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LIBRARY     OF 


I685_IQ56 


m')^^^^st2^£Mmijmsi^ws 


PROCEEDINGS 


Iowa  Academy  of  Sciences 


I^OF^    18Q8, 


VOLUME  VI. 

EDITED    BY   THE   SECRETARY. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  STATE. 


DES   MOINES: 

F.  B.   CONAWAY.   STATE  PRINTER. 
1899. 


LETTER  OP   TRANSMITTAL. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa,  December  31,  1898. 
To  His  Excelleiic]!,   Leslie  M.   Shaic,    Governor  of  loira: 

Sir — In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  title  2,  chapter  5, 
section  136,  code  1897.  I  have  the  honor  to  transinit  herewith 
the  proceedings  of  the  thirteenth  annual  session  of  the  Iowa 
Academy  of  Sciences. 

With  great  respect,  your  obedient  servant, 

H.  Foster  Bain, 
Secrefartj  Joirtt  Acodeiinj  of  Sciences. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  ACADEMY. 


1H98. 

President.— T.  H.  Macbride. 
First  Vice-President. — B.  Fink. 
ISecond  Vice-President. — M.  F.  Arey. 
Secretary-Treasurer. — Herbert  Osborn. 
Librarian.— H.  Foster  Bain. 

EXECUTIVE  committee. 

Ex-Ojficio.—T.  H.  Macbride,  B.  Fink,  M.  F.  Arey,  Herbert  Osborn. 
Elective.— S.  W.  Beyer,  A.  C.  Page,  W.  H.  Norton. 

1899. 

President. — W.  S.  Hendrixson. 

First  Vice-President. — M.  F.  Arey. 

Second  Vice-President.— F.  M.  Witter. 

Secretary-Treasurer.— 'S..  Foster  Bain, 
executive  committee. 
Ex-Officio.—W .  S.  Hendrixson,  M.  F.  Arey,  F.  M.  Witter,  H.  F.  Bain. 
Electire.S.  W.  Beyer,  A.  C.  Page,  W.  H.  Norton. 


PAST  PRESIDENTS. 


OsBORN,  Herbert 1887-88 

Todd,  J.  E 1888-89 

Witter,  F.  M 1889-90 

Nutting,  C.  C 1890-92 

Pammel,  L.  H 1893 

Andrews,  L.  W 1894 

NoRRis,  H.  W 1895 

Hall,  T.  P 1896 

Franklin,  W.  S 1897 

Macbride,  T.  H 1897-98 

Hendrixson,  W.  S 1898 


MEMBERSHIP  OF  THE  ACADEMY. 


FELLOWS. 


Almy,  F.  F Iowa  College,  Grinnell 

Andrews,  L.  W State  University,  Iowa  City 

Arey,  M.  F State  Normal  School,  Cedar  Falls 

Bain,  H.  F Geological  Survey,  Des  Moines 

Barris,  W.  H Griswold  College,  Davenport 

Bates,  CO Coe  College,  Cedar  Rapids 

Beach,  Alice  M State  College,  Ames 

Beardshear,  W.  M State  College,  Ames 

Bennett,  A   A State  College,  Ames 

Beyer,  S.  W State  College,  Ames 

Blakeslee,  T.  M Des  Moines  College,  Des  Moines 

Calvin,  S State  University,  Boulder,  Colo . 

Chappel,  George  M State  Weather  Service,  Des  Moines 

Clark,  Dr.  J.  Fred Fairfield 

Combs,  Robert State  College,  Ames 

Conrad,  A.  H Parsons  College,  Fairfield 

Cratty,  R.   I Armstrong 

Curtis,  C.  E' State  College,  Ames 

Davis,  Floyd Des  Moines 

Ende,  C.  L Burlington 

Fink,  B Upper  Iowa  University,  Fayette 

Fitzpatrick,  T.  J Lamoni 

Frederick,  C.  a State  Normal,  Cedar  Falls 

Fultz,  F.  M Burlington 

Hadden,  David  E Alta,  Iowa 

Hendrixson,  W.  S Iowa  College,  Grinnell 

Holway,  E.  W.  D Decorah 

HOUSER,  G.  L State  University.  Iowa  City 

Kelly,  H.  M Mt.  Vernon 

Keyes,  C.  R Des  Moines 

Leverett,  Frank U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Denmark 

Marston,  a State  College,  Ames 

Macbride,  T.  H State  University,  Iowa  City 

Newton,  G.  W Cedar  Falls 

NiLES,  W.  B State  College.  Ames 


8  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

NORRIS,  W.  H Iowa  College,  Grinnell 

Norton,  W.  H Cornell  College,  Mt.  Vernon 

Nutting,  C.  C  State  University,  Iowa  City 

O'DONOGHUE,  J.  H Storm   Lake 

Page,  A.  C State  Normal,  Cedar  Falls 

Pammel,  L.  H State  College,  Ames 

Reppert,  F Muscatine 

RiCKER,  Maurice Burlington 

Ross,  L.  S Drake  University,  Des  Moines 

Sage,  J,  R State  Weather  Service,  Des  Moines 

Savage,  T,  E Iowa  City 

SCHLABACH,  Carl High  School,  Clinton 

Shimek,  B State  University,  Iowa  City 

Stanton,  E.  W State  College,  Ames 

Stookey,  Stephen  W Coe  College,  Cedar  Rapids 

Summers,  H.  E State  College.  Ames 

Tilton,  J.  L Simpson  College,  Indianola 

Veblen,  a.  a .State  University,  Iowa  City 

Walker,  Percy  H State  University,  Iowa  City 

Weems,  J.  B State  College,  Ames 

WiCKHAM,  H.  F State  University,  Iowa  City 

Witter,  F.  M Muscatine 

Youtz,  L.  a Simpson  College,  Indianola 

ASSOCIATE   members. 

Adams,  P.  E Durham 

Baldwin,  F.  H Tabor 

Barnes,  William  D Blue  Grass 

Biering,  Dr.  Walter Iowa  City 

Bond,  D.  K Rockwell  City 

BOUSKA,  F.  W Ames 

Brainard,  J.  M Boone 

Brown,  Eugene Mason  City 

Cameron,  J.  E Cedar  Rapids 

Carter,  Charles Corydon 

COBURN,  Gertrude State  College,  Ames 

Crawford,  Dr.  G.  E Cedar  Rapids 

Deyoe,  a.  M Britt 

ECKLES,  C.  H State  College,  Ames 

Finch.  G.  E West  Union 

Gifford,  E.  H ; Oskaloosa 

Gow,  James  E Greenfield 

Hill,  Dr.  Gershom  H Independence 

Hume,  H.  H Ames 

Jenkins,  P.  W Simpson  College,  Indianola 

Johnson,  F.  W Grinnell 

Lenocher,  F.  E Panora 

Livingston,  Dr.  H Hopkinton 

Miller,  G.  P Des  Moines 

Miller,  A.  A Davenport 

Mortland,  J.  a Cedar  Falls 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  9 

Mueller,  Herman Iowa  City 

Myers,  P.  C Iowa  City 

Newell,  Wilmon State  College,  Ames 

OSBORN,  B.  F Rippey 

Paddock,  A.  Estella Whitten 

Peck,  Morton  E  Iowa  Falls 

Reed,  CD Ames 

RiGGS,  C.  B Rockwell  City 

RODWELL,  W.  W Marshalltown 

Rolfs,  J.  A Le  Claire 

Sample,  A.  F Lebnon 

SCHULTE,  J.  I Ames 

Stewart,  Helen  W Des  Moines 

VOLDENG,  Dr   N.  M -- Des  Moines 

Walker,  L.  R Oelwein 

Walters,  C.  W Cedar  Falls 

Weaver,  C.  B Denver,  Colorado 

Williams,  I.  A Manly 

CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS. 

Arthur,  J.  C Perdue  University,  Lafayette,  Indiana 

Ball,  C.  R Missouri  Botanical  Garden,  St.  Louis 

Ball,  E.  D Agricultural  College,  Ft.  Collins,  Colorado 

Barbour,  E.  H State  University,  Lincoln,  Nebraska 

Bartsch,  Paul Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Beach,  S.  A Geneva,  New  York 

Bessey,  C.  E State  University,  Lincoln,  Nebraska 

Bruner,  H.  L Irvington.  Indiana 

Call,  R.  E 

Carver,  G.  W Tuskegee.  Alabama 

COLTON,  G.  H Virginia  City,  Montana 

Crozier,  a.  a Ann  Arbor,  Michigan 

Drew,  Oilman  C Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Franklin,  W.  S South  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania 

Gillette,  C.  P Agricultural  College,  Fort  Collins,  Colorado 

GOSSARD,  H.  A Lake  City,  Florida 

Hall,  T.  P Kansas  City  University,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Halsted,  B.  D New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey 

Hansen,  N.  E Brookings,  South  Dakota 

Hansen,  Mrs.  N.  E Brookings,  South  Dakota 

Haworth,  Erasmus State  University,  Lawrence,  Kansas 

Heileman,  W.  H Pullman,  Washington 

Hitchcock,  A.  S Agricultural  College,  Manhattan,  Kansas 

Jameson,  CD 

Leonard,  A.  G Oberlin,  Ohio 

Mally,  C  W Wooster,  Ohio 

Mally,  F.  W Hulen,  Texas 

McGee,  W.  J Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Meek,  S.  E Field  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago,  Illinois 

Mills,  S.  J Denver,  Colo. 


IQ  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

OSBORN   Herbert State  University,  Columbus,  Ohio 

Owens,  Eliza Bozeman,  Montana 

Parker,  H.  W.  .' New  York  City,  New   York 

Patrick,  E,  G Department  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C 

Rolfs,  P.  H Lake  City,  Florida 

SiRRiNE  F.  A Jamaica,  New  York 

Sirrine,  Emma Woodstock,  Illinois 

Spencer,  A.  C U.S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Stewart,  F.  C Ithaca,  New  York 

Todd,  J.  E State  University,  Vermillion,  South  Dakota 

WiNSLOW.  Arthur Kansas  City,  Missouri 


PROCEEDINGS 


THIRTEENTH   ANNUAL  SESSION 


IOWA  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES. 


The  thirteenth  annual  session  of  the  Iowa  Academy  of 
Sciences  was  held  in  the  geological  rooms  at  the  capitol  build- 
ing in  Des  Moines,  December  27  and  28,  1898,  In  business  ses- 
sions the  following  matters  of  general  interest  were  passed 
upon. 


REPORT   OF   THE   SECRETARY-TREASURER. 

To  the  Members  of  the  Iowa  Academy  of  Sciences  : 

The  Academy  has,  during  the  past  year,  had  a  very  satis- 
factory growth  in  the  addition  of  sixteen  associate  members. 
The  proceedings  include  248  pages,  presenting  an  interesting 
array  of  matter  both  instructive  and  useful.  The  appearance 
of  the  proceedings  was  delayed  longer  than  usual  on  account  of 
the  legislative  printing.  Several  papers  presented  were  nec- 
essarily omitted  on  account  of  reaching  our  limit  allowed  for 
the  volume. 


12  IOWA  ACADEMY    OF  SCIENCES. 

The  new  code,  by  the  omission  of  the  words  "with  necessary 
illustrations,  "  was  construed  by  the  executive  council  as  not 
permitting  the  payment  of  bills  for  the  engraving  of  plates  and 
the  account  of  the  Star  Engraving  Co.  for  such  work  is  unpaid, 
and  I  would  suggest  that  authority  be  given  for  settlement 
from  Academy  funds.  Part  of  the  plates  have  already  been 
provided  for  by  the  authors  and  possibly  some  others  can  be, 
so  as  to  reduce  the  total  necessary  to  pay  from  Academy  funds. 
It  will  also  be  desirable  to  secure  a  change  in  the  present 
wording  of  the  law  so  as  to  permit  illustration  in  future. 

First  notices  only  of  dues  were  sent  to  members  and  there 
are  quite  a  number  who  have  not  paid  dues  for  past  year,  so 
that  the  funds  in  the  treasury  will  be  considerably  augmented 
with  the  collection  of  these  with  the  dues  for  coming  year. 

It  is  with  great  sorrow  that  I  record  the  death  of  one  of  our 
most  distinguished  members,  Dr.  C.  A.  Schaeffer,  who  had  been 
for  a  number  of  years  associated  with  us.  While  his  numerous 
duties  prevented  his  contributing  to  our  proceedings,  he  was 
always  most  cordial  and  hearty  in  his  support  and  encourage- 
ment of  our  work.  I  also  regret  to  announce  the  death  of  Mr. 
E.  H.  Lonsdale,  one  of  our  former  fellows,  recently  engaged 
in  the  topographic  work  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey. Mr.  Lonsdale  contributed  to  volumes  I  and  II  of  the 
Academy  proceedings  and  was,  while  in  Iowa,  an  active  mem- 
ber. While  Dr.  James  Hall,  of  New  York,  left  Iowa  some  years 
before  the  organization  of  the  Academy,  his  much  regretted 
death  is  of  more  than  passing  moment  to  us.  Dr.  Hall  was  one 
of  the  scientists  who  earliest  worked  in  Iowa,  and  we  are  yet 
deriving  the  benefit  of  his  pioneer  labors. 

It  is  with  peculiar  regret  that  I  contemplate  this  as  my  final 
report  for,  notwithstanding  the  effort  sometimes  necessary  to 
fulfill  the  duties  of  the  office,  it  has  been  a  positive  pleasure  to 
me  to  give  such  time  as  was  possible  to  the  work  and  to  watch 
the  growth  of  the  organization.  May  its  prosperity  and  use- 
fulness increase  many  fold  in  the  years  to  come. 

FINANCIAL,    STATEMENT. 

Accounts  and  vouchers  submitted  herewith  show  receipts  of  $140. 3(5  and 
expenditures  of  $71.84,  leaving  a  balance  on  hand  of  $68.52. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  13 

SUMMARY   OF   RECEIPTS   AND   EXPENDITURES. 

Receipts 

Balance  from  la-^t  year $  77.06 

Annual  dues  from  members _. 45  00 

Pees  from  associate  members 16.00 

Sales  of  Proceeding-s 2  30 

Total $140.36 

Expenditures 

Express  and  freight $    3  91 

Reprints  of  authors'  extras 32.00 

Printing-  prog'rams,  blanks,  etc 33.00 

Postag-e  on  notices,  collections,  etc 2.56 

Miscellaneous  expense 37 

Total $  71.84 

Balance , 68  52 

$140.36 
Respectfully   submitted, 

Herbert  Osborn. 

The  committee  appointed  to  examine  the  treasurer's 
accounts  reported  as  follows  : 

The  accounts  and  vouchers  of  the  treasurer  of  the  Academy  have  been 
examined-  and  found  to  be  correct. 

A.  C.  Page, 
P.  C.  Myers, 
Commiltee. 

The  Academy  established  the  following  rule  regarding  illustrations; 

Where  the  illustrations  for  any  single  article  do  not  cost  more  than  $2.50 
the  amount  shall  be  charged  to  the  Academy  funds;  where  the  cost  is 
between  $2.50  and  $10  the  cost  beyond  $2.50  shall  be  assessed  half  against 
the  Academy  and  half  against  the  author ;  where  the  cost  is  more  than 
$10  all  such  excess  shall  be  charged  to  the  author. 

The  following  amendments  of  the  constitution  were  proposed  and  will 
be  voted  on  at  the  next  annual  meeting: 

Section  iv  to  be  amended  by  the  substitution  of  the  word  '•  treasurer  " 
where  the  word  "secretary-treasurer"  is  used. 

Section  v  (a)  to  be  amended  by  the  substitution  of  the  words  "a  secre- 
tary and  a  treasurer"  where  the  words  "a  secretary-treasurer"  are  used 

Section  viii  to  be  amended  by  the  substitution  of  the  word  "  secretary  " 
for  the  words  "secretary- treasurer  "  as  there  used. 

Section  ix  to  be  amended  by  the  substitution  of  the  word  "secretary" 
for  the  words  "  secretary-treasurer  "  as  there  used.     Proposed  by 

n.  F.  Bain. 

The  following  fellows  and  members  were  elected: 

fellows. 
T.  M.  Blakslee,  Des  Moines,  professor  of  mathematics.  State  University. 
Boulder,  Colo.,  former  member;  Dr.  J.  Fred  Clark,  surgeon  49th  Iowa  Vol- 
unteers, former  member;  C.  A.  Frederick,  Cedar  Falls,  assistant  professor 


14  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

of  physics,  Iowa  State  Normal;  David  E.  Hadden,  Alta,  astronomer;  J.  H. 
O'Donoghue,  Storm  Lake,  superintendent  schools:  T.  E.  Savage,  Iowa  City, 
assistant  in  botany,  State  University,  former  member;  H.  E  Summers, 
Ames,  professor  of  zoology,  State  College  of  Agriculture;  H.  F.  Wickham, 
Iowa  City,  assistant  professor  of  zoology,  State  University. 

MEMBERS. 

p.  E.  Adams,  Durham;  Dr.  Walter  Bierring,  Iowa  City;  D.  K.  Bond, 
Rockwell  City:  F.  W.  Bouska,  Ames;  James  E.  Gow,  Greenfield;  H.  H. 
Hume,  Ames;  P.  W.  Jenkins,  Indianola:  F.  E.  Lenocher,  Panora;  Her- 
man Mueller,  Iowa  City:  A.  Estella  Paddock,  Whitten;  A.  F.  Sample,  Ames; 
D.  H.  Talbot,  Sioux  City;  L.  R.  Walker,  Clermont:  Ira  A..  Williams,  Ames. 

The  secretary  was  instructed  to  let  each  author  see  his  own  proof  so  far 
as  might  be  possible. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for  1899  : 

President— W .  S.  Hendrixson. 

First  Mce- President— M..  P.  Arey. 

ISecovd  Vice-Presidtnt—F.  M  Witter. 

Secretary- Treu surer — H.  F.  Bain. 

Elective  Members  of  the  Executive  Council— S.  W.  Beyer,  W.  H.  Norton, 
A.  C  Page. 

In  general  sessions  the  following  papers  were  read  in  full  or  by  title: 
*Herbert  Osborn— Observations  on  Hemiptera. 
**  J.  H.  O'Donoghue-  Gas  Analysis. 

**Launcelot  W.  ANDREWS— On  a  New  Method  for  the  Quantitative 
Determination  of  the  Water  Present  in  Concentrated  Sulphuric  Acid. 

*  Maurice  RrCKER— The  August  Cloud-burst  in  Des  Moines  County. 
**  N.  M.  VOLDENG— Cell-formation  and  Cell-life. 

*  L.  S.  Ross— A  Simple  Incubator. 

*.IAMES  E.  Gow— Forest  Trees  of  Adair  County. 

*  James  E.  Gow— Effect  of  Sleet  Storm. 

*  Francis  M.  Fultz— The  Burlington  Artesian  Well. 
*C.  C.  Nutting— The  Colors  of  Deep-sea  Animals. 

*P.  M.    Witter — Observations    on    the    Geology    of  Steamboat  Springs, 

Colorado. 
I  Charles  R.  Keyes— Cuesta  Topography  of  the  Crimean  Peninsula. 
J  Charles  R.  Keyes— Permian  Series  of  Eastern  Russia. 

*  Charles  R.  Keyes— Some  Physical  Aspects  of  General  Geological  Cor- 

relation. 

*  S  W.  Beyer — Buried  Loess  at  Ames,  Iowa. 

***  H.  Foster  Bain— Notes  on  the  Drift  of  Northwestern  Iowa.  The  extra- 
morainic  drift  of  Northwestern  Iowa  has  many  peculiar  characteris- 
tics and  its  age  is  in  doubt.  It  has  been  provisionally  correlated 
with  the  lowan,  but  this  seems  now  quite  certainly  wrong.  There  is 
an  anomalous  phase  of  the  Kansan,  as  well  as  typical  drift  of  that 
formation,  in  the  region,  and  this  has  contributed  to  the  confusion. 
The  conditions  governing  the  development  of  ferretto  are  discussed. 

*  Frank  Leverett— The  Lower;;Rapids  of  the  Mississippi  River. 


♦Published  in  this  volume. 

**Read  by  title.    No  copy  furnished  for  publication. 
**  Published  In  the  American  Geologist. 

?Read  by  title.    Abstract  furnished. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  15 

t  J.  A.  Udden— The  Sweetland  Creek  Beds.  These  consist  of  some  thin 
basal  layers  of  blue  arenaceous  dolomite,  overlaid  by  blue  and  black 
shale.  They  rest  unconformably  on  the  Cedar  Valley  limestone  in 
places  in  Muscatine  county,  and  are  overlaid  uncomformably  by  the 
coal-measures.  Greatest  observed  thickness  is  40  feet.  The  fossils 
are  Pychodus  and  Rhynchodus  remains,  a  few  Lingulus  and  Spathio- 
caris  emersoni  Clarke,  indicating-  that  the  formation  belong's  to  the 
upper  Devonian. 

*  J.  A.  Udden— The  Pine  Creek  Conglomerate. 

*  J.  A  Udden — Diatomaceous  Earth  in  Muscatine  County. 
*.J.  E.  Todd— New  Light  on  the  Drift  of  South  Dakota. 

*  B.  Shimek— The  Distribution  of  Loess  Fossils. 

*  B.  SHTMf  K — The  Iowa,  Liverworts.     A  preliminary  anotated  list  of  Hepa- 

ticce  found  in  Iowa. 

**  J.  Fred  Clark— The  Agency  of  Flies  in  the  Spread  of  Disease,  (a.) 
Literature  on  the  Subject  (b. )  Experimental  Proof  of  Possibility 
of  Flies  Carrying  Germs  of  Typhoid  Fever,  (c  )  Evidence  From 
Observations  at  the  Seventh  Army  Corps  Camp  of  1898. 

*H.  E.  Summers — A  Generic  Synopsis  of  Nearctic  Pentatomidce. 

*T.  E   Savage  —A  Preliminary  List  of  the  Mosses  of  Iowa. 

*T.  J.  AND  M.  F.  L.  FjTZPATRICK— Flora  of  Southern  Iowa.  Three  trips 
made  overland  in  a  van  the  last  season  Large  collections  were 
obtained;  notes  written.  The  region  surveyed  being  the  two  southern 
tiers  of  counties,  from  Decatur  county  westward  to  the  Missouri 
River,  a  region  of  the  state  of  which  but  little  is  known  botanically. 
Quite  a  list  of  rare  species  and  several  species  not  before  reported. 

§  B.  Fink— Additions  to  the  Bibliography  of  North  American  Lichens. 

I  C.  R.  Ball,— The  Genus  Salix  in  Iowa. 

I  E   D.  Ball— A  Review  of  the  Cercopida?  of  N.  A.  north  of  Mexico. 

*P.  C.  Myers— Preliminary  Report  on  the  Diatoms  of  Iowa.  (1.)  General 
distribution.  (2  )  Interesting  localities.  (3.)  Diatomaceous  depos- 
its. (4.)  Geographical  distribution.  (5.)  Variation  and  prob- 
able cause. 

JT  P.  Ball— Extension  of  the  Complex  Algebra  of  the  Plane  to  Three- 
fold Space. 

*P.  C.  Myebs— Report  on  a  Fossil  Diatomaceous  Deposit  in  Muscatine 
County,  Iowa.  (1  )  List  of  species  with  general  distribution  and 
habitat  of  each.  (2  )  Probable  conditions  existing  at  the  time  the 
bed  was  formed. 

**Geo.  W.  Carver- Observations  on  Some  Iowa  Fungi. 

**  Gilbert  L.  Houser— The  F^'hysical  Basis  of  Nervous  Activity.  The 
ultimate  structure  demonstrable  in  nerve  cells;  a  review  of  methods 
of  investigation;  the  changes  which  occur  in  nerve  cells  as  the  result 
of  their  activity;  conclusions  as  to  the  seat  of  nervous  energy  and  its 
mode  of  liberation. 


*  Published  in  tliis  volume. 

**Rea(l  by  title.    No  copy  furnished  for  publication. 
+  Published  in  the  Journal  of  Geology. 
1:  Read  by  title.    Abstract  furnished. 
§  Read  by  title.    Copy  arriving-  after  meeting. 


16  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 


PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS. 


THE   ACADEMY    AND    THE    PEOPLE. 
BY   PROF.   T.    H.    MACBRIDE  OF  THE   STATE   UNIVERSITY. 

Gentlemen   of  the   Academy: 

Again,  by  the  decrees  of  fortune,  I  appear  before  you  as 
your  presiding  officer  to  extend  to  you  the  felicitations  of  the 
season  and  to  congratulate  you  on  this,  our  annual  reunion. 
It  is  a  fortunate  thing  that  so  many  men  can  thus  come  up 
each  from  his  own  field,  here  to  meet  in  friendly  converse  with 
his  friend  of  like  pursuit,  of  like  employment,  each  to  derive 
encouragement  and  stimulus  for  further  and  happier  endeavor. 
This  evening  there  are  many  reasons  for  special  congratula- 
tion. Our  roll  of  fellows  and  members  is  longer  than  ever 
before;  our  program  shows  a  more  general  and  widespread 
interest;  every  department  of  scientific  work  in  the  state  would 
seem  to  be  more  assiduously  cultivated  than  has  hitherto  been 
the  case. 

Let  us  hope  that  the  enthusiasm  which  has  thus  far  marked 
the  progress  of  the  Academy,  and  especially  distinguishes  the 
present  session,  may  continue  until  every  man  of  science  in  the 
state  shall  appreciate  and  feel  its  uplifting  power.  We  ought 
to  fill  the  largest  hall  in  this  city,  and  the  time  approaches 
when  we  shall. 

It  seems  less  necessary  to  enumerate  here  a  list  of  the 
papers  and  publications  of  our  membership  during  the  year 
that  is  gone.  Many  of  the  more  important  are  before  you  in 
the  latest  volume  of  our  printed  proceedings.  Suffice  it  to  say 
our  members  and  fellows  have  not  been  idle.  Some  have  been 
honored,  and  in  their  honors  we  rejoice  to  share,  by  transfer 
to  wider  fields  and  opportunities  new,  in  other  and  distant 
states. 

Our  worthy  secretary.  Professor  Osborn,  to  whose  enthus- 
iastic effort,  more  than  to  any  other  one  thing  the  success  of 
the  Academy  during  these  recent  years  is  due,  has  already  for 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  17 

some  months  occupied  the  chair  of  zoology  in  the  University 
of  Ohio;  Professor  Hall  occupies  the  chair  of  mathematics  in 
the  University  of  Kansas  City:  others  are  in  still  more  distant 
states;  one  whose  name  is  on  our  program  is  with  the  army 
of  occupation  in  Cuba;  and  one,  be  it  softly  spoken,  as  is  fit- 
ting, has  gone  on  to  his  reward  eternal.  The  sods  of  this,  his 
newly  adopted  state,  rest  lightly  yet  above  his  fresh  made 
grave.  Charles  Ashmead  Shaeffer  died  September  23d.  It  is 
most  proper  that  in  the  midst  of  our  felicitations,  in  the  glad- 
ness of  our  reunion,  we  should  for  a  moment  pause  to  lay  upon 
that  grave  the  wreath  of  grateful  memory.  Though,  by  his 
unceasing  labors  for  the  institution  he  so  nobly  served,  he  was 
in  large  measure  deterred  from  actual  participation  in  the 
work  of  this  Academy  as  such,  nevertheless,  we  always  knew 
we  had  in  him  a  sympathetic  friend,  and  his  constant  attend- 
ance at  our  sessions  was  an  inspiration  to  us  all.  Dearest 
to  those  who  knew  him  best,  the  members  of  this  Academy 
will  mourn  his  untimely  departure  and  grieve  over  their 
irreparable  loss. 

The  report  of  the  secretary  and  treasurer  shows  that  the 
finances  of  the  Academy  are  in  satisfactory  condition.  Indeed, 
since  the  state  has  assumed  the  cost  of  publishing  our  proceed- 
ings, our  expenses  as  a  society  are  limited  largely  to  the  out- 
lay incident  to  our  sessions;  printing,  postage  and  matters  of 
an  incidental  nature.  However,  the  result  is  that  while  not  a 
royal  society,  not  under  the  patronage  of  the  king  nor  of  any- 
body in  particular,  we  are,  nevertheless,  as  suggested  here 
last  year,  not  quite  independent;  we  are  under  obligation;  we 
are  in  a  sense  bounden  to  the  people  of  Iowa  and  it  has  seemed 
to  me  that  it  might  be  worth  while  for  us  to  consider  for  a 
little  time  this  evening  the  kind  and  amount  of  return  which 
the  people  of  the  state  may  reasonably  expect  for  their 
investment. 

In  the  first  place,  the  very  existence  and  activity  of  such  a 
body  as  this  Academy  is  a  factor  of  no  small  moment  in  the 
intellectual  life  of  the  community.  Great  universities  in  some 
parts  of  the  world  may  exist,  glow  along  for  centuries,  side  by 
side  with  the  greatest  penury,  superstition  and  intellectual 
night;  within  a  mile  of  the  University  of  Bonn  I  have  seen  a 
man  ploughing  with  the  family  cow,  while  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren, hard  by,  made  hand-made  brick  in  the  open  field.  But 
such  a  situation  fortunately  is  not  possible,  we  may  believe,  in 


18  IOWA  ACADKMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

America  among  our  more  active  people  The  influence  of  a 
great  intellectual  center  is  not  limited  to  the  roster  of  its 
organization.  The  University  of  Michigan  has  educated  the 
whole  northwest,  has  influenced  you  and  me,  though  we  may 
never  have  seen  its  stately  halls.  And  so  I  take  it  with  an 
Academy  like  this;  its  work  is  far-reaching  as  the  state 
among  our  own  people,  and  far-reaching  as  science  among  the 
nations  of  the  world;  this  by  mere  virtue  of  its  existence,  and 
all  apart  and  distinct  from  the  work  it  has  been  able  to 
accomplish.  The  spectacle  presented  year  by  year  of  from  three 
to  four  score,  or  more,  intelligent  men  assembling  at  their  own 
cost  to  discuss  themes  which  offer  no  pecuniary  returns, 
present  or  prospective,  is  at  least  sufficiently  significant  in 
this  mercenary  age  of  ours  to  demand  attention.  But  there  is 
something  more.  The  problems  we  here  discuss  escape  at 
length  these  halls,  reach  the  public  press,  the  firesides  of  the 
common  people,  and  then  who  shall  estimate  the  wide  influ- 
ence of  the  Academy  as  a  constant  impulse  to  intellectual  life, 
more  and  more  manifest  and  in  every  way  most  potent.  Every 
discovery  made  by  any  member  of  this  Academy,  every  new 
list  of  plants,  every  new  bed  of  clay,  every  planed  pebble  or 
fossil  tooth,  every  public  discussion  of  printed  report,  stirs  as 
nothing  else  the  intellectual  life  of  the  community  where  such 
discovery  appears  or  is  reported,  and  redeems  such  segment  of 
our  population,  in  so  far,  from  that  fearful  stagnation  into 
which,  apart  from  such  stirring,  humanity  is  so  prone  to  fall. 
Our  present  popular  and  highly  successful  geological  survey 
reaching  as  it  does  one  after  the  other,  in  a  most  efficient  way, 
every  county  in  the  state,  is  doing  a  wonderful  work  in  the 
direction  indicated,  and  I  believe  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
that  survey  is  in  a  large  measure  due  to  the  suggestion  and 
organized  effort  of  this  Academy.  At  any  rate,  the  survey  is  but 
carrying  out  in  a  more  methodic  and  systematic  way  the  work 
which  has  constantly  largely  engaged  us  here. 

It  is  well  for  us  thoroughly  to  understand  this  matter  and 
betimes  to  put  it  clearly  before  the  world.  There  are,  as  all 
history  testifies,  but  two  possible  attitudes  of  the  human  mind; 
the  one  responsive  to  the  stimulus  of  the  external  world,  an 
attitude  of  inquiry,  effort,  search  after  truth  with  consequent 
ennobling  glorious  progress;  the  other  an  attitude  of  resigna- 
tion, inactivity,  a  study  of  death  rather  than  life,  with  result- 
ant torpor,   dry  rot,  necrosis  of  every  noble  power.       If  the 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OP  SCIENCES.  19 

attitude  of  Americans  thus  far  has  been  the  former,  the  cause  is 
not  far  to  seek.  The  opening  up  and  exploitation  of  a  new 
continent  has  up  to  this  time  kept  our  people  alive  as  have 
been  no  people  elsewhere  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  perhaps  in 
all  historic  time;  but  that  particular  form  of  stimulus  is  pass- 
ing. We  are  fast  settling  into  conditions  which  are  paralleled 
by  the  older  nations  of  the  world;  I  may  not  detail  them  here, 
but  we  all  know  that  the  stimulus  of  natural  newness  is  pass- 
ing, and  I  need  not  tell  this  audience  that  in  the  organized 
efforts  of  scientific  men,  in  academies  and  royal  societies,  lies 
the  only  hope  of  the  promethean  fire.  Such  institutions 
are  the  open  court  of  intellectual  progress,  the  focus  of 
inventive  life.  They,  and  they  alone,  foster  and  feed  the 
inventive  spark  that  shall  at  length  blaze  in  the  open  field  of 
discovery.  Literature  is  glorious;  but  on  occasion  she  hides 
in  cloisters  for  a  thousand  years,  while  outside  her  gates 
all  the  world  may  slumber;  art  is  wonderful;  but  art,  too,  is 
hemmed  in  by  narrow,  self-determined  limits;  philosophy  is 
reflective,  and  is  wont  to  lose  herself  in  some  far  off  Nirvana; 
it  remains  for  science,  for  science  only,  to  find  for  the  human 
mind  employ  unceasing  in  duration,  unlimited  in  scope,  far- 
reaching  in  inquiry,  beneficent  in  its  purpose,  touching  with 
blessing  the  king  in  his  palace,  the  poor  man  in  his  home,  the 
savage  in  his  hovel.  Literature  has  no  new  themes.  She  still 
seeks  her  models  in  the  millennia  of  the  past,  and  turns  the 
kaleidoscope  worn  by  the  service  of  three  thousand  years;  phi- 
losophy attempts  to  reason  upon  data  confessedly  uncertain, 
and  accordingly  from  century  to  century  makes  little  progress ; 
science  alone  finds  problems  forever  new,  bases  her  conclus- 
ions upon  facts  subject  to  constant  verification,  so  that  in 
an  academy  such  as  this  there  is  perpetual  reminder  that  the 
bounds  of  human  knowledge  are  widening,  and  are  yet  to 
be  enlarged. 

In  no  college,  in  no  university,  however  well  organized,  do 
we  attain  the  same  result.  In  a  university  every  phase  of 
human  learning  has  its  appropriate  place  and  receives  equal 
consideration;  here  the  scientific  method  has  full  sway,  naught 
enters  to  distract  or  to  disturb,  and  in  the  light  of  friendly 
criticism  each  finds  the  help  and  encouragement  of  the  other 
in  the  sifting  of  truth  or  the  proclaiming  of  fact  already 
ascertained. 

In  the  second  place,  an  academy  such  as  ours  is  of  highest 


20  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

service  to  the  state,  in  the  fact  that  it  is  a  perpetual  protest 
against  false  science,  science  falsely  so-called,  insanity  and 
nonsense  of  every  description,  into  v^rhich  civilized  people  are 
apparently  so  easily  and  constantly  led  astray.  I  think  that  I 
speak  with  the  approval  of  most  students  when  I  say  that  the 
common  people  stand  to-day  more  in  need  of  our  methods  than 
of  our  facts.  The  habit  of  trusting  only  to  accurate  and  oft 
repeated  observation,  the  habit  of  correlating  fact  with  fact,  the 
habit  of  appealing  constantly  to  some  independent  check,  or 
verification,  of  accepting  nothing  that  does  not  pass  the  ordeal 
of  such  scrutiny  and  test,  such  habit,  if  it  could  be  imparted  to 
our  people  now,  and  once  for  all,  would  certainly  be  of  more 
value  to  them  by  far  than  all  the  facts  we  are  likely  to  set 
before  them  for  many  a  decade.  The  credulity,  the  absolutely 
infantile  credulity,  of  some  of  our  most  intelligent  people 
surpasses  belief.  The  fact  that  "truth  lies  at  the  bottom  of 
a  well,"  that  its  attainment  is  difficult  in  the  extreme,  never 
occurs  to  most  men,  apparently,  at  all  The  song  of  the  veriest 
charlatan  meets  readier  credence  than  the  voice  of  the  labor- 
ious student.  Accordingly  one  craze,  or  form  of  infatuation 
after  another,  sweeps  over  enlightened  humanity.  Forty 
years  ago  it  was  spiritism  or  spiritualism;  to-day  it  is  Christian 
Science.  I  leave  the  Christian  apologist  to  disown  the  first 
portion  of  the  binomial  or  not,  as  it  may  seem  to  him  good;  but 
I  for  one  protest  against  the  use  of  the  word  science  in  any 
such  connection.  Surely  science  has  been  long  enough  in  the 
world  to  stand  for  something  real  in  court,  to  possess  a  charac- 
ter and  a  reputation  that  has  standing;  surely  science  is 
entitled,  once  for  all,  to  be  relieved  from  the  imputations 
of  modern  superstition  and  self  delusion.  The  one  thing  for 
which  the  man  of  science  strives  is  the  ascertainment  of  facts, 
as  these  are  appreciable  by  the  senses  aided  by  all  instruments 
of  precision;  the  one  thing  that  so-called  Christian  Science 
denies,  and  all  the  while  refuses,  is  what  the  senses  of  man 
declare  to  be  a  fact.  There  can  by  no  possibility  be  science 
here  where  truth  is  studiously  excluded  and  yet  thousands  of 
Americans,  possibly  hundreds  of  lowans,  are  to-day  inclined  to 
spend  their  money  and  their  time  in  pursuit  of  this  latest 
delusion  in  the  mirage  book  of  time. 

Of  course  I  shall  not  be  accused  of  refusing  to  my  suffering 
fellow-man  any  form  of  solace  which  humanity,  individually  or 
collectively,  may  possibly  bring  to  aid  him;  but  let  us  have  no 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  21 

confusion;  let  us  call  things  by  their  right  names.  Let  mental, 
nervous  and  all  sorts  of  more  or  less  imaginary  ailments  be 
treated  as  the  symptoms  indicate;  let  effect  be  linked  to  appro- 
priate cause  as  elsewhere  in  physiological  research,  and  scien- 
tific methods  may,  at  length,  discover  all  attainable  truth;  but, 
let  no  man,  forgetful  of  every  principle  of  scientific  procedure, 
and  oblivious  to  its  very  first  requirements,  heaping  up  rub- 
bish from  the  deservedly  forgotten  idealistic  philosophj^  of  the 
middle  ages,  go  forth  in  the  name  of  science  to  proclaim  that 
there  is  no  pain;  that  there  is  no  disease;  that  there  is  no 
bodily  ill;  that  "all,  all  is  mind!  "     Science  knows  him  not! 

That  such  delusions  find  lodging  among  most  excellent 
people,  in  no  wise  affects  the  case.  The  remedy  lies,  I  shall 
still  maintain,  in  the  inculcation  of  real  science  which  insists 
on  the  ascertainment  of  truth,  and  especially  in  the  application 
of  the  method  of  science  which  trusts  the  evidence  of  the 
senses  acting  in  their  normal  province  and  in  a  natural  way. 
But  is  it  not  astonishing  that  almost  every  ancient  delusion 
that  aims  nowadays  to  lift  its  head  among  enlightened  men 
assumes  to  speak  in  the  name  of  science,  thus  unwittingly  pay- 
ing tribute  to  the  reputation  which  the  scientific  movement  has 
made  for  itself  in  the  world?  Thus  we  have  "occult  science," 
strange  contradiction  of  terms!  and  "esoteric  science"  and 
"mystic  science "  and  "monistic  sciense,"  "spiritualistic 
science,"  "  theosophic  science,  "  and  I  know  not  what.  Surely 
science  has  difficulties  and  perplexities  of  its  own  to  deal  with, 
sutticient  that  it  may  be  allowed  to  protest  against  the  imposi- 
tion of  such  a  burden  of  unheard-of  accumulated  rubbish.  I 
repeat;  the  only  remedy  for  false  science  is  true  science;  the 
only  knowledge  that  will  save  people  from  the  constant  recur- 
rence of  dominant  superstition  is  found  in  that  form  of  human 
knowledge  and  activity  which  this  academy  is  set  to  foster. 
Literature  will  not  do  it;  art  will  not  do  it;  even  raligion, 
divine  though  her  mission  be,  will  not  do  it;  has  not  done  it. 
Her  gospel  seems  to  assume  the  spread  of  another  gospel,  that 
of  common  sense,  and  the  gospel  of  common  sense  is  modern 
science.  If  our  people  could  once  get  into  the  way  of  looking 
at  things  as  they  really  are,  and  judging  the  natural  world  on 
the  principles  of  simple,  clear-eyed,  common  sense,  wisdom 
would  at  last  be  justified  of  her  children. 

But  there  is  still  another  phase  of  the  situation  which  I 
think  ought  to  be  mentioned  here  to-night.     There  is  to-day,  at 


22  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

the  end  of  the  century,  in  the  intellectual  world  everywhere, 
plainly  a  reaction  against  the  distinctly  scientific  method  of 
acting  and  doing.  Thirty  years  ago,  twenty- five  years  ago, 
science  seemed  about  to  sweep  everything  before  it.  Every 
phase  of  human  thought  was  roused  in  a  second  renaissance, 
more  far-reaching,  and,  as  I  think  the  future  historian  will 
declare,  immensely  more  pregnant  of  result  than  was  that 
earlier  revival  of  the  sixteenth  century.  But  thirty  years  have 
passed  and  now  the  trend  is  different  The  freshness  of  the 
impulse  is  to  most  of  us  a  memory;  the  world  of  thought  has 
begun  again  to  crystallize  and  although  the  force  of  that  first 
upheaval  is  by  no  means  spent,  shores  and  continental  outlines 
are  all  different  from  what  they  were  before,  nevertheless  old 
tendencies,  old  ideas,  old  superstitions  even,  as  just  noted,  are 
beginning  again  to  lift  their  heads.  The  scientific  movement 
as  represented  by  this  Academy  is  at  an  ebb  and  we  must 
recognize  the  fact. 

Now  the  reason  for  this  condition  is  perfectly  plain.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  in  fact  a  reaction.  The  generations  of  men 
have  had  time  to  shift  once  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Men  are 
lovers  of  ease.  Science  is  aggressive.  Under  the  reign  of 
science  the  world  is  forever  on  the  qui  rive.  Men  are  almost 
afraid  to  open  their  morning  papers  lest  during  the  night 
science  may  have  abrogated  the  necessity  for  food,  written  an 
analysis  of  love,  or  have  so  far  confined  to  wires  and  rods  the 
electricity  of  the  planet  that  none  shall  be  left  for  thunder- 
storms or  auroral  displays.  The  human  mind  cannot  be 
always  tense.  The  best  lecture  at  last  puts  the  auditors  to 
sleep.  This  will  account  for  any  popular  declension.  Then 
again,  there  are  hundreds  of  educated  men  whose  conservative 
sympathies  are  all  with  the  older  views,  to  whom  the  real  sig- 
nificance and  purport  of  the  scientific  movement  are  but  dimly 
seen.  Not  studying  science  itself,  but  only  a  presentation  of 
it — I  do  not  say  misrepresentation  of  it — or  turning  from  true 
scientific  employ  to  the  more  fascinating  fields  of  speculation, 
they  make  of  science  no  more  than  a  system  of  philosophy, 
comparable  to  any  other  one  of  the  varied  schemes  of  human 
dreamings  that  drift  hither  from  the  hoar  antiquity  of  the  race. 
It  is  thus  that  Mr.  A.  T.  Balfour  in  his  "Foundations  of 
Belief"  and  Professor  Haeckel  in  his  "Confessions"  meet  in 
their  assault  on  the  methods  of  science,  though  separated  by 
the  whole  diameter  of  the  earth  in  the  paths  of  their  argumen- 
tation. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  28 

May  I  venture  to  suggest  that  the  right  honorable  author, 
not  being  expert  in  the  simple  phases  of  scientific  effort,  has 
misconceived  the  mission  and  meaning  of  science  altogether. 
He  says  of  science,  "Foundations  of  Belief,  "  p.  94:  "Its  busi- 
ness is  to  provide  us  with  a  theory  of  nature."  Never  in  the 
world!  Its  business  is  to  depict  nature  as  we  find  her  and  to 
give  such  account  as  may  be  possible  of  agencies  which  effect 
her  changes.  Science  offers  no  explanation  of  nature.  The 
man  of  science  may  frame  hypotheses,  but  they  are  only  as 
instruments  of  research  for  his  own  convenience,  to  be  used 
and  cast  away  when  their  purpose  is  attained,  or  when  better 
are  at  hand.  The  facts  attained  by  science,  the  methods  of 
discovering  truth  would  remain  precisely  what  they  are, 
whether  our  theory  of  nature  be  that  of  the  eternity  of  a  self- 
created  universe,  whether  that  of  the  old-time  theologian  who 
literally  interpreted  his  six  creative  days,  or  whether  with  the 
Christian  child  we  reverently  say,  "In  the  beginning  God 
created  the  heaven  and  the  earth."  With  the  "meaning  of 
the  world,"  as  philosophers  put  it,  science  has  nothing  what- 
ever to  do;  she  would  simply  teach  man  such  use  of  the  world 
as  is  conducive  to  his  own  safety  and  well-being,  such  a  way  of 
looking  at  the  world  as  will  deliver  him  from  fear.  Surely  to 
the  "meaning  of  the  world"  to  "theories  of  nature"  the  race 
has  given  sufficient  attention;  is  it  not  high  time  we  should 
strive  to  comprehend  that  part  of  the  world  which  most 
directly  concerns  us,  and  which  has  all  the  while  lain  unnoted 
within  our  reach?  But  even  here  Mr.  Balfour  would  discredit 
science.  Basing  an  argument  on  what  he  terms  "mental 
physiology"  he  impugns  the  evidence  of  the  senses;  he 
declares  that  science  has  no  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the 
world  of  which  it  tells,  is  based  upon  an  illusion,  exists 
because  of  an  erroneous  view  of  the  natural  world.  The  plain, 
every-day  man  of  science  can  for  once  scarcely  trust  his  eyes 
as  he  reads  such  pages. 

Now,  to  any  one  with  sufficient  mental  equipoise  to  abide  by 
the  earth,  to  stick  to  that  which  the  whole  experience  of  ani- 
mate creation  in  all  past  ages  has  proven  true,  to  any  one  who 
abides  the  common  appreciation  of  fact,  such  a  book,  as  far  as 
the  methods  of  science  is  concerned,  appears  simply  as  a  jeu 
d' esprit,  a  bit  of  dialectic  humor;  but  to  multitudes  of  people 
who  will  not  do  this  thing,  who,  on  account  of  innate  prejudice, 


24  IOWA  ACADEMY  OF   SCIENCES. 

or  what  not,  are  not  especially  friendly  to  the  scientific  move- 
ment, such  an  argument  will  appear  conclusive,  demolishing 
in  a  sentence  all  that  fifty  years  of  science  has  built  up. 
Whether  such  argument  takes  with  it  electric  lights  and  cars, 
bacteriology,  modern  surgery  and  photography,  is  not  so  clear. 

But  perhaps  the  most  curious  index  of  the  present  ebb  is 
scientific  interest  and  enthusiasm  comes  from  a  quarter  where 
we  should  least  expect  it,  from  philanthropy  or  altruism,  as  in 
these  days  we  are  taught  to  say.  The  eccentric  Russian  lioble- 
man,  Tolstoi,  regarded  in  many  quarters  as  the  modern  oracle 
of  all  efforts  for  social  amelioration,  he,  too,  has  a  griev- 
ance against  science.  His  is  the  most  marvellous  complaint  of 
all.     I  quote  from  the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  July,  1898: 

"The  strong,  sensible  laborer  supposes  that  men  who  study 
and  are  supported  by  his  labor,  shall  be  able  to  tell  him  where 
to  find  happiness.  Science  should  teach  him  how  to  live,  how 
to  act  towards  friends  and  relatives,  and  how  to  control 
instincts  and  desires  that  arise  within  him,  how  and  what  to 
believe.  Instead  of  telling  him  these  things,  science  talks 
about  distances  in  the  heavens,  microbes,  vibrations  of  ether 
and  X-rays.  The  laborer  is  dissatisfied.  He  insists  on  know- 
ing how  to  live.  The  essential  thing  is  the  total  view  of  life, 
its  meanings  and  aims.  Science  cannot  rise  to  that  view,  reli- 
gion alone  can  do  so.  " 

I  consider  this  a  most  remarkable  utterance,  but  it  simply 
shows  how  very  far  off  an  intelligent  man  may  be  in  this  year 
1898  from  a  true  appreciation  of  the  method,  the  work  and  the 
mission  of  natural  science.  To  declare  that  science  has  not 
been  a  blessing  to  earth's  toiling  millions  can  be  possible  only 
to  a  man  who  chooses  to  hide  himself  amid  the  serfs  of 
benighted  Russia,  where  aristocracy  of  church  and  state  still 
holds  millions  in  the  superstitious  degradation  of  medieval 
ages.  Surely  everywhere  west  of  Russia,  there  is  not  a  work- 
ingman  wlio  does  not  by  virtue  of  the  progress  of  science  find 
himself  to-day  better  housed,  better  warmed,  better  fed,  better 
taught  in  health  and  better  nursed  in  sickness  than  ever  before 
in  the  whole  history  of  the  race.  The  light  of  science  converts 
night  into  day  before  his  footsteps;  for  a  mere  pittance,  a 
small  fraction  of  his  daily  wage,  he  journeys  to  and  from  his 
work  in  style  befitting  a  prince;  if  he  be  sober,  his  home  is  the 
abode  of  comfort,  the  best  knowledge  of  the  world  is  spread 
before  his  children,  gifted  men  taught  in  the  ways  of  science 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  25 

are  instantly  at  his  summons  everywhere  to  save  him  and  his 
from  suffering  and  disease.  Nay,  the  very  fact  of  the  matter 
is  that  science  made  possible  the  continued  existence  of  Mr. 
Tolstoi  and  his  serfs,  when  a  few  years  since  but  for  science- 
invented  steamships  and  telegraphs  all  the  people  of  southern 
Russia  would  have  perished  by  starvation  together.  Mr. 
Tolstoi  probably  appreciates  this,  but  he  fancies  that  the  world 
suffers  more  from  selfishness  and  tyranny  than  from  ignorance 
of  nature  and  her  laws,  which  may  be  true;  but  the  antidote 
for  tyranny  is  intelligence,  for  selfishness  wisdom,  and  in  the 
winning  of  such  virtues  science  is  certainly  a  contributor  not 
to  be  despised.  The  most  democratic  statesmen  in  Europe 
to-day  are  not  the  men  of  religion,  the  clericals,  but  the  men  of 
science.  It  is  one  function  of  this  Academy,  at  least,  to  keep 
the  people  of  Iowa  from  lapsing  in  their  allegiance  to  what 
may  well  be  called,  as  it  seems  to  me,  the  noblest  and  most 
beneficent  intellectual  movement  of  modern  times. 

It  would  seem  gratuitous  thus  to  enter  upon  a  defense  of 
science  or  the  scientific  methods;  they  really  need  no  defense; 
but  after  all,  it  is  w^ell  sometimes  to  declare  the  truth.  In 
fact  science,  as  such,  has  never  been  popular.  As  usual, 
results  only  are  popular.  The  toilsome,  laborious  researches 
recounted  in  the  tomes  of  all  the  academies  of  earth  are  not 
attractive,  not  popular.  They  mean  long  days  and  nights  of 
weary  labor.  Faraday  and  the  electricians  before  him  dis- 
covered and  knew  nearly  all  that  we  know  to-day  concerning 
induction  and  alternating  currents,  but  Faraday  never  heard 
through  a  telephone  the  voice  of  his  friend,  nor  walked  in  the 
blaze  of  an  electric  light.  That  came  later.  It  is  easy  for  men 
to  sit  by  an  incandescent  lamp  and  write  criticisms  of  the 
scientific  method,  but  such  men  ought  at  least  be  honest 
enough  to  acknowledge  their  indebtedness,  to  own  that  it  pays 
to  have  scientific  work  done,  however  unsatisfactory  the 
method  of  the  scientist  may  seem  to  them  to  bo.  How  many 
men  there  are  ready  to  ridicule  meteorology,  the  latest  effort 
in  the  field  of  scientific  research,  and  yet  every  year,  even  with 
our  present  imperfect  methods  and  knowledge,  the  saving  to 
humanity  by  our  weather  service  in  property,  health  and  even 
life  itself  is  of  moment  incalculable.  Besides,  who  shall  doubt 
that  the  day  is  coming  when  the  currents  of  the  upper  air  may 
be  mapped   and  known   as  exactly,  perhaps,  as  those   of  the 


26  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

more  solid  ocean,  and  although  we  may  never  be  able  to  con- 
trol one  or  the  other,  we  may  better  and  better  adapt  ourselves 
to  their  vagaries  as  time  goes  by. 

In  view,  then,  of  the  present  need  of  our  own  people,  and  in 
view  of  the  present  status  of  the  world  of  thought,  it  does 
seem  to  me  that  the  necessity  of  our  organization  takes  on  new 
importance.  We  should,  as  never  before,  encourage  each 
other  to  good  work,  in  every  way  strive  to  foster  the  spread  of 
science  and  its  methods  among  the  people  of  this  good  state. 
We  are  as  the  scientiiic  public  servants  at  Washington,  a 
"university  unorganized,''  and  while  we  may  guard  as  zeal- 
ously as  may  be  needed  our  fellowship,  the  council  of  the 
Academy,  let  us  yet  welcome  to  membership  everybody  in  this 
whole  state  who  has  within  him  the  impulse  of  a  scientiiic 
spirit.  This  fair  city  of  Des  Moines  surely  numbers  in  its 
population  scores  of  men  in  all  walks  of  life  who  have  our 
work  at  heart  and  who,  if  organized,  might  second,  as  nothing 
else  could  do,  the  efforts  of  this  academy.  It  is  one  of  the 
beauties  of  scientific  investigation  that  the  problems  of  science 
are  about  us  everywhere.  Those  about  the  city  of  Des  Moines 
are  quite  as  interesting,  fascinating,  no  doubt,  as  any  others 
within  an  equal  area  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  It  remains  only 
that  men  open  their  eyes  and  see.  A  local  academy  of  science 
in  this,  the  capital  city,  if  I  may  be  permitted  to  suggest, 
would  be  a  wonderful  adjunct  to  this  association  and  stimulate 
in  a  peculiar  way  an  interest  in  science  everywhere.  Daven- 
port has  for  many  years  maintained  such  an  institution,  famous 
throughout  the  world.  The  geologists  of  Iowa  cannot  alone 
maintain  our  w^ork,  nor  can  the  botanists,  nor  the  chemists,  the 
mathematicians  or  astronomers,  but  if  all  unite,  we  can  develop 
programs  of  universal  interest,  and  thus  more  surely  attain 
that  prestige  as  an  institution  which  would  seem  to  be  in  keep- 
ing with  the  reputation  of  our  state. 

And  let  us  not  for  a  moment  fear  that  our  labor  is  in  vain. 
The  future  of  Iowa  is  hardly  dreamed  to-day  by  the  most 
enthusiastic  of  its  optimistic  citizens.  I  look  forward  to  the 
time,  and  that  in  no  distant  future,  when  the  center  of  wealth 
and  power  in  this  great  republic  shall  be  within  150  miles  of 
where  we  are  this  evening  gathered.  It  is  coming  sure  as  the 
swift  revolving  years.  The  Mississippi  valley  is  certain  to  be 
the  empire  of  the  world.  When  that  day  comes  the  faithful 
effort  of  this  Academy  will  find  its  own  reward.     It  will  then 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  27 

be  seen  that  we,  too,  were  foundation  builders,  that  upon  our 
work  has  risen  a  temple  of  science  commensurate  in  useful- 
ness, beneficence  and  inspiration,  with  the  imperial  destiny  of 
oui;  river-bordered  state. 


THE  COLOR  OF  DEEP-SEA  ANIMALS. 

BY   C.    C.    NUTTING. 

The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  explain  the  phenomena  of 
bright  colors  among  marine  animals  living  ia  the  sea  beyond 
the  depths  to  which  sunlight  can  be  supposed  to  penetrate  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  render  bright  colors  visible.  Although 
there  are  doubtless  actinic  eifects  of  sunlight  at  considerable 
depths,  we  are  safe,  I  think,  in  saying  that  colors  cannot  be 
clearly  distinguished  at  a  depth  greater  than  100  fathoms. 
Photographic  experiments  show  that  the  "extreme  limit 
of  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  on  sensitive  plates  is  at  a  depth  of 
250  metres,"  or  less  than  125  fathoms.  As  to  the  facts  con- 
cerning coloration  of  deep-sea  animals — and  the  deep  sea  may 
be  considered  from  our  standpoint  as  any  depth  below  100 
fathoms — all  our  information  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
phenomena  of  bright  colors  are  present  in  all  groups.  The 
main  sources  from  which  I  have  drawn  this  conclusion  are  the 
"  Challenger  ' "  Reports  and  Narrative,  "The  Three  Cruises  of 
the  Blake, " '  by  Alexander  Agassiz,  and  my  own  observations, 
most  of  whicli  are  recorded  in  my  narrative  of  the  ' '  Bahama 
Expedition'' sent  out  by  the  State  University  of  Iowa.  Pro- 
fessor Mosely,  of  the  Challenger  staff,  says:* 

"Peculiar  coloring  matters  giving  absorption  spectra  have 
now  been  found  to  exist  in  all  the  seven  groups  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  The  echinodermata  and  ccelenterata  appear  to  be 
the  groups  which  are  most  prolific  in  such  coloring  matter. 
Pentocrinin  and  antedonin  seem  to  be  widely  difl'used  in 
immense  quantities  through  the  tissues  of  the  crinoids  in  which 
they  occur;  and  the  echinoderms  generally  seem  to  be  charac- 
terized   by   the    presence   of    evenly    diifused,  abundant   and 


'Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,  xvil,  p.  1. 


28  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

readily  soluble  pigments. "  Again  he  says  "the  same  coloring 
matters  exist  in  deep-sea  animals  which  are  found  in  shallow 
water  forms. " 

Alexander  Agassiz  says  that  there  are  many  ' '  vividly 
colored  bathyssal  animals  belonging  to  all  the  classes  of  the 
animal  kingdom  and  possessing  nearly  all  the  hues  found  in 
types  living  in  littoral  waters."*  He  notices  the  scarcity  of 
blue  color,  however,  having  found  it  only  in  an  encrusting 
sponge  and  blue  crustacean  eggs.  The  following  statements 
are  important:  "There  is  apparently  in  the  abysses  of  the 
sea  the  same  adaptation  to  the  surroundings  as  upon  the  lit- 
toral zone.  We  meet  with  highly  colored  ophiurians  within 
masses  of  sponges  themselves  brilliantly  colored  at  a  depth  of 
more  than  150  fathoms."  "  While  we  recognize  the  predomi- 
nance of  tints  of  white,  pink,  red,  scarlet,  orange,  violet, 
purple,  green,  yellow  and  allied  colors  in  deep-water  types, 
the  variety  of  coloring  among  them  is  quite  as  striking  as  that 
of  better  known  marine  animals.  "  "There  is  as  great  a  diver- 
sity in  color  in  the  reds,  oranges,  greens,  yellows  and  scarlets 
of  the  deep-water  starfishes  and  ophiurians  as  there  is  in  those 
of  our  rocky  or  sandy  shores. 

"  Among  the  abyssal  invertebrates  living  in  commensalism 
the  adaptations  to  surroundings  is  fully  as  marked  as  in 
shallow  water.  I  may  mention  especially  the  many  species  of 
ophiurians  attached  to  variously  colored  gorgonians,  branch- 
ing corals  and  stems  of  Fentacrinirn  scarcely  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  part  to  which  they  cling,  so  completely  has  their  pat- 
tern of  coloration  become  identified  with  it.  There  is  a  similar 
agreement  in  coloration  in  annelids  when  commensal  upon 
starfishes,  mollusca,  actiniae  or  sponges,  and  with  Crustacea  and 
actinias  parasitic  upon  corals,  gorgoniansor  mollusks.  The 
number  of  species  of  crustaceans  *  *  *  colored  a  brilliant 
scarlet  is  quite  large."  "Large  masses  of  brilliant  orange- 
yellow  or  brownish-pink  sponges  are  constantly  dredged.'" 

The  results  of  my  own  observations  fully  confirm  the  above 
statements  of  Agassiz. 

Ainong  the  Crustacea  we  found  that  a  bright  scarlet  was 
very  common,  while  the  remaining  species  were  generally 
either  green  or  pale  colored.  One  remarkable  exception  was  a 
bright  blue  Solenokunbrus.  The  echinoderms  were  particularly 
striking    in    their    colors.      Yellow   and    purple    comatulidic 


•  Three  Cruises  of  the  Blake."  Vol.  1,  pp.  BIO  and  811. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES  29 

abounded  in  deep  water  near  Havana.  One  ophiurian  was 
brown,  conspicuously  marked  with  white,  others  were  marked 
with  purple  and  deep  violet.  The  simple-armed  basketfish 
were  bright  yellow,  or  bright  yellow  barred  with  brown,  or 
deep  orange  and  rich  chocolate.  A  Luidia  was  a  rich  chocolate 
with  conspicuous  white  spines.  Among  the  sea  urchins  may 
be  noted  a  Coefoj)Ieun<s  with  crimson  and  white  spines,  a  Salenia 
with  vermilion  and  white  barred  spines,  an  Aspidocliadeitia 
with  spines  banded  with  purplish  velvet  and  white,  a  very 
brilliant  (heloplouriis  with  spines  barred  carmine  and  white 
and  a  test  with  alternating  chocolate  and  orange  zones,  an 
Echinus  with  a  beautiful  green  test  ornamented  with  white 
diamond-shaped  patterns.  The  coelenterates  tell  the  same 
story;  gorgonidae  of  brilliant  crimson,  orange,  yellow  and 
scarlet,  corals  red  and  pink  and  rose  color  and  bright  yellow 
plumularian  hydroids. 

The  following  general  statements  seem  to  me  to  be  justified 
concerning  the  coloration  of  the  animals  of  the  deep  sea: 

First. — The  coloration  is  fully  as  brilliant  as  in  shallow 
water,  although  perhaps  not  so  varied. 

Second  — The  reds,  orange,  yellows,  violet,  purple,  green 
and  white  predominate. 

Third. — The  colors,  when  they  occur  at  all,  are  apt  to  be  in 
solid  masses  in  striking  contrast,  or  the  whole  animal  is  of  a 
uniform  brilliant  coloration.  Fine  patterns  are  very  scarce 
and  nature  seems  to  have  used  a  large  brush  in  adorning  her 
children  of  the  depths. 

Fourth. — There  is  a  conspicuous  absence  of  blue  color  among 
all  groups.  But  two  exceptions,  a  sponge  and  crab,  have 
been  noted. 

A  brief  reference  to  the  physical  conditions  of  the  deep  sea 
is  necessary  to  the  proper  understanding  of  the  discussion  in 
the  latter  part  of  this  paper.*     These  conditions  are: 

First. — Great  pressure,  which  of  course  increases  with  the 
depth.  At  a  depth  of  1,000  fathoms,  the  pressure  is  one  ton  to 
the  square  inch,  a  pressure  120  times  greater  than  that  to 
which  we  are  subjected;  while  at  3,000  fathoms,  the  pressure 
is  equal  to  that  of  400  atmospheres  Curiously  enough,  this 
enormous  pressure  does  not  seem  to  greatly  affect  the  animals 
subjected  to  it.     The  bodies  of  many  of  them  are  composed 


*  Most  of  the  data  in  this  paper  eoncerniag  physical  conditions  are  taken  from 
The  Three  Cruises  of  the  Blake,"  Agassiz,  chapter  xiii. 


30  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

largely  of  water,  which  is  nearly  incompressible,  while  many 
invertebrates  possess  abundant  skeletal  tissues  of  limestone 
usually  permeated  by  profusely  branching  canals  containing 
watery  fluid  (echinoderms,  corals,  etc  ),  or  consisting  of  small 
particles  or  spicules,  embedded  in  a  watery  coenasarc  (alcyon- 
aria,  sponges),  or  with  an  external  chitinous  investment 
(Crustacea). 

When  fishes  are  brought  up  from  great  depths  their  tissues 
almost  fall  apart,  on  account  of  the  release  of  pressure;  the 
swim-bladder  projects  from  the  mouth  and  the  eyes  are  greatly 
protruded. 

Secojtd. — Deep-sea  animals  are  subjected  to  a  comparatively 
uniform  low  temperature.  This  temperature  is  between  38 
degrees  and  the  freezing  point  at  all  places  below  150  fathoms. 
As  we  near  the  poles  this  low  temperature  approaches,  and 
finally  reaches,  the  surface. 

Third. — Absence  of  wave  novements.  In  many  places,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  steady  mass-movement  of  the  water  in  the 
shape  of  currents. 

FourfJt. — Practical  absence  of  sunlight.  By  this  I  mean  that 
the  light  penetrating  to  a  depth  below  100  fathoms  can  not  be 
regarded  as  sufficient  to  enable  such  eyes  as  ours,  and  probably 
all  eyes,  to  distinguish  between  colors.* 

Fifth. — The  presence  in  many  places  of  animals  giving  forth 
phosphorescent  light.  This  being  an  important  phenomenon 
for  our  purpose,  I  have  gathered  together  considerable  evi- 
dence to  show  the  extent  to  which  this  light-emitting  power 
prevails  among  abyssal  forms.  It  seems  that  phosphorescent 
light  is  found  among  the  following  groups  of  deep-sea 
animals:  Fi.shes,  along  the  lateral  organs  or  on  the  head. 
Salpa:  the  Blake  expedition  secured  specimens  which  were 
several  yards  in  length  and  highly  phosphorescent.  Many 
(•niHtaveauH,  ceiihahiiods.  Among  the  Challenger  material  were 
specimens  having  very  efficient  phosphorescent  organs  on  the 
lower  surface,  and  not  only  was  the  light  emitted,  but  lenses 
were  found  for  concentrating  the  light  as  does  a  bull's  eye 
lantern,  t       OphiHricnt.s,     Pennatidida',    which   are   described   as 


♦Professor  Verrill,  however,  maintains  that  a  pale  green  ligrht  penetrates  even  to 
great  depths.  (See  report  of  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  18&2,  pp.  1054-105(5.) 
This  point  will  be  discussed  later. 

•  These  remarlcable  structures  were  described  before  the  ziological  section  of  the 
A.  A.  A.  S.  at  the  Detroit  meeting  by  Prof.  William  E.  Hoyle,  in  a  paper  that  was  not 
published. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  31 

being  brilliantly  phosphorescent,  Gorr/onida',  Aiitipathklcr, 
Hi/droida  and  msknyje/h/-^fishes.  Among  the  Protzoa,  the  noctiluca 
is  perhaps  the  most  widely  diffused  and  numerically  the 
greatest  of  all. 

It  should  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  it  is  alto- 
gether probable  that  the  phosphorescence  of  deep-water  forms, 
e\en  where  present,  is  only  exceptionally  discovered.  While 
dredging  operations  are  under  way  the  work  is  usually  done 
by  daylight  and  the  specimens  are  sorted  and  cared  for  as 
quickly  as  possible,  only  a  small  portion  from  considerable 
depths  being  alive  when  brought  to  the  surface,  and  only  a 
fraction  of  these  being  kept  alive  for  nocturnal  observations. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  occurrence  of  phosphor- 
escence would  be,  as  I  have  said,  only  exceptionally  noted, 
even  were  it  abundantly  present  in  the  forms  studied.  When 
we  consider  the  above  list  of  phosphorescent  forms  that 
have  been  recorded  in  spite  of  the  conditions  just  referred  to, 
it  will  be  conceded  that  the  actual  amount  of  this  light  must  be 
far  greater  than  the  face  of  the  record  shows. 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  also,  in  this  connection,  that  many 
of  these  phosphorescent  forms,  especially  among  the  fixed 
coclenterates,  are  aggregated  together  in  masses  on  the  sea 
bottom:  No  one  can  have  had  much  experience  in  dredging  in 
rich  localities  without  noticing  this.  Agassiz  speaks  of 
'  'forests  of  gorgonians  which  become  luminous  by  disturbances 
due  to  currents  or  other  movements, ''  *  and  I  have  frequently 
been  surprised,  when  dredging  on  the  Pourtales  Plateau,  at 
the  immense  quantities  of  echinoderms  and  cut'lenterates 
secured  at  a  single  haul,  indicating  a  profusion  of  life  on 
definite  areas  of  the  sea  bottom. 

Taking  the  above  facts  into  consideration,  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  phosphorescent  light  is  a  very  characteristic  and  widely 
spread  phenomenon  which  must  enter  into  our  discussion  of 
the  physical  features  of  the  deep  sea. 

It  now  becomes  necessary  to  consider  veiy  briefly  the 
nature  and  extent  of  organs  for  the  perception  of  light  and 
color  with  which  the  dwellers  of  the  deep  sea  are  endowed. 

On  this  point  Agassiz  has  the  following  statement:  f 

'  'We  should  not  forget  on  the  one  hand  that  blind  Crustacea 
and  other  marine  invertebrates  without  eyes,  or  with  rudi- 
mentary organs  of  vision,  have  been  dredged  from  a  depth  of 

*'•  Three  Cruises  of  the  Blake,"  p.  308. 
+  ••  Three  Cruises  of  tlie  Blake,"  p.  307. 


32  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

less  than  200  fathoms,  and,  on  the  other,  that  the  fauna  as  a 
whole  is  not  blind  as  in  caves,  but  that  by  far  the  majority  of 
animals  living  at  a  depth  of  about  2,000  fathoms  have  eyes 
either  like  their  allies  in  shallower  water,  or  else  rudimentary, 
or  sometimes  very  large,  as  in  the  huge  eyes  developed  out  of 
all  proportion  in  some  of  the  abyssal  Crustacea  and  fishes;  and 
undoubtedly  adapted  to  make  the  most  of  the  little  light  exist- 
ing in  deep  water. " 

Verrill  bears  practically  the  same  testimony:  * 

"That  light  of  some  kind  and  in  considerable  amount 
actually  exists  at  depths  below  2,000  fathoms  may  be  regarded 
as  certain.  This  is  shown  by  the  presence  of  well -developed 
eyes  in  most  of  the  fishes,  all  of  the  cephalopods,  most  of  the 
decapod  Crustacea  and  in  some  species  of  other  groups.  In 
many  of  these  animals  the  eyes  are  relatively  larger  than 
in  the  allied  shallow  water  species.  "  This  author  thinks  that 
the  rudimentary  eyes  in  many  gastropods  are  due  to  burrow- 
ing habits. 

It  may  be  said  in  general  that  a  greater  proportion  of  eyes 
in  abyssal  regions  are  either  rudimentary  or  wanting,  on  the 
one  hand,  or  unusually  large  and  effective,  on  the  other,  than 
in  shallow  water. 

We  now  come  to  the  main  purpose  of  this  paper — the 
attempt  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  coloration  among 
animals  of  the  deep  sea.  The  theories  heretofore  advanced 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as: 

First. — The  vain  and  impotent  conclusion  that  this  profusion 
of  color  is  meaningless.  Beddard  frankly  makes  the  following 
statement:  t  "The  inevitable  conclusion,  therefore,  from 
these  facts  appears  to  be  that  the  brilliant  and  varied  colora- 
tions of  deep-sea  animals  are  totally  devoid  of  meaning;  they 
cannot  be  of  advantage  for  protective  purposes,  or  as  warning 
colors,  for  the  single  and  sufficient  reason  that  they  are 
invisible. " 

This  sort  of  unconditional  surrender  is  unworthy  of  the 
scientific  spirit  of  the  age.  Beddard,  however,  it  must  be 
remembered,  delights  in  finding  evidence  whereby  he  can 
throw  discredit  on  the  Neo-Darwinian  school.  It  would  have 
been  much  more  to  the  point  had  he  contented  himself  with 
saying  that  the  utility  of  these  colors  had  not  as  yet  been 
explained. 

•Report  of  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  1882,  p.  1054. 
+  Animal  Coloration,  p  37. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  33 

Second. — The  green-light  theory  of  Verrill.  This  is  an 
attempt  to  explain  brilliant  coloration  as  protective.*  He 
says  in  eifect  that  sunlight  penetrates  to  even  the  greatest 
depths  and  that  only  green  rays  reach  those  regions.  He 
calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  reds  are  the  predominant, 
conspicuous  colors  in  deep-sea  forms  and  concludes  that  in  a 
green  light  red  would  be  invisible  and  thus  the  color  would  be 
protective. 

Two  objections  present  themselves  to  this  theory.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  incredible  that  a  sufficient  amount  of  sunlight 
penetrates  to  great  depths  to  render  protective  coloration 
necessary. 

Agassiz,  whose  knowledge  of  the  deep  sea  is  unsurpassed, 
says: t 

"We  may  imagine  a  reddish,  yellow  twilight  at  a  depth  of 
about  fifty  fathoms,  passing  into  a  darker  region  near  the  100 
fathom  line;  and  finally,  at  200  fathoms,  a  district  where  the 
light  is  possibly  that  of  a  brilliant  star-light  night.  " 

Now,  when  we  remember  how  little  of  color  can  be  seen  in 
the  most  brilliant  moonlight,  and  how  soon  all  colors  but 
white,  if  that  be  a  color,  are  rendered  undistinguishable  at  the 
approach  of  dusk  in  the  evening,  it  becomes  evident  that  our 
credulity  cannot  meet  the  requirement  of  this  theory,  /.  e. ,  that 
green  rays  penetrate  even  to  2,000  fathoms  or  more  in  such 
quantities  that  protective  coloration  is  needed.  Again,  even  if 
it  should  prove  that  light  does  thus  penetrate,  animals  would 
be  equally  well  protected  by  neutral  tints  without  the  lavish 
expenditure  of  pigment  which  is  so  conspicuous  among  deep- 
sea  forms. 

The  third  and  last  theory  regards  the  presence  of  bright 
colors  and  of  functional  eyes  in  so  many  groups  as  conclusive 
evidence  that  light  is  present  in  the  abysses  of  the  ocean,  but 
considers  that  the  widely  diffused  phosphorescent  light,  and 
not  sunlight,  is  the  aid  to  vision.  This  theory  was  adopted  by 
Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter  and  Sir  Wyville  Thomson,  and  is  the 
view  which  the  present  writer  regards  as  the  most  reasonable. 

Let  us  briefly  recapitulate  the  facts  which  are  important  in 
this  discussion: 
I.     As  to  coloration  of  dee})- sea  animals. 

(a)  Brilliant  colors  are  common  in  all  groups. 


*  Report  of  Commission'of  Pish  aadJFisheries,  1882,  p.  1054,  et  seq. 
+  "  Three.Oruises  of  the  Blake,"  p.  305. 


34  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

(b)  Reds,  yellows  and  greens  predominate. 

(c)  These  colors  are  in  masses,  usually  in  striking  con- 

trast. 

(d)  Commensal   associations  of   similarly  and  brilliantly 

colored  animals  are  frequent. 

II.  As  to  phiisicdl  conditions: 

(a)  Great  pressure. 

(h)  Uniform  low  temperature. 

(c)  Practical  absence  of  sunlight. 

(d)  Aggregation  of  animals  in  limited  areas. 

(e)  A  considerable  amount   of  organic   matter  near  the 

bottom. 

III.  As  to  cisual  organs  (unong  deep-sea  animals: 

(a)  They  are  possessed  by  a  majority  of  animals  that 
normally  possess  them  in  shallow  water. 

(Jj)  They  are  often  of  great  size  among  deep-sea  forms. 

(c)  They  are  often,  on  the  other  hand,  either  rudimentary 
or  aborted. 

IV.  ^6-  to  phosphorescent  light: 

(a)  It  is  found  among  practically  all  classes  of  deep-sea 

forms. 

(b)  It  is  often  of  remarkable  brilliancy.     I,  myself,  have 

seen  it  so  brilliant,  on  the  surface  of  course,  that 
ordinary  print  could  be  read  from  the  deck  of  a 
vessel. 

(c)  It  is  possessed  by  animals  that  are  known  to  be  aggre- 

gated in  immense  quantities  at  certain  spots  at  the 
sea  bottom. 

(d)  It  has  the  remarkable  actinic  property  of  rendering 

particularly    conspicuous    the    reds,    yellows    and 

greens.* 
Here,  then,  it  would  seem  that  we  have  a  light  that  would 
render  the  characteristic  colors  of  deep-sea  animals,  /.  e.,  the 
reds,  yellows  and  greens,  conspicuous,  and  no  less  nor  more 
explicable  than  similar  colors  among  their  shallow- water  rela- 
tives. In  many  cases  they  are  doubtless  to  be  regarded  as 
warning  coloration,  as  in  the  sea  urchins,  whose  sharp  spines 
are  frequently  banded   with    brilliantly   contrasted   red    and 


*Mosely  found  that  the  phosphorescent  light  emitted  by  certain  marine  forms 
consisted  of  red,  yellow  and  green  rays  only,  and  adds:  "Hence,  were  the  light  in  the 
deep  sea  derived  from  this  source,  in  the  absence  of  blue  and  violet,  only  red,  yellow 
and  green  colors  could  be  effective."  (Quoted  from  Agassi/.'  "Three  Cruises  of  the 
Blake,"  p.  310.) 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  35 

white.  This  may  also  be  true  of  bright  red  gorgonians, 
pennatulidse  and  sponges,  with  their  glassy  spicules,  and  red 
corals,  with  their  very  large  nematocysts. 

The  various  cases  of  commensal  association,  such  as  the 
ophiurians,  resembling  the  brilliant  gorgonians  upon  which 
they  climb,  would  thus  be  readily  explained  as  instances  of 
protective  resemblance.  *  Among  the  Crustacea  the  numerous 
cases  of  bright  red,  red  and  white  or  green  coloration  may  be 
possibly  capable  of  explanation  along  the  lines  of  directive 
coloration,  whereby  the  individual  may  recognize  its  own 
species,  and  thus  the  meeting  of  the  sexes  be  facilitated.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  many  deep-sea  crustaceans  have 
excellent  eyes.  In  short,  these  brilliant  colors  in  all  groups 
can,  according  to  this  theory,  be  explained  by  reference  to  the 
same  laws  that  prevail  on  land  or  in  shallow  water. 

Beddard  regards  as  a  fatal  objection  to  this  theory  the  fact 
that  the  eyes  of  many  deep-sea  dwellers  are  apparently  now  in 
the  process  of  degradation.  But  the  same  thing  is  found 
among  the  mud-dwelling  mollusca  and  the  sponge-inhabiting 
Crustacea,  such  as  Alpheus  in  shallow  water.  Mud  and  sponges 
are  also  found  in  deep  water  and  have  their  inhabitants  as 
well.  Again  there  are  doubtless  vast  areas  in  which  the  phos- 
phorescence is  exceedingly  feeble  or  entirely  wanting,  and  yet 
they  are  not  necessarily  or  even  probably  tenant! ess.  In  such 
places  the  possessors  of  eyes  would  find  them  worse  than  use- 
less and  gradual  atrophy  would  ensue.  I  must  confess  to  an 
utter  inability  to  see  the  force  of  Beddard's  so-called  "fatal 
objection." 

A  side-light  is  thrown  on  our  discussion  by  some  of  the  well 
known  facts  concerning  cave  fauna.     These  facts  are: 

First. — Cave  animals  are  almost  universally  colorless,  or  at 
least  are  not  brightly  colored. 

Second.  — 1  have  been  unable  to  find  any  record  of  phosphor- 
escence among  cave  animals. 

Third. — Blind  animals  are  common  in  cave  fauna. 

Fourth. — No  cave  animals,  so  far  as  I  know,  are  character- 
ized by  greatly  enlarged  eyes. 

It  would  thus  seem  that  the  absence  of  phosphorescence  in 

♦Beddard  explains  such  cases  by  Saying-  that  the  parasite  actually  assimilates  and 
deposits  in  its  own  skin  the  pigments  of  the  host.  (Loc.  Cit.,  p.  38.)  When  we  consider 
that  the  colors  of  the  gorgonians  are  in  the  hard  and  jagged  spicules  alone  we  cannot 
withhold  our  sympathy  from  the  ophiurian,  which  has  either  to  eat  such  unattractive 
fare  or  in  some  way  to  absorb  it  through  the  skin. 


36  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

caves  has  rendered  both  brilliant  colors  and  large  eyes  useless, 
and  thus  both  have  been  rigidly  suppressed. 

The  presence  of  phosphorescence  in  so  many  animals  which 
are  supposed  to  be  sightless,  e.  r/.,  pennatulids,  gorgonians  and 
hydroids,  is  hard  to  explain.*  Indeed,  it  is  not  properly 
within  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  explain  it.  A  suggestion 
occurs  to  me,  however,  that  may  be  worth  noting.  These 
animals  feed,  for  the  most  part,  on  minute  Crustacea  and  on 
protozoa.  Most  Crustacea,  and  more  particularly  their  embryos, 
have  functional  eyes.  May  they  not  he  attracted  by  light,  as  is 
the  case  with  shallow- water  forms?  The  protozoa  are  gener- 
ally without  distinct  organs  of  vision,  but  many  of  them  are, 
nevertheless,  apparently  attracted  by  light.  If  this  is  true, 
we  have  a  reason  for  phosphorescence  among  the  fixed  coelen- 
terates.  It  attracts  the  prey.  This,  to  my  mind,  is  more 
plausible  than  the  theory  that  it  is  a  protective  contrivance. 

We  may  thus  imagine  the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  be  for  the 
most  part  dark,  but  with  limited  areas  where  are  congregated 
phosphorescent  animals  that  give  forth  sufficient  illumination 
to  render  striking  colors,  particularly  red,  yellow  and  green, 
distinctly  visible,  enabling  them  to  play  the  same  role  that 
they  do  in  shallow  water,  and  bringing  them  within  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  laws. 


NOTES  ON  THE  HEMIPTERA    OF    NORTHWESTERN 
IOWA. 

BY   HERBERT   OSBORN. 

From  the  difference  in  geological  and  floral  conditions  of 
the  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  we  might  naturally  expect 
a  somewhat  interesting  insect  fauna.  Occasional  specimens  of 
species,  rare  or  unknown  in  the  central  part  of  the  state,  have 
come  to  hand  and,  especially  in  Hemiptera,  have  served  to 
strengthen  a  desire  to  investigate  more  thoroughly  the  fauna 
in  this  order.     Many  of  these  additions  have  been  due  to  the 


*  VerriU  thinks  that  phosphorescence  in  these  cases  is  of  value  in  warning-  away 
enfmies  from  the  nettling- ceUs.  I  have  been  unable  to  find  neniatocysts  among-  the 
gorgonidaj  and  have  neverseen  them  mentioned  as  found  among  pennatulids.  They 
are  seldom  of  large  size  among  the  hydroids. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  37 

successful  collecting  of  Mr.  E.  D.  Ball,  whose  faithful,  per- 
sistent efforts  it  is  a  pleasure  to  acknowledge  here.  During 
the  summer  of  1897  I  spent  a  couple  of  weeks  in  the  northwest- 
ern counties,  primarily  in  the  investigation  of  Hessian  fly- 
injuries,  but  availing  myself  of  such  opportunities  as  pre- 
sented to  collect  the  Hemiptera,  and  such  collections  at  Rock 
Rapids,  Little  Rock,  Storm  Lake,  Alta,  Cherokee  and  Sioux 
City,  in  Iowa,  and  Sioux  Falls,  S.  D.,  by  myself,  and  at  Little 
Rock  by  Mr.  Ball,  who  gave  especial  attention  to  the  jassidse 
of  the  prairie  grasses,  furnish  a  basis  for  the  preliminary 
consideration  of  the  hemipterous  fauna  of  the  region. 

It  will  be  noted  that  nearly  all  the  localities  cited  belong  to 
the  western  slope  and  most  of  them  to  the  formation  peculiar 
to  the  Missouri  valley.  Little  Rock  is  the  most  distant  from 
the  river,  but  its  elevation  and  the  numerous  hills  and  ridges 
in  the  vicinity,  bearing  the  sparse  vegetation  characteristic  of 
the  plains  farther  west,  makes  it  faunally  related  to  the  more 
western  localities.  The  lower  levels  and  river  valleys  in  all 
these  localities  present  a  fauna  more  like  that  of  the  rest  of 
the  state,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparison  of  complete  lists,  but 
the  portion  discussed  particularly  here  is  the  part  that  belongs 
really  to  the  plains  region  and  which  is  extended  into  this 
area  because  of  the  conditions  prevailing  on  the  more  elevated 
portions. 

Much  more  attention  was  given  to  jassidas  than  other 
groups,  hence  the  great  preponderance  in  this  family.  How- 
ever, for  the  region  and  the  vegetation  worked,  this  is  a 
natural  preponderence. 

HETEROPTERA. 

Hoiii(f')in(8  biji/fjl.s  Uhl.,  is  an  abundant  species  in  the  region, 
occuring  in  rank  vegetation  of  lower  levels,  and  while  ranging 
eastward  and  in  some  cases  becoming  fairly  common,  it 
appears  to  be  more  particularly  typical  of  the  plains. 

Liodenita  belfragii  Stal.,  reported  in  the  last  proceedings,  has 
not  been  obtained  in  Iowa  in  any  other  point  than  Little  Rock. 
Stal.  gives  its  habitat  as  "America  borealis,  Illinois.'" 

Peribalus  pkeus  Dall.  Two  specimens  of  this  species  from 
Little  Rock  are  the  only  representatives  taken  in  Iowa.  They 
belong  to  the  boreal  fauna,  and  it  is  worthy  of  mention  that  the 
only  part  of  Iowa  touched  by  the  transition  zone,  according  to 
Merriam,  is  the  northwestern  corner,  where  these  occurred. 


38  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Mecidla  lonr/ula  Stal.  A  single  specimen  of  this  southern 
species  was  taken  at  Sioux  City  from  the  crest  of  one  of  the 
hills.  I  know  of  no  previous  record  for  this  species  above  the 
lower  austral  zone,  but  the  Missouri  valley  doubtless  furnishes 
conditions  more  nearly  like  the  south  and  provides  for  the 
northern  extension  of  such  species.  With  this  as  an  indica- 
tion, we  should  hardly  be  surprised  if  Mirrr/antia  Imtronka  were 
to  appear  in  similar  localities. 

Chariesterus  antennator  Fab.,  another  southern  species 
belonging  properly  to  the  lower  austral  zon^,  was  taken  at 
same  time  and  place  as  Mecklia  longula.  No  other  record  of  its 
occurrence  in  Iowa. 

Harmostes  reflexulus  Say.     Little  Rock  (Ball). 

Pamera  vicina  Dall.  (?)  A  species  of  Pamera  which  is 
tentatively  referred  here  occurred  in  considerable  abundance 
at  Little  Rock. 

Palococoris  svavis  Reut.  (?)  Sioux  City.  Brachypterous 
form.     Described  from  Texas. 

Si/stratiotus  atnericayius  Reut.     Little  Rock  (Ball). 

Largidea  ojmca  Uhl.    This  species  is  represented  by  a  variety. 

Mimoceps  gracUis  Uhl.  This  handsome  species  was  taken  at 
Little  Rock,  July  2d. 

Of  the  plains  fauna,  and  belonging  to  the  ujDper  austral,  we 
have  such  species^^  as  Homasmus  bijujus,  Thyanta  custator, 
Nysius  californicusyPhelpsius  altus,  decorus,  Driatura  robusta, 
gammaroidea,  Dorycephalus  vanduzei,  Deltocephalus  collinus, 
albidus,  reflexus,  pectinatus,  signatifrons,  cruciatus^nflatus, 
Athsanus  punctatus,  Lonatura  catalina,  Agallia  uhleri.-iGrypona 
cinerea. 

Of  boreal  forms  we  have  Peribalus  piceus,  Lioderma  bel- 
fragei;  of  lower  austral  forms,  Mecidia  longula,  Chariesterus 
antennator. 

It  does  not  follow  that  species  not  taken  in  the  region  do 
not  occur  there,  as  collecting  through  the  season  and  in 
several  seasons  would  be  necessary  to  reach  this  point,  but  the 
group  has  been  collected  so  thoroughly  at  Ames  that  we  may 
be  pretty  sure  that  species  found  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  state,  and  not  at  Ames,  are  not  distributed  over  the  central 
and  eastern  part  of  the  state,  and  represent,  therefore,  a  dif- 
ferent fauna. 

While  such  a  survey  must  necessarily  be  considered  prelim- 
inary, and  the  excuse  for  its  presentation  the  probability  that 


^ 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  39 

only  such  fragmentary  collecting,  if  any,  can  be  done  for  many 
years,  still  we  seem  warranted  in  concluding 

j^/y.,sf._That  the  region  west  of  the  divide  supi^orts  numer- 
ous species  which  belong  to  the  plains  fauna  of  Nebraska  and 
the  Dakotas,  and  reach  their  eastern  limit  in  the  corner  of 
Iowa. 

,%co??f?.— That  southern  forms  extend  farther  northward  in 
the  Missouri  valley  than  in  central  Iowa,  and 

Third. — That  the  extreme  northern  portion  includes  some  of 
the  species  of  the  boreal  zone  not  observed  elsewhere  in  Iowa. 

SIOUX  CITY. 

r-,  ■  s  r\ 

Hecalus  lineatus,  Paramesus  twiningi,  P.  vibellinus,  Deltocephalus  pec- 

tinatusi  D.  compactus,  D.  cruciatus, 'D.  inflatus,  D.  nigrifronsrD.  melschei- 

meri,  Lonatura  catalina,  Driotura  robusta',^.  gammaroidea',  Eutettix  strobi, 

'Chlorotettixspatulata,'!Phlepsius  truncatus,  P.  altus,  Gnatodus  abdominalis, 

-  Macropsis  apicalis,  Agallia  sanguinolenta';:^A.  uhleri,'"A.  cinerea. 

Chariesterus  antennator,  Mecidia  longula,  Perillus  circumcinctus, 
Palacocoris  suavis,  Reut? 

LITTLE  ROCK. 

'^Dorycephalus  vanduzei,'4'aramesus  vitellinus,  Neocoelidia  tumidifrons, 

^^Deltocephalus  pectinatus,  D.  albidus,  D.  reflexus,  D.  signatifrons,' D.  cruci- 

atus,  D.  oculatus/ D.  melscheimeri,AD.  inflatus,  *D.  configuratus,   D.  argen- 

teola7l>.  collinus,  D.  inimicus/Lonatura  catalina,^'L.  megalopai- Driotura 

robusta,KD.  gammaroidea,-''Thamnotettix   SQiithi,^T.  ciliata,^  Chlorotettix 

spatulatai?C.  unicolor,  Phlepsius  lobatus,  Athysanus  striatulu,s,-lA..  magnus, 

'^A.  comma,^A.  colon,-'A.  punctatus?Cicgidula  6-notataV-Parabolocratis  viridis, 

^Idiocerus  duzei,  ^lacropsis  apicalisfPediopsis  viridiSjKAgallia  sanguino- 

lenta,<A..  cinerea,  A.  aovellat-^hilsenusbilineatus. 

Systratiotus  americana,  Mimoceps  gracilis,  Largidea  opaca(var.)  Phyto- 
coris  sp.     Harmostes  reflexulus. 

CHEROKEE. 

l/tlecalus  lineatus," Deltocephalus  pectinatus,  D.  argenteola,'  D.  inimicus, 
I,  D.  oculatuSj'D.  melscheimeri,*Chlorotettix  spatulataA,  C.  unicolor,^Athysanus 
striatuluSj'^A.  comma,'^.  colon,i^hlepsius  altus,' Parabolocratis  viridis. 

ROCK   RAPIDS. 

|/Deltocephalus  nigrifrons'pD.  sayij-D.  inimicus,  'Athysanus  comma,'<:;ica- 
dula  6  notata'y''C.  variata. 

SIOUX   FALLS,    S.   D. 

f Paramesus  vitellinus,  'Neocoelidia  tumidifronSj'^eltocephalus  inflatus, 
Ophlepsius  decorus. 

YANKTON,    S.   D. 

vl^eocoelidia  tumidifrons,'Deltoceplialus  pectinatus^  D.  nigrifrons,  Platy- 
metopius  sp.'f  Chlorotettix  spatulata,^C.  unicolor, ^Athysanus  striatulus,''A. 
comma,K5icadula  6-notata^^nathodus  abdominalis. 


40  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 


A  GENERIC   SYNOPSIS   OF    THE    NEARCTIC    PENTA- 
TOMIDAE. 

BY    H.    E.    SUMMERS. 

Practically  the  only  keys  for  determining  the  genera  of  our 
Pentatomidge  are  those  of  St^l.  These  cover  only  certain 
divisions  of  the  family,  and  even  in  these  divisions  many 
recently  established  genera  are  not  included.  His  works  are, 
moreover,  usually  not  accessible  except  to  the  special  student 
of  the  Heteroptera,  and  even  when  accessible,  the  fact  that 
they  deal  with  a  fauna  much  more  extended  than  our  own, 
makes  them  too  cumbersome  for  the  ready  use  of  the  general 
student.  For  these  reasons  it  is  thought  that  a  key  limited  to 
our  fauna  and  brought  up  to  date  may  be  a  convenience. 

For  the  chief  groups  the  classification  of  Stiil,  followed  in 
the  main  by  Uhler  in  this  country,  has  been  adopted,  although 
the  present  writer  has  grave  doubts  of  the  natural  character 
of  some  of  the  divisions.  In  consequence  of  the  introduction 
of  new  genera  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  modify  consider- 
ably Stal's  definitions  of  some  of  the  groups.  All  the 
recorded  Nearctic  genera  have  been  examined.  Thanks  are 
due  Dr.  S.  A.  Forbes  for  placing  freely  at  my  disposal  the 
material  of  the  Illinois  State  Laboratory  of  Natural  History, 
and  to  Mr.  E.  D.  Ball,  of  the  Colorado  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture, for  the  loan  of  specimens. 

TABLE   OF    SUB-FAMILIES   AND   GENERA. 

A.     Tarsi  3-jointed. 

B.     BucculaB  converging  caudad,  caudal  ends  united;  basal 

segment  of  rostrum  thickened.      (Sub-family  Asoi)i)i(e.) 

C.     Pre-femora    armed  with  a   spine  or  acute   tubercle 

below. 

D.     Scutellum    large,    broad,    extending   almost    or 

quite  to  apex  of  abdomen;  frena  never  extending 

more  than  a  third  the  length  of  scutellum. 

Stiretrus. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  41 

DD.     Scutellum    medium;     frena     extending     to    the 
middle  of  scutellum.  PeriUvs. 

CC.     Pre-femora  unarmed. 

D.     Base  of  venter  distinctly  armed  with  a  somewhat 
prominent   spine    or    acute    tubercle    extending 
cephalad. 
E.     Bucculse  very  slightly  elevated,  gradually  dis- 
appearing caudad;  frena  extending  distinctly 
beyond  middle  of  scutellum.  Podisus. 

EE.     Buccula3  distinctly  elevated,  not  at  all  thin- 
ning out  caudad,  joining  at  caudal  ends;  frena 
extending  just  to  middle  of  scutellum.     Jlineus. 
DD.     Base  of  second  segment  of  venter  unarmed,  some- 
times elevated  into  a  small  obtuse  tubercle  not 
projecting  at  all  cephalad. 
E.     Segment  2  of  rostrum  as  long  as  the  two  api- 
cal segments  together. 
F.     Juga  scarcely  longer  than  tylus;  body,  at 
least  thorax,  shiny.  Eiitliyrhynclius. 

FF.     Juga  longer  than  tylus;  body  not  shiny. 

PJiacognathus. 
EE.     Segment  2  of  rostrum  shorter  than  segments 
8  and  4  together. 
F.     Juga  longer  than,  and  meeting  in  front  of, 
tylus;  body  not  shiny.  Dendrocoris. 

FF.     Juga    scarcely    longer    than    tylus;    body 
shiny.  Zlcrona. 

BB.     Bucculse  parallel,  not  united  caudad;  basal  segment  of 
rostrum   usually   slender,  rarely   very   slightly   thick- 
ened. (Sub-family  Pentafoinlna\) 
G.     Scutellum    large,    broad   at    apex,    extending    far- 
ther caudad  than  corium,  usually  reaching  apex  of 
abdomen;    sides    of    pronotum    with    a    prominent 
tooth  just  cephalad  of  lateral  angle. 

(Tribe  Podoparia. ) 
D.     Juga  longer  than  tylus,  but  not  contiguous  ceph- 
alad of   it;  head  considerably  narrower  in  front 
than   between   eyes;    pronotum  about   one-third 
longer  than  head.  Podop><. 

DD.  Juga  contiguous  cephalad  of  tylus;  head  nearly 
as  broad  in  front  as  between  eyes,  but  little 
shorter  than  pronotum.  Oncozygia. 


42  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES 

CC.     Scutellum   rarely    extending    farther    caudad    than 
corium,  in  that  case  sides  of  pronotum  always  entire 
near  lateral  angle. 
I).     Jugum  with  a  prominent  lateral  tooth  near  apex, 
or   with  apex  pointed   and  projecting  far  ceph- 
alad  of  tylus;  sides  of  head  not  distinctly  sinuate 
just  cephalad  of  eyes,  antennal  tubercles  visible 
from   above,   and  eyes  placed  close  to  cephalic 
angles  of  pronotum.  (Tribe  Halyaria.) 

E.     Jugum  with  lateral  tooth  near  apex;  antennal 
segment  2  cylindrical,  shorter  than  segment  3; 
.    venter     with     shallow    mesal    sulcus;     body 
rather  broad.  Brochynieiia. 

EE      Jugum  without  lateral  tooth,  somewhat  pointed 
at   apex,  projecting  far    cephalad    of    tylus; 
antennal    segment  2   triangular,    longer  than 
segment  8;  venter  without  sulcus;  body  elon- 
gate. Mecidea. 
DD.     Jugum    without     lateral     tooth;     apex     usually 
rounded,     rarely     pointed,     in     that     case     not 
projecting  cephalad     of    tylus;     sides    of  head 
usually  distinctly  sinuate  near  eyes,   sometimes 
almost    straight,    in   that  case    either  antennal 
tubercles  not   at  all   visible  from  above   or  the 
eyes  quite  distant  from  cephalic  angles  of   pro- 
notum. 
E.     Head  triangular,  very  convex  on  dorsal  sur- 
face, not  less  than  seven-eighths  as  broad  as 
scutellum;  juga  distinctly  longer  than  tylus; 
apex  of  corium  broadly  rounded. 

(Tribe  Aellaria.) 
F.     Pronotum     with     three    longitudinal    low 
ridges;  cephalic  angles  of  pronotum  pro- 
jecting conspicuously  cephalad.  Aelia. 
FF.     Pronotum  with  a  single  (mesal)  longitud- 
inal ridge;    cephalic    angles   of   pronotum 
not  projecting  cephalad.              Neottig/ossa. 
EE.     Head  of  various  forms,  usually  only  slightly 
convex  on    dorsal  surface,    less    than    seven- 
eighths  as  broad  as  scutellum;  juga  usually 
no  longer  than   tylus,    and    apex   of    corium 
with    a    distinct  though    usually     somewhat 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  43 

rounded    lateral   angle;     rarely    juga    longer 
than  tylus  or  apex  of  corium  broadly  rounded, 
in  either  case  the  head  only  about  two-thirds 
as  wide  as  scutellum.         (Tribe  Pentatomaria.) 
F.     Segment  2  of    venter     unarmed,    neither 
spinous  nor  tuberculate  on  meson. 
G.     Odoriferous   orifices  either  far  laterad 
of  coxse  or  distinctly  elevated  or  con- 
tinued   in    a    sulcus;   head  more   com- 
monly not  strongly  bent  ventrad,  lateral 
margins   of    juga   sometimes   narrowly 
refiexed,  reflexed  portion  never  greatly 
swollen. 
H.     Scutellum    with     apex     broad     and 
rounded,  lateral  margin  scarcely  con- 
cave at  any  point;  head  bent  strongly 
ventrad.  Cosmopepla. 

HE.     Scutellum   usually    with   apex    dis- 
tinctly narrowed  and  lateral  margin 
concave  toward  apex;  otherwise  the 
head  little  or  only  moderately  bent 
ventrad. 
/.     Odoriferous  orifices  either  without 
a  sulcus,  or  with  a  sulcus  ending 
suddenly,    not    continuing    into  a 
gradually  disappearing  wrinkle. 
J.     Veins  of  membrane  irregularly 
anastomosing     or    irregularly 
furcate  or  ramose. 
K.     Lateral  margin   of    prono- 
tum  entire,  unarmed;  lateral 
angle   rounded,  not   at   all 
produced. 
L.     Scutellum   broadly 
rounded  at  apex,  as  long 
or  nearly  as  long  as  cor- 
ium;   apical  margin    of 
corium  rounded,   apical 
angle  obtuse.        Coenus. 
LL.     Scutellum   narrowed  at 
apex,   not  extending  so 
far  caudad    as   corium; 


44  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 


apical  margin  of  corium 
nearly  straight;  apical 
angle  acute. 

31.  Bucculas  increasing 
in  height  caudad,  end- 
ing abruptly;  lateral 
margin  of  pronotum 
not  explanate;  frena 
reaching  just  to  mid 
die  of  scutellum;  ros- 
trum extending  a 
little  caudad  of  medi- 
coxse.  Byiiwiiarcys. 
MIL  Bucculse  elevated  in- 
to an  angle  at  cepha- 
lic end,  less  elevated 
caudad;  lateral  mar- 
gin of  pronotum  ex- 
planate cephalad; 
frena  reaching  be- 
yond middle  of  scu- 
tellum; rostrum  ex- 
tending caudad  of 
post-cox83.  Menedei^. 
KK.  Lateral  angles  of  pronotum 
produced  into  a  conspicuous 
spine.  Proxi/s 

JJ.     Veins  of  membrane  simple  or 
slightly  furcate. 
K     Frena    extending    beyond 
middle  of  scutellum. 
L.     Tibiae   all   terete,  with- 
out sulcus, 
if.     Joint   1   of    rostrum 
extending     a     little 
beyond  bucculse. 

Mormidea. 
MM.     Joint    1    of  rostrum 
shorter  than  buccu- 
lse. Oebalus. 
LL.     Tibiae  sulcate  above. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  45 

M.  Cephalic  j^art  of  lat- 
eral margins  of  pro- 
notum  crenulate,  lat- 
eral angles  promi- 
nent, either  rounded 
or  pointed;  head,  in- 
cluding eyes,  not  dis- 
tinctly wider  than 
long.  EuscMstus. 

MM.     Lateral   margins    of 
pronotum  entire,  lat- 
eral angles  rounded, 
not  prominent;  head, 
including  eyes,    dis- 
tinctly   wider    than 
long.         Cklorochroa. 
KK.     Frena  not  extending  beyond 
middle  of  scutellum. 
L.     Lateral  margins  of  pro- 
notum with  a  prominent 
process     slightly    bent 
caudad  at  lateral  angles. 
Prionosoma. 
LL.     Lateral  margins  of  pro- 
notum    entire,      lateral 
angles  rounded. 
M.     Dorsal   surface  with 
coarse,  black   punc- 
tures, irregularly  ar- 
ranged especially  on 
the  pronotum. 

Trichoj)epla. 
MM.     Dorsal  surface  with 
finer     regularly    ar- 
ranged punctures. 

Carpocoris. 
II.     Sulcus   from    odoriferous    orifices 
continued  laterad  in   a  gradually 
disappearing  wrinkle. 
J.     Juga  not  longer  than  tylus. 

Thyanta. 


46  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

JJ.     Jug-a  longer  than  tylus,  contig- 
uous at  their  cephalic  ends. 
K.     Apical   margin   of    corium 
uniformly    convex;    lateral 
margin  of  head  very  slight- 
ly sinuate  cephalad  of  eyes. 
Peribalidi. 
KK.     Apical   margin   of    corium 
very  slightly  sinuate  near 
lateral  end;   lateral  margin 
of   head   distinctly  sinuate 
cephalad  of  eyes. 

HoJcostethus. 
GG.  Odoriferous  orifices  situate  just  cepha- 
lad of  lateral  border  of  post-coxae,  with- 
out sulcus,  scarcely  elevated;  head 
strongly  bent  ventrad,  front  almost  ver- 
tical; reflexed  lateral  margins  of  j  ga 
much  swollen.  Murgantia. 

FF.     Segment  2  of  venter  with  a  mesal  spine  or 
tubercle  pointed  cephalad. 
G.     Metasternum  little  elevated,  never  with 
a  bi-lobed  process  extending  cephalad  of 
medi-cox9e. 
77.     Segment   5    of    antennae   less    than 
twice  as  long  as  segment  2;  scutel- 
lum  and   pronotum  nearly   or  quite 
concolorous.  Nezara. 

HH.  Segment  5  of  antennae  more  than 
twice  as  long  as  segment  2;  apex  of 
scutellum  and  cephalic  half  of  pro- 
notum much  lighter  in  color  than 
remaining  portions.  Banasa. 

GG.     Metasternum    strongly  elevated,    pro- 
duced far  cephalad  between  the  medi- 
coxse  into  a  bi-lobed  process.      Eclessa. 
A  A.     Tarsi  2  jointed  (sub-family  Acanthosomime).      Acanthosoma. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 


PRELIMINARY    REPORT    ON    THE    DIATOMS    OF 
IO^A^A. 

BY  P.    C.    MYERS. 

Within  the  last  two  years  the  author  has  often  had  occasion 
to  congratulate  himself  for  having  acted  on  a  suggestion  from 
Prof.  B.  Shimek,  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  to  take  up 
the  study  of  a  group  of  organisms  which  hitherto  had,  from 
the  botanists  of  this  state,  received  but  scant  attention. 

The  diatomacesB  constitute  a  group  of  microscopic  organ- 
isms hovering  near  the  place  of  meeting,  if  such  there  be,  of 
plants  and  animals.  Their  closest  affinities,  however,  seem  to 
be  with  the  plants. 

Unicellular  though  they  be,  they  make  for  themselves  a 
glassy  covering,  whose  two  parts  fit  together  as  the  top  and 
bottom  of  a  pill  box.  Chlorophyl  is  present,  which,  however,  is 
masked  by  a  brown  coloring  material  called  diatomin.  Nearly 
all  these  little  organisms  have  the  power  of  movement;  a 
graceful,  gliding  motion  that  reminds  one  of  little  steamboats. 

Their  study  is  connected  with  considerable  difficulty,  which 
probably  accounts  for  their  being  neglected. 

First. — They  must  be  collected,  a  not  o'er  easy  task. 

Second. — They  must  be  cleaned,  in  which  not  less  than  seven 
separate  and  distinct  operations  are  necessary;  some  of  these 
are  boiling  in  nitric  acid,  immersion  in  potassium  permanganate 
for  three  or  four  days,  boiling  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  a 
deal  of  washing. 

Third. — They  must  be  mounted,  one  at  a  time,  on  separate 
slides.  As  these  little  objects  range  in  size  from  one-fiftieth  of 
an  inch,  in  the  largest,  to  one-two-thousand-five  hundred-for- 
tieth part  of  an  inch  in  the  smallest,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be 
heavy  work,  but  it  requires  considerable  concentration  of  the 
attention. 

Fourth.— Thej  must  be  identified.  As  the  literature  is  badly 
scattered,  one  cannot  hope  to  do  much  without  several  expen- 
sive sets  of  books  and  pamphlets.     Even  then  there  is  a  little 


48  IOWA  ACADEMY    OF  SCIENCES. 

truth  in  the  remark  made  by  another  botanist,  with  a  sniff, 
that  you  might  as  well  try  to  classify  wall  paper.  The  diffi- 
culty, however,  is  not  greater  than  in  other  orders  of  equal  size. 

At  first  it  might  appear  that  the  state  of  Iowa,  with  its 
monotonous  rolling  prairies  would  offer  little  diversity  of 
aquatic  plant  life,  but  this  has  not  proved  to  be  the  case.  For 
present  purposes  the  various  localities  where  diatoms  are 
found  may  be  grouped  in  four  divisions. 

First. — Creeks  and  rivers,  with  the  bogs  and  old  river  chan- 
nels connected  with  them. 

Second. — Springs,  with  the  bogs  and  ditches  watered  by 
them. 

Third. — The  lakes  found  in  that  portion  of  the  state  covered 
by  the  Wisconsin  drift. 

Fourth. — Fossil  deposits. 

The  first  localities  named,  the  creeks  and  rivers,  were  the 
first  from  which  material  was  collected.  Here  abound  the 
smaller  naviculse,  synedree,  melosirse,  and  most  abundant  of 
them  all,  the  gomphonemsD,  which  may  be  seen  as  long,  gela- 
tinous streamers  of  a  rich  brown  color,  in  moving  water,  or  as 
a  covering  on  the  stones  in  rapids  and  cataracts.  In  the 
brooks  and  ditches  the  more  fragile  forms  of  nitzschia  and 
synedra  are  found.  Under  favorable  conditions  these  little 
organisms  cover  the  bottom  of  the  brooks  and  ditches  to  a 
depth  sufficient  to  color  everything  a  rich  brown.  When  the 
sun  shines  on  them  the  oxygen  liberated  raises  them  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  and  they  are  carried  along  until  they 
strike  a  twig  or  board  or  other  obstacle,  where  they  may  be 
seen  at  times  an  inch  in  depth  and  several  square  feet  in 
extent. 

East  of  Iowa  City,  about  two  and  one- half  miles,  there  is  a 
prairie  slough,  having  in  it  at  one  point  a  broad  and  shallow 
basin,  where  the  water  stands  a  greater  portion  of  the  year. 
In  the  month  of  June  this  presents  to  the  diatomist  at  least,  a 
most  remarkable  appearance.  In  this  basin,  covering  an 
extent  of  about  an  acre,  and  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  twelve 
inches,  is  a  fiocculent  seal  brown  mass  of  living  diatoms.  Here 
Fragillaria  virescens  stretches  its  tiny  ribbons,  and  Meridion 
intermedium  spreads  its  miniature  fans  in  numbers  innumerable. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  the  state,  where  the  rivers  are 
but  little  more  than  motionless  lagoons,  the  amount  of  aquatic 
material   is   indeed   prodigious.     In  such  quantities  do   algse, 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  49 

lemnas,  potomagetons,  wolfia  and  diatoms  grow,  that  the  river 
is  literally  choked  from  bank  to  bank. 

In  the  northeast  corner  of  the  state,  however,  the  conditions 
are  altogether  different.  The  drainage  system  there  is  any- 
thing but  poorly  developed,  it  being  a  part  of  the  state  not 
known  to  have  been  glaciated.  Many  forms  of  diatoms  are 
found  here,  not  common  to  other  localities  in  the  state. 

The  Missouri  river  and  its  immediate  tributaries  offer  but 
little  that  is  interesting  to  the  diatomist.  But  few  species  are 
found  here,  as  the  rapid  currents  and  ever  changing  banks 
and  beds  of  mud  do  not  permit  of  their  gaining  a  lodgment. 

The  second  group  of  localities,  the  springs  and  bogs,  offer 
us  a  flora  at  once  more  varied  and  robust.  Here  are  found  the 
larger  naviculse,  with  Suriraya  splendkla,  CainpulocUscus  spiralis, 
Stauroneis  phoenecenteron  and  a  host  of  others,  all  with  frustules 
strongly  silicified.  In  a  little  bog,  fed  by  a  spring,  some  four 
miles  from  Iowa  City,  in  a  place  but  six  feet  square,  the  spe- 
cies ('coiipylodiscus  spiralis,  a  very  large  and  pretty  diatom, 
occurs  in  large  numbers,  its  only  known  locality  in  the  state, 
except,  perhaps,  one  on  the  Des  Moines  river  near  High 
Bridge. 

The  third  group  of  localities,  the  lakes  in  that  portion  of  the 
state  covered  by  Wisconsin  drift,  presents  features  of  more 
than  usual  interest. 

Clear  Lake,  located  in  Cerro  Gordo  county,  is  about  six 
miles  long  by  three  wide.  It  belongs  to  the  class  of  "kettle 
holes, ' '  and  lies  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Wisconsin  drift, 
occupying  the  highest  ground  in  that  region.  The  town  of 
Clear  Lake  has  an  altitude  above  sea  level  of  1,238  feet,  while 
at  Mason  City,  nine  miles  east  of  there,  the  altitude  is  only 
1,128  feet,  or  110  feet  lower.  On  the  north,  west,  and  south 
much  the  same  conditions  prevail. 

This  falling  away  in  all  directions  brings  about  the  follow- 
ing results : 

First.— Very  little  surface  drainage;  the  slope  toward  the 
lake  being,  in  some  places,  only  a  few  feet,  while  on  the  west 
it  reaches  its  greatest  length  of  about  one  mile. 

Second. — There  is  no  overflow,  a  state  of  equilibrium  existing 
between  rainfall  and  evaporation.  Here,  then,  are  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  the  deposition  of  a  bed  of  organic  mate- 
rial.    On  examination  the  lake  showed  the  following  conditions : 

The  entire  bottom,  except  a  narrow  strip  along  the  shore 
4 


50  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

where  the  undertow  keeps  it  clean,  is  covered  with  a  bluish- 
black  material,  light  of  weight  and  very  soft  and  yielding,  com- 
monly called  mud.  This  is  everywhere  underlain  by  a  heavy, 
tenacious,  gravelly,  blue  clay.  In  the  west  end  of  the  lake,  at 
what  is  called  the  rice  beds,  where  the  water  is  only  about  two 
feet  deep,  the  aforesaid  mud  reaches  a  depth  of  eighteen  feet. 
Near  the  center  of  the  lake  are  the  "moss  beds,"  with  the 
water  three  feet  deep  and  a  deposit  of  twenty-one  feet. 
About  midway  between  the  "moss  beds"  and  the  eastern 
shore  the  water  reaches  its  maximum  depth  of  fifteen  feet,  with 
the  depth  of  the  deposit  undetermined. 

On  examination  this  deposited  material  proves  to  be  75  per 
cent  organic  matter,  12^  per  cent  fine  sand  and  12^  per  cent 
diatom  frustules.  On  an  average  this  would  give  us  a  bed  of 
diatoms  two  and  one-half  feet  thick  over  an  area  of  eight  or  ten 
square  miles. 

The  number  of  species  found  in  this  material  will  number 
sixty,  among  them  some  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
fresh  water  forms  known,  such  as  Suriraya  robusta  and 
biseriata,  Navicnla  nobilis  and  peregrina,  Cymafojjleura  solea  and 
eJUptica.  Here,  too,  are  found  JSltzschia  siginoklea,  400  to  500 
micra  long,  with  its  66,000  strise  to  the  inch,  and  Nitzschia  palea 
with  91,440  strise  to  the  inch. 

The  species  and  individuals  both  decrease  in  numbers  as  one 
passes  downward,  /.  e.,  there  are  more  diatoms  growing  there 
now  than  at  any  previous  time.  The  increase  in  species  has 
most  likely  been  accomplished  by  waterfowl  carrying  hither 
bits  of  mud  from  other  lakes. 

One  feature  of  the  Clear  Lake  diatoms  was  very  puzzling. 
What  appeared  to  be  Pleuromgiua  attenKatuin,  which  usually  has 
a  length  of  190  to  250  micra,  was  habitually  250  to  300  micra 
long.  Vyinbella  ehrenbergii  presented  the  same  variation,  as  did 
likewise  half  a  dozen  other  species.  This  variation  toward 
larger  forms  came,  finally,  to  be  so  common  an  occurrence 
that  it  was  concluded  that  it  perhaps  was  due  to  an  extraor- 
dinary amount  of  silica  in  solution,  and  other  very  favorable 
conditions. 

Spirit  Lake  is  located  in  Dickinson  county,  Iowa,  on  the 
western  part  of  the  Wisconsin  drift.  It  resembles  Clear  Lake 
in  most  essential  points.  The  sand  beach,  however,  is  wider, 
and  it  is  not  so  rich  in  microscopic  forms.  The  deposit  is  not 
so  great,  but  the  water  somewhat  deeper. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  51 

East  Okoboji  Lake  is  composed  of  three  small  lakes  in  a 
chain,  the  water  varying  from  three  feet  in  the  upper  one  to 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  the  lower  one.  The  deposit  varies 
also  from  eight  feet  in  the  upper  to  a  much  greater  depth  in 
the  lower.  Here  there  is  a  much  greater  percentage  of  sand 
than  in  Clear  Lake,  due  to  more  extended  surface  drainage 
and  steeper  hills. 

The  channel,  however,  which  connects  East  Okiboji  and 
West  Okiboji  Lakes,  is  the  most  remarkable  place  of  all. 
Remarkable,  not  only  for  the  number  of  diatoms,  but  for  a 
host  of  other  aquatic  forms  growing  in  the  most  lavish  pro- 
fusion. The  conditions  here  are  certainly  very  favorable  for 
plant  growth.  High  hills,  covered  with  trees,  protect  the 
channel  from  the  winds,  and  its  form  precludes  the  possibility 
of  large  waves.  Then,  too,  a  gentle  current  sets  from  one 
lake  to  the  other,  keeping  the  water  in  fine  condition.  In  the 
fall,  after  the  larger  plants  have  passed  their  perfection  and 
have  begun  to  die,  the  diatoms  overrun  them  all  and,  indeed, 
every  other  thing  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  com- 
mon bladderwort  becomes  the  home  of  vast  colonies  of  the 
stalked  forms,  as  cocconema,  gonphonema,  bands  of  fragil- 
laria,  with  long,  acicular  synedra  intermingled.  Acres  are 
thus  covered,  where  there  are  no  large  waves  and  the  water  is 
not  too  deep.  In  those  parts  of  the  lake  where  rushes  grow, 
each  one  is  covered  below  the  water  line  with  a  layer  a  half  an 
inch  or  more  in  thickness. 

Across  this  channel  a  railroad  was  built,  and  in  so  doing  a 
diatomaceous  deposit  was  found  fifty-two  feet  deep 

In  West  Okiboji  Lake  water  was  found  125  feet  deep,  the 
deposit  being  of  unknown  depth.  So  soft  and  yielding  is  this 
material  that  a  dredge,  weighing  only  two  or  three  pounds, 
when  dragged  along  the  bottom  sinks  into  it  to  a  depth  of  ten 
or  twelve  feet. 

In  comparing  the  species  found  here  with  those  found  in 
Clear  Lake,  both  lying  in  the  same  geological  formation  and 
no  great  distance  apart,  it  is  seen  at  a  glance  that  they  are 
utterly  different.  In  Clear  Lake  such  genera  as  suriraya, 
navicula,  cymbella,  eunotia  pleurosigma  and  cymatopleura 
are  found,  as  compared  with  cocconema,  odontidium,  stictodis- 
cus  and  synedra  in  Okoboji  Lake. 

Silver  Lake  also  adds  a  small  quota,  but  has  not  been  care- 
fully examined. 


52  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

The  fourth  division,  that  of  fossil  diatoms  in  Iowa,  is 
reserved  for  another  paper. 

The  number  of  counties  in  the  state  which  have  been  visited 
by  the  author,  and  those  from  which  material  has  been 
received,  number  twenty-nine.*  At  some  future  time  we  expect 
to  present  to  the  people  of  Iowa  who  are  interested  in  this 
work,  a  descriptive  list  of  all  the  species  of  diatoms  found, 
with  a  photograph  of  each. 


REPORT  ON  A  FOSSIL  DIATOMACEOUS  DEPOSIT  IN 
MUSCATINE  COUNTY,  IOWA 

BY   P.    C.    MYERS. 

Previous  to  the  present  year  no  fossil  diatoms  had  been 
found  in  Iowa.  On  October  20,  1898,  Prof.  J.  A.  Udden,  of 
Rock  Island,  111.,  w^hile  engaged  in  work  for  the  Iowa  Geologi- 
cal survey,  found  and  sent  to  Prof.  S.  Calvin,  of  the  State  Uni- 
versity, some  diatomaceous  earth.  This  material  was  taken 
from  below  the  loess  in  Muscatine  county,  Iowa,  and  was 
turned  over  to  the  author  for  examination.  It  was  of  a  dull, 
yellow  color,  composed  of  sand  and  decayed  vegetable  matter 
and  a  few  diatoms. 

The  species,  with  their  general  distribution  and  habitat,  are 
as  follows: 

Navicula  abaujenssis  Pant.     Fresh  water  fossil  in  Hungary. 

Navicula  borealis  (Ehr.)  Kuetz.  In  fresh  water,  cataracts, 
rivers  and  wet  moss,  all  over  Europe  and  America. 

Navicula  fjibba  (Ehr.)  Kuetz.     Everywhere  in  fresh  water. 

Navicula  major  Kuetz.  A  cosmopolitan  species  in  fresh 
water. 

Nivicula  nobilis  (Ehr.)  Kuetz.,  var.  dacti/Ius  (Ehr.)  V.  H.  In 
bogs  and  fossil. 

Navicula  rupestris  (Pinn.)  Hantz.     On  wet  rocks. 

Navicula  placentula  (Ehr.)  Kuetz.  In  rivers  in  Europe  and 
America;  also  fossil  and  marine. 


*  As  there  are  many  places  in  the  state  stiU  unexplored,  I  desire  at  this  time  to  say 
to  the  members  of  the  Academy  that  I  should  be  g-lad  of  their  co-operation  in  this 
matter. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  53 

Eunotia  dloclon  (Ehr.).  Rivers,  springs,  rapids,  on  wet  rocks 
and  fossil. 

Eunotia  gracilis  (Ehr.)  Rabeuli.     In  boggy,  swampy  places. 

Eunotia  major  (Win.  Sm.)  Rabeuh.  In  fresh  water  every- 
where. 

Stauroiiers  phoeneceinteron  (Nitz.)  Ehr.     Cosmopolitan. 

Cystopleura  gibba  (Ehr.)  Kimze.  Common  in  fresh  water;  also 
fossil  and  marine. 

Ct/nibeJla  ei/nibiforinis  (Kiietz.)  Breb.,  var.  parva  (Win.  Sin.)  V. 
H.     Common  everywhere  in  fresh  water. 

Hantzschia.  ainjjhyoxis  (Ehr.)  Grun.  Common  everywhere  in 
fresh  water. 

Judging  from  the  above  and  from  evidence  which  does  not 
appear  here,  /.  e.,  the  comparative  number  of  individuals  in 
each  species,  the  condition  was  probably  that  of  a  shallow 
bog,  subject  to  gentle  overflows  from  some  creek  or  river. 


DIATOMACEOUS    EARTH    IN    MUSCATINE    COUNTY. 

BY    J.    A.    UDDEN. 

While  at  work  on  the  geology  of  Muscatine  county  last  sum- 
mer, the  writer  found  some  diatomaceous  earth  in  tne  south 
bank  of  the  creek  which  runs  west  near  the  south  line  of  sec- 
tion fourteen,  in  Cedar  township.  It  is  associated  with  a  peaty 
layer,  which  overlies  it,  and  which  appears  somewhat  dis- 
turbed. This  peat  is  overlain  by  tine  laminated  sand  and  silt, 
which  here  forms  the  base  of  the  loess.  Below  the  peat  bed 
and  the  diatomaceous  layer  there  is  a  white  sand  without  a 
trace  of  ferruginous  stains.  Boggy  conditions  are  indicated, 
or  perhaps  the  conditions  of  a  lake  or  pond.  The  diatomace- 
ous earth  itself  does  not  lie  in  a  continuous  layer,  but  in  a 
broken  layer,  or  in  small  pockets,  which  are  scattered.  It  has 
a  peculiar  dull,  pink  color,  and  this  has  lately  enabled  the  writer 
to  find  small  lumps  of  it  in  the  peaty  soil  under  the  loess  in  Scott 
county,  near  Davenport.  It  was  from  this  loess  that  the 
remains  of  a  mastodon  have  been  reported  by  Mr.  Pratt. 


54  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 


THE   PINE  CREEK  CONGLOMERATE 

BY    J.    A.    UDDEN. 

In  the  right  bank  of  the  west  branch  of  Pine  creek,  a  short 
distance  north  from  where  it  leaves  section  thirty-four  in  range 
one  west,  township  seventy-seven  north,  there  is  a  pebbly 
sandstone,  unlike  the  coal  measure  conglomerate  in  the  sur- 
rounding country.  This  sandstone  is  mostly  brown  in  color, 
changing  to  yellow.  It  has  a  rather  coarse  texture,  compared 
with  the  coal  measure  rocks,  and  is  somewhat  more  variable  in 
this  respect.  The  best  exposure  appears  in  a  small  gully, 
which  comes  down  the  hill  from  the  west,  some  twenty  rods 
north  of  the  south  line  of  the  section.  In  all  a  thickness  of 
about  sixteen  feet  is  seen.  Springs  issue  from  the  base  of  this 
rock,  along  the  slope  to  the  creek,  indicating  finer  impervious 
underlying  beds.  The  lower  part  of  the  section  has  one  ledge 
which  is  two  feet  in  thickness.  But  the  bedding  is  irregular 
and  the  layers  vary  much  in  thickness  in  short  distances. 
Some  of  the  ledges  are  strong  enough  to  be  used  for  building 
stone,  while  one  or  two  are  loose  sand.  Even  the  hardest  lay- 
ers break  easily  under  the  hammer.  In  these  the  sand  and 
gravel  is  cemented  by  a  black  matrix  of  peroxide  of  iron.  The 
uppermost  ledges  are  somewhat  finer  than  the  lower.  Two 
sets  of  quite  regular  joints  here  cut  the  rock.  One  set  bears 
west  of  north  and  the  other  north  of  east.  Along  these  joints 
the  ferruginous  material  is  most  profusely  deposited.  Some 
of  the  ledges  are  cut  up  into  rhomboidal  blocks  about  a  foot  in 
length  and  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  width.  These  have  a 
shining  black  hard  crust,  half  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness, 
which  on  some  of  the  blocks  has  separated  from  the  lighter 
and  softer  rock  within,  forming  thin,  straight  and  smooth 
plates.  Above  this  brown  sandstone  there  is  a  yellow  loose 
sand  containing  small  boulders  of  greenstone  and  granite.  On 
top  of  this  sand  there  is  boulder  clay  and  loess.  Small  expos- 
ures of  the  conglomerate  occur  for  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  along  the  west  side  of  the  creek  to  the  south  of  this 
place. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  55 

The  degree  of  induration,  the  pronounced  jointing,  and  the 
general  ancient  aspect  of  this  conglomerate  render  it  rea- 
sonably certain  that  it  is  not  a  part  of  the  drift  which  overl  es 
it.  But  it  has  pebbles  of  Archsean  rock,  and  one  of  these  was 
nearly  six  inches  in  diameter.  None  of  them  were  observed  to 
be  scored,  though  quite  a  number  were  examined.  The  aver- 
age size  of  the  pebbles  is  from  one-fourth  to  two  inches  in 
diameter.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  believed  that  it  can 
belong  to  the  coal  measures.  Some  of  the  pebbles  appear  to 
be  pieces  of  coal  measure  concretions  and  lumps  of  coal  meas- 
ure clay,  and  the  aggregation  of  rocks  represented  in  the 
pebbles  is  unlike  anything  observed  in  the  coal  measure  con- 
glomerate. For  comparison,  a  collection  of  fifty  pebbles  was 
made,  representing  the  average  sizes.  The  proportion  of 
specimens  of  dilferent  rocks  in  this  lot  was  as  follows: 

Yellow  chert 32  per  cent 

Greenstone 26     " 

Granite  {mostly  red) 10     " 

White  quartz  (some  of  a  faint,  pink  color) 8     " 

Fragments  of  coal  measure  rock 4     " 

Light  red  orthoclase 2     " 

Black  felsite 2    " 

Porous  Niagara  chert 2     " 

Chalcedony 2     " 

Orthoclase-biotite  rock 2     " 

The  only  conclusion  which  can  at  present  be  drawn,  as  to 
the  age  of  this  conglomerate,  is  that  it  is  post- Carboniferous 
and  preglacial.  Dr.  Calvin,  who  has  seen  it  recently,  pro- 
nounces it  identical  in  nature  to  the  Rockville  conglomerate 
described  by  McGee.  It  also  somewhat  resembles  the  Cretaceous 
conglomerate  found  in  Guthrie  county  by  Mr.  Bain.  Possibly 
it  may  be  an  outlier  of  the  Lafayette  formation,  observed  far- 
ther, south  by  McGee  and  by  Salisbury. 

In  the  south  bluff  of  West  Hill  in  Muscatine,  just  east  of 
Broadway  street,  there  lies  on  top  of  the  coal  measures  and 
under  the  drift  a  small  remnant  of  a  conglomerate  somewhat 
resembling  that  above  described.  It  is  seen  for  a  distance  of 
only  three  or  four  rods  and  its  greatest  thickness  is  three  feet. 
It  is  plainly  unconformable  with  the  beds  below.  The  base  is 
a  very  pebbly  sand,  held  in  a  dark  ferruginous  matrix,  which, 
in  some  places,  does  not  wholly  fill  the  interstices  between  the 
pebbles.  The  upper  surface  is  a  brown  ferruginous,  moder- 
ately fine  sandstone  of  about  the  same  hardness  and  aspect  as 


56  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

the  middle  ledges  in  the  Pine  creek  conglomerate.  It  is  seen 
to  contain  three  rounded  boulders  from  eight  inches  to  one 
foot  in  diameter.  One  of  these  consists  of  gneiss,  one  of  mica 
schist  and  one  of  quartzite.  In  a  collection  of  100  pebbles  from 
this  ledge,  different  rocks  were  represented  by  the  number  of 
pebbles  indicated  in  the  following  list: 

Greenstone 26  per  cent 

White  quartz 26  "  " 

Yellow  chert 18  ''  " 

Granite  (mostly  red) 7  "  " 

Light  red  orthoclase 5  "  " 

Coal  measure  rock 4  "  " 

Black  felsite 3  "  " 

Quartz-biotite  schist 3  "  " 

Faintly  pinkish  white  quartz 2  "  " 

Quartz  speckled  with  jasper 2  "  " 

Red  quartzite 1  "  " 

Hornblende  rock 1  "  " 

Milky  quartz 1  "  " 

Gneiss 1  "  " 

The  author  is  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  this  conglomerate 
in  Muscatine  and  that  exposed  on  Pine  creek  are  both  outliers 
of  the  same  formation,  but  he  has  no  suggestion  to  offer  as  to 
what  age  they  really  belong  farther  than  as  above  stated. 


FOREST  TREES  OF  ADAIR  COUNTY,  IOWA. 

BY   JAMES    E.    GOW. 

In  order  to  understand  the  forestry  conditions  of  Adair 
county,  a  short  description  of  the  lay  of  the  land  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil  is  first  necessary.  The  county  lies  along  the 
crest  of  the  "  grand  divide,"  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Missouri,  so  that  a  line  drawn  along  the  crest  of  the  ridge 
traverses  it  diagonally  from  northwest  to  southeast.  The  land 
is  undulating  enough  to  secure  an  easy  natural  drainage,  but 
not  so  undulating  as  to  be  difficult  of  cultivation,  except  in  a 
few  isolated  localities.  The  soil  is  a  rich,  black  loam,  varying 
in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  ten  or  fifteen  feet  and  under- 
lain by  a  stiff,  yellow  clay.  Here  and  there,  the  larger  streams 
may  be  found  flowing  over  beds  of  limestone,  but  as  a  rule 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  57 

they  flow  either  through  the  black  surface  soil  or  the  yellow 
clay  below  it.  Of  these  streams,  North  river  and  Middle  river 
enter  the  Des  Moines,  while  Grand  river  and  the  Nodaway 
flow  into  the  Missouri.  Although  commonly  ca'led  rivers, 
none  of  them  attain  to  sufficient  size,  in  Adair  county,  to 
deserve  the  name,  but  all  become  streams  of  considerable  size 
before  losing  their  identity  in  the  Missouri  or  the  Des  Moines. 
The  rivers  along  whose  course  is  found  the  heaviest  timber  are 
Middle  river  and  the  west  branch  of  the  Middle  Nodaway,  and 
it  is  on  these  streams  that  the  greatest  variety  of  species  have 
been  found  and  most  of  the  observations  have  been  made  The 
prairie  in  Adair  county  is  practically  bare.  The  only  trees  or 
bushes  ever  found  upon  it  in  any  abundance  are  the  hazel  and 
bur  oak,  and  these  have  been  largely  grubbed  out  and 
destroyed.  The  wild  plum,  wild  cherry  and  American  crab, 
may  occasionally  be  found  on  the  high  prairie,  but  they 
very  seldom,  if  ever,  occur  there  unless  protected  by  other  low 
timber,  and  as  the  bur  oak  and  hazel  are  destroyed,  they  van- 
ish also.  So  it  is  along  the  streams  that  the  student  of  forestry 
must  seek  his  information. 

Even  a  cursory  examination  of  these  streams  is  sufficient  to 
show  that,  with  few  exceptions,  the  southern  or  western  bank 
is  steep  and  rough,  while  the  northern  or  eastern  bank  is 
smooth  and  rises  with  a  gentle  slope.  Along  most  of  the 
course  of  Middle  river,  through  the  county,  the  southwestern 
bank  consists  of  steep  clay  bluffs,  densely  wooded  and  rising 
abruptly  from  the  water,  while  the  northeastern  bank  slopes 
up  very  gradually  from  the  water— making  a  wide,  level  valley 
or  bottom,  which  is  usually  either  destitute  of  trees,  or  less 
heavily  wooded  than  are  the  bluffs  of  the  opposite  bank.  The 
same  condition  may  be  noticed  quite  generally  with  regard  to 
the  smaller  streams.  In  driving  along  the  road  it  is  noticeable 
that  the  steepest  hills  face  the  north  or  east,  and  the  gentler 
inclines  the  south  or  west.  The  reason  for  this  must  be  that 
the  erosion  has  been  greater  on  the  north  than  on  the  south 
bank,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  former  receives  the  full 
rays  of  the  spring  sun,  while  the  southern  bluff  lies  in  shadow 
most  of  the  day.  This,  of  course,  would  cause  the  snow  and 
ice  upon  the  northern  slope  to  melt  very  quickly,  making  con- 
siderable erosion,  while  upon  the  southern  bank  it  would  melt 
much  more  slowly  and  hence  cause  much  less  erosion.  Where 
the  course  of  a  stream  is  southward  it  is  the  left  bank   which 


58  IOWA  ACADEMY  OF   SCIENCES. 

shows  the  greater  signs  of  erosion,  because  it  is  exposed  to  the 
burning  rays  of  the  afternoon  sun,  while  the  right  bank  is  in 
shadow  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  The  effect  of  this 
process  upon  the  distribution  of  timber  is  evident.  The  steep 
bluif-land  upon  the  southern  or  western  bank  of  a  stream  is 
usually  heavily  wooded,  while  the  flat  "bottom"  upon  the 
northern  or  eastern  side  is  often  \rery  sparsely  covered  with 
trees  and  sometimes  quite  bare.  Before  the  advent  of  civiliza- 
tion the  southern  bluffs  often  held  the  moisture  of  the  winter 
snows  and  spring  rains  until  after  the  season  of  prairie  fires, 
thus  giving  the  trees  sprouting  upon  their  surface  a  chance  to 
grow,  and,  when  the  trees  had  grown  large  enough,  they  fur- 
ther protected  themselves  from  fire,  the  surrounding  grass 
being  killed  out.  But  the  northern  bank,  which  had  to  face 
the  rays  of  the  spring  sun,  was  well  dried  by  the  time  the 
grass  on  the  prairie  was  dry  enough  to  burn,  and  so  the  trees 
growing  upon  its  surface  were  destroyed.  This  is  the  process 
which  must  have  taken  place  during  many  years  before  the 
day  when  the  plow  of  the  first  white  settler  cut  the  soil  of 
western  Iowa.  Its  effects  are  still  noticeable,  but  not  so 
noticeable  as  they  must  have  been  at  an  earlier  day.  To-day, 
practically  all  of  the  trees  in  Adair  county  are  of  second 
growth.  There  are  left  only  a  few  isolated  specimens  of  the 
so-called  first-growth  timber.  Since  the  days  when  the  prairie 
fires  ceased,  seedlings  have  taken  root  in  the  fertile  flats 
which  form  the  northern  and  eastern  banks  of  our  streams,  and 
have  grown  into  trees  of  goodly  size,  and  in  some  places  the 
southern  bluffs  have  been  shorn  of  their  trees.  Still,  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  the  primitive  condition  is  still  noticeable;  the  timber 
on  the  southern  bluff  is  usually  larger  and  thicker  than  that  on 
the  northern  bottom.  It  is  noticeable,  too,  on  the  prairie — 
wherever  enough  of  the  original  brush  has  been  left  to  indicate 
anything  at  all.  The  hazel  and  bur  oak  will  grow  on  a  south- 
ern or  western  slope,  but  they  are  not  generally  found  in  such 
a  situation.  Usually  they  seek  the  northeastern  side  of  a  hill, 
and  there  they  flourish  luxuriantly. 

As  has  been  said,  there  is  very  little  of  the  first-growth 
timber  remaining  in  Adair  county.  The  first  settlers  of  the 
county  found  along  the  streams  a  thick  growth  of  large,  well 
developed  trees.  Since  then  almost  all  of  these  trees  have 
been  removed,  until  there  remains  very  little  timber  which  was 
well  grown  at  the  time  of  the  first  settlement  of  the  county, 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 


59 


forty  years  ago.  In  its  place  has  appeared  a  growth  of  smaller 
trees,  which  were  saplings  when  the  older  trees  were 
destroyed,  or  have  grown  from  the  seed  since  that  time.  Here 
and  there  may  be  seen  a  relic  of  the  first  growth — some  giant 

of  the  forest  who  towers  high  above  all  the  trees  about  him 

but,  as  a  rule,  the  forest  of  to-day  is  made  up  of  younger  and 
smaller  trees  than  those  which  composed  the  forest  of  forty 
years  ago. 

The  area,  however,  of  the  timber  land  along  the  streams 
remains  about  what  it  was  at  an  earlier  day.  It  may  possibly 
be  a  trifle  less,  but  only  a  trifle.  The  second  growth  covers 
substantially  the  same  area  that  was  covered  by  the  first 
growth.  The  chief  denudation  of  the  country  has  come 
about,  not  through  the  destruction  of  the  larger  trees  which 
grow  along  the  rivers,  but  through  the  removal  of  the  bur  oak, 
hazel,  and  other  prairie  species.  Before  the  settlement  of  the 
county — if  we  may  trust  the  accounts  of  the  earliest  settlers — 
a  large  part  of  the  prairie  was  covered  with  t  rush.  To-day  the 
greater  part  of  the  brush  is  gone  and  the  land  upon  which  it 
grew  is  under  cultivation.  The  absence  of  the  brush  from  the 
prairie  tends  to  increase  erosion  and  decrease  the  conservation 
of  moisture  in  the  soil,  but  its  destruction  was  inevitable 
because  necessary  to  the  successful  carrying  on  of  agriculture; 
and,  as  conditions  grow  harder  and  the  land  becomes  more 
densely  populated  and  more  closely  farmed,  the  destruction 
of  that  which  is  left  will  become  necessary  and  inevitable. 
But  as  the  prairie  brush  is  destroyed  greater  care  than  ever 
should  be  taken  to  preserve  the  large  and  really  valuable 
timber  along  the  rivers,  and  to  extend  its  area  if  possible. 
The  people  of  Adair  county  have  not  carelessly  destroyed  their 
forests  as  have  the  people  of  many  portions  of  the  country. 
They  have  preserved  them,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  they 
have  preserved  them  understandingly.  The  second  growth 
has  come  in  so  thick  in  many  places  as  to  choke  itself.  Valu- 
able walnut,  ash  or  hickory  trees  are  often  j^revented  from 
making  a  good  growth  by  the  thickets  of  maple,  elm  or  elder 
in  which  they  grow,  and,  too  often,  when  the  needs  of  the 
farmer  force  him  to  cut  firewood  for  himself,  he  takes  all  the 
trees  from  a  certain  area,  instead  of  cutting  out  only  those 
which  can  best  be  spared  and  leaving  the  remainder.  A  little 
popular  education  on  the  subject  of  forestry  might  remedy 
these  difticulties  and  teach  our  farmers  to  take  a  greater  inter- 
est in  their  forests  and  better  care  of  them. 


60  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

During  the  past  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  the  extent  of 
artificial  groves  in  Adair  county  has  grown  from  nothing  at  all 
to  many  acres.  Almost  every  farm-house  now  has  a  yard  full 
of  trees  and  a  wind-break  to  the  north,  and  hedges  of  maple, 
willow  and  osage  orange  line  many  of  the  roads.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  best  species  for  the  purpose  are  seldom  used  in 
these  groves.  Instead  of  planting  walnut,  ash  or  white  oak, 
our  farmers  usually  plant  the  soft  maple,  on  account  of  its 
rapid  growth,  and  the  result  is  that  no  sooner  do  the  trees 
arrive  at  a  respectable  size  than  the  winds  play  havoc  with 
them.  The  box  elder  is  much  used,  more  on  lawns,  however, 
than  in  groves,  and  although  rather  soft  it  is  a  good  tree  and 
a  very  pretty  one  when  properly  trimmed.  The  willow  figures 
occasionally  in  groves,  but  more  frequently  in  hedges  on  low 
lands,  where  the  maple  is  also  sometimes  used.  Groves  of 
walnut  or  of  ash  are  occasionally  met  with,  but  are  not  com- 
mon. The  Cottonwood  is  used  but  rarely  and  the  oak  never, 
so  far  as  we  know.  While  these  artificial  groves  are  of  little 
value  in  conserving  moisture,  preventing  erosion  and  preserv- 
ing true  forest  conditions,  they  are  useful  in  breaking  the 
force  of  the  winter  winds,  and  they  exert  more  or  less  of  a 
civilizing  influence  by  adding  to  the  beauty  of  the  monotonous 
prairie  landscape  and  the  comfort  of  life  on  the  farm. 

In  Adair  county  a  few  species  of  trees,  which  are  common 
elsewhere  in  Iowa,  are  conspicuous  for  their  absence.  The 
butternut,  sycamore  and  hard  maple  are  found  in  Madison 
county,  along  the  course  of  the  Middle  river,  but  we  have  been 
unable  to  discover  that  a  single  specimen  has  ever  been  found 
growing  wild  on  this  side  of  the  line.  The  Missouri  hickory 
grows  along  the  Nodaway,  it  is  said,  north  of  the  state  line, 
but  does  not  extend  this  far  north.  The  pawpaw  is  found 
occasionally  in  southern  Iowa,  but  has  not  been  found  in  Adair 
county.  The  fact  of  a  few  birch  trees  having  been  observed, 
some  twenty  years  ago,  near  the  town  of  Casey,  on  the  north 
line  of  the  county,  led  to  a  search  through  that  locality,  but 
no  birches  were  found  and  none  have  been  found  in  any  part 
of  the  county.  Both  the  butternut  and  birch  are  reported  as 
being  common  along  the  course  of  the  North  Raccoon  river  in 
Guthrie  county. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  species  of  forest  trees  found  grow- 
ing in  Adair  county.  The  nomenclature  of  Wood  has  been  fol- 
lowed throughout: 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  61 

Ulmus  aitwrieana  L.  White  elm.  Common  on  banks  of 
streams  and  in  valleys,  sometimes  growing  a  little  way  up  the 
sides  of  bluffs  and  occasionally  found  on  upland.  Attains  its 
greatest  size  on  low  ground.  Well  distributed  throughout  the 
county.     Frequently  planted  as  a  shade  tree 

UhiiK.s  fiilva  L.  Red  elm.  Slippery  elm.  Found  only  on 
low  land.     Common.     A  smaller  species  than  the  preceding. 

Ulmus  raceiiiosa  Thomas.  Rock  elm.  A  rare  species  which 
we  have  not  found  within  the  county.  Has  been  reported  by 
an  early  settler,  w^ell  acquainted  with  the  native  timber,  as 
growing  in  scattered  locations  along  the  west  branch  of  the 
Middle  Nodaway. 

Quercus  inacroGarpa  Michx.  Bur  oak.  Scrub  oak.  This 
species  is  very  common  and  occurs  most  frequently  on  the 
sides  and  summits  of  river  bluffs  and  on  the  high  prairie, 
where  it  is  a  gnarled,  stunted,  shrubby  tree,  varying  in  height 
from  ten  to  twenty  feet.  Occasionally,  however,  it  may  be 
found  growing  in  rich  river  bottoms,  where  it  becomes  much 
straighter,  resembling  the  white  oak  in  its  habit  of  growth 
and  attaining  a  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet.  It  is  the  most 
abundant  species  of  oak  and  one  of  the  most  abundant  trees  in 
Adair  county.  On  the  prairie  it  and  the  hazel  appear  to  be 
inseparable  companions.  The  bur  oak  is  almost  the  only  tree 
which  safely  resisted  the  prairie  fires  and  grew  in  abundance 
on  the  open  prairie,  before  the  advent  of  civilization.  Clumps 
of  it  are  found  scattered  over  the  prairie  at  intervals — 
remnants,  evidently,  of  the  more  abundant  growth  which  once 
covered  the  country. 

Querent  rubra  L.  Red  oak.  A  handsome,  straight  tree, 
found  in  tolerable  abundance  on  the  bluffs  near  the  larger 
streams  and  occasionally  on  bottom  land  or  in  thickets  of  bur 
oak  on  the  high  prairie. 

Qicercus  alba  Li.  White  oak.  Not  uncommon.  Found  along 
the  larger  streams — seldom,  if  ever,  on  prairie.  Prefers  rough, 
clay  bluffs. 

Quercus  cocclnea  var.  Unctoria  Wang.  Black  oak.  Not  so 
abundant  as  the  red  oak  and  occupies  the  same  habitat.  Does 
not  attain  the  size  of  either  of  the  preceding  species. 

Negundo  aceroides  Moench.  Box  elder.  This  is  probably 
the  most  common  of  all  the  trees  native  to  Adair  county.  It  is 
found  along  all  the  streams  w^herever  there  is  any  timber  at 
all  and  is  often  planted  on  lawns  and  in  groves  on  the  prairie, 
where  it  flourishes. 


62  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Acer  rnhnnii  L.  Red  maple.  Soft  maple.  Swamp  tnaple. 
Quite  common.  Grows  luxuriantly  on  the  banks  of  streams 
and  in  all  low,  moist  places.  Very  frequently  planted  in 
groves  and  on  lawns,  where  its  soft  wood  is  often  broken  by 
high  winds  which  it  is  unable  to  resist  without  the  protection 
of  larger  timber. 

('anja  alba  N.  Shell-bark  hickory.  Common  along  the 
larger  streams,  where  it  grows  well  up  on  the  bluffs,  and 
occasionally  in  the  bottoms. 

Carya  glabra  Torr.  Pig  nut.  A  somewhat  smaller  and 
coarser  species  than  the  preceding.  Usually  found  on  lower 
land.     The  two  species  are  about  equally  common. 

Juglans  nigra  L.  Walnut.  Common  along  the  larger 
streams,  where  it  grows  luxuriantly  and  attains  a  good  height. 
Never  seen  on  the  prairie,  except  when  planted  there,  which  is 
not  often  the  case.  The  walnut  was  much  more  abundant  a 
quarter  of  a  century  ago  than  it  is  to-day,  although  it  is  still  a 
very  common  tree.  Owing  to  the  value  of  the  wood  it  has 
probably  suffered  more  at  the  hands  of  woodmen  than  has  any 
other  tree  found  in  Adair  county. 

Tilia  americana  L.  Basswood.  Linden.  Quite  common  in 
all  river  bottoms.     Seldom  seen  elsewhere. 

Populu.s  canadeniiis  Desf.  Cottonwood.  Not  rare.  May  be 
found  in  occasional  clumps  in  all  low,  moist  situations.  Is 
occasionally  planted  in  groves  or  hedges. 

Celti>i  o(ride)if(Ui.s  L.  Hackberry.  Not  rare.  Found  only  in 
timber  along  the  larger  streams — always  on  low  land.  Is 
occasionally  transplanted  and  makes  a  very  handsome  lawn 
tree. 

AemuluH  flava  Ait.  Buckeye.  A  tolerably  common  species 
along  Middle  river  and  the  Nodaway,  but  never  found  on 
Grand  river. 

GlediUchia  tracanthus  L.  Honey  locust.  Not  common.  Is 
found  in  scattered  groups  along  both  the  Nodaway  and  Middle 
river. 

PruiiHH  serofhta  Ehr.  Wild  cherry.  Tolerably  common 
along  the  roads  and  on  all  waste  land. 

Prunus  americana  L.  American  plum.  Wild  plum.  Very 
common  on  all  low  lands.  About  equally  abundant  in  the 
larger  timber  and  along  the  small  prairie  streams  where  it 
and  the  wild  crab  are  often  the  only  species  of  trees.  Occurs 
occasionally  on  the  uplands  in  company  with  hazel,  bur  oak 
and  sumac. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  63 

Ostrya  virginica  Willd.  Ironwood.  Not  uncommon  along- 
the  Nodaway,  and  may  be  found  on  Middle  river,  but  not 
abundantly. 

('rat(egus  coccuiea  L.  Hawthorn.  White  thorn.  Red  haw. 
Common  on  low  land,  usually  in  larger  timber. 

C.  tomenhmi  L.  Black  haw.  Not  very  common.  Found  in 
greater  abundance  on  the  west  than  on  the  east  side  of  the 
county. 

Pyrus  coronaria  L.  Crab  apple.  Very  common  on  all  low 
land,  whether  open  or  covered  by  larger  timber. 

Corruis  jKniicifhffa  Lt'ller.  Dogwood.  Common  in  thickets, 
both  in  valleys  and  on  the  higher  land. 

Ehiis  glabra  L.  Sumac.  Common  in  thickets  along  the  side 
and  crest  of  river  bluffs  and  on  the  high  prairie.  Pound 
usually  with  hazel  and  bur  oak. 

Sambiictis  canadensis  L.  Elderberry.  Common  in  thickets 
on  all  waste,  rich  land.     Prefers  the  bottoms. 

Prunvs  virginiana  L.  Chokecherry.  Fairly  common  on  all 
low  land.     Usually  found  in    hick  ts  of  other  timber. 

Corylus  auiericana  Walt.  Hazel.  Very  common  on  all  rough, 
rolling  land,  especially  near  the  larger  streams.  Very  seldom 
found  on  low  land.  Originally  a  great  part  of  the  prairie  was 
covered  with  hazel,  but  most  of  it  has  been  removed.  A  good 
deal  yet  remains,  however,  and  all  along  the  larger  streams  it 
is  very  abundant. 

Salix  nigra  Marshall.  Willow.  Tolerably  common  on  all 
low,  moist  ground. 

Vitis  cestivaUs  L.     Wild  grape.     Common  in  all  timber. 

Lonicera  parvijlora  Lam.  Not  common.  Found  occasionally 
in  heavy  thickets. 


EFFECTS  OF  A  SLEET  STORM  ON  TIMBER. 

BY   JAMES   E.    GOW. 

On  the  nigQt  of  the  9th  and  the  morning  of  the  10th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1898,  a  heavy  sleet  storm  passed  over  Adair  county, 
Iowa.  The  storm  began  not  very  long  after  midnight  w  th  a 
brisk  rain  which  froze  as  it  fell  and  adhered  tenaciously  to 
trees  and  other  objects  with  which  it  came  in  contact.     The 


64  IOWA  ACADEMY   OP   SCIENCES. 

wind  at  the  time  was  slightly  west  of  north  and  was  not  blow- 
ing at  all  briskly.  The  day  preceding  the  storm  had  been 
unusually  warm,  for  the  time  of  year,  with  a  cloudy  sky,  a 
slight  breeze  from  the  north  and  a  very  humid  atmosphere. 
About  3  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  10th  the  trees,  which 
had  become  heavily  laden  with  ice,  began  to  break.  Had  there 
been  a  heavy  wind  at  the  time,  the  damage  to  the  trees  would 
have  been  immense;  as  it  was,  the  damage  was  very  great  and 
in  the  town  of  Greenfield  the  people  were  very  generally 
awakened  by  the  crashing  of  the  breaking  trees,  which  lasted 
almost  continuously  from  8  o'clock  until  daylight.  Morning 
revealed  the  immense  damage  which  had  been  done  to  the 
shade  trees  of  the  town.  Most  of  these  are  soft  maples  and 
had  yielded  readily  to  the  weight  "of  ice,  so  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  them  were  damaged  and  some  were  quite  ruined. 
Owing  to  the  stillness  of  the  air  the  ice  adhered  about  equally 
to  all  sides  of  the  trees  and,  on  trees  of  straight  growth,  the 
breakage  was  equal  on  the  different  sides. 

The  damage  wrought  by  the  storm  was  most  severe  on  the 
soft  maple  trees,  owing  to  the  softness  of  their  wood.  Next, 
after  them,  the  willows  probably  suffered  most.  In  many 
places  in  the  county  willow  hedges  by  the  roadside  were  bent 
over  until  the  trees  nearly  touched  the  ground  and  numbers  of 
the  trees  were  either  broken  short  off  or  lost  many  of  their 
branches.  Hedges  running  east  and  west  were  worse  affected 
than  those  running  north  and  south,  owing  to  the  general 
tendency  of  the  trees  to  bend  toward  the  north.  Hence  in 
the  former  case  the  trees,  having  no  support,  were  broken 
down  by  the  ice,  while,  in  the  latter,  they  rested  upon  each 
other  to  some  extent,  and  were  saved  from  breakage.  Box 
elder  trees  were  badly  damaged  and  elms  were  damaged  almost 
as  badly.  Some  handsome  box  elder  trees  in  the  town  of 
Greenfield  were  almost  ruined.  A  handsome  weeping  willow 
tree  in  Greenfield  was  literally  stripped  of  all  its  smaller 
branches,  not  one  being  left  unbroken.  The  accompanying 
illustration  was  taken  of  it  just  after  the  removal  of  the  broken 
branches  and  may  give  some  idea  of  how  thoroughly  the  storm 
did  its  work.  Oak,  walnut  and  hickory  trees  resisted  the  ice 
well  and  were  largely  uninjured  by  it.  Cottonwood  trees 
suffered  severely. 

The  amount  of  damage  done  to  trees  was  largely  determined 
by  their   position  and   habit  of   growth.     Trees  which  grew 


Iowa  Academy  of  Science. 


Weeping-  Willow  Tree  at  Greenfield  Stripped  by  Sleet. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCLENCES.  65 

upright  shed  the  water  and  sleet  well  and  were  not  greatly 
injured,  while  tliose  which  grew  in  a  slanting  position  or  were 
gnarled  and  straggling  in  their  growth,  did  not  shed  it  so  well 
and  consequently  received  greater  injury.  Limbs  growing  in 
a  horizontial  position  were  soon  weighted  down  and  broken 
while  those  more  nearly  vertical  were  saved. 

In  the  native  timber  much  damage  was  done  and  many  trees 
were  ruined,  but  the  damage  was  not  nearly  so  great  as  in  the 
artificial  groves,  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  fact  that  the  native 
timber  tends  naturally  to  grow  in  the  best  sheltered  places 
and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  protect  itself,  while,  of  the  artificial 
groves,  many  are  planted  in  exposed  positions  and  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  offer  little  resistance  to  a  storm  of  this  kind.  In 
many  of  these  groves  the  trees  have  been  planted  so  close  as 
to  mutually  choke  each  other,  and  consequently  show  a 
tendency  to  grow  very  tall,  with  a  thin,  spindling  trunk  and  no 
branches  lower  than  twenty  or  thirty  feet  from  the  ground. 
Wherever  this  condition  prevails  the  damage  done  by  the 
storm  was  very  great.  Throughout  these  groves  we  may 
see  any  number  of  shattered  and  maimed  trees — evidences  of 
the  fact  that  the  stunted  trunks  were  unable  to  support  the 
heavy  masses  of  sleet  which  hung  to  the  limbs.  Trees  which 
had  distanced  their  comrades  in  the  struggle  for  light  and  air 
by  pushing  up  some  distance  above  them  suffered  most 
severely  and  were  almost  invariably  either  broken  off  short  or 
lost  many  limbs  The  fact  that  most  of  the  artificial  groves 
are  of  soft  maple  trees  also  goes  far  to  explain  the  great  dam- 
age which  they  sustained. 

Trees  growing  in  the  open,  as  a  rule,  showed  a  better  and 
stronger  development  than  those  in  groves,  and,  hence,  better 
ability  to  resist  the  storm. 

In  the  case  of  most  groves  there  is  a  very  evident  tendency 
on  the  part  of  the  trees  to  lean  toward  the  northeast — a  ten- 
dency which  has  never  been  very  satisfactorily  accounted  for, 
but  is  usually  credited  to  the  prevailing  southwest  wind  of 
summer.  This  fact  was  emphasized  by  the  results  of  the 
storm.  An  examination  of  almost  any  grove  which  suffered 
from  the  storm  would  reveal  the  fact  that  the  greatest  damage 
was  done  on  the  north  and  east  sides  and  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
broken  trunks  and  branches  fell  outward,  while  on  the  south 
and  west  they  fell  inward,  or  toward  the  center  of  the  grove. 


66  IOWA  ACADEMY   UF  SCIENCES. 

Naturally,  the  trees  ou  the  south  and  west  were,  to  some  meas- 
ure, supported  by  those  within,  while  those  on  the  north  and 
east,  having  no  such  support,  succumbed  to  the  sleet.  A  like 
effect  may  be  noted  in  the  case  of  trees  in  isolated  localities, 
and  in  hedges.  In  hedges  running  east  and  west  the  greatest 
breakage  was  observable  on  the  northern  side— especially  in 
the  case  of  willow  trees — whose  leaning  habit  of  growth  made 
them  particularly  susceptible.  In  hedges  running  north  and 
south  the  damage  was  not  so  great  nor  the  effect  so  well 
marked,  but  here,  as  a  rule,  the  greatest  breakage  was  on  the 
east.  However,  although  these  conditions  were  so  general  as 
to  be  readily  observable,  there  were  many  apparently  iaexplic- 
able  exceptions,  but  in  the  main  the  effects  of  the  storm  were 
as  here  given. 


THE   AUGUST  CLOUD-BURST    IN    DES    MOINES 
COUNTY. 

BY   MAURICE   RICKER. 

It  is  my  purpos  to  give  merely  a  statement  of  facts  con- 
cerning the  storm  which  deluged  Des  Moines  county  the  morn- 
ing of  August  16,  1898.  I  believe  it  was  the  heaviest  rainfall 
ever  noted  in  the  United  States  for  the  period  of  its  duration, 
and  while  the  area  covered  was  not  large,  it  proved  to  be  very 
destructive.  No  doubt  there  have  been  storms  in  which  the 
precipitation  was  as  heavy,  where  no  one  saw  fit  to  chronicle 
the  event.  Many  great  disasters,  as  the  Johnstown  flood,  witl- 
a  greater  area  and  less  precipitation,  have  become  historic 
because  of  loss  of  life. 

My  attention  was  called  to  the  excessive  rainfall  that  morn- 
ing at  daylight  by  the  little  swollen  creek  which  divides  South 
from  West  Hills  in  the  city  of  Burlington.  Yet  this  was  in 
'the  very  edge  of  the  storm.  The  newspapers  contained  many 
sensational  stories  of  narrow  escape  from  loss  of  life,  damage 
to  county,  city,  railroad  and  farming  interests.  I  read  these 
with  no  special  interest  and  dismissed  their  estimates  of  six- 
teen to  twenty  inches  of  rain  in  Flint  valley  as  exaggerations 
so  commonly  found  in  popular  accounts  of  natural  phenomena. 
As  soon  as  the  tracks  were  repaired  I  had  occasion  to  make 


lOWAcACADEMY  OF  SCIENCE. 


Soft  Maple  near  Greenfield  Broken  by  Sleet. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  ,  67 

many  trips  by  rail  through  the  tiooded  district.  The  terrible 
strength  of  the  water  flow  then  became  apparent  and,  noting 
the  limited  drainage  area  of  Dry  Branch  in  particular,  I  began 
to  take  more  interest  in  the  event,  believing  at  this  time  that 
the  real  precipitation  must  be  about  five  or  six  inches.  I  have 
since  made  a  thorough  canvass  of  the  county  and  record  for 
those  interested  in  these  phenomena  only  those  things  wh'ch 
are  beyond  dispute. 

At  10  o'clock  on  Monday  night,  August  15th,  it  began  to  rain. 
The  precipitation  was  not  extraordinarily  heavy,  and  while  it 
rained  steadily  no  one  noticed  that  there  was  anything  unusual 
about  it.  According  to  good  authority,  the  so-called  cloud-burst 
began  about  2  o'clock  a.  m.  and  ceased  shortly  after  4.  It 
rained  more  or  less  for  an  hour  later,  however.  A  liberal  esti- 
mate of  time  for  the  heavy  rain  is  three  hours.  The  precipita- 
tion outside  of  these  three  hours,  from  all  accounts,  could 
hardly  have  been  more  than  two  inches. 

The  area  of  heavy  rainfall  can  be  approximately  bounded  on 
the  south  by  the  divide  betw^een  Spring  creek  and  Flint  river. 
The  former  stream  was  not  out  of  its  banks.  Keokuk  reports 
a  trace  only.  The  county  line  forms  a  close  boundary  on  the 
west,  Yarmouth  being  in  the  edge  of  the  heavy  rain,  but  suf- 
fered only  from  lightning.  Washington  reports  1.72;  Iowa 
City,  .40.  The  north  boundary  of  very  heavy  rain  is  not  far 
above  the  county  line,  Wapello  reporting  5.16.  On  the  east, 
the  river  was  the  boundary  for  excessive  rain,  although  the 
precipitation  was  heavy  as  far  east  as  Biggsville,  111.  This 
maps  out  two-thirds  of  Des  Moines  county,  or  approximately 
250  square  miles.  The  Flint  river  and  its  tributaries  drain 
one-half  of  this  area.  Dry  Branch,  Yellow  SjDrings,  Dolbee 
and  Swank  creeks  drain  the  remainder,  save  a  strip  of  three 
miles  in  width,  which  drains  north  into  Louisa  county.  Dry 
Branch  drains  only  about  eleven  square  miles,  yet  its  waters 
caused  much  damage.  Yellow  Springs  creek  drains  a  much 
larger  area  and  carried,  perhaps,  more  water,  proportionately 
to  its  bed,  than  Dry  Branch. 

It  is  not  easy  to  estimate  the  rainfall  accurately.  There 
were  no  rain  gauges  in  the  county  at  this  time.  I  shall  give 
some  of  the  reports  as  I  obtained  them.  Great  care  has  been 
taken  to  get  accurate  and  truthful  accounts  in  this  phase  of  the 
investigation. 


(5S  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES 

Mr.  J.  W.  Merrill,  editor  of  the  Mediapolis  New  Em,  vouches 
for  this  story:  A  large  circular  windmill  tank,  with  nearly 
straight  sides,  stood  removed  from  bui  dings  upon  level  ground. 
It  had  never  been  used  as  a  tank  and  was  dry  Monday  night. 
It  had  a  semi-circular  cover,  which  was  open,  exposing  one- 
half  the  tank  to  the  rain.  The  water  ia  the  tank  measured 
twelve  inches  in  depth  on  Tuesday  morning.  We  will  grant 
that  some  of  the  water  in  the  tank  ran  in  from  the  half  which 
was  covered.  Yet.  had  it  all  run  in — and  it  could  not — there 
would  have  been  a  rainfall  of  twelve  inches.  If  the  tank  had 
been  perfectly  level,  would  more  than  one-half  the  water  which 
fell  on  the  cover  have  entered  the  tank? 

In  Dry  Branch  valley,  below  Latty,  six  miles  south,  lives  a 
member  of  the  county  drainage  board,  a  man  whose  judgment 
can  be  relied  upon.  He  states  that  on  Monday  night  an  empty, 
straight-sided  tin  can  which  was  used  for  mixing  spray  fluids 
for  fruit  trees,  was  left  in  open  ground.  The  can  was  about 
fifteen  inches  in  diameter  and  sixteen  inches  high.  At  5  o'clock 
the  can  was  full  and  running  over.  North  of  West  Burlington 
lives  a  truck  gardener,  who  left  standing  in  the  garden  several 
sprinkling  pots,  whose  open  tops  are  half  covered  with  tin  in 
the  usual  manner.  These  ought  to  have  shed  one-half  the 
water,  yet  daylight  found  them  all  with  eight  or  nine  inches  of 
rainwater  in  them. 

Other  less  reliable  cases  have  come  to  my  notice,  where  the 
hole  of  a  barrel  becomes  the  outlet  for  overflow,  etc.  The 
instances  given  suflice  to  show  the  character  of  the  informa- 
tion which  leads  me  to  firmly  believe  that  over  an  area  of  fifty 
square  miles  at  least  sixteen  inches  of  water  fell  in  three 
hours. 

The  instances  of  incredibly  rapid  rise  in  streams,  even  when 
already  in  the  flood  plains,  seem  to  corroborate  the  estimates 
given  above,  while  the  records  at  the  Mississippi  bridge  at  6 
p.  M.,  August  16th,  show  a  stage  of  four  feet  five  inches,  a  rise 
of  three  feet  two  inches.  When  we  remember  that  local  rain 
seldom  affects  the  stage  of  water  noticeably,  and  take  into 
account  the  limited  area  of  the  storm,  we  must  readily  see  that 
something  extraordinary  must  have  happened.  The  rain 
extended  some  distance  up  the  river,  it  is  true,  Clinton  report- 
ing 8.01,  Davenport  2.20. 

The  erosion  was  well  in  keeping  with  the  figures  given  for 
rainfall.     Little  idea  can  be  conveyed  of  ihe  force  of  the  water. 


IOWA  A  CADE  .VI Y   OF   SCIENCES.  69 

which  tore  up  trees  twelve  inches  in  diameter  and  floated  rocks 
weighing  hundreds  of  pounds  many  feet  from  their  former 
location.  Hay  stacks  were  floated  bodily  against  steel  bridges, 
carrying  them  many  hundred  yards  down  stream.  In  the  city 
of  Burlington  whole  timber  piles  floated  from  the  yards  and 
blocked  the  entrance  to  the  great  sewer  Wagons  and  farm 
machinery  of  all  kinds  went  down  the  Mississippi  river, 
together  with  many  dead  animals.  The  oldest  settler  had 
never  seen  the  water  so  high  in  these  valleys.  Many  houses, 
barns,  sheds,  etc.,  were  flooded,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  rapid 
fall  of  these  streams,  which  here  brealc  through  the  escarpment 
to  the  Mississippi. 

The  upper  valleys  broaden  out  with  many  fertile  flats,  often 
planted  in  truck  and  garden  produce.  The  lower  stream  has 
low  banks  through  the  flood  plain  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
rush  of  water  necessarily  did  very  great  damage  to  both  crops 
and  soil.  In  many  cases  acres  of  ground  which  had  been  fall 
plowed  were  denuded  of  soil  and  left  covered  with  sand  and 
pebbles. 

Flint  river,  which  formerly  entered  into  O'Connell  slough 
after  paralleling  its  course  for  half  a  mile,  cut  a  new  channel 
directly  through  cornflelds  to  the  slough,  tearing  out  acres  of 
soil  with  crops  and  timber.  A  raft  of  logs  belonging  to  the  J. 
D.  Harmer  Manufacturing  company  went  down  before  it  like 
straws.  O'Connell  slough,  which  had  been  the  storage  place 
for  logs  in  summer  and  steamboats  in  winter,  was  piled  with 
the  debris,  which  will  cost  |115,000  to  remove  unless  the  ice 
and  high  water  next  spring  can  scour  it  out.  Manufacturing 
establishments  situated  upon  the  slough  will  otherwise  be  cut 
ofl  from  navigation. 

Hawkeye  creek,  a  covered  sewer  through  Burlington,  became 
clogged  with  floating  lumber  and  caused  much  damage  to 
lumberyards,  a  foundry,  the  pickling  works  and  the  Murray 
Iron  works.  The  stone  apron  at  its  mouth  went  out.  The 
clearing  of  the  sewer  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  apron  will 
cause  the  city's  heaviest  bill  for  damage.  The  county  lost 
twenty-three  bridges,  some  of  which  have  been  replaced  at  an 
immediate  outlay  of  ^16,000.  The  Burlington,  Cedar  Rapids  & 
Northern  railway  lost  nearly  two  miles  of  track  and  five 
bridges.  The  bridges  which  replaced  the  lost  ones  are  fine 
steel  spans,  much  better  than  the  old  ones,  costing  $30,000. 
The  loss  to  land  owners  is  hard  to  estimate,  but  must  have 


70  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

been  very  heavy  in  crops  and  damage  to  soil.  The  loss  of  live 
stock  drowned  would  probably  have  been  almost  as  heavy  had 
it  occurred  in  daylight,  owing  to  the  very  rapid  rise  of  the 
streams.  The  estimate  of  $100,000  total  loss  is  not  far  from 
correct. 

There  are  oaany  other  interesting  features  which  should  be 
written  up.  The  weather  conditions  can  be  obtained  from  the 
weather  bureau.  The  map  for  the  date  shows  a  low  reaching 
into  Iowa,  but  would  not  warrant  a  forecast  of  general  rain 
The  energy  liberated  by  so  heavy  a  fall  of  rain  would  form  an 
interesting  study.  I  have  collected  some  data  concerning 
similar  storms  in  previous  years.  The  heaviest  fall  that  has 
come  to  my  notice  was  fifteen  inches,  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  on 
the  29th  of  July,  18  i9. 


THE    BURLINGTON    ARTESIAN    WELL. 

BY    FRANCIS   M.  FULTZ. 

Work  was  commenced  on  the  Burlington  artesian  well  about 
midsummer  of  1896;  but,  owing  to  cessation  of  operations  for 
somewhat  more  than  a  year,  it  was  not  finished  until  midsum- 
mer of  1898.  The  well  is  located  in  Crapo  park,  and  the 
expense  of  putting  it  down  was  borne  out  of  the  park  funds. 

It  was  expected  that  a  flow  would  be  reached  in  the  St. 
Peter  sandstone  at  a  depth  of  about  900  feet.  This  belief  w^as 
based  on  the  flow  obtained  at  the  Ft.  Madison  and  Keokuk 
wells,  south  of  Burlington  about  twenty  and  forty  miles 
respectively.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  subjoined  section  the 
St.  Peter  was  reached  at  a  depth  of  950  feet.  No  flow  was 
obtained,  but  the  water  rose  to  within  thirty-eight  feet  of  the 
surface,  and  indicated  a  strong  supply.  There  was  no  further 
change  of  the  head  of  more  than  a  foot  or  tw^o,  although  the 
drilling  was  carried  down  to  2,430  feet  and  passed  through 
at  least  two  other  water-bearing  strata. 

The  diameter  of  the  well  is  six  inches  for  1,700  feet  and  five 
inches  for  the  balance.  No  casing  is  used  excepting  through 
the  loess  and  drift.  At  1,700  feet  a  test  was  made  of  the 
capacity.     Over  100,000  gallons  were  pumped  out  daily  for  one 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  7[ 

week,  with  no  appreciable  lowering  of  the  head.  At  2,430 
feet,  where  the  work  was  stopped,  the  pump  was  again  put  in 
and  over  100,000  gallons  were  thrown  out  daily,  for  ten  days, 
without  lowering  the  head. 

No  analyses  of  the  waters  have  yet  been  made.  The  water 
pumped  out  after  the  drilling  was  stopped,  and  which  was 
probably  composed  of  a  mixture  from  the  different  levels,  was 
clear  and  sparkling  and  remarkably  free  from  objectionable 
mineral  tastes.  It  was  slightly  diuretic  and  laxative.  No 
extended  experiments  have  as  yet  been  made  in  using  the 
water  for  park  irrigation,  which  was  one  of  the  main  purposes 
in  putting  down  the  well.  It  is  hoped  that  the  supply  will  be 
great  enough  to  feed  an  artificial  lake  and  a  fountain  or  two. 
The  pumping  will  probably  be  done  by  electrical  power. 

Through  the  kindness  of  the  Tweedy  Brothers,  who  carried 
the  drilling  down  to  1,700  feet,  and  the  Wilson  Brothers,  who 
finished  the  work,  a  very  complete  series  of  samples  of  the 
drillings  came  into  my  possession.  From  these,  glass  tubes 
have  been  filled,  one  being  placed  in  the  public  library  and 
another  in  the  high  school  at  Burlington,  each  showing, 
approximately,  a  complete  section  of  the  well.  At  four 
different  levels  the  drillings  were  washed  away  by  the  pressure 
of  the  water  from  below,  the  material  doubtless  finding  its  way 
into  crevices  through  which  the  well  passes  at  higher  levels. 
There  were  four  of  these  intervals  when  no  samples  were 
obtained,  the  first  at  1,475  feet,  and  continuing  for  forty-four 
feet;  the  second  at  1,630  feet,  and  continuing  for  forty  feet; 
the  third  from  1,725  feet  to  2,000  feet,  making  a  long  interval 
of  275  feet;  and  the  fourth  from  2,360  feet  to  2,400  feet,  equal 
ing  forty  feet,  making  400  feet  in  all  from  which  no  drillings 
Avere  obtained. 

The  surface  at  the  well  is  685  feet  above  tide. 


Loess  and  drift  

Limestone  and  cliert,  driUing-s  coarse 

Limestone,  much  less  chert,  driUing-s  finer. 

Limestone,  light  buff,  fine  grained 

Limestone,  yellowish,  sandy,  cherty 

Shale,  sandy,  with  some  lime 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 


Shale,  light  blue 

Shale,  dark  blue 

Limestone,  compact,  gray 

Shale,  gray 

Shale,  light  blue 

Sliale,  brown 

Dolomite,  brownish  gray 

Dolomite,  dark  gray,  coarse  grained 

Dolomii e,  gray 

Dolomite,  pinkish  gray,  coarse  grained. 
Dolomite,  light  brown,  coarse  grained.. 

Shale,  dark,  slightly  petroliferous 

Shale,  dark,  dolomitlc 

Dolomite,  with  some  little  chert 

Dolomite  gray 

Dolomite,  white 

Sand,  pinkisli  

Sand,  mixed  with  black  shale 

Sand,  clean,  white,  finegrained 

S  ind,  clean,  wlilte,  coarse  grained 

Sand,  darker,  coarsegrained 

Dolomite,  white,  compact 

Dolomite,  pink,  compaci 

Dolomite,  pinkish  gray,  compact 

Dolomite,  pinkish,  compact 

Sand,  rusty,  with  some  lime  and  chert.. 

Sand,  rusty 

Sand,  very  sharp  grained 

Sand,  finegrained 

Dolomite,  white,  compact 

Dolomite,  with  brownish  shale 

Sand,  mi.xed  with  limestone  and  chert  . 
Uhert,  white 


Sand,  fine  grained,  with  some  shale  and  limestone. 

Drillings  •.vished  away 

Sand,  biown,  rusty 


Limestone  and  chert,  whitish. 

Sand,  limestone  and  chert 

Dolomite,  grayish-brown..   .  . 


P  '  P- 

126  275 

165  440 

140  580 

38  618 

20  '  638 

50  688 

49  737 

78  bl5 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 


Holomite,  light  gray 


Limestone,  light  gray,  with  some  chert  Hnd  saud. 

Drillings  wastied  away 

Sand,  clean,  white 


Dolomite,  yellowish,  sandy 

Drillings  washed  away 

Limestone,  dark  gray,  do'omitic. 


Limestone,  dark  gray,  nearly  pure 

Limestone,  dark  gray,  arenaceous 

Dolomite,  dark  gray,  aren«ceous 

Dolomite,  rusty  gray,  with  sand  and  shale 

Dolomite,  rusty  gray,  mixed  with  pure  llmestnnp. 
Dolomite,  rusty  gray,  with  much  pure  limestone. . 

Limestone,  dark  gray,  with  some  little  sand 

Limestone,  mixed  witb  sand  and  shale 

Limestone,  brownish  gray,  with  much  sand 

Sand,  light  gray,  with  some  lime  

Sand,  light  gray,  dolomitic 

Sand,  white,  fine  grained 


Sand,  rustv.  coarser  grained 

Drillings  WHshed  awHy 

Sandstone,  very  hard  {li  hours  in  uri  ling  5  feet),  mnuy  ninki«-h  grains 
resembling  quartzite;  mixed  with  much  sba.e  and  dolomite  from 
above 

Same  as  No.  4,  but  with  some  little  slate 

Slate,  very  dark,  compact 


Slate,  same  as  No.  2,  but  harder 

Drill  stopued  in  pure  slate,  at  2,430  feet. 


SUMMARY. 


a 
z 

66 

64  65 

62-63 

59-61 

55-58 

50-54 

48-49 

45-47 


FORMATION. 


Pleistocene 

Augusta— Uppfr  Burlington 
Augusta— Lower  Burlington 

Kinderhook 

Devonian 

Silurian 

Maquoketa 

Trenton  


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 


Number. 

FORMATION. 

B 

a. 

O 

40-44 
36-39 

St.  Peter 

Upper  Oneota 

145 

250 
60 
22 

968 
10 
20 

1100 
1350 

33-35 

New  Richmond 

1110 

30-31 

5-29 

St.  Croi.x 

''400 

3-4 
1-2 

Sioux  Quartzte  (V) 

Primitive  (?) 

2410 
2430 

In  the  discussion  of  this  paper  Mr.  Leverett  called  attention 
to  the  need  of  careful  examination  of  the  suposed  Sioux  quart- 
zite  drillings,  especially  since  a  well  at  the  neighboring  town 
of  Aledo,  111  ,  reached  a  depth  of  3,100  feet  without  touching 
the  quartzite. 


THE   LOWER   RAPIDS   OF  THE   MISSISSIPPI   RIVER. 


BY  FRANK  LEVERETT. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

In  the  early  days  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi,  two 
important  rapids  were  found  to  interrupt  the  passage  of  ves- 
sels at  low  water  stages;  one,  about  fifteen  miles  in  length, 
being  above  the  city  of  Rock  Island,  111.,  and  the  other,  about 
eleven  miles  in  length,  above  the  city  of  Keokuk,  Iowa.  These 
became  known,  resj^ectively,  as  the  upper  and  lower  rapids 
The  latter  are  also  called  the  Des  Moines  rapids  because  of  the 
situation  above  the  mouth  of  the  Des  Moines  river. 

In  both  rapids  the  obstructions  consist  of  rock  ledges,  yet 
the  form  of  arrangement  of  the  ledges  is  not  the  same.  The 
upper  rapids  consist  of  a  succession  of  rock  barriers  called 
"chains,"  each  usually  but  a  fraction  of  a  mile  in  breadth, 
which  pass  across  the  river  channel  and  are  separated  by  pools 
or  stretches  of  slack  water.  The  lower  rapids  are  more  uni- 
form, there  being  a  nearly  continuous  descent  across  them. 
The  rate  of  descent,  however,  varies,  as  shown  below.     In  open- 

*Published  by  permission  of  the  director  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  75 

ing  the  upper  rapids  to  navigation  it  was  necessary  only  to  cut 
channels  across  the  barriers,  while  in  the  lower  rapids  a  canal 
has  been  constructed.* 

The  precise  length  of  the  lower  rapids  is  11.1  miles,  the 
head  being  at  Montrose  island  and  the  foot  a  short  distance 
above  the  river  bridge  at  Keokuk.  The  total  descent  is  22.17 
feet,  or  very  nearly  two  feet  per  mile.  The  rate  of  descent  is 
greatest  in  the  lower  part,  there  being  a  fall  of  about  four  and 
one-half  feet  in  the  lower  mile  and  nearly  eight  feet  in  the 
lower  two  miles,  f  Above  this  part  the  fall,  though  not  uni- 
form, is  less  definitely  broken  into  rapids  and  pools  than  in 
the  upper  rapids.  Indeed,  there  appears  to  be  a  rock  floor 
forming  the  river  bed  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the 
lower  rapids. 

Immediately  above  the  head  of  the  lower  rapids  a  deep,  pre- 
glacial  channel  appears,  whose  floor,  as  shown  by  several  bor- 
ings, is  125  to  135  feet  below  the  low  water  level  of  the  river. 
This  is  filled  mainly  with  blue  bowlder  clay  up  to  about  the 
level  of  the  river  bed.  Sand,  however,  in  places,  extends  to  a 
depth  of  nearly  sixty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  river  at  low 
water,  as  shown  by  the  bridge  soundings  at  Ft.  Madison  and 
Burlington.  A  pool  extends  from  the  head  of  the  rapids  up  to 
the  vicinity  of  Ft.  Madison — nine  miles.  The  depth  of  the 
pool  in  places  exceeds  twenty  feet  at  low  water  stage,  thus 
extending  to  about  that  distance  below  the  level  of  the  rock 
surface  in  the  river  bed  at  the  head  of  the  rapids. 

Below  the  rapids  the  river  for  four  miles  is  in  a  narrow 
valley  in  which  the  depth  of  the  drift  filling  is  not  known.  It 
there  enters  a  broad,  preglacial  valley,  which  has  been  found 
to  constitute  the  continuation  of  that  occupied  by  the  river 
above  the  rapids,  and  which  no  doubt  was  excavated  to  a  cor- 
responding depth,  though  as  yet  no  borings  have  been  made 


♦Phis  consists  of  a  channel  blasted  out  of  the  rock  for  a  distance  of  three  and  one- 
quarter  miles  from  the  head  of  the  rapids,  beloiv  which  a  retaining  embanl<ment  is 
built  on  the  river  bed  along  the  Iowa  side  to  the  foot  of  the  rapids  at  Keoiiuic. 

tProm  Greenleaf's  report  on  "  Water  Power  of  the  Mississippi  and  Tributaries," 
tenth  census  of  United  States.  1880,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  60,  the  following  data  are  obtained. 
"In  the  first  4.800  feet  from  the  lower  lock  there  is  a  rise  of  4  21  feet,  then  2  22  feet  in 
the  next  3,600  feet,  and  1  67  feet  in  the  succeeding  3,600  feet  to  the  middle  lock,  making 
the  fall  in  ordinary  low  water,  from  a  point  opposite  the  middle  lock  to  the  foot  of  the 
rapids,  8.1  feet." 


76  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES 

which  reach  its  rock  floor.  The  comparative  size  of  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi,  in  its  new  channel  across  the  lower  rapids, 
and  the  partially  abandoned  preglacial  valley,  is  shown  in 
cross  section  in  figure  6,  of  Vol.  Ill  of  the  Iowa  Geological  Sur- 
vey. The  depth  of  the  new  channel  is  but  little  more  than 
half,  and  the  width  scarcely  one -fifth,  that  of  the  preglacial 
channel.  In  size  it  is,  therefore,  scarcely  one-tenth  as  large 
as  the  preglacial  valley. 

The  small  size  of  the  Mississippi  valley  at  the  lower  rapids, 
compared  with  its  size  above  and  below,  was  noted  by  Worthen 
more  than  forty  years  ago,  and  interpreted  to  be  an  evidence 
that  the  greater  valley  is  preglacial,  while  the  portion  of  the 
valley  across  the  rapids  is  postglacial." 

Again,  in  his  first  volume  of  the  Geology  of  Illinois,  pub- 
lished in  1866,  Worthen  remarks  (page  9)  that  the  present 
river  has  shown,  by  the  work  done  in  the  upper  and  lower 
rapids,  how  inadequate  its  erosive  power  would  be  to  excavate 
in  postglacial  time  the  entire  valley  which  it  now  but  partially 
occupies. 

A  few  years  later  Gen.  G.  K  Warren  discovered  the  aban- 
doned section  of  the  preglacial  valley  which  crosses  Lee 
county,  Iowa,  a  few  miles  west  of  the  lower  rapids,  and  con- 
nects the  portion  occupied  by  the  stream  above  the  rapids  with 
that  below.  In  his  report  in  1878  he  presented  a  discussion 
illustrated  by  a  map  setting  forth  the  position  of  the  old 
channel.  + 

General  Warren  based  his  interpretations  upon  the  absence 
of  rock  outcrops  in  the  valleys  which  traverse  the  old  course 


*In  his  report  to  Hall,  made  in  1856,  the  following' htatement  is  found  in  the  discus- 
sion of  Lee  county.    (Geol.  of  Iowa,  Vol.  1, 1858,  p.  188): 

"The  valley  thus  scooped  out  of  the  solid  rocks  e.\tends  from  Montrose  to  the 
mouth  of  Skunk  river,  and  is  from  six  to  eight  miles  in  width.  The  eastern  portion  of 
this  ancieut  basio,  except  the  bluffs  on  the  river  above  Ft.  Madison,  is  now  covered  by 
the  alluvial  deposits  before  mentioned,  while  the  western  part  is  occupied  by  deposits 
of  drift  material  from  100  to  185  feet  in  thickness  That  this  valley  was  formed  by 
ancient  currents,  previous  to  the  drift  period,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  a  consider- 
able portion  of  it  is  now  occupied  by  deposits  of  that  age,  and  wliich  must  have  been 
formed  after  those  currents  ceased  to  act." 

+  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Army  Engineers  for  1878-9,  Vol  IV,  part  2,  pp.  916-&17,  Diagram 
E,  also  Jjiiigram  1,  sheet  4. 


IOWA.  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 


of  the  river,  there  being  no  borings  that  extended  to  the  rock 
bottom.  A  few  years  later  a  boring  at  Mont  Clare,  Iowa,  was 
sunk  in  the  old  valley  and  brought  confirmation  to  General 
Warren's  interpretation."  The  accompanying  sketch  map, 
figure  2,  sets  forth  the  position  of  the  old  valley  and  its  rela- 
tion to  the  one  across  the  rapids. 


Figure  1.  Sketch  map  of  regloQ  discussed,  showing-  cou^'se  of  old  channel?. 
Note  of  Explanation.— The  abandoned  portion  of  the  pre-glacial  channel  of  the 
Mississippi  is  shaded.  Hachures  are  med  to  Indicate  valley  borders  b.)th  below  and 
above  high  terraces  and  along  the  temporary  Mississippi  channel,  opened  at  the 
Illinoian  stage  of  glaciation.  Thd  extent  of  the  high  terrace  in  Missouri  has  not  been 
determined. 

It  should  not  be  inferred  that  this  broad,  preglacial  valley 
was  necessarily  a  line  of  discharge  for  the  whole  of  the  pres- 
ent drainage  basin  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  The  available 
evidence  conceraing  the  preglacial  drainage,  though  imper- 
fect, is   thought  to   indicate  that   a  large  part  of   the  region 

*  Burled  River  Channels  in  Southwestern  Iowa,  by  0.  H.  Uordon,  Iowa  Geol.  Surv. 
Ileport  for  1893.  pp  236-255.  Figs.  5,  6  and  7.  Published  in  1895  as  Vol.  Ill  of  the  present 
survey 


78  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

above  the  upper  rajDids  may  have  trained  southeastward 
through  the  Green  river  basin  to  the  Illinois.  Hirshey  has 
suggested  a  northward  discharge  for  the  headwater  portion  of 
the  basin,*  a  suggestion  that  awaits  adequate  investigation. 
The  preglacial  valley,  which  passes  the  lower  rapids  on  the 
west,  is  nearly  coincident  with  the  present  Mississippi,  from 
the  head  of  these  rapids  up  to  Muscatine,  but  its  position 
farther  north  has  not  been  ascertained,  nor  has  the  size  of 
its  drainage  basin  been  even  approximately  determined.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  much  of  eastern  Iowa  was  tributary  to 
this  preglacial  line. 

DATE  OF  THE  DEPLECT[ON  ACROSS  THE  LOWER  RAPIDS. 

In  previous  years  attention  has  been  called,  both  by  Mr. 
Fultz  and  myself,  to  evidence  that  the  region  around  the  lower 
rapids  presents  a  complicated  glacial  history,  f  It  has  been 
shown  that  one  ice  field  extended  southward  from  Kewatin,  in 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  across  Manitoba,  Minnesota  and  Iowa 
into  Missouri  and  that  it  spread  eastward  beyond  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi,  from  near  the  southern  end  of  the  driftless 
area  of  the  upper  Mississippi,  to  the  vicinity  of  Hannibal,  Mo. 
Two  invasions  may  have  been  made  by  that  ice  field  with  an 
intervening  deglaciation  interval  of  some  length,  as  indicated 
by  Bain]:.  The  later,  and  probably  the  more  extensive, 
advance  is  referred  to  the  Kansan  stage  of  glaciation. 

It  has  also  been  shown  that  subsequent  to  the  Kansan  stage 
of  glaciation  an  ice  field  extended  from  Labrador  and  the 
heights  south  of  Hudson  bay  southwestward  across  Michigan, 
the  Lake  Michigan  basin  and  Illinois  into  southeastern  Iowa. 

The  Kewatin  ice  field  not  only  covered  the  preglacial  valley 
near  the  lower  rapids,  but  also  the  district  which  the  stream 
traverses  in  passing  the  rapids.  It  was  thus  liable  to  have 
displaced  the  stream  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  the  deflec- 
tion past  the  rapids,  as  indicated  below.  The  invasion  from 
Labrador,  on  the  other  hand,  appears  to  have  barely  reached 
to  the  rapids,  and  may  not  have  interfered  seriously  with 
drainage  across  them,  though  it  greatly  disturbed  the  course 

*  AmericaQ  Geologist,  Vol.  XX,  1897,  pp.  2t6-26:s. 

+  F.  M.  Fultz,  Proc.  lowi  Acad,  of  Sciences  for  1895,  Vo'.  H,  pp.  209-213. 
J  bid.  1898,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  60-62. 
Franli  Loverett,  Science,  .Ian.  10,  1896. 

American  Geologist,  Feb..  1896. 
Bull.,  No.  2,  Chi.  Acad.  Scl..  May,  1897. 
Froc.  Iowa  Acad.  Sci.,  1897,  Vol.  V,  pp.  71-74. 
:|:  Proc.  Iowa  Acad.  Sci.  for  1897,  Vol.  V,  pp.  88-101. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  79 

of  the  Mississippi  above  the  rapids.  It  did  not  reach  the 
section  of  the  preglacial  valley  west  of  the  rapids.  The  inflec- 
tion from  the  preglacial  channel  must,  therefore,  be  due  to  the 
Kewatin  ice  field. 

But,  since  the  Kewatin  ice  field  may  have  twice  invaded  this 
region,  it  is  necessary  to  inquire  into  the  probable  effect  of 
each  of  its  two  invasions.  If  it  be  found  that  the  earlier 
invasion  extended  beyond  the  line  of  the  preglacial  valley, 
and  deposited  sufficient  material  to  prevent  the  re-establish - 
ment  of  the  river  along  the  preglacial  line,  a  deflection  at  this 
early  date  must  have  occurred.  The  deflection,  however,  need 
not  necessarily  have  thrown  the  stream  into  its  present  course 
across  the  rapids.  That  course  may  have  been  taken  as  a 
result  of  the  later  invasion  of  the  Kewatin  ice  field,  if  not  as  a 
result  of  the  still  later  encroachment  of  the  Labrador  ice  field. 
It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  deflection  caused  by  the 
Kewatin  ice  field  might  give  the  stream  a  course  farther  to 
the  east  than  the  lower  rapids,  since  the  region  across  which 
the  rapids  have  been  opened  appears  to  have  been  entirely 
covered  by  the  Kewatin  ice  field  at  each  of  its  invasions.  It 
will  be  necessary,  therefore,  to  determine  whether  the 
Kewatin  field  did  not  establish  the  Mississippi  in  a  course  east 
of  the  rapids,  and  whether  that  course  was  not  held  by  the 
Mississippi  until  the  Labrador  ice  field  forced  it  westward  into 
its  present  course  across  the  lower  rapids. 

Turning  now  to  the  question  of  the  influence  of  the  sup- 
posed earlier  invasion  of  the  Kewatin  ice  field,  a  few  remarks 
seem  necessary  concerning  the  deposits  made  by  that  ice  field. 
The  lowest  conspicuous  member  of  the  drift  series  in  eastern 
Iowa  is  a  sheet  of  dark  blue  till,  often  nearly  black,  which  is 
thickly  set  with  fragments  of  wood  and  coal.  This  is  overlain 
by  a  sheet  of  blue-gray  till  which  difl'ers  from  the  blue  black 
till  in  texture  and  rock  constituents  as  well  as  in  color.  It 
shows  a  decided  tendency  to  break  into  rectangular  blocks, 
and  often  presents  vertical  fissures  extending  to  a  depth  of 
many  feet,  which  are  filled  with  sand  or  deeply  oxidized  clay. 
The  blue-black  till  is  very  friable,  and  seldom  shows  a 
tendency  to  break  into  rectangular  blocks,  while  the  few 
fissures  which  it  contains  traverse  it  in  oblique,  raHier  than 
vertical,  lines.  The  blue-gray  till  carries  much  less  vegetal 
material  and  coal  fragments  than  the  blue  black  till.  It  dift'ers 
also  from  the  blue-black  till  in  containing  a  larger  percentage 


80  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES 

of  greenstone  rocks.  These  differences  have  naturally  led  to 
the  suspicion  that  two  quite  distinct  sheets  of  till  are  present 
and  this  suspicion  is  confirmed  by  the  occasional  occurrence  of 
a  black  soil  at  the  surface  of  the  blue-black  till.  Such 
exposures  are  rare  compared  with  those  of  the  Yarmouth  soil 
found  between  the  Kansan  and  Illinoian  till  sheets,*  but  their 
rare  occurrence  may  not  demonstrate  that  the  interval  of 
deglaciation  is  of  minor  importance.  From  conversations  with 
Calvin,  Norton  and  Bain,  I  am  led  to  think  that  a  large  part  of 
the  buried  soils  reported  by  McGee,  from  eastern  Iowa,  f 
occupy  a  horizon  corresponding  to  the  junction  of  the  blue- 
gray  and  blue-black  tills  of  southeastern  Iowa.  This  being 
true,  the  interval  of  deglaciation  between  the  blue-gray  and 
blue-black  tills  becomes  of  much  importance. 

The  sheet  of  blue-black  till  has  been  found  to  occur  at 
points  farther  east  than  the  lower  rapids.  It  occurs  in  the 
Mississippi  valley  in  the  vicinity  of  Ft.  Madison,  Iowa,  and  in 
Hancock  and  Adams  counties,  Illinois,  east  and  southeast  of 
the  rapids.  There  is  little  doubt,  therefore,  that  during  the 
deposition  of  this  till  the  Kewatin  ice  field  was  sufficiently 
extensive  to  force  the  Mississippi  out  of  the  preglacial  channel 
which  passes  west  of  the  lower  rapids. 

It  is  not  certain,  however,  that  the  auiount  of  flliiu/  in  that 
valley  was  sufficient  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  stream  to  its 
preglacial  course  in  the  interval  between  the  deposition  of  the 
blue-black  till  and  the  blue- gray  till.  The  blue-black  till  in 
the  vicinity  of  Ft.  Madison  is  found  to  rise  to  a  height  of  only 
sixty  to  seventy-five  feet  above  the  present  stream,  or  nearly 
seventy- five  feet  less  than  would  probably  have  been  necessary 
to  throw  the  stream  from  the  preglacial  channel  into  its 
present  course  across  the  rapids.  This  may  possibly  have 
been  sufficient  to  throw  the  drainage  of  the  portion  above  the 
lower  rapids  eastward  into  the  Illinois,  either  by  way  of  the 
Green  river  basin  or  by  some  line  farther  south  that  is  now 
completely  concealed  by  the  later  sheets  of  drift.  But  it 
seems  quite  as  probable  that  the  stream  returned  to  its  pre- 
glacial course. 

The  blue-gray  till  seems  to  be  fully  as  extensive  a  sheet  as 
the   underlying   blue-black    till.      It    extends    eastward    into 


*See  Proc.  Iowa  Aead.  Sci.,  Vol.  V,  1897,  pp.  81-86. 

tEleventh  Annual  Report  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.,  1889-90,  pp.  233,  238,  485,  496.  541, 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OP  SCIENCES.  81 

Illinois  beneath  the  Illinoian  till  sheet  an  undetermined 
distance.  The  tendency  to  break  into  rectangular  blocks  often 
serves  to  distinguish  it  from  the  overlying  Illinoian  till,  as 
well  as  from  the  underlying  blue-black  till,  though  the 
Illinoian,  in  places,  takes  on  this  phase  of  fracture.  Probably 
the  most  extensive  of  the  exposures  of  the  blue-gray  Kansan 
till  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Ft.  Madison.  It  there  consti- 
tutes, for  several  miles,  the  upper  100  feet  of  the  Mississippi 
blulf,  except  a  thin  coating  of  loess. 

The  filling  produced  by  the  blue-gray  till  was  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  return  of  the  stream  to  its  preglacial  course,  for 
the  altitude  of  the  surface,  along  the  part  of  the  preglacial 
channel  west  of  the  lower  rapids,  is  as  great  as  in  border 
districts.  In  this  case,  therefore,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
decide  whether  the  stream  assumed  its  present  course  across 
the  lower  rapids  at  the  time  the  Kewatin  ice  field  made  its 
final  withdrawal  from  that  region,  or  whether  it  drained  east- 
ward to  the  Illinois  until  it  was  forced  from  that  course  by  the 
advance  of  the  Labrador  ice  field  at  the  Illinoian  stage  of 
glaciation.  Concerning  this  question  it  is  thought  that  evi- 
dence of  some  value  has  been  collected,  as  appears  below: 

EROSION    PRECEDING    THE   ILLINOIAN    STAGE   OF    GLACIATION. 

The  Mississippi  valley,  for  about  fifty  miles  below  the  lower 
rapids,  was  greatly  filled  by  the  drift  from  the  Kewatin  ice 
field.  Immediately  below  the  rapids  the  filling  on  the  borders 
of  the  valley  reached  a  level  about  150  feet  above  the  present 
stream.  It  seems  not  improbable  that  there  was  a  filling  to 
nearly  this  height  in  the  middle  of  the  valley,  for  the 
abandoned  section  just  above  was  filled  in  its  middle  part  to  as 
great  height  as  on  its  borders.  Upon  passing  down  the  valley 
the  height  of  filling  gradually  decreases  to  the  limits  of  the 
Kewatin  drift  near  Hannibal.  From  the  filling  of  tributaries 
near  Hannibal,  it  is  estimated  that  the  Mississippi  valley  could 
not  have  been  filled  to  a  height  greater  than  seventy-five  feet 
above  the  present  stream.  Below  Hannibal  the  filling  was 
produced  by  stream  action,  rather  than  by  glacial  deposition, 
and  appears  to  have  reached  but  little,  if  any,  above  the  sand 
terraces  of  the  valley — say  fifty  feet  above  the  river.  Now,  if 
this  filling  suffered  but  little  erosion  before  the  Illinoian  stage 
of  glaciation,  it  can  reasonably  be  inferred  that  the  drainage 
of  the  upper  Mississippi  did  not  pass  across  the  lower  rapids 


82  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

and  through  this  part  of  the  valley  until  forced  westward  by 
the  advance  of  the  Labrador  ice  field.  But  if  a  great  erosion 
took  place  in  this  part  of  the  valley  prior  to  the  Illinoian  stage 
of  glaciation,  there  would  seem  good  grounds  for  supposing 
that  the  stream  assumed  its  present  course  soon  after  the 
Kewatin  ice  field  made  its  final  withdrawal. 

Examining  into  this  question,  it  is  found  that  after  this 
drift  was  deposited  by  the  Kewatin  ice  field  an  erosion  so 
great  took  place  that  it  was  removed,  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  width  of  the  valley,  down  to  a  level  scarcely  fifty 
feet  above  the  present  stream  at  the  mouth  of  the  Des  Moines, 
and  to  an  equally  low  level  at  Hannibal.  The  depth  of  cutting 
appears,  therefore,  to  have  been  about  100  feet  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Des  Moines  and  perhaps  twenty-five  feet  at  Hannibal. 
It  seeois  safe  to  assume  an  average  depth  of  fifty  feet  for  the 
entire  section  and  a  width  of  five  or  six  miles,  making  an 
erosion  of  nearly  three  cubic  miles  of  drift  in  the  fifty  miles 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Des  Moines  river.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  raise  the  question  whether  this  erosion  could 
have  been  accomplished  by  the  Des  Moines  and  other 
tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  below  the  rapids,  for  it  is 
evidently  out  of  proportion  to  the  work  which  these  small 
streams  would  be  able  to  accomplish  siace  the  Kansan  stage 
of  glaciation.  It  seems  certain  that  the  Mississippi  river  is 
responsible  for  the  principal  part  of  the  erosion.  This  makes 
necessary  the  opening  of  the  new  channel  across  the  rapids, 
since  the  old  channel  west  of  the  rapids  was  not  utilized  by 
the  river  after  the  Kansan  stage  of  glaciation,  and  no  other 
line  of  drainage  could  have  been  adopted  by  the  river  that 
would  pass  through  the  portion  of  the  valley  below  the  rapids. 

Evidence  is  found  within  the  new  channel,  of  an  erosion 
such  as  the  interpretation  just  given  demands.  In  the  south 
part  of  Keokuk,  between  the  foot  of  Main  street  and  the 
mouth  of  Soap  creek,  the  rock  bluff  rises  but  fifty  to  sixty  feet 
above  low  water  and  is  capped  by  a  bed  of  bowlders  about 
twenty  feet  in  depth.  Attention  was  called  to  this  bed  some 
thirty  years  ago  by  Mr  S.  J.  Wallace  of  Keokuk,*  and  the 
view  expressed  that  it  is  "old  river  shingle."  Mr.  Wallace 
stated  that  Dr.  George  Kellogg,  of  Keokuk,  regarded  it  as  an 
indication  of  an  ancient  fall  at  this  place,  but  that  he  did  not 
so  regard  it. 


Proc  A.  A,  A.  S.,  Vol.  XVII,  1869,  p.  344. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  83 

This  bed  has  been  discussed  at  some  length  by  Mr.  Gordon 
in  the  Geology  of  Iowa,*  and  three  interpretations  for  its 
origin  are  presented. 

First. — That  it  was  formed  by  river  action  alone,  /.  e.,  as  an 
alluvial  bar. 

Second. — That  it  is  due  to  the  cutting  down  of  a  till  sheet, 
the  coarse  material  being  left  as  a  residue. 

Third. — That  it  is  a  bowldery  moraine  dropped  at  the  edge 
of  the  ice  sheet  at  the  Illinoian  stage  of  glaciation. 

Of  the  three  interpretations  the  second  seems  to  Mr. 
Gordon,  as  well  as  to  the  present  w^riter,  the  most  applicable. 
Dr.  Kellogg 's  suggestion  of  a  fall  as  the  cause  seems,  at  best, 
to  be  poorly  sustained.  A  similar  bow^lder  bed  occurs  near 
Warsaw,  111.  It  there  forms  a  capping  for  an  eroded  till  sur- 
face and  bears  clear  evidence  of  removal  of  the  fine  material 
by  a  stream,  with  the  retention  of  the  bowlders  as  a  residue. 
A  bow^lder  bed  is  also  found  along  the  face  of  the  west  bluff  of 
the  rapids  near  Sandusky,  about  six  miles  above  Keokuk,  at  a 
level  forty  to  sixty  feet  above  the  stream,  that  probably  w^as 
derived  from  the  erosion  of  a  sheet  of  till,  though  the  exposure 
is  scarcely  extensive  enough  to  show  clearly  the  relationship. 
It  seems  referable  to  the  period  tf  erosion  that  produced  the 
beds  at  Keokuk  and  Warsaw. 

The  amount  of  erosion  effected  is  so  great  that  the  begin- 
ning of  this  new  channel  seems  to  date  from  near  the  close  of 
the  Kansan  stage  of  glaciation.'  This  becomes  more  evident 
as  we  study  into  the  later  stages  of  the  history  of  the  river. 
Even  if  the  river  had  been  forced  into  a  channel  farther  east 
than  the  lower  rapids,  it  seems  scarcely  probable  that  it 
remained  long  in  that  course.  It  apparently  began  its  work  of 
opening  the  course  across  the  rapids  long  before  the  Labrador 
ice  tield  had  reached  the  region. 

FILLING   AT   THE   ILLINOIAN    STAGE   OF    GLACIATION. 

Following  this  great  erosion  there  came  a  partial  filling  of 
the  part  of  the  valley  immediately  outside  the  limits  of  the 
Illinoian  drift  sheet.  It  is  well  displayed  below  the  rapids, 
and  some  remnants  are  to  be  seen  along  the  borders  of  the 
rapids.  This  filling  appears  to  have  occurred  at  the  Illinoian 
stage  of  glaciation:  Evidence  of  this  relationship  is  to  be 
found  in   the  connection,  or  close   association,  of   this  filling 


'Geology  of  Iowa,  Vol.  Ill,  1893,  pp.  252  255.    See  also  PI.  XV. 


84  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

with  the  opening  of  a  temporary  course  for  the  Mississippi 
across  southeastern  Iowa,  which  occurred  at  the  time  the 
Mississippi  valley  above  the  rapids  was  covered  by  the  Labra- 
dor ice  field. 

The  drainage  line  referred  to  leaves  the  present  Mississippi 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Maquoketa,  passes  southward  along  that 
valley  (reversed)  to  Goose  Lake  channel,  and  thence  to  the 
Wapsipinicon  valley,  coming  to  that  valley  a  few  miles  above 
its  present  mouth.  It  follows  up  the  Wapsipinicon  a  few 
miles  to  the  mouth  of  Mud  creek,  a  southern  tributary,  which, 
together  with  a  small  tributary  of  Cedar  river  also  called  Mud 
creek,  furnishes  the  line  of  continuation  for  the  old  valley  to 
the  Cedar  river  near  the  great  bend  at  Moscow.  The  val- 
ley continues  southwest  to  the  Iowa  river  along  the  course 
now  followed  by  the  Cedar  river  in  its  lower  twenty -five  miles. 
It  then  passes  southward  from  Columbus  Junction  to  Winfield 
and  thence  westward  to  Skunk  river  at  Coppock,  opening  in 
its  westward  course  two  lines,  one  of  which  is  now  utilized  by 
Crooked  creek.  From  Coppock  the  old  drainage  line  follows 
the  course  of  Skunk  river  southward  to  Rome,  and  Cedar 
creek  (reversed)  to  Salem.  It  there  turns  southeastward, 
being  known  as  "Grand  valley  "  in  northern  Lee  county,  and 
joins  the  Mississippi  about  six  miles  west  of  Ft.  Madison, 
nearly  opposite  the  head  of  the  rapids.  Its  continuation  was 
evidently  across  the  rapids  into  the  broad  valley  below 
Keokuk. 

The  altitude  of  the  bottom  of  this  old  valley,  near  the  head 
of  the  rapids,  is  fully  100  feet  above  the  present  stream,  but 
connects  well  with  the  surface  of  the  valley  filling  in  and 
below  the  rapids.  It  is  nearly  100  feet  lower  than  at  the 
point  where  it  leaves  the  Iowa  valley,  seventy -five  miles  to 
the  north.  The  portion  above  the  point  where  the  Iowa  valley  is 
crossed  has  been  so  modified  since  the  Illinoian  stage  of  glacia- 
tion  that  very  little  is  known  concerning  its  condition  at  the 
close  of  that  glacial  stage,  but  the  portion  south  from  the  Iowa 
valley  has  been  only  slightly  modified. 

Very  little  material  was  deposited  on  the  bed  of  the 
temporary  channel  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  seventy-five  miles 
from  the  Iowa  valley  to  the  head  of  the  rapids,  but  a  great 
filling  occurred  in  the  broad  valley  below  the  rapids,  and 
some  filling  along  the  rapids,  especially  at  their  lower  end. 
The  valley,  which,  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids,  had  been  cut  down 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  85 

to  a  level  scarcely  fifty  feet  above  the  present  stream,  was 
built  up  to  eighty  or  ninety  feet  above  the  river  at  that  point. 
The  depth  of  filling  is  found  to  increase  upon  passing  down 
the  valley,  and  becomes  scarcely  noticeable  at  Hannibal.  It 
is,  therefore,  much  like  a  delta,  formed  where  a  rapid  stream 
emerges  into  a  sluggish,  lake-like  body  of  water.  It  consists 
mainly  of  fine  material,  sand  or  silt,  with  few  pebbles  greater 
than  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter.  A  fine  gravel,  however, 
appears  at  an  exposure  called  "Yellow  Banks,"  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Des  Moines  river.  The  bowlder  bed  in  Keokuk, 
described  above,  received  at  this  time  a  capping  of  sand  fifteen 
or  twenty  feet  in  depth.  Sand  deposits  are  also  found  at  a 
corresponding  level  in  Hamilton,  111.,  near  the  foot  of  the 
rapids,  capping  a  low  part  of  the  rock  bluff.  Another  possible 
remnant  of  the  sand  filling  is  found  at  Sandusky,  Iowa,  six 
miles  above  Keokuk,  immediately  back  of  the  bowlder-strewn 
slope,  noted  above.  It  there  rises  about  eighty  feet  above  the 
river,  or  to  within  twenty-five  feet  of  the  level  of  the  bottom  of 
the  channel  of  the  temporary  Mississippi,  ten  miles  to  the 
north.  No  remnants  of  the  filling  have  been  noted  in  this 
interval  of  ten  miles  and  it  is  thought  probable  that  the  rate  of 
fall  was  so  great  above  Sandusky  that  but  little  lodgment  of 
material  occurred. 

In  the  portion  of  the  Mississippi  valley  covered  by  the 
Labrador  ice  field  at  the  Illinoian  stage  of  glaciation,  there 
appears  to  be  no  such  sand  filling  as  is  found  below  the  rapids, 
although  it  has  nearly  as  low  a  gradient.  This  feature  con- 
firms the  above  interpretation,  that  the  sand  filling  occurred 
during  this  stage  of  glaciation. 

In  explanation  of  the  small  amount  of  material  deposited  in 
the  bed  of  the  temporary  Mississippi,  Professor  Chamberlin 
has  suggested  to  me  that  the  ground  in  which  this  channel 
was  excavated  may  have  been  frozen  at  the  time  of  excavation, 
its  situation  being  on  the  immediate  borders  of  the  ice  sheet, 
and  that  this  frozen  condition  of  the  ground  may  have  pre- 
vented the  stream  from  eroding  more  material  than  it  could 
readily  transport 

The  time  involved  in  the  valley  filling  is  a  question  of  much 
interest,  but  one  on  which  an  estimate  is  very  difficult  to 
make.  The  filling  of  any  given  section  is  not  a  measure  of 
the  full  work  of  the  stream,  but  simply  an  index  to  the  excess 
of  material  above  the  limits  of  transportation  by  the  stream. 


86  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

To  properly  estimate  the  work  in  a  stage  of  filling  it  is  neces- 
sary to  compute  the  amount  of  material  carried  through  the 
channel,  as  well  as  that  deposited  in  it.  It  is  doubtful  if 
present  methods  of  study  are  sufficiently  refined  to  enable  one 
to  make  even  an  approximate  calculation  of  the  time 
involved.  It  may  safely  be  affirmed,  however,  that  the  filling 
under  discussion  progressed  slowly,  and  that  the  time  involved 
was  sufficiently  long  to  affect  materially  the  chronology  of  the 
lower  rapids. 

EROSION     CONDITIONS     DURING     THE     SANGAMON      INTERGLA- 
CIAL     STAGE. 

Between  the  Illinoian  stage  of  glaciation  and  the  deposition 
of  loess,  which  accompanied  the  lowan  stage  of  glaciation, 
there  was  a  long  interval  of  time  during  which  the  surface  of 
the  Illinoian  drift  sheet  was  subjected  to  leaching,  and  weath- 
ering, and  the  formation  of  a  soil.  The  name  Sangamon  has 
been  applied  by  the  present  writer  to  the  soil  and  weathered 
zone  formed  at  this  time,  and  may  properly  be  made  to  denote 
the  time  interval.*  Although  the  degree  of  weathering  and 
leaching  makes  it  evident  that  the  interval  was  protracted,  the 
valley  excavation  appears  to  have  been  comparatively  slight, 
so  far  as  depth  is  concerned.  This  is  true  not  only  in  the 
region  about  the  lower  rapids,  but  throughout  the  entire 
exposed  portion  of  the  Illinoian  drift  sheet. 

The  erosion  on  the  lower  rapids  appears  to  have  been 
scarcely  sufficient  to  remove  the  sand  filling  which  occurred 
during  the  Illinoian  stage  of  glaciation.  It  could  have 
amounted  to  scarcely  twenty  feet  in  depth  and  was  mainly  in 
loose  material.  The  limits  of  the  erosion  are  determined  by 
the  level  down  to  which  the  loess  extends.  That  deposit 
appears  nowhere  in  situ  at  a  lower  level  than  sixty-five  to 
seventy-five  feet  above  the  head  of  the  rapids.  Its  lower 
limits,  in  the  portion  of  the  valley  above  the  rapids,  are  also 
as  great  as  seventy  feet  above  the  present  stream. 

A  study  of  tributary  valleys  in  this  region  has  showm  that 
the  streams  meandered  widely  and  performed  a  large  amount 
of  work,  notwithstanding  the  shallow  depth  of  erosion.  For 
example.  Skunk  river,  in  southeastern  Iowa,  at  that  time 
meandered   over  a  width  of   about  two   miles  (see   figure  11), 


*Proc.  Iowa  Acad.  Sci.,  Vol.  V,  for  1897,  pp.  70-80.    Journal  ol  Geology,  Vol.  VI, 
1S98,  pp.  171-181 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  87 

whereas  it  is  now  confined  to  an  inner  valley  scarcely  one-hall' 
mile  in  average  width.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the 
erosion  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  over  a  width  of  two  miles,  by 
a  stream  with  sluggish  current,  may  involve  more  time  than  is 
required  for  the  cutting  of  the  inner  valley,  which  has  an 
average  depth  of  nearly  100  feet  and  a  width  of  about  one- 
half  mile. 

In  this  interval,  as  in  the  interval  of  filling  which  preceded 
it,  the  rapids  suffered  but  little  modification,  yet  the  time 
involved  was  sufficiently  long  to  affect  materially  the  estimates 
of  the  duration  of  the  stream  in  its  present  course. 

THE   LOESS    FILLING    ACCOMPANYING    THE    lOWAN     STAGE    OF 
GLACIATION. 

The  period  of  low  gradient  and  slack  drainage,  just  dis- 
cussed, was  followed  by  even  less  favorable  c  'nditions  for  the 
opening  of  a  channel  Du'ing  the  lowan  stage  of  glaciation, 
as  long  since  pointed  out  by  McGee*  and  elaborated  by  Calvin 
and  others, f  the  deposition  of  a  sheet  of  silt  occurred,  not  only 
along  the  main  valleys,  but  over  much  of  the  low  country  in 
the  interior  of  the  Mississippi  basin.  This  silt  is  the  problem- 
atical loess.  Its  mode  of  deposition  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute, 
the  deposit  being  thought  by  some  glacialists  to  be  largely 
aqueous,  while  by  others  it  is  thought  to  be  chiefly  asolian. 

In  the  region  under  discussion  the  valleys,  as  previously 
indicated,  were  opened  only  to  shallow  depths  htnce  but 
slight  accumulation  of  the  silt  was  necessary  to  fill  them  or  to 
cause  the  streams  to  spread  over  the  bordering  plains.  The 
depth  of  the  silt  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lower  rapids  seldom 
reaches  thirty  feet  and  probably  averages  not  more  than 
fifteen  feet.  Its  bulk,  therefore,  does  not,  so  far  as  the 
valleys  are  concerned,  greatly  exceed  that  of  the  filling  which 
occurred  below  the  rapids  during  the  Illinoian  stage  of  glacia- 
tion. If,  however,  the  deposits  on  the  bordering  plains  are 
taken  into  consideration,  the  amount  of  material  deposited  is 
very  much  greater,  for  the  plaias  were  covered  to  a  depth  of 
six  to  ten  feet  by  this  silt. 

*  The  Draluage  System  and  Distribution  of  the  Loess  of  Eastern  Iowa,  by  W.  J. 
McGee,  Bull.  Wash.  Phil.  Soc'y,  Vol.  VI,  1883,  pp.  93-97.  Also  see  discussion  in  Eleventh 
Ann.  Rep't  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1890,  pp.  435-471. 

tGeolog-y  of  Jones  County,  by  S.  Calvin,  Iowa  Geol.  Survey,  Vol.  V,  1895,  pp.  63-69. 
Geology  of  Johnson  County,  by  S.  Calvin,  Iowa  Geol.  Survey,  Vol.  VII,  1896,  pp.  39-45, 
86-89.  Geolog-y  of  Linn  County,  by  W.  H.  Norton,  Iowa  Geol.  Survey,  Vol.  IV.  1894.  pp. 
168-181.  Geolog-y  of  Marshall  County,  by  S.  W.  Beyer,  Iowa  Geol.  Survey  Vol.  VII, 
1896,  pp.  234-238.  Geology  of  Plymouth  County,  by  H.  F.  Bain,  Iowa  Geol.  Survey,  Vol. 
VIII,  1837.  pp.  335-351. 


88  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Whether  the  deposition  took  place  by  water  or  by  wind, 
there  seems  to  have  been  a  suspension  of  erosion  on  the  lower 
rapids,  and  the  length  of  this  suspension  must  certainly  be 
sufficient  to  affect  materially  their  duration.  An  estimate  of 
the  time  involved  seems  at  present  impossible,  there  being 
fewer  data  for  an  estimate  than  in  the  filling  which  occurred 
at  the  Illinoian  stage. 

EROSION    FOLLOWING   THE   LOESS    FILLING. 

After  the  deposition  of  the  loess,  the  valleys  throughout 
much  of  the  Mississippi  basin  experienced  a  marked  deepen- 
ing, which  brought  their  bottoms  to  a  lower  level  than  before 
the  loess  filling.  In  the  ^portion  of  the  Mississippi  valley 
which  lies  within  and  near  the  rapids  the  deepening  seems  to 
have  proceeded  continuously  to  a  level  nearly  as  low  as  the 
present  stream,  or  fifty  to  seventy -five  feet  below  the  excava 
tion  which  occurred  in  the  interval  following  the  Kansan 
glaciation.  This  excavation,  in  the  section  embraced  within 
the  rapids,  was  mainly  rock,  for  the  loess  and  alluvium  had 
built  up  the  channel  scarcely  thirty  feet  above  the  rock  floor 
of  the  post- Kansan  erosion.  But  for  some  distance,  both 
above  and  below  these  rapids,  the  excavation  was  largely  in 
till.  The  channel  across  the  rapids  was  opened  to  a  width 
but  little  greater  than  the  stream,  or  about  one  mile.  Else- 
where the  channel  is  three  to  six  times  the  width  of  the 
stream. 

This  erosion  seems  to  have  continued  until  the  early  part  of 
the  Wisconsin  glacial  stage,  when,  as  indicated  below,  another 
filling  occurred.  The  extent  and  depth  of  the  erosion  which 
took  place  prior  to  the  Wisconsin  filling,  is  well  shown  in  the 
broad  portion  of  the  valley  above  the  rapids.  Numerous  wells 
indicate  that  the  till  had  been  removed  nearly  to  present  river 
level,  over  the  greater  part  of  the  width  of  the  valley,  before 
that  filling  set  in. 

The  amount  of  erosion  in  the  Mississippi  valley  seems  to 
have  been  nearly  as  great  in  this  interval  as  in  the  post- 
Kansan  interval  of  erosion.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  the 
time  involved  was  so  great  as  in  that  interval,  for  the  gradient 
appears  to  have  been  higher.  To  properly  estimate  the  time 
involved,  it  is  necessary  also  to  know  the  volume  of  water  dis- 
charged through  the  valley  at  each  interval,  a  matter  concern- 
ing which  very  little  is  yet  known. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  89 

FILLING    AT   THE   WISCONSIN    STAGE   OF   GLACIATION. 

At  the  Wisconsin  stage  of  glaciation  the  Mississippi  and 
several  of  its  tributaries,  which  flowed  away  from  the  ice 
sheet,  became  so  burdened  by  glacial  detritus  that  they  were 
unable  to  completely  transport  their  load,  much  less  to 
continue  the  erosion  of  their  valleys.  The  Mississippi  headed 
in  the  ice  sheet  near  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  while  the  Chippewa  and 
Wisconsin  rivers  brought  material  from  the  Chippewa  and 
Green  bay  lobes  of  Wisconsin.  Rock  river,  also,  brought 
material  from  the  Green  bay  lobe  and  through  its  tributaries, 
Kishwaukee  and  Green  rivers,  from  the  Lake  Michigan  lobe. 
Just  above  St.  Louis  the  Illinois  river  contributed  a  large 
amount  of  material,  derived  from  the  Lake  Michigan  lobe. 
These  streams  discharged  such  large  quantities  of  sand  into 
the  Mississippi  that  its  valley  was  greatly  filled  as  far  down 
as  the  head  of  the  broad  valley  of  the  lower  Mississippi  at 
Cairo.  Throughout  much  of  the  interval  between  St.  Paul 
and  Cairo  the  vallej'^  was  filled  to  a  height  of  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  feet  above  the  present  stream.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
rapids  it  reached  nearly  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  erosion  in 
the  preceding  stage  of  deglaciation. 

The  filling  probably  began  during  the  early  part  of  the 
Wisconsin  stage  of  glaciation,  but  the  great  bulk  of  it  appears 
to  have  been  contributed  during  the  part  of  the  Wisconsin  stage 
of  glaciation  represented  by  the  Kettle-morainic  system.  The 
transportation  of  sand  down  the  valley  no  doubt  continued  for 
a  long  time  after  the  ice  sheet  had  ceased  to  contribute 
material  to  the  headwaters  of  the  present  Mississippi.  The 
filling  may,  therefore,  have  occupied  a  longer  time  than  that 
involved  in  the  formation  of  all  the  moraines  which  cross  the 
headwaters  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  greater  part  of  this  filling  consists  of  sand  of  medium 
coarseness.  This,  however,  is  interbedded  with  thin  deposits 
of  very  fine  gravel,  and  pebbles  are  also  scattered  through  the 
sand.  The  pebbles  seldom  exceed  one-half  inch  in  diameter 
and  are  usually  one-fourth  inch  or  less.  They  have  been 
noted  by  the  writer  as  far  dow^n  the  valley  as  the  vicinity  of 
Quincy,  111.  They  are  a  conspicuous  feature  above  Rock 
Island,  111.  Upon  following  up  the  tributaries  of  the  Missis- 
sippi toward  the  head  of  these  valley  trains,  the  material 
becomes  markedly  coarser,  as  is  to  be  expected,  on  the  theory 
of  their  derivation  from  the  ice  sheet. 


90  IOWA  ACADEMY    OF   SCIENCES. 

It  scarcely  needs  to  be  stated  that  so  great  a  filling  has 
greatly  interrupted  the  removal  of  the  rock  barriers  of  the 
Mississippi  at  each  of  the  rapids.  A  stream,  with  the  present 
volume  of  the  Mississippi,  and  its  comparatively  low  gradient 
of  about  six  inches  per  mile,  can  scarcely  do  more  than 
remove  the  material  brought  in  by  its  tributaries,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  removing  the  great  amount  of  material  deposited  at  the 
Wisconsin  stage  of  glaciation.  There  appears,  however,  to 
have  been  a  long  period  succeeding  this  sand  deposition  in 
which  the  volume  of  the  Mississippi  was  much  greater  than  at 
present,  and  this  matter  will  next  receive  our  attention. 

EROSION   ACCOMPLISHED   BY   THE    LAKE    AGASSIZ  OUTLET. 

Following  this  period  of  sand,  deposition  the  Mississippi 
valley  afforded  a  line  for  the  discharge  of  a  large  area  now 
tributary  to  Hudson's  bay,  an  area  which  was  occupied  by  the 
glacial  lake,  Agassiz.  The  area  of  this  glacial  lake,  and  of  the 
country  tributary  to  it,  is  estimated  by  Upham  to  have  been 
from  350,000  to  500,000  square  miles.*  This  great  drainage 
area  has  been  reduced  to  about  12,000  square  miles  f  now 
tributary  to  the  Mississippi  through  the  Minnesota  river.  The 
present  drainage  area  of  the  Mississippi,  above  the  lower 
rapids,  does  not  exceed  125,000  square  miles,  or  about  one- 
third  the  minimum  estimate  of  Upham  for  the  area  of  Lake 
Agassiz  and  its  tributaries  Although  this  great  reduction 
has  been  in  the  arid  portion  of  the  old  drainage  basin,  it  must 
greatly  affect  the  volume  of  the  river.  The  present  run-off  of 
that  region  can  scarcely  furnish  a  full  index,  since  the  ice  sheet 
was  also  a  great  contributor  of  water  to  the  glacial  lake.  J 

It  can  scarcely  be  questioned  that  at  the  height  of  the  dis- 
charge from  Lake  Agassiz  the  volume  of  water  was  fully  four 
times  that  of  the  present  Mississippi.  This  view  is  sustained, 
both  by  the  amount  of  erosion  which  took  place,  and  by  the 
low  gradient  reached  by  the  stream.  The  sand  which  was 
deposited  as  a  glacial  outwash,  while  the  ice  sheet  occupied 
the    headwaters    of    the    present    Mississippi,    was     largely 


*"The  Glacial  Lake  Agassiz,"  by  Warren  Upham,  Monograph  XX V,  U.  S.  Geo). 
Survey,  1895,  pp.  50-61. 

+  Warren's  Report  Bridg-ing  Mississippi  River,  Chief  of  Engineers  U.  S.  Army, 
1878-79,  Vol.  IV,  p.  931. 

fin  addition  to  the  change  of  drainage  area  involved  in  the  Glacial  Lake  Agassiz, 
it  is  necessary  to  take  Into  consideration  the  influx  of  water  from  the  glacial  lake 
which  occupied  the  western  end  of  the  Lake  Superior  basin,  and  also  a  small  glacial 
lake  at  the  head  of  Green  Bay  in  Wisconsin. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OP   SCIENCES.  91 

removed  by  the  Lake  Agassiz  outlet  throughout  the  entire  dis- 
tance from  St.  Paul  to  Cairo.  It  is  estimated  that  the  average 
width  of  the  channel  formed  by  this  outlet  is  three  miles, 
or  about  four  times  the  breadth  of  the  present  steam. 

The  depth  of  erosion  seems  to  have  been  such  as  to  give 
portions  of  the  stream  a  lower  level  and  lower  gradient  than 
that  of  the  present  river.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the 
portion  above  the  upper  rapids,  as  indicated  by  General  War- 
ren.* Lake  Pepin,  an  expansion  of  the  Mississippi,  situated 
just  above- the  mouth  of  the  Chippewa  river,  has  a  depth  of 
about  sixty  feet.  It  was  General  Warren's  opinion  that  when 
the  flow  of  water  from  the  great  northern  basin  ceased  there 
would  no  longer  be  the  volume  of  water  necessary  to  remove 
the  deposits  brought  in  by  the  Chippewa  river.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  change  the  Mississippi  has  been  lifted  to  a  level 
about  sixty  feet  above  its  former  bed.  Evidence  of  a  similar 
filling,  produced  by  the  Mississippi  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Minnesota,  is  cited  by  General  Warren.  He  also  noted 
evidence  of  the  marked  shoaling  of  the  Mississippi  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Wisconsin.  He  further  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  entire  cutting  now  in  progress  on  the  Mississippi 
may  be  confined  to  short  sections  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rapids. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  what  a  slight  change  is  required  to 
stop  the  cutting  at  these  places.  A  filling  of  only  twenty-five 
feet  at  the  mouth  of  the  Des  Moines,  or  of  Rock  river,  is 
necessary  to  cause  the  neighboring  rapids  to  become  protected 
from  erosion.  It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  either  of 
these  tributaries  will,  for  some  time,  begin  the  filling  of  the 
valley  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids,  for  the  fall  of  the  Mississippi, 
in  passing  each  of  the  rapids,  is  greater  than  that  of  the  lower 
course  of  the  Rock  or  the  Des  Moines.  Furthermore,  the 
main  stream  has  the  advantage  of  much  greater  volume  than 
these  tributaries,  in  consequence  of  which  the  fall  across  the 
rapids  must  be  reduced  below  that  of  the  tributaries  before 
filling  can  begin  at  their  mouths. 

CONTOURS  OF  THE  BLUFFS  ALONG  THE  LOWER  RAPIDS. 

The  great  length  of  time  involved  in  the  development  of  a 
channel  across  the  rapids  is  shown  by  the  contours  of  the 
bluffs.  Except  at  a  few  points,  where  the  river  in  rounding  a 
curve  has  recently  encroached  upon  its  bluff,  there  is  not  an 


'Op.  clt  pp.  911-916. 


92  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

abrupt  face.  A  large  part  of  the  slope  is  so  gradual  that  it 
has  been  brought  under  cultivation  When  it  is  considered 
that  the  bluff  is  composed  mainly  of  a  firm  limestone,  the 
height  of  the  rock  portion  ranging  from  fifty  up  to  150  feet, 
with  an  average  height  of  nearly  100  feet,  the  prevalence  of  a 
moderate  slope  must  indicate  a  long  period  of  excavation. 

But  little  is  yet  known  concerning  the  manner  in  which  the 
rock  barrier  has  been  cut  away,  whether  by  the  recession  of  a 
fall  or  by  the  present  process  of  slow  cutting  across  its  whole 
breadth.  The  fact  that  the  old  valley  below  the  l^apids  was 
filled  with  drift  about  to  the  height  of  the  highest  part  of  the 
rock  barrier,  lends  support  to  the  view  that  there  has  been  a 
slow  cutting  down  of  the  entire  width  of  the  barrier,  rather 
than  the  recession  of  a  fall.  It  s«ems  scarcely  probable  that 
the  till  beneath  the  stream  was  scooped  out  to  a  much  greater 
degree  below  the  rock  barrier,  in  the  early  stages  of  excava- 
tion, than  at  the  present  day. 

COMPARISON    WITH   THE    UPPER   RAPIDS. 

The  work  performed  in  cutting  away  the  rock  barrier,  at  the 
lower  rapids,  appears  to  be  several  times  as  great  as  at  the 
upper  rapids.  In  the  latter  the  rock  excavation  has  not  been 
sufiicienl  to  remove  the  prominent  parts  of  the  barrier.  It 
scarcely  amounts  to  an  average  cutting  ten  feet  in  depth.  In 
the  rapids  under  discussion  the  barrier  is  estimated  to  have 
suffered  a  rock  excavation  to  a  depth  of  nearly  100  feet,  or 
about  one  fourth  of  a  cubic  mile.  This  difference  in  amount  of 
work  accomplished  is  readily  accounted  for  by  the  earlier  date 
at  which  the  lower  rapids  began  excavation.  The  excavation, 
as  shown  above,  appears  to  have  begun  soon  after  the  Kansan 
stage  of  glaciation,  while  the  excavation  at  the  upper  rapids 
appears  to  have  set  in  after  the  Illinoian  and  t  »  have  been 
mainly  accomplished  since  the  lowan  stage  of  glaciation. 

THE   LOWER   RAPIDS   AS   A    CHRONOMETER. 

When  this  investigation  was  entered  upon  by  the  writer, 
hopes  were  entertained  that  the  channel  across  the  lower 
rapids  would  furnish  a  valuable  chronometer  for  determining 
the  time  since  the  Kansan  stage  of  glaciation.  But  from  what 
has  been  shown  it  is  evident  that  the  determination  of  the 
time  is  at  present  very  difficult,  if  not  impracticable.  It  may 
be  thought  that  this  channel  will  furnish  a  chronometer  for 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OP   SCIENCES.  93 

the  relative  dates  of  the  Kansan,  Illinoian,  lowan  and  Wiscon- 
sin glaciations.  But  on  this  question  scarcely  more  than  a 
very  rude  approximation  is  likely  to  be  reached.  As  indicated 
above,  the  work  involved  in  filling  is  especially  difficult .  to 
determine.  These  difficulties,  however,  are  no  greater  than 
those  involved  in  the  estimates  of  the  changes  of  drainage 
area  which  the  Mississippi  has  experienced.  The  object  of 
the  present  paper  is  accomplished  if  the  complexity  of  the 
history  has  been  adequately  presented.  The  chronological 
determinations  must  be  deferred  to  a  time  when  more  refined 
methods  of  investigation  are  instituted  than  are  now  at  com- 
mand. 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  GEOLOGY  OF  STEAM- 
BOAT SPRINGS,  COLORADO. 

BY   F.   M.  WITTER. 

In  the  year  1873,  a  division  of  geologists  under  the  manage- 
ment of  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden,  made  a  survey  of  the  region  from 
Willow  Creek  pass,  between  North  and  Middle  Parks,  across 
the  park  range  down  the  Yuma  or  Bear  river  to  the  White 
river,  around  to  Eagle  river  and  up  the  Grand,  of  which  Wil- 
low creek,  in  Middle  Park,  is  a  tributary.  In  this  report,  very 
brief  mention  is  made  of  Steamboat  Springs,  although  the 
trail  on  their  map  does  not  pass  nearer  than  twenty -five  or 
thirty  miles  to  the  Springs. 

Steamboat  Springs  is  now  not  far  from  100  miles  by  wagon 
road  from  a  railway.  Rawlins,  on  the  Union  Pacific  in  Wyo 
ming,  is  probably  the  nearest  railroad  point  on  the  north,  and 
Glenwood  Springs,  on  the  Denver  &  Rio  Grande,  is  the  nearest 
on  the  south.  Last  July  our  party  left  North  Park  in  its 
extreme  southwest  corner  at  Rabbit  Ear  peak.  This  mountain 
IS  the  most  conspicuous  in  the  park  range,  immediately  west 
of  North  Park.  Prom  near  Pinkhampton,  in  the  northeast 
corner  of  North  Park,  Rabbit  Ear  is  plainly  visible,  a  distance 
of  sixty  miles  or  more.  This  peak  is  capped  by  two  immense 
vertical  rocks  about  100  feet  apart.  These  rocks  have  sug- 
gested the  name  for  the  peak.  By  means  of  a  spruce -tree 
ladder  we  climbed  to  the  top  of  one  of  these  huge  "ears. "    We 


94  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

could  then  see  the  whole  of  North  Park,  and  much  country  in 
every  direction,  probably,  in  all,  4,000  square  miles. 

It  is  worth  a  trip  to  Colorado  to  stand  on  the  top  of  Rabbit 
Ear.  In  North  Park  we  had  found  scoriaceous  rock,  which 
called  to  mind  forcibly  the  thought  that  a  volcano  was  not  far 
away.  In  ascending  Rabbit  Ear  it  soon  became  apparent  we 
were  on  the  very  cone  itself.  Along  the  sides,  in  great  pro- 
fusion, were  fragments  of  scoria,  with  occasional  slag- like 
masses.  These  continued  to  the  top,  where  the  two  great  ears 
seemed  to  be  firmer,  more  like  trap,  though  not  entirely 
uniform,  some  portions  weathering  away  much  faster  than 
others.  We  had  no  means  of  determining  our  altitude  at  this 
point,  but  from  the  snow  about  us  (this  was  July  12th,)  and  the 
Alpine  vegetation,  it  must  have  been  about  12,000  feet. 
Steamboat  Springs  is  northwest  of  Rabbit  Ear  about  eighteen 
miles.  The  pass  here,  at  this  time,  was  completely  dry,  but  a 
little  earlier  it  is  very  muddy,  almost  impassable.  On  reach- 
ing the  western  edge  of  the  Park  range,  about  seven  miles 
east  of  the  Springs,  it  seemed  as  if  we  had  come  to  a  jumping- 
off  place.  Far  below  us  we  could  see  the  Bear  with  its  beauti- 
ful valley,  green  fields  of  oats  and  timothy,  the  little  log 
houses  of  the  pioneers,  and  to  the  right  in  the  distance,  nestled 
at  the  foot  of  this  great  mountain  range,  lay  the  village, 
Steamboat  Springs.  The  Yampa  or  Bear  river  here  runs  west 
from  Egerla  Park,  but  at  the  Springs  it  turns  south. 

The  mountains  to  the  south  of  the  Bear  appear  to  be  much 
lower,  and  differ  in  many  respects  from  the  Park  range  just  to 
the  north  There  is  not  that  boldness,  that  ruggedness, 
although  separated  only  by  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Bear. 
The  student  of  geology  could  not  fail  to  be  impressed  with  this 
difference,  as  he  stands  at  this  point  on  the  southern  edge  of 
the  Park  range.  On  descending  the  mountain  but  few 
extensive  rock  exposures  are  seen.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  the 
rocks  show^  metamorphism,  being  derived  from  what  seems  to 
have  been  some  kind  of  sandstone  or  argillaceous  shales.  No 
marble  was  noticed  in  this  locality.  On  the  north  side  of  the 
Bear  river,  in  the  valley  three  or  four  miles  east  of  the 
Springs  the  region  is  thickly  covered  with  well  rounded 
granitoid  bowlders,  some  of  which  are  ten  to  twenty  feet 
through.  These  have  come  from  the  mountains  close  by  on 
the  north.  The  bed  and  banks  of  Fish  creek  are  a  mass  of 
bowlders,  with   very   little  filling  between  them.     This   is  a 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  95 

pretty  mountain  stream,  which  has  its  sources  in  the  great 
range  just  north  of  this  valley,  and  joins  the  Bear  a  mile  east 
of  the  Springs.  Some  four  miles  up,  this  creek  has  made  for 
itself  a  wild,  deep  gorge  or  canon,  and  here,  in  200  or  300 
yards,  it  falls  perhaps  200  feet.  In  this  cailon  great  masses  of 
rock  lie  in  every  position  and  these  show  plainly  a  bedding, 
although  the  main  walls  of  this  canon  are  almost  vertical 
sheets  of  metamorphic  rocks. 

At  a  point  some  six  or  seven  miles  northwest  of  Steamboat 
Springs,  at  some  springs  we  visited,  the  temperature  of  the 
water  is  said  to  be  about  160  degrees  F.  The  rocks  are,  in 
part,  at  least,  very  dark  colored,  compact  and  fine  grained, 
resembling  diorite.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the 
Park  range,  immediately  north  of  Steamboat  Springs,  is 
largely  metamorphic,  abounding  in  granites,  syenites  and  vol- 
canic rocks.  In  this  vicinity  the  valley  of  the  Bear  is  from 
one-half  mile  to  a  mile  in  width.  Directly  opposite  the 
village,  which  is  almost  wholly  on  one  street  on  the  north  side 
of  the  river,  is  a  rather  lofty  and  rugged  mountain,  but  for  the 
most  part  the  country  on  the  south  side  of  the  Bear  is  much 
less  precipitous  and  is  not  covered  by  timber  like  the  moun- 
tains close  on  the  north.  The  valley  here  has  undoubtedly 
been  the  seat  of  an  immense  glacier,  which  was  well  supported 
from  the  north  by  great  numbers  of  glaciers  lying  on  the 
southern  face  of  Park  range. 

One  very  conspicuous  moraine  lies  in  the  village,  and  to 
improve  the  single  straight  street  this  moraine  has  been  cut 
transversely.  In  the  village  there  are  four  charming  little 
creeks,  all  coming  from  the  mountains  on  the  north.  Not  a 
single  creek  enters  the  Bear  river,  for  several  miles,  from  the 
south.  Opposite  the  eastern  or  upper  end  of  the  village, 
some  300  feet  above  the  valley  of  the  river,  is  an  "onyx 
mine."  Here  a  horizontal  tunnel  has  been  carried  i^erhaps 
200  feet  into  the  side  of  the  mountain.  A  cross  section  of  this 
tunnel  is  not  less  than  six  feet  square.  It  is  perfectly  dry  and 
is  wholly  in  what  seems  to  be  unmodified  drift.  The  onyx  is 
scattered  through  this  drift  in  pieces  varying  from  a  cubic 
inch  to  blocks  three  or  four  feet  square  and  eight  or  ten  feet 
long.  These  pieces  show,  in  many  cases,  unmistakable  evi- 
dence of  erosion  or  weathering,  and  they  are  so  packed  in  with 
the  clay  and  granite  pebbles  that  we  could  hardly  pull  out 
small  pieces  from  the  walls  of  the  tunnel.     How  extensive  the 


96  IOWA  ACADEMY  OF   SCIENCES. 

onyx  deposit  here  may  be,  we  could  not  determine,  but  there 
are  some  reasons  for  believing  the  material  to  be  abundant. 
Its  geoloo:ical  history,  at  present,  is  not  altogether  clear,  but 
it  may  be  assumed  that  all  such  limestone  formations  have 
been  formed  in  caves.  The  cave  or  caves  where  this  was 
formed  must  have  been  near  by,  for  the  fragments  are  of  such 
shape  as  to  show  but  little  abrasion  from  ice  or  water.  The 
cave  seems  to  have  been  crushed  by  the  glacier,  crowded  up 
against  the  side  of  the  mountain  and  left  there  without  any 
further  disturbance.  It  seems  probable  that  the  scene  of  the 
action  of  the  glacier  must  have  been  mainly  lower  down 
towards  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  otherwise  this  soft  onyx 
would  have  been  reduced  to  limestone  mud.  It  also  seems 
very  probable  that  caves,  in  which  this  onyx  forms  or  grows, 
no  longer  exist  in  this  region,  unless  it  might  be  a  short  dis- 
tance to  the  west  from  the  present  mine,  where  heavy  deposits 
of  calcium  carbonate  exist  and  where  such  deposits  are  now 
forming.  Where  this  supply  of  material,  necessary  to  form 
the  onyx  and  soft,  limy  hills,  near  by,  was  obtained,  we  did 
not  discover,  but  there  must  be  limestone  in  the  mountain  not 
far  away. 

At  the  extreme  western  end  of  this  long  valley,  which  is 
about  one-half  mile  long,  and  a  few  rods  west  of  Soda  creek,  is 
a  fine  spring  of  moderately  cool  water,  supersaturated  with 
carbon  dioxide.  This  spring  is  in  the  midst  of  a  flat  area  of 
several  acres,  much  of  which  shows  plainly  that  springs  once 
existed  almost  everywhere  over  it,  and  now,  only  a  dozen  rods 
away,  are  large  springs  yielding  an  abundance  of  hydrogen 
sulphide,  the  odor  of  which  may  frequently  be  detected  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  distant.  The  "soda  spring,"  as  it  is  called, 
referred  to  above,  issues  now  through  a  round  hole  about  one 
foot  in  diameter,  in  a  heavy  block  of  sandstone.  The  spring  is 
covered  by  a  neat  pavilion,  ten  or  twelve  feet  square,  with 
comfortable  seats  around  the  inside.  It  is  a  general  resort  for 
campers  at  the  springs.  The  carbon  dioxide  comes  up  in 
great  bubbles  and  the  water  is  delightfully  acid  There  is  no 
evidence  at  this  spring  that  the  water  carries  any  limestone 
with  it.  Along  the  banks  of  the  Bear,  near  by  (this  spring  is 
probably  ten  to  fifteen  rods  from  the  river),  were  thin,  soft, 
shelving  rocks,  of  what  are  supposed  to  be  calcium  carbonate, 
four  or  five  feet  in  total  thickness.  On  the  south  side  of  the 
river  were  rounded  hills  twenty  feet  or  more  in  height  and  of 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  97 

considerable  extent;  in  one  case  an  acre  or  more  of  this  same 
soft  rock,  evidently  formed  by  the  springs.  One  spring  is 
heavily  charged  with  iron;  another  is  called  milk  spring,  soda 
spring,  sulphur  spring,  etc.,  all  within  easy  distance,  of  each 
other.     Some  springs  have  a  sort  of  periodic  flow. 

Particularly  is  this  true  of  one  which  sounds  very  much 
like  the  puffing  of  a  steamboat. 

At  the  eastern  end  of  the  village  is  a  spring  issuing  from 
fissures  in  what  seems  to  be  a  volcanic  rock.  The  water  of 
this  spring  has  a  temperature  of  108  degrees  F.  Close  by  this 
spring  is  a  very  neat  and  convenient  bath  house,  with  nice 
large  pools  for  swimming.  The  water  here  is  abundant,  and, 
at  first,  seems  almost  too  hot  for  comfort,  but  it  soon  becomes 
delightful.  It  contains  a  small  amount  of  hydrogen  sulphide. 
Seven  miles  northwest  of  the  village,  in  a  very  wild  and  unfre- 
quented region,  we  visited  what  are  known  at  the  Springs  as 
the  Hot  Springs.  Here  the  water  has  a  temperature  of  160 
degrees  F.,  so  we  were  told;  we  forgot  our  thermometer  at  Ft. 
Collins.  In  about  twenty  minutes  it  cooked  eggs  for  us. 
These  springs  are  within  a  rod  or  two,  on  either  side,  of  a 
delightful  little  mountain  stream.  They  issue  from  fissures  in 
a  dark,  fine-grained  rock,  already  referred  to  as  resembling 
diorite,  or  basalt.  In  one  of  the  hills  mentioned  above,  formed 
by  the  springs  by  the  Bear,  is  a  small  cave.  On  descending 
into  this  cave,  I  had  my  first  serious  encounter  with  carbon- 
dioxide.  It  was  wholly  unexpected,  and  for  a  few  moments  I 
could  not  realize  why  I  could  not  breathe.  Other  members  of 
our  party  went  into  the  cave,  cautiously,  to  convince  them- 
selves that  there  was  an  unbreathable  gas  present.  In  the 
bottom  of  this  cave  is  an  incrustation  of  what  appears  to  be 
sulphur. 

There  are  abundant  reasons  for  believing  that  the  springs 
in  and  around  this  village  are  on  the  decline.  Places  where 
springs  must  have  been  strong  and  vigorous,  in  very  recent 
geologic  time,  now  show  no  signs  of  life.  Such  places  are 
numerous.  How  rapidly  such  changes  are  taking  place  here 
now,  we  did  not  attempt  to  determine. 

Steamboat  Springs  is  probably  a  little  over  6,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Every  night,  while  we  were  camped  at  the  village, 
water  froze  in  our  buckets,  and  particularly,  on  the  morning  of 
July  24th,  so  much  ice  was  formed  in  our  buckets  and  about 
our  mess  box,  that,  judging  from  like  conditions  at  Muscatine, 


98  IOWA  ACADEMY   OP  SCIENCES. 

the  temperature  must  have  been  close  to  20  degrees  F. 
Apparently  tender  vegetation — beautiful  -wild  flowers — seem 
to  laugh  at  these  little  touches  of  winter,  and  likewise,  in  the 
Hot  Springs  where  the  water  boiled  eggs  in  twenty  minutes, 
at  least  one  alga  grows  in  considerable  abundance. 


THE    DISTRIBUTION    OF    LOESS    FOSSILS. 

BY    B.    SHIMEK. 

It  has  perhaps  been  noted  that  the  loess  molluscs  thus 
far  reported  in  the  literature  of  the  subject  are,  for  the 
most  part,  from  localities  in  close  proximity  to  larger  streams. 
This  fact  may  have  suggested  the  thought  to  those  unfamiliar 
with  the  modern  habits  and  present  distribution  of  these 
molluscs  that  the  adjacent  streams  had  in  some  way  something 
to  do  with  the  entombing  of  the  shells  now  found  in  the  loess. 
That  the  loess  is  most  richly  fossiliferous  near  streams  is 
generally,  though  not  always,  true.  The  abundance  of  fossils 
is  a  decidedly  variable  quantity.  There  are  exposures  near 
streams  which  exhibit  fossils  in  profusion,  and  others  which  are 
wholly  barren.  On  the  other  hand,  exposures  quite  remote 
from  streams  contain  fossils, — though  in  such  situations  a 
proportionately  much  larger  part  of  the  loess  is  entirely  devoid 
of  them. 

This  fact  has  sometimes  led  geologists  to  attempt  to  dis- 
tinguish, in  varying  degrees,  between  the  loess  adjacent 
to  streams  and  loess  more  remote.  Whatsoever  distinction 
may  be  observed  in  the  physical  character  of  the  loess  of  var- 
ious deposits,"^ no  distinction  can  be  based  on  the  presence 
or  absence  of  fossils  alone.  The  simple  fact  that  one  deposit  is 
fossiliferous  and  another  is  not,  does  not  prove,  nor  even 
indicate,  that  the  deposits  were  formed  under  wholly,  or  even 
materially,  different  circumstances.  In  the  one  case  there  are 
no  fossils,  simply  because  there  were  no  shells  to  be  buried;  in 
the  other,  fossils  are  common  because  shells  were  abundant  on 
the  old  land  surfaces,  where  they  were  covered  as  other 
imperishable  objects  would  have  been  covered. 

*For  one  of  the  most  recent  discussions  of  the  loess, with  reference  to  its  variation 
according-  to  distance  from  streams,  see  Doctor  Chamberlin's  article  in  the  Journal  of 
Geolot^y,  Vol.  V,  No.  8,  p.  795. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OP   SCIENCES.  99 

Fossils  are  more  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  streams  because 
the  same  species  thrive,  and  in  all  probability  did  thrive  in  the 
past,  in  just  such  situations. 

Manifestly,  if  we  would  judge  of  the  conditions  under  which 
the  fossils  existed  and  were  finally  buried  in  the  past,  we 
must  understand  the  conditions  under  which  the  same  species 
exist  to-day. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  by  the  writer*  that  the  loess - 
fauna  of  any  section  of  the  country  closely  resembles  the  mod- 
ern moUuscan  fauna  of  the  same  section,  the  characteristic 
fossil  species  being,  for  the  most  part,  characteristic  species  of 
the  modera  fauna. 

During  the  past  summer  the  writer  made  more  extended 
studies  of  fossils  in  widely-separated  loess  regions;  notably  in 
Mississippi,  Iowa  (both  eastern  and  western)  and  Nebraska, 
which  strongly  emphasize  the  foregoing  fact.  As  questions  of 
general  geographical,  as  well  as  local,  distribution  of  fossil 
and  modern  molluscs  are  of  great  importance  in  connection 
with  any  attempt  at  an  explanation  of  the  manner  in  which  loess 
was  deposited,  the  following  remarks  are  offered  as  preliminary 
to  further  detailed  reports  upon  the  distribution  of  the  loess 
species  and  of  their  modern  representatives. 

In  Iowa  and  Nebraska,  as  elsewhere,  land-shells  form  the 
characteristic  fauna  of  the  loess,  and  with  two  or  three 
exceptions  the  same  species  may  be  found  living  within  the 
borders  of  our  state  to-day. 

The  student  who  goes  to  the  field  to  study  the  living  forms 
in  their  natural  environment,  if  his  studies  be  sufficiently 
extended,  will  be  struck  by  the  many  seeming  eccentricities  in 
distribution.  He  will,  however,  observe  that  our  land- 
molluscs,  as  a  rule,  favor  the  regions  adjacent  to  streams, 
especially  the  rough,  rugged  hills  which  so  often  border  them. 
This  fact,  however,  seems  to  be  dependent  upon  another, 
equally  interesting  and  long  well-known;  namely,  that  our 
timber-areas,  for  the  most  part,  skirt  the  streams;  and  that 
this  distribution  of  vegetation  determines  largely  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  molluscs  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  timber  or  brush- 
covered  areas,  remote  from  streams,  are  quite  likely  to  yield 
plenty  of  shells.  A  few  species  (as  for  example  Succinea 
grosvenoi'ii)  seem  to  favor  open,  rather  grassy  places,  and  a  few 
others  may  be  found   among  the  weeds   and  bushes  skirting 


Proc.  Iowa  Acad,  of  Sci.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  33-41. 


100  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

prairie  ponds,  but  as  a  rule,  rough,  rolling  timber-areas 
are  favored.  Here  an  abundance  of  food  (for  nearly  all  are 
herbivorous)  and  more  or  less  shade  and  protection  are  fur- 
nished by  the  vegatation.  As  we  recede  from  the  timber- 
bordered  streams,  the  number  of  species  and  specimens  grows 
less,  and  the  writer  knows,  from  personal  experience  obtained 
in  various  parts  of  the  state,  that  large  prairie-areas  of  that 
character  may  be  searched  in  vain  for  any  trace  of  a  land- 
mollusc.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  with  its  more  rolling, 
timber-covered  surface,  almost  every  locality — certainly  every 
county  —  presents  numerous  favorable  locations  for  colonies 
of  snails,  but  as  the  collector  crosses  the  state  westward  he 
finds  that,  in  species  and  in  specimens,  the  molluscan  fauna 
growls  poorer,  the  timber-fringed  streams,  or  ponds  and  lakes, 
alone  marking  the  favorable  localities. 

If  careful  observations  ara  made  even  in  the  best  of  these 
collecting-grounds,  whether  in  the  eastern  or  western  parts  of 
the  state,  it  will  be  found  that  much  variation  and  inequality  in 
local  distribution  exists.  One  hillside  may  present  certain 
species,  while  the  next,  perhaps  across  a  narrow  ravine,  will 
show  a  wholly  different  series,  and  a  third  near  by  may  have 
none  at  all.  A  species  which  in  one  spot  is  the  prevailing  type, 
may,  only  a  few  rods,  or  even  feet  away,  be  wholly,  or  in  part, 
supplanted  by  another.  This  is  sometimes  due  to  differences 
in  the  abundance  of  trees  and  vegetation  furnishing  food,  and 
to  other  variations  in  the  character  of  the  surface,  but  often  it 
seems  to  be  a  mere  accident. 

The  number  of  individuals  of  any,  or  all,  species  in  a  given 
locality  is  also  very  variable.  In  the  most  favorable  spots, 
however,  especially  on  higher  grounds,  one  seldom  finds  many 
individuals  together.  Even  such  species  as  Zonitoides  arboreus, 
Z.  iiiinusculKs,  Vitrea  hcuiunonis,  Cochliopa  lubrica,  Succinea  oblujua, 
S.  avara,  etc.,  which  may  often  be  found  in  large  numbers 
under  leaves  or  sticks  and  logs  in  comparatively  low  places, 
usually  show  fewer  and  more  scattered  specimens  on  hillsides, 
etc. ,  especially  in  more  open  places  To  get  a  good  set  of  any 
species  in  such  localities,  the  collector  must  work  over  a  con- 
siderable area,  but  in  doing  so,  he  will  almost  invariably  find 
individuals  of  several  species  mingled  promiscuously.  If  he 
compares  the  molluscan  faunas  of  the  eastern  and  western  parts 
of  the  state,  he  will  find  that  as  stated,  the  number  of  species 
and  individuals  in  the  eastern  part  is,  as  a  rule,  greater.     He 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  101 

will  also  find  that  there  are  certain  rather  striking  differences 
between  sets  of  some  of  the  species  taken  at  opposite  extremi- 
ties of  the  state.  Those  from  the  eastern  part  are  likely  to 
average  larger  in  size  and  to  be  thinner-shelled,  resembling 
more  nearly  representatives  from  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country,  while  the  western  forms  are  smaller  and  heavier. 
This  is  especially  true  of  Polugijra  multlUneata,  Zonitoides  minus- 
culus,  Succinea  obliqua,  S.  avara,  and  other  species  of  the  kind 
which  are  sometimes  found  in  rather  low  places,  but  which  also 
occur  on  higher  grounds,  especially  westward.  This  is  prob- 
ably due  chiefly  to  the  scarcity  of  forests  in  the  western  and 
central  parts  of  the  state,  where  the  rather  scant  groves  usually 
consist  of  scattered  and  stunted  trees,  being  quite  different 
from  the  more  vigorous  forests  of  the  eastern  part.  That  this 
view  is  correct,  is  further  attested  by  the  fact  that  the  same 
species  of  molluscs,  when  occurring  on  comparatively  barren 
or  nearly  treeless  areas  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  usually 
show  the  characters  of  the  western  types— namely,  the  smaller 
size  and  sometimes  heavier,  or  at  least  more  compact,  shell. 

If  the  student  will  study  the  molluscs  of  a  given  region  for 
a  number  of  years,  he  will  find  that  from  year  to  year  the 
abundance  of  the  several  species  varies,  some  even  running 
out  entirely,  while  others  unexpectedly  appear.  The  writer 
has  watched  a  number  of  localities  near  Iowa  City  for  many 
years,  and  has  found  this  variation  often  striking. 

If,  now,  the  distribution  of  the  fossils  in  our  loess  is  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  modern  shells,  a  remarkable  similarity 
is  evident.  The  best  collecting  grounds  are  near  streams, 
while  the  clay  of  the  remote  prairie  is  usually  barren.  Where 
fossils  are  abundant,  one  exposure  contains  species  of  one  kind, 
another  near  by  presents  a  new,  or  at  least  a  different  list,  while 
still  another  has  none,  and  the  same  variation  which  may  be 
observed  in  the  local  distribution  of  the  recent  shells  in  any 
restricted  locality,  will  be  exhibited  in  individual  exposures  of 
fossiliferous  loess. 

In  horizontal  distribution  the  fossils  show  the  same  mode  of 
distribution  as  that  already  noted  in  the  modern  forms.  The 
specimens  are  not  heaped  together,  but  are  scattered  about 
like  the  modern  shells,  usually  a  number  of  species  mingled 
together,  but  in  unmodified  loess  invariably  not  crowded,  so  far 
as  the  writer's  experience  goes. 

The  vertical  distribution  of  the  fossils  also  conforms  to  the 


102  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

surface  distribution  of  the  modern  shells.  If  the  loess  was  not 
deposited  in  fofo  at  once,  and  this  seems  to  be  conceded,  there 
were  successive  land-surfaces  upon  portions  of  which  shells 
grew.  These  shells  varied  from  time  to  time  in  numbers — some 
persisted  during  long  periods,  some  disappeared  and  others 
took  their  places.  If  we  study  the  vertical  distribution  of  the 
fossils  in  the  loess  the  same  variation  in  the  succession  of 
species  is  observed.  Some  species  occur  throughout  the  thick- 
ness of  a  particular  exposure,  but  more  frequently  a  i^art  of 
the  loess  is  without  fossils;  certain  species  occupy  a  part  of 
the  deposit, — while  above  or  below  them  are  other  species, — as 
though  the  varying  generations  of  surface  species  had  been 
successively  buried  in  the  deposit.  The  number  of  specimens 
upon  any  one  of  the  successive  land  surfaces  was  not  very 
great  even  in  richly  fossiliferous  loess,  for  if  we  draw  lines 
approximately  parallel  to  the  present  surface  to  represent  the 
successive  surfaces,  we  will  find  that  in  any  one  of  them  but 
few  fossils  occur. 

Where  depauperation  or  variation  in  size  is  noticeable  in  the 
fossils,  it  will  be  found  that  it  takes  place  in  the  direction  of 
the  western  modern  forms.  For  example,  while  the  common 
modern  Polygi/rd  iiiultilineata  at  Iowa  City  is  large,  the  common 
fossil  form  is  small,^ — but  the  small  modern  and  the  large  fossil 
forms  are  also  occasionally  found, — but  not  respectively  with 
the  preceding  forms.  On  the  other  hand,  at  Council  Blulfs 
and  Omaha,  the  modern  shells  of  this  species  are  usually 
small,  like  those  of  the  loess,  though  both  fossil  and  modern 
shells  of  the  large  type  occasionally  occur.  Thus  the  fossils 
of  this  species,  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  resemble 
both  the  fossil  and  modern  shells  from  the  western  part. 
Succinea  avara  is  another  example.  The  small  typical  form  is 
common  in  the  loess  at  Iowa  City,  but  the  modern  shells  are 
not  frequent,  occurring  always  on  more  or  less  wooded  hill- 
sides,^ — while  westward  the  type  is  the  common  modern  form. 

la  both  the  loess  in  the  east  and  the  west*  Spliyradiuin 
edentuhnn  alticola,  Pyrainklula  strigosa  ioicenfiis,^  Succinea  grosven- 
orii, — forms  belonging  now  to  the  dry   western   plains, — are 


*The  loess  hereia  deslg-natefl  as  "  eastera  "  is  that  of  eastern  Iowa,— the  "  western  " 
being-  that  of  westera  Iowa  aod  eastern  Nebraska. 

+This  form  has  heretofore  been  reported  as  var.  conperi  whicli  lives  abundantly  in 
the  far  west,  but  Pilsbry  regards  it  as  extinct  and  distinct,  and  has  described  it  under 
the  name  inwensis.  All  living-  forms  of  strigom  belong  to  the  high,  dry  regions  of  the 
west.  Neither  of  these  species  was  found  at  Council  Bluffs,  but  both  are  found  in  the 
loess  of  Nebraska.    Sphyradium  was  formerly  included  in  Pupa. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  103 

quite  common.  Their  presence,  together  with  that  of  the 
"depauperate  "  forms,  when  considered  in  connection  with  the 
entire  molluscan  faunas  of  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  the 
state,,  suggests  a  climate  even  drier  than  that  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state,  and  a  surface  less  abundantly  timbered. 
Certainly  both  modern  and.  fossil  faunas  unmistakably  show* 
that  the  conditions  in  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  Iowa, 
during  the  deposition  of  the  loess  were  approximately  included 
within  the  bounds  of  the  present  extremes  presented  by  these 
regions,  and  that  any  attempt  to  drag  into  the  discussion  of 
this  subject,  conditions  either  of  a  glacial  climate  or  of  frequent 
and  widespread  floods  and  inundations,  or  of  any  excess  of 
moisture,  is  gratuitous. 

The  conditions  which  cause  the  "'depauperation"  of  our 
shells  exist  more  or  less  all  over  Iowa  to-day,  especially  west- 
ward, and  yet  we  do  not  have  a  glacial  climate.  If  the  molluscs 
of  the  loess  be  used  as  an  absolute  measure  of  the  amount 
of  moisture  occurring  during  loess  times, then  we  must  conclude 
that  Iowa  was  without  streams,  for  practically  no  fluviatile 
molluscs  occur  in  the  loess,  and  that  there  were  but  few  ponds 
in  which  aquatic  molluscs  found  a  favorable  habitat,  for  even 
aquatic  Pulmonates  are  rare  in  the  loess,  f  the  number  of  ter- 
restrial forms  being  out  of  all  proportion  to  that  of  the  aquatic 
forms. 

During  the  past  summer  the  writer  collected  several 
thousand  specimens  in  the  loess  of  Mississippi  and  western 
Iowa,  and  among  them  all  there  were  not  a  half-dozen  aquatic 
shells.  A  list  of  the  modern  shells  of  Iowa  shows  a  large  num- 
ber of  aquatic  species;  yet  few  of  these  occur  in  the  loess. 
There  is  also  among  the  modern  terrestrial  forms  a  large 
number  of  those  which  occur  only  in  very  damp  places,  and 
these,  too,  are  almost  wholly  missing  from  the  loess.  The 
writer  is  well  aware  that  many  of  the  forms  found  in  the  loess 
are  often  referred  to  as  aquatic  or  "  semi-aquatic,"  or  at  least 
as  favoring  very  wet  situations.  But  evidence  of  this  charac- 
ter has  been  furnished  largely  by  those  who  are  familiar  only 
with  the  molluscan  fauna  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  country 
where  the  amount  of  rainfall  is  much  greater,  and  where 
surface  conditions  are  not  the  same  as  in  western  Iowa  and 
Nebraska;  or  it  has  come  from  so-called  "  closet  naturalists." 


*See  also  the  writer's  paper  in  Proc.  Iowa  Acad.  Scl.,  Vol.  V,  particularly  p.  42. 
tFor  more  detailed  comparison  see  writer's  paper  (Ibid.)  pp.  43  and  44,  and  the  dis- 
cussion preceding-. 


104  IOWA   ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Now,  the  "  closet-naturalist"  has  done  abundant  harm  in  this 
as  in  other  branches  of  science.  Too  remote,  often,  from  the 
phenomena  under  discussion,  or  too  dainty  to  soil  his  fingers 
with  the  toil  and  the  exposure  of  field-work,  he  has  passed 
judgment  upon  the  habits  of  forms  which  he  knew  only  from 
material  submitted  by  mail;  or  still  worse,  he  has  taken 
the  work  of  others  and,not  appreciating  the  significance  of  the 
facts  so  borrowed,  has  distorted  them  to  do  menial  service 
in  the  encouragement  of  some  pet  notion. 

In  the  particular  case  in  hand,  no  distinction  has  been  made 
between  the  habits  of  the  "depauperate"  varieties  and  the 
larger  types  of  the  same  species,  and  too  often  the  habits  of  one 
species  have  been  confused  with  those  of  another,  of  the  same 
genus,  or  even  family, — a  mistake  most  frequently  made  with 
the  Succineas.  Again,  the  universality  of  certain  species, — 
their  adaptability  to  varying  conditions, — has  been  overlooked. 
Zonitokles  )iiinusci(h(s,  Bifidaria  peModon,  B.  contracta,  Succlnen 
avara,  S.  obUqua,  etc.,  frequently  occur  in  low  places, — and  then 
often  in  great  numbers, — but  they  are  also  found  scattered  over 
comparatively  dry  hillsides  at  considerable  altitudes, — and 
some  of  these  species  in  such  places  develop  the  "depauper- 
ate "  type, — that  is,  they  average  smaller  in  size. 

To  show  the  preponderance  of  strictly  terrestrial  forms  in 
the  loess,  the  writer  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
collections  made  last  June,  at  Natchez  and  Vicksburg,  Miss., 
and  numbering  over  thirty  species  and  nearly  4,000  specimens, 
there  is  not  a  single  aquatic  form.  And,  furthermore,  every 
species  which  was  collected  in  the  loess  of  that  region  has  been 
found,  by  the  writer,  living  upon  the  high  bluffs  and  hills  in 
and  near  Natchez,  or  upon  hillsides  at  considerable  elevations 
in  other  parts  of  the  south,  notably  in  northern  Alabama, 
Georgia,  and  Tennessee.*  At  Natches,  the  most  common  living 
species  is  Succmea  grosvenorii,  and  this  crept  upon  the  bare 
surfaces  of  the  loess  clay  which,  at  the  time  of  the  writer's 
visit,  had  been  baked  by  the  hot  summer  sun  of  the  south, 
during  a  period  of  drouth  lasting  more  than  six  weeks.  More- 
over, several  scores  of  specimens  which  had  been  carried  about 
in  the  sun  all  day  long  in  a  box  containing  loess  dust,  and  hence 


*It  Is  also  a  sigQifieaat  fact  that  of  all  the  living  species  found  on  the  hills  and 
bluffs  of  Natchez,  only  two  Leuchochila  fallax  and  Pnlygura  te.rana  were  found  in  the 
loess  of  the  region,  only  a  single  specimen  of  the  first  and  two  of  the  second  were  not 
collected  in  the  loess  of  that  region.  The  former  is  not  uncommon  in  the  loess  of  the 
north,  while  the  latter  is  not  known  from  the  loess,  at  least  to  the  writer. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  105 

were  subjected  to  extremely  desiccating  conditions,  were  found 
after  this  experience,  creeping  about  in  their  prison,  seemingly 
perfectly  contented.  Yet  we  are  sometimes  told  that  the 
Succineas  are  all  "semi-aquatic,"  or  that  they  must  have  an 
abundance  of  moisture.  Another  illustration,  equally  striking, 
is  furnished  by  the  writer's  experience  and  observations  at 
Council  Bluffs  during  the  past  summer  and  autumn.  It  had  been 
purposed  to  make  a  detailed  comparative  study  of  the  fossil 
and  modern  molluscan  faunas  of  that  vicinity,  but  the  work 
was  somewhat  interrupted  by  the  severe  September  rainstorms 
and  November  blizzards.  Nevertheless  interesting  and  valu- 
able data  were  obtained,  and  are  here  briefly  presented. 

More  than  4,000  fossils  were  collected,  and  their  distribution 
was  carefully  noted,  in  twenty  exposures,  beginning  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  Fifteenth  avenue  in  Council  Bluffs,  thence 
along  the  bluffs  to  the  high  school, — a  distance  of  about  one 
mile, — and  in  Fairmount  park,  along  its  winding  roads,  for  about 
half  a  mile  eastward.  The  location  of  the  several  exposures  is 
shown  on  the  accompanying  map.  A  list  of  the  fossil  species, 
together  with  the  number  of  specimens  collected  in  each 
exposure,  is  given  in  the  appended  table. 

If  this  table  is  studied  it  will  be  observed  that  of  the  thirty 
species  collected,  not  one  is  aquatic. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  the  writer  made  collections  of 
recent  shells  in  seven  distinct  localities  in  practically  the  region 
containing  the  above-noted  exposures.  These  localities  are 
here  discussed  in  detail,  the  letters  designating  them  being  also 
employed  to  mark  them  on  the  map. 

A.  A  grassy,  treeless  hillside  in  Fairmount  park,  nearly 

opposite  Eleventh  avenue,  and  at  an  altitude  of  from 
175  to  245  feet  above  the  river  valley.*  Species  8,  11 
and  29 f  were  found  living. 

B.  A  grassy,  treeless  slope  just  above  the  exposure  marked 

N.  Altitude  about  200  feet.  Species  8,  10,  11,  15  and 
29  were  found. 

C.  Near  the  Tenth  aven  le  entrance  to  Fairmount  park,  at 

an  altitude  of  about  ninety  feet  above  the  river  plain. 
Species  8,  10,  11,  21,  22,  27  and  30  were  found.  A 
few  stunted  and  scattered  Bur-oaks  grew  on  the  slope 
immediately  above  this  point. 

*The  altitudes  were  all  determined  by  barometric  measurements  taken  from  the 
nearest  north  and  south  street  on  the  river  flat. 

+  The  numbers  refer  to  the  species  named  in  the  table  of  fossils. 


106  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

D.  A  brush-covered  hill  just  above  the  exposure  marked  E. 

Altitude  about  170  feet.  A  small  collection  contain- 
ing species  11  and  30  v^^as  made. 

E.  A  locality  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Fairmount  park, 

on  a  northerly  slope,  somewhat  grassy,  but  witii 
shrubs  and  a  few  Bur-oaks,  nearly  opposite  Eighth 
avenue.  Altitude  280  to  300  feet  above  the  valley. 
Here  we  found  species  3,  8,  11,  13,  18,  19  and  27,  and 
also  one  specimen  of  Bifidaria  procera,  the  only  recent 
species  found  in  the  tract  examined,  which  was  not 
found  in  the  loess.  This  locality  is  just  over  the 
brow,  on  the  north  or  leeward  side*  of  one  of  the 
most  exposed  ridges  in  the  area  under  consideration. 

F.  A  part  of  the  same  slope  immediately   below  E,   and 

fifty  to  100  feet  lower.  Here  the  forest  is  better 
developed  and  contains  a  number  of  species  of  trees. 
Species  H,  11,  18,  19,  22,  25  and  28  were  found. 

The  points  E  and  7*'  are  on  the  same  very  steep 
slope,  but  E  is  much  more  exposed  and  drier,  7^  being 
more  protected  by  its  forest  covering  and  position. 
A  comparison  of  the  species  from  these  points  is 
therefore  interesting.  Species  3  and  13,  while  com- 
mon at  /:;  were  not  found  at  F  the  lower  point.  While 
18  was  common  at  E,  only  one  specimen  was  found 
at  F.  Number  19  is  also  more  common  at  E  than  at 
F.  These  facts  are  of  interest  when  we  seek  to 
determine  the  extent  to  which  shells  are  likely  to  be 
washed  down  even  very  steep  slopes.  Numbers  8 
and  11  were  about  equally  abundant,  while  numbers 
22,  25  and  28  were  found  only  at  F. 

G.  The  banks  and  grassy  slope  near  and  above  the  expos- 

ure M.     This  yielded  species  3,  13,  21,  24  and  27. 

It  will  be  observed  that  species  1,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  9,  12,  14,  15, 
16,  17,  20,  23  and  26, — or  just  one-half  the  total  number, — are 
not  contained  in  the  collections  of  modern  shells  cited.  The 
number  of  individuals  of  the  surface  species  is  also  compara- 
tively small.  Of  these  numbers,  1,  16  and  23  are  extinct  in  that 
section  of  the  country,  number  1  occurring  eastward,  number 
16  westward, and  number  23  being  entirely  extinct. 

The  modern  fauna  of  the  more  or  less  exposed  hills  at  Coun- 
cil Bluffs  is  much  poorer  in  species  and  in  specimens  than  the 

*The  prevailing  winds  during  the  seasons  of  tlie  year  when  the  snails  are  active, 
are  from  the  southwest. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  107 

fossil  fauna  of  the  underlying-  loess;  but  every  species  thus  far 
discovered  in  the  loess  of  Council  Bluffs  occurs  more  or  less 
abundantly  (certainly  as  abundantly  in  some  places  as  in 
any  part  of  that  loess)  living  along  the  Missouri  river,  espe- 
cially on  the  western,  more  heavily-timbered  bluffs.  All 
the  species  above  mentioned,  as  not  found  in  the  surface 
collections,  have  been  collected  by  the  writer  on  the  banks  and 
hills,  along  the  Missouri,  between  Omaha,  Neb.,  and  Hamburg, 
Iowa;  usually  not  in  very  damp  places,  but  living  under 
the  conditions  which  prevail  along  those  bluffs.  Even  r<>ly{/!/ra 
inultilineata  is  there  often  found  on  high  grounds,  and  then 
appears  as  a  stunted  form,  like  that  which  is  common  in 
the  loess. 

The  loess-fauna,  of  Council  Bluffs,  is  thus  not  only  wholly 
terrestrial,  but,  with  the  exceptions  noted,  is  almost  identical 
with  the  modern  upland  fauna  of  the  same  regions.  Surely  no 
conditions  of  excessive  moisture  prevail  in  that  region  to-day. 
Yet  a  recent  writer,*  referring  to  the  loess  of  the  Missouri 
region,  says:  "In  the  Bluff  loess  more  than  nine- tenths  of  the 
total  number  of  individuals  belong  to  species  that  are  found 
only  in  unusually  damp  situations.  The  species  having  an 
optimum  habitat  that  is  not  excessively  moist  have  not  been 
observed  to  occur  abundantly  in  the  Bluff  loess.'' 

Another  interesting  fact  noticeable  in  the  exposures  of  loess, 
at  Council  Bluffs,  is  the  occurrence  of  the  great  majority  of  the 
fossils  in  a  more  or  less  distinct  stratum  which  varies  (so  far  as 
observed)  in  altitude  from  about  eighty  to  at  least  200  feet 
above  the  river-valley,  and  which  follows  in  general  the 
contours  of  the  present  surface,  but  with  a  less  convex  curva- 
ture. (In  exposure  N  it  seems  to  be  a  continuation  of  the 
shell-bearing  layer  in  E,  yet  it  is  at  least  100  feet  higher.  In 
exposure  M  it  drops  about  eighty  feet  in  a  block.)  Its  limits 
are  not  sharply  defined  above  or  below,  and  it  varies  in  thick- 
ness from  about  six  to  at  least  twenty  feet.  Overlying  it 
is  a  deposit  of  more  or  less  laminated  loess-clay,  which  is 
usually  non-fossiliferous,  and  which  varies  from  a  few  to  more 
than  thirty  feet  in  thickness.  When  fossils  occur  in  this  upper 
stratum,  they  are  few  in  number  and  widely  scattered,  f 


*C.  R.  Keye<— Am.  Jour,  of  Sci.,  (4), Vol.  VI,  p.  304. 

+At  the  base  of  the  bluff  in  exposure  K,  what  seemed  to  be  a  second  sheU-bearing' 
layer  was  observed  about  sfventy-five  feet  below  the  main  fossiliferous  band.  The 
section,  however,  was  more  or  less  obscured,  and  the  mass  may  have  slipped  from  the 
bluff  above.  The  fossils  in  column  K.  in  the  table,  are  from  this  stratum.  It  will  be 
observed  that  they  are  ordinary  forms  which  are  abundant  in  the  main  she'l 
stratum. 


108  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

The  presence  of  this  shell-bearing  stratum  suggests  that  for 
the  period  during  which  it  formed  the  surface  soil,  and  while 
it  was  slowly  accumulating,  the  conditions  in  this  particular 
locality  were  more  favorable  to  the  growth  of  land-snails  than 
now.  There  was,  probably  more  vegetation,  and  hence  the 
surface  was  not  so  frequently  storm-swept  as  at  present.  This 
does  not  necessarily  signify  that  general  climatic  conditions 
were  different,  but  that  these  particular  banks  or  bluffs  w^ere 
more  heavily  timbered,  with  the  Missouri  river,  probably  flow- 
ing at  its  base,  its  surface  conditions  being  similar  to  those  of 
many  timbered  hills  and  knolls  between  Omaha  and  Nebraska 
City,  west  of  the  Missouri. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  between  Iowa  and  Nebraska, 
the  Missouri  river  now  flows  along  the  western  side  of  its  broad 
valley,  and  that  the  adjacent  western  bluffs  are  more  heavily 
timbered  and  contain  all  the  living  species  of  molluscs  herein 
recorded,  with  the  exception  of  Nos.  1  and  16,  while  the  more 
remote  eastern  bluffs  are  more  barren  and  rugged.  The  shell- 
bearing  band  may  simply  represent  the  period  during  which 
the  river  in  its  shif tings  occupied  the  eastern  part  of  the  valley. 

The  foregoing  facts  lend  support  to  the  seolian  theory  of  the 
origin  of  the  loess,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  considerations: 

First. — The  general  manner  of  distribution  of  the  modern  and 
fossil  molluscs  is  essentially  the  same,  this  fact  indicating  that 
they  were  not  carried  by  waters,  but  w^ere  quietly  buried  in 
dust.  Had  they  formed  a  part  of  river-drifts,  they  would  be 
more  frequently  heaped  together, — not  scattered  as  we  find 
them  in  the  loess  — and  fluviatile  shells  would  be  more  or  less 
intermingled.  Moreover  in  many  years'  experience  in  dredg- 
ing in  ponds  and  streams,  the  writer  has  seldom  seen  a  land- 
shell  which  had  been  carried  with  the  finest  sediment  into 
ponds  or  lakes  though  such  shells  are  sometimes  found  in  sand 
and  other  coarse  material.  Currents  of  water  which  could 
carry  most  of  the  shells  now  found  fossil,  would  also  carry 
coarser  material  than  that  which  makes  up  the  loess. 

Another  fact  which  bears  out  this  conclusion  is  the  presence 
of  opercula  in  fossil  shells  of  HeUcina  occulta  in  the  northern 
loess  and  Helk-ina  orbiculata  in  the  southern  loess.  As  the 
operculum  so  readily  falls  from  the  decaying  animal,  it  would 
scarcely  remain  in  place  if  the  shell  had  been  transported  any 
distance. 

Second. — The  occurrence  of  fossiliferous  loess  chiefly  in  the 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  iQy 

vicinity  of  streams  is  consistent  with  the  tlieory  of  loess-forma- 
tion presented  by  the  writer  before  this  academy.* 

Plants,  and  especially  forests,  develop  chiefly  and  prima- 
rily along-  streams.  This  creates  conditions  favorable  to  land- 
molluscs,  and  at  the  same  time  forms  a  trap  for  the  dust, 
carried  from  adjacent,  more  barren  regions.  The  occurrence  of 
loess  in  the  eastern  part  of  Iowa,  chiefly  along  the  border  of  the 
lowan  drift  sheet,  may  also  be  explained  on  the  same  ground. 
After  the  melting  of  the  ice,  the  terminal  moraines  offered  the 
first  lodging-place  for  plants.  Here,  forests  early  developed, 
and  the  conditions  for  entrapping  the  dust  from  adjacent,  less- 
favored  territory,  which  was  probably  dry  during  a  part  of  the 
year,  were  here  first  developed  We  are  in  the  habit  of  describ- 
ing the  lobed  ridges  of  loess-regions  as  characteristic  of  loess 
topography,  yet  they  are  quite  as  much  characteristic  of  some 
drift-areas;  for  example,  along  the  Big-  Sioux  river  in  Iowa  and 
South  Dakota.  In  eastern  Iowa  the  surface  of  the  loess  is 
largely  shaped  by  the  underlying  moraines,  which  first 
presented  conditions  suitable  to  the  deposition  of  the  loess, 
and  where,  consequently,  the  deposit  is  best  developed.  The 
loess  at  Natchez  does  not  show  this  "  loess -topography  in  the 
same  degree  " 

Third.  —  The  depauperation  of  some  forms  of  shells,  and  the 
presence  of  others  which  are  normally  inhabitants  of  dry 
regions,  suggest  a  climate  sufficiently  dry  that,  during  a  part 
of  the  year,  at  least,  clouds  of  dust  could  be  taken  up  by 
the  winds. 

Fourth.  —  The  overwhelming  preponderance  of  land-snails 
in  the  loess  must  always  be  borne  in  mind.  This,  however, 
does  not  prove  that  the  loess  regions  were  entirely  devoid 
of  lakes  and  streams,  but  rather  that  the  loess  proper  was 
deposited  chiefly  upon  higher  grounds,  for,  if  by  any  agency 
fine  material  was  uniformly  deposited  over  all  of  Iowa  to-day, 
covering  the  successive  generations  of  our  present  molluscan 
fauna,  there  would  be  a  much  greater  proportion  of  aquatic 
and  moisture-loving  species  than  we  find  anywhere  in  the  loess. 

Fifth. — The  amount  of  material  carried  by  the  winds  need  not 
have  been  so  great  as  is  sometimes  assumed.  The  estimate 
made  by  the  writer f  for  the  rate  of  deposition  for  east- 
ern    loess    (1    mm.    per    year),  and   that   made  by    Keyesl 

*Proc.  Iowa  Acad.  Sci.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  83  et  seq. 
tProc.  Iowa  Acad.  Sci.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  88. 
:::Am.  Jour,  of  Sci.,  (4),  Vol.  VI,  pp.  301-303. 


110  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

for  western  loess  (one-tenth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch) 
would  be  sufficient  to  form  most  of  these  deposits  respec- 
tively in  the  8,000  years,  usually  computed,  since  the  reces- 
sion  of  the   glaciers. 

The  objection  made  by  Doctor  Chamberlin*  that  "  the  eolian 
deposits  are  measured,  not  by  the  quantity  of  silt  borne  by  the 
winds  and  lodged  on  the  surface,  but  by  the  difference  between 
such  lodgment  and  the  erosion  of  the  surface/'  is  met,  at  least 
in  part,  by  the  theory  offered,  for  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
timbered  areas,  even  when  very  rough  and  with  abundant 
slopes,  are  scarcely  eroded  by  even  the  most  violent  precipi- 
tation of  moisture.  Professor  Udden's  recent  admirable 
reportf  also  bears  on  this  question,  and  should  not  be  over- 
looked by  the  student  of  loess- problems. 

Sixth. — No  distinction  can  be  made  between  the  origin  of 
eastern  and  western  loess.  The  finer  quality  and  lesser  thick- 
ness of  the  former  rather  suggest  that  there  had  been  more 
moisture  (/.  e.,  a  shorter  dry  period  during  each  year)  and, 
hence,  less  dust;  that  the  winds  were  less  violent,  and  -that 
there  were  greater  areas  completely  covered  with  vegetation, 
this  resulting  in  the  necessity  of  transporting  dust  much 
greater  distances,  which  would  therefore  be  finer.  J 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  above  noted  differences 
between  the  regions  in  question  actually  exist  to-day.  There 
is  more  rain, — there  are  larger  areas  closely  covered  with 
vegetation,  and  less  violent  winds  prevail  in  eastern  Iowa  and 
eastward, — and  considering  the  position  of  mountain  chains  and 
seas,  the  same  differences  must  have  existed  for  a  long  time. 
That  they  did  exist,  during  the  deposition  of  the  loess,  is  also 
indicated  by  the  proportionately  somewhat  larger  number  of 
species  in  the  eastern  loess  which  prefer  or  require  moist 
habitats.  But  the  fauna  of  the  eastern  or  Mississippi  river 
loess  is  essentially  a  terrestrial  fauna.  The  great  fluviatile 
groups,  now  everywhere  common  in  the  streams  of  eastern 
Iowa,  are  wanting  in  the  loess,  and  the  few  fossil  aquatic 
species  are  such  as  to-day  prefer  ponds,  and  are  often  found 
even  in  those  which  dry  up  during  the  summer. 

It  may  again  be  emphasized  that  the  fossils  show  no  greater 
difference,  between  the  surface  conditions  which  existed  during 
the  deposition  of  the  loess  of  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of 

*  Jour,  of  GeoL,  Vol.  V,  p.  801. 

tThe  Mechanical  Composition  of  Wind  Deposits.    1898. 

•fSee  Udden,  I.  c.  pp.  56,  57  and  67. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 


Ill 


Iowa,  than  exists  to-day  between  the  surface  conditions  of  the 
same  regions.  This  fact  is  irrefutable,  and  must  not  be  over- 
looked in  any  discussion  of  the  conditions  under  which  loess 
was  deposited. 

TABLE   OF   SPECIES.* 


A 

5 
10 

3 

55 
157 

12 
6 

c 

210 
12 

■76 
+ 
:f 
63 
3 

D 

5 

'2 

i 

E 

5 

1 

F 

81 
8 

16 

17 

G 
17 

'4 
2 

H 

"89 
21 

ii 

1 

■3 
'  i 

I 
9 

J 

K 

L 

12 
1 

io 

M 

14 
1 

N 

0 

P- 

.. 

2 

Q 

'2 

■3 

1 

15 

1 
'3 

S 

;!i 
'  i 

T 

1 

14 

3 

6 
■4 

3 
1 

06 

"■ 

2 

Vallonia  graciliconti  Beihn 

Vallnnia  iiarvula  Sterki 

45 

■3 

12 
1 

'i2 

-.8 

i 

4 
5 

6 

Vallonia  perspectiva  Sterki 

Polygwa  multilwata  (Say)  Pils  . 

8 
q 

Poly'uura  hirmta  (Say)  Fils 

Polygura  leai  (War.i;  Pils 

f^trohilnps  oirg'>  Pils 

1 
4 

8 

35 
5 

i 
ii 

■2i 

280 

::: 

::: 

127 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 

LeuchocMla  fiiUax  (Say)  Try  .... 

Bifidaria  nrmifera  Say)  St 

Bifidnria  cont.racta  (Say)  St 

Bifidaria  holzingeri  (Sterki)  St. . . 

Bifidaria  curvidens  (GUI.)  St 

Bifidaria  p'ntndon  (Say)  St 

Pupa  blandi  (Morse)  Blnn 

Vertigo  boltesiana  Morse 

18 

Cnchlicopa  liibrica  (Miill)  P.  &  .1. 
Vitrea  hammoni>i  (Strom)  P.  &  J. 
Vitrea  indentata  (Say)  P.  &  .1 

1 

2 

4 
3 

27 
10 

1 

1 

12 
10 

235 

i 

2 

58 

1 

32 

3 

"i 
12 

3 

2t* 

5 

279 

11 

3 

18  -- 

19 

1 

1 

■■5 
10 

24 
13 
250 
14 

4 
4 

?i 

09 

Zonitoides  aiboreus  (Say)  St 

Zonitoides  shimekii  (Pils)  P. &  J.  II . 

Zonitoides  rninusculus  (Binn.)  P. 

&  J 

3 

1 

1 
6 

3 

15 

4 

4 
20 

18 

m 

21 

6 
19 
46 

6 
935 
16 

■3 

8 

i 
10 

2.i 
21 

1 

i 

3 
3 

2 
■  i 

15 

5 

^5 

Pyramidnlanlternata  (Say)  Pils. . 
Pyramidula  striatella (A.nth.)  Pils 
Helicodiscus  lineatus  (Say)  Morse 
Succinea  obliqua  Say^        i 

Succinea  grosvenorii  Lea  (' 

Succinea  avara  Say 

tgg-of  a  land  snail 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 

21 
1 

4 

12 
3 

4 
5 

i 

3 

*The  nomenclature  of  Pilsbry  and  Johnson's  recent  Catalogue'  of  the  Land  Shells  of 
N.  Am  is  here  employed.  As  there  are  some  departures  fpotn  former  usage,  the 
changes  are  here  noted: 

Species  2,  3  and  4  were  formerly  included  uader  V.  puj/ihella. 

Species  5  and  6  were  referred  to  the  genus  Memdon,  and  7  and  8  to  Stenotrema. 

Species  9  was  included  under  Stro/ufi  labyrinthica. 

The  species  of  Leachochila  and  Bifidaria  were  included  in  Pupa. 

Species  18  was  called  Ferussacia  subcylindrica. 

Vitrei,  Conulus  and  Zonitoides  were  formerly  placed  in  the  genus  Zmita,  and  No.  19 
was  called  Zonitoides  radiatulus. 

Pyramidula  was  formerly  Patula. 

Succinea  grosvenorii  was  called  S.  lineata. 

+Oae  specimen  of  P.profun'ix  was  found  by  the  writer  in  exposure  C  (since  con- 
siderably altered)  in  1890. 

'i^Three  specimens  of  this  species  were  collected  in  exposure  0  in  1890. 

IIThe  writer  formerly  regarded  this  as  a  form  of  Zon.  nitidus.  Mr.  Pilsbry,  however, 
regards  it  as  distinct,  and  in  deference  to  his  oplnioQ  his  name  is  retained. 

TThe  form  of  S.  obliqua  which  occurs  most  commonly  in  the  loess  is  the  narrower, 
smaller  form  with  more  extended  spire,  such  as  is  not  uacommon  (living)  in  Iowa  and 
as  far  east  as  Indiana.  As  itis  difficult  to  distinguish  between  some  forms  of  this  and 
&'.  grjsvenorii,  the  two  species  are  not  here  separated,  as  more  time  for  careful  compari- 
son of  the  large  sets  will  be  required. 


112  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

NOTES   AND  EXPLANATION   OP   MAP. 

THE  EXPOSURES   ARE   REPRESENTED   BY   HEAVY   LINES. 

Exposures  A  R  and  C.     These  were  cut  out  of  the  same  ridge  in  street- 
grading.     The  shell-bearing  stratum  shows  well  on  the  east,  north  and 


Fa  I  R  M  0  U  N  7      Pa  R  K 

A  MO 

VICINITY 

Council  Blu  f  fs  Ja. 


west  sides  of  C.     It  is  about  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  thick.     Above  it  there 
is  a  layer  of  clay  about  fifty  feet  thick  and  almost  entirely  devoid  of 

fossils. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 


113 


Exposure  D.  The  shell  stratum  is  not  so  rich  in  fossils  as  in  C.  Above  it 
tbere  are  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  of  clay,  in  which  a  few  Succineas  were 
found.  In  the  clay  below  the  shell  stratum  there  are  several  distinct, 
bu"-  irregular,  bands  of  lime  nodules, — some  vei'y  large. 

Expofure  E.     Very  similar  to  />,  but  with  only  one  band  of  nodules. 

Expamre  F.  Fossils  are  vcy  abundant  in  the  shell  stratum,  which  can 
here  be  traced  for  three  or  four  rods.  The  shell-less  loess  above  is  eight 
or  ten  feet  thick. 

Exp^'sures  (V,  H,  I,  -land  K.  These  exposures  were  all  formed  from  the  same 
ridge,  by  deep  cutting  and  grading.  The  shell  stratum  is  distinct  in  all 
of  them,  and,  as  in  all  other  sections,  it  follows  in  general  the  contour 
of  the  surface.  It  varies  in  thickness  here  from  six  to  twenty  feet.  It 
is  by  no  means  equally  fosslliferous  throughout. 

Exposures  L  and  31.  .  Those  were  formed  by  the  grading  of  High  School 
avenue.  The  street  slopes  westward  from  the  high  school,  and  drops 
about  sixty  feet  in  a  block.  On  the  north  side  tlie  shell  stratum  is 
nearly  parallel  to  the  street  grade,  and  but  little  above  it.  On  the 
south  side  it  dips  b  -low  the  street  about  half-way  down  the  slope. 

Exposures  N,  O,  P,  Q.  B,  S  and  T  These  are  all  exposures  along  the  road 
which  winds  eastward  from  the  Tenth  avenue  entrance  to  Fairmount 
park  At  N  the  road  is  about  1J"5  feet  above  the  river  valley,  and  the 
shell  stratum  (which  is  here  very  rich  in  fossils),  extends  about  three 
feet  higher.  It  dips  down  toward  the  west  at  such  an  angle  that  it 
would  connect  with  the  shell  stratum  at  E,  which  is  about  100  feet 
lower.  'J  he  same  layer  may  be  traced,  more  or  less  indistinctly,  to  O, 
where  there  is  a  cut  about  twenty  feet  deep.  The  shell  stratum  rises 
to  abour  eight  feet  above  the  roadbed  (here  about  200  feet  above  the 
river  valley),  but  fossils  are  not  abundant.  The  remaining  exposures 
along  this  road  are  formed  by  the  road  cutting  ti-e  smaller  lateral  lobes 
of  the  greater  ridges.  The  letters  apply  to  the  extent  of  road  from 
bend  to  bend,  not  to  individual  exposures.  At  the  southern  bends  in 
the  road  are  the  high  points,  the  road  sloping  down  to  near  the  bases  of 
the  ridges  to  the  north.  Fossils  are  found  ia  most  of  the  little  expos- 
ures (which,  in  but  few  cases,  exceed  fifteen  feet  in  height)  along  the 
road,  but  they  are  nowhere  as  abundant  as  in  some  of  the  exposures 
along  the  bluff  fronts.  The  exposures  which  are  represented  on  the 
map,  but  not  lettered,  are  non- fosslliferous. 


THE    IOWA    LIVERWORTS. 

BY    B.    SHIMEK. 

Among  the  groups  of  plants  hitherto  neglected  by  Iowa 
botanists,  the  liverwot-ts  are  by  no  means  the  least  interesting. 
A  few  of  the  large  thalloid  species  have  long  been  familiar 
objects  to  botanists  working  in  ottier  fields,  but  the  general 
lack  of  economic  importance  of  the  group,  and  the  habits  and 
small  size  of  most  of  the  species,  no  doubt  account  for  the  fact 
that  they  have  attracted  less  attention  than  they  deserve. 

In  general,  the  liverworts  prefer  moist  places.     They  may 


114  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

be  found  upon  mud-fiats,  upon  dripping  rocks,  on  moist  lime- 
stones and  sandstones,  on  the  bark  of  trees,  on  old  logs,  in 
tangled  mats  of  moss,  and  other  similar  habitats.  But  not 
infrequently  they  flourish  on  rocky  ledges  and  sandy  or  clayey 
tracts,  which  are  dry  and  barren  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
summer.  Their  power  of  re-ju venation,  however,  almost 
equals  that  of  their  near  kin,  the  mosses,  and  moisture  almost 
instantly  revives  them, — a  fact  of  much  interest  to  the  student 
of  these  forms,  for  dry,  unsightly  material  collected  during  the 
most  unfavorable  seasons  of  the  year,  may  be  rendered  fit  for 
study  in  a  few  moments. 

The  following  notes  on  twenty -one  species  are  offered  not 
as  a  complete  and  exhaustive  report  on  the  Hepaticce  of  Iowa, 
but  rather  as  an  introduction  to  this,  in  Iowa  much-neglected, 
group,  with  the  hope  that  interest  -in  it  may  be  aroused,  and 
the  way  paved  for  a  full  account  of  our  species  and  their  dis- 
tribution,— for  the  list  will  no  doubt  be  materially  increased. 

Although  its  nomenclature  is  not  always  strictly  correct, 
the  sixth  edition  of  Gray's  Manual  is  followed  for  convenience, 
because  of  its  general  use. 

Unless  otherwise  stated,  the  material  upon  which  this  report 
is  based,  is  deposited  in  the  herbarium  of  the  State  University, 
and  was  personally  studied  by  the  writer.* 

Unless  special  credit  is  given,  the  specimens  were  collected 
by  the  writer,  Mr.  T.  E.  Savage  assisting  at  Wildcat  Den, 
Muscatine  county,  and  with  Mr.  P.  C.  Myers  on  Muscatine 
Island,  Louisa  county. 

Order  Jungermanniace^. 

Friil/(nii(i  viiY/hiica  Lehm.  On  the  bark  of  trees,  usually  near 
the  base,  on  low  grounds,  Muscatine  Island,  Louisa  county;  not 
common. 

F.  ebor<(ce)isi!^  Lehm.  On  the  bark  of  trees,  near  base, 
in  Johnson  and  Louisa  counties,  and  on  both  bark  of  trees,  and 
sandstone,  in  Wildcat  Den,  Muscatine  county;  very  common; 
also  reported  from  Story  county  by  Bessey.f 

F.  (eolitis  Nees.  On  sandstone,  in  Wildcat  Deii,  Muscatine 
county;  not  common. 

F.  s(/uarrom  Nees.  Common  on  limestone  bluffs  at  Iowa 
City,  and  at  Ft.  Dodge. 


♦Prof.  L  M.  Underwood  kindly  assisted  in  a  few  of  tlie  earli-^r  determinations. 
(Bull.  la.,  Agric.  Coll.,  Nov.,  1884. 


IOWA  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES.  115 

Porella  p'mnata  L.  Thus  far  collected  only  in  Jackson 
county,  in  1896. 

P.  i^latyphiiUa  Lindb.  Very  common  on  mossy  banks,  etc.,  at 
Iowa  City,  Mason  City  and  Ft.  Dodge;  also  near  Decorah  {P.C. 
Myers.)     Reported  from  Story  county  by  Bessey  (/.  c). 

PtUidiuiii  ciliare  Nees.     On  rotten  logs;  Iowa  City;  not  rare. 

Lophocolea  heterophiji/a  Nees.  Very  common  on  mossy  banks 
near  Iowa  City. 

GhiloscyphuH  polyantlios  Corda.  Common  in  moss  on  moist 
banks,  rotten  logs,  etc. ;  Iowa  City,  Ft.  Dodge,  and  Wildcat 
Den,  Muscatine  county. 

Juiuie una u Ilia  ventricosa  Dicks.  On  moist  banks;  in  moss 
at  Iowa  City  and  Ft.  Dodge,  and  on  Anthoceros  in  Muscatine 
county,  along  the  Cedar.  Also  collected  at  Iowa  City  by  Miss 
Linder. 

Blasia  pusilla  L.  Abundant  on  dripping  rocks  at  Wildcat 
Den,  Muscatine  county. 

Order  Anthocerotace.'E. 

Anthooeros  kcvis  L.  On  wet  clay-banks,  Johnson  county. 
Also  collected  by  Miss  Linder.  Not  common.  Also  reported 
from  Story  county  by  Bessey  (J.  <■  ). 

A.  punctatus  L.  Oa  low,  wet  banks  in  Muscatine  county, 
along  the  Cedar  river. 

Order  Marchantiace.e. 

Marchantia  polymorpha  L.  Usually  on  rather  moist  banks 
and  slopes, — sometimes  on  hard- beaten  soil  and  cinders,  as 
along  the  streets  of  Iowa  City.  Common  at  Iowa  City,  Mason 
City,  and  Fores  ■  City.  Also,  Emmet  county  {R.  T.  Crafty)  and 
Decorah  {P.  C.  Myers).  Reported  from  Story  county  by  Bessey 
(/.  c). 

C'onoreplirilHs  ronicus  Dumort.  Very  common  on  moist  banks 
at  Iowa  City,  and  not  uncommon  in  Muscatine  and  Louisa 
counties.  Also  at  Decorah  (P.  C.  J/?/(^y.s).  Reported  from  Story 
county  by  Bessey  {1.  c). 

Grhnaldla  barbifroiis  Bisch.  Common  on  rocky  banks  and 
bluffs;  sometimes  in  very  barren  places.  Johnson,  Linn,  Mus- 
catine, and  Lyon  counties. 

A.stereUa  hemlspluerica  Beauv.  Not  rare  at  Iowa  City,  on 
mossy,  rocky  banks,  etc. 

Lumdaria  vulgaris  Raddi.  Introduced.  Formerly  common 
in  the  hothouse  at  Iowa  City.     Never  fruiting  here. 


116  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

Order  Ricciace^. 

Bk'ckt  frostii  Aust.  Not  common  on  mud- flats  on  Muscatine 
island  in  Louisa  county. 

R.  lutescens  Schwein.  Very  common  on  mud-flats  on  the 
Mississippi  bottoms  below  Davenport,  and  on  Muscatine  island 
in  Louisa  county. 

B.  flultans  L.  Common  in  ponds  and  on  mud  at  Cedar 
Rapids,  Forest  City,  near  Davenport,  and  on  Muscatine  island 
in  Louisa  county.     Also  in  Emmet  county  {11.  I.  ('ratty). 


A    SIMPLE    INCUBATOR. 

BY   L.    S.    ROSS. 

No  claim  of  originality  is  made  in  the  presentation  of 
the  description  of  the  simple  apparatus  used  by  me  as  an  incu- 
bator. The  idea,  so  far  as  I  know,  originated  in  the  mind 
of  Mr.  W.  D.  Frost,  assistant  instructor  in  bacteriology  in 
the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

The  incubator  consists  of  a  drygoods  box,  lined  inside  and  out 
with  asbestos  paper,  set  on  a  galvanized  iron  base,  and  divided 
by  wire  netting  into  a  convenient  number  of  shelves.  Heat  is 
obtained  from  a  rose  burner,  and  is  regulated  by  a  thermostat 
made  in  the  laboratory.  The  box  I  used  is  thirty-three  inches 
long,  nineteen  inches  wide  and  twenty-six  inches  from  front  to 
back.  The  cracks  were  stopped  with  rags  and  then  the  asbestos 
paper  was  pasted  on  the  w^ood.  A  door  was  cut  in  the  front,  a 
window  in  one  side  and  one  in  the  door.  The  door  is  25x13 
inches;  the  side  window  is  9x8  inches,  and  the  one  in  the  door 
is  12x6  inches.  A  galvanized  iron  pipe,  three  inches  in 
diameter,  open  at  the  lower  end  and  closed  or  opened  at 
the  top  by  a  circular  cut-ofl",  passes  through  the  box  from  the 
base  and  projects  six  inches  above  the  top.  A  hole,  three  and 
one-half  inches  in  diameter,  is  cut  through  the  center  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  box  and  the  iron  base,  leaving  only  one  thick- 
ness of  asbestos  paper  between  the  chamber  containing  the 
burner  and  the  lower  compartment  of  the  incubator.  This  hole 
may  be  closed  by  a  galvanized  iron  slide.  The  incubator 
is  divided  into  three  compartments,  the  lower  two  of  which  are 


Iowa  Academy  of  Science. 


A  Simple  Incubator. 


IOWA  ACADEMY    OF   SCIENCES.  H" 

each  ten  inches  high  and.  the  top  one  eleven  inches,  the  shelves 
being  of  one-fourth  inch  mesh  galvanized  iron  wire  netting. 

In  the  top  compartment  is  the  heat  regulator,  which  consists 
of  a  100  cc.  flask  for  a  bulb,  and  a  one-fourth  inch  glass  tube 
with  a  double  bend,  to  contain  liquid  and  to  receive  the  gas. 
One  end  of  the  tube  passes  through  a  rubber  stopper  into  the 
flask,  while  the  other  end  receives  a  smaller  tube,  reaching 
down  toward  the  mercury  in  the  lower  curve.  On  the  side 
of  the  small  tube  is  a  capillary  openingv,  cut  with  a  file,  to 
permit  a  flow  of  gas  when  the  opening  at  the  end  of  the  tube  is 
closed  by  the  rising  mersury.  The  liquid  used  in  the  bulb  is  a 
solution  of  calcium  chloride,  and  in  the  bend  of  the  tube  is 
mercury.     Other  liquids  may  be  used. 

The  incubator  was  used  last  spring  in  class  work  in  bacter- 
iology and  gave  good  satisfaction.  The  greatest  variation  in 
temperature  observed  was  not  over  2^  degrees,  and  this  only 
when  the  room  became  quite  cold.  The  usual  variation  was 
not  over  1^  degrees.  Experiment  shows  that  the  temperature 
in  the  incubator  increases  from  the  lowest  shelf  to  the  highest, 
if  the  burner  is  placed  under  the  opening  of  the  pipe,  or  near 
it;  but  if  the  burner  is  near  the  front  of  the  incubator,  or  under 
the  opening  in  the  center,  the  temperature  is  nearly  equable 
throughout. 


BURIED  LOESS  IN  STORY  COUNTY. 

BY  S.  W.  BEYER. 

The  lowan  till  is  not  known  to  be  present  in  Story  county. 
The  trend  of  its  southwestern  margin  which  crosses  Johnson, 
Iowa,  Tama  and  Marshall  into  Hardin  county,  if  maintained 
with  reasonable  constancy,  would  carry  it  safely  beyond  the 
confines  of  the  county.  The  loess,  the  silty  apron  of  the  lowan, 
although  suspected  to  be  present  on  account  of  the  geographic 
position  of  the  area  and  of  certain  topographic  contours  which 
are  decidedly  loess-like  in  character,  was  not  recognized  cer- 
tainly until  during  the  present  field  season.  The  loess  is  now 
known  to  appear  at  numerous  points  along  the  flanks  of  the 
deeper  cuts  in   Indian    Creek   and  Collins  townships,    in   the 


118  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

southeastern  corner  of  the  county,  near  the  limit  of  the  Wis- 
consin drift,  and  there  are  occasional  exposures  in  Franklin 
and  Washington  townships,  along  the  tributaries  of  the  Skunk 
river  and  Squaw  creek,  in  the  west  central  portion  of  the  region. 
It  is  to  the  latter  occurrence  that  it  is  desired  to  direct  atten- 
tion. 

The  best  exposures  may  be  viewed  on  sections  5  and  34,  in 
Washington  township,  along  Clear  and  Walnut  creeks  respec- 
tively. 

The  Walnut  creek  section  shows:  feet. 

Drift,  yellowish  above,  bluish  below  (Wisconsin) 20 

Loess,  sandy  below 20 

Clay,  blue  with  much  coarse  gravel exposed 

The  loess  is  silicious  throughout  and  the  upper  four  feet  is 
distinctly  joined  and  stained  a  faint  yellow-brown  along  the 
joint  planes.  It  grades  downward  into  a  massive,  structureless, 
pale  blue  clayey  silt  which  contains,  in  places,  an  abundance 
of  root  casts,  wood  fragments  and  black.  Carbonaceous  spots 
and  emits  a  distinct  swamp  like  odor.  The  entire  deposit  is 
highly  calcareous  and  carries  a  rich  gastropod  fauna.  Prof. 
B.  Shimek  identified  the  following  forms,  the  majority  of 
which  are  strictly  terrestrial. 

Zonitokles  shbnekli,  (Pilsbry)  P.  &  J. 

Spliyradmm  edentulnm  alt  kola,  (Ingersoll)  P.  &.  J. 

Pupa  muscoruiii,  L. 

Bifidarki  jjentodo)),  (Say)  Sterbi. 

Vertigo  ovata,  Say. 

Co'i  'ulus  fu  Ivus ,  (Mull). 

Polygyra  multilineata,  (Say)  P.  &   J. 

Pyramidula  striateUa,  (Anth.)  P.  &.  J. 

Vallonia  costata,  (Mull)  Sterbi. 

Succinea  lineata,  Binn. 

Succinea  avara,  Say. 

Limna'a  hroiulis,  Say? 

Loess  concretions  are  relatively  scarce  and  are  diminutive  in 
size.  The  deposit  shows  no  signs  of  oxidation  or  leaching 
where  the  drift  covering  is  thick;  but  where  the  covering 
is  so  far  reduced  as  to  afford  imperfect  protection  from  the 
w^eathering  agents,  both  leaching  and  oxidation  may  be  noted, 
and  here,  alone,  are  lime  concretions  to  be  found.  It  is  obvious 
that  little  or  no  alteration  took  place  prior  to  the  deposition  of 
the  overlying  drift. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  ng 

The  outcrop  along  Onion  creek  is  an  almost  exact  dupli- 
cate of  the  Walnut  creek  section.  The  drift  mantle  is  thinner, 
and  from  two  to  five  feet  of  loess  has  been  stained  to  a 
yellowish  buff,  and  loess  concretions  are  more  in  evidence,  thus 
attesting  to  the  greater  progress  made  in  leaching.  Here, 
again,  the  upper  portion  is  distinctly  jointed,  while  lower 
the  deposit  is  apparently  structureless.  Gasterpod  shells 
abound  throughout,  but  only  two  species,  not  listed  previously, 
appear — 

Helicodiscus  lineatus,  (Say)  Morse,  and 

Pfanorbis  bicarinatus,  Say, 
both  of  which  are  terrestrial  forms. 

In  connection  with  these  deposits  of  buried  loess,  certain 
arenaceous  to  silty  gray-brown  deposits,  remarkably  homogen- 
eous and  devoid  of  pepples  and  bowlders,  border  some  of 
the  larger  streams  and  are  perhaps  worthy  of  special  mention. 
They  are  discussed  here  with  the  hope  that  they  may  throw 
some  light  on  the  process  of  loess  accumulation.  These  highly- 
siliceous  deposits  flank  the  Skunk  and  the  Squaw;  are  notice- 
ably present  along  the  lower  coarse  of  Indian  creek,  but 
are  more  in  evidence  along  the  eastern  margin  of  the  Skunk 
river  valley,  below  Bloomington.  The  deposits  attain  a  max- 
imum thickness  of  from  three  to  five  feet  on  the  brow  of 
the  bluffs,  thin  rapidly  inland  and  are  scarcely  recognizable 
more  than  a  mile  from  the  bluff  scarp.  These  deposits  are 
responsible  for  the  heavy,  sandy  roads  along  so  many  of 
the  streams  in  the  Mississippi  valley  and  are  shunned  alike  by 
the  teamster  and  the  bicyclist.  They  are  often  known,  locally, 
as  "White  Oak  Soils,"  because  that  very  well  known  and  desir- 
able species  of  oak  finds  in  them  a  congenial  host.  The 
deposits  are  thoroughly  oxidized  and  leached  and  appear  to  be 
wholly  devoid  of  structural  or  bedding  planes.  The  coarsest 
materials  which  enter  into  their  composition  are  found  nearest 
the  flood  plain,  and  the  size  of  the  grain  diminishes  gradually 
as  the  deposit  feathers  out  away  from  the  river.  The  source  of 
the  materials  and  the  transporting  agent  are  not  difficult  to 
apprehend.  The  process  of  accumulation  is  going  on  to-day. 
The  wind,  sweeping  across  the  broad  flood  plain,  gathers  up 
such  material  as  can  be  transported  and  moves  it  toward  the 
restraining  bluffs.  Perhaps  only  the  very  finest  materials  are 
given  continuous  passage  for  any  considerable  distance.  But 
through  successive  short  excursions,  the  coarser   silt-particles 


120  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

and  even  tine  sand-grains  eventually  reach  the  brow  of  the  bluff 
and  are  deposited  in  the  reverse  order  of  their  fineness*.  The 
position  of  these  deposits  is  determined,  essentially  by  the 
surface  contours.  The  wind,  crossing  the  valley,  impinging 
against  the  hills  flanks,  is  deflected  upward,  and,  coming 
in  contact  with  the  still  air  above,  loses  velocity,  and,  being 
unable  to  carry  its  load  further,  deposits  it  over  the  brow  of 
the  hill.  In  this  location  its  position  is  reasonably  secure, 
though  the  entire  assemblage  of  deposits  possesses  the  pro- 
clivities of  the  sand  dune  and  may  progress  bodily  inland. 
This  process  of  wind  transport  and  accumulation  of  materials 
may  readily  be  witnessed.  During  early  spring  and  late 
autumn,  when  large  tracts  of  bottom  land  are  unprotected 
by  vegetation,  dust  storms  are  common  and,  often  during  a 
single  "  blow,  "  a  measurable  deposit  is  accumulated.  If  this 
be  true  now,  how  mucli  greater  must  have  been  the  efficiency 
of  the  winds,  which  blew  across  the  mud  flats,  before  vegeta- 
tion had  time  to  reclaim  the  valleys,  so  recently  vacated  by 
the  Wisconsin  iceV 

The  prevailing  winds  for  central  Iowa  during  spring  and 
fall  are  from  the  west  and  hence  the  greater  accumulation  of 
SBolian  deposits  oq  the  eastern  flanks  of  the  streams. 

These  deposits  are  worthy  of  more  than  passing  notice, 
when  viewed  analytically,  on  account  of  their  striking  similar- 
ity, in  many  respects,  to  the  loess.  Structurally,  texturally 
and  in  composition  and  distribution,  there  is  a  remarkable 
resemblance.  Both  are  essentially  devoid  of  stratification 
planes,  possess  a  uniform,  open  texture,  are  highly  siliceous, 
being  composed  chiefly  of  silt  and  fine  sand,  and  appear  to  be 
genetically  related  to  the  chief  watercourses,  along  which 
they  attain  their  maximum  development.  True,  the  loess  is 
usually  highly  calcareous,  but  this  may  readily  be  referred  to 
a  difference  in  the  condition  of  the  materials  drawn  upon,  and 

«A  most  luminous  and  helpful  discussion  of  wind  erosion,  transport  and  deposi- 
tion, will  be  found  in  Professor  Udden's  memoir,  entitled  "  The  Mechanical  Composi- 
tion of  Wind  Deposit*,"  published  by  the  Lutheran  Aug-ustana  Book  Concern,  of 
Rock  Island,  111.,  1898  The  subjoined  table  gives  the  approximate  maximum  distances 
over  which  quartz  fragments  of  different  dimens  ons  may  be  lifted  by  moderately 
strong  winds  in  single  leaps. 

Gravel  (diameter  from  8-1  mm.)  A.  few  feet. 

Coarse  and  medium  sand  (Diam.  1—1-4  mm.) Several  rods. 

Fine  sand  (Uiam.  1-4-1-8  mm.)  Less  than  a  mile. 

Very  line  sand  iDlam.  1-8-1-16  mm.) A  few  miles. 

Coarse  dust  (l-Ki— 1-32  mm.) 200  miles. 

Medium  dust  (l-;«-l-04  mm.) 1.000  miles. 

Fine  dust  (1-64  mm  ,  and  less) Around  the  globe. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  121 

be  wholly  independent  of  the  process  of  accumulation.  It  is 
now  pretty  generally  conceded  that  the  loess  is  genetically 
related  to  the  lowan  drift, — perhaps  the  over  wash  from  that 
sheet.  It  is  also  well  known  that  the  lowan  carried  the 
largest  and  freshest  bowlders  of  any  sheet  and  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  the  liner  materials  were  equally  fresh  at  the 
time  they  were  deposited.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  lowan 
drift  itself,  the  surface,  only,  showing  any  signs  of  weathering. 
The  mud  flats  were,  doubtless,  much  more  important  then 
than  now,  and  if  atmospheric  circulation  was  equally  as  vigor- 
ous as  at  the  present  time,  wind  erosion  and  deposition  would 
be  much  more  widespread  and  important,  and  the  rate  of 
accumulation  might  be  so  much  accelerated  that  oxidation  and 
leaching  of  the  rock  meal  would  be  imperfect  or  almost  wholly 
wanting.  The  loess  deposits,  which  have  been  protected  by 
the  Wisconsin  drift,  lend  credence  to  this  view.  The 
exposures  near  Kelly  and  Ames  are  not  only  unoxidized  and 
unleached,  but  still  retain  their  original  blue  color,  which  is 
so  characteristic  of  unaltered  secondary  deposits.  These 
deposits  also  emphasize  the  extremely  short  time  interval 
between  the  deposition  of  the  loess  and  the  Wisconsin  advance. 
The  loess,  whore  unprotected,  is  a  straw  to  gray-brown 
throughout,  and  the  lime  concretions  sufficiently  attest  that 
incipient  leaching  has  begun.  In  places  where  the  deposit  has 
neither  lost  by  erosion  nor  gained  by  deposition,  the  leaching 
zone  varies  from  two  to  four  feet  in  thickness  and  is  identical 
with  the  wind  accumulations  along  the  streams  of  to-day.  The 
former,  in  all  probability,  originated  through  the  rapid 
accumulation  of  perfectly  fresh  materials  from  the  extensive 
mud  flats  and  overwash  plains,  which  formed  an  apron  to  the 
lowan  till  sheet,  while  the  latter  represents  the  much  slower 
assembling  of  the  leached  and  oxidized  materials  from  the 
alluvial  plains  of  to-day. 

While  the  processes  which  obtained  during  the  two  sets  of 
deposits  cannot  be  demonstrated  to  have  been  identical,  their 
inherent  resemblances  and  environments  are  certainly  very 
striking.  Aside  from  the  comparisons  already  made,  they  are 
very  closely  related  faunally.  Professor  Shimek"  has  shown, 
that  with  few  unimportant  exceptions,  the  loess  molluscs  were 
all  air-breathers,  wiiose  habitat  must  have  been  very  similar  to 
that  which  prevails  in  the  Iowa-Nebraska  region  of  to-day. 

*The  exhaustive  memoirs  which  embody  the  results  of  this  Iteen,  conscientious 
observer  and  conservative  wiiter  may  be  found  in  the  recent  volumes  of  these  pro- 
ceeding's. 


122  IOWA  ACADEMY    OF  SCIENCES. 


NEW  LIGHT  ON  THE  DRIFT  IN  SOUTH   DAKOTA. 

BY    J.    E.    TODD. 

Hitherto,  the  writer's  study  of  the  drift  of  South  Dakota 
has  led  him  to  consider  it  to  belong  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  to 
the  Wisconsin  epoch.  The  reasons  briefly  stated  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

(a)  The  numerous  borings  made  in  the  state  for  artesian 
wells,  have  nowhere  revealed  distinctly,  well  defined  forest- 
beds  or  soils,  such  as  are  found  in  some  other  regions.  Though 
limited  sheets  of  sand  have  been  found  in  till  at  certain  points, 
it  has  not  been  clearly  proved  that  they  are  not  such  as  might 
have  been  formed  by  sub-glacial  streams  or  a  slight  advance  of 
the  ice-sheet  during  a  single  period  of  occupation.  A  few 
exposures  described  herein  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state 
have  thrown  some  doubt  upon  this  point. 

{b)  The  drift  in  northeastern  Nebraska,  though  suggesting 
previous  advance  by  an  ice-sheet,  is,  nevertheless,  from  its  thin- 
ness and  its  relation  to  the  A Itamont moraine,  thought  to  be  due, 
in  part, to  the  marginal  waters;  with  a  possible  sub-glacial  origin 
for  a  portion  of  it  resulting  from  an  extreme  advance  of  the  ice- 
sheet,  slightly  antedating  that  moraine.  Because  this  conclusion 
seemed  to  disagree  with  those  derived  from  other  regions,  the 
writer's  results  of  several  years'  work  in  the  Missouri  valley 
have  been  withheld  from  publication  for  several  years. 

This  summer,  while  revising  these  results,  the  following 
inference  presented  itself.  It  is  strange  that  it  had  not  sug- 
gested itself  before. 

I.  Inference  from  the  TroiigJt  of  the  Missouri  River. — ^Since 
1884,  it  has  been  generally  recognized  that  the  relation  of  the 
outer  moraine  and  its  drainage  channels  and  attendant  deposits, 
to  the  Missouri  river,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  channel  of  the 
latter  above  Yankton,  with  the  reflection  of  pre -glacial  topog- 
raphy in  the  ice  movements,  all  indicate  that  the  Missouri  river 
was  displaced  from  the  James  river  valley,  and  forced  to  take 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  123 

its  present  course  above  Yankton,  by  the  advent  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin ice- sheet.  Now  the  inference  mentioned  is  this:  that  if 
the  Missouri  v^as  so  displaced  by  the  Wisconsin  advance  (and 
this  hypothesis  certainly  furnishes  the  best  explanation  of  the 
known  facts),  then  the  James  river  valley  was  occupied  by  the 
stream  previous  to  that  time,  at  least  during  the  so-called 
Kansan  stage.  (Possibly  some  of  its  upper  tributaries  may 
have  discharged  to  the  northeast  in  pre-glacial  times.)  If  so, 
we  can  hardly  conceive  any  sub-glacial  till  occurring  in  or  west 
of  the  axis  of  that  valley  or  in  the  Missouri  valley  above  Sioux 
City.  That  the  James  river  valley  and  that  of  the  Missouri 
river  below  Yankton,  are  really  identical  is  indicated  by  their 
widths  and  depths  and  relations  to  the  drift.  If  this  were  not 
true,  then  we  must  believe  that  both  the  James  valley  and  the 
wide  Missouri  valley  below  Yankton  are  of  pre-glacial  origin 
to  their  present  depths;  that  the  Missouri  was  displaced  by  the 
Kansan  advance;  that  it  must  have  had  another  channel  below 
Niobrara  or  Yankton  in  that  epoch,  and  that  that  channel  has 
been  so  filled  that  it  is  unrecognizable,  while  the  Missouri  below 
the  latter  place  has  been  kept  unfilled  in  some  inconceivable  way 
during  the  recession  of  the  Kansan  ice  and  particularly  during 
the  deposition  of  the  loess.  If  the  latter  be  true,  it  adds 
another  complication  to  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  loess. 
If  the  James  valley  was  not  a  pathway  for  ice  during  the 
Kansan  stage,  then,  if  the  till  in  Kansas  is  really  of  the  Kansan 
stage,  the  ice  forming  it  advanced  from  the  Des  Moines  valley, 
and  the  first  excavation  or  the  re-excavation  of  the  trough  of 
the  lower  Missouri  is  post-Kansan  and  post-loessial.  This  the 
writer  urged  in  his  Missouri  report,*  where  he  also  pointed 
out  an  adequate  cause  for  the  subsequent  great  erosion,  in  the 
floods  of  water  coming  from  the  whole  western  margin  of  the 
retreating  ice-sheet,  as  well  as  from  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  but  he  refrains  from  theorizing  further  till 
we  have  considered  other  recent  observations.  We  shall  find 
some  difficulty  with  this  view. 

II.  Old  Soil  in  the  Big  Sioux  T«7fe;/.  — Early  in  September 
last  the  writer,  with  Mr.  Bain,  of  the  Iowa  Geological  Sur- 
vey, and  Mr.  Leverett,  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  visited 
some  instructive  localities,  near  Sioux  Falls,  which  had 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  writer;  first,  in  his  examination  of 


'Missouri  Geological  Report,  Vol.  X. 


124  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

the  region  in  1H84,  and  later,  during  the  season  of  1897.  Allu- 
sion is  made  to  former  observ^ations  in  Bulletin  No.  1,  of 
the  South  Dakota  Geological  Survey.  In  the  grading  of 
streets  in  Sioux  Falls,  at  several  points,  a  dark  band  resem- 
bling soil  was  noted.  This  is  true  more  particularly  north 
and  west  of  the  brewery.  This  band  was  first  explained 
by  the  writer,  as  marking  a  temporary  flood-plain  of  the 
Big  Sioux  during  some  stage  of  the  occupation  of  the  outer 
moraine  He  was  unable  to  find  evidence  of  its  extending  very 
far  from  the  stream.  The  soil  was  underlain  by  till,  and  also 
overlain  by  that  which  seemed  to  be  of  nearly  the  same  age. 
During  the  recent  visit,  not  only  were  these  localities  re- 
examined, but  others,  developed  by  more  recent  grading,  were 
observed  near  the  postofiice,  and  a  more  notable  example  was 
found  a  mile  or  more  northeast  of  the  postofiice,  in  cuts 
along  the  Illinois  Central  railroad.  At  the  latter  point,  there 
were  found  distinct  traces  of  a  buried  pond,  somewhat  like  a 
basin  of  the  present.  In  its  deeper  portions,  there  is  a  de^jth 
of  several  feet  of  dark  soil,  containing  numerous  fresh- water 
shells  —  Valvata,  Planorbis,  Limnea,  and  also  fragments 
of  a  cervical  vertebra  of  a  large  vertebrate;  fragments  of 
turtle-shell,  resembling  the  common  mud-turtle  in  appearance 
and  size,  and  two  or  three  small  bones,  apparently  of  an 
animal  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit.  The  visit  was  brief,  and 
further  investigation  would  doubtless  reveal  more  fossils.  The 
vertebrate  remains  were  submitted  to  Prof.  William  B. 
Scott,  of  Princeton,  who  determined  the  largest  to  be  a  cervi- 
cal vertebra  of  a  horse.  The  other  bones  were  undetermin- 
able. 

Through  the  thoughtfulness  of  Mr.  Bain,  a  series  of  the 
shells  was  submitted  to  Professor  Shimek,  in  time  to  have  his 
determinations  for  this  paper.     His  report  is  as  follows: 

"The  following  are  from  the  Illinois  Central  railroad  cut 
east  of  Sioux  Falls,  S    D. : 

1.  Planorbis  bicnrinatus  Say. 

2.  Phinorbis  j)arvu-s  Say. 

3.  Physa  heterostropha  (Say)  Say. 

4.  Liiintea  caperata  Say. 

5.  Vidvafa  triGarinato  (Say)  Say. 
•'6.     Sp/Kcriuiii  sulcation  (Lam.)  Prime. 

7.  Pisidiinii  coiiipressnm  Prime. 

8.  V((Uonia  <x>sta fa  (Mnll.)  Ster. 


Iowa  Academy  of  Science. 


Buchaaan  Gravels  East  of  Sioux  Falls. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES  125 

"Of  these,  one  to  four  are  Puh inmates,  five  is  a  gill-bearer 
{Pro.sohranch),  six  and  seven  are  bivalves,  and  eight  is  terres- 
trial. The  set  one  to  seven  can  be  duplicated  in  most  of  our 
northwestern  i3onds  with  muddy  bottoms.  Eight  is  terrestrial, 
but  grows  sometimes  near  the  edges  of  ponds  and  is  common 
along  streams.     There  is  one  specimen  of  this. 

"  The  other  lot  from  Sioux  Falls,  S.  D.,  'near  the  brewery, ' 
contains  two  species: 

'^ Liinnea  caperata  Say,  di,nd  Piano rb is  albi/s  MillL,  probably. 
The  specimens  are  poor.  Both  of  these  are  common  in  north- 
western ponds  to-day.'' 

West  of  this  pond  hole  the  rest  of  the  underlying  till  had 
apparently  had  its  soil,  if  ever  formed,  removed  by  the  erosion 
attending  the  deposition  of  the  overlying  till.  Between  the 
two  tills  is  a  considerable  deposit  of  gravel.  The  lower  till 
was  comparatively  free  from  pebbles  of  any  considerable  size 
and  has  been  referred  to  by  the  writer  in  his  correspondence  as 
a  pebbleless  clay,  but  more  careful  examination  during  the 
recent  visit,  brought  out  the  fact  that  it  contains  small  pebbles 
of  crystalline  rocks  evidently  of  northern  origin.  In  places  it 
is  distinctly  weathered  and  resembles  loess  in  color.  In  such 
cases,  it  failed  to  show  effervescence  when  tested  with  acid.  In 
the  overlying  gravel  were  numerous  rotten  pebbles  and  bowl- 
df  rs.  The  overlying  till  revealed  few,  if  any,  rotted  bowlders. 
This  break  between  the  lower  till  and  the  upper  till  which  is  so 
distinctly  marked  at  some  points  in  the  vicinity  of  Sioux  Falls 
seems  quite  even  and  horizontal.  In  the  city,  tests  willi  acid 
did  not  distinctly  show  difference  in  age  between  the  upj^er  and 
lower  tills.     In  general,  effervescence  was  prompt. 

East  of  Canton,  there  was  a  similar  difference  noted  between 
the  upper  till,  which  was  quite  stony,  and  the  lower  compara- 
tively pebbleless  till,  which  presented  similar  characteristics 
to  those  noted  northeast  of  Sioux  Falls.  Between  these  tills 
was  a  deposit  of  fine  sand  and  interstratified  silt.  Traces  of  this 
same  horizon  were  traced  east  of  Beloit,  Iowa,  and  west  of 
Fairview,  S.  D.  In  the  latter  locality,  the  lower  till  was  not 
distinctly  traced.  It  may  be  remembered  that  Mr.  Bain,  in  his 
report  on  Woodbury  county,  Iowa,  calls  attention  to  the  fine 
sand  underneath  the  till  at  a  high  level  northwest  of  Sioux  City. 
At  that  point,  no  till  had  been  found  underneath  the  sand.  It 
is  known  at  one  or  two  places  to  rest  immediately  upon  Creta- 
ceous beds.      In  that  sand,  which  is  e.Kcavated  extensively  for 


126  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

use  in  Sioux  City,  there  were  found  teeth,  which  were  deter- 
mined by  Professor  Cope  to  be  Equvs  major.  They  would  cor- 
respond in  size,  so  far  as  can  be  judged,  to  the  vertebra  found 
near  Sioux  Falls,  and  it  suggests  in  a  striking  way,  that  we 
may  have  here  traces  of  the  "Equus''  or  "Sheridan  beds" 
that  have  been  observed  extensively  in  western  Nebraska  and 
Kansas.  It  perhaps  should  be  added  that  quite  thick  deposits 
of  till  with  gravel  occur  at  a  lower  level  near  the  Missouri  at 
Riverside  park,  and  seem  to  be  of  recent  date. 

III.  Observations  Near  Gar  ret  son. — The  same  party  also  vis- 
ited Garretson,  northeast  of  Sioux  Falls,  not  far  from  Pali- 
sades, S.  D.  That  locality  is  especially  interesting  because  of 
a  small  semi  driftless  area  adjacent.  Along  the  railroad  the 
cuts  from  Palisade  to  about  two  miles  north  of  Garretson, 
failed  to  show  anything  like  till,  and  loess  was  exposed  several 
feet  in  depth  resting  upon  the  surface  of  red  quartzite.  This 
red  quartzite  is  cut  into  ravines  at  least  forty  feet  deep  in 
places,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  any  mass  of  till,  nor  of  strict  on 
the  surface  of  the  quartzite.  More  careful  examination  showed 
that  a  few  scattered  pebbles  and  bowlders  of  northern  origin 
were  to  be  found  in  the  crevices  of  the  quartzite,  but  nothing 
that  would  demonstrate  that  the  region  had  ever  been  mantled 
with  a  deposit  of  till  such  as  occurs  elsewhere.  East  of  town 
within  a  few  rods,  the  till  appears  and  in  gravel  beds  found  in 
that  direction  numerous  rotten  granite  pebbles  were  found 
indicating  greater  age  than  is  common  within  the  moraine. 
About  a  mile  east,  and  further  to  the  southeast  and  south,  are 
conspicuous  knolls,  largely  composed  of  drift  gravel  and  sand, 
resembling  osars.  About  a  mile  south  of  the  town,  one  of  these 
has  been  cut  into  and  building  sand  has  been  taken  from  it 
for  several  years.  It  shows  several  feet  of  gravel  and  pebbles 
resting  upon  a  mass  of  irregularly  stratified  sand.  In  a  rail- 
road cut  to  the  east  of  it,  there  is  found  the  unusual  appearance 
of  a  stratum  of  gravel  and  bowlders  overlain  with  loess  several 
feet  in  depth,  and  resting  upon  a  loess-like  silt  which  is  also 
shown  several  feet  in  thickness  in  some  places,  while  else- 
where it  is  replaced  by  loose  sand.  It  could  not  be  distinctly 
shown  that  the  lower  silt  was  of  markedly  older  age  than  the 
upper. 

IV.  Prec/lacial  Deposits  in  Tiirkeii  JUih/e. — In  the  examination 
of  Turkey  ridge,  there  was  found,  at  a  point  about  four  miles 
south  of  Irene,  Clay  county,  S.  D.,  a  stratum  of  loess  like  loam 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  127 

underlying-  the  drift,  and  resting,  judging  from  an  exposure  of 
that  several  rods  away,  upon  chalk  deposits.  A  more  careful 
examination  may  possibly  reveal  the  characteristics  of  older 
till  in  these  deposits,  but  no  yjebbles  were  noted  where  it 
was  studied.  Reports  from  wells  in  the  region  seem  to 
corroborate  the  idea  of  a  preglacial  silt  in  that  locality. 
Turkey  ridge  is  a  high  divide  between  the  Vermillion  and 
James  rivers,  which  became  an  interlobular  portion  of  the 
Altamont  moraine. 

V.  Recent  Fossil. s  from  Near  BracUey,  Clark  Coiotty,  S.  D.  — In 
1895  Miss  Helen  M.  Buzzell,  a  teacher  in  the  common  schools, 
became  interested  in  some  curious  things  found  in  digging 
wells  a  few  miles  north  of  Bradley.  I  have  not  been  able 
to  visit  the  locality  and  can  only  quote  from  her  description: 
"  The  land  here  is  very  rough,  showing  hills,  little  level  places 
and  big  sloughs,  or  old  lake  beds  The  well  is  about  fifty  rods 
from  the  foot  of  a  hill,  which,  I  should  think,  is  nearly  300  feet 
high,  at  the  head  of  a  slough.  The  latter  is  hardly  a  ravine — 
rather  a  hollow — and  here  are  the  figures  as  given  by  the  man 
w^ho  dug  the  well,  describing  the  different  soils  as  they  came: 

FEET. 

1.  Black  loam 3 

2.  Crumbly  .\ellow  cla* 14 

3.  White  material 3 

4.  Tree 9 

5.  Blue  clay 6 

"This  is  on  Mr.  J.  D.  Foley's  place,  section  thirty-five. 
Spring  Valley  township,  six  miles  from  Bradley;  there  are 
others  similar. " 

The  white  material  is  evidently  a  white  marl.  It  contains 
VaJvata  fricarinafa,  Phntorbis  bic((rinati(s,  P.  parvus  and  Llriinea 
huiiiiJis.  Miss  Buzzell  sent  numerous  pieces  of  wood,  most  of 
which  I  judged  to  be  coniferous.  They  show  the  characteristic 
tracheids  and  resemble  tamarack.  Specimens  of  muck.  No.  4, 
contain  fresh  water  shells  similar  to  those  in  No.  3,  and  also 
Anadonta  and  Spcerium  bulcatuni.  The  data  are  not  sufficient 
as  it  would  seem  for  asserting  that  this  deposit  is  inter- 
glacial.  It  may  result  from  the  filling  of  a  recent  lake  basin. 
If  such  is  the  case,  it  resembles  the  locality  north  of  Grand 
View,  in  Douglas  county,  which  was  described  in  Bulletin  No. 
1,  of  the  South  Dakota  Survey,  page,  126.  Both  localities  are 
inside  the  Altamont  moraine. 


128  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

(kmduslons  and  Sufj{/e:>itio)i.s. — Prom  the  data  given,  we  seem 
justified  in  concluding  that  there  had  been  considerable  deposi- 
tion of  till  over  the  region  of  the  Big  Sioux  valley,  previous  to 
the  occupation  of  the  Altamont  moraine  of  the  Wisconsin 
epoch.  The  readiest  explanation,  no  doubt,  is  that  the  ice 
sheet  spread,  at  least,  over  the  region  mentioned,  although  it 
seems  not  impossible  that  the  comparatively  pebbleless  till 
which  has  been  observed  at  Sioux  Falls  and  east  of  Canton, 
may  have  been  deposited  by  marginal  waters,  and  while 
occasional  bowlders  are  found  they  are  by  no  means  as  numer- 
ous nor  as  large  as  in  the  Wisconsin  till.  From  the  compara- 
tively drif  Lless  region  ab  )ut  Garretson  and  the  direction  of  the 
striae  west  of  Palisades,  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  the  valley 
of  the  Big  Sioux  was  occupied  by  a  lobe  of  ice  but  that  there 
were  patches  east  which  were  comparatively  stationary. 

We  have  not  given  the  subject  sufficient  study  to  speak  with 
confidence  and  yet  it  seems  permissible,  at  least,  to  offer  a  few 
suggestions  which  are  little  more  than  speculations. 

If  we  examine  the  map  of  tlie  region,  we  shall  find  that  the 
valley  of  the  James  river  in  South  Dakota  is  separated  by  a 
high  table  land  rising  over  considerable  of  its  surface,  to  a 
height  of  2,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Immediately  north  of  the 
SoLith  Dakota  line,  the  James  river  makes  its  nearest  approach 
to  the  Ked  River  of  the  North,  the  distance  being  about  seventy 
miles.  At  that  point  the  divide  between  the  streams  is  very 
low  and  close  to  the  former  stream.  A  cut  of  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  feet  would  probably  turn  the  James  river  into  the  Wild 
Rice  and  Red  rivers.  From  that  jDoint  northward,  although 
the  divide  is  about  150  feet  above  the  James,  there  is  no  we  1 
defined  ridge,  as  further  south.  This  brit  gs  us  to  a  serious 
objection  to  the  view  that  the  course  of  the  Missouri  was  down 
the  James  river  valley,  especially  while  the  mass  of  ice  was 
moving  up  the  Red  river  valley.  Moreover,  some  have  thought 
that  the  ancient  drainage  was  once  northeast  through  the 
valley  of  the  Wild  Rice.  If  such  were  the  case,  the  difficulties 
of  keeping  the  James  river  valley  open  for  pa.ssage  of  the 
water  while  the  Red  river  valley  was  occupied  by  ice,  would 
be  still  more  difficult  to  explain,  if  not  inconceivable.  It  seems, 
therefore,  more  probable  that  the  dividing  ridge,  which  is  now 
so  well  defined  in  South  Dakota,  previous  to  the  W^isconsin 
epoch,  extended  further  north,  possibly  as  far  north  as  Devil's 
Lake;  though  it  was  narrower  and  probably  lower  there  than 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OP  SCIENCES  129 

farther  south;  and  that  this  ridge  played  an  important  part  in 
hindering  the  advance  of  the  ice  until  it  had  accumulated 
sufficiently  to  break  through  into  the  James  river  valley,  as  it 
did  during  the  Wisconsin  epoch.  This  would  be  the  more 
easily  explained  if  the  ice  sheet  from  the  north,  i.  e.,  from  the 
Keewatin  center  was  not  so  vigorous  in  the  earlj^-  stages,  i.  e., 
in  the  Kansan  and  pre-Kansan  stages. 

From  a  general  consideration  of  the  extent  of  the  so-called 
Kansan  till  as  compared  with  the  Wisconsin,  we  may  infer  that 
the  natural  center  during  the  former  stage  was  further  east; 
probably,  northeast  of  Lake  Superior.  In  fact;  we  may  con- 
ceive that  some  of  the  higher  points  north  of  Lake  Huron  were 
the  first  to  receive  a  permanent  ice  cap.  As  the  region  became 
more  chilled,  the  zone  of  accumulation  would  extend  naturally 
along  the  more  elevated  surface  of  the  ice  and  then  the  great- 
est accumulation  would  lie  naturally  near  the  edge  of  the  zone 
and  advance  slowly  outward.  In  this  way,  we  may  perhaps 
account  for  the  greater  vigor  of  the  streams  passing  down 
Lake  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior  during  the  Kansan  stage  or, 
as  some  would  say,  the  latter  during  the  Kansan  stage  and  the 
former  during  the  Illinoian  stage.  If  we  believe  the  ice  to 
have  here  pushed  forward  southwest  in  the  axis  of  Lake 
Superior  basin,  it  is  not  difficult  to  conceive  that  its  course 
would  lie  diagonally  across  the  state  of  Minnesota,  being  con- 
fined in  a  broad  shallow  channel  between  the  highlands  about 
Itasca  and  the  region  of  central  Wisconsin,  that  it  was  directed 
to  the  Minnesota  valley  and  across  it  against  the  high  transverse 
ridge  of  the  ''East  Coteau"  the  high  divide  separating  the 
Minnesota  from  the  James,  which  now  has  an  elevation  of 
1,700  to  !2,000  feet.  From  the  shape  of  the  land  and  the  course 
of  the  stream,  it  seems  not  unlikely  that  the  highest  elevations 
were  along  the  axis  of  this  stream.  As  the  Des  Moines  valley 
to  the  south  offered  an  easier  slope,  we  may  conceive  the  ice 
sheet  to  have  expanded  more  rapidly  in  that  direction  and  to 
have  spread  out  during  the  Kansan  stage,  from  that  valley 
westward  and  south  into  northwestern  Missouri.  We  may 
account  for  its  failure  to  press  westward  over  into  the  James 
valley  by  the  elevation  of  the  Coteau  region  and  by  the  divert- 
ing influence  of  the  Big  Sioux  valley,  which  we  may  suppose 
had  greater  effect  upon  the  thinner  edge  of  the  ice  which  there 
lay  in  the  zone  of  ablation. 

The  failure  of  the  ice  to  press  equally  northward  may  be 


130  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

accounted  for,  not  only  by  the  ridge,  as  we  have  before  stated, 
but  by  the  depth  of  the  Red  river  valley  together  with  the 
delaying  influence  of  a  north  slope.  For  we  conceive  it 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  ice  would  be  more  plastic  in 
the  region  of  greater  warmth  and  that  there  would  be  more 
rapid  accumulation  along  the  southern  side  of  the  zone  of 
accumulation.  Both  relations  would  favor  such  a  conclusion.* 
If  such  a  state  of  affairs  is  conceivable,  we  may  not  only 
account  for  the  Kansan  till,  so  far  as  it  is  sub-glacial,  but  we 
may  have  found  a  partial  explanation  of  the  more  difficult 
phenomena  of  the  course  of  the  ice  during  the  lowan  stage. 
One  of  the  strange  things  connected  with  that  stage  is  the 
persistent  course  of  the  ice  toward  the  southeast.  Now,  if  the 
summit  of  the  ice  lobe,  during  the  Kansan  stage,  rose  to  the 
altitude  of  the  zone  of  accumulation  in  western  Minnesota,  we 
may  conceive  that  it  might  for  a  time  act  as  a  secondary 
center  of  glacial  motion.  The  persistent  easterly  tendency  of 
the  ice  might  be  partially  accounted  for  in  this  way,  but  we 
may  find  another  factor  in  the  possible  subsistence  of  the 
driftless  area.  The  very  existence  of  that  area  has  suggested 
its  former  greater  elevation,  and  we  have  learned  to  expect 
subsidence  as  one  of  the  effects  of  ice  occupation.  The 
Kansan  load,  acting  for  a  time  on  the  west,  and  subsequently, 
if  not  in  part  contemporaneously,  the  Illinoian  on  the  east  and 
south  may  have  at  last  brought  it  down  to  a  considerable 
lower  level.  The  movement  of  the  lowan  ice  lobes,  both  in 
Iowa  and  Illinois,  would  harmonize  with  such  a  view.  See 
Leverett's  map,  "  Interglacial  Deposits  in  Iowa,  "  page  8. 


*  Moreover,  Mr.  Upham's  study  of  Lake  Agasslz  would  lead  us  to  think  there  was 
then  greater  northward  elevation. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  131 


SOME   PHYSICAL    ASPECTS    OF    GENERAL    GEOLOG- 
ICAL   CORRELATION, 

BY  CHARLES  R.  KEYES. 
CONTENTS. 

T     ^       ^       *  PAGE. 

Introductory 131 

Nature  of  the  problem  of  geologic  correlation 133 

Foundation  of  geological  chronology 134 

Methods  of  correlation 136 

General  statement ; . .  136 

Chief  methods  at  present  in  use I37 

Inadequacy  of  existing  methods 139 

Extension  of  the  usual  criteria  to  general  application 140 

Main  considerations 140 

Biological  relationships 140 

Unconformity I44 

Community  of  genesis 146 

Historical  similarity 147 

Physiographic  development 148 

Correlation  of  provinces  of  dissimilar  geological  history 149 

Conclusions 152 


INTRODUCTORY. 

The  main  object  of  the  present  communication  is  to  form- 
ulate, brieily,  certain  results  which  have  been  obtained  in  the 
course  of  recent  attempts  to  parallel  some  of  the  geological 
terranes  in  the  Mississippi  valley.  The  suggestions  they  offer 
appear  to  have  a  much  more  than  local  bearing,  and  to  affect 
the  stratigraphy  of  the  entire  region.  They  also  have  an 
important  influence  upon  the  whole  problem  of  general 
correlation  and,  perhaps,  also,  even  upon  our  present  system 
of  geological  classification. 

In  the  whole  domain  of  natural  science,  there  is  perhaps 
nothing  that  is  more  striking,  through  all  stages  of  its  consid- 
eration, from  beginning  to  end,  than  the  fact  that  natural 
phenomena  are  rarely  the  outcome  of  the  action  of  single,  simple 
laws.  They  all  originate  in  so  many  remote  and  complex 
processes  that  those  which  are  really  primary  and  essential  in 
character,  are  often  largely  or  completely  obscured  by  those 
which,    though     most   conspicuous     perhaps,    are    altogether 


132  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

secondary,  or  even  accidentally  associated.  That  this  is  true 
in  every  department  of  science  is  clearly  shown,  not  only 
by  its  history,  but  particularly  by  the  classifications  of  the 
phenomena  that  have  been  followed  during  the  different  stages 
of  its  development. 

In  the  progress  of  every  branch  of  knowledge,  one  of  the 
first  considerations  to  receive  attention  is  a  systematization  of  the 
known  facts.  This  orderly  arrangement  is  one  of  the  earliest 
prerequisites  demanded  of  the  branch  in  its  attainment  to 
recognition;  while  its  advancement  is  measured  by  the  degree 
of  tBuXonomic  completeness  and  the  critical  criteria  adopted.  The 
bringing  together  of  the  various  phenomena,  so  that  some  sort 
of  systematic  relationship  is  made  to  exist  among  them  all,  is 
the  initial  step  in  raising  the  particular  department  of  knowl- 
edge to  the  dignity  of  a  science.  As  progress  is  made,  a 
gradual  evolution  takes  place  in  the  fundamental  grouping  of 
the  facts.  In  the  beginning,  a  classification,  rude  though  it 
may  be,  is  fashioned  according  to  the  superficial  features, 
which  are  most  striking  at  first  glance.  It  is,  at  a  later  stage, 
modified  to  one  in  which  similarity  of  characters,  irrespective 
of  natural  relations,  is  taken  into  account.  A  vastly  more 
advanced  conception  is  classification  based  upon  affinity,  in 
which,  for  similarity  of  features,  there  is  substituted  similarity 
of  plan.  The  final  stage  is  the  causal,  in  which  origin  and  the 
processes  become  the  dominant  and  determining  factors. 

In  the  expansion  of  the  multifaceted  science  of  geology,  the 
classification  of  the  phenomena  presented  has  been  no  excep- 
tion to  the  rule.  In  the  department  of  stratigraphy,  that  part 
of  the  general  subject  which  has  to  do  with  the  history  of  the 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  lithosphere,  that  j)art 
in  which  we  find  a  measure  of  geological  time,  and  in  which  we 
determine  the  sequence  of  geological  events,  there  has  been 
the  same  growth  as  in  the  other  branches  of  the  science.  As 
in  those  other  branches  various  standards  of  comparison  have 
given  away,  one  after  another,  to  new  standards  more  in  accord 
with  the  general  advancement  of  human  knowledge,  so  also  in 
stratigraphy  has  there  been  a  passage  from  one  criterion  to 
another.  In  the  successive  replacements,  however,  of  one  set 
of  criteria  by  another,  the  abandoned  ones  have  not  always  been 
found  to  be  altogether  wrong;  and  they  usually  continue  to 
exert  a  more  or  less  profound  influence  long  after  they  are 
thought  to  be  forgotten.     These  various  classifications,  based 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  133 

first  upon  some  one  particular  phase  or  striking  feature, 
and  then  on  another,  are  not  entirely  erroneous,  for  the 
reason  that  they  represent  some  special  workings  of  funda- 
mental laws  that  are  not,  and  cannot  be,  always  discerned, 
until  greater  advancement  in  general  knowledge  has  been 
made.  In  this  respect,  they  partake  of  the  nature  of  working 
hypotheses.  A  long  time  may  be  required  to  prove  their  faults, 
and  then  new  schemes  arise.  In  practice,  then,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  rational  system  of  geological  chronology,  or  classi- 
fication, is  not  to  be  sought  in  the  comparison  of  any  one  set  of 
external  features,  but  rather  in  the  direct  causes  or  processes 
which  have  given  rise  to  the  phenomena.  The  final  outcome 
is  reached  by  a  comparison  of  all  the  groups  of  data  relating 
to  the  physical  history  as  a  whole. 

NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  OF  GEOLOGICAL  CORRELATION. 

Regarding  as  the  main  function  of  geological  correlation, 
the  establishment  of  a  practical  scale  of  stratigraphic  succes- 
sion, to  which  may  be  referred  all  geological  terranes,  the 
critical  critera  adopted  become  essentially  the  basis  of  geolog- 
ical classification  or  of  historical  geology.  Moreover,  a 
rational  classification  of  geological  phenomena  reflects  the 
genesis  of  the  events  recorded,  and  this  is  manifestly  the 
ultimate  aim  of  all  methods  of  paralleling  strata. 

It  is  a  favorite  simile  of  geologists  to  liken  the  progress  of 
geological  events  to  human  history.  But  they  stop  short  of 
the  most  important  step  of  all  in  not  making  the  comparison 
full  and  symmetrical.  In  the  history  of  mankind,  there  is  in 
the  time  units,  the  year,  the  decade  and  the  century,  an  abso- 
lute scale  for  gauging  all  events.  In  developing  geological 
history,  this  standard  of  comparison,  of  course,  fails,  because 
of  the  inapplicability  of  our  ordinary  units  of  time,  and  with 
this  failure,  no  attempt  is  made  to  carry  out  the  all-important 
idea  that  is  fundamental  in  human  history,  and  look  for  some 
other  unit  that  is,  in  its  nature  not  comparative,  not  variable, 
not  local  in  application,  but  fixed  and  independent  of  any 
inherent  character. 

As  human  history  is  traced  backward,  the  clear  coloration 
of  the  present  gradually  fades  with  time,  until  lost  in  the  haze 
of  distance  and  uncertainty,  tradition  and  myth.  That  the 
growth  and  progress  of  the  races  of  mankind  have  been  much 
the  same  in  all  the  various  parts  of  the  world,  is  generally 


134  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

admitted,  but  in  each  part  the  details,  and  perhaps  some  of 
the  characteristic  larger  features,  are  very  different.  The 
whole  history  is  made  up  of  the  histories  of  the  parts,  of  the 
nations,  of  the  provinces.  In  a  similar  way,  geological  history 
reaches  back  into  a  haze  of  distance,  compared  with  which  the 
beginnings  of  human  history  are  but  as  a  moment  ago.  As 
the  history  of  man  is  a  history  of  nations  and  dynasties,  more 
or  less  intricately  related,  so  also  is  geological  history  a  history 
of  parts,  of  provinces,  overlapped,  interwoven,  merged  into 
one  another,  but  each  retaining,  more  or  less  distinctly,  its 
identity,  thrusting  out  its  idiosyncrasies,  and  presenting  the 
evidence  of  its  relations  with  its  neighbors. 

The  development  of  geological  provinces  has  another 
parallel  in  the  progress  of  nations.  Some  great  events  have 
been  recorded  in  the  history  of  all;  others  in  only  a  few.  At 
certain  periods  a  mingling,  an  absorption,  or  a  complete 
effacement  of  some  parts  has  taken  place;  at  other  times  has 
occurred  conquest  and  expansion. 

Could  the  events  of  all  nations  that  have  ever  existed  be 
arranged  on  a  chart,  or  in  tabular  form,  so  that  those  concern- 
ing each  could  be  brought  together  in  a  vertical  column, 
and  so  that  the  different  columns  would  stand  side  by  side 
in  their  proper  positions  in  the  time  scale,  with  its  major  sub- 
divisions marked  off  by  horizontal  lines,  it  would  be  found 
that  at  certain  times  great  events  would  affect  several  and 
perhaps  many  nations,  and  that  at  such  times  similar  events 
would  affect  different  groups  of  nations,  or  part  of  one  group 
and  part  of  another. 

In  the  same  manner  are  the  events  of  geology  recorded 
in  different  parts  of  the  earth.  While  the  general  sequence  is 
similar  everywhere  perhaps,  great  changes  affect  the  different 
parts  in  different  ways  and  with  varying  intensity.  So,  in  tab 
ulating  the  geological  events  of  different  provinces,  the 
standard  corresponding  to  the  time  scale  in  human  history 
must  be  absolute  and  far-reaching,  and  not  changeable  and 
local.  The  determination  of  such  a  standard  is  the  one  great 
problem  of  stratigraphy. 

THE  FOUNDATION  OF  GEOLOGIC  CORRELATION. 

In  the  correlation  or  comparison  of  geological  terranes, 
experience  has  shown  that  the  subject  may  be  viewed  from 
at  least  four  very  different  points   of   vantage.     The   aspect 


IOWA  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES.  135 

presented  may  be:  (1)  Local,  (2)  provincial,  (3)  regional  and  (4) 
general.  The  last  should  be  clearly  distinguished  from  the 
others.  With  the  various  methods  which  have  been  followed 
from  time  to  time  in  correlative  inquiry,  the  almost  universal 
practice  has  been  to  attempt  to  base  the  broader  generaliza- 
tions upon  criteria  that  are,  in  reality,  applicable  only  to 
limited  areas.  Hence,  in  passing  from  the  more  local  to  the 
more  general,  difficulties  have  always  arisen  which  have 
become  more  and  more  formidable  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  extension  of  the  local  scheme.  Most  of  the  methods  that 
have  been  applied,  and  that  have  been  found  to  answer  locally, 
have  fai  ed  when  extended  over  larger  districts.  The  real 
problem,  then  is  to  find  some  means  of  solving  the  difficulties 
of  the  latter,  or  more  general.  In  the  attempts  to  do  this, 
or  when  broadly  applied,  most  of  the  correlation  criteria  have 
proved  very  inadequate.  A  little  consideration  will  make  the 
reasons  evident.  As  the  specific  distinctions  that  are  regarded 
as  decisive  in  a  given  locality  are  extended  more  and  more 
widely,  they  change  and  all  are  gradually  replaced  by  others 
which  may  be  very  different.  The  physical  conditions  that 
have  given  rise  to  the  various  distinctive  features,  or  the 
processes  involved  in  their  production,  themselves  change 
from  place  to  place  and  from  time  to  time.  In  seeking  for 
a  suitable  means  of  carrying  on  correlation  it  is  manifest,  at 
the  outset,  that  in  no  case  should  the  critical  criteria  deal  with 
the  intrinsic  features  as  such,  but  with  the  causes  producing 
them.  Moreover,  the  great  factor  to  be  taken  into  account  in 
every  standard  of  comparison  which  has  to  do  with  the 
correlation  of  strata,  is  a  definite  or  absolute  basis  to  which 
the  various  minor,  or  local  and  provincial,  successions  can  be 
referred.  This  fundamental  conception  grows  out  of  a  consid- 
eration of  the  nature  of  sedimentation  itself. 

The  features  which  have  in  the  past  had  the  greatest  weight 
in  geological  correlation,  have  been  those  which,  in  reality, 
are  partly  or  entirely  unrelated  to  the  deposition  of  strata. 
In  attempting  to  seek  a  criterion  that  is  fundamental  in  strati- 
graphy, it  is  pertinent  at  the  start  to  inquire  into  the  real 
nature  of  sedimentation,  into  the  causes  producing  it,  modify- 
ing it  and  limiting  it,  into  the  forces  called  into  action,  in  sub 
sequently  obliterating  their  results,  in  fact,  into  all  of  the 
primary  processes  involved,  and  into  the  secondary  processes 
which  tend  to  obscure  the  actual  workings  of  the  real  and 


136  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

fundamental  laws.  Only  in  this  way  can  the  main  object,  the 
establishment  of  an  adequate  and  elastic  system  of  geological 
correlation,  be  attained,  and  a  ready  interpretation  of  the  his- 
tory of  terrestrial  phenomena  be  made.  Since,  from  the 
strata  of  the  globe  must  be  deciphered  the  records  of  its 
history,  the  leading  facts  to  be  ever  borne  in  mind  and  to  be 
recognized  to  their  fullest  possible  extent,  are  that  the 
elements  of  sedimentation  are  in  large  part  the  products  of 
land  decay,  which  form  seaward-creeping  fringes  around  the 
continental  masses,  and  that  the  cessation  of  the  action  of  the 
processes  favorable  is  one  of  the  prime  factors  in  beginning 
each  new  cycle,  or  great  epoch,  in  the  physical  history. 

SOME  METHODS  OF  GEOLOGICAL  CORRELATION. 

General  Statement. — In  the  present  connection  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  enter  into  details  regarding  all  of  the  various  stand- 
ards of  correlation  that  have  been  proposed.  As  all 
systematic  arrangements  of  sedimentary  deposits  have  for  an 
ultimate  end  the  real  determination  of  the  superposition  or 
relative  succession  of  all  strata,  it  is  manifest,  from  what  has 
already  been  said,  that  the  scheme  incorporating  in  its  plan 
the  actual  sequence  of  the  processes  that  have  produced  the 
events,  is  the  one  which  most  nearly  meets  the  requirements 
of  a  rational  foundation  for  geological  chronology.  In  propor- 
tion, therefore,  as  a  classification  is  genetic,  it  is  of  value  as 
epitomizing  the  history  of  a  region. 

From  the  time  when  the  real  significance  of  the  bedded 
character  of  nearly  every  portion  of  the  lithosphere  open  to 
observation  first  came  to  be  recognized,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  normal  order  of  suj)erposition  and 
the  equivalency  of  the  layers  has  formed  one  of  the  chief 
problems  of  stratigraphy.  In  a  single  rock  exposure  it  is, 
ordinarily,  easy  to  determine  which  beds  were  laid  down  first 
and  which  last.  However,  in  making  a  comparison  of  two  sec- 
tions which  are  not  visibly  connected,  the  case  is  not  so 
simple;  and  when  the  two  sections  are  widely  separated,  the 
difficulty  of  paralleling  them  is  correspondingly  increased, 
and  exact  correlation,  perhaps,  finally  becomes  entirely  out  of 
the  question.  It  is  the  special  province  of  geological  correla- 
tion to  establish  a  general  chronological  sequence  of  all  rock 
successions,  particularly  those  more  or  less  widely  separated. 
In  the  past,  the  standards  for  this  determination  have   been 


TOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  137 

numerous.  As  they  come  to  be  tested  practically  in  the  field 
they  have  been,  one  by  one,  abandoned  entirely,  passed  over, 
or,  in  lieu  of  something  better,  have  been  used  only  provision- 
ally, or  with  reservation.  No  single  criterion  has  yet  been 
proposed  that  answers  the  purpose  successfully.  Although 
some  one  of  the  various  methods  is  commonly  used  as  the 
principal  one,  others  are  almost  invariably  also  taken  into 
account  at  the  same  time.  Hence,  it  is  universally  recognized 
that  few  correlation  problems  can  be  now  settled  by  a  single 
standard  alone. 

Chief  Methods. — In  geological  correlation  the  most  important 
of  the  criteria  that  have  been  most  generally  employed  may 
all  be  assigned  to  two  main  groups,  the  biological  or  biotic, 
and  the  physical.  At  one  time  or  another,  each  one  of  the  sub- 
ordinate methods  of  both  groups  has  been  made  all-decisive. 
At  the  present  time  all  of  these  are  used  to  some  extent,  either 
directly  or  indirectly.  These  minor  methods  have  been 
recently  arranged  by  Gilbert*  in  the  following  manner: 

I.     Physical,  through, 

1.  Visible  continuity. 

2.  Lithological  similarity. 

3.  Similarity  of  lithological  sequence. 

4.  Unconformities. 

5.  Simultaneous  relations  of  diverse  deposits  to  some 

physical  event. 

6.  Comparison  of  changes  deposits  have  experienced 

from  the  action  of  geological  processes  supposed 
to  be  continuous. 
//.     Biotic,  through, 

7.  Relative  abundance  of  identical  species. 

8.  Relative    abundance     of     allied    or    representative 

species. 

9.  Comparisons  of  faunas  with  present  life. 
10.     Relations  of  faunas  to  climatic  episodes. 

With  possibly  one  exception  all  the  methods  of  correlation 
which  are  included  in  these  two  catagories  are  strictly  local  in 
their  scope,  though  it  is  the  custom  to  regard  them  as  applying 
widely,  if  not  universally.  For  many  years  general  correla- 
tions have  been  carried  on  almost  entirely  by  the  biotic 
methods.  At  the  present  time  they  predominate  over  all  others. 


*Oong.  geol.  international,  Compte  Rendu,  5me  Sess.,  1891,  pp.  151-155, 1893. 


138  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

and  are,  really,  the  foimdation  of  our  commonly  accepted  sys- 
tem of  geological  synchrony.  However,  it  is  beginning  to  be 
recognized  more  and  more  clearly  that  organic  remains  are  not 
the  all-deciding  factors  in  questions  of  correlation,  that  they 
are,  in  fact,  merely  accidental  characters,  and  that  when 
depended  upon  they  must  always  be  taken  in  connection  with 
physical  features.  In  actual  practice  they  are  regarded  as 
corroborative  evidence  after  the  main  points  of  the  special 
problem  under  consideration  have  been  determined  by  other 
means. 

In  the  recognition  of  these  difticulties  it  was  recently  stated" 
that  all  the  principal  characters,  stratigraphical,  lithological 
and  faunal,  of  every  formation,  were  so  intimately  interrelated 
in  origin  that  the  proper  interpretation  of  any  one  of  the  three 
classes  of  phenomena  presented  should,  under  normal  condi- 
tions, indicate  the  more  salient  features  of  the  other  two, 
but  that,  ordinarily,  great  difticulties  were  encountered  in 
attempting  to  infer  the  entire  geological  history  of  a  series  of 
beds  from  a  single  group  of  facts.  It  was  fully  appreciated 
that  the  geological  records  were  very  imperfect,  but  at  the 
same  time  they  were  not  believed  to  be  nearly  so  fragmentary  as 
generally  supposed,  though  the  larger  part  was,  in  a  great 
measure,  more  or  less  inaccessible;  those  portions  of  the 
lithosphere  that  were  open  to  investigation  were  as  yet  only 
partially  considered.  For  a  long  time  to  come,  the  territory 
open  to  inspection  would  require  constant  study  before  the 
history  could  be  made  even  measurably  complete.  Never- 
theless, at  the  present  time,  it  was  considered  absolutely 
necessary  to  carry  on  investigations,  involving  the  historical 
sequence  of  geological  eveuts,  along  all  three  lines  at  once, 
every  fact  being  needed  to  throw  light  upon  the  general 
scheme.  If  the  problems  were  attacked  in  any  one  of  the  three 
directions  alone,  without  due  regard  for  the  evidence  presented 
by  the  others,  very  different,  and  perhaps  antagonistic, 
conclusions  might  be  reached,  at  least  in  the  present  state 
of  knowledge.  In  the  interpretation,  then,  of  the  geological 
history  of  a  region,  and  in  the  erection  of  a  classification  of 
the  formations  in  accordance  with  that  interpretation,  it 
is  of  prime  importance  to  w^igh  carefully  all  the  evidence 
set  forth  by  the  arrangement,  composition  and  contained 
organic  remains  of  the  rock  series  as  a  whole,  and  of  its 
several  parts  regarded  as  distinct  units. 

*Iowd,  Geol.  Surv.,  Vol  II,  p.  62, 1893. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  139 

Inadequacjf  of  Existing  Methods. — It  has  already  been  intimated 
that  the  basis  of  geological  classification  has  been,  at  various 
times,  in  accordance  with  very  different  standards,  and  that 
these  have  continually  changed.  In  passing  from  one  to 
another,  however,  the  change  has  been  gradual  and  not  abrupt. 
Being  bound  so  inseparably  to  the  past,  it  is  well-nigh  impos- 
sible for  us  to  at  once  cast  aside  old  ideas,  even  after  w^e 
are  fully  convinced  of  their  untrustworthiness.  So,  in  clothing 
new  conceptions  in  words,  we  unconsciously  and  unavoidably 
incorporate  statements  that  are  not  only  deceptive,  but  which 
have  their  foundation  in  error.  Still,  the  expression  of 
the  new  must  be  largely  in  terms  of  the  old.  In  the  dis- 
cussion of  our  standards  of  comparison,  the  old  interpretations 
are  naturally,  yet  unavoidably  rendered,  and  more  or  less 
misunderstanding  necessarily  arises  at  first  in  the  consider- 
ation of  any  new  criterion. 

That  every  standard  yet  suggested  for  the  determination  of 
geological  chronology  has  beeen  inadequate,  when  taken 
singly,  is  conclusively  shown  by  the  practical  tests  that  are 
being  continually  made.  A  satisfactory  solution  to  the  problem 
does  not  appear  to  be  offered  by  any  system  yet  proposed.  It 
has  almost  come  to  be  the  despair  of  investigators. 

A  few  years  ago,  Whitney  and  Wads  worth*  gave  up  all  hope 
of  unraveling  pre- Cambrian  geology  without  the  use  of  fossils. 

Walcott,  f  after  reviewing  the  methods  of  correlation  in  his 
correlation  essay  on  the  Cambrian,  concludes  that  "For  the 
determination  of  synchrony,  except  in  a  limited  area,  there  is 
little  hope  for  satisfactory  conclusions  by  any  method  yet 
devised. '' 

Gilbertt  states  that  at  present  "the  legitimate  use  of  physi- 
cal methods  of  correlation  will  necessarily  be  local  *  «■  * 
The  value  of  a  biotic  group  for  purposes  of  correlation  depends 
(1)  on  the  range  of  its  species  in  time  and  space,  and  (2)  on  the 
extent  to  which  its  representatives  are  preserved. " 

Hughes, §  in  presenting  the  report  of  the  British  subcom- 
mittee on  geological  classification,  clearly  recognizes  the  fact 
that  no  one  criterion  is  sufficient.  "We  must  adopt  the  his- 
torical method  *  *  *  In  geological  history  we  must  class 
together  those  results  which  naturally  hang  together,  which 

*BuU.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  vol.  VII,  p.  563,  1884. 

+U.  S.  Geo].  Sur.,  Bull.  81,  p.  43:h,  1891. 

$Cong-.  geol.  international,  Compte  Rendu,  5me  Sess.,  1891,  p.  153.  1893. 

gCong.  geol.  international,  Compte  Rendu,  4me  Sess.,  1888,  App.  B.,  p.  9,  1891. 


140  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

belong,  more  or  less,  to  one  set  of  conditions  as  shown  by  the 
similarity  of  the  inhabitants,  as  well  as  of  the  country  occupied, 
and  of  the  structures  which  remain;  that  is  of  the  fossils,  the 
stratigraphy  and  petrology  of  the  district.  Our  greater  divi- 
sions must  be  based  on  the  more  complete  changes  and  the 
smaller  upon  the  minor  fluctuations  which  will  be  indicated  only 
by  the  more  sensitive  and  specially  adapted  forms  of  life,  or  by 
the  more  minute  structural  changes.  " 

EXTENSION   OF    THE    USUAL     CRITERIA   TO    GENERAL   APPLICA- 
TION. 

Main  Considerations. — Among  the  various  methods  of  parallel- 
ing strata,  and  in  the  broader  phases  of  their  consideration, 
there  are  certain  points  in  several  of  them  to  which  attention 
should  be  directed.  The  methods  referred  to  are  those  which 
have,  of  late,  received  the  greatest  consideration.  They  may 
be  included  under  the  titles  of  (1)  biological  relationships,  (2) 
unconformity,  (3)  community  of  genesis,  (4)  historical  similar- 
ity, and  (5)  physiographic  development. 

Biol 0(1  ical  Uelationships. — As  the  various  standards  that  have 
been  usually  used  in  geological  correlation  have  been  finally 
found  to  be  useful  only  in  limited  areas,  instead  of  being  world- 
wide, or  even  of  continental  application,  so  also  the  latest  one, 
which  has  so  long  held  prestige,  has  been  found  at  last  to  have 
no  longer  the  unerring  certainty  in  exact  correlation  that  was 
once  claimed  for  it,  and  in  this  respect  to  be  no  longer  keeping 
pace  with  the  advance  of  geological  science.  Like  the  other 
methods  or  schemes,  it  too  is  having  its  usefulness  restricted 
to  limited  districts,  and  to  be  relegated  to  the  subordinate  posi- 
tion of  a  local  criterion.  Its  accuracy  remained  unquestioned 
in  the  absence  of  more  reliable  criteria  with  which  to  check  its 
results.  With,  however,  the  advent  of  more  refined  methods 
of  working,  its  unreliability  in  exact  general  correlation  has 
become  very  manifest.  As  a  striking  example,  stands  the 
eastern  sea-board  of  the  United  States.  Of  it,  McGee  says  that 
"nearly  as  much  information  concerning  the  geological  history 
of  the  Atlantic  slope,  has  been  obtained  from  the  topographic 
configuration  of  the  region  within  two  years  as  was  gathered 
from  the  sediments  of  the  coastal  plain  and  their  contained 
fossils  in  two  generations.  " 

It  has  come  to  be  widely  recognized  that  there  are  no  more 
grounds  for  the  claim  that  the  succession  of  organic  forms  and 
faunas  is  an  expression  of  the  geological  course  of  events  and 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  141 

that  it  is  the  same  the  world  over,  than  are  the  claims  of  the 
old  Wernerian  ideas  of  general  sequence,  based  upon  litholog- 
ical  similarity.  The  element  of  error  is  identical  in  both.  It 
is  an  assumed  premise.  Both  the  lithological  and  faunal 
characters  must  be  regarded  as  largely  accidental  attributes  of 
strata,  and  therefore  cannot  have  the  impeccable  classif acatory 
values  once  ascribed  to  them. 

The  formulation  of  the  weakness  of  fossil  criteria  in  general 
correlation  may  be  passed  over  here.  They  are  fully  noted  in 
the  conclusions  of  Huxley,.  Irving,  Van  Hise,  McGee,  Walcott, 
Brooks  and  others.  The  very  basis  of  the  method  is  highly 
variable,  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  lithological  character. 

The  preeminent  position  which  paleontology  has  long  held 
in  geology,  has  been  in  great  part  due  to  its  biological  rela- 
tions, or  environment.  It  has  formed  one  of  two  chief  lines  of 
inquiry  into  one  of  the  most  important  and  most  absorbing 
philosophical  questions  of  the  century.  So  overpowering  has 
been  its  influence  in  stratigraphy,  that  it  even  has  been  urged 
that  there  can  be  no  scheme  of  geological  chronology  which  is 
not  based  upon  it.  As  a  science,  paleontology  had  its  rise  in 
geology,  though  it  is  really  a  department  of  biology,  and  the 
vast  expansion  that  it  has  undergone  still  closer  welds  it  to 
the  latter  science.  The  whole  tendency  of  its  development,  of 
late  years,  has  been  towards  the  biological  side.  Its  use,  in 
strictly  geological  work,  has  become  more  and  more  restricted 
and  overshadowed  by  the  physical  sciences  which  offer  a 
broader  foundation.  Without  the  slightest  disparagement  to 
its  good  offices  in  the  past,  it  may  be  said  that  it  can  never 
have  the  exalted  place  in  geology  that  it  once  had,  though  it 
will  ever  be  of  use  in  practical  local  stratigraphy,  especially 
when  taken  in  connection  with  other  data 

Another  reason  why  paleontology  long  had  such  an  unpre- 
cedented influence  upon  geology  is  that  it  was  so  thoroughly 
permeated  with  pre  Darwinian  ideas  of  repeated  creations  and 
of  sudden  extinction  of  species  and  faunas.  Hence  no  cor- 
relations, either  local  or  over  broad  areas,  have  ever  been 
precise,  apparently,  nor,  in  the  absence  of  facts  to  the  contrary, 
has  the  equivalencies  of  strata  widely  separated  geographically 
been  determined  so  positively,  as  those  made  out  a  generation 
or  two  ago.  Even  to-day  geological  correlations  rest  practi- 
cally unchanged  on  these  manifestly  insecure  foundations. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  when  William 


142  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

Smith*  explained  a  method  whereby  the  different  strata  could 
be  recognized  by  the  fossils  which  they  contained,  organic 
remains  have  been  the  foundation  of  all  geological  classifica- 
tions. Of  late  years,  when  other  methods  have  been  devised, 
numerous  discrepancies  have  arisen  between  the  conclusions  to 
be  deduced  from  two  sets  of  facts,  and  the  question  has  begun 
to  arise  on  all  sides  as  to  just  how  far  the  fossils  can  be  relied 
upon  in  the  correlation  of  geological  formations.  Huxley,  t 
recognizing  the  fact  that  exact  synchrony  could  not  be 
established  by  means  of  fossils,  projjosed  the  term,  homotaxis, 
indicating  similarity  and  not  time-equivalency  of  organic  con- 
tents. Irving,  J  and  later  Van  Hise,§  and  others,  working 
in  very  ancient,  non-fossiliferous  rocks  were  obliged  to  swing 
loose  altogether  from  the  use  of  organic  remains.  McGee,  ||  in 
discussing  the  subject,  concludes  that,  in  correlating  by  means 
of  fossils,  '  it  is  the  weakness  of  the  method  that  many 
rocks  are  too  poor  in  fossils  to  be  correlated  thereby;  that 
formations  may  be  homotaxial  yet  not  contemporaneous,  and 
vice  verm\  that  fossil  facies  represent  the  product  of  two  prin- 
cipal factors,  of  which  one  (environment)  is  so  varia'^>le  under 
local  conditions,  that  the  product  is  inconstant  among  the 
minor  rock  divisions,  and  that  the  geologic  chronometers 
afforded  by  fossil  plants,  fossil  invertebrates,  and  fossil 
vertebrates,  respectively,  give  unlike  time  units  and,  some- 
times discordant  readings.  Today  the  larger  groups  are 
contidently  correlated  by  paleontology;  but  leading  American 
geologists  no  longer  accept  identity  of  fossil  facies  as  final 
proof  of  equivalence  among  the  minor  rock  divisions." 

In  his  correlation  essay  on  the  ' '  Cambrian  of  North  Amer- 
ica, "  Walcott*!  not  only  says,  as  already  stated,  that  "for  the 
determination  of  synchrony,  except  in  a  limited  area,  there  is 
little  hope  for  satisfactory  conclusions  by  any  methods  yet 
devised,"  but  in  referring  to  paleontology  in  particular, 
remarks  that  "all  paleontologic  reasoning  is  based  upon 
known  data.  By  the  discovery  of  a  new  grouping  of  fossils,  or 
a  different  range  of  known  species,  the  identification  of 
horizons  may  be  materially  modified. "     As  coming  from  the 


*Geol.  Table  British  Org.  Foss.,  1815. 

■t-Quart.  Jour.  Geol.  Sic.  London,  Vol.  XVII 1,  p.  14,  1862. 

*U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.,  7th  Ann.  Rept.,  pp.  365-451,  1888. 

§U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.,  Bull.  86,  pp.  511-534.  1892. 

II Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  (3).  Vol.  XL,  p.  36, 1890. 

"U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.,  Bull.  81,  p.  423, 1891. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  143 

chief  of  American  paleontologists,  the  recent  utterances  of  H. 
S.  Williams*  are  full  of  meaning :  ' '  And  now  the  modern  school 
of  paleontologists  are  demonstrating  the  fact  that  the  divisional 
lines  of  the  biologic  or  time  scale  do  not  correspond  to  those  of 
the  stratigraphic  scale,  but  are  determined  by  independent 
factors."  So  diverse  are  the  divisions  suggested  by  the  fossils 
in  the  time  scale  from  those  indicated  by  the  stratigraphy 
in  the  formation  scale,  that  the  same  author  saw  the  necessity 
of  a  dual  nomenclature;!  of  a  distinct  set  of  names  for  the 
members  of  the  two  scales. 

In  this  connection,  also  there  may  be  mentioned  a  discussion 
on  the  character  of  fossil  evidence,  by  Brooks|;.  It  is  espe- 
cially noteworthy  as  coming  from  a  biologist,  and  is  from  a 
standpoint  that  is  not  and  cannot  well  be  considered  by 
the  average  paleontologist.  Although  it  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  discussion,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  proof  is  con- 
clusive that  the  fossils  do  not  indicate  the  great  antiquity 
of  life  that  they  are  generally  thought  to,  as  deduced  from  the 
chief  argument:  that  at  the  time  of  the  earliest  Cambrian  forms 
life  was  already  fully  nine-tenths  differentiated.  It  is  shown 
that  differentiation  of  life  goes  on  with  great  rapidity  along  the 
shore,  and  more  or  less  independently  in  different  localities,  on 
account  of  the  fierce  struggle  for  existence.  The  suggestive - 
ness  of  the  statement  is  startling;  at  a  single  stroke  it  prac- 
tically deprives  the  fossils  of  the  greater  part  of  their  value  as 
trustworthy  elements  for  general  correlation, and  relegates  the 
whole  method  to  the  same  rank  as  correlation  by  lithology,  or 
similar  succession  The  recent  trend  of  paleontological 
progress  has  been  rapidly  in  the  direction  of  biology,  rather 
than  towards  geology,  but  the  effect  of  Brooks'  suggestion 
is  to  remove  it  almost  entirely  from  the  latter  field  and  to 
transfer  it  to  the  former.  As  in  the  case  of  certain  of  the 
other  criteria  of  geological  correlation,  the  usage  of  fossils 
becomes  largely  local. 

The  weakest  point  of  all  in  general  correlation  by  means  of 
fossils  is  the  great  complexity  of  the  problem  surrounding  dis- 
tribution of  organisms  in  space.  The  intricacy  of  the  laws 
governing  the  geographic  range  of  animals  and  plants,  at  the 
present  time,  is  only  understood  in  the  most  general  way  and 


*U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.,  BuU.  80,  p.  267,  1891. 
+Journal  Geology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  145-160, 1894. 
Uournal  Geolog-y,  Vol.  II,  pp,  455-479,  1894. 


14 1  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

scarcely  yet  capable  of  unraveling.  How  infinitely  greater  are 
the  difficulties  when  not  only  space  is  to  be  considered  but  dis- 
tribution in  time  as  well,  and  ail  with  material  that  at  best  is 
but  fragmentary.     No  biologist  would  have  attempted  it. 

Uxconfontiify. — In  its  widest  sense  an  unconformity  is  any 
discordance  in  sedimentation  in  which  younger  beds  reposing 
upon  older  rocks  give  evidence  of  no  direct  connection,  of 
interrupted  deposition,  or  of  a  change  in  the  prevailing  physi- 
cal conditions  whereby  nonparallelism  is  developed  in  the 
stratification  planes  of  the  two  formations.  The  phenomenon 
carries  with  it  the  idea  of  more  or  less  pronounced  warping  of 
the  older  strata  before  the  younger  are  laid  down.  In  a  some- 
what narrower  sense,  and  in  the  one  that  it  is  perhaps  most 
generally  used,  unconformity  implies  a  tilting  of  the  strata, their 
elevation  above  sea-level,  and  subjection  to  more  or  less  pro- 
found erosion  before  being  covered  by  the  younger  sediments. 

The  irregularity  in  the  juncture  between  two  uncomformable 
formations  is,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  a  well  defined  line 
denoting  a  break  in  the  continuity  of  conditions.  In  Europe, 
where  modern  stratigraphical  science  originated,  the  time-gaps 
indicated  by  unconformities  have  been  regarded  chiefly  from  a 
biological  rather  than  a  physical  standpoint.  The  full  sig- 
nificance of  the  interruption  in  sedimentation  has  not  been 
appreciated  so  much  in  its  bearing  upon  the  conditions  which 
could  have  given  rise  to  such  effects,  as  in  its  production  of  a 
well-marked  hiatus  in  the  faunal  successions,  or  rather,  by  the 
introduction  of  entirely  new  faunas,  perhaps,  in  the  younger 
beds  above.  In  the  European  countries  also,  the  abrupt  faunal 
breaks  have  been  at  the  foundation  of  the  separation  of  geo- 
logical history  into  its  grander  divisions,  and  of  the  strata  into 
systems.  In  America  the  attempt  to  transfer  the  classification 
of  Europe  has  not  proved  so  successful,  and  the  application  of 
the  same  principles  does  not  find  the  great  gaps  in  the  same 
places.     The  inferences  are  obvious. 

As  a  purely  physical  feature,  application  of  unconformity  to 
anything  smaller  than  the  great  systems,  has  usually  been  sub- 
ordinated to  the  faunal  or  lithological  criteria.  It  has  been 
done,  however,  in  a  few  cases  with  success;  though  not  in  such 
a  way  as  to  attract  very  much  attention. 

Although  marked  physical  breaks  in  the  continuity  of  sedi- 
mentation have,  from  time  to  time,  received  some  a'.tention  in 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  145 

problems  of  correlation,  it  remained  for  Irving*  to  point  out  its 
great  value  in  the  classification  of  the  nonfossiliferous,  pre- 
Cambrian  rocks  of  the  Lake  Superior  region.  The  practical 
use  of  this  criterion  in  stratigraphy  was  also  later  invoked  in 
the  consideration  of  the  Carboniferous  of  the  Mississippi 
valley  f 

The  special  stress  laid  by  Irving  on  the  value  of  unconformi- 
ties as  a  basis  for  geological  classification,  has  a  wide  bearing. 
In  the  application  of  the  principle  to  the  region  that  was 
Tinder  consideration,  it  was  shown  that  unconformities  were 
the  most  important  of  all  criteria  in  resolving  into  its  grander 
subdivisions,  a  vast  sequence  of  crystalline  rocks,  which,  as  in 
the  case  of  other  similar  masses,  had  defied  all  attempts  of  sat- 
isfactory arrangement  and  correlation.  Had  Irving  not  been 
so  untimely  called  from  his  field  of  labor,  he  might  have  possi- 
bly expanded  his  theme  so  that  it  would  be  of  much  wider,  if 
not  of  universal  application.  It  is  not  that  he  was  the  first  to 
suggest  the  use  of  unconformities  in  delimiting  the  grander 
geological  formations,  for  this,  at  the  present  time,  is  essenti- 
ally the  real  foundation  of  our  accepted  geological  classifica- 
tion. Other  criteria,  however,  have  so  overshadowed  this  one, 
that  the  fact  of  its  ever  having  assumed  an  important  role  is 
well-nigh  lost  sight  of,  and  consequently  the  physical 
breaks  in  stratigraphical  succession  excite  little  attention, 
except  as  interpreted  by  fossils.  Their  true  significance  is 
now  very  nearly,  if  not  completely,  overlooked. 

In  the  absence  of  fossils,  Irving  was  actually  driven  to  the 
use  of  purely  physical  methods  in  dealing  with  the  metamor- 
phosed rocks.  All  attempts  to  arrange  the  latter  systemat- 
ically, except  upon  faunal  grounds,  had  been  given  up  as  use- 
less. In  other  regions,  many  writers  before  him  had  con- 
sidered the  phenomenon  of  marked  discordant  sedimentation 
as  a  structural  feature,  and  had  actually  gone  so  far  as  to 
regard  unconformities  as  not  only  of  regional,  but  even  of 
intercontinental,  extent.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  a 
very  large  number  who  believed  that  unconformities,  at  best, 
were  only  local  phenomena  and,  therefore,  of  small  importance 
in  stratigraphy.  It  was  Irving's  particular  mission  to 
determine  how  far  unconformities  could  be  relied  upon,  in  a 
limited  district,  to  point  out  clearly  that  in  some  cases  they 

*U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.,  Seventh  Ann.  Rep.,  pp.  437-439. 1888. 

+BuU.  Geol.  Soc.  American,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  283-300,  1892;  and  Iowa  Geol.  Sur.,  Vol.  II,  p. 

10 


146  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

were  of  very  wide,  and  in  other  cases  of  very  limited  extent, 
and,  in  the  geological  classification  of  the  non-fossiliferous 
rocks  of  a  whole  province,  to  propose  a  plan  in  which  uncon- 
formities occupied  a  prominent  place  Short  though  the 
period  has  been,  since  Irving 's  time,  there  has  sprung  into 
existence  a  new  department  of  geological  inquiry,  that  not 
only  reads  later  geological  history  in  the  geographical  forms 
presented,  but  gives  an  entirely  new  insight  into  the  real 
significance  of  uncomformable  relations  between  the  older 
rock  masses.  The  bringing  in  of  the  geographic  aids,  to 
unravel  stratigraphy,  finds  a  hearty  support  and  a  wide 
expression.  It  is  in  the  extension  of  Irving  "s  theme,  as  out- 
lined under  the  guidance  of  modern  geographic  interpretation, 
that  stratigraphy  is  believed  to  have  found  a  rational  and 
practical  method  of  correlation  and  classification  that,  in  its 
fundamental  concepts,  is  entirely  independent  of  the  usual  and 
almost  universal  paleontologic  standard.  The  specific  appli- 
cations are  referred  to  in  another  place. 

('o)itjiitmlty  of  Geneais. — Correlation  by  community  of  genesis 
is  a  "simple  application  of  the  well  known  principles  (1),  that 
geologic  processes  may  be  inferred  from  their  products,  and 
(2),  that  geologic  processes  are  universally  inter-related."  It 
is  a  method  that  was  elaborated  by  McGee*  for  the  more 
recent  deposits  of  the  coastal  plain  of  eastern  United  States. 
In  its  more  mature  statement,  f  correlation  by  this  principle 
"becomes  a  juxtaposition  of  episodes  or  is  a  correlation  by 
historical  similarity. " 

"The  applicatioQ  of  this  mode  of  correlation  involves  such  astudy  of 
agencies  and  conditions  of  geologic  action  as  to  enable  the  geologist  to 
determine  provisionally  the  origin  of  each  phenomenon  examined,  whether 
deposit  or  topographic  feature,  formation  or  land  form:  and  the  subsequent 
comparisons  involved  in  the  correlation  are  comparisons  of  genetic  records, 
which  may  be  made  in  such  manner  as  to  eliminate  the  incongruous  and 
preserve  the  congruous,  and  thereby  develop  a  consistent  history  for  the 
entire  province  under  examination.  This  method  has  already  been  charac- 
terized as  homogenic,  i.  e.,  correlation  by  homogeny,  or  identification  by 
origin. 

' '  In  the  practical  app'  ication  of  the  method,  the  deposits  of  given  sections 
and  circumscribed  areas  are  first  correlated  empirically  by  visible  con- 
tinuity and  lithologic  similarity,  and  to  some  extent  by  similarity  of 
sequence,  in  order  that  their  relations  may  be  generalized;  next,  the 
agencies  of  genesis  are  inferred  from  the  materials  of  the  deposits  viewed 
individually  and  collectively;   then  the  unconformities  and  pebble-beds, 

*  Am  .lour.  Sci.,  (3),  Vol.  XL,  p.  36, 1890. 

tCong  geol.  ioternational,  Sme  Sess.,  p.  164,  1893. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OP  SCIENCES.  147 

with  other  aberrant  phenomena,  are  generalized,  and  from  them,  in  con- 
nection with  the  normal  deposits,  the  conditions  of  genesis  {i.  c  ,  the  atti- 
tude of  land,  proximity  of  rivery,  etc.)  are  inferred.  By  these  means  a 
tangible  and  definite  picture  of  the  topography,  geography  and  geologic 
agencies  of  the  area  is  produced:  and  the  various  inferred  features  are 
tested  by  their  consistency  and  the  inconsistent  eliminated  or  withheld  for 
more  extended  comparison.  Then  the  history  of  the  contiguous  area  is 
wrought  out  in  similar  fashion  and  the  episodes  are  compared  severally 
and  jointly,  and  the  deposits  and  unconformities  are  interpi^eted  in  the 
light  of  this  comparison.  The  comparison  is  eventually  extended  to  other 
portions  of  the  province  and  to  the  eontiguous  provinces,  and  in  each  area 
the  significance  of  the  sum  of  phenomena  is  sought  and  the  inferred  his- 
tories are  generalized  by  combination  of  the  congruous  and  elimination  of 
the  incongruous  until  finally  the  history  of  a  given  period  throughout  the 
entire  province  is  interpreted  in  terms  of  episodes  each  inferred  from  the 
sum  of  phenomena  representing  the  period." 

As  orig'inally  suggested  correlation  by  homogeny  had  long 
been  in  general  use,  in  one  phase  or  another,  but  the  method 
had  lacked  definite  formulation.  Its  main  distinctive  features 
were  in  emphasizing  the  importance  of  the  recognition  of  a 
commitant  period  of  land  degradation,  with  each  period  of 
deposition  and  in  the  inference  of  the  agencies  from  the 
materials  of  deposition.  As  set  forth  in  its  latest  form,  the 
theory  has  been  so  expanded  that  its  vei^y  name  loses  its 
significance  and  becomes  a  misnomer.  Instead  of  designating 
a  method  of  correlation  it  is  a  synonym  of  geological  history 
itself.  Its  foundation  is  entirely  new  from  what  it  was  in  the 
beginning  and  its  distinctions  are  taken  almost  out  of  the  realm 
of  observational  science  and  are  placed  in  the  metaphysical. 

In  its  most  acceptable  form,  it  is  a  special  case  of  a  more 
general  proposition,  in  which  refinement  of  determination  is 
carried  out  far  beyond  a  point  where  the  method  can  be  of 
general  utility  in  geological  work.  With  the  older  formations 
its  use  will  be  very  limited.  It  is  better  adapted  to  the  latest 
deposits,  but  even  among  these  its  olfice  will  be  necessarily 
restricted,  for  with  its  practical  use  there  is  postulated  com- 
paratively little  effacement  of  the  geological  record  of  the 
region.  Moreover,  it  is  a  method  that  is  local  in  application 
and  not  general.  As  in  the  cases  of  lithological  similarity,  the 
biotic,  and  most  other  methods  that  have  been  commonly  used, 
it  makes  no  provision  for  correlation  of  provinces  the  geologi- 
cal histories  of  which  have  been  not  similar,  but  dissimilar. 

Historical  Similarity. — Practically,  this  method  has  been  in 
use  for  a  long  time,  though  not  always  clearly  emphasized. 


148  IOWA  ACADEMY    OF   SCIENCES. 

It  begins  to  show  itself  in  the  adoption  of  more  than  one 
method  of  correlation.  In  its  latest  significance,  the  term  has 
come  to  cover  the  united  conclusions  derived  from  all  methods 
of  correlation.  At  first  glance  the  method  has  much  merit; 
but  further  consideration  brings  out  the  same  fatal  defects,  in 
its  application  to  general  problems,  that  are  apparent  in  the 
older  and  more  widely  used  methods.  It  is  essentially  local  in 
its  extension,  and  hence  is  on  the  same  plane  as  the  individual 
methods  it  brings  together.  It  fails  to  parallel  the  strata  of 
provinces  of  different  geological  origin. 

Fhi/sior/raphic  Develoinnent. — The  modern  physiographic  prin- 
ciples, as  enumerated  by  Davis,*  Gilbert f  and  others,  have  an 
important  bearing  upon  geological  correlation.  Their  direct 
application,  however,  is  confined  to  only  the  later  formations. 
Their  chief  value  lies  in  the  suggestions  ihey  have  made 
regarding  the  real  basis  of  geological  classifications  and  corre- 
lations, and  in  showing  conclusively  that  a  general  considera- 
tion of  the  problems  is  not  to  be  sought  in  any  one  of  the 
criteria  yet  set  forth.  The  fundamental  principle  that  is  of 
such  prime  importance  to  stratigraphical  geology  is  that  with 
each  marked  uprising  of  the  land  surface  there  are  produced 
phenomena  which  are  as  ineffaceably  impressed  upon  the 
portion  of  the  earth's  crust  above  the  sea,  as  is  deposition 
itself  below  the  water  level.  The  final  reduction,  through 
erosion  of  the  elevated  land  surface,  to  a  more  or  less  even 
plain  lying  but  little  above  the  sea,  the  formation  of  a  pene- 
plain, is  a  phase  in  the  geological  development  of  the  region, 
the  full  force  of  which  has  been  until  recently  entirely  over- 
looked. When  the  lowland  plain  is  depressed  below  tide  level 
and  covered  by  sediments,  unconformable  relations  of  the  two 
formations  are  produced,  but  the  line  of  unconformity,  instead 
of  indicating  merely  an  hiatus,  or  blank  gap,  devoid  of  inter- 
est, represents  a  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  region  that  is 
even  more  pregnant  of  eventful  happenings  than  those 
recorded  by  the  contiguous  formations  that  were  formed 
during  the  same  period.  The  time -gap,  and  not  the  forma- 
tions, are,  therefore,  the  all-important  features  in  marking  off 
the  ages,  epochs  and  periods  of  geological  history.  The  latter 
stand  for  continuity  of  record;  the  former  for  interruptions 
which  render  a  classification  possible. 


*Nat.  Geog.  Mag.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  183-253,  1889. 
+  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.,  Mon.  I,  pp.  393-403,  1890. 


IOWA  ACADEMY    OF   SCIENCES.  149 

Correlation  by  comi^arison  of  the  stages  of  physiographic 
development  is  highly  important,  and  fertile  of  exact  results 
in  the  later  deposits,  but  it  cannot  be  extended  directly  to  the 
older  formations,  though  the  principle  is  of  first  importance. 

CORRELATION    OF    PROVINCES    OF    DISSIMILAR   HISTORY. 

Since  sedimentation  goes  on  most  actively  along  the  borders 
of  the  great  land  masses  of  the  globe,  it  is  mainly  a  function  of 
continental  growth  and  decline.  Its  most  important  relation  is 
with  the  shore-line,  for  the  latter  marks  the  boundary  along 
which  the  process  goes  on.  On  the  one  side  materials  are  being 
continually  prepared  to  be  carried  away;  on  the  other  they  are 
being  deposited.  To  rising  or  sinking  of  the  land  with  refer- 
ence to  the  sea,  or  to  the  continual  advance  or  retreat  of  the 
shore-line,  are  to  be  ascribed  all  the  widespread  changes  in 
the  character  of  the  deposits  thrown  down  in  any  particular 
place,  and  it  is  the  variations  in  level,  chiefly,  that  give  rise  to 
the  intricate  succession  of  lithologically  different  layers. 

The  immediate  causes  for  the  changes  between  the  relations 
of  the  land  and  sea  areas  are  to  be  sought  in  orogenic  and 
epeirogenic  movements.  As  the  two  kinds  of  movements  can- 
not be  readily  separated  practically,  and  as  it  is  of  small 
advantage  to  separate  them  theoretically,  the  results  produced 
may  be  all  regarded  as  arising  from  the  one  cause,  from  moun- 
tain-making forces. 

The  greatest  and  most  abrupt  changes  in  sedimentation,  and 
consequently  in  lithological,  stratigraphical  and  f  aunal,  and  in 
fact  all  characters,  are  those  connected  directly  with  diastatic 
changes,  producing  depression  of  some  land  areas  below  sea 
level,  and  the  uprising  of  other  districts  above  the  level  at 
which  they  once  stood,  forming  those  great  surface  features 
called  mountains.  Geological  chronology,  therefore,  is  believed 
to  find  a  rational  basis  in  the  same  processes  that  are  involved 
in  the  genesis  of  mountain  systems,  and  it  is  proposed  to  mark 
off  the  leading  subdivisions  of  geological  time,  and  strati- 
graphical  succession,  in  accordance  with  the  cycles  of  oro- 
graphic development,  calling  the  classification  a  systematic 
arrangement  by  mountains,  and  the  principle  orotaxis  By  the 
term  mountain  is  meant,  not  alone  those  geographic  features 
which  at  the  present  time  are  so  conspicuous  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  but  also  all  of  those  structures  which  have  in  the 
past    been   prominent   characters   in   the   surface   relief,    and 


150  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

which  are  still  geotectonically  mountains,  though  they  have 
been  completely  base-leveled,  and  have  been  long  since  buried 
beneath  later  sediments.  With  these  old  mountains  the 
cycles  of  orogenic  development  are  properly  regarded  as 
beginning  at  the  time  when  the  strata  were  compressed,  and  as 
extending  through  the  periods  when  they  were  bowed  up,  then 
planed  off  nearly  to  sea  level,  and  submerged  perhaps,  until 
degradational  products  were  deposited  upon  their  upturned 
edges.  The  record  of  the  completed  cycle  of  mountain- making 
is  the  measure  of  orotaxial  chronology.  The  division  planes 
cutting  the  geological  column  into  systems,  series,  or  smaller 
groups  are,  theoretically  as  well  as  actually,  the  lines  of 
unconformities.  In  the  case  of  the  more  extensive,  they  no 
doubt  represent  base- leveled  surfaces  or  peneplains 

In  all  cases,  great  or  small,  the  erosion  plane  and  period  of 
degradation  of  the  land  has  its  equivalent  in  the  sea,  in  an 
accumulation  of  sediments.  An  ancient  plane  of  unconformity, 
as  it  is  now  open  to  observation,  may  pass  gradually  into  a 
great  plane  of  sedimentation.  In  the  grander  unconformities, 
in  which  the  plain  of  discordant  sedimentation  represents 
essentially  an  old  peneplain,  the  corresponding  stratum  which 
was  deposited  in  the  sea  area  is  usually  a  limestone.  In  fact, 
most  limestone  formations  are  now  looked  upon  as  represent- 
ing deposition  during  periods  when  the  land  adjoining  was  a 
graded  surface,  or  a  plain  of  faint  relief  lying  but  little  above 
sea  level  This  being  the  case,  all  unconformities  have  much 
greater  significance  than  heretofore  suspected. 

These  surfaces  of  unconformity  and  their  representative 
great  planes  of  sedimentation  are  the  only  absolute  datum 
planes  from  which  the  measurement  of  formations  can  be 
estimated.  Theoretically  the  formation  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  a  fixed  and  clearly  defined  unit;  in  practice  it  is 
found  to  be  ill-defined  and  incapable  of  definition  in  any  but 
the  vaguest  terms.  But  from  the  datum  plane  of  the  uncon- 
formity a  new  sequence  of  strata  begins,  sharply  and  clearly 
set  off  from  the  formations  below.  Many,  and  perhaps  most, 
of  the  sharp  lines  of  divisions  are  now  effaced  over  much  of 
the  existing  land  surface,  but  in  this  respect  the  record  is  not 
more  imperfect  than  any  other,  for  the  formations  themselves 
have  been  swept  away.  The  longer  a  land  area  has  remained 
above  sea  level,  the  greater  is  the  liability  of  the  records  of 
the  earlier  events  being  lost.     Over  other  districts  in  which 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  151 

sedimentation  has  gone  on  without  material  interruption  dur- 
ing an  even  protracted  orogenic  movement,  the  line  for  delimit- 
ing the  various  formations  may  not  always  be  clearly  discern- 
ible and  might  not,  with  existing  data,  be  recognized;  but  with 
the  detailed  mapping  of  the  country  by  the  various  official 
geological  surveys,  the  materials  are  either  at  hand,  or  soon 
will  be,  for  sharply  defining  all  the  places  where  the  lines 
of  demarkation  should  be  properlj  drawn.  These  lines,  when 
once  made  out,  and  when  once  properly  considered,  are  as  far- 
reaching,  and  as  universal  in  application,  as  those  of  any 
classificatory  system  probably  ever  can  be  made.  Where  the 
sequence  of  events  has  been  continuous,  lines  drawn  through 
the  very  middle  of  a  rock  succession  are  not  entirely  arbitrary, 
but  in  accord  with  the  history  more  clearly  recorded  else- 
where. 

While  orogenic  movements  vary  greatly,  both  in  intensity  and 
extent,  they  are  probably  as  wide  reaching  in  their  effects 
as  any  one  regional  force  can  be  that  is  of  use  in  geological 
chronology.  They  may  be  rarely  or  never  continental  —  cer- 
tainly not  world-wide  in  extent  —  but  the  different  parts  of 
a  given  continent  may  be  successively  and  repeatedly  affected  so 
that  a  given  region  may  be  subjected  to  the  influences  from 
several  centers  of  activity.  The  records  of  these  movements 
for  the  continents  thus  overlap  and  interlock  in  such  a  manner 
that  from  all  a  moderately  complete  network  is  evolved,  upon 
which  may  be  arranged,  in  proper  chronological  position, 
the  minor  episodes.  With  the  comparison  of  different  continents, 
the  difficulties  are  greater,  but  there  are  some  lines  which 
surely  can  be  found  that  are  common  to  both,  just  as  in  the 
case  of  the  various  provinces  of  a  single  continent. 

In  coming  down  to  the  lesser  stratigraphical  groups,  as  the 
series,  the  stages  and  their  subdivisions,  the  various  sub- 
ordinate or  local  criteria  of  correlation  may  be  applied  in 
defining  the  several  members.  The  leading  considerations  are 
the  geographical  distribution,  the  lithological  characters,  the 
stratigraphical  delimitation,  and  biological  definition.  In 
dwelling  upon  the  main  characters  of  each  stratigraphical 
unit,  all  the  physical  history  must  be  incorporated. 

In  proposing  the  term  orotaxis,  denotive  of  the  essential 
feature  in  the  scheme  of  geological  classification  and  chronology 
above  outlined,  it  is  not  with  the  idea  of  advancing  an  hypothe- 
sis  that   is   entirely   new,    but   rather   of   formulating  into   a 


152  IOWA  ACADEMY   OP   SCIENCES. 

connected  whole  a  number  of  views  which  have  long  been 
known,  somewhat  vaguely  as  a  rule,  perhaps,  yet  which  are  in 
fact,  to  a  certain  degree  at  least,  the  real  foundation  of 
systematic  geology.  It  is  the  christening  of  the  scheme  with  a 
title  in  which  the  governing  causes  of  sedimentation  are  recog- 
nized, in  which  the  elements  rendering  possible  any  systematic 
arrangement  are  brought  into  due  jn'ominence,  and  in  which  an 
old  principle  is  greatly  extended  in  its  application,  and  is 
relieved  of  much  of  that  which  has  so  long  overshadowed  it. 

In  general  geological  classification,  about  the  only  attempt  in 
which  the  orotaxial  principle  has  shown  itself  in  the  past, 
is  in  demarkation  of  the  grand  divisions  or  systems,  and  the 
events  are  commonly  referred  to  as  geological  revolutions. 
The  nearest  approach  to  the  practical  application  of  the  idea,  in 
some  of  its  phases,  has  been  by  Irving,*  in  his  work  on 
the  pre-Cambrian  crystallines  of  the  Northwest,  in  which 
unconformities  are  given  great  prominence;  by  McGee,t  in 
his  investigations  of  the  coastal  plain  deposits  of  the  middle 
Atlantic  slope,  in  which  similarity  of  origin,  or  homogeny,  is 
the  governing  factor;  and  by  DavisJ  and  others  in  their  physi- 
ographic work,  in  which  periods  of  base-leveling  are  made  the 
all-important  features  in  the  cycles  of  land  degradation  and  the 
consequent  sedimentation  in  adjoining  seas. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Proceeding  upon  the  suggestions  that  have  just  been  made, 
the  principles  of  general  correlation  may  be  more  clearly  shown 
by  the  construction  of  a  chart  (plate  vi)  representing  a  section 
across  the  North  American  continent,  in  an  east  and  west 
direction,  as  for  instance  from  Richmond  to  San  Francisco.  In 
a  diagrammatic  representation  of  this  kind,  the  geographic 
provinces  are  cut  off  by  vertical  lines,  and  the  geological 
systems  by  horizontal  ones,  the  latter  being  separated  by  dis- 
tances approximately  proportional  to  the  estimated  time  inter- 
val. The  skeletal  chart  stands  for  continuous  and  uninter- 
rupted geological  history  of  the  continent  and  the  stratigraphi- 
cal  succession  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  formations.  In 
the  proper  places  are  indicated  some  of  the  principal  physical 


*IJ.  S.  Geol.  Sur.,  7th  Ann.  Rept.,  p.  378, 1888. 
+Am.  Joup.  Sci.,  (3),  Vol.  XL,  pp.  36-41,  1890. 
*Nat.  Geog.  Mag.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  183-253, 1889. 


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Mississippi 

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154  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

breaks  in  sedimentation,  or  the  leading  cycles  of  mountain- 
making  activity.  These  are  essentially  the  horizons  of  uncon- 
formities, and  they  are  extended  laterally  across  as  much 
territory  as  they  approximately  affected.  A  large  number  of 
less  important  unconformities  are  known.  The  whole,  when 
thus  arranged,  forms  an  interlocking  series  of  absolute  datum 
planes  by  which  may  be  paralleled  all  geological  sections. 

The  present  scheme  is  based  upon  our  present  plan  of 
geological  chronology.  In  the  main  this  is  unchanged,  though 
there  is,  doubtless,  a  considerable  element  of  error  that  will 
have  to  be  eliminated  as  the  more  exact  determinations  of 
parallelism  are  made  out.  The  larger  divisions  or  systems 
may  be  left  very  nearly  the  same  as  they  are  now.  The  minor 
subdivisions  which  cannot  now  be  brought  into  juxtaposition, 
can  readily  be  placed  in  the  general  scale.  This  appears  to  be 
one  of  the  advantages  recommending  such  a  scheme. 


A  PRELIMINARY   LIST    OF   THE    MOSSES  OF   IOWA. 

BY   T.    E     SAVAGE. 

The  mosses  together  with  the  Hepatica3  or  liverworts  con- 
stitute the  group  of  plants  known  as  the  Bryophytes.  This 
group  is  distinguished  from  the  Thallophytes,  by  the  fact  that 
they  present  two  modes  of  reproduction,  the  sexual  and  the 
asexual,  which  occur  in  regular  alternation.  This  gives  rise  to 
what  is  called  alternation  of  generations.  Most  bryophytes 
also  exhibit  a  very  fair  differentiation  as  between  stem  and  leaf. 

The  spore  of  the  moss,  on  germinating,  produces  a  many- 
celled,  branching  filament  containing  chlorophyl,  the  protonema. 
From  the  protonema  are  developed  colorless  rhizoids,  which 
penetrate  the  substratum,  and  buds  which  produce  the  stem  or 
leafy  axis  of  the  plant.  At  the  apices  of  the  stems,  or  of  the 
small  lateral  branches,  are  borne  the  sexual  organs,  the 
antheridia  and  archegonia.  Mosses  may  be  monoecious,  the 
antheridia  and  archegonia  being  produced  on  the  same  plant, 
or  dicjecious,  the  sexual  organs  being  borne  on  separate  plants. 
The  protonema  and  the  leafy  stem  with  the  sexual  organs 
make  up  the  sexual  generation. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  155 

After  the  egg-cell  or  oOsphere,  which  is  produced  within  the 
archegonium,  is  fertilized  by  the  motile  antherozoid  cell  from 
the  antheridium,  it  begins  at  once  to  divide,  and  develops 
rapidly  into  a  capsule  and  stalk.  During  this  growth  the  lower 
portion  of  the  stalk  is  pressed  downward  into  the  end  of  the 
stem  from  which  the  nourishment  for  the  asexual  phase  of  the 
plant  existence  is  derived,  as  in  the  case  of  a  parasite.  The  grow- 
ing embryo  soon  ruptures  the  wall  of  the  archegonium  near  the 
base,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  carried  up  on  top  of  the  capsule, 
where  it  is  called  the  calyptra.  This  stalked  capsule  or 
sporogonium,  constitutes  the  asexual  generation.  It  is  less  con- 
spicuous than  the  sexual  phase,  and  is  developed  exclusively  for 
the  production  of  the  spores. 

Mosses  may  be  distinguished  from  the  liverworts  by  the 
fact  that  in  the  sexual  generation  of  the  former,  protonemal 
filaments  are  always  well  developed,  on  which  the  leafy  axis  is 
produced  which  shows  no  sign  of  dorsi- ventral  structure. 

The  rhizoids  of  mosses  are  usually  made  up  of  a  row  of  cells 
instead  of  a  single  cell  as  in  the  Hepaticce.  The  mature  cap 
sule  of  the  mosses  opens  by  a  special  lid,  the  operculum,  which 
is  covered  by  the  calyptra.  The  columella  is  also  present,  at 
least  in  the  early  stages  of  the  development  of  the  capsule, 
and  the  mouth  of  the  capsule  usually  shows  a  well  developed 
peristome,  consisting  of  one  or  more  rows  of  minute  teeth. 
Elaters,  which  are  produced  by  the  liverworts,  are  absent  in 
the  mosses. 

Mosses  grow  in  shallow  water,  on  the  ground  in  swamps  and 
ditches,  in  open  fields  and  in  shady  places,  on  decayed  logs  and 
stumps  in  the  woods,  on  rocky  ledges  and  loose  stones  along 
streams,  and  on  the  bark  of  living  trees.  They  vary  in 
size  from  the  small  forms,  a  few  millimeters  in  length,  to  large, 
floating  or  creeping  plants,  which  attain  a  length  of  several 
inches. 

At  no  season  of  the  year  will  the  collector  fail  to  be 
rewarded  in  his  search  for  mosses.  Some  fruit  in  early  spring, 
some  in  midsummer,  some  in  the  late  autumn,  and  some  may  be 
found  in  fine  fruit  during  the  warmer  periods  of  midwinter. 

The  following  list  of  seventy-eight  species  and  varieties 
represents  but  an  incomplete  collection  from  a  few  points  in  the 
state.  It  is  given  with  the  hope  that  it  may  bring  more  to  the 
notice  of  our  collectors  a  group  of  plants  that  has  hitherto  been 
undeservedly   neglected.      In   its   preparation,    the   writer   is 


156  IOWA    ACADEMY    OF   SCIENCES. 

indebted  to  Professor  Macbride  and  Professor  Shimek,  of  the 
State  University,  for  kind  assistance;  to  Mrs.  Britton,  of  the 
Columbia  University,  and  Prof essor  Cheney,  of  Madison,  Wis., 
for  verification  of  doubtful  forms,  and  also  to  the  collectors 
whose  names  appear  on  the  following  pages.  Sets  of  all  the 
mosses  noted  below  are  in  the  herbarium  of  the  State  Univer- 
sity of  Iowa,  and  also  in  the  collections  of  the  writer.  Speci- 
mens of  the  more  common  species  of  this  list  have  been  col- 
lected and  used  in  the  laboratories  of  the  university  during 
many  years.  More  particularly,  Miss  Annette  Slotterbec,  in 
1888,  collected  and  identified  some  forty  specimens.  But  on 
the  whole  it  has  been  deemed  better  to  record  the  collection  of 
such  material  only  as  has  been  gathered  for  the  preparation  of 
this  paper. 

Group  Bryophyta. 
Class  Musci.     Order  Bryacece.     True  mosses. 

Series!.  ACROCARPI. 
Tribe  Phasce^. 

1.  PImscuiit  (•uspidattiin  Schreb.  Growing  on  clay  hillsides 
exposed  to  the  sun;  common  in  early  spring.  Johnson  county, 
March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  S. 

Tribe  Weisie^^^:. 

2.  Astomum  nitidulinn  Schimp.  On  wet,  marshy  ground, 
growing  among  grass  and  weeds;  rare.  Johnson  county, 
March  21,  1897,  P.  C.  J/?/ey.s. 

3.  Weisia  viridula  Brid.  Very  common  on  the  ground, 
fruiting  throughout  the  year.  Henry  county,  December  29, 
1896,  and  Johnson  county,  March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  *S'. ;  Pottawatta- 
mie county.  May,  1897,  J.  E.  Gaiiteron. 

4.  Dicranella  varia  Schimp.  On  clay  banks  in  open  and 
exposed  places;  not  common  Johnson  county,  October  17, 
1896,  T.  E.  S. 

5.  Dicranella  heteromalla  Schimp.  Grows  on  the  ground, 
often  associated  with  species  of  Barbula;  common.  Johnson 
coun'y,  October,  1895,  Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  Octo- 
ber 17,  1896,  T.  E.  N. ;  Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897, 
Shimek  d-  Savage. 

6.  DicraniDH  flar/ellare  Hedw.  Growing  on  sandy  hill- 
sides, in  the  shade;  not  commonly  distributed  over  the  state. 
Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  T.  E.  S. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  157 

7.  Dicramon  scoparlum  Hedw.  Common  on  low,  sandy- 
ground,  in  shaded  places.  Johnson  county,  October  10,  1896, 
T.  E.  S.:  Muscatine  county,  November  8,  1897,  Professor  Shimek: 
Delaware  county,  September,  iS97,  J.  E.  Cameron. 

8.  Fissidens  jitinutulus  Sulliv.  Very  rare;  found  only  in  the 
deep  ravines  at  Wildcat  Den;  on  sandstone  rocks  near  the 
water.     Muscatine  county,  November  In,  1897,  Shimek'  d-  Savage. 

9.  Fissidens  taxifolius  Hedw.  On  damp,  shaded  banks  near 
streams;  not  common;  found  only  at  one  point.  Henry  county, 
December  28,  1896,  T.  E.  S. 

10.  Leucobryioii  vulgare  Hampe.  Plants  whitish  and  spongy 
like  sphagnum,  with  capsule  and  peristome  resembling  a 
Dicranum;  gommon  on  low,  shaded  grounds.  Johnson  county, 
1895,  Professor  Shi)iieJK:  Johnson  county,  March  13,  1897,  T.  E. 
N.;  Delaware  county,  September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron:  Mnsca- 
tine  county,  November  15,  1897,  ShiinekS  Savage 

11.  Ceratodon  imrpnreus  Brid.  Common  everywhere  in 
exposed  places  on  dry  ground.  Johnson  county,  May  10,  1896,  and 
Cedar  Rapids,  May  15.  1896,  Professor  SJwnek:  Johnson  county, 
October  10,  1896,  T.  E.  S.:  Pottawattamie  county.  May, 
1897,  J.  E.  Cameron:  Lyon  county,  July,  1897,  Professor 
<S7i««e/i';  Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  Shi)nek  d'- Savage. 

12.  Ceratodon  imrpureus  arisfatus  Aust.  Leaves  narrower 
than  the  last,  with  long  excurrentcosta;  capsule  paler  in  color; 
not  common.     Mason  City,  1895,  Professor  Shimek. 

Tribe  Potties. 

13.  Ditrivhnin  paf/idum'H.am.pe.  Not  rare;  on  the  ground  in 
dry  places.  Henry  county,  March  26,  1897,  T.  E.  S.:  Musca- 
tine county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  d-  Savage. 

14.  Ditrichiim  tortile  Muell.  Common  on  exposed  hillsides; 
often  grows  associated  with  Barbuda  unguienJata.  Johnson 
county,  March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  S.:  Delaware  county,  September, 

1897,  J.  E.  Cameron. 

15.  Desmatodon  arenaceus  Sulliv.  &  Lesq.  Rare,  collected 
only  on  shaded  sandstone  rocks.  Muscatine  county,  November 
15,  1897,  Shimek  it  Savage. 

16.  Barbula  rigida  Schultz.  Not  common;  found  only  on 
the  dry  loess  hills  of  western  low^a.    Council  Bluffs,  November, 

1898,  Professor  Shimek. 

17.  Barbula  unguicidata  Hedw.  Common  everywhere;  grow- 
ing  on   the   ground  or  on  limestone  rocks   in  damp   places. 


158  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

Armstrong,  September  10,  1882,  Professor  Shhnek:  Johnson 
county,  March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  S.:  Council  Bluffs,  September, 
1888,  Misses  Dubai  d-  Cavanarjh:  Council  Bluffs,  November,  1898, 
Professor  Shhnek. 

18.  Barbula  fallax  Hedw.  Rather  rare;  found,  along  the 
roadside  on  dry  clay  ground.     Johnson  county,  September  29, 

1896,  T.  E.   S. 

Tribe    Grimmie^. 

19.  Gri)inina  apocarpa  Hedw.  Common  on  limestone  rocks 
in  early  spring.     Johnson  county,  March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  S. 

Tribe   ORTHOTRICHEyE. 

20.  Orthotrlchinn  i^orteri  Aust.  Not  rare;  on  dry  rocks  in 
the  spring,  associated  with  the  preceding.  Johnson  county, 
March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  S. 

21.  Orthotrichiori  hrachytrichum  Schimp.  Common  on  the 
bark  of  trees;  fruiting  in  early  spring.  Johnson  county, 
February  3,  1897,  T.  E.  S. 

22.  Orthotrichinn  braioiii  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  Rare;  growing 
on  trees.      Pound  only  in  Muscatine  county,    November  15, 

1897,  Shhnek  ((■  Savage. 

Tribe  Physcomitrie.e. 

23.  Piirarnidula  tetragona  Brid.  A  very  rare  species  with  a 
limited  distribution  in  the  United  States;  collected  only  on 
ledges  of  quartzite.     Lyon  county,  July,  1897,  Professor  Shhnek. 

24.  Pltyscomltriuni  acunihudmn  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  Not  rare 
in  southeastern  Iowa;  growing  on  low  ground,  exposed  to  the 
sunshine.  Cedar  Rapids,  May  15,  1896,  and  Johnson  county, 
May  20,  1896,  Professor  Shhnek:  Johnson  county,  March  15, 
1897,  T.  E.  S.:  Pottawattamie  county,  May,  1897,  J.  E. 
Cameron. 

25.  Eunaria  hijgronietrica  Sibth.  Common  throughout  the 
state;  growing  on  the  ground  in  woods  and  open  places. 
Johnson  county,  April  30,  1896;  Keokuk,  June  2,  1896;  Arm- 
strong, June  30,  1896,  and  Spirit  Lake,  August  1,  1896,  Pro- 
fessor Shhnek:  Johnson  county,  March  13,  1897,  7\  E.  S.: 
Decorah,  March  24,  1898,  P.  (\  Myers. 

Tribe  Bartramie^. 

26.  Bartrantia  j)onufornils  Jledw.  Very  common  on  shaded 
bluffs   bordering   streams.     Johnson   county,    April    30,    1S96, 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  159 

Professor  SJdmek:  Johnson  county,  October  3,  1896,  T.  E.  S.: 
Delaware  county,  September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron;  Muscatine 
county,  November  15,  1897,  Shunek  d-  Savage. 

Tribe  Brye^. 

27.  Lej)tobnjuiii  piir'ifor}ne  Schimp.  Not  rare;  a  very  deli- 
cate form  growing  on  the  ground  or  damp  rocks.  Johnson 
county,  March  13,  1897,  T.  E  S.:  Muscatine  county,  November 
15,  1897,  Shimek  &  Savage. 

28.  Bryum  intermedium  Brid.  Very  common  everywhere, 
growing  on  rocks  or  on  the  ground.  Johnson  county,  May  20, 
1895;  Cedar  Rapids,  May  15,  1896,  and  Mason  City,  July  20, 
1896,  Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  October  3,  1896,  T.  E. 
S.;  Pottawattamie  county.  May,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron. 

29.  Briium  argenteum  Linn.  Common  on  low,  sandy  ground 
near  streams,  sometimes  occurring  on  rocks.  Johnson  county, 
September  22,  1896,  and  March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  S. 

30.  Bryum  argenteum  lanatum  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  Branches 
thicker  than  the  preceding,  with  whiter  leaves;  capsule  more 
nearly  spherical.     Johnson  count7,  September  26,  1896,  T.  E.  S. 

31.  Bryum  nutans  Schreb.  Not  common;  growing  on  the 
sandy  hill-sides  near  Wildcat  Den.  Muscatine  county,  Novem- 
ber 15,  1897,  Shimek  d-  Savage. 

32.  Minium  cuspidatum  Hedw.  One  of  our  most  common 
species;  growing  in  shady  woods  at  the  base  of  trees.  Keo 
kuk,  July  5,  1897;  Johnson  county.  May  20,  1896,  and  Mason 
City,  July  7,  1896,  Professor  Shimek;  Johnson  county,  Septem- 
ber 26,  1896,  T.  E.  S.;  Pottawattamie  county,  May,  1897,  J.  E. 
Cameron;  Lyon  county,  July,  1897,  Professor  Shimek;  Delaware 
county,  September,  1897,  J.  E  Cameron. 

33.  Minium  affine  Bland.  Not  common;  it  has  been  collected 
at  but  one  point  in  the  state.  Decorah,  March  24,  1898,  P.  C. 
Myers. 

34  Aulacomniu)n  heterostichuin  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  A  beauti- 
ful species,  growing  in  thick  tufts  on  the  sandy  hillsides  at 
Wildcat  Den.  Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  <l'- 
Savage. 

35.  Timmia  megapo/itana  Hedw.  Easily  distinguished  by  its 
calyptra  persisting  near  the  top  of  the  pedicel;  common;  on 
ground.  Johnson  county,  May  20,  1896,  Professor  Shimek;  John- 
son county,  April,  1897,  T.  E  S. 


160  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Tribe  Polytriche^. 

36.  Catltarinea  nndulata  Beauv.  Somewhat  rare;  on  damp 
ground  in  shady  woods.  Johnson  county,  May  20,  1896,  Pro- 
fessor Shimek:  Johnson  county,  October  10,  1896,  T.  E.  S.:  Dela- 
ware county,  September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron:  Muscatine  county, 
November  15,  1897,  Shimek  d-  Savcuje. 

37.  Catharinea  anc/ustata  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  More  common 
than  the  last;  growing  on  drier  banks  in  the  woods.  Johnson 
county,  September  20,  1896,  and  Henry  county,  December  29, 

1896,  T.  E.  S.:  Keokuk,  June  2,  1897,  Professor  Shimek:  Musca- 
tine county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  A-  Savage. 

38.  Pogoriaffnii  hrevicaule  Beauv.  Not  common;  stems 
short,  springing  from  a  dark  green  tangle  of  branched,  fila- 
mentous prothalbium;  growing  on  moist  banks.  Henry  county, 
December  28,  1896,  T.  E.  S.:  Muscatine  county,  November  1897, 
Shimek  &  Savage. 

39.  Polytrichnm  pllifernm  Schreb.  Rare;  the  costa  of  the  leaf 
is  prolonged  into  a  long  hyaline  point.     Lyon  county,  July, 

1897,  Professor  SJumek:  Decorah,  March  24,  1898,  P.  ('.  Myers. 

40.  Poh/frichioii  Ji()ii/)eri)miii  Willd.  Not  rare;  growing  on 
the  ground  in  rather  dry  places.  Johnson  county,  October  10, 
1886,  and  Henry  county,  December  28,  1896,  T.  E.  S. :  Delaware 
county,  September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron:  Muscatine  county, 
November  15,  1897,  Shimek  <t-  Savage. 

41.  Polytrivhum  coiiniiune  Linn.  Plants  larger  than  the 
preceding,  with  the  longer  leaves  serrate  to  the  base;  common 
in  the  woods.  Johnson  county,  October,  1896,  and  Henry 
county,  December  29,  1896,  T.  E.  S. 

Series  XL    PLEUROCARPI. 
Tribe  Leskeace^. 

42.  Tlielia  aspreUa  Sulliv.  A  very  beautiful  moss;  common; 
growing  at  the  base  of  trees.  Johnson  county.  May,  1896, 
Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  September  20,  1896,  and 
Henry  county,  December  28,  1896,  T.  E.  S.:  Delaware  county, 
September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron. 

43.  Leskea  polycarjia  Ehrh.  Common  in  damp  woods  along 
streams;  growing  on  the  trunks  of  trees.  Johnson  county, 
October  1,  1896,  T.  E.  S. 

44.  Leskea  obscura  Hedw.  Plants  smaller  than  theJast,  with 
which  it  is  often  associated  on  trees.  Johnson  county. 
May,  1896,  Professor  Shhnek:  Johnson  county,  February  3,  1896, 
T.  E.  S.:  Muscatine  county,  November  8,  1897,  Shimek  rf-  Savage. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  161 

45.  Anomodon  rostratus  Schimp.  A  very  common  moss, 
growing  on  stones,  on  prostrate  logs,  or  at  the  root  of  trees,  in 
damp,  shady  places.  Johnson  county,  September,  1896,  Pro- 
fessor Shiinek:  Johnson  county,  March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  S.:  Musca- 
tine county,  November  15,  1897,  Shbiiek  lil-  Savage. 

46.  Anomodon  attenuatus  Hueben.  Not  rare;  growing  in 
loose,  wide  tufts  on  rocks  and  logs,  and  roots  of  trees  along 
streams.  Johnson  county,  September,  1896,  T.  E.  S. :  Musca- 
tine county,  November  15,  1897,  Shlmek  ((•  Savage;  Decorah, 
March  24,  1898,  P.  (J.  Myers. 

45.  A)iO)nodon  obtusifolius  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  Leaves  two- 
ranked  and  annulus  large;  common  on  the  trunks  of  trees  near 
water.  Johnson  county,  September,  1895,  Professor  Shiiitek: 
Johnson  county,  October  17,  1896,  T.  E.  *S'.  ,•  Decorah,  March  24, 
1898,  P.  a  Myers. 

Tribe  Orthothecie^. 

48.  Plafygyrhon  repens  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  Very  common  in 
the  woods;  growing  in  yellowish  green  tufts  on  decayed  logs. 
Johnson  county,  September,  1896,  Professor  Shiinek:  Johnson 
county,  October  1,  1896,  T.  E.  /S'.  ,•  Delaware  county,  September, 
1897,  J.  E  .  Cameron:  Muscatine  county,  November  8,  1897,  Pro- 
fessor Shimek:  Decorah,  March  24,  1898,  P.  C.  Myers. 

49.  Pi/lalsia  Intrivata  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  Not  rare;  often 
growing  with  the  last,  on  trees  and  decayed  logs  in  shady 
woods.  Johnson  county,  September,  1896,  Professor  Shhitek: 
Johnson  county,  October  17,  1896,  T.  E.  S.:  Delaware  county, 
September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron;  Muscatine  county,  November 
15,  1897,  Shimek  &  Savage. 

50.  Gylindrothecium  cladorrhizans  Schimp.  Very  common  in 
the  woods,  on  decayed  logs  or  on  the  ground.  Johnson  county. 
May,  1895,  and  Dallas  county,  July  7,  1896,  Professor  Shimek: 
Johnson  county,  October  17,  1896,  and  Henry  county,  Decem- 
ber 28,  1896,  T.  E.  S.:  Port  Dodge,  July  5,  1897,  Professor 
Shimek:  Delaware  county,  September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron: 
Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  (t-  Savage: 
Decorah,  March  24,  1898,  P.  C.  Myers. 

51.  CyUndrotheciurn  seductrix  Sulliv.  Habitat  the  same  as 
the  last,  with  which  it  often  grows;  stems  a  darker  green  and 
branches  more  terete  than  C.  cladorrhizans;  very  common. 
Johnson  county,  October,  1895,  Professor  Shimek:  Johnson 
county,  October  3,  1896,  and  Henry  county,  December  29,  1896, 

11 


162  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

T.  E.  S.:  Lyon  county,  July,  1897,   Professor  SliUnek:  Muscatine 
county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  W-  Savaf/e. 

52.  ('i/Hiidrofheci>()ii  coinpressum  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  Not 
common;  growing  in  damp  places  near  streams,  on  the 
ground.     Johnson  county,  May  20,  1896,  Professor  SJiimek. 

53.  ClimacUim  americanum  Brid.  A  beautiful  moss,  very 
common  on  damp,  shady  ledges  of  rock,  or  on  the  ground  or 
decayed  logs  in  damp  places.  Johnson  county,  May  20,  1896, 
Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  October  3,  1896,  and  Henry 
county,  December  28,  1896,  T.  E.  S. :  Delaware  county,  Septem- 
ber, 1897,  '/.  E.  C  imeron:  Muscatine  county,  November  15, 
1897,  Shimek  d-  Savage:  Decorah,  March  24,  1898,  P.  C.  Mfjers. 

Tribe   Hypne^. 

54.  ThuicUum  scitum  Beauv.  Not  uncommon  on  decayed 
logs  or  on  the  ground  in  damp  places.  Johnson  county, 
October,  1895,  Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  March  13, 
1897,  T.  E.  S. ;  Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  d- 
Savage. 

55.  Thmdhim  gracVe  Bruch.  &  Schimp.  On  decayed  logs 
in  damp  woods;  less  common  than  the  preceding,  from  which 
it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  more  turgid  and  nodding 
capsule.  Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  d- 
Savage. 

56.  Thuidiiim  recogiiitum  Hedw.  Not  rare  on  old  logs  or  on 
the  ground  in  damp,  shady  places;  a  very  beautiful  form,  with 
large,  frond-like  stems,  which  are  bipinnately  branched.  John- 
son county,  1895,  Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  October 
13,  1896,  and  Henry  county,  December  29,  1896,  T.  E.  S.:  Dela- 
ware county,  September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron:  Muscatine 
county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  <(■  Savage. 

57.  Tluiidium  abietimrm  Linn.  Not  common;  growing  on 
damp,  shaded  rocks;  rarely  found  in  fruit;  the  simple  stems 
are  pinnately  divided  into  rather  thick,  nearly  equal  branches. 
Decorah,  March  24,  1898,  P.  C.  Mi/ers. 

58.  Broclnithec/ium  ketum  Brid.  Common  in  woods  and 
shaded  places  on  the  ground;  capsule  turgid.  Johnson 
county,  October,  1895,  Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  Octo- 
ber 13,  1896,  and  Henry  county,  December  28,  1896,  T.  E.  S.: 
Keokuk,  June  2,  1897,  Professor  Shimek:  Muscatine  county, 
November  15,  1897,  Shimek  <('■  Savage. 

59.  Brachythecivm    hrtum    Brid.       On    the    ground    among 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCEENCES.  163 

grasses  a  special  form  occurs;  stems  longer  creeping  and  leaves 
longer  acuminate  than  the  last.  Johnson  county,  October,  1896, 
Professor  Shimelx. 

60.  Brachi/tJiecium  acumiiiafum  Beauv.  Common  in  damp 
woods,  on  decayed  logs.  Easily  distinguished  by  its  erect 
capsule  and  rudimentary  cilia.  Johnson  county,  October, 
1H94,  Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  September  21,  1896, 
7'.  E.  S.:  Delaware  county,  September,  1897,  J.  E.  Cameron: 
Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  if-  Savage. 

61.  Brachi/fheeium  acuminatum  setosum  Sulliv.  &  Lesq. 
Branchlets  slender  and  plumose;  leaves  longer  than  those  of 
the  last;  habitat  the  same.  Johnson  county,  October  17,  1896, 
T.  E.  S. 

62.  Brachythecium  rivulare  Bruch.  A  large  moss  growing  in 
swamps  and  very  wet  places;  not  common.  Muscatine  county, 
November  15,  1897,  Shimek  d-  Savage 

63.  Brachythecium  pJumosum  Swartz.  Rare;  growing  on 
damp  sandstone  rocks  and  on  wet  ground.  Muscatine  county, 
November  15,  1897,  Shimek  d-  Savage. 

64.  Eurhynchium  Mans  Hedw.  Not  rarely  found  on  moist, 
shaded  hillsides.  Pedicel  very  rough.  Johnson  county,  Sep- 
tember 29,  1896,  T.  E.  S. 

65.  Rhynchostegium  serrulatum  Hedw.  Very  common  in  dry 
woods  on  the  ground.  Leaves  two  ranked.  Johnson  county, 
May,  1896,  Professor  Shimek:  Johnson  county,  October  17,  1896, 
and  Henry  county,  December  28,  1896,  T.  E.  S. 

66.  P/agiothecium  sylvaticum  Huds.  Rare;  growing  on  the 
ground  in  deep  shade.  Johnson  county,  October  17,  1896, 
T.  E.  S. 

67.  Amblystegium  serpens  Linn.  Common  on  decayed  logs 
or  on  the  ground  in  damp,  shady  places;  stems  delicate  and 
densely  branching.  Johnson  county,  October  3,  1896,  T.  E  S.: 
Pottawattamie  county,  May,  1897,  -/.  E.  Cimeroii:  Fort  Dodge, 
July  5,  1897,  Professor  Sltimek. 

68.  Amblystegium  irriguum  Hook.  &  Wils.  Not  rare  on 
wet  ground;  stems  longer  and  coarser  than  the  last.  Johnson 
county.  May,  1896,  Professor  Shimek:  Muscatine  county, 
November  15,  1897,  Shimek  d-  Savage. 

69.  Amblystegium  adnatum  Hedw.  Commonly  found  on 
trees  or  on  stones  in  damp  places;  rare.  Muscatine  county, 
November  15,  1897,  Shimek  d-  Savage. 

70.  Amblystegium  riparium  Linn.     Very  common  on  decayed 


164  IOWA.  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

logs  in  damp  woods  and  along  streams;  very  variable.  Arm- 
strong, July  30,  1896,  and  Spirit  Lake,  August  1,  1896,  Pro- 
fes.wr  Shimek;  Johnson  county,  October  10,  1896,  T.  E.  S.;  Dal- 
las county,  July  7,  1897,  Professor  Shimek. 

71.  AmbJystegium  riparmm  flnitans  Lesq.  &  James.  Not 
rare;  growing  in  the  mud  or  water  on  the  borders  of  streams. 
Mason  City,  May  15,  1896,  Professor  Shimek. 

72.  Gampylium  liispidulum  Brid.  Plants  small  and  pros- 
trate, with  deltoid  acuminate  leaves;  common  in  wet  places  on 
logs  or  roots  of  trees.  Mason  City,  July  8,  1896,  and  Johnson 
county,  September,  1896,  Professor  Shimek. 

73.  HarpicUum  adunc.um  Hedw.  Rare,  stems  long  and  float- 
ing; growing  in  water.  Johnson  county,  1895;  and  Forest  City, 
July  20,  1896,  Professor  Shimek. 

74.  Hypnum  imponens  Hedw.  Not  common;  growing  on 
decayed  logs  and  roots  of  trees  in  damp  woods.  Johnson 
county,  August,  1895,  Professor  Shimek. 

75.  Hypnum  curvifolium  Hedw.  Plants  large,  yellowish- 
green;  leaves  very  crowded  and  strongly  recurved;  not  rare  on 
decayed  logs  in  damp  woods.  Johnson  county,  October  3, 
1896,  T.  E.  S  :  Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek  it- 
Savage. 

76.  Hypnum  ha/da)iianrim  Grev.  Not  common;  growing  on 
sandy  hillsides.  Muscatine  county,  November  15,  1897,  Shimek 
(tj  Savage. 

77.  Hylocomium  schreberi  Willd.  A  large  moss;  not  rare  on 
damp,  shaded  ground;  stems  red;  leaves  loosely  spreading; 
orange  at  base.  Henry  county,  December  29,  1896,  and  John- 
son county,  March  13,  1897,  T.  E.  S. 

78.  Hylocomium  triquetrum  Linn.  Common  on  the  ground 
and  on  rocks  in  damp,  shady  places;  plants  large;  leaves 
squarrose.  Henry  county,  December  28,  1896,  T.  E.  S.:  John- 
son county.  May,  1897,  Professor  Shimek;  Delaware  county, 
September,  1897,  -/.  E.  Cameron. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  163 


ADDITIONS    TO     THE     BIBLIOGRAPHY     OF    NORTH 
AMERICAN     LICHENS. 

BY  BRUCE   FINK. 

While  reading  in  the  botanical  library  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota  during  the  summer  of  1H96,  I  noticed  a  number  of 
titles  which  had  escaped  Mr.  W.  W.  Calkins,  while  preparing 
his  bibliography  of  North  American  lichens.*  These  I  added 
to  some  before  noted  in  my  own  library  and  began  a  careful 
search  which  extended  through  the  summers  of  1897  and  1898; 
examining  also  the  general  library  of  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota. 

The  work  was  begun  simply  to  find  articles  for  my  own  use; 
but  knowing  the  importance  of  having  bibliographies  as  com- 
plete as  possible,  I  have  concluded  to  publish  what  additions 
I  have  been  able  to  find.  In  the  search  for  titles  I  have  exam- 
ined complete  files  of  fifteen  of  our  leading  American  scientific 
periodicals,  have  looked  through  the  best  general  botanical 
bibliographies  and  have  consulted  various  miscellaneous  writ- 
ings. Yet,  I  am  sure  that  some  articles  have  escaped  me,  as 
I  know  too  well  the  difiiculties  encountered  in  hunting  for 
articles  published  in  obscure  places,  and  sometimes  in  papers 
bearing  titles  which  do  not  indicate  the  presence  of  anything 
regarding  lichens. 

Nearly  all  of  the  articles  listed  have  been  examined,  and  I 
have  repeated  four  or  five  of  Mr.  Calkins'  titles  because  very 
imperfectly  cited.  I  have  brought  my  list  only  to  the  date  of 
his  publication,  and  in  a  future  paper  I  shall  hope  to  bring  his 
paper,  my  additions  and  any  other  titles  that  I  may  be  able  to 
find,  together  for  greater  convenience  of  reference  and  to  con- 
tinue the  work  to  include  the  list  of  papers  published  since 
April  15,  1896,  the  date  to  which  his  bibliography  extends.  I 
have  attempted  to  follow,  in  general,  the  rules  of  citation  of 
the  Madison  Botanical  consrress. 


*Oalkins,  W.   W.    Bibliography  of  North  American  Lichenology,   Chicago  Acad. 
Sci.  1 :  44-50,  April  1896. 


166  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 


LIST    OF    ARTICLES. 


1.  Arthur,  J.  C.  Flora  of  Floyd  county,  Iowa.  Bot.  Gaz. 
7:  127.  N  18H2.  The  paper  was  published  in  a  history  of  Floyd 
county  and  contained  only  a  popular  statement  about  the 
lichens. 

2.  Bessey,  C.  E.  Preliminary  List  of  the  Carpophytes  of 
the  Ames  Flora.  Bull.  Iowa  Agr.  College.  141--148.  N  1884. 
Gives  a  list  of  twenty-four  lichens. 

3. .     The    Study    of    Lichens.      Am.    Nat. 

21 :  666-667.  Jl  1887. 

4.  Eby,  Amelia  F.  Preliminary  List  of  the  Lichens  of 
Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania.     Pamphlet,  5.  29  Ja  1H94. 

5. .     Reprint  of  the   Preliminary    List  of 

Lichens  of  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania.  Pamphlet,  17. 
7  Mr  1894. 

6. .     A  List  of  Lichens  and  a  Partial  List 

of  Fungi  Collected  in  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania. 
Pamphlet,  18.  22  O  1894. 

7.  Darlington,  W.  Flora  Cestrica,  an  Herborizing  Com- 
panion for  the  Young  Botanists  of  Chester  County,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia:  pp.  431-456.  1883.  105  species,  deter- 
mined by  E.  Michener,  are  enumerated  with  short  descriptions. 

8.  Eaton,  A.  Manual  of  Botany  of  North  America, 
Albany,  1817.     Contains  descriptions  of  some  lichens. 

9.  Eckfeldt,  J.  W.  Notes  on  the  Lichens  in  the  Herba- 
rium of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Science.  Proc.  Acad. 
Sci.  Phil. :  342-343.   1886. 

10. . .    Some  New  North  American  Lichens. 

Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club  16:  104-106.  Ap  1889.  Gives  six  of  Dr. 
W.  Nylander's  descriptions  of  new  North  American  lichens. 

11. .     A  further  enumeration  of  some  Lichens 

of  the  United  States.  Bull.  Torr  Bot.  Club  17:  255-257.  9  O 
1890.     Gives  descriptions  of  ten  species. 

12. .     A   Lichen   new   to    the   United   States, 

Alectoria  cefrariza.  Nyl.  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club  18:  257.  8  Au 
1891. 

13. .     In  list  of  plants  collected  by  the  United 

States  steamer  Albatross,  in  1887-1891,  along  the  western  coast 
of  America,  Cont.  Nat.  Herb.  1:  70-79.  1892.  Lichens  by  Elk- 
feldt. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  167 

14. .     Lichens  new  to  North  America.     Bull. 

Torr.  Bot.  Club  21 :  393-396.  29  S  1894.  Describes  nine  new 
species. 

15. .      In   Rand,    E.    L.    and   Redfield,    J.    H. 

Flora,  of  Mt.  Desert  Island,  Maine.  John  Wilson  &  Son, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  1894  A  list  of  280  species  and  varieties  of 
lichens  from  Mt.  Desert  and  adjacent  islands. 

16.  Farlow,  W.  G.  Memoir  of  Edward  T  acker  man.  Pam- 
phlet, read  before  the  National  Academy,  April,  1887.  14. 
Judd  &  Detweiler,  printers,  Washington,  D.  C. 

17. ■—.      The  Collection  of  Lichens  belonging  to 

the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.  Proc.  Boston  Soc. 
Nat.  Hist.  274-275.     1888.     Read,  February  17,  1886. 

18.  Fink,  Bruce.  Lichens  collected  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Parry  in 
Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  in  1848.  Proc.  Iowa  Acad.  Sci  2: 
137.     1895. 

19. .     Lichens  of  Iowa  (exsiccati).     Fayette, 

Iowa,  1S95-1898, — 100  sets  of  100  to  150  species  each,  have  been 
distributed  in  America  and  Europe. 

20.  Gray,  A.  Memoir  of  Edward  Tuckerman.  Am.  Jour. 
Sci.  and  Arts  132:  1-7.     Jl  1886. 

21.  Green,  H.  A.  A  new  Lichen.  Bot.  Gaz.  12:  115.  My 
1887.     Gives  H.  Willey's  description  of  Buellia  cutawbeusis. 

22.  Harvey,  F.  L.  Contributions  to  the  Lichens  of  Maine, 
I.  Bull.  Torr.  Bot  Club  21:  389-393.  29  S  1894.  List  of  115 
species. 

23. .     Contributions  to  the  Lichens  of  Maine, 

IL  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club  23:  7-10.  30  Ja  1896.  List  of  114 
species. 

24.  Heller,  A.  A.  Preliminary  Enumeration  of  the  Lichens 
of  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania.  Pamphlet,  Lancaster, 
Pa      15  F  1893. 

25.  Hooker,  W.  J.,  in  Kunth,  C.  S.  Synopsis  quas  in 
Itinere  ad  Plagam  gequinoctialem  Orbis  novi  coUegerunt  A.  de 
Humboldt  et  A  Bonpland.  Paris.  1832-1835.  Short  descrip- 
tions of  seventy-five  species,  eleven  new. 

26.  Krempelhuber,A.  V.  Verzeichniss  der  Lichenen  welche 
M.  Wagner  auf  seinem  Reisen  in  Central  Amerika  wiihrend  der 
Jahre  1858  und  1859,  gesammelt  hat.  Flora  19:  (new  series)  129- 
134.     7  Mr  1861.     Lists  thirty-five  species,  one  new. 


168  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

27. — .     Geschichte  liber  Literatur  der  Lich- 

enologie  von  den  iiltesten  Zeiten  bis  1870.  Miinchen  1867-1872. 
Contains  numerous  references  to  American  writings  and 
writers. 

28. .     Lichenes   Mexicani  quas    legit  1875, 

R.  Rabenhorst  Hedwigia  15:  148-149.  O  1876.  Lists  twenty- 
eight  lichens,  Verrucaria  f etivica  Krphb  ,  described  as  new. 

29.  Michaux,  A.  Flora  Boreali — Americana,  sistens  charac- 
ters plantarum,  quas  in  America  septentrionali  coUegit  et 
detexit,  Paris,  1803.  Mentions  twenty-one  species  from  Caro- 
lina and  Canada,  seven  new. 

30.  Meyer,  E.  De  plantis  Labradoricis  libritres,  Lipsise, 
1830.     Mentions  seventeen  lichens. 

31.  Mtlller,  J.  Lichenogische  Beitrage,  Lichenes  aus  Texas, 
Flora  60:  77-80.  11  F  1877.  Lists  41  species  and  varieties  and 
describes  five  of  them  as  new. 

32. .      Lichenogische    Beitrage,    Flora  61: 

481-492.  1  N  1878;  64:  225-236.  21  My  issi;  65:291-306,316-322. 
1  Jl,  11  Jl  1882;  66:  286-290,  317-322,  344-354.  21  Je,  11  Jl,  1 
Au  1883;  67:  268-274,  283-289.  11  My,  21,  My  1884;  68:  324- 
326,  331-342.  1  Je,  11  Je  1885;  69:  286-290.  21  Je  1886;  70: 
56-64,  336-338.     1  F,  21  Jl  1887. 

A  series  of  articles  of  various  titles,  of  which  the  above 
numbers  at  least  give  names  or  descriptions  of  North  America 
lichens.     Some  are  described  as  new. 

'^3. .  Lichens  Oregonensis  in  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, Washington  Territory,  insula  Vancouver  et  territories 
vicinis  Americas  occidentalis  a  cl;  Dr.  Julio  Roell  anno  praeter 
lapso  lecti  et  a  cl;  Dr.  Dieck  communicata,  quos  determinavit. 
Flora  72:  362-366.  20  Jl  1889.  Lists  eighty-one  species  and 
gives  a  description  of  a  new  variety. 

34. .      Lichenes     Exotice.      Hedwigia    34: 

139-145.  Je  1895.    Some  mention  of  North  American  lichens. 

35.  Nylander,  W.  Lichenes  collecti  in  Mexico  a  Fr. 
Mtiller.  Flora  41:  377-379.  28  Je  1858.  Determination  of 
110  Mexican  species. 

36. .      Expositio  Pyrenocarpeorum.     Ande- 

cavis,  1858.     North  American  species  mentioned. 

37. .     Synopsis  MethodicaLychenum;  Paris, 

1858-1860.  Contains  numerous  references  to  North  American 
lichens. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  169 

38. .      Observationes    paucse    circa   Scripta 

lichenologica  recentissima.  Flora  43:  pp.  41  44.  21  Ja  1860. 
Comments  on  Tuckerman's  "Supplement  to  an  Enumeration 
of  North  American  Lichens.  " 

39. .     Conspectus  Squamariarum.    Flora  44: 

pp.  716-718.  7  D  1861.     Mentions  North  American  species. 

40. .        Enumeratio     synoptica     Stictarum. 

Flora  48:  296-299.  23  Je  1865.  Mentions  North  American 
species. 

41 . .    In  Cryptogama3  Mexicanas  nuper  a  collec- 

toribus  Expeditionis  scientif.  allatse  aut  in  Museo.  Paris 
depositee.  A  volume  of  166  pages.  Paris,  1872.  Lichens  by 
Ny  lander. 

42. .     Arthonise    novae    Americanae,   borealis. 

Flora  68:  311-313.  1  Je  1885.     Describes  six  species. 

43. .     Enumeratio  Lichenum,  freti  Behringii. 

Bull.  Soc.  Linn.  Normandie:  (4*^  Ser.)  189-286,  1887.  Mentions 
some  American  species  and  names  A/ectoria  cefrariza  Nyl. 

44.  Petiver,  Joe.  Pterographia  Americana,  icones  con- 
tinens  Filicum  nee  non  Muscos,  Lichenes,  Fungos,  etc.  Lon- 
don, 1712.     Refers  to  a  single  lichen,  Stkta  damax-ornis  (Auct.). 

45.  Plumier,  Carol.  Filicetum  Americanum  senfilicum,  etc. 
in  America  nascent.  Paris,  1703.  Also  mentions  SUcta 
damcecoruis  (Auct.). 

46.  Porcher,  F.  P.  The  Medicinal,  Poisonous  and  Dietetic 
Properties  of  the  Cryptogamic  Plants  of  the  United  States. 
Trans.  American  Medical  association  7:  167-284.  1854;  pp.  179- 
192,  give  notes  on  fifty-one  lichens,  with  uses  to  which  they 
have  been  put,  and  methods  of  preparing  them  for  the  various 
uses. 

47.  Pound,  R.  The  Algae,  Fungi  and  Lichens.  Am.  Nat. 
23:  178.     F  1889. 

48.  Rau,  E.  A.  A  Lichen  new  to  the  United  States. 
Jour,  of  Mycology  4:  20.  F  1888.  A  note  on  Trypethelium 
heterochrous. 

49.  Sargent,  F.  L.,  in  How  to  collect  certain  Plants.  Bot. 
Gaz.  11:  142.  Je  1886.  By  several  writers;  Mr.  Sargent  treat- 
ing lichens. 

50. ,  Guide  to  the  Recognition  of  the  Princi- 
pal Orders  of  Cryptogams  and  the  commoner  and  more  easily 
distinguished  New  England  Genera,  with  Glossary.    Pamphlet, 


170  IOWA  ACADEMY  OF   SCIENCES. 

39.  C.  W. Sever,  Cambriclg-e,  Mass.  1886.  Contains  descriptions 
of  thirty-one  common  lichens. 

51. .  On  the  Schwendener  Theory  of  tlae  con- 
stitution of  Lichens.     Am.  Mo.  Mic.  Jour.  8:  21-25.  F  1887. 

52. .     About  Lichens,  Pop.  Sci.  News  26:  50- 

52,  65-67.  Ap,  My  1892.  (Illustrated  Figs.  17.)  A  popular 
article  for  beginners  in  the  study  of  lichens. 

53. .     A  Key  to  the  North  American  Species 

of  Cladonia.     Cambridge,  Mass.,  1893.     A  quarto  blue-print. 

54.  Schneider,  A.  A.  Monograph  of  Lichens.  Bull.  Torr. 
Bot.  Club  21 :  492-493.  24  N  1894.  A  review  of  J.  M.  Crombie's 
British  Lichens. 

55.  — .     Contributions    to    Lichenology.       Bull. 

Torr.  Bot.  Club  21:  532-534.  24  D  1894.  A  review  of  J.  Reinke's 
"  Abhandlungen  iiber  Fletchen.  " 

56. .     The  Biological  Status  of  Lichens.    Bull. 

Torr.  Bot.  Club  22:  189-198.  15  My  1895. 

57. .     Some  special  Polygenetic  Adaptations 

in  Lichens.     Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club  22:  498-500.  30  D  1895. 

58.  Stirton,  J.  Lichens,  British  and  foreign.  Trans. 
Glasgow  Soc.  of  Field  Nature.  85-95.  1875.  Mentions  species 
from  Montreal  and  Lake  Superior. 

59  Stitzenberger,  E.  De  Lecanora  subfusca  ej  usque  formis 
Commentatio,  Botanische  Zeitung  26:  888-902.  25  D  1868. 
Mentions  North  American  varieties. 

60 — .      Notes    on  western  Lichens.      Erythea 

3:  30-32.  1  F  1895.  Lists  thirty-five  Lichens  from  Yellow- 
stone Park,  Monterey  &  Sitka. 

61.  Tucker  man,  E.  An  enumeration  of  some  Lichens 
of  New  England,  with  remarks.  Boston  Jour.  Nat.  Hist. 
2:  245-262.     1839.     Gives  forty-three  species  and  varieties. 

62. .     A  further  enumeration  of  some  New 

England  Licheaes.  Boston  Jour.  Nat.  Hist.  3:  281-306.  18  H. 
Gives  sixty-eight  species  and  varieties. 

63. .     Further  notices  of  some  New  Eagland 

Lichenes.  Boston  Jour.  Nat.  Hist.  3:  438-448.  1841.  Gives 
twenty-six  species. 

64. .     A  further  enumeration  of  some  Alpine 

and  other  Lichenes  of  New  England.  Boston  Jour.  Bot. 
5:  93-104.    Ja  1845.     Giv^es  thirty-one  species. 

65. .       Lichenes     Americani     septentrionalis 

exsiccati.     Fasc.    I-VI.     Cambridge   and   Boston.     1847-1854. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  171 

Reached  150  numbers.  Short  notices  of  these  will  be  found  as 
follows:  Botanische  Zeitung  7:  533.  20  Jl  1849;  Flora  15: 
(new  series)  88.     14  F.  1851;  18:  173-175.     21  Mr  1860. 

66. .  A  synopsis  of  the  Lichens  of  the  north- 
ern United  States  and  British  America.  Proc  Am  Acad.  Arts 
and  Sci.  1 :  195-285.  1848.  Read  December  7,  1847.  Describes 
275  species. 

67. ;  in  Lea,  T.  G.     Catalogue  of  the  plants, 

native  and  naturalized,  collected  in  the  vicinity  of  Cincinnati, 
O.,  during  the  years  1834-1844;  Philadelphia,  1846.  List  of 
fifty-three  species;  one  new. 

68. ,    in   Agassiz,    L.      Lake   Superior,    its 

Physical  Character,  Vegetation  and  Animals,  Compared  With 
Those  of  Other  and  Similar  Regions.  Boston.  170-174. 
Mr  1850.     List  of  seventy-two  species  and  varieties;  four  new. 

69. .     Supplement    to    an    Enumeration    of 

North  American  Lichenes.  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts  (second 
series)  25:  pp.  422-430.  1856.  Short  descriptions  of  thirty-nine 
new  North  American  lichens. 

70. .     Supplement  continued.     Amer.  Jour. 

Sci.  and  Arts  28:  200-206.  1857.  Describes  twenty- two  new 
North  American  lichens. 

71.  Observations  on  North  American  and  Some  Other 
Lichens.  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sci.  4:  383-407.  1860. 
Notes  on  fifty-one  species  and  varieties,  including  descriptions 
of  four  new  ones. 

72. .     Observations   on   North  American   and 

Some  Other  Lichens.  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sci.  5: 
383-422.  1862  Notes  on  fifty-five  species  and  varieties;  about 
two-thirds  new. 

73.  Observationes  Lichenologicse.  Proc.  Am.  Acad.  Arts 
and  Sci.  12:  263-287.1866.  (Read  April  12,  1864.)  Treats  of 
forty-eight  species,  thirty-seven  being  new. 

74. .     Lecidea  elabens  Fr.  Flora  58:  63-64.     1 

F  1875.     A  note  concerning. 

75. .      Observationes    Lichenologicse.      Proc. 

Am.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sci.  12:  166-185.  1877.  Notes  on  forty- 
three  species  and  varieties,  thirty-one  being  new. 

76. .     List  of  Lichens  collected  in  the  vicinity 

of  Annanactook  harbor,  Cumberland  Sound  about  Lat.  67°  N. , 
Long.  68°  49'  W.  Bull.  United  States  Nat.  Mus.  15:  167-168. 
1879.     Lists  fifty-three  lichens. 


172  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

78. .     The  Question  of  the  Gonidia  of  Lichens. 

Am.  Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts  17:  III.  254-256.     Mr  ls7i). 

79. .      Lichens  or   Fungi.       Bull.    Torr.    Bot. 

Club  7:  66-67.     Je  1881. 

80. .     Review  of   Minks'   Symbolse   Lichenes, 

Micologicse.     Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club  9:  143.    N  1882. 

81. .     New  western  Lichens.     Bull.  Torr.  Bot. 

Club  10:  21-23.  F  1883.  Describes  Leridsa  brandegei  Tuck 
and  Pi/renothalmnia  spragei  Tuck,  from  the  Pacific  coast. 

82. .     A  new  Ramalina.  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club 

10:  43.    Ap  1883.     Describes  Ramalina.  crlnlta  Tuck. 

83. .     Two  Lichens  of  the  Pacific  coast.    Bull. 

Torr.  Bot.  Club  11:  25,  26.  Mr  1884.  Comments  on  Lecanora 
melanasim  Sch.  and  describes  Sfaurothe/e  brandegei  Tuck. 

84.  Waite,  M.  B.  Experiments  with  Fungicides  in  the 
Removal  of  Lichens  from  pear  trees.  Jour.  Mycology  7:  264- 
268.     1893.     (Illustrated.     Plates  1  and  2.) 

85.  Williams,  T.  A.  The  Status  of  the  Algo-Lichen 
Hypothesis,  Amer.  Nat.  23:  1-8.     Ja  1889. 

86. .      Notes   on   Nebraska   Lichens.      Amer. 

Nat.  23:  161.  Mr  1889.  Short  note  as  to  general  character  of 
the  lichens  of  the  state. 

87. .  Notes  on  the  Canyon  Flora  of  North- 
west Nebraska.  Amer.  Nat.  24:  779-780.  Au  1890  Notices 
of  some  lichens  included. 

88.  Willey,  H.  A  new  North  American  Lichen.  Bull. 
Torr.  Bot.  Club  8:  140-141.  D  1881.  Describes  Omphalodium 
hottentoftnm  (Ach.)  F  lot.  var.  arizonicum  Tuck. 

89. -.     GyalectalamprosporaNyl.     Bull.  Torr. 

Bot.  Club  2:  61-62.     Je  1885. 

90. .     New  North  American  Arthonise.     Bull. 

Torr.  Bot.  Club  12:  113-115.  N  1885.  Gives  descriptions  of 
twelve  species. 

91. .      Edward  Tuckerman.     Bot.  Gaz.  11:  73- 

78.     Mr  1886. 

92. .     Dermatiscum,  a  further  note  concerning. 

Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club  14:  222.    4  O  1887. 

93. .     Nylander's  Synopsis.  1 :  Bull.  Torr.  Bot. 

Club  14:   222.     4  O  1887. 

94. .      Enumeration  of  the  Lichens   found 

in    New    Bedford,    Mass.,    and    its     vicinity,    from    1862    to 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  173 

1892.  Pamphlet,  29.  E.  Antony  &  Son,  New  Bedford,  Mass., 
1892.  A  list  of  almost  500  species  and  varieties  with  copious 
notes  and  three  or  four  new  species  described. 

95.     Wilson,    L.    A.     An   Artificial    Key  to  Lichens.     Am. 
Mo.  Mic.  Jour.  16:  65-80.     Mr  1895. 


THE    FLORA    OF   SOUTHERN    IOWA. 

BY    T.   J.    AND    M.   F.   L.   FITZPATRICK. 
II. 

On  June  20,  1898,  the  first  writer  of  this  article  started  over- 
land from  Lamoni  to  Council  Blulfs,  in  company  with  Prof.  J. 
T.  Pence.  The  route  taken  passed  through  the  west  side  of 
Decatur  county  to  Hopeville,  in  the  southwest  part  of  Clarke 
county,  thence  bearing  west  to  Afton  in  Union  county,  on  to 
Creston  in  the  same  county.  As  near  as  practicable  the  line  of 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  railway  was  followed 
through  Adams  county,  bearing  southward  with  the  railway  to 
Villisca  and  northward  to  Red  Oak  in  Montgomery  county. 
From  Red  Oak  a  nearly  northerly  direction  was  taken  until  into 
Pottawattamie  county,  then  westward  to  Wheeler  and  north- 
westward to  Carson,  where  the  overland  trip,  as  far  as  this 
article  is  concerned,  ended.  Carson  was  reached  June  24th. 
The  five  days  of  the  journey  were  filled  with  frequent  stops  in 
order  to  collect  by  the  wayside  and  from  adjoining  groves  and 
fields.  A  week  was  spent  at  Carson  collecting  in  the  immedi- 
ate vicinity  and  in  Wheeler 's  grove. 

On  July  25th,  the  writer  in  company  with  J.  P.  Anderson, 
an  ex-student  of  the  Nebraska  State  University,  left  Lamoni  in 
a  covered  wagon  for  an  overland  trip  to  Nebraska  City,  Neb. 
The  route  taken  beyond  Decatur  county,  was  through  the 
southern  portions  of  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page  and  Fremont 
counties,  passing  through  in  succession  Caledonia,  Redding, 
Blockton,  Bedford,  Shambaugh,  Coin,  Riverton,  through  the 
hills  west  of  Riverton  and  across  the  valley  to  Nebraska  City, 
Neb.  An  entire  week  was  taken  for  the  journey.  Material 
was  collected  from  the  waysides  and  adjoining  streams  or  occa- 
sionally covering  the  rougher  uplands.     From  Nebraska  City 


174  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

we  passed  northward  through  Otoe  county  and  stopped  in  Cass 
county,  Neb.,  opposite  McPaul,  Iowa.  Here  two  weeks  were 
spent  drying  material  and  collecting  on  the  Nebraska  side  of 
the  river  or  on  the  Iowa  side  around  McPaul.  Wabonsie 
slough,  which  is  mostly  the  remains  of  a  lake  about  two  miles 
north  of  McPaul,  gave  us  many  good  specimens. 

On  August  25th  we  started  from  Nebraska  City  on  our 
return.  The  route  chosen  was  northwesterly  across  the  valley 
and  through  the  hills  to  Sidney  in  Fremont  county,  thence 
eastward  to  Clarinda,  Page  county;  on  across  Taylor  county  to 
Mt.  Ayr,  in  Ringgold  county,  the  road  scarcely  varying  a 
mile  north  or  south  from  a  due  east  and  west  line,  the  entire 
distance  from  Sidney  to  Mt.  Ayr.  From  Mt.  Ayr  we  turned 
southerly,  toward  Lamoni,  arriving. on  the  18th  of  August. 

The  following  list  of  species  is  the  result  of  the  trips  here 
described  and  the  additional  species  found  in  Decatur  county 
since  our  last  paper  was  written.  The  specimens  are  deposited 
in  the  private  herbarium  of  T.  J.  and  M.  F.  L.  Fitzpatrick. 
The  list  is  by  no  means  complete  but  represents  very  well  the 
flora  of  the  region  for  the  period  of  time  covered.  The  order 
Leguminoste  is  fairly  well  represented,  midsummer  being  the 
time  of  its  greatest  development,  while  the  great  order  Com- 
positse  has  only  fairly  started  by  the  latter  part  of  August. 
The  spring  flora  had  passed  out  by  the  time  we  began  work. 

The  rectangle  formed  by  the  six  counties,  Union,  Adams, 
Montgomery,  Ringgold,  Taylor  and  Page,  presents  much 
in  common.  A  great  portion  of  this  region  is  an  expanse 
of  rolling  prairie.  Level  ground  is  rarely  seen  save  in  the 
narrow  bottoms  or  highest  uplands.  The  ground  near  the 
streams  rolls  heavily,  but  gradually  reduces  to  long  swells  as 
we  go  farther  from  the  streams.  Much  of  the  land  appears  as 
long  narrow  ridges  running  parallel  with  the  streams  and 
flanked  at  sharp  intervals  with  small  lateral  ones.  The  ridges 
are  of  the  typical  Kansas  drift,  covered  with  a  thin  black  or 
blackish  soil,  while  the  valleys  are  alluvium,  deposited  from 
overflows  of  the  streams  or  carried  down  from  the  uplands  by 
surface  wash. 

Grand  river  and  its  tributaries  cross  diagonally  the  east- 
ern portion  of  Union  county,  rolling  southeasterly;  Ringgold 
county  is  drained  by  the  west  fork  of  the  Grand  and  Platte 
rivers,  and  their  tributaries,  rolling  southwesterly.  The 
southeastern  portion  of  Union  county  is  drained  by  the  same 


IOWA  AC  VDEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  175 

system.  The  divide,  separating  these  two  systems,  passes 
southeasterly  across  the  center  of  Union  county,  thence  south- 
ward near  the  line  of  Decatur  and  Ringgold  counties.  Adams 
county  rolls  southwesterly  and  is  drained  by  the  Nodaway 
system,  which  system  also  drains  the  eastern  portion  of  Mont- 
gomery and  Page  counties,  the  river  system  flexing  from  a 
southwesterly  to  a  southerly  direction,  in  the  southeastern 
portion  of  Montgomery  county.  Taylor  county  has  the  Piatt 
river  system,  and  rolls  to  the  southward. 

The  western  portion  of  Montgomery  county  is  drained  b}^  the 
Nishnabotany  system,  which  runs  southwesterly,  crossing  the 
northeastern  portion  of  Page  county;  thence  bearing  westward 
to  Riverton,  in  Fremont  county,  where  the  different  systems  of 
the  Nishnabotany  unite  into  a  single  stream;  the  whole  system 
lies  east  of  the  loess  hills  which  border  the  Missouri  river  bot- 
toms. The  river  systems  of  the  rectangle,  in  general,  flow 
southwest,  except  in  the  extreme  eastern  portion,  where  they 
flow  southeast.  The  whole  county  is  cut  into  numerous  north 
and  south  divides  by  the  many  tributaries  of  the  Piatt. 

Throughout  this  rectangle  of  six  counties,  the  flora  presents 
a  complex  nature,  which  is  common  throughout  the  region. 
The  native  flora  is  much  restricted  in  extent,  though  it  persists 
in  many  portions  where  the  primeval  sod  has  as  yet  been 
unfurrowed.  The  waysides,  the  narrow  strips  along  the  rail- 
way, and  portions  next  the  back  settlements,  still  grow  the 
original  prairie  grass  and  the  accompanying  flora,  while  many 
similar  tracts  are  continuously  pastured,  and  present  little 
flora,  except  here  and  there  a  thicket. 

In  this  region  the  western  flora  is  passing  eastward  and  the 
eastern  flora  westward.  Many  species,  on  their  tramps  in 
opposite  directions,  seem  to  have  met  in  this  region,  and 
established  themselves,  and  to  have  become  an  integral  part  of 
the  flora.  Examples  of  the  western  forms  are  Lactuca 
puJchella  D.  C,  Plantago  aristata  Mx.,  Solanum7'ostratum  Dunal., 
Hordeum  pusUlinn  Nutt.,  and  many  others  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  list.  Among  those  moving  westward  are  the  Lepidiums, 
Brassica  nigra  Koch.,  Capsella  bursa- pastor  is  Moench.,  Xanthium 
canadense  Mill.,  Ambrosia  arteiaiscefoUa  L.,  and  A.  trifida  L., 
AntJwmis  cotula  D.  C,  Datura  stramonium  Li.  and  D.  tatula  L  ,  all 
of  which  are  becoming  conspicuous  in  the  waste  land  through- 
out the  region.  The  prairie  portions  yield  Silphiums,  Heli- 
anths,  Liliums,  Psoraleas,  Anemones,  Ceanothus,  Asters,  and 


176  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Solidagos,  the  two  latter  genera  appearing  in  their  best 
development  a  month  later  than  the  time  of  our  explorations. 
The  bottoms  of  the  small  rivers  or  streams  frequently  have 
marshes,  or  long  ponds,  formed  from  old  river  beds.  Here 
may  be  found  Typha,  Sagittaria,  Lemna,  Sparganiuhi,  and  other 
water  plants  hereafter  listed.  The  woods  were  composed 
of  elms,  oaks,  cottonwoods,  linn,  an  occasional  sycamore,  and 
great  abundance  of  willows  in  the  lowlands.  The  older  trees 
have  mostly  been  pressed  into  use  for  local  purposes.  The 
woods  are  largely  made  up  of  young  trees.  Upland  thickets 
are  common  and  are  mostly  composed  of  hazel,  red  haws, 
sumac,  plum,  buckthorn,  bittersweet,  and  shrubby  oaks.  The 
flora  is  much  restricted  by  agricultural  operations,  which 
yearly  reduce  the  amount  of  free  ground  for  the  native  flora, 
while  more  careful  culture  renders  difficult  the  existence  of  the 
introduced  flora  which,  however,  takes  refuge  in  waste  lots 
and  along  fence-ways  and  borders.  The  native  flora  takes 
refuge  in  the  railway  right  of  way,  where  the  plants  have 
been  enjoying  a  brief  respite,  but  will,  ere  long,  either  be  com- 
pelled to  turn  tramps  or  cease  to  exist. 

The  counties  west  of  the  rectangle  have  many  species 
peculiar  to  that  portion  of  Iowa.  The  bluffs  bordering  the 
Missouri  river  valley  are  composed  of  a  remarkable  series  of 
loess  hills.  The  flora  of  these  hills  includes  Yuccas,  Legumes, 
and  grasses  that  are  not  found  anywhere  else  in  Iowa.  The 
valley  of  the  river  has  quite  a  number  of  introduced  plants, 
common  enough  now,  and  which  are  migrating,  and  destined  to 
extend  from  here  eastward  and  become  a  source  of  trouble  to 
farmers. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  paper  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  J.  P. 
Anderson,  of  Lamoni,  Iowa,  for  constant  assistance  as  a  col- 
lector. To  R.  I.  Cratty,  F.  Lamson-Scribner,  and  the  officers 
of  the  Missouri  Botanical  Garden,  we  are  under  obligations  for 
determinations  of  difficult  species. 

We  present  the  results  of  our  labors,  and  hope  they  are 
worthy  as  a  contribution  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  flora  of 
this  portion  of  Iowa. 

Lamoni,  Iowa,  January  1,  1899. 

Ranunculace^. 

(lematls  vlrfjlnlana  L.  Union,  Ringgold,  and  Page  counties. 
Thickets  and  waysides;  frequent. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  177 

C.  intcheri  T.  &  G.  Union,  Fremont,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Thickets;  frequent. 

Anemone  cylindrica  Gray.  Union,  Ringgold,  Fremont, 
Adams,  Montgomery,  and  Pottawattamie  counties.  Prairies, 
waysides;  frequent. 

A.  virglniana  L.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Woods;  frequent. 

A.  pemhsylvanica  L.  Ringgold  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 
Prairie;  frequent. 

Thalictrum  imrpurascens  L.  Union,  Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor, 
Fremont,  Adams,  and  Pottawattamie  counties.  Open  woods; 
frequent. 

Ranunculus  multifldus  Pursh.  Decatur  county.  A  few  speci- 
mens found  in  a  moist  locality. 

Aquilegia  canadensis  L.  Ringgold  and  Pottawattamie  coun- 
ties.    Woods;  common. 

Delphinium  tricorneMx.  Clarke,  Union,  and  Decatur  counties. 
Fields  and  woods;  moist  places;  common.  Many  specimens 
were  found  with  double  flowers,  the  two  upper  petals,  as  usual, 
and  six  others,  the  lower  sepal  spurred  similar  to  the  upper, 
but  with  a  smaller  spur.  Specimens  with  six  or  seven  petals 
were  also  found. 

D.  azureum  Mx  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  and 
Pottawattamie  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

Memispermace.e. 

Menispermum  canadense  L.  Union,  Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor, 
Fremont,  and  Pottawattamie  counties.     Woods;  common. 

Berberidace^. 

Podophi/Uum  peltatum  L  Union  and  Ringgold  counties. 
Rich  woods;  common. 

NYMPH^ACEyE. 

Nympluva  tuberosa  Paine.  Fremont  county.  Common  in 
Wabonsie  slough. 

Crucifer.^. 

Arabis  canadensis  L,     Page  county.     Woods;  infrequent. 

A.  dentata  T.  &  G.     Decatur  county.     One  specimen  found. 

Nasturtium  sinuatum  Nutt.  Fremont  county.  This  species 
is  a  very  common  weed  in  the  Missouri  river  bottoms. 

N.  sessiliflorum  Nutt.      Decatur   and   Page   counties.     Low, 
wet  places;  frequent. 
12 


178  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

N.  palustreJ).  G.     Union  county.     Moist  places;  common. 

N.  armoracia  Fries.  Adams  county.  Waste  places;  com- 
mon. 

Er>/i<imiim  ehei  rant  ho  ides  L.  Decatur  county.  One  specimen 
found. 

SiHiimbrlnm  officUiale  Scop.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgom- 
ery, Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties. 
A  common  weed  in  waste  places. 

Bra.ssica  nif/ra  Koch.  Ringgold,  Page,  Montgomery,  and 
Pottawattamie  counties.     Fields  and  waste  places;  common. 

CapxeUa  burm -pastor is  Moench.  Clarke,  Union,  and  Ringgold 
counties.     A  common  weed. 

Lepidium  virf/iidcum  L.  Clarke,  Adams,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Waste  places;  common.. 

Baphanus  sativus  L.     Taylor  county.     A  few  escapes. 

Capparidace^. 

Cleome  integrifolia  T.  &  G.  Fremont  county.  A  common 
weed  in  the  Missouri  river  bottoms. 

CiSTACE.E. 

Helianthemum  nutias  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  Union  and  Taylor  counties. 
Prairies,  frequent.  We  have  heretofore  listed  this  as  H.  cana- 
dense  Mx.  Lechea  major  Mx.  of  our  previous  lists  is  only  a  form 
of  this  species. 

Lechea^  stricta  Legget.  Johnson  county.  Listed  before  as 
L.  minor  L. 

VlOLACE.^. 

Viola,  palmata  L.  Fremont  county.  A  few  found  in  low 
places. 

Yiota  (■uvullata  Ait.  Union,  Ringgold,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Fields  and  woods;  common. 

Viola  pubescens  Ait.  Pottawattamie  county.  Woods;  fre- 
quent. 

Caryophyllace^. 

Saponaria  officinalis  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Waysides;  infrequent. 

Silene  stellata  Ait.  Ringgold,  Page,  Fremont  and  Pottawat- 
tamie counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

S.  noctiflora  L.  Fremont  county.  A  few  found  by  the  way- 
side. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  I79 

PORTULACACE^. 

Portulaca  oleracea  L.  Pottawattamie  county.  Waste  places; 
common. 

Hypericace.-e. 

Hypericum  a.sojron  L.  This  species  was  frequent  in  Otoe  and 
Cass  counties,  Nebraska,  opposite  Fremont  county,  Iowa.  It 
was  not  noticed  eastward  of  the  Missouri  river. 

H.  lyroliflcum  L.     Johnsoa  county.     Frequent,  locally. 

H.  mutilum  L.     Johnson  county. 

H.  cistifolium  Lam.  Fremont  county.  Several  specimens 
were  obtained. 

H.  maculatum  Walt.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties.  Open 
places;  frequent. 

Malvace^. 

Althcea  rosea  Cav.     Decatur  county.     Occasionally  an  escape. 

Malva  crispa  L.  Decatur  county.  Several  specimens  obtained 
in  waste  places. 

J/.  rofuncUfolia  L.  Union,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  common. 

Skla  Kpinosa  L.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Waste  places; 
frequent. 

Abutlhm  aviceiime  Gaertn.  Union,  Adams,  Pottawattamie, 
Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties. 

Hibiscus  miUtaris  Cav.  Fremont  county.  Wabonsie  slough 
and  elsewhere;  frequent;  also  in  Cass  county,  Nebraska, 
opposite  Fremont  county. 

H.  trionum  L.  Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties.  Fields; 
frequent. 

TlLIACE^. 

Ti/ia  americana  L,  Union,  Montgomery,  Ringgold,  and 
Fremont  counties.     Low  woods;  frequent. 

Linages. 

Linum  sulcatum  Riddell.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties. 
Prairies;  frequent. 

GeraniacetE. 

Oxalis  violacea  L.     Union  county.     Common. 

0.  stricta  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Taylor,  Fremont  and  Pottawat- 
tamie counties.     Fields  and  woods;  common. 

Impatiens  pallida  Nutt.  Taylor  and  Fremont  counties.  Wet 
woods;  frequent. 


180  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

/.  falva  Nutt.  Fremont  county.  With  the  preceding;  infre- 
quent. 

RUTACE^ 

Xantlioxylum  amencana  Mill.  Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor,  Fre- 
mont, Montgomery,  and  Pottawattamie  counties  Thickets: 
common. 

Celastrace^. 

Celastrus  scandens  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Fremont,  and  Pot- 
tawattamie counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

Euomjmus  cdroimrjmreus  Jacq.  Page  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

Rhamnace^. 

Bliamnus  laneeolata  Pursh.  Ringgold,  Page,  Adams,  Mont- 
gomery, and  Pottawattamie  counties.  Upland  thickets;  com- 
mon. 

Ceanothus  americanus  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and 
Montgomery  counties.     Prairies;  infrequent. 

C.  ovatus  Desf.  Adams,  Montgomery,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Prairies;  common. 

C.  ovatus  pubescent  T.  &  G.  Pottawattamie  county.  Com- 
mon. 

VlTACE.E. 

Yitis  riparia  Mx.  Clarke,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pottawat- 
tamie, Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties.  Woods 
and  thickets;  common. 

T'.  ciuerea  Eng.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Woods; 
infrequent. 

Cissus  ampelopsw  Pers.  Fremont  county.  Common  in 
woods  bordering  the  Missouri  river. 

Ampelopsis  quinquefolla  Mx.  Adams,  Montgomery,  Potta- 
wattamie, Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties.  Thickets; 
common. 

SapindacevE. 

Aesculus  glabra  Willd.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Union  counties; 
rich  woods;  frequent. 

Acer  da.si/carpum  Ehrh.  Clarke,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Ring- 
gold, and  Fremont  counties;  moist  woods  and  artificial  groves; 
common. 

Negundo  aceroides  Moench.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties;  rich 
woods;  common. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  181 

Anacardiac^. 

Rhus  glabra  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Potta- 
wattamie, Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties: 
thickets;  common. 

R.  taxicodendron  L.  Clarke,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Potta 
wattamie,  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties;  thickets  and 
waysides;  frequent.     R.  radicans  L,  of  the  new  nomenclature. 

POLYGALACE.E. 

Pohjgala  senega  L.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties;  prairies: 
common. 

P.  verticiUafa  L.  Decatur  and  Fremont  counties;  dry  soil; 
frequent.  The  variety,  ambigua  Gray,  of  our  preceding 
papers,  belongs  here. 

Leguminos^. 

Baptisia  leucopluea  Nutt.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  and  Ring- 
gold counties.     Prairies;  frequent. 

B.  leucanthi  T.  &  G.  Adams,  Clarke,  Union,  Ringgold,  Pot- 
tawattamie, and  Taylor  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

(Jrotalaria  sagifta/is  L.  Fremont  county.  A  few  specimens 
found.  Very  common  in  dry,  open,  upland  woods,  Otoe  county, 
Nebraska. 

TrifoUicm  pratense  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  and  Fremont  counties.  Waysides; 
common. 

T.  reflexum  L.  Union  county.  One  specimen  found  on  river 
bank. 

T.  repens  L.  Clarke,  Union,  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 
Waysides;  common. 

T.  Jtybridum  L.     Adams  county.      Waste  places;  infrequent. 

Jfelilotus  officinalis  Willd.  Fremont  county.  Waste  places; 
frequent. 

J/,  alba  Lam.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Pottawattamie,  Mont- 
gomery, Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties.    Waysides;  common. 

Medicago  sativa  L.  Fremont  county.  Waste  places;  infre- 
quent. 

Psoralea.  tenuiflora  Parsh.  Union  and  Ringgold  counties. 
Prairies;  frequent. 

P.  argophyUa  Pursh.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Taylor,  and  Page  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

P.  escw/enta  Parsh.  Fremont  county.  Loess  hills,  probably 
frequent. 


182  IOWA  ACADEMY    OF   SCIENCES. 

Amorpkacanescensl>intt.  Clarke,  Adams  Montgomery,  Potta- 
wattamie, Page,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waysides;  common. 

A.  fruticosa  L.  Clarke,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie, 
Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties.  Sloughs  and  along 
streams;  common. 

A.  micj^ophyUa  Pursh.  Decatur  county.  Dry  upland  woods, 
infrequent, 

Dalea  laxiflora  Pursh.  Fremont  county.  Loess  hills,  com- 
mon. 

PetaJostemon  violaceus  Mx.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Prairies;  frequent. 

P.  Candidas  Mx.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Prairies;  frequent. 

Kobinia  pseudacacla  L.  Taylor  and  Montgomery  counties. 
Appearing  as  escapes;  frequent. 

Astragalus  canadensis  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fre- 
mont counties.     Damp  soil;  common. 

Oxi/tropus  lambirfi  Pursh.  Fremont  county.  Loess  hills, 
common. 

Glycyrrhiza.  lepidota  Nutt.  Union,  Taylor,  and  Montgomery 
counties.     Waysides;  common. 

Desmodiuni  acuminatum  DC.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Rich  woods;  common. 

D.  illinoense  Gray.  Ringgold  and  Page  counties.  Prairies; 
frequent. 

D.  paniculatum  DC.  Decatur  and  Fremont  counties. 
Woods;  infrequent. 

D.  canadense  DC.  Ringgold  and  Page  counties.  Oj^en 
woods;  frequent. 

/).  diUenii  Darlingt.     Fremont  county.     Woods;  frequent. 

Lespedeza  violacea  Pers.  Ringgold  and  Page  counties. 
Prairies;  frequent. 

L.  reticulata  Pers.     Dry,  upland  woods;  infrequent 

/>.  capitata  Mx.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Dry  soil;  common. 

Ajnos  tuberosa  Moench.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont 
counties. 

Strop] iostyles  angulosa.  Ell.  Fremont  county.  Sandy  soil; 
common. 

S.  Pauciflorus  Watson.  Fremont  county.  Sandy  soil;  fre- 
quent. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  183 

AmpMcarjma  monoica  Nutt.  Page  county.  Dry  woods; 
frequent. 

A.  intcheri  T.  &  G.  Page  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 
Woods;  frequent. 

Gercis  canadensis  L.     Fremont  county.     Frequent. 

Cassia  marylandica  L  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  coun- 
ties. Rich  lowlands;  frequent;  in  some  localities  forming 
thickets;  found  also  in  Otoe  and  Cass  counties,  Nebraska. 

('.  chama'crista  L.  Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor,  Fremont,  Mont- 
gomery, and  Pottawattamie  counties;  waste  places;  common. 

Gymnodadus  canadinsis  Lam.  Fremont  and  Pottawattamie 
counties;  low  woods;  infrequent. 

GledetscMa  triacanthos  L.  Adams,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page, 
and  Fremont  counties. 

Desmanthus  bracJtylobus  Benth.  Fremont  county;  foot  of  loess 
hills  and  bottoms  of  the  river;  common. 

Rosace.^. 

Prunus  amencana  Marsh.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Taylor, 
and  Pottawattamie  counties;  thickets;  common. 

L\  sertina.  Ehrh.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pattawatta- 
mie,  Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties;  woods: 
frequent. 

P.  virginiana  L.  Clarke,  Adams,  and  Pottawattamie  counties; 
low  woods;  frequent. 

Sjnrcea  salicifoUa  L.  Taylor  and  Page  counties;  waysides; 
infrequent. 

liubus  occidentalis  L.  Clarke,  Ringgold,  Fremont,  and  Pot- 
tawattamie counties;  waysides,  thickets;  frequent. 

Pi.  villosus  Ait.  Union,  Ringgold,  and  Fremont  counties:  open 
woods;  frequent. 

Geum  album  Gmelin.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties. 

PotenWIa  arguta  Pursh.     Ringgold  county;  prairies;  common. 

P.  norvegica  L.     Ringgold  county;  fields;  common, 

Agrimonia  eupatoria  L.  Ringgold,  and  Fremont  counties; 
open  woods;  common. 

A  parviflora  Ait.  Page  and  Ringgold  counties:  low  prairies: 
frequent. 

Bosa  arkansana  Porter.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties:  prairies: 
common. 


184  IOWA  ACADEMY   OP   SCIENCES. 

Pyi'us coronaria'L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pot- 
tawattamie, Ringgold,  Page,  and  Taylor  counties;  thickets; 
common. 

P.  malus  L.  Union,  Page,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pottawatta- 
mie, and  Ringgold  counties;  waysides;  frequent;  appearing 
mostly  as  low  shrubs. 

Crataegus  coccinea  L.  Clarke,  Adams,  Taylor,  and  Pottawat- 
tamie counties;  thickets;  common. 

C.  crus-gaUl  L.     Clarke  and  Page  counties;  woods;  frequent. 

Amygdalus  jiersica  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties;  waysides;  waste  places;  frequent;  an  escape  from  cul- 
tivation. 

Saxifragace.?!:. 

Heuchera  li'ispida  Pursh.  Union  and  Adams  counties;  prairie; 
frequent. 

Parnassia  caroliniana  Mx.  Johnson  county;  frequent  locally. 

Bibes  gracile  Mx.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Pottawattamie, 
and  Fremont  counties;  woods;  common 

i?.  floridum  L'Her.      Taylor  county;  a  clump  by  the  wayside. 

Crassulace^e. 

Pentliorum  sedoides  L.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties;  damp 
soils;  common. 

Halorage.e. 

MyriophyUum  scabratum  Mx.  Ringgold  county;  common  in  a 
lake  near  Delphos.  In  Wabonsie  slough,  in  Fremont  county,  a 
deep  water  form  was  found  that  is  taken  to  be  this  species. 

CaUitricha  heferophy/la  Pursh.  Decatur  county;  a  few  speci- 
mens found  in  moist  localities.  This  is  a  rare  plant  for  Iowa, 
and  even  a  rare  genus.  The  only  other  species  we  have  is  (,'. 
verna  L.,  of  Muscatine  county,  collected  by  F.  Reppert. 

Lythrace.'E. 

Ammannia  coccinea  Rottb.  Decatur  county;  about  a  dozen 
specimens  found  on  the  margin  of  a  railroad  pond  near  Davis 
City. 

Lythrum  alatnm  Pursh.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Ring- 
gold, Page,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties;  moist  soil;  com- 
mon. 

Didiplis  linearis  Raf .  Decatur  county;  a  few  specimens  on  the 
margin  of  a  railroad  pond  near  Davis  City;  this  species  was  quite 
common  on  mud  Hats  of  a  lake  near  Benton,  Ringgold  county, 
where  it  was  collected  in  quantity. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  185 

Onagkace.-e. 

Ludwigia  polycarpa  Short  &  Peter.  Ringgold,  and  Taylor 
counties.     Shallow  lakes;  frequent. 

Gaura  biennis  L.  Fremont  county.  Fields  and  waste 
places;  common.  By  a  clerical  error  G.  coccinea  Nutt.  was 
given  for  this  species  in  the  last  Academy  report.  The  local- 
ities for  southern  and.  northeastern  Iowa  should  be  credited  to 
this  species. 

G.  parviflora  Dougl.  Fremont  county.  Base  of  loess  hills 
and  in  bottoms;  frequent. 

Oenothera  biennis  L.  Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties. 
Fields;  common. 

Circcea  lutetiana  L.  Page,  Ringgold,  Fremont,  and  Potta- 
wattamie counties. 

CUCURBITACE^. 

Ediinocystis  lobata.     Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Umbellifer.^. 

Cicuta  maculata  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Moist  places;  common. 

Tiedemannia  rigida  Coult.  &  Rose.  Ringgold  county.  Wet 
sloughs;  frequent. 

Heracleum  lanatum  Mx.  Union  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 
Rich  woods;  common. 

Pastinaca  sativa  L.  Decatur,  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Ring- 
gold, Taylor,  Page,  Fremont,  and  Johnson  counties.  Waste 
places;  common. 

Piiiipinella  integerrima.     Union  county.     Woods;  frequent. 

Point cenia  nuttaUii  DC.  Ringgold  and  Montgomery  counties; 
prairies;  a  few  specimens  found. 

Crijptotxenia  canadensis  DC.  Union,  Ringgold,  and  Potta- 
awattamie  counties;  woods;  common. 

Sium  Gicutiefolium  Gmelin.  Ringgold  county;  wet  soil;  f re 
quent. 

Zizia  aurea  Koch.  Johnson  and  Page  counties;  low  grounds; 
common. 

Osmorrhiza  brevistylis  DC.    Fremont  county;  woods;  frequent. 

0.  longistylis   DC.  Fremont   county;  woods;  frequent. 

Eryngium  yacccefolium  Mx.  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie, 
Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Page  counties;  prairies;  common. 

Sanicula  marylandica  L.  Ringgold  and  Pottawattamie 
counties;  woods;  common. 


186  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

CORNACE.E. 

Cornus  asperlfolia  Mx.  Taylor,  Fremont,  Montgomery,  and 
Pottawattamie  counties;  thickets;  common. 

(J.  sericea  L.     Adams  county;  low  places;  common. 

0.  paniculata  L '  Her.    Ringgold  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 

C.  alternifolia   L.     Johnson  county;  one  shrub,  from  which 
several  specimens  were  collected,  is  known. 
Caprifoliacete. 

Sambucus  canadensw  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgom- 
ery, Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Low  grounds;  common. 

Ylbuniuin  jmbescens  Pursh.  Decatur  county.  Upland  thick- 
ets; frequent  locally. 

V.  lentago  L.  Union  and  Decatur  counties.  Low  ground, 
along  streams;  frequent. 

V.  pi'^'iiifo^ii'iif  L-  Johnson  county.  Low  grounds;  infre- 
quent. 

T'.  dentatwn  L.  Johnson  county.  Wooded  ravines;  infre- 
quent. 

Triosteum.  perfollatiun  L.  Union,  Adams,  Pottawattamie, 
Ringgold,  and  Page  counties.     Woods;  common. 

Symphoricarpos  vulgaris  Mx.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Mont- 
gomery, Pottawattamie,  Lucas,  Monroe,  Ringgold,  Taylor, 
Page,  and  Fremont  counties.  Upland  woods  and  prairies; 
common. 

S.  occideiitd/is  Hook.  Fremont  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 
Base  of  loess  hills;  common. 

Lonicera  sulUvantll  Gray.  Fremont  county.  Woods;  a  few 
collected. 

RUBIACE^. 

Houstonia  angmtifoUa  Mx.  Taylor  and  Fremont  counties. 
Prairies  and  loess  hills;  common. 

Galium  concinmoii  T.  &  G.  Union  and  Page  counties. 
Woods;  common. 

G.  circcezans  Mx.  Fremont  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 
Woods;  common. 

COMPOSIT.^.. 

Vernonia.  noveboracensis  latifolia  Gray.  Ringgold  county. 
Pastures;  common. 

Eupatorium  purpmreum  L.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Pottawat- 
tamie counties.     Woods;  common. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  187 

Liatris  punctata  Hook.  Fremont  county.  Loess  hills; 
common. 

L.  scariosa  Willd.  Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties.  Prai- 
ries; common. 

L.  jn/cnostacJii/a  Mx.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Page  counties. 
Prairies;  common. 

L.  squarrosa  Willd.  Taylor  and  Page  counties.  Prairies; 
common. 

GrindeUa  squarrosa  DmidA.  Fremont  county.  Waste  places; 
frequent. 

SoUdago  rig  Ida  L      Fremont  county.     Woods;  frequent. 

S.  ulmifolia  Muhl.     Taylor  county.     Woods;  frequent. 

S.  missouriensis  Ait.  Ringgold,  Page,  Fremont,  Decatur, 
and  Johnson  counties.     Upland  woods;  frequent. 

*S'.  serotina  Ait.     Taylor  county.     Low  places;  common. 

Boltonia  asteroides  L'Her.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties. 
Wet  soil;  frequent. 

Aster  sericeus  Vent.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  Fremont,  Mont- 
gomery, and  Pottawattamie  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

A.  multifloniH  Ait.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties.  Way- 
sides; frequent. 

A.  Icevis  L.     Johnson  county. 

Erigeron  strigosus  Muhl.      Clarke  county.      Fields;  common. 

E.divaricatus  Mx.  Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties.  Pastures; 
common. 

E.  canadensis  Ij.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Waste  places; 
common. 

E.  annuus  Pers.  Union  and  Pottawattamie  counties.  Waste 
places;  common 

SilphiiDii  perfoliatum  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  Fremont, 
Montgomery,  and  Pottawattamie  counties.  Low  places;  fre- 
quent. 

S.  integrifolium  Mx.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  Fremont, 
Montgomery,  and  Pottawattamie  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

S.  laciniatum  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Fremont,  Mont- 
gomery, and  Pottawattamie  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

Parthenium  integrifolium  L.  Ringgold  county.  Prairies; 
common. 

Iva  xanthiifolia  Nutt.  Fremont  county.  River  bottoms; 
common. 

Ambrosia  artemisicefolia  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgom- 
ery, Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Waste  places;  common. 


188  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

A.  trlfida  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Potta- 
wattamie, Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  common. 

A.  pfiilostacluia  DC.  Fremont  county.  Waste  places: 
common. 

Xanthunn  canadense  Mill.  Ringgold,  Fremont,  and  Potta 
wattamie  counties.     Waste  places;  common. 

Heliopsis  IcevU  Pers.  Decatur  and  Fremont  counties.  Upland 
woods;  infrequent. 

H.  scabra  Dunal.  Taylor,  Page,  Fremont,  and  Montgomery 
counties.     Prairies;  common. 

Echinacei  anr/iifififolia  DC.  Clarke,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  and  Fremont  counties.  Prairies; 
frequent. 

Emlbeckia  triloba  L.  Ringgold  county.     Woods;  common. 

E.  laciniata  L.     Ringgold  county.     Low  woods;  common. 

i?.  subtomentosa  Pursh.  Johnson  county.  Prairies;  fre- 
quent. 

Lepacliys  pinnaia  T.  &  G.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and 
Fremont  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

Helianthus  annuus  L.  Union,  Pottawattamie,  Ringgold, 
Page,  and  Fremont  counties.     Waste  places;  frequent. 

H.  rigidus  Best.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Prairies;  frequent. 

H.  grosse-serrafus  Mart.  Fremont  county.  Low  places; 
common. 

H.  hirsutus  Raf.     Ringgold  county.     Woods;  common. 

Actinomerls  squarrosa  Nutt.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Low  woods;  frequent. 

Coreojysis  pal) nat a 'Nntt.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgom- 
ery, Pottawattamie,  and  Page  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

C.  tripjterin  L.     Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties. 

Helenium  autumnale  L.     Taylor  and  Fremont  counties. 

Dysodia  chrysan  them  aides  Lag.  Union,  Ringgold,  Taylor, 
Page,  and  Fremont  counties.     Waste  places;  common. 

Anthemis  cotnla  DC.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  common. 

Achillea  inlllefoliuui  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Montgomery,  Potta- 
wattamie, Decatur,  and  Ringgold  counties.  Fields  and  upland 
woods;  common;  pink,  flowered  forms  are  frequently  found  in 
Decatur  county,  in  upland  woods. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  189 

Artemisia  ludovk-iana  Nutt.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waysides  and  fields;  common. 

A.  annua  L.  Decatur  county.  Waste  places;  common  in 
one  locality. 

Cacalia  atriplici folia  L.  Union,  Pottawattamie,  Ringgold, 
Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties.     Prairies;  frequent. 

G.  tuberosa  Nutt.  Union,  Adams,  Pottawattamie,  Ringgold, 
and  Taylor  counties.     Prairies;  common. 

Arctium  lappa  L.  Clarke,  Adams,  Pottawattamie,  Ringgold, 
Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties.     Waste  places;  common. 

Hieracium  lonrjipilum  Torr.  Taylor  county.  Prairies;  fre- 
quent. 

H.  scabrum  Mx.     Ringgold  county.     Woods;  frequent. 

Prenanthes  aspera  Mx.  Ringgold  county.  Waysides;  fre- 
quent. 

Lygodesmia  juncea  Don.  Fremont  county.  Loess  hills;  com- 
mon; this  species  is  spreading  eastward  and  is  becoming  fre- 
quent in  the  cultivated  fields. 

Taraxacum  officinale  Neber.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Mont- 
gomery, and  Ringgold  counties.  Fields  and  waste  places; 
common. 

Lactuca  iniegrifolia  Bigel.  Decatur,  Ringgold,  and  Taylor 
counties.     Fields  and  waysides;  frequent. 

L.  scariola  L.  Decatur,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  frequent. 

L.  canadensis  L.     Ringgold  county.     Waysides;  frequent. 

L.  floridana  Gaertn  Johnson,  Van  Buren,  and  Decatur 
counties.     Fields;  frequent. 

L.  pulcliella  Bigel.  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie,  and  Fre- 
mont counties.     Waste  places ;  common. 

LOBELIACE.^. 

Lobelia  syphilitica  L.  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Moist  places;  frequent. 

L.  spicata  Lam.  Union  and  Adams  counties.  Fields; 
common. 

Campanulace.e. 

Specularia  perfoliata  A.  DC.     Union  county.     Rare. 
Campanula    americana    L         Taylor,     Page,    and    Fremont 
counties.     Rich  woods;  common. 


190  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

Primulace.e. 

Steironema  ciliatum  Raf.     Fremont  county.  Woods;  frequent. 
S.    lanceolatum   Gray.       Ringgold   county.       Frequent   in   a 
swampy  locality. 

Apocynace^. 

Apocynum  androsaemlfoHum  L.  Union  county.  Waysides 
and  fields;  frequent. 

A.  cannabinum  L.  Clarke,  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie, 
Ringgold,  and  Taylor  counties.  Fields  and  waste  places;  fre- 
quent. 

ASCLEPIADACE.-E. 

Asclepias  tKberosa  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Montgomery,  Ring- 
gold, Taylor,  and  Page  counties.     Fields;  common. 

A.  incarnafa  L.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Wet  soil;  frequent. 

A.  cornutl  Decaisne.  Clarke,  Adams,  Pottawattamie,  Ring- 
gold, and  Taylor  counties.  Fields;  common;  the  authority  for 
this  species  was  wrongly  given  as  DC.  in  the  last  report. 

A.  suUivantii  Englm.  Taylor  and  Page  counties.  Bottoms; 
frequent. 

A.  obtusifolia  Mx.  Union,  Adams,  and  Montgomery  counties. 
Waysides;  frequent. 

A.  meadli  Torr.     Adams  county.     Prairie;  infrequent. 

A.  purjmrascens  L.  Union  and  Ringgold  counties.  Infre- 
quent. 

A.  verticiUata  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  Fremont,  and 
Pottawattamie  counties.     Fields  and  open  woods;  common. 

Acf rates  loncji folia  Ell.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties. 
Prairies;  common. 

A    viricUfloi'a  Ell.     Clarke  county.     Prairies;  frequent. 

GENTIANACE.E. 

Gentiana  andreicsii  Griseb.  Decatur  county.  Prairies; 
infrequent. 

(7.  alba  Muhl.      Taylor  county.      Prairie  woods;  infrequent. 

POLEMONIACE.E. 

Phlox  pilosa  L.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  and  Pottawat- 
tamie counties.     Prairies;  common. 

P.  divaricata  L.  Pottawattamie  county.  Rich  woods; 
common. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  191 

Hydrophyllace^e. 
Ellisia  nyctelea  L.      Union  county.      Damp  localities;    com- 
mon. 

BORRAGINACE^. 

Echinospermum  virginkum  Lehm.     Page  county. 
Lithospermvm  latifolium  Mx.     Pottawattamie  county. 
Onosmodium  Carolinian iim  DC.     Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
and  Fremont  counties.     Pastures;  common. 

CONVOLVULACE^. 

Convolvulus  sepium  L.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Potta- 
wattamie, Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waysides;  borders  of  fields;  common. 

G.  arvensis  L,  Decatur,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  'frequent. 

Cuscufa  glomerata  Choisy.  Taylor  county.  Low  places; 
frequent. 

SOLANACE^. 

Sokmuin  nigrum  L.     Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 

S.  caroUnense  L.  Taylor  and  Fremont  counties.  Waste 
places;  frequent. 

S.  rostratum  Dunal.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Waste 
places;  fields;  becoming  frequent. 

Physali.s  angulata  L,     Fremont  county.     A  few  found. 

P.  philadelpliica  Lam.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Fields; 
frequent. 

P.  lonceolata  Mx.  Adams  and  Pottawattamie  counties.  Open 
woods;  waysides;  frequent. 

Lycium  vulgare  Dunal.  Page  county.  Waste  places;  infre- 
quent. 

Nicandra  physaloides  Gaertn.  Fremont  county.  In  fields; 
infrequent. 

Datura  stramonium  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  Fremont, 
and  Montgomery  counties.     Waste  places;  common. 

D.  tatula  L.     Ringgold  county.     Waste  places;  common. 

SCROPHULARIACE^. 

Verbasouiit  thapsus  L.  Clarke,  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie, 
Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties.  Fields;  waste 
places;  common. 

Linaria  vulgaris  Mill.  Clarke  and  Page  counties.  Waste 
places;  frequent. 


192  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Scrophidaria  nodosa  marylandica  Gray.  Ringgold  and  Taylor 
counties.     Open  woods;  frequent. 

Pentstemon  grandlfiorus  Nutt.  Fremont  county.  Loess  hills; 
frequent. 

3Ii)iu(lus  ringens  L.  Ringgold  county.  Wet  places;  fre- 
quent; white  flowered  forms  were  found. 

M.  alatus  Ait.     Decatur  county.     Wet  banks;  infrequent. 

Gratiola  virginiana  L.  Ringgold  county.  Rich  woods;  fre- 
quent. 

1/y.santhes  riparia  Raf.  Ringgold  county.  Wet  banks- 
common. 

Veronica  virginica  L.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties.  Prai- 
ries and  woods;  common. 

Seymeria  macrophi/lla  Nutt.  Decatur  and  Page  counties. 
Upland  woods;  common. 

Lentibulariace.e. 

rtrknlaria   iviJgaris   L.       Fremont    county.       Frequent    in 

Wabonsie  slough. 

Pedaliace^. 

3Iarty nia  proboscidea  Glox.  Taylor  county.  Waysides;  infre- 
quent. 

ACANTHACE^E. 

BuelUa  ciliosa  Pursh.  Clarke,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Page 
counties.     Waysides;  common. 

Verbenace.e. 

Verbena  urtica\folia  L.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties.  Fields 
and  waste  places;  common. 

T:  Jia.stata  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Pottawattamie,  Ringgold, 
*  and  Page  counties. 

V.  stricta  Vent.     Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties. 

T'.  bracteosa  Mx.  Union,  Fremont,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Fields  and  waste  places;  common. 

Lippia  lanceoluta  Mx.  Fremont  county.  Wet  places;  fre- 
quent. 

Phryma  leptostachya  L.      Page  and  Fremont  counties.      Rich 

woods;  frequent. 

LabiatyE. 

Teucriuin  caiiadense  L.  Page  and  Ringgold  counties.  Low 
grounds;  frequent. 

Mentha  viridis  L.     Taylor  county.     Waysides;  infrequent. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  193 

Lycopus  sinuatus  Ell.  Fremont  county.  Low  ]3laces;  fre- 
quent. 

Pycnanthemum  lanceolatum  Pursh.  Ringgold  county.  Way- 
sides; frequent. 

F.  Unifolium  Pursh.     Ringgold  county.      Prairies;  frequent. 

Hecleoma  pulegioides  Pers.  Page  and  Fremont  counties. 
Woods;  common. 

H.  liispida  Pursh.  Decatur  county.  Dry,  upland  woods; 
common. 

Monarda  Jistulosa  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Woods;  common. 

M.  punctata  L.     Jefferson  county. 

Lopfiantkus  scrophulario'folius  Benth.  Fremont  county. 
Woods;  frequent. 

L.  nepetoides  Benth.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Woods;  frequent. 

Salvia  lanceolata  Willd.  Decatur,  Page,  and  Fremont  coun- 
ties.    Waysides;  frequent. 

Nepeta  cataria  L.  Ringgold,  Page,  Fremont,  and  Pottawat- 
tamie counties.     Waste  places;  common. 

N.  glechoma  Benth.  Clarke  and  Page  counties.  Waste 
places,  frequent. 

Scutellaria  versicolor  Nutt.  Decatur  county.  Rich  woods; 
frequent. 

S.  parvula  Mx.     Ringgold  county.     Prairies;  frequent. 

Brunella  vulgaris  L.  Union,  Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Page, 
and  Fremont  counties.     Open  woods;  common. 

Physostegia  virginiana  Benth.  Fremont  county.  Wet,  low 
soil;  infrequent. 

Leonurus  cardiaca  L.  Decatur  and  Fremont  counties.  Waste 
places;  frequent. 

Marriibium  vulgare  L.     Fremont  county.     Waysides;  scarce. 

Stachys  palustris  L.  Union  and  Montgomery  counties.  Wet 
soil;  common. 

S.  aspera  Mx.     Ringgold  county.     Low  places;  frequent. 

Phytolaccace^. 

Phytolacca  decandra  L.  Fremont  county.  Waysides;  infre- 
quent. 

Plantaginace^. 

Plantago    rugelii     Dec.       Ringgold    county.      Low    woods; 
common. 
13 


194  IOWA  ACADEMY   OP  SCIENCES. 

P.  aristata  Mx.  Ringgold,  Montgomery,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Wayside  and  waste  places;  frequent. 

Nyctaginace^. 

Oxyhaphus  nyctagineus  Sweet.  Union  county.  Waste  places; 
frequent. 

0.  hirsutus  Sweet.      Taylor  county.      Waysides;  infrequent. 

0.  angustifolius  Sweet.  Page,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Prairies;  infrequent. 

0.  albidus  Choisy.  Union  county.  Waysides;  infrequent; 
the  same  as  AlUonia  albida  Walt. 

Illecebrace^. 

Any  cilia  capilalcea  DC.  Ringgold,  Page,  Fremont,  and  Pot- 
tawattamie counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

Amarantace^. 

Amarantus  retroflexus  L.  Page  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  common. 

A.  albus  L.     Page  county.     Waste  places. 

A.  blitoides  Watson.     Fremont  county.     Waste  places. 

Chenopodiace^. 

Chenopodium  hybridum  L.  Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  frequent. 

Cycloloi iia  platyjjhyUum  Moq.  Fremont  county.  Sandy  soil; 
frequent. 

Atriplex  patulum  hastatum  Gray.  Taylor  county.  Waste 
places;  infrequent. 

POLYGONACE^. 

Bumex  crisjnis  L.     Clarke  county.      Waste  places;  frequent. 

It.  acetosella  L.  Pottawattamie  county.  Waste  places;  fre- 
quent. 

Polygonum  virginianum  L.  Ringgold  and  Page  counties. 
Rich  woods;  common. 

P.  aviculare  L.  Ringgold,  Fremont,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Waste  places;  common. 

P.  erectum  L.  Clarke  and  Union  counties.  Waste  places; 
common. 

P.  convolvulus  L.  Decatur  county.  Waste  places;  fre- 
quent. 

P.  muJilenbergii  Watson.  Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties. 
Wet  places;  frequent. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  195 

Fafjopyrum  esculentiuii  Moench.  Page  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Waste  places;  frequent. 

F.  tataricum  (L.)  Gaertn.  Decatur  county.  Waste  places; 
one  specimen  found. 

Aristolochiace.e. 

Asarum  reflexum  ambiguum  Bicknell.  Decatur,  Appanoose, 
Ringgold  and  Page  counties.     Rich  woods;  common. 

A.    acuminatum  (Ashe)    Bicknell.      Johnson    county.      Rich 
woods;  frequent.     This  and  the  preceding  species  have  hereto- 
fore been  confused  with  asarum  canadense  L. 
Santalace^. 

Commandra  nmbellata  Nutt.     Page  county. 

EUPHORBIACE^E. 

Euphorhia  serpens  H.  B.  K.     Fremont  county. 

E.  maculata  L.  Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties.  Waste 
places;  common. 

E.  preslii  Guss.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  common. 

E.  marginata  Pursh.  Fremont  county.  Fields  and  waste 
places;  common. 

E.  corollata  L.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  Fremont,  and  Pot- 
tawattamie counties.     Fields;  common. 

E.  heterophylla  L.     Decatur  county.     Bluffs;  infrequent. 

E.  cyparissias  L.  Decatur  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 
Waste  places;  infrequent. 

Acalyplia  virginica  L.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Fields 
and  waste  places;  common. 

Urticace.e. 

Ulmus  fxilva  Mx.  Union,  Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor, 
Page,  and  Fremont  counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

U.  racemosa  Thomas.  Decatur  county.  An  infrequent  tree 
along  Grand  river. 

U.  americana  L.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pottawat- 
tamie, Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties.  Low 
woods;  common. 

Celtis  occidentalls  L.  Union,  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie, 
Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties.  Low  woods;  fre- 
quent. 

Cannabis  sativa  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  common. 

Humulus  lupulus  L.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pottawat- 
tamie, Ringgold,  Taylor  and  Fremont-  counties.  Thickets; 
common. 


196  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Morus  rubra  L.     Fremont  county.     Low  woods;  frequent. 

Urtica  gracilis  Ait.  Clarke,  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie, 
Page,  and  Fremont  counties.     Low  grounds;  common. 

Laportea  canadensis  Gaud.  Ringgold  and  Fremont  counties. 
Moist  woods;  common. 

Pilea  xmmila  Gray.  Ringgold  and  Page  counties.  Damp 
woods ;  frequent. 

Parietaria  'pennsylvanica  Muhl.  Decatur,  Union,  Page,  and 
Pottawattamie  counties.     Low  woods;  frequent. 

Platanace^. 

Platanus  occidentaUs.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Bottoms; 
frequent. 

JUGLANDACE^. 

Juglans  nigra  L.  Union,  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie, 
Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties.  Rich  woods; 
common. 

Garya  alba  Nutt.  Taylor,  Page,  Pottawattamie,  and  Fre- 
mont counties.     Upland  woods;  common. 

C.  amara  Nutt.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  Fremont,  Mont- 
gomery, and  Pottawattamie  counties.      Rich  woods;    common, 

CUPULIFER^. 

Betula  nigra  L.     Ringgold  county. 

Corylus  americana  Walt.  Clarke,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pot- 
tawattamie, Ringgold,  and  Page  counties.     Thickets;  common. 

Ostrya  virginica  Willd.  Union  and  Fremont  counties.  Bluffs; 
frequent. 

Quercus  alba  L.  Union  and  Ringgold  counties.  Woods; 
common. 

Q.  macrocarpa  Mx.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Pottawat- 
tamie, Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties.  Woods; 
common. 

Q.  bicolor  Willd.      Ringgold  county.      Low  woods;  frequent. 

Q.  muhlenbergii  Englm.  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery,  Ring- 
gold, and  Fremont  counties.     Upland  woods;  frequent. 

Q.  rubra  L.  Union,  Montgomery,  Pottawattamie,  Ringgold, 
Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

Q.  coccinea  Wang.  Ringgold,  Fremont,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Upland  woods;  common. 

Q.  imbricaria  Mx.  Clarke,  Union,  and  Ringgold  counties. 
Upland  woods  and  thickets;  common. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  197 

Q.  marylandica  Muench.  Decatur  county.  Uplands;  a  fre- 
quent shrub  associated  with  Q.  nigra  L. 

Salicace^. 

Salix  nigra  Marsh.  Decatur,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Along  streams;  common. 

S.  long  if  alia  Muhl.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Rich  soil;  frequent. 

S.  humilis  MsbYsh.     Taylor  county.      Dry  uplands;    frequent. 

S.  amygclaloides  Anders.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Rich 
low  lands;  common. 

*S'.  cordata  Muhl.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Low  lands; 
common. 

-S'.  alba  vitellina  Koch.  Decatur  county.  Becoming  fre- 
quent. 

Popuhis  tremuloides  Mx.  Union  and  Ringgold  counties. 
Thickets;  frequent. 

P.  monilifera  Ait.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Ringgold,  Taylor,  Fremont,  Lucas,  and  Monroe  counties.  Low 
lands;  frequent. 

Conifers. 

Juniperus  virginiana  L.  Decatur  county.  A  small  shrub 
found  in  upland  woods. 

Orchidace^. 

Sjnranthes  cernua  Richard.  Johnson  county,  several  speci- 
mens found  in  moist  places;  Decatur  county,  a  single  specimen 
found  in  prairie  upland. 

S.  gracilis  Bigelow.  Decatur  county.  About  forty  speci- 
mens found  in  upland  prairie  grass. 

Gypripedium  parviflorum  Salisb.  Decatur  county.  Rich 
woods;  associated  with  C.  pubescens  Willd.,  but  much  less  fre- 
quent. 

C.  pubescens  Willd.  Ringgold  county.  Rich  uplands;  fre- 
quent. 

C.  spectabi'e  Swartz.  Jefferson  county.  Swampy  soil; 
rare.    Specimens  were  transplanted  with  with  good  results. 

Iridace^. 

Iris  versicolor  L.  Union,  Ringgold,  and  Page  counties. 
Swamps;  ponds;  frequent. 

Belaiiicanda  chinensis  Adans.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Page 
counties.     Waysides;  waste  places;  becoming  frequent. 


198  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

DlOSCOREACE^. 

Dioscoreavillosa  Li.  Union  and  Ringgold  counties.  Thickets; 
frequent. 

LlLIACE^. 

Smila X  herbacea  1j.  Union  county.  Thickets;  rich  soil;  fre- 
quent. 

S.  hisplda  Muhl.  Adams,  Ringgold,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Woods;  frequent. 

Allium  canadense  Kalm.  Union  county.  Fields  and  woods; 
frequent. 

Yucca  angustifolia  Pursh.  Fremont  county.  Loess  hills; 
common. 

Polygonatum  giganteum  Dietrich.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Pot- 
tawattamie counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

Asparagus  officinalis.  Page,  Fremont,  and  Montgomery 
counties.     Waste  places;  frequent. 

Smilacina  racemosa  Desf.     Union  county.     Woods;  frequent. 

Erythronium  mesochoreum  Knerr.  Decatur  county.  High 
prairies;  common;  blooming  before  E.  albidum  Nutt.,  and  the 
specimens  all  flowering  ones;  the  leaves  very  narrow;  found 
also  in  Harrison  county,  Missouri. 

Lilium  philadelphicum  L.  Union  and  Adams  counties.  Prai- 
ries; common. 

L.  canadense  L.     Montgomery  county.     Prairies;  frequent. 

L.  tigrinum  Ker.  Fremont  county.  An  escape  into  waste 
places. 

Trillium  nivale  Riddell.  Decatur  county.  Rocky  woods; 
frequent  locally. 

Melantlmim  virglnicum,  L/.  Union  and  Adams  counties. 
Damp  prairies;  frequent. 

Zygadenus  elegans  Pursh.  Decatur  county.  Rich  woods; 
frequent  locally. 

PONTEDERIACE.E. 

Pontederiacordata  L.  Ringgold  county.  Margins  of  ponds; 
frequent. 

COMMELINACE^. 

Tradescantia  virginica  L.  Clarke,  Union,  and  Ringgold 
counties.     Prairies  and  fields;  common. 

JUNCACEiE. 

Juncus  tenuis  Willd.  Union  and  Pottawattamie  counties. 
Grassy  places;  common. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  ]99 

J.  torreyi  Coville.     Fremont  county.     Damp  soil;  frequent. 
Typhace^. 

Typha  latifolia  L.  Union,  Adams,  Page,  and  Fremont  covm- 
ties.     Margins  of  ponds;  frequent. 

Sparganium  eurycarpum 'EnglvQ..  Ringgold  county.  Ponds; 
frequent. 

S.  anclrocladum(Englm..)Morong.  Ringgold  county.  Ponds; 
frequent. 

Arace^. 

Ariscema  triphyllum  Tor.  Pottawattamie  county.  Rich 
woods;  common. 

A.  dracontium  Schoot.  Union,  Page,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Rich  woods;  frequent. 

LemnaceyE. 

Spirodela  polijrrJiiza  Schleid.  Fremont  county.  Ponds  and 
sloughs;  common. 

Lemna  trisulca  L.  Fremont  county.  Ponds  and  sloughs; 
frequent. 

L.  minor  L.  Decatur,  Taylor,  and  Page  counties.  Ponds 
and  streams;  frequent. 

Alismace^. 

Allsma  plantago  L.  Ringgold  county.  Moist  places;  fre- 
quent. 

Saglttaria  variabilis  Engl.  Ringgold  and  Taylor  counties. 
Ponds;  common. 

S.  graininea  Mx.  Fremont  county.  Common  in  mud  flats  or 
shallow  water. 

Naiadace^. 

Potamogeton  fluitans  Roth.     Common  in  Wabonsie  slough. 
Cyperace^. 

Cyperus  speciosus  Vahl.     Ringgold  county. 

C.  escidentus  L.     Montgomery  and  Fremont  counties. 

Eleocharis  ovata  R.  Br.     Ringgold  county. 

E.  acicularis  R.  Br.  Fremont  county.  Margins  of  ponds; 
common. 

Scirpus  lacustris  L.     Fremont  county.     Ponds;  common. 

*S'.  fluviatilis  Gray.  Decatur  county.  Frequent  in  one 
locality. 


200  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

S.  atrovirens  Muhl.     Montgomery  county. 
Carex  lupidina  Muhl.     Page  county. 

C.  vulpinoidea  Mx.  Union,  Adams,  and  Montgomery  coun- 
ties.    Moist  soil;  common. 

G.  rosea  Schkur.     Pottawattamie  county. 

C.  cephalophora  Muhl.     Pottawattamie  county. 

C.  cristatella  Britton.     Adams  county. 

Gramine^. 

Spartina  cynosuroides  Willd.  Ringgold,  Page,  Taylor,  and 
Fremont  counties.     Wet  soil;  common. 

Panicum  sanguinale  L.  Page  and  Fremont  counties.  Fields 
and  waste  places;  common. 

P.  virgatum  L.     Taylor  county.     Low  prairies;  frequent. 

P.  glabruin  Gaud.     Decatur  county. 

P.  lanvginosum  Ell.     Union  county.     Waysides;  frequent. 

P.  macrocarjxm  Le  Conte.  Union  county.  Woods;  fre- 
quent. 

P.  crvs-galli  L.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  counties. 
Waste  places;  common. 

Setaria  glauca  Beauv.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  coun- 
ties.    Waste  places;  common. 

S.  viridis  Beauv.  Page,  Pottawattamie,  and  Fremont  coun- 
ties.    With  the  preceding. 

S.  italica  Kunth.     Page  county.     Waysides;  frequent. 

Cenchrus  tribuloides  L.  Fremont  county.  Sandy  shores; 
common. 

Zizania  aquatica  L.  Ringgold  and  Page  counties.  Ponds; 
infrequent. 

Tripsacum  dactyloides  L.  Adams,  Ringgold,  and  Taylor 
counties.     Wet  places;  frequent. 

Andropogon  scoparius  Mx.  Decatur  county.  Uplands  and 
woods;  frequent. 

Crysoj)ogon  nutans  Benth.  Taylor  county.  Prairies;  fre- 
quent. 

Phalaris  canarlensis  L.  Decatur  county.  Waste  places; 
streets;  infrequent. 

Aristida  oligantha  Mx.      Taylor  county.      Dry  soil;  frequent. 

Stipo-  spartea  Trin.  Union,  Adams,  and  Montgomery  coun- 
ties.    Prairies;  frequent. 

Muhlenbergia  mexicana  Trin.  Decatur  county.  Low  places; 
common. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  201 

M.  soboUfera  (Muhl.)  Frin.  Decatur  and  Fremont  counties. 
Infrequent. 

Phleum  pratense  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  Montgomery, 
Pottawattamie,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont  coun- 
ties.    Fields  and  waysides;  common. 

Alopecurus  geniculatus  L.  Ringgold  county.  Wet  places; 
frequent. 

Bouteloua  hirsuta  Lag.  Fremont  county.  Loess  hills;  com- 
mon. 

B.  racemosa  Lag.  Ringgold,  Taylor,  Page,  and  Fremont 
counties.     Waysides;  frequent 

Eragrostis  major  Host.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  coun- 
ties.    Waste  places;  common. 

E.  purshil  Schrader.     Fremont  county. 

Melica  mutica  Walt.     Union  county.     Woods;  infrequent. 

Dactylis  glomemta  L.     Page  county. 

Glyceria  nervata  Trin.  Union  and  Adams  county.  Low 
prairies;  common. 

Bromus  secalinus  L.     Adams  county.     Fields;  frequent. 

Bromus  ciliatus  purgans  Gray.     Pottawattamie  county. 

Agrovyruiii  spicatuiii  R.  &  S.  Montgomery  and  Taylor  coun- 
ties.    Prairies;  infrequent. 

Hordeum  jubatum  L.  Clarke,  Union,  Adams,  and  Montgom- 
ery counties.     Waste  places;  common. 

E.  pusillum  Nutt.  Adams,  Montgomery,  and  Pottawattamie 
counties.     Waste  places;  waysides;  becoming  frequent. 

Elyiiius  striatus  Willd.  Decatur,  Pottawattamie,  Page,  and 
Fremont  counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

E.  virginicus  L.     Ringgold  county. 

E.  canadensis  L,  Ringgold,  Taylor,  and  Fremont  counties 
Waysides;  frequent. 

Asprella  hystrix  Willd.  Decatur,  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Potta- 
wattamie counties.     Woods;  frequent. 

Equisetace.e. 

Equisetum  arvense  L.  Union  and  Fremont  counties.  Moist 
soil;  common. 

E.  kevigatum  Braun.  Adams,  Union,  Montgomery,  and  Pot- 
tawattamie counties.     Uplands;  waysides;  frequent. 

FiLICES. 

Adiantum  pedatum  L.  Ringgold,  Page,  and  Fremont  coun- 
ties.    Rich  woods;  common. 


202  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

C/jstopteris  fragilis  Bernh.     Union,  Page,  Pottawattamie,  and 
Fremont  counties.     Rich  woods;  common. 

Onoclea  strutMopteris  HofCm.     Decatur  county.      Rich  woods; 
infrequent. 

Ophioglossace.e. 

Botrychium    virginianuni    Swartz.       Pottawattamie    county. 
Rich  woods;  frequent. 


EXTENSION  OF  COMPLEX  ALGEBRA  TO  THREE- 
FOLD SPACE. 

BY   T.    PROCTOR   HALL. 

Taking  rectangular  coordinates  in  a  plane,  let  x,  y,  be  unit 
vectors  along  the  axes  of  X,  Y,  respectively;  and  let  A  be  any 
unit  vector  from  O  in  the  plane,  making  an  angle  a  with  X. 

Let  i  be  a  rotor  such  that  i^  rotates  any  vector,   A,   through 
n.  90°  in  the  positive  direction.     Then 
i  x=y. 
f  A=  —A 
.  • .  f  =  —1. 
Equating  vectors  from  O : 

A=xcos  a  -\-  y  sin  a. 
=  (cos  a  +  i  sin  a)  x. 
=e**  X,  (by  expansion  in  series). 
A  vector  (A)  is  here  considered  to  be  composed  of  three  dis- 
tinct components   or  factors;    a  unit  direction  (.»),   a  length 
(which,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  is  here  considered  unity), 
and  a  rotor  (cos  a-{-  i  sin  a,  or  e^")  which  has  rotated  the  vector 
from  unit  position  {x)  to  any  other  position  (A)  in  the  plane. 
The  product  of  two  vectors  is 

Aj  Ag  =  (cos  ttj  +  i  sin  a^)  (cos  a^  +  *  sin  aj  ^•^• 
=  [cos  (flj  +  a^)  +  i  sin  {a^  +  a,)]  x. 

=  6  ^  ^^1  +  S^  X. 

Since  x  is  unity  in  every  one  of  its  capacities,  x  x  =  x,  as 
given  above. 

The  unit  vector,  x,  is  a  factor  of  every  term  of  this  algebra, 
and  may  be  dropped,  leaving  an  algebra  of  rotors  only,  which 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  203 

has  the  laws  of  operation  of  ordinary  algebra,  and  which  com- 
bines with  it  to  form  an  algebra  of  tensors  and  rotors — the 
ordinary  complex  algebra. 

The  kinds  of  number  involved  in  this  algebra  are : 

(1)  reals,  a,  b,  c,  

(2)  plane  imaginaries,  fa,  ib, 

(3)  the  plane  complex,  z  =  a+i  b. 

Next  let  the  a-^z-plane  be  the  equatorial  plane  of  a  sphere  of 
which  Z  is  the  pole.  Let  the  power  of  the  rotor  /  be  extended 
so  as  to  rotate  any  vector,  whether  in  the  ;r?/- plane  or  not,  about 
the  3-axis.  Let./  be  a  new  rotor,  such  that./'"  rotates  any  vector 
through  m.  90'^  in  a  direction  from  the  plane  of  x,  y,  toward 
the  pole  z. 

By  means  of  these  two  rotors  i°, ./'",  a  vector  may  be  turned 
from  the  unit  position  {x)  to  any  other  position  (A);  and  the 
order  of  the  rotations  is  indifferent. 

j  1°  x=i°^j  x=J  x=-z. 
f  A=  —A 
.  • .  /==  -1. 
It  follows  that ,/'"  may  be  expressed  in  the  forms  cos  b  + 
j  sin  &,  and  e^  ^.     Any  unit  vector,  A,  is  therefore  of  the  form 

A=  (cos  a  -\-  i  sin  a)  (cos  b  + ./  sin  b)  x 
=  Qia+Jb  ^^ 

Prom  either  of  these  forms  the  product  or  the  quotient  of 
two  vectors  is  evident. 

Dropping  x,  as  before,  and  introducing  tensors  w^e  obtain  a 
tensor-rotor  algebra  which,  when  the  l  and  j  binary  factors  are 
kept  separate,  has  the  laws  of  operation  of  common  algebra,  and 
has  many  of  the  advantages  of  a  vector  algebra  without  its 
limitations. 

The  most  general  quantity  in  this  algebra  is  the  double 
complex 

(a+i  b)  (c+,/  d), 
in  which  a,  b,  c,  d,  are  connected  by  one  relation.     The  double 
complex  may  be  expressed  in  the  form 

which  is  identical  with 

a+i  b+./  c. 
But  unfortunately  in  the  latter  form  it  does  not  obey  the 
laws  of  common  algebra,  except  in  addition,  subtraction,  and 
multiplication  by  reals. 


204  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

The  double  complex 

a+i  b+./  c 
is  related  to  points  in  three-fold  space  in  the  same  way  that  the 
plane  complex 

a+i  b 
is  related  to  points  in  a  plane,  and  in  the  form 

or  in  the  general  forms 

(a+i  b)  (c+J  d),  e^  +  ^'^  +  J^, 
it  may  be  treated  as  an  ordinary  algebraic  quantity. 
Kansas  City  University. 


A  REVIEW  OF  THE  CERCOPID^E  OF  NORTH  AMER- 
ICA   NORTH    OF    MEXICO. 

BY   E.    D.    BALL,.' 

The  family  cercopidse,  though  of  world-wide  distribution, 
has  comparatively  few  representatives  within  our  borders,  and 
those  few  have  been  but  imperfectly  known,  the  literature  on 
the  subject  being  scattered  and  fragmentary,  the  generic 
references  often  incorrect,  and  the  specific  determinations, 
owing  to  the  extreme  variability  in  color  of  some  species,  and 
the  striking  similarity  of  color  between  others,  rendered  very 
questionable.  Scarcely  one  of  the  more  common  forms  but 
what  has  been  referred  to  under  at  least  four  different  genera 
and  several  have  more  than  that  number  of  specific  names. 

This  paper  recognizes  twenty  species  as  included  within  our 
fauna,  of  which  Say  described  six,  Fitch  three,  Germar  one, 
Uhler  four,  two  were  introduced  from  Europe,  and  four  are 
here  described  as  new;  besides  these  there  have  been  twenty 
more  described,  which  have  been  referred  to  the  first  twenty 
as  synonyms  or  varieties. 

Except  for  the  isolated  descriptions  and  a  few  lists,  the  first 
systematic  work  done  on  the  American  species  was  Uhler's 
article  on  the  family  in  the  Standard  Nat.  Hist.  (1884). 

In  1889  Provancher,  in  his  Hemip.  du  Canada,  published 
the  first  synopsis  of  the  group;    he  divided  the  family  into 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  205 

three  genera  (omitting  the  Issidae)  which  were  correctly  used 
except  that  he  included^!/.  4-angularis  under  Aphrophora:  in  his 
recognition  of  species  he  was  less  fortunate,  as  all  three  of  his 
species  ofTMlcenus  were  varieties  ofspumarius. 

In  1892  Dr.  Goding  published  a  synopsis  of  the  genera, 
together  with  a  bibliographical  and  synonymical  catalogue  of 
the  described  species;  the  characterization  of  the  family  was 
simply  a  translation  of  Stal's  in  Hemip.  Africana,  and  the 
synopsis  of  the  subfamilies  and  genera  an  adaptation  from  the 
same  work.  Under  the  subfamily  Cercopince,  he  recognized  five 
genera,  although  Stal  himself,  the  next  year  after  the  publica- 
tion of  that  synopsis,  united  four  of  these  genera,  and  later 
(Hemip.  Mex.),  all  live;  aside  from  that,  however,  the  only 
excuse  for  inserting  the  fifth  genus' (BJiinaulax)  was  a  MS. 
note  by  Dr.  Fitch,  placing  the  fabrician  species^  coccmea  there, 
while  A.  &  Serv.,  the  authors  of  all  five  genera,  placed  it  in 
the  ^vsi'  {Toniaspis).  Under  the^AphropJiorince  he  separated  six 
genera,  although  of  one  [Glovia)  he  made  no  reference  in  the 
catalogue,  and  of  SinoiheiP (Ptyelus),  he  left  only  two  undeter- 
mined species  of  Walker's,  one  of  which  was  sPpjiilcenus,  and 
the  other  a^Lepyronia,  while  the  genus  Ptyelus,  as  characterized 
by  him  (from  Stal),  has  not  been  recognized  outside  of  Africa. 

Fowler,  in  the  Biologia,  describes  a  number  of  new  genera 
and  species  of  Cercopidse,  and  has  worked  out  considerable 
synonomy,  of  which  only  the  following  affects  our  species: 
^  T.  fasciaticoUis  St3b\=simulans  Walk,  and  Mcincta  Saj=^rubra 
Linn.  The  first  appears  to  be  correct;  the  second  is  not,  as 
can  be  readily  seen  by  comparing'  Mcincta  with  his  figures, 
when  it  will  be  seen  that  it  equals  .si//m/arj.s  and  not  "rubra,  and, 
beifig  the  first  described,  take^precedence.  He  also  described  a 
number  of  new  species  of  Clastoptera  without  recognizing 
xanthocephala,^proteus  or^cklicata,  specimens  of  all  of  which  have 
been  examined  from  Orizaba  and  other  Mexican  points,  includ- 
ing several  varieties,  so  that  no  doubt  most  of  his  species  will 
fall  as  synonyms.  ^ 

In  1896  the  author  published  a  revision  of  the^Cflastoptera, 
which,  with  the  present  paper,  completes  the  family.  While 
working  on  that  paperV.  lineatus  Sknd'^ilineatus  were  recognized 
as  distinct  and  attention  was  called  to  the  generic  difference, 
the  venation  of  each  species  being  figured  on  the  generic 
plate. 


206  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Q 

In  1897  Baker,  in  Notes  on  the  genus  Phlkenus,  recognized 
the  four  species,  separated  the  bibliography  of  lineatus  and 
bilineatus  and  tried  to  restrict  the  latter  to  the  west,  while  he 
described  the  eastern  representatives  as  a  distinct  species 
americanus;  an  examination  of  a  type  and  other  eastern 
material  shows  no  grounds,  however,  for  the  separation. 

During  the  prosecution  of  this  work  I  have  been  placed 
under  special  obligations  to  Mr.  Otto  Heideman  for  the  loan 
of  a  large  series  of  both  eastern  and  western  forms,  among 
them  the  largest  collection  of  esbsteri/ Clastoptera  and  of  west- 
ern *^p/irop//ora  that  I  have  seen;  to  Professor  Bruner  for  the 
loan  of  Nebraska,  California,  and  Mexican  material,  and  to 
Professors  Piper,  Gillette,  Lintner,  Pernald,  Morse,  C.  M. 
Weed  and  H.  E.  Weed,  for  examination  of  material  from  their 
respective  localities;  to  Professor  Uhler  for  helpful  sugges- 
tions, and  especially  to  Professor  Osborn,  under  whose  super- 
vision the  work  was  originally  planned,  for  the  use  of  his  own, 
the  Iowa  Agricultural  college  and  V.  D.  collections,  all  of 
them  extensive,  and  (later)  the  Ohio  material;  and  to  Pro- 
fessor Summers  for  the  continuation  of  the  same  favors. 

Besides  the  above,  my  own  collection  has  furnished  me  with 
large  series  from  Iowa,  the  Pacific  coast,  the  West  Indies  and 
Mexico. 

^     FAMILY   CERCOPID.E   A.  &   S. 

Body  stout,  compact;  general  form  oval  or  elongate:  head  in  nearly 
same  plane  as  the  body;  vertex  nearly  flat,  anterior  margin  rounding  or 
angulate:  ocelli,  two,  placed  near  the  posterior  margin;  front  convex,  more 
er  less  inflated,  transversely  ribbed,  nearly  flat  dorsally  where  it  forms  a 
subquadrate  insertion  in  the  anterior  field  of  the  vertex,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  distinct  suture  (this  portion  of  the  front  is  considered  as 
part  of  the  vertex  and  referred  to  hereafter  as  the  tylus);  antenna?  short, 
placed  in  front  of  and  between  the  eyes  under  the  margin  of  the  vertex, 
the  two  basal  joints  bead-like,  the  remainder  setaceous,  pronotum  large, 
anterior  margin  straight  or  angularly  rounded,  posterior  margin  short, 
often  deeply  emarginate;  elytra  longer  than  the  abdomen,  coriaceous, 
irregularly  reticulated  or  with  two  long  discoid  cells  and  five  or  more 
apical  cells;  wings  with  a  broad  margin  beyond  the  intramarginal  vein; 
posterior  coxte  and  femora  short  and  stout,  posterior  tibiie  scarcely  longer 
than  the  others,  round  at  the  base,  spatulate  at  the  apex,  armed  on  the 
outer  margin  with  two  stout  spurs,  the  second  twice  the  length  of  the  first; 
tibia3  and  two  basal  joints  of  the  tarsi  terminated  with  crescent-shaped 
rows  of  spines. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  readily  recognized  by  the 
two   spurs   on    the  cylindrical   hind   tibiae.     Some  Fulgoridse 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  207 

have  similar  spurs,  but  the  tibias  are  in  that  case  angulate  and 
the  antennae  are  below  instead  of  between  the  eyes.  All  of 
the  N.  A.  representatives  fall  in  the  first  two  subfamilies  of 
Stal,  which  may  be  separated  as  follows: 

^^      SYNOPSIS   OF   THE   SUBFAMILIES. 

A.  Anterior  margin  of  the  pronotum  straight;  head  narrower  than 
pronotum;  ocelli  placed  close  together;  eyes  small,  rounded; 
elytra  broad,  irregularly  rounded  at  apex.  Cercoinnce  Stal.  O 

AA.  Anterior  margin  of  pronotum  angulate  or  rounded;  ocelli  farther 
apart,  eyes  oblong  or  angulate;  head  equalling,  or  almost 
equalling,  the  pronotum  in  width;  elytra  compressed  behind, 
rarely  reticulate  AphrophorincK  Stal.   '^ 

SUBFAMILY   CERCOPIN^. 

This  subfamily  includes  large,  showy  forms  in  black,  red 
and  yellow  and  is  well  represented  in  the  tropics.  The  N.  A. 
forms  all  belong  to  a  single  genus  and  only  a  single  species 
occurs  north  of  the  Mexican  border,  and  it  is  more  abundant 
farther  south. 

v""   GENUS   TOMASPIS  A,  &  S. 

Tomaspis  A.  &  S.  His.  des  Hemip.  p.  561,  1843 

-    Triecphora  A.  &  S.  His.  des.  Hemip.  p.  561,  1843. 

0  Monecphora  A.  &  S.  His.  des.  Hemip.  p.  562,  1843. 
:  Sphenorhina  A.  &  S.  His.  des.  Hemip.  p.  562,  1843. 
Head  small,  much  narrower  than  the  humeral  angles  of  the  pronotum: 
front  strongly  inflated,  anteriorly  produced,  usually  beyond  the  vertex  to 
which  it  rounds  back,  transversely  ribbed  and  usually  medially  carinate; 
rostrum  short,  two  jointed,  scarcely  reaching  the  middle  coxa?;  vertex 
much  shorter  than  the  pronotum,  obtusely  angulate,  tylus  large,  eyes 
small,  nearly  round;  ocelli  twice  farther  from  eyes  than  from  each  other; 
pronotum  large,  anterior  margin  straight,  lateral  margins  long  and 
strongly  oblique,  posterior  margin  straight  or  emarginate;  elytra  coriace- 
ous, somewhat  flaring,  wider  than  the  pronotum,  apex  rounding  equally 
from  both  sides,  venation  obscure,  apically  reticulate;  wings  with  the 
intramarginal  vein  entire,  third  longitudinal  vein  forked. 

^     TOMASPIS   BICINCTA   Say. 

OCercopis  bicincta  Say.    Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.  VI,  303,  1831. 

C  Cercopis  ignipecta  Harr.  (MSS.)     Cat.  Ins.  Mass. 1833. 

OMomcphora  bifascia  Walk.     List  Hom.  B.  M.  p.  679,  1851. 
C Monecphora  angusta  Walk.     List  Hom.  B.  M.  p.  680,  1851. 
£  Monecphora  neglecta  Walk.     List  Hom.  B.  M.  p.  683,  1851. 
<^  Monecphora  ignipecta  Fitch.  (Descrip.)     3d  Rep.  Ins.  N.  Y.  p.  71,  1856. 
O  Monecphora  inferans  Walk.  List  Hom.  B.  M,  Sup.  p.  176,  1858. 
O  Sphenorhina  simulans  Walk.     List  Hom.  B.  M.  Sup.  p.  183,  1858. 
<)  Tomaspis  fasciaticollis  Stal.     Stett.  Ent.  Zeit.  XXV,  p.  63,  1864. 
6    Tomaspis  rubra  Fowler.    Biol.  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  183  (in  part). 
J  Tomaspis  simulans  Fowler.     Biol.  Cent.  Amer.  p.  185 


208  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Broadly  oval,  with  a  narrow,  angulate  head;  deep  brown  to  black  with 
the  margins  of  the  vertex,  a  transverse  band  across  the  middle  of  the  pro- 
notum  and  two  across  the  elytra,  red  or  orange,  length  8-10  mm.;  width  on 
elytra  0  mm.;  vertex  broad,  depressed  two-thirds  the  length  of  thepronotum, 
obtusely  angulate,  disc  sloping,  depressed  either  side  the  longitudinal 
carina;  front  inflated,  nearly  right  angled  with  the  vertex,  a  single  strong 
median  carina;  rostrum  short,  scarcely  as  long  as  the  front;  pronotum,  disc 
convex,  one-third  wider  than  long,  anterior  margin  straight,  posterior 
margin  roundingly  emarginate;  elytra  convex,  coriaceous,  over  twice 
longer  than  wide,  much  broader  than  pronotum,  outer  margins  curved, 
apex  broadly  rounding;  venation  obscure,  apically  reticulate. 

Color,  dark-chestnut  brown  to  black;  a  narrow  margin  all  round  the 
vertex  and  along  the  median  carina,  the  eyps  and  ocelli  and  the  lateral 
margins  of  the  pronotum  red;  a  narrow  transverse  band  across  the  humeral 
angles  of  the  pronotum  and  two  slightly  wider  ones  parallel  with  this, 
dividing  the  elytra  into  three  equal  portions,  red  or  orange. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  handfrom  New  York,  Massachu- 
setts, Connecticut,  Maryland,  District  of  Columbia,  North  Caro- 
lina West  Virginia,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Kansas, 
and  Iowa  within  our  territory,  and  from  Cuba  and  Mexico  from 
without.  It  has  been  reported  from  Pennsylvania,  Askansas, 
and  Georgia,  and  from  Mexico,  Jamaica,  and  several  Central 
American  states.  It  is  a  very  common  species  in  collections 
from  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies.  In  the  United  States  it 
occurs  along  the  Atlantic  slope  from  New  York  and  Massachu- 
setts south,  throughout  the  gulf  states  and  up  the  Mississippi 
valley  as  far  as  central  Iowa,  where  it  is  extremely  rare. 

This  is  a  somewhat  variable  species  in  size,  and  extremely 
so  in  color  markings.  These  forms  intergrade  and  can  only 
be  roughly  divided  as  follows: 

O    Form  hicincta,  the  typical  one,  is  dark  brown  with  narrow,  red  bands. 

O   Var.  ignipecta  Fitch,  is  the  dark  form  where  the  bands  are  partly  or 

entirely  wanting. 

C  Var.  simulans  Walk.,  has   the  bands  broader,  and  creamy  yellow  in 

color. 

Fowler  was  evidently  misled  in  placing  this  species,  by 
Say's  remark  thatr  6icmcia  resembled  rubra  Sbud^'sororia.  It  is 
very  likely  that  those  were  the  only  two  species  that  Say  was 
acquainted  with,  or,  at  least,  the  nearest  to  his  species  of  any 
that  he  knew;  at  any  rate,  the  difference  in  the  front,  as 
shown  by  Fowler's  figures,  at  once  places  it  with' simulans  and 
not  with'rubra,  and  verifies  Stal's  observation  that /ascia^icoZZis 
was  "close"  to^ hicincta.  Walker  says  of^  m/er«?i.s  that  it 
closely   resembles,  and  may   be   a   local  variety   of  neglecta. 


0 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  209 

Fowler  places  it  as  a  synonym  of  bifascia,  along  with 
angusta.  The  latter  was  described,  from  Georgia  and  is  an 
undoubted,  synonym  of  ^bicincta,  and.  if  Fowler  is  correct  in 
uniting  the  three  forms,  as  it  seems,  then  all  four  species  fall 
as  synonyms  of  bicincta. 

"     SUBFAMILY    APHROPHORIN^    Stal. 

In  this  subfamily  the  species  are  smaller,  more  elongate, 
and,  as  a  rule,  rather  somber  colored.  The  group  is  well 
represented  in  our  territory  in  both  genera  and  species.  Two 
of  the  species  are  European  and  probably  introduced,  while 
many  of  them  are  widely  distributed,  and  several  extend  . 
beyond  our  borders  to  the  southward. 

SYNOPSIS   OF   THE  GENERA. 

A.    Apex  of  clavus  acute,  cQrium  without  a  terminal  membrane. 

B.  Anterior  margin  of  the  pronotum  angulate,  ocelli  nearer  each 
other  than  eyes;  rostrum  long;  exceeding  the  hind  coxa?,  with 
three   visible   segments,  the   terminal  one   much  the  longest.    . 

Aphrophora  Germ. 
BB.     Anterior  margin  of  pronotum  rounded,  ocelli  nearly  equally  dis- 
tant from  eyes  and  each  other:  rostrum  short,  not  exceeding 
middle  coxae;  composed  of  two  equal  visible  segments. 
C.    Anterior  margin  of  vertex  between  front  and  eyes  sharp; 
whole   upper  surface  densely  pubescent,  almost  hiding 
sculpturing  and   venation:    submarginal  vein    of    wing 
interrupted  between  second  and  third  sectors. 

Lepyronia  A.  &  S.C' 
CC.    Anterior  margin  of  vertex  between  front  and  eyes  sulcate. 

D.     Elytra  irregularly  reticuled  apically.     Philaronia  n.  g.O 
DD.     Elytra  with  about  five  apical  cells.  Phikenus  Stal.^? 

A  A.  Apex  of  clavus  broadly  rounded,  corium  with  a  broad  terminal 
membrane;  submarginal  vein  of  wing  interrupted  at  apex.  (Small 
globose  forms. )  *Clastoptera  Germ .  !> 

GENUS  APHROPHORA  Germ. 
Vertex  obtuse  or  rectangulate,  the  apex  rounding,  anterior  margin 
between  the  eyes  and  tylus  sharp,  ocelli  placed  close  to  the  posterior 
margin,  nearly  twice  farther  from  the  eyes  than  from  each  other;  head 
with  the  eyes  scarcely  as  wide  as  the  posterior  angles  of  the  pronotum,  the 
anterior  and  posterior  margins  nearly  parallel,  the  latter  with  a  median 
triangular  notch  between  the  ocelli,  into  which  fits  a  slight  projection  of 
the  pronotum;  front  convex,  inflated,  transversely  wrinkled  except  on  the 
median  line;  rostrum  long,  with  three  visible  segments,  the  last  one  much 
the  longest,  extending  beyond  the  hind  coxae;  pronotum  large,  about  one- 
half  longer  than;the  vertex,  anterior  margin  distinctly  angulate,  medially 
produced  into  the  notched  vertex;  a  distinct  median  carina  extending 


*For  a'synopsis  of  the  Clastoptera  see  la.  Acad,  Sci,  Proc.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  182. 
14 


210  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

across  both  vertex  and  pronotum:  elytra  coriaceous,  about  twice  longer 
than  wide,  without  an  appendix,  the  apex  rounding,  both  veins  of  corium 
forking  before  the  middle,  forming  two  long  discoid  cells:  apical  cells 
irregular,  usually  about  five;  wings  with  the  third  vein  from  the  marginal 
vein  forked  and  forming  a  closed  apical  cell;  entire  dorsal  aspect  of  insect 
coarsely  and  irregularly  punctate:  male  valve  wanting. 

The  members  of  this  genus  are  all  of  moderate  size,  varying 
from  8  to  12mm.  in  length,  and  are  strikingly  uniform  in  color 
and  pattern  of  marking,  being  grayish  or  brownish,  with  two 
irregular,  oblique,  dark-margined  light  bands  on  the  elytra, 
sometimes  obscure  and  sometimes  broken  up  into  spots. 

The  variation  in  color  and  marking  is  not  sufficient  to 
enable  one  to  readily  recognize  the  different  species  and  they 
are  only  accurately  separated  by  reference  to  structural  char- 
acters, the  three  most  important  being  the  degree  of  inflation 
of  the  front  with  the  corresponding  variation  of  the  facial 
angle,  the  shape  of  the  terminal  ventral  segment  of  the  male 
abdomen  and  the  shape  of  the  male  plates,  the  latter  character 
alone  enabling  one  to  readily  separate  that  sex  of  all  our 
species. 

In  distribution  this  genus  seems  to  be  limited  to  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  and  the  greater  number,  if  not  all  the  species, 
occur  in  the  temperate  zone.  Europe  has  three  species,  all  of 
which  are  widely  distributed,  while  this  paper  recognizes  eight 
species  occurring  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  Fowler 
has  recently  described  three  new  species  from  Mexico  in  the 
Biologia.  These  latter  are  all  small  and  are  apparently 
closely  related  to  4-notata,  the  only  one  of  our  species  that  has 
been  taken  as  far  south  as  our  southern  border. 

Of  the  species  under  consideration  4-notata  has  the  greatest 
known  range,  occurring  from  Ontario  to  Florida,  and  west  to 
North  Dakota  and  Iowa.  Next  to  it  com.es' per mutata,  which 
has  been  found  from  Vancouver's  island  south  to  central 
Calif  ornia  and  eastward  to  Colorado.  Of  the  others,  parallela^^ 
is  the  only  one  that  has  as  yet  been  recorded  from  widely 
separated  localities,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  some  of  its 
western  records  were  based  on  other  species. 

SYNOPSIS  or  THE  SPECIES. 

A.  Elytra  very  broad,  angulate  behind,  the  outer  margin  strongly 
curved  and  with  two  more  or  less  distinct  hyaline  areas;  general 
color  light-gray  or  brown;  head  and  pronotum  nearly  flat,  front 
but  slightly  inflated,  acutely  angulate  with  vertex. 


IOWA  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES.  211 

B.     Hyaline   areas   distinct,   outer   discoid   cell   its  own  width  from 
margin.  4-notata  Say.  ^ 

BB.     Hyaline  areas  indistinct,  outer  discoid  cell  not  more  than  half  its 
width  from  costal  margin.  angulata  n.  sp.  ^ 

AA.     Elytra  elongate,  rounding  behind,  the  outer  margin  broadly  curved, 
without  trace  of  hyaline  costal  areas:  usually  with  front  inflated 
and  the  pronotum  elevated. 
B.     Front  inflated  and  produced,  meeting  the  vertex   in   nearly  a 
right  angle;  elytra  strongly  convex,  species  large,  dark. 
C.     Front  much  produced,  extending  distinctly  beyond  the  tylus, 
to  which  it  rounds  back;  ovipositor  long.         parallela  Say.  '^ 
CO.    Front   not  extending  beyond   the  vertex,  pygofers  and  ovi- 
positor short,  the  latter  scarcely  exserted. 
D.     Front  meeting  the  vertex  at  a  right  angle;  plates  attin- 
gent,  finger-like.  permutata  Uhl.  ^ 

DD.     Front  meeting  vertex  at  a  slightly  acute  angle:    plates 
broad  and  stiort,  divergent.  irrorata  n.  sp.  O 

BB.     Front  moderately  flat,  meeting  the  vertex  at  an  acute  angle; 
species  smaller,  narrower,  lighter  colored. 
C.     A  broad,  white  median  stripe  on  vertex  and  pronotum;  face 
and  vertex  making  an  angle  of  about  50  degrees:  pygofers 
long,  narrow,  ovipositor  exserted;   plates  short,  consisting 
of  two  rounding  lobes  saratogensis  Fh.o 

CC.    At  most  a  narrow,  light  stripe  on  vertex,  not  extending  on  to 
pronotum,  face  and  vertex  making  an  angle  greater  than  50 
degrees;  pygofers  short,  ovipositor  scarcely  longer:  plates 
acute,  divergent. 
D.     Pronotum  and  elytra  strongly  maculate,  plates  divergent 
from  base,  suddenly  narrowed  before  the  apex. 

annulata  n.  sp.  ^ 
DD.     Pronotum  and  elytra  nearly  unicolorous;   plates  attingent 
at  base,  divergent  before  the  apex,  regularly  narrow- 
ing signoretii  Fh.  '^ 

APHROPHORA   QUADRINOTATA    Say. 

A.  quadrinotata  Say.     Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.  VII,  p.  304,  1831. 

Dark  grayish -brown,  with  two  large  hyaline  areas  on  the 
costal  margin  of  each  elytron;  closely  resembling  the 
European-^,  aim  in  color  and  marking,  but  much  smaller  and 
with  a  longer  vertex;  length  7-8mm.,  *width  3-3. 5mm. 

Vertex  nearly  flat,  one-half  longer  on  middle  than  at  eye,  anterior 
margin  rounding,  the  edge  sharp,  posterior  margin  broadly  angulate  with 
a  distinct  notch,  median  carina  distinct;  front  scarcely  inflated,  the  infla- 
tion being  about  half  the  length  of  the  long  diameter  of  the  eye,  forming 
an  acute  angle  with  the  vertex;  pronotum  rather  flat,  median  carina 
sharp;  elytra  broad,  the  costal  margin  flaring  before  the  middle;  whole 
upper  surface  of  insect  coarsely  and  irregularly  punctate. 


•^Width  is  always  given  across  the  widest  part  of  the  elytra  when  folded. 


212  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Color:  Vertex,  grayish-brown,  anterior  margin  of  tylus  black-lined, 
rest  of  margin  light,  except  against  the  dark  eyes;  ocelli  red;  median 
carina  light:  pronotum  grayish,  the  carina  and  a  spot  on  either  side  before 
the  middle  pale:  elytra  with  the  claval  areas  pale,  grayish,  corium  darker, 
an  oblique  hyaline  band  before  the  middle,  extending  from  the  costal 
margin  to  the  inner  sector,  sharply  margined  behind,  fading  out  in  front, 
behind  the  middle  is  an  elongate  hyaline  spot:  between  these  spots  is  an 
irregular,  dark-brown  area,  and  in  well  marked  specimens  another 
appears  in  front  of  the  band  and  a  third  behind  the  spot. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  about  one-third  longer  than  wide,  slightly 
exceeded  by  the  ovipositor;  two  last  segments  of  the  male  abdomen 
elongate  narrowed;  plates  small,  twice  longer  than  wide,  separated  at  the 
base  by  their  own  width,  their  inner  margins  parallel,  outer  rounding. 

This  is  the  most  abundant  of  the  eastern  species  and  is 
readily  recognized  by  its  small  size  and  white  markings.  A 
series  of  several  hundred  examples  show  little  variation  in 
size  or  color. 

Habitat:  Examples  have  been  examined  from  Ontario, 
New  York,  New  Hampshire,  District  of  Columbia,  Maryland, 
West  Virginia,  Georgia,  Florida,  Iowa  and  Nebraska,  and  it 
has  been  reported  from  Ontario,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Ohio, 
Illinois,  and  North  Dakota. 

O     APHROPHORA   ANGULATA   n.    sp. 

A.  angulata  Uhl.    Mss. 

Pale,  nearly  uniform  grayish-brown,  two  obscure  hyaline 
spots  along  the  costa;  larger  and  more  obscurely  marked  than 
o  ^-notata;  length  10mm.,  width  -Imm. 

Vertex  flat,  scarcely  longer  on  middle  than  next  to  eye,  anterior  margin 
sharp  as  far  as  the  tylus,  which  is  slightly  produced  upon  the  front: 
median  carina  weak  on  the  tylus,  becoming  strong  on  the  posterior  margin 
of  the  vertex;  front  weakly  inflated,  forming  an  acute  angle  with  the 
vertex  as  in  Jf-notata;  pronotum,  anterior  third  depressed,  finely  punctate, 
with  a  sti'ong  median  carina,  behind  this,  elevated  and  coarsely  pitted, 
with  the  carina  weak;  elytra  very  broad  in  the  center,  roundingly  angulate 
behind;  the  costal  area  attaining  the  center  of  the  corium  at  the  angle  of 
the  first  sector. 

Color:  Grayish-brown;  vertex  and  anterior  third  of  pronotum  brown, 
with  the  fine  punctures  black,  median  carina  light,  rest  of  pronotum  light, 
with  dark  pitting:  scutellum  light-gray;  elytra,  ground  color  light, 
coarsely  pitted  with  brown,  becoming  darker  on  the  middle  of  the  costa, 
either  side  of  which  there  is  a  large  subhyaline  area,  nervures  mostly 
dark  margined  and  distinct. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  scarcely  half  longer  than  wide,  moderately 
exceeded  by  the  short  ovipositor. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  213 

Described  from  a  single  female  labeled  "Cal.,"  received 
from  Professor  Bruner.  Other  examples  have  been  examined, 
one  of  which  bore  Uhler's  MSS.  name  as  above.  This  species 
is  similar  in  structure  and  color  to"  Jf-notata,  but  readily 
separated  by  its  shorter  vertex,  larger  size  and  more  uniform 
coloring. 

^   APHROPHORA   PARALLELA    Say. 

O  Cercopis  paralkla  Say.    Narr.  Long's  Expid.  II,  304,  1824. 
O  Ptyelus  cribratus  Walk.     Homop.  B.  M.  712,  20  (fide  Fitch). 

Dusky  reddish-brown,  with  two  narrow,  oblique,  light 
bands  on  the  elytra;  body  broad  and  deep,  vertex  long  and  the 
front  much  inflated;  length  9-lOmm.,  width  4-4.25mm. 

Vertex,  flat  or  slightly  transvei'sely  depressed  behind  the  tylus,  fully 
one-half  longer  on  middle  than  at  eye,  anterior  margin  thick,  nearly 
straight  to  the  tylus,  tylus  produced  and  rounded  in  front,  its  length 
equaling  two-thirds  of  its  width;  front  strongly  inflated  and  pi'oduced, 
extending  slightly  beyond  the  vertex,  its  greatest  inflation  being  nearly 
one-half  greater  than  the  long  diameter  of  the  eye:  pronotum  depressed  on 
the  anterior  half,  suddenly  elevated  and  rounded  on  the  posterior  portion, 
the  lateral  margins  long  and  sharply  earinate,  exceeding  in  length  the  dis- 
tance between  the  ocelli;  elytra  broad  and  convex,  narrowing  behind; 
costal  area  very  broad,  but  not  reaching  the  center  of  the  corium. 

Color:  Tawny,  punctured  with  dark-brown;  vertex,  reddish-brown, 
finely  punctured,  the  anterior  margin  shining  black,  interrupted  on  margin 
of  tylus,  median  carina  broadly  white  behind  tylus;  pronotum  light-gray, 
heavily  punctured  with  light  tawny-brown;  elytra  grayish,  heavily  over- 
cast with  tawny,  an  interrupted  light  band  running  from  the  apex  of 
scutellum  to  the  center  of  costa  and  another  starting  in  a  spot  on  the  inner 
margin  at  the  apex  of  the  clavus  and  running  forward  to  meet  the  other  on 
the  costa:  these  bands  are  often  reduced  to  white  bars  on  the  nervures,  and 
are  usually  margined  with  darker. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers,  long  and  narrow,  exceeded  a  full  milli- 
meter by  the  ovipositor;  ultimate  ventral  segment  of  male  short,  its  length 
about  equaling  its  basal  breadth,  narrowing  apically,  the  margins  curving 
up  and  the  lateral  angles  produced  in  the  forms  of  style  like  appendages  as 
long  as  the  plates;  plates  nearly  square,  the  posterior  angles  rounded. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  Ontario,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  West 
Virginia,  Michigan,  and  it  has  been  reported  from  Nova 
Scotia,  Ontario,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas. 
The  last  two  references  probably  refer  to  some  other  species, 
leaving  it  with  a  known  distribution  from  Canada  south  to 
New  Jersey,  and  west  to  Michigan  and  Illinois. 


214  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

0    APHROPHORA   IRRORATA   H.   Sp. 

Dark  rusty-brown,  flecked  with  lighter,  very  closely 
resemhling per iimtata;  longer  and  narrower  thSiWparaUela,  with 
a  much  shorter  vertex  and  a  less  swollen  front;  length 
ll-12mm.,  width  3.5-4mm. 

Vertex  short,  transversely  depressed,  only  slightly  longer  on  middle 
than  at  eye,  anterior  margin  thin,  tylus  broad  and  short,  nearly  twice 
wider  than  long,  median  carina  obscure,  front  moderately  inflated,  outline 
a  regular  curve  from  clypeus  to  vertex,  angle  with  vertex  acute,  inflation 
of  front  less  than  the  long  diameter  of  the  eye:  pronotum  transversely 
depressed  before  the  middle,  posterior  disc  elevated,  carina  weak  except 
across  the  depressions,  lateral  margins  short,  their  length  less  than  the 
distance  between  the  ocelli;  elytra,  long  and  narrow,  much  exceeding  the 
abdomen,  but  little  windened  at  center  of  costa:  costal  margins  scarcely 
reflexed:  costal  area  narrow,  no  more  than  one-half  wider  at  the  angle  of 
the  first  sector  than  at  the  discoid  cells.     ■ 

Color:  Vertex,  dark  rusty-brown,  median  carina  and  a  spot  either  side  the 
tylus,  light;  anterior  half  of  the  i^ronotum  light,  with  few  dark  punctures 
except  along  the  carina,  posterior  half  densely  punctured  darker;  elytra 
tawny,  interrupted  by  numerous  small  circles  of  white,  often  inclosing  a 
single  dark  puncture,  these  somewhat  irregularly  arranged,  but  usually 
showing  three  light  areas,  separated  by  two  darker  ones  along  the  costa; 
an  oblique  light  band  from  the  center  of  scutellum  to  the  center  of  the 
corium:  a  light  spot  before  the  apex  of  the  clavus  and  another  behind. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  short  and  convex,  exceeded  by  the  short 
ovipositor  by  a  distance  of  less  than  one-half  their  width:  ultimate  ventral 
segment  of  male  abdomen  longer  than  wide,  narrowing  behind,  convex, 
shining:  plates  broad,  parallel  margined,  inner  posterior  angles  excavated, 
leaving  a  rounded  notch  nearly  half  their  depth,  outer  posterior  angles 
produced,  acutely  pointed. 

Described  from  several  examples  received  from  Professor 
Bruner,  taken  in  Sioux  county,  Nebraska  (War-Bonnet 
Canon),  and  others  taken  in  Rist  Canon  (Ft.  Collins),  Colo. 

This  species  resembles  parallela  quite  closely  in  color  and 
marking,  and  was  probably  the  one  referred  to  by  Say  as 
occurring  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  It  is  quite  distinct 
structurally  and  may  be  readily  separated  by  the  short  vertex, 
longer  elytra  and  the  striking  differences  in  front  and 
genitalia. 

"■     APHROPHORA   PERMUTATA   Uhl. 

A.  pcrmutata  \Jh\.     List  Hemip.  Colo,  and  N.  Mex.,  p.  472,   1872   (Mss.). 

A.  permutata  Uhl.      List  Hemip.  West  Miss.  Riv.,  p  345,  187G  (Descrip.). 

A.  permutata  Uhl.     Stand.  Nat.  Hist.,  p.  243,  1884  (Distribution). 

Varying  from  dark  rusty -brown  to  brownish-yellow,  with 
two  oblique  dark-margined,  light  bands  on  the  elytra;  resem- 
bling irrorata,  but  with  a  more  inflated  front,  and  longer,  nar- 
rower male  plates;  length  9 -12mm,,  width  3.5mm. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  215 

Vertex,  sloping  or  transversely  depressed,  about  one-fourth  longer  on 
middle  than  at  eye,  anterior  margin  moderately  thick,  nearly  straight  to 
the  tylus:  tylus  moderately  produced  and  rounded,  fully  twice  wider  than 
long:  front  moderately  inflated,  the  inflation  equaling  the  long  diameter  of 
the  eye,  produced  anteriorly,  forming  a  right  angle  with  the  vertex;  pro- 
notum  somewhat  depressed  before  the  middle,  disc  elevated,  the  lateral 
margins  about  equaling  in  length  the  distance  between  the  ocelli:  elytra 
long  and  narrow,  exceeding  the  abdomen:  costal  area  less  than  one-half 
wider  at  the  angle  of  sector  than  opposite  the  discoid  cells. 

Color:  Vertex  tawny,  punctured  with  darker,  carina  light;  pronotum 
grayish,  coarsely  punctate  with  tawny  or  rusty-brown;  elytra  tawny  or 
grayish-brown,  coarsely  punctate  with  darker:  an  oblique,  light  band  from 
the  scutellum  to  the  center  of  the  corium,  another  from  before  the  apex  of 
clavus,  running  transversely  on  to  the  corium,  then  obliquely  back  to  the 
costa,  both  bands  broadly  dark  margined,  the  anterior  one  emphasized  on 
the  costa. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  and  ovipositor  short  and  compact,  thickly 
set  with  coarse  hairs:  ultimate  ventral  segment  of  male  abdomen  longer 
than  its  basal  width,  narrowing  apically;  plates  in  the  form  of  long,  taper 
ing,  finger-like  processes,  attingent  until  just  before  the  black  tip,  where 
they  narrow  slightly  and  diverge. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  Vancouver's  island, 
Washington,  Oregon,  California,  Idaho,  Montana,  and  Colo- 
rado, and  Uhler  reports  it  from  Utah. 

-      APHROPHORA   SARATOGENSIS  Fitch. 
Lepyronia  saratoqensis  Fitch.     Cat.  Hom.  N.  Y.,  p.  53,  1851. 
-  Ptyelus  detritus  Walk.     List  Hom.  B.  M.,  p.  713,  1851. 
^  Ptyelus  gelidus  Walk.    Hom.  B.  M.,  p.  714,  1851. 

Fulvous  or  grayish-brown,  a  broad,  median  light  stripe 
across  head  and  pronotum,  and  oblique,  light  bands  on  the 
elytra;  smaller  than  either' para ZZe^a  of" permutata ,  and  with  a 
less  inflated  front;  length  3.5-lOmm.,  width  3-3. 5mm. 

Vertex,  nearly  flat,  anterior  margin  thin,  confluent  with  that  of  the  tylus, 
w^hich  is  also  carinate  anteriorly,  making  the  entire  anterior  margin  of  the 
head  thin  and  rounding,  parallel  with  the  posterior  margin:  front  small, 
outline  a  regular  curve,  inflation  less  than  the  long  diameter  of  the  eje: 
pronotum  only  slightly  convex,  transverse  depression  before  the  middle 
very  slight,  carina  weak,  except  across  the  depression:  elytra  moderately 
long  and  narrow,  slightly  exceeding  the  ovipositor  in  the  female,  costal 
margin  scarcely  reflexed. 

Color:  Vertex,  fulvous  with  a  broad,  median  light  stripe:  pronotum 
fulvous  in  front,  grayish  behind  the  middle,  a  broad,  median  light  stripe, 
creamy  yellow  in  front,  broader,  paler  and  including  a  few  dark 
punctures  behind  the  middle:  elytra  fulvous  or  grayish-brown,  with  the 
oblique,  light  bands  broad  and  indistinct,  rarely  margined  with  darker. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  half  longer  than  their  basal  width, 
exceeded    about  one    millimeter  by    the    ovipositor,   which    is    scarcely 


216  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

exceeded  by  the  elytra:  ultimate  ventral  segment  of  the  male  abdomen 
very  short,  nearly  four  times  wider  than  long,  convex,  the  posterior  angles 
produced,  style  like:  plates  subquadrate,  rounded  behind. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  Ontario,  New  York, 
New  Hampshire,  District  of  Columbia,  Maryland,  and  West 
Virginia,  and  it  has  been  reported  from  Ontario,  and  Walker 's 
species  were  from  Nova  Scotia  and  Florida. 

Readily  separated  from  paraZZe^a  by  its  shorter  vertex  and 
smaller  front,  as  well  as  its  smaller  size  and  lighter  color; 
from  signoretii,  which  it  more  closely  resembles,  by  the  light 
stripe  and  the  male  genitalia. 

6     APHROPHORA   ANNULATA   n.  Sp. 

Light  ochraceous-brown,  irregularly  maculated  with  chest- 
nut, lighter  colored  and  more  heavily  marked  thsknsaratogensis, 
with  a  shorter  female  ovipositor  and  narrower,  divergent  male 
plates;  length  10-llmm.,  width  3.5-4mm. 

Vertex,  flat,  sloping,  strongly  angularly  emarginate  behind,  roundingly 
angulate  in  front,  scarcely  longer  in  the  middle  than  against  eyes,  anterior 
margin  very  thin  either  side  tylus,  tylus  very  broad  and  short:  front 
moderately  inflated,  about  equaling  long  diameter  of  eye,  slightly  anter- 
iorly produced,  forming  very  nearly  a  right  angle  with  the  vertex:  pro- 
notum  strongly  depressed  on  the  anterior  half,  then  suddenly  elevated  and 
I'ounded  on  the  disc,  the  lateral  margins  short,  sharp  and  oblique,  scarcely 
as  long  as  the  distance  between  the  ocelli,  elytra  moderately  long,  some- 
what inflated,  the  costal  margin  reflexed  anteriorly. 

Color:  Vertex,  ochraceous,  with  a  faint,  median  light  line,  bordered 
by  two  broad  chestnut  ones;  pronotum  pale,  ochraceous,  a  chestnut  stripe 
arising  just  before  the  middle  on  either  side  the  carina  and  running  back- 
ward, and  then  obliquely  outward  and  broadening  to  the  claval 
margin;  disc  of  scutellum  chestnut,  the  margins  pale,  elytra  pale,  ochra- 
ceous, an  area  at  the  base,  an  oblique  band  from  the  scutellum,  broadening 
to  just  before  the  middle  of  the  costa,  another  before  the  apex  of  the  clavus 
and  the  nerve  at  the  base  of  the  apical  cells,  deep  chestnut. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  convex,  scarcely  longer  than  wide,  ovi- 
positor short  and  stout;  ultimate  ventral  segment  of  the  male  abdomen 
nearly  twice  wider  than  long,  subcylindrical;  plates  broad  at  the  base,  the 
outer  margins  flaring,  inner  margin  cut  off  obliquely  nearly  to  the  base, 
slightly  sinuate,  leaving  two  widely  divergent,  black-tipped  points. 

Described  from  sixteen  examples  labeled  "Wasatch,  Utah, 
6-27-91, "  received  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Otto  Heide- 
mann.  Easily  separated  from  permutata,  which  occurs  in  the 
same  region,  by  the  lighter  color  and  heavier  marking,  as  well 
as  by  the  very  distinct  genitalia. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  217 

'    APHROPHORA   SIGNORETII   Fitch. 
A.  signoretii  Fitch.     Third  Report  Ins.  N.  Y.,  p.  70,  1856. 
Tawny-brown,  varying  to  pale  ochraceous,   line  on  vertex 
and  pronotum  and  marking  of  elytra  almost  obsolete;  slightly 
smaller  than  saratogeiisis,  with  a  shorter,  blunter  vertex  and 
stronger  front;  length  8.5-lOmm.,  width  3.5mm. 

Vertex,  sloping  or  depressed,  very  obtusely  angulate,  anterior  and 
posterior  margins  parallel,  anterior  margin  sharp  to  the  tylus,  tylus  dis- 
tinct, slightly  elevated;  front  moderately  inflated,  about  equaling  the  long 
diameter  of  the  eye,  not  produced  anteriorly,  forming  an  acute  angle  with 
the  vertex;  pronotum  rather  strongly  depressed  before  the  middle,  but 
only  slightly  elevated  behind,  leaving  it  rather  flat,  side  margins  distinctly 
shorter  than  the  distance  between  the  ocelli:  elytra  moderately  long,  the 
costal  margin  reflexed  anteriorly. 

Color:  Vertex,  tawny,  darkest  on  the  tylus,  carina  obscurely  marked; 
pronotum  tawny-brown,  scarcely  a  trace  of  gray  on  the  elevated  disc, 
anterior  depressed  portion  lighter,  scutellum  lighter  on  the  disc:  elytra 
varying  from  tawny  to  ochraceous,  light  bands,  not  very  prominent,  the 
anterior  one  arising  well  back  of  the  scutellum  and  not  attaining  the  costa, 
the  posterior  one  arising  near  the  apex  of  clavus  and  running  nearly  trans- 
versely to  the  costa. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  convex,  moderately  long,  exceeded  by  the 
ovipositor,  which  does  not  reach  the  tips  of  the  elytra:  ultimate  ventral 
segment  of  the  male  abdomen  nearly  twice  longer  than  penultimate,  one- 
half  longer  than  its  basal  width,  narrowing  apically,  disc  convex:  plates 
stout,  forcep-like,  black-tipped,  their  outer  margins  rounding,  the  inner 
ones  obliquely  divergent. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  New  York  and 
Ontario,  Canada. 

This  species  has  been  confused  wittPsaratogensis  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate  the  references;  it  may 
be  readily  distinguished,  however,  by  the  forcep-like  male 
plates,  while  in  saratogensis  they  are  nearly  quadrate  discs. 

'    GENUS   LEPYRONIA   A.   &  S. 

Vertex,  together  with  the  eyes,  as  wide  as  the  pronotum,  angularly 
rounding  anteriorly,  the  margin  sharp,  disc  nearly  flat,  without  carina, 
tylus  large,  parallel  margined:  ocelli  about  midway  between  tylus  and 
pronotum,  nearly  as  far  from  each  other  as  from  eyes;  front  broad,  moder- 
ately inflated,  coarsely  ribbed,  except  along  a  median  band;  rostrum,  two- 
jointed,  reaching  the  middle  coxa?:  pronotum  about  three  times  as  wide  as 
its  length  on  middle,  anterior  margin  slightly  rounding,  lateral  margins 
nearly  parallel,  sharply  carinate,  shorter  than  the  long  diameter  of  the 
eye,  posterior  margin  deeply,  roundingly  emarginate,  disc  but  slightly 
convex;  elytra  coriaceous,  broad  and  rather  short,  outer  margin  broadly 
and  regularly   rounding  to  the  acutely  angulate  apex;    venation  of  the 


218  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

normal  pattern,  often  slightly  irregular,  obscured  by  the  coriaceous  struc- 
ture and  the  dense  pubescence:  wings,  with  the  third  sector  from  the 
marginal  one,  forked,  the  intramarginal  A'ein  interrupted  between  the 
third  and  fourth  sectors;  legs  short  and  stout,  hind  tibia  armed  with  two 
stout  spurs  and  a  large  crescent  of  spines:  whole  dorsal  surface  covered 
with  a  dense  prostrate  pubescence. 

Our  representatives  of  this  genus  are  all  grayish  or  brown- 
ish-cinereous, with  traces  of  oblique  fuscous-markings  on  the 
elytra;  in  size  they  range  all  the  way  from  that  of  a  Clastoptera 
up  to  the  largest  AphropJtora,  but  are  always  easily  recognized 
by  their  globose  forms  and  hairy  covering. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  SPECIES. 

A.  Margins  of  the  vertex  regularly  rounding  to  the  obtuse  tip:  elytra 
slightly  angularly  inflated,  nearly  twi«e  longer  than  their  com- 
bined width  (folded),  grayish,  testaceous,  wiuh  a  distinct  V  on 
each  elytron.  Jf-angularis  Say.  ^ 

AA.     Margins  of  vertex  straight  or  concave,  the  tip  slightly  produced: 
elytra  inflated,  no  more  than  one-half  longer  than  their  combined 
width  (folded). 
B.     Small,  testaceous,  rather  narrow;  the  vertex  broad  and  short; 
shorter,  or  only  equaling  the  pronotum  in  length:  apex  of 
elytra  broadly  subhyaline.  angulifera  Uhl.  ^ 

BB.     Large,  nearly  uniform  grayish:  general  form  globose;  vertex 
longer  than  pronotum.  gibbosa  n.  sp. 

^   LEPYRONIA    QUADRANGULARIS    Say. 

^Cercopis  quadrangularis  Say.     Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.,  VI,  p.  305, 

1825. 

Grayish  or  tawny-brown,  with  a  fuscous  spot  at  the  base, 
another  at  the  apex,  and  a  V  on  the  center  of  each  elytron; 
margins  of  vertex  convex;  elytra  only  slightly  inflated; 
length  9  7-8. 5mm.,   <?  6.5-8mm.,  width  3mm. 

Vertex,  flat  or  depressed,  length  and  width  about  equal,  slightly  longer 
than  the  pronotum,  margins  rounding  to  the  blunfc  apex;  tylus  large, 
parallel  margined,  nearly  one-half  the  length  of  the  vertex;  pronotum  flat, 
twice  wider  than  long,  slightly  rounding  in  front,  with  a  transverse  row  of 
impressions  behind  the  margin,  lateral  margins  nearly  parallel,  longer 
than  the  short  diameter  of  the  eye;  elytra  about  twice  longer  than  wide, 
outer  margin  rounding,  the  apex  angulate. 

Color:  Vertex  and  pronotum  uniform  testaceous,  brown;  elytra  grayish 
or  tawny-brown,  a  patch  at  the  base,  another  at  the  apex,  an  oblique  band 
from  the  tip  of  the  scutellum  to  a  point  beyond  the  middle  of  the  costa, 
another  from  the  point  of  the  clavus,  meeting  this  on  the  costa  and  form- 
ing a  V  on  each  elytron,  brownish  fuscous. 

Genitalia:  Ultimate  ventral  segment  in  the  female  consisting  of  a  nar- 
row plate  in  each  corner,  pygofers  and  ovipositor  short,  elevated  so  that 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  219 

the  tip  touches  the  elytra;  male  plates  two  and  one-half  times  longer  than 
wide,  inner  margins  straight,  outer  narrowing  slightly  to  just  before  the 
tip,  where  they  are  cut  oft'  obliquely,  together  forming  a  V-shaped  trough, 
inclined  slightly  upwards. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  Ontario,  New  Hamp- 
shire, New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Connecticut,  District  of 
Columbia,  Maryland,  West  Virginia,  Georgia,  Florida,  Missis- 
sippi, Ohio,  Iowa,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Colorado  and 
Texas. 

LEPYRONIA   ANGULIFERA   Uhlcr. 

Lepyronia  anguUfera  Uhler.     List  Hemip.  West  Miss.  Riv.,  p.  348,  1876. 

Deep  testaceous,  with  grayish-golden  pubescence,  the  tips 
of  the  elytra  broadly  grayish,  subhyaline;  margin  of  vertex 
nearly  straight,  the  tip  produced;  length  96mm.,  ,j5mm.; 
width  2.5mm. 

Vertex  sloping,  disc  convex,  broader  than  long,  about  equaling  the 
pronotum,  margins  slightly  carinate,  straight  or  sinuate,  the  apex  pro- 
duced: tylus  narrow,  parallel  margined,  one-half  the  length  of  the  vertex; 
face  moderately  inflated,  forming  an  acute  angle  with  the  vertex;  pronotum 
more  than  twice  wider  than  long,  the  anterior  margin  gently  curving, 
back  of  which  there  is  a  series  of  depressions;  lateral  margins  distinctly 
oblique;  elytra  coriaceous,  distinctly  angulate  along  the  claval  suture,  the 
disc  of  the  corium  inflated,  outer  margin  broadly  rounding,  apex  round- 
ingly  angulate:  width  of  apex  of  hind  tibia  one-third  its  length. 

Color:  Testaceous,  elytra  beyond  clavus  grayish  sub-hyaline,  the 
nervures  darker,  another  light  band  across  the  middle,  this  latter  often 
reduced  to  two  spots  on  the  centers  of  the  costal  margins;  whole  upper  sur- 
face slightly  grayish,  irridescent  from  the  pubescence. 

Genitalia:  In  the  female,  similar  tcP  If-angidaris,  the  ovipositor  longer, 
exserted:  male  plates  broad  and  convex  at  base,  rapidly  narrowing  one- 
third  their  width,  then  nearly  parallel  margined  to  the  rounding  apex, 
about  twice  longer  than  their  middle  width,  convex,  inner  margins 
attingent. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  Jacksonville,  Cres- 
cent City,  Indian  reservation,  and  Duval  county,  Florida,  and 
Uhler  reports  it  from  Maryland  and  New  Jersey. 

The  smaller  size,  narrower  form  and  sloping,  pointed 
vertex,  as  well  as  the  subhyaline  apex  of  the  elytra,  readily 
distinguish  this  species. 

LEPYRONIA   GIBBOSA   n.   Sp. 

Large;  light-grayish  brown,  broader  and  more  inflated  than 
4-cingularis  or  even  the  European  coleopterata;  vertex  long, 
sloping,  the  margins  concave;  length  98-lOmm.,  J^6-7mm. ; 
width  9  4-5mm.,   .j3.5-4mm. 


220  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES. 

Vertex  sloping,  disc  coavex,  longer  than  the  pronotum,  nearly  as  long 
as  the  width  between  the  eyes,  margins  strongly  concave  in  the  male, 
slightly  so  in  the  female;  tylus  broad  and  distinct,  the  anterior  margin 
elevated:  front  broadly  inflated,  the  inflation  being  greater  than  the  long 
diameter  of  the  eye;  pronotum  only  slightly  rounded  in  front,  behind 
which  there  is  a  transverse  row  of  impressed  spots,  the  lateral  margins 
slightly  oblique,  as  long  as  the  eye,  posterior  margin  short,  deeply  round- 
ingly  emarginate;  elytra  much  broader  than  the  pronotum,  convex,  sutural 
margin  shorter  than  the  greatest  width,  costal  margin  extending  much 
below  the  level  of  the  pronotum,  broadly  rounding,  reflexed  on  the  margin 
before  the  middle,  behind  which  the  disc  is  convex,  apex  bluntly  round- 
ingly  angulate,  whole  upper  surface  covered  with  a  dense,  prostrate, 
golden  pubescence. 

Color:  Grayish  or  fuscous-brown,  with  indistinct,  darker  markings  on 
the  elytra,  as  follows:  A  faint  band  from  the  point  of  the  clavus,  deepen- 
ing into  a  spot  behind  the  middle  of  the  costa,  sometimes  traces  of  a  band 
from  here  to  the  apex  of  the  scutellum,  forming  an  indistinct,  fuscous  V,  a 
spot  on  the  costa  midway  between  the  first  and  the  apex. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  and  ovipositor  as  broad  as  long,  inclined 
upwards,  ultimate  ventral  segment  only  appearing  as  a  long,  triangular 
piece  in  each  corner:  male  plates  convex,  nearly  vertical,  outer  margins 
slightly  narrowing,  then  rounding  to  the  acute  apex. 

Described  from  two  females  and  seven  males,  from  the  fol- 
lowing localities:  Little  Rock,  Iowa  (O.  &  B.),  Squaw  Canon, 
Sioux  county;  Sand  Hills  and  Dismal  River,  Neb.     (Bruner). 

This  species  has  several  times  been  mistaken  for^i.  sorcUda 
and  is  probably  the  one  referred  to  as  from  Illinois  under  that 
species,  in  Coding's  catalogue,  as  the  true  .sordida  has  not  yet 
been  taken  this  side  the  Mexican  boundary,  or  very  close  to  it 
on  the  other  side.  The  much  larger  size,  lighter  color  and 
long,  sloping  vertex  will  at  once  distinguish  it  trom.\sordida  or 
the  two  preceding  species. 

GENUS    PHILARONIA   n.    g. 

Stout,  heavy-set,  somewhat  globose  forms  of  moderate  size, 
having  the  form  and  dense  hairy  covering  of  a  Lajnjronia 
together  with  the  sulcate  vertex  of  a'  Phlkcnus  and  a  ramose 
venation,  which  is  quite  distinct  from  the  type  of  either  genus. 

Vertex  nearly  rectangular  in  front,  roundingly  emarginate  behind, 
distinctly  longer  on  middle  than  against  eye,  nearly  as  long  as  the  pro- 
notum, anterior  margin  between  eyes  and  tylus  deeply  sulcate,  ocelli  near 
the  posterior  margin,  somewhat  nearer  each  other  than  eyes,  front 
strongly  inflated  and  coarsely  ribbed,  except  for  a  narrow  median  zone, 
rostrum  short  and  stout,  reaching  only  to  the  middle  pair  of  coxje,  com- 
posed of  two  equal  segments,  head  with  the  eyes  scarcely  as  wide  as  the 
pronotum;  pronotum  rather  small,  scarcely  elevated,  the  anterior  margin 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  221 

broadly  rounded,  side  margins  short,  oblique,  carinate,  distinctly  shorter 
than  distanca  between  ocelli,  claval  margin  long,  posterior  margin  deeply, 
narrowly  emarginate;  elytra  coriaceous,  slightly  more  than  twice  longer 
than  wide,  convex  and  inflated,  widest  across  the  discoid  cells,  costal 
margin  sinuated  and  strongly  reflexed  just  before  the  middle,  venation 
irregular,  ramose,  the  two  veins  on  the  corium  forking  to  form  discoid 
cells,  which  are  broken  up  posteriorly  to  form  an  irregular  network,  which 
occupies  the  entire  apical  portion  of  the  elytra,  the  entire  venation 
obscured  by  a  dense  covering  of  fine  hair. 

This  genus  includes  two  rather  anomalous  species;  from  the 
ramose  venation  they  might  be  placed  next  the""  Cereopime, 
while  in  other  characters  they  fall  between  Lepyronia  and  Phike- 
nvs:  from-'"  Philcenus  and  ^Aphrophora  they  may  be  readily 
separated  by  the  dense  prostrate  pubescence  and  the  venation, 
and  from  ^Lepyronia  by  the  sulcate  vertex.  The  genus  is 
apparently  confined  to  this  continent  and  probably  to  the 
temperate  zone,  within  which  they  are  quite  widely  dis- 
tributed. 

The  two  species  are  still  more  remarkable  in  that  they  bear 
almost  exactly  the  same  relation  to  each  other  that  the  two 
species  of  Phikenus  do,  simmarius  and  abjectus  each  possessing 
convex  elytra  and  the  forked  wing  vein,  while  Uneatus  and 
bilmeatu.s  are  elongate  and  nearly  parallel  margined,  with  the 
third  vein  of  wing  entire;  in  color  the  resemblance  is  still 
greater,^  bllineatus  being  almost  a  duplicate,  on  a  larger  scale, 
of  lineatus,  even  the  variation  in  color  following  the  same  lines; 
while  abjectus,  in  some  of  its  lighter  shades,  exhibits  traces  of 
the  maculation  of  a  typical  spiunarius,  and  the  darker  ones 
differ  by  scarcely  a  shade  from  its  darker  varieties. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  SPECIES. 
A.  Elytra  convex,  the  costal  margins  strongly  curved,  much  wider  than 
across  eyes,  front  not  produced  anteriorly,  the  outline  a  regular 
curve;  third  longitudinal  vein  of  wing  forked:  color,  reddish- 
brown,  abjectus  Uhl. 
AA.  Elytra  with  the  costal  margins  nearly  parallel,  very  little  wider 
than  across  eyes;  front,  anteriorly  produced,  rapidly  rounding 
to,  the  vertex;  color,  pale  straw-yellow,  sometimes  heavily 
marked  with  fuscous,  costal  margins  lined  with  white. 

hilineatus  Say. 
PHILARONIA   ABJECTA   Uhl. 
^  Philcenus  abjectiis  Uhl.     List  Hemip.  West  Miss.  Riv,,  p.  346,  1876. 
Lepyronia  angulifera  G.  &  B.  Hemip.  Colo.,  p.  71,  1895. 
Form  broad  and  convex,  rapidly  narrowing  behind,  Lepi/ronia 
like,    head   narrower   than   pronotum.      Color   reddish-brown; 
vertex  and  two  spots  on  the  costa  lighter;  length  5. 5-6. 5mm., 
width  2. 5-3mm. 


222  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

Vertex  sloping,  nearly  rectangulate  before,  the,  sides  rounded,  sulcate, 
twice  as  long  on  middle  aa  against  the  eye,  length  slightly  more  than  half 
the  width,  posterior  margin  broadly  rounding,  the  ocelli  and  suture  between 
head  and  pronotum  obscured  by  the  heavy  pubescence,  ocelli  equidistant 
from  eyes  and  each  other,  nearer  posterior  margin  than  tylus;  front  moder- 
ately inflated,  outline  nearly  straight,  rostrum  two-jointed  scarcely  equal- 
ing the  front  in  length;  pronotum  with  the  anterior  third  depressed  and 
on  the  same  plane  with  the  vertex,  a  row  of  pits  along  the  posterior  margin 
of  the  depressed  area,  side  margins  very  short;  elytra  coriaceous,  convex, 
the  costal  margin  strongly  curved,  venation  obscured,  apically  broken  up 
and  irregularly  reticulate;  legs  very  stout,  spurs  on  hind  tibia  nearly  twice 
as  long  as  its  width;  -whole  dorsal  surface  densely  pubescent. 

Color:  Reddish-brown:  vertex  and  anterior  part  of  pronotum  often  tawny, 
the  pubescence  golden,  posterior  part  of  pronotum  and  disc  of  the  elytra 
dark  reddish-brown,  costal  margin  with  a  light  spot  on  middle  and  a  larger, 
obscure  one  towards  the  apex;  front  varying  from  creamy-yellow  to  tawny- 
brown. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  very  short  and  small,  extending  but  little 
beyond  the  abdominal  segments,  strongly  elevated,  the  ovipositer  broad 
and  short,  nearly  touching  the  suture;  ultimatcventral  segment  of  the  male 
abdomen  larger  than  penultimate,  slightly  convex,  wedge-shaped;  plates 
vertical,  broad,  wedge-shaped,  the  apex  rounded,  much  larger  and  shorter 
than  in  hilineatus. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  Colorado,  Nebraska, 
South  Dakota,  and  it  is  probable  that  Uhler's  reference  to 
sjmmarius  from  Utah,  Dakota,  Sitka,  and  Lake  Winnipeg  refer 
to  this  species. 

PHILARONIA   BILINEATA    Say. 

O  Aphrophora  bilineata  Say.    Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.,  VI,  p.  804,  1831. 
^  Philcenus  lineatus  Uhl.     List  Hem.  West  Miss.  R.,  p.  347,  1876  (in  part). 
^  Philcenus  lineatus  G.  &  B.     Hemip.  Colo.,  p.  70,  1895. 
<"  Philcenus  americanus  Bak.     Can.  Ent.,  XXIX,  V,  p.  112,  1897. 

Form  stout  sub-cylindrical,  the  costal  margins  as  seen  from 
above,  nearly  parallel,  head  equaling  the  pronotum  in  width, 
vertex  long,  color  pale-straw,  costal  margins  broadly  light, 
margined  internally  with  darker;  length  5.5-7mm.,  width  2mm. 

Vertex  long,  rectangulate  or  slightly  acute,  the  sides  sulcate,  length  on 
middle  nearly  two- thirds  the  width,  over  twice  the  length  against  eye,  tylus 
half  the  length  of  the  vertex,  distinctly  carinate,  ocelli  nearer  the  pos- 
terior margin  and  very  slightly  nearer  each  other  than  the  eyes:  front 
strongly  inflated,  anteriorly  produced,  outline  strongly  curved,  the  infla- 
tion equaling  the  long  diameter  of  the  eye;  pronotum  almost  flat,  on  same 
plane  as  the  vertex,  a  median  longitudinal  depression  the  whole  length, 
and  two  depressed  spots  on  either  side  of  the  disc;  elytra  long, 
nearly  parallel  margined,  broadly  rounding  behind,  venation  obscure  on 
the  disc,  broken  up  and  irregular  ramose  back  of  the  middle;  legs  rather 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES.  223 

long  and  slender,  spurs  on  hind  tibia  small,  scarcely  longer  than  its  width, 
the  apical  crown  of  spines  very  large:  whole  dorsal  surface  covered  with  a 
coarse  golden  pubescence. 

Color:  Straw- yellow  clouded  with  fuscous,  margins  of  sulcus  both  above 
and  below,  dark  brown;  vertex,  pronotum  and  scutellum  pale  straw  color, 
with  two  longitudinal  brownish  fuscous  stripes  enclosing  a  narrow  median 
light  one;  elytra  straw-yellow,  the  costal  margin  broadly  white:  inside  this 
is  a  dark  stripe  arising  against  the  eye  and  running  back  across  the  lateral 
margin  of  the  pronotum  and  along  the  elytra  inside  the  first  sector  to  well 
beyond  the  middle;  sometimes  in  the  female,  often  in  the  male,  it  spreads 
out  inwardly  and  darkens  up  the  disc  ou  the  anterior  two-thirds;  front,  yel- 
lowish, ribbed  with  darker;  a  light  stripe  arises  under  the  eye  and  runs 
back  to  join  the  costal  stripe;  legs,  straw-yellow. 

Genitalia:  female  pygofers,  short,  stout,  strongly  elevated  so  that  the 
tip  of  the  exserted  ovipositer  touches  the  sutural  margin  of  the  elytra:  ulti- 
mate ventral  segment  of  the  male  abdomen  very  large,  strongly  convex, 
shining,  plates  vertical,  wedge-shaped,  over  twice  longer  than  their  basal 
width,  their  tips  nearly  touching  the  elytra  at  the  suture. 

Habitat:  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Mon- 
tana, Colorado,  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  Iowa,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Ontario  and  Connecticut;  Uhler  reports  it  (as  Uneatus) 
from  the  Yukon,  Mackenzie  and  Red  River  countries,  and  Baker 
{asamericanus)  from  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

This  is  a  very  common  species  on  the  plains  and  prairies 
and  extends  eastward  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  An  examination 
of  a  type  of-  americanus  proved  it  to  be  identical  with  the 
forms  that  have  been  examined  from  other  eastern  localities 
and  cannot  be  separated  from  the  western  ones.  The  only 
point  of  separation  given  in  the  description  is  ' '  the  flatter  face 
of  Uneatus,"  and  that  character  can  be  readily  duplicated  in 
western  specimens. 

GENUS   PHIL^NUS    Stal. 

Vertex  with  the  anterior  margin  obtuse  or  slightly  acutely  angulate, 
posterior  margin  rounding  or  very  slightly  angulate,  longer  on  middle 
than  against  the  eyes,  over  half  the  length  of  the  pronotum,  anterior 
margin  between  the  eyes  and  tylus  deeply  sulcate,  tylus  distinct,  anterior 
margin  rounding,  polished,  ocelli  near  the  posterior  margin,  nearly  as  far 
from  each  other  as  from  eyes,  front  moderately  inflated,  coarsely  ribbed 
either  side  the  median  line,  disc  flattened,  clothed  with  coarse  hairs,  ros- 
trum short  and  stout,  composed  of  two  equal  segments,  not  extending 
beyond  the  second  pair  of  coxa?;  head  together  with  the  eyes  about  equal- 
ing in  width  the  posterior  part  of  the  pronotum;  pronotum  weakly  convex 
without  a  median  carina,  rounding  angulate  in  front,  deeply  emarginate 
behind,  the  lateral  margin  much  shorter  than  the  distance  between  the 
ocelli,  carinate,  claval  margins  long  and  slightly  emarginate;  elytra  over 
twice  longer  than  wide,  convex  or  paralled  margined,  without  an  appendix; 


224  IOWA  ACADExMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

venation  simple,  both  veins  of  the  corium  forking  and  forming  two  elongate 
discoid  cells,  apical  cells  somewhat  irregular,  usually  about  five;  wings 
with  the  third  vein  from  the  marginal  vein  either  forked  (spumariu.'^)  or 
entire  [Hneatus);  legs  short  and  stout,  spurs  and  spines  strong;  whble  dorsal 
surface  of  insect  thickly,  finely  punctured  and  clothed  with  a  short  pros- 
trate pubescence.  , 

The  members  of  this  genus  are  all  rather  small  compact 
forms  from  4.5  to  6mm.  in  length  and  about  half  that  in  width, 
they  are  apparently  confined  to  the  North  Temperate  zone;  seven 
species  have  been  recognized  in  Europe,  two  of  which  range 
clear  across  that  continent  and  along  the  eastern  section  of 
this  one,  being  the  only  representative  of  the  genus  in  this 
country.  They  are  quite  different  in  form  and  appearance,  and 
are  readily  separated  by  reference  to  a  few  structural  char- 
acters, although  the  variation  in  color  of  one  species  is  almost 
without  limit  and  includes  in  its  variations  one  that  simulates 
the  constant  color  markings  of  the  other  species. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  SPECIES. 

A.  Vertex  twice  wider  than  long,  tylus  broad,  occupying  more  than 
half  the  length  of  the  vertex,  elytra  with  the  costal  margin  con- 
vex, much  broader  than  across  eyes;  third  vein  of  wing  forked, 
forming  a  closed  apical  cell.  spumarius  Linn. 

AA.  Length  of  vertex  equaling  two  thirds  of  its  width,  tylus  narrow, 
occupying  half  the  length  of  the  vertex;  elytra  with  the  costal 
margin  nearly  parallel,  scarcely  wider  than  across  eyes;  third 
vein  of  wing  not  forked.  Uneatus  Linn. 

^     PHIL.^NUS  SPUMARIUS  Linn. 

^    Cicada  spnmaria  L.inn.    Faun.  Suec,  240,  881,  1761. 

C  Ptyelus  albiceps  Prov.     Nat.  Can.  IV,  351,  Hemip.  du  Can.,  258. 

C  Phihenus  Uneatus  Pvov.     Hemip.  du  Can.,  258. 

Broad  and  short,  the  elytra  strongly  convex,  flaring  on  the 
margin;  head  broad  and  short,  sloping;  color  very  variable; 
length  5. 5-6. 5mm.,  width  2-2. 5mm. 

Vertex  short,  sloping,  twice  wider  than  long,  a  little  over  one-half  the 
length  of  the  pronotum,  anterior  margin  obtusely  angulate,  tylus  broader 
than  long,  longer  than  the  vertex  behind  it,  ocelli  placed  close  to  tha 
posterior  margin,  equidistant  from  each  other  and  eyes:  front  broad,  with 
seven  or  eight  coarse  ribs,  outline  only  slightly  curved,  forming  an  acute 
angle  with  the  vertex,  the  apex  blunt:  rostrum  reaching  on  to  the  middle 
coxte,  as  long  as  the  front;  pronotum  roundingly  angled  in  front,  deeply 
pitted  back  of  the  margin;  elytra  broad,  costal  margin  strongly  convex, 
reflexed  before  the  middle:  venation  simple,  the  outer  vein  forking  just 
beyond  the  middle  and  forming  an  elongate  discoid  cell,  fully  five  times  as 
long  as  wide,  angular  at  the  fork;  wings,  with  the  third  vein  from  the 
marginal  one,  forking  before  the  apex. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  225 

Color:    So  variable  that  it  can  only  be  indicated  under  the  varieties. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers,  broader  than  long,  the  ovipositor  only 
slightly  exserted;  male  plates  broad  at  the  base,  gradually  narrowing  to 
the  middle,  bejond  which  they  appear  as  tapering,  finger-like  processes. 

Habitat:  Europe,  the  New  England  states,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  Ontario.  Uhler  records  it  from  Utah,  Dakota,  Sitka,  and 
Lake  Winnipeg,  but  it  seems  probable  that  those  references 
were  to  one  or  more  of  the  other  species,  as  it  has  not  been 
found  by  anyone  else  in  any  of  these  localities,  while  both 
^  Mlineatus  Siud'' ahjectus  have. 

In  color  this  species  is  very  variable;  in  Europe  about 
fifteen  varieties  are  recognized,  ranging  from  pale,  creamy- 
white,  through  variously  spotted  and  lined  forms,  to  a  shining, 
jet  black  variety.  These  have  not  all  been  recognized  in  this 
country  as  yet,  but  as  both  the  extreme,  and  several  of  the 
intermediate  forms  have,  it  has  been  thought  best  to  give  all 
the  more  strongly  marked  varieties  indicating  which  ones  are 
known  to  occur. 

These  varieties  all  intergrade  and  no  hard  and  fast  lines 
can  be  drawn  in  regard  to  them,  but  nearly  all  the  examples 
will  fall  readily  in  to  one  or  another  of  the  following  ones,  the 
greaber  number  probably  belonging  to  the  first. 

O  Var.  ustulatus  Fall.  Grayish-brown  or  tawny,  the  vertex  and  anterior 
half  of  the  pronotuni  light,  a  large,  light  spot  before  the  middle  of  the 
costal  margin,  and  another,  slightly  smaller,  behind. 

O  Var.  fasciatus  Pabr.  Vertex  and  anterior  half  of  the  pronotum  golden- 
yellow,  the  rest  of  pronotum  and  elytra  dark-brown  or  black,  with  an 
oblique  band  from  scutellum,  broadening  to  just  before  the  middle  of  costa, 
and  a  spot  behind  the  middle,  sometimes  extending  to  a  spot  at  apex  of 
clavus,  white. 

O  Var.  marginellus  Fab.     Black;  vertex  and  anterior  half  of  the  pronotum 
and  a  stripe  on  the  costal  margin  of  the  elytra,  yellowish-white. 
O   Var.  leucocephalus  Linn.    Dark-brown  or  black,  vertex  and  anterior  half 
of  the  pronotum  yellow. 

d>  Var.  lateralis  Linn.     Black;  a  broad,  light  stripe  on  costa. 

^  Var.  leucophthalmus  Linn.     Entirely  dark-brown  or  black. 

<3  Var.  lineatus  Fab.  Yellowish-white;  a  median  black  stripe  arising, 
sometimes  on  the  point  of  the  vertex,  sometimes  on  the  pronotum,  and 
extending  to  the  apex  of  clavus,  often  enclosing  a  narrow,  light  line;  a 
dark  stripe  on  the  corium,  parallel  with  the  first. 

,    Var.  pallidus  Sch.     Pale  yellowish-white. 

Whatever   its   color,    it    may    be    readily    separated    from 
0  lineatus  by   the   broader,  convex  form,  and  the  short,  obtuse 
vertex. 
15 


226  IOWA  ACADEMY  OP   SCIENCES. 

^  PHIL^NUS  LINEATUS  Linn. 
^  Cicada  lineata  Linn.     Faun.  Suec,  241,  888,  1761. 
oPtyelus  banvitta  Walk.     List  Homop.  B.  M,,  718,  1851. 

Pale  creamy-yellow  with  a  light  stripe  along  the  costa  inside 
of  which  may  be  a  dark  stripe.  Smaller  and  narrower  than 
spumarius,  with  the  elytra  nearly  parallel  margined,  the  head 
long  and  angular;  length  4. 5-6. 5mm.,  width  1.5-2mm. 

Vertex,  flat,  nearly  right-angled  before,  the  sides  rounding,  length  equal 
to  two-thirds  of  the  width,  almost  as  long  as  the  pronotum,  a  faint  median 
carina;  tylus  narrow,  longer  than  width  at  base,  about  equal  to  the  rest  of 
the  vertex;  ocelli  equidistant  from  tylus  and  pronotum  and  also  from  eyes 
and  each  other;  front  broad,  strongly  ribbed,  making  an  acute  angle 
with  the  vertex;  rostrum  short  and  stout  scarcely  reaching  the  middle 
coxa?,  shorter  than  the  front;  pronotum  small,  flat,  broadly  rounded  in 
front,  usually  three  or  four  longitudinal  depressions  on  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  disc;  elytra  nearly  parallel  margined,  the  costal  margin  curved 
inward  on  the  middle,  venation  simple,  normal,  the  outer  sector  of  corium 
forking  near  the  middle  of  the  posterior  half  of  the  elytra,  forming  a-broad 
discoid  cell  scarcely  three  times  longer  than  wide,  rounding  at  the  fork; 
wings  with  the  third  vein  from  the  costal  vein  entire. 

Color:  Above,  pale  creamy-yellow  with  a  short  prostrate,  golden  pube- 
scence covering  the  entire  surface,  costal  area  of  the  elytra  pale  creamy- 
white  becoming  yellowish  posteriorly,  a  dark  stripe  runs  back  from  either 
eye  crossing  the  pronotum  below  the  carinate  lateral  margins,  then  on  to 
the  elytra  where  they  follow  the  outer  sector,  fading  out  posteriorly,  a  dark 
spot  on  the  suture  just  beyond  the  apex  of  clavus,  sometimes  continued  as  a 
dark  margin  around  the  apex  of  elytra.  In  some  males  the  dark  stripe 
spreads  out  inwardly  and  covers  nearly  the  whole  of  the  elytra  inside  the 
white  margins.  Front  and  below  darker  with  a  pale  longitudinal  stripe  on 
either  side  just  below  the  eyes. 

Genitalia:  Female  pygofers  no  longer  than  their  basal  width,  narrow- 
ing apically,  exceeded  by  the  long  ovipositer,  more  than  half  their  length; 
male  plates  broad  at  the  base  curving  upward  at  nearly  right  angles  to  the 
abdomen,  their  inner  margins  straight,  attingent,  outer  margins  parallel  or 
slightly  narrowing  to  beyond  the  middle,  then  widening  and  forming  an 
obtuse  outward  angle  beyond  which  they  are  cut  off  obliquely,  each  plate 
three  times  longer  than  wide. 

Habitat:  (Europe).  Specimens  are  at  hand  from  St.  Johns, 
N.  B.,  New  Hampshire,  and  New  York,  and  it  has  been  reported 
from  Nova  Scotia,  Ontario  and  Maine.  The  reports  from  the 
middle  and  western  states  probably  aMretertcPbilineatu.s,  as  that 
species  is  common  in  those  sections,  while'^lhieafu.s  has  not  been 
received  from  outside  of  the  the  eastern  states  The  specimens 
from  New  Brunswick  are  smaller  and  inclined  to  be  tawny 
and  answer  the  description  of  Walker's  species  (bai^ivitta)  from 
Hudson's  Bay  so  well  that  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  but  what 
ongs  here. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  227 


CUESTA    TOPOGRAPHY    OF   THE    CRIMEAN    PENIN- 
SULA. 

BY   CHARLES   R     KEYES. 

(\bstract.) 

At  the  last  meeting  of  the  Academy  I  discussed  briefly  some 
aspects  of  the  geographic  development  of  the  Crimea  and  the 
northern  borders  of  the  Black  sea.  Since  that  time  certain  of 
the  photographs  obtained  by  those  who  took  part  in  the  geo- 
logical excursions  following  the  International  Congress  of 
Geologists,  have  been  received.  It  is  to  one  of  these  especially 
that  I  now  wish  to  direct  your  attention.  It  shows  very  clearly 
certain  phases  of  the  surface  relief  of  which  mention  was  made 
last  year,  and  in  a  way  that  is  rarely  ever  exhibited  to  such  a 
great  advantage  or  to  such  an  extent.  The  photograph  is  one 
taken  by  Mr.  R.  T.  Mallet  of  Loudon,  who  was  a  member  of 
the  party.  It  is  through  his  kindness  I  am  now  able  to  pre- 
sent it  to  you. 

The  photograph  (plate  vii)  is,  I  think,  the  best  one  ever 
secured  showing  what  modern  geographers  term  Cuesta  relief. 
The  word  cuesta  is  a  recent  American  acquisition  from  the 
Spanish.  It  is  a  common  word,  used  in  southwestern  United 
States  and  Mexico  to  express  the  same  idea  that  we  do  by  step- 
and-platform  topography.  The  short,  simple  and  expressive 
word  has  been  seized  with  avidity  and  has  been  used  widely  in 
place  of  the  longer  phrase. 

The  development  of  the  Caesta  type  of  surface  relief  is, 
briefly,  this:  A  region  of  slightly  tilled  strata  composed  of 
alternating  hard  and  soft  beds  is  planed  off  or  worn  down  to  a 
peneplain,  or  a  base-level  plain.  This  grade-plain  is  one  of 
faint  relief,  lying  slightly  above  sea  level.  When  such  a 
region  again  suffers  differential  uplifting,  the  agencies  of  ero- 
sion actively  begin  to  work  anew  Long  lateral  valleys  are 
soon  opened  out  in  the  soft  strata  along  the  strike  of  the  rocks 
or   at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  greatest  dips.     These 


228  IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES. 

valleys  are  connected  by  narrow  gorges.  Abrupt  escarpments 
form  one  side  of  the  lateral  valleys  and  long  back-slopes  the 
other.  A  series  of  gigantic  steps  are  formed.  The  idea  is  best 
expressed  by  a  cross-section  (figure  4),  which  is  a  diagrammatic 
one,  of  the  same  region  in  which  the  photograph  was  taken. 


Fig.  4.    Cross-section  of  the  Crimea. 

In  this  country  we  have  some  excellent  examples  of  this  type 
of  topography.  Besides  the  great  areas  in  southwest  United 
States,  the  Black  Hills  and  Ozarks  furnish  excellent  examples, 
but  they  are  all  on  such  a  large  scale  that  the  camera  cannot 
satisfactorily  reproduce  them.  Nowhere  in  this  country  is  it 
depicted  so  beautifully  as  in  the  region  photographed.  The 
photograph  was  taken  from  the  crest  of  one  of  the  lofty  escarp- 
ments, just  outside  of  the  southern  gates  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Chufut  Kaleh,  formerly  occupied  by  the  Karaim  Jews,  but  long 
since  deserted  and  now  in  ruins.  This  point  is  about  five  miles 
from  Bakhchisarai,  300  years  ago  the  capital  of  the  Tartar 
Khans,  and  about  forty  miles  from  Sevastopol.  The  resistant 
numbers  of  the  couplets  forming  the  escarpments  are  chalky 
limestones  of  Cretaceous  age.  To  the  north  they  are  covered 
by  Tertiary  deposits. 

In  Iowa  we  have  traces  of  an  excellent  illustration  of  Cuesta 
topography,  in  the  area  occupied  by  the  upper  coal  measures  of 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  state.  It  is  best  shown,  perhaps, 
in  Madison  county.  Elsewhere  it  is  greatly  obscured  by  heavy 
drift  deposits,  which  almost  completely  bury  the  highest  escarp- 
ments. Only  here  and  there  do  the  latter  peep  out  through 
the  glacial  debris.  The  broad,  intervening  valleys  that  once 
existed  are  filled  by  surface  deposits  to  a  depth  often  of  i!00 
feet. 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OP  SCIENCES.  229 


PERMIAN  ROCKS  OF  EASTERN  RUSSIA. 

BY   CHARLES   R.   KEYES. 
(Abstract.) 

In  this  country  the  Permian  question  has  long  troubled  our 
geologists.  For  more  than  forty  years  it  has  been  discussed, 
and  up  to  the  present  time  little  advancement  appears  to  have 
been  made.  Recently,  interest  has  been  awakened  in  the  sub- 
ject, and  many  workers  have  begun  to  attack  the  problems 
anew. 

At  first  glance  the  title  of  this  paper  would  seem  to  have 
little  bearing  upon  our  Iowa  geology.  Yet,  it  is  directly  to 
the  Iowa  part  of  the  question  that  the  present  statements  are 
intended  to  apply.  The  southwestern  part  of  the  state  con- 
tains beds  that  have  been  placed  in  the  Permian.  In  the  con- 
sideration of  the  so-called  Permian  beds  in  America,  few 
workers  have  been  able  to  compare  these  formations  directly 
with  the  original  Permian.  The  information  has  been  largely 
second  hand,  and  the  literature  is  to  a  great  extent  inaccessible 
on  account  of  being  in  foreign  languages  and  widely  scattered. 

During  the  geological  excursions  that  preceded  and  fol- 
lowed the  sessions  of  the  International  Congress  of  Geologists 
that  were  held  in  St.  Petersburg  a  year  ago,  a  number  of 
American  workers,  interested  in  the  Permian  question,  were 
able  to  examine  pretty  extensively  the  original  beds  constitut- 
ing Murchison's  system.  The  examinations  were  espe^nally 
instructive,  on  account  of  the  personal  guidance  of  the  Russian 
geologists,  who  had  long  worked  in  the  region.  Along  the 
flanks  of  the  Urals,  and  in  the  great  valleys  of  the  Kama  and 
Volga  rivers,  the  sections  were  particularly  complete. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  about  the  Russian  Paleozoic 
strata  above  the  Devonian  is,  that  in  nearly  every  respect,  they 
are  almost  identical  with  the  same  parts  of  the  general  geolog- 
ical sections  developed  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  as  found  in 
Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Kansas.     And,  strangely  enough,  the  very 


230 


IOWA  ACADEMY    OF   SCIENCES. 


same  questions  that  have  so  long  perplexed  investigators  in 
this  country,  are  momentous  problems  yet  not  fully  solved 
in  Russia.  Yet,  a  comparison  between  the  two  widely  sep- 
arated provinces  throws  some  light  on  our  own  perplexities. 

The  basins  occupied  by  the  upper  Paleozoic  in  Russia,  and 
the  Mississippi  valley,  are  very  nearly  of  the  same  size.  In 
the  first  mentioned  area  the  Permian  very  greatly  predomi- 
nates as  the  surface  rock;  in  the  last  named,  the  coal  measures. 
The  Carboniferous  of  Russia  presents  two  very  distinct 
aspects:  a  thalassic  facies,  occurring  on  the  western  flanks 
of  the  Urals,  and  made  up  of  limestone  chiefly;  and  a 
shallow  water  or  littoral  phase,  that  is  coal-bearing,  which  is 
best  developed  in  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  the  great 
area,  principally  in  the  Donetz  and  Toula  basins. 

COMPARISON  OF  GENERAL   SECTIONS. 


RUSSIA. 

CHARACTER  OF  TERRANES. 

MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY. 

Tartaran,    Permo- Trias: 
or  Upper  Permian,  P3. 

Shales  and  marls,  red  and  varie- 
gated, sandstones,  shaly,  fos- 
sils rare,  "'red  beds." 

Cimarron  series. 

Middle  Permian,  P2. 

Lower  Permian,  Pib. 

Upper  Permo-Carbonif  er- 
ous  (base  of  equal  P), 
CPc. 

Limestones,  some  rtolomitic,and 

calcareous  marl. 
Shale,only  200  feet  thicli  in  Kama 

valley. 
Limestone,  heavy,  dolomitic. 

Marion  li.  1 

!•  Series. 
Chase  li.    J 

Artinsk,  OP. 

Shales,    sandstones,    some    thin 
limestones. 

I  Neosho. 

-  Cottonwood. 

(  Wabaunsee. 

Upper  Carboniferous,  C3. 

Limestones    and  shales,  highly 
fossiliferous. 

Missourian  series. 

Mosconan,    Middle    Car- 
boniferous, O2. 

Shales,    sandstones,    thin   lime- 
stones, coal-bearing. 

Des  Moines  series. 

Lower  Carboniferous,  Ci. 

Limestones  chiefly,  some  shale 
and  sandstone. 

Misslssippian. 

In  the  consideration  of  a  theme  like  the  present  one  it  is 
recognized  at  the  outset  that  comparisons  of  terranes  of  dif- 
ferent geological  provinces  involve  no  necessary  exact  syn- 
chrony, except  through  absolute  physical  means  of  correlation. 
Such  a  standard,  independent  of  intrinsic  features  of  the  ter- 
ranes is  not  yet  formulated  for  widely  separated  districts.  The 
shortcomings  of  the  common  fossil  criteria,  in  any  other  than 
the  most  general  way  and  in  the  absence  of  something  better, 
are  well  known.  Any  agreement  of  biotic  features  in  strati- 
graphic  successions  distantly  removed  from  one  another  are 


IOWA  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES.  231 

looked  upon,  so  far  as  indicating  their  simultaneous  origin,  only 
as  happy  accidents.  Instead  of  furnishing  proofs  of  time 
equivalency  it  suggests  for  similar  faunas  merely  likeness  of 
conditions,  irrespective  of  time.  Such  faunal  facies  are  only 
biologically  representative.    They  are  merely  homotaxial. 

In  lithological  and  faunal  characters  the  rocks  are  so  nearly 
alike  that  it  is  difficult  to  fancy  that  in  the  Urals  one  is  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  earth  from  our  Iowa  and  Kansas  beds. 

Among  the  pertinent  questions  regarding  the  so-  called  Per- 
mian in  this  country  three  are  of  special  prominence.  They 
are:  (1)  Should  the  Permian  be  recognized  in  America?  (2)  If 
so,  what  is  the  taxonomic  rank?  and  (3)  what  are  the  upper  and 
lower  limits  of  the  terrane,  so-called?  Without  going  into 
details  of  these  questions  it  may  be  suggested: 

First.— That  while  we  have  in  America  a  great  succession  of 
deposits  identical  in  all  essential  respects  to  the  original  Per- 
mian of  Russia,  the  two  great  basins  merely  had  similar  his- 
tories that  are  not  necessarily  connected,  and  probably  were 
wholly  independent  of  each  other  and  unrelated;  that  the 
Russian  Permian  constitutes  a  geological  province  by  itself; 
and  that  therefore  the  term  Permian  should  not  be  used  as  a 
technically  exact  term  in  connection  with  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley deposits. 

Second. — That  Permian  as  originally  proposed  applies  to  a 
provincial  series,  and  according  to  our  usual  standard,  has  at 
best  a  taxonomic  rank  below  that  of  system.  Also,  in  view  of 
the  possible  elevation  of  its  subdivisions  to  the  rank  of  series 
the  term  will  have  no  position  in  the  scheme  of  classification. 
It  will  be,  no  doubt,  eventually  dropped  altogether,  the  various 
series  belonging  to  the  succession  being  made  a  part  of  the 
Carboniferous  system.  In  this  country  the  same  plan  has 
already  been  proposed. 

Third.  — That,  with  the  solution  given  to  the  second  question, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  attempt  to  locate  the  limits  of  the  so-called 
Permian  in  this  country.  The  divisional  lines  of  the  series 
comprising  the  beds  of  the  typical  American  section  in  Kansas 
are  already  well  defined,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
upper  member. 

The  data  upon  which  these  conclusions  are  based  are  given 
at  length  in  another  place. 


INDEX 


Adair  county,  forest  trees  of,  56. 

Address,  presidential,  16. 

Agassiz,  A.,  quoted,  28,  31,  33. 

Algebra  complex    extended  to  threefold 

space,  202. 
Anlnials,  Jeep  sea.  the  coloration  of,  27. 
Artesian  well  at  Burlington,  70. 

Bain,  H.  Foster,  13,  55,  78,  80,  123. 
Balfour.  A.  T.,  quoted,  23,  23. 
Ball,  E.  I).,  37-40,  204. 

A  review  of  the  cercopid;B,  204. 
Baker,  cited,  206 
Beddard,  cited,  32,  35. 
Beyer,  S.  W.,  on  buried  loess,  117. 
Big  Sioux  Valley,  old  s  ill  in,  123. 
Bruner,  Professor,  mentioned,  213,  214. 
Burlington,  artesian  well,  70. 
Buzzell,  Helen  M.,  127. 

Calvin,  S.,  quoted,  55,  80. 
Carpenter,  Dr.  W.  B.,  cited,  33. 
Cercopld;B  of  North  America,  204. 
Chamberlin,  T.  C.  ((uoted.  110. 
Christian  science,  alluded  to,  120. 
Chronometer,    the    lower    rapids    of   the 

Mississippi  as,  92. 
Cloud-burst  in  Des  Moines  county,  66. 
Coelenterata,  coloration,  27. 
Coloration  in  deep  sea  animals,  27. 

Antipathida>,  31. 

Cave  animals,  35. 

Oephalopods,  30. 

Coelopourus.  29. 

Crustaceans.  28,  30. 

Echinus.  29. 

Fishes,  30. 

Gorgontda-,  28.  31. 

Hydroldea,  31. 

Jelly  fishes,  31. 

Luidia.  29. 

Ophiurians,  29.  30. 

Pentacrinus,  28. 

Pennatulida;,  30. 

Protozoa,  31. 

Salenia,  29. 

Salpa,  30. 
Commensalis-x), invertebrates  living  in,  2^. 
Correlation,  geological,  some  physical  as- 
pects of.  131. 

Chief  methods,  137. 

Conclusion,  152. 

Foundation  of  geologic.  134. 

Methods  of  geologic;  13S 

Nature  of  the  problems,  133. 
Crimean  peninsula,  topography  of,  227. 
Crustacea,  coloration  of,  28. 

Des  Moines  county,  cloud-burst  in,  66. 
Diatoms,  preliminary  report,  47. 

Clear  lake,  49. 

Iowa  City,  48,  49. 

Missouri  river,  49. 

Okoboji  lake,  51. 

Spirit  Lake,  50. 
Drift,  newllight'on,  122. 


Echlnodermata,  coloration,  27,  28 

Fellows,  list  of,  8. 

Fellows  elected,  15. 

Fink,  B.,  bibliography  of  N.  A.  lichens,  165. 

Fitch,  cited,  204,  205. 

Fitzpatrick,  T.  J.  and  M.  F.  L.,  on  the  flora 

of  southern  Iowa,  173. 
Flora  of  Southern  Iowa,  123. 
Forbes,  S.  A.,  cited.  40. 
Fowler,  cited,  208,  209,  210. 
Frost,  W.  D.,  116. 
Fultz,    F     M.,    the    Burlington    Artesian 

well,  70 
Fultz,  F.  M  ,  quoted,  78. 

Garretson,  So.  Dak.,  observations  near, 

126. 
Germar,  cited,  301. 
Goding,  Dr  ,  cited,  205. 
Gordon,  C.  H  ,  quoted,  83. 
Gorgonidea,  color  markings,  27. 
Gow,  Jas.  E  ,  56,  6i. 

Hall.  T.  Proctor,  303. 
Heldermann,  Otto,  mentioned,  216. 
Hemiptera,  notes  on,  36. 
Heteroptera,  37,  40. 
Genera  described  — 

Harmostes,  38. 

Homa>mus.  37. 

Largidea.  38. 

Lioderma,  37. 

Mecidia,  38. 

Mlnoceps,  38. 

Palococoris,  38. 

Pamera,  88. 

Perlbalus,  37. 

Systratlotus,  38. 
Localities. 

Cherokee,  39. 

Little  Rock,  39. 

Rock  Rapids,  39. 

Sioux  City,  39. 

Sioux  Falls,  South  Dakota,  39. 

Yankton,  South  Dakota,  39. 

lUinoian  stage. 

Erosion  preceding,  81. 

Filling  at  time  of,  83. 

Glaclation  of,  83. 
Incubator,  a  simole,  116. 
Iowa,  the  tloraof  southern,  173. 
lowan  stage,  87. 

James  river.  South  Dakota,  128. 
Jassldae,  37. 

Kansan  stage,  82,  93. 
Kellog,  Dr.,  quoted,  83. 
Keyes.  O.  R.,  131,  227,  229. 
Kewatin  Ice  field,  78,  79,  81. 

Lake  Agassiz,  90. 
Lake  Pepin,  91. 
Leverett,  Frank,  14,  123. 


234 


INDEX. 


Lichens,    North    America— Bibliography 

of,  165. 
Liverworts  of  Iowa,  113. 

huried  in  Story  county,  117. 
118,  119. 

Loess  fossils,  distribution  of,  98. 
Genera  described— 
Bipdaria,  104. 
Cochliopa,  100. 
Hellicina,  108. 
Palygyra,  101,  102,  107. 
Pyramidula,  102. 
Sphyradlum,  102. 
Succinea,  99,  100,  101.  102,  104. 
vitrea,  100. 

zonitoideas,  ICO,  101,  104. 
Map  of  Fairmont  Park,  112. 
Near  Sioux  Palls,  124. 
Lonsdale,  E.  H.,  obituary  notice,  12. 
Mallett,  R.  T.,  mentioned,  227. 
MacBride,  T.  H.,  presidential  address,  16, 
McGee,  W.  J.,  cited,  55,  SO, 
Merrill.  J.  W.,  cited,  68. 
Michigan,  University  of,  18. 
Mississippi  river- 
Lower  rapids  in,  74. 
Trough.  122. 
Mosley,  Professor,  quoted,  27,  54. 
Mosses  of  Iowa,  preliminary  list  of,  154. 
Muscatine  county— 
Diatomaceous  earth,  53 
Diatoms  of,  52. 
Myers,  P.  C,  47,  52,  114. 
Nebraska,  the  drift  in  northeastern,  122. 
Norton,  W.  H  ,  80. 
Nutting,  C.  0.,  27. 
Officers  elected,  14. 
Osborn,  Herbert,  16,  216. 

Notes  on  Hemiptera,  36. 
Papers  read  at  1898  meeting,  14. 
Pentocrinus,  distribution  of,  27,  28, 
Pentatomid;i3,  40. 
Sub-families— 
Acanthosominu',  46. 
Asoplnae,  40. 
Pentatomina\  41. 


Tribes— 
Acellaria,  42. 
Halyaria,  42. 
Pentatomaria,  43 
Podoparia,  41. 
Permian- 
Comparative  table,  230. 
Question,  229. 

Rocks  of  Eastern  Russia,  229 
Provancher,  cited,  204. 

Ricker,  Maurice,  66. 
Ross,  L.  S.,116. 

Sangamon  stage,  86. 

Savage,  T.  E.,  114,  154. 

Say,  cited,  204,  203. 

Sea  urchins,  coloration  of,  26. 

Schaeffer,  Dr.  O.  A  ,  obituary  notice,  12, 

cited,  17. 
Shimek,  B.,  47,  98,  113.  118,  121,  124. 
South  Dakota,  new  light  on  the  drift  in, 

122. 
Stall,  quotPd,  205,208. 
Steamooat  Springs,  Colorado,  93. 

Elevation  of,  97. 

Location  of,  93. 
Stol,  cited,  40. 

Story  county,  buried  loess  in,  117. 
Summers,  206. 

Thomson.  SlrWyville,  cited,  33. 

Todd,  J.  E,,  122. 

Tolstoi,  Count,  (luoted.  24. 

Turkey  ridge,  preglacial  deposits  on,  126. 

Udden,  .1.  A.,  53.  54,  110, 120. 
Uhler,  P.,  cited,  204,  219,  223,  225. 
quoted,  40. 

Verrill,  cited,  33,  33,  38. 

Warren,  cited,  76.  77. 
Wind  deposits,  119. 
Wisconsin  stage,  89. 
Witter.  F.  M  ,  93. 
Worthen,  quoted,  76. 


PROPERTY  OF 

Z.  p.  METCALF 


W^S 


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