The Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science (Vol. 3)

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Iowa Academy of Sciences

F"OI^ 18Q5.

VOL III.

PUBLISHED BY THE STATE.

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DES MOINES:

F. B. CONAWAY, STATE PRINTER.

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LIBRARY OF

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PROCEEDINGS

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F"OI^ 18Q5

VOLUME III.

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PUBLISHED BY THE STATE.

DES MOINES:

F. R. CONAWAY, STATE PRINTER.

LETTER OP TRANSMITTAL.

Agricultural College, )
Ames, Iowa, February 15, 1896. \

To His Excellency, FRANCIS M. Drake, Governor of Iowa:

Sir — In accordance with the provisions of chapter 86, laws
of the Twenty- fifth General Assembly, I have the honor to
transmit herewith the proceedings of the tenth annual session
of the Iowa Academy of Sciences.

With great respect, your obedient servant,
Herbert Osborn,
Secretary Iowa Academy of Sciences.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

189^.

President.— U. W. NORRIS.
First Vice-President.— CharTuES R. Keyes.
Second Vice-President.— T. PROCTOR Hall.
Secretary'- Treasurer.— Herbert Osborn.
Librarian.— B.. FOSTER Bain.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Ex-Officio.—B.. W. NoRRis, Charles R. Keyes, T. Proctor Hall,, Her-
bert Osborn.
Elective.— 'N . E. Hansen, W. H. Norton. T. H. Macbride.

1896.

President.— T. PROCTOR Hall.
First Vice-President— W. S. FRANKLIN.
Second Vice-President— T. H. Macbride.
Secretary- Treasurer.— Herbert Osborn.
Librarian.— K. FOSTER Bain.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Ex-Officio.—T. PROCTOR Hall, W. S. Franklin, T. H. Macbride, Her-
bert Osborn.
Elective.— W. S. Hendrixson, M. F. Arey, W. H. Norton.

Constitution of the Iowa Academy of Sciences.

Section. 1. This organization shall be known as the Iowa Academy of
Sciences.

Sec. 2. The object of the Academy shall be the encouragement of sci-
entific work in the state of Iowa.

Sec. 3. The membership of the Academy shall consist of (1), fellows
who shall be elected from residents of the state of Iowa actively engaged in
scientific work, of (2) associate members of the state of Iowa interested
in the progress of science but not direct contributors to original research,
and (3) corresponding fellows, to be elected by vote from original workers
in science in other states; also, any fellow removing to another state from
this may be classed as a corresponding fellow. Nomination by the council
and assent of three-fourths of the fellows present at any annual meeting
shall be necessary to election.

Sec. 4. An entrance fee of $3 shall be required of each fellow, and an
annual fee of $1, due at each annual meeting after his election. Fellows in
arrears for two years, and failing to respond to notification from the
secretary-treasurer, shall be dropped from the academy roll.

Sec. 5. (a) The officers of the academy shall be a president, two vice-
presidents and a secretary-treasurer, to be elected at the annual meeting.
Their duties shall be such as ordinarily devolve upon these officers, (b) The
charter members of the academy shall constitute the council, together with
such other fellows as may be elected at an annual meeting of the council
by it as members thereof, provided, that at any such election two or more
negative votes shall constitute a rejection of the candidate, (c) The council
shall have power to nominate fellows to elect members of the council, fix
time and place of meetings, to select papers for publication in the proceed-
ings, and have control of all meetings not provided for in general session.
It may, by vote, delegate any or all these powers, except the election of
members of the council, to an executive committee, consisting of the officers
and of three other fellows, to be elected by the council.

Sec. 6. The academy shall hold an annual meeting in Des Moines dur-
ing the week that the State Teachers' association is in session. Other
meetings may be called by the council at times and places deemed
advisable.

Sec. 7. All papers presented shall be the result of original investiga-
tion, but the council may arrange for public lectures or addresses on scien-
tific subjects.

8 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

Sec. 8. The secretary-treasurer shall each year publish the proceed-
ings of the academy In pamphlet (octavo) form, giving- author's abstract of
papers, and, if published elsewhere, a reference to the place and date of
publication; also the full text of such papers as may be designated by the
council. If published elsewhere the author shall, if practicable, publish in
octavo form and deposit separates with the secretary-treasurer, to be per-
manently preserved for the academy.

Sec. 9. This constitution may be amended at any annual meeting by
assent of a majority of the fellows voting, and a majority of the council;
provided, notice of proposed amendment has been sent to all fellows at least
one month previous to the meeting, and provided that absent fellows may
deposit their votes, sealed, with the secretary-treasurer.

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION OF THE IOWA ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES.

ARTICLE I.

We, the undersigned, hereby associate ourselves with the intention to
constitute a corporation to be known as the Iowa Academy of Sciences, the
purpose of which is to hold periodical meetings for the presentation and
discussion of scientific papers, to publish proceedings, to collect such litera-
ture, specimens, records and other property as may serve to advance the
interests of the organization, and to transact all such business as may be
necessary in the accomplishment of these objects.

ARTICLE II.

The membership of the corporation shall consist of the incorporators,
and such other residents of the state of Iowa as may be duly elected fellows
of the Academy.

ARTICLE III.

The duly elected officers of the Academy shall be the officers of the
corporation.

ARTICLE IV.

The principal place of business of the Academy shall be the city of Des
Moines, in the state of Iowa.

The capital stock of the corporation is none.
The par value of its shares is none.
The number of its shares is none.

ARTICLE V.

The Academy shall hold an annual meeting in the last week of Decem-
ber, of each year, or upon call of the executive committee, and such other
meetings as may be arranged for.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

ARTICLE VI.

This corporation shall have the right to acquire property, real and per-
sonal, by purchase, gift or exchange, and such property shall be held sub-
ject to the action of the majority of its fellows, or the council, the execu-
tive committee, or such parties as it may by vote direct to transact such
business in accordance with the constitution.

All deeds, leases, contracts, conveyances and agreements, and all releases
of mortgages, satisfactions of judgment, and other obligations, shall be
signed by the president or vice-president and the secretary, and the signa-
ture of these officers shall be conclusive evidence that the execution of the
instrument was by authority of the corporation.

ARTICLE VII.

The private property of the members of this corporation shall not be
liable for any of its debts or obligations.

ARTICLE VIII.

By-laws, rules and regulations, not inconsistent with these articles, may
be enacted by the Academy.

ARTICLE IX.

These articles may be amended at any meeting of the Academy called for
the purpose by assenting vote of two-thirds of the members present.

10 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

MEMBERSHIP OF THE ACADEMY.

FELLOWS.

Almy, F. F Iowa College, Grinnell

Andrews. L. W ..State University, Iowa City

Arey, M. F - State Normal School, Cedar Falls

Bain, H. P Geological Survey, Des Moines

Barris, W. H Griswold College, Davenport

Bates, C. O ...Coe College, Cedar Rapids

Beach, Alice M ..Agricultural College, Ames

Bennett, A. A Agricultural College, Ames

Beyer, S. W ..Agricultural College, Ames

BissELL, G. W Agricultural College, Ames

Calvin, S.. State University, Iowa City

Chappel, George M Signal Service, Des Moines

Combs, Robert...

Conrad, A. H. Parsons College, Fairfield

Cratty, R. I. Armstrong

CURTISS, C. P Agricultural College, Ames

Davis, Floyd ..Des Moines

Drew, Oilman Newton

Ende, C. L Burlington

Fink, B Upper Iowa University, Fayette

FiTZPATRiCK, T. J Lamoni

Franklin, W. S Agricultural College, Ames

PULTZ, P. M Burlington

Gossard, H. a Ames

Hall, T. P Tabor College, Tabor

Hansen, N. E Brookings, South Dakota

Hazen, E. H ...Des Moines

Hendrixson, W. S Iowa College, Grinnell

Heileman, W. H Ames

Holway, E. W. D_ Decorah

Houser, G. L State University, Iowa City

Jackson, J. A Des Moines

Kelly, H. V ..Mount Vernon

Leonard, A. G... Western College, Toledo

Leverett, Frank Denmark

Mally, C. W.. Agricultural College, Ames

Marston, a Agricultural College, Ames

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 11

Macbride, T. H State University, Iowa City

NiLES, W. B Agricultural College, Ames

NORRIS, H. W Iowa College, Grinnell

Norton, W. H.. Cornell College, Mount Vernon

Nutting, C. C State University, Iowa City

OSBORN, Herbert Agricultural College, Ames

Page, A. C State Normal School, Cedar Falls

Pammel, L. H Agricultural College, Ames

Reppert, F ...Muscatine

Rigker, Maurice Marshalltown

Ross, L. S Drake University Des Moines

Sage, J. R State Weather and Crop Service, Des Moines

SCHAEPFER, C. A State University, Iowa City

SCHLABACH, Carl High School, Clinton

Shimek, B State University, Iowa City

Stanton, E, W Agricultural College, Ames

Stookey, Stephen W Coe College, Cedar Rapids

TiLTON, J. L Simpson College, Indianola

Veblen, A. A State University, Iowa City

Wachsmuth, Charles*.-. Burlington

Walker, Percy H State University, Iowa City

Weems, J. B Agricultui"al College, Ames

Windle, Williams Penn College, Oskaloosa

Witter, F. M Muscatine

YOUTZ, L. A Simpson College, Indianola

ASSOCIATE members.

Ball, E. D.. Little Rock

Bartsch, Paul j Burlington

Beardshear, W. M Agricultural College, Ames

Blakeslee Des Moines

Brown, Eugene Mason City

Carter, Charles Fairfield

Carver, G. W Ames

GiFFORD, E. H.. Oskaloosa

Miller, G. P. . Des Moines

Mills, J. S.. Eugene, Oregon

Osborn, B. F .-Rippey

Owens, Eliza. Ames

Pammel, Emma Ames

Reed, C. D... Ames

Rolfs, J. A Le Claire

SiRRiNE, Emma Ames

Weaver, C. B Ames

corresponding members.

Arthur, J. C Lafayette, Indiana

Barbour, E. H State University, Lincoln, Nebraska

Beach, S. A Geneva New York

Bessey, C. E State University, Lincoln, Nebraska

Bruner, H. L Irvington, Indiana

* Deceased.

12 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Call, R. E Louisville, Kentucky

COLTON, G. H. ...Virginia City, Montana

Crozier, a. a Ann Arbor, Michigan

Gillette, C. P Agricultural College, Ft. Collins, Colorado

Halsted, B. D... New Brunswick, New Jersey

Haworth, Erasmus State University, Lawrence, Kansas

Hitchcock, A. S .Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas

Jameson, C. D

Keyes, C. R State Geologist, Jefferson City, Missouri

Lonsdale, E. H Missouri Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Missouri

Mally, F. W -- Hulen, Texas

McGee, W. J Bureau Ethnology, Washington, D. C.

Meek, S. E State University, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Newton, Geo... Grand Island, Nebraska

Parker, H. W New York City, New York

Patrick, G. E... Hopedale, Massachusetts

Rolfs, P. H Lake City, Florida

SiRRlNE, F. Atwood Jamaica, New York

Spencer, A. C ...Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

Stewart, F. C ..Jamaica, New York

Todd, J. E State University, Vermillion, South Dakota

WiNSLOW, Arthur St. Louis, Missouri

Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Session

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The tenth annual meeting of the Iowa Academy of Sciences
was held in the horticultural rooms at the capitol buildiog in
Des Moines, January 1, 2 and 3, 1896. During the business
sessions the following matters of general interest were acted
upon:

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY-TREASURER.

Gentlemen — lb is a gratification at this our decennial meeting to
report a flourishing condition of the academy. Comparison with our
modest beginning, and with our struggles in earlier years to secure a solid
foundation and to provide for the publication of results, warrants us in a
feeling of satisfaction and of encouragement for renewed effort for the
future.

Our membership, which now numbers over 100, includes in its list sixty-
three fellows, fifteen associates and twenty-three corresponding members.
It represents nearly all the active scientific workers of the state, and also
many whDse interest and cordial support of such work is of great value.
Four of the fellows have removed from the state, and, according to our
custom, may be transferred to the list of corresponding members. Four
others have, at their own request, or on account of arrearages in dues,
been dropped from the academy roll.

Accounts and vouchers submitted herewith show receipts amounting to
$153.21 and disbursements of $97.22, leaving a balance charged to the
treasurer of $55.99.

14 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

SUMMARY OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES.
Receipts.

Balance from last year $ 63.16

Ten membership fees at $3 30.00

Annual dues from members 58.00

Proceedings sold 2.05

Total $ 153.21

Disbursements.

Expenses of ninth annual meeting $ 6.43

Stationery and stamps,, collecting dues 3.41

Printing programs, circulars, etc... 16.25

Author's reprints Vol. II 50.00

Express and postage on proceedings 19.25

Clerk hire, exchange and miscellaneous expenses... 1.88

Balance 55.99

Total - $ 153.21

Respectfully submitted.

Herbert Osborn.

The committee appointed to examine the accounts of the secretary-
treasurer reported as follows:

The committee finds the accounts of the secretary to be correct.

1 C. C. Nutting,
Signed - C. O. Bates,
A. C. Page.

REPORT OP THE LIBRARIAN.

Des Moines, Iowa, December 31, 1895.

Gentlemen — I have the honor to submit the following report of my
work as librarian of the academy for the year past. The academy is now
receiving regularly forty-three serial publications, including the reports of
the most important American and some of the foreign societies. In addi-
tion, the reports of a considerable number of state and government bureaus
are received. The papers are catalogued and placed in the alcove assigned
to the academy by the state librarian. Within the past year exchanges
have been effected whereby all, or a considerable number, of the back
numbers of the following s>eries have been placed upon our shelves:

Transactions Connecticut Academy of Science.

Bulletin New Brunswick Natural History Association.

Proceedings Colorado Scientific Society.

Transactions St. Louis Academy of Science.

Tufts College Studies.

Proceedings Natural Science Association, Staten Island.

Colorado College Studies.

In two other cases exchanges were effected by the combined efforts of
the Academy of Sciences and the Geological survey. In these cases it was

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15

thought better to place the books received in the regular collections of the
state library. It is proposed to continue the exchange of back sets
wherever it can be done to advantage; and for this purpose, as well as to
provide for exchanges already made, it is recommended that the academy
purchase at least fifteen copies of part one of the proceedings.

Several copies of the back numbers of the academy have been sold and
the money forwarded to the treasurer. It is recommended that some more
systematic rules regarding the distribution and sale of the proceedings
be adopted. Respectfully,

H. Foster Bain,

Librarian.

Professor Hendrixson, for the library committee, made a
statement of the work of the committee with reference to sci-
entific books for the state library and the valuable additions
that had been made as a result.

The following motion was adopted that a vote of thanks be
tendered the librarian and board of trustees of the state library
for their courtesies in hearing the requests of the academy and
the purchases of scientific works.

A motion that a committee of three be appointed by the
chair to petition the legislature regarding the preservation of
forest and lake areas of Iowa and to present a memorial to con-
gress through Senator Gear, regarding forest preservation.
The committee appointed consists of Professors Macbride,
Pammel and Fink. The following was adopted:

Des Moines, Iowa, January 2, 1896.
The Iowa Academy of Sciences, in regular session assembled, begs leave
to call the attention of the Twenty-sixth General Assembly of the State of
Iowa to the preservation and protection of our lakes in order to maintain
some of the original conditions of the state. They should be made pleasure
resorts where our citizens may spend a few days for recreation, and where
possible the borders of the lakes should be planted with forest trees. These
lakes contain large numbers of fish which alone would pay for their mainte-
nance. They are frequented by many birds which, without them, will be
driven from our state.

Your honorable body can leave no richer legacy to future generations
than the lakes that dot the northern part of our state surrounded with
timber. We earnestly hope the Twenty-sixth General Assembly will pass
some measure to preserve them.

(Signed) T. H. Macdride.

L. H. Pammel.
B. Fink.
Des Moines, Iowa, January 2, 1896.
The Iowa Academy of Sciences, in regular session assembled, begs leave
to call the attention of the United States congress to the absolute necessity
of further legislation looking to the preservation and rational use of the
remaining forest resources of our country. The academy petitions for

16 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

larger and better guarded reservations, for the enactment of the McRae
bill, H. R. 119, or of some similar measure which will yet more stringently
guard our forests.

(Signed) T. H. Macbride.

L. H. Pammel.
B. Fink.

The following resolution was adopted:

Resolved, By the Iowa Academy of Sciences, that we view with pleasure
the efforts toward providing a state building for the preservation of material
of historical and scientific value and would heartily endorse the movement
for a " memorial, historical and art building."

The following resolutions in regard to papers were adopted:

That hereafter no papers will be published in the proceedings of this
academy which are not placed in the hands of the secretary in full, or in
a written abstract, before the adjournment of the annual meeting.

That no paper shall be placed upon the printed program of the academy
unless the title, when handed to the secretary, be accompanied by a brief
abstract and that these abstracts be printed with the program.

The thanks of the academy to the State Horticultural soci-
ety for the use of their room were by motion tendered.

In the sessions for the reading and discussion of papers the
academy listened to the annual address of the president and
papers giving results of investigations.

These papers read in full or by title were referred by the
council to the secretary for publication and follow herewith:

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 17

ANNUAL ADDRESS OB^ THE PRESIDENT.

NEEDED CHANGES IN SCIENTIFIC METHODS.^

BY H. W. NORRIS.

We live in a period that sees wonderful attainments in sci-
ence and art, so that in theory and practice many think the
summum bonum has been reached. It is pre-eminently the age of
science and the application of scientific methods to all phases
of human activity. The forces of nature have been made sub-
ject to the wiU of man. The relations of man to his surround-
ings have been carefully considered. The province oi human
intellect has been made the ground of scientitic investigations.
We now see scientific methods foremost and uppermost, and all
human thought is more or less permeated and even molded by
the new ways of looking at the lacts of our experience and rea-
son. But with ail our enlightenment no other age has equaled
ours in the prevalence of unblushing fraud and boasting
duplicity.

For every skilled specialist in surgery we have a dozen
quacks, whose outrageous pretensions are only equaled by the
astonishingly large patronage of the over- credulous. The rep-
utable physician struggles along in his attempts to right the
wrongs of the human body according to the best api)roved
methcds, and too frequently receives as his reward only non-
bankable prortiises, while Dr. Humbug puts up at the best
hotels, advertises to cure all the ills human fiesh is heir to. and
reaps a harvest of shekels. The name of Dr. X's sarsaparilla
is emblazoned along every thoroughfare in the country, and the

* \Mieu this address was nearly completed a copy of a recent lecture by President
J. IVI. Coulter, of Lake Forest University, was received, in which were expressed many
ideas quite similar to some contained in this paper. Wherein the writer has inten-
tionally borrowed from President Coulter, due credit has been given.

The Botanical Outlook. An address delivered before the Botanical Seminary of the
University of Nebraska, May 27, 1895.

18 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

merits of the Whoop up Indian Bitters have even been drama-
tized for the stage. But the "regular" physician is held
responsible for the final taking off of the poor dupes who have
resorted to all the patent medicines before consulting the proper
authorities. The discoveries of Edison and other investigators
of nature's forces are quietly revolutionizing our industrial
methods, and we think little of it. But the praises of electric
belts, electric bitters and magnetic oils are sounded in every
hamlet where the public press finds expression. We have seen
in this generation the revival of an old imposture, that travesty
on religion and science, the so-called Christian science. Occa-
sionally a new messiah makes his appearance, drawing after
him such throngs as to make the possibility of another Joseph
Smith not an incredible idea. A visit to one of our interstate
or international exhibitions fills us with wonder amounting
almost to awe at the marvelous products of genius, a wonder
exceeded only by that aroused by a perusal of the advertising
columns of our daily papers. That advertising pays cannot be
disputed, but the fact that it does pay is often a serious reflec-
tion upon the methods of our mental training. Fence corners
full of abandoned machinery show, among other things, an
unfortunate ignorance of physical laws, and a too ready accept-
ance of golden promises. In spite of our bureaus of animal
industry, the stock raiser still resorts to patent condition pow-
ders and hog cholera cures instead of managing his establish-
ment on a sanitary basis. We are too much under the impres-
sion that everything — life, health and happiness, can be pur-
chased with the almighty dollar. So we throw discretion to
the wind and leave the results to the Lord and the doctors.

To-day, as it has always been, empiricism is a great hindrance
to progress. A specific remedy for a specific evil, a lucky dis-
covery of certain correlated phenomena, a haphazard experi-
menting with fortunate results, have been all too frequently
characteristic of scientific achievements. Great as are the vic-
tories science has won in the domains of medicine and the
applied arts, they have not been presented to the great public
as having a rational basis. In fact the leaders in science see
only too dimly the underlying meaning. To many the sole
purpose of research is to turn up to view new facts. Facts are
presented as interesting, or as having a practical bearing, or as
having no bearing at all. The prosaic, dull drudgery of tracing
relationship is omitted. Yet nothing exists out of relationship.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 19

In the inductive sciences that deal with facts of most
obvious bearings we are magnifying the importance of isolated
details and largely ignoriDg the idea of relationship. As long
as people fail to understand that nothing is superior to law, so
long may we expect the search for perpetual motion, the elixir
of life and the fabled pot of gold. Metaphysicians tell us that
the idea of cause is intuitive, yet vast numbers of people act as
though cause and effect had no relations whatever in some
realms of human experience. The extraordinary success
attained by many investigators and inventors has produced
a widespread notion that these successful ones are creators
rather than discoverers, and that their genius (so-called) tran-
scends common laws. The spirit of speculation so rife in soci-
ety at present seems to subsist largely on the idea that the
common laws of experience are often inoperative. Can we
wonder at the enormous sales of patent nostrums as long as
there is a widespread opinion that medical science has no
rational basis? Can we wonder at the successful impositions
of faith-healers and medicine-men when each holder of a phy-
sician's diploma is considered a law unto himself, entitled to
experiment at his own sweet will on suffering humanity ? Is it
strange that people fail to be guided by reason when the mate-
rials of experience are like so much wind-blown chaff? Says
the worldly-wise man of to-day: "My son, be a freak, an hon-
est freak if convenient, but by all means be a freak, for in
freak-ism is success."

I therefore make no apology for presuming to make a plea
for scientific thought. We may indeed be proud of our achieve-
ments in science. In this, the latter part of the nineteenth
century, the age of Edison, Pasteur and a host of other inves-
tigators, we need make no defense of the position science occu-
pies in human thought and action. The air ship, the electric
engine, the dynamite gun, are but faint indications of what is
yet to be accomplished. The triumphs of surgical skill are just
begun. We see the forces of nature arrayed against each other
to give a purer atmosphere, a richer soil, a freer life to mankind.
Material considerations outweigh all others in the arena of
public opinion. Some say the world has gone mad with science.
Scientific studies have crowded themselves into the public
schools, colleges and universities in spite of the opposition of
the classics. The children lisp in scientific phrases, and the
old men sigh lor the good old times when ignorance was bliss.

20 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

I am neither a prophet nor the son of a prophet, nor am I
related by blool or marriage to any prophet or son of a prophet.
This age may be as badly ia need of prophets as any other age,
but what it needs most of all is common sense methods of deal-
ing with the problems that confront it. It seems to me we may
profitably spend a little time in the consideration of some of the
bearings of scientific methods on current thought and action.

What is the scientific spirit? Some would say it is the spirit
of the age. But it may well be doubted whether there is such
a thing as a spirit of the age. With people and their wants so
diverse, the general iastability of chaaging institutions make a
universal animating spirit well nigh impossible. Bat the sci-
entific spirit is something definite and characteristic. We may
notice some of the things it is not. Ih is not the mere seeking
for truth, for many who seek the truth are content with half
truths. It is not enthusiasm, fcr the enthusiast too often stands
in his own light. It is not the mere collecting of data, for facts
and the records of facts in themselves are well nigh worthless.
The scitntific spirit seeks to demonstrate no proposition; it is
not partisan. In short, the man imbued with the scientific spirit
seeks the whole truth in all its relations, and accepts its teach-
ings rc-girdless of consequences.

We need to scrutinize very carefully a large amount of the
so called science aad scieatific methods of to day. The word
scientist, has become a sort of abrakadabra, by means of which
men hope to conjure up the objects of their hopes and desires.
Science is too often interpreted as the triumph of shrewdness
over simplicity, tne hoodwinking of the ignorant and innocent by
the irgenious sharper, or the successful defeat of an opponent
through chicanery. So far is this carrie d sometimes that we are
ready to parajihrase that famous expression of Madame Roland
and exclaim, "O, science what crimes have been committed in
thy name." Any addition to our knowledge that does not afl:ect
and improve all classes orAy lov-ers relatively the under strata
of society; any advance in science which does not adapt itself to
the masses only renders Ihem more helpless in the hands of the
unprincipled but more intelligent. Science and scientific meth-
ods are not for the few, but for the many. We must not assume
that scientific methods have no place in common affairs. The
scientific spirit is not a new but an old factor in human pro-
gress. Bat we are too much inclined to relegate science and
scientific procedures to the specialist, the scientist, and as the

IOWA x\CADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21

specialist and the quack are not distinguishable by the masses
the results are often lamentable.

It is said that the crank^i and irrational enthusiasts initiate
all reform, not the sober, scientific minds; that the scientific
mind is conservative and never leads a reform. If this were
true, nevertheless it is always the sober, common- sense ideas
that really accomplish the final good. Reformers are too often
impracticable men. It requires all the best scientific methods
combined with the best judgoaent to achieve the final results
and eradicate the evils that follow in the wake of every
reformer. We need not so much reformers, for there are
plenty of them, but rather the application of scientific meth-
ods to the solving cf human problems.

The charge is often made that the theoretical sciences are
not practical; that they have no direct bearing on the pursuit
of health, wealth, and happiness; that they yield no results of
value adequate to the time and labor spent on them. Not long
ago a bright young scientist lamented to me the fact that bis
chosen line of work, systematic botany, was so useless, and
that biologists in general contributed nothing to the welfare of
1he human race. It is said that Louis Agassiz made the pro-
fession of naturalist respectable in America. Before his time
it had been barely tolerated. While scientists of to-day are con-
sidered equally worthy with other citizens, jet if their libors
do nob directly materialize in glittering gold they are evv3ry-
where confronted with the question, "Of what good is it?"
And. owing to the peculiarities of the questioner, very frequsntly
no satisfactory answer can be given. But an answer is needed.

The teaching of that only which is directly practical tends
to swamp ail progressive ideas. To restrict our energies to
the already known is to degenerate. The cry, " Give us prac-
tical Studies" is a note of warniog. It means stagnatiEg ten-
dencies. To concentrate our energies on practical details 1oo
often mearjs to ignore broader relations. We see a wonderful
development of technical schools and appliances for the study
of the applied arts. To many th^s seems the scientific goal.
Many believe that all our energies should be directed to the
promoting of the applied sciences, and that the day of theoret-
ical science is past. So we heiir demands for manual training
departments of our public schools; demands that the literary
and general culture of school life shall be minimized for the
enlargement of the practical sciences. We see the young being

22 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

hurried into the trades and specialists sent out who know
nothing but their little tread-mill round of practice. Is it true
that botany, zoology, astronomy, and theoretical chemistry and
physics have no great value, and that aside from their purely
disciplinary effects they might as well be consigned to the
rubbish heap? By many the field of the natural sciences is
regarded as a playground where the mind majT- relax itself in
intellectual somersaults.

I would not be understood as antagonizing technical schools,
or as depreciating the value of a technical education, but I do
say that a general demand for the practical shows something
wrong in our educational system. Either we are failicg to
render the general culture effect of our teaching of much value
or we are holding out false notions as to the practical value of
our studies. I believe the former to be the true cause. We are
not seeking to discipline the mind in proper chaonels so much
as to fill up the cup of mental capacity with scholastic hodge-
podge. The great fault of science in our educational scheme is
not that it is not practical, but that too often it is not much of
anything. We are loading our courses of study with a great
bulk of interesting things, "such as every one ought to know
something about." Look at the program of studies of the
average high school: a term each of botany, zoology, geology,
astronomy, physiology, physics, chemistry, etc. What knowl-
edge does the student gain of the inductive methods of study?
Occasionally a little, usually none. What practical ideas does
he acquire? Some, no doubt, yet in the text- books ordinarily
used error is about as conspicuous as truth. If we could con-
fine our science teaching in 'the public schools to a year of
physics and an equal amount of some other one science, and
concentrate our energies on quality instead of quantity, method
instead of matter, the good results would be ten- fold what they
are at present. I am confident that in proportion to the time
spent upon it our science teaching yields fewer results than any
other line of public school work. The same criticism may be
applied to many of our higher institutions of learning. It is no
wonder the public calls for something practical.

When the inductive sciences were given such a conspicuous
position in our educational sysLem as they occupy to-day, it
was thought society was in a fair way to free itself from many
errors. But we have too often gone merely from an error to a
blunder. Our college and university training has too often

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 23

concentrated itself on less important details and ignored
broader principles. While it can not be said of many of our
colleges, as was recently said of a leading American univer-
sity, that its zoological department had all run to scales and
tail feathers, yet it is true that we are burying relationships
under a bewildering mass of details. It must be confessed that
some of our latest and most improved methods, notably of
those biological studies included under the term morphology,
have a tendency to increase rather than diminish this evil.
There is always the danger of mistaking the means for the end.
The fault of science teaching in our public schools lies in the
fact that the student gains little or no conception of the bear-
ing of scientific study on his life. The facts of science are pre-
sented as so many isolated entities, interesting or uninteresting
as the case may be. The high school must not be looked at
and judged as a preparatory school for college training, but
as a finishing school for a large part of our school population.
The studies should be arranged not as leading to a college cur-
riculum, but as preparing pupils for active lite, not by loading
their brains with facts, but by training their mental activities.
In this latter respect high school science makes a lamentabJe
failure.

I make no tirade against public schools. The fault lies
largely and chiefly with the schools that prepare our teachers
for science teaching, i. e. , our colleges and universities. We
may say the public schools are behind the times in this respect,
and they are merely following the lead of publishers of anti-
quated text-books. This may be true, but nevertheless the
evils of science teaching in our high schools are only minia-
tures of those that exist so frequently in our colleges.

What do I consider the pre eminent good to be obtained from
the study of the inductive sciences? To enable the mind to
detect the living truths; to perceive that every effect may be
referred to an appropriate cause; to see that nothing is inde-
pendent of relationships; to see that human activities are inti-
mately bound up with other activities; and that the individual
is but part of a whole. In other words, to adjust the mind to
the sum total of its environment. When we can once establish
our scientific ti-ainiugonsucha basis, empiricism, charlatanism,
and all the frauds that prey on human credulity must beat a
retreat.

24 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Fellow laborers, we are not doing our duty. We are too
often content with quantity instead of quality. We cover too
much ground and look for premature results. We fail to keep
in mind the great idea, that method is more than matter, that
the result we seek is not accumulation but power, not acquisi-
tion but capacity, not bulk but strength. And we also forget
that every scientist is a teacher, whether officially so or not.
I believe that science and scientific study have a direct bearing
on human existence. I believe that the sciences are not merely
interesting, disciplinary as studies, practical when applied in
the industrial arts, but that the more scientific people are the
happier they are, not that they are warmer, or less hungry, or
more intellectual, but that they are better adapted to their sur-
roundings. In other words life ought to mean more than strug-
gle, acquisition and success, it should mean better relation-
ships. I do not believe that the chief end of scientific training
is skill in invention. I do not think the chief business of the
scientist is to produce something practical. This age is pre-
eminently practical, and in so far as it is so it depends largely
on scientific methods in vogue. But the satisfaction of bodily
wants and natural ambitions is not the goal of scientific research.
We need not less but more theory with our practice. The man
without a theory is as unbalanced as one with nothing but a
theory. The aim of scientific research is to find the ideal
adju&tment of man to his enviroum;ent, and that relation will
never be attained by purely practical means.

We see to-day an immense number of so-called investigators
engaged in original research. Probably one-half of these know
little or rothing beyond their specialties. Many of them are
engaged in matters of little general import, and see only a very
circumscribed horizon. Many of them are unable to see the
relations of their special studies to anything else. So they
drift into empiricism, narrowness, and dogmatic assertions.
We are leaching men to specialize before they can generalize,
and the results must be unfortunate. A large part of these
investigators are entirely out of place. To become a specialist
in science one must be more than merely able to manipulate a
microscope, or to set up a dynamo, or to mix chemicals without
a disastrous explosion. Whatever may be said pro and con
regarding the old system of industrial apprenticeship, this is
certain, that no one can become a reliable investigator without
a long and laborious service of preparation. We are putting

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 25

"the label, investigator, upon too much crude material. To
quote President Coulter: "Teachers assume a serious respon-
sibility in urging born hod carriers to become architects."

I do not wish to be understood as decrying original research
or specialization of studies. On the contrary, I believe every
earnest thinker needs to concentrate his energies now and then
on special investigation, but every act in specialization should
rest on a foundation of broad culture. No scientist should be
content to pass off the field of adivity without leaving the store
of human knowledge richer for his having lived. If we consult
the life records of those who have done most to put the various
branches of science on a broad rational basis, we see that they
have been men who have got at the heart of nature through
special investigations. Only those who have labored them-
selves can rightly interpret the labors of others. Knowledge
is not the goal. Truth for truth's sake may be good, but not
h>est. Unrelated ideas are as valueless as mummies buried
beyond all discovery. We are making an egregious mistake
when in our teaching or researches we emphasize a detail here
and a detail there and utterly fail to find any relationships.
Yet this is just what is done over and over again by our so-called
investigators. Year after year they extol their special hobbies
and lament that the world calls them visionary.

I believe in the popularization of science. lb would be entirely
out of place for me to assume that any member of this academy
believed in what is known as popular science, which in fact is
usually no science at all. I believe that science should be made
popular, not by prostituting its aims and methods to the pleas-
ing of public fancy, but by educating the masses in the methods
and applications of science. Correct thinking is prerequisite
to correct acting. Yet how often do we labor simply to reform
the acting! Comparatively speaking, of what lasting good can
be the triumphs of science of our day if only the purely practi-
cal results impress themselves on the public mind? If our dis-
coveries, little and big, are to be applied as so many patent
nostrums how meager the results! If the rationale of science is
to be restricted to the sphere of the highly educated classes
and the wonderful results of research are to be regarded as
empirical by the masses, how discouraging the prospect to one
who has at heart the welfare of the whole race! Pasteur and
others have well nigh succeeded in placing medical science on
a rational basis, yet how few comprehend the actual state of

26 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

matters! How many physicians themselves look upon their
profession as founded on empirical data! The failure of the
public to recognize fundamental principles accounts largely for
the success of many of the frauds of our day. We look upon
professional and technical schools as places where the student
gains skill in manipulating and proficiency in experimenting,
and too often that is all they are. The scientist is often justly
accused of isolating himself and his work from the sphere of
human activity, of seeking his little bit of truth merely for the
truth's sake, never dreamicg that his greater duty is to relate
himself and his work to the great body of truth. No one has a
natural monopoly on truth any more than on any other reality.
I do not believe in a scientific Olympus where above the clouds
and turmoil of the common place, far from the maddening
crowd, can dwell the votaries of science indifferent to the prob-
lems that perplex the masses. If the true aim of scientific
study is to find the ideal adjustment of man to his environment
our present progress in reahzlrig that aim is altogether too
slow arid uncertain in comparison with our pretensions. We
must make radical changes in the ways we are presenting the
facts and methods of science to the public.

The observing minds of to-day cannot fail to see that modern
civilization is on the point of some great changes. The first
half of the twentieth century will see enacted what would now
seem subversive of the present best order of things. The
wisdom and folly, success and disaster, attending these changes
will depend largely on the scientific or unscientific means
employed in attaining desired ends. It is basest folly to
attempt to solve society's problems with leaving out of sight
fundamental human laws. There is no true science of sociology
yet formulated. The dictum of the social reformer is the
baldest empiricism. We can never get anywhere by Bellamy
colonies and Brook Farm experiments. Why then advocate
social schemes to which not even the angels in heaven could
conform much less men of tlesh and blood? If sociology is.
ever to be established on a rational basis it must take man as
he is, and as he has been, a creature of bone and sinew, ever
striving for better conditions and never presenting phenomena
that are independent of natural laws. Sociology can be made
a science only by laborious patient endeavor. Humanity's
problems cannot be solved in a day, nor a year, nor a lifetime-
No one man can solve them. The chemist, the biologist, the

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 27

physicist, the ethnologist, the mechanic, must assist. What a
pathetic spectacle is presented iu the charitable and mission
work man is doing for his fellow man. It is the old story of
eradicating one evil and sowing the seeds of a dozen more.
How little of philanthropic work aims at more than alleviating
present conditions! Were it not for the fact that in some
instances, and they are all too few, the highest of scientific attain-
ments are being directed toward studying and correlating the
fundamental laws of society for the purpose of establishing abid-
ing criteria of action I should deem the field of social reform
utterly hoj)eless. We evidently need not so much a change of
method here as a change from no method at all to a scientific
method.

The scientific world stacds committed to the theory of
evolution, for by no other can the existing order of things be
explained, even though much is as yet unexplained. It is the
only thiog that can bind our scientific knowledge into a coher-
ing whole. Any ignoring of it plunges into deepest empiri-
cism. The ideas of growth, development, change from simple
to complex, and resultiag inter-relationships are extremely
vague in popular thought. Particular modes of procedure are
often mistaken for general principles, this or that theory for a
law. One of the greatest obstacles that the theory of evolution,
the only real interpreter of lacts, has had to contend with has
been and is now the widespread belief in infallibility — infallibility
of all knowledge. Yet no more important truth needs to be
learned than that the wisdom of to-day may become the folly of
to-morrow. A change in belief is too often mistaken for an
exchange of an old for a new dogma. The fact that scientific
theories and knowledge in the year lb96 are not like those in
the year 1859 constrains many, particularly those of a theolog-
ical bias, to deny any truth in either. Nor do many scientists
place themselves in any more commendable attitude. Some of
our scientists give evidence of as intolerant a dogmatism as
ever disgraced ecclesiastical history. The man who assumes
infallibility of scientific knowledge, in whole or in part, thereby
puts himself beyond the pale of truth seeking.

President Coulter notices among botanists of to-day several
bad tendencies. Some of them have so wide an application
that I may use them in recapitulating my preceding statements:
1. The tendency to narrowness. This is shown in the magnifica-
tion of details, and minimizing of relationships; in the failure

28 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

to recognize the applications of science in whole or in part. 2.
The tendency to certainty — dogmatism, infallibility. This reaches
its culmination in the balancing of a scientific chip on the
shoulder. 3. The tendency to mistake acquisition for the power to do
something. This is profoundly characteristic of science teaching
in our educational system. 4. The tendency to immature research
— dilettantism. To which I would add: 5. The tendency to
Phariseeism; the scorning of all not scientists; a holier-tha,n-
thou attitude that puts the possessor out of touch with human
struggle; the despisicg of all efforts that are not of a certain
superfine order; lack of charity for fellov/ scientists; criticism of
every man's honest endeavor. 6. The tendency to minimize
theoretical considerations; the cry for the practical.

It is obvious that these tendencies cannot fail to create a
feeling in popular thought of distrust, contempt, and disregard
of science aud scientific methods. The effect on the scientist
is stultifying, narrowing, dogmatizing. The worst result will be
that progress in solving humanity's problems will be retarded.
Every tendency to restrict the application of scientific methods
is detrimental to progress.

I believe that science and the methods of science must take
in the future a greater share in shaping the destiny of the race
than they have in the past, not so conspicuous perhaps, but
none the less real. I believe most profoundly in an earthly
order founded on a scientific basis. I see no other hope for
society. I am not visionary. Hence I can make no forecast of
a rainbow- tinted land of promise, wherein the plutocratic lion
deals with the democratic lamb on a strictly scientific basis.
Scientific method is not a universal panacea. But the problems
that perplex humanity will be settled justly only as they are
approached from a rational standpoint,

I am not pessimistic as to the future of science. But the
best results will not be achieved unless some of our methods
are radically changed. Materialism and philosophic nihilism
are no bugbears to me. Though science and scientific methods
cannot make a perfect humanity, any attempt to solve the
problem by ignoring science is basest folly. I believe the day
will come when empiricism and its twin brother dogmatism will
yield the field to the scientific spirit. Speed the day !

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

HOMOLOGIES OP THE CYCLOSTOME EAR.

BY H. W. NORRIS.

The ear of the Cycles tomata has until recently been consid-
ered so peculiar as to render it difficult to explain its relations
to the typical Vertebrate ear. Then again, the diversity of
structure in the auditory orga,n of the Cyclostomes themselves
renders the task of homologizing the various parts somewhat
uninviting.

Our exact knowledge of the structure and relations of the
ear of the Cyclostomata begins with the researches of KeieP,
in 1872. His predecessors had assumed that the auditory organ
of the Cyclostomata was a thing sui generis, hence most of their
observations were defective. Ketel was the first to attempt
to find a fundamental type of the vertebrate ear. While the
results of his studies in that direction did not find ready accept-
ance, nevertheless, in the light of most recent investigations,
we see that his conclusions were essentialiy correct. In the
light of zoological knowledge tAventy years later, his opinions
would have seemed not only reasonable, but they would have
been considerably modified from their original form. Johannes
Miiller" in 1836 discovered the semicircular canals in the ear of
Petromy zon, and that they were only two in number. DameriP
in 1800 claimed to have found the canals, but his statements
are extremely vague. Other observers, PohP, Weber\ Blain-
ville^ Rathke' and Breschet^ had denied the existence of the

1 Ueber das Geliorogan der Cyclostomen— Basse Anat. Studien, 1872.

2 Ueber den cigeiithumlichen Ban des Gehororgans bei den Cyclostomen. Fortsctz
d Vergl. Anat. d. Myxinoiden in Ahli d. K. Akad. d Wissen. Berlin, 1836.

3 Anatomie des Lamproies Memoires d anatomic comparee. Paris, 1800.
^Expositis generalis anatomica organ! auditus per classes animalium. Vindo-

bonae, 1818.

SDe aure et auditu hominis et animalium. Leipzig, 1820.

6De I'organisation des animaux ou Principes d'anatomie comparee. Paris, 1822.

7 Bemerkungen uber den inneren Bau der Pricke. Danzig, 1826.

SRecherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur I'organe de I'ouie des poissons..
Acad, des Sci Sava7is Eirangers. 1838.

30 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

canals, or at least any more than as rudiments. It was very
early recognized that two distinct forms of ear were to be found
in the group of Cyclostomata, the one found in the Myxine and
the other in the Lampreys. MtiUer'-' first gave any adequate
description of the ear of Myxine. Previously Anders Retzius^"
had given a very meager description. Ketel attempted to show
that the ear of Myxine is genetically related to that of higher
vertebrates through the ear of Petromyzon as a connecting
link. Unfortunately he failed to recognize the existence of
semicircular canals in the ear of Myxine, considering the mem-
branous vestibule as merely a ring. Ibsen" had in 1816 recog-
nized a semicircular canal in Myxine and two ampullae.

Ketel considered the Cyclostome ear as in an arrested stage
of evolution, and that it really represented an ancestral condi-
tion of the Vertebrate ear. He sought for traces of the third
or horizontal canal in Petromyzon, and believed he found it in
a sense organ connected with the crista acustica of the anterior
canal. The cochlea he found represented in the " sackartiger
Anhang" of the membranous labyrinth. Ketel failed to com-
pletely homologize the Cyclostome ear with that of the Verte-
brate type, because he did not recognize the existence of
semicircular canals in Myxine, and further, because, working
from the higher types downward, he had not grasped the idea
of the fundamental form of the auditory organ. Gustav
Eetzius^^ in 1881 recognized the existence of a single semi-
circular canal in Myxine; but he did not agree with Ketel as to
the relationships of the ear of the Cyclostomata. It remained
for Ayers'^ in 1892 to establish beyond question the rank of the
Cyclostome ear. Starting with the idea that the Vertebrate
auditory organ is composed of modified sense organs of the
lateral line system, he shows almost beyond question that the
Cyclostome ear is not a degenerate structure, but rather repre-
sents an ancestral type. According to this interpretation, we
recognize in the Vertebrate ear iwo originally distinct parts,
an anterior utriculus and a posterior sacculus, with which, and
forming a part of, are a nuaiber of canals. The ear of Myxine

9Loc. cit.

lOYtterligare Bidrag till anatomien af Myxine glutinosa. Kongl. Vct.-Almd.
Ilandl. Stockholm, 1824.

11 Anatomiske Undersogelser over Orets Labyrinth, afsluttet af Forgattern i 1846.

i2Das Gehororgan der Wirbelthiere I, Stockholm, 1881.

iSVertebrate Cephalogenesls, II. A Contribution to the Morphology of the Verte-
brate Ear, with a Reconsideration of its Functions. Journal of Morphology, Vol. VI,
Nos. 1 and 2. 1893.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 31

is seen to consist of a utriculo-sacculus, imperfectly divided
into two parts, into which open two canals, each with an
ampulla containing a sense organ. Unlike the condition in the
Lampreys, or higher Vertebrates, the two canals unite with
each other without an unpaired connection, or commissure,
with the vestibule. Hence the failure heretofore to recognize
more than one canal. The ear of Petromyzon differs from that
of Myxine chiefly in the fact that the two canals are connected
with the membranous labyrinth at their point of union by an
unpaired commissure. The two semicircular canals of the
Cyclostome ear correspond to the anterior and posterior canals
of higher Vertebrates.

The anterior is connected with the utriculus, and the pos-
terior with the sacculus, at their ampullar ends. In other
vertebrates the connection of the posterior canal with the sac-
culus is lost at an early stage of development, so that the three
canals in the adult are connected only with the utriculus.
This, however, is not the ancestral nor the early embryonic
condition. Embryology" indicates that the vertebrate ear
early consists of two parts, an anterior utricular and a posterior
saccular region. This is the adult condition in the cyclostomes.
Ayers calls particular attention to the fa^jt, which Ketel,
Hasse, and Retzius had already noticed, that in Petromyzon
there are two distinct endolymphatic ducts, a further striking
indication that the vertebrate ear is a two fold structure in
origin. Ayers, however, gave the first explanation of their
presence. That the existence of these two ducts is a funda-
mental characteristic, is indicated by the fact that they are
distinct from a very e?.rly stage of development.

Unfortunately the material at my disposal does not give a
complete series of the development of the ear, but the stages
studied by me indicate that Ayers is correct ia his interpreta-
tion of their presence. Thus we see that recent investigation
confirms the opinion of Ketel that the auditory organ of the
Cyclostomata is not an aberrant structure. Ayers may be said
to be the first and only one who has given a coherent explana-
tion of the structure and origin of the Vertebrate ear.

"H. W. Norris. Studies on the ear of Amblystoma. Part I. Journal of Morphology,

32 IOWA xVCADEMY OF SCIENCES.

ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX.

BY C. C. NUTTING.

This paper is not presented as a contribution to our knowl-
edge of the subject of the origin of sex, so much as an attempt
to express concisely a theory of sex drawn from various sources,
but pdncipally from a work on the "Evolution of Sex" by
Geddes & Tnomson, a work which seems to me to mark an
epoch in the science of philosophical biology.

My excuse for presenting this subject before you to-night
lies in the fact that it has been my fortune within the past year
to persoaaliy investigate the origin of the sex-elements in one
group of animals, the hydroids, and to follow in the footsteps
of that great master August Weismann, whose studies have
given such an impetus to the search for truth in the realm of
sex and heredity.

My own studies have resulted in a conviction that there is
truth in the theory advanced by Geddes & Thomson, and my
effort this evening will be to state this theory, in a slightly
modified form, in a series of definite propositions, each one of
which I believe to be defensible, if not invulnerable.

First, however, it will be necessary to call to your minds the
most important facts concerning reproduction among the one-
celled animals, or Protozoa.

The simplest form of reproduction is that of the amoeba, in
which there is a simple division of the body mass of the parent
cell into two portions, each of which becomes an independent
organism. This is known as the process of reproduction by
fission.

Turning to a somewhat higher group of Protozoa we find
another step introduced in the reproductive process. If we
study the Paramecium, for instance, we will find that it multi-
plies by fission, as does the amoeba, but that at intervals

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 33

another process takes place, two individuals becoming adher-
ent, the cell walls in the region of contact being dissolved as
punctured, and an interchange of the protoplasm taking place.
After this the individuals separate and the process of fission is
renewed, and goes on for many generations. Ultimately, how-
ever, the process of conjugation is again resorted to.

In certain of the Vorticellidce the reproductive process is still
further complicated by the fact that the fission is not simple
but multiple, one of the halves resulting from simple fission
again dividing into a number of small ciliated bodies, each of
which is capable of uniting with a normal vorticella ia the pro-
cess of conjugation.

In certain Acinetans the multiple fission is internal, the
parent cell having its contents broken up into a number of
ciliated bodies, which escape through the ectosarc.

We thus see that in going from the lower to the higher Pro-
tozoa we find the reproductive process growing more and more
complicated. First in the amoeba we find simple fission, then
in the Paramecium we find simple fission plus conjugation. In
the vorticella we have simple fission plus multiple fission plus
conjugation. In the aciuetan we find simple fission plus inter-
nal multiple fission plus conjugation.

Such, then, are the facts. We now turn to seek an^
explanation.

Anabolism is the constructive, conservative, potential energy
of the cell.

Katabolism is expressed in the destructive expenditure of
this energy in active or kinetic processes.

The growth of any normal cell has a necessary limit due io
a purely physical cause. The mass increases as the cube ot
the diameter, while the surface increases only as the square:-
The surface performs the function of respiration, but it cannot
perform this function for an unlimited mass any more than a
cubic inch of lung can perform respiration for a full grown,
man.

As a cell increases in size its mass increases more rapidly
than its surface, until a point is reached beyond which it can
not grow, because the surface can supply no more oxygen. It
is worked to its limit, and can not respond to increased demands.
At this stage there are three possibilities:

First. — Death, which would end the question.

Second. — Stationary balance, which is impossible.

3

84 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

Third. — Katabolism, which would cause the cell to disappear,
or auabolism would recur at a certain point, and we would thus
have an alternation or rhythm of katabolic and anabolic states.

This is logically conceivable, but it would debar the possibil-
ity of reproduction, and the individual cell would be theoret-
ically immortal, but as a matter of fact would be destroyed
ultimately by accidental means.

If, when the cell had reached the limit of size, it should
divide, either accidentally or otherwise, there would result two
individuals, both small enough to admit of an expression of
anabolism in growth.

There would thus be two organisms to hold the fact of spe-
cific existence instead of one.

Therefore, any cell which would divide would have double
the chance of perpetuation that a single cell would.

In other words, cells capable of spontaneous or mechanical
fission would be selected and preserved by natural selection.

Let 1,000 generations proceed thus by simple division or
fission. By this time considerable differences would exhibit
themselves in the descendants of our original cell, owing to dif-
ferences in environment and food supply.

One line of cells would be abundantly fed, would grow large,
inactive, anabolic. Another line would be insufficiently nour-
ished, and would grow smaller, more active, katabolic.

Taking the large anabolic cells, we find:

First. — They tend to become more and more inactive. (Activ-
ity may express itself either in motion or cell division.)

Second — The anabolic cells accordingly tend to become quies-
cent on the one hand, and to cease dividing on the other.

Third. — This tendency would ultimately result in death, if
not in some way counteracted.

Taking the smaller katabolic cells, we find:

First. — They tend to decrease in size.

Second. — They tend to become more and more active.

Third. — Their expenditures would eventually bankrupt them,
they would be worn out, would die of exhaustion.

Taking the two kinds of cells we find:

First. — One needs something that can express itself in cell
division, Katabolism.

Second. — The other needs nourishment which would express
itself in growth, Anabolism.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 35

In other words:

One is full and dying of plethora.

The other is hungry and dying of excessive expenditure of
energy.

It would evidently be a good thing for them to pool their
issues.

This is effected by the process of conjugation, whereby:

First. — The small, active, katabolic cell imparts its energy
(kinetic) to the large passive cell, and that energy expresses
itself in cell division.

Second.— The large, passive, anabolic cell imparts to the
daughter cells its anabolic propensities which express them-
selves in groivth.

la other words:

The anabolic cell receives the impetus necessary to cell
division or fission, and the katabolic cell receives nourishment
and the tendency to grow.

What brings them together?

Hunger, or its equivalent.

Hunger is a fundamental property of all things that need
nourishment.

It is therefore a property of katabolic cells. The small,
active cells need nourishment. The large, anabolic cells are
packed full of nourishment.

Example — Acinetan.

An intensification of this process would be brought about in
time by natural selection and would result in multiple fission,
external and internal, which is the highest expression of sex
found among the Protozoa.

SEX IN THE METAZOA.

Eydroid as a Type. — The male cells originate from amoeboid
endodermal cells which differentiate along the line of katabo-
iism. They divide repeatedly and eventually become the
smallest and most active cells in the colony. The female cells
originate from amoeboid endodermal cells which differentiate
along the line of anabolism. They grow excessively and
become passive and circular in outline. They eventually
become the largest and least active cells in the body.

These two cells unite, or the smaller seeks the larger and is
absorbed in it. As a result:

36 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

First. — The small, active cell imparts its kinetic energy to
the large, passive cell, and that energy expresses itself in cell
division.

Second. — The large, passive, anabolic cell imparts to the
daughter cells its anabolic propensities, which express them-
selves m growth.

By the growth and division of cells every organism, from
the hydroid to man himself, attains its perfection.

It will be seen from what has been said that there is no
fundamental difference between the reproductive processes in
the Protozoa and Metazoa. Ail of the complicated machinery
associated with sex in the higher forms are merely accessory to
the fundamental fact of the meeting of two cells, an inter-
mingling of protoplasm and a subseqiient cell division, all of
which phenomena are essentially present in the conjugation
and fusion of the Paramecium for instance.

As to the significance of sex, it is not sufficient to say that it
serves to perpetuate the species. It does much more. It
serves to improve species in that the commingling of the char-
acteristics of two parents furnishes the main potentiality for
individual variation among the offspring. Indeed, Weismann
stoutly maintains that we have here the only cause for indi-
vidual variation upon which natural selection can act, and he
believes that evolution would be impossible among sexless
animals. However this may be, it is clearly true that progress
is much more rapid and certain by virtue of the fact that most
individuals animals have a> father and a mother.

It would be impossible in the limits of this paper to discuss
the tremendous ethical, social and moral significance of sex. It
must suffice to suggest that altruism had its birth in the world
when brutes first cared for and protected their helpless young,
and that through the social relations of parent and child, hus-
band and wife, all that is purest and best in human affairs found
its inception and its impetus.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

37

THE REDUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID BY COPPER
AS A FUNCTION OF THE TEMPERATURE.

LAUNCELOT W. ANDREWS.

The object of the experiments described in this paper was
to determine whether the reduction of sulphuric to sulphurous
acid by copper takes place at a lower or at a higher temper-
ature than the incipient dissociation of the former compound
into water and the acid anhydride.

The sulphuric aci4 employed was the ordinary pure product,
containing 98.4 per cent of Hg SO^. The apparatus illustrated
in the figure was used.

The method employed was to heat the copper with the sul-
phuric acid (in flask B) gradually in a sulphuric acid bath while

38 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

passing a dry current of air or of carbonic anhydride through
it. The escaping gas was then tested (in flask C) by suitable
reagents, to be described, for sulphuric and sulphurous anhy-
drides respectively. Flask A contained concentrated sulphuric
acid of the ordinary temperature (25°C) to dry the gas, which
was usually passed at the rate of about eighty bubbles per min-
ute. The importance of securing absence of dust from the
acid being recognized, the interior of the whole apparatus was
washed with boiling concentrated sulphuric acid and dried in
dustless air.

Experiment I. — Flasks A and B were charged with concen-
trated sulphuric acid and C with a solution of barium chloride.
Air was drawn through the whole in a. slow current for fifteen
minutes. The solution in C remained clear. B was now very
slowly heated while the current of air was maintained.

Before the bath reached 70°C there appeared in C a faint tur-
bidity of barium sulphate, which at the temperature named
became distinct. At 60°C the solution 'remained unchanged,
even after passing the air for a long time. Hence sulphuric
acid of the given concentration begins to give up sulphuric
anhydrides, that is, it begins to dissociate at a temperature
lying between 60° and 70°C.

Experiment II. — The apparatus charged as before, with the
addition of pure bright copper wire in B, and with highly dilute
iodide of starch instead of barium chloride in C. After passing
air for several hours at the ordinary temperature, much of the
copper had gone into solution and anhydrous copper sulphate
had begun to crystallize out, but the iodide of starch, made
originally very pale blue, retained its color.

This shows that in the presence of air, sulphuric acid is
attacked by copper at ordinary temperatures, but without
reduction of the acid. The reaction must take place in accord-
ance with the equation:

2Cii+0, 2H,SO,=2Cu S0,+2H,0.

Experiment III. — This was like the last, except that the appa-
ratus was filled with carbonic anhydride, and a current of this
gas was substituted for air.

The copper was not attacked, and the starch iodide was not
decolorized. The temperature of B was now slowly raised, and
when it reached 90° the solution in C was bleached. In a sim-
ilar experiment a solution of dilute sulphuric acid, colored pale
straw with potassium bichromate, was used as an indicator for

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 39

sulphurous acid in C. In this case the change of color did not
occur until the temperature had risen to 108°, the indicator
being, as might be expected, less sensitive than the other.

Experiment IV. — Same as III, except that a reagent for both
sulphuric and sulphurous acid was used in C.

This reagent was prepared by slightly acidifying a solution
of barium chloride with hydrochloric acid and then adding
enough potassium permanganate to render the solution pale
rose color.

This indicator is capable of showing the presence of consid-
erably less than do m. g. of sulphurous acid.

When the temperature of the bath had reached 70 °C
the solution in C was distinctly turbid with barium sulphate,
but its color was unaltered. At 86° it began rather
suddenly to bleach, and at 87° it was colorless. Special
care was taken in filling B not to get any sulphuric acid on the
neck or sides of the flask. A repetition of this experiment
gave identical results, the gas being passed at the rate of two
to three bubbles per second.

The conclusions to be drawn from this investigation are:

First. — That the dissociation of sulphuric acid of 98.4 per
cent, begins to be appreciable at a temperature somewhat
below 70°, which may be estimated at about 67°.

Second. — The reduction of sulphuric acid by copper does not
begin below 86°, that is, not until the acid contains free
anhydride.

The assertion made by Baskerville,^ that sulphuric acid is
reduced by copper at 0° is, therefore, incorrect. He appears
to have based the statement, not on any demonstration of the
formation of sulphurous acid, but solely on the formation of
copper sulphate, which occurs, as I have shown, ^ in conse-
quence of the presence of air.

A more careful repetition of his experiments under condi-
tions securing entire exclusion of air can but lead him to a
different conclusion from that he obtained at first.

The fact adduced by him that under certain conditions
cuprous sulphide may be formed by the action of the metal
upon sulphuric acid does not allow any conclusions to be drawn
respecting the presence of "nascent" hydrogen, since it may
be explained perfectly well either by the direct reducing action

ijournal of the Am. Ohem. Soc, 1895, 908.

2Traube has shown the same thing for dilute sulphuric acid. Ber: 18, 1888.

40 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

of the copper or by Traube's theory which is backed up by
almost convincing evidenced

Stannous chloride will reduce sulphuric acid with formation
of hydrogen sulphide and free sulphur, an analogous reaction
in which the assumption of "nascent" hydrogen is inadmissible.

3Moritz Traube, loc. cit. and Bcr., 18, 1877, etc.

€LAYS OF THE INDIANOLA BRICK, TILE AND POT-
TERY WORKS

L. A. YOUTZ, INDIANOLA.

Analyses of several clays from a brickyard at Indianola have
recently been made by me to go into a report of the Geological
Survey of Warren county. Though it has been said that a
knowledge of the constituents of a clay, determined by a purely
chemical analysis, is of very little value to a practical brick-
maker, yet in comparing the analyses of these clays and those
from other vicinities, it seems that points of great value to the
m.anufacturer are made plain, and points that can be derived
from no other source. So I wish to give a few ideas which
came to me as I made the comparison, as points, of local inter-
est at least, were, it seems to me, clearly brought out.

In order to get an intelligent idea of the value of this clay
for brick and tile it may be helpful to give a short outline of
some of the qualities of clay for the various kinds of brick.
The quality and character of brick depends, of course, pri-
marily upon the kinds of earth used; the mechanical mixing,
drying and burning being important items, however.

The varieties of clay most frequently used for common
bricks are three. The so-called blue clays, hydrated aluminum
silicates, combined with small quantities of iron, calcium, mag-
nesium and alkalis; sandy clays or loams, and marls which con-
tain a large proportion of lime and magnesium. In addition to
these are the clays for special kinds of brick, as fire-brick,
pottery, terra cotta, etc. Hydrated silicate of aluminum is
infusible even at the most intense furnace heat, but if these be
jnixed with alkalis, or alkali earths, it becomes fusible, and in

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 41

about the proportion of the admixture. So that clays con-
taining more than about 3 per cent of lime can not be made into
good brick from this fact, and that the calcium carbonate being
reduced to calcium oxide by heat will slack by moisture and
the brick then crumble. However, by burning at a higher
temperature than is usual the injurious effect of lime can be
greatly overcome unless it is in so great quantity as to lower
the fusing point too much. The amount of combined water in
a clay is a very important item in determining its adaptability
for good brick. In a pure hydrated silicate of aluminum so much
water will be given off by burning that the brick in going
through the sweating process become too soft and run
together, or else crack so as to be made much inferior. So all
pure clays for brick must be mixed with sand, powdered quartz,
powdered brick, gangue, or some such material, in order to
alleviate this difficulty. In loams a certain per cent, of lime or
similar material needs to be added to act as a flux, as too much
sandy material makes the brick brittle. Marls in this country
have been, it appears, but little used for brick making, as the
lime is supposed to be detrimental. Yet in Europe a very fine
malm is made from marls having as high as 40 per cent or more
of calcium carbonate. They simply heat the brick probably
200 degrees higher than the ordinary brick. This gives the
brick a white color instead of red, the iron and calcium being
united with the aluminum as a ferric- aluminum calcic silicate.

Of the Indianola brick clays, analyses of two samples will be
sufficient for our purpose of comparison. The brick are made
from a certain small deposit of blue clay, taken probably
twenty feet below the surface, mixed with a much larger pro-
portion of a darker colored clay immediately above this blue
layer.

The lower strata gave the following analysis from the air
dried samples:

Si O2... 66.779

AljOg. 19.525

Fe^ O3 - 72

Ca O trace

Loss dried at 100° 8.08

Loss by ignition 5.48

Total 100.584

42 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

The sample above this as follows:

SiOj.... 67.85

Al^Og+FejOg 20 45

CaO 1.19

Md O trace

K2 O... trace

Loss dried at 100°.. 3.47

Loss by ignition 7.12

Total... 100.08

It will be seen that in each there is a large per cent, of silica
and alumina. The upper containing more free silica, conse-
quently gave a higher per cent of silica and alumina, but con-
tained a considerably smaller per cent, of hygroscopic moisture,
The higher loss by ignition in the upper stratum being due
doubtless, to a larger amount of organic matter near the sur-
face. Lime was present in the upper stratum in appreciable
quantity, and iron in small quantity in each. A trace of man-
ganese oxide in the upper stratum.

From Crossley's " Table of Analyses of Clays " for common
brick we take three average samples, which are as follows:
Common brick clay:

Si O2 49.44

Alj O3... 34.26

Fcj O3 7.74

CaO 1.48

Mg 0-... 5.14

Water and loss 1.94

Total 100 00

Sandy clay:

Si Oj 66.68

AI2 O3 26.08

Fe^ O3 1.26

Mg O trace

Ca O 84

Water and loss 5.14

Total 100.00

Marl. — London "Malms."'

Si02+Al2 03 43.00

Fej O3- 3.00

CaO... 46.50

Mg O 3.50

Water 4.00

Total 100.00

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43

Comparing the Indianola clay with these, with the first it is
at variance especially in silica, alumina, and oxide of iron. With
the second it corresponds very well except in A]., O3 and in hav-
ing more water. But we could not call it a sandy clay. The
upper layer contains a little sand, but the lower practically
none. To the third there is no comparison.

It seems then as these clays represent the three common
classes of brick, that this clay at Indianola must represent a
kind which though it may make, as it has proven itself to do,
good common building brick, yet it may be adapted to other
kinds of brick.

The Stourbridge, England, clays, from which the world-
famed fire brick are made, yield, by averaging the analyses of
four different clays, the following proportion of materials:

No. 1.

Si O2 64.95

Alj O3..-. 2292

Fe2 O3 1.90

Ca O+Mg O .64

Kj 0+Na2 O 37

Hj Oloss.- 9.60

Total... - 100.38

Woodbridge fire clay bed, New Jersey, also famous for its-
quality of refractory clays, as follows:

No. 2.

Si O2 combined 40.50

Si ©2 free (quartz sand) 6.40 46.90

AI2 O3.-. 35.90 35.90

TiO^ 1.30 1.30

KjO+NajO. .44

Fe2 O3 1.10 154

H2 O combined 12.80

Ha O hygroscopic 1.50 14.30

Total... 99.94 99.94

From Trenton, New Jersey:

No. 3.

Si O2 combined 17.50

Si O2 free (quartz sand) 56.80 74.30

AI2 O3 18.11 18.11

K2 0+Na2 0+CaO 1.07 1.07

FejOg+HzO 6.99 6.99

Total.... 100.47 100.47

44 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

These three samples of fire brick clays are selected from a
list of about 100 analyses of clays taken from various parts of
the United States and Europe, and, I think, represent a fair
average as to composition. From these it may be seen that in
general a large amount of Alg O3 and Si O^, with small amounts
of alkali, or alkali earths, or iron oxide, is characteristic of these
highly refractible clays. Further, it seems that a large per
cent, of Alg O3 over Si O^ increases the inf usibility. However,
there seem to be two varieties of fire clay, varying considerably
in composition, which make equally good fire brick. One is
where the silica is nearly all combined with a percentage of
about 40 to 50 per cent, and a large amount of aluminum oxide —
probably 25 to 35 per cent. — and water making up the greater
amount of the remaining 100 per cent. This clay, of course, as
the per cent, of the alumina over the silica and these two over
other metallic oxides increases, finally runs into kaolin. The
other kind is one where the combined silica is small and the
alumina less than in the first case, the combined silica prob-
ably not having a much higher percentage than the alumina,
the remaining part being made up almost entirely of free silica
(quartz sand) and water. No. 2 above illustrates the first and
No. 8 the second class.

By comparing the Indianola clays with these it will be seen
that the average is essentially the same as No. 1. This being
an average of several samples of each of the two classes
referred to above, i. e. , No. 2 and No. 3. But in the Indianola
clays there is but small amount of free silica. This being the
case, and from the fact that it is so free from magnesia, lime,
potash, and iron oxide, it would seem that this clay would be
well adapted to be used as the clay basis of fire brick, and then
the necessary amount of free silica (either powdered quartz,
glass, or silicious brick dust) be added. By a very careful com-
parison of all the clays the analyses of which I have, and the
qualities of brick made from these, theoretically it seems to me
by this means very superior fire brick could be made. The
fusibility of bricks made by this method with this clay as far
as I know has not been determined. Yet it seems it would be
an experiment worth trying, and one which we may attempt at
a later date.

I am informed that the pottery made at this plant is not made
from the clay at Indianola, but is made from clay taken just
above the upper vein of coal at Carlisle, Iowa. I have not
analyzed this clay and cannot at present make a comparison.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45

UNIT SYSTEMS AND DIMENSIONS.

T. PROCTOR HALL.
(Abstract.)

[Published in full in Electrical World February 7, 1896.]

The three fundamental units of the C. G. S. system are
reduced to two when the unit of mass is defined as the quantity
of matter which, by its gravitational force, produces at unit
distance unit acceleration; and these two to one when the unit
of time is defined as the time taken by an ether wave one cen-
timeter long to advance one centimeter. A table is given show-
ing the dimensions of units in each of these three systems, and
the advantages of the latter are pointed out.

A MAD STONE.

BY T. PROCTOR HALL AND ERNEST E. FRISK.

Here and there is found a man possessing a pebble for which
he claims the remarkable power of preventing hydrophobia
when applied to the wound made by a mad dog. We have been
unable to find any record of a scientific examination of a mad
stone or a scientific test of its properties. This may be partly
accounted for by the rarity of the stone, and the high esteem in
which they are held by their owners. A popular idea is that
they are formed by accretion in a deer's stomach.

Last summer while visiting the Mammoth Chimney mine,
eighteen miles south of Gunnison, Col., a prospector called
attention to some small pieces of light- colored rock from the
mine, which adhered very strongly to the tongue. Some

46 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

specimens were secured as a curiosity, and after being properly-
rounded, to obscure their origin, were recognized by some of
the "old inhabitants" as genuine mad stones. Their curative
power has yet to be tested, but in all other respects, apparently,
their identification is complete.

The fragments removed from the larger specimen were pre-
served for examination and analysis. The specimen itself is
larger than a hen's egg, light gray in color, with darker specks
of iron scattered through; distinctly stratified; with no cleavage
planes. The luster on a broken surface is resinous, on a worn
surface more earthy. Its hardness, considered as a rock is 2^,
but the fine powder scratches glass. It is infusible in an ordi-
nary blowpipe flame, and powders easily after ignition.

Under the microscope it appears to be made of flat and irreg-
ular transparent granules about 1-500 millimeter tnick, some of
which are ten times that width, fitted loosely together so as to
leave irregular cavities everywhere in communication with each
other. The fragments resemble fragments of silicious infuso-
rial shells which are found in large quantities in some parts of
the Rocky mountains.

The specimen after remaining some weeks in the air of a dry
room (heated by hot air) weighed 70.77 grams. It was placed
in distilled water, in which it floated for two or three minutes,
boiled for some hours, and allowed to cool. After weighing it
was hastily dried with a piece of filter paper and weighed
again. Lastly it was dried some hours in an oven at a temper-
ature of 100° to 150° C, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed.

Weight in ordinary dry air. 70 77 grams.

Weight in water, saturated 39.14 grams.

Weight in air, saturated 115.00 grams.

Weight in air, dry.. 69.15 s:rams.

From this data we get:

Volume of rock in the specimen 30 01 cc.

Volume of cavities in the specimen 45.85 cc.

Total volume 75.86 cc.

Specific gravity of rock 2.304

Specific gravity of. the whole 912

Volume of water held in ordinary dry air 1 62 cc.

Some fragments of the stone were pulverized in an agate
mortar, fused with sodium and potassium carbonates, and
analyzed in the ordinary way. Before fusion the powder was
dried at about 150°C. The results are as follows:

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 47

No. 1. No. 2.

Weight of powder... 5882 gram. .4559 gram.

Si O2 found 95.53% 96.14%

Al 2 O3 plus traces of Fea O3- 4 59% 4.01%

Total 100.12 100 15

The force of adhesion to a wet surface was estimated at 200
grams per square centimeter, or about one -fifth of an atmos-
phere, but it may be much greater. If applied to a poisoned
wound at once it would undoubtedly absorb some of the poison
and so assist in the cure. The popular belief in its efficacy has
therefore, some foundation in fact.

If more of this rock can be secured it is our intention to test
the rapidity of its absorption of moisture from the air when cut
in thin slices, with a view to its use as a hygrometer.

The vein in which the specimen was found is twenty feet
wide, nearly vertical, and strikes westward. The contents of
the vein are chiefly light and dark blue translucent quartzite,
mixed with amorphous clay and iron oxide, and bordered by a
thin blanket of limestone. Some of the translucent quartzite
is mixed with light gray mad stone, as if the firmer portions
were formed by fusion of the light gray material. The latter
agrees very closely in composition, as well as in appearance,
with the silicious shells already mentioned, and was probably
formed from them by the internal heat of the vein.

PHYSICAL THEORIES OP GRAVITATION.

T. PROCTOR HALL.

A force which belongs to individual atoms, is independent
of chemical and physical conditions, and cannot be altered or
destroyed by any known means, must be closely related to the
fundamental nature of the atoms. One of the most essential
parts in our concept of matter is mass, and the force of gravi-
tation of an atom is proportional to its mass. Mass and gravi-
tation stand, therefore, either as co-effects of the same cause or
as cause and effect. The force exerted by each atom at any
point decreases in proportion to the increase of the expanding

48 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

spherical surface containing the point; following the law of all
forces expanding in three- fold space, which may be stated thus:
Force x area of distribution=a constant.

From this fact it is evident that the distribution of the force
of gravitation is conj&ned to threefold space; for, since the
boundary of a fourfold sphere is a solid, a force expanding in
all directions from a point in fourfold space decreases in inten-
sity in proportion to the increase of the boundary, that is to
say, in proportion to the cube of the radius, instead of follow-
ing Newton's law.

Newton's law has been experimentally proved for distances
that are very great compared with the diameter of an atom, and
to a degree of accuracy limited by errors of experiment. It
does not necessarily follow that the law holds with absolute
accuracy, or that it holds at all for distances comparable with
atomic dimensions. All that we can say is that for distances
moderate and great the law expresses the facts as accurately
as they have been experimentally determined.

Gravitation is not, like magnetism, polar. In crystals atoms
have an orderly arrangement, yet no difference has been found
in the weight of any crystal when it is set on end or laid on its
side. This fact, along with the complete independence of elec-
tric conditions, show that gravitation is neither an electric nor
a magnetic phenomenon.

The ether, so far as our knowledge goes, is a homogeneous
isotropic continuum. In the conveyance of light and of elec-
tric strain it shows the properties of an elastic solid. To plane-
tary motions and to ordinary motions on the earth it offers no
appreciable resistance, and may therefore be called a fluid.
Michelson and Morley have shown that the ether close to and
in the earth moves with the earth, which indicates that the
ether does not move among atoms without some resistance cor-
responding to friction. The existence of an ether strain such
as that in a leyden jar also shows that there is a resistance on
the part of the ether to the kind of motion that takes place in
the electric discharge. Ether has mass, since it conveys energy
by waves which have a finite velocity. Lord Kelvin has pointed
out that the apparently inconsistent properties of the fluid-solid
ether are analogous with the properties of ordinary matter.
Pitch or taffy, either of which can be bent or moulded easily
by a steady pressure, is shattered like glass by a quick blow
from a hammer. The ether in like manner yields easily before

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 49

moving bodies whose velocity is relatively small, not exceed-
ing a few hundred kilometers per second, but acts as a solid
toward such high velocities as that of light, which is nearly
800,000 kilometers per second. Copper, again, is a familiar
example of a metal having nearly perfect elasticity within a
certain limit of straiD. Beyond that limit it yields to pressure
like a fluid. The ether shows the same combination of proper-
ties with a wider limit of strain. Ether in a vacuum will bear
a very great electrical strain without yielding; so that the most
perfect vacuum attainable is an all but perfect non conductor;
but if atoms be present the ether gives way to the stress and a
current passes very much more readily. This indicates that
there is some sort of discontinuity at or near the surface of the
atoms.

One of the oldest theories of gravitation was proposed by
Le Sage and elaborated by him for a lifetime. He supposed
the atoms to have an open structure, something like wire
models of solid figures, and to be exposed to a continuous storm
of exceedingly minute "ultramurdane corpuscles" which he
assumed to be flying about in all directions with inconceivable
velocity. Two atoms shelter each other from this storm in
direct proportion to the quantity of matter in each and inversely
as the square of their distance apart, and are therefore driven
together in accordance with Newton's law. The ultramundane
corpuscles are supposed so small that no atomic vibrations cor-
responding to heat or light are caused by their impact.

Le Sage's theory is unsatisfactory because it takes no>
account of the ether, which for such high velocities acts as a>
solid and would bring the little flying corpuscles to compara-
tive rest in a small fraction of a second.

Kelvin has proposed a modification of Le Sage's theory in
order to accommodate it to the existence of the ether. He first
showed that vortex rings have some of the properties of elastic
solids, and in a perfect fluid would be indestructible; then sug-
gested that atoms may be vortex rings of ether, and the ultra-
mundane corpuscles very much smaller vortex rings having
high velocities of translation. In order to account for the
permanence of atoms and corpuscles, this view prt supposes a
practically frictionless fluid ether, which does not at all corre-
spond with the actual ether.

Maxwell, after deducing the mathematical theory of elec-
tricity from the hypothesis of ether strain, showed that gravi-
4

50 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

tation also could be accounted for on a similar hypothesis, and
that the properties required for the propagation of gravitation
are similar to those exhibited by the ether in the phenomena of
light and electricity. This theory is the only one that is in
harmony with what is known of both gravitation and the ether.
It is simple, and makes no assumptions whatever regarding the
nature of matter or of atoms. It is incomplete in that it leaves
the nature of the strain undetermined.

The non-polar character of gravitation, its symmetry in
every way about the atom, reduces to two the possible kinds of
strain required by Maxwell's hypothesis. These are displace-
ments of ether radially (1) outward from or (2) inward toward
the atom. Assuming, as is customary, that the ether is incom-
pressible, the radial displacement over a spherical surface
about the atom is constant; and therefore the displacement and
the intensity of the stress at any point varies inversely as the
square of its distance from the atom. It is not necessary to
suppose, either, that the atom itself is spherical or that the dis-
placements in its immediate vicinity are directed toward or
from a single point; for at the distance of a single centimeter
from the atom the surface of equal displacement must be so
nearly spherical that the most accurate observation now possi-
ble would fail to detect any irregularity. Possibly variations
in the form of the atom or in the direction of displacement
immediately around it may be the cause of the chemical proper-
ties of the atom, since these are apparent only at very small
distances from it.

For the sake of clearness let us suppose that outward dis-
placement of the ether is caused by the insertion of a quantity
of matter, an atom, at any point. Draw a cone having the cen-
ter of displacement for its vertex. Any small element in this
cone is by its outward displacement shortened and widened; so
that there is on each end of the conical element a pressure, and
in all directions perpendicular to the pressure a tension due to
the stretching of the expanded spherical shell containing the
element.

Suppose, also, for the sake of clearness, that inward dis-
placement is produced either by cutting out small portions of
the ether and leaving holes (atoms) toward which the strain is
directed, or by condensing small portions of the ether into
atoms. An element of the cone is by its inward displacement
lengthened and made narrower, and has a tension on each end
and a pressure in all directions perpendicular to the tensions.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 51

The strain in each case extends to infinity, or as far as the
ether extends. If the displacement of ether were prevented
from extending on one side by a rigid imaginary wall, the
whole strain on that side would take place between the atom
and the wall, and would be more intense than on the opposite
side. The atom would tend to move in such direction as to
decrease the intensity of the strain, namely, from the wall if
the displacement were outward, toward the wall if the displace-
ment were inward. By the same reasoning two atoms repel
each other if the displacement is outward, and attract if it is
inward. The law of gravitation is thus explained on the
hypothesis that each atom is accompanied by an inward dis-
placement of the surroucding ether, proportional in amount to
the mass of the atom.

Minchin (Statics, fourth edition, vdI. 2, p. 475,) by a course
of mathematical reasoning has reached the same conclusion.

If the atoms be regarded as cavities, the mass of an atom is
represented by the quantity of ether removed, which repre-
sents also the volume of the atom. Since atomic volume is not
proportioned to atomic weight, the cavity-atom hypothesis
must be abandoned.

On the condensation hypothesis the mass of an atom is the
quantity of ether condensed, its volume the space occupied on
the average hy the condensed mass which may have any kind
of irregularity of form.

This hypothesis implies that all atoms are built out of the
same original stuff, and is in this respect similar to but not
identical with Front's hypothesis. The fact that all atoms
attract with forces proportional to their masses shows that all
atoms possess the same kind of mass, and are therefore likely
to consist of the same sort of stuff.

Valence, selective affinity, electric and other peculiarities of
atoms, must, if this hypothesis of gravitation be correct, find
their explanation in the form and density of the atom, the dis-
tribution of its stuff in space, which can be expressed as a
function of the three space co ordinates; together with the laws
of energy, which express the relations of the atom to the ether.
The field of force about an atom is also capable of representa
tion by a function of the space co- ordinates such that when the
distance r from the atom is relatively great the equipotential
surfaces are very nearly spheres.

52 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

Stress in its ultimate analysis is probably dynamic. If so,
the maintenance of the field of strain about an atom as it moves
presents no greater difficulty than the maintenance of the field
of light about a moving candle, or of the field of sound about a
moving bell.

The propagation of such ether strains as occur in light, elec-
tricity and magnetism is very greatly influenced by thematerial
substai.ces present in the strained medium. It is not probable
that the gravitatiorai strain differs from others in this respect,
and we may reasonably hope to find some inductive phenomena
in connection with gravitation. A feasible plan is to surround
a delicately poised mass by a thick pair of hemispheres (which
may be hollow for liquids), and note with a refractometer any
change of position, which, since the attraction of a sphere at a
point within it is zero, will be due either to induction or to
irregularities of the sphere. Errors due to irregularities may
be readily eliminated by rotating the sphere.

THE LE CLAIRE LIMESTONE.

BY SAMUEL, CALVIN.

The Le Claire limestone constitutes the second stage of the
Niagara formation as it is developed in Iowa. The first or
lower stage has been called the Delaware, from the fact that
all its varying characteristics are well exhibited in Delaware
county. The Delaware stage embraces many barren beds and
presents a very great number of phases, but at certain horizons
it abounds in characteristic fossils. The typical faunas of this
lower stage embrace such forms as Pentamerus oblongus Sow-
erby, Halysites catenulatus Linn93us, Favosites favosus Goldfuss,
Strombodes gigas Owen, Strombodes iJentago^ius Goldfuss, Ptycho-
phyllum expansum Owen, and DiphTjjjliyllum multicaulellaAl. The
beds of the Delaware stage furthermore contain large quanti-
ties of chert.

The Le Claire stage of the Niagara follows the Delaware.
The exact line of separation between the two stages has not
been, and probably cannot be, definitely drawn. There are

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

53

massive, barren, highly dolomitized aspects of both stages
that, taken by themselves, cannot be differentiated in the field.
Under such circumstances the observer must work out the strati-
graphic relations of the particular group of strata under con-
sideration before referring it to its place in the geological col-
umn. In general the Le Claire limestone is a heavy bedded
highly crystalline dolomite. It contains scarcely any chert, and
m the lower part there are very few fossils. There are occa-
sionally a few specimens of Pentamerus, of the form described
as Pentamerus occidentalis Hall, and the principal coral is a
long, slender, tortuous Amplexus which is represented only by
casts of the vacant or hollow parts of the original corallum
On account of the complete solution of the original structure
the spaces occupied by the solid parts of the corallum are now
mere cavities in the limestone. In the upper part of the Le
Claire stage small brachiopods abound. They belong to the
genera Hameospira, Trematospira, Nucleospira, Rhynchonella
Rhynchotrepa, Atripa, Spirifer, and probably others. Inmost
cases the fossils have been dissolved out, leaving numerous
cavities. The calcareous brachial apparatus of the spire bear-
ing genera is often the only part of the original structure rep-
resented. No statement can well give any idea of the numbers
of the small shells that crowded the sea bottom near the close
of the Le Claire stage, nor of the corresponding number of
the minute cavities that are now so characteristic a feature of
this portion of the L3 Claire limestone. In some localities in
Cedar county the small brachiopods of this horizon are repre-
sented by very perfect casts that were formed by a secondary
filling of the cavities left by solution of the original shell. The
external characters are thus fairly well reproduced.

Compared with the beds of the Delaware stage, the Le Claire
limestone as a rule lies ia more massive ledges, it is more com-
pletely dolomitized, and its fracture surfaces exhibit a more
perfect crystalline structure. It contains an entirely different
fauna, a fauna ia which small rhynchonelloid-and spire-bearing
brachiopods are conspicuous. Its fossils are never silicified
and, m marked contrast with some portions of the Delaware'
Its upper part at least is notably free from chert The Le
Claire limestone is the lime burning rock of Sugar Creek, Cedar
Valley, Port Byron, and Le Claire. Wherever it occurs it fur-
nishes material for the manufacture of the highest quality of

54 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

With respect to their distribution the strata of this stage are
well developed at Le Claire in Scott county. They are seen
in the same stratigraphic relation at the lime kilns on Sugar
creek and at Cedar Valley in Cedar county. They occur beneath
the quarry stone at and near Stone City, Olin, and Hale in Jones
county. They are again seen at numerous points west of the
Jones county line in Linn. Indeed they are somewhat gen-
erally, though by no means universally, distributed in the east
central part of Scott, southwestern parts of Clinton, western
Cedar, and the southern parts of Jones and Linn. They seem
to be limited to the southwestern corner of the Niagara area.
A line drawn from the mouth of the Wapsipinicon through
Anamosa would mark approximately their northeastern limits.

The Le Claire limestone is in some respects unique among
the geological formations of Iowa. In the lirst place it varies
locally in thickness, so much so that its upper surface is exceed-
ingly undulating, the curves in some places being very sharp
and abrupt. In the second place it differs from every other
limestone of Iowa in frequently exhibiting the peculiarity of
being obliquely bedded on a large scale, the oblique bedding
often affecting a thickness of fifteen or twenty feet. The phe-
nomena suggests that during the deposition of the Le Claire
limestone the sea covered only the southwestern part of the
Niagara area, that at times the waters were comparatively
shallow, and that strong currents, acting sometimes in one
direction and sometimes in another, swept the calcareous mud
back and forth, piling it up in the eddies in lenticular heaps or
building it up in obliqely bedded masses over areas of consid-
erable extent. The oblique beds observe no regularity with
respect to either the angle or direction of dip. Within com-
paratively short distances they may be found inclining to all
points of the compass. Again the waters at times were quiet,
and ordinary processes of deposition went on over the irregular
sea bottom, the beds produced under such circumstances con-
forming to the undulating surface on which they were laid
down. In some cases these beds were horizontal as in the
upper part of the section illstrated in plate 1, while in other
cases they were more or less llexuous and tilted as seen in the
left bank of the Wapsipinicon above Newport. (Figure 2.)

Professor Hall accurately describes some of the variatiocs in
the inclination and direction of dip in the Le Claire limestone

IOWA ACADEMy OF SCIENCES, VOL. III.

Figure 1. Exposure of LeClaire limestone at the Sugar creek lime quarries. Cedar
county. Iowa. Tlie limestone is obliquely bedded in the lower part of the section and
horizontally bedded above. The same fauna occurs in both sets of beds. Oblique
beds dip southeast.

Figure 3 Oblique beds of LeClaire limestone, dipping northeast, in west bank of
Mississippi river, one-half mile below LeClaire. Iowa.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55

as seen at Le Claire*, but he assumes that the inclination of the
beds is due to folding and uplift subsequent to their deposition.
On this assumption the Le Claire limestone would have a thick-
ness of more than 600 feet, whereas the maximum thickness
does not exceed 80 feet, and the average over the whole area is
very much less. Prof. A. H. Worthenf studied this limestone
at Port Byron, 111., and Le Claire, Iowa, and describes it as
" presenting no regular lines of bedding or stratification, but
showing lines of false bedding or cleavage at every conceivable
angle to the horizon." He assigns to these beds a thickness of

Figure 2. Inclined undulating beds o'^the Le Claire stage near Newport, Iowa.

fifty feet, but he offers no explanation of what he calls ' ' false
bedding or cleavage." In White's report on the geology of
lowat the oblique bedding seems to have been taken as evi-
dence that a line of disturbance crossed the Mississippi river at
Le Claire with a direction nearly parallel to the Wapsipinicon
valley. This apparent disturbance was last recognized about
three miles west of Auamosa. The angle of dip it is said has
reached in some places twenty-eight degrees with the horizon.
McGee in discussing the Regular Deformations of Northeastern
Iowa% quotes Dr. White on the Wapsipinicon line of disturbance

* Kept, on the Geol. Surv. of the State of Iowa, Hall and Whitney, vol. I, part I, pp.
73-74. 1858.

+ Geol. Surv. of 111., vol. I, p. 130. 1865.

* Kept, on the Geol. Surv. of the State of Iowa, Charles A. White, vol. I, p. 133. 1870.
§ Pleistocene history of Northeastern Iowa, p. 340. 1891.

56 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

and accepts the observations on which the statement is based
as evidence of a synclinal fold extending frooa Le Claire to Ana-
mosa. White's observations appear to have been made only at
the two points mentioned. At both places the strata seem to
be inclined at a high angle. On the assumption that the incli-
nation of the strata indicates orogenic disturbance, the con-
clusion that the disturbed beds were parts of the same fold was
very natural. There is, however, no fold, nor is there any line
of disturbance. In the whole Niagara area southwest of the
line which marks the limit of the Le Claire limestone the phe-
nomena seen at Le Claire and west of Anamosa are repeated
scores of times and in ways that defy systematic arrangement.
The beds incline at all angles from zero to thirty degrees, and
even within short distances they may be found dipping in every
possible direction. Twenty miles southwest of the line sup-
posed to be traversed by the synclinal fold, for example at the
lime kiln on Sugar creek, along the Cedar river above Roches-
ter, at Cedar Valley, as well as at many intermediate points
distributed promiscuously throughout the area of the Le Claire
limestone, the beds stand at a high angle, and the multiplicity
of directions in which they are inclined, eve a in exposures that
are relatively near together, is wholly inconsistent with the
idea of orogenic deformation. The beds are now praciically in
the position in which they were laid down in the tumultuous
Niagara sea. The principal disturbances they have suffered
have been the results of epeirogenic movements which affected
equally the whole region over which these limestones are dis-
tributed, as well as all the adjacent regions of the Mississippi
valley.

The exposures at Port Byron and Le Claire present some
interesting features that are not saen so well at any of the
exposures farther west. In the first place, the lime quarries at
Port Byron show the characteristic oblique position of the
strata, and at the same time they demonstrate that the oblique
bedding is real and not a mere deceptive appearance due to
cleavage of a mass of sediment that was originally built up
regularly and evenly on a horizontal base. As in other groups
of strata, there are faunal and lithological variations when the
beds are compared one with another. These varying charac-
teristics do not intersect the beds in horizontal planes as they
would if the present bedding were due to cleavage of a mass
that had risen vertically at a uniform rate, but they follow the

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. Ill

TM»

1 - ' .^' T'

t t

Figure 1 Thin-bedded LeClaire limestone overlying the phase represented in
Plate I, figure 2. as seen on west side of Main street, LeClaire, Iowa At this point
sub-marine erosion removed portions of certain beds, and the space so formed was
subsequently filled with a second set of beds which overlapped obliquely the eroded
edges of the first.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57

individual layers in their oblique course from top to bottom of
the exposure. The facts confirm the statement that the beds
were deposited one by one in the position in which we now find
them.

On the west side of the Mississippi, south of Le Claire, the
usual oblique bedding is seen in the bank of the river, below
the level of the plain on which the lower part of the town is
built. The individual beds, as in all the characteristic expos-
ures of this formation, range from eight to twelve inches in
thickness. Above the level of the beds exposed in the river
bank there is another series of Le Claire beds that depart some-
what from the ordinary type. Near the base of this second
series the layers are thick and the rock is a light gray, porous,
soft, non- crystalline dolomite. These grade up into thinner
and more compact beds, but the lithological characters are
never quite the same as those of the more typical beds at a
lower level. The soft, porous gray- colored beds contain casts
of Dinobolus conradi (Hall). The same species ranges up into
the harder beds, but the characteristic fossils above the soft,
porous layers are casts of small individuals of Atrypa reticularis
and a small, smooth- surfaced Spirifer. The layers become
quite thin in the upper part of the Le Claire. They show many
anomalies of dip, but, so far as observed, they do not as a rule
stand at as high angles as do the harder and more perfectly
crystalline beds of the lower series. The existence, however,
of tumultuous seas is no less clearly indicated at this horizon
than in the lower beds that pitch at greater angles. In the
town of Le Claire, on the west side of the main street, there is
evidence of the erosion of the sea bottom by currents, and sub-
sequent filling of the resulting channels with material of the
same kind as formed the original beds. In eroding the
observed channel some of the previously formed layers were
cut off abruptly, and in refilling the space that had been scooped
out the new layers conformed to the concave surface and
lapped obliquely over the eroded edges of the old ones.

The angle at which the lower, more highly inclined beds
stand never exceeds twenty-eight or thirty degrees; that is, it
never exceeds the angle of stable slope for the fine, wet, cal-
careous material of which the strata were originally composed.

The Le Claire limestone is, as a whole, sharply set off from
the deposits of the Delaware stage by its hard, highly crystal-
line structure, its freedom from chert, its easily recognized

58 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

fauna, and its record of anomalous conditions of deposition.
In the field the distinction between the Le Claire and the Ana-
mosa stages are even more easily recognized, though faunally
the two stages are intimately related. In the Anamosa stage
oblique bedding is unknown; liihologically the rock is an
earthy, finely and perfectly laminated dolomite, not highly
crystalline in its typical aspect, and too impure for the manu-
facture of lime. It may be quarried in symmetrical blocks of
any desired dimensions, "while the Le Claire limestone breaks
into shapeless masses wholly unfit for building purposes. The
quarry beds of the Anamosa stage are quite free from fossils,
but along the Cedar river in Cedar county the brachiopod fauna
of the upper part of the Le Claire reappears in great force in a
stratum four feet in thickness, up near the top of the forma-
tion. The beds of the Anamosa stage are very undulating, and
dip in long, graceful, sweeping curves in every possible direc-
tion. The knobs and bosses and irregular undulation devel-
oped on the sea bottom as a result of the peculiar condition
prevailing during the Le Claire age, persisted to a greater or
less extent after the age came to an end, and it was upon this
uneven floor that the Anamosa limestone was laid down. The
puzzling flexures of the Anamosa limestone, and the puzzling
variations in altitude at which it occurs, were largely deter-
mined by irregularities in the upper surface of the Le Claire
formation.

THE BUCHANAN GRAVELS: AN INTERGLACIAL
DEPOSIT IN BUCHANAN COUNTY, IOWA.

BY SAMUEL CALVIN.

About three miles east of Independence, Iowa, there are
cross-bedded, water-laid deposits of sand and gravel of more
than usual interest. The beds in question occur near the line
of the Illinois Central railway. The railway company indeed
has opened up the beds and developed a great gravel pit from
which many thousands of carloads have been taken and used as
ballast along the line.

Overlying the gravel is a thin layer of lowan drift, not more
than two or three feet in thickness, but charged with gray

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 59

granite boulders of massive size. Some of these boulders may-
be seen perched on the very margin of the pit, and some have
been undermined in taking out the gravel and have fallen to the
bottom. The surface of the whole surrounding region is thickly
strewn with lowan boulders. It is evident that the lowan drift
sheet was spread over northeastern Iowa after the gravels were
in place.

These sands and gravels are now so incoherent that they may
be excavated easily with the shovel, and yet there is no evidence
that the glaciers that transported the overlying boulders and
distributed the lowan drift cut into them, or disturbed them, to
any appreciable extent. The lowan ice sheet was probably
thin , and all the loose surface materials in front of its advancing
edge were frozen solid. The thickness of the gravels is some-
what variable, owing to the uneven floor upon which they were
deposited, but it ranges from fifteen to twenty feet. The beds
have been worked out in places down to the blue clay of the
Kansan drift.

Throughout the gravel bed, but more particular y in the
lower portion of it, there are numerous boulders that range in
diameter up to ten or twelve inches. These boulders are all of
the Kansan type. Fine grained greenstones predominate. Pro-
portionally large numbers of them are planed and scored on one
or two sides. Those that are too large to be used as ballast are
thrown aside on the bottom of the excavation, and in the course
of a few seasons many of the granites and other species crumble
into sand. The contrast between the decayed granites of tha
Kansan stage and the fresh, hard, undecayed lowan boulders
in the drift sheet above the gravels, is very striking. Many of
the boulders from the gravels are coated more or less with a
secondary calcareous deposit, a feature not uncommon among
boulders taken directiy from the Kansan drift sheet in other
parts of Iowa.

As to their origin the Buchanan gravels are made up of
materials derived from the Kansan drift. As to age they must
have been laid down in a body of water immediately behind the
retreating edge of the Kansan ice. There are reasons for
believing that the Kansan ice was vastly thicker than the lowan,
but the temperature was milder, and so when the period of
melting came enormous volumes of water were set free. That
strong currents were developed is evidenced by the coarse char-
acter of the material deposited as well as by the conspicuous

60 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

cross bedding that characterizes the whole formation. Some of
the larger boulders found at various levels throughout the beds
were probably not directly transported by currents, but by float-
ing masses of ice. While, therefore, the gravels lie between
two sheets of drift, and for that reason may be called intergla-
cial, probably Aftonian, they yet belong to the time of the
first ice melting, and are related to the Kansan stage of the
glacial series as the loess of northeastern Iowa is related to the
lowan stage.

While the Illinois Central gravel pit is the typical exposure
of the Buchanan gravels, the same beds are found widely dis-
tributed throughout Buchanan, Linn, Jones, Delaware and prob-
ably other counties. One exposure that has been utilized for
the improvement of the county roads occurs on the hilltop a
mile east of Independence. Another, used for like purposes, is
found a mile and a half west of Winthrop. The county line
road northeast of Troy Mills cuts through the same deposit.
Throughout the region already indicated there are many beds
of similar gravels, but in general they are so situated as not to
show their relations to the two beds of drift.

The Buchanan gravels, it should be remembered, represent
the coarse residue from a large body of till. The fine silt was
carried away by the currents and dej:.osits of it should be found
somewhere to the southward. It may possibly be represented,
in part at least, by the fine loess- like silt that forms a top
dressing to the plains of Kansan drift in southern Iowa and
regions farther south.

RECENT DISCOVERIES OP GLACIAL SCORINGS IN
SOUTHEASTERN IOWA.

BY FRANCIS M. FULTZ.

The discoveries of localities showing glacial scoring in
southeastern Iowa have been somewhat numerous during the
last few years. In a paper presented before this body a year
ago^ I called attention in detail to the different known exposures

iGlacial Markings in Southeastern Iowa. Proc. la. Acad. Sci., Vol. II, p. 313. Des
Moin es, 1895.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCtENCES, VOL. III.

PLATE III.

Figure 1. General view of the typical exposure of the Buchanan gravels.

Figure 2. Near view of the Buchanan gravels.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VVJj III.

Figure 1. Abandoned part of gravel pit.

Figure 2. Field immediately north of the gravel pit showing large numbers of Iowa
boulders.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 61

of glaciated rock in this region, and pointed out that the testi-
mony they gave was unanimous as to the southeastern move-
ment of the ice sheet. Since then another exposure has been
located that seems to bring conflicting testimony.

This locality is the joint discovery of Mr. Frank Leverett
and myself. It is situated on the lot at the northeast corner of
the intersection of Court and Prospect streets in the city of
Burlington. Some quarrying had been done by blasting out
the level rock aoor. Everywhere on the margin of the hole
thus formed may be seen the finely striated and grooved sur-
face. On the east side a patch, 6x8 feet, was cleaned off and a
finely striated surface brought to view. The direction of the
stri^, taken with compass and corrected, was S. 79° W. This
would indicate an almost due westerly movement, which is in
direct variance with that shown by all other discoveries of gla-
ciated rock in this region. If direction of strice alone were taken
into consideration, then it might be claimed that the ice move-
ment in this case also was towards the east. But a close and
critical examination shows that all the accompanying phe-
nomena point to a westerly trend; e. g., the indicated move-
ment of the ice around and over a prominence, and down into
and out of a depression.

This is new and important evidence that the Illinois lobe of
the great ice sheet crossed the Mississippi river and invaded
Iowa. It will be remembered that I presented a paper on this
subject at our last meetitg.^ The evidence on which the claim
was based was the presence, on the Iowa side, of boulders of
Huron conglomerates. I was convinced that this westward
movement was not the latest in this region, but that the ice
moving from the northeast was the last to hold possession of
the west bluff of the Mississippi; and I so put forward in the
paper. Mr. Frank Leverett, who has made an exhaustive study
of this question, is of the opinion that the Illinois ice sheet was
the last to invade this portion of Iowa, and that the movement
extended to some twenty miles west of the river. This recent
discovery of glacial scoring certainly strengthens his theory.
For it is situated at such an elevation that any ice sheet passing
over would be almost certain to leave its impress; and there-
fore the strice we now find are very apt to be those made by the
latest invasion.

2Extensiou of the lUinois Lobe of the Great Ice Sheet Into Iowa. Proc. la. Acad.
Sci., Vol. II, p. 309. Des Moines, 1895.

62 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

However, I am not yet fully convinced. Of the somewhat
numerous discoveries of glacial scorings in this region, nearly
all are on the very brow of the west bluff bordering the Mis-
sissippi flood plain, where they wcuJd offer the best possible
opportunity for erosion. It would therefore seem that they
ought to be the records of the very latest invasion. And all
these, without a single exception, show southwestward move-
ment.

SOME FACTS BROUGHT TO LIGHT BY DEEP WELLS
IN DE3 MOINES COUNTY, IOWA.

BY FRANCIS M. FULTZ.

During the past year a number of deep wells were sunk in
Des Moines county. Some of them reached such extraordinary
depths before touching rock, or without touching rock at all,
as would clearly show the presence of buried river channels.

In a paper presented before this society a year ago I stated
that the preglacial and present drainage systems in this region
were practically the same. From facts recently brought to
light I must necessarily change that opinion. To what extent
remains yet to be seen.

My attention was first called to the presence of buried water
courses in this locality by Mr. Frank Leverett, of the United
States Geological Survey, who has collected a large mass of
data on the glacial phenomena of this region. He has already
given us a general discussion of the preglacial conditions of the
Mississipjoi basin^; and in the course of time we may hope for
further and more detailed contributions along the same line.

The deep wells in question are located some eight or nine
miles north of Burlington. One is on the farm of L. Aspel-
meier, near Latty station. It is 233 feet deep, and penetrates
the rock but two feet. Unfortunately there was no record kept
of the character of the deposits passed through, which is also
true of the other wells to be mentioned further on. Therefore
the details are somewhat meager. As nearly as could be deter-
mined the till continued to a depth of 188 feet, where a gravel

1 Journal of Geology, p. 740, Vol. Ill, No. 7, 1895.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 63

bed of several feet in thickaess was passed through. In this
gravel deposit well preserved bones were found. They were
crushed into fragments by the drill, but a number of pieces,
from one inch up to three inches long, were brought up in the
wash. I saw these fragments about a week after they were
discovered, and they had the appearance of having belonged to
a living animal not longer ago than that time. Mr. Jennings, of
New London, Iowa, who had charge of the drilling, told me
that the bones had quite a fetid odor when first brought up.
It was difficult to determine from what particular bones the
fragments were, but I would place them as parts of the leg
bones of some animal of slender build. Below the gravel bed
the drill passed through a black deposit, which the well drillers
call "sea mud," and which rests directly upon the blue shale
of the Kinderhook, 231 feet below the surface.

A quarter of a mile north of the Aspelmeier well the rock
bed is reached at a depth of less than thirty feet. It is the
hard, compact limestone of the Upper Barlington. This shows
a drop of over 200 feet in within a distance of 80 rods.

Half a mile south of the Aspelmeier well, on the farm of
Fred Timmerman, there is another deep well which reaches a
depth of 184 feet without striking rock. The bottom of the well
is in a gravel deposit, which partakes of the nature of a forest
bed. From it much woody matter was brought up.

A half mile still further south, making a mile south from
the Aspelmeier well there is still another deep well. It is on
the place of H. C. Timmerman. It reaches a depth of 188 feet
without striking rock. It likewise terminates in a gravel bed
containing much woody matter. In the two Timmerman wells
the water rises seventy- five feet. When last heard from the
Aspelmeier well was not furnishing a satisfactory supply.

These wells indicate an old channel of great depth, and of
not less than a mile and a quarter in width. The width is
probably much greater. Mr. Frank Leverett suggests that
this ancient river bed was the water outlet of part of the ter-
ritory now drained by the Skunk river.

64 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DUBUQUE LEAD
AND ZINC MINES.

BY A. G. LEONARD.

During the past year or two there have been some important
developments In the Dubuque district, New lead mines have
been opened up, new ore bodies have been discovered, and the
Durango zinc mine, the largest in the state, has been still
further developed.

About one mile west of the city is located the mine of the
Dubuque Lead Mining company, which has been worked only
about a year and a half. It is on the west end of the old level
range which has been followed for nearly three miles and has
yielded considerable ore from various points along its length.
When the mine was visited in November, 1895, there were
seventy -five men employed and the place presented a lively
appearance. The three shafts are 210 feet deep with a steam
hoist 'On one and gins on the other two. The company has
just erected a concentrator at the mine for the purpose of
crushing and cleaning the ore. This was made necessary by
the fact that in this mine much of the Galena occurs scattered
through the rock, sometimes in particles of considerable size.
The limestone is crushed and the lead then separated from it
by washing. The ore-bearing dolomite forms a zone from two
to four feet wide and contains an abundance of iron pyrites.
This latter mineral is often found here cr} stallized in beautiful
octahedrons with a length of from one-fourth to three-fourths
of an inch. Besides being disseminated through the rock the
Galena occurs in large masses in what is probably the fourth
opening, and it likewise fills the crevice above for some dis-
tance. The ore body is apparently an extensive one; 700,000
pounds of lead have already been raised. Work in this mine
is made possible only by the constant operation of a steam
pump which keeps the water below the opening where the ore
occurs and thus allows the miners to reach the deposits.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 65

The extensive zinc mine at Durango, five miles northwest of
Dabuque, has several points of special interest. The timber
range on which the diggings are located was once well known
as a large lead producer. The range has a width of 100 feet,
and is formed by three main crevices, with a general direction
S. 80° E. The openings occur ninety feet below the crown of
the hill, and where they are enlarged the three fissures unite
in caverns of immense size. In these openings the lead
occurred,. and above them, extending to the surface, the hill is
filled with zinc carbonate. The zinc is known to extend also
below the level of the lead. The mine is worked by means of
an open cut extending through the hill, with a width of forty
feet and a depth of about eighty feet. The crevices are more
or less open up to the surface. Several can be seen in the face
of the cut, and in them the ore is most abundant, though it
is also found mixed all through the fractured limestone. The
strata have been subjected to more or less strain, possibly
owing to the large caves below, and are broken into fragments.
The carbonate is found coating these pieces and filling the
spaces between, occurring also, as stated, in the open crevices.
The latter have a width of from one to two feet. In working
the mine the larger masses are blasted and the smaller ones
loosened with the pick. The ore is removed from the rock, the.
latter is carted off to the dump, and the dry bone, mixed with
more or less waste material, is carried to a neighboring stream.
Here it is washed by an ingenious contrivance which thoroughly
frees the ore from all sand and dirt. The method was invented,
by Mr. Goldthorp, superintendent of the mine, and is quite
extensively used about Dubuque. An Archimedes screw, turned
by horse power, revolves in a trough through which a stream
of water is kept flowing. As the screw revolves it gradually
works the ore up the gentle incline, while the water runs dowu
and carries with it all sand and dirt. Afterwards the dry bone
is picked over by hand and the rock fragments thus separated.

During the past season eighteen men were employed at the
mine and the daily output was from fifteen to eighteen tons of
ore. This would mean a yield of over 2,500 tons for six
months, and is probably about the annual production of the
mine during the last few years.

Most of tne zinc mines have been closed for nearly two years
on acount of the low price paid for the carbonate, the average
being only $5 to $6 per ton the past year. About 800 tons
5

€6 IOWA ACA.DEMY OF SCIENCES.

were, however, sold at these figures. There are very large
quantities of ore in sight in these mines, as even a brief inspec-
tion clearly shows, and they are capable of yielding thousands
of tons for some years to come.

The output of the mines for the past year can be given only
approximately. They have produced about 750,000 pounds of
lead and from 3,000 to 3,500 tons of zinc. But it must be
remembered that, as already stated, most of the zinc mines
were closed during the past season. They are easily capable
of yielding from 8,000 to 10,000 tons of ore annually.

THE AREA OF SLATE NEAR NASHUA, N. H.

BY J. L. TILTON.

Maps of Crosby and Hitchcock.
The area briefly outlined.
Description of the slate area.
Description of the rocks.

Section from Nashua northward.

Section along the Massachusetts line.

Section west of Hollis Center.

Section east from Runnells Bridge, and southeast from Nashua.
Attempt to harmonize descriptions of Crosby and Hitchcock.
.Structure.

Dip, strike, general section.
Evidences of faults.
Cause of metamorphism.

Maps of Crosby and Hitchcock. — Crosby's map of eastern
Massachusetts represents an area of slate, or argillite, as it is
termed, running from Worcester through Lancaster and Pep-
perell^^to the New Hampshire state line. The eastern part of
this argillite, two and one-fourth miles wide on the map, but
four miles wide according to the text,* continues north into
New Hampshire just west of the Nashua river. On the east
of the argillite lies mica schist in an area very narrow (three-
fourths of a mile) near the state line, but much wider toward
the southern part of the township of Dunstable. On the west

*Crosby's "Geology of Eastern Massachusetts," p. 137.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 67

of the argillite lies gneiss close to the state line, but mica
schist a little farther southwest (in Townsend).

Hitchcock's geological map of New Hampshire (Rockingham
Sheet) represents an island of gneiss extending from Mine
Falls to a mile south of the Massachusetts line near Hollis
Station (occupyicg a part of the area where Crosby locates
argillite). This island lies in "Rockingham Mica Schist,"
extending along the northwest side as an area three and three-
fourths miles wide, on the average, and along the southeast
side as an area two and a half miles wide. Both these areas
of mica schist are represented as continued toward the north-
east across the Merrimac river and southwest into Massa-
chusetts.

It is the object of this paper to mark out and describe the slate
rock in the vicinity of Nashua (Crosby's argillite, or the north-
ern of the two areas marked by Hitchcock as mica schist).

The Area Briefly Defl^ned. — Tte slate rock is found to lie in an
area six miles wide extending northeast- southwest, just north-
west of the Nashua river.

Along the southeast of this area the contact between the
slate and the adjacent schist and gneiss extends from Runnells'
bridge in a northeasterly direction parallel with the general
course of the Nashua river as far as Nashua, where the river
leaves the vicinity of the contact. In the city of Nashua the
contact extends northwestward in a line between Shattuck's
ledge and the reservoir.

Along the northwest of this slate area the boundary-line
extends from where Gulf brook crosses the slate line, north-
eastward through the valley just east of Proctor Hill, near
Long pond, Pennichuck pond and Spaulding's pond (or Reed's
pond, as it is called locally) and crosses the Merrimac river a
mile below Thornton's ferry. This line is not perfectly straight
but curved slightly with the convex side to the northwest.
Just north of Gulf brook the line curves somewhat suddenly
toward the southwest, passing between the two exposures half
a mile northeast of the mouth of Gulf brook.

Southeast of Nashua no slate was found in the area repre-
sented on Hitchcock's map as a branch of this slate there
marked "Rockingham Mica, Schist."

General Description of the Slate Area. — The area of slate is
marked by an extent of lowland occupied partly by swamps

68 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

and ponds.* It contains the Nissitisset river, Flint pond,
Long pond, Parker's pond, Pennichuck pond, Round pond
and Spaulding's pond, besides a large area of swamp. The
southeastern part of the slate area is largely occupied by the
present valley of the Nashua.

Within this area the hills of slate rise in ridges to a height
of one hundred feel above the adjacent lowland. They do ngt
form continuous ridges, nor does their general direction con-
form to the direction of strike. This general direction is N.
70° E., while the strike is on the average N. 57° E., though
the strike varies a few degrees even in strata but a few feet
apart, as the rock is much contorted. These hills are low in
contrast with the hills in the gneiss and schist area adjoining.
From the top of Long Hill, a hill of the Monadnock type just
south of Nashua, these slate hills appear below the Cretaceous
peneplain.

The valleys between tbese hills, even the hills themselves,
are mantled with drift, and the river valleys deeply covered
with washed drift; but further reference to this important
feature is here omitted as not a part of the problem under
consideration.

Description of the Rocks — The character of the rocks and the
relation of them one to another is perhaps best seen along a
line from Shattuck's ledge, Nashua, northwestward. At Shat-
tuck's ledge, the rock is gneiss in part heavy, in part quite
schistose.

At the reservoir, three quarters of a mile west, occurs slate
with bands of graphite. Northwest for three miles the rock is
a slate very much crushed and crumpled, and in the northern
part of this area, a shaly slate interbedded with gneiss. The
dividing lines, then between the slate and the schist, and
between the schist and the gneiss, are not definitely marked
lines, but are intermediate places in a series of gradations.

Similar gradations from slate through schist to gneiss are to
be found in the southwestern part of the area near the conflu-
ence of Gulf brook and Nissitisset river. Here, south of the
Massachusetts line, the slate is both shaly and quartzose.
Just north of the Massachusetts line quartz veins are very
marked in a dark schistose rock. This same structure is found
in a railroad cutting near by, revealing in an -excellent manner

*The contour lines of the accompanying map are as given on the New Hampshire
State geological atlas.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 69

the schistose structure with quartz veins. A little farther
northwest gneiss appears instead of schist. Here, then, there
is a passage from slate through gchist to gceiss.

Just west of Hollis Center is still another opportunity to
observe an approach to the dividing line between the slate and
the schist, though not so good as eiiher of the two already-
described. Just west of Hollis Center there is slate. This
grades through schist to the gneiss quarried at Proctor Hill.

Southeast of the slate area are several outcrops of gneiss:
one at Shattuck's ledge in the northeastern part of the city of
Nashua, another in the western part of the city, where it is
quarried in one place, a third on the Nashua river, five miles
above Nashua, a fourth at Flat Rock quarry, and again at Long
Hill, south of the city.

The sudden transition from slate to gneiss close to the
Nashua river will be referred to urder the heading "Faults."

Eastward from Runnells' bridge, near Hollis, there is a gra-
dation from the slate through schist to the gneiss at Flat Rock
quarry, and a similar gradation from schist to gneiss between
Nashua and Long Hill.

Thus southeast there is a gradation from slate through schist,
schist with quartz seams to gneiss, similar to that from the
slate area northwest.

Attempts to Harmonize Descriptions of Crosby and Hitchcock. —
The above description of gradations in the character of the
slate, schist and gneiss, suggests an explanation of an apparent
lack of harmony between Crosby and Hitchcock. Crosby dis-
tinctly records gradation between the three rocks, and because
of this gradation seems to call both the slate and the schist
argillite, even though Ihe argillite southeast of Nashua is
exceedingly clear mica schist. Judging by the map, Hitchcock
apparently recognizes the same gradation between the rocks,
though I find no description in the text to confirm this infer-
ence, and calls both schist. I fear, however, that because of the
schistose character of many of the slate outcrops, the area of
slate has been entirely neglected.

Concerning Hitchcock's location of the gneiss area along the
Nashua river, between Mine Falls and just south of the state
line, there is a single area of probable gneiss on the river about
four miles west of Nashua. Tnis area is cut off on the south-
west by slate just south of Runnells' bridge, and on the north-
east by mica schist at Mine Falls. Hitchcock has overlooked

70 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

the gneiss east of Mine Falls, where two areas exist: one a mile
west of Nashua (Main street) and south of the canal, where out-
crops occur at a large quarry, and in the hill just west of the
cemetery. The other area omitted is in the northeastern part
of the city itself, at Shattuck's ledge, near the Merrimac river,
a mile and a half from the outcrops just west of the city.

It is possible that these two areas should be classed as one,
since no outcrops exist between the two areas to tell what the
rock between them may be.

The line boanding Hitchcock's "Rockingham Mica Schist"
seems to indicate the line between schist and gneiss, as if he did
not recognize the slate as a separate rock from the schist. My
northwestern line bounding the slate lies about parallel to his
line bounding the Rockingham Mica Schist and a mile to the
southeast of it.

Strike. — On the map accompanying this paper numerous dips
and strikes may be found recorded. It now becomes necessary
to observe their relation to determine what folds may exist in
the area, for there are no strata within the slate area itself
whose repetition can indicate the structure.

"Within the slate area and in the gneiss along the northwest-
ern boundary the strikes measured are much the same. North
of Nashua there is slight evidence that the anticline there tends
to form a nose; but all other variations from N. 38° E. are such

Figure 3. Section northwest-southeast across the area.

as a badly crushed area might represent; variations too small
to be systematized even by minute observatiocs at all poinrs.
This general similarity of strike indicates horizontal folds
extending in the direction of the strike.

A study of the dip along lines at right angles to the strike
reveals the anticline of a fold running in the direction cf the
strike along the western half of the slate, while a syncline runs
along the eastern half. These are here represented in a dia-
gram. (Fig. 3.)

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 71

Faults. — At the reservoir in Nashua are evidences of a fault;
there is in the slate a seaca of graphitic slate with veins of
quartz near by. In this graphitic slate much crushing and
slipping has occurred. The strata are on edge with strike
N. 73" E.

The argument for a fault in this locality is sustained, in fact
made necessary, by the structure of the region. The general
succession of strata from southeast to northwest, is gneiss,
schist, slate, schist, gneiss, with no evidence of unconformity;
but at Shattuck's ledge the gneiss appears in close proximity
to the slate, with little chance for schist between. The dip at
Shattuck's ledge compared with the dip observed in the schist
to the south indicates that the gneiss exposed at Nashua is in
an anticline.

North of the gneiss at the quarry just west of Nashua a fault
is possible, but not necessary to explain the structure, if schist
not exposed underlies the river valley. While schist occurs at
Mine Falls, schistose gneiss occurs two miles farther west with
no schist that is exposed to the north, and beyond Runnells*
bridge the eastern boundary of the slate area bends southeast-
ward across the line of strike. Thus while the evidence of
faulting is very marked near Nashua it becomes less marked
south westward.

Other evidences of faulting exist near the mouth of Gulf
brook, and just west of Hollis Center. Along this line the pres-
ence of slickensides in graphitic slate, with quartz seams near
by, indicate that a line connecting these two points is a line of
faulting.

Cause of Metamorphism. — Finally, it remains to ascertain the
cause of the metamorphism. This involves a petrographical
problem, especially on the gneiss. There is no igneous rock to
be found in the area, unless the gneiss itself be of igneous,
origin.

If the gneiss itself is not of igneous origin there may be
igneous rock not far below, or not far beyond the margins of
the area, though no locality of such minerals as are common
where igneous material comes in contact with sedimentary
material is here to be found, nor is there any evidence of
intense heat.

Regional metamorphism affords a satisfactory explaration.
The intense crumpling of the strata, the steep dip, the bands
of quartz alternating with the slate along the margins of the
gneiss, with lack of evidence of intense heat in the immediate
vicinity, all indicate that the metamorphism is regional.

72 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE BOSTON BASIN.

J. L. TILTON.

The region about Boston forms a basin. Standing on the
reservoir at College Hill one looks north, west and south upon
lines of hills surrounding Boston and the thickly populated
adjoining country. In the relation of the rocks underlying the
drifts this region also forms a basin. The distant hills are of
hornblende granite extending from near Marblehead southwest
to near south Natick, thence east toward Qaincy. Close to this
granite area are other igneous rocks, and within the basin, con-
glomerate and slate so related and concealed by drift as to
present many difficult problems.

It is not surprising that the discussion* of the area contains
not only a mass of conflicting conclusions, but even a mass of
conflicting statements concerning field evidence. The rocks
seemed to grade into one another; the felsite along the margin
of the basin appeared where observed to penetrate the granite
instead of the granite the felsite; the flow structure seemed
stratification; the sedimentary material is so related to the
igneous rock and presents plains of stratification so obscure
and nearly vertical that to some the conglomerate appeared
uppermost, to others the slate uppermost, while to still another
there seemed to be two beds of conglomerate. 'For years it
was agreed that the felsite, porphory and diorite were all
originally sediments changed to their present conditions by
varying degrees of metamorphism.

In age the sedimentary rocks were variously classified, Cam-
brian, Devonion or Carboniferous.

Since 1877, Dr. M. E. Wads worth and Mr. J. S. Diller have
given careful attention to these problems. In conclusion Mr.
Diller, t after a presentation of evidence that seems incontro-

*The discussion is given in full in "The Azoic System," Whitney and Wadsworth,
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. at Oamhridge, Mass., Vol. VII.

t '-Felsites and their Associated Rocks north of Boston," J. S. Diller, Bull. Mus.
Oomp. Zool. at Cambridge, Mass., Vol, VII.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

73

PI
O

n

H

n

z

>

H

D

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74 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

vertible, based as it is on both detailed field evidence and
microscopic examination of the rocks, states that in the area he
studied the stratified rocks within the basin are the oldest rocks,
the granites surrounding the basin are next in age, then come
the diorite, diabase and melaphyre in order. He also concludes
that the granites, felsites, diorite, diabase and melaphyre are all
eruptive rocks, not derived by metamorphism from any part of
the stratified rocks.

These conclusions relate to the part of the basin north of
Boston where evidence is most abundant and complete. In the
fall of 1894, it was the writer's privilege to study the south-
western part of this basin and to prepare the accompanying
map, the plate of which is now kindly loaned by the Boston
Society of Natural History. This map and the paper that
originally accompanied it* give the location of outcrops to be
found in the area under consideration and a discussion of the
relation of those outcrops based ia part on the field evidence
and in part on the microscopical character of the rock. The
basin itself was found to extend in narrow areas farther south-
west than formerly supposed.

* "Oq the Southwestern Part of the Boston Basin," Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist,
Vol. XXVI, June 28, 1895.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 75

NOTE ON THE NATURE OF CONE-IN-CONE.

BY CHARLES R. KEYES.

Cone in- cone is a term which has been applied more or less
widely to a peculiar structure often found in beds of shale.
Ordinarily it appears in thin sheets or layers, from three to six
inches in thickness. The bands have a more or less well-
marked columnar structure, each column being about half an
inch in diameier and composed of a series of small conical seg-
ments set one within another. In general appearance frag-
ments resemble the familiar coral Lithosfcrotion.

Much has been written on the origin of cone-in-cone, and
numerous and widely different explanations have been offered.
So far as I know, none of these numberless attempts to account
for this peculiar structure appear to be satisfactory expositions
of the true cause of the formation.

Recently there have been obtained in Marion, Boone and
Webster counties, in this state, some unusually instructive
examples which offer, I believe, a correct solution to the prob-
lem of origin. These specitnens range from a black, opaque,
clayey variety — the common form — through all gradations to
a white, translucent kind. The latter is found to be made up
of numerous long, often needle-like crystals and flat plates
which radiate from a center — the apex of the cone — new nee-
dles coming in as rapidly as the spaces between those near the
center become large enough to admit them. Chemical analysis
shows that this variety is nearly pure calcic carbonate, in a well
crystalized form. Analysis of the more earthy kinds also show
a high percentage of lime. The results of examinations by
Prof, G. E. Patrick are as follows:

1. Clear variety from Madrid 96.36 per cent Ca CO3

II. Clayey variety from Fort Dodge 83.12 per cent Ca CO3

As the clear cone- in- cone acquires more and more clayey
matter the crystals of calcite gradually lose their mineralogical

76 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

characteristics until in the common form the presence of cal-
cite would not be suspected, and the surface of the cones,
instead of showing clearly the individual calcite needles sharply
terminating, has only a peculiar crinkled or roughened appear-
ance.

Owing to the very strong crystalizing force known to be
possessed by calcite, so powerful an influence is exerted by this
substance in solution, which is manifestly at the point of satu-
ration, though distributed rather sparingly through the clay
layers, that even the clay is pressed into the form assumed
under normal conditions by the calcite. The process and results
are not unlike those which have taken place in certain sand-
stone beds in central France, in which calcic carbonate has
crystalized in the sand, and large perfect models of sand
cemented by lime are found, having the well formed and char-
acteristic crystalographic faces of calcite.

TWO REMARKABLE CEPHALOPODS FROM THE UPPER
PALEOZOIC.

BY CHARLES R. KEYES.

There have been recently discovered in the coal measures of
Mississippi basin some excellently preserved remains of Cepha-
lopods, which are remarkable on account of the huge size
attained. Both are representatives of the retrosiphonate Nau-
toidea; but one is a member of the most closely coiled end of
the series, while the other is a perfectly straight form. The
former belongs to the genus Nautilus and the latter to
Orthoceras .

The first group comprises a series of shells, which were
obtained Irom the upper coal measures at Kansas City, Mo.
Several unusually fine specimens are the property of M. S. J.
Hare of that place, and others are in the possession of other
collectors. The form was originally de&cribed by White*
as Nautilus ponderosus, the diagnosis of which is essentially as
follows:

U. S. Geol. Sur., Nebraska, p. 236, 1872.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 77

Shell attaining a large size, subdiscoidal; umbilicus large, or nearly
equaling the dorse-ventral diameter of the outer volution near the aper-
ture; volutions three, enlarging their diameter more than three-fold each
turn; all broader transversely than dorse-ventrally; inner ones slightly
embracing, while the last one is apparently merely in contact with the
others near the aperture; each broadly flattened or a little concave on the
periphery, and (particularly the last one) somewhat flattened between the
periphery and the middle of each side, from which point the sides are
broadly rounded into the umbilicus, the greatest transverse diameter being
near the middle; ventro-lateral or outer angles of the last whorl (in some-
what worn casts), each provided with obscure traces of about twenty wide,
undefined nodes, scarcely perceptible to the eye; septa numerous, rather
closely arranged, making a slight backward curve on each side, particu-
larly between the middle and outer angles and crossing the broadly flat-
tened dorsum with a strong backward curve; surface with distinct lines of
growth, which curve strongly backward like the septa, in crossing the
outer side.

White's specimen was not as perfect; the recently acquired
material, and consequently the latter, is of unusual interest as
elucidating structural points which were previously obscure.
The large dimensions which the shell attained is quite remark-
able, especially when taken in comparison with the other forms
of the group known from the same geologic ^1 formation. Rarely
do any of the species of the genus from the Carboniferous of
the region reach a diametric measurement of more than four or
five inches. The specimens of Nautilus ponderosus recently
found are twelve to fifteen inches in diameter and weigh
upwards of fifty pounds.

The second group to which atteation is called includes a
huge Orthoceras — 0. fanslerensis —troui the lower coal meas-
ures' at Fansler, Guthrie county, Iowa. It may be briefly
described as follows:

Shell very large, thin, tapering very gradually; septa very thin, mod-
erately concave, about two to the space of an inch near the large end; sur-
face smooth. Diameter at larger extremity three inches, length probably
not less than six feet.

It is a well known fact that the straight- shelled cephalopod
was an abundant form of life during Paleozoic times. This is
attested by the large number of species that have been described,
those of the Orthoceras group alono numbering over 1,200. The
culmination and greatest expansion of the group was in the Silu-
rian, and from that period it appears to have gradually dwindled
in number of species, siz3 and abundance until at the close of the
Paleozoic the form was all but extinct. In the American Silu-

78 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

rian some of the shells attained huge proportions, but with the
general decline of the group the later ones have heretofore
seemed to rapidly become dwarfed until only small, unimportant
individuals were recorded after the Devonian. In the Carbon-
iferous a few dimunitive species have been described, most of
them but a few inches in length. In the coal measures of the
Mississippi basin the remains found were of rather rare occur-

FiGUBE i. Section of Orthoceras fanslerensis.

rence, imperfectly preserved and of very small size. Seldom
did the shells exceed six inches in length and half an inch in
diameter.

Of late years, however, some unusually fine material has
been obtained in the black shales of the lower coal measures in
the vicinity of Des Moines, Iowa. Several of these shells were
so large as to excite considerable wonderment. Some were
over two feet long and one inch in diameter at the larger end.
These were thought to be giants of their kind and day. But
these are small, and all the other Carboniferous species are
mere pigmies by the side of the recently found shell from the
coal mines of Fansler. The species is 0. fanslerensis, and the
unique specimen here described was obtained by Mr. M. G.
Thomas, state mine inspector.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 79

VARIATION IN THE POSITION OF THE NODES ON

THE AXIAL SEGMENTS OF PYGIDIUM OF

A SPECIES OF ENCRINURUS.

BY WILLIAM HARMON NORTON.

In defining the different species of the genus encrinurus
(Emmrich) use has frequently been made of the disposition of
nodes on the rings of the mid-lobe of the tail- shield. It is
largely by this diagnostic that Foerste, for example, distin-
guishes E. thresheri from E. ornatus. Hall and Whitfield*
and the latter authors again, use the same criterion in separat-
ing E. ornatus from the European species figured in Murchi-
son's Siluria. f

This has been the perhaps unavoidable result of the scarcity
of materials at hand. Several species of this genus have been
described, each from a single pygidiutn. The specific impor-
tance of this feature having thus been exaggerated, any varia-
tion in it is of paleontological as well as evolutional interest,
and will be of value in the long-needed revision of the genus.

The specimens which afford the facts I am about to present
were taken some years since by Prof. A. Collins, Sc.P , of Cor-
nell College, and the author, from a single stratum near the top
of Platner & Kirby's quarry, Mount Vernon, Iowa. They were
associated with a rich fauna, but unfortunately the fossiliferous
area was so limited that, though the quarry has been largely
extended, scarcely a fossil has since rewarded the search of the
collector. The investigation is therefore simplified by the
absence of such factors as would obtain if the specimens had
been taken from widely separated localities, or from a consid-
erable vertical range.

Coming from a station near the summit of theAnamosa beds,
which lie above the Le Claire, the position of the species is
perhaps higher than that of any other American Eacrinurus.

* The Clinton Group of Ohio, Part II, pp. 101, 102, A. E. Foerste. Bulletin of The
liaboratories of Denison University, II.

t Eeport Geological Survey of Ohio. Vol. II, pp. 155, 156.

80 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

The species in question which is of the general type of
Encrinurus imnctatus Wahlenburg, is well represented in the
collections by two perfect, or nearly perfect, specimens and by
scores of cephelons, moveable cheeks and pygidia, occurring
both as external moulds and internal casts.

The nearness of the fossiliferous stratum to the top of the
quarry brought it well within the zone of weathering. The
laminas of the rock were parted and the fossils thus disengaged
with a single stroke of the hammer, and without any picking
and cleaning that might mingle artificial with the delicate
natural markings. The latter are exceptionally well preserved.
To speak of the pygidia only, the caudal spine is shown in
several specimens, the ninth pair of pleural are usually
distinct, and even a tenth pair may sometimes be seen as min-
ute ridges nearly aligned with the axial lobe and ending upon
it in a tubercle. Oi: the segmental lines on the mid-lobe as
many as thirty-one have been counted with the aid of a magni-
fyiog glass, and in seven specimens over .twenty-five are thus
vi&ible, and in several specimens eight and even nine axial nodes
have been observed.

The investigation has thus been specially favored in the
number and perfection of the specimens at hand. The promi-
nence also of the large rounded anterior tubercle affords a sure
ground which would be lacking if the investigation were
carried over to the less distinct tubercles on the broad pleural
annulations. In the same way the size of the specimens is of
advantage. The largest twenty- three mm. in length and
width, slightly exceeds in these dimensions the largest Encrin-
urus the author has seen figured or described. From this size
the specimens rarge to a minimum of eight mm. in length and
breadth. In several of the smaller pygidia, the axial lobe is
slightly more convex and the central longitudinal space
between the discontinuous segments is more or less obscure.
The first nine segments in especial, are plainly continuous.
While it is not thought that these are specifically distinct, they
are separated in the following table by being marked with
a star. Excluding these and considering the remainder whose
specific identity can not be questioned, the following variation
is observed:

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

81

No. of Nodes. axial segments occupied.

1. 1st. 2d. (?) 3d.

2. 3d. 4th. 5th. 6th.
•6. 7th. 8th. 9th. ]Oth.

4. 10th. 11th. 12th. 13th. 14th.

5. 14th. 15th. 16th 17th. 18lh. (?) 19th.

The following table sets forth the facts observed graphically
and in detail. It will be noted that not a single segmental
line of the first twenty- three is unoccupied by a tubercle. No
law obtains as to the successive number of the intervening
segments. For comparison the sequences of nodes on two
described species are inserted. Of the distinct trends observable
in the grouping of the nodes that toward the formula of E.
ornatus is most largely represented in the specimens at hand.

Geological Laboratory, Cornell College, December 31, 1895.

NUMBER OP AXIAL ANNUL ATIONS.

NO. OF SPECIMEN.

NUMBER OF AXIAL ANNULATIONS.

<-:

S

s

o

0
0
0
0
0

(1

0

0

c

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1

'6

0
0
0

0
0

'6

'6

0
0

0

'6

0
0
0

0

0
0
0

0
0

"6

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

■q

0

0
0

0

'6

0

0

'6

0

'6
'6

0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0

0

0

'6

•■
'6

0

;«

'o

'6
6

0

0

'6
'6

••

0

6

it

1

0
0
0
0

0
0

0

'6

0

'6

0
0

'6

0
0

0

0

'6

0
0

0
0

'6
'6

0

'6

0

1
'6

0
0

'6
'6

0

to

0

0
0

0

::

0

'6

0
0

0

u
0
0
0

'6
'6

0

"6

0

0

• ■

0

"6

i

0
0

'6
"6

1
'6

0

0
0

5t

i

1

2

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

i

0

;;

3

6

0

10

11

Vi.

13

14

15..

16

*17

0
0

18

19.

20

0
0
0
0
0

'6

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

31

22

23

24

25..

t26

0

27

28

29

30

■•

0

ftl ...

0

'6

0

"6

32.

33

34

0
0
0
0

3.5

0

36

37

38

39 .

0
0
0

40.

0
0

0

42

43

'No. 17. E. ornatus, H. & W.
. 31, E. thre>ihei i, Foerste.

E. punctatus, Murch SJuria. PI. Ill, fig. 6

82 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

A THEORY OP THE LOESS.

B. SHIMEK.

Some years ago in an article entitled "The Loess and Its
Fossils,"^ the writer advanced certain opinions the modilica-
tion of which seems to be called for by subsequent investigation
and thought.

In that paper it was shown, principally from a study of the
fossils, that the theory of the lacustrine origin of the loess,
held with very few exceptions by American writers,'- is unten-
able, and that the origin of the loess in violent fluviatile floods,
also sometimes suggested, is equally improbable, and the
theory was there offered that the deposit was formed in ponds
and lakes similar to those which were formerly abundant in
northern Iowa, and by quiet overflows of the sluggish prairie
streams.

Although it is extremely probable that certain limited por-
tions of the unmodified loess were deposited in this manner,
the theory does not account for the most extensive deposits
which usually cap the highest hills, especially along our streams
which so often seem to cut their channels through the highest
ridges. This difficulty led the writer to further investigation,
which led to the conclusion that wind was the prime agency
concerned in the formation of these deposits, and that Rich-
thofen's theory of the formation of the Chinese loess, tempered
and modified in important particulars, will account for all the
phenomena of the loess of the Mississippi valley.

That the loess is not of aquatic origin is indicated by the
following facts:

WuU. Nat. Hist. S. U. I., Vol. II, pp. 93-98.

'^Vrof. C'Alvin, in Iowa Geol. Survey, Vol. IV, p. 81, recently suggested the aeolian
origin of a part of the loess in Allamakee county.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 83

First. — The land area during the period of the formation of
the loess was large as is shown by the remains of great num-
bers of terrestrial molluscs, '

Not only the number of species but the number of individuals
of the terrestrial forms is much greater, a fact especially sig-
nificant since the pond molluscs are all very prolific and had
the conditions been favorable to their development much
greater numbers of the fossils should occur.

That the shells of the loess were deposited in situ and were
not carried any great distance by water has already been
pointed out by the writer.*

Second. — The occurrence of dry region molluscs, such as Suc-
cinea lineata. Pupa atticola, Patula cooperi, etc., has also been
pointed out."* The great majority of the remaining species occur
now in a living state throughout Iowa and eastern Nebraska,
more particularly in wooded regions. Most of them do not
seem to require an excess of moisture, but thrive under present
conditions.

Third. — The deposits often occur so high above the surround-
ing region that it is difiicult to conceive of the manner in which
water laden with the fine silt could reach the places of deposi-
tion.

Fourth. — The siliceous and other particles which the loess
contains are generally angular and often show a freshness of
fractures which would scarcely appear in particles which had
been rolled and washed about by the waters.''

Fifth. — The distribution of the loess is better accounted for
by the consideration of the action of winds, and by the distri-
bution of the forest areas, as will be shown in the following
pages.

The fact that stratification and lamination sometimes appear
in the loess, showing the action of water, together with the
presence of aquatic molluscs, can also be accounted for under
the wind theory; for, as now, so at the time that the deposits
were being formed, ponds and lakes of various sizes were scat-
tered over the state, and much of the dust carried out in clouds
over these bodies of water would have been deposited in them.

3See Bull. Nat. Hist. State Univ. Iowa, Vol. I. p. 209, ct seq. Succinca veriUi and Pupa
decora should be stricken from the list, and Pupa Iwlzingcri Sterki should Ije added.
This species is rather rare in the loess of Nebraska, but in the living state it is quite
common in both Iowa and eastern Nebraska.

iBuU. Nat. Hist. S. U. I. Vol. I[, pp. 95 and 96.

^Ibid. p. 93.

^'See also Prof. R. D. Salisbury's report in Ark. Geol. Surveij, Vol. II, pp. 235, 226.

84 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

That such bodies of water existed, though, as before stated, not
of the extent required by the lacustrine theory, is also shown
by the distribution of the pond mollusca, which are found in
bands or layers similar to those which may be observed on the
edges of our small ponds to-day. These layers are usually of
but slight vertical extent, showing that the ponds did not per-
sist during the entire period of deposition of the loess, but, like
the ponds of to-day, were subject to changes. But if the water
area was not great, comparatively little of the material carried
by the winds could be deposited in this manner, and as a matter
of fact we find comparatively little loess which shows such
origin.

Secondary loess, which had been subsequently eroded and
re-deposited on lower lands by running waters, and which
usually shows stratification, should not, of course, be consid-
ered in this conection.

In the consideration of any theory of the mode of deposition
of the loess, two propositions, which seem to be capable of sat-
isfactory demonstration, should be borne in mind, namely, that
the loess was deposited under climatic conditions essentially
the same as those which prevail in the same region to- day; and
that the deposition was slow and continued through a period of
considerable extent.

That the first of these propositions is true is shown by the
molluscs which furnish the most satisfactory evidence of the
character of the conditions supporting life during that period.
The same species, with but very few exceptions, which occur
in the loess, exist in abundance now throughout the region
under consideration, the distribution of the fossils being exactly
such as may be observed under present conditions. If, for
instance, we compare the modern molluscan fauna of eastern
Iowa with that of eastern Nebraska, we find certain differences
which are almost exactly duplicated in the loess faunas of the
two regions. '

For instance, Succinea lineata "W. G. B., the common suc-
cinea of eastern Nebraska, is also the most common succinea of
the loess of that region, whereas Succinea avara Say, the most
common succinea of eastern Iowa, is also the most common
species of the genus in the loess of the same region.

The majority of our species show a like distribution, "^ plainly

7 No reference is here made to the Lamellibranch and Prosobranch fluviatile faunas,
which seem to ha%'e spread into the region In question from their center of distribu-
tion in the southeast comparatively recently.

^tThe loess fossils of Europe are likewise like the modern forms inhabiting the
same region.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 85

indicating conditions not essentially different from those which
now prevail.'-'

Additional weight attaches to the evidence of these molluscs
when we consider that they are ia themselves witnesses to an
abundant flora of the period, for with scarcely an exception
they are purely herbivorous, aad frequent places in which
shade, protectioa and fooS are furnished by abundant plants.

The presence of a vigorous vegetation is further attested by
the leaching of peroxide of iron from the loess soil and its
deposition in tubules and concretions. ^^

That the amount of moisture was not excessive has already
been pointed oat. The great preponderance of terrestrial
molluscs, at least some of them, now capable of living and
multiplying in regions even drier than that under considera-
tion, and the majority of them living abundantly in our state
to-day, is certainly significant.

But even if we grant that the average temperature was
somewhat lower than at present, and the amount of moisture
somewhat greater — conditions by no means essential to the
phenomena of the loess — it cannot be questioned that the cli-
mate of the loess was sufficiently mild to support an abundant
fauna and flora from the very beginning of the formation of
these deposits. Glacial conditions certainly no longer existed,
for sufficient time must have elapsed after the recession of the
glaciers to clothe these prairies with verdure, for the mollusc
remains are found in the lowermost portions of the deposits
and the favorable conditions necessary for their development
must have existed from the very beginning. The prevailing
conditions being then essentially the same as now, and the
topography of the continent being essential as we find it to-day,
it seems fair to assume that the prevailing strong winds were,
as now, northwesterly. This point will again be emphasized.

The truth of the second proposition that the loess was
deposited slowly is supported by the following facts:

9The writer formerly leaned toward the conclusion, drawn by McGee and Call in a
paper on the loess of Des Moines, that the occurrence of depauperate forms was proof
of a much colder climate than now prevails, but he has since found recent forms of
several of the species common in the loess wliich exhibit great variation under different
conditions even in the same locality. For example, shells of living Mesudon multilin-
eata Say, from different points in the immediate vicinity of Iowa City, vary from 15 to
26 mm. in greater diameter, while fossils of the same species from the same region
now in the writer's possession vary from 12 to 23 mm. This variation seems to be
purely local and cannot be assigned to general climatic conditions. This was sug-
gested in the writer's paper to which reference has already been made, p. 93, foot-
note 3.

loSse Lc Conte's Geology pp. 136, 137

86 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

First. — The vertical distribution of the molluscs. The writer
has already shown" that these molluscs were most probably
deposited in situ, and sufficient time must have elapsed at least
for the production and developement of the successive genera-
tions.

Second. — The fineness and hooiogenity of the loess material.
This is of importance, for had the deposits been made quickly
by powerful concentrated agencies, whether wind or water,
much more coarse material would have been mingled with the
fine debris.

Tidrd. — No plant remains of undoubted loess origin occur.
As the plants undoubtedly existed during the entire period
the deposition must have gone on so slowly that ample time
was given the plant remains to crumble in decay and mingle
with the soil.

With these propositions as an aid let us consider the follow-
ing conception of the formation of the loess deposits:

The region formerly covered by the glaciers remained a vast
drift-covered plain after the recession of the glaciers.

No loess was to be found, but the surface material consisted
of unassorted drift, here and there heaped up in ridges and
moraines. Streams soon cut their way through this materiaP"
and ponds more or less numerous remained ia the depressions
of the plain.

The climatic conditions having so improved, plants, at first
the smaller forms, spread over the plain, and soon trees, in
whose shades numerous molluscs lived and prospered, appeared
in narrow lines along the streams, the surface conditions being
not unlike those of the northwestern portions of the state
to-day. Forests gradually spread over portions of the area,
principally along the river- valleys and on hillsides in the man-
ner pointed out by Prof. Macbride. '^

When vegetation, especially the forests, had gained a foot-
hold, then commenced the deposition of the loess.

iiCh» ^\^t. Hm. S. U. I., Vol. II, p. 95.

i2If it be true that our streams senerally follow the lil^best ridges of the drift, even
without reference to the loess, i. e. if the streams run in yJac.ial ridges (and the writer
knows of some cases wtiere this is true), then the fact can be accounted for by the
theory offered in the paper by McGee and Call already cited, pp. 22-23. but the theory
fails when applied to the loess because of the climatic conditions reciuired.

13 See paper: Foi-csl Dist/'ihution in Iowa and its Sigiiijicancc, in tJiis volume.

It is but fair to say that the theories thus presented by Professor Macbride and the
writer, while leading to the same results, were developed from different standpoints
along entirely independent lines of investigation.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 87

The strong northwesterly winds blowing over the prairies,
which during a part of the year at least were quite dry, gath-
ered up clouds of sand and dust. The coarser material was
blown and rolled about on the surface, the constant grinding
furnishing renewed supplies of finer material, while this finer
material was carried higher, being finally swept over the for-
ests, and there deposited.^*

That this is not a fanciful view of the work actually per-
formed by winds has been nicely demonstrated in eastern Iowa
during the past two years. High winds prevailed during con-
siderable portions of both years, the dry spring of 1895 being
particularly remarkable in this respect, and observations upon
the material so transported were made in Johnson county. In
the northern prairie portion of the county, beyond Solon, fine
sand was heaped up m open places, in some cases to a depth of
over a foot, within twenty -four hours, while fine dust only was
carried into adjacent groves, and was there deposited upon
every available surface to a depth of not less than one mm-
The writer's observations of the effect of the winds which so
prevail in Nebraska also confirm this.

That this fine material now constituting the loess, was so
deposited in forests is further shown by its distribution. That
the loess and the original forest area in eastern Iowa alaiost
exactly coincide is a well established fact, which has been
demonstrated beyond question by MsG-ea.^'

The forests are found along the streams, and also principally
on the southern and eastern slopes of the hills, and the loess is
found in exactly the same situations.

Indeed it has often been suggested that there is something
peculiar to the loess which renders it favorable to the develop-
ment of the forests — whereas the fact seems to be that the
forest is especially favorable to the deposition of the loess if
lying adjacent to or near drift-covered plains.

That the forest could have preceded the loess is shown by
the fact that scrub growths of bur oaks have been able to gain
a foothold along the shores of some of our northern (Iowa)
lakes and streams in a purely glacial soil, thus forming the
nucleus of a forest in comparatively recent time, while in the
same region in groves evidently somewhat older a thin layer

14 Interesting observations were made in 1894 by F. H. King (see Eleventh An Rcrt of
the )ri)<c(msin Aur. Ex. Sta., p. 292 ct scq.) upon the effect of winds on vegetation in drift-
ing soil wliicli bear out the conclusions presented in this paper. ■

isu. S. Geol, Sur., 11th Ann. Rep., Part I, pp. 296, et seq.

88 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

only of loess-like soil is fouad/'^ Quite important too is the argu-
ment furnished by the physical properties of the loess mate-
rial. This in eastern Iowa is always very easily eroded, so
much so that upon cleared hillsides it is often impossible even
for bluegrass to gain a foothold, and failure has been the uni-
versal result of all attempts to cultivate such slopes. This
being the case it seems hardly probable that trees, which
require more time to become established than do smaller
plants, could have gained a foothold upon these unstable hill-
tops had they been formed. The organic matter which
undoubtedly accumulated in these forests gradually decayed,
mingled with the alluvium brought by the winds, and was
finally consumed in leaching iron oxides from the lower strata
of deposit.

Other, smaller, vegetation no doubt effected the deposition
of fine alluvium in the same manner, but to a lesser degree, and
by the aid of this probably were formed the thin layers of loess
which sometimes occur in prairie country.

The element of time still remains to be considered. Without
an attempt at exact computations, attention is simply called to
the fact that in eastern Iowa the loess in no place exceeds fifty
feet in thickness, the average being probably about ten or twelve
feet, and that if we assume, for example, the deposition of a
minimum of one mm. a year, the time required for the forma-
tion of the entire deposit would not be unreasonably great.

The deposition of loess material is no doubt going on in this
manner to-day, and the investigation of this phase of the sub-
ject is worthy the attention of the most careful observers. The
foregoing statements apply particularly to the loess of east-
ern Iowa. In the western part of the state and in eastern
Nebraska much thicker deposits occur, which differ in many
respects from the loess of eastern Iowa.

The western loess is thicker, coarser, with more siliceous
material, and the writer has found it more frequently inter-
laminated with sand. Tiiat it is much less easily eroded because
of this difference in composition is a well known fact.

From the general topographical and climatic relations which
exist between the eastern and western regions to day, it is prob-
able that during the loess period, as now, the western region
was drier (a fact also attested by the rather greater abundance
of dry- region molluscs in its loess), and that strong winds were

16A further investigation of the soils in prairie groves of tliis kind is contemplated
during the coming summer.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 89

of more frequent occurrence than in the eastern region. The
stronger winds and drier climate would cooperate in effecting
the transportation of larger quantities of alluvium, which would
also be somewhat coarser and more siliceous. The frequent
interlamination of sand with the loess can be accounted for by-
more violent storm-periods.

The writer has seen such alternating deposits of sand and
loess in Cuming county, Nebraska, near the margin of the Sand
Hill country, which clearly show wind-action.

Much could also be written of the changes which probably
took place after the deposition of many of the beds of loess,
of the denudation of some of the hills, the modifications of the
deposits by erosion, and kindred subjects, the discussion of
which in connection with this question would be legitimate and
desirable, but this would extend this paper beyond reasonable
limits, and is therefore postponed.

The consideration of the facts herein briefly presented leads,
then, to the conclusion that the loess is of sealian origin, and
that it was deposited principally in forests and to a lesser
extent in dense growths of smaller plants, Tihile proportion-
ately small quantities only were carried directly into the waters
and there deposited.

PERFECT FLOWERS OF SALIX AMYGDALOIDES ANDS.

B. SHIMEK.

A native specimen of Salix amy gdalo ides Ands. growing in
Iowa City, produces peculiar flowers which seem to be worthy
of mention.

Whereas all SaUcaceae habitually produce dioecions'^flowers,
this specimen has, for at least three successive seasons, borne
flowers most of which are perfect.

The accompanying figures will give a clearer idea of these
peculiar flowers.

The hairy bract is shown at the extreme left; next to this is
the narrow dark honey- gland (there are really three such glands
in line in each flower) here occupying an unusual position, as
in willows the honey-gland is normally in the axil -of the pedi-

90

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

eel, and not between it and the bract as in this case; next are
the stamens, being three in number, in all the flowers which
were examined, but varying in position, some being on the
receptacle, and others on the ovary; to the extreme right is the
peculiar pistil which, instead of having a one-celled ovary, with

Figure :";. l entire perfect flower; 2 cross-section of ovary.

two parietal placentae as in normal willows, usually has a two-
celled ovary, one of the cells being nearly normal with two
placentae, while the other is larger and shows four placentae,
two of them consolidated, as shown in figure 2 which represents
a cross- section of the ovary. These figures represent a fair
average example of the perfect flowers, but considerable varia-
tion was observed. Some catkins consisted of staminate flow-
ers wholly, being normal with five stamens. Other catkins
had perfect flowers in part only, these being either apical,
basal, or scattered, while still others had all the flowers per-
fect. A few pistillate flowers were also found.

The stamens in the perfect flowers vary much in length,
all being shorter however than those of the truly staminate
flowers, and they also show much variation in the development
of the anthers, some being evidently abortive.

The perfect flowers produce seed, but whether this is capable
of germination was not demonstrated.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 91

COUNTY PARKS.

BY T. H. MACBRIDE.

The title of this paper would seem to require lifctle definition.
By county parks are meant simply open grounds available for
public use in raral districts, as are city parks in towcs. There
is nothing new in the idea; it is simply an effort to call back
into public favor the once familiar public "common." Tnis
does not, however, refer simply to public land such as govern-
ment land, to be claimed and plundered by the first comer,
nor, indeed, to land to be used by the public indiscriminately
at all, but to land devoted to public enjoyment, purely to the
public happiness, a holiday ground for country- and city-folk
alike.

The general features which should characterize such public
play-ground as is here discussed will also quickly suggest
themselves to any one who chooses at all to consider the mat-
ter. In the first place the county park should be wooded, that
it may afford suitable shade and shelter for those who frequent
it; it should be well watered to meet other patent needs; it
should be romantic, in order by its attractiveness to be as far
as possible efficient. Above all it must be under wise control,
be at all times suitably warded and kept, that its utility be
transmitted from generation to generation. All this is plain
enough and will be disputed by nobody. It is my purpose here
to show that such parks are needed, that they are needed now,
that they should have the highest scientific value, and that in
Iowa they are everywhere practicable.

The necessity for such parks in Iowa seems to me to be
threefold:

First. — As directly affecting public health and happiness.

Second. — For proper education.

Third. — To preserve to other times and men something of
primeval nature.

Let us consider these points briefly in the order named

92 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

All of us in one way or another know something of the
monotonous grind which makes up the life- long experience of
by far the larger number of our fellow men. On the farm, in
the shop, in the mine, day after day, one unceasing round of
toil, into which the idea of pleasure or freshness never enters.
How many thousands of our fellow men, tens of thousands of
our women see nothing but the revolving steps of labor's tread-
mill, day m, day out, winter and summer, year after year, for
the whole span of mortal life. This is especially so here, in
these western states, where the highest ideal is industry, the
highest accomplishment, speed. Oar rural population is wear-
ing itself out in an effort to wear out " labor-saving machinery."
If you do not believe it take a journey across the country, any-
where Ihrough Iowa, and see how our people are actually living.
They know no law but labor; their only recreation is their toil.
Now, it is needless to say how abnormal all this is. We are as
a people entrapped in our machines, and are by them ground to
powder. The effect of it is apparent already in the public health,
and will be the most startling factor in the tables studied by the
man of science in the generations following. Not to paint too
darkly the picture, attention may be called to the fact that rural
suicides are not uncommon, and that the wives of farmers are
a conspicuous element in the population of some of our public
institutions. There must be something done to remedy all this,
to preserve for our people their physical and mental health,
and to this end, as all experience shows, there is nothing so
good as direct contact with nature, the contemplation of her
processes, the enjoyment of her peaceful splendor. If in every
county, or even in every township, there Avere public grounds
to which our people might resort in numbers during all the
summer season, a great step would be taken, as it seems to me,
for the perpetuation, not to say restoration, of the public health.
We are proud to call ourselves the children of "hardy pio-
neers," but much of the hardiness of those pioneers was due to
the fact that they spent much of their time, women, children
and all, out of doors. All the land was a vast park, in which
that first generation roamed and reveled. They breathed the
air of the forest, they drank the water of springs, they ate the
fruit of the hillsides while plum thickets were their orchards,
and all accounts go to show that hardier, healthier or happier
people never lived. Such conditions can never come again, but
we may yet, by public grounds for common enjoyment, realize
somewhat of the old advantage.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 93

Again, such parks as are here discussed are an educational
necessity. Our people as a whole suffer almost as much on
the esthetic side of life as on that which is more strictly sani-
tary. How few of our land-owners, for instance, have any
idea of groves or lawns as desirable features of their holdings.
If in any community a farm occurs on which a few acres are
given over to beauty the fact is a matter for comment for miles
in either direction. A county park well-kept and cared for
would be a perpetual object lesson to the whole community,
would show how the rocky knoll or deep ravine on one's own
eighty-acre farm, might be made attractive, until presently,
instead of the angular maple groves with which our esthetic
sense now vainly seeks appeasement, we should have a country
rich in groves conformable to nature's rules of landscape
gardening if not to nature's planting.

I am aware that at the first the right appreciation of a public
park might be meagre. The first instinct might be to use the
park as a convenient source whence to draw one's winter fire-
wood, or as a free cow-pasture for the adjoining farmer, but
such abuse would soon be rectified when the better idea of pub-
lic ownership came to be understood. This leads also to the
remark that such parks in Iowa are to-day absolutely needed
to teach our people the first lessons in forestry; to advise them
how and when to cut timber; the economic value of different
kinds of trees and the value of woodland as such; the kind
of soil which should be left to trees and such as may be profit-
ably given over to tillage. We are soon as a people to be sent
all to school in matters of forestry and arboriculture: sent to
learn the value of the forest in the dear school of experience
where we are to be taught the arithmetic of cost.

In the third place county parks would tend to preserve to
those who come after us something of the primitive beauty of
this part of the world, as such beauty stood revealed in its
original flora. I esteem this from the standpoint of science,
and, indeed, from the standpoint of intellectual progress, a
matter of extreme importance. Who can estimate the intel-
lectual stimulus the world receives by the effort made to
appreciate and understand the varied wealth of nature's living
forms? In this direction who can estimate how great has been
our own advantage as occupants of this new world? But such
is the aggressive energy of our people, such their ambition to
use profitably every foot of virgin soil that, unless somewhere

94 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

public reserves be constituted, our so-called civilization will
soon have obliterated forever our natural wealth and left us to
the investigation of introduced species only, and these but few
in number. It is a fact lamented, grievously lamented by all
intelligent men, that in all the older portions of the country
species of plants once common, to say nothing of animals, are
now extinct County parks, if organized soon, would enable
us to preserve maay of these in the localities where originally
found.

The objection to all this is that such parks as here
broached are impracticable. Such objection can lie in two
directions only: (1) The lack of suitable sites, and (2) the lack
of suitable control. As to the first, it may be said that in a
great number of our counties, especially eastward, such sites
exist and have, in many cases, been long used and, I am sorry
to say, abused by our people:

" The Caves," in Jackson county;

"The Backbone." in Delaware county;

''Wild Cat Den," in Muscatine county;

" Gray's Ford," in Cedar county;

" Pinney's Spring," in Allamakee county.

"The Palisades" in Cedar and Johnson counties, may be
cited as illustrations both of the fact that sites exist and that
people need and appreciate them. The "Backbone," in Dela-
ware, is ideal. Here are cliffs and rocks, woods, rivers and
bountiful springs and, what is rare in Iowa, clusters of native
jiine. Hundreds of people visit the locality every year, and
hundreds more would do so were the roads leading to the
park in more passable condition, and especially were the
grounds a park properly managed and controlled instead of,
as now, a cow pasture, so stocked as to jeopardize everything
green it contains. The "Den" in Muscatine county might be
referred to in the same way. I believe it is not yet too late
to find in possibly three fourths of our Iowa counties, suitable
sit*^s, grounds, for the purpose contemplated in this argument.

The second count in the way of objection is a real difficulty
whose gravity I do not for a moment attempt to minimize.
How to secure, own and care for several hundred, or for that
matter, several thousand acres of land to be used by all the
people is a problem, especially under our form of government.
Were we in the old world we should find no difficulty. Such
locilities are owned by the king or his equivalent and are

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 95

cared for and guarded with the same assiduity as any other
private property. Nevertheless the people have free use of
the most splendid parks and beautiful woods in the world.
The same thing can be true of the United States, of Iowa,
hopeless as the task may now seem. In the eastern states a
movement to this end is even now discernible.

What Mr. Vanderbilt is doing in North Carolina, at Bilt-
more, will doubtless be done presently in all our mountainous
and forested states. This is another opportunity for our
millonaires, and forest foundations properly established will
prove for future generations rich in benediction as any univer-
sity endowment left in the name of whatsoever state or sect.
In Massachusetts five years since a movement was inaugurated
for the accomplishment of similar purposes in New England.
A board of trustees, by legislature authorized to act, becomes
the legatee of suitable property donated for public use, becomes
the curators of such grounds and the custodians of funds
bequeathed for the care of such lands or for their purchase.
The results in Massachusetts of just a simple effort have in five
years proved most gratifying to the projectors, as to every
lover of his native land. Thousands of acres have already
been rescued from spoliation and subjected to intelligent man-
agement, such as will eventually result in the attainment of all
the beneficent ends for which public parks exist. In Io\\a
nothing is done; nothing will be done until somebody or some
association of our citizens makes a beginning. That the effort
will one day be made there is no doubt. Whether it shall be
made in time to save that which nature in this direction has
already committed to our hands is a question. Is not the prob-
lem worthy the consideration of the Iowa citizen and legisla-
tor, and does it not open to us a field where by practical activ-
ity we may again show before the world our practical sense
and wisdom?

96 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

NOTES ON FOREST DISTRIBUTION IN IOWA.

BY T. H. MACBRIDE.

The peculiar character of our American forest geography-
early attracted the attention of intelligent observers. Civilized
men, Frenchmen, crossing the continent from the Atlantic
seaboard, after threading for two hundred leagues a forest
almost unbroken, suddenly found themselves in the presence of
vast treeless plains, extending westward across a large portion
of the central Mississippi valley. In wonder and admiration
the vcnjageur looked upon these great plains, grass-grown and
flower- bedecked, and found them counterpart to the green
meadows of France; to them he gave the name prairie, a word
now so familiar as to have long lost for all Eaglish- speaking
men e^ery vestige of foreign origin. How these great mead-
ows ever came to exist or persist in the region where they
first were seen, or why the forests of the east should so sud-
denly stop was a problem the voyageur could not solve, and has
been a problem from the days of the voijageur until now.

In these times of almost universal forest extermination,
when we are in sight of the era in which Americans must
laboriously undertake the work of re-forestration, it is well that
we should closely attend to conditions once established by-
nature, that we may hereafter act with her assistance, for in
plant distribution, whatever our blunders may be or have been,
nature we may be sure has seldom made a mistake.

In general, two factors are said to control forest distribution
on the planet; the one, rainfall, the other, temperature. If the
rainfall is deficient there can be no forest, rainfall seems never
to be excessive, and if a region is too cold there is no forest.
In proof of this we have but to look at the high altitudes and
latitudes of the earth. What makes our Iowa problem there-
fore peculiar, is the fact that forest distribution here, as else-
where in prairie regions, does not accord with these general

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 97

principles. Our country is not too cold, neither is it too dry;
the rainfall in eastern Iowa being almost, if not quite as great
as in Indiana, where the primeval forest was once heaviest.
Indeed the uniformity of general conditions raises the prob-
lem: there seems to be nothing to hinder, therefore why is not
the forest universal?

Various answers have been given to this question.^
The opinion first entertained and that which is generally still
current among common people, was that the continental forests
were limited by fires. The Indians started fires and these fires
were slowly, at the advent of the white man, consuming the
woods, had stripped large areas in the Mississippi valley and
unchecked would eventually have reached the Atlantic coast.
No one who has been an eye-witness of the conflagrations that
once rolled in annual tides across Iowa or Illinois can doubt the
force of the theory so long and so widely entertained. The
difficulty lies in the fact that the forest stood the attack so well,
in fact seemed largely unaffected, actually held its own in
nearly every part of the fire -infested district. Then again, if
the truth had been that the aborigines were destroying the
woods at the time when the whites first became witnesses, proof
of the fact should be found over the whole region in form of char
red logs, stumps, etc., of which, needless to remark, there has
been no trace whatever. The fire theory not wholly satisfac-
tory, some students went to the other extreme and urged that
the distribution of the woods was due to causes efficient in
times remotely past, so that fires or present conditions had
nothing at all to do with the matter; the solution of the prob-
lem must be sought in some earlier geologic age. Ouhers
again sought to solve the problem by a jjriori method. It wss
urged that trees exhaust the soil of one set of elements while
grasses, herbaceous plants, demand something entirely differ-
ent, so that either set of plants occupying for long ages a given
region would exhaust its availability though leaving the ground
serviceable for something else. Thus trees once occupied the
whole Mississippi valley but had exhausted the ground of tree-
material, so to speak, had worn out their welcome. The
answer to this is that here in Iowa trees seem to grow every-
where if planted and cared for.

iSee inter al. Am. Journal of Science VI, 384; XXXVIII, 332 and 344; XXXIX, 317;
XL, 23 and 2f)3. Geol. Survey of Illinois I, 238 et xeq; Geology of Iowa. Hall, I. Part I,
p. 23 et xcq; U. S. Geol. Survey, Eleventh Annual Report of the Director, p. 3;J6 ct scq.

98 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Prof. Lesquereux carries the idea of suitability of soil a little
farther. He traces all prairies to old time lakes; declares
that prairie soil is "neither peat nor humu?, but a soft, black
mould, impregnated with a large proporton of ulmic acid, pro-
duced by the slow decompo-itiun, moslly under water, of
aquatic plants, and thus partaking as much of the nature of peat
as of that of true humus." * * * " It is easy to understand,"
he says, "why trees cannot grow on such kind of ground. The
germination of seeds needs free oxygen for its development,
and the trees, especially in their youth, absorb, by their roots,
a great amount of air, and demand a solid point of attachment
to fix them.selves, etc. " That i.*, the reason why our prairies are
treeless is that they are too wet, and they contain, in virtue of
their origin, certain elements to trees inimical. Professor
Whitney also finds explanation of our prairies in the nature of
the soij, "as the prime cause of the absence of forests and the
predominance of grasses over this widely extended region.
And although chemical composition may not be without
influence in bringing about this result, * * * yet we con-
ceive that the extreme fineness of the particles of which the
prairie soil is composed is probably the principal reason why
it is better adapted to the growth of its peculiar vegetation than
to the development of forests. "

Whitney makes also another very suggestive statement, the
importance of which he did not himself realize. He says:
"Wherever there has been a variation from the usual condi-
tions of soil on the prairie or in the river bottom there is a cor-
responding change :n the character of the vegetation. Thus
on the prairie we sometimes meet with ridges of coarse
material, apparently deposits of drift, on which from some local
cause there has never been an accumulation of fine sediment;
in such localities we invariably fird a growth of timber. This
is the origin of the groves scattered over the prairies for whose
isolated circumstances and peculiarities of growth, we are
unable to account in any other way."

It is interesting to notice the emphasis which Whitney here
places on the character of this soil. No doubt there is some-
thing about prairie soils which makes them different from all
other soils with which we are acquainted, and no doubt differ-
ence in soils is responsible for the difference in the forms of
vegetation which they carry, but while both these excelleLt
students, Lesquereux and Whitney, came in their surmises

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 99

very near the truth each of them in his theory missed the mark.
It remained for an almost lifelong resident of the prairie, a
former active member of this academy, to study to better pur-
pose, Iowa's forest distribution, when, as a vigorous geologist he
made his now famous pilgrimage through our eastern counties.
Mr. McGee was quick enough to notice that the soils of our
prairie region are indeed peculiar, and of several sorts, and
that the vegetation varies with the soil, but he went farther:
he referred the whole problem back to conditions geological, to a
situation resultant from the nature and manner of the latest
geological deposit The soils of Iowa are three, the drift of
the prairie, the loess of the hills, the alluvium of the river
flood-plains, and Mr. McGee's contribution to our problem
lies in his emphasizing the fact first noticed by Whitney, that
the forests and groves of Iowa, except where alluvial, are
everywhere coterminous with the distribution of the loess.
Since Mr. McGee has called attention to the fact, of course,
everybody sees it. The merest tyro in such studies has but to
drive across some eastern county of our state to see how very
striking the relation is. Evary hill is clay- capped, and every
clay-capped ridge is covered with woods. Sometimes the clay
is replaced by sand, but the woods cover the sand, as Whitney
says, just the same.

There is one other fact, however, to which attention has not
yet been called, which has a distinct bearing upon our problem
and that is the fact that subsequent to the occupancy of the
state by civilization the forest began slowly to enlarge. Many
localities might be cited in proof of this statement. I have in
mind one field of thirty acres in 1844 cultivated as a cornfield,
now used year after year as a grove for Fourth of July cele-
brations. Then again, as Whitney remarked, trees grow on all
the allavial soils of Iowa, so that outside the fact of soil-differ-
ence, there must be still a factor operating to make the differ-
ence in soil efficient. That factor in my opinion is that already
mentioned as of universal popular appreciation, namely, fire.
Fires have prevailed on the continent not only for generations
as man reckons the years, but for forest-generations for hun-
dreds and hundreds of years. In the presence of fires forests
endure only as thejr have some special defense. This may be
found in one or both of two conditions; in a limited amount of
surface-moisture or ia lack of combustible material on the sur-
face of the ground. The alluvium offers both conditions; the

100 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

loess the latter. That is, to be more explicit, the loess with
its sand and clay is a soil for cereals so poor as to raise but a
small crop of grass, hence to furnish for sweeping fire a small
amount of fuel, hence giving rise to less destructive fires, in
which young trees were not universally destroyed. The drift
on the other hand produces enormous wealth of grass, burning
in conflagration which no seedling trees can endure: hence on
the drift there are no trees. The presence of trees on rocky
soils is to be explained in the same way. River bottoms fur-
nish a special case. Here in the first case the current formed
soil is in the nature of a sand bar, made of the coarser elements
met with by the eroding flood. On sand bars cottonwoods and
willows start, but not grass. The soil after a little becomes
richer it is true, by subsiding slime, but by this time the local-
ity is become moister than all the surrounding region; in sum-
mer, being lower, receiving heavier dews; in winter catching
and longer retaining a larger proportion of snow, all tending
as check to sweeping fires.

In conclusion, we are therefore prepared to say that all the
students of our problems have been right, though each pre-
sented but a partial truth. Those who affirmed the agency of
fire were right, but they failed to notice the fire's selective
operation or to explain it. Those who attributed forest dis-
tribution to differences in soil were also right, but thej?- failed
to show or see how or why such difference avai]ed. Those
who looked back to a former geologic age were also right,
but such failed entirely to show what the influence was which
geologic structure has upon the problem.

To sum up: (i) The immediate agent in the limitation and
distribution of Iowa forests was fire. (2) The sweep of fire
was determined by a modicum of moisture and by the presence
of fuel upon the ground. (3) The drift being especially adapted
to gramineous vegetation, lurnished fuel in such amount as to
prevent the development of tree- seedlings, while the loess,
using the term in a broad sense, less suited to gramineous
species, furnished less fuel, hence gave to tree seedlings on
loess regions opportunity to rise. (4) Special localities, as
swamps, alluvial flood-plains, etc., present special cases and
require special explanations.

As a corollary we may remark: (1) That the drift-plains of
the state offer greatest promise to the farmer who seeks the
cereals as his principal product. The wooded regions should

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101

be left to woods as to their appropriate crop. The loess clay
will never enable its cultivator to compete with his more
fortunate fellow-citizen who farms the drift, and the sooner
the people of Iowa find it out the better. (2) It is likely that
orchards and vineyards will thrive better on the loess than on
the drift, as trees generally may be supposed to have been sub-
ject to similar discipline in all time and in all parts of the
world.

THE NOMENCLATURE QUESTION AMONG THE SLIME-
MOULDS.

BY T. H. MACBRIDE.

That a man's difficulties are often of his own creating is a
fact patent in science as in other fields. The imperfections of
our methods form ever increasing nets of complexity about the
feet of our progress. No one feels this more keenly than the
naturalist, especially he who would attempt to give more
exact account of some limited group or series of animals or
plants. No matter how carefully he may arrange his materi-
als, no matter how industriously he may have worked out the
various problems of structure and morphology, there comes at
last to plague him, to hinder him, to mar his purpose and
waste his time, the question of nomenclature; his specimens
must be named. This ceremony, the christening, which ought
to have been the simplest matter in the world, has really
become, if not the most difficult, at least the most annoying
and thankless portion of his task. Preposterous also as it may
seem, it is precisely the oldest and most universally recognized
of the forms with which he deals that are apt to give the most
trouble. There has arisen a class of critics among us who
have devoted their energies to the unsettling of scientific
nomenclature in every department of research, with the result
that, rightly or wrongly, every systematic work in the world
needs revision if not re- writing, and every herbarium in the
world needs a new set of labels. Now, this might all not be so
bad if such a revolution were final. If the wheel were only
weighted on one side, so that oncj it came to rest we could feel

102 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

that there it would stay, we might put up with temporary con-
fusion in vieAv of the peace that should certainly follow. But
the revisers are by no means agreed among themselves. We
are watching a wheel which is weighted, not on one side only,
but on two or three diiferent sides, and we not only have do
idea which side will eventually determine equilibrium, but we
are certain that any repose we may secure is liable to be
instantly and forever jeopardized by the first crank who
chooses to give our wheel again a whirl. Meanwhile revision
and re-naming go merrily on. Rules have been adopted by
bodies more or less representative, first on one tide of the
Atlantic then on the other, but neither do these rules agree
one with another. The zoologists " have their set of rules to
which some are obedient, others not. The botanists have
their set of rules which have gotten so far as to be liable to be
submitted to a world's botanical congress, did such ever con-
vene. Meantime, while nothing is settled, at least by any-
thing like universal consensus cf opinion, there are men who
devote their energies, not to the pursuit of science, but of
priority; who are Icrever claimirg to find in the work of some
obscure naturalist of a preceding century for common objects
names diiferent from those in universal use, and all the world
must perforce stop in its real pursuit cf knowledge to see what
must be done with these disturbers of the peace, until we are
in danger of presenting to our successors, if they heed us at
all, the spectacle of a generation of so-called scientific men
giving more heed to names than to things.

Now all this is trite enough. Moreover the question of nomen-
clature is a real one, a very real one, as it has to do with an
instrument of research, and it is one cf those questions that
never can be settled until settled right.

It is not in the hope of being able to contribute far towards
such settlement that the present paper is submitted, but rather
to point out some of the difficulties to be encountered by one
who attempts to deal with nomenclature, even in a group of
organisms confessedly small.

As is well known the Myomjcetes are a group of sapro-
phytes, for a long time classed with the fungi and especially
with the Gastromycetes, puff-balls, stink- horns and the like, and
only recently, i. e., within twenty or thirty years, thoroughly
studied and understood. Although not understood, not prima-
rily properly referred at all, mycologists weie continually

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 103

collecting them, in a fashion describing them, naming and
occasionally figuring them. In 1873-75 Rostafinski, under direc-
tion of De Bary, undertook the first systematic presentation
of the group as a whole, properly separating the slime moulds
from the fungi, basing subsequent classification upon char-
acters unused before, characters chiefly microscopic, and for
the first time in the case of the great majority of the forms ,
studied, offered specific descriptions sufficiently exact, and pre-
sented intelligible figures. I have said that Rostafinski based
his specific descriptions upon characters revealed by a micro-
scope: not only so but it must be considered that his work was
effected by the aid of a good microscope, one which enabled him
to go into details of spore measurement, spore sculpture and
so on, to an extent to his predecessors undreamed, to most of
them indeed impossible. lathe preparation of his classic, he had
access to all the literature of his subject and generally employs
for genera and species names already in use. Furthermore he
gives for all such species a synonomy which must strike every
student as liberal in the extreme. For instance, in the case of
Fuligo varians Sommf. , the synonyms quoted number 42. But
when it comes to selecting the particular name which he
has adopted, Rostafinski was often somewhat arbitrary. Not
only does he discard often the specific name which by his list
of synonyms has conceded priority, much less does he follow
the rule which adopts "the name given first with the genus in
which the species now stands," but he seemed often to discard
any and all names, and to name his species without regard to
any rule, but purely in accord with his own taste or preference.
For twenty years Rostafinski's work has been unassailed,
partly because of its inherent exellence and the great name of
his master De Bary, which seemed to stand as a guarantee
behind it, and partly no doubt because of the unintelligible
Polish dialect in which the book was given to the world. The
Germans let the thing alone as ojms perfectum, the English bot-
anists were content with Cooke's paraphrase and there the
matter stood. Massee, in his Monograph of 1892, followed
almost implicitly the Rostafinskian nomenclature, and even
quoted his synonyms intoto. Meantime some continental
writers, as Rannkier in Denmark, were becoming reckless, and
Mr. Lister the latest English monographer, was preparing to
overturn the whole Rostafinskian list. Tnis author is not only
extremely radical in his omission and consolidation of pre-

104 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

viously recognized species but adopts as his guide in nomen-
clature the rule "laid down by A. L. Condolle in 1868, " - *
that the first authentic specific name published under the genus
in which the species now stands shall take precedence of all
others;"' a rule which seems to me as unfair in its proposals as
absurd in the results to which it leads. Under the operation of
this rule Rostafinski's synonyms is made to overturn his own
nomenclature, and this in a multitude of instances.

Now, I have no disposition to defend Rjstafinski. As before
said, his nomenclature, whatever apology we may offer, admits
in many cases of small defense; but in fact Rostafinski needs no
defender. If any man chooses some other prior name for a
species listed by the illustrious Pole, upon him devolves the
burden of proof; he must show that the form described by Ros-
tafinski is that referred to by the earlier author. No one who
has studied these forms and has attempted their specific identi-
fication, even with the most carefully drawn descriptions before
him, but will appreciate the futility of an effort to apply the
old and brief descriptions. Even so-called authentic specimens
are hard to authenticate. Slime-moulds are perishable things
and labels are liable to become mixed, even in the best her-
baria as we all know. To aver of a species described by Ros-
tafinski that it is the same as that sketched in a line or two
by Persoon or Link, is an undertaking too bold for me. Even
where the species described is figured, the figure is often per-
fectly valueless for complete assurance. Take Schrader for
instance, whose copper plates of a hundred years ago are
among the best pre-Rostafinskian illustrations in the group we
study, and even these are disappointing in the extreme. The
figure of Dictydium umbilicaium S. is portrayed in life-like
fashion but is unluckily an only species. The species of Cri-
braria to which Schrader gave name, are som.e of them fairly
shown but not in the details by which the species may be every-
where distinguished, C. macrocarim the artist missed entirely
and fell instead into a bit of arabesque which has nowhere the
slightest counterpart in nature. Scbrader's descriptions are
very much better than those of most writers of his day, and
yet they fail to distinguish as we now discriminate since Rosta-
finski taught us how. The fact is that when Rostafinski gives
credit to his predecessors it is for the most part purely a work
of courtesy and grace. There is nothing in the work itself to
command such consideration. The man who in his search for

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 105

priority ascends beyond Rostafinski, does it therefore at the
risk of endless confusion and uncertainty in the great majority of
cases. Some years ago the botanists present at the session of
the A. A. A. S. , concluded that in describing Phenogams one
should not transcend a particular edition of Lincceus; a better
rule is that which ascends to the earliest accurate description; no
farther. Accordingly for the great majority of slime -mould
species I should draw the line at Rostafinski's work, 1875.

The exceptions are the few which the rule of accurate
description would carry behind the Polish publication, where
Rostafinski discarded a name simply because for some reason
or other Rostafinski did not like it. As an illustration, take
the little, not uncommon, species called by Rostafinski —

Cornuvia circuniscissa (Wallr.) R.

The synonyms, as quoted by Rostafinski, are:

Lignidium quercinum Pr. 1825.

Trichia circumscissa Wallroth. 1833.

Arcyria glomerata Pr. 1849.

OpMotheca chrysospei'ma Currey. 1854.

Trichia curreyi Cronan. 1867.

The only names accompanied by their authors by descrip-
tions at all definitive are the last two. The genus Lignidium,
as defined by Link, certainly referred to forms belonging to the
Physarece, if to Myomycetes at all, so that that generic name
cannot stand, nor can Pries have had our species in mind, since
his description refers, probably, to some Physarum. Trichia cir-
cumscissa Wallr. undoubtedly comes nearer to it, but our species
is not circumscissile, so that it is doubtful whether Wallroth,
even, had in view the same species. Currey, who comes next
on the list, by judicious description and carelully drawn figures,
having, as we think properly, separated from the Trichias the
genus OpMotheca, ignored ah preceding specific names, suppos-
ing any to have been up to this time affixed, and called the
species we ha^ve before us 0. chrysosperma. Rostafinski now
recognizes Currej's work, but rejects his generic name on the
grounds of inapplicability in primary significance to all the
species included. He therefore coins a new generic name —
i. e. Cornuvia — and goes back to Wallroth for specific name, a
thing that Currey should have done had Wallroth's description
been of sufficient exactness to make sure to Currey 's mind, as it
seems it did to Rostafinski's, that Wallroth was actually describ-
ing the same specific form. The criticism of Rostafinski will,

106 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

therefore, in this instance, change the commonly received
name. Instead of Cornuvia circumscissa (Wallr.) R., we shall
say Opldotheca chrysof^pervna Currey, unless we can show that
Wallroth actually described the same thing, when, of course,
we should write Ophiotheca circumscissa (Wallr.), followed by the
name of the author who first established the combination, in
this case, Massee.

MOTES ON THE FLORA OF WESTERN IOWA.

BY L H. PAMMEL.

The flora of the loess in western Iowa is unique, in many
respects. While it may be said that many pares of the state
have a typical prairie flora, certain species being common from
Texas to British America, east to Wisconsin, Illinois and
Indiana, only occasionally do we find plants of the great plains
in our own state. Western species are somewhat unequally
distributed in our state; they occupy a larger area in north-
western lowjii than in southern and western. In northern
Iowa a few prominent types appear, as in Emmet county. Of
these I may mention Bouteloua oligostachya, Agropyrum caninum,
A. caesium, Grindelia squarrosa, HcUanthus Maximiliani. The
latter is not, however, a typical western plant, though intro-
duced in central Iowa. It crosses our western border on the
loess and extends south to Texas.

The loess of western Iowa is peculiar so far as the flora is
concerned, nothing like it in Iowa. A number of American
writers have written upon the peculiarities of its plant life. B.
F. Bush^ has given us a complete catalogue of the flora of
northwestern Missouri.

A. S. Hitchcock- has reported a few of the plants occurring
near Sioux City, and in general touches on the fl )ra of western
Iowa.

J. W. McGee considers the loess flora of northeastern Iowa.
The two regions are however not similar from a botanical
standpoint. It may be well to speak of the formation in this

iNotes on the mound flora of Atchison county, Miss )uri. Reprint, Sixth Ann. Rep.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 1895, pp. 121-134.

^Notes on the flora of Iowa, Bot. Gazette-Vol. XIV, p. 12"

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 107

coDnection. McGee'^ says: "The macroscopic characters of the
deposit are moderately constant:

"(1) It is commonly fiae. homogeneous, free from pebbles
or other adventious matter, and either massive or so obscurely
ctratified that the bedding plains are inconspicuous; (2) it com-
monly contains unoxidized carbonate of lime in such quantity
as to effervesce freely under acids; (3) it frequently contains
nodules and minute ramifying tubules of carbooate of lime; (4)
in many regions it contains abundant shells of land and fresh
water moUusca; (5) is commonly so friable that it may be
removed with a spade or impressed with the fingers, yet it
resists weathering and erosion in a remarkable manner, stard-
ing for years in vertical faces and developing steeper erosion
slopes than any other formation except the more obdurate clastic
or crystalline rocks." McGee also states that it is a fallacy to
regard the loess as identical in composition or that it is identi-
cal in genesis or even in age. As to its orig'n, Chamberlin aad
Salisbury find that in western Wisconsin and contiguous
parts of Illinois and Iowa its composition varies in different
localities with that of the associated drift and that both compo-
sition and distribution point to glacial siit as the parent forma-
tion of the loess in the upper Mississippi valley. Prof. McGf e
in speaking of the plants of the loess in northeastern Iowa lays
stress on the prevalence of hard wood forests in the area. That
the timber belt is confined to this area. The chief trees of t?is
region from my observations are, oaks a half dozm species
{Quercus macrocarpa, Q. coccinea, Q. tinctoria, Q. rubra, Q. alba,
Q. 3Iichlenbergii, Q. bicolor). The Q bicolor is however, a swamp
species. The latter and Q. MuliJenbergii are southern species
that have extended northward along the Mississippi. The
butternut {Juglans cinerea) of the uplands and walnut {Juglans
nigra) of the bottoms, the former is northern and the lattfr
southern. The genus Primus is represented by three species
{Primus Americana, P. serotina, and P. Virginiana). The crab-
apple {Pyrus coronaria) is found everywhere in thickets. The
white birch {Betula 2Mpyracea) is a rare tree, the river birch
{Betula nigra) is abundant along the streams; other trees along
streams are honey locust (GleditscJiia triacanthos); sycamore
{Platanus occidentalis) Kentucky coffee tree {Ginnnodadus Gana-
densifi). all southern representatives. The elms are represented

3The Pleistocene history of northeastern Iowa, Eleventh Ann. Rep. U. S. Geological
Survey, p. 291.

lOS IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

by three species {Ulmus Americana, U. racemosa and U. fuJva).
Only one, the slippery elm, is abundant on the loess formation,
though Ulmus Americana is less restricted to low bottoms than
U. racemosa. Of the maples the sugar maple {Acer saccharinum)
is common on the loess, while the soft maple {Acer dasycarpum)
is exclusively a lowland species, so is box elder {Negunclo-
aceroicles). The mountain maple {Acer spicatum) occurs on the
loess. Tilia Americana is common on the loess formation.
Three cone bearing trees occur in northeastern Iowa {Abies
balsc/.mea, Plnus Strobus &nd Juniperus Virglniana), but they occur
on other than loess soil. Of the ashes there are several species
the Fraxinus virldls delights in low bottoms. The F. Americana
occurs on higher soil.

I cannot, in this connection, enumerate the shrubs that
occur, but they are numerous and may occur in thickets in
both loess and bottoms. Comparing the plants found in north-
eastern Iowa with those about La Crosse, Wis., where my
early botanical work was done, I may say that most of the
species occur and that the woody plants are more numerous.
Some of the southern species, however, fail to appear, but in
places northern forms occur. The density of the timber
increases from the Mississippi east. In the drainage basin of the
Kickapoo Valley the finest timber in western Wisconsin occurs.
Nowhere have I seen such beautiful specimens of Acer saccha-
rinum, Tilia Americana and Quercus macrocarpa. This, too, is
outside of the loess region. In southwestern Minnesota, the
statement of McGee that there is a significant relation between
the loess sheeting and forest covering is very apparent.

The most significant fact appearing to one who has made a
study of the loess flora of western Iowa is the absence of trees,
except an occasional cottomvood, ( n the peculiar mounds that
occur in parallel ridges along the Missouri river. These
pe'-'.uliar hills rise abruptly from the rich, feriile Missouri bot-
toai and somewhat resemble the low foot hills of the Rocky
mountains. They are from 100 to 200 feet high. From a dis-
tance they look bare, but a day spent in this region will show
that the hills are full of botanical interest. I have made four
botanical trips at different times along the Missouri. On the
whole there is very little variation in the flora of Iowa, If we
leave out of consideration a number of most interesting plants
found in Winneshiek county by Mr. Holway and a few peculiar
southern plants found by Mr. Ferd Reppert, near the city of

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 109

Muscatine, the only radical difference shown in our flora is
that occurring along the Missouri. About twenty-five western
and northwestern species occur and, according to the list of
Mr. Bush, nearly the same species occur from Sioux City, Iowa,
to St. Joseph, Mo. The region is not entirely devoid of
trees, in its northern portion, between the steep mounds a var-
iety of bur oak {Quercus macrocarpa var. olivaeformis) , Slippery
elm [TJlmus fulva), Cottonwood {Populus moniUflera), Plum
{Prunus Americana), Basswood {TiUa Americana), box elder
{Negundo aceroides), occur. Several shrubs also occur; Grape
{Vitis riparia), climbing bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), wahoo
{Euonymns atropurpnret(s). South, the timber area is more
extensive, as at Council Bluffs and Missouri Valley. At Glen-
wood and Logan there are fine specimens of Quercus rubra,
Tilia Americana and Ulmus fulva. They are abundant from one-
half to two miles from the hills. The trees on the loess about
Tarin and Sioux City are broad and spreading.

Of the peculiar herbaceous plants, I shall content myself by
giving a list. The beautiful Spanish bayonet (Ti^cca angusti-
folia) so abundant everywhere in the west. The Apdopappus
spinulosus forms dense mats on the tops of the mounds. Grin-
delia squarrosa, now naturalized in other parts of Iowa. Liatris
punctata. Euphorbia marginata, E. lieteropliylla, a beautiful blue-
flowered lettuce {Lactuca pulchella) , Gaura coccinea, so abundant
everywhere in Nebraska and in the Rocky mountain region.
Oxyhaphus angustifolia, HeJianthus Maximiliani, Lycjodesmia
juncea, sua. abundant plant of the plains now exerting itself with
great force in the cornfields of northwestern Iowa. The
beautiful Mentzelia ornata is confined to Cedar Bluffs along the
Big Sioux a few miles north of Sioux City. Cleome integrifolia,
the celebrated Rocky Mountain bee plant. Two species of Dcdea
(D. alopecuroides and D. laxiflora) the Loco weed (Oxytrojns
Lamberti) and Astragcdus lotijlorus, var. brachypus. Professor
Hitchcock records Stipa comata, which belongs chiefly to the
Rocky Mountain region and rarely found in eastern Nebraska.
Shepherdia argentea occurs along the Missouri near Sioux City
undoubtedly a waif from the northwest.

I may also add a gamma grass peculiar to the west, most
common species of Nebraska {Bouteloua oligostachya) Buffalo
grass {Buchloe dactyloides) from Lyon county. The most abun-
dant grasses on the hills are Androj^ogon scoparius, Bouteloua
racemosa, quite common in many parts of Iowa. Muldenbergia

110 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

soboUferia, Ammophila longlfoUa and Sporobolus Hooker t,
<S'. brevifolius and an unnamed western species which has hereto-
fore been referred to «S' cusjjidatus. I may also remark that a
peculiar thistle occurs, the Gnicus altissimus, var. fllilpendulus.

Why is it that these peculiar hiJls, not more than a few
hundred feet wide, should have such a local western flora?
The soil is retentive of moisture, n dries out quickly and the
roots easily pecietiate the &oil to draw on the contained moist-
ure below. This certainly cannot be the reason, siace the
loess extends along the river eour^es in the interior. Some
of these plants, since the cultivation of the soil, have shown
some tendency to spread, as in Euphorbia marglnata, Lyr/odesmia
fitncea, Grindelia squari'osa, which are tramping eastward to
menace the farmer.

Were the seeds of some of these plants brought to Iowa
with the buffalo, as has been suggested for buffalo grass?
Some of the plants are disseminated by the wind, and in others
the water can by a purely mechanical means bring them to the
base of the mound. With the more woody country of south-
eastern Iowa there seems to have been but little chance for
these plants to spread beyond the bluffs. In northwestern
Iowa some of these plants, like Helianthus Maximiliani, are not
uncommon, which shows that the woody area of southwestern
Iowa is in part a barrier against a further eastern extension.
Bat why did the plants not extend beyond the very narrow
limits, as the forest area does not encroach directly on the
loess mounds? I am at a loss to explain this most peculiar
distribution.

In the list appended I enumerate the most striking plants.
The writer is under obligations to Mrs. Rose Schuster Taylor
and Miss Bandusia Wakefield, of Sioux City, for favors
rendered; also Mr. E. D. Ball, of Little- Rock; Mr. W. Newell
and J. Jensen, of Hull, and E. G. Preston, of Battle Creek,
for specimens, tj Dr. Miilspaugh for naming the Euphorbias.

My own collections were made at various times near Sioux
City, Hawarden, Onawa, Turin, Missouri Valley, Council Bluffs
and Logan. The list could have been extended and localities
added, but college material is not readily accessible at this
time of the year. Miss Wakefield's list is based on colored
sketches in her possession. I have abbreviated all specimens
credited to her as (B. W.), and those collected by myself as
(L. H. P.). I have followed Gray's Manual in arrangement of

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. m

orders, genera and species. It will not be necessary to com-
ment on the value of this, since it is the standard work in the
schools and colleges of Iowa.

RANUNCULACE.E.

Clematis Virginiana L.

Sioux City, in woody ravines (B. W.).
Anemone patens L. var. NuttalUana Gray.

Sioux City, prairies, abundant (B. W.).
Anemone cylindrica A. Gray.

Hull(W. Newell); Little Rock, dry grounds (Herb. C.R.Bali).
A. Virginiana L.

Sioux City (B W).

A. Canadensis L.

Sioux City, low grounds, bottoms (B. W.): Little Rock
(Herb. C. R. Ball).
Thalictrum purxmrascens L.

Sioux City, low grounds and prairies (B. W.); Hull (W. New-
ell); Little Rock (C. R. Ball).
Ranunculus Cymbalaria Pursh.

Hull (W. Newell); Little Rock (Herb. C. R. Ball).

B. multijidus Pursh.

Little Rock, in water (Herb. C. R. Ball).
E. abortivus L.

Sioux City (B. W).
a. septentrionalis Poir.

Cherokee (B. W.).
Galtha palustris L.

Sioux City, not common, low marshes (B. W.).
Aquilegia Canadensis L.

Sioux City, abundant in wooded ravines (B. W.).
Delphinium azureum Michx.

Sioux City prairies (B. W.); Little .Rock (C. R. Ball);
flowers of Iowa specimens are greenish white.
Actaea spicata L. var. rubra, Ait.

Sioux City woods, frequent (B. W.).

MENISPERMACE.E.

Menispermum Canadense L.

Sioux City, common, in wooded ravines (B. W. L. H. P.).

BERBERIDACE.E.

Caulophijllum thalictroides, Michx.

Sioux City woods, frequent (B. W.).

112 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

NYMPHAEACE.E.

Nelurribo lutea Pers. *

Onawa (B. W.).
Nymphaea reniformis D. C.

Lyon Co. (B. W.).
Nuphar advena Ait.

Sioux township Lyon Co , northwest corner of state (B. W.)

PAPAVERACE.E.

Sanguinaria Canadensis L.

Sioux City. Wooded ravines (B. W.).

FUMARIACE.E.

Dicentra cucuUaria D. C.

Sioux City, abundant in wooded ravines in vegetable mould.
CorydaUs aiirea Willd.

Sioux City, borders of woods, common (B. W.).

CRUCIFER.-E
Lepidium Virginkum L.

Sioux City, waste places abundant (B W. )
L. apetaluni Willd.

Not represented by specimens though abundant on mounds,
fields and pastures in western Iowa (L. H. P.).
Gapsella Bnrsa-pastoris Medic.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Brasssca nigra Koch.

Sioux City (B. W.).
B. Sinapistrum Boiss.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Sismhrium officinale Scop.

Sioux City (B. W.); Battle Creek (E. G. Preston); Little
Rock (C. R. Ball); roadside weed.
S. canescens, Nutt.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Erysimum cheiranthoides L.

Sioux City, rich soil, river bottoms (B. W.).
Nasturtium terrestre R. Br.

Sioux City (B. W.) low grounds; borders of ponds and
streams.
Cardamine hirsuta L.

Little Rock (C. R. Ball).
Arabis, hirsuta Scop.

Sioux City (B. W.).

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 113

CAPPARIDACE.^.

Polanisia graveolens, Raf .

Sioux City (B. W.)-
Cleome integrifolia Torr. & Gray.

Onawa, Missouri Valley streets and loess mounds (L. H.
P.) common (B. W.); common in the city (L. H. Pam-
mel); from observation.

VIOLACE.E.

Viola pedatijida Don.

Sioux City, prairies frequent (B. W.).
A. palmata L. var. cucullata Gray.

Sioux City, common in woods (B. W.).
Viola Canadensis L.

Sioux City, wooded ravines between loess mounds east of
Sioux City (B. W.). Apparently out of its range.

CARYOPHYLLACEJ3.

Saponaria offl,cinalis L.

Sioux City, escaped from cultivation (B. W.).
Silene stellata Ait.

Sioux City, woods common (B. W.); Hawarden, Council
Bluffs, common borders of woods (L. H. P.).
Lyclinis GitJiago Lam.

Sioux City, an introduced weed (B. W.); Rock Valley
(Jensen & Newell); Little Rock (Herb. C. R. Ball).
Stellaria longifolia Muhl.

Sioux City (B. W.); Little Rock (C. R. Ball).

PORTULACACE^.

Portidaca oleracea L.

Sioux City (B. W.); an abundant weed everywhere in west-
ern Iowa.
Talinvm teretifolium Pursh.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Claytonia Virginica L.

Smithland, in woods (B. W.).

MALVACE^.

Malva rotundifoUa L.

Turin, Onawa, weed in streets and along roadsides (L. H.
P.); Sioux City (B. W.); Little Rock (C. R. Ball).
Abut Hon Avkennce Gaertn.

Onawa, streets and waste places, abundant (L. H P )• Sioux
City (B. W.).

114 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

TILIACE.E.

Tilia Americana L.

Sioux City, Turin, Missouri Valley, Council Bluffs, ravines
between loess mounds (L. H. P.); back of mounds an
abundant tree.

I^INACE^.

Linum sulcatum Riddell.

Sioux City, top and sides of loess mounds, prairies (L. H.
P.), (B. W.); Little Rock (C. R. Ball).
L. rirjidum Pursh.

Sioux City, loess mounds, capsules and old stems only
found by myself (L. H. P.)j Hamburg (Hitchcock, Bot.
Gazette, XIV, 128).

GERANIACE.E.
Oxalis violaceoi L.

Sioux City, in woods frequent (B. W.); Little Rock (Herb.
C. R. Ball).

0. corniculata L. var. stricta Sav.

Turin, Onawa, in woods and fields abundant (L. H. P.);
Sioux City (B. W.).
Impatiens pallida Nutt.

Sioux City, in woods along streams (B. W.).

1. Fulva Nutt.

Sioux City, in woods along streams (B. W.).

RUTACE.^.

Xanthoxylum Americanum Nutt.

Sioux City, common in woods (B. W.); South Dakota, oppo-
site Hawarden, in valleys between hilis (L. H. P.).

CELASTKACE.E.

Celastrus scandens L.

Sioux City, common in woods letween loess mounds (B. W.
and L. H. P.).
Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq.

Sioux City, in woods between loess mounds (B. W., L. H. P.);
South Dakota, opposite Hawarden (L. H. P.).

RHAMNACE.^.

Mhamnus lanceolata Pursh.

Logan, low hills in woods (L. H. P.), Sioux City, level
woodland near the Big Sioux river (B. W.).

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 115

Ceanothus Americanus L.

Turin, Missouri Valley, loess hills in open, grassy places
(L. H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.).
C. ovatus Best.

Council Bluffs, sides and tops of loess mounds (L. H. P.).

VITACE^.

Vitis riparia Michx.

Sioux City, valleys between loess mounds in wood s (L. H. P. ) ;
South Dakota, opposite Hawarden (L. H. P.).
Ampelo'psis quinrpiefolia Michx.

Sioux City, in woods; common (B. W.).

SAPINDACE^.

Acer dasycarjmm Ehrh.

Sioux City, Hawarden; abundant in alluvial bottoms, along
Big Sioux and Missouri rivers (L. H. P.).
Negundo aceroides Moench.

Sioux City, frequent along streams (B. W.).
Staphylea trifolia L.

Sioux City, in valleys between loess hills (B. W.).

ANACARDIACE^.

Bhus glabra L.

Sioux City, common border of loess mounds (B. W.) South
Dakota, c pposite Hawarden (L. H. P.).
E. Toxicodendron L.

Sioux City, common in valleys between loess mounds
(B. W.).

POLYGALACE^E.
Pulygcda verliciUata L.

Sioux City, loess mounds (L. H. P. and B. W.).

LEGUMINOS.E.

Baptisia leucantha Torr. and Gray.

Battle Creek, low places, prairie (E. G. Preston), Cherokee
(B. W.).
Crotalaria sagittalis L.

Sioux City, bank of Big Sioux river. Cedar Bluffs (B. W.).
TrifoUum pralense L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
T. stoloniferum Muhl.

Sioux City (B. W.).
T. repens L.

SioUx City (B. W ).

116 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Melilotus officinalis Willd.

Sioux City (B. W.), Council Bluffs (L. H. P.).
M. alba Lam.

Sioux City, along railroads, in streets, fields and roadsides,
abundant (L. H. P. and B. W.), Onawa, Turin (L.
H. P.).
Medicacjo sativa L.

Sioux City, in streets; not common, Council Bluffs (L. H. P.).
Eosackia Purshiana Benth.

Sioux City, loess mounds (B. W.).
Psoralea argophylla Pursh.

Sioux City, adundant on loess mounds (B. W.), high
prairies and low, rich soil; Little Rock (Herb. C. R.
Ball), Hull (W. Newell). A typical prairie plant, com-
mon throughout Iowa on dry hills.
Amorplia canescens L.

Sioux City, bottoms (B. W.), Missouri Valley (L. H. P.).
Dalea alopeciiroides Nutt.

Near Lake Okoboji (B. W.), Missouri Valley, Sioux City,
loess mounds; abundant; Hawarden, in open grounds
' (L. H. P.), Hamburg (Hitchcock Bot. Gazette, XIV,
128).
D. laxiflora Pursh.

Sioux City (B. W.). The species is abundant on the loess
mounds about Sioux City, Missouri Valley and Turin,
producing a long and thick root. Hamburg (Hitch-
cock, Bot. Gazette, XIV, 128).
Petalostemon violaceus Michx.

Sioux City abundant on loess hills (B. W., L. H. P.); Hull
(W. Newell); South Dakota opposite Hawarden dry
hills (L. H. P.); Logan (L. H. P.); Battle Creek (E. G.
Preston); Little Rock (C. R. Ball); Council Bluffs dry
hills (L. H. P.); Missouri Valley, Turin, loess hills (L.
H. P.). On loess mounds, usually with shorter heads
than commonly found on prairies.
P. candidus Michx.

Sioux City, hills loess abundant; L. H. P. South Dakota
opposite Hawarden (L. H. P.); Hull.(W. Newell); Bat-
tle Creek (E. G. Preston); Little Rock (Herb. C. R.
Ball;) Council Bluffs, Turin, Missouri Valley, on loess
mounds, shorter heads and smaller plants than com-
monly found on prairies.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 117

Bobinia Pseudacacia L.

Sioux City, an escape from cultivation (B. W.).
Astragalus caryocarpus Ker.

Sioux City (B. W.).
A. Canadensis L

Sioux City (B. W.).
A. lotifioris Hijok var. brachypus Gray.

Hamburg, Hitchcock, Bot Gaz-tte XIV, 128.
Oxytropis Lainboil Pursh.

Soiux City (B. W.). Specimens in fruit were found near
Tarin and Missouri Valley on loess mounds (L. H.
P.). Produces a perennial root several feet in
length, frequently exposed where soil has washed
away. Miss Vv^'akefield finds the form with violet
colored flowers more common than the white. Ham-
burg (Hitchcock, Bot. Gazette, XIV, 128).
Glycyrrhiza lepidota Nutt.

Sioux City (B. W.); Turin, Missouri Valley, along railroads,
and border of hills common, Logan, Council Bluffs (L.
H. P.). Hull (W. Newell); Little Rock (C. R. Bali).
Desmodhan Canadense D. C.

Hull (W. NeweJl).
D. canescens D. C.

Sioux City, bottom (L. H. P.).
Apios iuberosa Moench.

Smiihland, low grounds (B. W.).
Strophostyles anr/ulosa Ell.

Sou^h Dakota, opposite Hawarden, flood plain of B'g Sioux
river (L. H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.).
AmpjJiicarjm'a monoica Nntt.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Cassia^ Chamcecrisfa L.

Missouri Valley, loess hills abundant (L. H. P.); Sioux
City (B. W. and L. H. P.); South Dakota, opposite
Ha warden (L. H. P.); Battle Creek (E. G. Preston).
Gymnocladus Canadensis Lam.

Sioux City (B. W.), abundant at the mou'h of the Big
Sioux river, in alluvial soil, base of hills (L. H. P.).
GleditscJtia triacantJws L.

Sioux City, abundant along the river (B. W.).
Desinantlms bradnjlobvs Benth.
Spirit Lake (B. W.).

118 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

ROSACE.K.

Prunus Americana Marshall.

Council Bluffs, loess in valleys between mounds. South
Dakota, opposibe Hawarden formiog thickets at the base
of hills (L. H. P.), Sloux City (B. W.) the species forms
dense thickets in western Iowa, fruit small.
P. Virginiana L.

Logan, in valleys betiveen hills. Sioux City (B. W); the
species occurs in thickets mostly small shrubs.
Ruhus strigosus Michx.

Sioux City, rare (B. W.).
P. occidoifaUs L.

Sioux City, not common (B. W.).
Geum alburn Gmelin.

Logan, in woods (L. H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.).
Fragaria Virginiana Mill. var. lUinoensis Gray.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Potentilla arguta Pursh.

Hull (W. Newell); Battle Creek, (E. G. Prestonj; Little
Rock, (Herb. C. R. Ball); Sioux City (B. W.). Tne
species is frequent in dry places ia wastern Iowa, loess
mounds.
P. Norveglca L.

Hull (W. Newellj; Little Rock (C. R. Bill); Rock Valley,
(J. F. Jensen and W. Newell); Sioux City (B. W.).
Var. millelegrana Watson.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Rosa Arkansana Porter.
Hull (M. Newell).

SAXIFRAGACE.E.

HeucJiera liispkla Pursh.
Sioux City (B. W.).
Ribes gracile Michx.

Sioux City, in woods (B. W.) C juncil Bluffs, loess in woods
(L. H. P.).
R. floridum L'Her.

Sioux City, in woods (L. H. P.); South Dakota, opposite
Hawarden in woods, valleys and between hills.

CRASSULACEyE.

Penthorum sedoldes L.

Hull (W. Ntwell); Sioux City (B. W.).

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 119

ONAGRACEAE.

Oenothera blenniH L.

Hull (W. Newell); Battle Creek (E. G. Preston); Little
Rock (C. R. Ball); Council Bluffs (L. H. P.). A weed
in streets and waste places, and fields abundant
throughout western Iowa.
0. serrulata Nutt.

Sioux City (B. W.); Bittle Creek (E. G. Preston); Little
Rock (C. R. Ball); Hull (VV. Newell). Praries and loess
mounds abundant.
Gaura ixirviflora Dougl.

Sioux City, base of mounds (B. W.); Missouri Valley (L.
H. P.). It is spreading eastward, occurring in meadows
and fields.
G. coccinea Nutt.

Sioux City (B. W.) Missouri Valley, Turin top of loess
mounds, common (L. H. P.); Hamburg (Hitchcock,
Bot. Gazette XIV, 128).

LOASACE.^.

Mentzelia ornata Torr. & Gray.

Sioux City on sandy and rocky bluffs along the Big Sioux
river. Cedar Bluffs, abundant in that locality (B. W.).

CUCURBITACEyE.

EcMnocystis lobata Torr & Gray.

Turin, low ground along streams (L. H. P.).

CATACEyE.

Opuntia Eqfinesquii Eaglem.
Lyon county (B. W.).

UMBELLIPER^.

Heracleum lanaturn Michx.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Pastinaca sativa L.

A roadside weed. Council Bluffs, Sioux City (L. H. P.).
Cryptotania Canadensis D. C.

Sioux City (B.W.).
Zizia aurea Koch.

Sioux City (B.W.).
Gicuta macula ta L.

South Dakota opposite Hawarden (L. H. P.); Sioux City
(B. W.)

120 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIE.NTCES.

OsmorrJiiza hrcvistyUs D. C.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Eryngium yuccaefuUinn Michx.

Cherokee (B. W.)-

CAPRIFOLIACEyE.

Triosteinn 2)crfoliatum L.

Cherokee Co., Sioux City (B. W.)
Sainbucus Canadensis L.
Sioux City (B. W.).
Sympho7'icar2)os occidentaUs Hook.

Sioux City, base of mounds; abundant (L. H, P. and B. W.);
South Dakota, opposite Hawarden (L H. P.); Battle
Creek (E. G. Preston); Rock Valley (W. Newell and
J. F. Jensen); Little Rock (C. R. Ball); Council Bluffs,
Missouri Valley, Turin, base of loess mounds; abun-
dant (L. H. P.).

RUBIACE^.

Houstonia angustijiolla Michx.

Logan, hills; Council Blaffs, Missouri Valley, loess mounds
(L. H. P.); Smithland (B. W.), common everywhere on
the hills.
Galium Aparine L.

Sioux City (B. W.).

COMPOSITyE.

Vernonia faskulafa Michx.

Hawarden, Missouri Valley, Turin, low grounds (L. H. P.);
Sioux City (B. W.).
V. Noveboracensis Willd.

Missouri Valley, Council Bluffs, loess mounds near base
(L. H. P.).
Eupatorium purpureum L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
E. serotinum Michx.

Sioux City, Big Sioux bottom; not common (L. H. P.).
E. perfoliatum L.

Missouri Valley, low grounds (L. H. P), Sioux City (B. W.).
E. ageratoides L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Onawa, in woods and low grounds
(L. H. P.).

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 121

Kuhnia eupatoriodes L.

Missouri Valley, Turin, loess mounds; Sioux City, loess
mounds (B. W. and L. H. P.); Alton, prairies; South
Dakota, opposite Hawarden (L. H. P.).
Liatris ininctata Hook.

Missouri Valley, loess mounds (L. H. P.); Sioux City
(B. W., L. H. P.); Hitchcock, South Dakota, opposite
Hawarden, hills (L. H. P.).
L. scariosa Willd.

Alton, prairies. South Dakota, opposite Hawarden (L.
H. P.).
Grindelia squarrosa Dunal.

Smithland (J. M. Wrapp), Sioux City, Hawarden, alluvial
plain. Big Sioux river, abundant (L. H. P.); Battle
Creek (E. G. Preston); Little Rock (Herb. C. K. Ball).
Sioux City (Hitchcock, Bat. Gazette, XIV, 128).
Aplopappus fipinidosus D. C.

Missouri Valley, Turin, Sioux City, tops of loess mounds,
found in dense patches (L. H. P., B. W., Hitchcock,
Bot. Gazette, XIV, 128).
Solklago speciosa Nutt.

Turin low grounds, border of woods (L. H. P.); Sioux City,
base of hills (B. W.).
S. Missouriensis Nutt.

Turin, Missouri Valley, loess mounds common (L. H. P.).
;S^. serotina Ait.

Sioux City (B. W.).
S. rupestris Raf.

Sioux City, loess mounds (L. H. P.).
S. Canadensis L.

Sioux City, border of woods, thickets, roadsides, fences,
pastures, abundant (L. H. P. B. W.); Onawa, Turin
(L. H. P.).
S. rigida L.

Turin, loess hills (L. H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.),
JBoUonia asteroides L'Her.

Missouri Valley, Turin, low bottoms, common (L. H. P.);
Sioux City (B. W.).
Aster oUongifolius Nutt.

Turin, very abundant over loess mounds; South Dakota,
opposite Hawarden, abundant all over low hills (L. H.
P.); Sioux City, low mounds, common (B W., L. H. P.).

122 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

A. Nov(c-Ang/i(v L.

Turin, borders of woods, common; South Dakota, opposite
Hawarden, few specimens near spring (L. H. P.);
Sir ux City (B. W.).
A. sericeus Vent.

Sioux Rapids, prairies, Turin, Missouri Valley, abundant
over loess mounds (L, H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.).
A. sagittifolius Willd.

Turin, low grounds (L. H. P.).
A. ericoides L.

Turin, low grounds (L. H. P.).
A. multiflorus Ait.

Missouri Valley, open places, woods (L. H. P.); Sioux
City (B. W.).
A. ixmindatus Lam.

Sioux City, bottoms (L. H. P.); A. ptarmicoides, Torr. &
Gray. Little Rock, prairies (Herb. C. R. Ball).
Erigeron Canadensis L.

Sloux City (B. W.); a weed in fields and pastures through-
out western Iowa (L. H. P. observations).
E. strigosus Muhl.

Rock Valley (W. Newell, J. P. Jensen); Little Rock,
prairies (Herb. C. R. Ball).
E. Pliiladelplikiis L.

Hull (W. Newell); Sioux City (B. W.).
Antennaria j)lantaginifolia. Hook.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Silphhim laciniatuin L.

Council Bluffs, common around loess mounds (L. H P.);
Sioux City (B. W.).
S. iJerfoliatum L. •

Sioux City (B. W.).
Iva xanthufolia Nutt.

Sioux City (B. W., L. H. P.): Onawa L. H. P.); Smith-
land (J. M. Wrapp). An extremely abundant weed
everywhere in western Iowa, growing luxuriantly ten
to twelve feet high in streets, vacant lots, dooryards,
and around neglected buildings, etc.
Ambrosia trijida L.

Smithland (J. M. Wrapp); Sioux City (B. W.). A common
weed aiong creeks and river courses in western Iowa
(L H. P.).

lOVv'A ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 123

A. artemisiaefolia L.

Alton, Turin (L H P.); Sioux City (B. W.). A common
weed in cultivated fields, pastures, meadows, along
roadsides, vacant lots, and railroads.
A. 2)silostachya DC.

Council Bluffs, common weed along creeks and river
courses in western Iowa (L. H. P.).
Xanthium Ccmadense Mill.

Sioux City, Turin (L. H. P.). In alluvial soil very abun-
dant and weedy. South Dakota, opposite Hawarden,
bottoms of Big Sioux river (L. H P.).
Heliojjsis scabra Dunal.

Sioux City (B. W.); Hull (W. Newell); Battle Creek, in
woods (E. G. Preston); Little Rock (Herb. C. R. Ball).
Echinacea angustifoUa DC.

Sioux City (B. W.); Hull (W. Newell); Battle Creek,
abundant prairies (E. G. Preston); Council Bluffs,
Logan (L. H. P ); Little Rock (Herb , C. R. Ball).
Ruclbeclda lacin'tata L.

South Dakota, opposite Hawarden in w^oods abundant (L.
H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.).
R. triloba L.

Onawa, low grounds, common (L. H. P.)
R. Jiirta L.

Sioux City (B. W.) Little R^ck (Herb. C. R. Ball ).
Lepachys jnnnata Torr. & Gray.

Sioux City (B. W.) Council Bluffs (L. H. P.).
Helianthus annuus L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Hawarden (L. H. P.); Ouawa, Mis-
souri Valley, (L. H. P.). A common weed everywhere
in western Iowa, flood plains, Missouri and Big Sioux
rivers, streets and dooryards. (L. H. P.).
H. rigidus Desf.

Hawarden (L H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.).
H. grosse-serratus Martens.

Sioux City, abundant in alluvial bottoms of Missouri river,
and along river courses, creeks (L. H. P., B. W.); Onawa,
Turin. One of the most conspicuous plants iu September.
E. Maximiliani Schrad.

Sioux City, Loess hills along the Missouri and Big Sioux
rivers. Alton, Sioux Rapids, Hawarden, occasionally in
alluvial bottoms at Whiting; also observed near Brad-
gate further east (L. H. P.).

124 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

H. tuhero.nts L.

Sioux City, between loess mouads, common, Hawarden,
Big Sioux bottom, common (L. H. P.).
Coreposis palmata Nutt,

Sioux City (B. W.); Hull (W. Newell); Bitfle Creek (E. G.
Preston); Little Rock (Herb. C. R. Bill).
Bidens frondosa L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
B. chrysanthemoides Michx.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Helenium autumnale L.

Missouri Valley, low grounds, common (L. H. P.) Sioux

City (B. W.).
Dysodia chrysanthemoides Lag.

Sioux City, hills, waste places, streets, along roadsides
abundant (L. H. P., B. W.); Turin (L. H. P.).
Antliemis Cotula D. C.

Sioux City (B. W.); Little' Rock (0. R. Bill).
Achillea millefolium L.

S.oux Ctty (B. W.); Battle Creek, pastures (B. G. Preston);
Little Rock (C. R. Ball.).
Crysanthemum Leucanthemum L.

Sioux City; escaped from cultivation (B. W.).
Artemisia Canadensis Michx.

Sioux City (B, W., L. H. P.); South Dakota, opposite Haj:-
warden (L. H. P.).
A. Ludoviciana Nutt.

Sioux City (L. H. P.).
A. Jjiennis Willd.

Sioux City (B. W ).
Seriecio aureus L.

Sioux City (B. W.)
Cacalia tuberosa Nutt.

Council Bluffs (L. H. P.); Smithland (B. W.).
Arctium Lappa L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Cnicus undulatus Gray.

Sioux City, lower parts of loess mounds; abundant in places
(L. H. P.).
C. altissimus Willd. var. ^/jlipendulus Gray.

Has been sent to me from western Iowa — Rathven (D. Cha-
pin); Sioux City (L. H. P. ; Hitchcock Bot. Gazette, XIV,

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 125

129). This approaches C. undulatus. Miss Wakefield's
C. undulatus, from Sioux City, is referable to this
variety.
Var. discolor Gray,

Sioux City (B. W.).
G. arvensis Hoffm.

Maple River Junction (Bernholtz).
Krigia Dandelion Nutt.

Sioux City (B.W.).
Lygodesm ia Juncea Don.

Sioux City, loess mounds very abundant (L. H. P.); Logan,
Missouri Valley, Turin (L. H. P.); Hull, weedy (James
C. Watson); Little Rock, weedy (C. R. Ball); Battle
Creek, roadsides, weedy (E. G. Preston). Very abun-
dant tops and sides of mounds. In August and Septem-
ber most of the plants are affected with galls.
Taraxacum officinale Weber.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Lactuca Scariola L.

Missouri Valley (L. H. P.). Common in streets of Council
Bluffs, Onawa, Turin (L. H. P. observations).
L. Canadensis L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
L. integrifolia Bigel.

LakeOkoboji (B. W.).
L. pulchella Bigel.

Sioux City, base of loess mounds and in streets (B. W.,
L. H. P.).

LOBELIACE^.

Lobelia sypldlitica L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
L. spicata Lam.

Rock Valley (C. R. Ball), Sioux City (B. W.).

CAMPANULACE.E.
Campanula Americana L.

Sioux City (B. W.), Hull (W. Newell).

ERICACE.*:.
Monotropa uniflora L.

Smithland, in rich woods (B. W.).

PRIMULACEtE.

Steironema ciliatuni Raf.

Rock Valley (J. Jensen and W. Newell), Sioux City (B. W.).

126 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

S. kmceolatum Gray.

Little Rock (C. R. Ball).

APOCYNACE^.
Apocynum cannnbinum L.

Little Rock (C. R. Ball), Sioux City (B. W.).

ASCLEPIADACE.E.

Asclepias tuberosa L.

Hull (W. Newell), Sioux City (B. W.).
A. incarnata L.

Hull (W. Newell), Sioux City (B. W.).
A. Cornuti Decaisne.

Sioux City (B. W.), Little Rock (C. R. Ball).
A. ovalifoUa Decaisne.

Sioux City (B. W.).
A. verticiUata L.

Sioux City, loess mounds, common in open places (B. W.,
L. H. P.); South Dakota, opposite Ha warden, hills;
Turin, Missouri Valley (L. H. P.); Rock Valley (J. P.
Jensen and W. Newell).
Acerates virdiflora Ell.

Little Rock (C. R. B.ill).

GENTIANACE.'E.

Genticma jniberula Michx.

Sicux City, grassy low lands and hills; not common
(B. W.).
G. Andrcicsit Griseb.

Sioux City, meadows of Missouri river bottom (B. W.).

POLEMONIACE/E.

Phlox 'pilosa L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Little Rock (C. R. Bill).
P. divaricata L.

Sioux City, in rich woods (B. W.).
Polemonium repfans L.

Cherokee, in rich woods (B. W.).

BORRAGINACE.-E.

Echinospermum Yirfjiri icuin Lehm.

Sioux City, woods, along streets and roadsides (B. W.).
Lithospermum canescens Lehm.

Sioux City, prairies, and loess mounds (B. W.)
L. angustifolium Michx.

Sioux Ciiy, prairie and l:ess mounds (B. W.).

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 127

Onosmodium CaroUnanum D. C. var. molle, Gray.

Sioux City, prairies and common on loess mounds (B. W.);
Little Rock (C. R. Ball); Council Bluffs, loess woods,
South Dakota opposite Hawarden, border cf woods,
hills (L. H. P.).

CONVOLVULACE^.

Convolvulus sepium L.

Sioux City (B. B.); a common weed in jfields, and pastures,
gardens and meadows (L. H. P. observations).
Cuscuta glomerata Choisy.

Sioux City on Heilanthus, Solidago, common (B. W.),

SOLANACE.^.

Solamnn nigrum L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
S. Carolinense L.

Introduced; Mapleton (Abjah Lamb); Logan, along road-
sides. Council Bluffs in streets (L. H. P.).
S. rost ration Dunal.

Woodbine; South Dakota, opposite Hawarden (L. H. P.).
Physalis 2n(l>escens L.

• Sioux City B. W.); A very common weed in neglected yards
Missouri Valley, Council Bluffs, Onawa (L. H. P. observations).

SCROPHULARIACE.E.

Scropliularia nodosa L. var. MarUandica Gray.

Sioux City (B. W.); Little Rock (C. R. Ball).
Pentstemon grandijiorus Nutt.

Sioux City, common on the sides of the loess mouDds (L.
H. P., B. W.).
Minmlus ring ens L.

Sioux City in low grounds (B. W.).
Ilysanthes riparia Raf.

Sioux City, low grounds and muddy places (B. W.);
Hawarden (L. H. P.); Hull (W. Newell).
Veronica Virginica L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Hull (W. Newell); Little Rock (C. R.
Ball).
Gerardia aspera Dougl.

Sioux City, common on sides and tops of loess mounds (L.
H. P.).
G. tenuifolia Vahl.

Missouri Valley, loess mounds (L. H. P.).

128 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Castilleia sessil'tjlora Parsh.

Sioux City, abundant on loess mounds (B. W.).

LENTIBULARIACE.E.

Utricularia vulgaris L.
Hull (W. Newell).

PEDALIACE.E.

Martynki i^roboscidea Glox.

Missouri Valley, in fields, base of hills (L. H. P.).

VERBENACE.-E.

Verbena urtica'folia L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Hall (W. Newell); Turin, Missouri Val-
ley, low grounds (L. H. P.).
V. Jiastata L.

Sioux City, fields and low ground (B. W.); Hull (W. Newell).
V. stricta Vent.

Sioux City, base of loess mounds, prairies and fields,
abundant (B. W.); Battle Creek (E. G. Preston); Little
Rock (C. K. Ball); Turin, Missouri Valley (L. H. P.).
Plirynia leptostachya L.
'siouxCity (B. W.).

LABIAT.E.

Teucrium Canadense L.

Sioux City, low grounds, abundant (B. W.); Council Bluffs,
abundant (L. H. P.).
Mentha Canadensis L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Hull (W. Newell); Little Rock, low
grounds (C. R. Ball).
Lycojnts sinutus Ell.

Sioux City (B. W.); Hull, low grounds (W. Newell).
L. Virginicus L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Hedeoma Jiispida, Pursh.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Pijcnantliemum lanceolatiun Pursh.

Spirit Lake (B. W.).
Salvia lanceolata Willd.

Council Bluffs (L. H. P. observations).
Monarda Jistulosa L.

Logan, prairies and borders of woods (L. H. P.).
LophantJius scrophularia'folius Benth.

Sioux City (B. W.).

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 129

Nepeta Cataria L.

Sioux City (B. W.). A common weed in western Iowa
(L. H. P.).
Scutellaria lateriflora L.

Turin, rich, low woods near stream (L. H. P.); Sioux City
(B. W.).
S. parvula Michx.

Little Rock (C. R. Ball); Sioux City (B. W.).
Plujsostegia Virginiana Benth.

Sioux City, low grounds (B. W.)-
Stacliys imlustris L.

Sioux City, low grounds (B. W.); Rock Valley (J. Jensen,
W. Newell).

PLANTAGINACE.E.

Plantago major L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
P. Patagonica Jacq., var. gnapJialioides Gray.

Rock Valley (J. Jensen, W. Newell).

NYCTAGJNACEyE.

Oxyhaplms liirsutus Sweet.

Hull (W. Newell); Sioux City, common along roadsides and
fields (B. W.); Little Rock (C. R. Ball).
0. angustifolms Sweet.

Sioux City, loess hills near top (L. H. P.).

amarantace^.
A. retroflexus L.

A common weed everywhere in western Iowa (L. H. P.);
Sioi^x City (B. W.).
A. albiLS L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Onawa, Turin, a common weed (L. H. P.).
A. blitoides Watson.

Sioux City, loess mounds in open places (L. H. P.).
Acnida tubercidata Mcq.

Onawa, common weed in cultivated ground (L. H. P.).

CHENOPODIACE^.

Onawa, Turin, Des Moines (L. H. P.); Smithland (J. M.

Wrapp); Sioux City (B. W.).
G. urbicum L.

Onawa, Missouri Valley, Turin near stables and houses

(L. H. P.).

130 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

G. Jiyhrklum L.

Missouri Valley, Turin, Onawa (L. H P.); Sioux City (B.
W.), a common weed in waste places.
Salsola Kali L., var. tragus Mcq.

Onawa, Sioux City, Missouri Valley, Ha war den, Council
Bluffs (L. H.P.), spreading rapidly.

POLYGONACSAE.

Rumex vertkillatus L.

Missouri Valley, in swamps, common (L. H. P.).
R. crispus L.

Council Bluffs, weed in streets (L. H. P. observations).
B. maritimum L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Little Rock (C. R. Ball), in low
grounds.
R. Acetosella L.

Missouri Valley, Turin, weedy in yards and fields (L. H. P.).
Polygonum avicula,re L.

Sioux City (B. W.); Ha warden, weed in yard, (L. H. P.);
Missouri Valley.
P. erectum L.

Missouri Valley, common weed in streets (L. H. P).
P. ramosissimum Michx.

Missouri Valley, Sioux City, L. H. P., B. W.) Hawarden
(L. H. P.).
P. la2)athifoUum Li. , var. incarnatumW a,t5on.

Sioux City, (B. W.); Turin, low grounds (L. H. P.).
P. Pennsijlvanicum L.

Logan, Turin, Onawa, Missouri Valley, low grounds, (L.
H. P.); Hull (N. Newell).
P. MuJilenbergii Watson.

Sioux City (B. W.), common along the Missouri river
(L. H. P.).
P. Persicaria L.

Hull (W. Newell); Sioux City (B. W.).
P. orientale L.

Missouri Valley, an escape from cultivation (L. H. P.).
P. acre HBK.

Hull (W. Newell).
P. Virginianum L.

Sioux City (B. W).
P. Convolvulus L.

Sioux City (B. W.), Hull (W. Newell).

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 131

P. dumetorum L., var. scandens Gray.
Sioux City (B. W.).

ARISTOLOCHIAGE.E.

Asarum Canadense L.
Cherokee (B. W.).

EL.^^AGNACE^.

Shepherdia argentea Nutt.

Sioux City, sandy banks of Missouri river (B. Yf. , L. H.
P., Hitchcock, Bot. Gazette, XIV, 128).

EUPHORBIACE.E.

EuphorMa maculata L.

Missouri Valley, Des Moines, Turin and Onawa; w^ste
places and along railroad (L. H. P.).
E. hypericifolia.

Onawa (L. H. P.), Sioux City (B. W.).
E. marginata Pursh.

South Dakota, opposite Hawarden. hills, Missouii Valley,
Turin and in waste places (L. H. P.), Hull (W. Newell),
Council Bluffs (L. H. P.), Sioux City (B. W., L. H. P.).
E. coroUata L.

Missouri Valley (L. H. P.), Sioux City (B. W.).
E. serpens H. B. K.

Missouri Valley, low grounds (L. H. P.).
E. serpijllifolia Pers.

Turin (L. H. P.). Sioux City (B. W.).
Var. consanguinea.

Oaawa, Turin (L. H. P.).
E. glyptosperma Engelm.

Missouri Valley (L. H. P.).
Var. imbescens.

Turin (L. H. P.).
E. hexagona Nuit.

Missouri Valley (L. H. P.), Sioux City (B. W.).
E. Geyeri'En.gelm..

Missouri Valley (L. H. P.)
E. heterophylla L.

Sioux City, in woods, Council Bluffs (L. H. P.); Sioux City
(B. W ).
E. obtusata Push.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Acalyplia Virginica L.

Sioux City (B. W.)

132 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

URTICACE.E.
Ulmus fulva Micbx.

Sioux City, in valleys between loess mounds (B. W., L. H
P.); South Dakota opposite Hawarden.
U. Americana L.

Sioux City, along the Big Sioux river and Missouri river
(B. W., L. H. P.).
Celtis occidentalis L.

Sioux City, along Missouri and Big Sioux rivers (L. H. P.).
Cannabis sativa L.

Missouri Valley (L. H. P. observations); Sioux City
(B. W.).
Humulus Lupulus L.

Sioux City (B. W.)-
Urtica gracilis Ait.

Sioux City (B. W.); Little Rock (Herb. C. R. Ball.).
Laportea Canadensis Gaudichaud.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Pilea pumila Gray.

Logan (L. H. P.)
Parietaria Pennsylvanica Muhl.
Turin (L. H. P.).

JUGLANDACE.E.
Juglans nigra L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Carya oUvceformis Nutt.

Sioux City (Hitchcock) ; this is further north than it occurs
elsewhere in this state.
C. amara Nutt.

Smithland (B. W.).

CUPULIFER.^.
Corylus Americana Walt.

Sioux City (B.W.).
Ostrya Virginica Willd.

Council Bluffs, in woods, back of steep mounds (L. H. P.);

Logan (L. H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.).
Quercus macrocarpa Michx.

Council Bluffs (L. H. P.).
Var. oUvceformis Gray.

Sioux City, sides of bluffs (L. H. P., B. W.)
Q. rubra L.

Sioux City (B. W.).

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 133

SALICACE^.

Salix humilis Marsh.

Sioux City, common on prairies and at base of loess mounds
(L. H. P.).
S. longifolia Muhl.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Populus monilifera Ait.

Missouri Valley, in bottoms near streams, in swales between
loess mounds; occasionally near top of mound. Com-
mon (L. H. P.), South Dakota, opposite Hawarden
(L. H. P.); Sioux City (B. W.).

CERATOPHYLLACE^.

CeratopTnjllum demersum L.
Sioux City (B.W.).

CONIFERS.
Juniperus Virginiana L.
Sioux City (B. W.).

ORCHIDACE.'E.

OrcMs spectcibilis L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Hcibenaria leucopJicea Gray.

Cherokee (B. W.).
Sjjiranthes ceriMci Richard.

Smithland (B. W.).
Cypripeclium ])ubescens Willd.

Caerokee, Smithland (B. W.).

IRDIACE^.
Iris versicolor L.

Sioux City (B. W.).

LILIACE.E.

Smilax herbacea D.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Allium stellatum Fras.

Alton, common on prairies (L, H. P.).
A. Ganaclense Kalm.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Yucca angustifolia Parsh.

Council Bluffs, Missouri Valley, Sioux City, Turin (L. H.
P.); near top of loess, mounds common. South, north
and west sides. Many seeds produced. Not all the plants
which fl.)wer produce seeds — many empty stalks were
found. It is a significant fact that this species does

134 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

not occur on the east slopes of the mounds, perhaps
because they are more or less wooded about Council
Bluffs and Missouri Valley. Sioux City (B. W.), Hitch-
cock Bot. Gazette, XIV, p. 128.
Polygonatum giganteum Dietr.

Sioux City (B. W., L. H. P. observations). Deep rich
woods.
Smilacina sfeUata .Desf.
Sioux City (B. W.).
Uvularia grancUflora Smith.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Erythronium albidum Nutt.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Lilium Philadelphicum L.

Little Rock (Herb., C. R. Ball).
L. Canadense L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Trillium nivale Riddell.
Cherokee (B. W.).
Zygadenus elegans Pursh.

Little Rock (Herb., C. R. Ball).

COMMELINACE^.

Tradescantia Virginica L.

Sioux City (B. W.).

JUNCACE.E.

Juncus tenuis Willd.

Sioux City (B. W., L. H. P. observations).
J. nodosus.

Sioux City (B. W.).

TYPHACE^.
TypUa latifolia L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
SjKirganium eurycarpum Engelm.

ARACE.E.

Dickinson Cj. (Hitchcock); Hull (W. Newell).
Arisaema tripyldlum Torr.
Sioux City (B. W.).

ALISMACE^.

Alisma plantago L.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Echinodorus rostratus Nutt.

Sioux City, Big Sioux river (L. H. P.).

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 135

NAIADACE^.

Potamogeton natans L.

Lake Okoboji (Hitchcock).
P. lonchites Tuck.

Spirit Lake (HUchcock).
P. praelongus Wulf.

Clear Lake (Hitchcock).
P. 2ierfoliafi(s L. var. Bidiardsonii, Bennett.

Lake Okoboji and Spirit Lake (Hitchcock).
P. zosterifoUus Schum.

Lake Okoboji (Hitclicock).
P. mucronatus Schrad.

Spirit Lake (Hitchcock).
P. 2^ectinatus L.

Woodbine (Burgess); Lake Okoboji (Hitchcock)

CYPERACEAE.

Oyperus diandrus Torr.

Near Lake Okoboji (B. W.).
C ScJiweinitzii Torr.

Lake Okoboji (B. W.).
Eleocliarls acicularis R. Br.

Sioux City (B. W.;L. H. P.).
Scirims lacustris 'Li.

Council Bluffs (L. H. P. observations); Sioux City (B. W.).
S. atrovirens Muhl.

Sioux City (B. W.).
Species of Carex numerous, but omitted bec3i.us9 they have
not been studied critically. There are also a large nuoaber of
grasses, localities and species will appear in another connection.

SOME NOTES ON CHROMOGENIC BACTERIA.

L. H. PAMMEL AND ROBERT COMBS.

Quite a large list of chromogenic bacteria are kaowu to
bacteriologists. Many of these are familiar objects ia bacteri-
ological laboratcvries. Of the early works describing these in
this country we may mention Sternberg and Trelease. For
later works on North American chromogenic bacteria we must
refer to Sternberg, Jordan and the numerous text books dealing
with pathogenic species.

13G IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Very few attempts have been made to study our local bac-
teriological floras. It is indeed a very diffi3ult matter.

The following works describe Chromogenes:

Saccardo: Sylloge Fungorum VIII.

Sternberg: Manuil of Bicteriology. 1892.

Trelease: Ooservations on several Zoogloea (Studies Biol.
Lab. of the Johns Hopkins University). 1885.

P. & G. C. Frankland: Micro-organisms in Water. 1894.

Adametz: Die Bakterien der Trink-und Naizwasser. Mitth.
der Oaster Versuohstation fur Brauerei-und Maizerei in Wien,
1888. Heft 1.

Jordan: A report on certain spacies ol bacteria observed in
sewage. Rep. Mass. State B jard^of Health, 1883-1890, plate II.

Eisenberg: Bakteriologiscae Diagnostik. 1888.

Welz : Bakteriologisch^ Untersuchnyer der Freiburger Luf fc,
Zairitschrift fur Hygiene XI, p. 121.

No attempt will be made to give description of common
species found here at Ames, simply a record of their occurrence
including some laboratory observations.

Micrococcus cyanogenus. N. SP.

Source. — During the latter part of May, 1891, a foreign blue
color was observed on an old milk culture of an organism
obtained from cheese; later the same was found in an old milk
culture of Bacillus aromaticus. A transfer from the first milk
tube was made to another tabe of sterilized milk, the typical
color appearing in three or four days. The organism was sep-
arated by pouring plates of agar.

Morphology. — A small micrococcus occurring singly or in
groups; motility not determined. An aerobic liquefying
micrococcus.

Agar. — Nearly colorless, with a slight tinge of blue, iDroduc-
ing an irregular film on surface, growing at temperature of
room.

Gelatin. — A creamy white layer not spreading on surface,
soon liquefying, forming a funnel-shaped area, later the
medium was liqueflad with a creamy white sediment in the
bottom of the tube.

Milk. — Sterilized milk inoculated produces in three da^j-s a
slight blue layer on surface, which increases in intensity,
becoming quite blue for one-third of an inch on the seventh day.
On the eighth day it appeared rather muddy; on the ninth day
only a faint blue color remained; it coagulated milk with a

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. . 137

blue liquid on top. The curd was dissolved slowly. In twenty-
five days the process was completed, excepting a small portion
in the bottom of the fl isk.

Dunliani s 'peptone solution. — No color produced; > the medium
became cloudy, which was ia no way characteristic. It failed
to grow in Duaham's rosalic acid solution.

Several blue organisms have been described.

Bacillus cyanogenus is a well known inhabitant of milk. This
is a non-liqaefyicg, actively motile bacillus. Has not been
found here at Ames. Gessard has shown that in presence of
an acid it produces an intense blue color, and in milk not
sterilized containing lactic acid germs, a sky blue color is
produced.

Jordan has also described a Bacillus cyanogenus, which is less
motile formiag a deep brown color on potato, but he says
undoubtedly Bacillus cyangenus. Beyerinck^ has also described
a blue organism obtained from cheese, the Bacillus cyaneo-fuscus.
The original paper has not been seen but according to the
description given by Sternberg this is a small bacillus 0.2-0.6
u. long and one half as thick. It is an aerobic liquefying
motile bacillus, and when cultivated in a solution contaiuing
one-half per cent of peptone the culture media acquires at first a
green color, which later changes to blue, brown and black.
Subsequently the color is entirely lost. More recently Wm.
Zangemeister^ has described a biciJus cyaneo-flaorescens.

This species is in many respects similar to Bacillus cyanogenus.

It is however somewhat shorter and very actively motile.

Gelatin is not liquefied and the bright greenish fluorescent
pigment dfliu&es through it.

Oar species also came from cheese and the blue color disap-
pears, but the organism in question never produces a black
color. The species so far as we have been able to determine
is new, and we have therefore given it the name of Micrococcus
cyanogenus.

Staphylococcus pyogenes, Ogston var. aureus Rosenbach.— This,
the most common of the pyogenic micrococci has been found
quite frequently here at Ames. It has at different times been
isolated from ordinary carbuncle, fistula, dirt under the finger
nails, etc. It has been found more commonly in suppurative
abscesses than any other organism. It is pathogenic to mice

^Sternberg: Manual of Bacteriology p. 72".

SKurze Mitteilungen uber Bakterien der-blauen Milch. Centralblatt f. Bakt. u
ParsitcDkunde. Erste Abt., XVIII, p. 321.

138 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

and rats. Old cultures, however, soon loose their virulence.
A culture nine months old failed to cause any lesions in mice,
not even the local formation of pus.

St. pyocjen^s, Ogston var. citreus Passet. — This species has
not been found spontaneously in any of the cases of pus
studied, though it has been cultivated in the laboratory.
It has been included with the pyogenic cocci because of its
occurrence in pus. Passet found the organism in the pus of
an acute abscess and Sternberg* says: "As to its pathogenic
properties, we have no definite information. It is included
amoEg ihe pyogenic bacteria because of occasional presence in
the pus of acute abscesses, although it has heretofore only been
found in association with other micro-organisms." Mice have
been inoculated here at Ames but in no case did fatal sep-
ticEemia follow. We have, however, had no trouble in obtain-
ing pus at tbe point of inoculatioQ under the root of the tail.
From this pus, pure cultures of the organisms were obtained.

St. pyogenes Ogston var., flavescens Trev. — Obtained from the
fistula of a horse by Dr. S. Whitbeck in bacteriological labora-
tory, Iowa Agricultural college. This organism does not
differ from the foregoing in size; in color, however, it is much
paler, being an ochre yellow. It produces fatal septictsmia in
mice when fresh cultures were used, but in this case pure
cultures were not obtained.

Strej)tococcus cinnabareus, Plligge. — Obtained at first from
butter, but probably came either from the air or water. Color
in different media is quite constant, except in blood serum,
where its color is much paler. It grows quite characteristic
on the surface of bouillon, forming spherical masses paler than
in agar or potato. A nearly related species was isolated by
Dr. W. B. Niles from the heart of a diseased steer affected with
corn-stalk disease. It differs from the cinnabarcus in the
change of color. It is dark lemon-yellow at first, and then
changes to a brick-red. This species will be described in
another connection.

Sarcma lutea Schroter. — This well known organism occurs
chiefly in the air. Gelatin and agar i^lates exposed to the air
invariably show this organism. It comes up somewhat more
tardily than the non-chromogenic species. They appear as
small, yellow, spherical colonies. The canary-yellow growth
liquefies gelatin quite slowly. The same organism has been

^Manual of Bacteriology p 273.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 139

obtained frequently from butter and milk, but the organism
undoubtedly came from the air.

S. aurantiaca Fliigge. — This organism is also quite commonly
met, and appears on gelatin and agar plates exposed to the air.

Bacillus Jiuorescem Uqaefaciens Fitigge. — This common inhab-
itant of water also occars on potato, milk and butter. Scarcely
a sample of water can ba plated withouu obtaining this
organism.

B. pyocyaneus Gessard. — This has been obtained several times
from wounds and Dr. S. Whibbeck obtained a pure culture in
open synovial bursa. Inoculation into the peritoneal cavity was
followed by death in forty-eight hours. In old cultures there
is a gradual tendency for the organism to lose its power of
forming coloring matter. Gessard'^ has isolated two pigments a
fluorescent green and a blue, the latter called pycoyanin.

Bacillus prodkjionsus Ebrenberg.— This species is well known
to most bacteriologists. It has loEg attracted attention because
of the red stains produced on potatoes, boiled bread, and the
red color it imparts to milk. According to several investi-
gators this organism is not a native to this country.

The specie? is however, re3ori8d at Ames by Bissey. He
commonly obtained a red organism on sliced potatoes exposed
to the air.

There are of course several red organisms and as the organ-
ism was reported before the era of modern bacteriological
methods I must therefore express some doubt as to the correct
determination of the Bacillus prodigiosus foulid by Bessey.
The senior writer has at various times had cultures of this
organism in the laboratory. Thus we had good growing cul-
tures in 1889, 1892, but all attempts to make old cultures failed.
In 1894 a blood-red colony came up in culture plate. Cultures
of this organism had never been in this laboratory so far as we
know. In the spring we had received from Dr. Irving VV.
Smith, cultures of several species obtained from the laboratory
of Johns Hopkins University. The cultures appeared pure
but they may have been contaminated. The senior writer
observed this organism on one other occasion in the botanical
laboratory of the Shaw School of Botany, St. Louis. Cultures
of B. prodigiosus were obtaiaed from rotting sweet potatoes,
but European cultures were common at the time in the labora-

SGessard. De la pyocyanine et de son Microbe. These de Paris, 1882. Nouvelles
recherches sur la Microbe pyocyanique. Ann. d VInstitut Pasteur. Vol. IV, 1890, p. 89
6Bull. Dept. of Botany, Nov. 1884.

140 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

tory. Professor Trelease thought it probable that the species
came from the E aropean cultures. We are therefore iuclined to
believe wi':h Jordan, Russeli, and others that the species is not
native in this country.

FUNGUS DISEASES OF PLANTS AT AMES, IOWA, 1895.

BY L. H. PAMMEL AND GEO. W. CARVER.

In previous papers record has been made of the abundance
of pirasitic fungi for the years of 1891, 1892, 1893 and 1894.^
We hope to continue these observations for the purpose of
making comparison.

Observations from year to year with climatic conditions
should make it possible to say how much climate modifies the
appearance of disease. Ooservations in a climate like ours are
valuable because of the changeable conditions as to humidity
and rainfall. From the nature of the diseases of plants it is
difficult to make exact statements. We must speak in relative
terms. la 1893 Puccinia gramiriis, P. ruMgo-vera and P. coronata
were very destructive. In 1894 these rusts were not absent,
but they were not destructive; in fact, scarce as compared with
1893.

In the study of diseases of plants the condition of the atmos-
phere with reference to moisture is an important factor. The
universally low humidity of the atmosphere in 1894, no doubt,
largely determined the amount of rust that year. So low
was the humidity that during the growing season dew was an
unusual condition.

We append table, giving rainfall, relative humidity, 7 a. m.
temparature (maximum and minimum), for the months of May,
June, July, August and Saptembar, taken from the records
made at Ames by Dr. J. B. Weems, Mr. W H. Heilemaa.

1 L H. Pammel, Jour. Mycology, VII, p. 93.
Agricultural Science, VII, p. 20.
Pr^c. Iowa Academy of Science, II, p. 201-203

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

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142 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

We have followed Saccardo (Sylloge Fangorum) in the
arrangement of orders, genera and species, and in most cases
have used the syncnomy given by him.

USTILAGINEAE.

Ustilago hypodytes (Schlecfch.) Fr.

Very abundant. On Stipa spartea.
r. tritici (Pers.) Jensen.

Not uncommon and was frequent in 1894 on Triticum vul-
gare.
r. horclei (Pers.) Kellerman and Swingle.

Common on Hordeum vulgare.
r. niida (Jensen) Kellerman imd Swbgle.

Scarce on Hoi deum vulgare.
r. avenue (Pers.) Jensen.

Not uncommon on Avena sativa.
U. segetum (Bull) Dittm.

Common on Arrhenatherum avenaceum.
U. neglecta Niessl.

Abundant on Setaria glauca.
U. Rahenhorsticma Kuhn.

On Panicum sanguinale abundant.
U. matjdls (D. C.) Corda.

Abundant on Zea mays.
U. pustulata Tracy & Earle.

Locally abundant in one place, first time observed on
Panicum proliferum.
TtUetia-strkeformis (Westend.) Magnus.

Not abundant on Pnleum pratense.
T. foelens (B. & C.) Trelease.

Not observed in 1895.
Sdiizonella mekmograuuna (D. C.) Schroet.

Abundant in May, Moingona.
jSorosjJorium syntherisuHe (Schw.) Farlow.

Abundant on Panicum capiliare.
Urocystis Agropyri (Preuss) Schroet.

Abundant in June and early July on Elymus Canadensis.

UREEINE.^.

Uromyces Polygoni (Pers.) Fuckel.

Abundant August aud September on Polygonum aviculare
and P. erectum.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 143

U. Trifolii (Hedw.) Lev.

Abundant in September on Trifolium pratense. This fun-
gus has been increasing in severity, large patches of
second crop of clover being affected.
U. aiypendiculatus (Pers.) Link.

Abundant on Strophostyles angulosa, but not observed
here on Phaseolus vulgaris. At Indianola it was,
however, destructive to the cultivated bean.
TJ. EupJwrbke Cooke & Peck.

Abundant in August and July on Euphorbia maculata and
E. Preslii.
Melampsorafarinosa (Pers.) Schroet.

Abundant on Salix, August and September,
iff. PopuHna (Jacq.) Lev.

Abundant on Populus monilifera, August and September.
Puccinia Helianthi Schw.

Abundant on Heliauthus tuberosus and H. grosse-serratus
July, August and September. In August especially
destructive to cultivated Helianthus annuus.
P. Convolvuli (Pers.) Cast.

Abundant on Convolvulus sepium July, August and Sep-
tember.
Oymnosporanghim macropus Link.

Teleuto stage on Juniperus Virginiana not as abundant as
in 1894; nor was the Eecidium (Roesteiia pyra,ta) so
abundant on Pyrus lowensis. Locally, however, in
Madison county it seriously affected the leaves, stems
and fruit of the wild crab. May was unfavorable for
the germination and development of the teleutospores.
Phragmidion subcorticium (Schrank.) Winter.

Abundant on the leaves of the cultivated rose, as Madam
Charles, Frederick Worth, August and September.
Aecidium Grossiilarke Schum.

Not so common as in 1894 on Ribes Grossulariae, R. gra-
ciie.
Uredo Caeoma-nitens Schw.

(C. inter stitiale, Schlecht and is supposed to be connected
with Paccinia Peckiana.) Abundant on Rubus villosus;
large patches of native blackberry destroyed; seriously
affecting cultivated blackberiy locally. It was also
observed in Story, Polk, Louisa and Henry counties.

144 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

P. G rami n is Pers.

Not common on Triticum vulgare, Avena sativa and
Hordeum jubatum. June and July. Aecidium abun-
dant on Berberis vulgaris May-June. Very destruc-
tive en fall sown oats and wheat. August and Septem-
ber; also Hordeum jubatum.
P. coronata Corda.

Not common on Avena sativa, June and July. Abundant
August and September. Klebahn has recently sepa-
rated another species out of what has passed as this,
until further work in this country, the species is used
here as it is by American authors generally.
P. ruhifjo-vera (D. C.) Wint.

Not common, on wheat June and July. Abundant on fall
sown wheat, Hordeum jubatum, August and September.
Squirrel-tail grass is held in check by this fungus.
P. Sorgld Schw.

Abundant August and September on Zea Mays.
P. emaculata Schw.

Abundant on Panicum capillare August and September.
P, Androjxx/onis Schw.

Not abundant on Andropogon furcatus. A. scoparius,.
August and September.
P. Xanthii Schw.

Abundant on Xanthium Canadense, July, August and Sep-
tember. In low grounds destroyed a large number of
plants.

PERONOSPORACE.^.

Cystopus ccmdidus (Pers.). Lev.

Abundant early in the season on Lepidium intermedium^
L. Virginicum, Capsella bursa-pastoris. Later, oos-
pores abundant in infloresence of Rhaphanus sativa.
C. Tragopogonis (Pers.) Schroet.

Locally abundant in June and early July.
a Portulacce (D. C.) Lev.

Abundant on Portulaca oleracea from the middle of June
to the first of September. Oospores abundant.
a Bliti (Biv.) De By.

Abundant July, August and September on Amarantus albus,
A. retrcflexus. More severe on the latter species.
Sderospora graminicola (Sacc.) Schroet.

Abundant durirg the latter part of May till middle of June>

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 145

destroying large numbers of young plants of Setaria
viridis. In whole iDatches it prevented the maturing
of seeds.
Plasmopara Viticola (B. and C.) B. and DeT.

Abundant. Destructive to cultivated grape (Vitis Labrus-
ca), affecting leaf, stem and fruit. Also affecting the
growing of young shoots of Vitis riparia, in some
cases killing the young shoots.
P. HalsteclLi (Parlow) B. and DeT.

Not common, on Helianthus annuus, H. tuberosus, Silphium
laciniatam, Xanthium Canadense, Centaurea.
Breraia Lactucce Regel.

Not observed although abundant in 1893.
Peronosposa Vic ice (Berk.) DeBy.

Abundant in latter part of May and early June on Vicia
Americana.
P. Arthuri Farlow.

Abundant on Oenothera biennis.
P. parasitica (Pers.) DeBy.

Abundant on leaves and stems of Lepidium intermedia,
L. Virginicum, killing the affected plants. On leaves
of Capsella bursa pastoris not destructive. Brassica
nigra, B. campestris, Raphanus sativa, Draba Carolin-
iana. Sisymbrium officinale seriously affected.
P. Potentilke DeBy.

Not found in 1895. Local in 1894.
P. effusa (Grev) Rabenh.

Abundant on Chenopodium album in May and June.
P. EuphorMce Puck.

Locally abundant on Euphorbia Preslii and E. maculutp.
P. alta Puckel.

Abundant on Plautago major.

PERISPQRIACEAE.
Podosphcera Oxyacanthce (D. C.) De By.

Abundant on cultivated (Prunus Cerasus) and P. pumila.
Not common on P. Americana; also observed on young
shoots of Crataegos punctata, and C. mollis; July,
August and September.
Spcerotheca 2Iali (Duby) Burrill.

Common on suckers of Pyrus Malus and young shoots of
P. toringo in nursery, June, July and early August.
10

146 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

S. MTors-iivae (Schw.) Berk & Curt.

Abundant on Ribes Grossulariae, R. floridum, June, July;
leaves, stem and fruit.
Phyllactinia suffulta (Reb.), Sacc.

Abundant on Fraxinus Americana, August and September.
Uncinula necator (Schw.) Burrill.

Common on Vitis Labrusca, Concord, Worden and especi-
ally Roger hybrids (Agawam).
Microspiicera Aim (D. C ) Wint.

Abundant on Syringa vulgaris, S. Persica, Lonicera, August
and September. Abundant latter part of August and
September.
Erysiplie Cichoracearum D. C.

Very abundant on Helianthus annuus, H. tuberosus. Not
so common on H. grosseserratus. Abundant on Ambro-
sia artemisiaefolia, A. trifida, Artemisia, Ludoviciana;
generally attacked by Cicinnobulus Cesatii. Abundant
on Verbena stricta; less common on V. hastata.
E.. communis (Wallr.) Schl.

Abundant on Rannuculus abortivus and Amphicarpasa
monoica.

SPH^RIACE^.

Physalospora Bidwellii (Ell.) Sacc.
None observed in 1895.

DOTHIDEACE.E.
Phyllachora Graminis (Pers.) Fuck.

Common on Muhlenbergia Mexicana, Elymus Canadensis,
Panicum scoparium Asprella hystrix.
P. TrifolU (Pers.) Fuck.

Abundant, conditial stage on Trifolium pratense, September.
Plowriglitia morhosa (Schw.) Sacc.

Abundant on Prunus domestica, P. Padus, and wild P.
Americana, P. Virginiana and Japan plum.

GYMNOASACE.E.

Exoascus communis Sadebeck.

Rare on Prunus Americana in 1895; abundant on Prunus
Cerasus and P. domestica. Narsery stock defoliated in
August. Not as severe on P. Americana. Also
occurred on P. Mahaleb and P. avium.

HYPHOMYCETE.E-MUCEDINE.-E.

Monilia fructigena Pers.

Abundant late in season on fruit of Prunus Americana.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. I47

DEMATIACE^.

Cladosparium caij^jophilum Thum.

Rare on Prunus Americana, but abundant on Cratsegus
mollis late in August and September.
Helmhitliosiwrium Graminum Rabh.

Nut common oa Hordeum vulgare in July.
Cercospora Resedce Fuck.

Abundant on Reseda odorata in August and September.
C. Bet kola Sacc.

Abundant on Beta vulgaris. (Sugar and mangel beets).
September. In some cases leares completely covered
with cinereous spots.
G. angulata Winter.

Abundant on Ribes rubrum, shrubs nearly defoliated lat-
ter part of July and early August. Fungus appeared
early in May.

SPH^ROPSIDE.E SPH.'EROIDACE^.
Septoria Rubi West.

Abundant on Rubus odoratus, R. canadensis August and
September.
Septoria Eibis Desm.

Abundant on Ribes nigrum, June and September.
Melanconiaceae.
Gijlindrosporium Padi Karst.

Abundant on Cherry.
Marsonia Juglandis Sacc.

Trees of Juglans cinerea nearly defoliated by middle of
August. Not so severe on Juglans nigra.
M. Martini Sacc.

Abundant on Quercus robur; majority of leaves affected;
also occurred on Q. macrocarpa.

BACTEKIAC.^.

Bacillus amylovorus (Barrill) Trev.

Blight more severe than in 1894. Pyrus Mains, P. pruni-
folia, P. Sinensi'*, P. communis and P. lowensis espe-
cially severe on the following varieties of P. Mains:
Yellow Transparent apple, Red Queen-Lead, Arabskoe
Antonovka, Thaler, Oldenburg. It seems, also, to have
been severe in other parts of the state. Fruiting
orchards less affected than nursery stock. It would
seem that the condition of the soil may influence the

148 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

severity of the disease. We should also observe that
flowers are occasionally affected, but not so severe
as in 1894. The disease gradually subsided by the
rciddle of July and early August.
B. Sorgld W. A. Kellerman.

Not severe. It occurred on Andropogon Sorghum var
Halepense and A. Sorghum (Sorghum).
B. doacece (Jordan).

On Zea mays; not abundant.
B. cami^estris Pammel.

Not observed in 1895.

SOME ANATOMICAL STUDIES OF THE LEAVES OP
SPOROBULUS AND PANICUM.

EMMA SIRRINE AND EMMA PAMMEL.

Numerous writers have called attention to the value of
anatomical studies for diagnostic purposes in the recognition of
Phaencgams. We may note in this connection the paper by
Pfisterj, who has made a comparative study of the leaves of
some palms.

The author considers anatomical characters of value because
so many palms are collected without flower or fruit. Bertrand^
in a general paper considers the characters and important
points to be observed in making anatomical studies of this
kind. He notes that we must not lose sight of: 1. Inequalities
in the grouping of subdivisions with the association of higher
groups. 2. The paucity of material of certain forms, many
intermediate species having disappeared ia the lapse of time.
These objections hold with equal truth to the characters now
used in the classincation of Phaenogams. He states that there
are good differential characters in fibro vascular bundle found
in Gymnosperms, vascular cryptogams and Phaencgams, but
the arrargement of the fibro- vascular bundle is of less value.
For the families such characters as the veins of leaf; develop-
ment of stomata; secretion reservoirs; arrangement of inner
phloem; for species the cuticle and trichomes are of value in
diagnosis.

iBeitraege zur verleichenden Anatomic der Sabaleen Blartter. Inaugural Diss. 3
plates, Hofer and Burger (1892) Abst. Bot. Centralblatt, LI, p. 300.

2Des caracteres que I'anatomiue pent founir a classification des vegetaux, pp. 54>
Antun (Dejussieu) 1891, Abst. Bot. Centrablatt Vol. L. p. 375.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. I49

Priemer^ states that peculiar hairs, epidermal cells, crystals
cystoliths are of value for diagnostic purposes in the order
Ulmaceae.

Bordet* has made some anatomical studies of the genus
Carex. He concludes that in this genus anatomical characters
do not offer any material aid in the separation of species.
Although some good characters are found in fibro-vascular
bundles.

Mez, who has made an exhaustive study of cystoliths and
anatomical characters found in the sub-family Cordieae of the
order Borraginaceae, finds that hairs are very characteristic
and are certainly valuable from a systematic standpoint. Nor
should we omit in this connection the valuable paper by Sol-
ereder^ on the value of the wood structure in dicotyledonous
plants, Holle*^ who has made an exhaustive study of the order
Saxifragaceae calls especial attention to the structure of pith
cells of Cunoniece, the characteristic wood cells in certain gen-
era, and crystals in the tribe Eijdrangeae.

K. Leist' who has likewise made a study of Saxifragaceae
concludes that the species of this order offer characters which
makes it easy to separate them into groups, but this grouping
does not always conform to the present systematic position of
its members. Nevertheless general harmony prevails between
morphological and anatomical characters as to species.

Several other authors Christ^ Thouvenin*, Waldner'
and Engler" have likewise studied this order with reference to
diff" :>rent organs and parts.

3Uber seine unter Lietung von Prof.Prantl ausgefuehrteu untersuch ungen uber die
Anatomiue Ulmaceen. Bot. Centralblatt, Vol. L, p. 105.

iRecherches anatomiques sur le genere Carex (Eevue generale de Botanlque, Vol.
Ill, 1891, p. 57-64. Abst. Bot. Centralblatt, Vol. LI, p. 116.

^Dber den systematischen Werth den Holzstructur bsi den Dicotyledonen. R.
Oldenbourg, Muenchen. 1885.

6Be'itraege zur AnatomiederSaxifragaceen und deren Systematische Verwerthung.
Bot. Centralblatt Vol. LIII. p. 33, 65, 97, 129, 161, 209.

7Beitraege der vergleicbenden Anatomie der Saxifragaceen. Bot. Centralblatt Vol.
XLIII. p. 100, 136, 161, 233, 281, 313, 315, 377.

^Beltraege zur vergleicbenden Anatomie des Stengels der Caryopbylleenund Saxi-
frageen. Diss. Marburg, 1887.

sSur I'appareil de soutien dans les tiges des Saxifrages.

"Die Kaldruesen der Saxifrageen. Graz 1887.

lOMonographie der Gattung Saxifraga. Breslau 1872.

Synopsis of North American Pines, based on leaf-anatomy. Bot. Gazette, XI, p.
256, 302; plate VIII.

Die Anatomie der Euphorbiaceen in ihrer Beziebung zum system derselbon. Sepa-
rate Engler's Botamische Jababucber, Vol. V, p. 384-421; plates VI and VII.

150 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Mention should be made of the splendid work of Coulter and
Rose on the anatomical characters found in the leaves of coni-
fers and their value in the recognition of species. A subject
referred to long ago by Dr. George Engelmann. The work of
Pax on the anatomy of Euphorbiaceae, Trecul and others on
the stems of many plants.

It will not be necessary to give other references; the litera-
ture is quite extensive. More work should be done along this
line. We should study the biological relations and the conse-
quent peculiar anatomical structures of plants. It is a field
full of interest. Theo. Holm has called attention to the value
of this kind of work in studying our flora.

Ganong, in a recent paper with reference to biology and
morphology (Present Problems in Anatomy, Morphology and
Biology of Cactacese, Bot. Gazette, Vol. XX, p. 130), says:
"As to the tissues, it is enough here to say that the character-
istic xerophilous appearances are strong cuticle, thick epidermis,
perfect cork, sunken stomata, collenchymatous hypoderma,
deep palisade layers; great development of pith and cortex,
which consists of large, round, splendidly pitted water-storing
cells, often containing mucilage * * * ." The whole sys-
tem conforms closely to the external form and follows its
morphological changes. We notice this especially because the
same thing holds true in other plants outside Cactacece, especi-
ally grasses. Great difference occurs between such plants as
are habituated to humid climates and those occurring in a dry
climate. This offers, indeed, a great field for investigation.

ANATOMICAL STUDY OF GRASSES,

Theo. Holm has done well in calling attention to some ana-
tomical characters of North American Gramineae. In speaking
of the studies which had been made he says: "The impor-
tance of studies of that kind was very clear; they not only fur-
nished additional and often even more reliable systematic char-
acters, but the extended study of anatomy into wider fields than
ever before, until anatomy has become one of the most impor-
tant modern lines of botanical science." He emphasizes the
importance of internal structure, as it will give a striking illus-
tration of the physiological life of the plant. It will not be
necessary here to refer to earlier writers on the subject; suffice

_^oef=iTY or

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. "•^* "^ 151

it to say here that Duval, JouvGu, Hackelj,, GtintZig, Samsoe,
Liind^^ and Bealj, have made valuable contributions.

Theo. Holnijg has studied Uniola latifolia, U. gracilis, U. nit-
ida, U. paniculata and U. Palmeri, Distichlis, Pleurogogon and
Leersia.

From a study of some of the species of Uniola growing under
widely different conditions, he concludes, that of the five spe-
cies, the genus show anatomical structures by which they may
be easily distinguished.

He says of the genus DisticMis, that, "Considered altogether,
the anatomical structure of the leaf in the genus Distichlis is
very uniform, and it does not seem possible to give any
special characters by which either of the varieties or the sup-
posed species thalasica and 'prostata may be distinguished from
the species maritima\ because we have seen that male and
female specimens of this last show variations among them-
selves nearly equivalent with the differences in the two varie-
ties and subspecies." Of Pleuropogon, he says: "Considering
now these three species of Pleuropogon together, it is evident
that they are, in spite of their great similarity, easily distin-
guished from each other" by certain anatomical characters
taken from leaf blade.

THE GENUS SPOROBOLUS.

The species of the genus Sporobolus are nearly all western or
southern. Those occurring in Iowa are characteristic western
plants and well adapted to dry climate conditions. The follow-
ing species of Sporoholus were studied: Sporoliolus Jieterolepis
Gray; S. cryptandrus Gray; S. Hookeri, S. vaginoBjiorus.

SPOROBOLUS HETEROLEPIS.

The epidermal cells (e) are rectangular in shape, with a
strongly developed cuticle (c); they vary but little in size.
The bulliform cells (b) occur between each mestome bundle (m),
except between the last few at the tip of the leaf, where it is
occupied by the streome (st.). The bulliform cells occur in four
or five rows, a large central cell and three or four smaller cells

"HIstotaxie des feuilles de Graminees.
i8MonographiaFestucarum Europaearum, 1883.

13 Untersuchungen ueber die anatomische Structur der Gramineenblaetter, etc.
Inaug. Dissert. Leipzig, 1886.

11 Vejlednlng til at If jende Graesser i biomterlos Tilstand, Kjobenhavn, 1883.

15 Grasses of North America for farmers and students.

16 A study of some anatomical characters of N. America Gramineae. Bot. Gazette,
Vol. xvi. p. 166, 217, 375.

152 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

on each side. The strongly involute character of the leaf is
due to the bulliform cells.

The carene (c') is occupied with one mestome bundle; this
bundle is somewhat different than the others, as it is sur-
rounded on the upper side by chlorophyll bearing parenchyma
while the lower side contains stereome.

The mestome bundles on right and left of carene are entirely
closed (i. e. , entirely surrounded by chlorophyll bearing paren-
chyma). This species is provided with three different types of
mestome bundles; the first occurs in carene; this has stereome
on lower side in contact with leptome; the second, those which
have stereome both on lowir and upper side, in contact with
leptome and hadrome; and third, those that are entirely closed.
Those that are entirely closed occur alternate with those having
stereome on upper and lower surface. As to the mestome
bundles, there are, in this species, five on left side of the carene
and seven on the right side. On the left, the leaf terminates
with one closed mestome bundle. The right side of the leaf
terminates with three mestome bundles. The mestome bundles,
except those at the tip of the leaf, are separated from each
other by the bulliform cells and three or four layers of colorless
parenchyma. The uncolored parenchyma is more conspicuous
near the median nerve, where it is quite strongly developed.
In this species the mesophyll does not occur between the
bundles but is found only in immediate contact with chlorophyll
bearing parenchyma (c b p).

The uncolored parenchyma cells are in immediate contact
with stereome. The mestome bundles are entirely closed and
do not have leptome (1) and hadrome (h) so well developed as
in the other bundles. The leptome in the open bundles (i. e.,
having stereome in contact with both leptome and hadrome)
seem to be in two parts, there being a depression on upper side
of leptome.

The stereome occurs on the upper side of all bundles, and
also on the lower side of all bundles except those which are
entirely closed.

Below the uncolored parenchyma connecting the mestome
bundles we find the stereome. The stereome occupies a prom-
inent place on the sides of the leaf, forming on the left two
triangular groups of cells separated by two layers of uncolored
parenchyma. On the right side three such groups occur
between the last four mestome bundles.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 153

The chlorophyll bearing parenchyma can be divided into
two parts. First, large parenchyma cells surrounding the
bundles; these consist of rather large cells somewhat roundish
in shape; second, elongated cells in one or more rows around
the first.

SPOROBULUS CRYPTANDRUS.

The epidermal cells in this species do not differ from those
described for S. heterolepis. The bulliform cells (b) are some-
what larger than those in the first species, usually two or three
quite large cells and two smaller on each side. One or two
groups of bulliform cells occur between a large ' mestome
bundle, and, as in S. heterolepis, these do not occur between
the last two bundles.

The carene (c^) has one mestome bundle (m) which is open on
both sides. It is somewhat larger than other mestome bundles.
The leptome (1) and hadrome (h) are separated from each other
by thick- walled parenchyma (p^); two rows of thick parenchyma
occur around the leptome.

The mestome bundles are of three types: First, those open
above and below; second, those open above only, and third,
such as are entirely closed. Those of the third type are
more numerous than others. One mestome bundle is
entirely closed and at the side of the leaf, those of the third
type alternate with those of the second and first types. The
second type is more numerous than the first. Ten bundles
occur on each side of the carene. The mestome bundles of the
third type are usually found between two groups of bulliform
cells. The chlorophyll bearing parenchyma (c. b. p.) is about
as in S. heterolepis. The leptome in this species differs from
leptome in S. heterolepis in not being depressed on the upper
side.

The stereome (st) is found on the lower side of all bundles,
and also upon the upper side of all bundles except those of the
third type. The cells of the sterome are not so thick walled as
in S. heterolepis.

The mesophyll consists of elongated cells in one or two
rows around each mestome bundle. There seems to be mesoxDhyll
connecting the bundles beneath the unclosed parenchyma. The
unclosed parenchyma is found in one or two rows around the
bulliform cells in contact with the mesophyll.

SPOROBOLUS HOOKERI.

The epidermal cells (e) of this species are small, thick
walled and uniform in size, they are more roundish than in

154 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

other specie?. The cuticle (c) and cell wall, are well developed in
this species. The leaf is strongly involute on the upper sur-
face and here we also find papillae.

The bulliform cells (b) are also much larger than in the
other species, there being four to six in a row, sometimes one
large central cell and sometimes two large central cells with two
smaller bulliform cells on either side of the large ones.

The carene (c), in this species consists of five mestome
bundles (m), three very small, a large central, and one medium
in size. The leptome (1) and hadrome (h) are fully developed in
the two" large bundles. The hadrome is separated from the
leptome by two layers of thick walled parenchyma. One small
mestome bundle occurs on each side of the medium bundle.

The mestome bundles are all connected with each other by
the mesophyll (m).

The mestome bundles number thirty- eight, eighteen on
left and twenty on right side of carene (c). In this species three
types of bundles occur: First, those open on both sides;
second, those open above only; and third, those entirely closed.
Those of the third type are of two sizes one very small, the
other somewhat larger. The mestome bundles of the third
type predominate. The sides of the leaf terminate with a
closed bundle. In the mestome bundle of the second type the
leptome and hadrome seem to be in immediate contact with
each other, but in those of the first type they are separated
by thick-walled parenchyma. The chlorophyll bearing paren-
chyma does not differ materially from that found in other
species.

The stereome (st) is on the lower side of all the bundles and on
the upper side of those of the first and second type. The leaf
also terminates with irregular groups of stereome. The ste-
reome is quite well developed in the carene where it occurs-
in large groups.

The mesophyll (mes) in this species connects the different
mestome bundles and consists of both round and elongated
cells.

The uncolored parenchyma is more strongly developed in
this than in any of the other species of Sporobolus studied. It is
prominent in the midrib, where it occupies the space above the
five mestome bundles. It also occurs immediately below the
bulliform cells and on the upper side of the mestome bundles.

I

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 155'

(m) of the second type cormecting these bundles with the
stereome.

SPOROBOLUS VAGINAEFLORUS.

In this species the epidermis (e) resembles that of other
species except the cuticle (c) which is much more fully devel-
oped.

The bulliform cells (b) in this species differ much from those
of other species, they are very irregular in outline, the cells
ranging in number from eight to ten, and occur almost the
entire length of the leaf except near the sides where we find
the uncolored parenchyma (p).

The carene (c') consists of one mestome bundle which has
stereome in contact with leptome (1). This is the only bundle
which is open. On either side of this median bundle there
are three or four small closed bundles. The leptome and had-
rome (h) are separated by thick walled parenchyma. The
mestome bundles number twelve, five to the left and six to the
right of the carene. The bundles are of two types: first the
median one which is open below and the second, closed;
the bundles of this latter type are of two sizes, one very much
smaller and the other nearly as large as that of the median
nerve. The well developed leptome and hadrome in the median
nerve and the larger bundles of the second type are character-
istic. The smaller mestome bundles predominate, numbering
nine in a leaf. The sterome occurs on upper and lower sur-
face of the mestome bundles of the carene, and large sized
mestome bundles of second type, but none are found in contact
with smaller sized bundles.

The cells of the chlorophyll bearing parenchyma (c. b. p.) in
this species are much smaller than the cells of the other
species.

Tbe uncolored parechyma (p) is found only at the edges of the
leaf above the last two mestome bundles.

PANICUM.

The large genus Panicum is widely distributed in tropical
and warmer countries with a goodly number in temperate cli-
mates. The representatives studied by us are common species
in the Mississippi valley and southward. The three species,
P. capillare L., P. proliferum L., and P. crus-galli L , grow in
moist places or where there is considerable rainfall. The
weedy P, capillare is perhaps an exception, as it is adapted to
a wider range of climatic conditions, the structure of the leaf

156 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

plainly shows that it can adapt itself to di-fferent conditions of
soil and moisture.

PANICUM CAPILLARE.

This species has a hairy appearance and is harsh to the
touch. The epidermal cells (e) are large, the cuticle (c) and
epidermal cell walls are thicker than in P. crus-galli and P.
proliferum, but not so well developed as in the genus Sporobolus.
The walls of the epidermal cells of the upper and lower sur-
face of the leaf have small conical projections (cp). The end
of the leaf terminates in a small thickened point; on the edges
of leaf occurs a buudle of stereome (st).

The buUiform cells do not vary much from the epidermal
cells, they are somewhat larger, however, and vary in number
from three to five, the middle cell being the largest. The
carene (c') has one mestome bundle (m) differing from those of
secondary veins only in that it is larger, and beicg open on
both upper and lower side. The mestome bundles are of three
types: first, those which are open both above and below, second,
those which are open below, and third, those which are closed.
The leptome (1) is separated from hadrome (h) by thick walled
parenchyma (p). In this species the arrangement of mestom.e
bundles is irregular, the number varies from forty to fortj'--
three bundles in one leaf. There are from twenty to twenty-
two bundles on each side of the carene, and of these, three on
each side are of the first type, three of the second type and the
remaining of the third type. In the closed mestome bundles
the leptome and hadrome are not so well developed as in
those which are open. The stereome occurs on the upper and
lower surface of all open mestome bundles, while in those
which are closed it is found sometimes on the upper surface
and sometimes on the lower surface, and sometimes it is entirely
wanting. It consists of from two to four rows, bordering
immediately on the chlorophyll bearing parenchyma (c b p).
At the sides of the leaf well developed stereome occurs for the
purpose of protection.

The mesophyll (mes) consists of elongated cells joining the
chlorophyll bearing parenchyma. Between the mestome
bundles surrounded by the mesophyll, we have colorless
parenchyma.

PANICUM PROLIFERUM.

In this species the epidermal cells are much smaller than in
P. capillare, and the conical projections (c p) are found more

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 157

strongly developed OEly on the upper surface of the leaf; they
are much more namerous than in P. capillare, but not nearly
so sharply defined. The cuticle (c) is not so strongly developed
as in P. capillare.

The builiform cells vary from two to five, usually consisting
of one large or two large central cells. The leaf is not so
strongly involute in this species, but the builiform cells (b)
extend farther down into the mesophyll (mes) than in P.
capillare.

The carene (c') has one mestome bundle (m), which is open
at ihe lower side. There are from forty to forty-five mestome
bundles in the leaf, the median being the largest. On either
side of the carene are five small mestome bundles entirely
closed , then occurs a secondary bundle on each side resembling
the carene, only much smaller. The leptome is separated
from the hadrome in the carene by thick- walled parenchyma
cells (p).

The mestome bundles are of two types; first, such as are
open below, and second, those that are entirely closed. The
closed are much more numerous than the open; only six or
seven open in the whole leaf. The leptome (1) and hadrome
(h) are not well developed in the small bundles.

The mesophyll consists of elongated and somewhat loosely
arranged cells of variable size. One larger surrounds the
chorophyll bearing (cbp) parenchyma ceils and comes in con-
tact with the stereome (st); the space between the mestome
bundles and beneath the builiform cells is also filled with
them.

The stereome is found on the lower side of all bundles, in
contact with the parenchyma and epidermis, and also on the
upper surface of all the larger mestome bundles.

PANICUM CRUS GALLI.

The most obvious difference between P. crus-galli and P.
capillare is that in this species the leaf is not involute; the
epidermal cells (e) are large; the cell wall and cuticle (c) is not
so strongly developed but conical prcjecticns are found on both
surfaces of the leaf.

The carene has one mestome bundle (m). It differs from
the other species studied in that the stereome is not in direct
contract with the leptome (1) and hadrome (h) bub is separated
from them by two rows of thick walled parenchyma (p), while
the leptome and hadrome are in direct contact with each other.

158 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

The mestome bundles are of two types; first, those that
resemble the open bundles of other species, only that in this
case they are surrounded by thick walled parenchyma outside
of which, on two sides occur the chlorophyll bearing paren-
chyma cells (c b p); second, those that are entirely closed.

The mestome bundles are differently arranged in this species,
a small mestome bundle occurs beneath the bulliform cells,
this bundle is smaller than the one occurring between the bulli-
form cells, but is of the same type. Surrounding the bundles
of the first type are small chlorophyll bearing cells and more
numerous than in the other species studied. The chlorophyll
bearing parenchyma cells surrounding those of the second type
are larger than those of the first type, but not as large as those
of the other type. la this species the leptome and hadrome
are in immediate contact while thick walled parenchyma cells
surround both.

The stereome is found on the upper and lower surface of all
mestome bundles of the first type and separated from leptome
and hadrome by thick walled parenchyma. Stereome does not
occur around the mestome bundles beneath the bulliform cells.
The mestome bundles between the bulliform cells are always
closed below and sometimes entirely so.

The mesophyll consists of both elongated and rd^und cells
bordering on the chlorophyll bearing parenchyma. !

COMPARISON.

A comparison of the two genera shows that in the genus
Sporobolus the cuticle and cell walls are much more strongly
developed than in the genus Panicum.

The mestome bundles in Panicum are more numerous than
in Sporobolus. The epidermal cells in Sporobolus are uniform
m size, in Panicum variations occur in different species, while
in P. crus-galli, the epidermal cells on both sides of the median
nerve are smaller than elsewhere on the leaf.

The bulliform cells are larger and more numerous in Sporo-
bolus than in Panicum.

CONCLUSIONS.

We feel safe in concludiag from our study of these genera
that the anatomical characters are marked and constant enough
to readily enable one to distinguish the species, and along with
the work of others it shows that anatomical characters may be
U5ed as a basis for the separation of genera and some species.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 159

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

In all figures the same letter is used for the same character — c, cuticle;
e, epidermis; st, stereome; m, mestome; c b p, chloi^ophyll bearing paren-
■chyma; b, bulliform cells; mes, mesophyll; h, hadrome; 1, leptome; c p,
oonical projections. All figures drawn with camera to the same scale.
General drawings i inch objective; detailed drawings ^ inch objective.

Figures I, II, III, Sporobolus heterokpis.
' ' vaginxHorus.

" Hookeri.

" cryptandrus.

Panicum proliferum.
" capillare.
" Crus-galli.

" IV,

V,

VI,

" VII,

VIII,

IX,

X,

XI,

XII,

" XIII,

XIV,

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SPORES OP NORTH
AMERICAN FERNS.

BY C. B. WEAVER.

Ferns have been objects of interest to botanists and culti-
vators; they have therefore been studied more than many of
the flowering plants. Their simple structure and the apparently
well defined limitation of species has rendered them easier for
purposes of study than many of the groups of Phaenogams.

The purpose of this paper is to make a small contribution
toward our kaowledge concerning the spore characters of the
different genera and species of North American ferns.

The measurements of a few spores are here given:

160

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

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o 5"

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IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

161

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

No.

No.

1.

Acrostichum aureum.

31.

2.

Polypodium vulgare.

32.

3.

Polypodium fakatum.

33.

4.

Polypodium Californicum.

34.

5.

Polypodium pectinatum.

35.

6.

Polypodium aureum.

36.

7.

Gymnogramme triangularis.

37.

8.

Notboleena ferruginea.

38.

9.

Notboliena nivea.

39.

10.

Vittaria lineata

40.

11.

Adiantum capillus- Veneris.

41.

12.

Pteris longifolia.

42.

13.

Pteris cretica.

43.

14.

Pteris longifolia.

44.

15.

Cbeilantbes micropbylla.

45.

16.

Cbeilantbes Alabameasis.

46.

17.

Cbeilantbes viscida.

47.

18.

Cbeilantbes lanuguinosa.

48.

19.

Cryptogramme acrosticboides.

49.

20.

Pellaea gracilis.

50.

21.

Pellaea atropurpurea.

51.

22.

Pellaea andromedsefolia.

52.

23.

Pellaea ternifolia.

53.

24.

Ceratopteris tbalictroides.

54.

25.

Lomaria spicant.

55.

26.

Blecbnum serrulatum.

56.

27.

Woodwardia radicans.

57.

28.

Asplenium pinnati£dum.

58.

29.

Aspleaium tricbomanes.

59.

30.

Asplenium firmum.

Asplenium Tbelypteroides.
Asplenium Filix- foemina.
Scolopendrium vulgare,
Camptosorus rbizopbjllus.
Pbegopteris calcarea.
Pbegopteris Dryopteris.
Pbegopteris Polypodioides.
Pbegopteris alpestris.
Aspidium spinulosum.
Aspidium Oreopteris.
Aspidium Noveboracense.
Aspidium Tbelypteris.
Aspidium acrosticboides.
Aspidium unitum.
Aspidium Loncbitis.
Nepbrolepis exaltata.
Cystopteris bulbifera.
Onocloa sensibilis.
Woodsia obtusa.
Woodsia Ilvensis.
Woodsia glabella.
Dicksonia punctilobula.
Tricbomanes Petersii.
Lygodium palmatum.
Aneimia adiantifolia.
Aneimia Mexican a.
Osmunda cinnamomea.
Osmunda regalis.
Scbizeea pusilla.

These tables show that there are differences with respect to
size and character of species; in some genera species show
marked differences in size of spores. Schizaea pusilla, the
smallest of our ferns, has the largest spores of any species
examined, OnocJea Struthiopteris has relatively small spores.

Fig. 56. Spores of ferns,
Ameimla Mexicana.

11

Fig. 58. Osmunda
regalis.

Fig. 59. Schizoli
pusilla.

162 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS WITH GYMNOSPORAN
GIUM MACROPUS LK.

BY F. C. STEWART AND G. W. CARVER.

The family of true rusts, Uredinese, is very interesting to
the mycologist and important to the agriculturist. It contains
about twenty- seven genera and a multitude of species, all of
which are strict parasites, living within the tissues of their
hosts. Several of the species produce destructive diseases in
cultivated plants; as examples note the rust of wheat, oats and
other grasses {Puccinia graminis, Pers.), blackberry rust
{Cceoma luminatum, Schw.), and carnation rust {Uromyces
caryojJhyUinus [Schrank], Schrceter). Thus far all attempts
to cultivate the rusts upon artificial media have failed. Conse-
quently the life histories of some species are imperfectly
known. The determination of the life histories of some species
is made still more difficult because of the fact that they do not
complete their development upon a single species of host-
plant, but inhabit different species at different stages in their
development. The life history of the common wheat rust,
Puccinia graminis, so frequently used to illustrate this peculi-
arity of rusts, is so familiar to readers of botanical literature
that it is unnecessary to repeat it here. It is sufficient to state
that wheat rust has three stages, two of which are fouad upon
the wheat or some other grass plant and upon the common
barberry (Berberis).

The species of Gymnosporartgiutn belong to this class of
pleomorphic rusts. There are two forms, representing two
stages in the development of the fuDgus. Until about ten
years ago these two forms were supposed to be distinct species
and were given separate names. The Gymnosporangium form
(considered to be the higher form) inhabits, exclusively,
species of the Cupressineee, a group of the family of cone bear-
ing trees, Coniferse. The other form has received the name

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 163

Roestelia. It is found on the apple and allied plants belonging
to the tribe Pomega, of the family Rosaceso.

In the United States there are nine species of Gymnosporan-
gium. Chiefly through the investigations of Doctors Farlow
and Thaxter, all of them have been connected with their cor-
responding species of Roestelia.

Gymnospomngium macropus, Lk., the particular species
under consideration, is confined exclusively to the Red cedar,
Juniperus Virginiana, L. Its Roestelia form is known as
RcesteUa pirata, Tnax. , and is found on cultivated apple {Pints
mains, L.), wild crab (Pirus coronaria, L.) and Juneberry
{Amelanchier). The Gymnosporangium may be found in the
autumn upon the twigs of Red cedar, where it appears in the
form of small brown balls about the size of peas. In May of
the foliowiiDg spring these balls enlarge and during rainy
weather put out siveral orange-colored gelatinous horns.
At this time the balls are very conspicuous objects and are uni-
versally known as ' 'Cedar apples. " The gelatinous horns contain
numerous two-celled spores on long pedicels. The spores
germinate in situ each one producing several minute secondary
spores which are readily carried by the wind. When these
secondary spores chance to fall upon leaves of apples or other
suitable plant, they germinate and enter the tissues. In about
three weeks, small yellow spots appear on the upper surface of
the apple leaf. This is the Roestelia, and when it is mature
the spots will be one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter, yellow
above and with tooth like projections beneath. Within the pro-
jections are formed round one-celled spores (secidicspores)
which may be carried to a cedar where they will germinate
and repeat the life cycle.

The connection of Gymnosporangium macropus with Eoestelia
pirata has been establisaed beyond question by Dr.
Thaxter^ The inoculation experiments here reported were
not undertaken for the purpose of obtainicg further informa-
tion concerning the relationship existing between the two
forms of the fungus, but rather to ascertain why the cultivated
apple in central Iowa should be iree from Roestelia. Although
the field has been thoroughly canvassed nearly every season
during the past twenty-five years, no species of Roestelia has
ever been taken on any variety of cultivated apple in the

lOn certain cultures of Gymnosporangium with notes on their RocstcUac. Am. Acad.
Arts and Sciences, 1886, p. 359.

164 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

vicinity of Ames, lowa.^" More 1han this, repeated effoits to
artificially inoculate various varieties of cultivated apples with
Gymnosporangium macropus have failed. In the spring of
1886 Dr. Halsted- inoculated G. macropus on two varieties of
cultivated apple (Rawles' Janet and Tallman Sweet), wild crab
Pirus coronaria^, pear, mountain ash, Pirus semipinnata,
several species of hawthorn and two forms of Juneberry on the
grounds of the Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa. In no
case did Roestelia appear on the cultivated apples. He says*:
" Tne individual experiments numbered among the hundreds,
and in every case there was a perfect failure of the Gymnos-
porangium to grow except with the crab apple, where the
inoculation was most emphatic." further inoculations were
made the following season, 1887. He says'^: "During the
present season cultural experiments with the native cedar have
been carried out by special students. It is an easy matter to
inoculate the wild crab with this, but only failures have
attended tests upon other plants." In 1893 Prof. L. H. Pam-
meF made some inoculation experiments at Ames. A tree of
the variety Tetofsky had been top worked with Fluke crab,
which is an 'improved variety of Pirus coronaria; G. macropus
was inoculated upon both parts of the tree on the same day,
with the same cedar apple. In due course of time, Roestelia
appeared in abundance upon the Fluke crab portion of the tree
but not a single leaf of the Tetofsky portion was affected.
Inoculations were also made upon pear, Japan quince {Ci/donia
Japonica), cultivated apple and shadbush {Amelanchier alni-
folia), but these all proved failures.

The above is, in brief, the history of the experiments at
Ames previous to 1894. It appears to be well established, that
at Ames, Iowa, the cultivated apple is wholly exempt from the
Rcestelia disease which is very abundant and destructive in
New England and in some of the southern states. The Red
cedar does not grow spontaneously in central Iowa, but it is

la Professor Pammel writes that be has never known or heard of Roestelia on any-
cultivated variety of apple in Iowa.

2Bulletin of the Iowa Agricultural College, from the Botanical department,
November, 1886, pp. 59-64.

3Bailey considers the wild Pirus of Iowa to be specifically distinct from P. coronaria
He has named it Pirus lowensis. See L. H. Bailey's Notesfrom a Garden Herbarium VI;
The Soulard crab and its rise. The American Garden, Vol. XII, p. 469.

* I. c, p. 63.

SBull. from the Bot. Dept. of the Iowa Agricultural College, February, 1888, p. 91.

^Diseases of foliage and fruit. Eeport of Iowa State Hort. Soc, Vol. XXVIII, 1893,
p. 470.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 165

frequently planted. There are several specimens in [different
parts of the Agricultural college grounds, some of them stand-
ing in close proximity to apple trees. Oymnosporangium mac-
ropus is fairly abundant, the amount varying according to the
nature of the season as regards moisture. It is usually suffi-
ciently abundant to thoroughly inoculate the wild crab trees.
There is only oiie species of Gymnosporangium and only one
species of Roestelia at Ames. A second species of Gymnos-
porangium, G. globosum, Pari., has been found but once by
Professor PammeF. This species occurs in Wisconsin as indi-
cated by Professor Trelease^ and may be more common in
eastern Iowa. It has not, however, been found since and Pro-
fessor Pammel writes us that it may have been a chance
introduction from material sent to Dr. Halsted. So far as we
know, only one species of Boestelia has been found at Ames.
This tends to simplify matters considerably. Were it not for
the fact that Pirus coronaria is so generally affected with
Bcestelia and so easily inoculated artificially, we would at once
conclude that the immunity of the cultivated apple is due to
the climatic conditions in Iowa being unfavorable to the growth
of Roestelia. It is well known that the range of some fungi is
limited by slight differences in climate; for example, the
potato-blight fungus, PhytopMliora infestans, De By., which
causes great losses in some parts of the United States, has, I
believe, never been collected in the state of Iowa. The climate
there is too dry for it.

Another way to account for the facts is to suppose that cer-
taia varieties of apples are not susceptible to the disease and
that only non susceptible varieties are grown at Ames. This
theory comes nearest to accounting for all the facts. There
are two chief objections to it. First, the college orchard con-
tains a large number of varieties and it is a remarkable circum-
stance that they should all be Boestelia — resistant. However,
it should be noted that most of them are Russian varieties;
second, as a case of varietal differences in susceptibility to
fungus attacks, it is unparalleled.

In the spring of 1894 we started some inoculation experi-
ments at Ames. Pirus coronaria eleven varieties of cultivated
apples and the previously mentioned Tetofsky tree top- worked
with Fluke crab, were inoculated with the native G. macropus

^Journal of Mycology, Vol. VII., p. 103.

8 A Preliminary List of the Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin, p. 29.

166 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

and with G. macropus from Cambridge, Mass., by Mr. B. M.
Duggar. All were complete failures. The spring and summer
were unusually dry. This probably accounts for the failures
with Fiuke crab and wild crab. Natural cultures of RcesteUa
on wild crab were rare.

In ihe spring of 1895 one of us being on Long Island, N. Y.,
and the other at Ames, Iowa, we again undertook some experi-
ments with G. macropus. We will speak first of the experi-
ments on Long Island. They were conducted in the nursery of
Isaac Hicks «& Son at Westbury, N. Y. On May 18 th, four
varieties were inoculated with New York G. macropus — Yellow
Transparent, Red Astrachan, Ben Davis and Red Pippin, The
first three were two-year-old nursery trees; the last was a large
tree. Many leaves on one tree of each variety were smeared,
both sides, with the gelatinous spore- masses of G. macropus.
The results were as follows: Yellow Transparent showed no
signs, whatever, of Boestelia. Both Red Astrachan and Ben
Davis showed yellow spots which appeared like the beginning
of Boestelia, but none of them developed. Red Pippin pro-
duced the Bcestelia, but the spores did not mature properly
and the fungus presented a stunted appearance. On May 24th,
six varieties were inoculated with Iowa G. macropus — Yellow
Transparent, Red Astrachan, Ben Davis, Red Pippin, Maiden's
Blush and Wealthy. All were two-year-old nursery trees
except the Red Pippin. One tree of each variety was inocu-
lated as before. The results were as follows: Yellow Trans-
parent and Red Pippin showed no signs of Boestelia. Red
Astrachan and Ben Davis started Boestelia spots which never
matured. Maiden's Blush and Wealthy developed numerous
Boestelia spots and matured the aecidiospores thoroughly. As
no bags were used to cover the inoculated leaves, it can not be
said positively that the Boestelia on Maiden's Blush and
Wealthy resulted from the Iowa G. macropus, but the condi-
tions were such as to warrant the above conclusions. In the
case of Red Pippin there can be no doubt as to which inocula-
tion produced the Boestelia. A large tree which stood at con-
siderable distance from the other inoculated trees, was inocu-
lated on one side with New York G. macropus and on the other
side with Iowa G. macropus. The leaves of the branch inocu-
lated with New York G. macropus, and a few other leaves in
the immediate neighborhood, produced Boestelia while the
remainder of the tree showed not a Boestelia spot. It is also

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

167

practically certain that all of the Rcestelia found in connection
with these experiments was the Rcestelia of G. macropus.
Careful search was made in Mr. Hicks' nursery and in orchards
at Floral paik and Queens, Long Island, but no Roestelia on
cultivated apple was found anywhere on Long Island during
the season of 1895, except at Flushing, where a few specimens
were taken by Mr. F. A. Sirrine.

The following table presents, in a condensed form, the
results of the experiments on Long Island:

Variety.

Material
Used*

Condition
June 15.

Condition

Jdne 29.

Condition
Aug. 21.

Yellow \

Transpar- -

ent. \

Iowa tr. ma-
cropus.
N. Y. ditto.

No Roestelia.
ditto.

No Roestelia.
ditto.

No Roestelia.
ditto.

Red \
Astrachau, i

Iowa G. ma-

cmpus.
N. Y. ditto.

Yellow spots on

a few leaves.

ditto

No further devel-
opment,
ditto.

No further devel-
opment,
ditto.

Beu Davis, J.

Iowa G. ma-
cropus.
N. Y. ditto.

Not observed,
ditto.

Yellow spots on

a few leaves.

ditto.

No further devel-
opment,
ditto

Red Pippin J

Iowa G. mci-

cropns.
N. Y. ditto.

No Roestelia.
ditto.

No Roestelia.
Roestelia appear-
ing.

No Roestelia.
Partially devel-
oped.

Maiden's i
Blush. ■(

Iowa G. ma-
crop-US.

Roestelia appear-
ing.

Continuing to
develop.

Aecidia well devel-
oped.

Wealtliy, J

Iowa G. ma-
cropus.

Roestelia appear-
ing.

Continuing to
develop.

Aecidia well devel-
oped.

* All inoculations with N. Y. O. mac7-oims were made May 18.
All inoculations with Iowa G. macroims were made May 24.

The experiments at Ames, Iowa, were conducted at the
Agricultural college. May 26, 1895, G. maciX)pus, from New
York, was inoculated on Yellow Transparent, Grimes' Golden,
Duchess of Oldenburg, Whitney's No. 20 and Pirus coronaria.
A large number of leaves on one tree of each were inoculated.
In each case, some of the leaves were rubbed on both surfaces
with the moistened cedar- apple horns, while others were inocu-
lated by making punctures with a sterilized scalpel. On the
same day, other trees of the same varieties were inoculated in
the same manner with G. macropus collected in Iowa. All of
the inoculations, except those on Pirus coronaria, failed. But
the Pirus coronaria trees were so completely covered with Roes-
telia that scarcely a single perfect leaf could be found. "What
part of this was due to artificial inoculation and what part to
natural inoculation it is impossible to say. It simply shows
that the season was a favorable one for Roestelia.

Our experiments at Ames are entirely in accord with those
made by Doctor Halsted and Professor Pammel. Taken in

168 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

connection with our experiments on Long Island, they show
that some varieties (notably Yellow Transparent) are wholly
exempt from BoesteUa jnrata and that there is good reason for
believing that the absence of EoesteUa from cultivated apples in
Iowa is not due wholly to unfavorable climatic conditions, but
chiefly to the fact that the varieties grown there are not
susceptible to the disease. TJie severe climate of this section
has obliged orchardists to abandon all except the most hardy
varieties. These are mostly either Russian varieties or vari-
eties which have originated in the northwest. However, the
fact cannot be overlooked, that Wealthy, a variety shown by
our own experiments to be very susceptible on Long Island, is
frequently planted in Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota and is
there exempt from EoesteUa. We have by no means a com-
plete solution of this problem.

In the Long Island experiments it is interesting to note that
while some varieties showed themselves wholly exempt and
others were very susceptible, there were also varieties which
presented intermediate degrees of susceptibility. Yellow
Transparent showed no signs of EoesteUa; Maiden's Blush and
Wealthy contracted the disease readily and matured secidio-
spores; on Ben Davis and Red Astrachan the EoesteUa started
to grow but never reached maturity; on Red Pippin, only part
of the secidiospoies matured.

There are few fungous diseases of cultivated plants which
are equally distructive to all of the varieties of the species
which they attack. Usually some varieties are much more
severely attacked than are others. Some varieties may be but
slightly affected, while others are ruined. Observant fruit
growers know that Flemish Beauty " scabs "-worse than most
other varieties of pears, while the fungus which produces the
leaf-blight and cracking of the pear, Entomosporiuin macula-
turn, Lev., has a preference for the variety White Doyenne.
Wheat growers know that some varieties of wheat are more
liable to rust than are others. These are but a few examples.
Many more might be mentioned. In the case of EoesteUa pirata,
this preference for certain varieties is carried to the extremes.
We know of no other fungus which attacks some varieties of a
species so severely and yet cannot even be inoculated upon a
large number of other varieties of the same species. Carnation
rust, Uromyces caryophylUnus (Schrank) Schrcoter, perhaps
most nearly approaches it. This rust is exceedingly destructive

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 169

to some varieties of carnations, while several other varieties are
nearly exempt from its attacks. One variety (Wm. Scott) is nota-
bly immune. We know of no well authenticated case in which
the true rust (Uromyces) has been found upon this variety,
although we have repeatedly observed it growing in green-
houses where other varieties were badly rusted.

In the present state of knowledge concerning the conditions
of parasitism, it is impossible to completely explain the
immunity of varieties. The structure and chemical composi-
tion of a variety are intimately associated with its suscepti-
bility or non- susceptibility to the attacks of a particular
fungus; but what is the relative importance of these, or what
part is played by the mysterious factor called "inherent
vigor" we do not know.

In conclusion we will record our observations on the eifect
of moisture on the prevalence of Gymnosjjorangium and
Koestelia. In the spring of 1894 G. macropus was fairly
abundant at Ames, but the spring and summer were very dry,
and, as a consequence of the drouth, Eoestelia pirata on Pirus
coronaria was rare. As previously stated, even attempts at
inoculation of P. coronaria failed that season. In the spring of
1895 showers were frequent during the month of May. This
season Eoestelia was so abundant on P. coronaria that it was
difficult to find leaves which were not affected. Everywhere
the wild crab trees were conspicuous because of the Eoestelia
on their leaves.

On Long Island the summer of 1894 was very dry. The Red
cedar grows spontaneously here and is very common. May 15,
1895, we searched very carefully through a large grove of Red
cedars standing near an orchard and found only three cedar
apples. At Westbury, N. Y., a Red cedar standing in the
midst of a nursery bore only tivo cedar apples. At Queens,
N. Y., three Red cedar trees grew on one side of a road, on the
other side of which was an orchard; not a single cedar apple
could be found on the cedars.

170 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE IOWA ENTOMOSTRACA.

BY L. S. ROSS.

The careful work done by a few investigators has shown the
relation existing between our common fresh water fish and the
minute Crustacea of the streams and lakes. The results of
these investigations prove the importance of the Entanostraca
as a source of food supply for the young fry of many species,
and even for the adults of some. The most extensive work
upon this subject is that done by Dr. S. A. Forbes of the Uni-
versity of Illinois. An account of the methods pursued and of
the results obtained is given in the bulletins of the Illinois State
Laboratory of Natural history; Bulletins Nos. 2, 3 and 6, and
articles VII and VIII, Vol. II.

Since the young fish depend for subsistence, to such an
extent, upon the relative abundance or scarcity of the Entom-
ostraca, it becomes a question not only of scientific interest,
but of economic importance to learn concerning the distribution
and abundance of the various species of this group of our fresh
water fauna. The knowledge of the vertical distribution of
different species in the lakes is of importance because some
species of fish feed at one level and some at another. Some
have their favorite haunts among the weeds of the shallows,
others in the clearer, deeper waters.

Consideration of these facts induced me to begin work upon
the occurrence and distribution of Entomostraca in the state
of Iowa. The paper presented is a report of work begun,
rather than work completed.

In order to combine pleasure with business, I decided to
make a bicycle journey to the lake region of Iowa. In the first
part of August of the past year, Mr. McCormack of Drake Uni-
versity, and myself started across country en route for Lake
Okoboji. We carried vials of alcohol and a coarse and a fine
net; the latter being of bolting cloth. The streams did not

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 171

offer good collecting ground at that season of the year, as they
were nearly all dry. As we did not wish to overburden our-
selves, we did not collect dried mud from the ponds and water
courses.

Collections were made in a few places from, the streams, but
principally from West and Eist Okoboji and Spirit Lake, rang-
ing from the surface to a depth of twenty feet. With the
limited apparatus and short time at our disposal, not all the
species of the lake were taken, very probably only a minority.
To make a thorough investigation the apparatus should be such
that hauls could be made among the weeds and along the bot-
tom of the lake, as well as in the clear surface water. Not only
should the nets be such as are needed to collect from places of
all kinds, but such should be used as are necessary to deter-
mine the quantity of life in the water. For collecting in open
water or where there is some rubbish, the ordinary fine-meshed
net protected by two coarser nets, one outside and the other
inside may be used. The inner coarse net should not be as
deep as the fine one; it serves to catch and hold back the rub-
bish. The net or cone-dredge devised by Dr. E. A. BLrge of
Wisconsin,. is the best for collecting among weeds. For quanti-
tative work the plankton apparatus should be used. This is so
arranged that the net can be drawn through the water at a
definite rate of speed, the speed being regulated so there will
be no overflow of water from the mouth of the net. The con-
tents of the net are determined quantitatively as compared
with the known amount of water that passed through.

As yet I have determined no species outside the order Clad-
ocera. Of this order probably twenty-five species and varieties
have been noted but no new ones have been described, nor have
any new to America been found. Undoubtedly, with better
apparatus and with more literature upon the subject, many
more species may be collected and determined.

The following families are represented in the collections:

Sididae.—By the genera, Sida and DapbneJla.

Dapbniidae. — By the genera, Simocepbalus, Ceriodapbnia, Scapboleberis
and Dapbnia.

Macrotbricidae. — By the genera, Macrotbrix and Iliocryptus.

Lynceidae. — By the genera, Earycercus, Alona, Danbevedia, Pleuroxus,
Chydorus, Camptocercus and Leydigia.

Leptodoridae. — By the genus Leptodora

172

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

The species found are as follows:

Family Sididae... 3 ^^'^^ crystallinaO. F. M.

( Daphnella brachyura Liev.

Simocephalus vetulas O. F. M.

Simocepbalus serrulatus Koch.

Ceriodapbnia reticulata Jur.

Ceriodaphnia consors Birge.

Ceriodapbnia lacustris Birge.
Family Dapbniidae - --- J Scapholeberis mucronata O. F. M.

Scapholeberis ohtusa Schdl.

Dapbnia byalina Leydig.

Dapbaia kalbergensis Schoedler.

Dapbnia kal. var., retrocurva Forbes
[ Dapbnia sp?

Family Macrotbricidae

Macrotbrix laticornis Jur.
Iliocryptus sordidus Lieven.

M.

Family Lynceidae

{ Eurycercus lamellatus O. F.
I Alona sp?

Dunbevedia setiger Birge.

Pleuroxus denticulatus Birge.
{ Pleuroxus procurvatus Birge.

Cbydorus spbaericus O. F. M.

Cbydorus globosus Baird.

Leydigia quadrangularis Leyd.

Camptocercus rectirostris Schdl.

Family Leptodoridae Leptodora byalina Lillj .

The distribution of the species is given in the table:

Daphnella bracbyura.
Dapbnia kalbergensis.
Dapbnia kal. , variety retrocurva.
Dapbnia byalina.
Ceriodapbnia lacustris.
Cbydorus spbaericus.
Cbydorus globosus.
Leptodora byalina.

Sida crystallina.
Ceriodapbnia consors.
Simocephalus serrulatus.,
Cbydorus sp.''
Pleuroxus denticulatus.
Pleuroxus procurvatus.

( Ceriodaphnia reticulata.
Simocepbalus serrulatus.

Streams near Newell, Iowa ] Simocephalus vetulus.

Scapholeberis mucronata.
Pleuroxus denticulatus.
Cbydorus spbaericus.

West Okoboji, open lake, from

six to eight feet below surface .

West Okoboji, among weeds near
shore

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

173

West Okoboji, fifteen to twenty
feet below surface

f Dapbnella bracbyura.
Daphnia kal. , vai-iety retrocurva.
Simocepbalus serrulatus.
Ceriodapbnia consors.
Eurycercus lamellatus.
Danhevedia setiger.
Cbydorus spbaericus.
Cbydorus globosus.
Camptocercus rectirostris.

( Sida crystallina.
Ceriodapbnia reticulata.
Ceriodapbnia consors.
Dapbaia kal., variety retrocurva.
Daphnia byalina
Macrothrix laticornis.
Eurycercus lamellatus.
Cbydorus spbaericus.
Leydigia quadrangularis.

r Dapbnella bracbyura.

below surface ] Dapbnia kal., variety retrocurva,

I Cbydorus spbaericus.

East Okoboji, surface .

Spirit Lake, ten to fifteen feet

Raccoon River, Adel, Iowa.

Raccoon River at Sac City.

I Ceriodapbnia reticulata.
J Scapboleberis mucronata.
I Iliocryptus sordidus.
[_ Pleuroxus denticulata.

( Scapboleberis mucronata.

Simocepbalus serrulatus.
< Cbydorus spbaericus.

Pleuroxus denticulatus.
[_ Alona sp?

THE ANATOMY OF SPH^RIUM SULCATUM LAM.

BY OILMAN A DREW.

For a number of years the embryology of the Cyrenidas has
been attracting considerable attention, but little has been
added to our knowledge of the general anatomy since Dr.
Franz Leydig's publication in 1855 (No. 5), who recorded such
anatomy as could be made out from young and rather trans
parent specimens.*

It is my present intention to continue the work here begun
on Sphsorium to a comparative anatomy of the Cyrenidse, but in

*I find a reference to a paper by Temple Prime, entitled: Notes on the Anatomy of
the Oorbiculidas and Translation from the Danish of an article on the Anatomy of
Cyclas by Jacobson. Bui. Museum Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Vol. V. This volume
unfortunately is not to be found In the reference libraries of Baltimore.

174 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

the meantime it seems to me that the anatomy of a single genus
and a single species of that genus may not be wholly without
interest, especially to those who are working in the interior,
where the Unionidse and Cyrenidge are the only available Lam-
ellibranchs.

Regarding the systematic position of Sphserium, suffice it to
say that the old genus Cyclas includes the present genera
Sphserium and Pisidium, and that these, with four or more
other generally accepted genera, go to form the family which
has been variously known as Cycladae, Corbiculidse and
Cyrenidse.

SHELL.

(Pig. 2.) The shell of this species is comparatively thick, of
a dark horn color, frequently lighter near the margins of the
valves, and is composed of a rather thick bluish- white nacre,
covered exteriorly by epidermis. Tne lines of growth are well
marked. The teeth are thin lamellae, 2-2 on the right valve
and 1-1 on the left valve. The adductor scars, as andj;s, are
quite distinct and are joined dorsal] y by the retractor pedis
scars. The pallial line is rather obscure. A large specimen
measures 15x12x9 mm.

MANTLE.

The mantle consists of two thin lobes of connective tissue
covered by epithelium, free at their anterior and ventral mar-
gins, united to form the siphons posteriorly, and continuous
over the back. The lobes lie closely applied to the shell nacre,
which is secreted by them, and are attached to the nacre at the
pallial line by the pallial muscles, and to the epidermis through
the epidermal gland, which lies in a groove in the mantle mar-
gin. A ridge. Pig. 3, r, extending from the ventral end of the
anterior adductor muscle to the branchial siphon, runs along the
inside of each mantle lobe near its ventral margin and serves, by
meeting its fellow on the opposite lobe, or sides of the foot in
case that organ is protruded, to close the open side of the branch-
ial chamber and force currents of water to enter through the
branchial siphon, which is protruded above the mud or sand in
which the animal lives. The siphons, Pigs. 1 and S, b s and
c s, are quite muscular and are capable of considerable protru-
sion. Neither one is fringed with tentacles.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

The muscular system may for convenience be classed as
adductors, retractors, foot muscles and mantle muscles, includ-
ing those of the siphons.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 175

The adductors, Figs. 1 and 3, are two in number, anterior,
aa, and posterior, pa. They differ slightly in size and shape,
and have for their only function the closing of the thell.

There are two pairs of retractors, anterior and posterior
retractor pedis muscles. Figs. 1 and 3, arp and prp. They
serve to withdraw, or retract, the foot from an extended
position.

The foot is largely made up of crossing muscle fibers,
extending more or less in all directions, but capable of being
classed as longitudinal, vertical and horizontal. They aid in
protrusion, by forcing the blood where most efficient, in
retraction and in special movements of the protruded foot.

The pallia! muscles. Figs. 4 and 5, are distributed to the
inner end of the epidermal gland in the edge of the mantle and
to the ridge already described. They serve to withdraw the
edge of the mantle from between the edges of the valves when
the valves are tightly closed.

BYSSAL GLAND.

A rudiment of the byssal gland, Fig. 1, &, persists in the
adult animal as a single closed sack, often showing a slight
sagittal constriction. It is supplied with a small nerve on each
side, which spring from trunks that have their origin in the
pedal ganglia. Most of the specimens which I have examined
have the rudiment of the byssal gland nearer the pedal ganglia
than is shown in Fig. 1.

GILLS.

The gills, four in number, consist of a pair, an outer and an
inner gill, on each side of the body. The outer, Fig. 3, o g,
is much smaller than the inner, i g, and falls short anteriorly
by about a fourth of its length. Each gill is composed of two
lamellee. The outer lamella of the inner gill is attached to the
inner lamella of the outer gill on the same side, the cuter
lamellae of the outer gills are attached to the mantle lobes on
their respective sides, and the inner lamellae of the inner gills
are attached anteriorly to the body wall aud posteriorly to
each other. Fig. 5. The gills function as respiratory organs,
procurers of food and brood pouches. The latter function is
monopolized by the inner gills, which carry the embryos until
they are ready to function as adults.

Fig. 6, which represents a piece of gill cut squarely across
the lamellse and seen obliquely from the cut surface so that the

176 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

side of a lamella may be seen, may aid in understanding the
structure of a gill. The descending and ascending portions of
each filament, / 1 I, are fused throughout their length, thus
uniting the lamella at very short intervals and restricting indi-
vidual water- tubes, 2v t, between adjacent filaments.

The filaments are strengthened by chitinous rods, c r, and
attached to one another laterally by inter-filamenter junctions,
i f j, which are places where, during development, adjacent
filaments have fused together. There are thus left openings,
i 0, known as inhalent ostea, which lead into the water-tubes.
Beneath the epithelial covering of the filaments is a loose con-
nective tissue, through which more or less definite blood spaces,
& I s, may be traced. The outer surfaces of the filaments are
covered with rather short cilia, besides which there is a row
of longer cilia on each side of each filament near the outer sur-
faces, and another row of long cilia placed far in on the sides
of the filaments, nearly opposite the chitinous rods. It seems
that the inner rows of cilia serve largely to drive the water
through the inhalent ostea and water-tubes and thus keep up a
continuous supply of fresh water, while the other cilia are
engaged in forming surface currents and in separating and
transporting food particles.

LABIAL PALPI.

The labial palpi, Fig. 3, I %), are very long and slightly
curved. There is a pair, consisting of an outer and an inner
palp, on each side of the body. The anterior edges of the outer
palps are connected in front of the mouth by a slight ridge, as
are likewise the anterior edges of the inner palps behind the
mouth. The adjacent sides of each pair are grooved and
densely ciliated. Particles of food passed between them from
the gills are transported to the mouth.

ALIMENTARY CANAL.

The mouth, situated behind the anterior adductor muscle
leads into a rather long and slender oesophagas. Fig. 1, o e,
which communicates with a somewhat spacious horn-shaped
stomach, sacculated at its upper end, which curves downward
and forward and gradually tapers into the intestine which at
this point forms a coil. The relative positions of the loops of
this coil to one another, may be made out by comparing Fig.
1, with Fig. 4, which latter represents an obliquely transverse
section through the coil. The stomach 1, situated on the left

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 177

side of the body, communicates anteriorly with 2, which, near
the plane of the section turns to form 3, and so on. It is of
interest to note that in the young animals no such coil exists.
As the alimentary canal lengthens the loops are formed and
gradually lengthen. Fig. 1 is reconstructed from a smaller
and apparently younger individual than the one represented in
section by Fig. 4, and it will be observed that the loop ^ 5,
Fig. 4, must be longer than the corresponding loop of Fig. 1,
else the arms could not be separate at a point where the loop
2 3, is turning. From the point 6, the intestine follows back
along the convex border of the stomach, then rather abruptly
turns nearly at right angles to its former course, passes through
the ventricle of the heart, then passes over the posterior
adductor muscle dors ally and posteriorly to open in the cloacal
chamber. The typhlosole is not strongly developed but is
present as a small ridge as shown in Fig. 5.

The alimentary canal throughout its length is lined by
elongated ciliated epithelial cells. Fig. 9 represents these
cells as they appear in a section through the lower end of the
stomach.

LIVER.

The liver, Fig. 1, /, is a paired organ, consisting of two
large racemose glands, one on each side of the body. Each
gland communicates with the stomach through anterior lateral
pouches. The liver cells are often densely crowded with gran-
ules that stain deeply, but not infrequently part of the cells of
some follicles will be full while adjacent cells will be empty.
This condition is indicated by Fig. 10.

It is not unlikely that, as the animal probably feeds most of
the time, digestion is a continuous process and that the liver
cells are continually filling up and discharging.

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The regular three pairs of Lamellibranch ganglia are pres-
ent. The cerebral ganglia. Fig. 1, c. g. lie on opposite sides of
the oesophagus, on a level with the dorsal end of the anterior
adductor muscle. They are somewhat oblong in shape and are
connected with each other by an oesophageal commissure which
runs between the oesophagus and the anterior adductor muscle.
The parieto- splanchnic ganglia Fig. 1, p s g, also oblong in
shape, lie anterior to the ventral portion of the posterior
adductor muscle and are fused together by their adjacent sides.
The pedal ganglia, Fig. 1, jj g, are more nearly circular than
12

178 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

either of the other ganglia, when viewed from the side. They
lie beneath and a little posterior to the intestinal coil at the
line where the muscles of the foot come in contact with the con-
nective tissues of the body proper, Fig. 4. The pedal ganglia
are likewise fused together by their adjacent sides.

The cerebral ganglia are connected, Fig. 1, with the parieto-
splanchnic ganglia by the cerebro-visceral commissures and
with the pedal ganglia by the cerebro-pedal commissures.
Beside these commissural connections each cerebral ganglion
gives rise to a small nerve which supplies the anterior adduc-
tor muscle and a larger nerve which passes down behind the
anterior adductor muscle into the mantle and supplies the
pallial muscles of its anterior portion.

Each parieto- splanchnic ganglion besides its commissural
connection, gives rise to a small nerve which supplies the pos-
terior adductor muscle, a larger branchial nerve which runs
forward a short distance, passes over into the junction of the
outer lamella of the inner gill with the inner lamella of the
outer gill, where it turns abruptly backward and apparently
ends at the posterior ends of the gills not greatly reduced in
size, and a large nerve that runs around the ventral surface of
the posterior adductor muscle and branches. The smaller
branch is probably distributed to the muscles of the siphons,
but I have been unable to follow it far. The larger branch
runs along the mantle near the inner ends of the pallial
muscles, giving off a branch near the upper border of the
branchial siphon and numerous small branches to the pallial
muscles.

Each pedal ganglion, besides its commissural connection,
gives rise to at least five more or less distinct nerves which
branch among the muscles of the foot.

OTOCYSTS.

A pair of otocysts, Fig. 1, o t, lie directly in front of the
pedal ganglia, almost, if not quite in contact with the cerebro-
pedal commissures. They are nearly spherical in shape, and
consist of a wall of cells with a nearly spherical otolith inside
(Nos. 4 and 5). Thus far I have been unable to find cilia in the
otocysts, but this may be the fault of preservation. The
otocysts of most Lamellibranches are described as being ener-
vated by fibres from the cerebro-pedal commissures. With
Sphserium a small branch is given off from the nerve which
passes immediately below each otocyst that passes up, and may

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 179

often be traced into contact with the otocyst, but I have been
unable to demonstrate actual connection with this or with
fibres from the cerebro-pedal commissure. Regarding the
function of otocysts see Dr. Brooks' article (No. 1).

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

The heart, Figs. 1 and 5, consisting of a single median
ventricle, v t, and a pair of lateral auricles, a u, lies in the per-
icardial cavity, near the dorsal surface of the animal, and
somewhat in front of the posterior adductor muscle. All the
blood channels issuing from the ventricle are without very
definite walls or calibre. Immediately in front of the peri-
cardium the blood channel. Fig. 1, which leaves the heart in
this direction, divides. The larger branch is continued for-
ward along the dorsal line of the body, turns to the left and
passes beneath the oesophagus, which it follows to the mouth.
When opposite the dorsal end of the anterior adductor muscle,
a branch is given off which passes in front of the adductor and,
dividing, sends a branch to each mantle lobe. The main chan-
nel is continued down in front the cerebro-pedal commissures
into I he foot, where it divides into a number of small branches
that apparently ultimately end in the connective tissue spaces
with which the whole body is permeated. The smaller branch,
which arises immediately in front of the pericardial cavity,
passes downward, sends a branch to either side of the stomach,
supplying that organ throughout its length with small
branches, and finally ends among the loops of the intestinal
coil.

Posteriorly the ventricle gives rise to a channel of consider-
able dimensions which surrounds the intestine, but is more
spacious beneath than above it. Tne intestine seems to be
held in the dorsal part of this channel by strands of connective
tissue. Behind the posterior adductor muscle this channel
widens on opposite sides of the intestine and is continued into
the maatle lobes. It is not improbable that other important
channels exist. Fig. 5 is a section across the body in the
region of the heart showing the connection that exists between
the auricles and the blood spaces of the gills.

ORGANS OF BOJANUS.

The organs of Bojanus consist of a pair of coiled and saccu-
lated tubes, one on each side of the body, lying between the
pericardium and the posterior adductor muscle. At one end

180 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

each organ opens into the pericardial cavity, and at the other
end into the cloacal chamber. Fig. 1, o B, shows the right
organ as seen from the left or inner side, and Fig. 7 is a dia-
gram of the left organ as seen from the left or outer side. By-
comparing the two figures the relations of the loops will be seen.
The cells lining the organ are apparently not glandular in the
immediate vicinity of the pericardial opening, and are rather
small near the cloacal opening, but throughout the rest of the
tube the cells are large and vacuolated, as shown by Fig. 11^
which represents specially large cells from the dorsal part of
the organ. I have been unable to find cilia on any of the cells.

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.

The animal is hermaphroditic. The reproductive organs^
which are paired, each consist of a racemose gland. Fig. ] , r o,
situated beneath the pericardium and behind the stomach,
varying in extent according to the age of the individual, and
opening into the cloacal chamber close to the cloacal opening
of the organ of Bojanus. Part of the follicles bear ova, oth-
ers sperm. The ova-bearing follicles are generally among those
most posterior. They are fewer in number than the sperm
follicles, and, in this species, bear comparatively few ova.
Fig. 8 represents a section of an ova-bearing follicle, in which
are a number of nearly or quite mature and several very young
ova. The sperm-bearing follicles are generally full of sperm,
which lie free in their cavities. Reproduction, apparently,
goes on during the greater part of the year.
LITERATURE.

1. Brooks, W. K. Sensory Clubs or Cordyi of Leodice. Jour, of Morph.

Vol. X, No. 1.

2. Kellog-g, James L. Contributions to our Knowledge of Lamelli-

branchiate Mollusks. Bui. U. S. Fish Commission, 1890.

3. Lang, Arnold. Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Anatomie.

4. Lankester, E. Ray. Mollusca. Enc. Britt.

5. Leydig, Franz. Ueber Cyclas Cornea. Miiller's Archiv., 1855.

6. Mitsukuri, K. On the Structure and Significance of some Aberrent

Forms of Lamellibranchiate gills. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci., Vol.
XXI, 1881.

7. Peck, R. H. Gills of Lamellibranchiate Mollusca. Quart. Jour. Mic.

Sci., Vol. XVII, 1877.

8. Pelsener, Paul. Contribution a I'etude des Lamellibranches. Arch.

de Biol., Tome XI, Part 2, 1891.

9. Rankin, Walter M., Uber das Bojanus' sche Organ des TeichmuscheL

Jena, Zeit. Bd. XXIV, 1890.
10. Zeigler, E. Die Entwickelung von Cyclas cornea Zeit. f . wiss. Zool. ,.
Bd. XLI.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 181

My thanks are due to Mr. C. P. Sigerfoos for the loan of
series of sections of two undetermined species of Sphaerium,
with which some comparisons were made.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

3. a.

Anterior adductor muscle.

a o.

Anterior aorta.

arp.

Anterior retractor pedis muscle.

a s

Anterior adductor muscle scar.

a. u.

Auricle.

b.

Byssal gland rudiment.

bis.

Blood space.

bs.

Branchial siphon.

c.

Cloacal chamber.

eg.

Cerebral ganglion.

c r.

Chitinous rods.

c s.

Cloacal siphon.

f.

Foot.

ni.

Gill filament.

H'j-

Inter-fllamentar junctions.

ig-

Inner gill.

i o.

Inhalent ostea.

1.

Liver.

Ip.

Labial palpus.

m.

Mantle.

o B.

Organ of Bojanus.

OS.

CEsophagus.

og.

Outer gill.

o t.

Otocyst.

O V.

Ovarian follicle.

p-

Pericardial cavity.

pa.

Posterior adductor muscle.

Pg-

Pedal ganglion.

prp.

Posterior retractor pedis muscle.

ps.

Posterior adductor muscle scar.

psg.

Parieto-splanchnic ganglion.

r.

Mantle ridge.

r o.

Reproductive organs.

t.

Male follicle.

rt.

Ventricle.

w t.

Water-tube.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. A reconstruction of an adult specimen from serial sections, seen
from the left side. Median, and the paired organs of one side
shown. The liver and reproductive organs of older specimens
are more extensive.

182 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

PLATE II.

Fig. 2. Enlarged view of the outside of the right valve and ihe inside of

the left valve of a shell.
Fig. 3. View of the animal with the right valve of the shell removed, and

most of the right mantle lobe cut away.
Fig. 4, Oblique cross-section of an animal through the intestinal coil and

the pedal ganglia. Seen from behind.
Fig. 5. Section through the heart in the same series as preceding.

I PLATE III.

Fig. 6. Cross-section of a piece of gill seen obliquely from the side so as
to show both the section and the outer surface of a lamella.
' Fig. 7. Diagram of the outer, left, side of the left organ of Bojanus.
Fig. 8. Section across an ovarian follicle.
Fig. 9. Epithelial lining of the distal portion of the stomach.
Fig. 10. Liver follicle showing charged and discharged cells.
Fig. 11. Epithelial cells of the organ of Bojanus.

A STUDY OF THE GENUS CLASTOPTERA.

ELMER D. BALL.

In the development of the hind tibiae and the structure and
venation of the wings, the insects under consideration repre-
sent the highest and most specialized forms of the Cercopidse
if not of the Homoptera; marking, as Uhler suggests, an
important advance toward the Heteroptera in the increased
freedom of the anterior coxae and the possession of a terminal
membrane to the corium.

In order to correctly establish generic characters it will be
necessary, first, to separate off those of family value.

^ FAMILY CERCOPID.E.

The representatives of the family in this country, at least,

agree in possessing the following characters:

Front inflated, convex or compresso produced; antennae inserted in
front of and between the eyes; ocelli, two, situated on the disc of the ver-
tex; thorax large, sexangular or trapeicoidal; hemelytra coriaceous; pos-
terior coxte and femurs short, tibiie spatulate, armed with two spurs, the
first once, the second twice as long as tibi;y are wide; tibite and two first
joints of tarsi terminated with crescent-shaped rows of spines, third joint
with a bifid claw.

The following genera are represented in the United States:

Monecphorap Lepyronia,^ AphroiJlwrap Philaenus and*^ Clastoptera.

These may be easily separated by the character of the venation

of either pair of wings by reference to plate XII.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 183

The Clastoptera may be separated from the others, directly, by
the rounded apex of the clavus and the terminal membrane of
the corium.

^ CLASTOPTERA.

Germar's original description published in his ' ' Zeitschrif t
fur Entomologie," Vol. I, p. 157, is as follows:

Kopf gross, stumpf dreieckig, so breit wie der Vorderrucken, Stirn
gewolbt, queerstreifig, Scheitel brelt viereckig, vorn und hinten scharf
g-erandet, die Nebenaugen auf der mitte desScheitels genahert. Schnabel
bis an die Hinterbrust reiehend. Fuhler in einer Grube an der Wurzel
der Wangen, selir kurz, mit langer feiner Endborste. Vorderrucken breit
am Scheitel vorgezogen und gerundet, bei den Augen gebuchtet, von den
Schultern nach hinten in einer Rundung verschmalert, an der spitze sclimal
aber tief ausgerandet. Schildchen ein langgezogenes spitzwinkeliges
dreick bildend, Deckschilde lederartig, an der Spitze gewolbt, uber
einander klapfend, die hintere Randader weit von dem Hinterrande ent-
fernt. Flugel hautig, unter den Deckschilden vorborgen. Beine maszig
lang, unbewehrtumdie hintersten verlangert, mit zweistachelnam Rucken
die Schienen und einem Dornenkranze an der Spitze der Schienen, und
ersten beiden Tarsengliedern.

A careful study of all the American forms leads to the fol-
lowing summary of characters:

Broad, oval forms; very variable in size and color markings; front
inflated, circular, not longitudinally carinated; antenna? arising from a deep
cavity between the eyes, basal enlargement not extending outside of cavity;
vertex narrow, transversely depressed, outline regular, not inclosing front;
eyes broad, a row of curved hairs on the outer and posterior margin; pro-
notum convex, trapezoidal, transversely wrinkled, deeply emarginated
behind; scutellum narrow, triangular, longer than pronotum; hemelytra
convex, deflected posteriorly, overlapping behind in a perpendicular plane;
corium with three apical cells and two widely separated discoid cells, a
broad membrane beyond; membrane and apical cellules hyaline; clavus
with apex broadly rouaded; an oval, convex, callous dot near apex of
hemelytra; under wing with a single discoid cell, terminal apical cell open;
posterior tibia with a single terminal row of spines: ovipositor carried
perpendicular to the plane of the body; males usually smaller and slightly
darker than females; smallest varieties nearly black.

Specific characters are based upon the size and shape of
front, the facial angle, sculpturing of vertex and pronotum,
size and shape of discoid and apical cells, pubescence of prono-
tum and hemelytra, and the color markings of the face and legs.

Sub-species are based upon size, food habits and associated
groups of constant color markings; varieties, on locality, size
and color markings of vertex, pronotum and clavus.

184 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

SYNOPSIS OF SPECIES.

A. Front strongly inflated, rising abruptly from face at sides, meeting
vertex in same plane: pronotum with broad wrinkles; first discoid
cell equal to second.
B. Front, outline a regular curve, entirely black, or yellow with
transverse interrupted brown bands above, light below; prono-
tum scabrous, with about eight distinct wrinkles; veins on cla-

VU3 pi'ominent. ..deUcata, Uhl. 0

BB. Front, outline an irregular curve, upper half black with a narrow
yellow margin next to vertex, lower half yellow, lorse and
clypens yellow: pronotum, bare, with about twelve indistinct

broad wrinkles proteus, Fitch. 0

AA. Front, less inflated, rising gradually from face at sides, meeting ver-
tex at an obtuse angle above: pronotum finely, sharply wrinkled,
about twenty on the median line": first discoid cell smaller than
second.
B. Hemelytra strongly impunctured, sparsely pubescent; second api-
cal cell short and broad: insects small, of a uniform color above

— xaiitbocepbala, Germ. ^

BB. Hemelytra minutely impunctured, thickly finely pubescent, second
apical cell long and narrow: insects large, usually banded above
ohtusa, Say. C

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO SPECIES.

A. Face entirely black '.delicata-lineata, var. b. or binotata.

AA. Face not entirely black.

B. Upper half of front black: lora?, clypeus and lower half of front yel-
low proteus. 0

BB. Upper half of front light with transverse, interrupted, brown bands
C. Pronotum with five transverse straight black bands, not par-
allel with anterior margin.. .delicata-lineata, var. a. o

CC. Bands on pronotum parallel to anterior margin or wanting.

D. Hemelytra strongly impunctured, sparsely pubescent:
pronotum without bands: lower half of face with a

light band: insects small xanthocepbala.-^

DD. Hemelytra minutely impunctured thickly, finely pube-
scent; pronotum generally banded or colored where

not, face all light: insects large .obtvsa.^

C. DELICATA UHL.

'^ G. binotata Uhl. ms.
Uhler's original description found in his list of Hemiptera
west of the Mississippi river is as follows:

r" O

Form of C. protevs, Fitch, but with a more prominent front. Pale green-
ish-yellow. Head broad, apparently iropunctate: cranium short, trans-
A^ersely depressed, as is also the tylus: anterior edge of the vertex carinately
elevated, bordered from eye to eye with a black line: eye margined behind
with black; front smooth, polished, bright yellow, rounded, the transverse
ruga? substituted by slender black bands: lower down grooved, and with a
broad black spot, adjoining which each side on the cheeks is a smaller spot;

IOWA ACADEMY OF eCIENCES, VOL. HI

Gilmjin A. Drew, del.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES \ OL III

Oilman A. Drew, del.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 185

under side bright yellow; rostrum black, reaching almost to the posterior
cox£e: antennae black at base. Pronotum banded on the anterior margin
by a slender black line, and with five straighter and more slender lines
which stop just short of the lateral margins, these lines feebly impressed
and obsoletely, minutely scabrous, surface not wrinkled, almost smooth,
moderately convex, deeply emarginated behind, the lateral margin nar-
rowly produced as far as the outer line of the eyes; the humeral margin
recurved, and with a small black dot before it. Scutellum pubescent, yel-
low, transversely wrinkled, with a slender black line at base, and an inter-
rupted one behind the middle. Hemelytra with short, remote, golden
pubescence, coarsely punctate at base, more obsoletely so posteriorly; the
inner and posterior margins, the suture between the corium and clavus, an
oblique short streak on the disc, and a spot on the middle of the costa fus-
cous: posterior margin of the corium with a sinuous brown band, the mem-
brane and posterior one-third of the corium, and spot at base of costa pale
brown; the bulla very prominent, black; under side yellow; the mesoste-
thium, discs of the plural pieces, and middle line of genital segment pitch
black Legs, yellow, the tibite having a band below the knee, another on
the middle, and a third at tip, and the spines of tibia; and tarsi, including
the nails, dark piceous.

Length to the tip of hemelytra, four and one-half mm., width of prono-
tum, two mm.

After a careful study of representatives from every state
from which it has been reported so far, the following descrip-
tion, embracing only characters of specific value was prepared.

Size variable; color from yellow to black; front much inflated; two cir-
cular yellow depressions on vertex near eyes; pronotum strongly, broadly
wrinkled.

Front rising abruptly from face at sides, meeting vertex in same plane
above, outline a regular curve. Vertex very slightly transversely
depressed; a distinct, circular, yellow depression midway between eye and
ocellus on either side. Pronotum coarsely pubescent, strongly, transversely,
wrinkled, about eight on the median line. Hemelytra coarsely pubescent;
veins on clavus strongly raised; apical cells transversely compressed, third
cell triangular, not reaching beyond angle of posterior marginal vein.
Legs stout; spurs and spines strong; femur and tibia with dark lateral
lines coalescing with two dark spots on outside of tibia.

Sub. sp. I. lineata. Pronotum yellow, with five black bands.
" ' Var. a, Clavus with veins and margin yellow inclosing dark areas.
b. Clavus entirely fuscous.
^ Sub. sp. II. binotata. Pronotum entirely black.

Habitat: Utah (Uhl), Cal. Col. and Ariz.

This species is so widely variable that with only the extreme
forms there would be no hesitancy in pronouncing them sepa-
rate species, but with a large amount of material a series can
be found which clearly establishes their relationship. Uhler's
description is an absolutely perfect one for Sub. sj>y lineata var.

186 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

a, but would, apply only slightly to var. h, and would abso-
lutely exclude Sub. sp. binotata.

^ C. binotata was a rns. name given to that var. by Uhler, I believe,
and under which name specimens have been distributed in col-
lections.

^ C. PROTEUS, FITCH.

C. saint cyri. Prov.
The original description was published in the fourth annual
report of the New York State Museum (1851). Repubhshed
in the ninth report of the State Entomologist of New York,
page 394, from which the following description and sub-divis-
ions are copied:

Head bright yellow, a black band on anterior margin of vertex and a
broader one on the front; front polished, without transverse striae; a callous
black dot near the apex of the elytra; legs yellowish-white, tarsi black.
Length, 0.16; males slightly smaller.

Closely allied to the C atra of Germ , but on examining a host of speci-
mens not one occurs in which the legs are annulated with black or fuscous.

He then divides the species up into sub-species and varieties
as follows:

Sub. sp. I. flaricoUis. Thorax entirely yellow,
o Var. a. Elytra yellow.

^ b. Elytra with an oblique blackish vitta.

^ Sub. sp. II. cincticoUis. Thorax with a black band.

Var. a. An interrupted black band on the anterior margin of the

thorax.
" ^ b An entire black band on anterior margin of the thorax.
'-' c. Thoracic band crossing the disk instead of the anterior

margin.
''-' d. Band on the disk of the thorax, and scutel black.
^ Sub. sp. III. maculicoUis. Thorax with one or two discoidal spots.
0 Var. a. A black spot on disk and au interrupted band anteriorly.
V o b. A black spot on the disk and anterior band entire.
0 c Two black spots on the disk of the thorax.
^ Sub. sp. IV. nigricoUis. Thorax black, with a yellow band forward of

the disk.
v' C- Var. a. The black band on the anterior margin of the thorax inter-
rupted.
^ <^ 6. The band continuous.

>>■ 0 c. Scutel black, with a yellow dot at its base.
y Q d. Scutel entirely black.

Fitch's "host" of specimens were probably all from one
locality and may all have belonged to one sub. sp , according
to my classification below. At any rate I have at hand four
specimens, that are all clearly and uaquestionably varieties of

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES, VOL. III.

'til

his

f.U.

T^l J

CJ'

w t

-^fil

Fig.6

Fig. 11

Fig. 7

Fig.S

Fig.0

Gllman A. Drew, del.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 187

my sub. sp. vittata, eaoh one of which answers the require-
ments of a different sub. sp. of Pitch; on the other hand I have
specimens which are uaquestionably of different sub. sp., and
occurring in widely separated localities which would be placed
in the same sub. sp., and the same variety by Fitch's classifi-
cation, clearly showing that the color of the pronotum is not of
sufficient value oa which to base sub-species. He made no pro-
vision for the, .black varieties and from his remark about the
relationship otC atra, Germ. , it is highly probable that he had
none.

A careful study of about seventy -five specimens, embracing
representatives from widely separated areas resulted in the
adoption of the color marking of the clavus as a character con-
stant for a given sub-species, and in the determination of
specific characters as follows:

Size, medium; front strongly inflated, upper half black, lower half yel-
low; legs bright yellow, with lateral black lines.

Front rising abruptly from face at sides continuing in same plane as
vertex above; upper half black; lower half, loras and clypeus yellow, a
black dot on center of clypeus. Vertex slightly, transversely depressed,
anterior margin not distinctly carinated; suture between front and vertex
indistinct. Pronotum bare, broadly, indistinctly, transversely wrinkled,
wrinkles minutely striated, about twelve on the median line. Hemelytra
with a fine short pubescence; first discoid cell wider than second second
apical cell broad, nearly equal to third. Abdomen black or fuscous; legs
bright yellow; a lateral line on front of fetnur, one on each side of tibia;
all three joints of tarsi, and last segment of rostrum black. Length, four
mm , width of pronotum about one and one-half mm.

Habitat:' Iowa, Illinois (Forbes), Qaebec, Canada, Ontario,
Canada,"^ New Hampshire, ^Massachusetts, ^Pennsylvania,*^New
York,^ District of Columbia; New Jersey (Smith), 'West Virginia.

^ Sub. sp. I. /lava. Anterior two-thirds of clavus yellow.
•^ "^ Var. a. Scutellum with a yellow spot
/ O b. Scutellum black.

0 Sub. sp. II. vittata Clavus yellow with an oblique black vitta through

the middle.
/ (} Var. a. Pronotum with one yellow band anteriorly.
• C- b\ Pronotum with two yellow bands.

, V c. Pronotum entirely yellow.

Habitat: New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Con-
necticut, District of Columbia.

O Sub. sp. III. nigra. Clavus entirely black.

^ 0 Var. a. A yellow band on vertex, and one on face next to vertex.

(J b. Yellow bands wanting; entirely black above; legs darker.

188 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Habitat: West Virginia, Pennsylvania, District of Columbia,

Massachusetts, New York.

o

Specimens of C. saint cyri Prov., that I have from Quebec,
Canada, belong to sub. sp. '^flava.

G C. XANTHOCEPHALA GERM.

^ Germar's original description (Germ. Zeit. fur die Ento., 1-
189) is as follows:

Nigra, capite flavescente, frontis, fascia nigra, elytris maculis margin-
atibus hyalinis, puncta coUoso ante apicum nigro, pedibus pallido-fuscaque
annulatis.

Habitat in Pennsylvania, Carolina, Zimmermann. One and one-half lin
lang. Kopf gelb, um der scheitel dunkel, eine queerbinde auf der unter-
seite schwarz. Deckschilde schwarz, ein Fleck am vorderrande vor der
Spitze, ein anderer, der den ganzen Hinterrand einnimmt, glashell, latz-
terer mit einem schwarzen schwieligen Punkte vor der Vorderecke. Beine
gelblich, braun geringelt.

This species is the most constant in size and coloration of any
in the genus. From a study of over one hundred specimens
representing every locality mentioned below, I have prepared
the following description:

Small, brown or black without markings of any kind above; face with
brown bands above, dark below with a distinct light band crossing the cen-
ter; hemelytra very sparsely pubescent.

Front moderately inflated, light above with about nine transverse inter-
rupted brown bands, band below these, and clypeus black, lorae, included
portions of front, and margin of anterior coxal fossas yellow. Vertex
not strongly depressed; suture between vertex and front distinct. Pro-
notum with about nineteen fine indistinct wrinkles. Hemelytra strongly
impunctured, very sparsely pubescent; second apical cell broad, irregularly
wedge-shaped. Under side black; legs brown, spurs and spines tipped
with black. Length, three and one-half mm., width of pronotum, one and
four-tenths mm.

G Var. a. Black above; a small white spot on center of costa.

^ h. Glaucus above.

Habitat: Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, Louisana, Mary-
land, District of Columbia, Virginia, Florida, Iowa, Pennsyl-
■vania, Carolina (Walker) and New Jersey (Smith).

0 C. OBTUSA, SAY.

^ Cercopia oUusa Say. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., IV, 339. (1825.)

P '' Clastoptera achatina GeTm. Zeit fur die Ent., t, 189. (1839.)

^ ^ C. testacea Fitch. Fourtli An. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. (1851.)

d d C. pini Fitcli. Fourtli An. Kep. N. Y. State Mus. (1851.)

Q O C. lin&atocoUis Stal. Eng. Resa Omk. jord.. IV, 286.

A <5- C. ostiorMi Gillette. Hemip. Col., 71. (1895.)

O 6 C. stolida Uhl. ?

X) O C. undulata Uhl. ?

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 189

Say's original description (Coll. Writings, Vol. II, page 256)
is as follows:

0 Head and anterior part of thorax pale, with three transverse lines;
wings varied with brown and pale: body short, oval; head pale yellowish,
an elevated, reddish-brown, transverse line between the eyes and before
the stemmata; front with about nine parallel, equidistant, reddish-brown
lines, which are interrupted in the middle and abbreviated in the cavity
of the antenna?; antenna? placed in a deep cavity, beyond which the seta
only projects, head beneath black; thorax pale yellowish before, reddish-
brown and rugose with continuous lines behind, anterior edge elevated,
reddish-brown, a reddish-brown transverse band on the middle; scutel pale
reddish-brown; hemelytra varied with fucous and pale, generally forming
a band on the middle which is more distinct on the costal margin, spot at
tip and larger one at base; nervules dark-brown; feet black, joint whitish;
tibia? and tarsi whitish, posterior tibia bi-spinous behind, of which one is
very robust; length rather more than one-fifth of an inch.

The band of the hemelytra is sometimes indistinct, three brown dots
near tip; female generally paler, with the abdomen whitish.

This species presents a remarkable number of quite distinct
sub species and varieties, and, owing to the fact that Say's
description was of an extreme variety, a great deal of confus-
ion has existed as to its limits, resulting in quite a number of
these varieties being described as distinct species. I have
appended these descriptions and have retained their names for
the sub-species, except testacea and pinl, which I lind to be
simply varieties of a sub-species of which the description of
osborni is more nearly true; and it is therefore retained in pref-
erecce.

The following synopsis of the species is a result of a sum-
mary of the different descriptions, and the study of 200 speci-
mens representing every state given below with the exception
of New Jersey. I am reasonably confident that with the pos-
sible addition of a few more varieties, it will stand the test of
any farther discovery of material:

Large; front broad, fiattish, with about nine bands above; second apical
cell rectangular, elongate; pronotum finely, sharply wrinkled.

Front rising gradually from face at sides, making an obtuse angle with
vertex above, upper portion light with about nine parallel, equidistant,
transverse, interrupted, brown bands. Vertex very strongly, transversely
depressed, carinated anterior margin prominent; suture between vertex
and front distinct; ocelli situated near front margin.

Pronotum with about nineteen minute distinct wrinkles. Hemelytra
minutely punctured, with a fine thickly set pubescence; second apical
cell rectangular, elongate. First, discoid cell curved, narrower than sec-
ond. Legs stout; spur?, spines and third tarsal segment tipped with black.

Length, four and one-half mm., width of pronotum, two mm.

190 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

^ Sub. sp. I. ohtusa. Lower half of face fuscous or black.
^ (s Var. a. Dark; a distinct oblique, light band on hemelytra; prono-
tum, anterior half, light yellow, divided by a transverse
brown band.
Habitat: Iowa, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, Maryland,
District of Columbia, West Virginia, Ontario, Canada.

0 Var. b. Light; same markings as above, only much lighter and less
distinct.
Habitat: Iowa, New York, District of Columbia.
V c^- Var. c. Dark; hemelytra coppery; thorax without band; pronotum
yellowish [achatina).
Habitat: Pennsylvania.
Sub. sp. 11. lineatocoUis. Lower half of face dark with a light band
•crossing the middle,
^ ^ Var. a. Pronotum entirely dark; scutellum yellow; legs light with

lateral dark lines. California.
V 0 b. Pronotum, posterior half dark, anterior half sulphur yellow;

lines on femur and tibia broad, almost confluent. Colorado.
1/ o c. Pronotum light yellow, narrow brown band anteriorly; legs
light, lateral line faint; dark band on clypeus reduced to
a dot; hemelytra pale rufous, nervules brown, very distinct
West Virginia, District of Columbia.
^ d. Pronotum entirely sulphur yellow; hemelytra dark coppery;
legs brown. Maryland, District of Columbia.
<? Sub. sp. III. osborni. Face entirely light, bands on front obscure.
V OVar. a. Light olive green; scutellum sulphur yellow. Colorado,

Wisconsin, West Virginia, District of Columbia,
v^ Ob. Copper colored throughout''(testacea). New York, West

, Virginia, District of Columbia, New Jersey.
y , c. Black; posterior margin of vertex, anterior margin of
pronotum, costal margin of hemelytra, and legs yellow.
(Pini) North Carolina, District of Columbia, New York
(Fitch).

The following original descriptions may assist in recogniz-
ing the corresponding sub. sp. and varieties. Var. a, under each
sub. sp. , being its type, and of course the only one to which
the description will entirely apply.

<-. C. achatina.— {Germ. Zeit. fur Ento. Vol. I , 167.) Testacea, fronts
nigra, elytris ante apicem fuscis, macula submarginall ante apicem nigra,
femoribus medio fuscis. Hab. in Pennsylvania, Zimmermann. Two bis
2i lin. lang, rothgelb oder grau gelb, stirn und Mittlebrust, bisweilen auch
der Hinter-theil des Bauches schwarz. Deckschilde von der mitte weg bis
vor die Spitze Schwarzlichbraun, doch bleibt ein Fleck am Seitenrande
hell. Die Ader des vorderrandes fuhrt vor ihrer Spitze einen schwarzen
Fleck.

C. lineatocoUis. Stal. (Eng. Resa, Omk. jord. IV, 286 ) Caput dilute
flavescens, verticis marginibus basali et apicall lineisque transversis
frontis apicem versus longitrorsum impres^se nigrofuscis. Thorax postice

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 191

profunde angulatosinuatus, medio longitrorsum carinatus dilute flavescecs,
lineis pluribus tranversis fuscis ornatum. Tegmina latitudine vix
duplo longiora, sordide flavescente-pellucida, medio fascia antrorsum
augustata et abbreviata albida, anterius a linea, posticea fascia indistincta
fuscis terminata, callo rotundato fere apicali ad marginem costalem nerv-
isque apicalibus hie illic fuscis. Subtus nigro-varia. Pedis dilute flaves-
centes, vitta femorum maculisque tibiarum nigro-fuscis.
^ C. osftor/jj Gillette. (List Hem. Col p 71 ) Female: face two-thirds
wider than long, minutely, indistinctly sculptured; clypeus broad at base,
gradually tapering to the pointed apex, one-fifth longer than broad, basal
suture obsolete; loras long, nearly as long and half as broad as clypeus;
gence narrow, outer margin concave beneath eyes, convex below lora?
where they are very narrow, touching the clypeus at the broadest part;
front but little longer than broad, superiorly very broadly and evenly
rounded. Vertex very slightly transversely depressed, anterior margin
carinately elevated, not longer at middle than at eyes. Pronotum trans-
versely wrinkled, minutely scabrous, two distinct pits behind anterior
margin near the median line, three-fourths wider than long, anterior
curvature three-eighths of length. Scutellum finely and transversely
wrinkled and minutely scabrous, longer than head and pronotum, twice
longer than wide. E ytra with a fine, thickly set, golden pubescence,
entirely finely, densely punctured. Color pale rufous throughout, tinged
with olive green on pronotum and clavus, beneath more yellowish.
Length, five and one-half mm. Described from two females. Large but
somewhat narrower across the hemelytra than is usual in this genus.
-' C. testscea Fitch. (Ninth Rep. St. Ento N. ^.,393.) Testaceous;
scutel rufous; elytra with a polished callous-like black dot near the apex.
Length, 0 20 inches

0 C pini Fitch. (Ninth Rep. St. Ento. N. Y., 393.) Black; head yellow,
with a black band on the anterior margin of the vertex; thorax with a yel-
low band anteriorly; elytra with a broad hyaline under margin interrupted
in the middle and a black callous dot near the apex. Length 0.14.

Note — I have been unable to obtain specimens of C. undulata and
' C. stolida of Uhler from the West Indies, but from their descriptions I am
very confident that they will be found to be varieties of obtiisa also. So
that, with the possible exception of C. brevis, Walker, this paper includes
all the present known or described forms of the North American
Clastoptera.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Quite a number of interesting facts have been brought to
light through a comparative study of geographical distribu-
tion. Each species possesses a wide range, while some of the
varieties are exceedingly sectional in their distributi' n. As a
whol^ obfusa has the greater range, occurring from Massachu-
setts to California, and from Canada to Georgia, and probably
to the West Indies. Sub-sp. I,"^ obtusa is the most common form
in the east and the only one found in the Mississippi valley,

192 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

while of sub-sp. II, lineatocollis, var. a and 1) occur only in Cal-
ifornia, Arizona and Colorado, and vari c and d have only been
reported from Maryland and West Virginia. Sub-sp. Ill
osborni, var. a, has a wide range, while var.^ b (testacea) and c
(pint) are only found on the eastern coast from New York to
North Carolina.

*^' C.proteus, sub-sp. l,^flava, is found throughout the northern
half of the Mississippi valley and the eastern states up to Can-
ada, while sub sp. II and III, vittata a,n^7iigra, are found only
in Pennsylvania and the surrounding states. Both varieties of
xantliocephala have the same wide range: the southern part
of the United States, from Maryland to Iowa on the north to
Florida and Texas on the south. ^ C. delicatay^ithall of its varie-
ties ranges from Colorado to California, and from Utah to
Arizona.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.

As a whole they are of considerable economic importance.
Although not usually occurring in sufficient numbers to be
noticeably injurious, however ,'''i;rofews has been reported as
having done conr\iderable damage to cranberry swamps in a
number of instances. Their food habits have not been very
accurately determined. In general they feed on the sap of
trees and shrubs, occurring most abundantly in low places.
They have been reported as occurring on the ash, oak, pine,
alder, butternut, elder, blueberry, cranberry and some of the
larger grasses and weeds.

SUMMARY.

The study of this genus just recorded only adds one more
instance to the many giving evidence against the immutability
of species. Here we have four species, of which the larger and
lighter varieties are widely separated, and easily recognizable
by constant and strikingly distinct color markings, while at
the other end of the series are small dark forms only capable
of separation and recognition by reference to structural char-
acters rendered indisinct by deep coloration. To still more
complicate matters, proteus excepted, they have intermediate
light green or glaucus forms which so grade into each other in
size and shade that it is only on structural characters in gen-
eral, and the shape of the apical cells, in particular, that they
can be separated.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 193

The structural characters upon which the species have been
founded have proved so constant, within measurable variations,
for all the different varieties, that I am confident the species
and the synonymical determinations will stand. The limitation
of sub-species and varieties, while as accurate and complete as
the 400 specimens of available material would allow, will doubt-
less undergo some expansion and correction with the accumula-
tion of new and larger collections of material.

In conclusion I wish to acknowledge indebtedness to Messrs.
Gillette, Lintner, Ashmead, Weed, Fernald, Goding, Skinner,
VanDuzee, Sirrine, Mally and Gossard and Miss Beach for the
privilege of examining material, and for other favors extended,
and to Professor Osborn, in particular, for the use of his pri-
vate collection and the department material, and for his invalu-
able counsel and advice.*

EXPLANATION OP PLATES.

PLATE XI.

0 Figure 1. Clastoptera obtasa, Say.

Color markings of Sub-species I. obtusa.

Showing color markings of faces.
•^ Figure 2. C. ohtusa-ohtusa.
C Figure 3. C. obtusa-oshorni.
C" Figure 4. C. obtusa-liaeatocoUis.
O Figure 5. C proteus-nigra (variety b.).
O Figure 6. C. pro tens Fitch. ;
O Figure 7. C. A-antAocepAa/a Germ.'
O Figure 8. C. delicata-lineata (variety a.).

PLATE XII.

Venation of upper and under wings represented by one species from
each genus as a type. The venation seems to be very constant within
generic limits, as far as I have had opportunity to examine, with the
exception of Philxaus which either possesses two types or else there is
another as yet unrecognized genus represented in our fauna.
G Figure I. Wings of Monecpbora bicincta, Say.
C Figure II. Wings of Pbilsenus sp.
<3 Figure III. Lepyronia 4-angularis Say.
0 Figure IV. Apbrophora quadrinotata, Say.
0 Figure V. Pbilsenus sp. o
C Figure VI. Clastoptera obtusa, Say.

* This work has been done in the entomological laboratory of the Iowa Agricul-
tural College, and submitted as a graduating thesis.
13

194

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

^ Figure 1.
^ Figure 2.

'^ Figure 3.

^Figure 4.

<^ Figure 5. ^

O- Figure 6.

l> Figure 7.

0 Figure 8.

<> Figure 9,

^ Figure 10.

6 Figure 11.

1, 2 and

^ Figure 1./

^ Figure 2.

(5 Figures.

O Figure 4.

o Figures.

':^ Figure 6.

Ci Figure 7.

0 Figure 8.

C Figure 9.

a Figure 10.

PLATE XIII.

Leg of Aphropbora quadrinotata, Say, showing double row

of spines.

Leg of Lepjronia quadrangularis, Say.

Leg of Clastoptera proteus, Fitch, showing single row of

spines.

Side view of C. delicata, Uhl., showing outline of face.

Oblique dorsal view of same showing inflation of front.

C. proteus, Fitch, same as above.

C xantbocephala, Germ.

C. ohtvsa, Say.

Venation of hemelytra, C delicata.

Same ff r C. proteus.

Same for C. xanthocepbala, Germ.

Clastoptera obtusa, Fitch.
3; first, second and third apical cells, a and b; first and sec-
ond discoid cells.

PLATE XIV.

Abdomen of Lepyronia quarangularis Say, male, ventral view.
Female, of same.
Male, dorsal view.

Abdomen of Apbrophora psrallela, Say, male, ventral view.
Female, ventral view.
Same, dorsal view.

Abdomen of C. obtusa, male, posterior view.
Female, same view.

Abdomen of C xantbocepbala, Germ., male, posterior view.
Female, same view.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CICADID.^ OP IOWA.

HERBERT OSBORN.

The members of this interesting group of insects, which con-
tains the largest of our native Homoptera, have at least four
representatives in the state of Iowa and it is the intention to
call attention to these in this paper and also to put on record
some observ'^ations regarding their habits and distribution which
may serve as a basis for further investigations concerning
them.

fj Cicada dorsata Say. One specimen of this large species
n the collection of the Iowa Agricultural College from a student
who stated that it was taken in Poweshiek county, is the only
example indicating its occurrence in the state.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 195

THE DOG-DAY CICADA.

0 ( Cicada tibiceri' Ijinn. )

This is our larger common species, and one -which, by its
penetrating note, renders itself a conspicuous feature of the
autumn weeks. First described by Linne it has since received
various appeWdbtiori'^-hpercularis, Olivier; -^jrwrnosa, Say ;^i^ricen,
DcGeer andLlanicuIaris, Harris. This synomony arises partly
on account of uhe variability of the species. This variation is
considerable when its range over a large part of the United
States is considered, but within our own state this variation is
somewhat limited. Specimens collected here generally conform
closely to the descripiion given by Say for hispruinosa.

Its distribution is quite general and I assume that it occurs
throughout the eastern part of the state, at least, and in general
over ttie timbered portions. I am assured by good observers,
however, that there are places in the northwest part of the
state where it is unknown. Specimens have been collected or
received from many widely different localities.

In spite of its abuadance and wide distribution our knowl-
edge of its habits and life-history is very meager, though it is
stated to require two years to complete its growth and to
deposit its eggs in apple trees as one at least of the plants it
may injure.

THE PERIODICAL CICADA OR "SEVENTEEN- YEAR LOCUST."

(^Cicada septen-decem Linn.)

The "seventeen-year cicada" is doubtless the most interest-
ing of all the Cicadas on account of its phenomenally long
larval life. As is well known it lays its eggs in twigs of vari-
ous trees and the larvse entering the ground feed upon the
roots of plants, and require a period of seventeen years to
complete their growth. Two broods are represented in the
state.

Brood V, Distribution. — In 188S, th3 locust year for the east-
ern part of the state, I secured, through the state crop service,
reports from many of the localities which gave decidedly use-
ful information with reference to limitations of the brood and
comparison with previous occurrences. Records were received
from over thirty counties and about ninety correspondents.

The limits of this brood have been outlined heretofore by
Mr. Suel Foster, Dr. William LeBaron and Prof. C. E, Bessey.

196 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Dr. LeBaron (2d Rept. 111. Insects p. 130) writes as follows:

"In the Prairie Farmer for July 29tli, a brief outline of the
locust racge was published by Mr. Suel Foster, of Muscatine,
Iowa, bub in this outline, as Mr. Foster himself stated, many
gaps were left undetermined. I have found Mr. Foster's out-
line to be, in the main, correct, and have filled, as far as pos-
sible, the gaps which he left. I will take the same starting
poinb with Mr. Foster, namely, the junction of the Iowa River
with the Mississippi in Louisa county, Iowa. Thence, in a
northwesterly direction, following the eastern branch known
as the Cedar River as far north as about opposite the mouth of
the Wisconsin river. Thence east in about the same line of
latitude to Lake Michigan, following the Wisconsin river so far
as it lies in this line, thus leaving out the northernmost counties
of Iowa and the two lower tiers of counties of Wisconsin."
The rest of the description refers only to territory outside of
Iowa.

In 1878 at the time of the occurrence of Brood XIII in south-
ern low^a, Prof. C. E. Bessey, then of the Iowa Agricultural
College, collected data for the determination of the boundaries
of that brood and incidentally collected considerable informa-
tion concerning the distribution of Brood V in the eastern part
of the state.

His report upon this investigation appeared in the American
Entomologist, Vol. I. N. S. , p. 27. As there given the area
included is considerably greater than that outlined by Dr.
LeBaron. He does not seem to have noticed the record of
LeBaron given above. His outline is as follows:

Starting at nearly the same point in Wapello, Louisa county,
the line he draws extends more to the westward, including the
western or Iowa branch of the Iowa river as far west as into
Tama county, and considerable territory to the southward,
including all of Johnson, more than half of Iowa and a portion
of Poweshiek counties. From Tama county northeastward to
the extreme northeast corner of the state includicg nearly all of
Black Hawk, Fayette and Allamakee counties, and part of
Bremer, Chickasaw and Winneshiek, with a possible extension
westward so as to include all the counties to the north and east
of Tama, though reference to his notes indicates some of the
counties included, as Allamakee, Winneshiek, Black Hawk,
Fayette and Bremer to be doubtful.

IOWA ACADBMV OF SCIENCEjJ, VOL. II [

E. D. Ball, del.

IOWA ACADEMY OF BCIENCES, VOL. III.

E.D. Ball. del.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 197

The counties reporting Cicadas for 1888 are as follows: Ben-
ton, Black Hawk, Bashanan, Clayton, Clinton, Cedar, Delaware,
Dubuque, Iowa, Jackson, Johnson, Jones, Louisa, Muscatine,
Scott, Tama. This shows only the counties reporting but does
not indicate the extent or distribution in the counties, and this,
for th^. border counties particularly, is quite important in fix-
ing a definite boundary. I took pains therefore to locate the
particular township from which the reports came, which was
possible by examining the records at the secreta-ry's office in
Des Moines, and was thus able to locate the actual boundary
usually within six miles at most, certainly within the limits of
the ordinary flight of the insect.

The line of townships beginning at the Mississippi river in
Muscatine county and naming those on the border line from
which positive reports were received is as follows: Muscatine
county, Fruitland, Cedar; Louisa county, Columbus City; Iowa
couaty, York, Summer; Benton county, Saint Clair; Tama
county, Clark, Geneseo; Black Hawk county. Spiny Creek;
Buchanan county, Sumner; Clayton county. Cox Creek, Clayton.

For convenience sake we may carry our line through the
towns and villages nearest this lino and it will be approxi-
mately as follows: Fruitland, along south line of Muscatine
to Columbus City, then along the west of the Iowa river till in
Johnson county, then northwest to York Center, Iowa couaty
and to near Ladora, then northeast to Blairstown, then north-
west to Dysart, then northeast through Laporte City, Independ-
ence, Strawberry Point, Elkaier aad Clayton.

The area of natural timber corresponding for the most part
with the valleys of the rivers and smaller streams, the distribu-
tion of Cicada may be pretty accurately expressed by defining
them, and on this basis they may be said to occur in the valley
of the Iowa river from Columbus City to west of Mareago, in
the valley of the Cedar river and its tributaries as far to the
northwest as Laporte City. Iq the Wapsipinicon to Independ-
ence, in the Maquoketa to Strawberry Point, in the Turkey
to Elkader, and north on the Mississippi from south central
Muscatine county nearly to McGregor.

Numerous reports not specially indicated, attest their abun-
dance in all the central counties of this area and need not be
specified but some which bear particularly upon the border
line may be quoted here.

198 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

Mr. V. C. Gambell, a student in entomology whose home
was at Winfield, in Henry county, saw no locusts there but a
man in that vicinity reported hearing them and had seen one
shell. This is rather uncertain testimony especially in view of
absence of reports from this and the adjoining county to the
north. If correct it shows a very feeble rex)resentation of the
insect there. Mr. Gambell noticed in traveling on the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific railroad from Brooklyn to Iowa City
that the trees were injured, apparently by Cicada. If all due
to Cicada this would carry the brood into Poweshiek county
several miles further west than indicated by other reports.

Mr. E. N. Eaton of Keota, in the extreme east of Keokuk
found no locusts and no reports of them for that county.

Mr. P. H. Rolfs reports for the central eastern border of
Tama county that there were no locusts and none for about
five miles to the east of the county line, while Mr. F. A. Sir-
rine reports for a point about six miles further north that
locusts were in Tama county, two miles west of the county line
in Geneseo and Clark townships, but not in townships west so
far as he could learn.

The following additional statements from correspondents
have a special significance in determining the border line:

Louisa county, Wapello township, "None; a few in north
part of the county. " Columbus City, "Locusts present." In
Keokuk county. Clear Creek township, "None here this year,
but here seventeen years ago. " Prairie township, "None yet;
were here seventeen years ago." Garman township, "No
locusts, last in 1877" [1878 Brood XIII probably]. Iowa county,
York township, "Locusts in limited numbers in northeast third
of this township." Poweshiek county, Malcom township,
"None." Sheridan township, "None." Bear Creek township,
"None. None seventeen years ago." Warren, "None yet,
July 15th. Were here sixteen and seventeen years ago; second
year in great nucabers and did great damage to fruit trees and
shrubbery," Cnester township, " No seventeen year locusts to
amount to anything; appeared in 1861 and lb78." [Brood XIII].
Black Hawk county. Spring Creek township, "Yes, and seven-
teen years ago. " East Waterloo township, one correspondent
says: "No, never here." Another says: "No. A few seven-
teen years ago." Payette county, Westfield township, " None;

IOWA, ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. III.

= LATE XIII.

E. D. Ball, del.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. III.

PliATE XIV.

E. D. Ball, del.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 199

none seventeen years ago. " Eden township, " None. " Jeffer-
son township, "None within thirty-four years to my knowl-
edge." Clayton county, Giard township, "None this year; a
few seventeen years ago."

Brood XIII. — Professor Riley (1st Ann. Kept. State Eatomol-
ogist of Mo.) mentioDS this brood as occurring along the
southern border of Iowa, but does not specially define its limits.
The 1878 occurrence was studied by Professor Bessey and the
data collected enabled him to define the limits of the brood with
considerable exactness (Amer. Entom., N. S. Vol. I, p. 27).

According to this record they occurred in the following
counties: Van Buren, Davis, Wayne, Decatur, Des Moines,
Henry, Jefferson, Wapello, Monroe, Union, Louisa, Keokuk,
Mahaska, Marion, Warren, Madison, Adair, Cass, Iowa, Powe-
shiek, Jasper, Polk, Dallas, Marshall, Story, Boone, Greene,
Hamilton, and they were assumed to occur in the counties
embraced within the area encompassed by these, Clarke, Appa-
noose, Ringgold, Washington, Johnson, as indicated on his map,
outline of which is shown. (Plate XV.)

On the recurrence of this brood last season (1895) I published
requests in a number of state papers and also obtained from
students and others, data covering as much territory as possi-
ble. Tne responses to the published requests were not so
general as could be wished. In some cases many reports com-
ing from the same locality, while a number of counties, where
they must have occurred, furnished no reports.

Taking the counties reported in their order from the eastern
border of the state they run as follows: Louisa, Keokuk,
Poweshiek, Tama, Marshall, Story, Webster, Boone, Dallas,
Madison, Union, Decatur, and for counties within the outer
limits, Polk, Jasper, Marion, Monroe, Wapello, Jefferson, Van
Buren, Lee.

The counties within this area which must, in all probability,
have been visited, are Warren, Mahaska, Lucas, Wayne, Appa-
noose, Davis, Washington, Henry, Des Moines, while the
doubtful ones are Johnson, Iowa, Hamilton, Greene, Guthrie,
Adair, Ringgold.

Reports from Iowa and Johnson are quite positive as to
their non-appearance in those counties, though it is possible
our informants could speak for only a part of the area. There
is also a probability that they occurred in Hamilton county,
close to the Des Moines valley at least, if not in the Skunk.

200 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

In Greene, Guthrie and Adair they may have occurred in the
valley of the Raccoon or tributaries.

By river valleys, then, which give really the more impor-
tant distribution, we can say that they appeared in the Iowa
valley at Louisa county, were absent or possibly scarce in
Johnson and Iowa counties, but present in Tama and Marshall
and north as far as Marshalltown; in the valley of the Skunk
river from its mouth to Ames in Story county; in the valley of
the Des Moines and its tributaries as far north as to near Fort
Dodge and Lehigh, and in the Raccoon in Dallas county; also
in the valley of the Grand river and its tributaries in Decatur,
Union and Clarke couaties.

Comparison of the points giving actual occurrence in 1895,
represented on our map by square black spots, with the out-
line of Professor Bessey's map shows a reduction in most of
the outline, with a slight extension in the Des Moines valley.
These reports on the whole would suggest a reduction of the
area, and many of the reports state a reduction in number of
cicadas as compared with previous occurrences.

It is of course impossible with the records for even three or
four occurrences to draw any conclusions as to the future his-
tory of the insect or assign causes to any apparent changes,
still some suggestions as to probable influences may not be out
of place as indicating lines of future observation and record.
It is evident that many years must elapse before the problems
connected with the species can be properly discussed.

Admitting that the broods in these respective areas have
declined, it is interesting to inquire into the possible conditions
affecting the perpetuation of the species.

It should be borne in mind that the great bulk of settlement
in these parts of the state occurred between the appearance of
the broods in 1854-1871 and 1831-1878 respectively, and that
the settlement resulted in some important changes of the timber
distribution. These changes took two forms, first a diminution
of the natural timber belts along the streams from the neces-
sities for fuel and in much less degree the clearing of limited
tracts for cultivation. Second, an extension of the timbered
area by the planting of groves, wind-breaks, orchards, etc., on
the treeless portions. The former I believe not to have affected
the area or quantity of timber very greatly, as it would be
made good by the natural growth and extension and, especially
as regards the Cicada, had, I believe very little influence. The

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 201

latter, though perhaps having very little effect as increasing
the actual quantity of timber, seems to me a much more impor-
tant factor in connection with the Cicada problem. These
insects show a very decided tendency to deposit their eggs in
young trees, and in 1871 and 1878 found abundant opportunity
in the numerous young orchards and groves developed since
their prior occurrence to satisfy this propensity, so much so
that they must have in many places deserted in no small degree
the natural tinjber areas for these artificial ones.

Now, it seems natural to suppose that depending normally for
their food on roots common to areas of natural timber they
should have been met with a deficiency of such food in many
of the localities to which the adults had flown to deposit eggs,
and consequently have failed to develop and mature.

Such an influence will, of course, not be permanent and if
this be the only factor of importance Cicada should recuperate
in the future.

It has been my privilege to observe personally the occur-
rences of both these broods since 1871, and I hope to have the
opportunity to observe many of their generations in the future.

'^TIBICEN RIMOSA, SAY.

This species, which may be considered as belonging more
particularly to the northern and western fauna, is represented
in this state by a depauperate form and in the northern and
western portions by a form more closely approaching the west-
ern type.

It was described by Thomas Say in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
for 1830, p. 235, who ascribes it to the Missouri and Arkansas
and says further ' ' Mr. Nuttall presented me with two specimens
which he obtained on the Missouri, and I found one on the
Arkansaw."

While Mr. Nuttall's specimens may have been secured on
Iowa soil the probability seems strongly in favor of a location
further west in the then extensive territory of Missouri.

But slight mention has been made of the species since that
time and if it is found in the Mississippi valley as a species at
all common, it has failed to receive due mention. It is col-
lected in abundance in the Rocky Mountain region, and I have
numerous specimens from Colorado and New Mexico.

Aside from the depauperate form to be mentioned further,
I have specimens from Tama county, collected by Mr. F. A.

202 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Sirrine, of the larger form approachiug typical examples also
from Worth county, collected by Mr. S. W. Beyer.

It occurs somewhat commonly in the northwest part of the
state and probably is responsible for some of the reports of
seventeen year Cicada emanating from that quarter. Mr. E.
D. Ball, a graduate of the Agricultural college and whose home
is at Little Rock, Lyon county, states that it is found quite
abundantly throughout the prairie regions of the northwest
part of the state and that it was more abundatt in the 70's,
before the prairies were broken up, than at present. He gives
some interesting obseivations regarding its habits, the most
striking being that it occurs on prairie land remote from tim-
ber, thus indicating a habit quite different from the other mem-
bers of the genus. He states that in herding cattle on the
ranges years ago, he has seen them as many as four or five to
the square rod of grass in localities where the nearest trees
were ten miles away and these only bush willows fringing a
stream. During the summer of 1893 he carefully observed
them in a lot in town. The lot was bordered on two sides by a
double row of trees, box-elder and maples. At any time plenty of
the cicades could be found or heard in the grass, but careful search-
ing failed to fiad a single one or any indications of egg deposi-
tion. They occur more abundantly in the rich upland grass at
the foot of a hill or bordering a meadow, a situation equally
favorable to the growth of certain prairie weeds, notably the
"shoestring" or Lsad plant, Amorplia canescens, which has a
very tough woody stem, a plant which was particularly abun-
dant in the lot above mentioned. The cicadas were frequently
seen on this plant, but no eggs were found. They appear the
latter part of June and only live for two or three weeks at
most.

The form of this species which occurs at Ames is much
smaller and with more extensive orange markings than in the
western forms ; it is by no means co mmon and no observations have
been made as to its breeding habit here. It is so different from
the larger Rocky Mountain form that were it not for the inter-
mediate forms occurring throughout the range of the species
as a whole, there would be little question as to its being recog-
nized as distinct. This form agrees with the one described by
Emmons as noveboracensis.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 203

- MELAMPSALTA PARVULA SAY.

This interesting little species has been taken once at Ames
and this is, so far as I know, the only record of its occurrence
in the state. It is a more southern form, being credited to the
southern states as far north as southern Illinois and central
Kansas. Very likely it may be found occasionally in the south-
ern part of the state when collectors become more plentiful.

Any addition to these records will be gratefully received and
duly credited in future records.

BIOLOGIC NOTES ON CERTAIN IOWA INSECTS.

HERBERT OSBORN AND C. W. MALLY.

The followiDg notes are extracted from Bulletin 32 of the
Iowa Experiment Station, and embrace such portions of work
upon certain injurious insects as have a biologic interest. We
are indebted to the Experiment Station for the use of the
figures.

THE GROUND CHERRY SEED MOTH.

{Gelechia sp.)

Our attention was called to this insect by Dr. J. C. Milnes,
of Cedar Rapids, who reported it as very destructive on wild
ground cherries under cultivation; writing further, that this
cherry being very prolific and of excellent quality would be a
desirable garden plant were it not for the great injury from
this pest. The specimens sent contained the insect in the pupa
stage.

Cultivated ground cherry at Ames suffered from similar
attack, and the pest seems likely to occasion much loss.

Examination of wild ground cherries in the vicinity of Ames
revealed a considerable icjury from the pest, and steps were
taken to secure the early stages and determine as fully as pos-
sible the habits of the insect.

Out of 1,000 berries examined 130, or 13 per cent were
infested. All of these infested berries contained the pupae
enclosed in a white silken cocoon which filled most of the
cavity of the berry, the seeds being entirely devoured. Near
the stem end of the berry and opposite the head of the pupa
was an opening presumably prepared for the emergence of the
moth.

204 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

Observations on these berries would favor the conclusion
that the larvae develop within a single berry, no injured berries
being found which did not contain pupae, However, two ber-
ries were found with an opening on the side and containing
well developed larvae with very little of the inside of the berry
devoured, suggesting that the larvas, under exceptional condi-
tions migrate from a berry of insufficient food material to a
fresh one.

But very few larvas were found and these during the last
week in September. They were at that time mature and
apparently ready to pupate; so of the early molts and even of
the full grown larvae we cannot-give a satisfactory description.
Those observed were rather contracted, spindle-shaped, whitish,
with a reddish- brown head, sparsely haired.

Papation occurs during last two weeks of August and is in
nearly all cases completed by the last of the month.

The pupae are dark brown, six mm. long, and no distinctive
characters that v/ould separate them from related species were
detected. The cocoon is thin but of tough, close woven silk.
In forming the cocoon the larva attaches itself to the blossom
end of the berry by means of the caudal prologs and then
builds the cocoon which practicajly tills the cavity of the
shriveled berry.

1. {Oelechia sp.) a, injured berries, b, moth, c, mature
larva, d, pupa, e, parasite Ccntcterua suturalis.

Moths first appeared October 3d, so the period of pupation
may be stated as from two to three weeks.

The moth shown at b in Fig. 1 is of a gray color with darker
spots on the wings. It closely resembles G. quercifoliella.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 205

Out of the 130 berries containing pupee mentioned above we
secured four specimens of moths. This low per cent of adults
is due to the fact that a large proportion of the pupse, over 100,
were destroyed by a fungus, apparently quite similar to Sporo-
trichum, and of the remainder a number were attacked by a
Hymenopterous parasite {Centeterus suturalis Ash), seven of
which issued prior to September 24th.

The fungus was not observed to attack healthy berries,
always making its appearance after the hole had been made
near the stem, and, while it seemed to develop in the tissues of
the berry, there seems scarcely any doubt but that it is a par-
asite of the insect. Some of the Hymenopterous parasites
issued from berries showing fungus growth, so that it would
appear possible for these to resist the fuugus, even when pup£e
were infected with it; that is, supposing the fungus to infest
primarily the Gelechia. Doubtless a parasitized larva would be
a more easy victim of fungus attack.

The appearance of moths so late in the season, the impossi-
bility of their producing another brood, and the improbability
of their depositing eggs in any situation where they would
winter and assure the larvse access to their food plant the fol-
lowing spring, almost forces us to the conclusion that the
moths hibernate and deposit eggs when ground cherries bloom
the following season. This view is strengthened by the fact
that a specimen was captured in an office room of one the col-
lege buildings December 7, 1894. Nevertheless, so long an
existence of the adult for so delicate a lepidopterous insect
seems doubtful, and the possibility of some pupse hibernating
or of a spring brood of larvse, even in some situation different
from the berries of Physalis, must not be overlooked.

This species, as already intimated, very closely resembles
G. quercifoliella, and it was so determined with some doubt by
Mr. Marlatt from specimens sent to Washington for identifica-
tion. The fact that it affects a totally different plant indicates
it to be quite distinct from that species. It is certainly differ-
ent from jJhysaUella as described by Chambers, and has a totally
different larval habit, that species being said to mine the leaves
of Physalis in September, to pupate in leaves and rubbish on
the ground, and to issue as adult in April. Still another
species described as physalivorella was thought possibly to
represent our form, though no record of its larval characters
or habits were accessible. Mr. Marlatt has, however, kindly

208 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

compared our specimens with three specimens oi physalivorella
in the National museuon, and states, "these are very distinct
from your specimen " " The latter agrees quite well with G.
quercifoliella, but may be a distinct species."

From this it seems most prob^ible that this insect is unde-
scribed, but we prefer to leave the technical description to
some specialist ia this group of delicate and inetresting moths.

ON THE EARLY STAGES OF THE IMBRICATED SNOUT BEETLE.

{Epicaerus imbricatus Say.)

While this species has been recognized as a pest since its
first economic treatment by Walsh in 1863, our knowledge of
its life history has remained as meagre as at that time, nothing
being known as to its early stages, except the record of egg
laying by Professor Forbes.

This led us, on receiving specimens of the beetle with the
report of their injary to strawberry plants, to attempt their
breeding upon this food plant. While we did not succeed in
tracing the full history of the species, the securing of eggs and
the partial development of the laivss, and the possibility that
this clue may assist in the further elucidation of its history is
our excuse for presenting this fragmentary acccuut.

On May 14, 1895, the adulis were placed on a strawberry
plant having three or four open leaves and a number of small
berries. They immediately crawled up the stems and soon
began feeding upon the leaves, cutting a crescent correspond-
ing to a line described by the end of the snout. The crescent
was apparently quite uniform but soon became irregular when
the beetle had to move in order to reach the tissue; so in
reality there is no regularity in devouring the leaf and finally
nothing is left but the veins and a few angular fragments of
leaves. By the following day the effect on the leaves was
quite apparent, the beetles eating rapidly, and by the 20th the
leaves were ail devoured except a few dry, curled pieces and
the stems. They did not attack the berries, but in some cases
ate the sepals at the base.

The beetles began pairing the first day and continued for
five or six days. No eggs were observed till the 21st when a
number of small, white, glistening eggs were found under a
fold of a leaf and as no folded or dry leaves had been left on
the plant these eggs had certainly been deposited by the
Epicaerus. On the 22d another leaf containing eggs was found

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. HI

IOWA ACADEMY (^ SCIENCES. 207

and these, with those previously found, were placed by a fresh
leaf that had been carefully freed f i-om all matter that might
possibly contain eggs of other species, and the beetles removed
to avoid possibility of their injuring the egg. The eggs
appeared in all cases to be protected by a fold of leaf carefully
^lued down.

Pig. 8. Epicaerus imbriC:.itus eggs. (Drawn by Miss King.)

Forbes^ says of Epicaerus that they "were found by experi-
ment to feed freely on pear leaves, and also to lay their eggs
npon these leaves, concealing their deposit by gumming another
leaf to the surface."

The eggs are 1.3 mm. long, glistening white, nearly cylindri-
cal, sometimes very slightly curved, the ends broaJ.ly rounded,
the surface smooth, transparent and the shell very thin.

The first larvas to hatch escaped before beiig seen, the
empty shells being first noticed on the 30th. Hatching there-
fore occurs within ten days from time of deposition. Other
eggs isolated and kept under close observation showed that the
larvee immediately work their way into the ground and these
observed in root cages, during the following three weeks,
could be seen to move about among the roots and as they very
evidently increased in size and appeared to thrive it is safe to
say that they fed upon the roots of the strawberry plant.

The death of the plants in the root cages and the loss of the
larvae unfortunately brought the observation to an end.

The young larvas are two mm. long, without any trace of
eyes or legs. They are yellowish-whice in color, the head
from above oval with a few strong bristles and the mandibles
very conspicuous. The maxillary and labial palpi are short,
stumpy and in the living larvae stand out rather prominently
from the under side of the head. The body segments are pro-
vided with a few small hairs.

1 Sixteenth Report State Entom., 111. p. 76.

IOWA acaiJemy of sciences.

Adult beetles have been observed in autumn, as early as
August, but the probability is that ouly one brood occurs each
year, the adults surviving the winter.

This fragmentary result enables us to say with certainty that
the eggs are deposited in dry and folded leaves of the food
plants of the adults and that the larvse immediately enter the
ground to feed upon the roots. To this extent they show
what measures of control must be adopted for this insect.

Fig. 9. Epieaerus imbricatus. a, b, young larva, back and side view, c, head above.
d, head below, e, terminal segment. (From drawings by Miss King )

THE COSMOS WEEVIL.

{Baris confinis Lee.)

This weevil, Fig. 4, was found September 1, 1895, to work
very extensively in the root-stocks and the base of the larger
branches of Cosmos hipinnata causing the ultimate destruction
of the plant. The presence of the insect is first manifested by

Fig. 10. Baris confinis. (Drawn by Miss King.)

the breaking off of the larger branches. By examining the
base of these branches, and especially the root- stock, it will be

• IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 209

found that numerous white larvee and pupte about one-eighth
inch long are present and working in the woody tissue of the
plant. They make small tunnels, packing the borings around
them much as does the potato-stalk- weevil. They pupate in
these tunnels and emerge as a small black beetle.

The adult when first formed is white and takes on the black
color gradually, beginning on the head and thorax and then
extending backward to the scutellum and base of elytra and
then gradually over the whole body.

The adults are quite active but drop to the ground as soon
as disturbed and remain very quiet for some time.

Specimens of the adults kept on plants under observation in
the laboratory worked in the young tender tissues, either eat-
ing into the terminal portions or into the stems at the axils of
the leaves, almost burying themselves and finally causing the
small leaf or branch to break down, as do the larger branches.
They were not confined entirely to the parts just mentioned but
would eat into the little leaflets as they were expanding, thus
preventing their complete opening.

One individual was found boring into the end of a broken
stem making its way into the pith and almost disappearing in
a short time. It remained in that position for some time. Think-
ing that it might be a female and that the eggs were being
deposited, the cavity was examined at the end of four or five
days, but no eggs were found. This adult was placed on a grow-
ing plant and soon began feeding in the young tissues as stated
above. On one small plant in the laboratory the young leaves
were so badly eaten into that the plant died in a short time.

One specimen was taken while collecting in the woods August
31st. So the species undoubtedly infests other plants besides
the one recorded above.

Nothing can be stated concerning oviposition and the early
larval stages. As stated above, numerous fully grown larvse
and pupce were found in the root-stock and base of the larger
branches September 1st. A few fully colored adults were found
a few days later. One root-stock was isolated during the sec-
ond week in September and adults kept gradually issuing until
about the middle of October. From this one root- stock as many
as twelve to fifteen specimens issued besides the numerous larvee
and pupae that were removed for the purpose of examination.

Since no eggs were deposited by the specimens kept under
observation and adults were still very active after the plants

14

210

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

had all been killed by frost, it is quite safe to say that they
hibernate and deposit eggs the next spricg, there probably
being but one brood each year.

A nearly related species, determined at the Division of Ento-
mology, U. S. Department Agriculture, as Baris dolosa Casey,
was brt d in small numbers Irom the same stems. Is was thought
to be the same and differences in appearance due to imperfect
maturing, but there is a decided difference in form of thorax
and it seems probable that both species breed in the same plant
and with practically the same life history.

DESCRIPTIONS.

Larva: Fig. 11, a. The fully grown larva is about 5-32 in.
long and 1-16 in. diameter, and a yellowish-white color; head
light brown, mandibles reddish-brown; legs represented by
mammiform protuberances. The body tapers somewhat toward
posterior end, the last seginent usually showing four bristles.

Fig. 11. B. confinis. a, larva, h, pupa.

Papa: Fig. 11, b. About the same length as larva, but com-
paratively wider. Head (from beneath) fits closely to the body,
eyes not especially prominent; antennae wide in proportion to the
length, normally not projecting beyond the sides of the thorax,
club conspicuous, usually somewhat denser in appearance.
Snout reaches base of first pair of legs and shows small,
roundish portions at tip corresponding to the mouth-parts.
First and second pair of legs cluoQsy in appearance; joints of
the tarsi indicated, the last one distinctly curved; third pair of
legs hidden, only a slight portion being visible along the inner
margin of the hind wing-pads. Four abdominal segments visi-
ble for their entire width. The last segment usually has two
apical bristles and a group of small spiny processes.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 211

Adult Fig. 10. (a, dorsal view; b, side view; c, tarsus.)
Widest at base of elytra and tapers strongly toward either end ;
shining black, glabrous; numerous medium sized punctures
on the thorax and between the str;9e of the elytra. Snout
about 1-24 inch long, curved, usually extending directly
downward, but sometimes drawn backward or slightly pro-
jected forward. Thorax narrows perceptibly toward the head.
Tarsi strongly pubescent beneath, claws strongly curved,
diverging. Elytra emarginate at tip, making the tip of
abdomen more distinctly visible from above.

REMEDIES.

Collecting and burning the old root-stocks and stems in early
autumn will be the most effective treatment that can be sug-
gested from present knowledge of the species.

AN INSECT OCCURRING IN WATER TANKS AND RESERVOIRS.
{Chironomus Sj) )
Early in July I received some specimens of a slender red
larva from Boone, with the following letter:

Professor Osborn:

Dear Sir — Enclosed I send a sample of the worm that appeared in our
city water about a week ago in countless numbers. Would like to know
what they are and where they would be likely to come from. The water we
use comes from a 3,030-foot well, but aboat two weeks ago our pumps failed
and we were supplied with water from a forty-five foot vein owned by the
C. & N. W. Ry. Co., and pumped to our reservoir through a hose.

Yours truly, E. E. Chandler,

Chairman Water Committee.

Boone, Iowa.

The larvae were evidently Chironomus, and in replying to the
letter it was so stated and that in themselves they could be
considered harmless, though of course the presence of masses
of such ugly looking creatures would be objectionable, and if
dying in the water they might become a source of pollution
Also that the larvae must have gained access to the water from
the eggs of the adult mosqaito-like insect being deposited in
the reservoir or the mains by which it was filled. They could
not be derived from a deep well. It was suggested that pro-
vision be made to exclude the insects from the water to prevent
deposition of eggs.

The larvae (Pig. 12) a and &ij|piich are an inch or a little
more in length and of a light red color with green reflections
on the sides near the head, construct a lube at the bottom of

212

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

the water in which they live, and in this remain protected and
from it extend themselves to obtain food. The food is for the
most part apparently minute aquatic organisms, algas, etc.
Their presence might be considered a means of clearing water
of such matter did they not at times become so numerous as to
prove an element of danger.

Fig. 18. (C?iironomt(8 sp.) a, larva, dorsal view, b, side view, c, head and first seg-
ments of body, d, terminal segments of body showing appendages, e, upper surface
of head. /, lower surface of head. g. side, h, dorsal, i, ventral view of pupa. (Orig-
inal, drawn by Miss King.)

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

213

Later in conversation with Mr. G. W. Brown, a civil engi-
neer of Boone, it was learned that the water was pumped into
a large cement-lined reservoir which contained the larvae in
immense numbers and was without question the point where
the eggs were laid, it being exposed to easy access by insects.
It appeared also that the larvas were drained into the mains at
times when the reservoir was low, doubtless causing strong
currents over the bottom. Specimens have also been received
from Des Moines.

When mature they change to a delicate pupa (Pig. 12, g, h, i,)
and then rise to the surface of the water and soon the adult
insect escapes from a slit along the back of the pupa case.

The adult is a delicate mosquito-like insect (Fig. I'd.) belong-
ing to the genus Ghironomus but it cannot be referred to any of
the described species and the present state of the classification
of this genus is such as not to warrant us in giving it a scien-
tific name or description.

Fig. 13. (CMronomussp ) a, adult male, d, antenna of female. (Original).

The Id sect is of interest at this time because of the great
number of water tanks and reservoirs established, not only in
cities and towns, but on many farms, and the probability of its
frequent occurrence where these are open to visits of the adults.

Exclusion of the adults, where practicable, may be accom-
plished by the use of ordinary mosquito netting or wire gauze.
Where this is impracticable the providing of an inlet to dis-
tributing pipes that will draw water from a few inches above
the bottom of the reservoir (which might further be protected
by a fine screen) will, it is believed, avoid the distribution of
the worms in the mains.

214 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF THE THRIP-
ID^ OP IOWA.

ALICE M. BEACH.

This paper represents the results of a study of some of the
Thripidag of Iowa, and is based upon an examination of mate-
rial found in the collection of the Iowa Agricultural College,
some specimens kindly loaned by Miss Emma Sirrine, Messrs.
F. A. Sirrine and C. W. Mally, and some in the writer's own
collection. Descriptions of seven new species and three new
varieties are herewith presented, including a new species of
Phloeothrips described by Prof. Herbert Osborn. The descrip-
tions are preceded by an artificial key, arranged to aid in the
identification of all the described Iowa species known to the
author. The table for the determination of genera is substan-
tially that found in Comstock's Introduction to Entomology,
pp. 125-127. The writer is indebted to Mr. Pergande for an
outline of the characters of Euthrips, and is under special obli-
gations to Professor Osborn for valuable aid in the prosecution
of this work which has been done in the Entomological Depart-
ment of the Iowa Agricultural College.

TABLE FOR DETERMINATION OF GENERA.

A. Last abdominal segment in both sexes elongated, narrow, tubular;
both pairs of wings similar, veinless, margins equally ciliated;

maxillary palpi two-jointed; borer in female absent. -.

Sub-Order I. Tubulifera.

B. Contains but a single family Fam. I. Tubuliferidse.

C. Contains but a single genus. Gen. 1. Phloeothrips.

AA. Last abdominal segment not elongated and tubular in both sexes;
both pairs of wings unlike in structure, front wings always veined;
margins unequally ciliated; maxillary palpi three- jointed; borer

in female present Sub-Order II. Terebrantia.

B. Females with borer curved upwards Fam. II Stenopteridae

BB, Females with borer curved downwards.. .Fam. III. Coleoptratidee.

IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES. 215

FAM. II. STENOPTERID^.

A. Body above netted with elevated lines... Gen. 2. Heliothrips .

AA. Body above smooth.

B. Abdomen clothed with silky hairs; apex conical, formed alike in

both sexes Gen. 3. Sericothrips.

BB. Body smooth; apex of abdomen unlike in the two sexes.

C. Prothorax produced in front, and narrowed

__ _ Gen. 4. Chirothrips.

CC. Prothorax not produced in front and narrowed.

D. Last segment of abdomen with a pair of spines in female;

male, wingless ...Gen. 5. Limothrips.

DD. Last segment of abdomen unarmed.

E. Last two segments of antenna? shorter than the sixth

segment ..Gen. 6. Thrips.

EE. Last two segments of the antennEe longer than the
sixth segment... Gen. 7. Belothrips.

FAM. III. COLEOPTRATID.E.

A. Antennfe with nine distinct segments Gen. 8. Melanthrips.

AA. Antenna? apparently five jointed, the last four segments being
minute and compact
B. Body somewhat flattened; meso-metathorax broad; front wings
without fringe on costal border, and with four distinct cross

veins; males with lateral abdominal appendages

Gen. 9 Coleothrips.

BB. Body cylindrical, mesothorax and metathorax constricted, wings
rudimentary Gen. 10 Aeolothrips.

SYNOPSIS OF IOWA SPECIES.

GENUS PHLCEOTHRIPS, HAL.

A. Proximal joint of anterior tarsi armed with a tooth on inner side -.1
A A. Proximal joint of anterior tarsi unarmed 2

1. With postocular bristle; three bristles on each side of pro-
thorax; antennal joints 3-6 yellow verbasci, Osb.

Without postocular bristle; a single bristle at each posterior
angle of prothorax; antennal joint 3 and base of joint 4, some-
times base of joint 5, yellowish nigra, Osb.

2. Black; head slightly longer than wide; tube three times as

long as wide--. ...carya;, Fitch.

Purplish-black; head one and one-half times as long as wide;
tube twice as long as wide ma//, Fitch.

PMoeotlirips verbasci, Osb.

Description follows this paper.
Phloeothrips nigra, Osb.

Can. Ent., Vol. XV, p. 154 [1883].
Phlceothrips carijce, Fitch.

[Third Report.] Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. for 1856, Vol.
XVI, p. 446.

216 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

PJiIoeotJiri2:)S mali, Fitcb.

[First Report.] Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. for 1854, Vol.
XIV, p. 806.

GENUS HELIOTHRIPS, HAL.

This genus is represented in the collections by a single
species, H. hcemorrhoidalis, Bouch6. It is probable that H.
draccence Heeger also, which occurs frequently in hothouses in
this country and in Europe, is found in this state. These two
species may be separated as follows:

Fuscous, apex of abiomen ferrug-inous; antennaB and feet pale; first and

second joints of the former fuscous, sixth joint black.-

--- -.- heemorrboidalis, Bouche.

Yellowish-brown; wings white, sub-fasciate with brown.. drac^'er/a?, Heeg'er.

Heliothrips hcBmorrhoidalis, Bouch^.

Naturgeschichte der schadlichen und ntitzlichen Garten-
Insekten, p. 42 [1833].
Hellothrips draccenm, Bouche.

Sitzungsb. d. mathem — naturw.Klasse d. Wissensch., Vol.
XIV, p. 365 [1854].

GENUS SERICOTHRIPS.

One species, Sericothrips? 2)erplexa, containing representatives
of the male sex only, has been doubtfully referred to this genus.
This species possesses well marked characters, evidently of
generic importance, which do not accord with those of any genus
of this family with which I am familiar. They are as follows:
Head somewhat flattened or depressed and produced in front
with the ocelli placed very far forward; fourth antennal joint
decidedly longer than the third, apex of abdomen in male
formed like that of females of this family. Tn Burmeister's
Handbook of Entomology, Vol. 2, p. 413, the genus Sericothrips
is characterized as having the abdomen covered with silky
hairs, head hidden up to the eyes in the thoracic segment and the
tip of the abdomen formed alike in both sexes. In the enumer-
ation of species, the same authority records but a single species,
hence it may prove that a more extended knowledge of allied
forms will make it necessary to enlarge the limits of the genus,
therefore it seems best to place this species here provisionally
rather than to erect a new genus.

Sericothrips? pjcrplexa, n. sp.

Male: Length, 1.33-1.55 mm. General color fuscous; legs and annulus
on antennas yellowish; thorax tinged with yellow-ferruginous; abdomen

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 217

■except apex, varying from pale to deep fuscous; anterior wings subfuligi-
nous, clearer at base. Form slender; bristles and spines sbort, inconspicu-
ous; head, from dorsal view, subpentagonal ; antenna? seven-jointed,
approximate; ocelli placed very far forward toward front border of head;
posterior angles of prothorax bisetose; spines on cubitus 15-16, arranged in
a basal series of three or four followed by an intermediate group of nine,
and this by two, more widely separated, at distal end of vein.

Head, seen from above, subpentagonal, its greatest length equal to its
greatest width; sides constricted behind eyes; front margin produced, and
subangulated in middle, its width almost completely occupied b.v the
antenna?; eyes dark red-brown, of medium size, moderately granulated,
pile scattered, long; posterior orbits depressed, with a row of short sparse
hairs parallel to them; vertex scarcely elevated, gi-adually descending
toward apex where it merges into the front; ocelli yellow, inner margins
red; anterior ocellus on uppar margin of front; lateral ocelli contiguous to
upper orbits; ocellar bristles moderately long; small bristles between ante-
rior ocellus and the eyes; occiput striate, provided with two weak bristles;
front produced to base of antenna? thence receding toward clypeus, fur-
nished with a row of four weak bristles just beneath antenna? and two
similar bristles near clypeal margin. Antenna? seven-jointed, approximate,
base plainly visible from above; joint 1 shortest and thickest, one-half the
length of the second; joints 2-4 increase in length in the order named; joint
4 is nearly as long as joint 6, which is larger than any other joint; joint 5
is slightly longer than the second and more slender than any of the preced-
ing; joints 6 and 7 are closely united and together pyriform in shape; the
latter is nearly one-half the length of the former; the first joint is sub-
rotund; the second, somewhat barrel-shaped; the third subfusiform; the
■fourth and the sixth elongate- ovate; the fifth submoniliform; the seventh
lanceolate, its base narrower than the apex of the sixth; bristles and sen-
sorial spines of joint 4 placed nearer the middle than usual.

Prothorax subquadrate, scarcely broader than head; sides very slightly
constricted at anterior border; posterior angles narrowly truncate, pro-
vided with two bristles; shorter bristles or hairs are scattered over a trian-
gular area extending backward from the front margin, and a smaller area
near the posterior angles; anterior angles provided with equally small, but
heavier bristles; surface apparently smooth; mesoscutum broadly convex,
nearly smooth, furnished with short inconspicuous bristles each side and
two submedian bristles on disc. The scutellum, obtusely ridged, feebly
•sculptured, provided with two short, heavy, approximate bristles on ridge
near basal margin.

Abdomen slender; apex abruptly conical, resembling that of females of
this family; sides distinctly sculptured; segments with a few bristles or
coarse hairs laterally and on apical border of their ventral surface; caudal
segments with longer and stronger radiating bristles arranged in two
rings as in females.

Legs slender; anterior femora scarcely expanded; posterior tibia?
spiny on inner margin and at apex; their tarsal joints with apical spines.
Anterior wings lanceolate, humeral angle moderately arched; cubitus
extending entire length of wing; radial vein obsolete at base and nearly
obsolete at tip; costal spines, 22-24; cubital spines, 15-16, arranged in

218 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

groups, three or four at base, followed by a group of nine, and this by two
more widely separated, placed at distal end; radial spines, 13; anal spines,
5; longitudinal vein of posterior wing distinct.

General color fuscous; third and fourth joints of antennas entirely and
sometimes base of fifth, legs, except more or less of dorsal surface, yellow-
ish: thorax, especially the sutures, tinged with yellow-ferruginous; abdomen
varying from fuscous to yellowish or pale fuscous; apex always dark; dorsal
aspect of femora genei-ally concolorous with head; anterior wings sub-
fuliginous with a broad, indistinctly defined, pale sub-basal band; posterior
wings subhyaline.

Described from eleven specimens taken at Ames, Iowa, on Cyperus, corn
and in sweeping grass in August and November.

GENUS CHIROTHRIPS, HAL.

This genus is represented by a single species, Gldrothrips
antennata, Osb. , which is of a brownish-black color with third
joint of antenDEe paler; second joint is quite characteristic,
being trapezoidal with acute angle outward.

Ghirothrips antennata Osb.

Can. Eat. Vol., XV, p. 154. [1883.]

GENUS THRIPS.

A. Head of medium size; eyes moderately prominent; antennal joints 3-5

elongate. 1

AA. Head small; eyes very prominent; antennal joints 3-5 not elongate
.8

L Antennas eight-jointed.. 2

Antennas seven-jointed 7

2. Sixth joint of antennas annulated .3

Sixth joint of antennee not annulated &

3. Ocelli widely separated; long bristles at all angles of pro-
thorax; spines present at apex of all tibias, numerous and

heavy on wings, on radial vein 12-14 4

Ocelli subapproximate; single bristle of medium length at
each posterior angle of prothorax, none at anterior angles;
spines present at apex of posterior tibias only, on radial vein 2
5

4. Size medium; head, from dorsal view, rectangular^ antennas

approximate (Euthrips) tritid Fitch.

Size large; head from above pentagonal; antennae subapprox-
imate [Euthrips) mairlis n. sp.

5. Wings more or less distinctly clouded; brown markings on
thorax and band at base of abdominal segments 2-7 distinct.. .

- „ variabilis, n . sp ►

Wings nearly uniformly fuliginous; brown markings distinct

on thorax; abdomen immaculate ..var a.

Wings and body, pale; markings, obsolete .var. b.

Wings distinctly trifasciate; broad brown band on head

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 219

and thorax respectively; abdominal segments 1-3 and 7-10
entirely brown var. c

6. Head, from dorsal view, semiovate; ocelli subapproximate,
conspicuous; spines and bristles, short and few; bristles on

penultimate segment of abdomen equally long striata, Osb.

Head, from dorsal view, subrectangular; ocelli remote,
inconspicuous; single strong bristle at each posterior angle of
prothorax; intermediate bristles on penultimate segment of
abdomen, one-half as long as lateral bristles, iasequalis, n. sp.

7. Size medium; antennae sub-approximate; ocelli inconspicu-
ous; prothorax, transverse; bristles at posterior angles of
medium length; spines at base of cubitus arranged in two

groups -- -- --. tabaci, Lind.

Size large; antennte approximate; ocelli, conspicuous; pro-
thorax, subquadrate; bristles at posterior angles of prothorax,
long; spines at base of cubitus in single group .. lactucse n. sp.

8. Antenuce eight-jointed; ocelli approximate; spines and
bristles, except those on abdomen, long and slender; bristle at
middle of each lateral margin of prothorax, one at each ante-
rior and two at each posterior angle pallida, n. sp.

Thrips {Eutlirips) ti'itici, Fitch.

[Second report.] Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. for 1855,
p. 536; Osborn Can. Ent, Vol. XV, p. 156 (1883).

Thrips (Euthrips) maidis n. sp.

Female. Length, 1.83-2.mm. A large species slightly variable in color,
brownish-black, but sometimes paler; annulus on antennae, extremities of
femora and tibise, lower surface of the latter and sutures of abdomen yellow-
ish-white; thorax, especially its sutures, tinged with yellowish-ferruginous;
anterior wings dusky white; head pentagonal, front margin produced
and rounded in the middle; ocelli distant, antennae subapproximate;
spines and bristles. strong, blackish, arranged much as in E. tritici, Fitch;
costal spines 25-29; cubital, 19-23; radial, 15-16; anal, 5; internal, 1.

Head, from dorsal view, pentagonal, scarcely broader than long; its
sides parallel; anterior border produced and rounded in the middle;
occiput less than one-half the length of the head measured on a median
line, plainly striated; genae uniformly full; eyes rather large, coarsely
granulated, feebly pilose; orbits yellow, encircled with a few short hairs;
ocelli, pale yellow, margined with red crescents, widely separated and
arranged in a broad triangle with its lateral angles contiguous to superior
orbits; vertex broad, gently coavex between lateral margins; produced
cephalad and provided with a transverse row of four short hairs near its
anterior margin; the front wide with medial, longitudinal elevation;
antennal sockets occupying less than its entire width, making antennse
subapproximate, more widely separated than in B. tritici, Fitch; anten-
nal joints 3 and 4, occasionally base of 5, white, the rest, black; joint 1
globose, more than one-half as long as joint 2; the latter subglobose,
somewhat contracted toward base, both joints more robust than those fol-
lowing: joints 3-5 elongate, submoniliform, decreasing in size in the

220 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

order named; the third nearly as long' as the sixth; apical joints subequal,
minute; all joints thinly covered with microscopic hairs; bristles or stiff
hairs on basal and intermediate joints which on distal joints are replaced
by slender hairs; sensorial spines on the third, fourth and sixth joints, dis-
tinct; clypeal, subantennal and postocular bristles present, the last less
conspicuous than in tritici; mouth parts distinctly asymmetrical; each joint
of maxillary palpi cylindrical, narrower than the preceding^; first and third
subequal in length, and second shorter than either.

Prothorax about one and one-half times as broad and equally as long as
preceding segment; anterior angles rectangular, posterior rounded, sides
slightly converging cephalad; disc striate and sparsely hairy; front and
hind borders more deeply striate or rugose, brislly; the most conspicuous
bristles are arranged as follows: One long bristle at each anterior and two
at each posterior angle; two shorter bristles on anterior margin, two on
posterior margin and one on disc near each posterior angle.

Meso-metathorax, subquadrate; mesoscutum more finely striate than
prothorax, with small bristles, one at each lateral angle, two near and two
on posterior margin; scutellum as long as mesoscutum, narrow, not strongly
carinate; base transversely striate, sides longitudinally rugose; basal
bristles as in tritici.

Abdomen broad, ovate, basal segments and sides sculptured, bristles
similar to those of tritici.

Legs, with numerous short bristles; all tibife and joints of posterior
tarsi with terminal spines; anterior femora incrassate, their tibite stout.

Wings rather broad; humeral arch not prominent; surface minutely
pilose; veins distinct, uniformly and heavily spiuose; anterior and poste-
rior basal cross veins present; cubitus inserted in marginal at tip of wing;
radius obsolete at proximal end, but perceptible before it unites with the
posterior basal cross vein; costal spines longer than those on the other
veins, numbering from twenty-five to twenty-nine; cubital, from nineteen
to twenty-three; radial, from fifteen to sixteen; anal, five, gradually
increasing in size from one to five; internal, one; postei-ior wings hyaline;
longitudinal vein indistinct, except at base.

This form approaches closely the dark colored specimens of tritici, from
which it may be separated by its larger size, the annulus on the antennte,
and especially by the shape of the head, which is pentagonal instead of
rectangular, and the less approximate antennae.

Described from twenty-nine specimens taken at Ames, Iowa, in July,
August, September and January.

ThrijJS variabilis n. sp.

Head transverse Antennae eight-jointed, distant; ocelli approximate.
Each posterior angle of prothorax provided with a single- medium sized
bristle; bristles on penultimate segment of abdomen not strongly radiat-
ing, not extending backward beyond the base of the succeeding row; radial
vein bispLnose, obsolete; legs slender.

Female. Length from .81-1.23 mm. Head one-half as long as
broad; viewed from above, subrectangular; anterior margin straight; occi-
put short, transversely convex and striate; distinct oblique depression
behind each eye; gena3 moderately full; vertex abruptly ascending, tumid

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 221

across whole anterior border; ocellar area small, elevated; ocelli approxi-
mate, inner margins heavy, conspicuous: ocellar bristles not more than
one-half the length of the head; eyes large, prominent, feebly pilose.
Antenuce eight-jointed, distant, moderately bristly; basal joint short,
thick, hidden from dorsal view by vertex; the following joint longer, more
robust, globose; joints 3-6 elongate; joint 3 the longest, subfusiform; joint
4 a little shorter than joint 3, elongate-modioliform; joint 5 obovate, inter-
mediate in length between 2 and 4; the remaining joints sessile, together
eloxjgate-conical; joint 6 equal to joint 4 but a little stouter; joints 7 and. 8
minute, together one-half as long as preceding, line of separation between
them oblique; sensoi-ial spines on joint 6 originate beyond middle; four
short bristles in transverse row on front above antennae, and one behind
each eye; mouth parts nearly symmetrical.

Prothorax broader than long; anterior angles prominent, rectangular;
posterior angles broadly rounded and furnished with a single bristle; sur-
face plainly and uniformly marked with transverse strife, with a few short
slender bristles on front margin and more on disc Mesoscutum is quite con-
vex from base to apex, marked with fine transverse striee, and provided
with four short bristles on disc. Scutellum with triangular area at base
striate as in mesoscutum, furnished with four basal bristles.

Abdomen broad, ovate; sides, under high power, appear thickly set
with minute appressed hairs; a pair of bristles occurs on disc of each seg-
ment from the second to the seventh; they are approximate on the second
and gradually become more widely separated on the succeeding segments;
lateral bristles few and short; apical border at sides and on ventral surface of
segments bordered with minute cilias interspersed with coarse hairs or
bristles; caudal spines rather light; those on penultimate segment directed
backward and extending only to base of following segment; terminal spines
a little longer than the preceding, radiating at sides.

Legs very slender, somewhat bristly; tarsi elongate; anterior femora
not dilated; apex of intermediate and posterior tibias and of posterior tarsal
joints terminating in short spines; inner margin of posterior tibiae feebly
spinose.

Wings; veins heavy; in anterior pair radius and cross veins obsolete;
costal spines number 22-30; cubital, 20-26, arranged in two series; radial, 2;
anal, 4; one near base of anal cell; longitudinal vein of posterior wing very
heavy for two-thirds of the length.

Male. Length, 78-86 mm. Resembles the female very closely.
Differs in being of smaller size, in having from 23-25 costal spines, 20-21
cubital: the remaining spines on the wing as in female. The apex of the
abdomen is more blunt; the anal segment is cleft on either side, the lateral
lobes terminate in two spines; the middle lobe is prolonged consider-
ably beyond the lateral lobes, making apex more pointed than apex of
male of T. tritici. The spines on preanal segment are similar to those
in female.

This species presents considerable variation in color. The extreme
forms are quite distinct and might almost be considered separate species
were it not that in addition to the similarity in structure there is the occur-
rence of a series of intergradient forms.

222 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Var. a. Female: General color yellowish -white, meso-metathorax pale
yellow, basal joints of sntencffi concolorous with head, joint 3 and taseof
joint 4 dusky; the remainder of the antenniB and spot at distal end of
tarsi, brownisih-black; eyes dark red-brown; ocelli nearly colorless; inner
margins red; anterior wings indistinctly clouded with fuliginous at base,
distal portion clearer; brown markings as follows: A clearly defined
saddle-shaped patch on posterior portion of prothorax, concave along its
front border, nearly interrupted by a wedge-shaped incision extending
forward from posterior border: anterior border of mesonotum; scutellum
except median stripe; bands at base of abdominal segments two to seven,
dilated at sides, and narrower and fainter along intervening space; patch
on upper side of all the femora, darkest on posterior pair.

One specimen, taken en clover August 14, 1893, and one
on hackberry, October 6, 1893, Ames, Iowa.

Anotiier specimen taken on hackbsrry, October 6, 1893, at
Ames, Iowa, corresponds with the description of variety a
except that the thorax is a deeper yellow.

Another specimen taken oa elm, August 21, 18M, is more
uniformly yellow, the anterior wings more unifoimly dusky,
bands at base of abdominal segments narrower and other
markings fainter.

A fourth specimen that may be placed in this group resem-
bles the first, but it is of a deeper yellow color; the markings
on the prothorax are prolonged farther backward, and the
wings are more uniformly fuliginous. Ames, Iowa, Oct. 8, 1893.

Var. b. Male and female: Body pale yellowish, immaculate; apical
joints of antennse black, remainder pale; wings and fringes tinged with
yellowish.

Hawthorn and hackberry, Ames, Iowa, October 6, 1893.

Var. c. Male and female: Wings nearly uniformly fuliginous; last
three joints antennae, distal half of joints 4 and 5 black, sometimes inter-
mediate joints altogether dusky; brown markings very distinct, confined to
two large spots on thorax and scutellum respectively, the latter oblong and
approximating posteriorly; abdomen immaculate.

Hawthorn and hackberi-y, October 6, 1893, Ames, Iowa.

Var. d. Male and female: This variety is characterized by having the
wings fuliginous, trifasciate with white bands, and in being more heavily
marked with brown; the markings on the thorax and bands at base of first,
second and third (sometimes of second and third only), and seventh and
eighth segments of the abdomen are extended until they coalesce and form
broad bands; the dorsal surface of the head is brown; sometimes all of the
caudal segments are brown; the legs are white, with brown streaks on
dorsal surface of femora, and frequently on tibias also; antennae as in pre-
ceding variety.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 223

On smartweed, June 16, 1893, and on cucumber, July 28, 1893,
Ames, Iowa.

By the shape of the head aud by the antennal characters this
species is allied to T. tritici, but it may readily be distinguished
from it by the smaller and more approximate ocelli, the
absence of large conspicuous bristles on the thorax, the differ-
ence in the number of spines on the wing, and the more slender
legs.

Tfirips {Ei(tJiri2)s) striata, 0»b.
Can. Ent., Vol. XV, p. 155.

Thrlps inequaUs, n. sp.

Female: Length, 88 mm.; yellow: style and distal portion of antennal
joints, 3-6, black; joint 6 distinctly annulated toward apex; posterior
ang-les of prothorax with a single bristle; lateral bristles on dorsum of
penultimate segment of abdomen twice as long as intermediate pair.

Head, broader than long, contracted at posterior border, occiput form-
ing not more than one-half of its dorsal surface; gente uniformly full; eyes
of medium size, moderately promicent, distinctly pilose; vertex uniformly
tumid at anterior margin, becoming transversely convex and descending
toward posterior margin; ocelli subapproximate; front, above insertion of
antennae, longitudinally elevated along median line.

Antennte subapproximate; the two basal joints stout, subequal; the
second barrel- shape J, more than one-half as long as succeeding; joints 3-6
subequal in length and less elongate than in T. tritlA; joints 3 and 4,
thick, irregularly turbinate, gibbous below insertion of sensorial spines;
joint 5, smaller and more regular in shape; the remaining joints form an
elongate oval; joint 6 has a distinct articulation on distal half, similar to
the annulation on the sixth antennal joint of T. striata, Osb.; this may be
an indistinct annulation, in which case the antenna would be properly
considered nine-jointed, three of the joints forming the style; the ultimate
joint is nearly cylindrical and longer than the penultimate, which is of the
same length as that portion of the joint 6 between the annulation and the
apex; the joints are furnished with a few medium-sized bristles or stiff
hairs, which become liner toward the distal end of tLe antennie; sensorial
spines as in T. tritici.

The prothorax is one and one-half times as long as the head, equally as
broad at anterior border and about one-thii-d broader at posterior border.
The disc is convex, rather indistinctly striate and sparsely set with stiff,
blackish hairs or bristles, which are almost entirely wanting on median
portion, and most numerous near lateral and posterior borders. Posterior
angles with a single long bristle.

The disc of the mesoscutum is convex, finely striate, elevated at posterior
border, provided with a single short bristle near each lateral angle, two
on disc and two on posterior margin. The scutellum is trapezoidal, gently
sloping from the very small elevated area near base toward posterior and
lateral margins; on the basal mai^gin are two widely separated and two
short approximate bristles.

224 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

The abdomen is ovate, resembling that of T. tritici, Fitch, in an arrange-
ment of bristles, except that the median pair on penultimate segment is
but one-half as long as those on either side.

Legs, especially femora and tibise, thinly covered with short, coarse
hairs which are replaced by bristles at apex of anterior and intermediate
tarsal joints; inner margin of posterior tibite feebly spinose; its apex and
apex of its tarsal joints terminating in spines; anterior femora moderately
dilated.

Anterior wings nearly attain tip of abdomen: veins heavy; inner mar-
ginal vein very distinct; costal fringe rather heavy; costal vein bears from
24-28 spines; radius, 18-19, those on basal half of vein separated into twa
groups of four each, the intervals between the rest growing wider toward
the distal end of the vein; cubitus, 10-Jl; anal, 5; anal cell, 1.

Color yellow, deeply tinged with orange on thorax and abdomen,
faintly dusky along median line of thorax and abdomen; head and two
basal joints of antennte, whitish; proximal portion of joints 3-6, dusky;
remainder of antennaa and spot near apex of tarsi, black; eyes, red-brown;
ocelli, pale yellow; inner margins, orange- red; spines and bristles black-
ish; anterior wings and fringes tinged with dusky yellow.

Described from a single specimen taken with f. tritici on
aster at Ames, Iowa, September 16, 1893.

Thrips tahaci, Lind.

Schadlichsten Insekten des Tabak in Bessar. Abien., pp.
62-63. (1888.)
Thrips lactucoe, n. sp.

Female: Length, 1.40 mm. General color pale yellow, with two broad
diverging stripes on middle of thorax, a narrow band at base and one or
more spots at sides of abdominal segments brown. Form elongate; anterior
border of head convex. Antennas seven-jointed, proximal joints pale,
remaining joints black. Wings variable in size. Ocelli conspicuous,
placed close together near posterior margin of vertex. Spines and bristles
stout, on thorax, arranged much as in T. tritici; the cubital spines are
grouped into two series, a basal group of seven, followed by three, more
widely separated, on distal portion of vein.

Head scarcely broader than long; outline seen from above semiovate;.
occiput, feebly striate, one-half the length of the head, with shallow,
longitudinal furrow each side behind the eye; gena3, broad, full, prolonged
posteriorly ; vertex elevated, convex between the eyes, ascending and
expanding towards apex, front margin arcuate; ocelli conspicuous, remote
from anterior border of vertex, inner margins heavy, contiguous in front;
ocellar area elevated; ocellar bristles of medium size; eyes, moderate,
pilose: a row of bristles on front, beneath insertion of antennt^, is partially
visible from above; a few microscopic bristles around orbits; antennal
sockets prominent, easily seen from above; antenna? approximate, seven-
jointed: the intermediate joints elongate; joint lis one-half the lengih of
joint 2, equal to or longer than joint 7, semiglobose; joints 2-5 are sub-
equal in length; joint 2 is cupshaped, a little shorter but much stouter
than any of the three immediately following; joints -3-5 are moniliform;.

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 225

pedicel of 3 is short; joints 6 and 7 together form an elongate oval; the
latter is acuminate at apex two-fifths the length of the former and
terminates in two or three long slender hairs; surface of all the joints set
with minute appressed hairs and furnished with a few bristles which are
arranged in a preapical ring on joints 2-5, and on remaining segments are
replaced by slender hairs; sensorial spines on joints 3, -4 and 6, distinct.

The prothorax is subquadrate, a little longer and wider than preceding
segment; posterior angles nearly rectangular; posterior border margined;
surface nearly smooth and, with the exception of two discal areas, covered
with coarse, stiff hairs which are largest near lateral and posterior borders;
two short bristles at each anterior angle and four longer ones near front
border; two large, strong, subequal bristles at each posterior angle, two
of moderate length on hind border, and a similar one on disc near each
posterior angle.

The surface of the mesoscutum is apparently smooth, its posterior
discal portion only moderately elevated, provided with two small bristles;
two similar bristles occur on the posterior border, and one at each lateral
angle. The metanotum is very short. The scutellum is obtusely carinated,
its surface longitudinally striate, provided with two approximate submar
ginal bristles on anterior portion of disc, and two, more widely separated,
on basal margin.

Abdomen is quite uniform in width, convex above, striate at base and at
sides; base slender; apex short, conical; segments constricted, bearing a
few stiff hairs on dorsal and ventral surfaces and a few bristles at sides;
both hairs and bristles become stronger on anal segments, where the latter
are arranged in two rings.

Legs, especially posterior pair, slender; anterior femora but slightly
expanded; hind tibiaj spiny on inner margin, terminating in three strong
spines, joints of their tarsi also furnished with apical spines; entire surface
bristly, especially at apex of intermediate and anterior tibice.

Wings varying in size from rudimentary to fully developed; the ante-
rior pair slightly dusky, posterior pair hyaline; in fully developed wing the
cilia on costal border of each pair is short and sparse, on posterior border
longer but not very heavy; venation of anterior wings rather weak; ante-
rior and posterior basal cross veins present, but not distinct; costal vein
furnished with 18-21 spines; cubitus, 10; radius, 10-11; anal, 5; anal cell,
1; spines on cubitus are arranged in a basal group of seven, followed by three
more widely separated on distal end of vein; longitudinal vein of posterior
wings incrassate at base, not quite attaining tip of wing.

Color usually pale yellow, deeper on thorax and legs, the latter frequently
dusky; head and proximal joints of antennte white, intermediate joints
brownish-black at base, the rest of the antennas deep black; occiput often
tinged with yellow, sometimes dusky; eyes dark red-drown; ocelli yellow,
inner margins brick-red; prothorax at margins, disc of mesonotum, pleura3,
except upper portion of mesopleuras in front, narrow medium stripe on
scutellum, pale; two spots or patches on prothorax, sometimes diffuse
and coalescing sometimes nearly or quite obsolete, two broad, approximate
stripes on scutellum, diverging slightly and extending outward and back-
ward in a broken and interrupted line to lateral margin, upper portion of
mesopleurse in front, brown; abdomen somewhat dusky, more or less pale

15

226 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCES.

at sides and toward apex; narrow basal band on segments 2-7, expanding
laterally and broken up into spots, one of which is more conspicuous
than the others, brown.

Femora and tibias dusky or brownish on upper surface, pale on lower
surface and at base, the latter also pale at tip; anterior wings dusky yel-
lowish; spines brown.

By its seven-jointed antenucC. T. lactuae is allied to T. tahaci, Lind.,
but it is more heavily marked with brown; the color of the intermediate
joints of the antennae is darker; the antennte and the ocelli more approx-
imate; the ocelli more conspicuous and farther removed from the anterior
margin of the vertex; the prothoracic bristles larger and less uniformly
distributed, being entirely absent from two discal areas; those at
posterior angles, longer; proximal spines on cubitus arranged in a single
group.

Described from numerous specimens taken on wild lettuce
in October, November and March, at Ames, Iowa.

T. lactucce bears some resemblance to T. tritici in size and
general color, from which it may be easily separated by the
fewer antennal joints, less rectangular head, less widely sep-
arated ocelli, absence of long bristles at anterior angles of
prothorax, less numerous cubital spines and their arrangement
in groups, absence of spines at apex of intermediate and
anterior tibias and inner margin of posterior tibise.

From T. striata it may be known by the difference in number
of antennal joints, absence of annulation on sixth joint, pres-
ence of longer and more numerous spines and bristles.
Thrips ixdlida n. sp.

Female: Length 1.12 mm. Color varying from white to pale yellow.
Antennae, beyond basal joints, more or less dusky. Head small, eyes large.
Anterior wings partially trifasciate. Bristles on anterior portion of body
long and slender. Prothorax characterized by the presence of a long
bristle on the middle of each lateral margin in addition to those at anterior
and posterior angles.

Head small, about as long as broad. Occiput very short, not more than
one-third the length of the head. Eyes dark red-brown, very large and
prominent, sparsely and feebly pilose. Vertex narrow, elevated, trans-
versely convex, ascending toward the anterior margin, the latter arcuate.
Ocelli in middle of vertex, nearly colorless, their inner margins white, con-
tiguous anteriorly. Ocellar bristles as long as the head. Front prominent,
bearing a row of recurved bristles above insertion of antennas. Mouth
parts short, nearly symmetrical.

Antennas approximate; the two basal joints the stoutest; joint 1 semi-
globose, one-half the length of joint 2; the latter is stouter than the former,
barrel-shaped, equal in length to joint 5, and a little shorter than joints 3
or 4; these are robust, subequal in length and broadly obovate, the pedi-
cel of joint .3 is short and slender; joint 5 is oval and less robust than the
two immediately preceding; the remaining joints are sessile, together form

IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 227

an elongate oval; joint 6 is longer than any other joint; joints 7 and 8 are
short and of equal length, base of former narrower than apex of 6; apex of
8 is lanceolate. Bristles and hairs are of equal size, and arranged much as
in T. tritici. The long sensorial spine on outer side of joint 6 originates
below the middle of the joint.

The prothorax is convex; its sides converge cephalad; its surface is
nearly smooth, with a double median transverse groove or double impressed
line and a few short and several long slender bristles, the latter arranged as
follows: one at each anterior angle, two on intervening space of anterior
border, one at middle of each side, one near and two at each posterior
angle. The mesoscutumis longitudinally convex, its surface nearly smooth,
furnished with two lateral bristles directed inward, and two smaller ones
on disc and on posterior border, respectively. The scutellum is subrec-
tangular, obtusely carinated, descending toward the apex; on basal margin
provided with two distinct bristles which extend nearly to apex.

The abdomen is slender at base, ovate, with few conspicuous bristles;
those at apex of ultimate segment much shorter and weaker than those on
preceding segment.

Legs are moderately stout, bristly; anterior femora incrassate, their
tibiai stout; spines present at apex of posterior tibial and tarsal joints, on
inner margin of tibite replaced by bristles.

The anterior wings are whitish, slender, rather thin, subfasciate with
three dusky spots; the first near base of anal area, the other two dividing the
remainder of the wing into three subequal parts; sometimes a faint spot
may be detected near apex of wing; these spots are variable in distinctness
and may be obsolete; cilice of inner margin, light; of outer margin, sparse
and scarcely longer than the spines with which they are interspersed.
RadiaLvein is obsolete between base of wing and posterior basal cross vein,
consequently it appears to originate in the cubitus. Both radius and cubi-
tus terminate abruptly before attaining marginal vein. Cross veins con-
necting costal and cubital veins are obsolete. The costal vein bears from
15-20 spines; the cubital, 10; radial, 5; anal, 4, and posterior marginal vein
1, placed opposite the posterior basal cross vein. The posterior wings are
hyaline; proximal end of longitudinal vein incrassate.

Male. Length .97 mm. Smaller than the female, but very similar in
distinctive characters. Apex of abdomen is bluntly conical, less truncate
than in male of T. tritici, partially trilobate, the lateral lobes are very
narrow, shorter than the middle lobe, and terminate in a single long
bristle. Penultimate segment terminates in a row of short sparse bristles,
on dorsum, and single long spine on each side.

Described from ten females and seven males. Taken on bean
and elm at Ames, Iowa; on blackberry at Belle Plaine, Iowa,
and on hop at Barraboo, Wis.

Thrips x^cillkla is a well marked species and is readily sepa-
rated from the other species included in this paper by the small
head, the presence of a bristle on middle of lateral margin of
prothorax, the feeble armature of inner margin of posterior
tibias and the number of spines on the front wings.

228 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

NOTE ON A NEW SPECIES OF PHLCEOTHRIPS, WITH DESCRIPTION.
HERBERT OSBORN.

In connection with the paper by Miss Beach on the Thri-
pidso it seems desirable to describe a species which has for a
long time been in our collections, but has not received a techni-
cal description.

Pblceothrips verbasci, n. sp. Black, polished; head quadrate with a
prominent post-ocular bristle: prothorax widened behind; first joint of
anterior tarsi armed on inner side with a curved tooth.

Fern tie: Head quadrate, very slightly constricted behind, a prominent
bristle behind the eye; antennas light yellowish with dusky base and tip,
joints 1 and 2 black, 3-6 yellow, 7-8 dusky, ending with two bristles; pro-
thorax widening behind, with prominent angles, three lateral bristles:
meso and meta-thorax subquadrate. Legs black except anterior tihise and
all tarsi which are yellow, the tarsi somewhat clouded with dusky.
Anterior tarsi with a short curved tooth on inner side of first joint at mid-
dle. Wings hyaline except base of anterior pair, which is fuliginous;
anterior pair with no fringe at base: anal vein entire; median vein distinct
at base, but becoming obsolete; three long spines in a row on the inner
side of the median vein near base; posterior wings at base with two long,
slender bristles near together on hind margin; abdomen at apex with six
long and seven short bristles; tube reticulate.

Male smaller than female and having two slender spines on a slight
elevation at side of the anterior margin of the first segment of the
abdomen.

Length of male 1.50-1.60 mm., female 1.80-1.90 mm.

This species stands near to nigra, Osb., but differs decidedly
from that species in the more quadrate head, prominent poste-
rior angles of the prothorax, as also in the presence of two
prominent bristles just behind the eyes and the different num-
ber and character of bristles at apex of tube.

It occurs almost invariably in mullein, hibernating in the
stools, and may be found in early spring at the base of the
fresh leaves, especially among the dense interior leaves. The
whitish, cylindrical eggs are deposited during April, and
larvaD develop on the mullein leaves. The larvaa differ decid-
edly from the larva3 of nigra, in being yellow or orange instead
of deep red.

Adults, bred forms of which matured June 20th to 26th, are
found in mullein blossoms in midsummer (July), and probably
produce a second brood. Adults have been taken in Septem-
ber in the seed pods, and in November at the base of dead
mullein stalks.

This is the species referred to in my article on "The Food
Habits of the Thripidce " (Insect Life, Vol. I, p. 141) as Phloio-
thrips sp., the species being cited in evidence of an herbivorous
di t for the Thripidce.

iis[ide:^::?c.

Address, annual, of president, 17.
Anatomical studies of the leaves of

Sporobolus and Panicum, 148.
Anatomy of Sphajrium, 173.
Andrews, L. W., on reduction of sulphuric

acid, 37.
Annual address of president, 17,
Articles of incorporation, 8.
Area of slate near Nashua, N. H., 66.
Associate members, list of, 11,

Bacteria, Chromogenic, 135.

Bain, H. F., report of librarian, 14.

Ball, E. D., a study of the genus Clastop-
tera, 183.

Baris confims. 207.

Baris dolosa, 210.

Beach, Alice M., contributions to a
knowledge of the thripidaj of Iowa,
314,

Biologic notes on certain Iowa Insects, 203.

Boston basin, geology of, 72.

Buchanan gravels: An interglacial de-
posit In Buchanan county, Iowa, 58.

Calvin, S., the Le Olalre limestone, 52.
Buchanan gravels, 58.

Carver, G. W. and Pammel, L. H., fungus
diseases, 140.

Carver. G. W., and Stewart, F. C, Inocula-
tion experiments with Gymnosporan-
gium macropus.

Cephalopods, two remarkable,from upper
Paleozoic, 76.

Cercopida\ 182.

Chironomiis, sp., 211.

Chromogenic bacteria, some notes on, 135.

Cicadidas of Iowa, observations on the, 195,

Cicada dorsata. 193.

septen-decim, 194.
tihicen, 193.

Olastoptera, a study of the genus, 182.

Clastoptera, 183.

Clastoptera delicata, 184.
obtusa, 188.
proteus, 186.
xanthoceplMla, 188.

Clays of the Indianola Brick, Tile and
Pottery works, 40.

Combs, Robt., and Pammel, L. H.,
Chromogenic bacteria, 135.

Cone-in-Cone, nature of, 75.

Constitution of the academy, 7.

Corresponding members, list of, 11.

County parks, 91.

Cyclostome ear, homologies of, 29.

Cosmos weevil, 307.

Deep Wells in Des Moines county, some
facts brought to light by, 62.

Drew, G. A., Anatomy of Spha^rium sulca-
tum, 173.

Ear of cyclostome, homologies of, 29.
Encrinurus, variation In the position of

the nodes in axial segments of pygi-

dium of a species of, 79.
Entomostraca, preliminary notes on the

Iowa, 170.
Epicccrus imbricatus .305.

Flora of Western Iowa, 106.

Fellows, list of, 10.

Ferns, comparative study of spores of

North American, 159.
Flora of Western Iowa, 106.
Forest distribution in Iowa. 96.
Forest preservation, resolutions on. 15.
Frisk, E. E , and T. P. Hall, mad stone, 45.
Fultz, F. M., Recent discoveries of glacial

.scorings, 60.
Some facts brought to light by deep

wells. 62.
Fungus diseases of plants at Ames,

Iowa, 1«95, 140,

Geology of the Boston basin, 72,

Gelechia sp.. 303.

Glacial scorings, recent discoveries of, in

S. E. Iowa, 60.
Grasses, anatomical study of, 150.
Gravitation, physical theories of, 47.
Ground cherry seed moth, 302.
Gymnosporangium macropus Inoculation

experiments with, 162.

Hall, T. P , physical theories of gravita-
tion, 47.
Unit systems and dimensions, 45.

Hall, T. P. and Frisk, E.E.,amad stone, 45.

Heliothrips, 216.

Homologies of the Cyclostome ear, 29.

Hendrixson, report of library commit-
tee, 16.

Inoculation experiments with Gymnos-
porangium macropus, 162.
Insects, biologic notes on certain Iowa, 203,

K«yes, C. R., note on the nature of cone-
in-cone, 75.
Two remarkable Cephalopods from the
Upper Paleozoic, 76.

Lake preservation, resolution on, 15.
Lead and Zinc mines, 64.
Le Claire, limestone, 53.
Leonard, A. G., recent developments in
the Dubuque lead and zinc mines, 64.
Librarian, report of, 14.
Loess, a theory of the, 82.

ad stone, a, 45.

acbride, T. H., county parks. 91.
Forest distribution in Iowa, 96.
The nomenclature question among
the slime moulds, 101.

SCa

230

INDEX.

Melampsalta parvula, 203.
Members, associate, 11.

Corresponding, 11.
Membership of the Academy, 10.
Metazoa, sex in, 35.
Myxomycetes, 101.

fiautilus ponderosus, 76.

Needed changes in scientific methods, 17,

Nomenclature question among the slime

moulds, 101.
Norris, H. W , address by, 17.

Homologies of Oyclostome ear, 39.
Norton, W. H., variation in the position

of the nodes on the axial segments

of Pygidium of a species of Encrinu-

rus, 79.
Nutting, C. C, origin and significance of

sex, 33.

Officers of the Academy, 5.
Origin and significance of sex, 33.
Orthoceras fanslercnsis, 77.
Osborn, H., Observations on the Oicadidaj
of Iowa, 195.
Note on a new species of Phloeothrips

with description, 338.
Report of secretary-treasurer, 13.
Osborn, H. and Mally, 0. W., biologic notes
on certain Iowa insects, 303.

pammel, Emma, and Sirrine, Emma, some
anatomical studies of the leaves of
Sporobolus and Panicum, U8.

Pammel, L. H., notes on flora of western
Iowa, 106.

Pammel, L. H., and' Carver, G. W., fun-
gus diseases of plants at Ames, Iowa,
1895, 140.

Pammel, L. H., and Combs, Robt., some
notes on Ohromogenic bacteria, 135.

Panicum and Sporobolus, anatomical
studies of the leaves of, 148.

Panicum, 155.

Panicum, capillars, 156.
crus-galli, 157.
proliferum, 156.

Parks, county, 91.

Phloeothrips, note on a new species of,
with description, 338.

PhJccothrips verbasci n sp., 328.

Physical theories of gravitation, 47.

President's annual address, 17.

Proceedings of tenth annual session, 13.

Recent developments in the Dubuque

lead and zinc mines, 64.
Recent discoveries of glacial scorings in

southeast Iowa, 68.
Reduction of sulphuric acid by copper,

as a function of the temperature, 37.

Report of librarian, 14.

Report of secretary-treasurer, 13.

Resolutions on preservation of forests

and lakes, 15.
Ross, L. S.. Preliminary notes on the

Iowa Entomostraca, 170.

Secretary-treasurer, report of, 13.

tSalix amygdaloides, perfect flowers of, 89.

SericothHps? 216.

Sericothrips? perplexa. 216.

Sex, origin and signiflcance of, 32.

Shimek. B., A theory of the Loess, 83.

Perfect flowers in salix amygdaloides
Ands. 89.

Sirrine, Emma, and Pammol, Emma,
Some anatomical studies of sporo-
bolus and Panicum, 148.

Slate near Nashua, N, H., Area of, 66.

Slime-moulds, Nomenclature question
among, 101.

Sphctrium sulcatum. Anatomy of, 173.

Spores of North American ferns, study
of, 159.

Sporobolus and panicum, anatomical
studies of the leaves of, 148.

Sporobolus. 151.

Sporobolus cryptandrus, 153.
heterolepis, 151.
hookerl, 153.
vaginseflorus, 155.

Stewart, F. C, and Carver, Q. W., Inocu-
lation experiments with Gymnos-
porangium macrop\is, 163.

Sulphuric acid, reduction of, 37.

Thripida; of Iowa, contributions to a

Knowledge of, 314.
Thrips incequalis, 233.
lactucm, 234.
maidis, 319.
pallida, 326.
variabilis, 220.
Tibiccn rimosa, 300.

Tilton. J. L , area of slate near Nashua,
N. H., 66.
Notes on the geology of the Boston
basin, 73.

Unit systems and dimensions, 45.

Weaver, C. B., comparative study of the
spores of North American ferns, 159.

Youtz. L. A., clays of the Indianola Brick,
Tile and Pottery works, 40.

Zinc mines, recent developments in lead
and, 64.

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