beef cattle, such cattle are of
little use for draft. The chief reason
why the native cattle are so well
adapted for work is because of the hump
against which the yoke fits so well. In
animals containing foreign blood the
hump is very small, or not present at all.

A third method suggested for im-
provement of native live stock is to
secure pure bred animals of desirable
breeds and continue to breed them pure.

The first method suggested, that of

151

selection within the native breed for
improvement, is safest, but slow in
bringing results. Introducing “modern
improved breeds will probably bring
quicker results, provided good, healthy
individuals only are secured and intel-
ligent breeding is practised. However,
the disease common here, and not com-
mon in regions from which imported
cattle come, should be taken into con-
sideration and guarded against, or the
result to individual breeders is apt to
prove disastrous financially. Great care
should be taken not to introduce tuber-
culosis with European breeds.

NEED OF TRAINED LIVESTOCK MEN AND
VETERINARIANS

Men trained in animal breeding and
feeding, are much needed in China to
improve the quality of livestock by
intelligent feeding, care, selection and
breeding, and by introduction of foreign
breeds. Veterinarians are needed to
take up a thorough study of diseases and
their control, and to build laboratories
for the production of anti-cholera and
anti-rinderpest serums for the preven-
tion of these two great plagues of the
livestock industry. Canton, like all
cities in China, is in need of government
livestock sanitary inspectors with ade-
quate laws to support them, to prevent
the sale of diseased meat, and above all
the sale of unwholesome milk; for while
the danger of eating diseased meat is
serious enough, the danger of con-
tracting typhoid fever, tuberculosis and
other disease from contaminated mill
is apparent to all. Every cow with
European blood, whose milk is being sold
to the public, should be tested for
tuberculosis and reacting animals be
rejected for dairy purposes. Such work
is the work of a veterinarian. It should
not be necessary to test native cows or
buffalos, as the native cows are highly
resistant and the water buffalo appar-
ently immune to tuberculosis.

Some of the dairies have good bulls
of modern dairy breeds, but cannot
produce good milkers because of their
methods of raising calves. From the
time the calves of these European cows
are born they are kept tied up in a

A MONGOLIAN HORSE

The Mongolian horse is much larger than the native Chinese pony, weighing from 700 to

800 pounds.

It is said to be the ancestor of most of our modern breeds of horses.
mon in the north of China, but does not do well in the south.

It is com-
In Canton there are only

one-fifth as many Mongolian horses as there are native ponies, but the former are the horses

used in the races at Shanghai and Hongkong.

barn and are never turned
in a dry lot, to exercise.

the cows in even the best
poor milk cows, small in

152

out, even
Naturally,
dairies are
size, some

(Fig. 2.)

with every indication of tuberculosis,
and giving an average of from 15 to 20
pounds of what is very probably con-

taminated milk each day, while if

A NATIVE CHINESE BULL

The native cattle of China possess an enlargement or “‘hump”’ on the shoulders which is

characteristic of cattle in the Orient.

That is their main difference from European breeds.

In bulls, the enlargement is sometimes ten inches above the level of the back, but in the

females it is very much smaller. (Fig. 3.)

properly cared for they might give
from 20 to 30 pounds of good whole-
some milk,

STANDARDIZING MILK

Many dairies at present add water
to the milk they sell in order to increase
their profits. The danger of discase
germs from the use of impure water is
apparent, to say nothing of the unfair-
ness to honest dairymen. Mill offered
for sale should be analyzed for fat
with a Babcock tester and a check be
kept on watering milk. Buffalo milk
containing less than 10 per cent fat
and European cows’ milk containing

less than 3 per cent fat is undoubtedly
watered milk. Dairymen found guilty
of adding water should be heavily fined.
Repetition of the offense should cancel
the right of such a dairy to sell milk
to the public. Buffalo milk should be
sold for at least twice as much as
foreign cow’s milk, in order to remove
the temptation to water such milk.
It would, at such a price, be no higher
in price for the food value it contains
than foreign cow’s milk, and based on
per cent of fat, would be far cheaper.
It is hoped that modern methods can
soon be applied to the dairy and other
animal industries of China, so that

153

(‘# Bq) “queo sod g 0} ¢ wor BurArVA ‘4uU9}U109 4eF ysty eB sey ‘IaaoMmoy ‘y[IUT oy, “Suny
JO} pasn woJjo JOU o1e SMOO }eY} [[PUIS OS SI ‘JoAeMOY ‘papjarA yi Jo yunowe oy, ‘sAossof oy} eTquIes

ATLLLVD ASUINIHD JO SAIOTdS GAd WAH AALLVN AHL AO HWaaTaH V

d1 9[}780 asoy} ssuTyIeUI [eIoues puv 10]09 UT

Ancestors of the Holstein

there will be a more efficient use of the
country’s wonderful resources.
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
“‘Chinese Customs Reports.”
King: ‘Farmers of Forty Centuries.’
233, 353, 355, 403, 418, 801.
Bailey: ‘Cyc. of Am. Agr.”

Pp.

Vol. iti, p. 378.

Hewlett: ‘“Breeds of Indian Cattle.” Bom-
bay.

Gunn: ‘Cattle of Southern India.”’

Bradley: ‘Breeds of Indian Cattle.’ Pun-

jab. Pp. 21, 28.
Bradley: ‘‘ Indigenous Cattle in Rajputana.”’
Hue: “Travels in Tartary, Tibet and
China.”

“Shantung Cattle.” Report on Military
Investigations in Tsingtau, 1916.

Prettner: ‘‘The Resistance of the Water
Buffalo against Experimental Tuberculosis.”
Centralblatt fur Bactereologic u. Parasiten-
kunde. 1 abt. Orig. Vol. xxxi, pp. 681-686.

Levine and Cadbury: ‘‘A Study of Milk
Produced in Kwangtung.’’ Canton Christian
College. Bul. No. 18, 1917.

Levine: “Notes on Farm
Animal Industries of China.”
tian College (Canton, China)
1919, pp. 29-54.

Levine: ‘‘The Water Buffalo—A Tropical
Source of Butterfat.”” Feb., 1920, pp. 51-64.

Animals and
Canton Chris-
Bul. xxiii,

Were the Black-and-White Holsteins Originally Red-and-White ?

There was recently born on the Uni-
versity of Idaho farm a pure-bred Hol-
stein bull calf which was red-and-white
in markings. This calf is the first calf
of a heifer and it so happens that it is
also inbred, that is, the sire of the calf
is the sire of the dam. There is also
evidence to the effect that this sire is
the sire of another red-and-white calf
out of a purebred Holstein cow,
although this instance did not occur on
the University of Idaho Farm.

Instances have occurred of red-and-
white calves having been dropped from
pure-bred Holsteins in this country but,
hecause they are ineligible to registry,
usually no record is kept of them; in
fact, breeders are likely to conceal the

fact, thinking that it will be a criticism
of their herd. There is evidence to
believe that the Holstein-Friesians in
Holland have been crossed with a red-
and-white stock; in fact, the ancestors
of the Holstein were very likely red-
and-white.

We are interested in finding out as
much data as we can regarding this
inheritance of red-and-white color in
Holsteins ; consequently, we should be
glad 1f any readers of the JourRNAL can
enlighten us further with reference to
the problem. We should particularly
like to get in touch with anyone having
a red-and-white heifer—H. P. Davis,
College of Agriculture, Moscow, Idaho.

‘Death of W. Schallmayer

In the death of Wilhelm Schallmayer,
recently announced, Germany has lost
one of her most eminent eugenists, a
man who had devoted most of the
active years of his life to spreading the

application of genetics to human society.

In 1900 he published the first edition
of his book, “Heredity and Selection,”
as a prize essay. The third edition,
almost entirely rewritten, was issued in

Jena in 1918.

j (-¢ Brg) ‘opisyno dy) uo Ssnonaidsuo3
qnq ‘putt oy} reau qdooxo ‘Ysoy oy} ut yuivy sea r0joo yurd oy, 7004} yinayodes3 ysavpy jeords, v ut youesq o84e] o[SuIs v Aq oUIOG oI0M s}imiy ysoy-yurd asoyy
yey} punoj sv 4],, ‘[eD ‘episioary Jeau preyoio uMoig “Ay "A 7] ef} Ul 9o1} YSIBY & JO qUIT] B WOIZ UdyR} SEM MJY SIT,

‘MATA PUd-WOSSO]q PUL UOIas-sso1)
LYOds LINUAAIVUD HSUVIN HSATA-MNId V

ORIGIN OF A GRAPEFRUIT VARIETY
HAVING PINK-COLORED FRUITS

A. D, SHAMEL

Riverside, California

N INTERESTING illustration
A of the origin of citrus varieties

from bud variations is found in

the development of the Foster
grapefruit. This variety was introduced
by Reasoner Brothers of Oneco, Fla.
As to its origin, Mr. E. M. Reasoner
writes under the date of August 6,
1915: “This is a sport from the old-
fashioned variety Walters. The Wal-
ters tree is growing in the Atwood
grove near us, and the one limb that
has pink-fleshed fruit is of good
size, say 4 or 5 inches in diameter, and
bears considerable fruit. About seven-
eighths of the tree is Walters, the one
limb only being Foster.”

In their catalog for 1919 the Reasoner
Brothers state in their description of
this variety that it is identical with the
Walters variety, from a tree of which it
is a sport, except in the color of flesh.
A description of the fruit is quoted
from Governmental Pomological Notes
as follows: “Next to the skin the flesh
is a light purplish-pink color which
shades to a clear translucent color at the
core; there is very little pulp.” In this
same catalog Prof. Hume, the noted
horticultural authority of Florida, is
quoted as writing “my opinion of the
Foster grapefruit is that it is a fine
fruit. It is the best early grapefruit
that I know of. It was in good eating
condition at Winter Haven (Fla.)
earlier than any other variety: we have
tested, and I think we have them nearly
all.”

The writer has not had the opportu-
nity of studying this variety in Florida.
He has observed young trees and fruits
of this variety in Arizona in an orchard
located near Phoenix during the month
of December, 1918. The fruit from

these trees, particularly the distribution
of color in the flesh, resembled closely
the above description of this condition
in Florida grown fruits. The outside
of the rind of the Foster grapefruit
grown in Arizona, at the time they were
examined, showed faint but unmistak-
able traces of pink color. In a com-
parison of the eating quality of this
Foster fruit with that of other grape-
fruit varieties, including the Marsh, the
writer’s notes indicate that it was infer-
ior and less desirable than that of the
Marsh or the other yarieties tested.

In Figs. 7 and 8, recent photographs
are shown of Florida grown Foster
grapefruit ; these photographs were fur-
nished to the writer by Mr. Walter T.
Swingle. Some of the characteristics
of these fruits and the leaves from a
tree of this variety can be identified in
these illustrations. Fig. 6 shows a ~
typical Foster grapefruit tree.

The history of this variety furnishes
another instance of the origin of a hor-
ticultural variety from a bud sport.

In July, 1919, the writer’s attention
was directed, by Mr. L. V. W. Brown,
to a pink-flesh sport in a Marsh grape-
fruit tree near Riverside. It was found
that these pink-flesh fruits were
borne by a single large branch in a
typical Marsh grapefruit tree. An in-
spection of the pink-flesh fruits borne
by the same tree revealed the fact that,
aside from the color of the flesh and
the rind, the two fruits were as nearly
identical as any two Marsh grapefruits
usually are when taken from different
branches of the same tree. This
branch has been known to produce pink-
flesh grapefruit for at least three years.
Buds have been taken for propagation

157

A FLORIDA GROWN FOSTER GRAPEFRUIT TREE

This variety is a sport from the Walters variety and its fruit is identical with that of the

latter except in the color of flesh, which is slightly pink near the skin.

in an experimental way from this
branch, but-no trees grown from such
buds have come into fruiting as yet. In
this instance there was but faint trace
of the pink color in the flesh anywhere
except near the rind. On the outside of
the rind the pink color was rather con-
spicuous, so much so, in fact, as to un-
mistakably mark the fruit. Fig. 5
shows a typical fruit of the California
grown pink-flesh Marsh grapefruit
sport.

Other instances of pink-flesh citrus

(Fig. 6.)

fruit varieties originating from bud
sports have been reported. Additional
data concerning them is being collected
as opportunity permits. The writer
would appreciate any further facts con-
cerning this phenomenon, for the pur-
pose of completing the evidence as to
the origin of other varieties of the
citrus bearing pink-flesh, red, ruby or
other strikingly different colored fruit
from that of the established varieties
bearing fruit possessing the normal
color of flesh and rind.

TYPICAL FLORIDA GROWN FOSTER GRAPEFRUIT

1 other characteristics, together with

Showing the shape of the fruit, texture of the rind, anc
(Fig. 7.)

the shape and other characteristics of the leaves from a Foster tree.

CROSS-SECTION OF FLORIDA GROWN FOSTER GRAPEFRUIT
and other characteristics. The
appear in this photograph. (Fig. 8.)

Showing the thickness of the rind, arrangements of seeds,
pink color of the flesh, of course, does not

ite vO pow t Wve > fis v9

Boat 0900 0010 010% V7 xy

& AG ananntena rth ANDO, prey

Wo Tew; o Pe x
LP ©,

ay by saeaareoro'o ihe?

Ag 6600. 0/7, CLG w,
bg te mete

{ spnsuenetile we
CCH TILE tis,

ei stearate Pps * iat 05%, oe

Ca tC Ay 808 harehta Wile iays oy ak

a Wa chi eg GS

ge reeds vi ae dpi
Se Ue RI IE DN
3 he ‘ VW abs

4 ARK “shes

Se ya AGS es

ar 418 6 O10 0 010 O0ls BIG,10 rode,

10-17

4077 /05>] 105-9 110-/2

105-9

110-12.

SELF-FERTILIZED EARS OF MAIZE SHOWING DEFECTIVE SEEDS

The ears labeled 110-12 and

cn page 166.

of defective to normal seeds in each of the above ears is given in the Table

descended from the ears labeled 12 and 17 in Fig. 15.

The ratio «

110-17 are

9.)

(Fig.

HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE

IV. A LETHAL FACTOR—DEFECTIVE SEEDS

D. F. JoNEs
Connecticut-A gricultural Experiment Station, New Haven.

ETHAL factors are familiar in

corn in the form of several dif-

ferent kinds of chlorophyll defi-

ciencies. White and virescent
seedlings represent heritable characters
which stop growth as soon as the food
stored in the seed is exhausted. Golden
plant color and many forms of striping
permit growth and reproduction, but at
a reduced rate.

A new factor, which shows itself in
the form of aborted seeds with either
entirely empty pericarps or badly shriv-
eled seeds, has been found, being com-
pletely lethal in its action in some cases
and partially so in others. Develop-
ment of both the embryo and endo-
sperm is stopped completely or greatly
reduced shortly after fertilization. How-
ever, the fertilization process is sufficient
to start the pericarp, and this developes
unchecked to very nearly as full an
extent as if the contents were present,
although the empty hulls are greatly
compressed by the crowding of the nor-
mal seeds adjacent. Fortunately the
growth of the pericarps makes the dis-
tribution of the abnormal seeds easily
apparent. The behavior of this char-
acter indicates that it is recessive and
due to a single factor difference. This
gene is called defective seed and is desig-
nated de.

OCCURRENCE OF DEFECTIVE SEEDS

Attention was first called to this
condition by some ears of corn grown
on plants of ordinary field varieties
which had been self-fertilized for the
first time. A considerable number of
plants of four varieties chosen as among
the highest yielding sorts in this locality
were raised. Two of these were dent
and two flint varieties of rather distinct
type and have been widely grown in the
state.

Altogether about 75 selfed ears were
obtained from the four varieties, and in
three of these 8 ears were found which
were definitely segregating into normal
and defective seeds. After such a factor
was once recognized it was noted in
many other kinds of material from
widely different sources. It has also
been noted by others working with corn.
It has been detected in several different
types of popcorn, in sweet corn, and in
locally grown varieties as well as in trop-
ical sorts, so that unquestionably it is
widely distributed and may occur in
practically all kinds of corn. In field-
pollinated plants cross-fertilization tends
to keep the character hidden from sight.
Chance recombination allows a few seeds
to appear on plants heterozygous for the
abnormality, but since a few abortive
seeds are common on nearly every ear
of corn, due to various causes, such
seeds pass without particular notice.

When the plants are self-fertilized,
then if the genetically defective seeds
are present at all they appear in ap-
proximately 25 per cent of the seeds and.
because of their greater numbers and
distribution over the entire ear, they
show up plainly. The character is
manifested in several different degrees
and it is not yet certain that they are all
due to the same factor. This remains
to be seen, but that there is a definitely
inherited factor there can be no doubt.
The difference between the recessive
seeds and the normal seeds on the same
ears is usually pronounced, and classifi-
cation can be easily made.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CHARACTER

In its extreme manifestation the peri-
carps develop but are completely
empty. Such unfilled capsules are dis-
tinct from partially developed ovules
due to incompleted growth or ineffective

161

NORMAL AND DEFECTIVE SEEDS COMPARED

The defective seeds (right) are from the same ears as the normal seeds (left). In the
specimen shcwn at the bottom the pericarps of the defective seeds are nearly empty, as
indicated by their transparency. In the specimen at the top the defective seeds are
partially developed but badly shriveled and shrunken. (Fig. 10.)

THE RESULT OF INCOMPLETE POLLINATION

ed ovules are clearly different from the defective seeds on
esult of both insufficient pollen and

hereditary deficiency. Photograph by R. A. Emerson. (Fig. 11.)

In the ear at the left, the undevelop
the other two ears. The middle specimen shows the r

164 The Journal of Heredity

DEFECTIVE SEEDS

Some completely aborted seeds with a few
partially aeveloped ones are shown. The

empty shells, fiattened between normal
seeds, are not conspicuous until the latter
are removed. Photograph by R. A. Emer-
son. (Fig. 12.)

fertilization (Fig. 11). Where the empty
shells occur between normal seeds they
are flattened to a thin sheet and are in-
conspicuous until the seeds are removed
from the cob. Then the aborted seeds
stand out plainly, scattered over the
rachis, as shownin Figure 12. In other
segregating ears (as in Fig. 13) the
defective seeds contain some embryo.
and endosperm material. Such partially
developed seeds are small and usually
very much shriveled (Figs. 10 and 14).
In other cases the seeds are not shriveled
but are smaller and have a dull opaque
appearance quite distinct from the
transluscence of dent and flint seeds
having corneous endosperm.

Where there is considerable material
in the defective seeds they may germi-
nate, but usually very poorly, and when
they do, the seedlings are extremely
weak, abnormal in appearance, and
make a slow growth. .In a few cases
the seeds germinate well and the seed-
lings appear normal. Generally the
seedlings are lacking in normal green
chlorophyll color.

INHERITANCE OF DEFECTIVE SEEDS

The normal seeds of the 8 segregating
ears were planted and again self-fer-
tilized. In every case the same condi-
tion appeared in some of the ears of the
progeny, as shown in the Table. In
addition, 5 ears which were not con-
sidered to be segregating also gave clearly
segregating earsin the progeny. All the
‘ars were examined for this character
while they were being shelled off, but
no defective seeds in sufficient amounts
on these parent ears were seen to classify
these five ears at that time as segregat-
ing. However, a photographic record
of the original ears was made and this
shows that three of the specimens were
probably segregating. At least a few
defective seeds can be seen, although
the numbers are small. The remaining
two ears show no signs of defective
seeds and the ears are well developed,
with about 500 seeds on each. Yet one
clearly segregating ear was» found in
each of the two progenies in a total of
five and six selfed ears in the two lots.
This small number of segregating cars.

Heritable Characters of Maize 165

where they should occur in the ratio of
two segregating plants to one normal.
together with the fact that the parent
ears were normal, indicates that a more
complex situation may exist in this par-
ticular material.

The numbers obtained from all the
ears together show the recessive seeds
to be fewer than the expected numbers
based on a single factor difference. A
number of non-segregating ears in the
same lots as the ears showing the de-
fective seeds, as well as normal ears
from unrelated sources, were examined,
and from 1 to 5 per cent of partially
developed seeds were found on many

ears which might easily be included in’

the defective class. Therefore if the
recessive seeds were in excess aS much
as 30 per cent instead of the expected
25, this would not be thought unusual.
But the deficiency in numbers is clearly
due to some influence. It may be that a
certain proportion of recessives do not
stimulate the pericarp to develop suffi-
ciently, or the active competition on
a crowded ear may prevent develop-
ment enough so that all the defective
seeds are included in the count.

In the original lots of self-fertilized
ears the segregating individuals are gen-
erally smaller and more poorly devel-
oped than the normal ears. This may
be evidence that the same factor which
prevents normal growth in the seeds in
the homozygous recessive condition also
reduces the vigor of the plants when in
the hybrid condition. Further investi-
gation is necessary to establish this,
but the material all together indicates
that this is the case. The defective
seeds which will germinate have not
been tested long enough to determine
whether or not they are capable of
completing their growth and reproducing
themselves.

In Fig. 15, which represents the
original lot of selfed ears of one variety,
specimen No. 12 shows partially de-
fective seeds, while in the one num-
bered 17 the recessive seeds are com-
pletely aborted. The empty shells of the
pericarps only remain. In Fig. 9 some
of the progeny ears of these two plants

PARTIALLY DEFECTIVE SEEDS
Showing a few seeds completely aborted.
The ‘partially developed seeds are small
and usually very much shriveled.”” Pho-
tograph by R. A. Emerson. (Fig. 13.)

NORMAL AND DEFECTIVE SEEDS

These seeds are from two segregating ears and show the differences in size of the embryo.
In this case the defective seeds ‘‘are not shriveled but have a dull opaque appearance.”
Seeds furnished by R. A. Emerson. (Fig. 14.)

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF NORMAL AND DEFECTIVE SEEDS PRODUCED BY THE PARENT
PLANTS AND THE BEHAVIOR OF THEIR PROGENY.

Number of seeds of
: | Number of seeds Number of progeny plants | segregating progeny
Pedigree number of | ears
parent ear

Normal | Defective | Non-segregating) Segregating Normal | Defective

AQMD se ete en Oe 185 35 4 2 242 AT
40135 ese eae Caleta LST wen 64 3 4 567 120
AOE. eee et es RtsA7)> ill) oe 30 4 4 429 147
10559 ee eee ee ae |S 2 7 1243 407
1OS=14s05 eee ee ely aiipe en) 9 1 164 42
LOSZUS ante ee eee OAT? MN pi eis x 3 1 2 387 129
TWGE I ee Ps ees 356 i01 2 4 697 170
1 O=12) eee 329 100 3 5 989 342
110 =15 hepa S MOAT CRI) roe, Ds ess 5 3 731 138
MON an gates cecil ae eae 2 2 475 171
INOS Cece s olkene, so cua ie Il yl 2 4 510 138
2A ee hea || ele MA eee ea 5 1 421 146
U2 OF ae acai: Fetlllh gs] |e oe ae ee oe 4 i! 288 90
Roun diva tees iin OM Leesa 46 40 7143 2087
Expected...........4 1678 | 559 29 57 6922 2308
Deviation ET Ad eee aad Soi 17 +221 —221
Probable error....... +13.8 21. +28.1

166

Jones: Heritable Characters of Maize

are shown, and it can be seen that the
same grade of defectiveness in the par-
ents is reproduced in the offspring.
Whether this is due to other factors
in the plant determining the degree of
development of whether there exists an
allelomorphic series remains to be
worked out.

LLL

2
0
aque

nepe
ee

000
Wwe.

“iv

gypauny
eoeeves

Pr aoess
C |
Disopddodd
pononde
Reaccera
~ swpeuiee
Tu
oom
An
WN

=
+}
be

1, 36

A’ag td

Th)

LOT try vr
08Cae%ADID
0000009
AIO VAe4Ou~ it -
por HI OVOVSe

OND RF

. yo, on0%

We,
pire
ndnesd

onanaecede
Necetoongonns
sq sannannnn os

pheae
ALL)
009

Liddaoeduets
MELLEL

aqrggggegngags
Ee 990000300809
p SRR

TUCTTTTONNAY
Suevevatat

agri
CT]

167

The character, defective seeds, is a
useful one in studies of linkage relations
in corn, as it is a seed character and
easily classified in most cases. It is also
of interest because it is an illustration
of defective germ-plasm, which is widely
distributed in a cross-fertilized organism
and has vital importance in life processes.

oto f 8

LOR
) Bue
&,

VIIVIOVDY

PODDDD Bas
0040
aves

0190090
PVODEDD
oy

Tel

LTS.
ON on
i)

00200
pdoveve

60
50

n0ey49

payvagnen
WoL

000
BOODDDIOBANN

agg?
00086

" WNiaedu
rT
cond)
Sat
PW 1) 1)
A ane me
“Hyon
o,)
el
1)

B-XxOGi00000@

: aeGa\,
soetewines
AWYIOT
3700
Toa ae
iT)
14 GdIde0 00 640
}y ;

: Oy

-_
&

ORIGINAL LOT OF SELF-FERTILIZED EARS

Original ears of the variety number 110 self-fertilized for the first time.
17 and 18 are segregating for the defective seeds.

Nos. 8, 12, 15,
“Specimen No. 12 shows partially

defective seeds, while in the one numbered 17 the recessive seeds are completely aborted.
... In Fig. 9 some of the progeny ears of these two plants are shown, and it can be
seen that the same grade of defectiveness in the parents is reproduced in the offspring.”

(Fig. 15.)

THE FRANK N. MEYER MEMORIAL MEDAL

Designed by Theodore Spicer-Simon, and awarded to Barbour Lathrop as a recognition
of his services in the work of introducing foreign plants of economic value into America.
A white-barked pine cone and a fruiting branch of the Chinese jujube form the theme
on cne face of the medal and the First Plant Introduction Expedition that on the other.
See the text for translation of the Chinese poem (618 A.D.) and details of the Theban
Queen’s expedition (1570 B. C.). (Fig. 16.)

168

FOREIGN PLANT

INTRODUCTION MEDAL’

Memorial to the late Frank N. Meyer presented to Mr. Barbour Lathrop “for dis-
tinguished service in the field of Foreign Plant Introduction”

Davip FAIRCHILD

President of the American Genetic Association

RANK N. MEYER, Agricultural
F Explorer of the Office of Foreign

Seed and Plant Introduction, who

lost his life in the waters of the
Yangtze River, left a bequest of a
thousand dollars which was to be used
by the staff of that office to defray
the expenses of an outing or to be
equally divided among them. This was
Mr. Meyer’s touching tribute to the
organization with which he was con-
nected for thirteen years as its agricul-
tural explorer in China, Turkestan
and other parts of Asia.

Rather than use the fund thus left
by Mr. Meyer for the purpose which
he designated in his will, the individuals
of the Office preferred to put the
bequest into a permanent tribute to
his memory in the shape of a medal
which should be awarded for distinctive
service in the field of foreign plant
introduction. This has been done,
and the awarding of it one or more
times a year it is hoped will not only
do honor to those who deserve recog-
nition for their servicesin this im-
portant field of research, but will
arouse a wider and keener interest in
what is surely one of the most im-
portant fields now open for young
scientific men—that of the introduction

into this country of new food and
otherwise useful plants.

The medal, designed by the well known
sculptor, Theodore Spicer-Simson, who
designed the service medal given to
Herbert Hoover by the National Acad-
emy of Sciences, has on one side of it
a facsimile of the bas-relief which
Queen Hatshepsut of the 18th Dynasty
(1570 B. C.) had executed upon the
wall of her palace at Thebes, to com-
memorate the first introduction of
a foreign plant—the incense tree from
the land of Punt. This is the first
recorded monument we have to the
work of Foreign Plant Introduction.
On the reverse side of the medal is the
name of Frank N. Meyer, for thirteen
years Agricultural Explorer of the Office
of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction
through whose bequest the medal is
made possible. The Chinese inscrip-
tion is from a poem by Chi K’ang, a
poet of the Tang Dynasty, 618 A. D.,
which, freely translated, carries the
thought that, ‘‘In the glorious luxuri-
ance of the hundred plants he takes
delight.’”’ To the right of this inscrip-
tion is a fruiting branch of the Chinese
tsao or jujube (Ziziphus qujuba), the
cultivated forms of which constitute
one of Mr. Meyer’s contributions to
the economic horticulture of America;

1 The first of the Frank N. Meyer memorial medals for distinctive work in the field of plant

introduction, which the associates of Mr. Meyer have had struck in his memory, was presented
in the presence of the staff of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction and invited
guests to Mr. Barbour Lathrop of San Francisco on the 3rd day of May, 1920, in the Homer
Building, Washington, DAC:

The associates of Mr. Meyer selected the American Genetic Association as the organization
through which this mzmorial medal shall henceforth be awarded. The address of presentation
by the President of the Association is printed in full as it gives the details regarding the meda
and a brief account of the plant hunting expeditions of Mr. Lathrop whose work has contributed
largely to the supply of plant species with which the plant breeders of America are now working
in the production of superior forms of food and ornamental or other useful plants——EpITor.

169

170

on the left the white barked pine
(Pinus bungeana), of which Mr. Meyer
sent to America thousands of seeds
which are now growing in many places
in this country, and which in the cen-
turies to come will add to our American
landscapes one of the most picturesque
of all evergreen trees.

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
SELECTED AS TRUSTEE

Since there were certain objections to
the awarding by a government office
of medals of this character, the asso-
ciates of Mr. Meyer have selected as
their representative in the awarding of
this medal the council of the American
Genetic Association, an organization
having in it as large a proportion of
those interested in plant introduction
as any organization in America.

In presenting this medal, therefore,
I am acting as the representative of the
American Genetic Association in the
fulfillment of the trust imposed upon
it by the associates of Mr. Meyer.

In this capacity I have the honor to
announce this afternoon that there will
be awarded this year three Frank N.
Meyer medals, the first of which it
gives me peculiar pleasure to present to
my old friend, Mr. Barbour Lathrop,
of San Francisco, who has come to be
known in the Office of Foreign Seed
and Plant Introduction as its “‘patron
saint.’’ I shall have to go back almost
a quarter of a century in order to give
you a clear idea of Mr. Lathrop’s
activities in the field of plant introduc-
tion which entitle him to receive this
distinguished service medal.

BEGINNING OF FOREIGN PLANT
INTRODUCTION AS A POLICY

On a small steamer off the coast of
Malacca, as the ship’s bell struck in
the new year of 1897, Mr. Lathrop and
I finished a conversation which started
us both into the field of plant intro-
duction. Mr. Lathrop’s many years of
almost continuous travel in foreign
countries had impressed upon his mind
the significant fact that every country
has its own particular foods and that
these have their own particular excel-

The Journal of Heredity

lence. He saw that a scientific system
of plant introduction would be of the
greatest benefit to his country. Sitting
there in the cabin of the steamer, he
outlined his plans to me and convinced
me that instead of continuing the
researches which through his generosity,
I was then occupied with on the
fungus gardens of the termites, I
should study the food and other useful
plants of the countries he had planned
to take me through as his guest.
Through the following months which
we spent in Siam, Australia and the
South Sea Islands, the discussions on
plant introduction continued, and when
we reached Hawaii he investigated the
possibilities of the establishment of a
garden of plant introduction there but
found them unsatisfactory.

Arriving in San Francisco, we parted,
and I came on to Washington, where,
with the constructive advice and as-
sistance of my old friends Messrs.
Swingle, True and Fernow and the
willing cooperation of the then Secre-
tary of Agriculture, Hon. James Wilson,
whose convictions on the subject were
as firm as were those of Mr. Lathrop,
the first item was inserted in the
appropriation bill which started the
work of government plant introduc-
tion as a recognized policy.

STUDYING PLANTS IN THEIR OWN
HABITAT NECESSARY

After a year of organization work,
into the midst of which had been
dropped the responsibility for the care
of the Hansen collections in Russia,
Mr. Lathrop again appeared upon the
scene, and with logical arguments.
spread out over many nights, convinced
me that I was no more fit to conduct.
a Section of Seed and Plant Introduc-
tion than a man who had never seen
a chicken was fitted to run a chicken
coop. His argument was that a world
plant collecting service required in it
the presence of some one who had seen
the whole world, and he offered to take
me over its surface in a rapid trip of
reconnaissance. While his plan was
convincing to me, it failed to convince
Mr. Wilson, and it was with reluctance:

Fairchild: Foreign Plant Introduction Medal

that he let me go, and it was not until
years later that he admitted in a com-
plimentary letter to me that the plans
had finally worked out well and that he
was satisfied.

Leaving the office in charge of my
friend Mr. O. F. Cook, who later was
followed by Messrs. Jared Smith and
A. J. Pieters, whose conduct of the
office during trying times deserves the
highest praise, we went through the
West Indies, picking up an impression
of the great value of the West Indian
yam, the chayote, and the dasheen,
all three of which are now promising
cultures in this country. In Panama
we picked up the Calamondine, estab-
lished in Florida as a beautiful orna-
mental and one of the best stocks for
the orange. From Chile we sent a
thousand seeds of a hardy avocado,
trees from which seed I had the pleasure
of seeing in California last October.

SEARCHING THE WORLD FOR PLANTS OF
ECONOMIC WORTH

We crossed the Andes into the Argen-
tine and sent from the Chaco a spineless
cactus which later was exploited by
Luther Burbank; also seeds of the Maté
or Paraguayan tea, which has since
become established in South Florida.

Crossing to England, I first made the
acquaintance, through Mr. Lathrop’s
friends, of the Windsor Broad bean—
rival of our Lima bean, though not so
well suited to our climate. We wandered
through Europe to Egypt, stopping in
Austria to get acquainted with the
Hanna barley and to secure a new and
valuable variety of horseradish.

In the Nile Delta the remarkable
character of the Egyptian clover or
Berseem attracted our attention, and
our studies led to a second trip there
later, and to a bulletin, which has been
translated into Italian and has helped
in the introduction of this plant into
Tripoli and Tunis but not into America
because of the lack of a climate suf-
ficiently like that of Egypt to make it
possible.

I can see Mr. Lathrop in my mind’s
eye today as we argued whether to
send in a few seeds or a hundred pounds

o72

of seed of the valuable Egyptian cotton
varieties. Mr. Lathrop prevailed, and
we sent 100 pounds, out of which,
through years of careful breeding and
selection and wonderful team work,
Messrs. Kearney, Cook, Swingle and
Scofield have built up an industry for
the farmers of Arizona worth to them
$20,000,000 a year.

The Lebbek tree, which in honor of
the Empress Eugenie and the opening
of the Suez Canal was planted in a
five-mile avenue to the great Pyramids.
was written up and seeds were im-
ported. It is now a landscape feature
in parts of Florida.

Back again to the Dutch East Indies
we traveled as far as New Guinea,
sending collections of rices from Java,
arranging for the sending of mango
trees from Ceylon, eucalyptus trees
from the Island of Timor—trees which
are now sixty feet high and are scatter-
ing seeds over South Florida—and
gathering information in regard to a
host of plants which later were imported
into America.

From the spice islands of Amboina
and Banda, the coast of New Guinea,
the Aru Islands, Ceram, Kisser and
Letti, and the great mysterious Island
of Celebes only a few things reached
home alive, but a knowledge of that
gigantic archipelago which stretches as
far around the globe as New York is
from San Francisco, served well to
counterbalance the natural provincial-
ism of my middle western education,
which would make it appear that the
agriculture of this globe is an agri-
culture of corn, wheat and hogs, and
has made it possible to conduct the
Office from a broader standpoint.

Turning back toward Europe, we
made a quick run into India, and there
saw for the first time the Brahmin
cattle and the milch breeds of water
buffalos. This glimpse enabled us to
write an account which was published
by Secretary Wilson, and was of as-
sistance, I am informed, in attracting
attention to Mr. Borden’s remarkable
experiments which led to the importa-
tion of the Brahmin stock into Texas
and the resulting hybrid race of cattle

172 The Journal
which has proven more resistant to
drouth there than any other breed.
The Philippine Islands are now import-
ing, I am told, the milch breeds of the
water buffalo which we discovered were
of such value in British India.

Sent by Mr. Lathrop to Sweden and
Finland to recuperate from an attack
of typhoid picked up in Ceylon, I was
able to bring to the attention of the
department the remarkable seed-breed-
ing establishment of Svalof and inci-
dentally to establish the Finnish Black
oat and the Finnish turnip in Alaska,
both of which have, according to Mr.
Georgeson, added greatly to the food
production of that country.

GREAT WEALTH OF PLANT MATERIAL IN
CHINA

We returned to America in 1900, and
Mr. Lathrop again disappeared for a
year from active service for the cause
of plant introduction, returning in the
autumn of 1901 with the proposal of
an Oriental journey for the depart-
ment, which was accepted, and which
in returns exceeded any of the previous
expeditions. It brought to the atten-
tion of the Office the great wealth of
plant material in China and through
the acquaintance made of Dr. Augustine
Henry, the veteran plant student of
that vast country, led ultimately to
the exploration of it by our associate
Frank N. Meyer, who spent nine years
in its study. Our expedition resulted
in the introduction of a collection of
the East Indian and Cochin China
mangos which are now fruiting as
large trees in southern Florida, the
first of the Persian Gulf date palms,
from a single tree of which in southern
California as much as_ seventy-five
dollars’ worth of fruit were sold this
year by the owner. Mr. Lathrop sent
me to the Persian Gulf while he made
a trip to the east coast of Sumatra,
where he secured a quantity of seed of
the Sumatra wrapper tobacco in the
face of the opposition of the Dutch
planters there. The plants from these
seeds entered into the hybrids which
have made the Connecticut tobacco
famous.

From the rich plant field of Japan

of Heredity

was sent in a collection of twenty-nine
varieties of the flowering cherries, and
those who see the cherries on the
Speedway in Washington, or the older
collection at my place ‘‘In the Woods,”
or the collection in the Golden Gate
Park in San Francisco, must thank
Mr. Lathrop for the inspiration and
encouragement which this collection
gave to the widespread cultivation of
these glorious trees in America.

GRASSES AND FRUITS SECURED IN AFRICA

Returning again to America in the
summer of 1902, Mr. Lathrop and I
started out in the autumn of the
same year to make a hurried survey
of the Dark Continent and sailed down
its east coast, stopping at the German
colony of Dar Es Salaam and the
British colonies of Natal and the Cape.
The Rhodes grass, seeds of which
were given us by the manager of the
Cecil Rhodes estate near Cape Town
and which today has become an im-
portant hay crop in Florida, Texas
and California, and the Carissa, finest
of all evergreen hedge plants, which
has now become an established thing
in south Florida, were secured that

year. The Spek-boom, a forage plant
upon which the elephants feed, a

remarkable small fruited pineapple from
Natal, the Limoncella apple of Naples,
the Kaffir orange and Kaffir plum of
Natal and Cape Town and the Lathrop
mango from the Island of Chiloane off
the coast of Beira, have all become
established in America as the result
of this last expedition of Mr. Lathrop’s,
which ended in the summer of 1903.

Although since then Mr. Lathrop has
conducted no long expeditions, his in-
terest in the work of plant introduction
has continued. During his travels he
has sent us many valuable things, in-
cluding a most complete account, with
photographs, of the soy-bean products
of Japan, and during his last trip to
that country he sent us what is known
there as the most popular vegetable of
the Japanese people—the mitsuba—a
plant which, although common in our
own woods, has never been domesti-
cated, so to speak, by Americans,
although in Japan it is grown as ex-
tensively as celery is with us.

Fairchild: Foreign Plant Introduction Medal

But of all the things about which
Mr. Lathrop has been enthusiastic

there is nothing to which he has devoted.

so much thought as: to the subject of
the introduction of the Japanese timber
and edible bamboos—nothing about
which he is more convinced than of its
great future importance to America.
A collection of eighteen selected varie-
ties and a bulletin on bamboo culture
resulted from the expedition in 1902.
Later Mr. Lathrop has added a_ kit
of Japanese tools, a collection of baskets
and valuable Japanese books on bamboo
culture. During the past year he has
crowned his work by the gift of a
bamboo grove. This gift comprises
46 acres of land near Savannah,
Ga., on which is three-quarters of an
acre of magnificent bamboo 50 to 60
feet tall, planted years ago by Mrs.
H. J. Miller, with plants introduced by
Andrias Maynelo, of Savannah. This
grove is to constitute the center for the
propagation and study of this most
important crop for the southern s‘ates.

MR. LATHROP’S VALUABLE SERVICES

This is a meager account of the
volunteer services which Mr. Lathrop
has given for a quarter of a century
at his own expense. The valuable
advice and the moral support which
he gave when they were needed the
most and the assistance which he has
given to the establishment of so many
valuable new industries in our country
merit a recognition which his own
modesty has made it heretofore im-
possible to give him, and it is therefore
with peculiar pleasure that I who owe
so much to him personally as well as
officially, present to him in the form of
the Frank N. Meyer medal the recov-
nition which I know all of us of the
Bureau of Plant Industry who are asso-
ciated with the work of introducing new
plants feel he so justly deserves.

» Mr. Lathrop, I present to you the
first Meyer memorial. medal.

WITH COMMISSIONER CAPERON IN JAPAN

Mr. Lathrop’s remarks, upon receiv-
ing the medal, carried the audience bac!
half a century to the carly daysin

173

Japan, when, as a young man visiting
there, he met the former United States
Commissioner of Agriculture, Mr.
Caperon, who had been invited by the
Japanese to come over and assist in the
organization of Japanese agriculture.

The speech was extemporaneous and
it was not Mr. Lathrop’s wish that it be
published.

LETTER OF PRESENTATION

May 3, 1920.
Barsour Latruror, Eso.,
Bohemian Club,
San Francisco, Cal.
Sir:

The Council of the American Genetic
Association has been designated by the
members of the force of the Office of
Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction
of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the
United States Department of Agri-
culture as the agency through which
shall be presented the Frank N. Meyer
medal for distinctive service in the field
of foreign plant introduction.

Your broad, constructive interest in
the subject of plant introduction in the
days of its inception in this country;
your various expeditions to South
America, South Africa, the Dutch East
Indies. Japan, China, the Persian Gulf
region, Australia, Siam, the South Sea
Islands, and the principal countries of
Europe and the Mediterranean region
in search of new and valuable plants,
which not only put the office in touch
with the plant collectors of the wozld,
but which assisted most materially in
the ultimate establishment in America
of the Persian Gulf dates, the Egyptian

cotton, the Rhodes grass, the East
Indian mangos, the Oriental timber

bamboos, the Japanese vegetables Udo
and Mitsuba, and many other varieties
of plants; your recent gift to the gov-
ernment of an important field station—
the Savannah Bamboo Grove—entitle
you, in the opinion of the council, to b>
the first recipient of the Frank N. Meyer
meal.

It is with pleasure, therefore, that
the council unanimously awards you
this medal.

COTTON A COMMUNITY CROP

One-Variety Communities Must be Recognized as the Basis of Production, in Order
to Preserve and Utilize Superior Varieties of Cotton

O. F. Coox

Bureau of Plant Industry, U.

S. Department of Agriculture

RGANIZATION may be desir-
() xi with any crop, but cotton

has a special community feature,

the product of many farms going
to the same gin. The cotton industry
should have been placed on a community
basis when public gins supplanted the
former system of private or plantation
gins, but methods changed gradually
and consequences were not considered.
Ginning is done with less labor by the
modern high-power equipment, but the
public gin system has made it very diffi-
cult to keep seed pure, or to have su-
perior varieties in general cultivation.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE PUBLIC GIN
SYSTEM

Improvement of varieties was more
feasible under the old system of private
gins because the careful planter could
maintain uniform strains of cotton,
by selecting the best individual plants,
isolating their progenies, keeping the
seed separate, and furnishing pure seed
to stock other plantations, as the custom
was. Present-day farmers very seldom
practice individual plant selection, or
maintain stocks of pure seed. Different
kinds of cotton are grown in the same
communities, the seed is mixed at the
public gins, crossing takes place in the
fields, and degeneration ensues.

According to the general testimony
of the cotton trade there has been a
serious deterioration in the quality of
the American cotton crop in recent
decades, which can be understood when
account is taken of the effects of mixing
and crossing different varieties, and the
general use of ordinary “‘gin-run”’ seed
for planting. The system of plantation
gins survived longer in the Sea Island
districts of the Southeastern States and
the lower Mississippi Valley, so that the

174

long-staple branch of the industry re-
mained on a somewhat better footing
until recent years. But with the boll-
weevil invasion the dominance of short
staple varieties and of the public gin
system became complete.

Though it would be considered foolish
for a large grower having a private gin
to plant several varieties and allow them
to become mixed, this is essentially the
procedure that is followed by members of
cotton-growing communities. It is true
that communities seldom own gins, but
gins are supported by communities, and
ginners as well as farmers would profit
through improvement in yield, quality
and market value of the crop. Better
ginning could be done, and with less
difficulty, if only one variety were
handled, instead of many kinds.

DETERIORATION OF VARIETIES THROUGH
CROSSING

The idea formerly entertained, that
cotton is not cross-pollinated, or that
crossing is very infrequent and not of
practical importance in relation to seed-
supplies, has proved to be erroneous.
Cotton pollen is not blown by the wind,
because the grains are sticky and ad-
herent, but is carried regularly by bees
or other insects that visit the flowers,
so that varieties growing in neigh-
boring fields are cross-pollinated, in ad-
dition to the general crossing that takes
place in fields where mixed seed is
planted. No matter how good the
original varieties may have been, a
mixed stock becomes, in a few genera-
tions, thoroughly miscellaneous and
mongrelized, with many abnormal and
infertile plants, very inferior to the
parental types.

The degeneration that results from
crossing no doubt is the basis of the

Cook: Cotton a Community Crop

popular idea that cotton varieties ‘“‘run
out” in a few years, and that “fresh
seed’? must be brought in from other
districts. But the fact is that locally
selected seed of good varieties has
proved better than imported seed, when
careful comparisons have been made.
Moreover, some of the best known
varieties have been grown continuously
in the same districts for many years,
with no indication of “running out,’’ as
long as isolation and selection are main-
‘tained.

A system like ours, that mixes differ-
ent varieties together and uses inferior,
mongrel seed as the basis of production,
no doubt would be considered very
backward if discovered in a foreign
country. Chinese farmers might be
excused on the ground of having no
select varieties to plant, whereas Amer-
ican farmers, although they have had
superior varieties developed, have not
learned how to maintain and utilize
pure stocks of seed. In this respect our
system must be considered defective and
wasteful, not only to the farmer and the
manufacturer, but to all who use cotton
for any purpose that requires strong or
durable fabrics.

EXTENT OF PURE SEED REQUIREMENTS

Full utilization of superior varieties is
possible only in one-variety communi-
ties, since it is only in such communities
that select, uniform stocks can be main-
tained and increased. The varieties are
not fully utilized unless they serve as the
basis of crop production over large
areas, and for many years. Utilization
does not begin until a variety is repre-
sented by enough pure seed to plant a
field of cotton, and the requirement of
pure seed is still the same when the
culture of the variety extends over
millions of acres. It is not sufficient
that an improved variety be adopted
by many individual farmers scattered
in mixed communities, because this does
not provide an adequate and continued
supply of pure seed.

There is no prospect of centralizing
the production of cotton seed in a few

communities or districts for supplying .

the entire industry. A vast quantity
of seed, more than 500,000 tons, is

175

needed for planting the American cotton
crop, whereas only about 30,000 tons
are handled by seed-dealers. On ac-
count of the relatively large size of the
seeds, the limited number produced on a
plant, the need of heavy seeding, and
the holding of reserves for replanting,
about ten per cent of the entire crop
must be of planting quality to afford a
general provision of good seed. The
cost of transporting the entire volume
of seed would be enormous, in addition
to the danger to the whole industry
through distributing insect pests or
plant diseases, or through failures of
crops in seed-supply districts.

THE SOCIAL FACTOR IN UTILIZATION
OF VARIETIES

If the utilization of varieties de-
pended upon finding a new chemical to
treat the seed or to fertilize the soil, or
upon devising a new machine for plant-
ing, cultivating or harvesting the crop,
the problem would appear normal, and a
solution could be sought along the usual
technical lines, but social factors enter
the reckoning when it is understood that
superior varieties of cotton can be utilized
only as they are preserved in one-variety
communities. Except through commu-
nity action there seems to be no ap-
proach to a general application of the
science of heredity or the art of plant-
breeding in the improvement of the
cotton industry.

That pure seed problems should be
considered by sociologists is as little
to be expected as that plant breeders
should study community organization,
but a common ground is reached when
the practical needs are recognized.
Breeders should value community co-
operation, while sociologists and econo-
mists, as well as teachers and agricul-
tural leaders generally, should take more
account of the biological factors that
determine the improvement or degener-
ation of varieties. To devise effective
methods of organizing and conducting
the activities of one-variety communi-
ties, in growing, handling and market-
ing the crop, and in maintaining the
purity and uniformity of the basic
stocks, are problems of as much prac-
tical importance as the original dis-

176

covery or breeding of the varieties, and
equally worthy of careful, scientific
study.

The problems of cooperation are the
field of research that needs most to be
cultivated at the present time, for the
general welfare of the cotton industry.
The technical problems, the breeding
of superior varieties, and the spinning
and weaving of cotton by machinery,
are much farther advanced than the
general commercial problems of hand-
ling, transporting and _ distributing,
which react directly upon production.
On account of the present scarcity and
acute demand for good fiber, the manu-
facturing and commercial interests are
recognizing the need of research, but
without understanding that improved
systems of buying and handling the
crop are as necessary as improved
varieties. Not only facts regarding
varieties and textile qualities of different
kinds of fiber, need to be investigated,
but the whole field of activities that
lies between the breeding of varieties
and the manufacturing processes.

ENORMOUS WASTE OF PRESENT SYSTEM

The damage to the industry that
results every year from the lack of
good seed and the resulting failure to
utilize fully the resources of production
must be estimated in the hundreds of
millions of dollars. Replacement of
our present inferior, mixed stocks by
superior, uniform varieties would give
a direct gain of at least ten per cent in
quality, and as much more in yield,
while another ten per cent might be
expected from the cultural improve-
ments that become possible in one-
variety communities. Advantages from
community handling and marketing of
a standardized product would not be
less important than the other items,
and pure seed can be sold above the
oil-mill prices. In returns to the farmer,
our present unorganized production
may have only a fifty per cent efficiency
as compared with what may be found
possible in well organized one-variety
communities. The general waste of
labor and resources of production in
the eastern cotton belt contrasts pain-
fully with the one-variety communities

The Journal of Heredity

of the Salt River Valley of Arizona
where the Pima variety of Egyptian
cotton is grown exclusively, and the
advantages of community organization
are beginning to be realized.

ONE-VARIETY COMMUNITIES MORE PRO-
GRESSIVE

Cultural problems are simplified in
one-variety communities. Effects of
different conditions of soils, seasons,
and cultural methods are learned, in-
stead of being confused with differences
in the characters of the varieties. The
most rapid progress in cotton culture is
now being made in the Salt River
Valley of Arizona, where only the
Pima variety is grown. Cotton pro-
blems are discussed with interest and
profit at farmers’ meetings because
everybody has had experience with the
same variety of cotton. Such progress
is not possible in communities where
different kinds of cotton are planted
and farmers ascribe their success or
failure to the seed.

With adequate understanding of the
behavior of one variety, methods are
adjusted more closely to differences of
soil, season and time of planting, and
labor is applied to the best advantage
in farm operations, preparing the land,
planting the seed, thinning and spacing
of the plants in the rows, cultivating,
irrigating, harvesting and handling the
crop. In weevil-infested regions it is
especially important that all the farmers
of a community grow the same variety,
plant as nearly as possible at the same
time, handle the crop together, and
clear the fields early in the fall. One-
variety communities develop skill, while
mixed’ communities suffer from back-
ward cultural methods as well as from
deterioration of varieties.

MARKETING A STANDARDIZED PRODUCT

The final advantage of one-varicty
communities is in marketing the crop.
In an unorganized community the
farmer who raises better cotton than
his neighbors usually is forced to sell
it at the same price to the local buyer.
The manufacturer pays more for the
high-quality fiber, but the difference is
absorbed by the buying trade, instead

Cook: Cotton a Community Crop

of being shared with the farmer.
The more valuable bales contribute to
the profit of buying and sorting over
the miscellaneous ‘“‘hog-round lots”
accumulated by local buyers, many of
whom do not know how to “class”
the cotton.

Failure to give the farmer practical
encouragement in his effort to improve
the crop is a serious defect- of the
present commercial system, but or-
ganized communities have a standard-
ized product, better than any of the
““even-running lots’”’ that can be made
by sorting and matching the inferior
fiber of mixed communities so that the
commercial problems are simplified.
Even in advance of formal organization
of communities, a distinct advantage
may be shown as the one-variety con-
dition is approached. The general popu-
larity of the big-boll type of cotton
in Texas has kept the crop more uniform
and given that State an appreciable
market advantage in comparison with
other parts of the cotton belt. Pre-
miums of $10 to $20 per bale, are being
paid in Texas and Oklahoma com-
munities because so many of the farmers
grow the Lone Star or Acala varieties
that buyers compete for the superior
fiber. Active campaigns for commuhity
standardization and marketing are in
progress in Texas, Oklahoma and North
Carolina.!

COMMUNITY CHOICE OF ONE VARIETY

No doubt it will be difficult and
sometimes impossible to get farmers to
agree upon one variety as the best for
their community, though too much
may be made of this obstacle. Even
a poor variety will give better results
with community handling than vood
varieties mixed together. An organized
community can change promptly to a

LNG

superior variety when a definite ad-
vantage can be shown. The Pima
variety was substituted for the Yuma
in the Salt River Valley in one season,
after a sufficient stock of seed had been
raised. Choice of varieties also is
limited at present by the fact that stocks
of pure seed are obtainable for only a
few kinds. The first one-variety com-
munities in each district will profit
especially by selling seed to other com-
munities. Pure seed sells as readily in
carload lots as in bushels or tons.
Community organization in the Salt
River Valley has made possible a rapid
extension of Pima cotton because a
larger supply of pure seed is available
than with any other variety.

EGYPTIAN COTTON COMMUNITIES IN
ARIZONA.

It is appreciated in Arizona that the
Pima cotton crop of the Salt River
Valley communities in 1919 returned
about $20,000,000 or nearly twice the
cost of the Salt River reclamation
project, including the Roosevelt dam,
electric power-plants, and irrigation
canals. The value of land suited to
cotton has doubled or trebled in the last
few years, some of it selling at $500
per acre. With reduced production in
Egypt and loss of the Sea Island crop
through the boll-weevil, the automobile
tire industry becomes acutely dependent
upon the Pima cotton raised by the
Southwestern communities. In the
spring of 1920 manufacturers are offer-
ing to guarantee a minimum price of
60 cents per pound, or to make con-
tracts at 80 cents a pound, so that a
very rapid extension of Pima cotton
may be expected, not only in the Salt
River Valley, but in the Yuma, Im-
perial, Coachella and San Joaquin
Valley.?

1Winters, R. Y., 1919, Community Cotton Improvement in North Carolina, Journal of the Amer-

ican Society of Agronomy, 2:121,.

2See U.S. Dept. Agric. Bul. 533, ‘Extension of Cotton Production in California,’
332, “Community Production of Egyptian Cotton in the United States.”

and Bul.
The community plan

in relation to cotton production was outlined in the Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. of Agric. for 1911,
pages 397-410, under the title ‘‘Cotton Improvement on a Community Basis.” Other papers
that discuss community features are U. S. Dept. Agric. Bul. 60, ‘‘Relation of Cotton Buying to
Cotton Growing,” U.S. Dept. Agric. Bul. 288, ‘Custom Ginning as a Factor in Cotton Seed
Deterioration,’’ U. S. Dept. Agric. Bul. 324, “Community Production of Durango Cotton in the
Imperial Valley,’ U. S. Dept. Agric. Bul. 742, ‘Production of American Egyptian Cotton,”’ and
Bureau of Plant Industry Circulars ‘‘Cotton Selection on the Farm by the Characters of the
Stalks, Leaves and Bolls”’ and “‘Tests of Pima Egyptian Cotton in the Salt River Valley, Arizona.”’

FRUIT CLUSTER OF THE CUMBERLAND BLACK RASPBERRY

This is a variety belonging to the species Rubus occidentalis. The black raspberries under
cultivation are natives of North and South America though other species occur in Asia.
(P 922.) (Fig. 17.)

ARE OUR RASPBERRIES DERIVED FROM
AMERICAN OR EUROPEAN SPECIES?

Geo. M.

DARROW

Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture

T HAS been the common supposition

of pomologists that most of our

cultivated red raspberries are de-

rived from American species. Va-
rieties from the European species have
been considered very susceptible to win-
ter injury while those from the Amer-
ican species have been considered very
hardy. Because varieties of red rasp-
berries commonly grown in this coun-
try have been moderately hardy they
were, therefore, thought to be derived
from the American species.

A brief review of the points of dif-
ference between the two species of red
raspberries which are the parents of our
cultivated varieties will show how er-
roneous this view is.

Rydberg" gives the following distine-
tions between the European and Amer-
ican species :

EUROPEAN SPECIES
Rubus idacus
(1) Plant not at all glandular—hispid....

(2) Stems finely tomentose when young..
(3) Peduncles and sepals tomentose

Card’ states that Rubus idaeus “is
stouter and less free in its habit of
growth, the leaves are a little whiter
beneath, thicker, and generally some-
what wrinkled and the canes are lighi
colored, bearing purple prickles in some
varieties. The prickles on the finer
parts are firmer, recurved, and less
numerous.” He also states R. idaeus
bears more or less throughout the sum-
mer and that it is susceptible to winter
injury.
*North America Flora, Vol. 22, Part 5.
*F. W. Card, “Bush Fruits,” p. 167.
*“Species Ruborum,” W. C. Focke, p. 209

Foche® makes but one species of both,
classing FR. strigosus as a variety of
R. idaeus. His distinctions between the
two, however, are similar to those of
Rydberg, but he emphasizes the fact
that while the upper part of the ma-
ture plants of R. strigosus is densely,
rarely sparsely bristly, the upper part
of R. idaeus is without bristles.

An examination of Rubus idacus
grown in this country under garden
conditions show that these distinctions
are apparently correct. As Rydberg
states, the plants are not glandular-
hispid, the stems. peduncles,» and
sepals are tomentose, the fruit is dark
red and thimble shaped. As Card
states, the canes are stouter, and less
free in habit of growth. The prickles
are firm, recurved, and less numerous
than the bristles of FR. strigosus. Some

AMERICAN SPECIES
Rubus strigosus
Plant glandular—hispid, especially in the
inflorescence.
Stems not tomentose.
Peduncles not tomentose,
tomentose.
Fruit light-red.
Fruit hemispherical.

sepals slightly

of the plants bear in the autumn,
though it may be that in the more
humid climate of northern Europe they
would bear still more in autumn. They
are more susceptible also to winter in-
jury than R. strigosus. As Focke
states, no bristles appear on the upper
part of the mature plants of R. idacus.

Examinations of the cultivated va-
rieties of raspberries known to have
been introduced from Europe confirm
this. (See Fig. 20.) Their. fruit is of

TaB_E II].—Horticultural Varieties of Rubus Strigosus Which May Have a Trace of Rubus Occiden-

talis in Their Parentage

Variety Origin | Hairs on peduncles | Tomentum Prickles
ss a ae = "
1 Barly erolitich | ansasaecne Glandulanw- are None...... Slightly. recurved.
2 Eaton (Idaho)...| Indiana...... Glandularene ee INONG sects | Slightly recurved.
MiKo ey reek peerebs cll nied: sapere eric ee Glandular sr J Nonermernr | Recurved.
*4 Mirenesste No. | Minnesota....| Glandular........ Slight | Recurved (King X
Loudon).
5 Minnetonka....| Minnesota....| Glandular........ None sere | Recurved.
*6 Ranere(St.Regis)} New Jersey...| Glandular........ INGnG ene | Recurved.
*/ Sunbeam). 2-25 South Dakota | Glandular........ Nowess. er} Recurved (Wild red X
| Shaffer).

a crimson color and not at all the light
red of our common wild red raspberry.
These varieties have been uniformly
susceptible to winter injury. Two va-
rieties only of all those known to have
been introduced from Europe are raised
to any extent—the Antwerp and the
Superlative—both of which are grown
in the mild climate of the Pacific Coast
while only one other variety of R.
idaecus, the Surprise of southern Calli-
fornia, is raised commercially.

When our other red raspberry va-
rieties are examined they show marked
differences in regard to the characters
distinguishing the two species. For ex-
ample, the King is very glandular-
hispid especially on the peduncles and
sepals; the stems and peduncles are
slightly or not at all tomentose; the
sepals moderately so; and the fruit is
bright red and hemispherical. On the
other hand, the Cuthbert is rarely
elandular-hispid, somewhat tomen-

ae: E. P. Roe,

“Success with Small Fruits,”

tose, and the berry is crimson and
thimble shaped.

The King seems to be a garden va-
riety of Rubus, strigosus. When we
examine the Cuthbert critically it does
not seem to belong wholly to either
species. On two occasions when plants
of this variety were found producing
autumn fruit, scattered glandular hairs
were found on the penduncles and
sepals. Otherwise they seem to be
lacking. The stems, peduncles and
sepals are more tomentose than JL.
strigosus though not as tomentose as
R. idaeus while the fruit is thimble
shaped and turns a dark red like that
of the latter species. It seems to be a
hybrid between the two species and this
determination is supported by the ac-
count of its origin given by Roe,‘ “This
is a chance seedling, which the late
Thomas Cuthbert found in his garden
at Riverdale, N. Y. His son has kindly
furnished the following facts: “The

p. 16

RED RASPBERRY FLOWERS

At the left in the upper row is shown a bud starting to open.

In breeding, emasculation

should be done just before this stage as the tips of the pistils show through sepals and

might receive pollen from other flowers.

opened and the ends of the pistils may be seen in the center.
petals are opening but no anthers have opened.
dropped and the anthers are shedding pollen.
before the anthers open, cross-pollination is very common in the raspberries.

raspberry in question was discovered
by my father about eleven years ago
(1865) in the garden of our county
seat at Riverdale-On-the-Hudson. It is
probably a seedling of the Hudson
River Antwerp, as it was found grow-
ing near the edge of a patch of that
variety, but its great vigor ot growth
and the size and quality of the fruit
marked it at once as a new and dis-

At the left in the lower row the calyx has

Below at the right the
Above at the right the petals have
Because the stigmas are receptive long
(Fig. 18.)

tinct kind.” Roe further states that
though the Hudson River Antwerp is
distinct from the Antwerp of England,
“Mr. Downing says that its origin is
known and that it was brought to this
country by the late Mr. Briggs of
Poughkeepsie, N. Y.” It is therefore
an European variety.

Thus it seems likely that the Cuth-
bert is a hybrid between Jt. idaeus and

181

FRUIT CLUSTER OF THE COLUMBIAN PURPLE RASPBERRY

This variety is supposed to be a hybrid between the Cuthbert red raspberry and the Gregg
black raspberry and is therefore a combination of the species Rubus (Idaeus x strigosus) x

occidentalis, (Fig. 19.)

Ine.

strigosus.

Europe.
Variety

il SMBUS Ds 2 od beso A Gado uK
Di BUCKeY eins mtonicie cian ars tte
8 “Basten King. ean. ein <u =
Ay Billbasketint ctw... «1

Gy Utazha(lorihicl imeem ster Gee ab
Cie le lis awit oaS Ae Oe arenes Oe

7 Ohio Everbearing 5

8 Perfection of Wisconsin

9 Red Merville......:...

10). Wa Brance(Cobb)i.%......0 w.

dl ESO StIStn wren es, Ne toe

12 CSORCHEtINers > see sere
PIS VOUupenlabivGonys cetripatr tyes
*14 Surprise......

US ON CACUSE otto knte y= renal eas

16 Wisbeck Perfection.........

The King is evidently
a variety of R. strigosus, while Ant-
werp, Superlative, and Surprise
varieties of R. idaeus introduced from

are
to

In the following tables the deriva-

tion of the varieties of our red rasp-
berries is given as far as it is possible
at this time.

The method

used to determine their origin has been:

Origin

Auropean.....

Ohio (?)

Maine So

European....

European.....

New York....

etle een eevee s ee a en

Wisconsin. ...

.| European

| European..
Kansas :

| European...

| European

Tomentum

Dense
Dense

Dense

None

Dense
Dense
Dense

Dense: . .. ya.
Dense......

Dense £ j
Dense......
Dense......

Dense...
Dense. .

Dense.

TaBLE III].—Horticultural Varieties of Rubus Idaeus

Leaves

Thick.
Medium to thick, fall fruit.

Thick.

Thick, fall fruit.
Thick.

Thick.

Medium to thick.
Thick.

Thick.

FRUIT CLUSTER OF THE BUCKEYE RED RASPBERRY
A variety belonging to the European species Rubus idaeus. (P 21063) Note that the berries
are thimble-shaped, not hemispherical like the berries of the species Rubus strigosus. (Fig. 20.)

TaBLE IV.—Horticultural Varieties of Rubus Idaeus X Strigosus.

Variety Origin | Hairs on peduncles | Tomentum Prickles
1 Crimson Beauty) Kansas........ Not glandular.....| None... ..| Long.
2a Guthbert ssi. ..: New York..... Very few glands...| Fine...... Recurved.
Sou Empire...) =o.) New York... Not glandular.....| Fine...... (Ruby X Coutant)
4 Erskine (Park). .| Massachusetts. | Not glandular.....| Fine......
*5 Golden Queen ..| New Jersey....| Very few glands....| Fine...... Recurved.
6 Hansell........| New Jersey....| Very few glands... .| Slight... .. Recurved.
Sm CL DONG tec z.sia:0.5 Canadaln s -tassre| INOPSANCS a crclo eve mee ine erga Recurved.
SSM ATIC cc alo «ie ae © New York..... No glands........ None..... (Loudon X Marlboro).
*9 Marlboro....... New York..... Very few glands...) Fine...... (Highland Hardy X
Seedling).

TABLE V.—Horticullural Varieties of Rubus Idaeus X Occidentalis

Variety Origin Tomentum Leaves

PADUA CALICO clinget ots visi crassa terans Mixchieaminn ait st-tas aie ine. soe Medium to thick.
Bee ISO Val cl. Paaye s svclatamvasies Rai aic| (mlb otabtsket Why aetiearpeuene: cise inGioe. = ates Thick.
BE SUAITOD-strc.cactahc ec ncl ce'ls wiael New Wiork. .<sats ae Bing os. Thick.

184 The Journal

First, an inspection of herbarium
material supplemented where possible
by observations of the varieties in the
field.

Second, a study of the history of
the variety.

While this method will be found
satisfactory in determining the origin
of most varieties, it cannot be ac-
cepted as final for some sorts. The
more accurate methods of the plant
breeder must be used to settle the
origin of doubtful ones. Hybrids be-
tween varieties representing both spe-
cies must be made; doubtful varieties
must be selfed, and at least an F, gen-
eration grown. For example, only the
results of breeding work can determine
just how the character of glandular
hairs is inherited. On most of the va-
rieties classed below as Rubus idaeus
strigosus hybrids, few or no glandular
hairs are present, yet in hybrids be-
tween R. occidentalis and R. strigosus
glandular hairs are abundant: also in
blackberry hybrids between a_ species
having glandular hairs and one without
them, the F, plants seem intermediate
in this respect. It may be that many
varieties are hybrids between FR. idacus
x strigosus crossed back on R. idacus
or R. strigosus. Such hybrids may
show but slight traces of one parent.

It is easy to note from the appearance
of fruit stems of typical members of
each of the species and hybrids betweeti
the species, that the contrast between
varieties belonging to the European an‘
the American red raspberry species is
very marked.

The prominent commercial varieties
have been marked with an asterisk (*)
Of these it will be seen that five varie-
ties (including those in Tables 1 and 2)
belong to Rubus strigosus, three to
Rubus idacus, six to Rubus idacus

of Heredity

strigosus, one to feubus ideaus X ocei-
dentalis, one to Rubus (;daeus & occi-
dentalis) X strigosus and one to Rubus
(idaeus X_ strigosus) XX occidentalis.
The black raspberries have not been
listed, as there seems to be no reason
to think that any of them are not hor-
ticultural varieties of Rubus occi-
dentalis.

Certain questions will at once sug-
gest themselves to breeders and pomolo-
gists such as:

1. Do the commercial varieties given
in Table 2 actually have Rubus occi-
dentalis in their parentage? These va-
rieties are known to be hardier than
any commercial raspberries in the other
groups except those in~Table 1 and
perhaps Herbert in the group of varie-
ties derived from RFR. Idaeus X_ stri-
gosus.

2. Should not varieties listed in Ta-
ble 2 be used in breeding sorts for
sections with severe climates?

3. All our purple raspberries seem
to have Rubus Tdaecus as one of the
parents. Should not hardy varieties of
Rubus strigosus be used as one parent
in future breeding work and a hardy
variety of Rubus occidentalis, such as
Older, be used as the other parent?

4. Why not try other European va-
rieties in the milder parts of the Pa-
cific Coast States as the varieties now
grown there are largely introduced
from Europe? The Royal Horticul-
tural Society of England recommended
in their “Selected List of Hardy
Fruits” the Devon, Wisbech Perfection,
Baumforth, Hornet, and for autumn
fruiting, Alexandra, and Surprise
d’ Automne. In addition Abundance,
3ountiful, Norwich, Profusion, and
Semper Fidelis (liked for jam making)
might be tested.

ILLUSTRATING THE STRUCTURE AND
MATHEMATICS OF THE HUMAN GERM-PLASM

Harry H. LAuGHiin, Sc. D.

Eugenics Record Office, Cold

N ABACUS is a very simple
piece of apparatus, while the
germ-plasm is very complex.
Still it is possible by such an
apparatus to illustrate the basic geog-
raphy of the chromosome, and also to
demonstrate the elementary mathemati-
cal principles involved in the segrega-
tion and recombination of genes.
The germ-plasm abacus consists es-
sentially in two rows of spools so
arranged that each spool has a definite

and homologous companion. There
should be as many spools in each string
as there are chromosomes in the
gametes of the particular species which
the apparatus demonstrates. Until

more is known in the case of man con-
cerning the shapes and relative lengths
of the individual chromosomes, it will
not serve any useful purpose to differ-
entiate spool-shapes in this simple
apparatus. Later it may be possible
to make each spool a model in shape
and relative size of the particular
chromosome which it represents, so
that in such case we would have a
much more perfect mechanical model
of the human germ-plasm.

The machine here pictured is built ot
one-half inch strips of wood; the sur-
face of the frame, without the handle,
measures 51% by 18 inches. The spools,
or chromosome-models, are made of
l-inch cylinders 1 inch long and
mounted on iron rods, so that they may
be turned or spun with ease, but each
has a catch which meshes into a notch
in the rod so that the spool is much
more apt to stop at an exact half-turn.
This notch-and-catch contrivance is

Spring Harbor, New York

convenient but is not essential, for
there are only twenty-four spools to be
spun, and after brushing or raking them
for the purpose of securing random or
chance assortment, the few small ad-
justments necessary to secure exact
alignment require only a few moments.

If there are twelve’ chromosomes in
each human gamete, then there are
twelve linkage-groups of traits in man.
The breaking-up of these groups would
be proportional to the rate of crossing-
over in gametogenesis. Whether the
genes for the particular twelve traits
indicated on this particular abacus lie
in separate chromosomes we do not yet
know. In future years the instructor
in genetics, in manufacturing a germ-
plasm abacus, will keep pace with the
erowth of knowledge of the linear
geography of the human gene, just as
he will of the shape and relative size
of the several chromosomes. But it is
useful and perfectly proper to present
this tentative arrangement, because the
traits indicated have been studied to a
considerable extent, and, so far as
known, none has been shown to be cor-
related with another here listed. But
by the laws of chance future knowl-
edge will prove several cases in which
more than one of this random list lie
in the same chromosome, and conse-
quently other chromosomes will be
blank so far as the present list is con-
cerned, but by linkage and crossing-
over studies the blanks will be readily
filléd by other genes properly located.

When two or more human genes are
demonstrated to lie in the same chro-
mosome, and their relative positions in

*Cytologists lave not yet agreed on the number of chromosomes in man. According to

von Winiwarter (1912) the diploid number is 47 in the male and 48 in the female.

Accord-

ing to Wieman (1917) the diploid number is 24 in both sexes, but one pair of which are the

idiochromosomes -ry.

(See also Guyer, Montgomery, Jordan, Stevens and Evans.)

185

‘ot
Unhibited
a

Not |
Chorerc
=

(Wo Musical Mt

hibitor || Musical ical,
wusycal)| |. ° 0 . her a
A LA I -“ ‘musician.

Hapsbure| :
“ip 8) Mother ~| Hapsburg
HA

AHyper-
Kihetre |\xibetne || xige “|| Axper:

Tylosis Tylosis
& T

Right-
hatded

Chromosomes of the fF, Zygote
are identical with the Germ-Plasm
carried by'the F, Soma.

AN ABACUS FOR ILLUSTRATING THE STRUCTURE OF ‘THE HUMAN GERM-
PLASM. (Fig. 21.)

Laughlin: Structure of Human Germ-Plasm

the chromosome are known, their sym-
bols may be inscribed in their true
linear relationship upon the same spool
in the germ-plasm abacus. Their
genetic behavior will then be auto-
matically demonstrated in manipulating
the machine in the usual manner. With
this understanding the tentative list
may well stand, but the fact that the
given assortment is arbitrary does not
destroy its teaching value in demonstrat-
ing the proven structure of the germ-
plasm, the mechanical principles and
mathematical possibilities in the segre-
gation and recombination of traits.

The following paragraphs describe
the features of this abacus and their
analogies in the human germ-plasm:

1. The curved surface of each spoo!
is divided vertically by black marks
into two equal areas, each of which
represents one of the two possible
chromosomes, either of which the par-
ent manufacturing them may contribute
to the F, zygote. One of these chro-
mosomes the said parent in turn
received from his or her father, and
the other from his or her mother.

2. The front face of each chain of
spools, in any combination, represents
the number and genic composition of
the chromosomes characteristic of the
gamete contributed to the F, zygote
by the parent proliferating it. If de-
sired one ‘‘chromosome-face” may be
labeled @ to indicate its paternal
origin and the other Q to show its
maternal origin.

3. The two sets of spools are in par-
allel and homologous position, as prob-
ably is the case with chromosomes just
before the formation of the equatorial
plate when the gametes fuse to make
the fertilized egg or zygote. But still
more definitely this parallel and
homologous position is exactly analo-
gous to the chromosomal situation dur-
ing para-synapsis, preceding the first
maturation division.

4. All of the potentialities of the two
parents in reference to their chromo-
somal combinations (barring crossing-
over and other special phenomena) are
here shown mechanically and may be

187

mathematically demonstrated by turn-
ing the spools into their several pos-
sible combinations.

5. With this apparatus one may give
a mechanical demonstration of the
three normal genetic types of parents,
and the consequent six types of Men-
delian matings in reference to a single
trait. The student examining the
abacus here shown soon finds that, so
far as breeding potentialities are con-
cerned, the F, male parent (the father)
is positively homozygous, that is, du-
plex in reference to traits C, H, T, and
R; the mother in reference to traits
X and H. The father is heterozygous,
that is, simplex in reference to traits X,
P, S, I, K, D; the mother to traits P,
O, I, K, R. The father is negatively
homozygous, or nulliplex, in reference
to traits g and o; the mother to c, g, s,
t, and d.

6. Let us next consider the possible
types of matings. The gene H for
the trait here shown in chromosome
g presents an example in Mendelian
Case’ 1 (DD* x DD = 100% DD:*)
Genes X and R here listed in chromo-
somes x and j, Case 2 (DD X Dr =
50% DD and 50% Dr.) Genes C and
T in chromosomes a and i, Case 3 (DD
rr — 100% Dr.) “Genes PR. 1e and
K in chromosomes b, f and h, Case
AT Dr >< Dr 25% DD S07 Dr
and 25% rr.) Genes S, O and D in
chromosomes d. e and k. Case 5 (Dr
x rr = 50% Dr and 50% rr.) Gene
g in chromosome c, Case 6 (rr X& rr
= 100% rr.)

7. In most bi-sexual species, the
cause of sex, so far as it has been
traced in the reverse order of onto-
geny, is found to lie in a chromosomal
difference in the zygote and gamete.
Sex-difference for the most part is the
principal somatic difference within a
species. It is therefore logical to ex-
pect a greater difference between the
chromosomes of a male-producing and
a female-producing zygote than will be
found to accompany any other con-
trasted traits within the same species.
In man the male is heterozygous, the
female positively homozygous. In the

188

accompanying apparatus the spools pic-
tured as representing the x-chromo-
somes are labelled to show the funda-
mental sex-plan, and other symbols are
added representing the presence and
absence of the gene for color-blind-
ness, which is known to be a_ sex-
linked trait. When the machine is
manipulated, it presents a correct
mathematical picture of the sex-ratio
and of the distribution of sex-linked
traits among the children of the par-
ents described on the margin.

This abacus does not demonstrate
all of the phenomena of bi-sexual
heredity, but it gives a correct struc-
tural and mathematical picture of the
basic properties of the human germ-
plasm. The pedagogical value of the
machine would be lessened if it were
made more complex. Rather than com-
plicating this device, other machines
should be contrived for illustrating such
special phenomena, for example, as
crossing over and non-disjunction.

8. In manipulating the machine, the
novice learns that in normal cases in
each egg or spermatozoon there is al-
ways a maternally or a paternally de-
scended chromosome (one or the other
of the two faces of a spool) represent-
ing each definite chromosome charac-
teristic of the gametes of the species.
Then in reference to the descent-com-
binations of two chromosomes, for ex-
ample, a and b, a given parent is capable
of producing four kinds of gametes.
In general the total number of descent-
combinations of chromosomes possible
in the gametes of a given individual is
equal to 2", in which n is the number
of chromosomes characteristic of the
gamete (that is the haploid number)
of the particular species. He learns
also that for each single pair of con-
trasted traits there are four possible

The Journal of Heredity

definite chromosomal combinations in a
zygote organized from the gametes of
two given parents. Thus barring cross-
ing-over and other special phenomena,
the number of possible chromosomal
combinations in the zygote which may
result from a particular human mating
is 4°. If the formula be generalized,
then the number of different chromo-
some-combinations possible among the
full brothers and sisters of any bi-
sexual organism, barring crossing-over
and other special phenomena, is 4", in
which n is the number of chromosomes
characteristic of the gametes of the
species.

9. If, when the machine is set for a
given F, zygote, the examiner turns it
over, he finds on the backs of the spools
the genes reciprocal or allelomorphic
to those found on their respective
fronts. In the case of the paternally
descended gamete, the reciprocal is an-
other possible spermatozoon, which by
chance was not used in making the F,
zygote organized as shown by the front
of the spools. This reciprocal gamete
has all of the genetic possibilities of the
male parent other than those which are
not contained in the spermatozoon
which actually entered the particular
F, zygote.

10. The case of the reciprocal of the
female gamete or ovum is somewhat
different, so far as ability to function
as an egg is concerned, but in the re-
ciprocal or allelomorphic nature of the
chromosomes and genes, the situation
is exactly parallel to that found in the
case of the male gametes. The cell
reciprocal to the ovum is the second
polar body,? and having the chromatin
composition in the nucleus required of
a perfect egg. would perhaps so func-
tion if its cytoplasmic composition were
adequate.

*In species in which the first maturation division consists in organizing two dyads of
exactly similar composition, the allelomorphs (that is the backs of the spools) of the

female gametes shown by this abacus

properly represent the second polar bodies. If,

however, the first maturation division results in two dyads of dissimilar composition, that is
one completely paternal and the other completely maternal in origin, the allelomorph of
the ovum as shown on the back of the spools presents a gene-picture of one of the two cells
resulting from the division of the first polar body. So far as this particular point is con-
cerned, this machine, because the back is in the appropriate place labelled “Second Polar
ody,” rather than “Polar Cell,” represents faithfully those forms in which the two dyads
are exactly alike.

Moral Qualities and Eugenics

11. Thus every parent, in reference
to a single trait, may contribute one
or the other of two genes, one of which
came down unchanged (barring muta-
tion) from his or her father, the other
from his or her mother. Of course, if
the blood is pure and these two genes
are alike, they cannot be distinguished
in their working-out in the F, soma.
This is the case with trait H in chromo-
some g, and trait g in chromosome c,
but this does not mean that the rules of
segregation and recombination have not
been just as active throughout as is
so easily demonstrated with the highly
contrasted genes and characters ot
mongrels.

12. In order to represent the con-
tinuity of the germ-plasm, let the F,
‘zygote be thought of as a_ parent.
Whereas the possibilities of the original
P, individuals of the abacus for a sin-
gle trait are shown by the two faces of
a single spool, now the possibilities of
the F, individual as a parent are shown
by the front faces of the two adjacent
spools, which are now held stationary.
Those genes whose symbols are indi-
cated on the backs of the spools have
been lost to the race in this particular

189

case. Thus not only the principles of
segregation, combination and continuity,
but also of elimination, are mechanically
shown. To every one of the descend-
ants of the F, zygote, one or the other
of the two chromosomes or genes-radi-
cal shown on the front faces of ad-
jacent spools will pass. If two of these
abaci are placed side by side, with the
spools stationary in one abacus to rep-
resent a parental male zygote, and in
the other a parental female zygote, the
situation may be used to demonstrate
the inbreeding of the F, generation, but
instead of spinning the spools the com-
binations for the F, offspring are made
by chance selection of either the right
or left (that is, either paternally or
maternally descended) face of the
front-turned spools in the stwo abaci.
By this process one may trace the
chromosomes and their component
genes from generation to generation.
The manipulation of this machine
gives not the whole story of human
heredity, but a clean-cut demonstration
of the geography* of the bi-sexual
germ-plasm and of its normal basic
mechanism and mathematics.

Moral Qualities and Eugenics

The Lancet (London, November 8,
1919) says: “Dr. I. M. McCaillie has
published certain results obtained by
this method (psychological tests) in the
American Army, and it is interesting to
note that a majority of cases of absence
without leave, desertion, confinement
to barracks, and reduction in rank occur
among men found to be below the
average of intelligence, as shown by
the tests employed, and the use of
psychologists to investigate the men-
tality of criminals might well have
fruitful results.”’

Any measurements of moral differences
among adult human beings are so rare
that notice should be taken by psycholo-

*See (a) “The Physical Basis of Heredity,” by T. H. Morgan. (b)

gists’ and eugenists of the results ob-
tained by Dr. McCaillie. They con-
firm the correlation of mental and moral
qualities found by Woods in royalty
(1903).4

There have been some scattering
figures obtained by persons who have
made studies of school children and par-
ticularly of delinquents in state institu-
tions, all of which support the notion of
mental and moral correlation.°

If morally superior persons are on the
average more liberally endowed men-
tally it means much encouragement for
the eugenists in their ideas for the bet-
terment of mankind.

“Are Genes Linear

or Non-Linear in Arrangement?” by W. E. Castle, Proceedings of the National Academy

of Science, November 1919.

4The correlation ratio was found to be r=.34+ .04, ‘Heredity in Royalty,’’ New York, 1906,

p. 259.

5 See JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, Feb., 1919, pp. 84-86.

A PHYSICAL CENSUS IN
ENGLAND AND ITS LESSON

Two-thirds of the Population Not Healthy

examinations of drafted men in

England for the first eight months

of 1918, show that ‘between
January 1 and August 31, 1918, the
number of medical examinations con-
ducted by National Service Medical
Boards in Great Britain amounted to
2,080,709. Of the two million men
examined not more than 36 or 37 per
cent were placed in Grade 1—that is,
approximately only one in every three
has attained the normal standard of
health and strength and was capable
of enduring physical exertion suitable
to his age; the remainder—more than
a million and a quarter—did not reach
this standard. The suggestion has
been made that the low proportion
of fit men among those examined
during this period was due to the fact
that only the leavings of the popul-
ation were under review. Analysis of
the records available, however, shows
that this is not the case, and that as
a fact the men examined constituted a
fair example of the male population
between the ages of 18 and 43 and a
smaller proportion of the more fit
between 43 and51. Weare told further
that the experience of the boards medi-
cally examining women for national
works corresponds broadly to that of
the National Service Medical Boards
examining men. Such evidence points
only too clearly to a deplorably low
state of health.”

In comment on the above the Editor
of the British Medical Journal makes the
following remarks:

“While it has not yet been possible
to work out the details of this great
mass of medical examinations, the pre-
liminary results indicate that prevent-
able disease is responsible for the bulk
of the physical disabilities, and demon-

? ‘HE RESULTS of the physical

1 Edit., Brit. Med. Journal, 1918, 348-9.
190

strate the ravages which industrial life
has made upon our real national capital
—the health and vigor of the population.
Too little food, too long hours of work,
too little sleep, too little play, too little
fresh air, too little comfort in the home
are evidently the chief factors con-
cerned in producing this mass of physical
inefficiency with all its concomitant
human misery and direct loss to the
country. To take effective measures on
the broadest lines to remedy this con-
dition of things is a most urgent duty.
Although real improvement can hardly
be expected for one or two generations,
the foundations of a better national
physique can be laid at once?.”’

It would seem that this editorial
writer in the British Medical Journal
does not see into the complexity of the
problem, or understand modern views
on heredity. In so far as these disabil-
ities are the result of a bad ‘environ-
ment, an improvement may be rightly
expected to accrue, and this change for
the better may be looked for at once,
not, as the editor supposes, after one or
two generations. Does this writer cling
to a belief in the inheritance of acquired
traits? But is it not conceivably pos-
sible that this physical deterioration is
m part due to an adaptability of man-
kind to a less brutal system of natural
selection than took place among our
primitive ancestors? Indiscriminate
charity and excessive altruism, to say
nothing of the inevitable and com-
mendable features of civilization, have
doubtless enabled the congenitally weak
to survive. Large portions of the popu-
lation are not healthy (Grade I in the
martial sense), but they are neverthe-
less healthy in sense of being able to sur-
vive and beget offspring. This feature
of the problem cannot be either denied
or ignored.—F. A W.

A SYSTEM FOR BREEDING CORN
OR GREGARIOUS ANIMALS

A. N. HuME
South Dakota State College and Experiment Station

URING the past three years, the

|e writer has attempted to con-

duct a corn breeding system

that should accomplish the three
following requirements :

(1) Insure continuous ear-to-row
selection for high yield by using ears
or remnants from tested rows.

(2) Insure direct cross-pollenation
between high yielding strains, thus
avoiding the usual ill effects of
in-breeding; with the use of a single
ear in each quarter of the plot for all
sire rows and detasseling all even-
numbered rows.

(3) Annual introductions of strains
from outside sources, through the even-
numbered detasseled rows of the breed-
ing plot.

The first of these attempted require-
ments is based upon the assumption
that some sort of selection is bound to
be the basis of progress in corn-breed-
ing. The second is intended to recog-
nize the principle that it is usually
desirable to secure the crossing of
strains that have previously been inbred
or at least closely bred. (Hybridiza-
tion Methods in Corn Breeding. Shull
—American Breeders Magazine, April-
June, 1910.) The third feature namely,
the introduction of outside strains,
conforms to the idea that “selection
is a sieve,” or at least it may be. There
can hardly be a practical reason why a
corn breeder should start with a given
number of mother ears, say ninety-six,
and assume that all determinants of
high yield are included within the
number originally selected.

Furthermore, the plan of introduc-
ing ears from outside the breeding plot
into the even-numbered detasseled
rows gives opportunity for testing the

yielding power of such introductions
before permitting them to mature pol-
len, and consequently makes it possible
to discard them entirely if they are
found unworthy, without contaminat-
ing the other “blood lines” of the
breeding plot. This idea conforms to
the earlier suggestion of Williams of
Ohio. The plan, or combination of
plans employed here is described con-
cretely in the South Dakota Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 186.

The writer would suggest that this
idea of making introductions into corn
breeding plots through the “dam lines”
ought to be extended. The chief rea-
son for adhering to the plan of dividing
the breeding plot into four squares of
twenty-four rows each (adapted from
Illinois Experiment Station Bulletin No.
100) is to secure a greater number of
relatively short rows and a relatively
large number of introductions into these
“dam rows,” and also to enable one
to plant all “sire-rows” in each quarter
with a single ear.

It is arbitrary enough to make four
quarters of a corn-breeding plot with
all odd-numbered rows in each quarter
planted from a single high-yielding ear,
and with all the twelve even-numbered
rows detasseled, with three new intro-
ductions among the twelve each year.
It works out conveniently.

The essentials of the plan of this
corn breeding plot might be adopted by
poultry breeders, who have a sufficient
number of birds to divide into four
pens, each with its quota of hens and
one male bird. The rule would be,
that all birds in all four pens should
be leg-banded and the hens faithfully
trap-nested and their egg records kept.

At the beginning of any given sea-

191

192

son, the cockerel for pen No. 1 would
be selected from the brood of the hen
with the highest egg record in pen No.
4. The cockerel for pen 2 would, in
like manner be the progeny of the hen
with the highest egg record in pen 3.
The cockerel for pen 3 would be select-
ed from the progeny of the hen with
the highest egg record in pen 1, and
the cockerel for pen 4, would be selected
from the progeny of the hen with the
highest egg record in pen 3.

With such an arrangement, introduc-
tions of new blood lines could be made
by the addition of one or more hens
to each or all of the four pens. Such
hens would of course be carefully num-
bered and their records kept, and in the
event they failed to make a worthy
record, they themselves and all their
progeny could be eliminated from the
flock by culling.

It is worth oft repeating that the art
of breeding will be most rapidly for-
warded on a general basis of rigid
selection with statistical records of

The Journal of Heredity

performance. The device here out-
lined, for corn, or poultry, may increase
interest and intensity of selection;
calling especial attention to the pos-
sibility of making introductions of new
blood lines in a systematic way through
the female side.

Another consideration in offering
this 4-parted system for breeding corn
or gregarious animals consists in its
adaptability to cooperation in breed-
ing work. For instance in poultry
breeding it may prove impracticable for
any given breeder to arrange four pens
as suggested in the foregoing. In
such a case it may be possible for four
poultry breeders each to arrange one
pen, and to so cooperate that all may
get the benefit of a systematic unit.
Such cooperation would inevitably be
beneficial to corn, or poultry, or sheep,
or what not; it would be a community
service along a specific line.

As such it is worth consideration by
various community advisers.

Race AND NATIONALITY, an inquiry into
the origin and growth of patriotism,
by John Oakesmith, D. Lit., M.A.
New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co.,
1919. Pp. 300. Price. $4.00.

Dr. Oakesmith begins by wiping up
the earth with authors who have held
racial differences to be the basis of dif-
ferences in national feelings. On the
whole, he makes a good job of this—but
then, he has picked out the extremists,
whose work was most vulnerable, for
his attack. “He concludes that “race,
as a constituent element in nationality is

a purely subjective emotion,” and then
builds up his own theory, which explains
nationality as “the common interests of
a people developed through generations
into a characteristic traditional culture.”
Few reasonable people will object to this
definition, and they will find much of
interest in the rest of the book, which
is largely devoted to illustrating, by the
case of England, the development of a
feeling of national consciousness. The
book is, however, marred throughout
by the absolute lack of a biological view-
point, and by a literary rather than
scientific treatment of the facts —P. P.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

May-JuNE, 1920

Von SLNO:5

CONTENTS

See Special Note Below.
The Colombian Berry, or Giant Blackberry of Colombia, by Wilson Popenoe.. 195

Environment and Breeding as Factors Influencing Milk Production, by An-

drews Cr WicCandlsh:, Siactatenee pers seca cea es meen Say hee Wrevesh' e ahye whovens 204
Heredity in Horses, by H. K. Bush-Brown............................. 215
A New Genetics Journal—‘‘Hereditas”....................0.00222205.. 227
The Menace of the Half-Man, by Seth K. Humphrey. : ; Sh iereeS
A Graft-Chimera in the Apple, by A. B. Stout... : ; 14233
Breeding Earless Sheep, by E.G. Ritzman................ Sa aweets

NOTE

The Journal of Heredity at the original pre-war price of only $2.00 ran into a
raise of fully 100% in the cost of its manufacture. The membership dues did not
cover the costs, and support was difficult to arrange for, but the necessary financial
assistance has been secured, and four bi-monthly numbers will now appear in quick
succession to complete Volume eleven (1920). The Journal will then resume its
regular schedule at the price of $3.00 determined upon by the Council last June.

Canadian members pay $3.25 and foreign members $3.50, the extra amount
being necessary to pay postage. Price of single copies 35 cents.

The next numbers will contain illustrated accounts of some of the most impor-
tant discoveries which have yet been made in this new field of science, and it is
hoped will satisfy those members to whom the long wait for the Journal has been
discouraging.

The interest in the subject of heredity is growing rapidly, and if each member
would nominate a few friends who are eligible the Association will be self-supporting
next year.

Application has been made for entry as second-class matter at the postoffice
at Menasha, Wisconsin. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the American Genetic As-
sociation. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted only upon request,
for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to author and to the JOURNAL
or HeReEpitTy (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, January 20, 1921

COLOMBIA’S GIFT TO AMERICAN PLANT BREEDERS

A Colombian Highlander Holding Up an Armful of the Giant Blackberry of the Rain
Forest of Fusagasuga

This remarkable species does not form compact bushes but sends up scattered shoots from
underground stems. It is half climbing in habit, its stems reaching to a height of ten
feet. At the base of each leaf is a pair of clasping stipules which distinguish it from other
species. The flower clusters (terminal racemes) rarely carry more than five flowers and
often only one fruit is set. In the photograph the berries are scarcely more than half
grown. Photograph by Wilson Popenoe, October 1920. (Frontispiece.)

THE COLOMBIAN BERRY OR
GIANT BLACKBERRY OF COLOMBIA

WILSON POPENOE
Agricultural Explorer, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction

HAT a fruit of such remarkable
I character as the Giant Blackberry
of Colombia should have re-
mained so long undiscovered to horti-
culture can only be explained by the
fact that it grows in a region remote
from the established routes of travel—
a region which has, until recently,
remained horticulturally unexplored.
So far as known, the species has
never been called to the attention of
the horticultural public. It was, how-
ever, brought to the attention of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture several
years ago by Dr. Frank M. Chapman
of the American Museum of Natural
History, who had observed the plant
during his travels in Colombia. The
services of Frederick L. Rockwood were
enlisted at Dr. Chapman’s suggestion,
and in 1914 a few plants were intro-
duced into the United States through
the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant
Introduction. These plants were ob-
tained by Mr. Rockwood at a spot
called El Pefion, on the road between
Sibaté and Fusagasuga, in the depart-
ment of Cundinamarca.

SEED AND PLANTS OBTAINED

Soon after my arrival in Bogota I
put myself in touch with Mr. Rock-
wood, and by him was directed to the
region in which the plant is found most
abundantly. I have been on the watch
for it in other parts of Cundinamarca
as well, and have thus been able
to gain some idea of its distribution.
I have obtained numerous photographs
of the plants, flowers and_ fruits;
botanical specimens of foliage and
flowers; and I have forwarded to
Washington a quantity of seed and a
limited number of strong young plants.
With this material in hand, it should
be possible to arouse the interest of

North American horticulturists in the
species, and to give it a fairly wide
distribution in those portions of the
United States where it seems to merit
a ‘trial.

VALUABLE MATERIAL FOR PLANT
BREEDERS

While the plant grows in Colombia
at elevations nearly ten thousand feet
above the sea, it must be remembered
that at four degrees from the Equator it
is not cold, even at such an elevation:
and there are no grounds for assuming
that the plant will be sufficiently hardy
for cultivation generally throughout
the United States. It does seem
reasonable to expect, however, that it
will be successful in the milder portions
of the South and West. The chief
interest of the species probably lies,
however, not in its value as a fruit for
widespread cultivation in its present
form, but in its possibilities when
placed in the hands of plant breeders.
A species of Rubus which produces, as
a wild plant, fruits two and a half
inches long by an inch and a half in
thickness, and these of fairly good
quality for eating, can not fail to
possess great interest to North Ameri-
can horticulturists!

DISTRIBUTION AND NOMENCLATURE

The species was reported by Dr.
Chapman from a region on the road
betwee Sibaté and Fusagasugé. While
it occurs elsewhere in Cundinamarca,
I have found no other region, as yet,
in which it is so abundant, nor in which
the fruits reach such large size.

Its distribution in the region between
Sibaté and Fusagasuga is limited to an
area bounded on the north by the
descent onto the sabana (plain) of
Bogota, and on the south by the abrupt

(*‘T ‘31q) ‘OZ6T 19901909 ‘vouadog uosit\\ Aq ydessojoyq ‘aurut

-19]ap 0} SIapsaig JWUR[q 24} 0} Ya] oq Jsnur Assoq sty} YIM Op AvuL UOTDaJes pue SuIpsaiq JeYM\ sedde sawosaq WIG NOTOD
d1[qndaa 1a}sIs ino Wot] 4413 sty] JO an]eA a]qIssod ay} ‘paonpo.d a1e A1junod ay} Ul Saltieg JSauy ay} JO AWIOs d19YM UOISa1 puNnos Jasnd
It pajoajoid uayA YSno1y} paioyUIM savy } Jo syuvjd zeYy} puv saysnq pi oy} Woy paxoid a1e Ady} Se Y}3Ua] UI SayouL HZ
dANSVAU S}INAJ [LNPIAIPUT $y Jey} ‘UOTRAT]INS JapuN JYSNo1q Useq 19AVU SUIARY ‘IUO PIM VP SI Ai10q S14} JeY} PIsaPISUOD SI FI UBY AY

aZIS TVANLVN ‘ANNA NVIGINOTOO AHL AO LAASVEA V

Popenoe: The Colombian Blackberry

descent of the pefion into the valley of
the Rio Barroblanco. This leaves a
zone about one mile in width, in which
the plant is found—a zone on the upper
edge of the escarpment, but not extend-
ing across the mountain tops onto the
slope toward the sabana. The region
is one of peculiar climatic conditions:
it is that upon which the clouds drifting
up from the lowlands of the Magdalena
valley impinge and frequently precipi-
tate their moisture, and it is thus kept
cool and wet throughout most of the
year. It is a region characterized by
tree-ferns, bamboo, begonias, several
melastomaceous and ericaceous shrubs,
Drimys granatensis, one or two species
of Berberis, and several species of
Rubus which sometimes cover the
ground over areas an acre or more in
extent.

EXTENT OF RANGE NOT KNOWN

Elsewhere in Cundinamarca I have
seen the plant, or learned of its exis-
tence, only on the western or south-
western slope of the range which rises
from the western edge of the sabana of
Bogota and falls away toward the
Magdalena valley. Mr. Rockwood has
recently reported the plant from Dentel,
north of Facatativa. So far as I have
observed, it is found only at elevations
between 8,000 and 10,000 feet; further
observations may, and probably will,
extend this range.

SPECIES PROBABLY Rubus roseus

Botanically I have not been able to
determine the species. No one in
Bogota with whom I have talked is
familiar with the botany of this genus,
and none of the local botanical works
to which I have had access describe a
plant which I can identify as this
species. The characters of the plant
seem to agree with those attributed to
Rubus roseus in a key to the Central
ard South American species of Rubus
which has been sent me by George M.
Darrow. They also agree rather closely
with those of Rubus macrocarpus,
except that the latter is many-flowered,

197

and I do not think this can be said of
the plant in question. Rubus roseus,
on the other hand, is said to produce
few flowers; its fruit is described as
“‘purple,’’ which is not exactly true of
the Colombian Giant Blackberry; yet
it would be easy for a slight mistake to
be made in this matter, and it seems to
me on the whole that the characters of
Rubus roseus, as given in the key, are
those of the plant under consideration.

The popular nomenclature of the
different species of Rubus in the
Bogota region is limited to a few terms
applied rather loosely. In general, all
of the species which produce fruits of
blackberry character are termed mora,
the correct name in Spanish for the
mulberry (Morus nigra) and also for
the fruit of the cultivated blackberry.
One or more species whose fruits have
large, hard seeds are termed mora de
poedra, or stone-blackberry, because
(I take it) their seeds are like small
stones (though one Colombian told me
it was because they grow in stony
places, which is not commonly a fact).
Several species whose fruits are of good
quality for eating, and are sold in the
markets of Bogota and other cities, are
called mora de Castilla, or blackberry
of Castile (Spain). The phrase de
Castilla is applied in Cundinamarca to
various products of the country; thus
there is a curuba de Castilla (Tacsonia
mollissima), no more a native of Spain
than the various species of Rubus to
which the term is applied. The phrase
de Castilla may, in fact, be taken to
mean that the product is one of the
best of its class. It is undoubtedly a
heritage from Colonial days, when the
best of everything was supposed to
come from the Mother Country.

The Giant Blackberry is termed by
natives of the Penon section mora, and
mora alone; though when pressed for a
more specific name they will sometimes
say it is a mora de Castilla, i.e.,. a good
mora. In Bogota the fruit is often
termed mora de Castilla, but this name
is applied to at least two other species
which are more common in the market
than the one under consideration.

198

AN ENGLISH NAME FOR THE BERRY

The species has, of course, no com-
mon name in English as yet. On those
few occasions when it has been men-
tioned in the United States, it has
usually been referred to as the Giant
Blackberry of Colombia. Since the
fruit is not black and the plant differs
in habit from the cultivated black-
berries of the North, I believe it would
be appropriate to introduce the species
into horticulture not as the Giant
Blackberry, but as the Colombian
Berry; thus doing honor to Colombia,
and at the same time identifying the
species permanently with its native
home, and distinguishing it from nu-
merous ‘“‘giant’’ blackberries which
have been and will be introduced into
horticulture in the United States.
The term ‘Colombian berry” is in
conformity with the nomenclature used
in this genus, in which we already have
loganberry, salmon berry, Northey
berry, and so on.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT

The plant, which does not form a
compact bush in most instances, but
sends up scattered shoots from under-
ground stems, is half-climbing in habit.
By proper training it could probably
be made to form a shapely bush, or at
least the canes could be so pruned as
not to require any support. In the
wild state, many of the canes grow half
erect, while others scramble over the
nearby vegetation. °

The stems reach a maximum length
of about nine or ten feet. Near the
ground they are commonly half an inch
thick, the diameter growing less toward
the upper portion of the stem. They
are light green in color, covered with
short glandular reddish hairs, and
abundantly armed with short, stiff,
very slightly recurved thorns broad at
the base.

A pair of leaf-like, clasping stipules,
about an inch in length and breadth,
is found at the base of each of the
leaves. The latter are normally tri-
foliate, and up to more than a foot in
length. The petiole is up to six inches

The Journal of Heredity

long, slightly grooved above, thorny
and hairy like the canes. The petiolules
of the lateral pair of leaflets are one-
fourth to one-half inch long, that of
the central or terminal leaflet one to
two inches long. The leaflets are
commonly oblong-ovate, elliptic, or
ovate in outline, subcrenate, three to
six inches long, cordate at the base and
acute to shortly acuminate at the apex,
bright green and very finely hairy
above, paler beneath, with fine hairs
only on the nerves. The leaf-margin
is dentateserrate.

The small, axillary or terminal ra-
cemes rarely carry more than five
flowers. Frequently a leaf-axil gives
rise to but one fruit, and clusters of
more than two are rare, and usually
terminal. The calyx is very prominent,
the petals obovate in outline, nearly
one-half inch long, and light rosy-
purple in color.

FRUITS OF REMARKABLE SIZE

The fruits vary from slender oblong
to broad oblong, ovoid, or cordiform in
shape, and at maturity are one to two
and a half inches long, by three
quarters of an inch to an inch and a
half in greatest breadth. In color they
are light crimson, tending to become
wine-colored when overripe. They
are composed of a large number of
relatively small drupelets surrounding
a large fleshy, succulent torus which
extends nearly to the apex of the
aggregate fruit, and at maturity often
separates from the drupelets, which
cohere loosely inter se. In transverse
outline the fruit is often four- or five-
angled. At maturity it is rather firm
in texture, not as juicy as most of the
cultivated blackberries, and of a pleas-
ant subacid flavor (quite acid until
the fruit is fully ripe) perhaps suggest-
ing that of the loganberry more than
that of the cultivated blackberries.

The receptacle or torus can be eaten
along with the drurelets, but when it
comes away readily it is often removed
before the fruits are eaten (as in the
raspberry), and fruits in this condition
are often sold in the market.

THE COLOMBIAN BERRY IN VARIOUS STAGES OF MATURITY

This remarkable Giant Blackberry first discovered by Dr. Frank M. Chapman of the
American Museum of Natural History on the road between Sibaté and Fusagasugé at an
elevation of 10,000 feet in the mountains of Colombia is beyond doubt the largest black-
berry yet discovered in the world. It will probably be tender throughout the greater part
of the blackberry growing regions of the United States but when the plant breeders of
America combine it with the hardy species it may add size and other characters to our
commercial varieties. Actual size photograph by Wilson Popenoe, October 1920. (Fig. 2.)

200

The ripening season is said to extend
through practically the entire year
but the principal crop matures in
October, November and December.
The fruits are perhaps more variable
in form than those of the cultivated
blackberries, and they also vary greatly
in size, due probably to environmental
conditions more than anything else.
I have found the largest ones on soil
that is very moist; on poor, dry land
they are usually small.

The impression of huge size which
one receives when viewing these berries
is due not so much to their length, as
to the fact that they are broader in
relation to their length than is common
with cultivated blackberries. The
largest specimens I have measured
were about two and a quarter inches
long, by an inch and a half in breadth.
Specimens of such large size are not
common, and indeed are rarely seen
among the fruits brought into the
Bogota market. I have, however, seen
a number of such fruits on the wild
plants at El Penon, produced by canes
growing in what could almost be
termed a peat-bog.

FLAVOR RESEMBLES LOGANBERRIES

Among Colombians, the fruit is not
so popular for eating as that of some of
the other wild species of Rubus which
also grow in the vicinity of Bogota.
This is due to the fact that there are
other species whose fruits are more
juicy and less seedy than those of the
Giant Blackberry. The latter are,
however, brought into the Bogota
market in small quantities, and fetch
a good price. They are perhaps better
if eaten when fresh, with sugar and
cream, than they are when stewed;
but it is not common to see them served
in this fashion. Usually they are
stewed in syrup to form a dulce which
is served as a dessert. When boiled
they become somewhat tough, but they
have a rich, delicious flavor resembling
that of stewed loganberries.

CULTURAL REQUIREMENTS

Brought into cultivation under favor-
able climatic environment, it seems

The Journal of Heredity

reasonable to believe that the Colom-
bian berry will attain much greater
size than that reached by fruits borne
upon wild plants in the Andes. If it
should attain a length of three inches
or more, with its proportionate
breadth, it would probably stand
unique among cultivated species of
Rubus so far as size is concerned. Its
quality is sufficiently good so that I
believe fruit produced by cultivated
plants would find a sale in North
American markets, where its huge bulk
would be certain to attract attention.
It will, however, be desirable to im-
prove the species by selection or other
methods of plant-breeding: the size of
the drupelets in relation to that of the
seed may well be increased, the flavor
may perhaps be made richer and more
aromatic, and the proportionately
large size of the torus should certainly
be reduced. These are all changes
which can probably be effected by
means of selection alone. There is,
also, the possibility of obtaining valu-
able new fruits of large size by hybridiz-
ing this species with some of the
cultivated blackberries or allied species
of the genus Rubus. It will be desir-
able to improve the productiveness of
the plant by some means, in order to
make its cultivation commercially
profitable. Likely, however, much
can be done toward this end by proper
pruning, an operation of much impor-
tance with many members of this genus.

PLANT PREFERS MOIST, COOL CLIMATE

As to the climatic requirements of
the plant, it would appear from its
occurrence in Colombia in a limited
area of particular climatic conditions,
that it is exacting in this respect. It
is entirely possible, however, that it
can be made to succeed under natural
conditions considerably different from
those of its native home, if given the
proper cultural treatment. This can
only be determined by experiment.
Judging by conditions in the Penon
section, and in general throughout the
territory in Cundinamarca in which
the plant occurs, one is perhaps
justified in predicting that the Puget

(‘¢ ‘BI) ‘OZ6T 49q0390 ‘aouedog uos]ij\ Aq ydeisoj0oyq “Soq-jvad v poattiio} oq Jsoulle
pynoo yey ur Surmois soysnq Aq poonpoid 919M puNnoy szinay Jsosivry ayy, *Arsaquesoy ayy sj]sossns JI 1OARY UT “UOJ PIA
v SI} Jey} Uo}IOS10] aq Jou Ysnw 71 YNq 9B1Y] st 9109 ay} PUL ‘981P] JOY WLI 91v Spoos dy} ‘Satiaqyor|q payeaAjno ysour sv Aoin{
sv jou si] ‘advys ur paysuv uaqjo are pure prosq 347 Aq suo] sayour %Z a1 sassy] oy], “ad 1119A0 UaYM pat 9UIM BUIODAq 0}
Sulpuo} UOstul19 wy3t] AI SPINY S$} 1O[OO ur YSnoy ye Assoqyoryq Juris esi yy ‘Asaqynwu sy} 0} ystueds ur parjdde wi193 ve ‘pow
Ajasou payjeo Suraq ‘a. ATjouNsIp Ayn.13 St yoryM suvIquIojoD ayy Suowe aureu ou aavy 0} sivadde yy “MOET “JA ‘0a*5) Aq paqisos
-ap snasod sngny 0} poyejas Ajasoyo Aj[eorue}Og SI} “*Pl1OM ayy JO a1ngpNo1VI0Y ay} 0} SI 71 3413 asOYM ArjZUNOD ayy JO 1ON0Y UT
AMMA NVIAINOTOD 24) 3 aueu 07 djeridoidde st jy ‘satoads 19y}0 AroAd WO.1y JUdIOYIP St PIQUIOJOD Wor Ar19q PIM sty L,

SATaaad «oNVIGINOTOO,» FO HdVYOOLOHd AZIS TVNLOV

202

Sound region is the most likely place
for it in the United States. Perhaps,
however, the frosts will be too severe
for it in that region: temperatures as
low as the freezing-point probably
never are experienced in the native
home of the species. But this does
not, of course, prove that it can not
withstand any frost. All such matters
can be determined only by trial.

It may be taken as evident, I think,
that the plant wants a moist soil, and

The Journal of Hereaiy

a good chance of success, though the
climate is hotter in summer and colder
in winter than that of its native region.

It should be mentioned, though the
inference will already have been made
from these notes, that the plant is
never cultivated in Colombia, hence
no information is available here re-
garding cultural methods. In the
Giant Blackberry of Colombia we
have, in fact, a species taken directly
from the wild, and possessing, in this

condition, far greater economic value
than the wild prototypes of many of
our cultivated fruits.

that it prefers a motst, cool climate.
It should be tried on the sandy loams
of the Gulf States, where it has perhaps

NOTE

I cannot refrain from adding this note to Mr. Popenoe’s most interesting account of the
Colombian berry, for should it or its hybrids ever become valuable fruits in America, the circum-
stances of its introduction may be of interest to many people.

Upon the return of Colonel Roosevelt's expedition to South America in 1914, the National
Geographic Society entertained him in Washington at a dinner party. I was a guest at the dinner
and was seated between Dr. Frank M. Chapman and Mr. George K. Cherrie, both of whom had
been in Colombia. I affected in my conversation with these explorers to be greatly disappointed
over the fact that the Expedition had brought back no seeds or plants of any kind which could be
grown in America and become later a living tribute to the sacrifices which the men who formed it
had undergone—something which would last long after the stuffed animals had crumbled into
dust. In defense of their, to me, indefensible position or for the purpose of making me still
more ‘‘excited’”’ over the situation, Mr. Cherrie reached across the table and, picking up a small
glass, remarked that he and Chapman had seen a blackberry in Colombia, years before, a single
fruit of which would fill it. The standing of these scientific men was such that I could not be incred-
ulous, and I proceeded to try to get seeds and photographs of it through correspondence with Dr.
Chapman’s friend, Mr. Frederick L. Rockwood. Through one cause or another his attempts failed
to reveal any blackberry quite large enough to substantiate their stories.

In March, 1918, I met Dr. Chapman and somewhat skeptically asked him to give me again
the dimensions of the Giant Blackberry. Dr. Fuertes happened to be present, and, as he had seen
the fruit, as well as eaten it, Chapman referred me to him, and immediately he drew for mea pencil
sketch from memory of this remarkable blackberry. It was so large that I must confess it taxed
my credulity a good deal, and every time I met Chapman I mentioned its incredible size. In
June of 1918, Cherrie and I happened to meet again, and to defend himself against my attacks of
incredulity, he also drew an outline of his remembrance of the berry. While there is room for
discussion still in regard to the actual size of the largest specimen which is to be discovered in
Colombia, I think these actual size photographs of Popenoe’s, which correspond closely with
Cherrie’s sketch, but are somewhat under the dimensions given by Chapman and Fuertes, so
vindicate the correctness of the Giant Colombian Berry as told by these three eminent scientific
explorers as to deserve special mention in connection with this, the first publication of a horticul-
tural account of the species.

Davip FAIRCHILD
Agricultural Explorer in Charge, -
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction.

A YOUNG COLOMBIAN BERRY BUSH IN ITS NATIVE HOME

This remarkable giant blackberry is found only in a narrow zone at 8,000 to 10,000
feet altitude where the clouds drifting up the Magdalena valley drop their moisture and
keep the temperature cool and moist throughout the year. It isa region where bamboos,
begonias, and tree ferns luxuriate and approaches more nearly in character the summer
climate around the Puget Sound or the Golden Gate than any other in America. The
soil on which this bush is growing resembles that of a peat-bog. Photograph by Wilson
Popenoe at El Pefion near Sibaté, Dept. of Cundinamarca, Colombia, October, 1920.
(Fig. 4.)

ENVIRONMENT AND BREEDING
AS FACTORS INFLUENCING
MILK PRODUCTION

ANDREW C. MCCANDLISH
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa

ILK is the one indispensable

human food and its consump-

tion has a direct bearing on the
welfare of the nation. The problem
of the dairy farmer is to furnish milk
to meet the needs of the people and at
the same time realize a fair profit from
it. The demand for milk and dairy
products is increasing as the population
of this country is increasing more
rapidly than is the number of dairy
cattle. More dairy cattle are needed,
but, what is of even greater impor-
tance, better cows are needed. Cows
of higher producing ability will not only
increase the available supplies of dairy
products but they will give more
economical production.

EXPERIMENTS WITH SCRUB COWS

In an effort to demonstrate the
possibilities of improving a herd of
poor cows, work with a scrub herd was
undertaken at the Iowa Agricultural
Experiment Station in 1907 and is still
being pursued. A number of scrub
cows were purchased in an isolated
region of Arkansas and brought to
Iowa.

These animals were very inferior,
being as far removed from the ideal
dairy type as it is possible to get and
were apparently of very low produc-
ing capacity. So far as was known no
purebred bulls had previously been
used in the section from which the
animals came. The experimental ani-
mals had always been allowed to rustle
for a living, being forced to subsist on
the rather scant supply of grass and
hay available. Nothing was known
of their previous milk production as
their sole function had been to supply
a little milk for family use and to raise

their calves until they were able to
forage for themselves.

PLAN OF INVESTIGATION

These scrub cows and their heifer
calves were put in the Iowa Experi-
ment Station herd and given the same
feed and care as the purebred dairy
cattle maintained there. The condi-
tions under which the animals have
been kept have remained fairly uniform
during the twelve years’ work.

Accurate records of the milk and
butterfat production of these animals
have been kept and with their aid the
animals have been fed according to
their production. The keeping of these
records throughout the lifetime of the
original animals of the experimental
herd gave a basis for the determination
of the influence of environment on the
production of milk and butterfat.

The scrub cows were mated to pure-
bred sires of the Holstein, Guernsey,
and Jersey breeds and the heifer calves
resulting from such matings were
maintained under the same conditions
as the other animals. The heifers by
purebred sires were bred to other
purebred sires of the same breed and
the heifer calves resulting from such
matings were also kept for dairy pur-
poses. Records are now available on
two generations of grades descended
from the scrub cows and one animal
of the next generation has just entered
the milking herd.

In comparing the records made by
cows at different ages it is necessary
that an age allowance be made as the
maturing of a cow has a considerable
influence on her producing ability.
For this reason all records of the scrub
cows and their descendants have to be

A specimen of the ene herd with which the work of improvement was begun at the lowa E)
ment Station in 1907. This @ rd pe the first year at the station was 2742.1 pounds

SCRUB COW NO. 6 THREE YEARS LATER
The scrub cows at the Station were given the same feed and care as the purebred dairy cattle there.
After three ye , this cow produced 5556.7 pounds of milk and 244.79 pounds of fat, an increase
over the first year’ s record of 2814.6 pounds of milk and 113.75 Sai of fat. (Fig. 6.)

SCRUB COW NO. 60
This cow's average production has been 3313.2 pounds of milk and 178.47 pounds of fat. (Fig. 7.)

A HALF-BLOOD JERSEY, NO. 241, FROM SCRUB COW NO. 60 ABOVE

The record of production from this cow has averaged 6137.9 pounds of milk and 349.42 pounds of
fat. (Fig. 8.)

THREE-QUARTER BLOOD JERSEY NO. 348 OUT OF HALF-BLOOD JERSEY NO. 241

This cow’s average production is 5366.9 pounds of milk and 278.7 pounds of fat. “The scrub cows
were mated to purebred sires of the Holstein, Guernsey and Jersey breeds, and the heifer calves
resulting from such matings were maintained under the same conditions as the other animals.
The heifers by purebred sires were bred to other purebred sires of the same breed, and the heifer
calves resulting from such matings were also kept for dairy purposes.” (Fig. 9.)

calculated to the mature basis in
accordance with a scale obtained from
a study of 10,000 records.

TaBLe J|.—Percentage of Mature Production
Expected of Immature Heifers

Age %
Garis arytensin hele Sierceleishore reise quate 70
Mw O-VEAt~ Old Sir. wayne bee cat = coe. 80
MMAKEE-VCAT“OlGS «caves nate feseuere ate abe ahs 'ons 85
Out V.Car-OldS Wine c. craw sii ten arcade 95

The factors studied in this investi-
gation are of a very varied character
and it is necessary that the material
relative to each factor be considered
separately.

INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT

Of the scrubs that were brought to
the station a few were not of producing
age, while of those that had reached
producing age two were four years old

TaBLE II: Production of Cows That Were Four Years Old on Arrival at the Station

Average Production Increase in Production
Lactation Age Milk Fat Actual Expected
No. Years Ibs, Ibs.
Milk Fat Milk Fat
% % % %
1 + 3084.6 149.24
2 5 3984.4 178.97 29 19 5 4
3 6 4618.1 217.79 50 46 oe} 6
4 7 4907.7 229.91 59 54 10: 8
5 8 4224.0 197.59 37 32 12 9
6 9 1991.3 84.76 —35 —43 10 7
7 10 2862.5 133.70 —7 , —10 9 5
8 11 2296.2 93.83 —26 —36 5 1

SCRUB COW NO. 33
Average production 4338.5 pounds of milk and 183.49 pounds of fat. (F

HALF-BLOOD GUERNSEY NO. 87 OUT OF SCRUB COW NO. 33
Average production 4213.1 pounds of milk and 179.72 pounds of fat. (Fig. 11.)

McCandlish: Environment and Breeding 209

_ THREE-QUARTER-BLOOD GUERNSEY NO. 236 OUT OF HALF-BLOOD GUERNSEY NO. 87

The average production of this cow has been 6345.7 pounds of milk and 320.16 pounds of fat.
“Records are now available on two generations of grades descended from the scrub cows, and one

animal of the next generation has just entered the milking herd.”

and the remainder were mature, that is
they were over five years of age. The
behavior of those three groups under
improved conditions is of interest.

The animals that were four years of
age on reaching the station produced
an average of 3,804.6 pounds of milk
and 149.24 pounds of butterfat during
their first lactation period, and with
good care and liberal feeding they
increased steadily in production until
at seven years of age they were yielding
4,907.7 pounds of milk and 229.91

(Fig. 12.)

pounds of butterfat, or 59% more milk
and 54% more fat than they did during
their first year at the station. An
increase of only 10% in milk and 8% in
fat yield was expected as the result
of the maturing of the animals and
consequently, the greater portion of
the increase secured must be attributed
to environmental factors. After seven
years of age the decrease in production
due to advancing age was quite notice-
able—a condition which was expected.

TABLE III: Production of Cows That Were Mature on Arrival at the Station
Average Production Increase in Production
Lactation Milk Fat Milk Fat
No. Ibs. Ibs. % %
1 3790.9 183.84 |
I} 2874.0 133.50 —24 —27
1 | 2841.1 141.60 | —25 23

SCRUB COW NO. 56

luction 3874.6 pounds of milk and 192.62 pounds of fat. (Fig."13.)

HALF-BLOOD HOLSTEIN NO. 77 OUT OF SCRUB COW NO. 55
Average production 6955.5 pounds of milk and 266.25 pounds of fat. (Fig. 14.)

THREE-QUARTER BLOOD HOLSTEIN NO. 233 OUT OF HALF-BLOOD HOLSTEIN
NO. 77

Average production 13366.2 pounds of milk and 497.9 pounds of fat. (Fig. 15.)
TABLE IV: Average Production of Scrub Cows
Average Increase in
Production Production
Group No. of | No. of |—
Cows Lacta- Milk Milk Fat
tions lbs. % %
Mature Cows...... 5 15 3168.7 153.64
Four-year-olds ..... 2 15 3597.7 166.36 8
MALSIEETS slat steistaee ees of 28 4036.1 191.21 27 24
TABLE V: Two Generations of Scrubs Compared
Dams Daughters Increase in
— | : Production
Average Average
Production Production
No, of — ——_ No. of
Cow | Lacta- Milk Fat Cow | Lacta- Milk Fat Milk Fat
No. | tions Ibs. Ibs. No. ions Ibs. Ibs. % %
7 3 2366.2 138.20 59 1 3746.9 179.79 58 30 :
8 3 2339.5 124.35 58 3 3034.5 152.54 30 23
31 7 3463.3 167.95 60 6 Sole 178.47 —4 6
Aver. 13 2969.3 151.05 10 3273.9 170.83 10 13

212

The cows that had reached maturity
before coming to the station all de-
clined in production after their first
year even though getting better feed
and care than they had been accus-
tomed to previously. It can not be
stated, however, that good feed made
no improvement in their case as it is
undoubtedly true that their records
at the station were better than any
they previously made under adverse
conditions, but they were unable to
increase in production during their
later years at the station as advancing
age brought about a decrease that could
not be prevented by good feed and care.

When the scrub cows that came to
the station after reaching maturity
are compared with those coming at
four years of age and those coming
before first freshening, it is noticed
that those arriving at four years of age
produced 14% more milk and 8%
more fat, while those coming as heifers
produced 27% more milk and 24%
more fat than did the older animals.
This shows that the younger an animal
is when subjected to good treatment
the greater is its response.

In other words environmental con-
ditions, or feeding and general care,
have a considerable influence on the
milk and butterfat production of cows,
and the younger animals are when
subjected to a certain set of conditions
the more readily will they respond.

USE OF SCRUB SIRE

Records are available for three cows
and their daughters by a scrub bull,
and though this is too limited a number

The Journal of Heredity

upon which to base definite assertions,
certain inferences are justified. Two
of the dams were mature on reaching
the station while the other was a four
year old. Consequently, though the
calves received good feed and care from
birth, the dams were under favorable
conditions for only a limited period of
their lives.

The heifers by the scrub bull pro-
duced on the average 10% more milk
and 13% more fat than did their dams,
and considering that these heifers were
grown out amid surroundings much
more favorable than those which their
dams were subjected to at a similar
age, it must be assumed that the in-
crease obtained was due, not to the
scrub bull but to the feed and care the
heifers received.

A scrub bull will sire scrub offspring
and no improvement in the production
of a herd of milking cows can be
obtained where such a sire is at the
head of it.

USE OF PURE BRED SIRES

A number of grade animals sired by
purebred bulls and descended from
the scrub cows have now completed
records. These will be studied in two
groups—the first generation grades, or
those carrying 50% of the blood of one
of the recognized dairy breeds, and the
second generation grades, or those
carrying 75% of the blood of one of
those breeds. The only way to deter-
mine correctly the value of a bull is to
compare the records of his daughters
with those of their dams though there
are difficulties connected even with

PaBLe VI: Average for First Generation Grades and Their Scrub Dams
Dams Daughters Increase in
Production
Group =|

No. of|No. of} Milk Fat |No. of|No. of} Milk Fat Milk | Fat

Cows |Lacta- Ibs. Ibs.. |Cows |Lacta-| Ibs. lbs. % %

tions tions

Holstein 4 19 3406.2 168.74) 4 18 6444.4) 265.92} 89 58
Guernsey 6 35 4186.0 | 189.39) 7 20 4899.8} 240.96] 17 27
Jersey 3 20 4046.7 194.11 3 9 4833.4} ~265.88|] 22 34
Average 9 47 3968.6 185.66) 14 47 5497.8 Dhsloensva | arch!) 37

Averages for Two Generations of Grades and Their Scrub Ancestors

TABLE VII:

McCandlish: Environment and Breeding 213

'
) ont |
a1 5 Bee |maol|o
2 < & — a
ase
Saeoes
2 Sal +N Ne)
ie) ts a
o|7z ESS S| Sib
eke ls
refed eat
a 13 oo
29135 oes wine |
= Ss — on™ +
215.8
= Prat a SAS
en eee aS ton |
a = oOo Oo }]w
—_
enn —
‘Ss HAD | 20
2B INnDsN | +m
a= 09.00.00 | rm
cae | 6
2 SS
Doe) Sos aaah
s os : =
ct = 3 onnm |
on a om~mwm | 0
S i
3
ne!
=. —1 |
U oa”
= -9 5 | ArmN|O
rs 2 85 =
ages
= |
Sp
ae muon N
pos bee
C+tS/m
a erslia
a 2 nawsla
2 ~aa | 6
NNN N
wv amw ~
n mo —-mo |
ne a mts | +
3) == mot | a
= Ot |
on
=) Sa
a ong mon oO
689 }/45 9
25%
Sv
fae moO N | 00
ZO
onan So
ray Own | +
ase =e :
BS |SS8R |.
SSS
aso|lo
ir oO sh ~
ia} ~AQD | +
n Pa Oo s# oD co)
S cate |
a
Q a
Onn
-p Ee | omm
ey Sey || SRO
as
=
ow
z
6.0 ON ~
ZO
S ees
2 Lah oa
c) a58| 5
rOnesies 4
nae

this method as will be shown later.
This method can not be used for the
purposes of comparing breeds as all
bulls were not given equal opportuni-
ties to demonstrate their abilities as
sires of producers.

FIRST GENERATION GRADES

All the first generation of grades
sired by a purebred Holstein bull
showed an increase over their dams in
milk and butterfat production. The
increase varied from 38% in fat and

79% in milk to 68% in fat and 121%
in milk while on the average it was an
increase of 89% in milk and 58% in fat.

In the case of the first generation
of Guernsey grades an even wider
variation was noticed. It varied from
a decrease of 31% in milk and 23% in
fat, due to the use of a poor bull, to an
increase of 107% in milk and 112% in
fat yield. The Guernsey first grade
group contained animals that showed
the greatest increase and also the
greatest decrease in fat production
from their dams. The average in-
crease-in yield was 17% in milk and
27% in butterfat.

The first grade Jerseys showed varia-
tions in production as compared with
their dams that varied from a decrease
of 19% in milk and 3% in fat to an
eaeeae > of 85% in milk and 96% in
butterfat. The averse increase in
their case was 22% in milk and 34% in
fat production.

All of the first generation grades
when taken as a group showed an
increase of 39% in milk and 37% in
fat production as compared with their
dams.

SECOND GENERATION GRADES

The grades of the second generation
ranked high in production, producing
on the average 375.81 Ibs. of fat per
year as compared with a production of
261.93 Ibs. by their first grade dams
and 182.40 lbs. by their scrub grand-
dams. In every case the production
of the second generation grades was at
least 50% greater than that of their
scrub grand-dams.

The average increase in production
for the second generation Holstein

214

grades as compared to their scrub
grand-dams was 174% in milk and
130% in fat; the increase was 72% in
milk and 94% in fat in the case of the
Guernsey grades; and for the Jersey
second grades it was 59% in milk and
64° in fat production.

The average increase in production
for the second generation of grades,
when all breeds are combined, was
116% in milk and 106% in fat pro-
duction—a real tribute to the value of
the purebred dairy sire.

In the work that has so far been
completed at the Iowa Station on the
grading up of a scrub herd of milking
cows it has been shown that environ-
ment and breeding are very important
factors in determining the production
of dairy cattle. Good feed and care
will increase the yields of milk and

The Journal of Heredity

butterfat but in order that the best
results may be obtained from these
factors the cattle must be subjected to
good treatment early in life. Animals
that are poorly fed and stunted during
the period of their development will
not respond to good feeding when they
reach maturity as readily as_ will
individuals which have been liberally
fed during the formative period of
their lives. The fact that a high aver-
age increase in production was obtained
in the case of first generation grades
and that the second generation of
grades produced more than twice as
much milk and butterfat as did their
scrub grand-dams thoroughly vindi-
cates the use of the purebred dairy sire
for the development of high producing
cows.

A Text Book of Biology

LABORATORY DIRECTION IN PRINCIPLES
oF ANIMAL BrIoLoGy, by A. Franklin
Shull, with the collaboration of
George R. Larue, Alexander G.
Ruthven, Peter O. Okkelberg, and
others. Pp. 81. New York, Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Co., 1919.

Shull’s biology is welcome because it
treats of the general principles of
biology, rather than merely with de-
tails of morphology,—although an ade-
quate amount of the latter is included.
No text-book can be letter-perfect, but
this one includes a large amount of
valuable material, with little that is
objectionable. Not all geneticists will

accept the definition of genetics (p. 239)
as a science dealing with the production
of minor features of the organism and
the laws that govern their occurrence.
Heredity is defined (p. 256) as “‘the
occurrence, in the offspring, of the same
genes that were in the parents,’’—a
definition that some will consider
narrow. But the general outlines of
the book are so good that it is unneces-
sary to criticise details, which the
teacher will! deal with according to his
own ideas. The text-book is accom-
panied by a laboratory manual, which
ignores genetics as a_ subject for
experimental study.—P. P.

A Conventional View of Anthropology

AN INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY:
a general survey of the early history
of the human race. By the Rev.
Be Onemecmpauetie in Grs.anntGan
of St. Peter’s, Limehouse. Pp. 259,
price 7/6. London, Macmillan &
Gos, etd 1919:

All of the conventional ground is
covered by Mr. James in this volume.
He presents no new points of view,
but has been content to gather together
time-tried material, mixing it with

some rather tenuous speculation about
the daily life of our remote ancestors,
and coloring it with numerous refer-
ences to the tenets of orthodox Chris-
tianity. The book is not a notable one,
but gives in convenient form a lot of
material with which the reader or
student taking up anthropology must
become familiar. It will perhaps be a
good introduction to more detailed
study, or an interesting piece of reading
for one who desires merely a general
survey of the field.—P. P.

HEREDITY IN HORSES

Why the Arab Horse Has Shown Such Conspicuous Ability for Endurance in the
Recent Long Distance Tests!

H. kK. BusH-BRrown
Washington, D. C.

horse in long distance tests calls

the attention of the public, and
especially breeders, to the genetic value
of the thoroughbred blood.

I use the word here in a general
meaning and not as applicable solely
to the group of registered race horses
known as the ‘English Thoroughbred.”
In order to be specific let us state the
anatomical differences of recognized
types of horses, which perhaps will
explain why the Arab is such a good
weight carrier and capable of endurance
under hardship.

To begin with, the Arab’s head is
smaller and broader, his nose finer, his
eye larger and more prominent and
alert. His head is articulated onto the
neck at a more obtuse angle than other
horses. (See Fig. 16.)

His chest is broad, giving plenty of
space for heart and lungs, and his ribs
are well set out from the spine, giving
a relatively large space for carrying the
viscera.

The bones of his legs are clean and
very dense as compared with other
horses and less liable to defects from
hard usage. He stands with all his
four feet under him, and with straight
hind legs. The osselets are small and
the dewlap usually wanting or vestigial.

4 BES: recent success of the Arab

THE ARAB’S SHORT BACK

These differences are sufficient to
mark the Arab as a separate family
among horses, but the five lumbar
vertebrae instead of the six common to
all other horses seem to place him in a
separate species. As this difference is
now recognized by leading anatomists,
it may be of importance to those

interested to see some illustrations
demonstrating these differences. This
shortness in the back is usually in the
lumbar vertebrae five instead of six,
but it occasionally appears in the dorsal
instead.

Figure 17 is a photograph of the five
lumbar vertebrae of the pure Arab
Stallion Nim» whose sire and dam were
only one generation from the desert
and whose skeleton is in the Museum
of Natural History in New York.

Figure 18 shows the six lumbar ver-
tebrae of the famous thoroughbred
horse Lexington whose skeleton is in
the National Museum in Washington.

There is here a peculiar atavistic
tendency shown in the angle of the
spine of the one next to the sacral
group, it being thrown backward
instead of forward as though it would
be one of the sacral vertebrae and thus
leave only five in lumbar like the Arab
ancestors. This, however, would have
made too many sacral.

I have already published? a long
series of these to show that all other
types of horses have twenty-four verte-
brae in the back except the Arab which
has twenty-three, but it is no longer
necessary to convince any one of a fact
so well established.

VARIATIONS IN SOME TYPES

The skeleton of the imported Arab
stallion Haleb in the National Museum,
Washington (not yet mounted), has six
lumbar vertebrae but only seventeen
dorsal vertebrae, so the shortness of
his back is maintained although it is
found in the forward section instead of
in the lumbar, the usual place for it.

| The writer is indebted to Mr. A. H. Chubb of the Museum of Natural History of New York

for many courtesies and cooperation.
Arabs and Norway ponies.

Also to Mr. Warren Delano for his research breeding of

2 Horses and Horse Breeding, by H. K. Bush-Brown, American Breeders Magazine, Vol. II,

Nos. 2 and 3.

216 The Journal of Heredity

SKELETON OF A PURE ARAB HORSE
Showing the obtuse angle of the head to the line of the neck with “‘Hogarth’s line of beauty”’
superimposed. This set of the head is recognized by breeders as an essential element of beauty.
(Fig. 16.)

SKELETON OF THE PURE ARAB HORSE “NIME”

The chief difference in the anatomy of the Arab from that of all other horses is that it has but fix
lumbar vertebrae while all other families of the horse have six. This difference in structure probably
explains why the Arab, though small in size, is capable of carrying great weight and possesses
such marvelous endurance. ‘The sire and dam of Nime were only one generation from the desert.
The skeleton, reproduced above, is now in the Museum of Natural History, New York. (Fig. 17.)

Bush-Brown: Heredity 1n Horses 217

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE OF “LEXINGTON,” THE FAMOUS THOROUGHBRED

The Thoroughbred is a breed of horses descended from the Arab. The skeleton of Lexington, in
the National Museum at Washington, shows six lumbar vertebrae. The sixth vertebra inclines
backward instead of forward and is reduced in size, and has intermediate characteristics
lumbar and partly sacral.
ancestors. (Fig. 18.)

‘ s—partly
This shows an atavistic tendency toward the five vertebrae of the Arab

ie fe B
; eel ;
as Pe oe ee
ee

This racer has a longer back than the Arab. ‘

Hogarth’s line of beauty” is shown well in the neck.
(Fig. 19.)

The Journal

of Heredity

THE ASS, LIKE THE ARAB, HAS ONLY FIVE LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

The skeleton reproduced above is that of a hinny whose sire was a stallion with 24 vertebrae (6

lumbar) and whose dam was a jenny

with 23 vertebrae (5 lumbar).

The fact that this hinny

has only five lumbar vertebrae shows the tendency of the dam to dominate the anatomy of the foal

in horses. (Fig. 20.)

I am rather insistent on having the
dorsal and lumbar vertebrae all
counted, not only on account of this
Arab specimen in variation from the
true type but also because in the
Museum of Natural History there is a
skeleton of a wild horse of Asia, the
Prejevalsky, and also one of a Kiang,
each with 19 dorsal and five lumbar
vertebrae, making the twenty-four.
These are considered merely individual
variations, the first lumbar having de-
veloped ribs instead of the usual
lateral flanges. A superficial observer
might class them with the short back
of the Arab because of the five lumbars.

Similar individual variation has been
found in a work horse and a Shetland
pony, each with nineteen dorsals and
six lumbars. Also a Grevy Zebra had
eighteen dorsals and seven lumbars.

SHORT BACK A RECESSIVE CHARACTER

As the Thoroughbred, which is prac-
tically all of Arab blood as his name
indicates, never has the short back of
the Arab, so far as I know, it seems
evident that the short back is not a
dominant character. (See Fig. 19.) I
have found it to be dominant only in
the first generation of outbreeding when
the outbreeding is on the male side.
That is a pure Arab mare bred to a
trotting stallion produced a foal with
five lumbar vertebrae (Museum of
Natural History specimen).

The weight carrying capacity of the
ass has been known for all time and,
he, like the Arab horse, has the short
back of five lumbar vertebrae.

A jenney or female ass bred to a

stallion produced a-hinny which in-

Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses

219

SKELETON OF “‘OBED”

The sire and dam of Obed (Boaz Clay and Ruth Clay) were each from a pure Arab mare (Naomi)

and trotting stallion (Young Jack Shepard).
vertebrae. (Fig. 21.)

herited the five lumbar vertebrae of the
dam (see Fig. 20). The sire and dam
of Obed were each from a pure Arab
mare and trotting stallion, and there
seemed a chance that Obed would have
five lumbar vertebrae, but he had six
(see Fig. 21) with the eighteen dorsals.
This shows the recessive character of
the short back.

A curious case of atavism is illus-
trated in the skeleton of McKinney, a
trotting stallion, registered number
8818, whose skeleton is in the Museum
of Natural History. He was grandson
of George Wilkes, and therefore seven
generations from the pure Arab Grand
Bashaw, his nearest Arab ¢ncestor.

He developed solid ribs .on the
lateral processes of his first lumbar
vertebra. Fig. 22 shows the 17th or
last dorsal vertebra, giving his short
back of 23 in all, but his solid rib was

Obed, however, had six instead of five lumbar

his 18th, thus having the full 18 ribs.
This is important as it explains a like
tendency in a foal skeleton from a pure
Arab mare and a Norway sire with 17
dorsal and six lumbar vertebrae. (See
Figure 23.)

If this foal had lived he would
probably have developed two solid
ribs like McKinney as he had one rib
already attached to his first lumbar,
and its mate was probably in process
of formation.

McKinney shows by the record that
he was a great producer of speed, having
sired 31 in the 2:10 class and the dams
of 15 in the 2:10 class, while his own
record was 2:1114. His dam was Rose
Sprague by Governor Sprague, another
great producer.

His anatomy shows he was ribbed up
like an Arab with only the width of two
fingers between the last rib and the hip

220 The Journal of Heredity

MCKINNEY, A TROTTING STALLION

McKinney was a registered trotting horse No. 8818, seven generations from the pure Arab Grand

Bashaw.

vertebra and lateral processes of the first lumbar vertebra developed into ribs.

bone. With a saddle on, I believe he
could have carried weight and endured
long distance. Whether such cases
of atavism are common in the trotting
horse family I do not know, but in those
particular cases they ought to be able
to do the work of the Arab. I believe
they are very rare. ‘‘Nancy Hanks’”’
was apparently of this build.

WHY THE ARAB CAN ENDURE LONG TESTS

What do these facts mean to the
breeders of horses? Refer to Figures
20 and 23, and one other specimen in the
Museum of Natural History. These
are three examples of a short back
mare being bred to a stallion with 24
vertebrae and the product in each case
having the short back of the dam.
This seems to indicate the dominance
of the dam over the anatomy of the
foal.

His skeleton (in the Museum of Natural History, New York) shows the 18th dorsal

(Fig. 22.)

I think most breeders believe that
proportion and anatomy have a rela-
tion to speed performance, and if it is
so, the above dominance of the dam is
borne out by the fact that the success-
ful breeders have paid especial atten-
tion to the quality of the dams, and
those who have not shown such good
judgment have not been successful.

Just why the Arab horse is the best
weight carrier among the equines is
simply because the bridge of his back
is shorter between supports and there-
fore stronger.

The other anatomical differences
mentioned in the first part of this
article enable him to carry relatively
more food for a long journey and
therefore he can endure privation
better than a horse who has less ‘‘dinner
basket’ capacity. Consequently it is
quite natural for an Arab Horse to win

Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses

i)
to

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE OF A FOAL
A similar tendency to that shown in McKinney in Fig. 7 is illustrated in this skeleton of a foal
from a pure Arab mare and a Norway sire. Here is shown the 17th dorsal vertebra and one partly
developed rib. The gristle attachment would no doubt have ossified in a short time, and the other

floating rib may have been lost in dissecting.

the tests for long distance under
service conditions similar to those of
the Army, for he is especially built for
that purpose.

Since the unit character of a short
back seems to be recessive except in the
purebred Arab, it quite completely
explains why the thoroughbred horse
is so different anatomically although
he is a product of the Arab by long and
intelligent breeding, chiefly from male
Arab ancestry.

As his name implies he is ‘‘thorough-
bred’ from the Arab and yet in no
instance that I know of has he devel-
oped the twenty-three vertebrae in the
back. Therefore to maintain the Arab
type, it must be kept scrupulously
pure, and this justifies the custom
among the Arabs in tracing their
horses’ pedigrees through the dam.

(Fig. 23.)

Of course the power of transmission
of inheritance is not confined to the
anatomical structure alone. The Thor-
oughbred is the best horse for a
short distance for which he has been
especially developed, and he has cour-
age and intelligence perhaps equal to
his Arab ancestry.

LAWS OF HEREDITY SHOULD BE CLOSELY
STUDIED

The facts here assembled seem to
show that the laws of heredity can be
pursued with great advantage by a
more thorough study of variability in
the anatomy of the horse, especially in
outbreeding of the pure Arab with the
kindred types of different anatomy—
a real field for genetic research. This
field needs a policy to be pursued by a
group of men who can follow the

i)
i)
ie)

The Journal of Heredity

“RAMLA,” THE FIRST TO FINISH LONG DISTANCE TEST

This pure Arab mare completed the 300 mile test in 1919 from Fort Ethan Allen, Vermont, to
Camp Devens, Mass., in 57 hours and 2614 minutes, and received the perfect condition mark ol

50, and 92.9% for total performance.

research in a well defined way covering
a long period of time, and when the
older research workers drop out, new
men can follow, and so ultimately bring
to light a lot of information that can
now be seen only obscurely.

If these facts do indeed lead into a
comparatively unexplored field, is it
not worth while to go further? I would
suggest that each year the fastest run-
ning horse and the fastest trotting
horse be photographed and measured
by the system I showed in an article
some years ago in the American
Breeders Magazine on the proportion
of horses.

Every best producer of speed of both
sexes should be similarly subject to
study and at intervals, when a famous
horse dies, his skeleton be prepared for
study.

(Fig. 24.)

These separate types of the horse
having specific anatomical differences,
give the breeder an opportunity to
study the relative influence of the dam
and the sire on the anatomy of the
offspring.

I know of no other family of mammals
where a better opportunity exists, and
only by the collection of many speci-
mens can the processes of nature be
understood.

If we could establish some more laws
of heredity in horses they would be
applicable to all mammals to a great
extent.

The breeding of small animals for
genetic research has been more attrac-
tive because the generations require less
time for results, and for this reason the
horse has been much neglected.

Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses 223

“KINGFISHER,” SECOND IN LONG DISTANCE TEST

Kingfisher is three-fourths Arab and one-fourth Thoroughbred. He completed the long distance
test in 53 hours and 21 minutes and received the condition mark of 48, and 88.8% for total merit.
It was this horse that Col. Tompkins of the U. S. Army rode into Mexico in the expedition in 1916,
covering a distance of 575 miles over heated deserts and cold mountains. (Fig. 25.)

FUTURE OF THE HORSE

In spite of the general use of the
automobile, the horse has a place in the
world, though perhaps a less important
one. For long distance travel over
ground that wheels can not follow and
as a safeguard for the future we must
preserve the best of the higher types.

The Arab, more than any other horse
has the prepotent power to stamp his

good qualities on his descendants for
many generations.

So long as the supply of gasoline
keeps up we can dispense with many
uses of the horse, but if for any reason
that supply falls below the needs, or
is interrupted, the commerce of the
world will be in need of horses beyond
the capacity to supply, and the world
will recover its horses only slowly.

The Journal of Heredity

“KHEYRA,”’ A PURE ARAB MARE
Finishing third in the endurance test; her record was 52 hours and 37 minutes, with a condition

mark of 25 and a grade of 72.4% for total performance.

Therefore those who preserve the best
types we have are saving for the
future the means of regeneration which
will save mankind from the disaster
that would be, if the oil wells fail to
supply all the power the world needs.

THE ARMY DISTANCE TEST

The long distance test from Fort
Ethan Allen, Vermont to Camp Devens,
Mass., a distance of 300 miles, was
ridden between Tuesday, October 14,
1919 and the following Sunday, Octo-
ber 19, the horses doing 60 miles a day
for five days, with a quarter mile dash
on the sixth day to test condition.
There were 14 to start and eight to
finish, all in good condition—six sound
and two slightly lame. Most of the
horses starting the test were: eight
Arabs, four Morgans, and two grade
thoroughbreds. Those finishing were
six Arabs and two Morgans.

(Fig. 26.)

In the 14 mile dash on the sixth day
to test fitness, the 34 bred Arab mare
Halcyon (Fig. 27) was first, the Arab
mare Kheyra (Fig. 26) second, the
Arab mare Ramla (Fig. 24) third, the
7g Arab Kingfisher (Fig. 25) fourth, a
Morgan ‘“‘Castor’’ fifth, and the Arab
“Crabbet”’ sixth.

The performance of this mare ‘‘Hal-
cyon”’ in the whole test is most remark-
able as she had weaned her colt only a
few weeks before and was again in
foal. She is the same mare who won
second place in the broad jump in the
International tournament for cavalry
horses held in Madison Square Garden
a few years ago, and was the only
American horse to take a prize in that
event.

Halcyon is the dam of Kingfisher
who was placed second in the Endur-
ance test. Kingfisher, it will be
remembered, carried Col. Tompkins

Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses 225

ji >

“HALCYON,” THREE-FOURTHS GRADE ARAB, CROSS-BRED

eae ER

mn age

Halcyon finished fourth in the long distance test; time 53 hours and 45 minutes, condition 50, and

total performance 71.3%.

She is the dam of ‘‘Kingfisher’’ who finished second.

“Her breeding
g

is a good example of the value of selecting dams with careful judgment.” (Fig. 27.)

on his forced chase after Villa from
March 15 to April 12, 1916, a distance
of 575 miles across the heated desert
and over the cold mountains of Mexico,
carrying his rider with officer's pack and
his own grain rations. His forage was
what he could get on a tether at night,
and he was in good condition for the
three hundred miles that followed.
It is worthy of note that the dam of
“Halcyon” was ‘Heiress’ 144 Arab and
Thoroughbred, under 15 hands, who
won the high jump at the Crystal

Palace in London in 1897. Her sire
was the famous desert bred Arab
“Maiden” who was the unbeaten

steeple chase horse of India and after

twelve years of campaign in Egypt won
many flat races in France.

As “Halcyon” is inbred to this
stallion, it was to be expected that she
would give a good account of herself
when put to a long distance test.
Her breeding is a good example of the
value of selecting dams with careful
judgment.

BEST CONCLUSIONS FAVOR ARAB

I have drawn the conclusions which
seem to me to be indicated by the facts
from all the data available. It may
be that there are not sufficient data on
which to base conclusions. I have
asked for cooperation from breeders

226

everywhere in assembling more data
covering a long period of time.

This long distance test itself, perhaps
some may contend, is not conclu-
sive because the trotting horse was not
represented and the thoroughbred rep-
resented only by some grade animals.
Then, let other tests be given and in-
clude long backed horses. If they can
stand conditions required for carrying
weight long distances, we can change
the conclusions after that fact has been
established.

The Diamond Ranch of Wyoming
has for a generation been breeding the
long distance thoroughbred horses and
they are known very favorably in the
army, but none of them have been in
these long distance tests. Similarly
the Mustang, or western pony, is
known for his weight carrying ability
and endurance. Can he make good in
these tests, and to what extent has he
the short back of his Arab ancestors
who were brought to this country by
the Spaniards?

NATIONAL INTEREST IN HORSE CONTESTS

Ever since the wild horse was do-
mesticated, that is before man had a
written history, the racing of horses
was one of the sports of man. The
trotting horse race was developed by
the American people with its distinc-
tive type of horse that has endeared
himself to the heart of man and gone
conquering all over the world.

The Army Horse Association was
organized for the purpose of making a
national sport of the long distance
horse test. The country has been
divided into fifteen zones so as to have
a “horse country’ with a 300 mile
defined course in each zone. The New
England horsemen have adopted zone
No. 1 and have ridden it two successive
years with marked results.

The way to serve our country in
time of peace is to make a national
sport of the long distance weight
carrying horse and to do it with a
scientific spirit of finding out the best
types without favor to any one type
or man’s prejudice. Only in this way
can we collect the necessary informa-

The Journal of Heredity

tion of what the type is and where and
how to produce it.

By making a sport of this kind of
racing, the type will result just as the
thoroughbred and the trotter are sepa-
rate types to fill the needs of two kinds
of racing.

THE ARMY TEST OF 1920

Since the preceding part of this
article was written the endurance ride
of 1920 has been concluded and the
results seem to have more than justified
what has here been said of the Arab
horse.

Five racing Thoroughbreds were
carefully prepared at great expense for
this ride. One was withdrawn the day
before the race. Of the four entered,
only one finished, and he was eighth,
receiving no money reward and hada
condition mark of only 25 out of a
possible 50. Five grade Thoroughbreds
were entered; two were army mounts,
and they finished in first and third posi-
tions getting 40 and 35 for condition.

Of Arabs and their derivatives, ten
started and five finished. Three were
among the money winners, getting
second, fourth and fifth places, and one
was the only horse to have 50 on condi-
tion—a perfect mark. Another tied
with a Morgan at 45 on condition—the
second highest mark. One purebred
Arab made the best time for single days
on the fourth and fifth days, namely
60 miles in eight hours flat, and eight
hours and a little over, not including a
noon stop, beating all records for dis-
tance and the weight carried. It was
also an Arab that came in first on the
last day.

TESTS A FIELD OF SPORTSMANSHIP

It was these facts which justified
one of the judges in saying that the
Arabs could have taken the first place,
if they had not been held back by their
sportsman owner who, apparently,
wished to give other horses a chance, by
which means long distance rides will
be encouraged as a national sport.

There were two Standard bred horses
in the race and they were dropped on
the second and third days.

Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses

Of the Thoroughbreds that were out
of it, there was one on first day, three
on the third day and one on the fourth
day and one on the fifth day.

The Morgans did a little better. Of
the six entered, two finished in sixth
and seventh places. Of those that
were dropped for fatigue, one was on
the third day and three on the fourth
day.

The summary is as follows:

STARTING $

Thoroughbreds: 5 registered and 5
grades
Arabs: 5 registered and 5 grades
Morgans: 5 registered and 1 grade
Standard bred trotters: 2
FINISHING

5 Arabs and derivatives, 50 percent
of starters
3 Thoroughbreds and derivatives,
33 percent of starters
2 Morgans, 33 percent of starters.
Thus it may be seen, that of the 28
to start, ten finished.

227

This endurance test goes far to jus-
tify the statement that breeding race
horses for a fast mile does not produce
horses for long distance. Endurance
requires a type bred for endurance.

One might as well ask a running
horse to trot a fast mile or a trotting
horse to run a fast mile as to put these
horses in an endurance test to carry
two hundred and fifty pounds on their
backs sixty miles a day for five days.

Let us make a national sport of this
type of endurance horse in the interest
of better horses for the army and breed
an endurance type.

The first, second and third horses in
this contest were of the Hunter type
which is well recognized, but some
breeders claim it is not a reproducing
type. If these contests are continued
and horses bred for the type demon-
strated to be the best, it can be made
reproducing just as the Standard trot-
ters are now a reproducing type
derived from Thoroughbred founda-
tion.

A NEW GENETICS JOURNAL

EREDITAS, a new journal for
H the publication of original re-
searches in genetics, appears in
its first issue under the auspices of the
Mendelian Society in Lund, Sweden.
H. Nilsson-Ehle, president of the
society, has associated with him on the
editorial committee Herman Lundborg,
Nils Heribert-Nilsson, and Gustav
Thulin.- The editor of the journal is
Robert Larsson, Adelgatan 7, Lund,
Sweden.

Papers will be published in either
English, French, or German, and it is
expected that three numbers of the
journal will be issued yearly to make
up a volume of 350 pp. The contents
of the first issue follow: _

H. Nuitsson-EHLE: Uber Resistenz

gegen Heterodera Schachti bei gewissen
Gerstensorten, ihre Vererbungsweise
und Bedeutung fiir die Praxis~—H.
LunpBorG: Hereditary Transmission
of Genotypical Deaf-Mutism.—NILs
HERIBERT-NItsson: Zuwachsgeschwin-
digkeit der Pollenschliuche und gestérte
Mendelzahlen bei Oenothera La-
marckiana (With an English sum-
mary).—HANs TEDIN: The Inheritance
of Flower Colour in Pisum.—EMANUEL
BERGMAN: A Family with Hereditary
(Genotypical) Tremor.—Hans_ Ras-
MUSON: Uber einige genetische Ver-
suche mit Papaver Rhoeas, und Pa-
AKERMAN:

paver laevigatum.—A.
Speltlike Bud-sports in Common
Wheat.—J. Rasmusson: Mendelnde

Chlorophyll-Faktoren bei Allium cepa.

THE MENACE OF THE HALF-MAN

SetH Kk. HUMPHREY
Boston, Mass.

HO marries earliest and breeds

fastest? Anyone gifted with

eyesight and a fair habit of ob-
servation knows that, in nine cases out
of ten, it is those least capable of pro-
viding their offspring with either a
heritage of brains or a decent bringing
up. The one big fact in the reproduc-
tive habits of civilized man is that, in
a very general way, the energetic, the
brainy, the foreseeing—those who
emerge from the commonplace to the
level of achievement—have the fewest
children, while the improvident and de-
generate take as instinctively to repro-
duction as a duck takes to water, and
have altogether too many.

We are populating the earth from
the wrong kind of stock. A high
English authority asserts that more
than half of England’s children are
produced by the lowest one-sixth of the
population; and certainly we in Amer-
ica are doing no better.

Now there is not an _ intelligent
reader of this page who does not know
that such a scheme of selection would
wreck the quality of any other species
of animal or plant. But the mystic
teaching of the ages, and our own
colossal self-esteem, set us up as a
creation just outside the Big Plan.
Most of us miss the eternal fact that
man is a species, dependent like any
other on what he inherits for the
qualities which he develops. Mean-
while, Dame Nature is dealing us just
the kind of humans that we ought to
expect from our manner of producing
the most children from the poorer
stocks.

THESE FUTURE CITIZENS IN THE
SCHOOLS
Suppose we begin at the beginning
and follow the output of this system.
First, the children appear at the public
schools. The public schools used to
function badly—they do now in many

respects, but they functioned worse
before the authorities awoke to the drag
imposed on the normal pupils by the
growing numbers of the weakminded.
So they hit upon the clever scheme of
gathering these feebleminded into
special classes; experimentally at first,
but soon the special class developed
into a regular feature of public school
work. Now, every sizeable city in the
land has its rooms for dullards, in great
numbers and _ rapidly multiplying.
Boston alone has seventy-seven rooms
in her public schools devoted exclu-
sively to the backward.

We complacently accept the special
room as a beneficent device, simply
because it permits the schools to run
more smoothly. But the special room
is mere camouflage thrown over a des-
perate situation. What sort of citizens
can we hope to make of these incompe-
tents?

It seems a harsh thing to say of
innocent little boys and girls, but to a
very great extent these are society's
future jailbirds and prostitutes. Does
this jar? An ugly truth usually jars
when it crowds against a soothing
popular misconception. Proof is to be
had, many times over, in the investi-
gations carried on in prisons, reforma-
tories and rescue homes—every one of
which has shown from forty to sixty
per cent of the inmates to be mentally
subnormal. There is a very direct
connection between children who can-
not develop and grown-ups who cannot
behave. This connection is now being
brought home with increasing force to
every charitable organization which has
substituted scientific inquiry for emo-
tional philanthropy.

THE ‘‘BORDERLINERS’ ESCAPE DETEC-

TION
But the special room is a very small
measure of the total number of weak-
minded children in the public schools.

Humphrey: The Menace of the Half-Man yp)

These youngsters have a way of getting
on fairly well with their normal school-
mates until they are near the limit of
their mental growth; then they begin
to show unmistakable signs of wobbling.
A child, for instance, who will never
get beyond the mental age of ten can
usually manage to keep out of the
special room until he is nearly ten years
old; it follows, then, that children
destined to go through life with men-
talities of fourteen or fifteen, get
through all the grades and leave school
without disclosing their limitations—
yet they couldn’t have got by a year
in the high school to save their lives.
These less obvious of the feeble-

minded are the ‘‘borderliners,’’ or
“morons,” as they are technically
known—men and women in appalling

numbers who stumble along through
to old age with just enough wit to
escape the foolish house and not enough
to connect with the social order. Their
shiftiness begins with their first job—
they bulk large in the great labor ‘“‘turn-
over, so disastrous to industry; they
qualify more readily for jails and
institutions than for steady effort, and
naturally take the easier way. Irre-
sponsibility is their outstanding, lifelong
characteristic.

THE GROWING DANGER OF THE ‘‘HALF-
MAN”’ IN SOCIETY

Ignorance, as a disturber of social
peace, is giving way to education; we
are righting injustices which cause
turmoil; but the Menace of the Half-
man is growing almost unchecked.
By instinct they follow any and every
designing agitator who happens along.
For them, life is one round of spiritless
work, rebuffs, hardships, failures and
futile beginnings over, such as would
kill us normals within a few years.
This world, as we now manage it, is
run for full-made men and women—
that’s why it is such a difficult place
for grown-up children.

And these are essentially grown-up
children. It is all very well to dub
them facetiously, “I Won’t Work’’—
some of them deserve it; but when will
we learn to read the pathetic message

stamped as a birthmark on the crooked
features of so many more, “I Can't
Work’’? Precious few humans are born
with a distinct inclination for crime,
but a sorry lot of them are born every
day with too meagre brains to make a
living in the paths of virtue. Then
why be surprised at their readiness to
take up with the forces of disorder?
We merely expose our crass ignorance
of human nature in one of its rapidly
growing phases.

And how they do multiply! Next
to their irresponsibility, the chief
characteristic of these half-equipped
humans is their astonishing fecundity.
Evidence of this is so thrust upon
the senses of every man or woman who
knows the improvident that it needs
no further elucidation. The common
acceptance is that this grade is increas-
ing at about twice the rate of the
normal population; this probably is an
underestimate. A western city, re-
cently having rounded up nine hundred
of its deserters of families—and habit-
ual desertion of family is a common
mark of the half-man—discovered that
they had abandoned forty-seven hun-
dred children, not to mention those
they had left along the trails of their
wanderings. This is an average of
more than five children each. From
observation of human nature in general
it is safe to say that nine hundred of
the most progressive families in that
western city could not muster an
average of two children each. Five
from the worst stocks, against two
from the best—this is a condition that
holds in a general way for our whole
population.

INCOMPETENTS INCREASE DEMAND ON
CHARITY

No wonder that we have had to
develop such enormous corrective and
philanthropic machinery everywhere.
This sort of people is doubling on our
hands with every generation. The
number of charitable organizations in
New York City runs into four figures;
they are counted by hundreds in
every other large center of population.
Charities originally were supposed to

230

look after the worthy unfortunate, but
now, nine-tenths of their effort is with
born incompetents. And that is why
something like eight-tenths of their
effort is practically futile, so far as any
permanent reconstruction of these in-

dividuals is concerned. With im-
possible human beings, nothing is
possible. Social workers habitually

wonder at the proverty of results; if
they knew the fundamentals of hered-
ity they would cease to wonder.

THE DETERMINING FORCE OF HEREDITY

All this environmental work, and all
education and training of youth, essen-
tial as they are, do next to nothing
toward eliminating hereditary defects.
It is all development work—trimmings,
as it were, with which we bedeck the
individual for his journey through
life—and the trimmings die with him.
They do not affect our biological
makeup. Education doesn’t get into
the blood.

The only thing that descends through
the generations is the capacity to
respond to education and _ training.
Heredity furnishes the mechanism—

determines the physical and mental.

quality of the human material with
which we have to work. Upon the
inherited quality of the child depends
the quality of the man we can make of
him. A carpenter cannot make a
mahogany table out of pine boards;
and if we breed in greater numbers
from the mentally inferior types, we
“are going to have an ever increasing
proportion of children incapable of
being developed into upstanding men
and women.

How have we come so far on the way
to racial degeneracy without any vis-
ible attempt to check ourselves?
Mainly because of a pious horror of
any action that looks like interference
with the right of parenthood. It is a
hangover sentiment from the ages of
ignorance and superstition which we
cannot shake off, in spite of our pres-
ent clear knowledge that a vicious
parenthood is flooding us with a
vicious progeny.

The Journal of Heredity

THE UNGUARDED SOURCE OF HUMAN
MISFITS

Our impotence in this respect looks
the more ridiculous when we consider
how keen we are to prevent any ill-
favored specimens among our plants,
pigs and cattle from reproducing their
kind. We are up to the minute in
guarding the heredity of every other
useful species, and back with the Phar-
aohs in protecting our own.

So we sit helplessly by, with full
knowledge of what is happening to us,
while any two people not in jail or the
lunatic asylum bring children into the
world regardless of consequences.

If their children prove to be hopeless
misfits, we guide them through the
special room, and perhaps to the re-
formatory. But do we look back to
their source with a view to preventing
more of their kind? Not at all. We
supinely await the further product of
their usually worthless parents. Or
do we make the slightest attempt,
later on, to restrain the fecundity of
these children themselves? About one
in ten, helplessly imbecile, are segre-
gated in feebleminded institutions; the
other nine-tenths are free—except for
the periods spent in jails and prisons—
to exercise the one sturdy function
with which nature seems to have en-
dowed them.

BURDEN OF CORRECTIVE MACHINERY

Of all the relics from the past, this
superstitious notion of the inviolability
of parenthood is the most expensive—
in money, in human misery, in social
maladjustments which we must for-
ever be combating. Is the burden of
corrective and philanthropic enter-
prises becoming heavy? It will grow
vastly heavier with each succeeding
generation. Special rooms, reforma-
tories, asylums, prisons and the pres-
ent swarm of charities will increase by
leaps and bounds, because the sort of
humans who cannot be taken care of
in any other way is increasing by leaps
and bounds.

Humphrey: The Menace of the Half-Man Daa

NEED FOR EDUCATION IN THE LAWS

OF HEREDITY

The one and only way to clear the
race of its burden of hereditary unfit-
ness is to cut off its reproduction at the
source. The first step toward that
end is to promote a general understand-
ing that every ill-favored, shiftless,
weak-minded delinquent is as unfit for
perpetuating the race as is a scrubby,
unintelligent, underbred horse to take
its place in the breeding stable. Not
that we shall ever come to methods ap-
proaching those for perfecting domes-
tic breeds; that is as unthinkable as it
is unnecessary. Heaven forbid that
we should have standardized human
beings, even if such were possible.
But we may entertain the worthy
hope that, sometime, we shall have
the courage to deny parenthood to
those who are manifestly unfit to pro-
duce American citizens.

A GOOD ENVIRONMENT NECESSARY

What determines unfitness for par-
enthood? Eugenists are inclined to
put the whole stress on heredity, and
to seek too much exactness in apply-
ing their scientific knowledge. But
common experience should tell us that
unfitness for parenthood is not by any
means a matter wholly for biological
determination. Next to being well
born, a child needs a good environ-
ment. When we see men and women
who are perpetually at odds with the
social order, incapable of all ordinary
adjustments, we ought to know just as
well that they will be wholly unfit to
rear children as if we had studied their
pedigrees for ten generations back.
Control of unfit parenthood can never
be reduced to an exact science. The
problem demands a copious injection
of common sense and every-day ex-
perience into the knowledge which
biology has given us; it should not be
left to the faddist adherents of either
heredity or environment. A good
quality of both is equally essential.

EXAMINE CHILDREN IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

But any system for restricting par-
enthood, to be effective, must not wait

for demonstrations of parental unfit-
ness. Bear in mind that irresponsibles,
incapable of self-restraint, begin their
sex activities years earlier than normal
people. The public school is the place
for the scrutiny of the nation’s future
mothers and fathers. It is not too
much to say that in the great majority
of cases the final determination should
be made before the child leaves school,
or as soon thereafter as its actions give
the further necessary evidence. It is
also a safe assertion that most mental
defectives who attain their twentieth
year unrestrained have added to the
race’s load of defective children. The
need for early action cannot be too
strongly emphasized.

TO CHECK INCREASE OF THE UNFIT

How shall we put denial of unfit
parenthood into effect? Certainly not
by legal enactment against marriage.
That would mean nothing to the av-
erage incompetent.

Institutional care, perhaps in farm
communities, might well be put upon
at least five times as many of the ob-
viously defective as are now segregated.
But there would still be as many more,
of the ‘borderline’ types, for whom
segregation would be an unnecessary
deprivation of liberty. Ster:lization is
the usually proposed expedient for such
cases. It is something to which the
public has yet to be educated, but once
it is understood it undoubtedly will
have the leading part in any accepted
scheme of race regeneration.

Any proposal to suppress unfit par-
enthood is bound to meet violent op-
position. But it will meet none more
blindly stubborn than those who hold
that proper environment can overcome
any adverse effects of heredity. They
admit hereditary defects, but would
camouflage them with more thorough
training of the individual and a better-
ing of social conditions.

TO MAINTAIN QUALITY OF SPECIES IN
WELL-ORDERED COUNTRY SHOULD
BE AIM OF SOCIETY

But suppose that, for the moment,
we put aside the claims of heredity, and

view our manner of rearing humans
from the environmental standpoint
alone. The first big fact that we meet
—a fact easily demonstrable by any-
one who will go from the silent streets
of the thrifty to the swarming alleys of
the thriftless—is that at least three-
quarters of all children are born to liv-
ing conditions well below those of the
average, as measured, not by wealth,
but by the quality of the parents,—
while a scant one-quarter have the ad-
vantage of homes above the average.

Now what enthusiast for the power
of environment would deliberately
raise most of his flowers and chickens
under adverse conditions? Yet this
is exactly what we are doing with the
human _ species.

So from the viewpoint of either
heredity or environment our method
of perpetuating humankind is a com-

32 The Journal of Heredity

plete reversal of nature’s scheme for
maintaining quality of species. We
may be drifting slowly, but we are
drifting—toward a depreciated race.
The histories of Babylon, Egypt,
Greece and Rome show us that each,
in its turn, went to its final blaze of
glory with its population reduced to a
vast mass of mediocrity—a huge, in-
coherent proletariat, ridden by a hand-
ful of plutocrats whose culture savors
of a splendid degeneracy.

Is such to be our end, generations
hence? Nobody knows. All we really
know is that we are following the
beaten path of the ages. Yet we need
not follow it a day longer than we
choose. And the first move toward
regenerating the race is to cut off unfit
parenthood. Rid the race of the half-
man, and human misery, in a well-
ordered country like America, will be
more than cut in half.

Tests of Intelligence and Achievement

STANDARD EDUCATIONAL TESTS, ar-
ranged and standardized by M. E.
Haggerty, professor of Educational
Psychology at the University of
Minnesota. Yonkers-on-Hudson, the
World Book Co., 1920.

“With the extension of educational
investigation it is becoming apparent,”
says Professor Haggerty in his Manual
of Directions accompanying these tests,
“that too little attention is being paid
to the native intelligence of children.
Attention was first directed to the
matter through the presence in the
schools of a considerable number of
mentally defective and in some cases
feebleminded children. These children
presented serious problems to teachers
and forced themselves upon the atten-
tion of superintendents and others.
The result was the organization of

special classes for teaching them and
the development of special testing
methods for their proper classification.
“More recently attention has been
called to the presence in the school of a
number of superior children. The num-
ber of these is probably as great as that
of the backward and feebleminded.
The work of Terman, Whipple, and
others shows that such pupils can be
identified through the use of intelli-
gence tests and that they can with
profit to themselves and to others be
separated from the regular classes and
be taught as a special group.”
Professor Haggerty has followed the
example of numerous other psycholo-
gists in preparing tests suitable for the
different grades in school. They are
based largely on the army tests.—P. P.

A GRAFT-CHIMERA IN THE APPLE

Evidence That the Two Distinct Types of Fruits on the Same Tree Are Not
Due to Bud Sporting or Top-Grafting
A. B. Stout
New York Botanical Garden, New York City

HE accompanying plate illus-

trates two distinct sorts of fruits

borne on an apple tree that has
evidently never been top-grafted. The
fruit shown at the right is typical of
the King variety; the other is nearly
identical with the fruits of the Rock-
bury Russet. The two types of fruit
are quite distinct in respect to size,
color, character of skin, flavor, and
texture, and the leaves of the branches
bearing them are noticeably different
especially as to size.

The tree which bears these two
kinds of foliage and fruits stands in
the vicinity of Geneva, N. Y., in an
orchard owned by Mr. T. D. Whitney.
Mr. Whitney helped plant the tree in
1862, has resided on the place ever
since, and has for many years observed
the dual nature of the tree.

At the present time the tree is large
and well developed and is about 30
feet in height and in spread. Most
branches bear the Russet fruits. About
20 of the smaller branches bear King
fruits and these branches are well
scattered, being found among the tip
branches of all of the large main divi-
sions of the trunk.

EVIDENCE OF THIS AS A CHIMERA

The occurrence of two more or less
distinct kinds of fruit on the same tree
may be due to any one of three causes,
as follows: (1) vegetative variation or
bud sporting, (2) the usual consequence
of top-grafting, or (3) an unusual and
somewhat indirect result of grafting,
which gives a plant in which the two
kinds of cells belonging to stock and
scion become associated together in
the same branches, giving what is now
known as a chimera.

Dr. U. P. Hedrick, of the Geneva
Experiment Station, is convinced that
bud sporting has not occurred in the
tree in question. He does not consider
it probable that these two types of
fruit which differ so widely in several
characters can be so closely related as
to be parent stock and bud sport.

Mr. Whitney is positive that the
tree was never top-grafted. His con-
tinuous association with the orchard
from the time of its planting to date,
his wide knowledge of apples, and his
definite recollection of this particular
tree make this point seem certain. The
scattering branches which bear King
fruits have not grown from King scions
that were grafted to branches of a
Russet tree.

CHIMERAL FRUITS FOUND

Very definite evidence that the King
branches are not simple top-grafts is
also seen in the chimeral fruits which
are sometimes found. Such fruits have
a segment that is King while the rest
are Russet. These show that the two
cells of the King and Russet varieties
are associated together in single twigs,
leaves and fruits. Such a combination
has thus far not been produced as a
direct result of grafting but chimeras
of this class or rank very frequently
occur in bud sports, they have now
been produced experimentally, and
they have also arisen incidentally as
indirect products of grafting, giving
what has frequently been called ‘‘mixed
plants.”

Several cases of ‘‘mixed plants’’ have
long been known to horticulturists and
for many years these plants aroused
much discussion as to their origin and
nature. One of these is the Bizzaria or-

‘ The writer recently had the pleasure of visiting this interesting tree together with Dr. U. P.
Hedrick, Mr. O. M. Taylor, and Mr. W. O. Gloyer, of the staff of the New York Experiment
Station, all of whom shared in the observations recorded here.

‘91N}X9} PUL IOARY 10]09 ‘azis url ApJOUTZSIP zayIp SUN; ay] ‘seyouvsq ayy ynoysno1y4

(874314) “yqno0j-au0 ynoqe pasirjyuy Ht
Jessny © SI 19] 84} 3e auO 94} pure ‘AjarieA Suryy ayy JO SI qy 811

pet9}1P9s [Ja aSdeI[OJ JO spury jUoJAyTp OM} sey s}imiy
ony qe Hnay oY “994, ewes ay} Aq paonposd szinsy Jo sj.10s youNSIP om} a

daaL ANVS AHL NO SLINUA AO SATLATAVA OML

asoy} Sulieaq 901} ay]
Soy} Ur UMOYs st ajdde ay} ur erauYyd-qye18 B JO aseo Burjsai9jur uy

Stout: A Graft-Chimera in the Apple

ange which appeared in Florence, Italy
about 1644. On some of its branches
oranges are produced, on others citrons
develop, and on other branches the
fruits are part orange and part citron
as shown en page 522 of Vol. 5 of this
Journal (December, 1914). Another
plant known as Cytisus Adami origin-
ated in 1825 as a branch of a plant
grown from a graft between Cylisus
purpureus and Laburnum vulgare.
Some branches of this plant are pure
Cytisus purpureus, others are pure
Laburnum vulgare, others are various
mixtures of the two, and others bear
leaves that are intermediate in charac-
ter. Several types of plants are known
which appear to be mixtures of the two
species Crataegus monogyna and Mespi-
lus germanica. All of these have been
propagated vegetatively and have been
objects of more than usual interest.
How these plants originated has been
a matter of no little discussion and
speculation among botanists and horti-
culturists.

GRAFTING TO PRODUCE CHIMERAS

The experimental production of
chimeras in rather recent years has
shown very clearly how such plants can
arise incidentally through the practice
of grafting. By a simple but ingenious
arise incidentally through practice of
grafting. By a simple but ingenious
method of experimentation Dr. Wink-
ler, now Director of the Botanical
Garden at Hamburg, produced such
plants under observation and control.
He used the tomato and nightshade,
two distinct and well-known species
with marked differences in leaves,
flowers and fruit. He made grafts,
and when the scions were well estab-
lished he decapitated the branches by
cutting through the points of contact
between scion and stock, thus exposing
on the cut surface the two kinds of
tissue and the lines of contact between
them. On this surface a callus formed
from which buds arose. If a bud arose
entirely from the part that was night-
shade the branch was nightshade only;
if from tomato tissue the branch was
pure tomato. If, however, a branch

235

arose over the line of juncture it was
composed partly of tomato and partly
of nightshade tissue.

TWO KINDS OF CELLS IN SAME BRANCH

Such branches were called ‘‘chime-
ras." The simpler of these show
vertical lines of differentiation; one
sector bears the leaves, flowers, and
fruits of the tomato while the rest of
the branch bears those of the night-
shade. Such branches and the plants
grown from them by vegetative propa-
gation are called ‘‘sectoral chimeras.”
In such an association of two kinds of
cells, each sort retains its own character
and the leaves, flowers, and fruits of
the two sectors are readily to be
identified.

Occasionally, however, branches
arose which produced leaves, flowers
and fruits that were intermediate or
mixed in character. One of these
(named Solanum tubingense) bears
simple leaves like the nightshade but
the leaves are more or less lobed and
are hairy as the tomato. Another
(Solanum proteus) resembles the to-
mato more than the nightshade; the
stems and leaves are hairy but the
fruits are smaller than those of the
tomato. Several types of intermediates
were produced and for a time it was
believed that these were true graft-
hybrids resulting from the actual
fusion of certain vegetative cells of the
tomato and the nightshade in the
region of contact in the graft. Later,
however, a study of the internal and
minute st.ucture of the cells in these
plants revealed that the two kinds of
cells characteristic of the tomato and
the nightshade are both present, and
that one kind exists as one or more
continuous layers covering the other
kind. It was found that Solanum
tubingense has one outside or periclinal
layer of tomato cells covering a core of
nightshade tissue and that S. proteus
has two such periclinal layers. Other
types of the intermediates have one or
more outermost layers of nightshade
cells covering tissue of the tomato.
The plants were thus found to be
periclinal chimeras. A photo of four

236

of these intermediates or periclinal
chimeras is shown in The Journal of
Heredity, Vol. 5, No. 12, and an excel-
lent discussion of how such chimeras
are produced is there given.

Similar study of Cytitsus Adami and
the Crataegus-Mespilus so-called graft-
hybrids showed that they are also
periclinal chimeras with one or more
cell-layers of one species covering a
body of cells of the other species.
INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF

CELLS

The rather intimate association of
the cells of two different species in the
same stem, leaf, flower, and fruit is
especially interesting in view of the
mutual interactions, mechanical and
physiological, that may occur. The
evidence indicates that the two kinds
of cells remain independent in respect
to their own hereditary characteristics,
but in the periclinal chimera they
interact producing organs that are
intermediate in character. Slight dif-
ferences in the arrangement of the
same two kinds of cells also produces
vegetative and floral s ructures and

fruits that are quite different in
appearance.
While the investigations indicate

that the supposed graft-hybrids are
in nature only periclinal chimeras, the
production of true graft-hybrid through
a fusion of vegetative cells is still to
be considered possible. In fact Dr.
Winkler has presented evidence that
this is the case in one adventitious
branch that arose from a decapitated
graft between the tomato and the
nightshade.

The production of sectoral and peri-
clinal chimeras by experimenal means
readily shows how such branches can
arise incidentally on plants grafted by
the ordinary methods. New and
adventitious buds may arise from the
region of union between stock and
scion, especially if the upper part of
the scion dies. If such a bud arises
over the line of contact it may develop
as a chimera. Dr. Winkler’s studies
show that sectoral associations develop
more frequently than do the periclinal.

The Journal of Heredity

CHIMERAS THROUGH BUD SPORTING

It should be noted that intra-varietal
sectoral and periclinal chimeras fre-
quently arise through bud _ sporting.
Such partial bud sports have been
described frequently in the pages of
this jouril, especially for such
conspicuous cases as the loss of green
color which is carried on into various
new branches.

Some of the albomarginate types of
variegated plants (of Pelargonium for
example) are clearly periclinal associa-
tions of green and white cells all of
which belong to the particular variety.
In the original sport, most probably, a
single cell lost the ability to produce the
green pigment and this cell was so
placed in the growing point that its
multiplication by division gave one or
more layers of white cells. Once
established the relative position of the
white and the green cells was main-
tained rather uniformly in the subse-
quent development of branches.

It is also to be noted that, in many
sorts of variegated plants, though the
pattern strongly simulates a chimeral
arrangement, it is really due to physio-
logical conditions affecting develop-
ment of color in the leaf as a whole.
In these the colored and _ colorless
areas often cut across cell layers or
histogens. Much remains to be
learned regarding the development of
such local areas of infectious chlorosis,
as well as the development of various
patterns of anthocyania coloration in
flowers and foliage.

PROBABLE ORIGIN OF THIS CHIMERA

Mr. Whitney’s tree bearing Russet
and King fruits is evidently a chimera
that has grown from a bud that arose
on the line of contact between scion
and stock, and is hence to be considered
as a graft-chimera. Presumably a
scion of King was grafted to the root
of a seedling of the Russet in the
method of ordinary nursery practice.
At any rate the tree is clearly an inter-
varietal chimera: some branches are
composed of sectors of tissue of two
varieties; lateral branches arising from

Stout: A Graft-Chimera in the Apple

the sector of King are pure for King;
those arising from the part that is
Russet are pure for that variety, and
those that happen to arise from the
line of contact continue to be sectoral
chimeras. It is possible that in some
of the branches the two kinds of tissue

237

are in periclinal relationship and that
some fruits possess a skin of one
variety and a core or body of the other.
Rather careful examination of a large
number of fruits by one competent to
judge the flavor would be necessary to
determine this point.

A French Student of the Birth-Rate

La Narairé, par Gaston Rageot,
professéur agrégé de philosophie.
Pp. 296, prix f. 5.75. Paris, Biblio-
theque de philosophie scientifique,
Ernest Flammarion, editeur, 1918.

After discussing with clarity and
relentless logic the various conceptions
of the population problem that are
current, Professor Rageot outlines ways
in which he believes the French birth-
rate can be increased. They are mostly

in the direction of making family life a
more prized privilege, either by edu-
cation (creation of public sentiment),
economic changes (e.g., inheritance of
land), or political changes (less military
service for fathers, extension of suffrage
to women), and the like. While the
constructive proposals contain nothing
particularly new, the book as a whole
is one of the most brilliant and pene-
trating studies of the birth-rate that
has ever been published.—P. P.

Eugenics Made Easy

Tue RacrtaL Prospect, by Seth K.
Humphrey. Pp. 261, price $2. New
York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920.

Mr. Humphrey has rewritten his
book ‘‘Mankind,” reviewed in the
Journal of Heredity in November, 1917,
and has made of it an unusually suc-
cessful presentation of the essentials of
eugenics in the simplest terms. He
offers no statistics, no pedigree-charts;
instead he gives his readers the elemen-
tary, yet vigorous and epigrammatic
kind of writing that one expects to find
in a newspaper editorial. It is a diffi-
cult job to do well, but on the whole
Mr. Humphrey has done it well; and
it is worth while to have the problems
of eugenics stated, for once at least, in
kindergarten form.

The author realizes that mere state-
ment of the problem will not solve it;

but his own solution is not up to the
level of the rest of the book. In the
last chapter he takes a look forward to
the time when the lower 5% of the
population will be segregated or steril-
ized, while the hundreds of thousands
of superior celibate women will become
mothers by virtue of a state-organized
system of artificial insemination. This
sort of patent-medicine cure for the ills
of society is not what will make eugen-
ics prevail, and it is a pity that Mr.
Humphrey, realist as he is, can not
appreciate that human progress does
not come by such simple expedients.
The eugenic welfare of a nation is
bound up with almost every manifes-
tation of the nation’s activity; and by
hurdling over this fact Mr. Humphrey
has fallen short of producing a book
that could be commended without
reservations.—P. P.

BREEDING EARLESS SHEEP

E. G. RItzMAn
N. H. Agricultural Experiment Station, Durham

\OUR years ago the writer re-
ported! a rather clear cut case of
asimple Mendelian unit character

governing the transmission of ear
lergth ia sheep.

The following extract from that

article will explain the traits differ-
entiating the unlike parental ear types.

Short ears as referred to here are of a
distinctive type with nearly straight lines
running from the base and forming an abrupt
sharp point. They are also somewhat thicker
than the ordinary type of ear. The longest of
these ears so far observed in a mature animal
measure 7 cm. (234 inches). Since no inter-
mediate types either as to length, shape, or

thickness have so far appeared, length as
a character forms quite a distinctive con-
trast between this type and that of Ram-
bouillet ears, which measure about 11.5 cm.
(4144 inches); Southdowns, which measure
about 9.5 cm. (334 inches); and Shropshires
and native, which measure about 10 cm. (4
inches). In fact, all ordinary ear lengths
observed among various breeds and types
seem to run close around 10 cm. (4 inches).

The results of the matings as shown
by diagram were such that the short
ear trait was accepted as a gametically
pure parental unit character. S indi-
cates short ear; L, long ear; offspring
grouped one above the other indicate
twins:

First Cross

Recessive X Dominant or Simplex 6 3LX 9 69S Matings 3
F, Offspring 9 127S+ 9 222S+ 9 2548S ~ Offspring 38
Back Cross
Recessive X Simplex 63LX 9127S 6 361LX% 9127S Matings 3
Offspring 6 255L+ 9° 3138S 9 459L Offspring 3S-3L
9 25659 3148 9 460L
Back Cross
Extracted Recessive X Simplex 6255LX 9127S Matings 1
Offspring 6 422S Offspring 1S-1L
6 423L
; Fi X Fi
Simplex Simplex 6 422S XK 9 256S 6422SX 9127S Matings 3
Offspring 9 573S+ 9 461S 9572S Offspring 3S-1L
9 462L
Although but a few individuals a long-eared ewe.2 This ram was

possessing the short ear trait had been
bred, the result of the matings was so
clear cut that further breeding was
discontinued.

Incidentally, however, the short ear
trait was reintroduced through a ram,
No. 632, who was a son of No. 422 by

secured for the purpose of introducing
a high twin potency into a flock of
seven long-eared ewes kept for a
study of this problem.

These matings and offspring are
shown in the following diagram (S
indicating short ear, L, long ear):

! Ritzman, E.G. Mendelism of Short Ears in Sheep; Journ, Agrl. Research, Vol. VI, No. 20,

August 14, 1916.

2 No. 632 was bred by Dr. C. B. Davenport of the Station for Experimental Evolution.

(Fig. 29.) (Fig. 30.)
ORDINARY LONG-EARED SHEEP AND SHORT-EARED VARIATION

The ramat the left (4 3L) has ears of the usual length. The ewe at the right (9 127) shows a short-
eared type which appeared as a mutation. This variation has behaved as an imperfectly domi-
nant unit character since its appearance. The homozygous form is illustrated by the wholly ear-
less sheep shown below.

EARLESS SHEEP, FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS

This ram (4 698), which wholly lacks external ears, was produced by mating two of the short-
eared sheep at the N. H. Experiment Station. It is believed that the absence of ears is due to
homozygosis in a factor which is responsible for the short-eared type when heterozygous. (Fig.

240

Back Cross )
6 632SX(? 106L+ 9 486L+ 9 501L+ 9 559L

Simplex X Recessive

The Journal of Heredity

Offspring (1917 crop)

Simplex X Recessive

6 650S+ 9 651S+ 4 652L+ 4 654L

6 6328S X (9 611L+ 9° 623L-+ 9? 624L

4 653L & Matings 7

Offspring 5S-3L

Offspring (1917 crop)

The result of these matings was five
short and three long-eared individuals,
the former being simplex and the latter
pure recessive since they were derived
from a simplex x recessive back cross.
The following year, ram No. 650, a

6 655S+ 4 656S+ 9 657S

simplex offspring, was bred to the same
list of ewes with the exception that ewe
No. 616 replaced ewe No. 106, both
pure recessives, with the result shown
diagrammatically as follows:

Back Cross

Simplex x Recessive

4 650S X (9 486L+ 9 501L+ 9 559L+ 9 611L |

Offspring (1918 crop)

Simplex & Recessive

6 658S+ 6 659L+ 9 661L+ 9 662S
6 660S

4 650SX ( 9 623L+ 9 624L+ 9? 616L

9 663S

Matings 7

~ Offspring 4S-6L

Offspring (1918 crop)

As the character of the matings
again represented a back cross of
simplex x recessive the result was
quite similar as, in the preceding
year, and in fact the two seasons’ crop,
gave exactly the theoretical propor-
tion to be expected from such a cross,
namely, 9S + 9L.

The following year, No. 650 was
bred to four ewes only. Three of these
(486, 501, and 550), being pure reces-
sives, dropped four offspring, two
short and two long eared lambs, which
again maintained the proportions of a
simplex x recessive cross.

SIMPLEX CHARACTER ESTABLISHED

Out of a total of 32 offspring (in-
cluding two out of No. 127 not shown in
diagram) derived from a simplex x
recessive cross, 16 were short ear and
16 long ear. This remarkable agree-
ment of results obtained actually with
results expected theoretically estab-
lishes beyond doubt the simplex char-
acter.

The interesting feature, however,
developed from the mating between
this simplex ram and ewe No. 651

3 Correns, C. 1912, Die Neuen Vererbungsgesetze.

4 Bateson, W. 1909.
5 Hurst, C.C. Experiments with Poultry.

p. 283.

Xxix.

9° 664L+ 6 665L+ 6 666L

9 667L J

which was also a simplex, correspond-
ing, therefore, to a mating inter se of
F, the result being a ram lamb No.
698 which had no ears.

EARLESS TYPE A PURE DOMINANT

Only four offspring from simplex x
simplex matings. had been obtained
before and these gave the proportion
3S:1L. While the short ear was
formerly accepted as the somatic
expression of the pure dominant and of
the heterozygote, assuming complete
dominance, it now seems clear that the
pure dominant is somatically earless
and the heterozygote, showing only
imperfect dominance, is short eared.
In other words, if a single dose for
repressing ear length is present the
ear is approximately half normal
length but if two such doses come
together the ear is entirely eliminated.

In this we have a clear-cut case of a
heterozygous combination that can be
easily distinguished from the homozy-
gous dominants and recessives, and it
forms a rather striking example of the
“presence and absence hypothesis’’
of Correns,* Bateson,’ and Hurst.®

Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin.

Mendel's Law of Heredity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
s Rep. Evol. Committee Roy. Soc. 1905, II. p. 131.
§ Hurst, C. C. Experimental Studies on Heredity in Rabbits.

Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool. 1905,

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

VoL. XI, No. 6 Juty-Aucust, 1920
CONTENTS
The Reindeer Industry in Alaska, by G. J. Lomen........:.................. 243
The Herald—A New Type of Prune, by L. R. Detjen........................ 253
Race Assimilation by the Pure-Sire Method, by Harry H. Laughlin............259
The Tree Dahlia of Guatemala, by Wilson Popenoe......................... 265
Chlorophyll Factors of Maize, by E. W. Lindstrom........................... 269
Mutations in Mucors, by Albert F. Blakeslee.............0 000.00. c cee ee 278

A Random Test in the Theory of Protective Coloration,
byabrederickyAdams™WOOdS >. 2.5 10-0 te uate ery ine te elas se ee ave atest ears 284

The Journal of Heredity is published by the American Genetic Associa-
tion for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should
send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $3.00, because of
additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $3.00 a year, foreign postage extra;
price of single copies, 25 cents.

Application has been made for entry as second-class matter at the postoffice
at Menasha, Wisconsin. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the American Genetic As-
sociation. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted only upon request,
for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to author and to the JOURNAL
or HereEpity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, February 5, 1921

“IN THE VELVET”

A trio of reindeer summer brousing. This remarkable photograph was taken within a few miles
of Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, the westernmost extremity of the North American continent.
While the antlers are growing they are said to be ‘‘in the velvet,’”’ because of the soft membrane
and velvety fur in which they are enclosed. An authority estimates that Alaska can sustain a
population of 100,000 people with 2,000,000 head of reindeer. Note the “swallow fork,’’ a slit in
the ear of the middle reindeer which is an ownership mark. Photograph by Lomen Bros., Nome,
Alaska. (Frontispiece.)

THE REINDEER INDUSTRY

IN ALASKA

In a Region Not Favorable to the Introduction of Cattle and Sheep, a Great
Domestic Animal Industry is Being Built with Reindeer, Furnishing
Food, Clothing and Labor to the People of the Far North

G. J. Lomen, LL.B.
Nome, Alaska

1892, auspiciously marked the

beginning of the reindeer in-
dustry in Alaska. On that day, and
for ten years thereafter, domestic
reindeer to the total number of 1280
were imported by the Government, all
of them from Siberia. Those imported
from Norway were not breeders. The
former were primarily imported for
the relief and industrial education of
the natives, the Eskimos; the latter
were intended for the relief of starving
miners at Circle City.

These imported reindeer have in-
creased and multiplied most satisfac-
torily. From the small beginning
above mentioned, they now number
at least 200,000, notwithstanding the
fact that about 100,000 have been
killed for food and skins. At the
present ratio of increase Alaska should
have 10,000,000 reindeer in less than
twenty years.

The ownership of the domestic
reindeer of Alaska is held in the
following proportions: About one thou-
sand Eskimos own seventy percent;
Lomen & Company (Inc.), ten percent;
the Government, four percent; Mis-
sions, Lapps and others, sixteen per-
cent. The ownership is designated by
various earmarks. The general super-
vision of the industry, so far as the
natives are concerned, lies with the
Bureau of Education.

O's national holiday, July 4th,

THE REINDEER’S CHARACTERISTICS AND
HABITS

A brief review of the present status
of the industry and a description of the
species, the habits and characteristics
of the animal will, it is hoped, be of

interest to the readers of The Journal
of Heredity.

Until recently the reindeer industry
has attracted but little attention, and
little is known of the animal except in
the far North; and yet the reindeer
is the most widely distributed mammal
in the world. Its habitat is circum-
polar, embracing the tundras or bar-
rens of the far North, and to a large
extent the wooded districts farther
south—a territory far exceeding in size
all of Europe. Fossil remains show
that the reindeer were once indigenous
to latitudes farther south than at
present.

The reindeer is the only member of
the deer family that has been domesti-
cated. This domestication, however,
is limited in degree as compared with
that of our other domestic animals.
The reindeer remain in a semi-wild
state, except those that are especially
and more thoroughly tamed and
trained for sled, draft or lead deer. To
catch the animal it is generally neces-
sary to use the lasso. Corrals and
shutes are also used for this purpose,
especially in the ‘‘marking season.”

The caribou, the wild reindeer of
North America, was never domesti-
cated. An effort to domesticate them
will, no doubt, be made in the near
future; at least an effort will be made
to cross them with domestic reindeer.

LITTLE CARE NECESSARY

Unlike other domestic animals the
reindeer does not depend on man for
food or shelter. In winter the reindeer
feeds almost exclusively on mosses,
especially the reindeer moss, Cladonia
rangiferina, the nutritive qualities of

(CT Bry) ‘so1g uouio7y Aq ydvssojoyq “POO} ATO? [IP 10J Suizei3 uodn puedap pur ‘1ay}vaM JsataAes a4} PULIS UBS sjeutue
aYyL ‘Wey JO QO0‘OOO0‘OT JO 2129 BYP OF JUOTOFNS vote Suizeis & SI d1ay} FLY} PazeUTysa st 71 pure “ourty quasaid ay} 32 YO0‘007 A[AREU 03 TL] JO Pzsy B wo4sy
pasvasout aAvy Ao, “76ST Ul purjdey pue elieqis Wor} exsely OJ! paonposqut 4S1y a1aM JoapuloY “E[Nsuluad UPYsSe|Y oy} OF MOLE UO WO1} }SBOD
jsam ay} SurAdnos0 ‘QQ0'Oy JO spxeadn 0} speutuR porpuny Moy v Wot} azis ut Aiea Aay} pur ‘eyxse[y Ul Joaputes jo sproy pespuny & Wey} e4our are a104 |,

MALNIM-CIA NI YAAANIaa 40 Caan V

(‘Z ‘Btq) ‘so1g uawioy Aq ydersojoyq “Noles aATyeU YIM WY} Suisso10 Aq sjewutue ay} Jo apeid ayy

9q YO JOOUAY [EM SO Ya Jnq “903s Aqqnios Suowe Surpaa.c
ayy M eyseyy Ajddns Ajisea ued yorym Arjsnput M
sojnys ys ed 0} SI poyjol uiapow ayy, “yretu drysio

VUSVIV ‘NIAOTOS LY GATIVANOD

¢ yeo18
1 94} Surjeurwutyo
wiue dy J,

246

The Journal of Heredity

REINDEER FIND THEIR OWN FOOD

They live in the summer time on the moss and other vegetation on the Arctic plains and in winter
paw through the snow to get the vegetation that is not exposed. The animal shown in the center

is a female reindeer, one of the last of the original stock imported from Siberia.
by Lomen Bros., was taken near Kruzamapa Hot Springs.

which depend chiefly on the gelatigen-
ous and starchy matter of which it

is largely composed. Its taste is
slightly pungent and acrid. It is
said, also, to contain tonic qualities.

It is gray in color, and is the most
common vegetation in the far North.
In form it resembles branched coral.
Other mosses constituting winter foods
are: Cetraria nivalis, Stereocaulon pas-
chale, Cetraria tslandica, Parmelia en-
causta, Parmelia saxatelia. In spring
and summer the reindeer feeds on
grasses, willow leaves, buds, mush-
rooms, marine algae. These may be enu-
merated as: Aira flexuosa, Aira alpina,
Poa alpina, Salix hastata, Salix glauca,
Salix herbacea, Menyanthes trifoliata,
Mulgedium alpinum, Rumex acetosa,
Oxsyria reniformis, Gentiana purpurea,
Ranunculus glacialis, Dryas octopetala,
Rubus chamaemorus, the Gyrophora
species, Nefroma arcticum, and grasses.
Moss is also eaten, to some extent, in
summer, but not when dry. In the fall
the mushroom (Boletus, Lycoperdon,

The photograph,
(Fig. 3.)

etc.) especially attract the animal. To

raise reindeer on other vegetation or
fodder would necessarily be experi-
mental.

The reindeer is an antlered, herbiv-
orous, graminivorous, ruminant un-
gulate, and a semi-migratory but
gregarious animal, of the family Cer-
vidae, the genus Rangifer, and the
species Rangifer tarandus, which latter
represents the type. Sub-species, de-

pending on environment, have also
been classified.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ANTLERS

A full grown reindeer, three years
old, stands about four and one- half
feet high, and is about seven feet long
from its nose to its tail.

The branched appendages to the
skull of the reindeer, called antlers,
though not as large or heavy as those
of some other members of the deer
family, are very large in proportion to
the size of the animal—literally and
figuratively its most outstanding fea-
ture. The beams of the antlers are

Lomen: The Reindeer Industry in Alaska 247

A CROSS BETWEEN A REINDEER AND NATIVE CARIBOU

It is a pleasure for the natives to drive the reindeer, especially in racing. A span of these animals
is said to have made ten miles in twenty-eight minutes. The animal here shown was photographed
at the start of a ten mile race. It is fifteen years of age, and is a cross between a reindeer and an
Alaskan caribou—one of the finest specimens to be seen in the north country for size and symmetry
of body. This illustrates the great possibilities for improving the animals by crossing with the
caribou. Photograph by Lomen Bros. (Fig. 4.)

not altogether round, but partially
flattened; in places they are nearly
three cornered. The beams curve
upwards and forwards and are sur-
mounted with slightly palmated tines
or prongs. They are supplied with
brow as well as beztines. The antlers
consist of nearly homogeneous tissue,
lighter and more porous than ordinary
bone. During their growth the antlers
are enclosed in a soft membrane, which
is covered with a velvety fur; they are,
then, said to be ‘‘in the velvet.”” This
membrane consists of a net-work of
blood vessels which supply nutriment
to the antlers. The antlers are claimed
to be secondary ‘‘sexual characters.”’
When the velvet has peeled off, in the
months of September and October, the

antlers are full grown. Then it is that
mating time—the rut—begins. The
reindeer are unique in that the antlers
are common to both sexes, though
slightly smaller in the female. The ant-
lers are shed annually, grown up males
shedding theirs before the fawning
season, the females after that time,
and then the fawns. This is providen-
tial and enables the weaker to protect
themselves against the stronger, during
the nurture of the young. The antlers
are a protection, also, to the eyes of
the animal during their duels, and when

racing through underbrush. It is
doubtful if -dehorning would prove
advantageous, but experiments are

being made. The size, form and condi-
tion of the antlers determine the

The Journal of Heredity

REINDEER RACING IS AN ALASKAN SPORT
For exhibition purposes as many as ten reindeer have been driven to one sled, but usually one or

two toa sled.
up to ten miles. :
miles in 27 minutes and 30 seconds.

condition of the animal. Small
antlers are a sign of deterioration.
Sterile animals are said to be recognized
by their straight antlers.

FEMALES NEVER KILLED FOR MARKET

The male reindeer is polygamous.
During the rut he gathers his harem—
this is a time of love and hate. The
bucks then fight duels, often to death.
The clatter of horns is continually
heard. The antlers sometimes, but
very rarely, become so interlocked that
the animals cannot separate them-
selves. If help does not then arrive
they will die of starvation.

The reindeer are not particularly
prolific. The doe gives birth to one
fawn each year—rarely two. Strong
and early fawns sometimes breed when
only one year old. The does continue
to breed until fourteen or fifteen years
of age. The reason for the rapid
increase of the herds in Alaska is that
females are never intentionally killed.
The natives are prohibited from so
doing, and other owners sufficiently
appreciate the value of the does for
breeding purposes, not to kill them.
Bucks and steers, however, are killed for
the market. Their elimination from the
herds gives the does and fawns more
latitude, less molestation, and more

Some remarkable records with one and two animals have been made for distances
There is a record of five miles in 14 minutes and 32 seconds, and one for 10
Photograph by Lomen Bros. (Fig. 5.)

and better feed than they would other-
wise have. The period of gestation is
seven months and seven days. The
herds should double every three years,
allowing an annual kill of ten percent,
without affecting such result.

VARIATIONS IN COLOR

The color of reindeer in summer is a
chocolate brown; in winter it is lighter.
Some reindeer are spotted, and some
are white. None are wholly of one
color. Their hair under the throat,
belly, short stubby tail, on the muzzle
and immediately above the hoofs, is
white or nearly so. Under the throat
the hair is very long and tufted, hang-
ing like a pendant mane. The hair of
the reindeer is hollow and hence very
buoyant.

One of the peculiarities of the rein-
deer is that it has no gall-bladder.
This, however, is said to be common to
all of the Cervidae. Other peculiarities
are that the animal, when running,
pants like a dog. Instinctively it
travels against the wind; and, in ‘“‘mill-
ing’’ runs or swims ‘‘against the sun.”
The so-called ‘‘dew-claws’”’ of the
reindeer are functiona!—being of use to
the animal as a brake in going down
snow clad hills, and they assist in sup-
porting the animal on the deep snow

A NEW ARRIVAL
This little reindeer fawn is less than one day old. The doe gives birth to one fawn each year,
rarely two, and continues to breed until fourteen or fifteen years of age. Females are never inten-
tionally killed for the market, the bucks and steers being taken for that purpose. Photograph by
Lomen Bros. (Fig. 6.)

A WHITE REINDEER FAWN

A cold reception usually awaits the reindeer fawn as the season of fawning opens early in April
and extends through May. Fawns like this are often born in the snow with the temperature
sometimes as low as 35° below zero. Photograph by Lomen Bros. (Fig. 7.)

250

and soft mossy tundras where it fre-
quents. The hoofs proper, on account
of the great spread of the toes, further
assist to support it.

The olfactory powers of the animal
enable it to detect the mosses on which
it feeds, however much buried under
the snow; and its strong legs and sharp
hoofs enable it to uncover the food.

THE REINDEER’S HOMING INSTINCT

The animal's power of orientation is
remarkable. It knows its pastures and i‘s
range, its home, and, like a homing pige-
on, while it does not fly, ‘‘treks” back to
its range when removed therefrom,
unless restrained by watchful herding,
or, until it becomes familiar with its
new environments—acclimated, so to
speak. The latter takes a year or more.

When walking the reindeer produces
a peculiar crackling sound, occasioned
by sinews just above the fetlock.
Many have ascribed this sound to the
clicking of the toes of the animal;
others, to a small bone above the quick
of the hoof. This sound, as well as an
oily substance that exudes from a gland
between the toes of the animal, are
thought to be a system of sound and
scent signals. The Lapps claim that
the reindeer ‘‘oils its horns’ with the
exudations of the gland and can “‘shape
the antlers.’’ It is indeed often seen to
rub its horns with one of its hind hoofs.
This is, however, probably due to ai
itching sensation produced by develop-
ing tines, and not an oiling or shaping
process.

The call of the reindeer is a peculiar
grunt or bark, difficult to represent
orthoepically; perhaps “uhrrr,” pro-
nounced gutturally and with a quick
expulsion of the breath, would answer.
This call is continually heard in a large
herd while the fawns are young—the
mother calling the fawn or vice-versa.
It is also heard when the buck is calling
or belling the doe.

The pelage of the reindeer is such as
to protect the animal from freezing in
the most inclement weather or cold.
However, sudden and extreme cold,
after a rain, or after a thaw, is a severe
test, and is often disastrous, especially

The Journal of Heredity

to the young animals. Such weather
conditions often cause the starvation of
large numbers, because of the icy
coating and crust it produces, encasing
or covering the mosses.

WIDE NATURAL RANGE NECESSARY

On account of the apparent neces-
sity for a change of food, and to avoid
the fly and mosquito pests, the rein-
deer, in summer, seek new pastures,
preferably the sea shore, but also high
altitudes. They also seek sheltered
fawning places. In feeding they travel
long distances, nibbling as they go.
Thus, their natural range necessarily
becomes extensive. Close herding, too,
is detrimental to the animal and to the
pasturage.

SCIENTIFIC BREEDING EXPERIMENTS TO
BE UNDERTAKEN

The reindeer of Alaska have suffered
somewhat from inbreeding, due to the
difficulties of supplying new _ blood.
Now, that Congress has appropriated
funds for the establishment (by the
Bureau of Biological Survey, Dr. E. W.
Nelson, Chief) of an Experimental
Station at or near Unalakleet, Alaska, it
is hoped that this difficulty will, in part,
be overcome by the crossing of reindeer
with caribou, importation of new stock
and an interchange of bucks among the
herds. It is also hoped that greater
attention will be directed toward re-
lieving the animals of disease and pests
that afflict or infest them, and that
measures will be taken to cause the ex-
termination or control of predatory
animals that kill or injure them. These
are especially bears, wolves, lynx and
eagles. Dr. Nelson’s assistants, Dr.
Seymour Hadwin and Mr. L. J. Palmer,
are already on the ground, and find a
large field for discovery and experi-
ment. Their report will surely be
interesting.

The reindeer is used for food, cloth-
ing and transportation. It has been
said of the animal that “‘it is valuable to
the iast hair.’’ It is rare sport to drive
the animal. In racing, a span of rein-
deer has made ten miles in twenty-
seven to twenty-eight minutes.

CLOTHING FOR THE NATIVES
Reindeer were first introduced into Alaska to assist the natives to become self-supporting, and the
animals now furnish the people of the far north with food, clothing and transportation. Trained
veterinarians and animal husbandmen are needed to study and advise methods of control of
reindeer diseases and to teach the Eskimos how to maintain their herds and improve the quality
of the stock. Photograph by Lomen Bros. (Fig. 9.)

The Journal of Heredity

iw)
nh
ie)

ON THE TRAIL, PILGRIM RIVER, ALASKA

The grading up of the reindeer into larger animals producing more meat can be readily brought

about by crossing them with the native caribou from the interior of Alaska. Plans for scientific
breeding have already been begun by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The progress and use-
fulness of the reindeer in Alaska have greatly impressed the Canadians, and their government
has undertaken a study of the industry with a view to its development in its own extensive

grazing areas. Photograph by Lomen Bros.

EXPORTATION OF REINDEER MEAT AND
SKINS

The reindeer industry in Alaska has
already reached a stage where it more
than supplies the local demand, and
exportation of meat and skins is being
conducted by the firm of Lomen &
Company.

The principal difficulties encountered
by this company have been the neces-
sity of making long, expensive and
hazardous drives, in order to bring the
animals to shipping points, equipped
with cold storage plants (Nome, Kee-
walik and St. Michaels), and shipping
the carcasses thence to market. Refrig-
erator boats have also been few and
far between.

To relieve this situation this com-
pany is now building two additional
cold storage plants, one at Golovin
and one at Egavik, and plans are made
to build at other stations in the near
future. Under the present conditions
the season’s shipments will not exceed

(Fig. 10.)

two thousand carcasses, averaging one
hundred and fifty pounds each. Each
year will see this quantity largely in-
creased, depending quite as much upon
the improvement in shipping facilities
as on an increase in the growth of the
herds.

A reduction statistically of the live
stock of Sweden into “cattle units’’
gives the following result: one head of
horned cattle is estimated as equal to
two-thirds horse,=ten sheep, = twelve
goats, = four pigs, = five reindeer. These
units are interesting for purposes of
comparison.

The reindeer industry will go far to
solve the meat problem of the country,
to reclaim the waste places of the
territory, and help to conserve to the
hunter and the epicure the wild game
animals. All of which is of the greatest
importance, considering that reindeer
meat, or venison, is equal to, if not
superior to all other venison, and a
splendid substitute for beef and mut-
ton.

THE HERALD'—NEW TYPE OF PRUNE
L. R. DETJEN

Delaware College and Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark

HE commercial prune which is
I now grown so abundantly in the
Pacific Northwest finds its origin
in a group of European plums collec-
tively known as Prunus domestica.
No other species or group of plums, so
far as the writer is aware, has ever b>-
fore produced fruit that might properly
be termed a prune. A variety, however,
has receatly been discovered which
seems to disclaim all specific relation-
ship with any of the European species.
It presumably originated from one of
the native American species, probably
from that of Prunus munsoniana
(Wight and Hedrick) and, notwith-
standing this fact, it dries, cures and
keeps indefinitely. Fresh specimens of
fruit of this Herald prune, gathered on
July 7, 1916, were laid away in the lab-
oratory in cloth bags, and later, when
air-dried, they were placed in a bottle
with a tight-fitting cork stopper. Here
they are today, after a period of three
and one-half years, in as good condition
as when first stored. The aroma from
this fruit is pleasant and not unlike that
of the common commercial product.
The original tree of the Herald
variety was discovered in 1916 growing
in the garden of Mr. W. F. Marshall
of Raleigh, N. C., under the name of
Milton plum. That is the name under
which the owner had purchased the
tree five or six years earlier from the
Stark Bros. Nursery, Louisiana, Miss.
The tree apparently belongs to the
Prunus munsoniana species, of which
the Milton is said to be a variety. It
was critically studied for signs of hy-
bridity with Prunus domestica, but no
such traces, outside of the prune
character, were observed. The variety
seems to have originated from the
native American species without any
trace of foreign blood; and this is the
most interesting feature of its account.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE
VARIETY

In habit of growth the tree is spread-
ing and has all of the bark, leaf, bud
and flower characteristics pertaining to
the Wild Goose group of plums. The
fruit taken from the original tree meas-
ures from 30 to 35 mm. in length and
28 mm. in width. In general, it might
be said to be oblong in shape and bright
red in color, with a light coat of blue
bloom. The dots are large, white and
very numerous. The flesh is yellow,
soft, juicy, sweet, and clings tenaciously
to the pit. The stem, unlike that of
other native species, clings to both
branch and fruit, which fact prevents
the latter from dropping to the ground
as soon as ripe. The fruits on the tree
are not crowded but hang free in the
sunshine and wind, where they shrivel
and dry naturally, after which they can
be easily gathered and _ thoroughly
cured indoors.

The pits from the original tree meas-
ure about 20 mm. in length, 12 to 14
mm. in width and 8 to 9 mm. in thick-
ness. The surface is smooth and their
shape is that of typical prune pits, that
is, with one of the edges depressed and
the other more rounded. All of the
above measurements and descriptions
are of the original tree and fruits. A
remarkable difference was noted in the
fruit taken from scions top-grafted to
another species of plum, Prunus angus-
tifolia.

OF HERALD PRUNE WITH
MILTON PLUM

COMPARISON

In the spring of 1917, scions from the
original Herald prune tree were pro-
cured, and top-grafted 6 feet high to a
Prunus angustifolia tree. Scions of the
Milton variety of plum were also se-
cured during the same year from the

‘This new variety I have named the ‘“‘Herald” because, although utterly worthless in itself
as a prune, it may be the forerunner heralding a new strain for eastern America.

BRANCH OF HERALD PRUNE TREE IN FULL BLOOM

The original tree of this variety was discovered in a garden in Raleigh, North{Carolina, growing
under the name of Milton plum—the name by which the owner had purchased it in Louisiana six
years before. Study of its prune characteristics gives evidence that it originated from native
American species. (Photograph reduced.) (Fig. 11.)

|
|
im t eee

FRUITS OF THE HERALD PRUNE

Nos. 1 and 3 are side views of Herald prunes three and one-half years old. No. 2 shows one of the
prunes cut lengthwise to compare the size of the pit with the amount of flesh. Nos. 4 and 7
show the halves of the prune when cut transversely. Nos. 5 and 6 are two typical pits of the
Herald variety. No. 8 shows the pit of a Herald prune when top-grafted to Prunus angustifolia
stock, and Nos. 9 and 10 are typical pits from the Prunus angustifolia stock, natural size. Note
the intermediate size between Nos. 5 and 6 and 9 and 10. (Fig. 12.)

6 The Journal

of Heredity

BRANCH OF THE HERALD PRUNE WITH TWO DRIED FRUITS

This branch was taken from the original tree. The fruits do not readily drop to the ground when
ripe, but cling to the branches where they are not crowded, and they dry naturally in the sun.

Photograph reduced. (Fig. 13.)

Indiana Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, through the courtesy of Prof. H. J.
Reed, and top-worked for the sake of
comparison to the identical Prunus an-
gustifolia tree. Every graft of both
varieties grew and later produced fruit.
It was soon noticed that the Herald
prune is a less vigorous grower, and
this is verified by numerous trees on
similar stock root-grafted during the
same season. The leaves are somewhat
smaller both in length and width, the
bark is more brown, even on the under
or shady side of the branch, and the
fruit buds develop more abundantly on
the new wood. The flowers on Herald
scions, which were forced in water in
the greenhouse, as well as those that
were produced in 1918 and 1919 on the
top-worked tree, show quite a distinct
difference from those of the Milton
variety that were similarly forced and
grown. The limb of the corolla of the
Milton flower measures on the average
about 13 mm. while that of the Herald
flower measures 17 mm. The individ-
ual petals of the latter also show cor-
respondingly increased measurements.

A heavy frost occurring on March
10, 1918, destroyed most of the flowers
of both varieties and, of those that
escaped, many were destroyed by cur-

culio injury. However, one normal
prune and six normal plums were se-
cured, and from these the following
comparisons were made. Five of the
Milton variety were ripe and had
dropped on June 16, with their stems
remaining attached to the tree, while
the last of sixth fruit ripened and
dropped as late as June 29. The Herald
variety ripened its fruit with the fruit
of the Milton plums, but clung to the
tree and had begun to shrivel when the
last of the Milton variety dropped, and
then it actually had to be detached.
The plums soon deteriorated in the lab-
oratory while the prune shriveled and
cured easily. The fruits of both varie-
ties are practically the same in color
and consistency. The plums are
slightly longer than they are broad,
while the prunes are more oblong in
shape. The dots on the plum are de-
cidedly more numerous on the upper
half, while on the prune they are
distributed quite uniformly all over the
fruit. Both varieties are of the cling-
stone type, but the pit of the prune is
larger in all dimensions than,that of
the plum. The Herald prune scions
seem to make an uncongenial union
with Prunus angustifolia, for the entire
lot of those that were top-worked—six

FRUITS FROM THE ORIGINAL HERALD PRUNE TREE
The fruit at the left is ripe and turgid like a plum in its prime. The one at the right is dry and
shrivelled like a prune. The two central fruits show conditions at different stages of drying. Pho-
tograph natural size. (Fig. 14.)

BRANCH FROM ORIGINAL HERALD PRUNE TREE

The fruits are scattered over the tree and hang free to dry naturally in the sunshine and wind.
Note that the outermost fruit at the right is turgid and ripe while the two fruits to the left of it are
beyond the plum stage and have begun to shrivel. (Fig. 15.)

258 The Journal

in all—had but a brief existence and
died while blooming in the spring of
1919. They died for no other apparent
reason than that of uncongeniality of
stock, while all of the Milton plum
s ions, a’so six 11 number, seems es
vigorous today as ever. .Even this
brief comparison would readily in-
dicate the two samples of fruit are of
distinctly different varieties.

THE EFFECT OF STOCK ON SCION

It will be of general interest to note
at this time what effect a different
stock, e. g., Prunus angustifolia, exerts
on the Herald variety of prune, and
undoubtedly a similar effect might be
observed on other varieties of plums
and prunes when so united. The fruit
from the top-worked tree measures
5 mm. less in length and 4 mm. less
in width than that from the original
tree. Th: pit also lacks 3 mm. i1
length, 1 mm. in width and a fractio1
of a millimeter in thickness. Its sur-
face is velvety, like that of the pits of
the Prunus angustifolia species, while
the surface of the pits from fruits taken
from the original tree is hard and less
velvety. Again, the characteristic
prune-shaped prt is much less pro-
nounced; in fact, it greatly resembles
those of the Prunus angustifolia sp cies.

As the original Herald prune tree
was purchased for the Milton variety of
plum from a reliable nursery, and as no
such prune variety had knowingly been
propagated by that nursery, one is led

of Heredity

to believe that a mutation arising from
the native Prunus monsoniana species
has occurred. The tree is supposed to
be budded stock, but whether this is
true or whether the bud died in the
nursery and a root mutation has actu-
ally occurred—in other words, whether
the tree is growing on its own roots or
on those of another variety—cannot be
determined at this time. The most
interesting feature of this variety seems
to be that a true prune, one that will
dry on the tree and cure perfectly with-
out removing the pit, although of no
commercial value as a prune, has
developed from one of our native
American species of plums.

Great as our interest may be in such
a discovery, it must be remembered, of
course, that this particular variety, be-
cause of its soft texture and juicy flesh,
cannot be expected to compete with
any of those of the commercial prune,
v. e., of the Prunus domestica species.
Not until a great amount of work has
been done in hybridizing this new
Herald prune with the better com-
mercial sorts can we hope to be re-
warded by virtue of such a discovery.
In the south, where the Prunus domes-
tica species cannot easily be grown
because of climatic conditions and fun-
gus diseases, this late blooming and
apparently highly resistant native
prune might be utilized in hybridization
work to make possible the growing of a
new strain of prune for eastern Amer-
ica.

A Contribution to Eugenics

PERSONAL BEAUTY AND RACIAL
BETTERMENT,4by Knight Dunlap,
professor of experimental psychology
in the Johns Hopkins Hospital,
Baltimore. Pp. 95, price $1. St.
Louis, C. V. Mosby Co., 1920.

True personal beauty is the best
single guide to sound sexual selection,
according to Professor Dunlap; and he
develops this point with plausible in-
genuity, although without any statisti-

cal basis. The second part of the book
is an essay on applied eugenics. Dr.
Dunlap does not favor sterilization,
does favor segregation, and believes
much could be accomplished by proper
propaganda of birth-control.

The book is filled with interesting
and penetrating ideas, with most of
which eugenists will agree. It is written
simply and readably, and is worth
reading. It deserves to be very widely
circulated.—P. P.

RACE ASSIMILATION BY THE.
PURE-SIRE METHOD

Harry H. LAuGHLtn, Sc.D.
Assistant Director, Eugenics Record Office

HILE it has been demonstrated
\ \ to the satisfaction of students of
pedigrees that in most species
the ancestral contributions of the dam
and the sire are about equal, still on
account of physiological and_ social
considerations the pure-sire method
is much more potent than a possible
pure-dam method would be in race
improvement. The principal reason is
that physiologically the reproductive
capacities of the race are limited, not
by the number of fertile sires, but by
the number of fertile dams. But in the
human race almost equally potent is
this social or mate-selection factor
whereby the women of the lower races
usually show a preference for men of
higher racial levels. Furthermore the
mores of most states cast less social
obloquy upon the fathers than upon
the mothers of an illegitimate child, and
similarly less reproach is directed
toward a legitimate mating between a
man belonging to a “‘high’”’ race and a
woman of “‘inferior’’ blood than toward
the reverse type of marriage.

RACE-MIXTURE IN EARLY
AMERICA

SPANISH-

In historic times we have interesting
examples of race improvement or
assimilation by a process which is
quite analogous to the pure-sire method
with which we are familiar in the
animal kingdom. In the early days
of Spanish America, there were many
more men than women who came from
the mother country and settled in the
new world. The result was that there
began almost immediately a process
of race-mixture which was quite lacking
in the regions settled by the northern
European colonists. In the latter case
the immigration to the new world con-
sisted largely of colonists and their
families who came into a comparatively
unsettled country in search of new

1J. Deniker, The Races of Man, 1913, p. 542.

homes, whereas in the case of Spain,
the conquistadors—armies of men alone
—came seeking wealth, adventure and
colonial possessions.

From the social side, we find in the
new world this situation: the average
Spaniard, or man with considerable
Spanish blood, would of necessity, on
account of the scarcity of Spanish
women, have to remain a bachelor or
marry a wife with less Spanish blood
on the average, than he himself carried.
The result was, from the standpoint of
the Spaniard, that his offspring were of
less pure Spanish descent, while from
the standpoint of the native Indian or
imported negro, the offspring were of a
decidedly higher racial level.

EFFICACY OF THE PURE-SIRE METHOD

It appears that a man with “‘a touch”’
of Indian or negro blood could return
to Spain with his Spanish father and
enter Spanish society much more
readily than could a daughter with
Indian or colored blood. The process
of race assimilation by the pure-sire
method became so common in Latin
America that there developed a definite
system of nomenclature! for describing
the products of each particular genera-
tion of offspring. The accompanying
pedigree-chart shows this process in
detail, and attention is called to the
sureness with which race assimilation
is achieved by clinging to the pure-sire
method, whereas in case this system is
dropped, confusion results and a mixed
race is the product.

The efficacy of the pure-sire method
is doubly assured when we remember
that in man, as in other animals, the
germ-plasm is not indefinitely dilut-
able, but segregates into chromosomes
which in their entirety (barring cross-
ing-over) either do or do not pass from
a given ancestor to the offspring.
We shall not go into this matter here,

YoIyM ainjzLpouawoU JO wWoysAs ay} SoyPoIpUy eACGE weiselp oy
-ayovq v UTRUIeI,, 0} poojq ystuvds jo ueUT 94} 105 Aressao0u SPM I],
-x1uu goRi Jo ssav0id v AjayeIpautur JSOW]e uvSoq o194} JPY SPM 3[Nso1 oY “PLLOM Aou oY} UT Pais Pue

uis-aind ay} Aq uone

usut aso Auetu aioM o10y} ‘eoriaury-ystueds jo sXep Aj1ve 047 UT,, “Poet o

vIIDUID/A UT

IY 424 SSRY,

Tey (aps aay)
“Sawer owosyy Baym C229 77
4+ onSaylyzvo/
peony. 04a #

(2Fosaay) aglyM |} u00J0}20 (eBay)
<5 alosoumny) alum 51 y “Sawosowouy7 ange 12
+ o/Da, 4 oo heeletet a lf E
poop. oY 8 pong, oUF
, (eFvs24y)
Sauer oweuy) EH >,

pomp. outa
aRl4M Wee aqiym | wooupong (Bosasy)
rem eseAlen 7) Bed

5 P09/H. 4M TF

onMINLL \osBa = -a2/YM
*Sawos
ST Me! HEI

07 }D/PUL

‘Samosowosy) a.m Zh
+ od.

apy X97 olDaN

(OT ‘BIq) ‘“uoTR1aUes YIRe JO Suridsyo 9y} aqiio
dy} UO poojq ysiurds ssay YUM atm B Aiseul 10 10]
as suorge1 oy ur Suryor] ayimb sea yy 91n}
Aaqunod JayJOU! ay} Wor} suUTeD OYM UBWIOM UPY}
jIulisse aov1 yo ssa001d ay} surly

vada ysiuode uy

ofrqung —_(sFasa~p)

+ ofbaly
= pooyg. woIpUr.

(Fosary): sowos
“owouy] LUDIpUT >

+ e,
=poop osBut ayoK0] —_(aBouanp)

uly
UDIPUT | 7 Soworourouyy Ley
= Pog, ubIpur =
olBay upipur

unlpur fg o.03y

‘palied jfastury ay ULYI odPIBAL
jstuojoo uvadoingy yys0u ayy Aq pay

vawauy ysiuod ut

.ysiupde, “a7
0.3 DUO. (aBpuasy)
“ peuiog ourey 7 YoUDa ez zt

ysiunds | ovrgyy (2Fouay)
“Saw osoUrnlyr] YsyUOdy 1%

poor, oY?

ysiunds Kf ouBay

SIP OF Aressao0u JluRI0q

RaAjsni[i Jeyo aaisiped W

nodal} ysikDdg UT

(2Foseay)

Sawosowouyy yswndy 1
+ UDiPULe

Poo. Yop F

+UdIPUT Zz

peed, verpur F

ysiueds Ag upipur

‘DIddl}y Ul UOLpO/IUISS}Y BIDY FQ POYZALYL AIG I4Nd HL

Laughlin:

= ( ) (french) -
vf sve Pots ©) H
Pied eal Ra
85 Half-breeds
from rien moerhers.
Tee e entaar will.
tT lo er (Argentinian)
Marcelo Dessoyers ( es en
F (aragentinian Ly birth meat “fy
ie ire, ch ey heart) Corse 268 Sedene- Off
= Talio Desnoyers.
Fig. 17

Race Assimilation

by the Pure-Sire Method 261

(Halt-breed Indian)
. Mista. Petrona.
"The China”

an- supposedly
(a0 noble birth) *
Kar/ Hartrott.

(Qrgen Aran)
4leria.

pe ian~ Wear — Br

Pedigree Chart from “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, by Vincente Blasco Tbanez.

but we know that on the average one
out of every 4,096 human beings that
we see has entirely eliminated the
ancestral chromosomes of his or her
mother’s mother, and one out of 2,048
his or her father’s mother.? In such
cases there is not even a ‘‘touch’’ of
that particular grandparent’s “blood”
remaining. It requires just as many
generations of pure-sire assimilation to
eliminate the “blood” of an ancestor
of one race as of another; for example,
it would take just as long for a mixed
“pass-for-English” family to ‘‘breed-
out”’ its French or its German ancestry
as it would to rid itself of its negro or
Chinese ‘‘blood.’’ But practically, be-
cause of the many basic qualities
common to closely related races, the
apparent racial assimilation is, in such
cases, often completed in one or two
generations. In these cases some
foreign ‘‘blood”’ persists, but it is ‘‘not
so very foreign,’’ so that if supported by
social assimilation, the transfusion, for
all practical purposes, is quite complete.

A NOVELIST’S ILLUSTRATION

Vicente Blasco Ibanez claims (and
his claim is generally credited) that
in his novels he portrays social and
scientific facts in a much more reliable
manner than the ordinary imaginative

novelist uses. In ““The Four Horsemen
of the Apocalypse’’* he gives the story
of a Spanish-American family which, by
the pure-sire method, “bred up’ the
desce-dants of a half-breed Indian
woman (‘‘The China’’), first to Argen-
tinians; then through one daughter, by
marriage with a Frenchman, we find in
one more generation children ‘‘passing-
for-French,”’ and through the second
daughter, who married a German, von
Hartrott, the children ‘‘pass-for-Ger-
man.’ The pedigree-chart diagramming
this family is given in this article not
because it is a pedigree of an actual
family, but because it is a type-pedigree
on which history, sociology and an-
thropology place the stamp of accu-
racy. A writer with wild rather than a
constructive imagination, and with less
knowledge of history for a background,
would not have built his story on a
pedigree so typical of the true situa-
tion.

JEWS MIX WITH OTHER RACES

But whenever two races come into
close contact for a long period of years,
race-mixture is certain to result. Even
the Jews,‘ who claim to have preserved
a certain racial purity from ancient
times, are found to mix with the people
of each territory which they occupy.

* Harry H. Laughlin, Calculating Ancestral Influence in Man: A Mathematical Measure of

the Demonstrated Facts of Bi-Sexual Heredity.

’ Vicente Blasco Ibanez, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Fiction).

lation 1918. ‘
4 Redcliffe N. Salaman, M. D.,
III, 1911-12.

Heredity in the Jew.

In press in ‘‘Genetics.”’

American trans-

The Eugenics Review, pp. 187-200, Vol.

The Journal of Heredity

DMM... :
Bothgrandfathers white.
both Grandmothers “very
dark:

BK- Black eyes.

BL- Glue eyes.

Br- Grown eyes.

X- Stone Green eyes.

a aA a A
le ere he
it 4B ;
| triulatto
\ H
‘ io
{
A.(trs.F)
2

Posies NLP... |: Wear

A Jamaican- Jewish Family.

“In the family-tree here plotted, there are two persons of half-Jewish blood, three of one-quarter

Jewish blood, and two with no Jewish blood at all.”

Thus we speak of German-Jews, or
even of Chinese-Jews.® In each case
the so-called Jew presents a mixture of
those traits which we think of as
typically Jewish with those of the race
among which the particular Jewish
strain is living. Thus we must think of
the Jews as an institution and a society
as well as a race. Their racial traits
may constitute the principal back-
ground of Judaism, but that is not the
whole story.

In the accompanying picture of a

® Maurice Fishberg, The Jews, 1911, p. 134.

(Fig. 18.)

Negro-Jews. In the family-tree here
plotted, there are two persons of half-
Jewish blood, three of one-quarter
Jewish blood, and two with no Jewish
blood at all. The observer can, if he
be keen, locate in the picture those
with and those without Jewish blood.
This particular family, due doubtless
to the infusion of Jewish traits, was
much more successful socially and
economically than the average Jamai-
can family with an equivalent propor-
tion of other but less socially compe-
tent white blood.

Hindu Coolie

_ Peale « Sambo"

aasepeseee

ONE TYPE OF RACE MIXTURE IN JAMAICA, B. W. I.

(School Children in the Town of Moneague.)

BLENDING OF RACIAL TRAITS

Another picture here shown is of
three children from a school in a
Jamaican town. The boy to the left
is a Hindu® coolie with no negro blood
in his veins, although his skin is as
black as that of the average quarter-
blood negro. His features, however, do
not disclose any negroid traits. The
boy to the right is a “‘Sambo,’” that is
of three-quarters black and one-quarter
white blood. The little girl in the
centre is descended from a Hindu
coolie father and a “‘Sambo’’ mother.
Here we see racial traits blending.
This blend is especially noticeable in
the hair, the nose and the lips. So
potent is the pure-sire® method of race
assimilation that should this girl, her
daughters and her granddaughters
marry Hindu co lies, doubtless the
racial transformation would be com-
plete in that direction; or if, on the
other hand, she and her daughters and

ree On March 31, 1918 there were 20,206 East Indian immigrants in Jamaica.
in principally to work on the sugar plantations.

See the text below for explanation.

(Fig. 19.)

granddaughters were to marry “‘Jamai-
cans,” the assimilation of her descend-
ants by the latter race would be equally
complete.
CONCLUSION

The data given in this article are iso-
lated but th y ere representative facts
from the mass of anthropological evi-
dence which demonstrates the general
fact that whenever two races come into
intimate contact the upper race tends
to remain pure while the lower tends
toward assimilation into the upper, by
the pure-sire system. Thus the expres-
sion “‘the salvation of a great nation is
the virtue of its women” is true racially
as well as socially and morally. So long
as the basic instincts and the social
ideals of mankind remain as they are
today, and have been since man first
appeared, racial evolution and assimi-
lation will tend toward the race-types
of men which the women of the par-
ticular nation choose as mates.

They are brought

7 Chas. B. Davenport, Heredity of Skin Color in Negro-White Crosses, 1913, p. 27.
8 Harry H. Laughlin, The Relation between the Number of Chromosomes of a Species and

the Rate of Elimination of Mongrel Blood by the Pure-Sire Method.

Proceedings of the Society

for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 1919, xvi., pp. 132-134.

TYPICAL WILD FORM OF THE TREE DAHLIA

It is in this form—a tall plant producing lilac-pink single flowers—that Dahlia maxoni occurs in
the highlands of Guatemala. When brought into cultivation it gives rise to double-flowered
varieties of several shades of color. The stem here shown was cut and photographed by the
roadside on the slopes of the Volcan de Agua, near Antigua, Guatemala. (Fig. 20.)

THE TREE DAHLIA OF GUATEMALA

WILSON POPENOE
Agricultural Explorer, United States Department of Agriculture

highlands in the months of De-

cember or January, the traveler
is certain to be impressed with the
beauty of the wild tree dahlia whose
starry, lilac-pink flowers, in graceful
clusters upon long slender stems, break
the somber monotony of a dark green
hillside in a most effective manner.
And as he enters one of the picturesque
Indian villages of the highlands, particu-
larly if he be so fortunate as to find him-
self in the town of Tactic, he is sure to
be enchanted by the flowering hedges
of this plant which surround the di-
minutive gardens of the people.

R vicita through the Guatemalan

SUITABLE FOR SUB-TROPICAL AREAS

Why has not the Guatemalan tree
dahlia become more widely known
horticulturally? A plant at once so
beautiful, so conspicuous in its native
home, and so readily propagated should
be one of the first to be carried to other
lands; yet Dahlia maxoni (such is the
n me under which the species is now
known) seems never to have become
widely distributed. Probably this is
due to the fact that its climatic require-
ments fit it for cultivation only in the
mildest parts of the sub-tropics, or in
the tropics at elevations sufficiently
high to temper the heat. When planted
in northern gardens, it is cut down by
frost before it has had an opportunity
to come into flower, though in favored
situations in southern California it has
occasionally bloomed gorgeously. In
Florida, if the proper soil conditions
can be provided, it should prove suc-
cessful. And certainly there are many
places in northern India, in southern
Japan, in sub-tropical Brazil, and
numerous other countries where it
would find congenial surroundings, and
where it would prove an excellent ad-
dition to the list of garden plants.

To the Kekchi Indians of northern
Guatemala, this dahlia is known as
solokh, while those who speak the

Pokonchi language call it shzkor. Span-
ish-speaking Guatemalans usually term
it Santa Catarina. Though extremely
abundant, both wild and cultivated, in
many parts of the Guatemalan high-
lands (principally between 3,000 and
7,000 feet elevation) it seems never to
have received much attention from
botanists; indeed, W. E. Safford, of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, last
year found that it had not yet received
even a name, hence he described it as
Dahlia maxoni, in honor of William A.
Maxon, of the U. S. National Her-
barium.

FOUR DISTINCT FORMS

When I first saw this plant in Guate-
mala during the winter of 1916-17, I
felt immediately that it was worthy of
horticultural attention. Still more was
I impressed with its possibilities when
I found what appeared to be four dis-
tinct forms of the species; the type,
which is single-flowered and lilac-pink
in color; a single-flowered white vari-
ety, identical with the type except in
color; and two double-flowered vari-
eties—one lilac-pink and one white. I
sent cuttings of these double-flowered
forms to Washington, where they were
propagated but later lost by freezing,
and I took home with me photographs
of them. From my description of the
plant, and from photographs, Mr.
Safford thought the double-flowered
form so distinct from the type that he
did not include it in his description of
Dahlia maxont.

Upon returning to Guatemala, and
again seeing the tree dahlia in bloom, I
have been able to satisfy myself that
the double-flowered varieties have their
origin in the single-flowered, typical
form, and properly belong to the same
species.

As a wild plant, upon the mountain-
sides removed from cultivation, I have
never seen any other than the typical
form, with eight lilac-pink ray-florets

(‘Tz ‘B1gq), ‘20109 ut yurd-oeyT] st Ayolszea sy], ‘elewazyens ‘ON0RL Ul sous} B Zuoje mor styz Aq uMoys st MoI8 Aeut syurjd ay} yory a
0} azis asny ayy, “SMore8pay 10 suapies ut poquryd pue ssurjyno Aq paqyesedoid are uoreAtqNo Ut a}EUIBIIO YOIYM SWIOJ paraMoy-a[qnop ey L

NOILVAIL1TNO NI VITHVC AaaL FHL

$
v

¥ Mi

(7% ‘Btq) ‘aTqnop Ay[ny awiosaq sey YOIYM auO st 74811 oY} UO aTIYM ‘ayeIPautiajUT Ue st 1aqUID ay} UT aUO ayy ‘sjuR]d pyImM Aq paonpoid
asoy} se oles ay} A]]eotjovld ‘a]SurIs st jay ay} UO JAMO oyYy “eTeUIaZeNy ‘OORT, Je MOJSpay &v Ul SuIMo1s ‘jueyd sures ay} WO1J UBHe} 19M
Way} JO [JY “UOeSN]]II sty] UT UMOYs SIOMOY 9214) VY} Aq payeIqsN][I SI UoTeINUI 10 Surqi0ds-pnq Aq satjalieA paiaMOy-s[qnop jo UIsIIO ay |

INV1Id ATONIS V WOU SYAMOTA THAHL

268

and a compact group of small yellow
disk-florets. Sometimes the stems reach
15 or even 18 feet in height, and
become quite woody toward the base.
They terminate in a number of slender
branches, each bearing several flowers,
not all of which open at one time. The
flowers face outwards and upwards, one
of the characteristics which distin-
guishes this species from D. imperialis.
The flowers of the latter are distinctly
nodding.

When brought into cultivation
around the huts of the Indians the
species seems to lose its stability.
In place of single lilac-pink flowers
other forms often appear, and since
the plant is readily propagated by
cuttings it is a simple matter to repro-
duce these variations. The single
white variety is relatively rare, and
lis flowers are much in demand among
the Indians for decorating the images
of saints which all of them keep in
their homes. The double white is
somewhat more abundant, and the
double lilac-pink is perhaps the com-
monest of all the variations from the
type. I have seen all of these forms
both in northern Guatemala (Tactic
and Coban) and in the central part of
the country, near Antigua.

WIDE RANGE OF FORM AND COLOR

It is evident that the double-flowered
forms originate as bud-sports from the
single ones, for I have found numerous
plants, both in northern Guatemala
and near Antigua, on which there were
flowers of both types, as well as inter-
mediate forms. Figure 22 shows three
flowers from a single plant growing in
a hedgerow at Tactic, Alta Verapaz.
On the left is the typical flower with
eight ray-florets, and numerous minute
yellow disk-florets closely crowded to-
gether. In the center flower many of
the disk-florets are no longer small and

The Journal of Heredity

yellow, but have become more like the
ray-florets in character and similar in
color—lilac-pink in this instance. In
the flower on the right, the disk-florets
are still larger, and the flower has
become quite double. Even in the
double-flowered form, however, the
ray-florets can be distinguished from
the altered disk-florets. In the flower
shown in the photograph, the ray-
florets appear in the rear, larger and
broader than the rest. While the typi-
cal, single-flowered form produces fer-
tile seed in abuntance, I have been
unable to find any seed produced by
the double-flowered varieties.

The largest flowers, whether single or
double, measure four or five inches in
diameter. In the double-flowered forms
there are various shades of color. I
have seen a bright lilac-pink—almost a
pure pink; a deep lilac-pink; and a
darker shade which could almost be
called a mauve.

The wide range of form and color
which horticulturists have obtained
from the several species of Dahlia culti-
vated in the north is familiar to every-
one. Varieties have been produced
both by crossing, and through the vege-
tative propagation -of forms which
originated as bud-sports. The only de-
fect of Dahlia maxont, from the north-
ern horticulturist’s point of view, is the
long growing season which it requires
in order to reach the flowering stage.
But will it not be possible, by crossing
this species with some of those now
cultivated in the north, to produce
interesting and valuable forms which
will be successful under practically the
same conditions as the cactus and other
groups of cultivated dahlias? Certainly
a species which grows to eighteen feet
in height, and which exhibits a strong
tendency to produce handsome double-
flowered sports, will not be without
interest to American dahlia breeders!

CHLOROPHYLL FACTORS OF MAIZE

Their Distribution on the Chromosomes and Relation to the Problem of
Inbreeding.!

E. W. LinpstromM
Department of Genetics, University of Wisconsin

T ISasignificant fact that the great
majority of heritable characters
known in maize are recessive to the

normal type in inheritance. Such
characters as dwarfness, ramosa ear,
liguleless leaf, chlorophyll characters
such as white, virescent-white, and yel-
low seedlings, golden, green-striped,
Japonica, fine-striped, and the lineate-
leaved plants are all simple Mendelian
recessives to the common or normal
type of maize. Disregarding aleurone,
pericarp and endosperm characters,
since one is not certain as to what is
normal in those respects, only one
character, pod-corn, has been definitely
shown to be dominant. Strangely
enough this dominant character, pod-
corn, is almost completely sterile in
the homozygous dominant condition.
Most of these recessive characters
influence the life and vigor of the maize
plant directly. The presence of one
of them often seriously affects the life
and productivity of the plant. If any
such abnormalities were dominant
characters they would quickly perish
in the struggle for existence without
leaving a trace. Because they are re-
cessive in inheritance they can be car-
ried along from one generation to the
next in normal appearing plants, heter-
ozygous for the abnormal factors.
This is obviously the reason for the
presence of so many recessive charac-
ters and so few dominant ones in maize.

INFLUENCE OF RECESSIVE CHARACTERS

The relation between such recessive
characters and the question of inbreed-
ing is very intimate. Continued in-
breeding of maize is nearly always

followed by a decrease in stature, yield
and fertility. This, together with the
facts that the maize plant is normally
in a heterozygous condition because of
its method of open-pollination and that
recessive abnormalities are abundant,
at once suggests that the artificial in-
breeding of maize merely isolates the
recessive characters which are rela-
tively poor in stature, yield or fertility.

Having once eliminated these poor
characters by selective inbreeding, one
might suppose that the remaining
plants, being relatively free from such
abnormalities, would now possess only
the better characters. This, however,
is true only to a very limited extent.
The actual results of maize inbreeding
have not been successful in producing
such superior stock.

Apparently the reason for this is
the influence of linkage on the distri-
bution of characters. If one could
eliminate most of the inferior charac-
ters without disturbing the favorable
complex, the problem would be solved.
But it seems that when we isolate and
eliminate the poorer types by inbreed-
ing, at the same time we discard some
of the better factors that are correlated
with the unfavorable ones in inheri-
tance. Such a situation is expected
from our present knowledge of the
linkage relations of an organism.

It seems safe to assume that such
favorable factors as influence size,
yield, good quality, and fertility are
multiple in nature and undoubtedly
are distributed in all the ten pairs of
chromosomes in maize. Certainly the
facts of size inheritance appear to con-
firm this.

' Papers from the Department of Genetics, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of

Wisconsin, No. 22.

Published with the approval of the Director of the Station.

Some of the original crosses reported in this article were made at the New York State College
of Agriculture at Cornell University, Department of Plant Breeding.

(€Z ‘S1y) ,,"Wee13 ]eULIOU 0} aATSSadaI B[duIs v Ose st 19}9e1eYD
OUYM-jUaISOIA oy ‘dA [eULIOU [eI OY} 07 dATssada1 ULIapUdTA a[dtus v st ozreUI UY SsoUpIeMC],, “AJaAT}Dadsa1 F:9:6:9] JO uOTJ10do1d 3y} UT

ans90 sad4q inoj asayy ‘Mor eNoTVIed sty} UT “OPTYM-JUSsa.11A JaeMp pu UdaIS JIPMpP ‘9ITYM-JUadsetIA []e} ‘uaeIS ][]e] OJUT UOIyeSe1Zas Surmoys
SONITGUAS AZIVN

“AG

Lindstrom: Chlorophyll Factors of Maize

EFFECT OF UNFAVORABLE FACTORS

But what of the distribution of the
unfavorable factors in the chromo-
somes? If we can demonstrate that
many factors causing a reduction in
the vigor of the maize plant are distrib-
uted in many different chromosomes,
it would add positive evidence to the
present theory on the effects of in-
breeding. It is the purpose of this
paper to point out the distribution of
some such unfavorable factors, espe-
cially those concerned with the devel-
opment of chlorophyll.

Chlorophyll abnormalities are very
prevalent in all types of corn. They
have been observed in dent, flint,
sweet, pop and flour corn. These ab-
normalities vary from a total absence
of all pigment (shown in pure white or
albino. seedlings) to shades of light
green that are almost indistinguishable
from normal green. An _ intensive
search for such chlorophyll defects sur-

prises one by their frequent occurrence. _

The presence of any one of these reces-
sive chlorophyll abnormalities in a
commercial strain of corn is a serious
factor in reducing yield.

At least eight factors that influence
the inheritance of chlorophyll have al-
ready been reported. These are the
seedling factors producing white, vir-
escent-white, and yellow seedlings and
the mature plant factors producing
golden, green-striped, Japonica (both
green-white and green-yellow striped),
fine-striped and lineate plants. In ad-
dition there are three new factors, still
under investigation, making a total of
eleven factors governing the formation
and expression of chlorophyll in maize.

It must not be supposed that these
eleven factors comprise most of the
actual number concerned in chloro-
phyll inheritance. They only repre-
sent the ones that are most easily
handled. There are certainly many
others, especially those which produce
the lighter shades of green so often ob-
served in different types of maize.
But these are very difficult to work

2 Lindstrom, E. W. Chlorophyll inheritance in maize.

13:1-68. 1918.

271
with, since their expression is greatly
modified by external conditions. Such
factors also would influence the vigor
and yield of the plant. It is to be con-
fidently expected that their inheritance
will prove to be similar to that of the
eleven factors already known.

In a previous publication? it has
been shown that many of the chloro-
phyll factors are inherited indepen-
dently of each other. It has also been
shown that two of them (I, yellow seed-
lings and g, golden plants) are linked in
inheritance.

Further evidence is now presented
to show that some of these same chlo-
rophyll factors are inherited indepen-
dently of still other factors.

RELATION OF WHITE (ALBINO) SEED-
LINGS TO ALEURONE AND ENDO-
SPERM FACTORS

A sweet corn with colored aleurone,
of the composition 14ACCP,P,RR
Su Sy WW, was pollinated by a plant
with starchy, colorless endosperm, het-
erozygous for albino seedlings (#14 ACC
P,P, rr Sy Sy Ww). The F, endo-
sperm was starchy and had purple
aleurone color in all of the grains
The F, plants were all normal green.

Ten F, plants were self-pollinated.
The F, grains on all showed a distinct
9:3:3:1 ratio of purple starchy, purple
sugary, colorless starchy and colorless
sugary grains, respectively. These
four types of seed from each ear were
planted separately. Among the ten
F, seedling progenies, six produced
nothing but green seedlings, while four
showed a sharp segregation into green
and white seedlings. The expectation
in this respect was of course five and °
five.

The four F, progenies that showed
segr gation are presented in Table I.

It will be noted that three of the
four seedling progenies are grouped
together while the fourth (2959) has
been segregated and totalled sepa-
rately. This was done because 2959
was a poorly developed ear that showed

Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Memoir

(#7 St) “ydes3oj0yd sty} ur paysinsunsip Ajisva aie yoryM ‘ssul[paes Jreap 207 Ajayeurxoidde pamoys 9a1y} [[y “asnoy

-ua013 94} Ul paqse} sotuasoid Surl[paes ey} pue payeurfod-jjas 19M Way} jo sai, “Uae1d [eWIOU PUP |[P} [[B A19M SSO1) SIY} JO squed ty ay
* -qurjd jiemp ev Aq passo19 sem ‘pajeurjod-jjas usays ssurl[paes Moa 9467 pue usais 946/ paonpoid yor quryd users |e) V,, *AjaAtjoadsoa.
[:9:9:Q] St sed} anoy asayy JO uonsodoid oy} Mor APpNojzed siy} Uy “MOT[aA JABMP puk UdaI3 JAeMp ‘MOT[PA [TEI ‘uaa183 [[2} OJUL UOT}RSa19S BULMOYS

SONITGHYS AZIVIN

Lindstrom: Chlorophyll Factors of Maize 273

indications of pollen contamination.
It is included in the table only to pre-
sent all the data in this experiment.

The relations between the various
factors involved in this cross can be
studied best by taking two pairs of
factors at a time. The interrelation
between the Ww factor pair, govern-
ing chlorophyll inheritance and the
Su su pair, determining starchy and
sugary endosperm, will be considered
first. Using the data from the three
ears (2955, 2956, 2969 ) that show no
evidence of pollen contamination, the
following results are obtained when the
starchy seeds (indicated by Sw) are
considered separately from the sugary
(sw) seeds :—

Suw Suw suW suw
Observed 507 161 155 46
Calculated 489 163 163 54

The actual or observed results approxi-
mate a 9:3:3:1 ratio very closely. The
starchy seeds show a proportion of 3
green seedlings to 1 white as do the
sugary seeds. In fact, the closeness of
fit, as measured by P is .53, which in-
dicates that there is good agreement
between the facts and the hypothesis
of independent Mendelian inheritance
between the chlorophyll and endosperm
factors.

The numbers are sufficiently large
and the approximation to the theoreti-
cal expectancy is so close that we can
be reasonably certain that w and su
are not linked in inheritance. In
other words, the albino chlorophyll

factor is not on the same chromosome
as the sugary endosperm factor.

ALEURONE AND CHLOROPHYLL FACTORS

If the relation between aleurone
color and chlorophyll development is
considered next, similar results obtain.
In this case the purple aleurone grains
(indicated by R) are classified sepa-
rately from the colorless grains (7). The
green and white seedlings resulting
from these two types of seed are as
follows:

IRV IRA NE GADD
Observed 482 155 180 52
Calculated 489 163 163 54
Both purple and colorless seeds give
approximately 75% green and 25%
white seedlings, resulting in a 9:3:3:1
ratio. The calculated value for P is
.51 which means good agreement be-
tween actual and theoretical results.

From such data we can draw the
conclusion that w and ¢ are not linked,
but that the chlorophyll factor w is
located in a different chromosome than
is the aleurone factor 7.

From the data in Table I, it can be
shown that the 7 and sw factors also
are independently inherited. When
grouped according to these factors the
data are as follows:

RSu Rsu rSu rsu
Observed 489 148 179 53
Calculated 489 163 163 54

The agreement between the actual and
the theoretical results is not as good as
in the preceding cases since the value

TABLE I: F Seedlings from Four Self-pollinated F Plants of the Composition i i Pr Pr A A C C

Ry Su su Ww*
Pedigree No. | Purple Starchy Purple Sugary Colorless Starchy | Colorless Sugary
Seed Seed Seed Seed

Green White Green White Green White Green White
2955 148 58 56 12 56 16 18 7
2956 74 ii 18 6 20 10 6 1
2969 144 48 42 14 65 12 15 6
Total 366 123 116 32 141 38 39 i4
Theoretical 367 122 122 41 122 41 41 14
2959 87 18 25 5 48 2 8 0
Total 453 141 141 37 189 40 47 14
Theoretical 448 149 149 50 149 50 50 17

*Original cross made by Mr. E. G. Anderson of the Department of Plant Breeding, New
York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University.

of P is .40. The odds are approxi-
mately 1.5 to 1 against the observed
deviations being due to chance only.
Such odds are, however, not considered
as seriously vitiating the hypothesis of
independent inheritance of ry and su.

The preceding facts demonstrate
that the chlorophyll abnormality of
albino seedlings is not linked with
either the sugary character nor the
aleurone factor ry. Factors w, su and
r are each on separate chromosomes.

RELATION BETWEEN DWARFNESS AND
VIRESCENT-WHITE SEEDLINGS

Dwarfness in maize is a simple Men-
delian recessive to the tall normal type.
The virescent-white character is also
a simple recessive to normal green.
Virescent-white seedlings contain very
little chlorophyll at first, but under fav-
orable conditions of light and tempera-
ture, they gradually assume a light
green color. It has been possible to
bring some of them to maturity.

TABLE II: Seedling Progenies from Self-
pollinated Normal Green Plants Heterozy-

gous for Tall-dwarf and Green-
Virescent-white

Tall Dwarf

Vires- Vires-

Pedigree | Tall cent- |Dwarf} cent-

No. Green| white |Green| white
2862 63 24 27 11
2871 52 21 20 6
2991 57 19 16 5
2992 52 22 20 7
3017 178 52 52 11
Total 402 138 135 40
Theoretical) 402 134 134 45

(9:3:3:1)

Several green plants heterozygous
for the virescent-white factor (Vv) were
pollinated by homozygous green, dwarf
plants. The F, progeny was all tall
and dark green. When self-pollinated
the F, plants produced, as was to be
expected, two sorts of seedling prog-
enies. One sort consisted entirely of
green seedlings, the other segregated
into green and virescent-white. Both
sorts segregated into tall and dwarf
seedlings. The segregation into tall
green, dwarf green, tall virescent-white

27 The Journal of Heredity

and dwarf virescent-white which oc-
curred in five of the progenies was dis-
tinct, as can readily be seen in Fig. 23.

Seedling counts were made of the
five progenies that showed segregation
into the four classes noted above. They
are recorded in Table II.

The data in this table conform
closely to a 9:3:3:1 ratio and accord-
ingly indicates that dwarfness and
virescent-white chlorophyll are inher-
ited independently of each other.
Hence, the chlorophyll factor v is not
in the same chromosome as the dwarf
factor concerned in this cross.

RELATION BETWEEN DWARFNESS AND
XANTHOPHYLL PIGMENT

In addition to the white and vires-
cent-white chlorophyll types, there is
a third type which also is recessive to
normal green. This recessive char-
acter is seen in maize seedlings that
develop a distinct yellow color appar-
ently due to the pigments xantho-
phyll and carotin.

A tall green plant, which produced
75% green and 25% yellow seedlings
when self-pollinated, was crossed by a
dwarf plant. This dwarf was of the
semi-tall type with anthers in the ear.
It is also a simple recessive to the tall
type, but is caused by a different gen-
etic factor than the dwarf type used in
the virescent-white cross.

The F, plants of this cross were all
tall and normal green. Three of them
were self-pollinated and their seedling
progenies tested in the greenhouse.
All three showed approximately 25%
dwarf seedlings, which are easily dis-
tinguished as can be seen from Fig. 24.
Two of the progenies also segregated
for the yellow seedling character, pro-
ducing tall green, dwarf green, tall
yellow and dwarf yellow in proportions
indicated in Table III.

An analysis of this table shows that
the actual results obtained do not agree
very closely with the theoretical ex-
pectancy of a 9:3:3:1 ratio. The ex-
treme classes (tall green and dwarf
yellow) taken together are deficient
while the middle classes (tall yellow
and dwarf green) are slightly in excess

aa
he
.
..
3

j fut A

‘a a

TWO SELF-POLLINATED EARS OF MAIZE
Showing approximately twenty-five percent of abortive grains. Below the labels are shown some
individual abortive grains (upper rows) and some normal grains (lower rows) from these ears.

(Fig. 25.)

276

TABLE III: Seedling Progenies from Self-
pollinated Normal Green Plants Heterozy-
gous for Tall-dwarf and Green-

Yellow Seedlings

Pedigree Tall} Tall | Dwarf} Dwarf
No. Green |Yellow | Green | Yellow
3006 180 72 87 22
3011 32 7 11 2

Total 212 79 98 24
Theoretical 232 78 78 26

(9:3:3:1)

Calculated 225 85 85 18

on 1:1.4

linkage

of the theoretical on the basis of inde-
pendent assortment. If this is a case
of linkage, such a situation would be
expected, since the tall and yellow
characters came from one parent, while
the dwarf and green characters entered
from the other parent of the cross.

If a linkage giving a gametic ratio
of 1:1.4 is assumed, the calculated
numbers agree more closely with the
actual results. This indicates that
the tall-yellow and dwarf-green gam-
etes are produced approximately 1.4
times more often than the tall-green
and dwarf-yellow gametes. The num-
bers are too small, however, for more
than a suggestion of linkage. Further
tests are being planned to determine
this relation.

It happens that the chlorophyll fac-
tor involved in the dwarf-yellow cross
is identical with the one in the dwarf-
virescent-white cross discussed in the
preceding section. In both cases it
is the v factor (LLvv and llvv).

In the dwarf-virescent-white cross
there was no indication of linkage be-
tween the chlorophyll factor v and the
type of dwarf involved. In the dwarf-
yellow cross however, there is a sugges-
tion of a linkage between this same v
and the semi-tall dwarf used there.
This can only mean that the two sorts
of dwarfs are genetically different and
that their respective factors are located
on different chromosomes.
INHERITANCE OF ABORTIVE

MAIZE

In connection with the study of

chlorophyll factors there occurred,

GRAINS IN

The Journal of Heredity

among several self-pollinated ears of a
certain cross, a single ear that showed
an appreciable number of abortive
grains. At first this was thought to
be the result of poor pollen or imperfect
pollination. But the recurrence of the
phenomenon for two years dispelled
this idea and suggested that some
heritable factor was involved.

Unfortunately no attempt was made
in the earlier years to segregate and
count the abortive grains. They were
merely shelled off and planted with the
normal grains. A marked deficiency
in the percentage of germination was
noted in these ears nevertheless.

Last season, however, four self-
pollinated ears and several crosses
were produced. Three of the four
selfed ears showed segregation into
normal and abortive grains. The fourth
was an entirely normal, well developed
ear. Two ears (2208-4 and 2208-7)
were photographed and appear in Fig.
25

The abortive grains are sharply dis-
tinguishable from the normal ones.
They possess no trace of an embryo
and no endosperm tissue has developed ;
they are merely shells made up of peri-
carp tissue. Silks are nevertheless
produced on them. The abortive grains
are scattered more or less evenly over
the entire ear. Their distribution and
their proportion to the normal grains
strongly indicates that they are in-
herited as a simple Mendelian recessive
character.

Counts were made on the three ears
and the number of normal and abor-
tive grains on each are recorded in
Table IV.

TABLE IV: Showing Segregation into Normal
and Abortive Grains of Three Self-
pollinated Ears

Pedigree Normal | Abortive| Dev
No. Grains | Grains P. E.
2208-1 229 86 1-.3
2208-4 456 161 1.0
2208-7 288 118 2.7
Total 973 365 2.8
Theoretical 1003 335
(3:1)

Lindstrom: Chlorophyll Factors of Maize

Among a total of 1338 grains in
Table IV, 365 or 27.3% are of the
abortive type. Presumably, then, we
are dealing with a recessive, Mendelian
factor that inhibits the formation of
both embryo and endosperm.

The abortive grains occurred in a
family of plants that were showing seg-
regation into green and chlorophyll-free
seedlings. It is to be expected that
when the green plants of such a family
are self-fertilized, a certain proportion
of them will segregate in the next gen-
eration. Only four green plants (2208
(1), (2), (4), (7) ) were self-pollinated
and they produced nothing but pure
green progenies. Four is too small a
number on which to base conclusions,
but it does suggest the possibility of
some relation between the abortive
grains and the seedlings deficient in
chlorophyll.

This relation might be conceived of
as a case of complete linkage between
a lethal factor destroying both em-
bryo and endosperm and another
lethal factor inhibiting the formation
of normal chlorophyll. Since the orig-
inal F, generation was segregating
for both the white and virescent-white
seedling factors, it is impossible to
judge which of the two might be con-
cerned in such a linkage. Further
tests are being planned to determine
this.

There is also a possibility that we
are not dealing with a case of linkage at
all, but that the abortive grains are
due to some physiological interrelation
of the chlorophyll factors. Since, how-
ever, all the known chlorophyll ab-
normalities have been tested against
each other and have reacted and seg-
regated as ordinary Mendelian factors,
it does not seem re sonable to suppose
that they would, in themselves, have
any such radical effect as to destroy
both embryo and endosperm.

The relation between the abortive-
grain character and inbreeding is
similar to that of the other recessive

277

1a;

characters mentioned in the first para-
graph of this article. If present in a
strain of maize, although they might
be unsuspected, being hidden by the
dominant, normal allelomorph, these
abortive grains would begin to appear
when the strain was inbred. This
would decrease the yield of such a
strain seriously. The abortive-grains
could be eliminated, with some diffi-
culty however, but if any favorable
characters were closely linked with
them, they too would be eliminated.

SUMMARY

Certain striking chlorophyll abnor-
malities are shown by breeding evi-
dence to be distributed in several
different chromosomes of maize. From
this it is to be inferred that other less
pronounced deficiencies of chlorophyll
are distributed in a similar manner.
The latter especially are common in
commercial fields of corn and presum-
ably are responsible for decreasing or
limiting the productivity of the plant
to some extent. They would naturally
be isolated and removed in an intensive
system of selective inbreeding, since
they are recessive in nature. Being
distributed on different chromosomes
their elimination would tend also to
remove some of the more favorable
factors which, being on the same
chromosomes, would naturally follow
the defective factors in inheritance.
In this manner, it is very likely that
continuous inbreeding removes favor-
able as well as unfavorable factors
from the original stock.

To succeed in a system of maize in-
breeding then, it is essential to begin
with the best source of material avail-
able, a source that is as free of abnor-
malities and defects as possible. It
is probable that inbreeding of such
stock might be carried out with very
little loss of stature, yield or fertility
and would at the same time improve
the uniformity of the type.

MUTATIONS IN MUCORS'

ALBERT F. BLAKESLEE
Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

HE theory of mutations has
played an increasing réle in
experimental evolution since its
enunciation some twenty years ago.
Sudden germinal changes, large or
small in amount, have been the basis
of perhaps the most fundamental work
in modern genetics. It is natural that
mutations should have been first sought
for and found primarily in higher
organisms, and in connection with the
sexual reproduction which is charac-
teristic of such forms. It became
evident later that mutations could not
be confined to cells associated with
sexual reproduction, but, as shown by
the somatic mutations” involved in
bud sports in plants, and in similar less
common phenomena in animals, they
may occur in cells in which sexual
processes are not involved. They have
been found in lowly organized plants
and animals in which nonsexual repro-
duction is the rule or in which sexual
reproduction is not known to occur.
The mucors are a fungous group in
which multiplication is brought about
chiefly by nonsexual spores produced
in sporangia. Sexually formed zygo-
spores are rarely found in most forms.
There are two main groups as regards
their sexual reproduction :—dioecious
forms and hermaphrodites. The sexual
races of the dioecious forms are in the
main similar in appearance, and the
uniting sex cells or gametes are appar-
ently morphologically equivalent. For
this reason, the terms plus and minus
have been applied to their opposite
sexes instead of the terms male and
female used in reference to the mor-
phologically distinct sexes in higher
forms. In many cases it has been
possible to obtain a sexual reaction,
called “imperfect hybridization,’ be-

tween plus and minus races of different
species. This imperfect hybridization
reaction has also been used in testing
the sexual tendencies of hermaphro-
dites and their mutants.

It is in a species of the hermaphro-
dites (Mucor genevensis) that the
mutations discussed in the present
paper have been found. Races of this
species from three different sources
have been kept running in vegetatively
propagated pure lines for 19 years.
The species was studied in 1913 with
the hope of inducing germinal changes
by subjecting its vegetative growth or
mycelium to various physical and
chemical stimuli. Before concluding
that any variation found after sub-
jecting the mycelium to a given stimu-
lus was in fact brought about by this
stimulus, it was necessary to discover
what, if any, variations the fungus
would produce under normal condi-
tions. So many variants were dis-
covered, however, in this preliminary
study, where no special stimuli were
applied, that extensive investigations
have not yet been attempted as to the
range of variations under abnormal
conditions.

METHOD OF GROWING MUCORS

The method of growing these mucors
is relatively simple. To be sure that
there is no doubt as to the purity of the
stock with which one starts, it is de-
sirable to obtain a culture from a single
vegetative spore. This single-spore
culture is grown in a test tube and, in
addition to slow-germinating zygo-
spores, produces numerous sporangia
containing thousands of nonsexual
spores. These sporangiospores are
mixed with water and the spore mixture
diluted until a platinum loop will con-

_ ‘A preliminary report of mutations in mucors was given in Year Book of the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington XII, 104-105, 1913 and presented before the Amer. Soc. of Naturalists,

Dec., 1914.

Blakeslee: Mutations in Mucors 279

SPECIMEN JARS USED IN ISOLATION CULTURES
The Dwarf true-breeding mutant is shown in the jar at the right, and on the left is shown mutant

“X,” an unstable mutant reverting to normal type “‘Y.”’

The ‘‘Dwarf”’ is eleven days old ‘‘and

its slowness of growth can be seen in comparison with the seven day old culture on the left. (Fig. 26.)

tain the proper number of spores as
determined by examination under the
microscope. The requisite number of
spores are transferred with the loop to a
tube of melted nutrient agar, and the
agar then poured into an inverted
specimen jar used as a roll tube shown

in Fig. 26. By proper manipulation
under the water tap, the agar is
hardened, thus holding the spores

uniformly scattered in a thin layer
inside the tube. It goes without say-
ing that the various steps in this process
should be carried on with regard to the
precautions necessary to prevent con-
tamination with foreign spores. By the

second day the spores have germinated
and produced mycelial colonies which
rapidly increase in size and eventually
cover the available nutrient. Several
hundred colonies can be readily ob-
served in a quart sized tube.

In such an isolation culture just
described, it is usual to find a few of
the colonies which differ more or less
in appearance from the normal growth
expected for the species. The differ-
ence may be in the color or compact-
ness of growth of the mycelium, in the
lengths of the sporangium stalks, or in
the size and abundance of the zygo-
spores which are later produced, or in a

280

number of other characters, but most
commonly in the reduced size of the
colonies. The aberrant colonies may
be transferred uncontaminated to test
tubes before the spores are produced
or their spores may be used in making
a new isolation in a second roll tube.
In all, somewhat over 38,000 colonies
from individual sporangiospores have
been inspected and a relatively large
number of variants of different degrees
of distinctness have been obtained.
The history of nearly all of these
mutants is similar in that the mutants
tend eventually to revert to the normal
type. Two, however, have seemed
more stable than the rest.

A FIXED DWARF MUTANT FOUND

A mutant which can conveniently
be called the ‘‘Dwarf’’ was found in
March, 1913 in an isolation of spores
from a single test tube culture of the
normal stock. Among 1015 individ-
uals, a single colony was noticeably
smaller than the rest and different
from its neighbors in the density of its
mycelium and the ragged edges of its
growth. Transfers of the mycelium to
test tubes and continued cultivation
for nearly seven years on a variety of
media in gross and isolation cultures
make it apparent that the mutant
is fixed and constant. Its charac-
teristic appearance, in an isolation
culture, is shown in the right hand tube
in Fig. 26. This is eleven days old,
and its slowness of growth can be seen
in comparison with the seven day old
culture on the left, especially with the
lower colony marked ‘‘X”’ which had
more room for extension than its
neighbors. Perhaps the most striking
peculiarity of the Dwarf is its lack of
definitely formed spores characteristic
of the group and found in all our other
mutants. The mycelium is granular
and readily breaks up into bits of the
mycelium, so that isolation cultures
from these fragments can be made, but
no sporangia have ever been observed.
The difference in size of the colonies
in the tube photographed may be due
to a difference in the size of the frag-
ments from which they grew. The

The Journal of Heredity

granular nature of its vegetative
growth is merely a more pronounced
expression of a tendency already pres-
ent in the parent stock especially when
grown in sugar solutions. Like the
normal stock, the Dwarf also is able to
take active part in alcoholic fermenta-
tion.

Zygospores, normally characteristic
of this hermaphroditic species, are also
entirely lacking, as might be expected
from so weak a growth. For the same
reason perhaps, it fails to give any
sexual reaction with plus and minus
races of a test dioecious species. The
inhibiting effect upon growth of adja-
cent colonies may be noted in the photo-
graph by their flattened outlines and
the clear space between, where other-
wise they would grow into contact.
Instances where colonies seem to over-
lap are due to colonies showing through
from the other side of the tube.

A MUTANT FROM A COLONY LACKING
ZYGOSPORES

The second mutant to be considered
which appears to breed true was found
February 22, 1913 in a two weeks old
isolation culture of 265 colonies. This
single colony, labelled Ai, entirely
lacked zygospores which thickly dotted
all the other colonies in the series. It
was freed from its zygosporic neighbors,
with which its sporangia were inter-
mingled, by streaking its spores on
nutrient agar in a Petri dish culture.
Some of the colonies produced zygo-
spores and were considered to be from
spores of other adjacent colonies.
Some were entirely free from !zygo-
spores. One of the latter was trans-
ferred to a tube culture while young
and labelled A2. From A2 an isolation
culture was made on March 7, and pro-
duced 4631 colonies, all of which
lacked zygospores. One of these colo-
nies (A3) was used in making another
isolation culture and yielded 24 colonies
again, all without zygospores. The
mutitant race has been continued in
test tube culture since 1913 and at the
present writing has reached the 16th
nonsexual generation. Tube A16 is dis-
tinctly different from other races of

PETRI DISH CULTURE PHOTOGRAPHED BY TRANSMITTED LIGHT

The small black dots are sexual spores (Zygospores); the large dark areas are places where innocu-
lations were made. The two left hand colonies are the normal race with numerous hermaphroditic
zygospores’ The central row of three colonies are mutant ‘‘X’’ with large zygospores; the two
right hand colonies are mutant ‘‘D”’ with only an occasional zygospore or none. Mutant “X”
has a plus sexual tendency and hence forms lines of zygospores in contact with mutant ‘‘D”’ and
the normal race, both of which have a minus tendency. (Fig. 27.)

CULTURE PHOTOGRAPHED BY REFLECTED LIGHT

The same arrangement of races as in Fig. 27 above. (Fig. 28.)

282

this species, primarily on account of the
light appearance of growth due to the
lack of zygospores. The ability to
form hermaphroditic zygospores did
not seem to have been entirely lost in
1913, however, since on more suitable
nutrient than is available in the thin
layer in an isolation tube, zygospores
were occasionally produced, although
in very small numbers. At the present
writing (February, 1920), it fails to
produce zygospores on the nutrients
tested.

Tests made in 1913 of the A3 genera-
tion showed that the mutant had a
minus sexual tendency since it gave
good reactions with the plus races
of two different dioecious species. In
addition, it formed a line of zygospores
with the ‘““X”’ mutant known to have a
plus tendency. This will be discussed
in a later paragraph.

That it was not entirely lacking in
the plus sex was further shown by its
reaction, although weak, with a minus
race of one of the dioecious test species.
The mutant “A” therefore cannot
be considered an example of complete
transformation from a hermaphroditic
into a dioecious species although it may
show a tendency in this direction. It
may be added that the “A” mutant
has recently given rise to a striking new
form ‘‘F”’ characterized by a lcw, white,
felted, aerial growth and a scanty
production of zygospores. It has
been carried to only a few generations
but so far has remained constant.

The “Dwarf” and Mutant “A” are
the only examples of true-breeding
mutations so far investigated in the
species. Further study may show that
even these have the power of reverting
at times. Those discussed in the
following paragraphs are examples of
the more common type of reverting
mutations.

MUTANTS WHICH HAVE NOT REMAINED
CONSTANT

In Figs. 27 and 28 are shown two mu-
tant races, ‘“X’’ and “D,”’ which have
not remained constant under cultiva-
tion. The two colonies at the left in

The Journal

of Heredity

each figure are the normal stock; the
three colonies in the central row are the
“X”’ mutant and the two colonies at the
right are the ‘“‘D”’ mutant. The photo-
graph shown in Fig. 27 was taken by
transmitted light and shows the her-
maphroditic zygospores as small black
dots; the large dark areas are the places
where the inoculations were made.
The photograph in Fig. 28 was taken by
reflected light and shows better than
does Fig. 27 the differences in habit of
growth between the three races.
Mutant “X”’ has a lower, whiter
growth than the normal race. Its
sporangia, as well as its zygospores, are
less abund nt and the latter are some-
what larger than normal and tend to
be arranged in groups, which often
form dark sectors radiating from the
point of inoculation. Its greatest
interest lies in the fact that it forms a
line of zygospores with the normal race
on its left as well as with the “D”
mutant on the right, as shown in Fig. 27
and less well in Fig. 26. It was this
ability to form lines of zygospores with
adjacent colonies that attracted our
attention to its first appearance in an
isolation culture of a strongly zygo-
sporic mutant consisting of 41 colonies.
Ordinarily, as mentioned under the
Dwarf mutant, colonies exercise some
inhibitory action toward one another
which retards their growth on adjacent
sides and prevents their meeting when
the nutrient is thin, as in an isolation
culture. The inhibitory action is
absent and the colonies meet when
they are of opposite sexual tendencies.
This seems to be the case with mutant
“X” and its parent race. The normal
race (called ‘‘Y’’) gives a strong reac-
tion with plus test races of dioecious
species and is therefore a hermaphro-
dite with a minus tendency, while
mutant ‘“X”’ gives a strong reaction
with minus test races and is therefore
a hermaphrodite with a plus tendency.
In a similar way mutant “A” and
mutant ‘‘D"’ have been shown to be
hermaphrodites with a minus tendency.
Mutant ““D” formed at first a yellowish
dense growth almost entirely devoid of
zygospores. By continued cultivation

Blakeslee: Mutations in Mucors

it seems to have lost its distinctive
characteristics.

The history of the mutant “X”’ is
given in the Table on page 284. In
a series of isolation cultures in 1914 the
mutant bred practically true with only
three possible reversions to normal out
of nearly 1500 colonies. In the 17th
generation in 1916 the mutant seemed
to have entirely reverted. It was
regained, however, from a culture of an
earlier generation and by a series of
isolations its ability to throw offspring
like itself was again increased. In 1917,
after a few generations grown in test
tube cultures, the mutant again ap-
peared to have entirely reverted to the
normal parental type and could not be
regained.

At two other times in this species
have mutations been observed which
form lines of zygospores with the nor-
nal stock: once in an isolation culture
in 1916 and once ten years earlier at
the germination of the zygospores.
Other mutants tested have shown
a minus tendency like the parent stock.

A STRIKING MUTANT FORM

One of the most striking mutant
forms appeared as a small warty colony
in an isolation culture of 949 colonies.
A microscopic examination showed that
the colony was composed exclusively
of a mass of yeast-like cells somewhat
similar to those that are formed when
the normal mycelium of this species is
submerged in a sugar solution and
takes part in alcoholic fermentation.
An isolation made from this original
colony gave predominatingly yeast-
like colonies with only a few normal
colonies. At first no filaments were
found and the accumulation of yeast-
like cells formed a warty mound above
the surface of the agar. Often the
drops of water exuding from the agar
in running down the inside of the tube
would carry with them the yeast-like
cells of the mutant and form streaks
of secondary ‘“‘yeast”’ colonies. Later
each colony gave rise to a few normal
filaments, the further rapid growth of
which filled the culture and covered
over the warty mutants. During

283

April, 1913, a series of four isolation
cultures were made of the “yeast”
mutant, resulting in 721 ‘‘yeast’’ colo-
nies to 423 early reverting colonies.
The records were taken on the fourth
or fifth day. Eventually even the
typical ‘‘yeast”’ colonies reverted. Dur-
ing August and September 1914, an
attempt was made to regain the
“yeast”? condition from five test tube
cultures which had originally contained
“veasts.”” A total of 5,995 colonies
were examined from these tubes, but
the ‘“‘yeast’’ mutant could not be
recovered. Reversion in this mutant
takes place regularly in the mycelium.
In other mutants reversion is appar-
ently more common at the formation of
spores.

The ‘“‘X”’ and the “A” mutants are
of especial interest from the stand-
point of sexual differentiation. On ac-
count of its freedom from zygospores
and its relatively strong reaction with
plus test races, mutant “‘A,” if found
alone, would appear to be an unmated
minus race of some dioecious species.
Its very weak reaction with certain
minus races might easily be missed.
If mutant ‘‘X,’’ which is a mutant in
the plus direction, had been likewise
devoid of zygospores and found to
conjugate with mutant “‘A,” as it
actually did, one would have felt
justified in considering ‘““X”’ and “A”
as the mated plus and minus races
of a dioecious species. It is possible
that in nature dioecious races may
have arisen from hermaphrodites
through mutations which have carried
the sexual differentiation farther than
was observed in our two mutants.

Burgeff has obtained mutations in
the dioecious mucor genus Phycomy-
ces. The mucors are multinucleate,
normally without cross walls in the
vegetative mycelium. Mutations, he
considers, affect only a part of the
nuclei. The more rapid division of the
normal nuclei in these mixo-chimeras,
as he calls the variants, would account
for the reversions which almost always
take place. It is possible that our re-
verting mutants in the hermaphro-
ditic Mucor genevensis are in fact

284

mixo-chimeras, and that it may be
possible to obtain them in pure races
as Burgeff has done in Phycomyces
through the germination of the zygo-
spores.

The individual mutants considered
in the present paper are representative

The Journal of Heredity

of many variant forms that have arisen
by mutation in the nonsexually propa-
gated races of Mucor genevensis. They
add to the evidence, already obtained
from other groups, that mutations are
not restricted to processes involved in
sexual reproduction.

HISTORY OF “X” MUTANT
(Y represents colonies normal to X)

September, 1913
. a X2 Isolation culture

“ “

Aug.—Sept., 1914 X4 Isolation from X3

“ec “e “ae X5 “a ax

a ms Y6 Isolation from Y5
ae ae ae X6 ae ae ES:
ae “ee oe G7) 4“ oe X6
se “e ce DES 4“é “e XG)

X1 First colony of mutant X

X and Y types present.

X3 Test tube culture of an X colony from X2

WS Tube from a Y colony of X4

X9-X13 Series of test tube cultures

February, 1915 X14 Isolation from X13

X15 & X16 test tube cultures

Feb.—April, 1916

: Xai2 “ oe wl
ae “sé ae Xal3 ae ae Xal2
“e “é “ee Xal4 ae ae Xal3

X17 Isolation from X16

Xal5—Xal17 Test tube cultures

July, 1917
alee Maly i

Xai18 Isolation from Xal7
Xal6

96X :119Y
OX : 481Y
512X Beis (GPs)
625X : OY
316X : OY
HEPES A ENE
OX : 204Y
5X :56Y
INDI
678X :3Y
-OX : 207Y
OX : 473Y

A RANDOM TEST IN THE THEORY
OF PROTECTIVE COLORATION

FREDERICK ADAMS Woops

oped the theory, noone supposed

that the bright and often daz-
zling colors of birds and other animals
were in many instances a device to
render these creatures not more but
less conspicuous. Rem mbrance of the
wide introduction of camouflage and
dazzle-painting during the late war will
doubtless do much to convince the
skeptical of the essential truths of
Thayer's theories—discoveries which
were in their essence optical, and did not
necessarily involve learned discussions
in natural history.

In Thayer's elaborate and magnifi-
cent book on the subject of protective
coloration, a large number of black-and-
white, and sometimes colored, pictures
are presented by way of proof, but inas-

[ NTIL Abbott Thayer had devel-

1 Thayer, G. H. and A. H.,

much as the authors! have been accused
of being over-zealous in finding support
for their theory, some impartially, and
accidentally acquired evidence is not
without interest.

Such evidence can now be supplied
by museum material. In the old days,
natural history museums were dismal
places to visit. Stuffed animals, usually
moth-eaten, were kept in dark and
dusty cases, scientifically labeled and
seldom seen. Now we have in many of
the larger museums beautifully and ac-
curately constructed artificial back-
grounds as suitable settings for the
wild life exhibited (as if in nature) and
surrounded by natural objects—leaves,
twigs, stones, and sand.

The four pictures, here presented,
were taken in the Museum 'of the Bos-

“Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom,” 1909.
£

Woods: A Test in the Theory of Protective Coloration 285

PIPING PLOVER ON SAND AND ROCKS

Piping Plover are well concealed by their white and pale grey coloration. The eggs resemble stones

and are hard to recognize.
resembles the shadow on the adjoining rock.
Natural History.) (Fig. 29.)

ton Society of Natural History, as a
confirmatory test—one that should be
presumably impartial, since no re-
arrangements were made. The birds
were taken just as they were placed in
the cabinets, except that the frames as
a whole were tipped at an angle, in
order to facilitate the photographic
work. All of these except the Phoebe
are also represented in Abbott Thayer's
book.

The dark band on the neck of the bird in the centre of the picture
(From an exhibition case in the Boston Society of

One of the birds, a whippoorwill, is
artificially outlined against the white
sheet used as a background. The head
of a plover is easily detected for the
same reason, but whenever the birds
appear against their natural back-
grounds their concealment is excellent
and the test indicates that the Thayers
did not strain a point by arranging their
birds in especially favorable attitudes.

LS SINT a od

a
|

A WELL CONCEALED BIRD

This bird, a nighthawk, is exceedingly well concealed, its yellowish brown plumage merging with
the dead leaves and twigs. The eggs are spotted and colored but are not invisible. (From an
exhibition case in the Boston Society of Natural History.) (Fig. 30.)

A PHOEBE

This bird is a good example of protective coloration. It builds its dark green nest among dark
green rocks near the water and its color resembles its surroundings. (From an exhibition case in
the Boston Society of Natural History.) (Fig. 31.)

A WHIPPOORWILL

The female on the ground is almost invisible, its color closely resembling the dried leaves. Its
eggs are white, in contrast to those of the nighthawk. The white background here is artificial.
(From an exhibition case in the Boston Society of Natural History.) (Fig. 32.)

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

Vou: Nor 7 SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER, 1920

CONTENTS

The Improvement of Root-Stocks Used in Fruit Propagation, by H. J. Webber. 291
Inheritance in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle, by John W. Gowen 300

Our Most Significant Crops—Our Boys and Girls........................ 316
Heritable Characters of Maize, by J. H. Kempton........................ 317
The Immigration Problem Today, by Robert De C. Ward................. 323
Are Valencia Oranges from China? by H. Atherton LeeandL.B.Scott....... 329
SUING FATMN OSES RCC VAC Wy) muewer ese) Nae ee tenets onc Aeron ice ola rons coe eietere Stason Cuesns ede med 333
A Case of Inherited Syndactyly in Man, by Ralph G. Hurlin....... 334
Rea cia Ub rerencesian gVLOLea le pve etsclercysrorar net heeedh chee wie aoinys ove sl aictarvern Stach ote 336

The JourRNAL or HEREpITyY is published monthly by the American Genetic Society.
Publication office, 450 Ahnaip Street, Menasha, Wis.
Editorial and genera! offices, Washington, D. C.

The JourNAL or HeReEpITYy is published by the American Genetic Associa-
tion for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive
it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $3.00,
because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra
for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $3.00 a year, foreign post-
age extra; price of single copies, 25 cents.

Application has been made for entry as second-class matter at the postoffice at
Menasha, Wisconsin. Contents copyrighted 1921 by the American Genetic As-
sociation. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted only upon request,
for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to author and to the JOURNAL
oF Herepity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C.

Date of issue of this number, March 23, 1921

(‘adatdsiquo1g) ‘sdzis aAt}efar 1194} Sururezas [Is ‘6161 ALP peydess0j0y4d pue
L16f eunf ur paqueyd som Ady] *3J9] 9UW919x9 VY} Iv S901] aYeIPaUIIE,UT JO MOI & puke ‘BJa] 94} Ye Saaz} [[eUIS Jo Mo Be ‘ydeid0j0Ud siy} Ut
FYI JY} Je UMOYS SI $991} VSIL] JO MOI YW */T6T Ul BIUIOFTeD ‘aptsiaAny ‘uoIeIS JUsWITIadxXy sN4zI_ 9y} ev uNZaq sem jsa} B ‘adueIOdUIT
AUP JO 919M SVdUdIOYIP say} Jl auIUiajap Oy {satqyenb Zurse9q ul Zury}Aue uvosul uOrjeLIeA sy} Sa0q *aZIS UI AjISIBAIP 7e913 JIqIyxe U97jO
‘ayes 10} Apa ‘ade aures dy} Jo saat] AiasinN} ‘preyd10 sues ay} UI $901} JUSIAYIp JO PpatA ay} UI UOTWeLIeA e913 MOYS SpIeYyIIO snIzID

GFONVAO TAAVN NOLONIHSVM dO SAAUL AUASUNN TIVIS GNV ALVIGAWUAINI ‘ADAVTAO SMOU LSAL AAILVUVANWOD

THE IMPROVEMENT OF
ROOT-STOCKS USED IN FRUIT
PROPAGATION

H. J. WEBBER
Director, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley

OR many years it has been clearly

recognized that the root-stock

has an important influence on
the scion and on the quantity and
quality of the crop produced, yet
very little experimentation has been
devoted to root-stock problems or to
the determination of the best stocks to
use.

It is true that these matters are dis-
cussed at almost every convention of
fruit growers and much information
based on experience has been recorded.
In general, the discussion and indeed
all consideration has been limited to
the effect on different varieties of cer-
tain root-stocks which are themselves
usually very variable species. In cit-
rus fruits, for instance, all considera-
tion has been limited to a discussion of
whether one should use sour orange
(Citrus aurantium), sweet orange (Cit-
rus sinensis), grapefruit (Citrus gran-
dis), lemon (Citrus limonia) or trifoliate
orange (Poncirus trifoliata). These spe-
cies are not composed of stable, uni-
form groups of individuals but are ex-
ceedingly variable, each containing
many hundreds of different types. No
attention has been given, however, to
the reactions that may be expected
from the use of different types within
the species. The same statement ap-
plies equally well to the various stocks
used for apples, peaches, pears and
similar fruits.

It seems clear to the writer that this
is fundamentally wrong, and yet be-
fore any generally accepted policy can
be overthrown, evidence must be found
definitely to show that itis wrong. The

writer for the last five years has been
engaged in the study of this problem in
connection with citrus fruits and the
evidence obtained will probably apply
just as definitely to other fruits as to
citrus. The following is an outline of
the experiments and results of a study
of this problem with different varieties
of citrus.!

VARIATIONS IN NURSERY AND ORCHARD
TREES

Citrus orchards show great variation
in the yield of different trees in the
same orchard. This variation is known
to be universal even in orchards of the
same variety that have been planted
with the best obtainable trees. Some
orchards are quite uniform, however,
while others are exceedingly variable.
Batchelor and Reed have shown? that
the trees in the most uniform groves
will vary from 30 to 40 percent of the
mean.

Mr. A. D. Shamel and his associates
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture
have emphasized the relation of the
character of the buds used in propaga-
tion to this variability in the orchard
and have rightly urged the importance
of choosing buds for propagation from
uniformly high yielding trees known to
produce only fruits of standard type.’
Is this the only factor involved?

It is a well known fact that nursery
trees as they are normally grown when
two years old and ready for sale ex-
hibit great diversity in size, the trunks
frequently ranging from 34 inch to 14%
inches in diameter. Does this varia-
tion in size of trees of the same age

‘Webber, H. J.Selection of stocks in citrus propagation, California Agricultural Experiment

Station Bulletin 317, January, 1920.

*Batchelor, L. D. and Reed, H. S. Unpublished investigations.

%3Shamel, A. D. et al.

Citrus fruit improvement, U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 623,

July 22, 1918; Bulletin 624, July 25, 1918; Bulletin 697, Sept. 27, 1918 and Farmers’ Bulletin 794.
291

(‘T ‘3n4) ‘quourdojaaAap ut auo s931e] }xXou ay} puryac
T “S!4) JoAep ut | 13 puryoq | faq Pp.

yoRro ‘aZIS ul SdIUd1O PIP aATVVIed WO AY] ULeJOT [[S pue sie0A 9914} PAPYIIO oy} Ul Usd MOU DARBY AO"ULL “Ol6l APIN poaydessojoyd pue
LI6l oun ul preyoio oy) ul poquryd soot} Awos.inu ][vuls pue WNIpoltt ‘951P| jo SMO js9} OY} WO1y udsOy) S901} pazis-adv1dAe aie osoy |

SAUUL AONVAO TAAVN NOLONIHSVM

Webber: The Improvement of Root-Stocks

mean anything or is it purely acciden-
tal? All of these trees are ordinarily
sold and planted. Probably these dif-
ferences in size are due to the same or
similar causes as those responsible for
the differences in size in bearing or-
chard trees.

A nursery grown at the Citrus Ex-
periment Station for experimental pur-
poses was planned with the idea of
producing as uniform trees as possible.
The sweet seedling stock used was thus
selected when it was planted in the
nursery, many of the small trees being
discarded. Through the kindness of
Mr. Shamel, the buds used for propa-
gation were taken from record trees of
standard type in order to further in-
sure uniformity. Valencia and Wash-
ington Navel oranges, Marsh Seedless
grape fruit and Eureka lemon were the
varieties grown. When this nursery
was two years old and ready for orchard
planting the trees were found to show
the same variations in size of buds that
have been referred to as being univer-
sally present in ordinary nurseries.
Had buds been taken indiscriminately
from ordinary trees this variation
would have been passed by as normal.
As it was, this fact lead to a test of the
different sizes of trees to determine, if
possible, whether these differences in a
nursery were of any importance in
growing an orchard. Eighteen large,
eighteen small and eighteen interme-
diate sized budded trees of each variety
were selected and planted in compari-
son rows in the variety orchard at the
Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside,
California. These trees were all dug
“bare root’’ to see that the roots were
normal and not injured or diseased.
All trees used in the experiment were
normal and thoroughly healthy so far
as could be determined. They were
planted in the orchard in June, 1917.
The severe heat coupled with ‘‘bare
root” planting injured so many of the
Eureka lemons that this variety was
eliminated from the experiment. The
Navels, Valencias and Marsh Seedless
grapefruit stood the transplanting very
well.

293

These trees have now been in the
orchard three years and are five year
old buds. They still retain the same
comparative difference in size just as
markedly as when they were transferred
from the nursery. The large trees re-
tain their lead and are still large.
The intermediate are still intermediate
in size and the small are still small.
After two years in the orchard the
small trees were about the same average
diameter that the intermediate trees
had when they were transplanted and
the intermediate sized trees after two
years in the orchard were about the
same average diameter as the large
trees when they were transplanted.
Each grade is thus about two years be-
hind the other in development. (Com-
pare Frontispiece and Figs. 1 and 2.)

To get some indication of the com-
parative average size of the tops of the
different groups, the top diameter of
each tree was measured east and west,
north and south and the height from
the lowest branch to the top of the
foliage. These measurements for each
tree were multiplied together to give
the volume of the cube that would en-
close the top. The averages of these
figures for each group in each variety
are given in the following table.

Average Comparative Size (in cubic inches) of
Tree Tops, as Indicated by Product of East and
West Diameter x North and South Diameter x
Height from First Branch to Top.

Large Intermediate Small
Navelsienemonde: 204,04 20,185 12,541
Maléneras saan 29,003 15,606 12,953
Grapefruit........26,343 15,827 10,642

While admittedly such figures are
not exact measures of the top volume,
they are believed to represent fairly
accurately the comparative sizes of the
trees in each group.

FACTORS CAUSING VARIATION
To what factors could this variation
be due and is it of any importance in
citrus propagation? A difference in
the soil or in the nutrition available
might cause variation in size but this
cannot be the main cause of the varia-

294

tion in size of these trees as they showed
the difference in the nursery and con-
tinue to showit three years after trans-
planting into the orchard. In the
orchard they are planted close together
on uniform soil and are treated alike,
so the difference cannot be attributed
to local soil condition or nutrition.

Is the difference due to the character
of the bud union? The buds seem to
have healed nicely in all trees used and
exhibit no characters indicating that
the formation of a poor union could be
considered as causing the difference.

Is it due to the roots having been
injured thus resulting in dwarfing the
tree? The roots were all examined
when the trees were transplanted and
all were found to be healthy and
uninjured. Any injury or disease con-
tracted since the trees were trans-
planted could not be limited to the
small tree rows only.

Is it due to the kinds of buds used?
All that can be said regarding this is
that the buds were carefully selected
from trees of known record and stand-
ard type. It does not seem that the
difference is to be explained in this way
although this possibility cannot be en-
tirely eliminated.

IMPORTANCE OF SEEDLING STOCKS

The only other factor that is likely
to be the cause of the variation is the
influence of the stocks used. The
sweet orange stock used was merely
ordinary sweet orange seedlings grown
from unselected seed, the only extra
precaution taken being merely to dis-
card the smallest seedlings when trans-
planting from the seed bed. About
15 percent of the total number of seed-
lings were discarded at that time. The
universal custom pursued at present is
to use either sweet, sour, grapefruit,
lemon or trifoliate orange stock without
reference to any particular kind within
these great groups. Are the variations
within the ordinary lots of sweet and
sour orange seedlings sufficiently great
to be assumed to account for these
variations in size of nursery trees?
Fortunately some evidence has been
secured bearing on this point.

The Journal of Heredity

In 1915 the writer, with the help
of Mr. W.M. Mertz and Mr. E. E.
Thomas, made an examination of one
sour orange nursery and selected sixteen
seedlings that appeared to show differ-
ent characters. At the same time in
the same nursery four different types
were selected in a bunch of sweet seed-
lings. A more detailed examination
would doubtless have revealed many
more types but the only object in view
at that time was merely to add ‘‘freaks”’
to our variety orchard. Buds were cut
from each of these seedlings and two
sour orange stocks were budded with
each type. The trees from these buds
are now five years old from the bud and
have been set in the variety orchard
for three years. All of the types se-
lected present marked differences in size,
foliage, character of branching and the
like. The good vigorous types in the
case of the sour orange selections are
five times, or more, larger than the
slow growing dwarf types. An indi-
cation of this great difference can be
obtained by comparing the photo-
graphs of three typical trees shown in
Figure 3, A, B and C. A represents a
fine, vigorous, growing sour orange type
while B and C represent slow growing,
probably dwarf types. Similar dif-
ferences in leaf size andshape are also
exhibited. Compare for instance the
size of leaves in A with those of C,
which are both healthy trees. Two
trees out of 16 of the sour orange types
selected have lost the typical aroma of
the sour orange, so far as the leaves are
concerned. The four types of the
sweet orange also differ in similar way
in size and foliage characters.

The great extent of this range of
variation within the different species
is shown equally as well by the large
number and range of the named va-
rieties that are grown.

The sweet orange and sour orange
seedlings grown for stock purposes are
usually or at least frequently grown
from seed, of unknown origin, and
taken from different trees. We are not
dealing with a homogeneous lot but
with lots in which every individual
differs from every other individual and

Webber:

ee
i
i

The Improvement of Root-Stocks

295

— =: ,

MARSH SEEDLESS GRAPEFRUIT TREES

Average-sized trees chosen from the test rows of large and small nursery trees planted in the
orchard June 1917 and photographed May 1919. These, too, have continued to show the same
comparative difference in size as they had when in the nursery. (Fig. 2.)

yet our policy has uniformly been to
use all—good and bad _ alike—for
propagation. Is it any wonder under
these conditions that our trees though
grown from the best selected buds
should be variable in the groves?

The Eureka lemon on a trifoliate
stock is very markedly dwarfed while
Valencias grow to good sized trees.
The Florida rough lemon is usually a
good stock while the Chinese lemon is
commonly recognized as a poor stock.
Different reactions on the bud caused
by the influence of different stocks are
well known to exist. When therefore
such marked differences are found to
exist in the sour and sweet orange seed-
lings that we are using as stocks, is it
any wonder that the budded trees in
the nursery, even when selected buds
are used, should grow differently and
produce large and small trees and that
these differences should continue to

exist when the same trees are grown
in the orchard?

The evidence now available very
strongly points to the conclusion that
the differences in size of nursery trees
such as those taken for the experiment
outlined are mainly to be attributed to
the different nature of the seedling
stocks used. If this is true, and it is
entirely in line with the evidence as
well as with common sense and judg-
ment, it is certainly an element of
fundamental importance in citrus
propagation.

I would be remiss in caution if I did
not call attention to the fact that one
very important link in the chain of
evidence is yet lacking, that is, the
growing of good buds on known stocks
of these various types to prove that
certain ones give better growth than
others. This evidence, however, is
partially supplied by our known ex-

(‘¢Brq) ‘saavay [jews yt ad4q Jremp Surmoss Mojs B ‘> !YyM013 Jo Ajipides pue azis wuntpaur
jo od} & ‘g fadA} y0}s poos v sv pajoayas ‘siajoereYyD Suryouesq puv oSe[OJ JUaTJaoXa PUL YIMOIS SNOIOSIA YIM ULIOY [IIdA] “poos v ‘Vy

GAONVAO UNOS AHL AO SHUdAL LNAAAAAITG

Webber: The: Improvement of Root Stocks 297

perience of the reaction of buds on
different stock such as referred to
above.

DIFFERENCES INHERENT IN STOCKS

Will the small trees continue to re-
main small? Certainly the evidence
thus far indicates that this is very
likely. The probabilities are that they
will. Dr. Reed of the Citrus Experi-
ment Station carried out a series of ex-
periments! with a considerable number
of sunflower plants that has a bearing
on this phase of the problem. In this
group of sunflowers, exact measure-
ments of height were made of each
plant every week from the time it was
a few inches high until it reached ma-
turity. The analysis of the data of
growth obtained showed a well marked
tendency of the plants to retain their
same relative rank as to size through-
out the period of growth. Plants
which were small at maturity were
generally small in the beginning and
those which were large at maturity
had a well marked superiority from
the start. The evidence indicated
that height and vigor of growth were
determined not by chance but by some
definite inherent factor in the plant
itself. The same is doubtless true with
citrus seedlings of the various species
such as those used for stocks and if the
cause of the different sized nursery
trees is to be attributed primarily to
the influence of these stocks as seems
probable, then it is also probable that
the difference is due to causes inherent
in the different stocks and that the
same relative rate of growth and size
will be maintained in the majority of
the plants.

While the evidence is yet incomplete,
we are probably justified from what
evidence we have in speculating some-
what as to what this means in our fruit
industries. Frequently, almost every
tree in an orchard will be a fine good
grower and fruiter, giving a uniform
orchard. Again, an orchard equally
well handled may be very ununiform

‘Reed, H. S. Growth and variability in Helianthus.

p. 252.

having some good trees, some poor ones
and some of intermediate character.
This difference could be accounted for
by assuming that the good orchard
chanced to be from trees grown on stock
that happened to come from seeds of
good stock trees or that they had been
taken from a nursery where in filling
the order of size only the large trees had
been dug, which would be the ones
naturally on good vigorous stocks.
The remaining slower growing trees
from such a nursery would ultimately
reach the required size and be sold and
planted in another orchard which
would likely give an uneven orchard
with good and bad trees.

Some growers will be inclined at first
to think that their experience is con-
trary to this and that the small tree is
more likely to be fruitful while the
largest trees are likely to spend their
energy in vegetative growth. They
must remember that this experience
was gained before buds of selected type
were used. Mr. Shamel has demon-
strated that some types of our varieties
tend to produce rapid growth and little
fruit while others produce good growth
and are fruitful. The results the writer
is explaining, however, were obtained
with the use of buds taken from the best
fruiting types and it is not likely that
this type will be changed materially by
the stock other than in size of growth.

NEW NURSERY METHODS SUGGESTED

If the results of these experiments
are correctly interpreted by the writer
it means that our nursery methods in
citrus propagation must be materially
changed.

(1) We must no longer grow merely
sour stock or sweet stock and the like.
The process must be carried farther and
good stock varieties of sour orange and
sweet orange must be discovered and
named as stock varieties and every
nurseryman should then use seeds from
these varieties known to produce good
stock seedlings. The trees of these
varieties from which seeds are to be

American Journal of Botany, Vol. 6, 1919,

The Journal of Heredity

TWO TYPES OF FRENCH CIDER APPLE TREES

The tree at the left (Marechal) is a small, slow growing variety; the one at the right (Julien de
Paulmier) is a large vigorous growing variety. Both of these trees are growing in the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture’s orchard at Arlington, Va., and they are of the same age and on same stock,

indicating that the same variation in size applies to other varieties than citrus.

taken to grow stocks must be planted
in isolated places so they will not be
crossed with other varieties.

(2) Good policy will doubtless dic-
tate that all small seedlings be dis-
carded when transplanting from the
seed bed into the nursery. Doubtless
nearly 50 percent of the seedlings
should be discarded at this time. The
writer believes that a severe culling of
the seedlings may unhesitatingly be
recommended.

(3) In budding a nursery no inferior
seedlings found in the nursery should
be budded. Doubtless we will here-
after carefully inspect the seedlings
just before budding and cut out all in-

(Fig. 4.)

ferior ones to save the expense of bud-
ding them.

(4) When the budded trees reach
the age for transplanting into the per-
manent orchard only the good, vigor-
ous, growing ones should be used.

The writer assumes that hereafter
only buds from trees of known good
record and of standard type will be used
in propagation. This is already rec-
ognized as the only correct and safe
policy.

VARIATIONS IN APPLE STOCKS

The evidence secured: with citrus
varieties discussed above doubtless
applies equally well to other fruits such

Webber: The Improvement of Root-Stocks 299

as the apple. In Australia and South
Africa Northern Spy roots have been
found to be resistant to the woolly aphis,
and apple varieties are now largely
propagated on thisvariety.®> Professor
J. K. Shaw has recognized the im-
portance of this problem and has con-
ducted extensive experiments in the
attempt to grow apple trees on their
own roots.®

Apple varieties are largely grafted
on the French crab or cider apple
stocks, the seeds or plants of which are
obtained in large numbers from France.
Several years ago a considerable num-
ber of the different types of these cider
apples were selected in France by
Professor Alwood and two trees of each
of these different types are now grow-
ing in the variety orchard of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture at the Ar-
lington Farm near Washington, D. C.
In November, 1919, the writer had the
privilege of making observations on
these different types in company with
Professor L. C. Corbett and Dr. D. N.
Shoemaker, horticulturists of the De-
partment. The variations in the dif-
ferent types are fully as extreme as
those found by the writer to exist in
citrus fruits. These trees are of the
same age and planted on comparatively
the same soil and yet some of them are
dwarfs while others are giants. As an
illustration the two trees of the Julien
de Paulmier are much larger and more
vigorous than those of the Marechal.

®Cole, C. F., in Journal Agriculture Victoria, Vol. 9, 1911, p. 338.
The propagation of apple trees on their own roots.

6Shaw, J. K.
Experiment Station, Bulletin 190, 1919.

Photographs, of the same comparative
size, of trees of these two types were
made at the writer’s request by Dr.
Shoemaker and are reproduced in Fig-
ure 4. Seedlings grown from fruits
of the Marechal could scarcely be ex-
pected to give the same results when
used as stocks as seedlings from the
Julien de Paulmier. Yet if the writer
is correctly informed the seed we use
in growing apple stocks are likely to be
taken from many different types which
are probably as markedly different from
each other as are these two. We may
desire to use a dwarf stock in some
cases and a giant stock in other cases
but certainly we should know what we
are using.

In the propagation of grapes the
specialization has been carried much
farther and here a great fund of infor-
mation has been obtained showing that
with certain varieties only certain hy-
brid stocks will give good results and
that on some soils only certain stocks
may be successfully employed.

In fruit industries where the trees
may grow for many- years, possibly
even for a century or more, and where
continued success depends as much on
the stock used as on any other single
factor, is it too much to require that the
stocks used should be of known quality?
The writer maintains that all trees
should be propagated on selected stock
varieties of known origin and kind.

Massachusetts Agricultural

FOR THE HARD-OF-HEARING

It is estimated that one person in
every 1500 population is deaf, and that
out of this number one-third are of
school age. Any hard-of-hearing per-
son may secure literature that may

prove helpful, by addressing the Volta
Bureau, 1601 35th St., N. W., Washing-
ton, D. C. The Bureau does not give
medical advice, has no medicines or in-
struments for sale, and does no teaching.

INHERITANCE IN CROSSES OF DAIRY
AND BEEF BREEDS OF CATTLE

II. On the Transmission of Milk Yield to the First Generation.!

Joun W. GowEN
Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine

OUR main problems are of par-
| rear interest to those students

of genetics who are interested in
the economic aspects of inheritance in
cattle. These four problems may be
stated as: (1) the inheritance of milk
yield, (2) the inheritance of the butter-
fat concentration in the milk, (3) the
inheritance of the duration of time
during which the milk flow is main-
tained, and (4) the inheritance of the
degree and kind of fleshing.

Two methods of approaching these
problems are possible. The first con-
sists in analyzing the more or less com-
plete records which are in existence.
The second consists of making definite
controlled matings to determine the
inheritance of the desired characters.
The Biological Laboratory of the
Maine Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion is approaching these problems
along both of these lines. The results
herein described deal chiefly with the
second mode of approach.

The definite, controlled matings to
produce the animals necessary for the
analysis of these problems were begun
in 1913 under the direction of Dr. Ray-
mond Pearl. At the beginning of the
war in 1917 the author took over the
direction of the work and the analysis
of the accumulating data. All the
credit for the inception and organiza-
tion of the breeding experiments con-
sequently belongs to Dr. Pearl. The
manner of approaching the solution of
the data are the author’s own and he
alone is responsible for the conclusions
drawn. :

In 1917 certain of the results of these
matings on inheritance in milk produc-

tion were presented in the Journal of
Agricultural Research?. The material
given herein represents the accumu-
lations of data since that date.

MILK PRODUCTION AS MEASURED BY
AGE

It has been shown by the work of
this laboratory that milk production
for the four main dairy breeds changes
in a definite manner with age. This
change is described by logarithmic
functions whose equation may be de-
termined. When these logar thmic
curves are compared it is found that
the relative increase and decrease of the
milk yield of the different ages is nearly
the same for each of the three dairy
breeds—Jersey, Guernsey and _ Hol-
stein-Friesian. This consistency of the
effect of age changes on the milk yields
of the different breeds allows the cor-
rection of their milk yields and those
of their crossbred offspring by the same
set of correction factors determined
as the mean for the three breeds
Jersey, Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian.
Whether or not the milk production of
the Aberdeen Angus follows the same
law as the dairy breeds is not known al-
though there is a large amount of pre-
sumptive evidence that it does. In
lack of final evidence all records for the
milk yield of the Aberdeen Angus cows
were corrected by the same set of cor-
rections as those for the dairy breeds.

The age of two years has been chosen
as the basis on which the records have
been corrected. Thus if the crossbred
daughter has lactation records at say
two years, three years four months;
and four years six months; the record

' Papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, No.

135
Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle.

2 Gowen, John W. 1918. Studies in Inheritance of certain characters of crosses between
In Journal Agr. Research, vol. XV, No. 1, p. 1-57.

300

Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 301

for three years four months is corrected
to the expected record at two years,
and the four years six months record to
the expected record at two years.
These three records are then summed
and the average taken. This average
is the record used as the milk produc-
tion of the crossbred. These average
records have been used as the measure
of the cow’s milk production because
the work of Gaven’ on British Hol-
steins and of this laboratory on the
Jersey’ has shown that the mean of two
or more lactations is a better measure
of a cow’s capacity as a milk producer
than is the record of one lactation.
These records have been brought up
to the date of May 1, 1920.

The milk yields for the dams of the
crossbreds are obtained in a similar
manner to those for their crossbred
daughters.

THE SIRES’ POTENTIAL MILK PRODUC-
TION

The records for the sires Taurus
Creamelle Hengerveld and Lakeland’s
Poet are obtained as follows. The
records of all daughters of these sires
from dams of their own breeding are ob-
tained in a similar manner to that de-
scribed for the crossbred females. These
records showing the milk production of
each daughter of a given sire, other
than crossbred, are then summed and
the mean taken. This mean is used
as the sire’s potential transmitting
ability. The measure used is conse-
quently the progeny performance test
for the hereditary composition of the
sire for milk production.

The composition for milk production
transmission of the Holstein-Friesian
bull, Delva’s University De Kol, where
no pure offspring are available is that
of Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld. It
is realized that the use of this milk
production to describe the transmit-
ting ability of Delva’s University De
Kol is open to serious criticism. No
purebred offspring are available from

which an accurate test of this bull’s
composition could be made. In view
of this contingency two fairly strong
arguments support the choice of Tau-
rus Creamelle Hengerveld’s transmit-
ting ability to represent that of Delva’s
University De Kol. The bulls are of
the same breed. The dam of Delva’s
University De Kol, Delva Johanna De
Kol had a milk yield closely resembling
that of Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld’s
potential yield, as may be seen by a
comparison of the sire’s curve in the
second graph of Figure 14, with the
dam’s curves of the third graph for the
same figure.

Likewise the daughters of the sire
of Delva’s University De Kol, Johanna
Lad Manor De Kol 41913 were simi-
lar in milk production to those of Tau-
rus Creamelle Hengerveld. These facts
consequently make it seem altogether
probable that the milk transmitting
capacity of Delva’s University De Kol
is correctly represented.

The transmitting qualities of Kayan,
the Aberdeen Angus bull, were taken as
the mean corrected two years old records
of the purebred herd of Aberdeen An-
gus cows. The use of this record for
Kayan can only be defended on purely
a priori grounds. Until such time as
his daughters come in milk this pro-
cedure will be subject to criticism.
Kayan’s pedigree does lead to the be-
lief that his milk transmitting record
has been correctly represented in the
diagrams illustrating these data.

Figure 14, first graph, shows the milk
record of Crossbred No. 1 on a monthly
basis corrected to the age of two years.
This record is shown by the solid line
(———————_). The mating to pro-
duce this crossbred was a Jersey bull,
Lakeland’s Poet 102603, bred to a
Holstein-Friesian cow, Pauline Posch
81048. The milk production of the
dam Pauline Posch, on a monthly
basis corrected to the two year age ex-
pectation, is given by the dotted line
(GES eee ). The expected poten-

3 Gavin, William. 1913. Studies in Milk Records. On the Accuracy of Estimating a cow's

milking capability by her First Lactation Yield.
Studies in Milk Secretion. V.
In Genetics, vol. V, no. II, pp. 111-188.

4Gowen, John W. 1920.
of Milk Secretion with Age.

In Jour. Agr. Sci., vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 377-390.
On the Variation and Correlations

Lakelands Poet, 102603, bred to the Holstein-Friesian dam shown below produced the crossbred
cow shown on the opposite page. This sire transmitted the quality of low milk yield. (Fig. 5.)

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN DAM OF CROSSBRED NO. 1
Pauline Posch, 81048, whose milk yield was uniformly higher than that of her crossbred daughter.
Her record is represented by the dotted line in the top graph of Fig. 14. (Fig. 6.)

Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 303

CROSSBRED NO. 1

This crossbred is from the Jersey and Holstein-Friesian parents shown on the opposite page. It
will be noted that the shape of the nose and body of the crossbred resemble the Holstein-Friesian
parent, while the size of body and udder resemble the Jersey parent. In the top graph of Fig. 14,
compare the records of milk production of the offspring with that of her parents as explained in

the text on page 301. (Fig. 7.)

tial milk production of the Jersey sire
is given as adot and dash line (——-—).
The milk production of the crossbred
clearly follows that for the sire’s expec-
tation. The milk production of the
Holstein-Friesian dam follows a course
much higher than does that of the
crossbred daughter. The daughter may
therefore be said to have only the in-
heritance of the low milk producing
breed. In view of what follows in
these curves this result is somewhat
surprising. The result cannot, how-
ever, be a mistake, because the cross-
bred daughter’s milk production is
based on four lactations; the milk pro-
duction of the Holstein-Friesian dam
is based on 11 lactations, and poten-
tial milk production of the sire is based
on four daughters having two lacta-
tions each. These facts make it seem
probable that the milk production for

the matings are somatically as repre-
sented in the top drawingof Figure 14.
The photographs of the animals com-
prising this mating are shown in Figs.
5: (OvanGise

EIGHT MONTHS LACTATION PERIOD

The duration of milk production for
most cows of the leading dairy breeds
depends largely on the will of the herds-
man as to when the lactation will close.
Such being the case it is desirable to
have for the whole lactation a time inter-
val over which to compare the milk
yield of one cow with that of another.
For convenience this time interval has
been chosen as eight months. Such a
duration of time will allow the inclusion
of the records of the Aberdeen Angus
cows and their crossbreds where one of
the main causes of their low milk yield

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN SIRE OF CROSSBRED NO. 12

Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld, whose potential high milk yielding quality was transmitted to the
crossbred. (Fig. 8.)

f
4; Nie ant 24 Oe

GUERNSEY DAM OF CROSSBRED NO. 12

The eight months’ lactation record of this cow, College Gem, was 2673.8 pounds of milk, while
that of her daughter, Crossbred No. 12, was 5367.3 pounds. It is thus seen that the crossbred
follows more closely the potential high yielding quality of the male parent. (Fig. 9.)

Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield

tan}

395

Se a RS

CROSSBRED NO. 12

Offspring of the Holstein-Friesian and Guernsey parents shown on the opposite page. The general
conformation of the body shows many points typical of the Guernsey mother; the size of the

udder resembles the Holstein-Friesian parent.

of this crossbred’s milk yielding quality with that of her parents.

See the fourth graph in Fig. 14 for comparison

While this crossbred’s milk

record clearly follows the high milking parent, there is a tendency for the crossbred to be inter-

mediate between the two lines. (Fig. 10.)

may be duration of lactation as well as
the daily quantity of milk yield.

For the eight months lactation per-
iod, Crossbred No. 1 produced on the
average 4,161.3 pounds of milk. Her
dam, Pauline Posch, produced 6026.3
pounds of milk and her sire, Lakeland’s
Poet's, potential milk yield was 3919.0
pounds. Comparatively speaking,
therefore, the crossbred cow was in-
termediate between the two parents
being 1865.0 pounds of milk less than the
high line and 242.3 pounds more than
the low line. The crossbred was con-
sequently 7.7 times as near the low line
of production as she was the high line.
If we analyze the graph for her monthly
milk yields as shown in Figure 14
it is found that the Crossbred’s milk
yield follows almost identically that
of the low parent, Lakeland’s Poet.
Only in the tenth month does it show

any appreciable deviation from this
low production. In this deviation ex-
traneous causes enter, as explained
above, in that the lactations are not of
equal duration and the record of a cow
is determined for whole monthly rec-
ords only where these are available.
This, of course, has the effect of making
the end of the lactation record less re-
liable than its beginning. For the
tenth and eleventh month, the record
of Crossbred No. 1 resembles the high
parent although probably the resem-
blance is not significant.

The second graph of Figure 14 shows
the milk production of Crossbred No. 2
on a monthly basis. The significance
of the three different lines is the same
as that for the first graph of Fig. 14.
Crossbred No. 2's record is unfortu-
nately based on only one lactation rec-
ord. The record for Canada’s Creusa

. mS

KAYAN, THE ABERDEEN ANGUS SIRE OF CROSSBRED NO. 16
For an eight months’ lactation period, the potential milk yield of this sire was 1661.5 pounds; the

production of the dam shown below was 3581.5 pounds, and the crossbred’s production was
3264.1 pounds. Thus the crossbred resembles the high producing parent 5.1 times as closely in

its milk yield as it does the low producing parent. (Fig. 11.)

COLLEGE RUTH, THE JERSEY DAM OF CROSSBRED NO. 16
As shown by the figures above the high milk yielding quality of this parent was transmitted to
the crossbred. (Fig. 12.)

Gowen:

Transmission of Milk Yield 307

CROSSBRED NO. 16
The product of the Angus and Jersey parents shown on the opposite page. The polled head and

heavy fleshing of the fore-quarters are characteristic features of such a cross.

For the whole

lactation period, this crossbred’s milk production was clearly intermediate between that of the

high producing parent and the lower producing parent.

last graph in Fig. 14 (Fig. 13.)

is based on six lactation records. The
record for the sire, Delva’s University
De Kol, is that of the Holstein-Friesian
milk production for this herd at two
years as previously described. The
curve for the milk production of Cross-
bred No. 2 clearly follows that of the
Holstein-Friesian, or the high milk
producing breed. The continuation
of the lactation from the eighth month
on for the Crossbred No. 2 would
clearly follow the milk yield of the
Holstein-Friesian parent. Unfortu-
nately this record is not available as the
cow on the tuberculin test showed a
temperature, was judged. tubercular
and killed. Her autopsy did not how-
ever show any lesions which were
noticeable. Her record is therefore rep-
resentative, so far as it goes. The
photograph of this cow is shown in the
following paper of this series, in the
next issue of this Journal.

Compare the records as shown by the

PERIOD OF LOWEST MILK YIELD

Considering the record of the differ-
ent months individually it is seen that
the milk yield of the first four months
is more nearly intermediate than is the
milk yield of the succeeding months.
This more nearly intermediate condi-
tion or approach of the crossbred cows
to the low line is somewhat typical of
the other crosses. What explanation
may be found for its occurrence is ob-
scure in the light of our present knowl-
edge. It is known that the time of
year when a cow freshens may increase
or reduce the milk yield somewhat.
The times of year favoring the lowest
milk yield are the months July, Au-
gust, and September in this climate.
As Crossbred No. 2 calved in August
this may explain her not reaching the
production of the high parent during
these first four months. Before this

308

explanation can be finally accepted,
however, more work on the relation of
the different monthly lactations needs
to be done.

The eight months milk production
of Crossbred No. 2 was 5337.2 pounds.
The milk yield of Canada’s Creusa
was 3608.5 pounds and that for Delva’s
University De Kol was 5548.9 pounds.
In other words Crossbred No. 2 was
within 221.7 pounds of milk of her
high producing parent and was 1728.7
pounds of milk more than her low
producing parent. The Crossbred No.
2 was, therefore, 7.8 times as close to
the high line as she was to the low line.
This fact in connection with the mill
record of Crossbred No. 1 suggests
that segregation of milk producing
factors having dominance has taken
place in these crosses.

The milk production of Crossbred
No. 11, shown as the third graph of
Fig. 14,is clearly intermediate between
that of her dam Delva Johanna De
Kol 146774 and her sire Lakeland’s
Poet 102603 for the first four months
of lactation. From this time on this
cow follows closely the milk produc-
tion of the high milking parent Delva
Johanna De Kol. The crossbred rec-
ord consisted of the average of three
corrected records; that of the Holstein-
Friesian dam consisted of the average
of eight corrected records; that of the
sire consists of the average of four pure
bred daughters for two lactations each.
The photographs of this mating are
given in the succeeding paper of this
series.

The records of Crossbred No. 11 all
commenced in the months of July and
August. As previously pointed out
the calving in these months is most
unfavorable to a high record, so un-
favorable as to make a difference of
600 pounds of milk in the eight months
milk record of Jersey cows. Whether
this explanation will account for the
milk yield of Crossbred No. 11 being
intermediate between that of the high
and low lines during the first four
months of lactation is not known; al-
though it is highly probable that the
time of calving did have some effect

The Journal of Heredity

toward reducing the yield. With the
dam this time of calving effect on the
milk yield of the lactation is approxi-
mately averaged as she calved three
times in the month of April, twice in
the month of March, and once in the
months July, June and May. Like-
wise the record for Lakeland’s Poet is
approximately averaged although fa-
voring somewhat the high side of the
milk production as his daughters calved
three times in April, twice in February
and once in May, November and Jan-
uary.

The eight months milk yield of
Crossbred No. 11 was 4984.8 pounds,
that of Delva Johanna De Kol was
5375.8 pounds, and that of Lakeland’s
Poet was 3919.0 pounds. Crossbred
No. 11 w s consequently 391.0 pounds
of milk below the milk yield of her
high milk line, ancestrally speaking,
and 1065.8 pounds of milk above the
low milk line. The crossbred cow is
consequently 2.7 times as near the high
line of milk yield as she is near the low
line of milk yield.

The fourth graph of Fig. 14 shows the
milk yield of Crossbred No. 12 and her
two parents. The photographs of this
crossbred and her purebred parents are
seen in Figs. 8, 9 and 10. This cross-
bred’s milk record clearly follows the
high milking parent throughout most
of the course of the lactation. As in
the preceding cross there is some slight
indication that the crossbred tends to
be intermediate between the two lines
for the first few months of lactation.
Her calving dates were on the whole
such as to neutralize any time of year
effect on milk yield. Likewise the
records of the sire and dam show little
of this effect.

The eight months lactation record of
Crossbred No. 12 was 5367.3 pounds;
the record of her Guernsey dam, Col-
lege Gem was 2693.5 pounds; the po-
tential record of her Holstein-Friesian
sire, Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld,
5548.9. Crossbred No. 12 is conse-
quently 2693.5 pounds of milk more
than her Guernsey dam and 181.6
pounds of milk less than her Holstein-
Friesian sire or her high parent. The

Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 309

crossbred’s milk yield consequently re-
sembles that of the high line 14.8 times
as closely as it does the low line.

The fifth graph in Fig. 14 represents
the milk production of Crossbred No.
15 and her parents, Lakeland’s Poet,
Jersey; and Hearthbloom, Aberdeen
Angus. The photographs of the ani-
mals composing this mating are shown
in the succeeding paper of this series.
The graph for Crossbred No. 15’s milk
production shows the same interme-
diate yield as is shown in the first few
months of lactation by the other pre-
ceding crossbreds.

The time of year for the commence-
ment of the lactation has been favor-
able to a medium to high yield for this
crossbred as the months of calving were
December (twice) and January (once).
The total milk for the eight months
period was 3493.0 pounds. The milk
yield for the Aberdeen Angus mother
was 1065.9 pounds and for the Jersey
sire 3919.0 pounds. The crossbred
cow was consequently 426.0 pounds of
milk less than her high milk producing
parent and 2427.1 pounds above her
low milk producing parent. From
these facts it is seen that this crossbred
cow is 5.7 times as near the milk yield
of her high milk yielding parent as she
is her low yielding parent.

The last graph in Fig. 14 gives the
milk yields of Crossbred No. 16, her
Jersey dam, College Ruth and her
Aberdeen Angus sire, Kayan. The
photographs cf the animals comprising
this mating are shown in Figs. 11, 12 and
13. This cow proved very difficult to
settle for her second lactation. She has
in fact lost nearly one year due to this
cause. The milk production was some-
what higher relatively for the second
lactation than for the first lactation,
although it did not continue longer in
its duration.

The milk production of Crossbred
No. 16 is clearly intermediate between
that of the high milk producing parent
and the lower milk producing parent.
The resemblance of the crossbred’s
milk yield to the high line is very close
for the first six months of lactation.
From the sixth month to the end of

the lactation the crossbred cow de-
clined rapidly in her milk flow.

Considering the whole of the eight
months lactation Crossbred No. 16
gave 3264.1 pounds of milk. Her pure
bred Jersey parent gave 3581.5 pounds
for the same period. The potential
milk production of the sire was 1661.5
pounds. It is easily seen from the
diagram that the duration of the milk
flow plays some part in this cross-
bred’s milk yield. Thus up to the
seventh month of lactation the cross-
bred’s milk production was 2746.1
pounds as against the milk production
of her high producing dam of 2822.7
pounds and of the low producing line
of 1312.2 pounds. The difference be-
tween the high milk producing line and
the crossbred’s milk production for
the eight months period was 317.4
pounds. The difference of the milk
production of the crossbred’s milk
yield and the low potential milk pro-
duction of her sire is 1602.6 pounds for
the eight months period. The cross-
bred consequently resembles the high
producing parent 5.1 times as closely
in its milk yield as it does the low pro-
ducing parent. If we compare the
milk yields for the first six months of
lactation we find that the resemblance
of the crossbred to the high line milk
yields becomes 18.7 times as close as to
the low line milk yield.

Fig.15 represents the milk yield of
six of the other later crossbred cows
taken in the order of their birth. The
milk yield for the first lactation is
complete for the first five crossbreds.
Four months of the second lactation are
available for Crossbred No. 22; six
months for Crossbred No. 26; a com-
plete second lactation for Crossbred
No. 27; two months for Crossbred No.
29; and three months for Crossbred
No. 37. In view of the fact mentioned
at the beginning of this paper that the
reliability of a cow's record increased
as the number of lactations increases,
it follows that without doubt the milk
records of these crossbreds shown in
Fig. 15 will be subject to some modifi-
cation as the number of lactations in-
crease.

310 The Journal of Heredity

Milk Yield (Pounds)

1 2 3 % 5 6 7 8 9 70 W eo 4%
Month of Lactation.

r MILK PRODUCTION OF CROSSBRED COWS AND THEIR PARENTS
These graphs represent the milk production, by months and pounds, of crossbred cows Nos. 1
to 16 and their parents. The number of the crossbred is in the upper right hand corner of each
set of graphs. The crossbred is represented by the solid line in each case, the dam by the dotted
line, and the sire by the dot-and-dash line. (Fig. 14.)

Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 21%

Crassbre

Miik Yield (Pounds)

8 9 70 aw a 3 iF

Ss 6 Ze
Month of Lactation.

MILK PRODUCTION OF CROSSBRED COWS AND THEIR PARENTS

Showing the records of Crossbreds Nos. 22 to 44. The solid lines represent the crossbreds, the
dotted lines for the dams, and the dot-and-dash lines for the sires. (Fig. 15.)

B12. The Journal

Crossbred No. 22 was the result of
the mating of Kayan, Aberdeen Angus
bull, to College Creusa, Guernsey cow.
The corrected monthly milk yield for
the sire, dam and resulting crossbred
is shown in the first graph of Fig. 15.
The milk record of this crossbred cow
has had some difficulties. In her sec-
ond lactation this cow gave birth to a
calf at 245 days which did not live.
At that time her udder had only just
begun to make up to its coming lacta-
tion. Consequently Crossbred No. 22
produced no milk for this lactation.
The lactations which have been per-
fectly normal and which are used to
determine her milk production are
those commencing at two years and
three months and at three years and ten
months. The abortion which came in
between these dates is thought to have
come from an accident in the yard dur-
ing the time the cows were out for
exercise and not from contagious abor-
tion of cattle. This supposition is
made somewhat stronger by the fact
that only rare cases of this kind have
appeared in the herd and then were
some time apart.

From the upper graph of Fig. 15 it
is clearly seen that the milk yield of
Crossbred No. 22 is intermediate be-
tween that of her high and her low
producing line ancestrally speaking.
The lactation for each month is how-
ever nearer the milk yield of the high
parent than it is near the low parent.
Thus during the first eight months,
the milk yield of Crossbred No. 22 was
3320.8 pounds, her high producing
dam, College Creusa produced 4057.9
pounds and her low producing sire,
Kayan’s, potential production was
1661.5 pounds. Crossbred No. 22 was
consequently 737.1 pounds of milk less
than her high producing parent and
1659.3 pounds more in milk yield than
her low producing parent or Crossbred
No. 22 favored the milk yield of the
high line 2.3 times as closely as she did
the milk yield of the low line.

The record for Crossbred No. 26 to-
gether with that of her parent is shown
in the second graph of Fig. 15. The
mating which produced this cow was

of Heredity

Kayan, Aberdeen Angus bull, bred to
Creusa of Orono 3d, Guernsey cow.
The milk yield of this crossbred cow is
intermediate between that of her high
and low parents for the first four
months of lactation. After the fourth
month the milk yield of the high parent
is surpassed by that of the crossbred.
As will be noted from the other pre-
ceding graphs this is the first instance
where the crossbred has actually sur-
passed the milk yield of her two par-
ents. The milk yield of Crossbred
No. 26 for the eight months period is
4303.5 pounds, that for Creusa of Orono
3d is 4156.1 pounds and for Kayan
1661.5 pounds. The crossbred cow
produced 147.4 pounds more milk than
her purebred Guernsey parent and
2642.0 pounds more than her sire’s
potential milk yield. Crossbred No.
26 consequently resembles the high
line of production 17.9 times as closely
as she does the low line of production.
Crossbred No. 26 produced this
amount of milk when calving at one of
the most unfavorable times of the year,
September, whereas the lactation of
her parents came in months which
were favorable to an average yield.
Crossbred No. 27 was the result of
a mating of the Jersey bull, Lakeland’s
Poet, to the Aberdeen Angus cow,
Orono Madge. The milk yield of
Crossbred No. 27 is shown in the third
graph of Fig. 15. For the first four
months of lactation the milk produc-
tion of this cow is lower than that of
the intermediate between the high and
the low milk producing lines of her
ancestry. From the fourth month of
lactation this crossbred’s milk pro-
duction continues to constantly ap-
proach the milk production of her high
line ancestry. In describing the milk
production of this cow it might be said
it was the persistence with which this
cow maintained her milk production
month after month rather than the
large quantity of her milk yield at any
one time that causes her to be inter-
mediate between the high and low lines
of production. In this connection it
should be said that this crossbred cow
commenced her lactations in two

Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield gai

months quite unfavorable to a high
milk flow for the subsequent eight
months of production.

The milk yield for the eight months
period was 2995.7 pounds for Cross-
bred No. 27; 3919.0 pounds for Lake-
land’s Poet, her purebred Jersey sire;
and 1569.3 pounds for Orono Madge,
her purebred Aberdeen Angus dam.
The crossbred cow’s milk production
was consequently 923.3 pounds less
than her high producing sire and 1426.4
pounds more than her low producing
dam. The crossbred cow resembled
the high producing parent 1.5 times
as closely for the eight months period
as she did her low producing dam.

The fourth graph of Fig.15 shows the
monthly milk yield of Crossbred No.
29 and her purebred parents. _Cross-
bred No. 29 is the result of a cross
between the Aberdeen Angus bull,
Kayan, and the Guernsey cow, Creusa’s
Lady. The milk yield of the crossbred
cow is intermediate between that of
her high milk producing parent and
her low milk producing parent for the
first four months of lactation. After
the fourth month Crossbred No. 29
follows the high line of production
quite closely until the last two months
of her lactation when she approaches
the intermediate again.

For the eight months lactation period
Crossbred No. 29 produced 2909.7
pounds of milk; her purebred Guernsey
parent produced 3271.5 pounds and
her Aberdeen Angus sires potential
milk yield was 1661.5 pounds. The
difference of the crossbred’s milk yield
and that of her Guernsey mother was
361.8 pounds. The difference from
the potential milk yield of her sire was
1248.2 pounds. The crossbred cow
consequently resembled her high pro-
ducing line 3.4 times’as closely as she
did her low producing line.

Crossbred No. 37 was the result of
mating Kayan, Aberdeen Angus, to
Dot Alaska, Ayrshire. The milk pro-
duction of this crossbred exceeded that
of her high line Ayrshire dam during
the first four months of lactation.
After that time the milk yield was ap-
proximately equal. During the first

eight months of lactation Crossbred
No. 37 produced 3984.7 pounds of milk
or 129.0 pounds more than the produc-
tion of her purebred Ayrshire dam.
The potential milk production of
Kayan was 1661.5, pounds, or Crossbred
No. 37, his offspring, produced 2323.2
pounds more milk than this potential
yield. The crossbred cow was conse-
quently 18 times as close to the high
line of production as she was to the low
line of production. The time of calv-
ing during the year was favorable to
medium to high yield records.

Crossbred No. 44 was the result of
crossing the Holstein-Friesian bull,
Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld on to
the Aberdeen Angus cow, Orono
Madge. The bottom graph of Fig. 15
shows the milk production of the two
parents and the crossbred. Too much
weight should not be given this record
as the first lactation record is as yet not
even complete. It is to be expected
that subsequent lactation records may
modify considerably the record of this
crossbred cow from what it is as it now
stands. For the first four months of
lactation the crossbred cow occupies a
strictly intermediate position between
the high and low lines of production.
After the fourth month the lactation
record approaches the high line of pro-
duction. The milk yield for the eight
months period was 4306.3 pounds for
Crossbred No. 44; 5548.9 pounds for
the potential milk yield of the pure bred
Holstein-Friesian sire; and 1569.3
pounds for the Aberdeen Angus dam.
The crossbred cow was 2737.0 pounds
more milk than its low producing dam
and 1242.6 pounds less than its high
line sire. The crossbred resembles the
high line of production 2.2 times as
closely as it does the low line of pro-
duction.

DOMINANCE OF MILK PRODUCING FAC-

TORS

If the substance of the preceding
pages is recapitulated it is found that
Crossbred No. 1 resembles her low
producing parent 7.7 times as closely as
she does the high producing parent.
The other eleven crossbreds resemble

314

the high producing line of milk pro-
duction from 1.5 to 18.0 times as closely
as they do the low line of milk produc-
tion. If this paralleling of the high
line production is averaged, it is found
that the crossbreds resemble the high
line of production 4.76 times as closely
as they do the low line. These facts
argue for the transmission of milk
production by factors which show par-
tial dominance. It would not seem
that they argued for increased vigor
of heterosis only because of the case
of Crossbred No. 1, where the low line
milk yield was definitely transmitted
instead of the high yield. In fact it
would appear that this crossbred is
more likely to be a segregate of low
milking factors from the high milking
factors carried by her dam.

Three levels of milk production are
crossed in these experiments. The
Aberdeen Angus cattle constitute the
lowest level, the Jersey, Guernsey and
Ayrshire cattle averaging about the
same in milk yield constitute the in-
termediate level of production and the
Holstein-Friesian cattle having the
highest yield represent the highest level
of production. It is of some interest to
compare the results of crossing the differ-
ent levels. If we omit the result of Cross-
bred No. 1 it is found that the Holstein-
Friesian cows or bulls mated to the
second group of cows or bulls (Jersey,
Guernsey, or Ayrshire) produced three
offspring who are 8.43 times as near the
milk production of the high level on the
average as they were the low line of
production.

The only cross involving the Hol-
stein-Friesian and Aberdeen Angus,
Crossbred No. 44, was 2.2 times as
close to the high line of production as
she was close to the low line of her
parent’s milk yield.

It is of interest to note in this con-
nection that Crossbred No. 44’s milk
yield resembles closely the milk yield
of the intermediate group (Jersey,
Guernsey and Ayrshire) of these exper-
iments.

5’ Wilson, James. 1911, The Inheritance
Dublin Soc. Vol. 13, pp. 89-112.

The Journal of Heredity

The crosses involving the second
level of milk production (Jersey, Guern-
sey and Ayrshire) mated to the third
group Aberdeen Angus, had crossbred
offspring resembling the high line 7.7
times as closely as they did the low
line of production. This figure com-
pares favorably with that of the Hol-
stein-Friesian x Jersey crosses.

If the crosses are compared to de-
termine what effect the high line on the
sire’s side of the cross may have in com-
parison with the effect produced by the
high line being on the dam’s side of the
cross it is found that the results in the
three lines are contradictory. When
the Holstein-Friesian sires were mated
to second class dams, Guernseys, the
offspring resembled the high line 11.3
times as closely as she did the low line.
When the Jersey sire, second class, was
mated to the Holstein-Friesian cows,
highest class, the milk production once
resembled the high class 2.7 to 1, and
once the low line 7.7 to 1. The crosses
involving the highest milk line, Hol-
stein-Friesian bull, to the lowest milk-
ing line Aberdeen Angus cow produced
an offspring resembling the high line
2.2 times as closely as the low line.
The crosses of the second level in milk
production to the third level show that
when the higher level is on the sire’s
side the daughters resembled the high
line 3.6 times as closely as they do the
low line. When the higher level is on
the dam's side the daughters resembled
the high line 9.34 times as closely as
they did the low line. It seems doubt-
ful from these results if there are modi-
fying sex linked factors present.

MENDELIAN TRANSMISSION OF MILK
YIELD

The literature on this subject is
surprisingly meag r considering the
economic importance of milk and its
products. Of those studies which are
available that made by Wilson® is one
of the earliest. This paper is devoted
to showing that with such a breed as
the red Dannish there may be wide

of Milk Yield in Cattle. In Sci. Proc. Roy.

Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield

difference between the milk yield of
the daughter and the dam,—that is
these differences do not always blend
gradually, in fact as a rule they pro-
gress by wide steps. Further it is at-
tempted to show that the sires in the
red Dannish breed appear to be differ-
entiated into those whose daughters
are all low producers; those whose
daughters may be low producers, me-
dium producers, and high producers;
and thirdly those whose daughters are
all high producers. The data to sup-
port these conclusions are admittedly
fragmentary and open to several criti-
cisms. It is however held to show that
milk yield is transmitted in mendelian
fashion with the heterozygote inter-
mediate between the pure forms.

The manner of grouping the data
and its correction for age, etc., would
seem to more or less force this con-
clusion. It does therefore offer no
further critical information to differ-
entiate between the transmission of
milk yield by factors showing partial
dominance as was apparently the case
in our experiment and any other hy-
pothesis.

Two practical experiments carried
on by breeders in England are of par-
ticular interest as their crosses parallel
some of those in these experiments.
The object of the experiments was to
cross the Jersey with the Aberdeen-
Angus and to fix in the resulting off-
spring the hardiness of the Angus with
the milk yield of the Jersey. The
original crosses were made Aberdeen-
Angus bull to Jersey cows. Although
records were kept, no figures are cited
in the paper® on this herd. The quali-
tative statement is, however, made
that the F, cows show a high yield of

® Parlour, W. Jersey-Angus Cattle.
Kuhlman, A. H. Jersey-Angus Cattle.

7Stevens, H. D.E. Jersey-Angus Cattle.
pris2.

8 Kildee, H. H. and McCandlish, A. C.
Increasing Dairy Production. Bul. 165.

VI.
Fat. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.

Gowen, John W. 1919.
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.

1916.
Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 383-402.
® Pearl, Raymond, Gowen, John W., and Miner, John Rice.
Transmitting Qualities of Jersey Sires for Milk Yield, Butter-Fat Percentage and Butter-
Annual Report for 1919, pp. 89-205.

Report of Progress on Animal Husbandry Investigations in 1919.
Annual Report for 1919, pp. 249-284.

315

milk, ranking almost as high as their
Jersey dams.

In another section of England a
similar cross was made by another
breeder with the same objects in view.
This breeder, Mr. Stevens,’ makes a
similar statement in regard to the milk
yield of the F,; cows.

Kildee and McCandlish,’ record a
similar experiment which incidentally
furnishes some data on the transmission
of milk yield. They crossed scrub
cattle whose milk yield averaged be-
tween 3300 and 3900 pounds to Hol-
stein-Friesian sires. The resulting F,
offspring averaged 5561.6 pounds of
milk. Crosses to Guernsey and to
Jersey bulls did not increase the F,
average production over that of the
scrubs, although one daughter of a
Guernsey sire did nearly double her
milk yield over that of her dam. No
age correction was applied to these
records. The length of lactation was
also not strictly comparable between
animals. Several bulls of each breed
were used. Despite these handicaps
the results indicate that there was a
partial dominance for milk yield ex-
pressed in the F, offspring of the Hol-
stein-Friesian sires. The case of the
single exceptional offspring of one of the
Guernsey sires can likewise be explained
on this basis for it has been shown that
within a breed wide differences be-
tween sires in their ability to transmit
milk yield may occur.’ Such differ-
ences of course argue for differences
in the factors for transmitting milk
yield within the breeds similar to those
illustrated in the experiments previ-
ously described.

Another extensive experiment was
begun for similar practical objects by

In Live Stock Jour. (London) 77 (1913) No. 2025, p. 85.
In Jour. Heredity 5 (1915) No. 2, pp. 68-72.
In Live Stock Jour. (London) 77 (1913) No. 2025,

Influence of Environment and Breeding in

1919. Studies in Milk Secretion.

316

Mr. Bowlker on the crossing of the
Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian breeds
of cattle. The results as analyzed by
Castle” show that the milk yield for
31 F, heifers resembled that of the
Holstein-Friesian parents 1.88 times
as closely as it did the Guernsey par-
ents in the first lactation. In the sec-
ond lactation the resemblance of the
milk yield of the F, crossbreds was 3.78
times as close to the Holstein-Friesian
parents as it was to the Guernsey par-
ents. Unfortunately these records are
subject to some criticism perhaps the
most serious of which is the fact that
all records of a given group, parents or
crossbreds, are lumped together and
the average used instead of being sub-
ject to individual analysis. Such a

10 Castle, W. E. 1919.
Cattle. In Proc. Nat. Acad.,

The Journal of Heredity

lumping together would hide such re-
sults as that of the mating for Cross-
bred No. 1. Another criticism of more
or less serious nature comes in the
throwing together of milk records of
animals of quite different ages without
applying age corrections. Considering
these disturbing features the results are
on the whole quite similar to those
presented in this paper.

In the light of these all too meager
data the results of this paper would
seem to be supported by those of the
other investigations on this subject.
Such being the case the conclusion
seems sound that the inheritance of
milk yield appears to show a partial
dominance of the high milk yield to the
low milk yield.

Inheritance of Quantity and Quality of Milk Production in Dairy
Vol. 5, pp. 428-434.

OUR MOST SIGNIFICANT CROPS—OUR BOYS AND GIRLS

“War throws a spotlight of convine-
ing clearness upon national defects.
We are beginning to suspect, if
not to fully realize, that even more
essential and fundamental to the integ-
rity and permanency of a nation than
scientific progress, political achieve-
ment, industrial development and eco-
nomic accomplishment, are biologic
soundness and fitness, the health of the
people.

“This national asset, health, while
the most essential, is at the present
time the most endangered of all our
natural resources.

“Shall we not provide as thorough
and effective health care and physical
education for the children of our coun-
try as we furnish for the young men
in the army and navy?”

“What about the basic needs of the
great draft army of the nation’s chil-
dren who must supply the human
units of the citizenry of the next genera-
tion; who must bear the burden of
civilization in peace and in war? What

shall we do about the neglect of the
children who hold the future of civili-
zation in their immature lives?”

“The children of our country deserve
as effective physical care as the live-
stock.

“The children are entitled, even in
war times, to as careful attention and
cultivation as the crops.”

“Shall not the children, drafted by
compulsory education into our schools,
be assured of as skillful and satisfactory
care as the soldiers in camp?”

“T wish you appreciated the children
and youth of this republic. They
make up, in possibilities, the finest
generation of human beings the world
has ever seen. They make you feel
that even more than the great museums
and monuments, more than great indus-
trial plants and ships, more than great
skyscrapers and cathedrals, they should
be guarded and protected, cultivated
and developed for America—for the
World.”’—From an address by Thomas
D. Wood, M.D., Columbia University,
New York.

HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE
V. ADHERENCE

J. H. KEMPTON
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture

DHERENCE is a variation in

which the leaves, bracts and in-

florescences coalesce. Any or
all of these organs may adhere to one
another to a varying extent. In ex-
treme cases the upper leaves and ter-
minal inflorescences are so firmly com-
pacted into a hardened mass that the
parts can not be separated. In less ex-
treme cases the adhering organs sepa-
rate naturally with the pressure of the
growing parts. Frequently the leaves
and even husks adhere so firmly to
other organs that they are ruptured by
the force of the elongating plant or
shoot and such plants have a charac-
teristic ragged appearance.

In some cases the variation is exhib-
ited in seedlings but unless the leaves
of the young plants adhere so firmly as
to prevent further growth, the plants
recover and apparently grow normally
until the ear bearing node is reached,
at which stage their adherent nature
is manifested again. (See Fig. 16.)

The firm union of the upper leaves
prevents proper elongation, causing
startling contortions of the confined
culms. (See Fig. 18.) When the ear
is included in the adhering mass the
enclosing husks also are united and
unless they are opened artificially the
silks cannot be exserted.

In many cases the growing ear, held
firmly at the upper end, is forced into
contortions similar to those of the culm.
(See Fig. 19.) This purely mechanical
inhibition of elongation reduces the
length of the affected internodes as well
as the ear and where the variation is
pronounced, seed rarely is obtained.
The tassels of such plants are greatly
altered, being compressed into a solid
structure, never expanding into the fa-
miliar branched panicle. Insuch an ad-
herent inflorescence pollen is shed only

from the spikelets of the lower or outer
branches and not even from these un-
less the inflorescence has been artifi-
cially liberated from the confining mass
of sheaths and blades. In less extreme
cases the tip of the central spike will be
exserted naturally, producing a small
quantity of pollen and it is from such
plants as these that the variation is
propagated most readily.

The glumes of the staminate spike-
lets often are reduced greatly in length
and altered in appearance resembling
the hardened glumes of the ear. Not
infrequently they have been so reduced
in length that the anthers protrude
from the unopened spikelets. The
firmly compacted male inflorescence
with the altered glumes strongly sug-
gests the cob of ear, but when such an
inflorescence is sectioned there is no
evidence of fasciation and the interior
branches and central spike are found
to have developed spikelets.

BREEDING MUST ELIMINATE ADHERENT
PLANTS

The undesirability and entire worth-
lessness of adherent plants needs no
emphasis and the variation takes its
place with the ever increasing list of
detrimental recessive abnormalities
which breeding must eliminate.

The adherent variation was found
in the second generation of a hybrid
between the Boone County white
variety and brachytic.! Two plants of
a brachytic progeny were crossed with
two plants of an inbred strain of Boone.
In each cross brachytic plants were
used as the female parents. The plants
of the first generations were all normal
and of greatly increased vigor.

Several self-pollinated ears were ob-
tained from both hybrids but only three

‘Kempton, J. H. A Brachytic Variation in Maize. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bull. 925. Feb. 1921.
Shefe

The Journal of Heredity

THREE MAIZE SEEDLINGS SHOWING THE ADHERING EARLY LEAVES

Adherence is an inherited variation in which the leaves, bracts and inflorescences unite
or grow together. Any or all of these organs may adhere to one another to a varying
extent. In some cases the variation is exhibited in seedlings. The mortality of such
seedlings usually is high. Photograph natural size. (Fig. 16.)

TWO ADHERENT BRACHYTIC PLANTS

These plants produced no seed and the tassel branches unlike those of non-adherent sister plants
are compacted into a hardened mass. (Fig. 17.)

220 The Journal of Heredity

progenies were grown the following
season. These three progenies segre-
gated in the expected manner, having
approximately three normal plants to
one brachytic but two of the progenies
in addition produced plants with ad-
herent organs. These two progenies
were descended from the same first
generation hybrid between brachytic
and Boone. The adherent variation
was not noticed until the plants had
practically completed their growth at
which time it was a striking abnormal-
ity. It was immediately apparent
that there were no plants in which the
brachytic character of the culm was
combined with the adherent organs,
all the adherent plants being found in
the group of normal stature. The
classification of the plants is given in
Table I.

The percentage of adherent plants
for the combined progenies, including
normal and brachytic plants, is below
that expected for a simple Mendelian
character. This deficiency is probably
due to the death rate in the seedling
stages of the most extreme adherent
plants. Since the variation was not
found until the plants had reached ma-
turity the counts were based on the
survivors of the season. Subsequent
generations have shown that the char-
acter appears in the seedling stage and
that many of the badly affected plants
die after the production of 3 or 4 leaves.
The absence of brachytic adherent
plants indicated a high linkage be-
tween normal stature and adherent
but this hypothesis has not been sus-
tained by the progenies.

Extreme cases of adherence are im-
possible to propagate and the progenies,
especially those grown from self-pol-
linated seed, were from plants that
expressed the character in an interme-
diate form. Difficulties also are en-
countered in satisfactorily bagging the

AN ADHERENT PLANT PARTLY.

DISSECTED

Showing the base of the compact tassel and the
contorted stalk. The ear of this plant was not
confined in the coalesced sheaths but the husks
were firmly united and the prophyllum, fas-
tened to the outer husks, has pulled apart as
the ear lengthened. Photograph natural size.
(Fig. 18.)

Kempton: Heritable Characters of Maize

ears which, as the illustrations show,
are often greatly twisted. This fact
must be borne in mind in considering
the results obtained with the progeny
of adherent plants. The classification
of the plants of the progenies of the ad-
herent variation is shown in Table II.

Three progenies were grown from
self-pollinated adherent plants, and
two of them produced six apparently
normal plants in a population of 68,
the others being adherent. These may
have resulted from faulty technique
in pollinating or perhaps a failure to
develop the character to a noticeable
degree. This latter hypothesis would
seem the more plausible in view of the
large number of normal plants pro-
duced by crosses between adherent
plants, and the fact that the normal
plants were no more vigorous than their
adherent sisters. Self-pollinated ears
have been obtained from these normal
individuals, and they will be tested
next season.

ADHERENCE NOT LINKED WITH NORMAL
STATURE

Of the progenies grown from self-
pollinated adherent plants, two pro-
duced adherent plants of brachytic
stature, disposing of the hypothesis
that normal stature is closely linked
with the adherent variation. (See
Fig. 17.) Eight brachytic plants pro-
duced by the progenies in which the
adherent variation was found were self-
pollinated. These eight plants were
normal with respect to the adherent
character but progenies of two of them
segregated into normal, and adherent.
The percentage of adherent plants in
these two brachytic progenies is sur-
prisingly large for a simple Mende-
lian character, but the populations
were so small that the deviations may
be due to chance. Plants combining
the brachytic and adherent variations
are extremely hard to propagate and
no self-pollinated seed was obtained
from them.

PARTLY DISSECTED ADHERENT
PLANT OF NORMAL STATURE

Showing the twisted ear and the coalesced up-
per sheaths. Photograph natural size. (Fig.19)

322

A normal brachytic plant was crossed
with an adherent plant of normal stat-
ure and the first generation segregated
into equal number of brachytic and
normal plants indicating that the ad-
herent parent was heterozygous for
brachysm, affording additional evi-
dence that adherence is not linked with
normal stature.

Considering the possibilities for va-

The Journal of Heredity

riability in expression and the difficulty
of propagating extreme plants it would
seem not unreasonable to assume that
adherence is a simple Mendelian char-
acter recessive to the normal condition
and its linkage relations to the other
variations should be studied. Owing
to the difficulty in obtaining seed only
very small quantities can be furnished
interested investigators.

TABLE I — CLASSIFICATION OF THE PLANTS OF THE SECOND GENERATION OF THE BRACHYTIC-
BoonE Hysrip WHICH PRODUCED ADHERENT PLANTS

Progeny Normal Stature

Brachytic Stature

Adherent % in! % Adherent in

Designation

entire progeny | plants of nor-

Normal | Adherent} Normal | Adherent mal stature

Dh436W1L19...... 66 ' 17 18 0 16.8+2.49 20.5+2.98
Dh436W2L19...... 58 | 22 24 0 DileyD =D eval PH eevee) 315)
Totals, cross ene 124 39 eee: 0 19.0+1.85 23.9+2.25

TaBLeE II—Classification of the Plants of the Progenies of the Adherent Variation
(N=Normal; A=Adherent )

MATURE PLANTS Percent
_ Seedlings | Percent ercen
PROGENY Normal | Brachytic Adherent | Percent
DESIGNATION Stature | Stature Ee Saner Mature | Brachytic
eedlings Piney
NIA|N/IA| N|A ae
Adherent Self-Pol...........| 27) 10) 0] 22 0} 8 | 27.0+4.9 |100.0 26.7+5.4
~ tee me Rew csieh 74) 41 2 | 34 0} 0 | 35.6+3.0} 94.44+2.6| 0.0
ns: pA Ne Wee Wee ted 44] 18 st 25} 1} 5 |29.043.9} 87.5+3.5) 18.8+4.7
Adherent x Adherent....... DSN 32 |) Ale28 0} 0 | 56.2+4.4] 87.54+3.9) 0.0
ss SR en ae 114 | 34 | 12 | 12 7| 3) 23.0+2'.3)| 44.145. 7) 29. 4ee5e6
Brachytic Self-Pol.......... 53 | 13 13| 9 | 19.7+3.3] 40.9+7.1/100.0
os SMa ceca ete 19} 17 47.2+5.6|100.0
Six sister brachytic progenies
Sel pole aackrelanna senses 180 0.0 100.0
Brachytic x Adherent Fy..... 12 12 0.0 52.27.10

THE IMMIGRATION PROBLEM
TODAY

RosBert DE C. WARD

Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

E ARE facing the most serious

crisis which has ever arisen in the

history of immigration to the
United States. The facts in the present
situation should be widely known.
Without an intelligent understanding
of the problem, no sound and con-
structive immigration legislation can
be framed. The essential facts are as
follows. They are not exaggerated, and
are all based on authoritative sources
of information.

First: The Rising Tide of Immigration

As was to be expected, immigration
has shown a tremendous increase dur-
ing the past few months. Since July 1,
1920, the alien arrivals at the port of
New York alone have averaged about
3000 a day. During the present calen-
dar year the total has come close to
1,000,000, approximating pre-war
figures. And, as Commissioner
F. A. Wallis, New York, has put it,
“All records are going to be shattered
from January on.” ‘‘Whole races of
Europe are preparing to remove to the
United States. Never since the early
days of barbarian Europe has there
been such a wholesale migration of
population as that which is now in
contemplation, with the United States
as the destination.’ Considerably
more than 1,000,000 aliens will come
in 1921 unless we erect a barrier to cut
down their numbers. On Nov. 15 last,
more than 16,600 aliens were either at
Ellis Island, or on ships in New York
harbor awaiting inspection. On Dec.
19, 12,000 came in on eight steamships.
These are not unique cases. Incoming
steamers are crowded to their utmost
capacity. A group of steamship agents
not long ago told Commissioner Wallis
that immigration to the United States
had barely started; that 15,000,000

men, women and children, representing
every nationality in Europe, are “‘fight-
ing for passage to the United States.”’
These estimates take no account of the
German immigration which, in the
opinion of every competent authority,
will start to come here as soon as the
existing technical state of war is ter-
minated. This German immigration
is estimated at from 2,000,000 to
10,000,000, with the balance of proba-
bility in favor of the larger figures.
Surgeon-General H. S. Cumming, of
the U. S. Public Health Service, has
expressed it as his view that at least
7,000,000 people are trying to get here
from European and Asiatic countries
where serious epidemic diseases are
rampant. In the opinion of Commis-
sioner Wallis, as stated before the
Senate Immigration Committee on
Jan. 5, 1921, Eastern Europe ‘‘is in the
grip of four epidemics—typhus, ty-
phoid, dysentery and tuberculosis.”
The war has undermined the health of
the natives of those countries, and such
immigrants are ‘‘dangerous to the public
health of the United States.”’

Such a situation has never before
confronted us. This is not ‘‘normal”
immigration. It is a frenzy, a panic, a
stampede, a mob, without calculation,
without sound judgment; a seething
mass of humanity with but one idea—
America.

Second: The Undesirable Character of
the Impending Immigration

The most recent, unprejudiced and
authoritative reports on the general
conditions of the aliens who are plan-
ning to come to this country are those
received by the Consular Service of the
Department of State, from officers of
this Government who have personally
visited the various countries abroad.

Qo)
075

324

This evidence is embodied, in a con-
densed form, in Report No. 1109, 66th
Congress, 3rd Session (Dec. 6, 1920),
submitted from the Committee on
Immigration and Naturalization, to
accompany House Bill No. 14461.
It is clear that a majority of these
prospective immigrants are ‘‘physi-
cally deficient’’; ‘‘mentally deficient’’;
“economically undesirable’; ‘‘socially
undesirable’; of low standards of
living, “‘not of the most desirable
class.”

In the light of these reports by
United States Consular Officers, the
House Immigration Committee is cer-
tainly stating the case very mildly
when it says in its own report: ‘“The
Committee is confirmed in the belief
that the major portion of recent ar-
rivals come without funds. It was
apparent to the Committee that a
large percentage of those arriving
were incapable of earninga livelihood.
-...A study of the new immigra-
tion from Central Europe convinced
many members of the Immigration
Committee that the arriving immi-
grants are not those who might go to
farms; that they are not agricultur-
ists, but mainly additional population
for our principal coastal cities and
congested industrial districts.”

On this same point, the following
statement from a foreign correspondent
of the Philadelphia Public Ledger, in a
cablegram dated Warsaw, Dec. 11,
1920, may be quoted:

“The most extraordinary, hopeless,
destitute and pathetic emigration
which the world has known now is
making its way to America, the prom-
ised land, through Poland from as
far east as Kief, and from the Russian
territory north and east of the Black
Sea. Even from Georgia, masses of
poor, disease-laden people are making
their way to America.

“Within three weeks, 150,000 have
reached the Warsaw territory. This
is only a beginning. Unfortunately,
Bolshevist agitators and Communists
are with the majority of the hordes and
are confident that in the general con-
fusion they will be able to get into

The Journal of Heredity

America, where they propose to spread
propaganda.

“American citizens in Warsaw are
distressed and alarmed over the char-
acter of the immigration. . . .

“The Warsaw government has pro-
tested to the American consulate that
the gathering of people in Warsaw is
creating a dangerous health condition,
asking that steps be taken to correct
the conditions. The American officials
have no power to check the Russian
flood to Poland.”

A recent writer has said: “Ignorant
of our language, of our laws and in-
stitutions, of our industrial and agri-
cultural methods, what would this
seething mass of wretchedness do if
dumped on our shores? What but
add to its woes and our own? How
could we make room for it? How
educate it? How fit it for any part
in our scheme?”

Third: The Impossibility of Adequate
Inspection

At best, during slack immigration,
our inspection of incoming aliens is
none too effective. Now, with the
flood of immigration, medical and
general inspection is hopelessly inade-
quate. Our laws for the exclusion of
insane, idiotic, imbecile, feeble-minded
and diseased immigrants are excellent,
on paper. But when aliens file past
the inspectors with more or less of the
speed at which a line of people at a
railroad station files by a ticket-window
it is clear that most cases of mental and
many of physical deficiency get by.
The need of more “‘hands’’ to do our
labor is constantly being urged.
“Hands across the sea’’ are the cheap-
est, so we importthem. Letusnotfor-
get that we are importing not ‘‘hands’”’
alone but bodies and hereditary ten-
dencies also. It is of vital consequence
that the quality of these human beings
who come to us from other lands
should be of the best, so that they shall
not injure but shall improve our stock.
Every day that passes witnesses the
landing on our shores of many aliens
whose coming here is absolutely cer-
tain to result in a deterioration of the

Ward: The Immigration Problem Today

mental and physical standards of the
American race of the future. This is
not a chance sensational statement.
It is the conviction of competent
medical authorities who know the
present conditions of immigration, and
the wholly perfunctory and _ inade-
quate medical inspection which passes
the aliens without proper examination
as to their physical and mental con-
dition.

Fourth: A Period of Unemployment
Has Begun, and Immigration is Not
Needed to Supply Labor

The enormous industrial demands
during the war, and the later expansion
of our export trade, naturally resulted
in a great influx of workers from the
country districts into the cities, and of
a very considerable abandonment of
domestic service for the better paid
positions in industry. This change in
the conditions of employment brought
about a shortage of farm labor and also
a shortage of domestic servants. But
the tide has turned. There is a general
slackening of industrial activity. Mills
and shops are slowing down or closing.
In many cases employees have been
willing to accept a reduction in wages
rather than have their jobs cease
altogether for a time. We are facing
a period of general unemployment.
Already a flow of labor from the cities
to the country is reported to be setting
in, and farm labor will again be sup-
plied by men who left the farms for the
mills and machine shops. On the other
hand, also, thousands of women who
left domestic service for industrial work
will soon be ready to go back to their
old jobs, and at lower wages than they
have been receiving in industry. In
other words, the crisis in the labor
situation has passed. Unemployment
will increase. A wholesale immigra-

325

tion is not needed, and will greatly
aggravate the approaching economic
situation.

There is surely something radically
wrong in the following situation: Hun-
dreds of thousands of men and women
already in the United States are out of
work, and their number is increasing
daily. Congress and State and munici-
pal authorities are being urged to pro-
vide work and support for these people
at public expense. Yet every week
there are being landed at our ports
thousands of aliens, the large majority
of whom are very close to the pauper
line, and all of whom must, in some way
or other, be provided with work, or else
be supported by public or private
funds. Where is the logic, or the jus-
tice, in such a condition of things?
Canada, which handles its problem of
alien immigration far more effectively
and far more intelligently than we
handle ours, has recently increased the
individual financial entrance require-
ment to $250 in order to improve the
condition of unemployment now pre-
vailing in the Dominion.

Fifth: Present and Impending Immi-
gration Will Not Furnish the Kind
of Labor Needed on Farms

This point has already been em-
phasized in the Consular Reports and
in the Report of the House Immigra-
tion Committee above referred to.
Only 2.8% of the immigrants of the
past year purported to be ‘“‘farmer.”’
Our past experience has shown that
immigrants inevitably flock to centers
where their compatriots are already
congregated. This is happening now.
The large majority of incoming aliens
are going to our great cities, and to the
congested districts. Delegations of
representative citizens from certain
Western cities have recently been to

1 “Paragraphs 1 to 3 of the former Order-in-Council, applicable to mechanics, artisans and
laborers, have been suspended, and four others substituted, by which ‘‘no immigrant of the
mechanic, artisan or laborer classes, whether skilled or unskilled, shall be allowed to land in Canada
unless he possesses in his own right money to the amount of $250, and in addition transportation

to his destination in Canada.

If an immigrant in the classes mentioned is accompanied by his

family, he must possess in addition to transportation for his family to their destination, a further
sum of $125 for every member eighteen years old or over and $50 for each child to five years old

and under eighteen years.”

326

Ellis Island, to urge upon the Commis-
sioner of Immigration there the impor-
tance of sending the new arrivals to the
farming districts, in order that the
cities from which these delegations
came may not be further burdened with
great numbers of new immigrants.
The Federal authorities are said to be
doing what they can to “distribute”
as many aliens as possible. But, as
President Roosevelt well said in one
of his messages to Congress, “‘distri-
bution is a palliative, not acure.’’ Even
if many thousands of aliens were ac-
tually ‘“‘distributed’”’ where there is a
lack of farm laborers, the majority of
them would not be effective. What our
great farming districts need is highly
intelligent labor. They want men who
are skilled in American farming meth-
ods. They want men who can manage
modern agricultural machinery. They
do not want ignorant, unskilled, non-
English-speaking foreigners, who know
little beyond the use of a primitive
kind of hoe. The writer has talked
with many men who own large farms
in the Middle West, and he has found
them of one mind on this matter.

It is highly significant that at the
40th Annual Session of the Farmers’
National Congress, held at Columbus,
Ohio, with delegates from over 30
States in attendance, the following
resolution was unanimously adopted
(Nov. 19, 1920): ‘‘Resolved, That we
are unalterably opposed to the pro-
posed diversion and distribution of
aliens over the farming districts until
immigration is rigidly restricted, nu-
merically or otherwise.”’

Sixth:.A Large Immigration Vastly In-
creases and Complicates Our Task
of Americanization

The sudden outburst of patriotic
desire to Americanize our unassimi-
lated alien population was a direct re-
sult of the war. The nation came all
at once to realize how vitally necessary
it is to weld our heterogeneous popula-
tion into a more homogeneous whole.
The problem of illiteracy among our
native-born, serious enough itself, has
been very greatly complicated by

The Journal of Heredity

allowing millions of aliens who cannot
speak, or understand, or read English
to land on our shores. The first stage
in making Americans out of our for-
eign-born population must be to give
them a speaking and reading knowledge
of English. There is a limit to our
national power of assimilation. To
allow immigration to continue in the
years to come at its prewar rate, or at
what will doubtless be an even higher
rate, is like trying to keep a boat
bailed out without stopping the leak.
A further restriction of immigration
is a necessary and logical part of the
Americanization program.

One of the most significant state-
ments regarding the bearing of recent
immigration upon the general problems
of assimilation and of Americanization
was that made by the November Grand
Jury of King’s County, N. Y. This
body, on Dec. 3, 1920, handed to
County Judge May a presentment urg-
ing legislation by Congress to “‘pro-
hibit the immigration into this country
of all who cannot read and write Eng-
lish and who do not possess an intelli-
gent understanding of the fundamental
ideas of human liberty.”

“The stream of our national life,” the
presentment continued, “‘cannot rise
higher than its source. To permit any
further pollution of this stream is to
intensify both our foreign as well as our
domestic problems. It will foster dis-
union, instead of promoting union.
Instead of continuing as a nation of
high ideals, we shall degenerate into
a mere medley of races, a hodgepodge
of nationalities.”

These are strong words, but every-
one who has studied our national and
municipal problems knows that they
are true.

Seventh: The Ethics of Immigration
Restriction

When refugees from war-stricken
Europe are mentioned, there naturally
arises in our minds the thought, ‘“‘Is it
right for us to prevent any of these
people from coming here? Is it not
un-American; contrary to our ‘tradi-
tional’ policy of providing ‘a refuge

Ward: The Immigration Problem Today

for the oppressed?’ ’’ Sentiment can
never solve great national problems.
The indiscriminate kindness which we
may seem to be able to show to the
coming millions of European and
Asiatic immigrants can in no conceiv-
able way counter-balance the harm
that these people may do to our race,
especially if large numbers of them are
mentally and physically unfit.

Indiscriminate hospitality to immi-
grants is a supremely short-sighted,
selfish, ungenerous, un-American _pol-
icy. It may give some of us, for
the moment, a comfortable feeling that
we are providing a ‘“‘refuge for the
oppressed.”’ But that is as narrow a
state of mind as that which indiscrimi-
nately gives alms to any person on the
street who asks for money. Such
“charity’’ may, truly, produce a warm
feeling of personal generosity in the
giver himself. But alms-giving of this
sort does more harm than good. It is
likely to pauperize him who receives,
and it inevitably increases the burden
of pauperism which future generations
will have to bear. We have no right to
saddle any additional burdens upon the
already overburdened coming genera-
tions of Americans. It is in the highest
degree un-American for us to permit
any such influx of alien immigrants as
will make the process of assimilation
and amalgamation of our foreign popu-
lation any more difficult than it already
is. The situation is discouraging
enough already.

Our policy of admitting freely practi-
cally all who have wished to come, and
of encouraging them in every possible
way to come, has not only tremen-
dously complicated all our own national
problems but has not helped the intro-
duction of political, social, economic
and educational reforms abroad. In-
deed, it has rather delayed the progress
of these very movements in which we,
as Americans, are so vitally interested.
Had the millions of immigrants who
have come to us within the last quarter-
century remained at home, they would
have insisted on the introduction of
reforms in their own countries which
have been delayed, decade after decade,

327

because the discontent of Europe found
a safety-valve by flying to America.
We are constantly told by our idealists
that the ‘“‘cream’’ and the “pick’’ of
Europe has been coming here because
it is discontented at home; because
it wants political and religious and
economic liberty; because it wants edu-
cation, and better living conditions,
and democratic institutions. Have we
in any way really helped the progress
of these reforms by keeping the safety-
valve open? By allowing the dis-
contented millions of Europe and of
Asia to come here now, are we likely to
hasten, or to delay, the coming of polit-
ical and social reforms in Armenia,
in Russia, in Turkey? Our duty as
Americans, interested in the world-wide
progress of education, of religious
liberty, of democratic institutions, is
to do everything in our power to pre-
serve our own institutions intact, and
at the same time to help the discon-
tented millions of Europe and of Asia
to stay in their own countries; to
shoulder their own responsibilities; to
work out there, for themselves, what
our own forefathers worked out here,
for us and for our children.

Eighth: The Necessity for Further
Restrictive Legislation

Our existing general immigration law
was never designed to meet the present
emergency. It is a selective, rather
than a restrictive, measure. When it
was enacted it was thought sufficient.
But now the whole situation has
changed. From all sorts and condi-
tions of people, the country over,
comes a strong and increasingly vehe-
ment demand for further legislation
which shall effectively cut down the
alien invasion which threatens us.
Opposition to further legislation is
limited to certain racial groups which
are chiefly interested, not in the future
of America but in the future of their
racein America; to exploiters of ‘‘cheap
labor,’’ and to those who have been well
termed ‘‘the incurable sentimentalists.”’

The House of Representatives, in
December, passed a bill which has
been widely, and most inaccurately,

328

termed a one year total exclusion bill.
The measure, known as the Johnson
bill, does not suspend immigration. It
would limit it, for a period of one year
after enactment, to the near blood-
relations of naturalized citizens of
foreign birth, and of aliens who apply
for naturalization. What the num-
bers of these relatives may be, no one
can tell, but it is perfectly safe to say
that several hundreds of thousands of
immigrants could be admitted if the
bill became law. Further, there are
provisions for the admission of un-
skilled laborers, and of domestic ser-
vants, and for the suspension of the
illiteracy test in certain cases. The
measure, then, while giving us more
restriction than we have at present, is
in no way drastic, and by no means
meets the emergency. The Senate has,
at present writing, taken no action.

That additional legislation is needed,
and needed at once, is the conviction
of every competent and unprejudiced
student of our immigration problems.
Among the many suggestions which
have been made is the proposal which
rests on the conviction that one of the
best evidences that our different groups
of foreigners have been assimilated is
that they have become naturalized.
The plan is to limit the number of new
alien arrivals who shall be admitted
from a country in any one year to a
certain percentage of our previous im-
migrants from that country who have
since become naturalized in the United
States. According to the provisions of
some of these bills, the exact percentage,
within certain fixed limits, is to be deter-
mined by the Secretary of Labor, or bya
commission, with reference to the labor
conditions which may exist at the time.
Such a plan has the merit of being more
than a temporary measure; of being
simple, direct and logical, and also of
being sufficiently elastic to respond to
varying economic conditions.

There is no subject before Congress
of equal importance to that of immi-
gration, which touches our National
life in so many ways. Immigration has
far-reaching economic and _ political
effects, but its effects upon the char-

The Journal of Heredity

acter of the race are the most important
of all. Congress will act, and act wisely
and quickly, if the will of the great mass
of our people who believe in restriction
makes itself felt. But if we do not
bestir ourselves, the steamship com-
panies, and the large employers of
“cheap labor,’ and the societies of
foreign-born hyphenates will carry the
day, as they have so often done in the
past.

The economic aspects of immigration
are those which are still given the most
prominence, and which attract most
public attention. Those of us who are
concerned chiefly with problems of
heredity and who demand a far more
careful selection of the incoming aliens
on the basis of their mental and physi-
cal condition, are, however, entirely in
accord with those who ask for a further
numerical restriction for economic rea-
sons. Two things are absolutely essen-
tial. The first is a rigid and impartial
enforcement of the existing law regard-
ing the exclusion of mentally and physi-
cally undesirable aliens. The second is
a radical reduction in the numbers of
aliens who shall be admitted to the
United States in any year. It cannot
be too often or too strongly empha-
sized that, as Dr. T. W. Salmon pointed
out several years ago, any measure
which checks the flow of immigration
in general must necessarily result in the
admission of fewer mentally and physi-
cally undesirable immigrants. Further,
with a reduction in the numbers, medi-
cal and general inspection can always
be far more effective, and the aliens with
mental and physical defects which
render them highly undesirable as
contributors to the blood of the
American stock can be more often
detected and debarred. Thus those
who are primarily concerned about the
character of the future American people
have every reason for uniting with
those who are chiefly interested in the
purely economic aspects of alien immi-
gration in demanding (1) a strict en-
forcement of existing law, and (2) a
radical reduction of the numbers of
aliens who shall be permitted to enter
the United States. Jan, 1, 19206

ARE VALENCIA ORANGES FROM
CHINAr

The Occurrence in South China of Oranges Closely Resembling Strains
of the Valencia Variety Suggests the Latter’s Origin There

H. ATHERTON LEE! and L. B. Scorr?*
U.S. Department of Agriculture

HE introduction of the Valencia

orange into Florida and Cali-

fornia is a subject which has been
fully discussed and is a matter of
definite record by Shamel, Scott and
Pomeroy.’ To briefly summarize their
findings: The variety was introduced
into California about 1876 by the
Thomas Rivers Nurseries of London,
England. The name of the variety
having been lost, it was later identified
by a Spanish orange grower v isiting in
California, as a variety grown in Spain
called “La Naranja Tarde de Valen-
cia.”’ After that the name Valencia
was adopted for the variety in Cali-
fornia. Previous to 1876 the same
variety had been introduced into
Florida where it was known by the
names ‘“‘Brown’’ and ‘“‘Hart’s Late.”
Trees of these introductions were later
shipped to California and when they
came into bearing the fruits and trees
were found to be identical with those
of the variety grown in that state under
the name Valencia.

TWELVE STRAINS OF THIS VARIETY

No definite evidence is available
concerning the history of the variety
prior to its distribution by the Rivers
Nurseries. The Valencia variety, as
cultivated in the United States, does
not represent one single strain; investi-
gations conducted by the Office of
Horticultural and Pomological Investi-
gations, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, have revealed that there are

twelve important strains within this
variety.

In 1918 the senior writer visited
southern China in continuance of citrus
canker studies. At Sunwui, Kwang-
tung Province, near Hong Kong, fruits
were observed which very closely
resembled one strain of the Valencia
as grown in California, and fruits were
collected as specimens for identifica-
tion in Washington. At Kua Tscha
near Swatow, Kwangtung Province,
trees of the sweet orange were observed
which also bore fruits resembling an-
other strain of the Valencia orange.
Fruits and foliage of these trees were
collected but unfortunately the foliage
specimens moulded and were dis-
carded. The foliage was, however, of
the same type as that which in general
characterizes the Mediterranean varie-
ties of the sweet orange (Citrus sinen-
sis). Trees both at Sunwui and at Kua
Tscha were photographed and one is
shown in an accompanying figure.
The trees were grafted upon a native
mandarin orange (Citrus nobilis) stock,
which apparently dwarfed them to
some extent. At Sunwui, the growers,
questioned as to where the bud wood
was obtained, stated that they bought
their trees already budded from a
nearby locality. The nurserymen, ques-
tioned as to where they had obtained
these buds, stated that they had for
many years obtained them from nearby
trees. Apparently they did not recog-

1 Now Mycologist and Plant Pathologist, Philippine Bureau of Science.
* Now General Manager, California Nurserymen’s Bud Selection Association, San Jose.
s The writers express their thanks to Mr. T. Ralph Robinson of the Bureau of Plant Industry,
U.S. Department of Agriculture for assistance in connection with this paper.

4Shamel, A. D., Scott, L.
Bud Variation in the Valencia Orange.

B., and Pomeroy, C. S. Citrus Fruit Improvement:
U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bull. No. 624.

A Study of

The Journal of Heredity

ise)
ioe)

(0% “Btq) “dn4zy red OM} 07 9U0 adeIBAe Spars ‘aZueIO 1Y311q v 10[09 ay} pue jeoMs
pue juepunqge aoimf ay} ‘ure13s yJOOWIG ay} UPY} JeYysNoI JeYMOUIOs st 91n}xX9} NOY], “erUIO;
-1]@_ Ul UMOIZ sv aduvIO AjarIvA vIOUaTeA 94} JO UleI}s SuOT 9Y} JO S}INIy YRIM S19}0eIeYO payiezep
pue souvivadde ur 9013e 0} punoy asaM ‘euTyD ‘INMUNS Woy UOJUTYSeAA 0} patszed ‘symJy asoy_T,

VNIHO ‘IOMNOS WOW SLINAA ADNVUO

Valencia Oranges

Lee and Scott

(‘TZ ‘S14q) ‘e8uvsi0 ystppar e 30
aie ynq ‘sia}9eIeYD payrejap I

VNIHO ‘MOLVAS UVaN ‘

[09 94} pue ‘Juepunqe pure jaams asin ‘ury} Ar9A st puts ayy “aayyeUurs
94} Ul sasuvio elouaTeA Jo uress YIOOUS VY} 9]quIasar syin4y asay TF,

VHOVLI VOX WOU «SADNVUAO AIIOOIN

uo «VVA HOS,,

The Journal of Heredity

ORANGE TREE AT SUNW UI NEAR HONGKONG, CHINA
The fruits of this tree resemble the smooth strain of the Valencia variety; the habit of growth

and foliage characteristics are also similar.

The long white leafless canes in the foreground are

mulberry bushes, which in China are frequently interplanted between the rows of citrus or-

chards. (Fig. 22.)

nize it as a distinct variety among the
sweet oranges.

At Kua Tscha the nurserymen were
questioned as to the origin of the bud
wood. They did not recognize the
trees bearing these fruits as belonging
to a distinct variety; they merely
obtained bud wood from nearby trees
of the locality. All sweet oranges
(Citrus sinensis) were called ‘‘Soh
Kaa,’ which translated means ‘‘coolie
orange,’ and there seemed to be no
special name for this variety in this
locality. None of the growers knew
of the time of the advent of this orange
into their locality and seemed to regard
it as having been the usual fruit for years

The above information was obtained
through the very kind and explicit

Mr. Chang, Inter-
American Consulate,

interpreting of
preter of the
Swatow.

SIMILAR FRUITS FROM CHINA

The fruit specimens collected at
Sunwui and Kua Tscha were carried
to Washington for determination. Ex-
amination by the junior writer evi-
denced that they corresponded very
closely with the descriptions and
detailed characters of the Smooth and
Long strains of the California Valencia
variety as described by Shamel, Scott,
and Pomeroy in the publication pre-
viously mentioned. The fruits were,
of course, not in the best of condition,
having been six weeks en route from
Hong Kong to Washington without

Lee and Scott: Valencia Oranges

refrigeration; the fruits are shown in
accompanying photographs. The de-
scription of these fruits follows:

The Soh Kaa from Kua Tscha: The
trees of the strain from Kua Tscha
have an upright, spreading habit of
growth. The foliage and other tree
characteristics are similar to those of
trees of the Smooth strain. The fruits
are smaller than the fruits of the

Smooth strain, but have somewhat
the same shape; texture of skin
smooth; color reddish orange; rind

very thin; rag tender; juice abundant,
sweet; seeds averaging a few to each
fruit. The fruits agree in description
very closely with fruits of the Smooth
strain.

The Sunwui fruits: The habit of
growth and foliage characteristics of
the trees are similar to those of the
Valencia and Long strains. The fruits
are cylindrical and long; size, small to
medium; texture somewhat rougher
than Smooth strain; color’ bright
orange; rag tender; juice abundant,
sweet, of good quality; seeds averag-
ing 1 to 2 per fruit. The fruits agree
very closely in description with fruits
of the Long strain.

Chinese growers are not active along
the lines of plant introduction and the
adoption of methods and ideas from
the Occident is slow. It is hardly
probable therefore that we are dealing in

927
Woe

China with introductions from America.

Sunwui, the point at which one of
these strains was discovered, is situated
in the delta of the Canton River, and
but four or five miles from the city of
Kong Moon. Various histories of
China record the activities of Spanish
and Portuguese merchants at the port
of Kong Moon in the early days of
foreign trade with China. The interest
of such traders in economic plant
materials is shown by the many defi-
nitely recorded plant introductions
made to and from the Philippines. The
Spanish, moreover, apparently were
especially interested in orange culture,
for wherever they colonized orange
culture followed them. Thus a map
showing where orange trees have be-
come established would coincide very
closely with a map showing the Spanish
expansion in the 16th, 17th and 18th
centuries.

The finding of these strains of an
orange in South China, similar to
certain strains of the Valencia in the
United States, is suggestive of the
origin of the Valencia in China and that
it was carried from there to Spain, Por-
tugal,the Azores or other Mediterranean
countries by the Spanish or Portu-
guese traders. In one of these coun-
tries it was found and subsequently
went to Florida and California through
the agency of the Rivers Nurseries.

SCIENCE

Tue ALMmosts: a study of the feeble-

minded, by Helen MacMurchy.

Pp. 178, price $1.50. Boston,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920.

Miss MacMurchy strikes her key-
note in her first sentence: ‘‘Sometimes
the poet sees more than the scientist,
even when the scientific man is playing
at his own game.” If fiction had been
more carefully studied, she avers that
“we might have come sooner to some
of the alleged discoveries of the twen-
tieth century.’’ One of these alleged
discoveries is apparently the fact of
feeblemindedness; and to atone for the
neglect of past fiction readers, Miss
MacMurchy has diligently studied
Shakespeare, Bunyan, Scott, Dickens,

AT SECOND HAND

Bulwer Lytton, Charles Reade, and a
dozen others down to Kate Douglas
Wiggin and the Contributors Club of
the Atlantic Monthly.

“Touchstone is probably mentally
defective, but it is quite possible that
the fool in ‘Lear’ may have been in-
sane, though certain of his words and
actions remind one forcibly of a men-
tally defective person.’’ And so on.
Those who like to study human nature
thus far removed from reality will like
the book. The last chapter is a senti-
mental statement of ‘‘The Case for the
Feebleminded”’ which, while contain-
ing nothing new, is on the whole sound.
The writer urges custodial care and
every endeavor to make the feeble-
minded ‘“‘happy, safe, and useful.” P. P.

A CASE OF INHERITED SYNDACTYLY
IN MAN

RaLpu G. HURLIN
Russell Sage Foundation, New York

HE following account of the in-

heritance of limited syndactyly

through three generations is re-
ported for the purpose of placing the
case on record. Syndactyly, or webbed
digits, is recognized as a dominant
Mendelian trait in man and a number
of instances of its inheritance have been
reported before. There appears, how-
ever, much variation in the number of
digits affected and in the extent of the

web along the digits, in view of which
full recording of such pedigrees is
worth while.

In this family the web occurs only
on the feet and only between the second
and third toes. In each case it is
present on both feet. The character of
the web is indicated by the accompany-
ing X-ray photograph, Figure 23. The
skeleton is entirely normal, but the
second and third digits are united be-

X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF WEBBED FOOT
This is a case of limited syndactyly. The web occurs in this family only between the second

This photograph shows plainly the

and third toes, and was present in each case on both feet.
(Fig. 23.)

joining of the second and third digits beyond the first joint.

Hurlin: Inherited Syndactyly in Man

INHERITANCE OF WEBBED FEET IN THREE GENERATIONS

The shaded symbols indicate the persons having webbed digits.

In the first generation, the

father transmitted the character to his only son, who in turn transmitted it to three of his six

children—two sons and a daughter. (Fig. 24.)
yond the first joint by fleshy parts.

The inheritance is represented in
Figure 24, in which squares indicate
males, circles females, and shading the
presence of the web. The trait cannot
be traced back of the paternal grand-
father, who is represented by the shaded
square in generation I in the diagram.
He had transmitted it to his only child, a
son, who passed it to half of his off-
spring. Of the six children in genera-
tion III, two sons and one daughter
exhibit the web. The Mendelian ex-
pectation happens to have been ex-
actly fulfilled.

The web is known to have been well
defined in the case of the grandfather.
In the father the condition is described
as similar to that shown in the photo-
graph, with slightly greater extent on

Sex Arrraction,| by Victor C.
Vaughan, Sc.D., M.D.,ILL.D., pro-
fessor of hygiene and physiological
chemistry, and dean of the University
of Michigan School of Medicine,
AnnArbor, Mich. Pp. 44, price 50c.
St. Louis, C. V. Mosby Co., 1920.

the left than on the right foot. In the
third generation, in child number 3
the condition is that photographed; in
number 6 the web is somewhat less
pronounced; and in number 4 it is re-
ported as distinct but not especially
noticeable.

This inheritance occurs in a branch
of an old New England family whose
genealogy has been fully investigated
and published. The grandfather here
mentioned was one of ten children and
his father one of six. Yet it has not
been possible to discover that this sup-
posedly dominant trait occurs in any
of the collateral lines. The possibility
is suggested that the trait may fre-
quently exist, as happens in one mem-
ber of this third generation, as a slight
and not particularly noticeable web.

In this lecture Dr. Vaughan de-
scribes briefly the evoluton of sex and
the basis of the physiological attraction
between the sexes in the human species
at the present time. The point of
view is that of the eugenist. Empha-
sis is laid on sex education, and proper
sexual selection.

RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN MORTALITY

YAN ANALYSISofcensus figures,
Louis I. Dublin and Gladden W.
Baker discover significant differ-

ences in the mortality of various ra-
cial stocks in Pennsylvania. Their
study is reported in the Quarterly
Publication of the American Statis-
tical Association, March, 1920.

Differences of this kind have an im-
portant bearing on evolution, and on
the future composition of the Amer-
ican population. The conclusions which
the authors reach are:

1. Of the three main groups of the
white population in Pennsylvania and
in New York—(a) native born of na-
tive parents, (b) native born of foreign
or mixed parentage, and (c) foreign
born—the first has the lowest mortal-
ity. This is true for both sexes and for
virtually every age period, but is most
marked at the adult ages.

2. The foreign born, and the native
born of foreign or mixed parentage,
agree much more closely with each
other than with the native stock. An
interesting exception presents itself
however, at the ages from 25 to 44
during which period the foreign born
have a great advantage over the native
born of foreign or mixed parentage.
The reason for this is the predominance
of the Irish, German and British stocks
among the first generation Americans
at this age period. After the age of
45 these two groups of the foreign
stock are of the same racial extraction
and their death rates are in very close
agreement.

3. The death rates of the component
groups among the foreign born vary
considerably. The Austro-Hungarians,
Russians and Italians present alto-
gether favorable conditions, while the

British, Germans and Irish show death
rates very greatly in excess. This is
especially true of the Irish whose mor-
tality is about double that of the
native stock. The death rates for the
Germans, British and Irish are much
higher in America than in their own
countries. Pulmonary tuberculosis,
pneumonia and the degenerative dis-
eases, including heart disease, Bright's
disease, and cancer, are largely respon-
sible for this unfavorable mortality.
4. The findings of the previous study
for New York State are confirmed.
The unfavorable conditions of life and
work among foreign races to which
attention was directed in the study for
New York are found to prevail in
Pennsylvania as well. The facts em-
phasize the necessity for special public
health work for the people of foreign
origin. The much more favorable
economic conditions under which they
live in the United States than in their
own countries should result in lower
death rates. But in several instances
we found that this does not prevail;
the facts indicate, on the whole, de-
terioration rather than improvement.
Is it possible that our immigrants are
not representative of the best in their
native countries? It has often been
supposed that the immigrants com-
prised the most vigorous among their
own people; the results however, do not
confirm this impression, but suggest
many questions for further inquiry.
5. It is very important that a study
similar to this one be carried out as soon
as the final results of the 1920 census
are available, to determine whether any
differences of importance have ap-
peared in the interval of ten years.

Good Practical Eugenics

THe Book or Maryjorir. Pp. 128.
New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1920.

This anonymous and charming book,
apparently written by a New York
newspaper man, is one of the best pieces
of practical eugenics propaganda that
has come to light for some time. It is

the story of the author’s love and
marriage, and of the days when he and
Marjorie awaited the birth of their
first child. As a sane, interesting,
modern, wholesome study of the psy-
chology of married life, and of expect-
ant parenthood, it is almost in a class by
itself. The book is worth reading.—P. P.

The

Journal of Heredity

(Formerly the American Breeders’ Magazine)

VoL. XI, No. 8 NOVEMBER-DECEMBER, 1920

CONTENTS

A New Hybrid—The Katharine Blueberry, by Frederick V. Coville. . Frontispiece

Is Race Suicide Possible? by AlexanderGrahamBell..................... 339
A Hen Which Changed Color, by William A. Lippincott ..................... 342
Heritable Characters of Maize—Zigzag Culms, by William H.Eyster......... 349
Better American Families—IV, by Wilhelmine E.Key ...................... 358
Hereditary Trades, by American Red Cross...... . 363
Inheritance in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle, be John ¥ W. Geged 365
A Herd of Albino Cattle, by J. A. Detlefsen.............0 0.0.0.0 eee ee, 378
Deterioration in Some Horticultural Varieties Through Deficient Artificial
Selection, by H..H. M. Bowman... ... - 0.525 ccs centee cane setenses 380
Meeting of Geneticists Interested in Agriculture......................... 384
Second International Eugenics Congress.................. 0.0.00 eu euee 384

The JouRNAL OF HEREDITY is published monthly by the American Genetic Ass'n.
Publication office, 450 Ahnaip Street, Menasha, Wis.
Editorial and general offices, Washington, D. C.

The JouRNAL oF HEREDITY is published by the American Genetic Associa-
tion for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive
it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $3.00,
because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra
for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $3.00 a year, foreign post-
age extra; price of single copies, 35 cents.

Application has been made for entry as second-class matter at the postoffice at
Menasha, Wisconsin. Contents copyrighted 1921 by the American Genetic As-
sociation. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted only upon request,
for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to author and tothe JOURNAL
oF Herepity (Organ of the American Genetic Association, Washington, D. C.),
Menasha, Wisconsin.

Date of issue of this number, April 19, 1921.

A NEW HYBRID—THE KATHARINE BLUEBERRY

The illustration shows, in natural size, a quart box of fruit from a new hybrid blueberry which is
given the variety name Katharine. The variety is a first generation hybrid between two selected
wild plants of the highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum. One of these parents, known in
our records as Brooks, was from Greenfield, N. H. The other parent, known as Sooy, was from
Browns Mills, N. J. About 3,000 hybrids of this parentage, from pollinations made in the green-
house at Washington in 1912 and 1913, have been fruited at the blueberry testing plantation at
Whitesbog, four miles east of Browns Mills, N. J., which is under the supervision of Miss Elizabeth
C. White. The best hybrid among these 3,000 is the one here illustrated. The photograph, taken
July 18, 1918, shows a clean picking of all the berries that were ripe on the bush at that date, small
as well as large ones. Less than 3% of the berries, by count, were under half an inch in diameter.
The largest was 34 ofaninch. The berries have a light blue color, delicious flavor, and firm texture,
and the seeds are so small as to be scarcely noticeable when the berries are eaten. Propagation
material of this variety has been given to several nurserymen, as hybrid 830C, and plants should
be available within a year or two. The type specimen of the variety has been deposited in the
Economic Herbarium of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and a colored drawing of its fruit
has been filed in the records of the American Pomological Society, in Washington. The name
Katharine is given in honor of my daughter, Mrs. Katharine C. Woodburn, now of Des Moines,
Iowa, who took a deep interest in the development of the blueberry and at one time did all the
pollination work.—Frederick V. Coville, United States Department of Agriculture. (Frontispiece.)

IS RACE SUICIDE POSSIBLE?

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
Washington, D. C.

NE of the most interesting of the
questions of today relates to the
powerful influence exerted upon

populations by what we might almost
call negative selection. A selection
that produces the very opposite of that
expected.

For example, no inheritable peculiar-
ity associated with lack of offspring can
be made to grow and flourish in a
community. In spite of all efforts it
will languish, and promote the growth
of its very opposite. History is full of
illustrations.

CELIBACY

After the fall of the Roman Empire
there was a great religious revival
among the nations. The Middle Ages
saw Europe filled with monasteries and
nunneries, where enormous numbers of
people took vows of celibacy, and re-
nounced all home and family ties.
Even outside of the religious houses the
celibate life was everywhere held up as
the ideal one to be followed by the best
and purest elements of the population.

Instead of helping the church this
produced the very opposite effect, and
actually paved the way for the Refor-
mation! Large masses of the people who
were most attached to the Church led
celibate lives, and left no descend-
ants, whereas the independently minded
who were not so devoted tothe Church
were not limited in their reproduction.

As to the more general effects it may
be safely said that the worship of
celibacy during several hundreds of
years in the past has not tended to the
improvement of humanity but the
very reverse; for, where the best and
noblest led celibate lives, they left no
descendants behind them to inherit
their virtues, whereas the worst ele-
ments of the population continued to
multiply without restriction.

It is now felt that the interests of the
race demand that the best should

marry and have large families; and that
any restrictions upon reproduction
should apply to the worst rather than
to the best.

It is of course useless to expect that
the worst would take vows of celibacy
or keep them; and the realization of
this has led to all sorts of impracticable
schemes to prevent or restrict their
reproduction by compulsory means.

The great trouble about all these
schemes, apart from their impractica-
bility, is that they aim simply to pre-
vent degeneration. They aim to pre-
vent the race from moving backwards,
but do not help it to move forwards.
The only hope of producing higher and
better types of men and women lies
in the multiplication of the better ele-
ments of the population.

There is one very promising feature
about the present situation, and that
is that the best are readily attracted
by high ideals. Give them a new ideal,
and many will follow it, especially if
they believe that duty points in the
same direction. Convince them that
the interests of the racedemand that the
best should increase and multiply;
convince them that it is therefore their
duty to marry, rather than lead celi-
bate lives. Depose ‘“‘celibacy’’ from
the high and commanding position
she has occupied for so many hundred
years, and put ‘marriage’ there in-
stead as the ideal to be held up before
the best and noblest of the race. Mar-
riage, with marriage vows as sacred as
the former vows of celibacy. Nature
demands this in the interests of the
race. For the extreme helplessness of
the human infant necessitates parental
care for very prolonged periods of
time—in fact at least from infancy to
the beginning of adult life—and this
involves the permanency of the marital
tie on the part of the parents, especially
where a number of children are pro-
duced.

339

340

RACE SUICIDE

At the present time considerable
alarm has been expressed at the appar-
ently growing disinclination of Ameri-
can women to bear children, and a cry
has been raised against what people call
“Race Suicide.” Whatever the cause
—it is undoubtedly the fact that in
America the children of foreign-born
parents are increasing at a much
greater rate than the children of native-
born parents—and the position is suffi-
ciently grave for serious consideration.

The desire to avoid maternity is a
characteristic associated with lack of
offspring, and cannot therefore go on
increasing indefinitely in a community.
Its natural tendency is to die out
through lack of offspring to inherit it,
leaving the more fertile part of the com-
munity alone to propagate the race.

Reflection therefore leads to the
somewhat startling conclusion that
even wholesale abstention from chil-
dren, so far from lessening the fertility
of the community as a whole will even-
tually increase it instead. Actual race
suicide will not result from such a cause
alone, so long as the race is left to itself
to work out its own destiny.

Just consider the case of a race of
people in which the women show a
disinclination for motherhood, sur-
rounded by prolific immigrant races
ready to take its place, then of course
there would be serious danger of the
native race being displaced by the im-
migrants. The immigrants might ab-
sorb the native race instead of the
native race absorbing the immigrants;
but such a result would be due to the
presence of the competing races and
not due directly to the operation of
natural causes within the race itself.

THE DESTINY OF AN ISLAND RACE

In order to appreciate this, imagine
our native race to be placed upon an
island protected by suitable immigra-
tion laws from competition with other
races. Then it becomes obvious that
the sentiment in favor of avoiding the
production of offspring must neces-
sarily diminish in process of time, on

The Journal of Heredity

account of the lack of offspring to in-
herit it; and that the opposite senti-
ment of a desire to have children will
grow, and ultimately become predomi-
nant, because each succeeding genera-
tion will be composed exclusively of
the descendants of the people who had
children. If the desire for offspring is
an inheritable characteristic, and it
certainly is, then of course the next
generation will inherit it from their
parents to a certain extent; whereas
there will be no descendants at all to
inherit the characteristics of those who
abstained from offspring.

We have placed the people upon an
island, and protected them from inter-
ference from other races, so as to leave
them to themselves to carry on their
lives in their own way, as they desire.

Some of these people love little
children, and desire to have children
of their own. Others look upon chil-
dren as nuisances, perhaps necessary
evils for the continuance of the race—
but why should they be bothered with
them when they don’t want them? Let
others have them if they want them,
but leave them alone. Well—let them
have their desires.

Let those who desire children have
them, and those who don’t, have none,
and see how it will all work out.

Now does it not become at once evi-
dent that so long as any of the people
desire offspring and have them, com-
plete race suicide is impossible? Some
offspring will be produced and a second
generation will appear.

Suppose for example the boom
against maternity reaches such propor-
tions that 99 per cent of the population
decide to have no children—and surely
this is an extreme case—will the race
die out? No—not immediately at all
events. There will be another genera-
tion composed exclusively of the de-
scendants of the one per cent who
desire to have children. The whole of
the next generation will be composed
of their children; and there will be no
descendants at all of the other ninety-
nine per cent.

This is the critical time for our
islanders. Only one per cent of the

Bell: Is Race Suicide Possible?

population have had children, and of
course the numbers in the next genera-
tion will be so seriously reduced that
immigration from outside would speed-
ily swamp them—but we have agreed
to protect them from this competition
with other races, and leave them alone
to work out their destiny to the bitter
end.

Well, let us revisit the island after
the original population has passed
away. We find the population now
only a fraction of what it was before;
and the question naturally arises: will
the population continue to diminish at
each successive generation until actual
race suicide results?

It is not to be supposed that the
sentiment against maternity will dis-
appear in one generation. The second
generation will therefore undoubtedly
continue to be divided upon the ques-
tion of maternity; some wishing to have
children, others not; but the propor-
tion desiring children will necessarily be
greater, on account of heredity, than
in the original population; for the whole
of this second generation are descended
from the one per cent who desired off-
spring, whereas the ninety-nine per
cent who did not desire them left no
descendants.

There seems to be no escape from the
conclusion that in this second genera-
tion more than one per cent of the
people will desire children, and less
than ninety-nine per cent will abstain
from their production. Therefore the
proportion of the second generation

341

who will have children will be greater
than in the first, and the proportion
opposed to maternity will be less.

Thus in each succeeding generation
the proportion who desire children and
have them will increase, and the pro-
portion avoiding maternity diminish,
with the net result that each succeed-
ing generation will be more fertile than
the last. The desire to avoid maternity
will die out to a great extent on account
of the lack of offspring to inherit it.
The spirit of race suicide will itself com-
mit suicide, and leave a more fertile race
than before.

The only thing that could prevent
such a result would be: the admission
of immigrants during the period of
declining birthrate.

This indeed is the critical period in
the history not only of our hypo-
thetical islanders, but of every nation
similarly situated. When therefore a
nation reaches a stage where it finds its
own birthrate declining, and immi-
grants with a much larger birthrate
flocking into the country, the time has
come for very serious consideration as
to the means to be taken for self-
preservation.

The United States is today in this
critical position. The birthrate of
America is declining; the spirit of
avoiding maternity is on the increase;
and the immigrant races are increasing
at a much greater rate than our own.
The only hope for a truly American
race lies in the restriction of immigra-
tion.

EUGENICS AND PATRIOTISM

“Race has played a far larger part
than either language or nationality in
moulding the destinies of men; race
implies heredity, and heredity implies
all the moral, social and intellectual
characteristics and traits which are the
springs of politics and government. . .

“The moral tendency of the heredity
interpretation of history is for our day
and generation, and is in strong accord

with the true spirit of the modern
eugenics movement in relation to
patriotism, namely, the conservation
and multiplication for our country of
the best spiritual, moral, intellectual
and physical forces of heredity;
thus only will the integrity of our
institutions be maintained in the
future.”

—RHenry Fairfield Osborn.

A HEN WHICH CHANGED COLOR’

A Note on the Hereditary Behavior of a Normal Blue Andalusian Hen Whose
Feathers Changed to Snowy White

WiiiiaAm A. LIPPINCOTT
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kansas

ASTLE and Phillips’ (1911) studies

on ovarian transplantation in

guinea-pigs have been most useful
as classroom illustrations of the sepa-
rateness of the soma and germ-plasm.
They have conveyed to the elementary
student as no amount of explanation
might, just what the underlying prin-
ciple of Weismanns’ (1893) great con-
cept was. These results are too famil-
iar to biologists to need review.

In connection with a study of the in-
heritance of blue in poultry, the writer
has observed a marked somatic change
in a blue Andalusian hen, which, as was
to be expected, did not in any way
change the gametes she produced. Be-
cause the change was a rather striking
one and might serve as an example of
the independence of the body-plasm
and germ-plasm from another point of
view, it has seemed worth while to give
a detailed account of the case.

What appeared to be a normal blue
Andalusian hen was turned over to the
writer in the early spring of 1917 by
Professor J. G. Halpin of the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin. She came from the
flock of the University Poultry Depart-
ment and was then almost two years
old. This hen was from a pedigreed
family, among the members of which
nothing unusual had been noted. She
carried the University legband number
C2032, and was, among others, used in
breeding work carried on at the Univer-
sity during that spring.

In August 1917 she was taken to
Kansas State Agricultural College at
Manhattan where she has since been
kept on the farm of the Department of
Poultry Husbandry.

In October 1917 it was observed that
white feathers were appearing on her

neck and a little later that her develop-
ing primaries also were white. It was
noted that new feathers were coming in
in other regions of the body which were
the normal blue, and by December ist
it was apparent that she had completed
her molt for that season.

Her appearance on December 20,
1917, isshown in Fig.1. There was no
further noticeable change until the fol-
lowing July when it was observed that
she was again in full molt, her old
feathers both blue and white being re-
placed only by white. Photographs
taken August 7, 1918, may be seen in

-Figs. 2, 3 and 4, which show her during

the progress of her molt. Six weeks
later she was snowy white throughout
(Fig. 7). She has since never displayed
a blue feather and is now (October
1920) in apparent good health and lay-
ing occasionally.

CAUSES OF COLOR CHANGES

Supposing that similar color changes
among domestic birds were not un-
common, a search of the literature was
made. While it has not been exhaus-
tive, the writer has been surprised not
to find, in the journals at his disposal,
accounts of similar changes. The ac-
count of Finches’ (1908) hen indicates
that the color change was first due to
loss of pigment from the feathers after
growth and not to a failure of the
pigment-manufacturing mechanism to
function. The color change came
after, and not as the accompaniment
of,a molt. During a subsequent molt
pigmented feathers were grown which
later turned white. Whether the pig-
ment forming mechanism was some-
what interfered with during this molt,
or the bird passed through a partial
molt only, is not clear.

‘Contribution from the Department of Genetics, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station,
No. 25 and from the Department of Poultry Husbandry, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station,

No. 16.

342

BLUE ANDALUSIAN HEN (C2032) CHANGING TO WHITE
This hen, fromthe University of Wisconsin Poultry Department, was considered in the spring of

1917 to bea norma! blue Andalusian.

In October of the same year white feathers appeared on her

neck. The illustration shows her as she appeared December 20, 1917, after completing that

season’s molt. Photograph by James Machir.

The particular interest in the case in
hand arises not alone from the fact that
the subject changed color but that in
addition her ancestry and breeding per-
formance are known.

As shown by Lippincott (1918) blue
Andalusians are usually of the genetic
constitution PP (Re) (rE). Pisa fac-
tor necessary for the production of
black pigment. Its allelomorph # pro-
duces a recessive white. R is a domi-
nant, acting on black pigment, restrict-
ing its distribution in such a way as to
give a characteristic bluish gray appear-
ance. £ is a dominant factor render-

(Fig. 1.)

ing an individual carrying P self col-
ored. Self-blue is the result of the
combined action of R and £ on black
pigment. For reasons developed in the
paper noted, and in a further paper
soon to be published, it appears reason-
able to assume that R and £ are each
closely, perhaps completely, linked to
the allelomorph of the other, hence
written (Re) and (rE).

As shown earlier by Bateson and
Punnett (1906), when blue Andalusians
are mated inter se they produce blacks,
blues, and white-splashed, in the ratio
of 1 to2 to1. Genetically the reason

THE BLUE ANDALUSIAN HEN (C2032) EIGHT MONTHS LATER THAN FIG. 1

“There was no further noticeable change (from
the condition shown in Fig. 1) until the follow-
ing July when it was observed that she was again
in full molt, her old feathers, both blue and
white, being replaced by only white.” These
three views show the hen as she appeared Au-
gust 7, 1918. No. 3isa front view. A comparison
of the two sides with regard tothe order in which
the blue feathers were dropped is a matter of
considerable interest to poultrymen. Was the
change in color due to loss of pigment from the
feathers after growth or to a failure of the pig-
ment-manufacturing mechanism to function?
Photographs by James Machir. (Figs. 2 and 3)

for this is shown in the following cross.
Blue Andalusian co? X Blue Andalusian @

PP (Re) (rE) PP (Re) (rE)
(ee (rE) black

2PP(Re) (rE) blue
\1PP(Re) (Re) white-splashed

The white-splashed individuals, as
would be expected if the symbolism
proposed is correct, are splashed with
blue, and sometimes referred to as blue-
splashed.

Offspring

RESULTS OF BLUE AND WHITE MATINGS

During the spring of 1917 before
C2032 had exhibited any tendency
toward a color change, she was mated
toa blue Andalusian, # S19, from the

Lippincott: A Hen Which Changed Color

LEFT SIDE VIEW TAKEN SAME TIME AS THOSE ON OPPOSITE PAGE
The photographs on this and the opposite page were taken August 7, 1918, eight months later

than the photograph reproduced in Fig. 1.

Six weeks after the above condition obtained, all

the feathers had changed to snowy white, a condition which the hen has retained to the present

time. See Fig. 7. (Fig. 4.)

University of Wisconsin flock. But five
chicks here hatched, of which one was
blue-splashed and four were blue, the
theoretical expectation being 1.25
splashed, 2.50 blue and 1.25 black.

The following year, 1918, while in
the condition, as regards color, shown
in Figure 1, she was mated with white
Wyandotte #118M from the Kansas
State Agricultural College flock. As

shown in an unpublished paper the gen- ,

etic constitution of 118M was pp(rE)

(rE), so far as the factors under con-::

sideration are concerned. The expec-
tation from such a mating would be
equal numbers of blues and_ blacks.

Twenty eight chicks were hatched, of,
which thirteen were blue and fifteen
were black.

The next breeding season, 1919, after
C2032 had become. pure white, she was
mated to a white Plymouth Rock #155
M (see Fig. 5). Twenty five chicks
were hatched, of which seven were blue
and eighteen were black, the theoreti-
cal expectation being 12.5 for each

color. This deviation is probably not
is : Dev.
significant since a= =3.2. A black

and a blue chick, offspring of this mat-
ing, are shown in Figure 6.

346

The Journal of Heredity

A WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK (155M)

During the breeding season of 1919, the blue Andalusian Hen (C2032), after she had become pure
white, was mated to this White Plymouth Rock (155M). Out of twenty-five chicks hatched, seven

were blue and eighteen were black. Two of the offspring are shown on the opposite page.

graph by James Machir. (Fig. 5.)

During the [breeding season of 1920
she was mated with white Wyandotte
9206IM. This bird was similar in geno-
typeto 118M and 155M except that he
was heterozygous for J? (inhibitor of
pigment), a factor for dominant white.
Nine chicks were hatched of which
three were blue, four were black and

Photo-

two were white. The theoretical ex-
pectation would be 2.25 blue, 2.25 black
and 4.50 white.

It is evident that C2032, though
snowy white, was continuing to}breed
as a blue Andalusian. A genetically
recessive white female mated to the
white Plymouth Rock used would have

Lippincott:

A Hen Which Changed Color

A BLUE-BARRED AND A BLACK-BARRED CHICK

These two chicks were among the offspring from the mating of white Plymouth Rock 155M and
blue Andalusian C2032 during the season of 1919. The barring factor was brought in by the male.
“Tt is evident that C2032, though snowy white, was continuing to breed as a blue Andalusian.”

Photograph by James Machir. (Fig. 6.)

produced only white chicks, unless it
was the kind of white peculiar to the
Japanese Silky. A genetically domi-
nant white female would also have pro-
duced only white offspring, if she were
homozygous. If she were heterozy-
gous dominant white but homozygous
for P, half her chicks by a white Ply-
mouth Rock would have been white
and half pigmented. Other possible

combinations might be suggested, but
none fits the case except the assump-
tion that she is genetically a blue An-
dalusian though a beautiful snowy white
in appearance. A similar conclusion is
reached from the results of her mating
with white Wyandotte ~ 206M. A
photograph of the hen after she had
become completely white is shown on
the following page.

REFERENCES
Bateson, W., and Punnett, R. C., 1906. Reports to the Evolution Committee of the Royal

Society, III pp. 11-23.

Castle, W. E., and Phillips, John C., 1911. On germinal transplantation in vertebrates. Carnegie

Inst. of Wash. Pub. 144, pp. 26.

(Finch, W. Coles), 1909. Miscellanea VII. Note on partial leucosis ina hen. Biometrika 7:234—
236

Lippincott, W.A., 1918. The case of the Blue Andalusian. Amer. Nat. 52:95-115.

Weismann, A., 1893. The germ-plasm.
New York.

Eng. trans. by W. N. Parker and Harriet Roénnfeldt.

348 The Journal of Heredity

BLUE ANDALUSIAN HEN (C2032) CHANGED TO SNOWY WHITE
This photograph was taken September 21, 1918 after the hen had completed her annual molt, and
shows her condition six weeks after that illustrated in Fig. 4. She has since remained snowy white,
is in apparent good health, and lays occasionally. Photograph by James Machir. (Fig. 7.)

HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE
VI. ZIGZAG CULMS!

WILLIAM H. EysTER
New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y.

“zigzag culm” andd escribed in
this paper, was first noted by Dr.
R. A. Emerson in a number of F, cul-
tures of a cross between Tom Thumb
pop corn and a Missouri dent corn.
Some of the families in which zigzag
culm was first found were breeding true
for this peculiar type of stem so that it
must have occurred in earlier genera-
tions without being detected. At first
it was thought probable that this is an-
other example of a mutation having oc-
curred in a pedigree culture but the
fact that zigzag plants have been found
in the progenies of two different Fe
plants makes it much less likely. Dr.
Emerson self-pollinated a number of
plants and found that they breed true
for the zigzag culm. He also found
that when he crossed them with plants
with normal culms the F, plants are
apparently perfectly normal. Because
of the many other problems that were
demanding his attention Dr. Emerson
asked the writer to investigate further
the inheritance of this culm abnor-
mality.

(es plant abnormality known as

DESCRIPTION OF ZIGZAG CULM

In the early life of the plant it is not
possible, at least so far as external ap-
pearances go, to identify the individuals
which are destined to have zigzag
culms. The character first becomes
apparent about the time the plant
comes into tassel. The first indication
is what seems to be a flattening and
broadening of the culm in the ear shoot
region. This apparent flattening is
due to the pulling away of the leaf
sheathes from the culm. Within a re-
markably short time the character is
fully expressed and the plants appear

as shown in the accompanying illus-
trations.

In Figs. 8, 9, and 10 are shown zigzag
plants. It will be seen that these
plants are more or less dwarfed, with
the culm in the ear shoot region strongly
zigzag and consequently pulled out
of the leaf sheathes. Fig. 8 shows an
entire plant, while in Figs. 9 and 10 only
a part of the plant is shown. As these
photographs were all taken from the
same positions it is evident that the
first plant is more dwarfed than the
other two plants. The amount of
dwarfing depends upon the number of
internodes affected and the degree of
the modification. The leaves are ap-
parently normal except that the sheaths
are pushed apart so that they do not
clasp the internodes as they do in nor-
mal plants. A normal plant of the
same pedigree culture is shown in Fig.
11.

In many zigzag plants the internodes
affected are many times shorter than
their leaf sheathes and often the sheath
stands off at right angles to the inter-
node, as shown in Figs.9and 10. The
plant shown in Fig. 8 had a number of
its internodes so much shortened that
the long leaf sheathes overlapped to an
unusual extent in the region affected.
In Fig. 13 is shown the same plant with
the leaves cut away so as to expose the
stem. The leaves of the normal plant
shown in Fig. 11 were likewise removed
and the culm photographed as shown
in Fig.12. The internodes of the zigzag
plant are not only shortened but much
thickened. Apparently there is more
rapid growth on the side of the inter-
node above the leaf attachment which
causes the internode to arch away from
the leaf sheath. As alternate inter-

1Paper No. 84, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Photographs by I. W. Fisher, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca,

New York.

349

A MATURE MAIZE PLANT HAVING A ZIGZAG CULM

Zigzag culm is an inherited plant abnormality which was at first thought to be another example of
mutation, but later observations make this appear unlikely. The effect of zigzag culms, as one
would expect, is to dwarf the plant in varying degrees depending on the number of internodes
affected. This plant is extremely dwarfed because of the large number of internodes affected.
ae fe sheathes overlap greatly in the ear shoot region because of the shortness of the internodes,
Fig. 8.

ANOTHER PLANT WITH A ZIGZAG CULM

The zigzag character does not appear in the early life of the plant, and only becomes apparent
about the time the plant comes into tassel. Then there is a pulling away of the leaf sheathes from
the culm, but the leaves themselves are otherwise normal. This plant shows three internodes
that are no longer clasped by the leaf sheathes. (Fig. 9.)

es)
al
tO

ZIGZAG CULM WITH UPPER AND LOWER
INTERNODES APPARENTLY NORMAL

Usually only the internodes in the ear shoot
region are affected. Note how the leaf sheathes
stand off at right angles to the affected inter-
nodes. The plants are apt to break at these
internodes, but otherwise they appear as vigor-
ous under field conditions as normal plants.
(Fig. 10.)

The Journal of Heredity

nodes have the leaves attached at op-
posite sides the result is a more or less
zigzag stem.

Extracted recessives from crosses
vary considerably in the expression of
the zigzagcharacter. In Figs. 14, 15,and
16 are shown such extracted recessives.
The plants shown in Fig. 14 are quite
distinctly zigzag and somewhat
dwarfed. The short twist high on the
stem of the second and third plants in
Fig. 14 is another plant abnormality
which will be described in another
paper. So far as known at present it
is inherited independently of zigzag
culm. Other less extreme plants are
shown in Fig. 15. Suchplantscan very
easily be recognized when mature by
stripping away the leaves in the ear
shoot region. The plants shown in
Fig. 16 were selected to show how closely
some zigzag plants approach normal
plants in appearance. Such plants are
not perceptibly dwarfed as the inter-
nodes are only a very little or not at all
shortened, even in the ear shoot region.
After some experience such plants can
easily be identified after removing the
leaves. It will be noticed that in each
of the plants shown in Fig. 16a number
of the internodes are arched away from
the point of leaf attachment. Com-
parison of these culms with the culm of
a normal plant as shown in Fig. 12 will
make this clear.

INHERITANCE OF ZIGZAG CULM

Mention has already been made that
zigzag culm was found by Dr. Emerson
to be a recessive character. The writer
also made many outcrosses with normal
plants and in every case the F; plants
were apparently normal. Several F2
progenies were grown which gave a total
of 343 normal to 23 zigzag plants. This
is a very wide departure from a 3:1 re-
lation which should obtain if zigzag
culm is a simple mendelian recessive.
There is, however, a deviation of only
0.1+3.1 plants from a 15:1 relation ex-
pected when two factors are concerned
in the expression of a character. This
is an exceedingly close fit. In taking
the notes each plant was entirely de-
foliated and its culm was carefully ex-
amined. In spite of the close agree-

Eyster: Heritable Characters of Maize:

h.
;

A MAIZE PLANT WITH NORMAL CULM

Compare these normal culms with the zigzag culms in the illustrations which follow.

11 and 12.)

ment to the two factor hypothesis the
questions arose as to whether the defi-
ciency in zigzag plants might not be due
either to my inability to identify some
of them or to a high death rate because
of inherent weakness. So far as I have
observed zigzag plants are as vigorous
under field conditions as normal plants
except that they are more apt to break
in the internodes that are no longer
clasped by the leaf sheathes.

A number of F; plants were back-
crossed with the zigzag parental type,

eye)

SAME PLANT WITH LEAVES REMOVED
(Figs.

and there resulted 373 normals and 104
zigzag plants, a deviation of 134.5+7.4
from the equality expected when par-
ents differ in a single pair of factors, but
a deviation of only 15.25+6.38 from
a 3:1 ratio expected when parents differ
in two pairs of factors.

These data indicate that zigzag culm
comes into expression only when at
least two factors are recessive, and is
another case of plural genes. Crucial
tests of the hypothesis are yet to be
made.

SAME PLANT AS SHOWN IN FIG. 8 WITH LEAF SHEATHES CUT AWAY

It will be noted that the internodes in the ear shoot region are much shortened, thickened, and
arched away from the side of leaf attachment. (Fig. 13.)

ZIGZAG CULMS OF THE MORE EXTREME TYPE

Comparison of these culms with the normal one shown in Figs. 11 and 12, indicates plainly that
the internodes of a zigzag plant are not only shortened but also considerably thickened, indicating
a more rapid growth on the side of the internode affected. These are extracted recessives from
crosses and, together with those in Figures 8 and 9, show that there is a considerable variation
in the expression of the zigzag character. The short twist high on the second and third plants is
another abnormality not of the zigzag character. (Fig. 14.)

ZIGZAG CULMS WITH FEW INTERNODES AFFECTED

These exhibit a much less extreme zigzag character than those in the previousillustration. Such
plants are nearly as tall as their normal sibs but may be easily identified, especially by stripping
away the leaves in the ear shoot region. (Fig. 15.)

ZIGZAG CULMS APPROACHING NORMAL CULMS IN APPEARANCE

These plants were selected to show how closely some zigzag plants approach normal plants in
appearance. Their dwarfness is not very noticeable. Note the number of internodes that are
arched away from the point of leaf attachment. Upon comparison with the normal culm shown
in Fig. 12 the zigzag character which is here less distinctly expressed becomes evident. (Fig. 16.)

BETTER AMERICAN FAMILIES—IV

A Brief Story of Several American Families Which Have Contributed Note-
worthy Leaders in the Development of Our
National Life!

WILHELMINE E. Key
Race Betterment Foundation, Battle Creek, Mich.

ANY of us, as we look into the
face of America today are won-
dering what this face will be

like a few generations hence. Such
a confusion of prophecies strikes
our ears, prophecies in which the cus-
tomary optimistic note is discourag-
ingly lacking! In the turmoil that has
succeeded the war, ugly elements have
come to the surface of our national life,
menacing possibilities which never be-
fore were suspected of existing here.

Earnest people are everywhere ask-
ing: “‘Is this, our boasted many-sided
civilization, to prove a_ scandalous
failure in the hour of its greatest suc-
cess? How shallwe bring harmony into
warring ideals and unity into the di-
vergent purposes of our multitudinous
population? How are we to so solidify
our national life as to present an im-
movable bulwark to a foe that con-
tinues to threaten now within as well
as without our gates? For we know
that on our success in conferring a
genuine naturalization on the alien, de-
pends our success in the experiment of
making democracy safe for ourselves
and the world.

WHAT FORCES ARE SHAPING
THE NATION?

The half century that succeeded the
Civil War marked a fabulous growth
in national wealth and power; it wit-
nessed an astounding march of settle-
ment till a vast continent was subdued,
and an extension of industry, through a
rule of coal-barons and steel-kings over
millions of aliens thrust full-grown into
the fabric of our national life. This
has meant, largely, progress by masses

of mechanical power, the furnace,
steam and electricity. While the work-
ers show capacity to manage these
forces, the function of internal govern-
ment has become the task of controlling
these men, many of whom have re-
mained as remote froma truly American
spirit as though they had never touched
our shores. If our present time of
“taking stock”’ brings us any vision of
the forces that have made America,
and the processes that should shape a
nation, if it ever so slightly directs our
wills to a conscious shaping of these
processes, it will have been worth all
the agonies it is costing us.

It is perhaps not generally known
that this nation passed through a simi-
lar period of turbulence in the years
following the Revolution, particularly
in the period of French Terrorism.
The Constitution was adopted and the
present government put into operation
at a time when there was not a gram-
mar, a geography or a history of any
kind in the schools, and when a teacher
who could compute interest was con-
sidered ‘‘great in figures.’’ In thrifty
New England, idle men loafed on street
corners while women and children went
in rags; the outposts of settlement were
largely held by a nomad race, part
farmer, but mostly hunter, who housed
there numerous broods in filthy cabins,
and held as the highest ideal, complete
unrestraint from all social and govern-
mental control. Franklin declared the
press of the day was supported by
human depravity, and Knox wrote
Washington that in Massachusetts,
those who opposed the Constitution
acted ‘‘from deadly principle levelled

'This is the fourth in a series of five articles on this subject by the same author, the former papers
having appeared respectively in the January, February and March 1919 numbers of the JOURNAL

oF Herepity.—Editor.

358

Key: Better American Families . 359

at the existence of all government
whatsoever.”

Yet at this time there were parts of
the country where order and sobriety
were the rule. New England, in its
more thickly settled portions, was
thrifty and industrious, New York and
Pennsylvania had their prosperous,
well-cultivated valleys, and farther
south, worthy elements of the popula-
tion gradually gained ascendency over
the drinking law-denouncing settlers.
In the pioneers who took up the farms
abandoned by the first haters of civili-
zation, we find representatives of our
best colonial and old-world stock, who
speedily displaced the improvidence
and dissipation by piety, enterprise and
thrift; also, they founded colleges and

academies—off-shoots of the half-
dozen which had held their own
through a century in the East,

where educated and devout men car-
ried a lamp of learning and an inspira-
tion to right living.

GENETIC FACTORS IN AMERICANIZATION

In previous papers we have sought
a genetic interpretation of the process
of Americanization. We have found
its essence to consist in an ever greater
approximation to standards and ideals
set by certain regnant personalities.
The completeness of the approxima-
tion is of necessity dependent on the
native bent of the lesser families, thus
having its foundation in the genetic
constitution of the strains to which
these families belong. These strains
have not necessarily been derived from
colonial stock. In the hordes of immi-
grants which the steerage disgorged on
our shores annually through a dozen
decades, there have been those as surely
predestined to become ‘‘good Ameri-
cans’’ as ever were fore-ordained to an
apostolic succession. There have been
Italians and Germans, Scandinavians,
Jews and Serbians born in-the American
spirit and unquestioningly giving al-
legiance to the best in American life.
Added to these were others, less reso-
lutely American, but who might never-
theless have become so by contact with

the best instead of the worst in our
institutions.

We have found, then, as a necessary
fundamental in Americanization, cer-
tain genetic factors conditioned through
right marriages which insure the basis
for the educative process. We have
seen how social selection has brought
together the fittest representatives of
mixed strains through their migrations
for a common purpose, and by their
mating produced endowment above
the average. In similar fashion the
less able, left behind in the old environ-
ment have all too often, mated and
given rise to a variety of defective and
degenerate conditions.

In certain families which have been
intensively studied, this process is seen
extending over six and seven genera-
tions, resulting in well-defined socially
fit and socially unfit lines, and we are
justified in holding that almost any
family whose history is scrutinized for
a number of generations will show a
like breaking up into lines of varying
social efficiency.

While the need of cutting off defec-
tive and degenerate lines is becoming
widely recognized and is being met by
legislative enactment, there is as yet
little organized effort to direct the
evolution of lines among our mediate
and superior classes. In this vaster
attempt, the enlightened individual
conscience must be appealed to. The
heightening of our sense of social re-
sponsibility in marriage should be one
of the beneficient effects of the world-
war. The knowledge that a faulty
heritage due to unwise matings played
a major réle in the production of the
war-neuroses, thereby rendering the
individual a liability rather than an
asset in time of national stress, should
bring home, as never before, individual
responsibility to the state in the choice
of marriage mates. Further, to see how
a superior heritage due to fortunate al-
liances has meant a finer endowment,
which in the favoring environment of
the better lines has flowered into vari-
ous forms of pre-eminence, should give
an incentive to increase social worth

360

by this means as by the more univer-
sally recognized means of education.

INHERITANCE OF ABILITIES

Concluding this article is a genetic
classification of American strains. The
families already considered in papers II
and III of this series belong to classes
having low and mediate social worth. It
is now proposed to consider certain
American families of superior and super-
lative worth and the part which inheri-
tance played in making such worth
possible.

If we take up the genealogy of any
family whose name suggests eminence
in some lines, we are struck by the re-
currence in successive generations of
similar abilities, or at least of occupa-
tions which would imply similar abili-
ties. While the majority of persons
described are more or less obscure,
still we are apt to find here and there
what might be termed concentrations
of various types of ability. Thus we
find one line remaining tillers of the
soil, another given to merchandizing,
while still another shows several ex-
amples of artistic gifts. In the latter
case the artistic ability may in certain
branches ‘“‘shade off’? into a_ well-
marked artisan group. Again, we
find a decided altruistic bent for sev-
eral generations, this evincing itself
in the selection of the ministry as a
life-work and the preference for the
teaching profession. Often the occur-
rence of a name standing for pre-emi-
nence of a particular kind is heralded by
a number of lesser lights whose tastes
and occupations give evidence of simi-
larity of endowment. Many of the
most interesting cases are where a gift
which remained the avocation or pas-
time in a father becomes in the son the
supreme endowment.

We have a fine example of this in the
late E. A. Abbey. Asked how he got
his first great commission, he gravely
replied: ‘“Through my grandfather.”’
To the further question: ‘‘You are go-
ing to decorate the Capitol of Pennsyl-
vania; did your grandfather get you
that commission too?’’ he said: “Tf I

The Journal of Heredity

’

do the work, he will be the cause.’
This grandfather was a wealthy mer-
chant and type-founder of Philadel-
phia, whose happiest days were spent
at his easel. It is said his only brother
had much artistic talent, though he was
an artisan, a painter by trade, with a
son who was likewise a painter. This
merchant’s cousins were artisans, too,
with some artistic gifts—one, a jew-
eler, was also a fine musician and intel-
ligent florist, with a son who became
a well-known dramatic manager. Ab-
bey’s father was, like his father, a mer-
chant, though inheriting the gift for
painting, while his brother was an artist
and followed the profession of law.

The Abbeys are described as a race
of soldiers, path-finders and pioneer
settlers. From their first homes in
Connecticut, they pushed up the Con-
necticut Valley, turning westward with
the tide of exploration and settlement
through New York, then into Ohio and
Michigan and eventually across the
continent. Nor were their most illus-
trious examples of pioneering found in
the West. Cleveland Abbe possessed
pioneering instinct in abundance with
daring imagination, courage and en-
thusiastic urge in pursuit of a new idea.
These abilities conceived and carried
to success the multitudinous daily obser-
vations on which depend our National
Weather Service, which has no parallel
in similar undertakings. His brother
was known for his original work in the
application of radium to medicine, a
line which is also followed by his son,
while another son is a geographer con-
tinuing in the same type of work as his
father.

Of the inheritance of mechanical and
inventive skill, the Fairbanks and the
Pomeroy families have long been
known as splendid examples. James
Fairbanks married Phoebe Paddock
whose two brothers were iron-workers.
Erastus Fairbanks, their son, manu-
factured stoves and plows, while Thad-
deus, his brother, invented the platform
scales. Erastus married Lois Crosman
and had two sons, the elder with much
inventive ability and love of natural

Better American Families ' 361

history, the younger with a genius for
administration, who became Governor
of Vermont. Henry, who was a son
of Thaddeus, went into the ministry
but his love of invention later drew
him into manufacturing.

Executive ability, the power of doing
things, isalso asalient trait in the Pom-
eroy family. Eltweed, the founder of
the family in America was given a
grant of 1,000 acres of land by the
province of Massachusetts on condi-
tion of his establishing his business as
gunsmith within its bounds. In each
of the seven generations that succeeded
him, there has been at least one follow-
ing the same trade. In this family, the
power of doing things easily is fre-
quently carried so far as to exclude the
tendency to think about them. The
typical Pomeroy is said not to be a
good teacher, and the reason as given
is that they see through a process so
quickly they lose sight of the inter-
mediate steps and thus are unable to
explain them to another. If we study
their genealogy carefully, we find inter-
esting instances of the coming of this
power of abstraction and elucidation in
later generations through their mar-
riage into strains such as the Strongs
and the Dwights which have this
ability in abundance.

Another instance of the inheritance
of ability in construction is in the
Herreshoff family, designers and build-
ers of the swiftest sailing boats in the
world. The first representative in this
country was Charles F. Herreshoff
who, though an accomplished artist,
had little practical business ability.
He married Sarah Brown, proficient in
music and mathematics, whose family
had amassed fortunes in foreign and
domestic trade, carrying their goods in
ships of their own manufacture. Their
son founded the Herreshoff Manufac-
turing Company and was associated
with his three sons, all experts in naval
architecture. In none of these exam-
ples can we lay the signal success to
tradition or merely opportunity, for
plenty of their associates have had
similar opportunities without once feel-
ing the impulse toward construction of
this type.

The history of America gives many
illustrations of signal ability in finance
extending through three or more gener-
ations. We have but to think of the
names of Astor, Vanderbilt, Morgan
and Rockefeller, Drexel and Palmer,
all of whom stand for vast accumulated
wealth. It is interesting to reflect what
the scions of these houses would have
been had they lived in an age which per-
mitted a different type of exploitation,
the age of Raleigh and Frobisher.
Most of them piled up their riches by
conquest of virgin resources, though
there are not lacking instances where
the chief characteristic was the will and
the power to over-ride all competitors.
For the most part these American pro-
jectors belong to lines of their respec-
tive families which show great force
and energy, an instinct for contrivance,
acquisitiveness, and a spirit of emula-
tion which would brook no opposition
to the fulfillment of its schemes. How-
ever our captains of industry are not all
of the same type, just as they have
sprung from stocks whose leading
traits have not been by any manner
the same. With determination, vital-
ity, and the ability to evaluate correctly
situations of all kinds in common,{,we
find in one type love of adventure and
exploration, a passion for taking great
risks, the traits of the ‘“‘dead game
sport,’’ while in another type, pains-
taking calculation, careful policy and
great economy are the salient charac-
ters.

The latter qualities were exemplified
to a marked degree in John Jacob
Astor, the founder of a line of our most
noted financiers. In the sordid con-
fines of a butcher’s home in the remote
village of Waldorf, we find his childish
imagination aflame with legends of
marching hosts of Romans, taking
their triumphant way along the mili-
tary road on which the hamlet lay.
Later, under the inspiration of letters
from America, the vision took the form
of possible conquest for himself, so
that he spurned the father’s trade, and
at sixteen, made his way to London
and there by arduous unskilled labor
earned his passage to America. Here,
he was first a peddler of cakes, but with

362

his first small investment in furs, under-
took the hazardous foot and canoe
journeys which gave him that knowl-
edge of strategic positions for forts and
trading posts which made possible the
development of his colossal trading
interests. At every step of the way
he showed ‘‘a persevering industry, a
rigid economy and strict integrity. To
these were added an inspiring spirit
that always looked upward; a genius
bold, fertile and expansive; a sagacity,
quick to grasp and convert every cir-
cumstance to its advantage and a singu-
lar and unwavering confidence of signal
success.” Like energy, optimism and
practical sense are said to have dis-

The Journal of Heredity

tinguished his mother, and she endowed
similarly two other sons who signally
prospered. John Jacob was the first
of a line of which William:B., his son,
William and John Jacob 3rd, grand-
sons, and John Jacob 4th and William
Waldorf are the most noted.

THE LEAD OF GREAT PERSONALITIES

The study then of these family
histories brings into relief lines noted
for ability in art, business, mechanical
construction and scientific investiga-
tion, with the frequent occurrence of
members who have achieved renown in
the various lines. These leaders pos-

GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN STRAINS
I. Superlative worth.

f il

Jurisprudence—eg: Kent, Story, Marshall

2. Statecraft—eg: Adams, Lowell, Livingston

3
4
5
6
7
Aristogenic, 8.
Through segregation in su- 9
perior stocks, producing 10
trait-complexes of high ex- 11
cellence. x 1

{

Eugenic,

Through segregation, con-
tributing to classes of supe-_
rior as well as those of infe-
rior worth. ;

. Metaphysics—eg: Edwards, Woolsey
. Education—eg: Mann, Dwight, Edwards
. Social Reform—eg: Beecher, Abbott
. Religion—eg: Ballou, Channing
. Military Leadership—eg: Washington, Lee
Oratory—eg: Choate, Webster
. Literary Expression—eg: Prescott, Irving
. Histrionic Art—eg: Booth, Sothern
. Poetry—eg: Bryant, Longfellow
Graphic Arts—eg: Abbey, Inman
13. Music—eg: Hutchinson, Buck
14. Natural Science—eg: Agassiz, Baird
15. Mathematical Sciences—eg: Newcomb, Pickering
16. Invention—eg: Morse, Bell
17. Politics—eg: Hamilton, Randolph
18. Pioneer Life—eg: Boone, Sinclair
19. Engineering—eg: Pomeroy, Herreshoff
20. Exploration—eg: Peary, Greeley
21. Finance—eg: Astor, Girard, Morgan
II. Superior worth.
Special skill, intelligence, enterprise, etc.
Names occurring in ‘‘Who’s Who in America.”
{ III. Mediate social worth.
Showing a great range of aptitudes and abilities in moder-
ate degree.
The so-called middle class, making up the run of
mechanics, small farmers and trades-people, clerks,
operators, general laborers, etc.
- IV. Low social worth.
Marked psychical or temperamental defects.

1. Feeble-minded
2. Pauperous
Cacogenic, ‘ 3. Neuropathic The ‘‘Jukes,”’ ‘‘Kallikaks,’’
Through segregation, pro- 4. Criminalistic “Tshmaelites.”’
ducing recessive trait-com- 5. Insane
plexes. 6. Sex Perverts
7. Crippled
8

. Psychopathic
This classification is intended to be mainly suggestive.

The classes are not sharply delimited

from one another, and the examples given for superlative worth are not necessarily of uniform

value.

They are such as would occur to the reader and serve to illustrate how certain lines of a

given family name may come to bear a more or less distinctive character, depending primarily on
- es and secondarily o environal influence k I -
fortunate trait-complex nd ndarily on the environal influence known under the term ‘‘so:

cial heritage.”

Hereditary Trades

sessed in marked degree the daring
pioneer spirit, which, exemplified to a
lesser extent in so many of our country-
men, has made the epic of conquest of
the continent.

What a story it has been, of fortitude
and sacrifice and of courage surpassing
that of a soldier! We should fitly
celebrate this struggle with the wilder-
ness, with scorching heat and biting
cold, with flood and drought and fire.
We should be grateful for the planting
here of those families fitted to cope
with adverse circumstance and turn

363

mischance to victory, and for the best
from many racial strains who followed
acceptably where the greater personali-
ties led. This is the story of ‘‘Amer-
icanization’’ onits material side, though
to it have been brought many of the
finest qualities with which man is en-
dowed. From one point of view, it is
the story of chosen germ-plasms, that
should lead every one who can even
remotely appreciate it, to resolve that
so far as possible his family shall be one
of the chosen to lead further on the path
of progress.

HEREDITARY TRADES

HE agricultural population of

Italy furnishes a rather interest-

ing example of the preservation of
tribal occupational distinctions. For
centuries the people of the Burino,
Ciocare, Rieti, Abruzzi, or Ortanesi
have followed their individual voca-
tions of reapers, diggers, sowers, vine-
trimmers, etc., in the fever-swept
marshes of the Roman Campagna, and
the names of these families who worked
in the fertile though deadly plains
have been adapted,.in the common par-
lance of the agricultural world of Italy,
to mean any follower of that trade.
So identified with the art of seed-plant-
ing are, for example, the Rieti, that
sowers throughout Italy are called
“Rieti,”’ regardless of their origin, and
the threshers are known popularly as
“Ciocare.”’

The really remarkable fact concern-
ing the fidelity of each of these races
toits vocation is that this adherence to
tradition continues despite the un-
healthy character of the region in
which they have so long operated.
They suffer no delusion as to the
danger of working in the marshes, but
the fertility of the soil, fram which
may be garnered three crops yearly—
grain, grapes, and charcoal—has kept
generation after generation following
in the footsteps of the preceding one.
Few breaks from the lineal tradition
have taken place. The terrible death-
rate in the community has orphaned
hundreds of children, and the orphan-
ages with industrial schools and agri-
cultural colonies, which the Junior Red

Cross of America has founded at
Piperno and Sezze, are filled largely
with these children, still known by their
racial cognomen, as “children of the
reapers, vine-trimmers, etc.”

These agricultural workers do not
remain in the region throughout the
year. As the season fitted to the
occupation of each comes around, each
community gathers together its goods
and implements and migrates to the
malarial marshes of the coastal plain.
First to come in the spring are the
Abruzzi, tillers of the soil from Aquila
in the mountains above Rome, next
follow the Rieti, sowers from the Sabine
mountains, the reapers of the Burino
race from the Lapini hills above the
marshes, and then the threshers who
still wear the heavy sandal-like shoes
which aid their leathern flails in thresh-
ing out the grain.

Interesting and picturesque though
these farmers may be from the view-
point of heredity, they do not satisfy
the laws of modern hygiene in their
choice of territory. Many of the children
of these races are now being taught
trades in the Piperno and Sezze schools,
which will doubtless take them away
from the unhealthy plains, and the
fate of the remainder depends largely
upon the results of an Italian engineer-
ing project, now on foot, which should
succeed in making of the plague-ridden
marshes a far more healthful neighbor-
hood. A photograph of Italian orphans
pruning vines is shown on the following

page.

“
,, an
gl

wae

ITALIAN ORPHANS PRUNING VINES ACCORDING TO THE METHODS OF
THEIR FOREFATHERS

These boys from one of the agricultural colonies directed by the Junior Red Cross in Italy are
trimming the vines according to the rules followed by former generations. They are twining the
young vines over an elaborate scaffolding of twigs on the ash and poplar trees until the vines can
climb by themselves. Photograph from the American Red Cross. (Fig. 17.)

INHERITANCE IN CROSSES OF DAIRY
AND BEEF BREEDS OF CATTLE

III. Transmission of Butter-Fat Percentage to the First Generation!

Joun W. GOWEN
Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine

HE inheritance of milk yield in the
first generation crosses of dairy and
beef breeds of cattle was treated
in the second paper of this series.2 The
inheritance of butterfat percentage for
the same crosses will be analyzed here.
Butter-fat percentage has been
shown to have a considerable variation
with age in the Ayrshire breed, some
relation to age in the Jersey and Guern-
sey breeds and no significant relation
to age in the Holstein-Friesian breed.
These relations necessitate the appli-
cation of age correction factors to the
Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire records
for butter-fat percentage to make these
records comparable. Without any pre-
vious knowledge as to how age will
effect the butter-fat percentage of the
crosses between these breeds, it has
been thought advisable to correct the
crossbred records with the same set of
correction factors which were used for
the Jersey and Guernsey. When a
butter-fat percentage record is men-
tioned in any subsequent section of
this paper it is to be understood that
it is an age corrected record.

HOW THE RECORDS ARE OBTAINED

The butter-fat percentage record for
any given crossbred cow or her dam is
obtained by taking the mean butter-
fat percentage of the different lacta-
tions during the cow’s life at the same
corresponding month of lactation. The
butter-fat percentage of the sires, Tau-
rus Creamelle Hengerveld and Lake-
land’s Poet, are the mean of the butter-
fat percentage of their daughters other
than crossbred daughters. The record
of Kayan, where no pure bred daugh-

ters are available, is obtained by aver-
aging the records of the Aberdeen-
Angus cows in the herd. The record
for Delva’s University DeKol is the rec-
ord of Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld.
The records of the last two sires are
subject to the same criticisms cited in
the second paper of the series.

The details of the number of lacta-
tions which make up the record of the
given cow are given in the second paper
of this series and need not be repeated
here.

BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES

The first graph in Figure 24 shows the
monthly butter-fat percentage of Cross-
bred No. 1, her pure bred Holstein-
Friesian dam, Pauline Posch and the
potential record of her Jersey sire,
Lakeland’s Poet. Photographs show-
ing Crossbred No. 1 and her parents
are shown in the previous paper of this

series. The solid line (———————)
represents the crossbred’s butter-fat
percentage, the dotted line(.-.-.-.---- )
the butter-fat percentage of her dam
and the dot and dash line (:—:—-—- )

the potential butter-fat percentage of
her sire. The butter-fat percentage
of this crossbred is clearly intermediate
between that of her high butter-fat test
sire and her low butter-fat percentage
dam. The eight months’ butter-fat per-
centage for Crossbred No. 1 was 3.899.
The butter-fat percentage for her Hol-
stein-Friesian dam was 2.758 and for
her Jersey sire was 4.705. The cross-
bred cow was consequently 0.806 per
cent less than her Jersey parent and
1.141 per cent more than her low test-
ing Holstein-Friesian parent. The

‘Papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station,

No. 136.

? Gowen, John W., 1920. Inheritance in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle. II. On
the Transmission of Milk Yield to the First Generation. JoURNAL oF HEREDITY, Vol. XI (1920),

No. 7, pp. 300-316.

365

366

Crossbred No. 1 is consequently nearer
the high test parent than the low test
parent. It is perhaps fair in this connec-
tion to say that the butter-fat percent-
age of Pauline Posch is low even for the
Holstein-Friesian breed, the mean for
the breed being nearly .5 per cent
higher than her average.

Crossbred No. 2 has her butter-fat
percentage shown in the second graph
in Figure 24. She is the result of a
cross of the Holstein-Friesian sire,
Delva’s University De Kol, to the
Guernsey cow, Canada’s Creusa. The
photograph of Crossbred No. 2 is
shown in Fig. 18. The characteristics
of the Holstein-Friesian parent are seen
in the rump, the size of body and the
profile of the nose.

The butter-fat percentage of this
crossbred clearly resembles that of her
low testing Holstein-Friesian parent.
The average butter-fat percentage of
Crossbred No. 2 for the eight months’
period was 3.241. The average but-
ter-fat percentage for her Guernsey
dam, Canada’s Creusa, was 3.961,°
and for the potential butter-fat test of
her Holstein-Friesian sire, Delva’s Uni-
versity DeKol was 3.399. The butter-
fat percentage of the crossbred cow is
consequently slightly less than that for
either parent. The difference from her
Guernsey parent is 0.720 per cent and
from her Holstein-Friesian parent 0.158
per cent. Crossbred No. 2 resembles
the low butter-fat percentage 4.5 times
as closely as she does the high butter-
fat percentage.

The third graph in Figure 24 repre-
sents the butter-fat percentage of the
Crossbred No. 11 and that of her pure
bred Jersey sire, Lakeland’s Poet, and
her pure bred Holstein-Friesian dam,
Delva Johanna DeKol.

Photographs of the animals used in
this mating are shown in Figs. 19, 20 and
21. The dark underline and fair Jer-
sey conformation of Lakeland’s Poet are
clearly seen. Delva Johanna DeKol
shows the typical conformation of her
body and udder. Crossbred No. 11
has an appearance of size in the fore

The Journal of Heredity

quarters and a lack of these qualities
in the hind quarters which is due largely
to the position in which she is stand-
ing.

While the butter-fat percentage of
Crossbred No. 11 is intermediate be-
tween that of her high testing and her
low testing parents throughout the en-
tire lactation, it is equally clear that
the butter-fat percentage of the cross
is much nearer that of her low testing
parent than it is to that of the high
testing parent. The mean butter-fat
percentage of Crossbred No. 11 for the
eight months’ period is 3.403, that for the
Holstein-Friesian dam 3.224, the po-
tential butter-fat percentage for the
Jersey sire is 4.705. The difference
between the low testing dam and the
crossbred cow is consequently 0.179.
The difference between the crossbred
and her high testing sire is 1.302, or
Crossbred No. 11 resembles the butter-
fat percentage of the low testing parent
7.3 times as closely as she does the
butter-fat percentage of the high test-
ing parent.

The butter-fat percentage of Cross-
bred No. 12 and her Guernsey dam,
College Gem, together with the poten-
tial butter-fat percentage of her Hol-
stein-Friesian sire is shown in the
fourth graph of Figure. 24. Photo-
graphs of the animals composing this
mating are shown in the previous paper
of this series. The butter-fat percent-
age of College Gem, the mother to this
crossbred cow, and that of Creusa’s
Lady, the dam of Crossbred No. 29, is
considerably higher than that of other
animals used in these crosses. A study
of the butter-fat percentage of the
breed to which these cows belong and
also of the Jersey breed makes it appear
quite possible that there are at least two
levels of butter-fat percentage, speak-
ing from the inheritance viewpoint,
within these breeds. Should such prove
to be the case the results of the crosses
including these relatively high butter-
fat testers might produce a different
result than those including the lower
testing cows.

* The butter-fat percentage for Canada’s Creusa is clearly very low for a Guernsey cow. In
the advanced registry of this breed the average year test is 4.9 per cent of butter-fat.

Gowen: Transmission of Butter-fat Percentage

367

CROSSBRED NO. 2, HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN X GUERNSEY CROSS

In size of body and profile of nose this crossbred shows the characteristics of her Holstein-Friesian
sire. Her percentage of butter fat production is slightly lower than that of either parent. See

the second graph in Fig. 24. (Fig. 18.)

The graph for the butter-fat percent-
age of Crossbred No. 12 shows it to be
intermediate between the high testing
and the low testing parents. The low
testing parent is more closely followed
by the Crossbred for each monthly test.
The eight months butter-fat percent-
age of Crossbred No. 12 is 3.885 per
cent, the Guernsey dam has a butter-
fat percentage of 5.476 percent and the
Holstein-Friesian sire’s potential but-
ter-fat percentage is 3.399 per cent.
The crossbred cow’s butter-fat per cent
is 1.591 per cent less than her high
testing dam and 0.486 per cent more
than her low testing parent, or the
crossbred is 3.3 times as near the low
butter-fat percentage as she is the high
butter-fat percentage.

BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES OF SIMILAR
MATINGS

It is of some interest to compare the

butter-fat percentage of the similar

mating for Crossbred No. 2 with the
results for this mating of Crossbred No.
12. The Guernsey dam in the first case
had a very low butter-fat percentage
3.961 whereas the Guernsey dam for
number 12 had a butter-fat percentage
which is above the average for the
breed. The butter-fat percentage of
the Crossbred in the first case was low,
lower even than the Holstein-Friesian
parent. The butter-fat percentage of
the Crossbred in the second case was
higher, almost equaling that of the low
testing Guernsey dam of the first cross.

The Aberdeen-Angus breed has a
butter-fat percentage about the same
as that of the lower testing Jerseys and
Guernseys of these experiments, that
is a mean of about 4.4 per cent with
considerable range on either side of this
point. The crosses made between
these lower testing Jerseys and Guern-
seys with the Aberdeen-Angus are con-

LAKELAND’S POET, PUREBRED JERSEY SIRE OF CROSSBRED NO. 11

Note the dark underline and fair Jersey conformation. Lakeland’s Poet is also the sire of Cross-
bred No. 15 shown in Fig. 23. (Fig. 19.)

DELVA JOHANNA DE KOL, PUREBRED HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN DAM OF CROSS-
BRED NO. 11

The typical Holstein-Friesian conformation of body and udder is clearly represented. (Fig. 20.)

Gowen: Transmission of Butter-fat Percentage

369

CROSSBRED COW NO. 11

This cow is the product of the Jersey and Holstein-Friesian parents shown on the opposite page.
The appearance of size in the fore quarters and lack of it in the hind quarters is largely due to the
position in which she is standing. The size and shape of her udder, conformation and other fea-
tures, are quite well represented. The third graph in Fig. 24 shows the butter-fat percentage of

this crossbred to be almost intermediate between her high-testing and low-testing parents.

21.)

sequently of little interest. They are
included in the graphs for sake of com-
pleteness.

The fifth graph in Figure 24 shows the
butter-fat percentage for Crossbred
No. 15 and her Aberdeen-Angus dam,
Hearthbloom, and Jersey sire, Lake-
land’s Poet. Very little difference is
seen in the butter-fat percentages of
these animals. The eight months but-
cer-fat percentage for Crossbred No.
15 is 4.404; for her dam Hearthbloom
4.404 and for her Jersey sire 4.705.
Crossbred No. 15 agrees exactly with
her lower testing parent and is .301 per
cent less than the higher testing parent.

Figures 22 and 23 represent Crossbred
No. 15 and her Aberdeen-Angus dam.

(Fig.

The heavy, blocky, well filled conforma-
tion of Hearthbloom is typical of the
Aberdeen-Angus breed. There are many
points of resemblance between Cross-
bred No. 15 and her dam.

The sixth graph for Figure 24 shows
the butter-fat percentage for Crossbred
No. 16, her Jersey dam College Ruth
and her Aberdeen-Angus sire, Kayan.
The photographs of the animals com-
posing these matings are shown in the
previous paper of this series. Little
difference between the butter-fat per-
centages for the three animals is noted.
For the first eight months of lactation
the butter-fat percentage of Crossbred
No. 16 is 4.894, for College Ruth 4.849
and for Kayan 4.386. The crossbred

cow is consequently 0.045 higher in
butter-fat percentage than her dam and
0.508 per cent higher than her sire.

The top graph in Figure 25 represents
the butter-fat percentage of Crossbred
No. 22, her Guernsey dam, College
Creusa and her Aberdeen-Angus sire,
Kayan. As explained in the previous
paper, the graphs in Figure 25 are less
reliable than those of Figure 24, since
they are composed of a less number of
lactations for the crossbred cows.
Little difference in the butter-fat per-
centages of these three animals are
shown by the graphs. The eight
months butter-fat percentage of Cross-
bred No. 22 was 4.526, the butter-fat
percentage of her Guernsey dam 4.825
and of her Aberdeen-Angus sire 4.386.
Crossbred No. 22 is 0.299 per cent of
butter-fat less than her dam and 0.140
per cent more than her sire.

The butter-fat percentages of Cross-
bred No. 26 and her parents, Creusa of
Orono 3d, Guernsey dam, and Kayan,
Aberdeen-Angus sire, are shown in the
second graph in Figure 25. Little dif-
ference in the monthly butter-fat per-
centage of the three animals is seen in
the graphs. The mean eight months
butter-fat percentage of Crossbred No.
26 is 4.100, that for the Guernsey dam
4.679 and for the Aberdeen-Angus sire
4.386. Crossbred No. 26 has 0.579 per
cent of butter-fat less than her dam and
0.286 per cent less than her sire’s po-
tential butter-fat percentage.

The butter-fat percentage of Cross-
bred No. 27 is seen to vary irregularly
over that of her two parents in the
third graph of: Figure 25. Crossbred
No. 27 is the result of a cross between
Orono Madge, Aberdeen-Angus cow,
and Lakeland’s Poet, Jersey bull. The
average butter-fat percentage of Cross-
bred No. 27 is 4.474, of her Aberdeen-
Angus dam’s 4.640, and of her Jersey
sire 4.705. Crossbred No. 27 was 0.166
per cent of butter-fat less than her dam
and 0.231 per cent of butter-fat less
than her sire.

While Crossbred No. 29 is the result
of a cross between Creusa’s Lady,
Guernsey dam and Kayan, Aberdeen-
Angus sire, she is of some interest, since

The Journal of Heredity

her dam, Creusa’s Lady, is one of the
higher butter-fat testing Guernsey
cows. The fourth graph in Figure 25
shows the monthly butter-fat percent-
age for this mating. For the first
month the butter-fat percentage of the
crossbred is higher than that of either
parent. After this time her butter-fat
percentage follows the butter-fat per-
centage of the relatively lower testing
Aberdeen-Angus parent. The mean
butter-fat percentage for the eight
months period is 4.534 per cent for the
crossbred cow, 5.346 for her pure bred
dam and 4.386 per cent for her sire.
The crossbred is 0.812 per cent less in
her butter-fat test than her dam and
0.148 per cent more than her sire. The
crossbred cow resembles her low test-
ing parent 5.5 times as closely as she
does her high testing parent.

The average butter-fat percentage
of the Ayrshire breed is 3.68 per cent.
This is about 1.0 per cent below the
butter-fat percentage of the Aberdeen-
Angus contained in this herd, and only
0.4 per cent above the average of the
Holstein-Friesian breed. | Crossbred
No. 37 is the result of a cross between
the Ayrshire cow, Dot Alaska and the
Aberdeen-Angus sire, Kayan. The
fifth graph of Figure 25 gives the butter-
fat percentage of Crossbred No. 37 and
her parents. The crossbred’s record is
for only one complete lactation and one
half of the next. Considerable varia-
tion would consequently be expected
for this record. In the fifth month of
lactation the butter-fat percentage of
Crossbred No. 37 is slightly higher than
that for the high testing parent, Kayan.
Other than this record the butter-fat
percentage of the crossbred closely ap-
proximates that for the lower testing
parent, Dot Alaska. The eight months
butter-fat percentage for Crossbred
No. 37 was 3.861 per cent, for Dot
Alaska was 3.661 per cent and for Kayan
4.386 per cent. Crossbred No. 37 is
0.200 per cent more in her butter-fat
percentage than that of her dam, and
0.525 per cent less than her Aberdeen-
Angus sire or the ratio is 1 to 2.6.

The last graph in Figure 25 is that for
Crossbred No. 44. Crossbred No. 44

HEARTHBLOOM, ABERDEEN-ANGUS PARENT OF CROSSBRED NO. 15
The heavy, blocky, well-filled conformation of this cow is typical of her breed. (Fig. 2

lea Ss -

CROSSBRED COW NO. 15

There are many points of resemblance between this crossbred and her purebred Aberdeen-Angus
mother, the polled head, heavy fore quarters and black coat being the main features. The Sth
graph in Fig. 24 shows that her butter-fat percentage was exactly the same as the record of her
mother. The sire.of this crossbred is Lakeland’s Poet shown in Fig. 19. (Fig. 23.)

372 The Journal of Heredity

Crossbre d

Butter Fat Per Cent.

70 4 fz 4 ig

5 6 7 5 9
Month of Lactation.
MONTHLY BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES
Graphs showing the monthly butterfat percentages of six crossbred cows and their parents. The

solid line ( ) represents the crossbred, the dotted line (...... ) represents the dam, and
the dot-and-dash line (—-—:—-—) the potential record of the sire. (Fig. 24.)

Butter Fat Per Cent.

a 2 Jd H

5 6. Vi 8 a
Month of Lactation.
MONTHLY BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES

Graphs showing monthly butter-fat percentages of crossbred cows and their parents. The signifi-
cance of the lines is the same as in Fig. 24 on the opposite page. (Fig. 25.)

374

is the result of the mating of the Aber-
deen-Angus cow Orono Madge to the
Holstein-Friesian bull Taurus Cream-
elle Hengerveld. The graph for Cross-
bred No. 44 shows that her butter-fat
percentage for her first lactation is in-
termediate between that of her high
and her low testing parents at the
fourth, fifth and sixth months of lacta-
tion. Other than these months the
crossbred cow clearly follows the low
butter-fat percentage of her low testing
sire. The eight months mean butter-
fat percentage for Crossbred No. 44
was 3.656 per cent, that for her Aber-
deen-Angus dam 4.640 per cent, and for
her Holstein-Friesian sire 3.399 per
cent. The crossbred cow was conse-
quently 0.984 per cent less in her but-
ter-fat percentage than her high testing
dam and 0.257 per cent more than her
low testing sire. The crossbred cow
consequently is 3.8 times as near to the
low butter-fat percentage as she is to
the higher butter-fat percentage line.
These observations may be regrouped
to show the changes brought about in
the butter-fat percentage of the off-
spring in accordance with the way the
cross was made. For those crosses in
which the Holstein-Friesian sire was
used, the offspring in all cases resem-
bled the low testing sire between 3.3
and 4.5 to 1 as closely as they did the
high testing parent, the mean being
3.9 to 1. For those crosses in which
the dam was of the Holstein-Friesian
breed, the results of the offspring were
contradictory, one approaching the
butter-fat percentage of the high test
parent 1.4to 1 and the other approach-
ing the butter-fat test of the low Hol-
stein-Friesian cow 7.3 to1. The cross
involving the Ayrshire dam resembled
the low test 2.6 to 1. The high test
Guernsey dam when crossed to the
lower test Aberdeen-Angus sire had a
4 Parlour, W.

1913. Jersey Angus Cattle.
Kuhlman, A. H.

Live Stock Jour.

The Journal of Heredity

daughter which resembled the low
testing sire 5.5 times as closely as she
did the high testing dam.

Considering every cross irrespective
of their merit for this particular phase
of the work the crosses resemble the
low testing parental breed 2.23 times
as closely as they do the high testing
parental breed.

Several experiments undertaken by
the breeders cited in the previous pa-
pers furnish data which incidentally
bear on the inheritance of butter-fat
percentage. The butter-fat tests given
by Parlour, Kuhlman, and Strevens'
for the F, cows from crosses of the Jer-
sey and Aberdeen-Angus breeds show
that the F, differs little from either
parent. This as indicated in a previous
section of this paper would be expected
since the Jersey and Aberdeen-Angus
breeds have quite similar butter-fat
tests.

In crossing Holstein-Friesian bulls to
several scrub cows of rather high butter-
fat test Kildee and McCandlish’s®
results show that the butter-fat percent-
age for the F, cows is intermediate
between the two parents approaching
if anything the butter-fat percentage
of the lower testing Holstein-Friesian
sires. The F, crosses of the Guern-
sey and Jersey sires to the scrubs show
a slight improvement of the butter-fat
percentage over that of their dams.
The results for the Jersey and Guern-
sey crosses are of no particular impor-
tance to the discussion since the butter-
fat tests of the animals crossed was
nearly the same. The F;, crosses for
the Holstein-Friesian sires and scrub
cows are of interest and agree quite
closely with the results of the con-
trolled experiment herein described con-
sidering that more than one sire may
have been used, that age corrections
were not made and that the progeny

(London) 77 (1913) No. 2025 p. 85.

1915. Jersey-Angus Cattle. JourNAL HEREDITY 6 (1915) No. 2, pp. 68-72.

Strevens, H. D. E.

1913. Jersey-Angus Cattle. Live Stock Jour. (London) 77 (1913) No. 2025, p. 132.

5 Kildee, H. H. and McCandlish, A. C.
1916.
Iowa Agri. Expt. Sta., pp. 383-402.

Influence of Environment and Breeding in Increasing Dairy Production.

Bul. 165.

Gowen: Transmission of Butter-fat Percentage

performance test of the sires is not
known.

Dunne* quotes some Danish records
to show that there are two types of
cows in the red Danish breed. One of
these types tests about 3.3'per cent. The
other type tests about 4.00 with the
cross between the two having a butter-
fat percentage which is intermediate.
These results are however open to con-
siderable criticism when viewed as
critical evidence. The results cannot
therefore be accepted as proof.

Castle’ records an experiment com-
menced by Mr. Bowlker on crosses be-
tween the Guernsey and Holstein-Frie-
sian breeds. Unfortunately only a
very limited number of tests on the
original pure bred cows were made. It
is necessary therefore to use the aver-
age butter-fat percentages of the breeds
as the parents test for butter-fat. Such
a procedure is open to error in that the
breeds’ average butter-fat concentra-
tion may not represent the test of the
parental animals used in these experi-
ments. In fact the wide variation of
either the Guernsey or Holstein-Frie-
sian breeds in this respect make it en-
tirely probable that such is the case.
The experiments are interesting how-
ever in that wide differences are repre-
sented in butter-fat percentages of the
two breeds. The average butter-fat
percentage of the Holstein-Friesian
parents was assumed to be 3.3 per cent.
The average test of the Guernsey par-
ents was 5.0 per cent. The F; cross-
bred cows had an average butter-fat
percentage of 4.08 or were interme-
diate between the two parental breeds
approaching the lower testing Holstein
Friesian parents more closely than the
higher testing Guernsey parents. The
outcome of these experiments despite
the many uncontrolled variables is in
essential agreement with the experi-
ments herein reported from the Maine
Station.

®* Dunne, J. J.
1914.
No. 15, pp. 553.
7Castle, W. E.

1919.
Acad. Vol. 5, pp. 428-434.

Hereditary Transmission of Fat Percentage.

BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES COMPARED
TO MILK YIELD

It is of interest to examine the results
of these experiments on butter-fat per-
centage in the light of those for milk
yield. It will be remembered that in
the F; crossbreds milk yield was inter-
mediate between that of the high and
the low parents but approached most
nearly that of the high parent. In the
genetics of many economic characters
as yield of grain, size of the animal etc.
the explanation used to account for
such a phenomena is the heterozygous
nature of the factors contained in the
F, animal ascompared with the homozy-
gous nature of the factors in the par-
ental breeds or strains. Without ques-
tion there may be something to this
hypothesis for certain crosses. The
results for milk yield and butter-fat
percentage do present a paradoxical
position when this hypothesis is applied
to them. Thus milk yield is increased
over what the true intermediate should
be. This follows the expectation gen-
erally agreed upon and accounted for
by heterosis. But on these identically
same animals the butter-fat per-
centage is decreased below the inter-
mediate. This is not the expectation
generally considered as due to heterosis
although it is by no means impossible
to assume that increased vigor may re-
duce rather than increase a character.
The double nature of such a position
does not appeal to the author, however,
as furnishing more than a verbal ex-
planation of the results having little
parallel in the rest of genetics. The
explanation which really seems most
likely is that we have in these two cases
the resultant of partially dominant fac-
tors. Numerous similar cases can be
cited in genetic literature. Perhaps
the best known case is that of black in
Drosophila where the factor for this is
normally classified as a recessive but
where if occasion demands it may be

Hoard’s Dairyman. Vol. XLVII.

Inheritance of Quantity and Quality of Milk Production in Dairy Cattle. Proc. Nat.

376

used as a dominant; such a factor dif-
fers quite distinctly from another like
speck which is consistently recessive.
Such a parallel will explain the inheri-
tance for butter-fat percentage by con-
sidering that the factors for low butter-
fat percentage display more dominance
in their expression than do the factors
for high butter-fat percentage.

The inheritance of butter-fat per-
centage has occupied a prominent place
in the discussions of breeding opera-
tions by practical dairymen. These
men have held the following views as to
the mode of this inheritance. The first
has claimed that the tendency for high
or low butter-fat percentage is trans-
mitted by the sire to his offspring; the

The Journal of Heredity

second that the dam transmits the
tendency for high or low butter-fat per-
centage to the offspring; and the third
that both parents contribute to the
butter-fat percentage transmission.
The results of these experiments show
that the third of these claims is correct.
Such being the case the dairyman who
wishes his breeding operations to pro-
gress successfully will find it desirable
to examine both sides of his animals’
pedigrees carefully. Thus, today, the
Jersey breeder pays a good deal more
attention to the sires’ side of the pedigree
than he does the dams’ side of the
pedigree when in truth both sides are
equally important.

REMARKABLE INDORSEMENT OF THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY BY
THE CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

Dr. Wm. A Taylor is the Chief of the
largest plant research organization in
the world—the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try of the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture. Its large staff of trained research
workers, backed by an extensive cleri-
cal organization, constitutes the most
powerful creative force in the study
of plants which the world has ever seen.
It expends $2,800,000 a year, which
would represent an endowment of
more than twice that of the Carnegie
Institution.

This unrivalled body of research
workers has gathered together thou-
sands of invaluable photographs which
tell the story of new discoveries better
than words do. There has never been
any adequate way to bring these illus-
trations before the public, and this year
the totally inadequate source of publi-
cation has been cut in two.

In a similar way, the large army of
research workers all over the world
who find that their mediums of publicity
are being hampered by inadequate facil-
ities, are looking to the JOURNAL OF
HEREDITY as the means by which they
may present their discoveries to the
interested public.

Dr. Taylor’s indorsement, printed on

the opposite page, should appeal to
everyone interested in the building up
of our plant and animal industries. The
production through breeding and selec-
tion which is actually going on is creat-
ing for the country hundreds of millions
in wealth. Increased production, more
disease resistant plants, longer, tougher
fibred, better flavored and otherwise
more valuable tobaccos, cottons, rices,
wheats, sorghums, corns, peanuts,
watermelons, peaches, potatoes, oats,
barleys, flax, blueberries, citrus fruits—
in fact the whole range of agricultural
and horticultural plants—are actually
being effected by the workers in this
new field of science, and when Dr.
Taylor says that no other scientific
journal in America equals the JOURNAL
oF HEREDITY in respect to its power to
communicate and preserve the basic in-
formation relating to plant and animal
improvement, he speaks from a quarter
of a century’s intimate experience with
the conditions as they are.

The JouRNAL OF HEREDITY has an
appeal to everyone who wants to see
the photographs which show the prog-
ress in this field which is easily and
rapidly becoming one of the greatest of
all in its ability to create wealth.

i
|
|
i
|
i
{
|
i
i
i
|
|
i
i
i
i
i
|
i
|
i
i
|
|

LL A

>) () A () a (a ()

i
:
|
|
|
i
|
i
i
i
|
|
|
|
|
|
i
|
i
)
i
|
|
i
|
|
|
i

Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry,
Washington, B. C.

November 6, 1920.

Dear Dr. Fairchild:

In your consideration of the future of the Journal of
Heredity I hope you will not overlook the very important
relation to practical agriculture which the Journal has
developed. While its title hardly suggests it, and I am free
to confess when its publication began I personally did not
expect it, the Journal has become a very effective medium
for the communication and preservation of much basic
information relating to plant and animal improvement.
No other scientific journal in America equals it in this
respect, nor do the official channels of publication such as
those of the Department of Agriculture and the State
Agricultural Experiment Stations hold out any promise of
meeting this need.

The catholicity of its editorial policy, coupled with the
quality of its illustrations, is rapidly making it the most
important journal for plant and animal breeders in the
country at a time when these basic activities in agricultural
development need it most keenly.

I sincerely hope that the Association will find it possible
to continue the issue of the Journal without abridgment of
quality or frequency of issue.

Sincerely,
(Signed) Wm. A. Taylor.

Dr. David Fairchild, President,
American Genetic Association,
Washington, D. C.

Fe ee ee |

A HERD OF ALBINO CATTLE

J. A. DETLEFSEN

College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana

Kaslow of Mora, Minnesota,

obtained two albinotic calves—
a bull and a heifer. The calves were
the result of mating a so-called full-
blooded Holstein bull to grade Hol-
stein cows. The parents were of
normal coat color, black and white
spotted. Unfortunately, the bull was
killed before his offspring were born.
Mr. Kaslow was attracted by the beau-
tiful white coat and pink eyes of the
calves and proceeded tomake matings
for the purpose of increasing the
number of albinos. He was entirely
successful in his efforts and secured a
score or more albinos in the course of
a few years.

My attention was drawn to this
interesting herd through the courtesy
of Professor H. K. Hayes, of the Col-
lege of Agriculture, University of
Minnesota, and I corresponded with
the local county agent and Mr. Kaslow
to obtain details of the case. Unfor-
tunately, Mr. Kaslow’s records were
destroyed in a fire, and the following
comments depend on his memory
to a large extent, supplemented by
such observations as I was able to
make when opportunity was afforded
to examine the herd. While not ques-
tioning the correctness of the data, I
can not vouch for their accurary, since
they depend upon a memory of events
which took place during the course of
several years. However, since the
herd is quite unique, at least a record
of its existence should be made.

A BOUT six years ago, Mr. Martin

UNUSUAL RECORD OF ALBINO BULL

The original full-blooded Holstein
bull was mated to about twenty unre-
lated grade Holsteins producing a bull
and a heifer albino, and the rest normal.
In the absence of more data, the case
would appear like other simple cases
of albinism in which a heterozygous
male was accidentally mated to similar

females and naturally some albino
segregates appeared. But the subse-
quent matings, according to Mr. Kas-
low’s statement, do not bear outsucha
simple hypothesis, for the young Fi
albino bull was mated back to the
grade Holstein cows and produced only
albinos—about twenty in number. If
Mr. Kaslow’s observations are correct,
the case is rather remarkable, for an
original mating of normal-coated Hol-
steins gave an apparent recessive
segregate—an albino bull. And yet this
bull acted like a homozygous dominant
in matings with normally-coated Hol-
stein cows.

Mr. Kaslow states that the albinos,
when mated inter se, have given only
albinos and exhibited four young albino
calves which were reported to have
come from such a mating. Further-
more, four albino females were mated
to a registered Holstein bull and pro-
duced three albinos and one normal
Holstein.

NOT CORRELATED WITH MILK
PRODUCTION

As far as I could determine by ex-
amination, the albinos showed no pig-
ment in the skin, eyes, horns, or hoofs,
exceptin one case. One adult female had
asmall black spot about one centimeter
square on oneear. Mr. Kaslow had not
noted any similar appearances of pig-
ment in other individuals and was
somewhat surprised when this case was
pointed out to him. The albinos were
extremely sensitive to light and grazed
in a listless manner during the daytime
with their eyes partly closed and their
pupils contracted. In the evening, the
vision was apparently normal, and the
albinos showed much more animation.
The albino character seems to be un-
correlated with milk production for this
albino herd produces about the same
amount of milk expected of similar
grades.

378

ALBINO CATTLE
A full-blooded Holstein bull mated to about twenty unrelated grade Holstein cows produced two
albino calves, the rest of the offspring being normal. Subsequent matings increased the number
of albinos to twenty or more. The herd furnishes an interesting case of albinism. (Fig. 26.)

ATTRACTIVE WHITE COAT AND PINK EYES

Examination of the herd showed no pigment in the skin, eyes, horns or hoofs. The cattle were
very sensitive to light, and grazed more actively in the evening than in daytime. (Fig. 27.)

DETERIORATION IN SOME HORTI-
CULTURAL VARIETIES THROUGH
DEFICIENT ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

H. H. M. BowMan
Biological Laboratory, Toledo University

gathered during the summers

of 1917, 1918 and 1919, and when
analyzed would seem to indicate that
these horticultural varieties of several
decorative plants, chiefly annuals, have
seriously deteriorated from their type
standards. An attempt to inquire
into the causes for this deterioration
leads one to believe that the fault lies
with the producers of the seed and
their failure to maintain careful arti-
ficial selection in breeding these varie-
ties. It is assumed that the war and
the consequent labor conditions are to
account for the situation. The ob-
servations here presented may also be
of use to indicate the more labile char-
acters in these particular varieties and
possibly by thus analyzing their heredi-
tary constitution, material may be se-
cured in them for genetical studies.

Te following data have been

UNIFORM METHODS OF CULTIVATION

For many years it has been the
writer’s privilege to cultivate each
summer at his home in eastern Penn-
sylvania, a small garden containing
many varieties of herbaceous and
shrubby perennials and bulbous plants.
In the more open borders are usually
planted the common annuals and bi-
ennials, such as asters, poppies, zinnias,
marigolds, balsams, pansies, mignon-
ette, delphiniums, etc. The seeds for
these plants have annually been pur-
chased from the largest and most re-
liable seedsmen in the East and have
always produced excellent results. In
some instances Centaureas, Scabiosa,
seedling Dahlias and Salpiglossis have
been exhibited. The soil and ordinary
cultural methods have been practically
the same for a long period, and with

good seed from reliable sources the
conditions, so far as germination and
growth are concerned, have been un-
changed in the successive seasons.
All these conditions, therefore, being
so uniform, any extraordinary varia-
tion in results good over a long period
preceding would, naturally, not be
due to the cultivation. The explana-
tion must be sought in the seeds.

The same varieties were grown in
the two summers preceding that of
1919, and the same deterioration was
observed in these particular varieties,
but even in a more marked degree was
it noticed in the season mentioned. As
the observations were more carefully
taken this past summer, only the data
for that period are here set forth. In
the spring of 1919 seeds were purchased
of named varieties of the China Aster,
Callistephus chinensis, Zinnia elegans;
Tagetes erecta, the African marigold;
Matthiola incana and the corn-flower,
Centaurea cyanus, together with seeds
of other decorative plants and garden
vegetables. These named varieties had
been bought of the same firm in the pre-
ceding years and were planted under
similar conditions in the same garden,
and all germinated with excellent per-
centages.

Before proceeding in detail with the
results of the plantings of the genera
named above, it should be mentioned
that the crops produced from vegetable
and other seeds were in the highest
degree satisfactory and that these seeds
were evidently up to the standard of
previous years. The need for propa-
gating large quantities of food plants
during the war period obviously was an
incentive for breeders to maintain as
high a standard of quality as possible.

380

Bowman: Deterioration in Horticultural Varieties

EVIDENCE OF DEGENERATION IN SEEDS

The asters were of three varieties—
white, pale pink and lavender in stand-
ard named strains. The florets have
long and slightly twisted rays or ligules
of the type popularly called ‘‘Chrysan-
themum”’ asters. The seed germinated
in good time with 97 per cent viable
plants when set out, and the plants
immediately made good growth.

The season was very favorable and
the usual fungicides and insecticides
applied prevented the attacks of pests,
so that late in August the asters came
into bud prolifically. So far these plants
were identical with those of the same
strains grown in other seasons. But
first of all it was noted, when the heads
began to expand, that, though equal
plantings had been made of all three
colors, only a scant proportion of the
plants were of the pale pink color,
indicating that, of the seeds so labeled,
only a few really carried the factor for
that color. This may have been an
error originating in the packing of the
seeds but on account of the presence of
some of the desired color, and that in
varying degree, it could be assumed
that the strain was not carefully segre-
gated in breeding at the seed farm
and that the phenomenon was really
genetic.

A more striking evidence, however,
of the deterioration of this stock was
seen in the form of all three colors. The
ray florets had much shorter. ligules
and with a less pronounced curl so that
the flowers were scarcely recognized as
being of that distinctive named variety.
The plants were strong and well nour-
ished, but these asters had degenerated
in regard to length of the ligules and the
amount of ‘‘curl’’ in them and were
losing the character for ‘‘pinkness.”’

VARIATIONS IN ZINNIAS

The Zinnia etegans strain was of atype
normally having tall-growing stems
and full double flowers and character-
ized especially by long peduncles. The
latter feature is desirable in this type
of Zinnia so that it may be used for
cutting. The more dwarf bedding

381

sorts have shorter internodes and
shorter peduncles, thus giving a mass
effect of bloom. Instead of these
Zinnias coming true to their varietal
characters, with long internodes. and
peduncles, there was a pronounced
shortening in these axes, although the
plants attained a good size and luxuri-
ant growth and all signs of any de-
pauperation were absent, both in the
synthetic tissues and the inflorescences.
There was a tendency also for these
Zinnias to revert in color to the reddish
magenta of the ancestral type in-
digenous to Mexico, and in form to
produce some disk florets in the center
of the very large heads mainly com-
posed of ray florets with very broad
ligules, instead of the full double form
with densely packed heads of ligules all
of a uniform size. The Zinnia may
then be said to deteriorate in the
shortening of the internodes and pedun-
cles and reversal to fewer rays and
purple color.

THE AFRICAN MARIGOLD

Tagetes erecta, the African marigold,
is an especially easy annual to grow.
With ordinary good culture it will
produce large full-double heads which
frequently become too heavy for the
peduncle and break under their own
weight. The well grown plants of the
1919 season set an abundance of buds
but the lack of uniformity in the stature
of the plants in the same plot presaged
differences in inheritance of these
various individuals. In one plot speci-
men plants had been set out two feet
apart, so the ample room for develop-
ment was assured each plant, but here
too the same variations in stature
occurred. That the strain was contami-
nated with a dwarf type, perhaps even
mixed with another species, as T.
patula or T. signata, would account for
this variation.

The two varieties selected for plant-
ing were tall growing sorts of two
shades, one a clear yellow and the other
a deeper orange. The fact that as
many plants of the lighter color reached
maturity as of the darker color, in

382

proportion to their occurrence in the
population, indicated again that there
was no adverse factor in the cultural
methods, since the paler varieties are
less hardy and succumb to hard condi-
tions more quickly than the deeper
tinted varieties in species having the
normal types colored (as de Vries! and
others have pointed out) or in which
the ancestral form is a deeply colored
species. A survey, however, of the
whole population of these marigolds
showed that there was a far greater
proportion of the orange tint. Since
the germination percentage was very
high, almost every seed having been
viable, and no plants were lost in set-
ting out, the conclusion is drawn that
the paler type had been overcome in
breeding and was masked by the more
dominant or atavistic orange factor.
This variation in stature and small
proportion of clear yellow tints had
already been observed in the plants
grown in 1917 to a marked degree.

In the named types of these mari-
golds the peduncle is somewhat ex-
panded at the inflorescence to form an
urn-shaped cup and the ray florets sur-
rounding the edge of this cup develop
first, a capitulum, of course being an
indeterminate inflorescence. The inner
florets grow up from the more central
part of this involucral urn and in the
perfect type of these varieties there is a
great elongation of the ligules of the
central florets, so that the whole head
represents a highly piled mound of
rays with graduated lengths of ligule
increasing from the circumference to
the center. In the plants grown during
the last three years, the central florets
either reverted completely to the origi-
nal species farm of disk florets, with
tubular corollas, or if the ligules were
retained they did not elongate, so that
the peduncular urn bore only one or
two rows of rays about its circumfer-
ence, and the center was a descending
hollow of undeveloped or partial ligules.

Budding and additional food did not
help matters or produce the large head
of full ligulate florets. It illustrated

The Journal of Heredity

the tendency in Jagetes to go back toa
simple composite type with dimorphic
corollas within two or three generations
of deficient artificial selection. The
special feature showing, perhaps, most
deterioration was the failure of the
central ligules to elongate, thus forming
sort of funnel-shaped inflorescence or
the complete reversal to the disk type.
In passing, it may be remarked that
the plants were most prolific in setting
seed, which is only another evidence of
deterioration in highly bred or hybrid
stock.

EARLY VARIATIONS IN THE STOCKS

The stocks, Matthiola incana, were
sown early and set out under the most
favorable conditions in an open bed
with considerable space about each
plant. By mid-summer each had
become a sturdy tufted specimen-plant
with a strong woody base. Later, when
the inflorescences began to form, these
plants gave every promise of what
should have been dense trusses of
double blossoms in tints of pink, red,
yellows, white, lavender and purple.
An early indication of variation was
noted, however, in these plants when
the leaves of adjacent plants were com-
pared. The foliage of the type is
densely tomentose but in these individ-
uals all stages were found—from heavy
gray velvety tomentum to an almost
completely glabrous condition. Con-
siderable variation was also observed
in the width of the leaves. When the
rather loosely arranged spikes and the
blossoms were fully developed, it was
a surprise to find that the color range
included only the white, lavender and
purple. The more delicate rose, pink
and yellow had all been submerged in
the dominant purple. The petals were
broad and most of the stamens per-
fectly developed and the inflorescence
bore flowers almost the entire length of
its usual tetramerous form, but with
very few petaloid stamens. In these
Stocks, just asin the marigolds, the het-
erozygous strains were very prolific and
matured abundant seed. In Matthiola,

1de Vries: Mutationstheorie—Oenothera Lam. var. albida.

Bowman: Deterioration in Horticultural Varieties

then, we have evidence of considerable
reversal to the simple cruciferous
ancestral forms which were presumably
purple, and signs of mixed heredity
in high degree of fertility and the
variations in the foliage.

THE CENTAUREA

In the Centaurea the type was of a
very deep blue color with at least three
or more rows of false rays. Reversal
was seen in over fifty percent of the
plants in the population of this sowing,
as the heads had only one, or at the
most, two rows of false rays and an
increase of functional disk florets. In
color also there was evidence of con-
tamination of the strain. Beside the
deep blue of the type there were all
shades of lighter blue, as well as white,
pink and maroon, showing that this
strain had not been carefully selected
and segregated at the seed-farm.

CARELESS SELECTION OF SEED-PARENTS

In all these foregoing examples, it
may be deducted that many standard
horticultural varieties have consider-
ably deviated from their types. In
these particular cultures the fact that
the growth conditions were uniform,
and other factors which would have
lowered the vitality of the generation,
such as fungous and bacterial diseases,
were absent, should be conclusive
evidence that causes for this deviation
have been inherently genetic, i.e. that
the seed was of poor quality and con-
taminated with other and dominant
inferior strains, or that there was a
general lowering, reverting and atavis-
tic tendency due to unknown physio-
logical conditions at the breeding
farms, which has affected the germ-
plasm of these varieties.

In regard to careless selection by the
breeders of the seed-parents having the
desired characters, or perhaps the

383

failure to keep up the nutrition or
some other cultural condition on the
farms, or the lack of careful and skilled
pollination, much, or perhaps all, can
be attributed to the war—directly due
to the lack of labor on the seed-farms;
but in all events this deterioration in
stock has occurred and it may be several
years until these strains are again
recovered or are replaced by new ones.

WHAT THESE OBSERVATIONS INDICATE

Another and rather interesting fea-
ture of these observations was the
recognition of those hereditary factors
in these particular varieties which are
least fixed or stable in the constitution
of these plants. Some of these have
become conspicuous by their complete
disappearance or modification. On
the other hand those characters which
are dominant and persist to the last
may only mask or cover those more
unstable characters which apparently
have disappeared.

Of course, from a purely genetical
point of view, these horticultural
varieties are far removed from the
simple strains of known heredity which
are usually chosen as material for
genetical investigation and research.
Most all horticultural varieties are
sports or the results of very complex
hybridizations and cross pollinations,
and if actual inbreeding experiments
should be carried on with them through
four, five or more generations for the
segregation of Mendelian characters,
all sorts of peculiar results might be
expected from these much mixed and
heterozygous strains.

In conclusion, then, it may be re-
peated that these observations perhaps
indicate some of the less firmly fixed
characters in the heredity of these
varieties which have undergone a
deterioration from their standard
types.

384

The Journal of Heredity

MEETING OF GENETICISTS INTERESTED IN AGRICULTURE

The place of genetics in the curricu-
lum in agricultural colleges, and co-
Operation in genetic investigations,
were among the several subjects dis-
cussed in a special meeting of geneti-
cists held in Chicago December 28th in
conjunction with the meetings of the
American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science and affiliated societies.

Among the speakers at the meeting
were Professors L. J. Cole of Wisconsin,
J. A. Detlefsen of Illinois, R. A. Emer-
son of Cornell, E. B. Babcock of Cali-
fornia, S. A. Beach of Iowa, M. J.
Dorsey of Minnesota, and D. F. Jones
of Connecticut. Fifteen Agricultural
Colleges and Experiment Stations,
besides the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture and other institutions, were
represented.

A resolution was adopted favoring
the establishment of a single depart-
ment of genetics in agricultural colleges.
Many institutions now have their in-
struction and research in genetics scat-
tered throughout many departments
with no one department responsible for
a fundamental course. To simplify
administration and prevent duplica-
tion, and give proper standing to the
subject of genetics in the curriculum, it
is recommended that each institution
have a department of genetics to han-
dle the courses of instruction and direct
the investigational work, and cooperate
with, but not control, investigational
work in the specialized problems of
genetics.

SECOND INTERNATIONAL EUGENICS CONGRESS

The Second International Eugenics
Congress will convene in New York
City September 22, 1921. It will bea
conference on the results of research in
race improvement. The First Inter-
national Congress was held in London
in 1912. Since then the world war has
come and gone, leaving the economic,
sociologic and biologic conditions
everywhere greatly disturbed. Never
before has the need of international
cooperation and enlightenment been
felt so keenly. The Second Eugenics
Congress is therefore meeting at a time
of exceptional interest.

The conference will be divided into
three sections. In the first, the results

of genetic research in animals and
plants will be presented, and also
studies in human heredity. The second
section will consider factors which in-
fluence the human family, and their
control, and the third will concern
itself with the topic of human racial
differences—the influence of racial
characteristics on human history and
their bearing on the policies of the
future, modern immigration being es-
pecially set forth.

Representatives from nearly every
country of the world are expected to be
at this congress. The Secretary-General
is Dr. C. C. Little, American Museum
of Natural History, New York City.

The Journal of

HEREDIT

A monthly publication devoted to Plant ireeding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

£9,
3

aw,

JANUARY, 1920
Vol. XI, No. 1

HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE
HEREDITY AND ECONOMICAL PRODUCTION OF FOOD
ORIGIN OF PIEBALD SPOTTING IN DOGS
TEAS’ HYBRID CATALPA
SOME PROMISING NEW PEAR STOCKS
DECLINE OF AUTOCRACY AND ITS RELATION TO WARFARE
THE SPREAD OF ROSEN RYE
A NEW DAHLIA OF INTEREST TO PLANT BREEDERS

ORGAN OF THE

. AMERICAN GENETIC:ASSOCIATION
a WASHINGTON ° D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only

é ‘
% Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, Act7of October 3, 1917
authorized December 20, 1918.

00) ) 0) SD) ) ND () ED ee te ne

Olt titel

DD DD a SD DD) |

The American Genetic Association

An incorporated organization devoted to promoting a knowledge
of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of
plants, animals, and human racial stocks.

Its membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists,
physicians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists, and breeders
of live stock throughout the world.

The Association owns the JouRNAL oF Herepity, which is pub-
lished monthly and sent to each member without additional cost. Every
member is thus a part owner of the Journal.

Membership imposes no burdensome obligations. The Associa-
tion, which is cooperative in nature, welcomes assistance in research,
but does not demand it. Members are invited to submit discussions of
the results of their research, accompanied by new and unusual photo-
graphs. All papers received will be given full consideration by the
editorial board.

Hundreds of members are engaged in collecting facts about in-
heritance, and making experiments to determine the laws of heredity.
Their discoveries are of fascinating interest and far-reaching import-
ance to the city dweller and the country dweller alike. These findings
are being reported and discussed every month in the Journal, and in
no better way can serious minded people keep abreast of one of the
greatest movements of modern science.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Subject to the approval of the Council, any person interested in
the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties
of plants and animals, is eligible for membership.

The Association welcomes all who are interested in its program,
and the Secretary will be glad to answer any inquiries.

Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings, and receive
the JournaL oF Herepity, are $2 within the United States and its
possessions; $2.25 in Canada, and $2.50 in all other foreign countries ;
life membership, $50.

If you are not already a member, and want to become one, or if
you know of anyone whom you think is interested in membership,
write to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Box 472, Eleventh Street Station Washington, D. C.

TS SS) > (+ -< |

SS ee

2 A) A DD A) ED > A

The Journal of

HEREDITY

A monthly publication devoted toflant ireding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

(,)
4
Es

FEBRUARY, 1920
Vol. XI, No. 2

THE WATER BUFFALO
PISTILLATE FLOWERED MAIZE PLANTS
EUGENICS AND OTHER SCIENCES
APPLIED EUGENICS
CONTINUOUS VARIATION IN COLOR
DEVELOPMENT OF USEFUL CITIZENSHIP
A MUTATING BLACKBERRY-DEWBERRY HYBRID
AN AWARD OF HONOR

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC-ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C. _
Printed for Circulation among Members only

Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in section 1108, Act of October 3, 1917,
authorized December 20, 1918.

OOOO OOOO OE OO SO SO OT OTS A EO OTOH

OD OD OS

The American Genetic Association

An incorporated organization devoted to promoting a knowledge
of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of
plants, animals, and human racial stocks.

Its membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists,
physicians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists, and breeders
of live stock throughout the world.

The Association owns the JouRNAL oF HeErepitTy, which is pub-
lished monthly and sent to each member without additional cost. Every
member is thus a part owner of the Journal.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Subject to the approval of the Council, any person interested in
the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties
of plants and animals, is eligible for membership.

The Association welcomes all who are interested in its program,
and the Secretary will be glad to answer any inquiries.

Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings, and receive
the JourNAL oF Herepity, are $2 within the United States and its
possessions ; $2.25 in Canada, and $2.50 in all other foreign countries ;
life membership, $50.

If you are not already a member; and want to become one, or if
you know of anyone who you think is interested in membership; write
to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Box 472, Eleventh Street Station Washington, D. C.

> > > A A

ood

OD D0 ED OD ODO OOD OD OE OD OS OS TO 0-0 OE OT 1 1) DD ED -D ()- DED) ED ED D-DD 0-0 O-E

The Journal of

HEREDIT

A monthly publication devoted toPlant,ireding
Animal Breeding and. Eugenics

o,
‘3

MARCH, 1920
Vol. XI, No. 3

A DISORDER OF COTTON PLANTS IN CHINA
BRACHYTIC CULMS
SWINE, SHEEP AND GOATS IN THE ORIENT
INBREEDING AND OUTBREEDING
NATURAL WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS
WORLD-POWER AND EVOLUTION

~ ORGAN OF THE

AMERICAN GENETIC:ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only

Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917,
authorized December 20, 1918.

> D> es SE a a ee ce

The American Genetic Association

An incorporated organization devoted to promoting a knowledge.

of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of
plants, animals, and human racial stocks.

Its membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists,
physicians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists, and breeders
of live stock throughout the world.

The Association owns the JouRNAL oF HeErepity, which is pub-
lished monthly and sent to each member without additional cost. Every
member is thus a part owner of the Journal.

Membership imposes no-burdensome obligations. The Associa-
tion, which is cooperative in nature, welcomes assistance in research,
but does not demand it. Members are invited to submit discussions of
the results of their research, accompanied by new and unusual photo-
graphs. All papers received will be given full consideration by the
editorial board.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Subject to the approval of the Council, any person interested in
the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties
of plants and animals, is eligible for membership.

The Association welcomes all who are interested in its program,
and the Secretary will be glad to answer any inquiries.

If you are not already a member, and want to become one, or if
you know of anyone who you think is interested in membership, write
to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Box 472, Eleventh Street Station Washington, D. C.

= -= = =.=.

The Journal of

HEREDITY

A monthly publication. devoted toPlant{breeding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

9,
fc)

APRIL, 1920
Vol. XI, No. 4

NATIVE HORSES AND CATTLE IN THE ORIENT
A GRAPEFRUIT VARIETY HAVING PINK COLORED FRUITS
HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE
FOREIGN PLANT INTRODUCTION MEDAL
COTTON A COMMUNITY CROP
ARE OUR RASPBERRIES FROM AMERICAN OR EUROPEAN SPECIES
ILLUSTRATING STRUCTURE OF HUMAN GERM-PLASM

ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN GENETIC:ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members only

Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, Act of October 3,21917,
authorized December 20, 1918,

eee 0-0) 0D OO A AO DHE

SPECIAL NOTICE
Requiring the Action of All Members

Consider what you are paying for the Journal of Heredity! It is Less
than most people allow for one evening’s entertainment. Consider the rela-
tive returns!

Your membership fee in the Association is no larger than in other
Associations but in this you get a year’s issue of an illustrated journal con-
taining original photographic reproductions, many of which represent
years of patient study by research men. These illustrations are to be found
nowhere else except in expensive books published later by these men.

Civilization is now entering a stage in which it is necessary that the
human race have correct ideas of heredity. These matters are not to be
dealt with by any system of prescriptions or directions to be handled by a
few experts. They will require the most general comprehension of the
facts that it is possible to secure. Although the importance of plant and
animal breeding and eugenics is recognized, the public is not informed to
the point of a practical understanding of the biological principles, or of the
applications that are possible.

To get these correct ideas of heredity before the public the students of
the subject must be heard and the photographs arranged by them must be
seen. It is the most difficult thing in the world for anyone but the dis-
coverer himself to place the facts correctly before the world. This Journal
contains the opinions of the real students—not the exaggerated interpre-
tations of professional journalists.

It is true that these articles require study to understand them, but is
any really valuable knowledge acquired sleepily? Do not your school days
teach you that? The articles in the Journal are written to attract those
who want to learn the facts about heredity. The photographs attempt to
explain the text; the illustrations are unique and if studied will bring the
reader right up to the fascinating borderland of knowledge regarding life.

The scientific men who are working to make this Journal a success are
giving their time and articles without pay. They do not have the money
to give, for as you know such workers are still underpaid. They want to
make the Journal self-supporting. They have seen the membership grow
from its small beginning to its present size. It has come through the war,
and has increased its membership 15 per cent this year. It now goes to
members in 29 different countries of the world. But it costs twice what it
did before the war to publish the Journal.

A little effort by each member now would make this Association large
enough to be a permanent meeting ground between the students of heredity
throughout the world and the general public.

From those who have youth and enthusiasm we want members. From
those who have money we ask for bequests or direct financial support.

Nominate by letter those who ought to be members. See back cover.

LLL A) OO

SS SS SS SS SE LS SS SS OE 0 OES

“

ES ee ee ee ee

Washington, D. C.

An incorporated organization, cooperative in nature, devoted to promoting a
knowledge of the laws of heredity and environment and their application to the
improvement of plants, animals, and the human race. It is the largest organization
in the world for the advancement of genetics—the study of the laws governing
heredity and their application to all living creatures.

Form of nomination
for membership
The American Genetic Association

In the world’s life of today it is a duty and a responsibility to be interested in
the great questions of inheritance, and to possess a working knowledge of the
methods for the improvement of living things. Consider the importanee of this )
in your own life, and in the lives of those about you. '

The Association welcomes into its membership all those who are influencing
the thought and progress of the present, and the young people who are going to
be the thinkers and leaders of the next generation.

Application for Membership

I desire to apply for membership in the American Genetic Association, and
enclose $...... for one year’s dues. It is understood that I will receive the Journal
of Heredity every month without further cost.

Membership dues $2 a year ING era ae pees as erst Ooh a na ee
in the United States and its S

possessions; in Canada $2.25, BREECH aa cEC ICC Gch CCRC. IO eKCEIC cic Ce ORIGINS Bois must c
and $2.50 in all other foreign :

countries. City Seat ao ase emitter il Salah wy 6 Sails Aheloy Shean Tenacity clea oem ne one

lL ansleaveeyatel Tokyo eaten ints o a ae eco ean CaeMcR ene Cees eats Sees oy None CRED Member, A. G. A.

Address al/ communications and remittances to

The American Genetic Association
Box 472, 11th Street Station Washington, D. C.

Coe om OE OO OE OO ED OED Oe a ee oes

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, BOYD TAYLOR.

Washington Loan & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C.

First President, JAMES WILSON.
Former Secretary of Agriculture.
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

Managing Editor, OLIVER OLSON

COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Director, Genealogical Record Office, Washington, D. C.
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution

of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

G. N. COLLINS, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Pl i
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, WachiautonsD: Gc end Pisek te pdaeaos, Boe

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Pl i igati
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, estate D "at Bereta toe

W. C. RUCKER, Chief Medical Adviser, Bureau of War Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C.
FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plant Breeding

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Chairman, Physiologist
in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding
Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-Chairman, Botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.

ROBERT A. ARPER, Professor of Botany,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

R. A. EMERSON, Professor of Plant Breeding,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

WALTER VAN FLEET, Plant Breeder, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Genetics,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
ems Cornell Medical College, New York,

HENRY B. WARD, Prof f Z iversi
a liicacie: Oetase: Minep nee oot begs.

GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman, Massachusetts
Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston,

Mass.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics

MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman,
Founder of Eugenics Record Office, Cold ing
H r, L. I.; New York, N. Y. a Sa

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, _ Chairman,
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.

ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of
Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc-
tor of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns
Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Springs Harbor,

ng Island, N. Y.

HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.

THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director,
National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, Professor of Educa-
tional Psychology, Columbia University.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Chairman, Dean of the
School of Journalism, Columbia University, New

York, N. Y. ¥
RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U. S. Public
Health Service, Washington, D. C. (lirst vice-

chairman). 4
MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na-

tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second

vice-chairman),
W. C. RUCKER, Chief Medica! Adviser, Bureau of

War Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C. (secre-

tary).
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
College of the City of New York.

ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New York City.

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superin-
tendent of Women’s Clinic Auxiliary, Washing-
ton, D. C.

MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.

i CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York,

THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.

PAUL POPENOE, General Secretary, American
Social Hygiene Association, New York.

NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C.

GENETICS AND EUGENICS

“Genetics is the science which seeks to account for the resem-
blances and the differences which are exhibited among organisms re-
lated by. descent.”

“Eugenics is the study of agencies under social control that may
improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity will probably
work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power
over nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be

clearly foreseen.

“To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics.
which proceeds in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and
animal breeding for the reason that heredity is less complicated in
these organisms than in man, and its operation can be more easily
made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods
for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals
and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race,
through the science of eugenics.”

GENETICS LITERATURE

The annual reports of the American Breeders’ Association, pub-
lished in seven volumes, form one of the most valuable collections of
material for students of genetics which has been published in the
United States. Volumes I to V are no longer available, but the Asso-
ciation still has on hand a few copies of Vol. VI for sale at $1.00 and
Vol. VII-VIII at $1.50.

The Association desires to purchase copies of Volumes I to V
of the Proceedings A. B. A., and will be glad to hear from anyone
having copies for sale.

Former issues of the JouRNAL oF HeEreEpITy, so far as they are
available, are for sale at 25 cents each, postpaid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Box 472, Eleventh Street Station Washington, D. C.

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, BOYD TAYLOR.

Washington Loan & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C.

of Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D

Plant Breeding

Washington, D. C.
HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of

of Tropical coast ae Riverside, Cal!
ROBERT A. HARPER,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y. 3
H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint Mary, Fla. i
R. A. EMERSON, Professor of Plant Breeding,
‘Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
WALTER VAN FLEET, Plant Breeder, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C. ;
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Genetics,

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
aac Cornell Medical College, New York,

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Chairman, Dean of the
School of Journalism, Columbia University, New

York, N. Y. ‘

RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U. S. Public
Health Service, Washington, D. C. (lirst vice-
chairman). :

MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na-
tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y (second
vice-chairman).

W. GC. RUCKER, Chief Medica! Adviser, Bureau of
War Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C. (secre-

t Ma
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
College of the City of New York.

NATIOMAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINGTON, D. 0.

The American Genetic Association

COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Director, Genealogical Record Office, Washington, D. C.
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

First President, JAMES WILSON.
Former Secretary of Agriculture.
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction,
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ant Intrornetion, Bisemies

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breedi igati
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. aecanelinn aie ~

W. C. RUCKER, Chief Medical Adviser, Bureau of War Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C.
FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zool i i

ease Urbs 0 ms
EORGE W. FIELD, Chairman, Massachusetts
Commissioners. of Fisheries and Game, Boston,

Mass.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics

a = 7 aabaareege ee eee ee

‘ounder of Eugenics Recor ce, Cold Spri

Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. spe si

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, _ Chairman,
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.

ADOLF MEYER, _Vice-chairman, Professor of
Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc-
tor of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns
Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Springs Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.

HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.

THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical _ Director,
National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, Professor of Educa-
tional Psychology, Columbia University.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New York City.

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superin-
tendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary, .Washing-
ton, D. C.

MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.

ge pte ee CARY RUMSEY, New York,

N. Y.
THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.

PAUL POPENOE, General Secretary, American
Social Hygiene Association, New York.

GENETICS AND EUGENICS

“Genetics is the science which seeks to account for the resem-
blances and the differences which are exhibited among organisms re-
lated by descent.”

“Eugenics is the study of agencies under social control that may
improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”

“An exact determination of the laws of heredity will probably
work more change in man’s outlook on the world, and in his power
over nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can be
clearly foreseen.

GENETICS LITERATURE

The Association desires to purchase copies of Volumes I to V
of the Proceedings A. B. A., and will be glad to hear from anyone
having copies for sale.

Former issues of the JourRNAL or HeErepity, so far as they are
available, are for sale at 25 cents each, postpaid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Box 472, Eleventh Street Station Washington, D. C.

The American Genetic Association

First President, JAMES WILSON.
Former Secretary of Agriculture.

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,

Treasurer, BOYD TAYLOR.

ee ot = Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.
ashi: & Trust Co. ee
Te cara, D.C Managing Editor, OLIVER OLSON

COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Director, Genealogical Record Office, Washington, D. C.

Ww. TLE bite 8 Gai are Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution
G. N. COLLINS, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
oO. BECGOr, Siena in ere = Office = Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, u. S. Depart-
Da FRIED etn he ok Hae et at Ft kien, Ba
ES oS Ae gestae ae Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart-

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resist i igati
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of AgHeutieres Washington, ye Breeding Faves

W. C. RUCKER, Chief Medical Adviser, Bureau of War Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C.
FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plant Breeding

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Chairman, Physiologist
in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breedin
Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, DNC!

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-Chairman, Botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany,

Columbia Univer New York, N. Y.

H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,

Glen Saint ao Fla.

R. A. EMERSON, Professor of Plant Breeding,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

WALTER VAN FLEET, Piant Breeder, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
ee Survey, Washington, D. C.

LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Genetics,
University of Wisconsin, Madieon, Wis.

CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
Anatomy. Cornell Medical College, New York,

HENRY B. WARD, Prof. i
of Itinois, Urbana, i. sleet

GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman, Massachusetts
Commissionere of Fisheries and Game,

Mass.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La. :
Eugenics

MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN, Honorary Chairman,
Founder of Eugenics Record Office, ;
Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. Cont Sone

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, _ Chairman
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of

echnology.

ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of
beri, Jobe Hootie Une tare
or oO! enry 3) atric Clinic,
Hopkins Hospital, Banmece: Md. J

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
poms pete ar at eee

nstitution o! on), i .
Long Island, N. Y. Ce ee

HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.

THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director,
‘National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, Professor of Educa-
tional Psychology, Columbia University.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Chairman, Dean of the
School of Journalism, Columbia University, New

York, N. Y. '
RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U. S. Public
Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-

chairman).

MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na-
tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second
vice-chairman). > a

W. C. RUCKER, Chief Medical Adviser, Bureau of
War Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C. (secre-

tary).
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
College of the City of New York.

ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, ieee of Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New York City.

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn,

ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superin-
ease Women's Clinic Auxiliary, Washing-
on, D. C.

MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.

‘cove CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York,

pits

THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.

PAUL POPENOE, General Secretary, American
Social Hygiene Association, New Yor

RATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, IO,., WABHINGTON, BD. 0.

0 ES SS TL

LOL A SS A A A A) A A

GENETICS AND EUGENICS

“Genetics is the science which seeks to account for the resem-
blances and the differences which are exhibited among organisms re-
lated by descent.”

“Eugenics is the study of agencies under social control that may
improve or impair the social qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”

GENETICS LITERATURE

The Association desires to purchase copies of Volumes I to V
of the Proceedings A. B. A., and will be glad to hear from anyone
having copies for sale.

Former issues of the JouRNAL oF HeErepity, so far as they are
available, are for sale at 25 cents each, postpaid.

Address
THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Box 472, Eleventh Street Station Washington, D. C.

> LFF A |e

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.
Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.
Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.
Treasurer, BOYD TAYLOR.
Washington Loan & Trust Co.
Washington, D. C.

First President, JAMES WILSON.
Former Secretary of Agriculture.
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS,
Former Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

Managing Editor, OLIVER OLSON

COUNCIL

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Director, Genealogical Record Office, Washington, D. C.
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University,.and Research Associate of the Carnegi ituti
pi aero pea core er eT ate of the egie Institution
G. N. COLLINS, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. =
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. cos Bao ansitie See
DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introducti
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 5 ant Introduction, Husmamas
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. -
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ; ee 5. Devers
T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant oe: Breeding Investigations,

Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.
W. C. RUCKER, Chief Medical Adviser, Bureau of War Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C.
FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plant Breeding

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Chairman, Physiologist
in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding
Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-Chairman, Botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical taeoen Riverside, Cal.

ROBERT A. ARPER, Professor of Botany,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y. :

H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,

Glen Saint Mary, Fla. :

R. A. EMERSON, Professor of Plant Breeding,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

WALTER VAN FLEET, Plant Breeder, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C. 2
LEON J. COLE, Vice-chairman, Professor of Genetics,

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
Anatomy, Cornell Medical College, New York,

N. Y.
HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University
of Illinois, Urbana, Ill

GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman, Massachusetts
Commissioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston,

Mass.
E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.

Eugenics

MES. ee = Bose ono Ca

under o ugenics Recor ce, it i

Harbor, L. I.; New York, N. Y. Ns a

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman,
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.

ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of
Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Direc-
tor of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns
Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Reman Pap emental Evplntien (Corpeee

nstitution o! ashington), i bor,

_ Long Island, N. Y. Zi Se Pe aaa

HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City.

THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical _ Director,
National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New
York City

E. E. SOUTHARD, Professor of Neuropathology,
Harvard Medical School, Director of the Boston
Psychopathic Hospital.

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, Professor of Educa-
tional Psychology, Columbia University.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Chairman, Dean of the
School of Journalism, Columbia University, New

York, N. Y.

RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon General, U. S. Public
Health Service, Washington, D. C. (lirst vice-
chairman).

MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman's Welfare Department, Na-
tional Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second
vice-chairman)

W. C. RUCKER, Chief Medica! Adviser, Bureau of
War Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C. (secre-

tary).
STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of Education,
Collegeof the City of New York.

a tt

ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Inspector of Ungrad
Classes, Public Schools of New aaE Gira wt:

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Political Economy,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superin-
tendent of Women's Clinic Auxiliary Washing-
ton, D. C.

MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.

rae CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York,

THE RIGHT REVEREND WALTER TAYLOR
SUMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.

PAUL POPENOE, General Secretary, American
Social Hygiene Association, New York.

The Journal of

HEREDITY

A monthly publication devoted. to Plant breeding
| Animal Breeding and Eugenics

Bele) Covomnpaw BERRY 4 (5.060, -seeeden ve Witson PoPpENOoE
ENVIRONMENT AND BREEDING........---- Anprew C, McCanpD isu
MERREDITY EN ELORSES ic ci0)c' ele died eo bein cities ois H. K. Buso-Brown
MENACE OF THE Hatr-Man............0000 SetH K. HumpHrey
Grarr-CHIMerA IN APPLES..........5.20200000000% A. B. Strout
SOMEEDING ELARUESS, SHEEP { 0). «ccs /0 3 seins elec ns sin E. G. Ritzman
ORGAN OF THE
AMERICAN’ GENETIC*ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON °- D.C.
PPinted for Cireulation among Members only

Volume XI, Number 5 May-June, 1920

The American Genetic Association

An incorporated organization devoted to promoting a knowledge
of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of
plants, animals, and human racial stocks.

Its membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists,
physicians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists, and breeders
of live stock throughout the world.

The Association owns the JOURNAL oF HEREDITY, which is pub-
lished monthly and sent to each member without additional cost.
Every member is thus a part owner of the JOURNAL.

Hundreds of members are engaged in collecting facts about in-
heritance, and making experiments to determine the laws of heredity.
Their discoveries are of fascinating interest and far-reaching impor-
tance to the city dweller and the country dweller alike. These findings
are being reported and discussed every month in the JOURNAL, and in
no better way can serious minded people keep abreast of one of the
greatest movements of modern science.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Subject to the approval of the Council, any person interested in
the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties
of plants and animals, is eligible for membership.

The Association welcomes all who are interested in its program,
and the Secretary will be glad to answer any inquiries.

Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings, and receive
the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY, are $3 within the United States and its
possessions; $3.25 in Canada, and $3.50 in all other foreign countries;
life membership, $50.

If you are not already a member, and want to become one, or if
you know of anyone who you think is interested in membership, write
to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Box 472, Eleventh Street Station Washington, D. C.

The Journal of

HEREDITY

A monthly publication tlevoted toPlant,breeding
Animal Breeding and. Eugenics

e
REINDEER INDUSTRY IN ALASKA : : G. J. Lomen
Tue Heratp—A New Type or PRuNE ‘ : L. R. DeTjEN
Race ASSIMILATION ; . ’ : H. H. Lavcuiin
Tue TREE DAHLIA OF GUATEMALA j 2 WI.son PoPpENOE
CHLOROPHYLL Factors or Maize : ; E. W. Linpstrom
Mutations 1n Mucors ‘ : A. F. BLAKESLEE
ProrTrecTivE CoLoRATION IN BIRDS : : F. A. Woops

“ORGAN OF THE

AMERICAN’ GENETIC‘ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON °- D.C.
Printed for Circulation among Members.only

Volume XI, Number 6 July-August, 1920

The American Genetic Association

An incorporated organization devoted to promoting a knowledge
of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of
plants, animals, and human racial stocks.

Its membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists,
physicians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists, and breeders
of live stock throughout the world.

The Association owns the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, which is pub-
lished monthly and sent to each member without additional cost.
Every member is thus a part owner of the JOURNAL.

Hundreds of members are engaged in collecting facts about in-
heritance, and making experiments to determine the laws of heredity.
Their discoveries are of fascinating interest and far-reaching impor-
tance to the city dweller and the country dweller alike. These findings
are being reported and discussed every month in the JOURNAL, and in
no beicer way can serious minded people keep abreast of one of the
greatest movements of modern science.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Subject to the approval of the Council, any person interested in
the improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties
ot plants and animals, is eligible for membership.

The Association welcomes all who are interested in its program,
and the Secretary will be glad to answer any inquiries.

Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings, and receive
the JouRNAL oF HEREDITY, are $3 within the United States and its
possessions; $3.25 in Canada, and $3.50 in all other foreign countries;
life. membership, $50.

If you are not already a member, and want to become one, or if
you know of anyone who you think is interested in membership, write
to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Box 472, Eleventh Street Station Washington, D. C.

The Journal of

PERE DITY,

A monthly publication tlevoted to Plant reeding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

ens

Tue ImprovEMENT OF Root-Stocks. . . . H.J. WEBBER
Crosses or Dairy AND BEEF CaTTLE . .~ . Joun W. GowWEN
HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MaizE . . ln J. H. Kempton
Tue Immicration Proptem Topay. . . Rosert De C. Warp
Are VALENCIA ORANGES FROM CHINA? .. . ~—.-: LEE AND Scott
INHERITED SYNDACTYLY IN Man pea Rate G, Horne

RactAL Dirrerences In Mortratity

ORGAN OF THE

AMERICAN’ GENETIC:ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON - D.C.
Printed for Civeulation among Members only

Volume XI, Number 7 September-October, 1920

Making a New Breed of Poultry

is the title of an article soon to appear in the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY.
It is written by Harry M. Lamon of the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture. The photographs which accompany it make the article a pic-
torial story of the Government’s work covering eight years of breeding
experiments not heretofore published.

SOME OTHER ARTICLES OF SPECIAL INTEREST ARE:

INHERITANCE IN SWINE, by J. L. Lush, University of Wisconsin.
Dutcsa BELTED CATTLE, by K. Kuiper, Jr., Havelte, Holland.
GENETICS OF HEREFORD CATTLE, by W. E. Castle and W. L. Wachter,

Harvard University,

Heritable Characters of Maize:

ZiczAG Cums, by W. H. Eyster, University of Missouri.

SHRUNKEN ENDOSPERM, by C. B. Hutchison, Cornell University.

WHITE SHEATHS, by J. H. Kempton, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
A HERD oF ALBINO CATTLE, by J. A. Detlefsen, University of Illinois.
HEREDITARY BEHAVIOR OF A HEN WHICH CHANGED Cotor, by W. A.

Lippincott, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.

BETTER AMERICAN FAMILIES (2 papers), by Wilhelmine E. Key,

Battle Creek, Mich.

INBREEDING AND Cross-BREEDING CREPIS CAPILLARIS, by J. L.

Collins, University of California.

EFFECT OF THE LENGTH OF DAYLIGHT ON PLANT DEVELOPMENT, by

W. W. Garner, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

RELATION OF DIET TO TEETH, by P. R. Howe, Harvard University.

HEREDITY OF EYE DEFECTS IN RABBITs, by M. F. Guyer, University
of Wisconsin.

VARIATIONS IN WILD Tar WEEDS, by E. B. Babcock, University of

California.

INHERITANCE OF SIZE IN Rats, by Hemen L. Ibsen, University of

Kansas. ©
Parasitic Wasps, by P. W. Whiting, St. Stephens College, New York.
SELECTING HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN SIRES FOR HIGH YEARLY PRODUCTION,

by R. E. Hunt, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.
INHERITANCE OF MENTAL TRAITS, a review of Dr. Starch’s new work.
DETERIORATION IN SOME HORTICULTURAL VARIETIES THROUGH DEFI-

CIENT ARTIFICIAL SELECTION, by H. H. M. Bowman, Toledo

University.

EXPERIENCE WITH Hysrips, by H. Ness, Texas Agricultural Experi-
ment Station.

Most of these articles represent years of patient research work.
Told in the words of the research workers themselves, and accompanied
by original photographs—the testimony of the camera—the discus-
sions will interest and deserve a very large audience. As only enough
Journals are printed to supply the membership at the time of publica-
tion, names of new members should be received at once in order to
get these articles. Nominate a new member by letter today.

The American Genetic Association
Box 472, llth Street Station Washington, D. C.

The Journal of

HEREDITY

A monthly publication. tlevoted toflant Breeding
Animal Breeding and Eugenics

99,
)

A New BLvuesBerry Hyprip . i ; . FREDERICK V. CovVILLE
Is Race SuicipE PossIBLe? . : . ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
A Hen Wuicu CHANGED CoLor . , Wi.iiaM A. LippINncoTT
HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF Maize : . Wi uram H. Eyster
BETTER AMERICAN FAMILIES . é : . WrtHeELMINE E. Key
Crosses oF Dairy AND BEEF CATTLE... . Joun W. Gowen
A Herp oF ALBINO CATTLE . : oe J. A. DETLEFSEN

DETERIORATION IN HORTICULTURAL VARIETIES H.H. M. Bowman

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY AT MENASHA, WISCONSIN
BY THE

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
EDITORIAL AND GENERAL OFFICES
WASHINGTON, D. C.

Volume XI, Number 8 November-December, 1920

The American Genetic Association

An incorporated organization devoted to promoting a knowledge
of the laws of heredity and their application to the improvement of
plants, animals, and human racial stocks.

Its membership is composed of men of science, teachers, publicists,
physicians, clergymen, parents, students, horticulturists, and breeders
of live stock throughout the world.

The Association owns the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, which is pub-
lished monthly and sent to each member without additional cost.
Every member is thus a part owner of the JOURNAL.

Hundreds of members are engaged in collecting facts about in-
heritance, and making experiments to determine the laws of heredity.
Their discoveries are of fascinating interest and far-reaching impor-
tance to the city dweller and the country dweller alike. These findings
are being reported and discussed every month in the JOURNAL, and in
no better way can serious minded people keep abreast of one of the
greatest movements of modern science.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MEMBERSHIP

Subject to the approval of the Council, any person interested in
tle improvement of the human race or the creation of better varieties
of plants and animals, is eligible for membership.

. The Association welcomes all who are interested in its program,
and the Secretary will be glad to answer any inquiries.

Annual dues, giving the right to attend all meetings, and receive
the JOURNAL OF HEREDITY, are $3 within the United States and its
possessions; $3.25 in Canada, and $3.50 in all other foreign countries;
life membership, $50.

If you are not already a member, and want to become one, or if
you know of anyone who you think is interested in membership, write
to

THE AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION
Menasha, Wisconsin
Editorial and General Offices, Box 472, 11th St. Sta., Washington, D. C.

Genetics and Eugenics

“Genetics is the science which seeks to account for the resem-
blances and the differences which are exhibited among organisms re-
lated by descent.”

“Eugenics is the study of agencies under social control that may
improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”

“To gain this knowledge is the object of the science of genetics,
which proceeds in practice, largely by means of plant breeding and
animal breeding for the reason that heredity is less complicated in
these organisms than in man, and its operation can be more easily
made out. The knowledge so gained finds its application in methods
for the improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals
and, most important of all, in the improvement of the human race,
through the science of eugenics.”

In the world’s life of today it is a duty and a responsibility to be
interested in the great questions of inheritance, and to possess a work-
ing knowledge of the methods for the improvement of living things.
Consider the importance of this in your own life, and in the lives of
those about you. The Association welcomes into its membership all
those who are influencing the thought and progress of the present, and
the young people who are going to be the thinkers and leaders of the
next generation.

Application for Membership

_ I desire to apply for membership in the American Genetic Associa-
tion, and enclose $ for one year’s dues. It is understood that
I will receive the JoURNAL OF HEREDITY every month without further
cost.

Membership dues $3 a year in
the United States and its posses-
sions; in Canada $3.25, and $3.50
in all other foreign countries.

Indorsed by

The American Genetic Association
Menasha, Wisconsin
Editorial and General Offices, Box 472, 11th St. Sta., Washington, D. C.

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.

Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.

Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.

Treasurer, BOYD TAYLOR.

Honorary Vice-Presidents:

First President, JAMES WILSON.

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS.

Editorial Board:

G.N. COLLINS
WALTER VAN FLEET

SEWALL WRIGHT

E. W. SHEETS

PAUL POPENOE
FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS

Managing Editor, OLIVER OLSON

COUNCIL
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

G. N. COLLINS, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge ue Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D.

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D

J. H. KEMPTON, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Divisioa, Bureau ot Animal Industry, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of

Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.,

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
SEWALL WRIGHT, Senior Animal Husbandman in Animal Genetics, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plant Breeding ;

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Chairman, Physiologist
in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investiga-
tions, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

A.B. STOUT, Director of Laboratories, New York Botan-
ical Garden, New York.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.

HARVEY J. SCONCE, Sidell, Illinois. Mi

H. HAROLD HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint Mary, Fla.

R. A. EMERSON, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell

University, Ithaca, N. Y. é

D. F. JONES, Professor of Plant Breeding, Connecticut
‘Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn.

A. D. SHAMEL, Pomologist, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.

Animal Breeding

LEON J. COLE, Chairman, Professor of Genetics,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

T. S. PALMER, Vice-Chairman, Assistant Chief of
Biological Survey, Washington, Dic;

CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
Oe are Cornell Medical College, Ne- York,

C. C. LITTLE, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

J. A. DETLEFSEN, Professor of Genetics, College of
Agriculture, Urbana, Llinois.

E. N. WENTWORTH, Armour & Company, Chicago,

Ill.
E. A, McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.

Eugenics

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer
on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of i ete

ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psy-
chiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hos-

ital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Experimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Springs Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.

HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid Asso-
ciation, New York City.

THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director, National
Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City.

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, Professor of Educational

Psychology, Columbia Ge 3
MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y¥.

George Banta Publishing Company, Menasha, Wis.

SCIENCE KNOWS NO NATIONAL BOUNDARIES

“gy believe in the work of your organization. I do not see how any
sane man or woman can fail to be impressed with the truths you are
presenting. The time is very near when you can preach these facts to a
wide audience.” —from Arizona.

‘*& copy of the Journal of Heredity has just been called to my atten-
tion. What must I do to become a member of your Association?”

—from Michigan.

“‘T am out on the ranch a great deal, away from my business, but—

keep the Journal coming.” —from Wyoming.
“T was greatly pleased that I had been made a member of your
Association.” —from New York.

“T am the wife of a seedsman who is interested in pure stock of all
’ growing things—and the mother of three sons who need all the varied
information your Journal gives.” —from Ohio.
“As an administrative and supervisory school official, a teacher of
sociology and a father, I am naturally very much interested in the
subject-matter of investigation of your Association.”
—from Pennsylvania.
‘‘The Society desires to become a member of your Association and
to receive the Journal of Heredity. The Director is greatly interested
and finds the publication issued by you most useful.”
—from Queensland, Australia.
“J shall take pleasure in handing out nomination blanks with the
reprints to my co-workers, and shall feel happy if thus I can assist you in

your work.” —from Svaléf, Sweden.
‘Please send, fully postpaid and registered, your issues from 1913
to 1918.” —lTrbrarie, Warsaw, Poland.

“T intend to continue the Journal of Heredity as long asI live. . . .
I must thank you for all the trouble you have taken, and congratulate
you on the sustained high quality of the Journal, especially the illustra-
tions.” . —from Canterbury, New Zealand.

“T would like you to know how heartily I appreciate the Journal.”
—from Marovo Lagoon, Solomon Islands.

‘‘T have to thank you for the Journal of Heredity for December to
teplace the one sent previously and which arrived here in a ruined
condition. I am of course arranging to have all the Journals bound in
volumes and I shall be indeed sorry to lose any one number. I can
assure you that as long as I live I shall always continue to be a member.”

—from Calcutta, India.

“The College Library here subscribes to the Journal of Heredity
which I read regularly and think very interesting and useful.”
—from Royal College, Dublin, Ireland.

“Being a student, a rancher, and a breeder-to-be, I am very inter-
ested in your Association and its work. I have had access to but a few
copies of your Journal. They were intensely interesting; it was these
that instilled the desire in me for more. The field you cover has long
been my ideal of life’s research and effort. It was a surprise to me to
find a large organization of intelligent men already dedicated to this
cause. I would like you to consider me a candidate for membership.’

—from Idaho.

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD. Vice-President, W. E, CASTLE. Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL,

Treasurer, BOYD TAYLOR. y

Honorary Vice-Presidents: ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN
First President, JAMES WILSON. First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS.

Editorial Board: ,

G.N. COLLINS SEWALL WRIGHT PAUL POPENOE
WALTER VAN FLEET E. W. SHEETS FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS
Managing Editor, OLIVER OLSON

COUNCIL

E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of
* Washington: Cambridge, Mass.

G. N. COLLINS, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington,

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

J. H. KEMPTON, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

GEORGE M, ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. Cc

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Bhteaie o Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.{

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

SEWALL WRIGHT, Senior Animal Husbandman in Animal Genetics, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

i CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding eae Cornell Medical College, Ne. York,

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Chairman, Physiologist N.Y, ;
in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investiga- C- aS 4 te Serie: Institution of Washington,
tions, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of A DETLEFSEN, ' oe Island, f
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. f eH, Urbana, Aino. yi Genet, ee a
feat TOUR, Tine oi Laboratories, New York Botan- EAN. WE TWORTH, Arison & Company, Chicago,
HERBERT i. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
a ye VEN SeGNCE gi Rives Cal. . Eugenics
1de) nols.
Fee ae Een ES story Nurasie, FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chaim, Lecturer
W GlenSaint Mary, Fla ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor oes Psy-
A. EMERSON, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell chiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
University, Ithaca, N. Y. Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic 7 hns Hopkins Hos- -
D.'F. JONES, Professor of Plant Breeding, Connecticut ital, Baltimore, Md. ‘
Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn. CHARL LES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
D, SHAMEL, Pomologist, U. S. Department of Department of Experimental’ Evolution’ (Carnegie
: ‘Agriculture, Riverside, Cal. Tae Washington), Cold Springs Harbor,
ng Islan:
HOMER FOLKS, Fy chat State Charities Aid Asso-
i i ciation, New York Cit:
nici tiga ei THOMAS W, SALMON, Medical Director, National
LEON J. COLE, Chairman, Professor of Genetics, Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City.
meet of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, Professor of Educational
T. S. PALMER, Vice-Chairman, ‘Assistant Chief of Psychology, Columbia University
Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. MRS. CHARLES CARY RUMSEY, New York, N. Y.

Georgo Banta Publishing Company, Menasha,

Genetics and Eugenics

“Genetics is the science which seeks to account for the resem-
blances and the differences which are exhibited among organisms re-
lated by descent.”’

“Eugenics is the study of agencies under social control that may
improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”

Application for Membership

_ I desire to apply for membership in the American Genetic Associa-
tion, and enclose $ for one year’s dues. It is understood that
I will receive the JouRNAL OF HEREDITY every month without further
cost. |

Membership dues $3 a year in
the United States and its posses- Street
sions; in Canada $3.25, and $3.50
in all other foreign countries.

Indorsed by Member, A. G. A.

Address all communications and remittances to

The American Genetic Association
Box 472, 11th Street Station Washington, D. C.

The American Genetic Association

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.

Vice-President, W. E. CASTLE.

Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.

Treasurer, BOYD TAYLOR.

Honorary Vice-Presidents:
First President, JAMES WILSON.

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN
First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS.

Editorial Board:

3.N. COLLINS SEWALL WRIGHT

WALTER VAN FLEET

F. R. MARSHALL

PAUL POPENOE
FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS

Managing Editor, OLIVER OLSON

COUNCIL
E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of

* “Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

G. N. COLLINS, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in oe of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department

of ‘Agriculture, Washington, D

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Reccntarel Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

J. H. KEMPTON, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, cis of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Washington, D.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and pruceh hee Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U.S. Department o: Agriculture, Washington, D

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
SEWALL WRIGHT, Senior Animal Husbandman in Animal Genetics, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of

Plant Breeding

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Chairman, Physiologist
in Charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding nvestiga-
tions, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of

iculture, Washington, D. C.

G. N. COLLINS, Vice-Chairman, Botanist, Bureau of

Plant industry, U.S.

wee Dic:
‘WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of

Pht Breedi Z, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of ee ey Agriculture pivemnoe, Cal.

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia
ae New York, N.Y.

OLD pea Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Foie ke SON, Pr

R.A. ede Eire of Plant Breeding, Cornell

University, Ithaca, N. Y.

WALTER VAN FLEET, Plant Breeder, U. S. Depart-
eo of Agriculture.

A. SHAMEL, Pomologist, U. S. Department of
pele Riverside, Cal.

Animal Breeding

T. S. PALMER, Chairman, Assistant Chief of Bio-
logical Survey Washington, D D.

LEON J. COLE, Vice- Chairman, Professor of Genetics,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Department of Agriculture,

Cornell Medical College, New York,

HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University
of Illinois, Urbana,

GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman, Massachusetts Com-
missioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.

E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.

Eugenics

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer
on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psy-
chiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hos-
pital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of Ex erimental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Springs Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.

HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid Asso-
ciation, New York City.

THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director, National
Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City.

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, Professor of Educational
Psychology, Columbia University.

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND EXTENSION

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Chairman, Dean of the School
a Ee Columbia University, New York,

RUPERT BLUE, Assistant gs ag General, U. S.
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-
chairman),

MRS. aon HAYS HAMMOND, former National

Woman’s Welfare De Jartment, National
Civic Meteetics, New York, N. Y. (second vice-
chairman),

W. C. RUCKER, Chief beds Syeaa Bureau of War
Risk Insurance, Washington, D C. (secretary).

STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Sees of Education
ye e of the City of New York

ELIZABETH E. FARRELL, Tamgocbons of Ungraded
Classes, Public Schools of New Yor!

IRVING FISHER, Professor of Polityeal Economy,
Yale Universit; ty New Haven, Conn.

ELNORA CUDDEBACK FOLKMAR, Superintendent
of Women’s Clinic eee! Washington, D.C.

MRS. WORTHAM JAMES, New York, N. Y.

— ees Se a RU Se New York, N. Y.
HE WALTER TAYLOR
TREMNER. ‘Bishou an the incase of Oregon.

PAUL POPENOE, Thermal, California.

eorge Banta Publishing Company, Menasha, Wis.

Genetics and Eugenics

“Genetics is the science which seeks to account for the resem-
blances and the differences which are exhibited among organisms re-
lated by descent.”

“Eugenics is the study of agencies under social control that may
improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either
physically or mentally.”

Application for Membership

Membership dues $3 a year in
the United States and its posses- Street
sions; in Canada $3.25, and $3.50
in all other foreign countries.

Indorsed by Member, A. G. A.

Address all communications and remittances to

The American Genetic Association
Box 472, 11th Street Station Washington, D. C.

President, DAVID FAIRCHILD.

The American Genetic Association

Vice-President, W. E, CASTLE.

Secretary, GEORGE M. ROMMEL.

Treasurer, BOYD TAYLOR.
Honorary Vice-Presidents: ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL: MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN

First President, JAMES WILSON,

First Secretary, WILLET M. HAYS.

Editorial Board:

G.N. COLLINS SEWALL WRIGHT

WALTER VAN FLEET

F,. R. MARSHALL

PAUL POPENOE
FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS

Managing Editor, OLIVER OLSON

COUNCIL
W. E. CASTLE, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, and Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington; Cambridge, Mass.

G. N. COLLINS, Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
O. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Office of Crop Acclimatization, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Focen Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

J. H. KEMPTON, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

GEORGE M. ROMMEL, Chief of Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

T. H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge, Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

SEWALL WRIGHT, Senior Animal Husbandman in Animal Genetics, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

COMMITTEES ON RESEARCH

Plant Breeding

WALTER T. SWINGLE, Chairman, Physiologist
in Charge of ee ees and Breeding Investiga-
tions, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of

Gs are W ington, D.C. i

G..N. COLI{N Vice-Chairman, Botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Secretary, Professor of
Plant Breeding, University of California, Director
of Citrus Substation and Dean of Graduate School
of Tropical Agriculture, Riverside, Cal. ‘

ROBERT A. HARPER, Professor of Botany, Columbia
rey New York, N. Y. i

H. D HUME, Glen Saint Mary Nurseries,
Glen Saint as Fla.

R. A. EMERSON, Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell

University, Ithaca, N. Y.

WALTER VAN FLEET, Plant Breeder, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. 5

A. D. SHAMEL, Pomologist, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Riverside, Cal.

Animal Breeding

T. S. 1 et EE rere Assistant Chief of Bio-

logical Surv: ashington, D. C. i
LEON J. COLE, Vice-Chairman, Professor of Genetics,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Chairman, Dean of the School
P es Columbia University, New York,

RUPERT BLUE, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S.
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. (first vice-
Cc le

MRS. JOHN HAYS HAMMOND, former National
Chairman, Woman’s Welfare Department, National
Civic Federation, New York, N. Y. (second vice-
chairman).

W. C. RUCKER, Chief Medical Adviser, Bureau of War

Risk Insurance, Washington, D. C. (secretary).

COMMITTEE ONJEDUCATION AND EXTENSION

CHARLES R. STOCKARD, Secretary, Professor of
ee Cornell Medical College, New York,

HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, Universi
of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. a aaa

GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman, Massachusetts Com-
missioners of Fisheries and Game, Boston, Mass.

E. A. McILHENNY, Avery Island, La.
Eugenics

FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, Chairman, Lecturer
on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

ADOLF MEYER, Vice-chairman, Professor of Psy-
chiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of
Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, J ohns Hopkins Hos-
pital, Baltimore, Md.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT, Secretary, Director
Department of E imental Evolution (Carnegie
Institution of Washington), Cold Springs Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.

HOMER FOLKS, Secretary, State Charities Aid Asso-
ciation, New York City.

THOMAS W. SALMON, Medical Director, National
Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York City.

EDWARD L, THORNDIKE, Professor of Educational
Psychology, Columbia University.

STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Professor of i
College of the City of New rie ¢ Se
ELIZABETH E.

of Women’s Clinic Auxili Washi D.C.
‘AMES, N me ey: ~

UMNER, Bishop of the Diocese of Oregon.
hermal, California.

S
PAUL POPENOE,

George Banta Publishing Company, Menasha, Wis.

IAN NT

100135025

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Journal of heredity"

See other formats