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LIChALY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY. No. 4.

AMERRO ANS MUSEU

The Revival of Village Industries: The Work of the Rural
OE a 4 aes Intelligence Busha ener L, Shoeten Sack,

THT tte TY feat
|
ak ai outa
OF THE
Ministry of Agriculture
JULY, 1922.
Rn, PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
ad Lita ty ats - (For Complete List of Contents see page ix.) PAGE
ME | The. School of Agriculture of the University of vaabeee.

sh Sahn Be - art Il. Professor T. B. Wood, C.B.E., M.A., FI.C., 296
dal aaaction of Meat on Pastures of Different Types. ye

$i. ait | Thomas Middleton, K.B.E., C.B., LL.D. - gio) je

‘ * ||. The a onning and Construction of owe Shiai. Major

ay H. P. G. Maule, D.S.O0., M.C., F.RILB.A., and A. Ewart Aston $31]
coy Fahour Organization on an East Midlands Farm. Archibald
ridges, B.A. “ - - - . . - 319 |
Use of Electricity at Greater Felcourt Farm. R. Borlase |
if Matthews, A.M. Inst.C.E£., M.LEL. - - ‘ - 399 |
3 Wheat Prices and Rainfall - - - - += = «= 3833 |
Trials of New Varieties of Cereals. #. S. Beaven - +. 337 |
ae - «= 348 |
The CT Curly Coated Pig. Singers pS oye Ragas te yea
Hop “ Canker ” or “ Growing-Off.” Z. S.Salmonand H. Wormald 354 |
~The Welsh Agricultural Council- - - - - - 359 |
Varieties of Swedes Resistant to ha, ake and - Toe. |
T. Whitehead, A.R.C.Se. - : ae Ve
“Trial of Timber Jacks anda Monkey Winch - - 369 |
Reading Stuffs for July. ez T. Halnan, M.A., Dip. Agric. (Cantab.) 373 |

West | ’ LONDON:
i: 9 PRINTED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJHSTYS xTATIONERY OFFICE,
a AND PUBLISHED BY THE MINISTRY OF AGRIOULTURE AND FISHERIES.

| i a To be obtained from the Ministry’s Offices, 10, Whitehall Place, London, 8.W.1.) )

eh ee IDI 1 Maga By 4 ca eka MONTHLY. AGENTS FOR ADVERTISEMENTS :
_ RPUBLI C. VERNON & SONS, Ltd.
10, WHITEHALL PLACE, [PRICE SIXPENCE. ] 88, Holborn Viaduct, 2.0.1; :

is é ba LONDON, am By tS Post frea. 66/62, South Castle Street, Liverpool.

re ie y, Ne ¥ 45 a allt we of 4 Oase A erate colt Pee as vite Rt a? > Sted
: ota ariete re ie Pe nha Meer es tat Mats 1° MRO a a Eun A MLE SE iy Ar AUK (0
tort Y ji u * i i ij ¥. OY Muay ss Lis ie Ae Hn Ha H) Aa By A

ME ep he F

hela THE J OURNAL OF THE soxtaTy oF iis TUR — : sie ¢ i

Pay: Lk AAKUL AL yo

‘BUY ON LY THE BEST. 1 es <a |

‘The BUXTON LIME FIRMS tL, .

ROYAL EXCHANGE, BUXTON,

Telegrams-BUXTON LIME, BUXTON, A

THE “PUREST. LIME KNOWN raneae
COMMERCE AND, THE LARGEST
OUTPUT OF LIME AND LIMESTONE

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LIME BURNT IN SPECIAL KILNS. FOR |

SPECIAL TRADES. |

Agriculturists, Florists and Fruit Growers : ee i

catered for specially.

Re
shi ee PEER

: AGENTS ‘THROUGHOUT GREAT | BRITAIN. pe

Lime in any Form, im any. Quantity to suit Uoers.

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THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRIGULTURE.—A dvertisements. i

PILCHERS STOPROT

The Finest Wood Preservative for all Purposes

Treating Sections of Army Huts with PILCHERS STOPROT.
(Contractors, W. PATTINSON & SONS, Ltd., Ruskington, near Sleaford).

PILCHERS, Ltd... MORGAN’S LANE, LONDON, S.E.

British Manufactured

POTASH SALTS, Minimum 12% Pure Potash.
woes oe
99 20 po ”? 39
MURIATE OF POTASH, 50% and 60% Pure Potash.
SULPHATE OF POTASH

FLUE DUST, Containing 18/25 7% Sulphate.

IMMEDIATE DELIVERY FROM WORKS.

mhe i.

BRITISH CYANIDES CO. LTD.

SALES OFFICE: 49, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, LONDON, E.C.4.
Works at OLDBURY, near BIRMINGHAM.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

Country House &Farm Lighting ‘

THE A‘TOZ ACETYLENE LIGHTING _~ <SAy

SYSTEM GIVES THE BEST AND Agee >>

CHEAPEST ILLUMINANT. =

COMPLETE LIGHTING : a

SETS FROM £25. “a X »

LEAN AN > oN NA A

COOL. er | Ee Y SKILLED
Z \\ A ATTENTION

ihe REQUIRED.

Full particulars from:

THE

Acetylene Corporation, Ltd.,

; 5 49, Victoria St., Westminster, S.W.1.
~" CARBIDE OF CALCIUM.

» : 382
a cL S IC s Phosphates of Lime

S] | 427
ag 3 ©. Phosphates of Lime

ENGLISH
MAKE

Manufactured by

LEEDS PHOSPHATE WORKS I”

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. 1

BUY The FRAMES AND BUILD YOUR OWN

ae FARM BUILDINGS,

Va my 0 —~—)
PS, Se POULTRY HOUSES,
Oo ST mn A BA SR ae A
LYE || | INR eee, A, MOTOR HOUSES,
4.3 FA LT) AAA AAA rect.) — ra
d FT|! | Hh Ox ie oe ¢
. ’ 4 Ps u oNEZ path aa | e ' 2, WORKSHOPS, etc., etc.
| fx ort er eis eee He
Lae ear Jd alls a nag et el z : -
=| a eo oe i a * The Frame is the important part. Anyone can
"al cut boards, etc., and nail them on.
BUNGALOWS. Our Frames are strongly made. Every joint
93ft. x 18ft. 3 Rooms. Framing £45 | mortised and tenoned. Easy to erect. Made in
a os i sections. therefore easily portable.
25ft. x 22ft. 6 3 CaS illus. ) oa £58 “SE 2 ies toes
Zé ‘ A FEW SIZES. LEAN-TO :—
3 Room size. Framing and Asbestos | 54ft. high, 44ft. deep, Sft. long ... SO/=
Sheets for Walls and Roof, with windows | Gf. ,, 64ft. |, 12ft. ., sa) < eee
and doors. 9G ia = Gs. , 1Sfts «,, .. 60/-
6 Room size. Framing and Asbestos | Sft. ., 84ft ,, 12ft. ,, 2. . 4Se
Sheets for Walls and Roof, with windows "ft » Peps » Lett. ,, ea bes 120/-
— A FEW Biles SPAN ROOF :—
nd doors. Ri
¢ ; =e £115 5$ft. high to eaves, 63ft. deep, 8ft. long 40 =
Att Joints MorTIsED AND TENONED. | gif gi ort O/-
Git. <; BrGS “eit. >, 996
Timbers, Good Yellow Deal, 3 x 2. Satta sy = Sart, >, 16t., 100
THE Write for Catalogue LX :

FRAME BUILDINGS CO.
SHIRLEY ROAD, CROYDON.

Bse5 eee

“ as In Top-dressing your GRASS
7 Insist LAND this Autumn be sure
/ % to use FRENCH KAINIT to

% eradicate the weeds and pro.

FRENCH POTASH, \ 2% the growth of

4 finer Herbage.

on getting *

RAEN nee 2

It makes
RECORD

i
bi)
l
a
' CROPS.
8

-
E,
‘
wa
reel tri ie wT
hee 84. oo Ss

LATE

| SOWN CROPS
* Will make good evenin
CP dry season when dressed
FRENCH KAINIT with a complete
a

Excellent for the eradication manure containing

of WEEDS in GRASSLAND Sylvinite.
See Exhibition Stand No. 51 at
THE RoyAL SHOW, CAMBRIDGE.

oS
For S upplies and Quotations apply to SYLVINITES - | 20 :

your Manure Merchant.

i
be For Practical and Sound Advice on the use of Potash apply to :— M Hq R | AT £ OF POTAS H- =
@

The Alsace-Lorraine Development & Trading Co., Ltd. 20 Pu me ty
cmeers el, nies Broad St., opine E. sd Sua OF POTASH |
ae en = GS ee 6 mee ig |

iv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. —Advertisements.

ano BUMPER
SECURES
a RAARVEST

It is Dry - It does not Cake
- - It is Acid-free -

it HeEs not absorb Atmospheric
- Moisture - -

it can be readily Drilled into
- - - the Soil - -
It is guaranteed to contain

253 % Ammonia.

i
For prices and all details apply to:
(Department M.A.) |

<j] South Metropolitan Gas Company,
SULPH ATE \_ 708, OLD KENT ROAD, LONDON, $.3.16.

MISIPORS 210.7 CEE

PETERBORO’, BEDFORDSHIRE & HERTFORDSHIRE
AGRICULTURAL SHOWS

Should make a point of visiting the stand of the

Conere

35, Great St. Helens, London, E.C.S3.

Where a collection of Exhibits illustrating the use of

Concrete in the interests of Agriculture will be on view.

Demonstrations on the Moulding of Concrete Articles will be
carried out at frequent intervals.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. =v

VIVIAN—Best and Cheapest Always

The charm of Poultry Keeping is
often lost through the use of
inferior appliances.

VIVIAN'S METHOD—

QUALITY AND CHEAPNESS
ENSURES SUCCESS.

Prices from—

£2 to £50

lilustrated List

ON APPLICATION,

Manufacturer also of Garden

Huts, Garages, Greenhouses, Summer
Shelters, Dog Kenneis, Bungalows,
and all kinds of Portable Woodwork.

E*. WY. VEVIEAN,

Timber Merchant and Poultry Appliance Manufacturer,
254, North End Road, Fulham, London.
Established at this address 25 years.

eo PRODUCE MORE

| MILK BY KEEPING

- BRITISH FRIESIANS

WHICH HAVE PRODUCED
47 2,000 gallon Cows.
17 10-gallon-a-day Cows.
5 1,000 lbs. Butter Cows.

The Dairy Show Champion for two
years in succession.

The Silcock Cup Winner for two
years in succession.

Information gladly given by—
BRITISH FRIESIAN CATTLE SOCIETY,
4, SOUTHAMPTON ROW, LONDON, W.C.1.

OR AT

STAND 478 at the ROYAL SHOW at CAMBRIDGE.

71 THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

REDUCTION IN PRICE
for JULY/AUGUST DELIVERY.

NEUTRAL QUALITY, | $15: i8s PER
free from lumps. | a TON
With proportionate reductions

for lower quality.

delivered in 4-ton

| Basis 252°/, Ammonia
lots minimum.

Neutral Sulphate of Ammonia, if stored in a dry
place, will keep indefinitely without caking, rotting the

bags, or losing any fertilising value.

For supplies apply to your usual Manure Merchant.

Directions for use and special leaflet regarding the
storage of Sulphate of Ammonia on the farm
supplied gratis by :—

BRITISH SULPHATE OF AMMONIA
FEDERATION LIMITED,

Propaganda Office, Dept. M.A.,

30, Grosvenor Gardens,
WESTMINSTER, S.W.1.

TO FARMERS

When ordering goods, always state the number of the

Journal of The Ministry of Agriculture

in which you saw the advertisement.

EOF S AL. E:

Past Issues of the ‘Journal’ & ‘Journal Supplements’

Readers of this Jowrnal whose sets are incomplete may still
obtain missing copies from the Ministry at the original prices. Most
vf the copies available are in good condition, but in some instances

only one or two are in stock. The prices are:

Vols. I to IV one ... 6d. per single copy (quarterly).
ae ¥ LO xX fps nd BOS ? . ete

_ Post
me Ahto SX VI (No 9)... | Ad. : » (monthly), | Free.

» XXVI(No. 10) to XXVII 6d.

? ? >

Applications with remittances should be addressed to the Ministry

of Agriculture, 10, Whitehall Place, 8.W.1.

Supplies of the following are exhausted :
Vol. I, No. 1. Vol. III, No. 2. Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 2 and 3.
Vol... ¥. Nosot and 3... Vol. VII, No. 1. Vol. IX, No. 2.
Vol. XXV, Nos. 2.

Copies of Journal Supplements are also available, excepting Nos.

4and 8. A list of these, with prices, may be obtained on application.

vii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—A dvertisements

WwoUd oOwWweeE itt
TO YWOURSELF

TO GROW IMMENSE CROPS OF THE MOST NOURISHING

GREEN FEEDS DURING WINTER AND SPRING, JUST

WHEN PURCHASED FEEDS WOULD COST YOU MOST TO
BUY, TD 18 BASY ab yvoU

SOW Now :

TOOGOOD’S EARLY RED, LATE RED AND LATE WHITE TRIFOLIUMS.

TOOGOOD’S IMPERIAL GREEN GLOBE, YELLOW HYBRID, AND
HARDY GREEN ROUND TURNIPS.

TOOGOOD’S IMPROVED THOUSAND-HEADED KALE,

TOOGOOD’S IMPROVED ESSEX BRANCHING RAPE.

TOOGOOD’S IMPROVED WHITE MUSTARD.

TOOGOOD’S IMPROVED WINTER VETCHES.
ETc., ETc,

FREE TO YOU! Send a postcard to-day fora Specially Low Quotation for
the Seeds you need. Ask for our Free Catch-Crop and Seed Corn Catalogue also,
Enables you to make bigger and surer profits than ever before; and there is no
obligation of any sort. Just address us personally :

TOOGOOD & SONS, LTD.,

Seedsmen to H.M. Tue Kine, and Growers of ‘ Better Crops” Seeds only,

SOUTHAMPTON.

Fis
Rs» O;
Ke

6 CO: 1.D,,
47-51, King William St.,
LONDON, E.C.4.

TELEGRAMS : TELEPHONE:
Inland: ‘‘ Paganini, Cannon,
Londons: Avenue 1729

Foreign: ‘Paganini, London.’’ (3 lines).

LS ES A OE I ee EE AYER DC I J
zn ET EL LT, BPP TS EE PAE TRL FEE TT NTT CET Oh

CONTENTS.

_—_ —

Nores FoR THE MontTH—

Prices and Supplies of Agricultural Produce in 1921—International
Institute of Agriculture—International Year-Book of Agricultural
Statistics—Conciliation Committees—The Agricultural Index
Number—Distribution of Leaflets APE :

THE ScHooL OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
PaHielis | Professor? | Bo Wood, \C. BH., U.A., F.EC., FURS. A

PRODUCTION OF MEAT ON PASTURES OF DIFFERENT TyrPEs. Sir Thomas
Middleton, K.B.E., C.B., LL.D.... Be mee

THE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF Cow-SHEDs. Major H. P. G.
Maule, D.S.O., M.C., F.R.ILB.A., and A. Ewart Aston

LABOUR ORGANIZATION’ ON AN EAST MipLAnNps Farm, Archibald
Bridges, B.A.

Use oF ELECTRICITY AT GREATER FELCOURT FARM. 28. Borlase
Matthews, A.M. Inst.C.E., MIELE. s.

WHEAT PRICES AND RAINFALL wee oe aia ee
TRIALS OF NEW VARIETIES OF CEREALS. JZ. S. Beaven...

THE REVIVAL OF VILLAGE INDUSTRIES: THE WoRK OF THE RURAL
INDUSTRIES INTELLIGENCE BuREAU. Major L. Shoeten Sack, O.B.E.

THE LINCOLNSHIRE CurLY CoATED Pic. Sanders Spencer...
Hor ‘‘CAnKER” or ‘‘GRowING-OFF.” EZ. S. Salmon and H. Wormald
THE WELSH AGRICULTURAL COUNCIL

VARIETIES OF SWEDES RESISTANT TO FINGER-AND-TOE, 7’, Whitehead,
A.R.C.Se. : or “i ate

TRIAL OF TIMBER JACKS AND A MoNKEY WINCH

Notes oN FrEepinc Sturrs ror Jury. £. 7. Halnan, M.A., Dip. Agric.

(Cantab.) ... os at aes ; —_
Goat Keeping in British Columbia ... i =f vas
Road Regulations for Agricultural Tractors .. bee <

Covers for Corn Stooks and Hay Cocks det —
Live Stock Importation Regulations...
Notices of Books

Foot-and-Mouth Disease

PAGE

Any of the Articles in this Journal may be reproduced in any registered
newspaper or public periodical without special permission, provided that the source

ts acknowledged in each case.

The Ministry does not accept responsibility for the views expressed and the
statements made by contributors, nor for any statements made in the advertisement

columns of this Journal,

x THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.
es 8 Ses eee ees 2 eee 2 ee eee 2 Ee

SPRAYING =

i (iia [ERG LTLEE ES aa
TIM ine

}

will PREVENT disease in Of) | = j
Fruit Trees and Animals. << a eee \

VERMOREL “ECLAIR” SPRAYERS to carry out this work efficiently and
economically are ALWAYS READY TO BE DESPATCHED AT ONCE.

Various types have been illustrated and described in past numbers of the Journal.
They include :

3: pint Hand Sprayer. 6, 11 & 22 gallon Wheeled Sprayers.
3} gallon Knapsack. Dry Sprayers.

4 gallon Bucket. - 66 gallon Horse Drawn Potato and
Extension Lances. Charlock Sprayer.

Catalogue and full particulars from

COOPER, PEGLER & CO., Ltd., 24b, Christopher St., E.C.2.

First-Class Cattle Food |

Importers and Exporters of all descriptions

of Linseed Cake, Cotton Cake, and other

Cattle Feeding Stuffs. Sole Agents for

Garton’s Maize Gluten Feed and Garton’s
Maize Germ Cake Meal.

MAY WE QUOTE YOU LOWEST RULING PRICES?

PINNOCK BROS

sO viteigic, IAne, deen |

Telephone: Telegraphic Address: A.B.C. Codes, 4th & Sth Edition. | |

5526 AVENUE. NAVITER, FEN, LONDON. Western Union, Private.

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

Vol. XXIX. No. 4.

JOLY, 1222.

NOTES; FOR THE MONTH.

Tue Report on the Prices and Supplies of Agricultural Produce
in 1921, which has now been issued by the Ministry, forms the
Third and concluding Part of the Ministry’s
of Agricultural Agricultural Statistics for 1921. Part I of

Pradaea: in: 1921: these Statistics dealt with the acreage under

crops and the number of live stock in
England and Wales, and Part II with the estimated production
of the principal crops. The three parts taken together represent
an endeavour to give information on the main points of economic
interest affecting agriculture, and those who wish to take a com-
parative view of the changes in agricultural prices during 1921
will find much to interest them in the Report now issued. It
also gives particulars of the work done by the Ministry in con-
nection with the payment of claims under the Corn Production
Acts. The total number of claims accepted was 187,000 and
the area on which payment was made was 1,896,620 acres of
wheat, 2,007,875 acres of oats, and 123,814 acres of mixed corn.
The Report is published by H.M. Stationery Office and can be
ordered through any bookseller.

Prices and Supplies

* * * * * *

A Meetine of the General Assembly of the International
Agricultural Institute was held at Rome in May last and was
attended by representatives of 51 different

International countries. The questions discussed at
Institute of : ?

this Meeting were largely of domestic
Agriculture.

interest, relating as they did to the
financial position of the Institute, and the possibility of
effecting certain improvements in its work, which without
increasing the total expenditure would give the greatest result
for the funds available. With this object a number of

(43718) P.14/35. 11,000, 6/22. M.&S A

290 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE. [ JULY,

proposals were agreed to which will, it is hoped, tend to
popularise the publications of the Institute.

Of the various Sections into which the work of the Institute
is divided, the one which attracts most attention and is the most
valuable is the Statistical Bureau. Briefly its work consists
in publishing a monthly Bulletin, a Statistical Year Book, and
special Reports on the Statistics of particular products, such
as oilseeds. The work of this Bureau is remarkably well
done and reflects the greatest credit on Professor Ricci, the
Head of the Bureau, and on his staff. The Monthly Bulletin
has for the past year or 18 months been issued in three parts,
(a) Prices, (b) Production and (c) Imports and Exports, and the
desire to make each of these parts as complete and perfect as
possible has resulted in a very considerable increase in the size
of the Bulletin. Whilst this enlargement enabled the Bureau to
issue in a Summarised form a complete statement of the avail-
able statistics received from all parts of the world, it necessarily
involved considerable expense in printing. The Bulletin con-
tained, moreover, two distinct classes of information. In the first
place the section relating to production comprised the latest
reports on crop prospects and crop yields in the different countries
of the world, and included the best available information as to
the supplies which were likely to be available in exporting
countries and the probable requirements of importing countries.
This section was therefore of direct and immediate value to the
grain trade of the world by helping producers and distributors
to form an accurate estimate of probable supply and demand.
Notices are also issued at frequent intervals to the Press, and
by this means the available information is spread broadcast
throughout the world and is available for a very much larger
public than is reached by the mere distribution of the Bulletin
itself. The value of this side of the work is clear and is admitted
on all hands.

In addition, however, the Bulletin contains records of prices
ruling in the principal markets of the world, and also gives the
latest available particulars of imports and exports with a view to
showing how far the supplies of exporting countries are becom-
ing exhausted, and the demands of importing countries are being
met. These details whilst valuable for purposes of record and
comparison are necessarily retrospective, and do not possess
the same practical and current interest as those relating to crop
production. It was felt that the Bulletin would gain in the estima-
tion of the special public for whom it was intended by removing

1922. | INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICUL'TCRE. 291

from it everything that was not of immediate practical value
and current interest, while at the same time this would enable
it to be sold more cheaply. This does not mean that the in-
formation would cease to be issued but merely that it could
without loss be included either in the Statistical Year Book or
in a half-yearly publication. In the same way it was decided
that the Bulletin of Technical and Economic Information now
issued monthly could advantageously be altered in form and
published as a quarterly review.

The satisfactory working out of the suggestions made at this
Meeting in regard to the form of the publications is of vital
importance to the future well-being of the Institute as it is in
practice only through its publications that the Institute can
appeal to the world and hence to the Governments by which it
is supported. A development in the sale and popularity of its
publications will be the strongest ground on which to base that
demand for a permanent increase in its revenue which is a
consequence of the decreased purchasing power of money.

It should, however, be borne in mind that much of the
Institute’s work must necessarily be gratuitous. The most strik-
ing example is found in the Statistical Bureau where the essential
information obtained in the form of crop forecasts and crop
yields is and must be distributed free through the Press. While
in this way one of the main purposes for which the Institute
was established is fulfilled, the benefits achieved cannot be pre-
cisely traced and are certainly not indicated by measuring the
sale of the Bulletins or other publications.

That the Institute is well worth the small contributions made
by the adhering Governments can hardly be questioned. At the
present rate of exchange, the total cost expressed in English
money is less than £40,000 per annum, towards which the
British Government contributes only £3,200. In return, apart
from the general and specialised information placed at the dis-
posal of the agricultural and commercial public, the Institute
actually provides much information, particularly in the direc-
tion of international statistics, which would otherwise have to
be prepared by each Government separately at a far greater cost.

One decision reached at this Meeting which is of interest to
English speaking countries was the adoption of English as one
of the official languages of the Institute. There can be little
doubt that this will tend to improve the position of the Institute
mn the eyes of the Anglo-Saxon world.

* * * * * *

292 CoNCILIATION COMMITTEES. [Juny,

Tu International Institute of Agriculture at Rome has just
issued a publication of 700 pages entitled the “‘ International
Year-Book of Agricultural Statistics for the

eee pe vears 1909 to 1921.’’ It gives complete

a ~ al information as to the crop areas and yields
ter ee na in all the countries of the world, number
Statistics.

of live stock, imports and exports, prices,
freights, and the output and trade in fertilisers. It can be
obtained direct from the International Institute of Agriculture,
Rome, price 8s. post free. The money can be sent in the form
of a British Postal Order. Copies will also be on sale shortly at
the offices of the Ministry.

* * * * * *
Tue total number of Conciliation Committee agreements at

present in operation is 44, of which all but 8 are for periods
extending over the corn harvest. Three

Rare agreements have been reached recently.
rage atta The Committee for Cumberland and West-
Agriculture.

morland have reached an agreement to
operate up to 11th November providing for the payment of skilled
men at the rate of 40s. for a week of “‘ customary ”’ hours (1.e.,
63 hours) and other adult male workers at 80s. for a week of
54 hours in summer (i.e., up to the end of October) and 48 hours
in winter. The Isle of Ely Committee have decided to extend
their agreement which expired on 31st May up to 11th October,
and in accordance with the Committee’s application the agree-
ment as extended has been confirmed by the Minister under
Section 4 (8) of the Corn Production Acts (Repeal) Act. The
Cambridgeshire Committee have now submitted the agreement
which they reached last March to the Minister for confirmation.
Particulars of these two confirmed agreements are given below.
The effect of confirmation of an agreement by the Minister is to
make the rates specified in the agreement an implied term of the
contract of employment of every worker of the class to which
the agreement applies. It will be noticed in the case of Cam-
bridgeshire that the Committee have refrained from putting a
definite period to the operation of the agreement, but have agreed
that it shall stand until such time as either side of the Committee
gives 21 days’ notice of termination.

Isle of Ely Agreement :—

1. During the period up to 11th October, 1922, no male worker em-
ployed in agriculture shall be paid wages at less than the following
rates :— |

1922] CONCILIATION COMMITTEES. 293

(a) Male Workers aged 18 and over employed as horsemen or milkmen.
Age. g:, d,
21 and over is oe sen wt ao
20 and under 21... wa6 ene of eeieica
Por... ty UM «xed att ae ice
ee AOU td . BOM IAS ree eee ine 1a ee
for a week comprising the hours necessary for the performance of the
customary duties of these classes of workers,

(b) All other male workers employed in agriculture.

Overtime rates,
for all time in
excess of 51

Weekly wages
for a week of

51 hours. hours per week.

Age. ed d.
21 and over Be Suis ob ou ove 34
20 and under 21 ... tas Zoe ; 8
BE a, AU ine “oe 27 «0 ave (es
1S fh in LD ass ome 25 9 : 7
Bie ae isa. LSS" oe aes 20 6 ae 54
Dee se Ld lmask vee 16 3 kas 5
Ree LOS. tau si 13. 3 cue 43
Payee ED ees Ae 10 3 ve 3
Under 14 tie ix 7 3 ve 24

2. That the working week for summer months (i.e., from the first
Monday in March to the last Saturday in October) shall consist of
51 hours, and for next winter (i.e., for the period other than the summer
months) shall consist of 48 hours.

3. While no definite agreement is made regarding Saturday half-day,
the employers will not put any obstacles in the way of farmers arranging
with their workmen for a Saturday half-day after 51 hours have been
worked, and this clause is to be carried out in a reasonable spirit.

Cambridgeshire Agreement :—

(a) A wage rate for all able-bodied male workers of 21 years of age
and over of 74d. per hour for a week of 50 hours.

(b) A wage rate of 8d. per hour for all time worked between 50 and
54 hours per week.

(a) All the rates specified to operate until twenty-one days after notice
of any proposal to cancel is received by the Minister from either section
of the Conciliation Committee.

(e) The Conciliation Committee strongly recommends farmers to offer
facilities for one short day per week, the Workers’ Side undertaking that
workers shall not refuse to work on the short day for full time, in cases
of necessity.

Information with regard to the position in any of the Con-
ciliation Committee areas can be obtained on application to the

Ministry, 10, Whitehall Place, 8.W.1.

* * am * * *

294 THe AGRICULTURAL INDEX NuMBER. [ Juny,

‘'we index number of prices of agricultural produce in Eng-
land and Wales shows a slight rise for May as compared with
The Agricultural the previous month, prices on the average
being about 70 per cent. above the pre-
Index Mumber.
war level as against 68 per cent. in April
and 112 per cent. in May, 1921.
The percentage increase each month since the ene. of
1919 as compared with the average of the years 1911-18, is shown
in the following table :—

Percentage Increase.

Month. 1919. 1920. 1921. 1922.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
January ... bee 148 oe 213 ao 186 sae 77
February ... ass 150 wisi 205 ze 172 Sig 83
March e BG. 150 ee 8) ae 158 ne 82
April x3 Seta oe sae 1) Pee 141 fee 68
May aes ae ey? aie 169 a 112 sae 70
June ae re 128 ~ 164 eg 102 as —
July roe abe 141 ine 174 am 100 ees —
AI SUSt» pens oo 138 Wie g ve 116 Mee —
September... atk 148 as 181 are 105 as —
October _... Pe 166 a 191 ae 90 aa —
November.. ate 182 rie 197 st 84 os —
December ss 207 194 ss 82 ; —-

Wheat and oats were dearer See May than in Ae the
average prices during the month being the highest since last
autumn. Barley continued the downward movement which has
been in evidence since September last. A further slight advance
was recorded for fat cattle, but sheep and pigs were slightly
cheaper. The price of sheep after rising steadily throughout
the year, reached the highest point at the beginning of the
month and subsequently experienced ar appreciable decline.

Among the principal alterations in prices as compared with
the previous month were those in connection with milk and
potatoes. The seasonal fall in milk prices from April to May
reduced the average to 93d. per gallon or only 3d. per gallon
higher than the average of the years 1911-18, althongh, as com-
pared with summer prices in pre-war years. current rates show
an increase of 2d. per gallon or about 27 per cent. Potatoes
experienced a sharp rise from the latter part of April, and this
was shown in the index figures for that month. This advance
continued into the first half of May, and although prices sub-
sequently fell considerably, the average of prices for May was
about 170 per cent. above the pre-war level. as against 126 per
cent. in April.

1922. | DisTRIBUTION OF LEAFLETS. 295

Among other produce, butter was again cheaper, while cheese
showed little alteration. Eggs also fell in value but the decline
was fully counter-balanced by the increase in the market value
of poultry.

Feeding stuffs on the whole were inclined to be dearer in May
than in April, except brewers’ grains, which experienced a sharp
decline; with this exception there was little difference between
prices in April and in May. No material alteration in fertiliser
prices was recorded, nitrate of soda again advancing slightly,
while the lower grades of basic slag were somewhat reduced. On
the average, prices for feeding stuffs and fertilisers during May
were between 50 and 60 per cent. above the pre-war level.

Ix order to reduce expenditure on printing, the Ministry has
been compelled to discontinue the free distribution of
leaflets, and the small registration fees
shown below will in future be payable by
persons who wish to receive the leaflets as

Distribution of
Leaflets.

issued.
The leaflets are divided into four main groups dealing with
the following subjects :—
I. Farm Live Stock (including Dairying, Feeding Stuffs, Pests and
Diseases of Farm Animals).
II. Small Domestic Live Stock (Poultry, Rabbits, Bees, Goats, etc.)
III. Farin Crovs (including Manures, Weeds, Pests and Diseases of
Farm Crops).
IV. Garden Crops and Fruit Growing (including Manures, Weeds,
Pests and Diseases of Garden Crops and Fruit Trees.

To receive NEW Leaflets only.

1. Of any one or two of the above groups - 1s. per annum.
2. Of any three groups or of all four groups 2s. bs
To receive both NEW and REVISED Leaflets.
1. Of any one or two groups” - - =i) Os -
2. Of any three or of all four groups - - 6s. “

296 THE ScHoou or AGRICULTURE. [ Jury,

THE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE OR
THE..UNIVERSFEY ©@F3G4M BRIDGE
PART II.

Ty. BL Woop; CiB A MARTEL Cea. RS.,
Drapers’ Professor of Agriculture and Fellow of Gonville and
Caius College, Cambridge.

THE completion of the School of Agriculture opened a new era
for agriculture in Cambridge. Until the end of 1909 the staff
had been without a home of their own, and although they had
received the greatest possible kindness and consideration from
the heads of other scientific Departments, notably the Proiessors
of Chemistry and Botany, the agricultural staff had undoubtedly
been severely handicapped by deficient accommodation.

In January, 1910, the staff moved into their new building with
a class of about 40 students. Immediately the number of stu-
dents began to increase at the rate of about 25 additional students
per annum, and in the academic year 1913-14 the total number
of students receiving instruction in the School had veached 117,
including about 30 candidates for the Diploma who had already
taken the National Science Tripos, but exclusive of research
students of whom there were about a dozen. Meantime other
notable events had occurred. In 1910 the lease of the farm at
Impington expired and it was decided to secure a farm nearer to
the laboratories and the colleges so that the practical side of the
teaching as well as the experimental work might be developed
with less effort both to the staff and to the increasing number of
students. Through the good offices of Trinity College the Uni-
versity was able to lease from the College for 10 years Gravel
Hill Farm, consisting of about 200 acres of land situated between
the Huntingdon and Madingley Roads within 14 miles of the
laboratory and not more than 1 mile from many of the colleges.
To this area were added several adjoining fields hired from Clare
College. The convenience of access of this farm has undoubtedly
enabled Mr. Mackenzie and Mr. Amos. who have had charge
of the teaching of husbandry, to develop the practical side of
their teaching to a remarkable extent.

Unfortunately the demand for building sites on this side of
the town makes it unlikely that the University will be able to
retain the occupation of this farm, or to buy it from the College,
at a price which would admit of its continued occupation as an
agricultural holding. It is probable. therefore, that the agricul-

1922. | THE ScHoor of AGRICULTURE. 297

tural staff may shortly be compelled to seek another farm, and
as continuity is the essence of field experiments, it is most desir-
able that funds should be available to enable the University to
purchase a suitable farm and to equip it as a permanent station
for teaching and research in plant and animal husbandry.

During the University’s occupation of Gravel Hill Farm, Mr.
K. J. J. Mackenzie has held the position of Director of the farm.
an onerous and difficult office which he has filled with great
success. His policy of maintaining pedigree herds of milking
Shorthorn cattle, Suffolk sheep and Large White pigs, com-
bined with a consistently high standard of production, has been
justified by the intense interest of the students in the practical
side of their work, and by the valuable results he and his assis-
tants have obtained in animal husbandry in general and in swine
husbandry in particular. In acknowledgment of the success of
his labours he was given the status of University Lecturer in
Agriculture in 1910, and was promoted to a Readership in 1915.

His Colleague, Mr. Amos, who has devoted his attention chiefly
to crop husbandry, was given the status of University Lecturer
in Agriculture in 1916. Mr. Amos has published much valuable
work on clover sickness, on the cultivation of hops, and on
ensilage.

About the time of the opening of the School, the University had
consented to the inclusion of the physiology of farm animals as a
compulsory subject in the examination for the diploma in agri-
culture, and the School was able to secure as lecturer in that
subject Dr. F. H. A. Marshall, who had made his mark as an
agricultural physiologist by his work on the causes of fertility
and sterility among farm animals. Since his return to Cam-
bridge, Dr. Marshall, now Reader in agricultural physiology, has
continued his investigations and is now recognised as the leading
authority on the physiology of reproduction.

At this stage it may be interesting to record the number of
students of agriculture at the important epochs of the develop-
ment of the School. In 1893, the first informal class numbered
7 students. In 1899, when the University Department of Agri-
culture was created, the total number of students was 20. In
1910, when the School was opened, the class just exceeded 40.
In the spring of 1914. the numbers had risen to 117. Then the
War came and the numbers fell rapidly to about 12. Immediately
the Armistice was concluded there was a sudden rush of students.
In October, 1919, over 200 freshmen joined the School, and by
the end of the year the total number had risen to about 820, at

298 THE ScHoou or AGRICULTURE. [ Juny,

which level it still remains. This great influx of students necessi-
tated a considerable reorganisation of curriculum, staff and
buildings. A long range of army huts was hurriedly erected and
fitted as lecture rooms and laboratories. Estate management and
Horticulture were added to the subjects of instruction, Mr. F. B.
Smith, C.M.G., being appointed Reader in Estate Management
and Mr. C. W. B. Wright, N.D.H., Lecturer in Horticulture.
The Gilbey Lectureship in the History and Economics of Agricul-
ture was made into a full time office, the original endowment
being supplemented from other sources. Lecturers were also
appointed in agricultural zoology, agricultural law, veterinary
science, accountancy, and statistics, the last jointly with the
Department of Economics. An endowment collected by
Sir Arthur Shipley made possible the appointment of a
lecturer in tropical agriculture. These new appointments
have increased the number of the teaching staff to 22, including
two professors, four readers and four University lecturers.

At the same time the curriculum has been greatly extended,
not only by the inclusion of the subjects mentioned above, but
by the establishment of a definite three years’ course of instruc-
tion in agriculture and allied subjects for the B.A. degree. Can-
didates for this course must become members of the University
either by joining a College or by obtaining admission as non-
collegiate students. They must also pass or obtain exemption
from the previous examination, or Little Go, which comprises
ordinary school subjects. The first year’s course, which is the
same for all students, aims chiefly at giving an all round intro-
duction to agriculture and agricultural science. In the second
and third years the subjects of instruction and examination vary
according as the student is interested chiefly in agriculture, estate
management, forestry, or horticulture. There is an examination
at the end of each year. A student who has passed all three
examinations is awarded the B.A. degree.

This degree course is designed to give a liberal education to
prospective landowners, farmers, estate agents, foresters and
horticulturists. It comprises not only agriculture, estate manage-
ment, forestry or horticulture, and the allied sciences, but
includes also lectures on agricultural history and economics,
agricultural law and accountancy.

The examinations for the diploma in agriculture were formerly
open to anyone. Candidates for the diploma must now be mem-
bers of the University, and must possess a degree or some
equivalent qualification gained either in Cambridge or elsewhere.

Fie. 1.—The School of Agriculture, South Front.

| Ws reg

Fig, 2,—The Chemical Laboratory,

Fig, 3.—The Biological Laboratory.

osomey
\meermenetnanineteorcocanaery ttn

ibrary.

t of the L

—Par

Fia.

1922. | Tue ScHoon or AGRICULTURE. 299

The course of instruction for the diploma extends over two years,
with an examination at the end of each. The first examination
for the diploma is a difficult technical examination in agriculture
and agricultural sciences. In the second year a candidate may
specialise in any line, either practical or scientific, and is exa-
mined in that line only. Thus, the diploma is a valuable qualifi-
cation of professional standard. ‘The University gives diplomas
also in forestry and horticulture, the instruction and examination
for which are on similar lines.

These diplomas are taken for the most part by Cambridge men
who have already taken honours degrees in natural science and
are intending to become agricultural experts at home or abroad.
It is a point worth noting that in Cambridge over 300 men take
honours degrees in science every year.

For many years it has been an honoured tradition in Cambridge
that every teacher in the science schools should engage in
research in his own subject. This tradition has been followed
in the case of agriculture. Already in 1910, when the School
of Agriculture was opened, members of the staff were well known
by their publications. It is only necessary to mention Professor
Biffen’s work on plant breeding, which has produced Little
Joss Wheat, and Dr. Marshall’s work on the physiology of repro-
duction.

When the Development Fund became available for the
promotion of research, and the Tevelopment Commissioners
decided to establish Research Institutes in various branches of
agricultural science two of these Institutes were placed at Cam-
bridge—a Plant Breeding Institute under the direction of
Professor Biffen, and an Animal Nutrition Institute under the
joint direction of the writer and Dr. Marshall. The Plant
Breeding Institute has its laboratories in the School of Agricul-
ture. It is also equipped with bird-proof cages for the experi-
mental culture of small plots and with greenhouses and sorting
rooms. These are accommodated at Gravel Hill Farm. The
larger plots for testing and growing on for seed are situated at
How Hill Farm, a mile further out on the Huntingdon Road,
opposite Girton College. The staff of the Institute have concen-
trated their attention chiefly on cereals and potatoes. Up to the
present the main practical result of their work has been the
production of the two wheats, Little Joss and Yeoman, -vhich are
too well known to require description. But perhaps the result
which will in future prove still more valuable is Professor Biffen’s
discovery of the mode of inheritance of immunity to yellow rust

300 ‘THE ScHOOL oF AGRICULTURE. [ Juny,

in wheat. ‘This discovery demonstrates the practicability of
breeding varieties of crops which resist the attacks of diseases,
and opens up a wide field of investigation which promises very
valuable results.

The labours of Professor Bitfen and his colleagues and of plant
breeders generally, will be lightened by the establishment of the
National Institute of Agricultural Botany with its headquarters
on the Huntingdon Road opposite the University Farm. This
Institute manages the national seed testing station, but its main
function is to take over, test, grow on, and distribute seed of new
and improved varieties of all kinds of agricultural crops, return-
ing to the breeder a fair proportion of the profit derived from
their sale.

The Animal Nutrition Institute has investigated and is investt-
gating a variety of problems concerned with meat production.
Tts earliest efforts were directed to the study of the composition
and feeding value of home-grown fodders, and members of the
staff have published numerous papers on mangolds, straws, and
silage, the latter in collaboration with Mr. Amos. Another
line of work has been the investigation of winter beef production,
which has been attacked both statistically and experimentally.
Many papers have been published, but the investigation is still
incomplete.

Dr. Marshall and his colleagues have extended their work on
the physiology of reproduction to many problems of meat pro-
duction, for example, seedy cut in bacon, the effect of spaying
on rate of growth, the factors controlling the size of the litter
in sows.

Mr. Mackenzie and his colleagues have made a special studv
of pig feeding under modern conditions, and have demonstrated
the importance of vitamines and the value of palm kernel cake
in pig feeding. Besides these more immediately practical
investigations, several members of the staff have been engaged
in the study of fundamental scientific problems of nutrition and
have obtained important results. Scientific work of this kind,
although its results may have no direct bearing on agricultural
practice for perhaps 20 or even 50 years, is none the less impor-
tant for the progress of agriculture. Just as present-day farmers
and consumers of farm produce are to-day reaping the reward
of Lawes’ and Gilbert’s purely scientific work on manures carried
out at Rothamsted more than 50 years ago, so we may confidently
expect that farmers and consumers of the future will equally
benefit from work now in progress which at first sight may appear

1922. ] THe ScHoot or AGRICULTURE. 8301

to have no direct practical bearing. As examples of the work of
the Institute which falls in this category, Mr. Foreman and Dr.
Woodman’s investigations on the chemistry of the proteins, and
Mr. Capstick’s experiments with his recording animal calorimeter
may be mentioned.

Like the Plant Breeding Institute, the Animal Nutrition Insti-
tute has its main laboratories in the School of Agricalture, and
in these the fundamental scientific work is concentrated. Its
more practical activities are somewhat inconveniently scattered.
Mr. Mackenzie’s pigs are kept at Gravel Hill Farm. The winter
beef production and ensilage investigations are carried out chiefly
at How Hill Farm. Dr. Marshall’s animals are located mainly
in temporary premises at the field laboratories, Milton Road, a
new department of the University, which the Institute shares
with the medical school, the Quick department of Biology and the
Biochemical Department.

The School is also interested in the work on the breeding of
small animals, including poultry, in the department of genetics
under Professor Punnett. The headquarters of this department
adjoin Gravel Hill Farm, and are about to be considerably
extended.

Besides the organised work of these Institutes, members of the
staff of the School have carried out many independent investiga-
tions. Mr. Newman for many years has been engaged on a
survey of the soils and agriculture of the eastern counties. In-
tensive surveys of certain areas have been published already, but
the extensive general survey was delayed by the war and is now
held up for lack of funds. It is impossible to refer specifically
to the work of every member of so large a staff. It must suffice
to say that every one maintains the tradition of doing his best
to extend the boundaries of knowledge in his own subjects.

Before leaving this subject, it should be mentioned that certain
officers of the School took a prominent part in the foundation
of the Journal of Agricultural Science, which was first published
by the University Press in 1905 and has since then formed the
chief organ for the publication of the results of agricultural
research in this country. This journal has undoubtedly played
a very important part in the development throughout the country
of an active band of research workers. It was started at the joint
financial risk of the Editors and the University Press. During
the war financial difficulties arose and it is now the joint property
of the Research Institutes at Cambridge and Rothamsted and is
edited by the Directors of those Institutes.

302 THE ScHoon or AGRICULTURE. [ JuLy,

‘The School is recognised by the Ministry of Agriculture as the
central institution for education and research in the eastern
counties, and in this capacity it has received since 1912 an annual
grant from the Ministry for the maintenance of an Advisory
Department. The staff of this Department includes Mr. F. R.
Petherbridge as biologist, Mr. W. 8. Mansfield as agricultural
chemist and Mr. Codling as analyst. Mr. Petherbridge end Mr.
Mansfield spend a large proportion of their time in the country
giving advice to farmers on all kinds of agricultural problems,
usually through the county organisers.

The School of Agriculture at present has no endowment for
agricultural scholarships or studentships. Among its pupils,
however, are many holders of scholarships or studentships of one
or other of the Cambridge Colleges which devote part of their
endowments to the encouragement of all branches of learning,
including the sciences allied to agriculture. The School is also
one of the Institutions at which the research schularships and
training scholarships of the Ministry and the agricultural scholar-
ships of the County Councils are tenable. Holders of scholarships
of the various categories mentioned above have been among the
best students attending the School and the present staff has been
largely recruited from them.

The School in its degree courses aims at providing a
liberal education for men who wish to spend their lives
on the land in any capacity. Its Diploma courses are
designed to go further and to give technical instruction of pro-
fessional standard to post graduates who wish to practice as
experts in some branch of agriculture, forestry, horticulture or
the allied sciences.

The internal affairs of the School are managed hy the Special
Board for Agriculture and Forestry which is practically the
Executive Committee of a larger body—the Board of Agricul-
tural Studies. This latter body comprises University aud County
Council members and acts as a permanent agricultural confer-
ence for East Anglia.

1922. | Propuction oF MEAT ON PASTURES. 303

PRODUCTION OF MEAT ON
PASTURES OF DIFFERENT TYPES.

Sm Tuomas Mippuerton, K.B.E., C.B., LuL.D.,
Development Commissioner.

In this Journal for September, 1915, in a paper on “* Systems
of Farming and the production of Food,’’ I made a brief reference
to the production of meat on pastures of three different types.
In the present paper I propose dealing with the same subject in
more detail. The estimate then made of the yield from rich
pastures has since been supplemented by the estimates of others ;
and I have also secured some additional figures, bearing on the
production of food by poor pastures.

Rich Fattening Pastures.—T'he former estimate was based on
the probable production of the best pastures in the English Mid-
lands that I had had an opportunity of examining carefully. It
may be recalled that the yield of this type of pasture was put
at 190 lb. meat per acre in an average season, without anv
assistance from feeding stuffs. The total was made up
as follows:—90-100 days’ summer grazing, 200 lb. live
weight increase, equivalent to 120 Ib. fat meat; 70
days’ autumn grazing, 100 Ib. live weight increase, or 55 Ib.
moderately fat meat; late autumn and winter grazing for store
cattle or sheep-—80 lb. live weight increase, or 15 Ib. lean meat.

There would, necessarily, be wide departures from these figures
in very good or very bad seasons, but I expressed the view that
on the average of a term of years the output of the best pastures
could not be expected to exceed the figures given.

With the object of ascertaining whether the particular grass
land then in view was representative of the best in its particular
locality, and also for the purpose of checking the estimates, T
applied, in the autumn of 1920, through a mutual friend. to
several experienced graziers in the locality, submitting to each
the following questions :—

Assuming a ten-acre field of grass of first-rate quality, and no feeding
stuffs of any kind to be used :—

1. What number of fattening cattle would the field carry during the
summer months and what would be the average gain in live weight per
head ?

2. Assuming the first lot of cattle to be cleared off in July and the
pasture to be rested, what number of cattle would be carried in the
autumn months? Could these be fattened without cake in an average
season? What increase per head might be expected in this lot of cattle
if no artificial feeding stuffs were used ?

304 PropuctTion oF Mrat on PASTURES. [ Juny,

3. Would sheep be grazed in addition to cattle in the summer or
autumn months? If so, what number and what increase in weight per
head would be expected?

4. Would the field carry any stock during the winter months? If so,
what class of stock and what numbers?

Seven replies to this schedule of questions were returned. As

the inquiry was made through private channels I shall not refer
to the correspondents by name, but take this opportunity of
acknowledging my indebtedness to them for the care they took
in supplying full answers to the questions, and for explaining
the particulars in which their own practice did not fit in exactly
with the conditions assumed in the questions.

The correspondents were asked to provide estimates of the
live increase that would be made by grazing animals and this
they did. I am responsible for estimating the quantity of meat
which these live weight gains should represent, and in changing
from live to carcass increase the percentages used in my original
paper have been adhered to. In this connection it may be noted
that there is very little evidence available as to the probable
percentage of carcass to live gain in the case of bullocks fattened
on grass; and, from the percentage of carcass which such cattle
yield when slaughtered, some may be disposed to consider that
my figure of 60 per cent. for summer increase is too high; it
should be observed therefore that the cattle fed on these rich
pastures are in very good condition when they are turned out to
grass, and that the subsequent live increase represents a much
higher percentage of carcass than it would in the case of Jean
stores.

Reduced to figures the seven estimates were as follows :—

TABLE I.
Total Live Increase, Carcass Increase,
lb. per acre. lb. per acre.
Ay ss oa star vee ote 2,
Be... oa se oes 340 198
CRs oe oe 5s 310 183
1) Pee aes skis zie PASM 1%
19) 280 162
i eee de sine a 271 155
Gale fe ify bias 263 154
Average A—G ... ‘ae 305 1477
Do. A—D ... a 330 192
Do. ( D=Ga: side 278 161
Original Estimate ei; 330 190

The average of all seven estimates works out at 305 lb. live
increase per acre, equivalent to about 177 lb. of meat; the

1922. | PRODUCTION OF MEAT ON PASTURES. 805

average of the first four—which may be taken as representing
the best that can be expected-—coincides with my criginal esti-
mate, while the average of the last four, representing moderate
returns from pastures of fine quality, is 16 per cent. less than
was estimated, .

“My original figure for the quantity of beef produced during
summer grazing was 120 lb. from 200 Ib. live weight increase ;
the average of the seven estimates A to G works out at 118 lb.
from 189 lb. live increase; the average of the four highest at
131 lb. from 218 lb. live increase.

Neglecting the value of the winter grazing, the average of
the seven estimates for summer and autumn production works
out at 172 lb. of meat from 295 lb. live increase, as against my
original estimate of 175 Ib. from 800 Ib. live increase.

We may take it then that the best pastures in the English
Midlands are capable cf producing on an average of years about
175 lb. of meat per acre during the summer and autumn without
the aid of feeding stuffs, and that if we add the increase from
occasional grazing at other seasons of the year, the total produc-
tion will amount to about 190 lb. of meat, and the total live
increase to about 330 lb. per acre.

It is at once obvious how greatly the production of this rich
grass land must exceed the average yield of our fattening pas-
tures. The total number of grass-fed cattle marketed annually,
from July to November inclusive, is about one million; feeding
stuffs are freely used in fattening cattle on grass; but if even
one-thirtieth part of the grass-land of the United Kingdom were
equal in quality to these Midland pastures, all the beef made in
the final fattening period by the home-fed cattle slaughtered
from Ist July to 830th November could be produced on this small
fraction of our grass land, without recourse to feeding stuffs and
without any assistance from roots or other tillage crops.

From the actual numbers of the live stock marketed, it would,
indeed, appear to be very unlikely that we could find 250,000
acres of grass land in the whole country capable of producing as
much meat as those pastures which are here referred to. There
is no doubt a very much larger area capable of producing this
quantity of meat in a favourable season, but the particular
quality which marks off a very fine from an ordinary good pasture
is the certainty of the yield. It is only on the finest grass land
that we can rely on securing high production on an average of
years without aid from feeding stuffs.

306 Propuction oF MEAT ON PASTURES. [ Juny,

Production on the Poorest Pastures.—Turning to the other
end of the scale it may be asked what quantity of meat (or rather
of carcass increase, for they do not produce the finished product)
our poorest pastures are capable of furnishing on the average
of a term of years? In my paper of September, 1915, I referred
briefly to some of the manure and mutton experiments, with
which Professor Somerville’s name is associated, and without
discussing the subject, took the figure of 20 lb. meat per acre
as being sufficiently near the annual production for my then
purpose. But if attention is directed to the yield of the poorest
cultivated pastures this figure is, in fact, too high. The yield is
likely to vary from about 12 |b. of lean meat in a poor grazing
season to 20 lb. in a good season, and 16 lb. per acre represents
the best average that can be expected from the poorest of these
clay soil pastures, on which the use of basic slag produces so
wonderful an improvement. Some figures in support of this
view will now be examined.

Tasie II.
Increase in live weight of sheep grazing very poor pastures
in five English counties.

Average
County. Station. Period. Season’s Increase

per acre,
lb.
Northamptonshire Cransley 1901-08 44
Cambridgeshire Kast Hatley 1900-04 53
Essex Great Yeldham 1901-03 30
Suffolk Saxmundham 1905-15 7)
Northumberland Cockle Park 1897-1905 sy
Do. Do. 1906-14 22
Do. Do. 1915-20 31
Do. Do. 1897-1920 29

The live weight increase of sheep grazing very poor clay soil
pastures is shown in Table II. The periods to which the figures
for increase refer are indicated. The influence of a series of
good grazing years is brought out by comparing the increase on
the same land at Cockle Park for the periods 1906-14 and
1915-20. Although there is some evidence to show that this
very poor grass deteriorates slowly under continuous sheep-
crazing, it can still respond to very favourable weather and in
1920 there was the surprising increase of 54 Ib. per acre on the
unimproved land at Cockle Park.

It will be seen from the last column in Table II that of the
pastures tested in five counties the grass on the Northumberland
farm was the poorest, and as the records in this case are the most

1922. ] PropuctTION oF Mat on PASTURES. 307

complete we may concentrate attention on it, remarking only
that although the actual experimental fields selected in Cam-
bridgeshire, Northamptonshire and Essex were somewhat better
than that in Northumberland, there would be little difficulty in
matching the poverty of the Cockle Park pastures im: most English
counties. No statistics indicating the area of land equally poor
are available, but the total amount of this poor grass must be at
least ten times as great as the area of the very rich pastures to
which reference has been made above.

Over a period cf twenty-four years, including seme very bad
and some very good grazing seasons, the sheep on the unim-
proved land at Cockle Park made gains which average 29 |b. per
acre per annum. But what does this increase in the living
animal represent in the form of meat? This is a point to which
little attention has been directed. It is often assumed that
from 48 to 50 per cent. of the increase made by sheep of the class
used in these experiments, would consist of carcass. In my
opinion the proportion on very poor grazings is very much less.

In an experiment reported by me in 1902* it was shown that
in 1901, a bad grazing season, the carcass increase of the best
animals on improved land at Cockle Park was equal to 42.6 per
cent. of the live weight gain. In 1902 amore extended experiment
on the same lines was arranged and certain figures relating to the
sheep of that season will be found on page 9 of the Seventh Report
on the work at Cockle Park; but as my own connection with the
Northumberland Station terminated before the end of the
grazing season, the special point now in question was not dis-
cussed at the time. Through the courtesy of Professor Gilchrist
and the Record Keeper at Cockle Park I have obtained the
original figures relating to the sheep of 1902, and will now refer
to those results of this old experiment which bear directly on the
subject of carcass increase.

It may first be recalled that the grazing season of 1902 was a
good one, a marked contrast to its predecessor; on the unim-
proved land sheep produced 41 Ib. live increase per acre as
against 23 lb. in 1901. At the end of the year the quality of the
sheep grazing on the improved land was favourably reported on
by the butcher.

On 20th May, when the experiment began, four typical sheep
were selected, and after fasting for 15 hours were weighed and
then slaughtered. The live and careass weights ‘in brackets) of

* Sixth Annual Report on Experiments with Crops and Stock at the
County Demonstration Farm, Cockle Park, Morpeth, p. 34.
B 2

pa)

308 PropucTion oF Mrat ON PASTURES. | Juny,

the four were, 89 lb. (39 lb.), 80 lb. (85 lb.), 74 lb. (29 Ib), 69 |b.
(29 lb.). The percentage of carcass in the best sheep was nearly
44, in the poorest, just over 89. The average yield of carcass
was 42.8 per cent. The sheep had not been shorn when killed.
If slaughtered after clipping the percentage of carcass would have
been 46. From sheep with early October fleeces about 44 per
cent. of mutton would have been got.

On 8th October at the end of the grazing season, eighteen of
the best sheep were selected from the six lots (out of eleven lots
under experiment) which could produce three, or more than three,
sheep fit for the butcher, and after 15 hours fast were weighed
and killed. For one of the eighteen, full figures are not avail-
able; a second, the average sheep of the remaining seventeen,
may be left out of account; particulars of the others, arranged in
four groups, Lot I, those giving the highest, and Lot IV those
civing the lowest percentage of mutton to live weight gain, are
given in Table III. Lot A refers to the four sheep killed on
20th May.

TaBLE ITI.

Percentage
Te Weight, 20th May, Weight, 8th Oct. _ Increase, of Carcass
Live. Carcass. _ Live. Carcass, Live. Carcass. in Live
Ih, lb. lb. lb. lb. Ib. Increase.
A 78 ao — — -- 42
I 78 ae 121 59 50 26 52
IT 81 34 120 59 5 25 49
UL 82 5) 124 57 50 PAE: 45
TV 78 a0 129 52 47 19 Al

With reference to these figures it should be noted that the
carcass weights of Lots I to TV on 20th May have been estimated
at 42.8 per cent. of the live weight, and that to the figures for
live weight increase an addition has been made for the wool
removed from each sheep in the first month of the grazing season.

The highest percentage of carcass to live increase given by any
one sheep was 55 and the lowest 40.

As contrasted with the slaughtered animals, all of which were
in a thriving state on 8th October, the remaining sheep on the
unimproved pasture were in very lean condition, and in the
butcher’s jadgment were losing weight; if they had been
slaughtered it is not possible that even in the good grazing season
of 1902, they would have shown nearly as much as 40 per cent.
of carcass; comparing them with the animals selected for
slaughter it may be estimated that the percentage of careass to
live increase could not have exceeded 85 or 36. None of the
very lean sheep grazed on the unimproved land at Cockle Park

1922. | PropuctTion oF Mgat oN PASTURES. 309

have been slaughtered during the twenty-five seasons for which
records are now available; but if figures were available, I am
satisfied that the 29 lb. of live increase credited to this grass
land in Table II would be found to represent not more than 10 or
12 Ib. per acre of carcass increase.

On the other hand when using these experimental figures
for the purpose of estimating the yield of meat on our poorest
cultivated grazings, it must be remembered that it 1s very un-
likely that the full returns of which such pastures are capable
can be obtained by grazing with sheep alone. If store cattle
were kept along with sheep a greater increase would almost
certainly be secured. It is possible, though not likely, that mixed
erazing might increase the output by as much as 50 per cent.
lf we adopt this figure as a maximum, the average yield of meat
by our poorest pastures may be estimated at from 15 to 16 lb.
per acre, rising to 20 lb. in good grazing seasons and falling to
12 lb. in poor years.

Production on Grazing Land of Medium Quality.—in my
original paper particulars were given of the yield secured at
Cockle Park from two ten-acre fields, originally of the very
poor quality of the grass-land above referred to, which had been
creatly improved as a result of treatment with basic slag. From
the figures then available I estimated the yield on the improved
land at about 210 lb. live increase and 105 Ib. of meat. Several
good grazing seasons between 1914 and 1920 have slightly raised
the average yield; over the fifteen year period 1906-1920 the
figure for the live weight gain has been increased to
215 lb. On the other hand the carcass increase for both sheep
and cattle was, in 1915, assumed at 50 per cent. of the live
increase, and in view of the above figures for sheep this per-
centage is too high; the original estimate of 105 Ib. meat per
acre may therefore be retained for these particular fields.

The effects of good or bad grazing seasons on land of this type
are illustrated by the records of these experimental fields.
Averaging the results on the two ten-aecre enclosures, the follow-
ing were the live weight yields per acre in the two best and
two worst seasons experienced between 1906 and 1920. The
figures refer to the summer grazing only.

Liv nereaseé “er-cent. dnereas
Season. e Inc , Per-cent. Increase

lb. per acre. over 1914,
ol Mee ie As 250 61
Eon eae cet 240 5d
BOL Oy 5 ive Sea = 170 10

ie aa ss We 152 <a

310 Propuction oF Meat on PASTURES. | JULY,

While the influence on production of a gocd grazing season
at Cockle Park is shown by these figures, it must not be assumed
that they necessarily represent the gains made by the store stock
of the country in good and bad years. The actual differences
are much less than the 50 to 60 per cent. found in this case;
for these experimental pastures are grazed so as to make the
most of the herbage they grow, whereas in actual farm practice
it is impossible to secure the full advantages of a first-rate year.
We have not stock enough in the country to consume all that
grows in a bountiful season, the numbers of our live stock being
adjusted to the grazing available in average years.

These ten-acre fields were referred to in my 1915 paper as
representing store pastures of ordinary quality; but it may be
remarked that the actual yield secured from them is far in
excess of the average yield of the grass land of the United
Kingdom. From information collected in the course of the War
it is estimated that the average yield of meat by all grass land
(meadows and pastures 3) hes between 70 and 75 lb. per acre; for
pastures only it is about 7 lb. less.

Scope for EDO EER in our Grass Land.--—The quantity
of meat to be expected from the three types of pasture discussed
above, and the low average production of the pastures of the
United Kingdom, clearly point to the scope for improvement
which our grazings offer; moreover, it is not in quantity only
that differences occur in the meat output of rich and of poor
land. There is a wide difference in the food value of the prime
neat produced by the rich grazings of the English Midlands and
the lean meat which forms the carcass increase of cattle and
sheep grazing the poorest pastures. Weight for weight the
fcrmer is worth from three to four times the latter as a source of
energy. Thus if both quantity and quality be taken into account,
the food value of the produce of an acre of rich grass may equal
the food value of the produce of forty acres of the poorest
cultivated grazings.

Methods of improving grass land have been fully dealt with
in one of the Ministry’s recent publications,* and will not be
referred to here; but it may be observed that although it is
beyond our skill to secure a forty-fold increase, by converting
such grass land as that of Cockle Park into pastures having the
quality of the rich Midland grazings. it is quite possible to

* Manuring of Pastures for Meat and Milk, by Professor Somerville.
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Miscellaneous Publication No. 30,
price 6d. post free.

1922.] Puanntnc AnD ConstRucTIoN or Cow-SHeps. 311

produce on poor clay soils, what may be described as a ‘* colour-
able imitation ’’ of a rich pasture during a part of the grazing
season. On the average of a long term of years it has been
shown that suitable manuring and careful grazing may increase
the production of such poor land ten-fold, if both quantity and
quality be taken into account; and favoured by good seasons,
skilful management might even be rewarded by a greater return.

These are the possibilities of improvement offered by certain
types of poor pastures on clay land. When we come to the
question of the increase that could be expected over a wide area,
and in the circumstances and conditions under which the average
farmer works, we must be contented with a very different set
of ratios. If instead of a ten-fold increase, the occupiers of inferior
srazings added even ten per cent. to their output of store cattle and
sheep they would do well. Incidentally, too, by remedying the
grievances of those farmers whe feed cattle in winter, and now
complain of the shortage of “‘ stores,’’ they might terminate a
current controversy.

THE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION
OF COW-SHEDS.

Masor H. P. G. Mavtez, D.S8.0., M.C., F.R.T.B.A.. and
A. Ewart Aston.
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

THE increasing attention being given to the production of clean
milk inevitably opens up the question of the modern planning
and construction of cow-sheds, and the following article and
illustrations may be found interesting to those who contemplate
new buildings or the reconstruction of existing buildings in the
near future.

The questions of planning to minimise labour in ministration
and to maintain the health and cleanliness of stock are well
understood, but nevertheless the larger proportion of cowsheds
throughout the country are far from being ideal, either in
arrangement, construction, or fittings.

It has been pointed out by Mr. Mackintosh of the National
Institute for Research in Dairying in his article on “‘ How to

312 PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF Cow-SuEbs. JULY
y)

produce clean milk,’’ published in the April issue of this
Journal, that :—

“Tt is desirable, however, to study this question from different points
of view and to maintain a due sense of proportion. It is quite correct to
say that clean milk of the highest standard can be produced under very
primitive conditions, provided attention is given to the cleanliness of the
utensils, the cow and the milker, but it may not be a practical proposition
to attempt to maintain such a standard of cleanliness, day after day,
summer and winter, without taking steps to improve the cowshed or the
water supply, and thus lessen the expenditure of time and labour.

The point of view of the cowman or milkers must also be appreciated ;
if nothing is done by the master to prevent cows wading in filthy mud or
lying down amongst manure, one must not be surprised if exhortations to
greater cleanliness meet with little response from the men. On the other
hand, through carelessness or ignorance as to proper methods, an ideal
cowshed and dairy with a complete plant may turn out milk which soon
goes sour.”

This is a thoroughly commonsense argument based on an
understanding of human nature, and it is the human factor
which counts most of all in the production of clean milk.

Under the present conditions both of farming and building the
main factor in construction will be the question cf cost, and un-
fortunately the equipment of modern cow-houses has too often
been carried out on far too lavish a scale. Money has been spent
on non-essentials both in construction and fittings, without any
corresponding advantages in cheap or clean production.

Obviously an effort should be made to obtain due balance
of all the factors—arrangement, construction, fittings, and the
human element—so that without needless expenditure upon build-
ing the workers may be led to take a pride and interest in their
work under stimulating conditions conducive to cleanliness and
efficiency.

Broadly speaking no attempt is here made to dogmatise, but
rather to illustrate plans and a form of construction which it is
believed would be found cheap and convenient, easy to erect
and suitable for extension and standardisation.

Again to quote Mr. Mackintosh :—-

“Tt is unnecessary to attempt to lay down any general rules beyond
stating that there should be good light and ventilation, and stalls and
floors so constructed that they will assist in keeping cows clean. Regula-
tions as to ventilation, air space, and superficial area have little to do with
clean milk production apart from their bearing on the health of the
cows.”

So far as general arrangement is concerned it may be said
that if accommodation is required for more than 12 or 15 cows

1922.] PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF Cow-SuHebs. 313

the double standing is strongly advocated as being more suitable
for extension, economical of labour, and relatively cheaper to
construct.

Arable Dairy Farm, Hucknall.—The illustrations siven
(Fig. 1) are of the Experimental Arable Dairy Farm at
Hucknall, Notts., built under the direction of the Ministry of
Agriculture in 1921. Its purpose is to demonstrate the intensive
production of milk from 80 acres of arable land, the conserva-
tion of food stuffs being largely effected by means of a silo.

Conditions. —The conditions laid down by the Dairy Branch of
the Ministry included standings for 22 cows placed head to head,
with a central feeding passage having a straight run from the
mixing floor and silo. The double doors to the former for the
delivery of green food, and the convenient position of the shoot
from the silo are consequently the essence of the plan and secure
the most economical means of service in time and labour. The
original intention was to allow sufficient width in the feeding
passage to enable a loaded cart to be drawn through in, order to
feed fresh-cut green fodder direct from cart to cow, but con-
siderations of economy led to a reduction in width, the feeding
passage being finally constructed 5 feet wide. Provision had to
be made to allow for future extension to accommodate 10 more
COWS.

It was necessary to balance the cow-house accommodation with
other essential farm buildings, such as stabling, bores, cartshed,
and piggeries, which with the open yard, complete the steading.
The conservation of liquid manure by means of a large under-
ground tank, suitably placed for convenient access, was also
considered an essential feature of the scheme.

Construction.—The decision, to have a shed with double stand-
ings necessitated a roof of wide span, and under the abnormal
building conditions then obtaining it was obvious that special
consideration must be given to simple and economical construc-
tion, with due regard to a minimum of expense in future main-
tenance. ‘These conditions and the fact that it was intended to
use American Yoke Ties and standard metal stall divisions, one
to each cow, led to the use of timber of small scantling, rather
than the employment of heavy roof timbers or steel trusses,
with a clear span from wall to wall. Reference to the section
in Fig. 1 shows that intermediate supports are used, facilitating
the use of the metal divisions and the employment of light timber
trusses. These supports carrying the roof principals are con-
sequently spaced at 10 ft. 6 in. centres allowing standings for

314 PLANNING AND ConstTRUCTION oF Cow-SHEps. [ Juuy,

8 cows per bay on each side, and enabling future extensions to
be carried out in sections with the minimum of expense. One
advantage of this type of roof with internal supports is that the
external containing walls can be reduced to a minimum thickness
and constructed without the expense of intermediate piers under
each roof principal.

The trusses have double wood members for the rafters and
tie beams with single ties and struts inserted between, all simply
spiked through at the joints and all being formed from
4 in. x 1} in. seantlings. The post supports are constructed
ot three 6 in. x 14 in. pieces, stiffening the whole structure,
and are so placed that they do not interfere with the working or
accommodation of the building see Figs. 1 and 2. Incidentally
the low tie beam over the dunging passages provides easy and
convenient fixing for an overhead trolley should such be required
for the removal of dung.

An important feature is the method of top lighting and ventila-
tion, the centre of the roof over the feeding passage being raised
at intervals for the purpose of inserting ventilating louvres and
skylights, the tops of these raised portions being glazed. Gal-
vanised iron sheets were used for the roof covering and thus all
common rafters are eliminated, the sheets being spiked to purlins
supported on the trusses at 10 ft. 6 in. centres.

A light matchboard lining secured to the underside of the
purlins prevents cold air and condensation from the iron roof
descending upon the cows below. It will be noticed from the
section that adequate stiffening is given by means of the cross
braces, the whole roof being very rigid though formed of such
small scantling timber.

Fittings and Details.—The doors are framed and braced, hung
in two halves, and the windows are of the hopper type placed
on each side for cross ventilation. As before stated the stall
divisions are tubular and the American Yoke fitting is used for
the ties. The use of these fittings enabled the cow standings
to be reduced fully six inches in length and the width of the
building is correspondingly reduced, an economy of space and
material which partly compensates for the more expensive type
of fitting.

The feeding troughs are of concrete, continuous from end to
end, as the Yoke fittings restrict ‘ poaching ’’ to a minimum
and thus cleaning out is facilitated and the expense of cross
divisions in the mangers is avoided. The dung gutters are only

~— \- ||
\ REDING HOPPER
>

Le) 3 °o to

|
| SCALE OF FEET
|
|

Oe EY
_— 2 aS ars

SSS

a--p-—-

‘a
' tt
GARDEN if | i
i! | i
ne. | i
_— A __ |
——_— a Sy ae HFOGE

Plan,

€ ha od

+ - s

General View from South-West.

Fia, 1—The Ministry’s Arable Dairy Farm, Hucknall, Notts,

Interior View, showing Feeding Passage and Sky-lights.

FIG, 2,—The Ministry’s Arable Dairy{Farm, Hucknall, ' Notts,

WITH | SILO

SCALE OF FEET

Plan,

(Part of Roof removed to show interior.)

View of Model,

F1G, 3,—Suggested development of Hucknall Cow-house for 40-50 cows, with
head to head arrangement (Scheme A),

MIXING FLOOR CAN
BE ENLARGED BY THE eee s1Oe
ADDITION OF ANOTHER BAY [22COWS] we

WATER POINT)) | cows

aS = care
ILEAN-To | MiTERronTetost FI KING PASSAGE |_10-6" | oe ye Hose} WINDOWOVER |
|FOR CART g —iMILK 4 c 18 [ri OUGH CART WAY] = | = = ie eo pal MANURE
tL : 2 + + DUNG CHELIHEL leexyysog “aid
A EX}T TD DAIRY & 2 =
i | z ENSIL CLEANING | BOX Pa
a Te | earn l loexu'e” F
\! oe FEEDING PASSAGE i E
ne : iad 10 = (2°) 350 aw, 40 50 60 7O
SCALE @R FEET
Plan,

View of Model, (Part of Roof removed to show interior. )

Fi1a, 4.— Suggested development of Hucknall Cow-house for 40-50 cows, with
tail to tail arrangement (Scheme B),

315

1922. | PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF COW-DHEDS.

18 in. wide made with a four-inch drop from the gangways and
a ten-inch drop from the standings, which are therefore raised
6 in. above the floor of the gangways.

It is found that the provision of the Yoke tie keeps the droppings
just about within the limits of the gutter and the writer was par-
ticularly struck with the cleanliness of the cows, especially notice-
able in, the ease of the larger cows, although the standing 1s
5 ft. 2 in. in length on one side and only 5 ft. on the other.
The right width for the gutter is a debatable point but if con-
tinued observations show that 18 in. is effective instead of the
2 ft. often demanded it is obvious that in a double standing, a
reduction of one foot in the width of the building is an effective
saving which again assists in compensating for the extra cost
of the fittings.

To obviate excessive falls within the depth of the gutters them-
selves or the provision of cross channels and extra outlets advan-
tage was taken of a natural fall in the ground, the whole floor
sloping slightly towards the mixing floor and in the direction
of the manure tank. Few sites are absolutely level and if advan-
tage can be taken of a natural slope it is both economical and
conducive to efficiency to adopt this method rather than construct
a level floor with increased depth in the gutters.

A Suggested Standard Cow-House.—While making no claims
to any striking innovations, the Hucknall design certainly offers
possibilities of further development along economical structural
lines, and its practical success in economic service and cleanli-
ness led to the suggestion. that it might prove of service if the
same principles of construction and arrangement were applied
to a design for a shed to contain a larger herd of some 40 or 50
cows.

Two Schemes were therefore prepared by the Building Branch
of the Ministry to show the comparative merits of both head to
head and tail to tail planning, and advantage was taken of the
practical experience gained at Hucknall to introduce various
modifications in detail whereby improvement could be effected.

Diagrams and slides made from these designs were utilised in
a course of lectures given to the various University Agricultural
Departments in England and Wales last winter, and aroused so
much interest that it was thought desirable to prepare a model
of each type for exhibition at the Royal Agricultural Show at
Cambridge in July. These models have been prepared by Mr.
L. C. Powell in the Ministry’s drawing office and are constructed

316 PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION oF Cow-SuHeps. | JuLy,

to a scale of half an inch to the foot. For the purpose of showing
the construction and interior fittings more clearly only half otf
each model has been completed.

Plans and photos of the two models are here given in Fig. 3
(Scheme A), and Fig. 4 (Scheme B).

The merits and demerits of the head to head and tail to tail
systems are so well known it is hardly necessary to recapitulate
them, but it may be mentioned that where the herd is sufficiently
large to require the services of two men there are certain advan-
tages in the tail to tail method, in which case each man has the
undivided use of a feeding passage, and can work independently
of the other, while there must be less disturbance among the
cattle when, feeding is taking place. While it is realised that
the special feeding conditions obtaining at Hucknall may not
apply in all cases, and silos may not be required, the arrange-
ment of the mixing floor at one end of the building is adhered to
and is equally applicable to either method of arrangement. It
has, however, been extended right across the building from wall
to wall with storage floors over at each side which can be filled
from a loaded cart standing in the centre gangway. The mixing
foor shown on the plans is restricted to the width of one bay,
but in practice it would probably be found necessary to increase
this to two bays for a herd of 40 to 50 cows.

The silos, if required, can be discharged in convenient places
and a lean-to is shown in Scheme A, where a eart-load of fodder
may be placed over night or at the week end.

A comparison of the photographs shows that the tail to tail
method, Scheme B, lends itself to a simpler and more efficacious
system of construction, lighting and ventilation: even in the
photographs of the models it is clear that this building is better
lighted than the other, and it is a noteworthy fact that the roof
requires one-third less timber, a material advantage in cost.

General Construction.—The Hucknall principle of construction
has been adhered to, namely, the use of small scantling timber,
but the pitch of the roof in both schemes has been made to suit
slating or corrugated asbestos sheeting. The main variation
has been made in the method of top lighting.

In both schemes a continuous clerestory has replaced the sepa-
rated raised skylights of the Hucknall plan, thus admitting light
with better distribution to the whole building. The two Schemes
A and B vary somewhat from each other, the variation being due
to the different type of roof truss used, this in turn being
coverned by the different arrangement of the stalls. In Scheme A

1922. | PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF CoW-SuEDS. S17.

the supports being closer together and near the centre the con-
tinuous clerestory is placed vertically above the posts and has
vertical lights on either side, a proportion of which would be
made to open for ventilation and would be controlled from below,
but easements would be required for the glazing, a material addi-
tion to the cost, and the controls are apt to get out of gear and
cause trouble in adjustment.

In Scheme B the central dunging passage admits of the sup-
ports being placed nearer the side walls and by carrying up the
braces, sloping sides are obtained to the clerestory which admit
more light. Alternative suggestions are shown for the lighting
and ventilation, viz., either fixed glazed casements, or rein-
forced glass secured direct to the framing by the same method
as in greenhouse roofs. Allowance is made for expansion and
contraction by means of galvanised clips, while provision would
be made for the escape of condensation.

Ample ventilation is obtained by raising the curved corrugated
iron or asbestos top of the clerestory two or three inches above
the framing by means of blocks placed at intervals. ‘This space
is protected by close mesh wire to keep out birds and insures
adequate cross ventilation above the flat ceiling of the clerestory.

To let out the hot and foul air rising from below it is sug-
gested that this flat ceiling could be cheaply formed of battens
spaced half an inch apart similar to Yorkshire space boarding
and as it is continuous throughout the whole length of the shed
the extraction of air would be so distributed as to obviate any
possibility of draughts. An alternate method of ventilation
panels is shown in the model, one in each roof bay, but the
former method is considered by far the better and cheaper and
likely to prove the more efficacious in actual working.

It is also suggested that as the top lighting in this scheme
would be ample the openings in the side walls immediately in
front of the cows should not be glazed but should be fitted with
sunple adjustable louvre shutters such as are commonly found
in the midland counties. Thus fresh air would be admitted and
the supply regulated in the feeding passage by means of the
adjustable louvres, the openings in the clerestory acting entirely
as outlets. The actual mlet ventilation area of the two louvres
in each bay would approximately equal the outlet ventilation
area between, the spaced boarding in the flat ceiling.

It is seriously suggested that the provision of closely spaced
louvres in the lower openings would overcome the great diffi-

318 PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION oF Cow-Siteps. [Juxy,

culty experienced in well lighted cow houses of combating the
nuisance of flies. It may not be generally known that in Italy
it is possible to keep houses absolutely clear of flies provided
the louvre shutters are not opened in the day time. The glazed
casements within may stand wide open but flies do not enter
unless the louvre casements are opened back as well.

It is admitted that this does not get over the fact that flies
also come into the cow-house on the bodies of cows returning
from pasture, but it would undoubtedly assist in minimising the
nuisance.

In each scheme the total width of the buildings is the same,
but in Scheme B, the tail to tail method, it is clear that not only
is the construction less costly but it is claimed by the authors
that the method of hghting and ventilation is more perfectly
suited to the placing of the cows than in the head to head
method.

Tt should be noted that the trusses throughout the whole
length of the building are placed, as at Hucknall, at 10 ft. 6 in.
centres, and each complete bay provides for 6 cows, admitting of
easy extension if it 1s desired to commence with a smaller herd.
In Model EB the individual standings have not been shown but
would be constructed in the same way as in Scheme A, viz.,
tubular stall divisions and Yoke ties.

In, Scheme B provision is made in the centre of the building
for a side entrance to enable milkers to pass quickly from all
parts of the building to the dairy and utensil cleaning room which
are considered essential and integral parts of a dairy homestead.

Cost and Cubical Contents.—It is difficult to give more than
an indication of the probable cost of such buildings as are here
illustrated, especially under present conditions, but the following
facts may be some guide.

The total cubical content of the entire cowshed excluding the
silos is approximately 54,500 cubic feet. Before the war such a
shed as this could have been built at about 5d. per foot cube.
It is not unreasonable at the present time to put building costs
at twice the pre-war rate, say 10d. per foot cube for such work
as this, which would give an approximate estimate of £2,227,
say £2,200, for the complete building. Scheme B would certainly
work out at a lower price.

These figures must only be regarded as a rough euide, as
obviously there are differences in cost due to site, locality, local
materials, etc. The main point is that owing to the character

1922. | Farm LAsour ORGANIZATION. 319

of the design there should be no difficulty anywhere in obtaining
the necessary materials, and there is nothing in the construction
of the building demanding more skill than the average village
builder has at his command.

In conclusion it should be noted that the air space is approxi-
mately 720 cubic feet per cow, a sufficiently ample allowance
when, the general conditions of the building are taken into con-
sideration.

Space does not permit of the discussion of all the details, but
it is hoped that the main essentials have been made clear and
that the photographs and plans give a sufficient indication of
the principles adopted and the methods of construction emploved.
Further it is hoped that the exhibition of the models at the
various Agricultural Shows this summer will promote criticism
and suggestions for improvement or modification of detail.

LABOUR ORGANIZATION ON AN
EAST MIDLANDS FARM.

PARTE 2.

ARCHIBALD BripcEs, B.A.,
Institute for Research in Agricultural Economics, Oxford.

From the point of view of the country as a whole it is
highly desirable that all industries should be so organized
as to give regular employment throughout the year to
their workers. The agricultural industry—the greatest the
country possesses—has been a noteworthy exception in the
observation of this rule. In the days before machinery was a
regular feature of farm equipment the seasonal demand for
casual and part-time labour was very large, and though it is
not now of so much importance, it is still a prominent feature
of the industry in districts where specialised farming is in vogue,
and it can easily be understood that unless this employment fits
in with idle periods in other industries the worker himself, and
the community at large, are bound to suffer. The farmer also loses
by the system. The demand for casual labour comes when work
which demands immediate attention cannot be overtaken by the

320 Farm Lasour ORGANIZATION. | JuLy,

——

regularly employed hands. Casual labour must be obtained,
and the general result is that high rates of wages have to be paid;
and moreover a casual worker has not the same interest in the
success of the farm as a regular employee, and the combination
of high wages and indifferent work often results in costly labour.
'The farmer is also adversely affected in another way. ‘The
supply of skilled and reliable labour flowing to any industry
is directly influenced bv the regularity or otherwise of the
employment offered. It is therefore not to be expected that
men, at any rate the most enterprising and efficient of them,
will remain in an industry where regular employment cannot
be depended on. Speaking of general farming, which so greatly
preponderates in this country, this casual labour problem is one
which every farmer should endeavour to deal with as far as
possible by looking ahead, and so organizing his farm as to
ensure that the work at all seasons is more or less uniform and
within the powers of the permanent labour. Agriculture is,
however, in many respects like warfare—the enemy may upset
the best laid plans. The weather, the friend of the agriculturist,
is also his worst enemy, and on this account he requires a high
standard of efficiency in management to overcome its vagaries.

Of course this question is largely bound up with the progress
of invention in agricultural implements and machinery. Manual
labour may be the only means-of performing certain operations
on the farm, and casual labour the most economical way of
getting them carried out, but as far as possible, and consistently
with getting the operations completed within a reasonable time,
they should be accomplished by the permanent staff of the farm,
stimulated, if need be, to greater effort by piece-work rates.
Against piece-work it is said that the work is not well done, but
so long as the farmer keeps a watchful eye on the men this
argument against its adoption largely falls.

It is not intended in this paper to discuss the organization of
labour under the various types of farming which exist in this
country, but to illustrate a few aspects of the economics of farm
management which are well worthy of study by all employers
of agricultural labour. For this purpose the writer has selected
a farm in the East Midlands, and examined the labour records
kept for costing purposes from 1st June, 1918, to 31st May,
1919. The period Ist June to 31st May conforms to the
accounting period on this farm.

The following statement shows the area of the farm, its crops
and stock, the number of persons employed, their equivalents in

1922. | Farm LAspourR ORGANIZATION. 821

men, and the number of work-horses. The figures have been
converted to a 100 acres basis for comparison, and the land and
stock managing capacity of each man and the area worked by
each pair of horses are shown at the foot of the statement.

1. ACREAGE :— Total. Per 100 acres.
(a) Arable—
Grain Crops me OO 45°2
Root and Fallow Cr rops adage 1140 14°6
Pulse ¥P = a 49 51
Seeds for Hay sai sks 55 5d
Seeds not for Hay “ty 85 8°9
Other Crops ao bis 6 6
— 771 ~ 19°9
(6) Grass—
Hay eg _ a 22 yg:
Pasture be ie saa bie Wee
— 194 ——- 20°1
2. Srock :— _965 100:
Cows and Heifers in milk and <P aed
in calf me sits bea 49 Teal
Other Cattle—
2 years and over ... CF 24 2°5
1 year and under 2 ab Oo” 3°8
Calves er ee “ie ie 76
—_ 183 —--- 19-0
Sheep—
Ewes as a ss - 264 27°4
Shearlings ... aoe es, baw 14°4
Lambs y. hrs Pen Pee 36°9
159 -—- 78°7
Pigs—
Sows Tf = “ae iil fi
Others ye ta sgcy) 7 809 11:3
— 120 eo 12-4
Horses—
Working... da. ie 24 2°5
Others me ie wap 12 ie
3. PERSONS employed of as 28 2°9
Men equivalents... at fe 24 25
Acres of All All All

Arable. Grass. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs.
Per man equivalent 32°09 8:07 762 31°62 5°00
Per pair of horses 64°25 16°16

As will be seen nearly 80 per cent. of the total area is under
arable cultivation. ‘The soil is light in character and mostly
capable of being worked by two-horse teams. The four-course
system of cropping is adopted, with wheat and barley as the
principal grain crops. The pasture is grazed by all classes of
stock, and only twenty-two acres are made annually into hay.
A dairy herd of 21 to 26 milking cows is maintained with a pro-
portionate number of young stock. As the farm is a considerable
distance from a railway station the produce of the dairy herd js

322 Farm Lasourn ORGANIZATION. [ JuLy,

made into butter, the separated milk being available for the
young stock and the pigs. All young stock are yarded in winter
for the purpose of consuming the roots and straw, and to tread
the remainder of the latter into manure for the land. The
ewes run with their lambs on the pastures and grazing seeds
during the summer, and are folded on roots during the winter,
the tegs being fattened off and a sufficient number of ewe lambs
retained to maintain the flock. As the table shows, a consider-
able number of pigs are kept. The open air system is not
practised, the pigs being maintained wholly indoors and fed for
the production of bacon.

The labour supply was regular, except at certain times, casual
hands and gangs being employed during busy seasons on carrots
and potatoes, but an average of nineteen men, four to five
women, and four boys were regularly employed.

Manual Labour.—Fig. 1 showing the distribution of the
manual labour on this farm for the year 1918-19, illustrates
the nature of the demand for labour on the farm. If the work
bad been capable of being performed by full-time labour the
height of the column in each month would have been alike, but
bearing in mind the climatic conditions with which agriculture
has to contend, and also the fact that during the War efficient
labour was difficult to obtain, the results secured must be
regarded as bearing witness to the high degree of skill on the
part of the farmer. The maximum variation of employment
month by month is 17 per cent., and omitting the busy periods
of May, June, October and November, it is less than 10 per cent.

The graph has been split up for the purpose of illustration
and discussion into the departments making demands for labour,
viz.: (1) Arable; (2) Sheep; (8) Other Stock; (4) Pasture, and
(5) Establishment.

(1) Arable.—The portion relating to the arable has been gsub-
divided by a dotted line. The upper part shows the time spent
in threshing, dressing, and the delivery of the various grain and
pulse crops. The lower part combines all the labour on the
field operations of ploughing, cultivating, manuring, sowing,
harvesting, etc., of all the crops on the farm during the year.

(2) Sheep.—This includes the time of a fully-employed
shepherd throughout the year, and also of additional assistance
required by him when the sheep were being folded on roots, at
lambing, and also at shearing and dipping times.

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1922. | Farm Lasour ORGANIZATION. 323

(3) Other Stock.—This portion of the graph similarly includes
all manual labour in feeding and milking, root carting, and
other incidental work directly connected with all the stock on
the farm, exclusive of the sheep. Owing to the interchangeable |
nature of the labour on the stock it was found impossible to
divide this labour on any accurate basis between the dairy herd,
other cattle, and the pigs.

(4) Pasture.—Manual labour in harrowing and rolling the
pastures, any manurial operations, and the work involved at
hay-making are the only items shown under this head.

(5) Hstablishment.—This portion covers all manual labour
which cannot be directly charged to any of the productive depart-
ments of the farm. In cost accounting such terms as “* overhead
charges, general expenses,’’ signify payments for this class
of work.

There are many operations on a farm which come under
this head. Hedging, fencing, ditching, road repairs, and sundry
other items, are examples of this class of work performed by the
labour staff of the farm. An allocation of this work to the
productive departments is possible, but as it plays an important
part in labour organization, it was considered advisable to show
it separately.

A misconception of the nature of establishment work is often
observed in the minds of farmers and writers on agricultural
topics. It is a commonplace to hear it spoken of as entirely un-
productive work. It is possible to imagine a state of super-
farming, where work of this category is accomplished to keep the
farm in a “ spick and span ’’ condition without in any sense
being productive, or where through lack of organization this
work is done in conflict with productive work with the result that
the men are idle at less busy periods, or again where, through
indifferent work, it has to be done a second time. In this last
case the first work was entirely unproductive. A familiar example
is gap stopping. Improperly done in the first instance sheep
or cattle break out again at the same place, and apart from the
waste of time in getting the stock back the gap has again to be
repaired, and the time spent in the first instance was of no avail.

But on the whole where the work is well executed establish-
ment operations are conducive to the well-being of the crops and
stock of the farm, and if they were left undone for any length
of time the farm would suffer severely. The writer has a case
in mind where, owing to the failure to clean out a water-course,
the outfall of the drainage system was blocked up, with disastrous

c 2

99 ee

324 Farm Lasour ORGANIZATION. [ JuLy,

results to the state of the fields adjoining. The term “‘ indirectly
productive ’’ used by some American agricultural economists is
therefore preferred as a definition of establishment work.

In a general way the graph shows the relative importance
of the labour requirements of each line of production under this
type of farming. Naturally the labour on the arable stands out
prominently. What is more important to notice, and this is the
main feature of the graph, is how the arable and the two stock
departments fulfil the condition of equalizing the labour demands
when the work, as here, is efficiently organized. During the
busy months in the year on the land, on this farm—-May, June,
July, August, September, October and November—the stock
are on grass and more or less shifting for themselves, thus
reducing their labour requirements to a minimum, and the
labour on sheep is also comparatively small, while during the
winter months and early spring, when arable land operations
are curtailed by weather conditions, etc., the labour required
for all the classes of stock is considerably increased, and
with the ‘‘ granary ’’ work—threshing, etc.—makes up for
the diminished demand on the land. Further, winter is the
period of the year when ditching, hedging, fencing, road repairs
and other establishment works can be carried out without dis-
turbing the essential work for crops and stock.

In organizing labour, therefore, the unit of organization is
the farm itself, not its individual parts. Each line of produc-
tion must be correlated and linked up with the others. Thus,
the efficient manager of farm labour must not only consider
the labour for his crop rotation, but what is equally imperative
the relation of stock labour to that required for the crops, in
order that he may supplement where necessary the work on the
land, and so ensure a continuous demand on the labour at his
disposal. The graph (Fig. 1) shows fairly conclusively that for
this style of farming arable is dependent to a large extent on
the stock to regulate the labour requirements.

To enable a farmer to organize labour effectively a thorough
knowledge of crops and stock is essential. This phase of farm
management is outside the scope of this article. A short dis-
cussion of the importance of doing work at the right time will
not, however, be out of place. Certain classes of work must have
preference over others at any given time. It will be at once
recognized that the feeding of stock cannot be put off; the work
at seed time and harvest, and the thinning of root crops are all
operations which must be completed within a limited period of

1922. ] Farm Lasour ORGANIZATION. 325

time. On the other hand, operations such as ploughing can
be spread over longer periods, but that this is not always so
will be apparent in the busy period which follows harvest in
the preparation of the land for winter corn. Operations of this
class must not, however, be delayed so as to crowd the work
into too short a period, and thus bring them into the class
demanding immediate attention. If, for example, the ploughing
of the land for barley be put off until the spring, then the work
must be completed within a very limited period, with a corre-
sponding strain on men, horses, and equipment.

On wet days, or where, owing to previous rain, the land is
too wet to be worked, the horsemen and other workers in the
fields will be affected. The farmer should therefore aim at
having a programme of work in readiness in order that no delay
should occur in its execution when the time arrives. Many tasks
can be performed at these times. Barn-work, repairs to imple-
ments and harness, and other tasks are familiar examples of wet
day work, and the carting of corn, and of coals for threshing,
and also various forms of establishment work out of doors can be
performed when the land is too wet to be worked.

The class of work grouped under the head of establishment—
the indirectly productive work—should never have preference
over productive work. If it can be shown that, owing to weather
conditions, a farmer executed some establishment work in July
of a given year, when at the same time the self-binder which he
expected to use in a few weeks’ time was out of repair, it can be
readily seen that valuable time will be lost when the grain is
ready for cutting.

In this country establishment work is mainly carried out
during the winter months, when, as shown in the graph (Fig. 1),
it plays an important part in the equal distribution of labour.
The large quantity of this work which was carried out in March,
April and May, on this farm is quite remarkable. The state
of the weather may have been partly responsible, but without
an accurate knowledge of the weather conditions at this period
it cannot be stated whether this was so. Another possibility is
that the farmer was anticipating his needs for additional labour
in June and July on the root crops, and was possibly carrying a
little more labour than he could employ on directly productive
work at this time. In the whole year establishment work
accounted for a little over 5 per cent. of the men’s time.

A striking feature is the little work required for pasture land,
which is another way of saying that it is not the pasture but the

326 ; Farm LaBourR ORGANIZATION. | JuLy,

stock it carries which makes the demand for labour; only in two
months in the year—July and August—during haymaking was
any work actually carried out on the grass. Neither harrowing
or rolling appears to have been done in the spring of 1919.

A reiteration of the necessity for thorough organization is
made here. Every farmer should think ahead and have a
programme of the main work to be accomplished on his farm.
It is not expected that farm work can altogether be carried out
according to schedule, but a good programme will minimize
errors and avoid delays. Greater efficiency in the management
of the labour should result in obtaining a larger production from
a given expenditure, for if men can be kept fully employed on,
directly productive work the unit cost of production must fall. One
expedient of the inefficient manager, in order to reduce labour
expenditure, is to get rid of some of the men, when there is little
work to be accomplished, thus reducing them to part-time
workers. The effect of this action on the farmer, worker, and
society at large has already been discussed.

Horse Labour.—Graph No. 2 (Fig. 2) shows the distribution
of the horse labour on this farm. The same sub-division has
been adopted as in the manual labour graph. The actual number
of working days per horse during the year was 243.4 or 77.8
per cent. of the total possible working days. The percentage
of the possible working days in each month of the year was as
follows :—

June. July. Aug. Sept. ~ ‘Oct: | t Nov. Dec.
LOLS, 7671 48-1 87-1 T6°7 88-7 84-4 74°38
Jan. Feb. March. April. May.
tS): ee re (Bx: (37 66°6 90°0 74:6
It must not be assumed, owing to the small percentage
worked in certain months, that this farm was overstocked
with work horses, or that the great irregularity shows
inefficient management. It has already been demonstrated,*
that similar results are obtained by taking the average of five
farms of different types. The number of working horses which
a farm requires is not determined by the average requirements
over the year, but by the number necessary to overtake the
work in the busiest months. Therefore, on this farm,
although an extremely slack period occurs in July, and com-
paratively slack periods in June, December, January, February,
March and May in the year under review, yet a sufficient number
of horses must be retained in these months to accomplish the

* C. 8. Orwin, Determination of Farming Costs, 2nd Edition, 1921.

1922. | Farm Lasour ORGANIZATION. 327

work in the busy seasons. This rule is also applicable when
there is a tractor on a farm, unless it can so overtake the work
as to keep horse work uniform throughout the year. The test
of practice only can show whether this can be done. Some
evidence that tractors do not fulfil this condition nor displace
horses equivalent to their potential capacity is given by Mr. A. G.
Ruston.* He says: ‘‘ In every case investigated by the writer
one effect of the introduction of a tractor on a farm has been
without exception to increase the cost of horse labour per
working day, because, owing to the fact that at certain times
of the year, such as hay-time and harvest, horses are
absolutely essential, the introduction of a tractor is rarely
accompanied by the selling-off of its equivalent of horses. In
consequence there is a decrease in the number of working days
per horse per year.’’ This, however, is only one aspect of
the various considerations which require investigation when
introducing a tractor. The manual labour which a tractor can
displace, the running costs and depreciation of the new equip-
ment as compared with the old, the advantages of getting work
done quickly and the influence on the yield of the crops, are
all factors which require to be measured in order to gauge
whether the combination of tractor power with horse power is
an economical one.

Returning to the graph, it is wel! to notice how relatively
unimportant are the demands which stock make on horse labour,
though the sheep make a fairly steady demand. One horse was
definitely allocated to the shepherd during this year for the
carting of hay, concentrated foods, shifting of hurdles, etc., yet
in December and January this horse was not capable of under-
taking the whole of the carting work and the time of two horses
in the former month. and nearly the whole time of three horses
in the latter were required, principally for the carting of
roots. The remainder of the stock only require the services of
horses to any particular extent from December to April, again
mainly due to the carting of roots when the stock are indoors.
On a farm of this type, where the proportion of arable to grass
is high, the stock work is mainly supplementary to that on the
arable, and generally speaking, if provision is made for working
the arable, the same horses will easily do the stock work in
addition.

* A. G. Ruston. “The Cost of Horse Labour,” Journal of the Ministry of
Agriculture, Dec., 1921, p. 810.

328 Farm Lasour ORGANIZATION. | Juzy,

On this farm the pasture, as in the case of manual labour,
makes little demand for horse labour, and that only at hay time.
There seems to be no reason why harrowing and rolling should
not have been carried out in March, 1919, when both manual
and horse labour graphs show a relatively slack period.

Establishment work requires very little horse labour, as would
be expected. The proportion of horse time spent on this class

f work was less than 1 per cent. as compared with 5 per
cent. for that of manual labour.

One would expect a much higher percentage of days to be
worked in June and July, in the height of summer, than is
shown. ‘The demand made by turnips for horse labour in these
months was remarkable, and the whole of the root crops together
required by far the greatest proportion of both manual and horse
labour requirements in these two months. Root crops are
expensive to grow it will be admitted, but when considered from
the standpoint of the use of labour—both men and horses—when
it would not be otherwise required, and also having regard to
the fact that they are cleaning crops, the expenditure may be
an extremely economical one. The substitution of forage crops
for silage in place of roots must always be considered in relation
to labour utilization, a point which many advocates of silage
crops often fuil to substantiate.

To account for the small number of horse days worked on the
farm in June and July it may be argued that there is very
little hay land. Meadow hay accounted for 22 acres
only, but there were also 55 acres of mowing seeds,
and together these make a considerable amount of horse
work. The fact remains that apart from the turnips
and the hay no other crop on the farm can be effec-
tively dealt with by horses at this time of the year,
or if horses are able to work on them, the ratio of horses to men
is not an economical one. Only hand weeding can be carried out
on the grain crops; the carrot crop of six acres required only
manual labour for weeding and thinning; and the work
on the mangolds mainly consists of hand and _ horse-
hoeing, in the last of which the relation of horses to men is 1 to
1, not 2 or 8 to 1 as in the case of ploughing, cultivating, ete.
That manual labour is relatively more important at this time of
year is borne out from a comparison of the manual and horse
labour graphs for these months.

The introduction of root thinners or bunchers, and other
labour-saving devices on root crops would provide for a more

1922. | Farm LABouR ORGANIZATION. 829

extended use of horses at this time of the year, and not only
so, but they should also be the means of displacing a certain
amount of manual labour and making it available for other work ;
especially is this desirable where a large amount of casual labour
has to be employed at this season of the year.

Where a few mares are kept for breeding purposes a means
of reducing the cost of the horse-labour is provided, as the birth
of the foals and the subsequent period when they have to run
with their mothers coincides with these slack months; the cost
of the keep of the mares then becomes a charge on the foals and
mot on the other enterprises of the farm. Whether this is a
profitable way of dealing with the problem is another question
and depends largely on the demand for work horses.

The ideal of horse labour management is the same as for
manual labour, viz., uniform employment throughout the year
on productive work. It will be apparent from the graph that
this is difficult to attain, but efficient organization, as far as the
weather and other conditions affecting the use of horses will
allow, through a well thought out programme of work will make
an enormous difference in the proportion of idle days.

HSE OEe ELECTRICITY
AT GREATER FELCOURT FARM.
R. Bortase Mattaews, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E.

In order to show the possibilities of the use of electricity im
farm buildings the writer proposes to explain the extent to which
he ‘‘ takes his own medicine,’’ on his farm of 600 acres at East
Grinstead. This method will probably be more interesting at
the moment, since the author has read two papers* which sum-
marzse very fully the work he has been carrying out during
recent years.

* “ Electro-Farming, or the Applications of Electricity to Agriculture,”
read on 30th March, 1922, before the Institution of Electrical Engineers,
Savoy Place, Victoria Embankment, S.W.1; also, “The Uses of Electric
Power in Agriculture,” on 3rd April, 1922, read before The Farmers’ Club,
2, Whitehall Court,S.W.1; also, “ Electro-Farming,”’ published by the Electrica]
Development Association, Savoy Street, Strand, W.C.2, price 1s.

330 ELECTRICITY AT GREATER FELCOURT Farm. [ Juy,

Although wide use is made of electricity on the author’s farm,
it is not yet employed to anything like the extent to which ulti-
mately it will be. It is only after exhaustive investigation. both
of methods and equipment, that new applications are introduced.
As the whole object of applying electricity to farming is to
reduce costs and increase profits, the commercial aspect of each
development is very carefully considered beforehand. The
actual results are carefully analysed by means of a very detailed
application of the author’s Auto-Countancy system.

As a result of such investigation, it has been shown beyond
all doubt that electricity applied on correct lines to agriculture
possesses economic advantages which no other source of oower
can offer.

Electric Lighting.—The use of electric ight not only makes
for cleanliness and convenience of working, but owing to the
absence of flame, reduces fire risk, a matter of importance where
such inflammable materials as hay and straw are concerned.
Experience, however, has shown that besides these obvious ad-
vantages, electric lighting on the farm can actually be made a
source of profit.

To take the simplest case, it has been found that by installing
electric light in the poultry houses, and thereby increasing the
hours of lght during the winter months, an increase in the
winter egg production of at least 10 per cent. can be secured.
When it is considered that the cost of lighting is only about one
penny per bird per annum it will be seen that the return due to
this application of electricity is very great.

One interesting result of the installation of electric light in ths
author’s cow byres is that the cost of the current (at 4d. per
unit) is paid by the saving resulting from the prevention of milk
spillage due to better lighting. Although but little work has yet
been done on the subject, there is no doubt that electric lighting
will ultimately play a very great part in bringing both animals
and plants more quickly to maturity. Recent experience with.
lambs, and also with fiowers, such as tulips, has been very
promising.

Where electricity is used for increasing the hours of light,
it can be switehed on and off by means of very simple automatic
devices, known as “‘ time switches.’’ Thus it is not necessary
to increase the hours of work on the farm, in order to obtain
the advantage of a longer feeding day. In fact, by the provision
of suitable hoppers, which can be filled at convenient times
during working hours, labour and inconvenience are actually
reduced as compared with ordinary methods.

a, :
Se :

%
2 A

F1a, 1.—An electrically-driven Cream Separator
at Greater Felcourt Farm.

Fig. 2,—A combined Root Cleaner and Slicer at Greater Felcourt Farm,

1922. | Evecrriciry At GREATER FELcourT Farm. 331

It must not be supposed, however, that the mere provision of
artificial light will give satisfactory results. What is required
is ‘* illumination.’’ The same specialised experience and techni-
cal knowledge, which is required for the satisfactory illumination
of a works, is required to obtain a satisfactory result even in the
lighting of a poultry house.

Electric Power.—The advantages of electricity for power
purposes have been found to be equally great. One of the most
successful adaptations of electric power, on the author’s farm,
is for driving the liquid manure pump. By its aid, liquid
manure carts are now quickly and cleanly filled, with the result
that labour is better employed, and the land better treated. In
the farm bnildings electric power is used for driving the food-
preparing machinery, as well as for milking. A special feature
of the electric motor is its practically constant speed under vary-
ing loads, and its ability to deal with heavy overloads. If is,
therefore, the ideal method of driving food-preparing machines
such as chaff-cutters, cake-breakers, root-slicers, and crushing
and grinding machines, all of which require a_ steady
speed, irrespective of the wide fluctuations in the power which
take place from second to second during operation.

The author’s experience with electrically driven Hinman
milking machines shows that by running the pumps at 42 pulsa-
tions per minute, instead of the higher speeds usually emploved,
the necessity for hand stripping is reduced (although some nand
stripping is done in all cases). It should be noted that the
milking machine does not milk quicker than by hand. As, how-
ever, one man Can supervise six or more milking machines. the
milking time is greatly reduced, so that both time and labour are
saved. The cream separator, and a bottle-washing machine, are
also driven by electric motors. The cardboard covers used to
seal the bottles of Grade A (Certified) Milk, are hermetically
attached by means of a specially designed electric heater, which
enables 25 to 80 bottles to be sealed per minute.

Milk is delivered to the railway station, two miles distant, by
an electric van. The cost of running has been found
to be about one-halfpenny per mile, which compares most
favourably with that of petrol lorries or horse vans.

Electric power is also used for driving the incubator fans, for
the threshing, cleaning and grading of cereals, and for sheep-
shearing and horse-clipping. Owing to the adequate supply of
water under pressure which already exists, electric water pump-
ing is not employed. On many farms, however, this would prove

332 Evecrriciry at GREATER FELcourt Farm. [| Juiy,

a very useful and necessary application of electric power. The
superiority of electricity for this purpose is well shown by the
fact that in Denmark (which is a country of windmills) electric
pumping is displacing wind pumping: the same thing is also
happening in Holland. It is found that the electric motor is
much more reliable, and pumps when it is needed to do so.

In order to show clearly what can be done for the expenditure
of one unit* of electricity, in terms of farm work, the following
table has been prepared, based upon results actually obtained on
the author’s farm. One unit of electricity will perform any one
of the following operations :—

Average time

Operation. taken.
Chaff 1,000 Ib. of hay or straw a sae oa 10 min.
Cut 6 tons of mangolds sah ose eat bee G02,
Crush 22 bushels of oats ce a tee ae 2 oer
Grind 33 bushels of corn as i a Aas Rae
Milk 52 cows... une Sa Te v7 Oats
Separate 260 gal. of it Sit ae 56: a aa?
Churn and work 165 lb. of butter... 60.5;
Drive the fans of a 2240 egg incubator for 15 Hone —
Thresh 8 bushels of wheat... rr Ls

One unit of electricity will do the ae ed irrespective of
the time taken. Average times are given merely to emphasise
the added advantage of rapid working which results from the
adoption of electrical methods.

Apart from the advantages referred to above, the ease with
which the electric motor can be started makes it particularly
valuable for farm work. By simply closing a switch, without
any physical exertion, the motor will start instantly and with
certainty under all conditions.

The author advocates the use of individual electric motors
for the more important machines. Where this is not considered
possible it will be found that the use of a portable electric motor
(for which the author has devised a very cheap and simple
arrangement) will be preferable to the use of counter-shafting.
It 1s supposed by many that the use of a single motor and a
counter-chaft gives the most economical results. This view,
however, is quite mistaken. At Greater Felcourt Farm the food-
preparing machinery is at present driven from a counter-shaft
(originally installed for an oil engine drive) driven by the electric

* One unit is 1,000 watts expended for one hour. Watts represent the
product of volts by amperes. Thus 10 amps. on a 100-volt circuit gives
1,000 watts, and if used for one hour means a consumption of one unit.
Similarly, 60 amps. taken for 10 min., from a 100 volt circuit represents
1 unit because it is 6,000 watts used for 1 of an hour.

1922. | Wueat Prices AND RAINFALL. 333

mcetor. Exact measurements (which of course are only possible
where electricity is used) have proved that for every 6s. spent
in useful work 5s. has to be wasted in useless effort merely in
turning the shafting, belts, and loose pulleys. With electricity
at 4d. per unit the yearly cost of the power wasted by the shaft-
ing is sufficient to buy a new electric motor of 3 to 4 h.p. capa-
city. Since the use of a counter-shaft increases the amount
of current taken by one to four times that necessary for the usefu!
load, the size of cables used in the wiring must be at least
doubled. Again, if storage batteries are used to supply the 'oad,
their ampére-hour capacity must also be doubled. Not only is
the cost of using electric power unnecessarily increased by the
counter-shaft, but the capital cost of installing the plant is also
much increased.

It is commonly supposed that the advantages of electricity can
enly be obtained by the large farmer, but the writer is convinced
that this view is entirely wrong. While the big farmer uses
electricity to supplement the efforts of his labourers, and thereby
increase profits, the small-holder, who is usually unable to em-
ploy labour, stands in the greatest need of some simple means
to increase his productive capacity. Hlectricity, properly applied,
relieves the small-holder of much of the more monotonous work,
leaving him free to concentrate on those things which require
manual skill and knowledge. The first cost of the electrical
equipment is not great. Its earning capacity is much greater
than that of any other part of the farm equipment. Every year
small-holders quite cheerfully pay large sums for new types of
poultry houses and similar plant, in the hope of obtaining in-
creased returns. It is very probable that by making their old
houses weather-proof, and installing electric light, they would
secure much greater returns at a much lower cost.

WHEAT PRICES AND RAINFALL.

Ir is obvious that crops are dependent upon the weather,
and perhaps the most important question to which the farmer
wants an answer is, ‘‘ what will be the effect of the weather upon
the harvest? ’’ Of scarcely less importance to the farmer is the
further question : ‘‘ What is the weather going to be next year? ”’
Students of the weather have for many years past been endea-
vouring, by analysis of past records, to find answers to these

334 Wueat Prices AND RaInrati.. T Juny,

questions, particularly by trying to find out whether abnor-
ma! temperature or rainfall recurs at regular intervals; i.e.,
whether there is a regular sequence of weather, or cycle, as it is
called.

Various astronomers and meteorologists have in recent years
thus discovered cycles, some of which may now be regarded as
well established. Of those that may conceivably produce a direct
or indirect effect upon our crops the two best known are probably
the sun-spot cycle and the Briickner cycle. It has for long been
known that the number of spots occurring on the sun varies in
a regular manner, @ maximum and minimum occurring at
intervals of about 11 years; also that certain terrestrial
phenomena are influenced in the same way, indicating that sun-
spots affect the conditions on the earth, or perhaps it should
be said that both are due to the same cause. Dr. Briickner
found some thirty years ago that a period of relatively warm
and dry years recurred on the Continent about every 35 years,
and similarly that the intervening years tended to be wet and
cold. Although we are altogether in the dark as to the causes
of such fluctuations in the weather, their influence must never-
theless make itself felt upon the growth of vegetation, and thus
it becomes a very important matter to detect them.

It is conceivable that the weather of different parts of the
earth may be differently affected by a large number of cycles,
each of them due, maybe, to different causes. This makes it
exceedingly difficult to discover any regular sequence in the
weather or in the produce of agriculture by mere inspection of
records. Since the periods of these cycles are not of the same
duration, their beneficial or harmful influence does not recur
at the same moment of time: it will thus happen that the maxi-
mum effect of one cycle will sometimes coincide with an opposite
effect of some of the other cycles, and so its effect may be nullified.
It is therefore only when the maximum or minimum effecis of
several influential cycles coincide in point of time, that their
combined result will show itself in a big crop or severe shortage ;
and this can only be expected to recur at comparatively long
intervals. Agricultural records have not been kept for a suff-
cient number of years to exhibit a sequence of good or bad har-
vests that can be relied on as a guide to the future, as an event
known to have recurred only three or four times cannot be
accepted as sufficient evidence of a regular cycle.

There is, however, one class of observations that is sufficiently
long to be of use for this purpose, and that is the price of wheat,

1922. | Wueat PRICES AND RAINFALL. 385

of which records exist, in more or less complete form, for nearly
400 years, for a large number of places in western Europe. Now
it is well known that, at least before the development of an over-
seas trade in corn, the price at a given locality was high when
the harvest in that neighbourhood was scanty, and low when
the crop was abundant. Sir William Beveridge has examined
these data, and being struck by the appearance at regular
intervals of abnormally high prices—which may be assumed to
follow immediately on bad harvests—has conducted an exhaus-
tive investigation into the whole material.*

Now although it is simple enough to combine several cycles
to form, so to speak, one compound cycle, and find out when
their cumulative influence is greatest or least, it 1s not so easy
to decompose the resultant compound cycle, which is all that we
have to work upon. Yet there are mathematical processes which
enable us to unravel the threads and disentangle the constituent
cycles. The arithmetical calculations are very heavy, but by the
use of methods known as ‘‘ harmonic analysis’ and the
‘““ periodogram,’’ Sir William Beveridge has succeeded in de-
tecting a large number of cycles. He finds, in fact, no less than
19 (possibly there may be more), with periods of revolution
ranging from 2% to 68 years. The probability of their real exist-
ence is in a large number of cases confirmed by the periods
agreeing, with quite reasonable accuracy, with cycles detected
by various meteorologists.

The most striking of these cycles, 7.e., the one emerging most
prominently from the calculations, is one of about 15 years;
and it is the more remarkable because an independent period of
this duration is not known to meteorologists. Sir William
Beveridge suggests, however, that it may be really a combination
of shorter cycles, the maximum intensity of all of which would
coincide about every fifteenth or every thirtieth yeur.

He also finds a cycle of 11 years, corresponding to the sun-spot
cycle. This one, however, does not persist throughout the whole
300 years, and the author thinks that the real period (also
emerging from his calculations) is one of not quite 5} years, or
almost half 11. A cycle found with a period of 351 years also
corresponds well with that discovered by Briickner as causing
a regular alternation of dry, warm periods with wet, cold ones.

Sufficient records do not exist to enable the author to use data
prior to 1550, but the records of historical famines show that

* “ Wheat Prices and Rainfall in Western Europe,” a paper read before
the Royal Statistical Society on 25th April, 1922. This is in substance a

sequel to an article by the same author on “ Weather and Harvest Cycles,” in
the Economic Journal for December, 1921.

336 WuHeat PRICES AND RAINFALL. [ JuLy,

most of these occurred at dates which might be calculated by
carrying back some of the cycles found.

The material actually used covers only the three centuries
1550 to 1850, the later years being entirely ignored in the inves-
tigation, for the reason indicated above, viz., that European
prices of wheat since then (or at least since 1870) depend far
more upon the harvests of the entire world than of the locality
where the price is paid, and thus—as cycles probably affect
different parts of the world differently — high prices
would not necessarily indicate scarcity in western
Hurope. This precaution enables him to test the con-
tinuance of the phenomena since 1850, as well as their
utility for prophecy, by comparing a calculated curve with
actual results. He accordingly adds together the theoretical
effects of the eleven best established cycles in each year, and
constructs a ‘‘ synthetic ’’ «urve—as he ealls ii—of wheat
prices. Upon the ussumption that, if we are looking for a single
factor which is uniformly adverse to a good harvest, we shall
get nearest to finding it in rainfall, the “* synthetic ’’ curve
between 1850 and 1920 1s compared with the curve of rainfall
in western Europe during the same years, and the main peaks
in the two are seen to correspond very closely.

Reference may be made to the deduction drawn by Sir Wilham
Beveridge some year or two ago as to the probability of heavy
rain and bad harvests in 1928. This was taken by many people
as a prophecy, but his later inquiries do not lead to the same
conclusion as to the general meteorological condition of the near
future, and such an interpretation is now to be regarded as with-
drawn. He fully believes that trustworthy prophecy of the
weather will, in due course, become possible, but that it is not
yet possible on the facts as he has given them. Prophecy will
become possible, if at all, only after detailed investigation has
shown the nature, shape, relative importance, and, above all,
local variations of each cycle. At present little more can be
said than that such cycles exist and are noticeable as periodic
changes in the rainfall. As his examination shows, these cycles
do not necessarily persist indefinitely : many of them have per-
sisted for centuries, but others have died away, or their periods
have become modified. Such considerations render it dangerous
to forecast the weather of any given year; and, in fact, the
‘* synthetic ’’ curve above referred to shows several discre-
pancies in certain years with the actual rainfall records, although

1922. ] TRIALS oF NEW VARIETIES OF CEREALS. 337

the most prominent peaks duly appear in both. While, there-
fore, the results obtained up to the present make it risky to assert
that, because there was a particularly bad harvest in a certain
year, there will be another bad one fifteen, or thirty, years
later, continued investigations on the same lines should result
in our being able to make such prophecies with a more reason-
able expectation of their fulfilment.

TRIALS OF NEW VARIETIES OF
CEREALS.

Part I.

EK. S. BEAvVEN,
Member of Council, National Institute of Agricultural Botany.

THE paper deals generally with the subject of Variety Trials
of cereals and specially with the methods which have been used
by the writer with a view to securing comparative accuracy in
the results of field tests of new varieties.

Terminology.—Wheat, barley and oats have each been divided
by systematic botanists into several ‘‘ species’ and “* sub-
species,’ and each of these again into a greater or less number
of ‘* varieties.’’ The number of varieties recognised 20 years
ago was about 200 for the three cereals together. The number
has now been greatly increased by the artificial production of
hybrids. Varieties are again divided into ‘* sub-varieties,’’
‘* strains,’’ ‘‘ sorts ’’ or “‘ forms,’’ signifying aggregates differ-
ing in respect of either minor structural characters or characters
not always discernible to the eye but often of agricultural value,
as, for instance, length of growing period, hardiness, stiffness of
straw, root-range, ratio of grain to straw, disease resistance, ete.

It will be convenient to use some one word for the aggregates
which are dealt with in variety trials. New productions are
generally aggregates of plants the individuals of which have a
common ancestry, and in variety trials we are concerned only
with the inherited characters of the aggregates. | The most
descriptive term to apply to any aggregate under trial therefore
appears to be race.

338 TRIALS OF NEW VARIETIES OF CEREALS. [ JuLY,

Some ageregates originating from selected individual plants
having a hybrid ancestry, although apparently uniform in all
their inherited characters, ultimately prove to be more or less
variable. This fact must be recognised in interpreting results
of variety trials but is too complex for discussion in this Paper.

Racial Characters.—The most valuable characters of any
cereal race are those which affect its relative productwity in
respect of grain as compared with other races of the same species.
The measure of productivity is the weight of dry grain harvested
and threshed from some unit of area.

Next in value to the grower is the quality of the grain in
relation to the purpose for which it is most likely to be used.

Morphological or physiological characters and combinations of
charaeters of any kind will be of value in proportion as they
contribute to yield or to quality. The quantity and quality of
the straw as feeding material or for other uses must also be taken
into account.

From the above it is evident that variety trials of cereals are
complex affairs. Moreover, the problem has many limitations
and is beset by difficulties and sources of error especially in
estimates of productivity, both in execution and in the interpre-
tation of the results obtained. It is desirable to set forth some of
these limitations and difficulties before describing in detail the
methods which have been designed to deal with the problems
involved.

Limitations of Yield Testing.—It is very improbable that with
our present knowledge any new race of cereal will be produced
which will give a higher yield of grain per acre than any and
every already existing race of the same species under every
condition of soil, season and cultivation. The same applies,
although perhaps to a less extent, to quality of grain. The
problem of the plant breeder is that of adaptation of the plant to
external conditions, and all that can be expected from him is that
he will produce new races better adapted to definite sets of
external conditions than existing races in average seasons and
under the best methods of cultivation.

In Great Britain there are no wide areas of uniform soil. The
“lay of the land ’’ and the dip of the strata combine to make
uniformity impossible. There are doubtless manv farms of 500
acres in Great Britain on which the soil is so variable that no one
race of any species of agricultural plant is the best race for
all parts of the farm. This may seem a hard saying. but let
any critic try to find two adjacent pastures showing equal pro-

1922. | TRIALS oF NEW VARIETIES OF CEREALS. 339

portions of different races of grasses. ‘This results from the
combined effects of artificial and natural selection and of
adaptation, and there is no apparent reason why cereal races
should not show a similar range of adaptability.

The plant breeder is limited in the early stages of the produc-
tion of new races by the type of soil of his breeding plots and
by the average climatic conditions of his station. The compara
tive yields and qualities of a particular race obtained at a station
in the West of England, say on the upper greensand with an
average rainfall of 36 in., may be quite different from those
obtained, say on the “* boulder clays’’ of Hast Angha with a
24 in. rainfall. It therefore does not necessarily follow that the
plant breeder’s original determinations of relative productivity,
however correct for his own conditions, will always be applicable
to other localities.

Seasonal effects, even in a limited area, are very diverse.
These together with the necessarily variable methods of
manuring, crop rotation, and tillage may suit one race of a
species better than another. Moreover, in same localities a
quick-growing race may be necessary in the average of a series
of years, as for instance the quickly maturing ‘‘ Scotch
Common ’’ barley in Aberdeenshire. As a general rule. the
more slowly maturing races will be the most productive, but
superior yield may have to be sacrificed, if in, say one season
out of three, there is a chance that the crop would fail to ripen.

Tt follows that all that can usefully be accomplished in any
one year in the way of variety testing is to make accurate
comparisons of races in respect of respective economic value,
taking both quantity and quality into account, at different
stations, selected for typical differences both of soil and of
average climatic conditions.

Is the task of the cereal breeder then a hopeless one? Is an
organization for testing new cereal races equally hopeless?
It is by no means necessary to accept ‘‘ counsels of despair,”’
but in interpreting results of trials it is necessary to keep fully
in mind the limitations and qualifications set forth above. These
ar ein fact instinctively present to the minds of most growers,
and it is because the practical farmer is aware of them that he
frequently pays scant respect to variety trials and prefers to
rely on his own experiences.

If it were desired to obtain systematic knowledoe of the
suitability of existing races to localities. no better plan could
be adopted than for some representative body, like the Farmers’

» &
DP ns

d40 Trias oF New VARIETIES OF CEREALS. | Juy,

Union, to organise a voluntary census of yields of varieties of
cereals in different districts on the same principle and with
similar objects as in the collection of milk records.

In the case of new races, however, the prospective grower will
always have to rely on the experience and testimony of those who
produce, multiply and distribute the original stock. He must
expect to pay for this in the form of a high price for a few
bushels of seed, which is all that he needs at the start in order
to stock his farm within a few years, and even so he will some-
times be disappointed and find that the new race does not suit
his land. On the other hand, if he gets a substantially increased
return, due either to yield or to quality, or still better to both,
the increase may easily be equal to the rent of the land and he
may make much more than this for a few years by the sale of
some of his produce for seed.

Now the position of the plant breeder is that unless he is
very lucky the cost of producing a new race which appears to have
some definite advantage in its favour is many hundreds of
pounds, quite apart from any systematic series of field trials
such as have now been inaugurated by the National Institute of
Agricultural Botany, and if he proceeds at his own cost to field
trials in different localities one of two things happens—either
the new race gets into other hands than his and he gets no return,
or he must establish an extensive organization for both multi-
plication and control. In the latter case he runs the risk of
having to incur these costs and then find that his new race is
after all ‘‘ not good enough ’’—in which case it ought to be
““ scrapped,’’ because the spreading of inferior races is a dis-
service to agriculture.

The above appear to the writer to be considerations which
justify the efforts of the National Institute of Agricultural Botany
to organise a system of variety trials for new races in the joint
interest of plant breeders and purchasers of seed-corn, and
generally in the interest of increased production of grain in the
country.

Does what has been said above make it necessary to test great
numbers of new races in a great number of localities and over
a long series of years? It certainly shows the need for more
systematic methods than have hitherto been adopted: but there
are some comforting considerations. It is becoming evident that
there are some valuable racial qualities, the presence or absence
of which can be demonstrated by plant breeders themselves in a
few years in one or a few localities on small areas, and which

1922. | Trias or New VARIETIES OF CEREALS. 341

may reasonably be expected to hold good under a wide range of
external conditions. Illustrations may be given both with regard
to yield and quality.

1. It is fairly clear that a race with a long growing period is likely to give
a better yield than one with a short growing period, and therefore it is probably
desirable to select for any locality a race with as long a growing period as the
ordinary climate and farming conditions of that locality permit.*

2. The writer has shown that with some races of cereals (given complete
ripening) a greater proportion of the total dry matter of the plant is
accumulated in the grain than with others, and there is consequently a better
proportion of grain to straw—an obvious advantage, because grain 1s more
valuable than straw.t

3. Comparative “strength” in wheat appears to be quite definitely a racial
character to a great extent independent of external conditions.{

4. Immunity from certain diseases is also a racial character more or less
independent of external conditions.§

The above are examples of characters which can be tested in
the plant breeding stage. Further investigations of the factors
of productivity and of quality together with elaborated nursery
testing methods will probably tend to lessen the number of new
races which are worth carrying forward to the stage of varie‘iy
testing in the field.

Whatever may be the improved characters which the plant
breeder has aimed at and hopes that he has obtained, the first
essential in systematic comparisons on the field scale is that each
comparison shall be, as far as is reasonably and practically
possible, free from errors of experiment, and the next essential
is that some reliable estimate should be made of the probable
extent of the errors that are unavoidable. Unless these con-
ditions are fulfilled it is not possible to proceed with any
advantage to that interpretation of the results which will still be
necessary and which should accompany the publication of them,
if they are to be of service to future growers.

Errors of Experiment.—It is admitted that every separate
field experiment is subject to unavoidable errors. If in a com-
parison of yields on different plots at any station in the same
year the errors of experiment exceed the observed differences
between the yields of the races under comparison, the results
of that particular trial are valueless as yield trials. In variety

* Pedigree Seed Corn. Beaven. Jnl. Royal Agr. Soc. of England.
Vol. 70, 1909.

+ Breeding Cereals for Increased Production. Beaven. Jnl. Farmers’
Club, Nov., 1920.

+ Inheritance of Strength in Wheat. Biffen. Jn/. Agr. Science, iii, 86, 1908,
_ § Inheritance of Disease Resistance, Biffen. Jnl. Agr. Science, ii, 109, 1907 ;
By, 421, 1912.

342 TrraLs or New VARIETIES OF CEREALS. [Juy,

trials as hitherto carried out, the probable errors* of the weights
of grain have often been greater than the observed differences.
Also. unfortunately, the existence of these probable errors has
generally been ignored in published reports. Sufficient evidence
of the universality and extent of probable errors in field trials
may be found in the publications of (1) Wood and Stratton*;
(2) Mercer and Hallt+; (8) of the present writer. It may at
least be partly due to ineffective methods employed in variety
trials and to consequent misleading reports of them in the past,
that there has been so little increase in the average yields of
cereals in Great Britain; for according to agricultural statistics
the average yields of grain in Great Britain are still only about
the same as they were 40 years age. This record compares badly
with what has been done with other agricultural plants and still
worse with that of the horticulturists. The marked improvement
in barley yields in Ireland is, however, an example of success
directly due to systematic yield trials.

It has sometimes been tacitly assumed that if a set
of the same varieties are carried out at a number of different
stations on different soils, the average results obtained give
which are more useful than those obtained at any one station.
If, as rarely happens, one variety gives better results than all
the others at a number of stations there is no doubt a pro-
bability that it would have given comparatively good results
under still other sets of conditions in the same season. What
generally happens is that the order of merit varies at different
stations in the same season and in different seasons at the same
station. For this reason the averaging of results obtained at a
number of stations, whilst useful, *3 at best of limited value. For
example :—It is not of much use to a grower in Norfolk to be
told that a certain variety of wheat grown in. sav, Shropshire or
even at several other stations, has given comparatively high
yields if the external conditions at all the stations are. different
from his own.

Errors of experiment in variety trials are of two orders :—
(1) Systematic, and generally avoidable; (2) Casual, and not
cenerally avoidable. To the first class belong :—

of trials
+

% For the use and meaning of the term “ probable error” as applied to
agricultural experiments see “Interpretation of Experimental Results” by
Wood and Stratton, Jnl. Agr. Science, Dec., 1910, also Supplement to Jour. of the
Board of Agriculture, Nov., 1911.

+ Experimental Error of Field Trials. Jnl. of Agr. Science, Vol. 4, Part.
IL, Ovt.,, 19Ef.

; + Breeding Cereals for Increased Production. Jnl. Farmers’ Club, Nov.,
1920.

1922. | TrraLs oF New VARIETIES OF CEREALS. 343

Character of Seed.—A necessary precaution which has often
been neglected in variety trials is to make sure that the parcels
of seed of the different races under comparison are equally repre-
sentative. Very considerable differences in yield arise from
differences in the physical, germinative, and other non-racial
characters of the parcels of seed sown. ‘These should not be
neglected, just as for other reasons in a variety trial of potatoes
we should not think of comparing Scotch grown ** Arran Chief ”’
with Fen grown ‘‘ Up-to-date.’

The function of a seed, as of a tuber, is to give the individual
plant a start. Much depends on a good start, and varieties should
not be irregularly handicapped in this respect.

The only practicable method of eliminating this probable source
of error is to use seed of all the races under trial which has
been grown and harvested the previous vear under uniform con-
ditions, and in case there is any substantial difference in moisture
content it would be preferable that all the parcels of seed should
be kiln-dried to an equal moisture content.

A very good parcel of seed of an inferior race of a cereal will
sometimes give a better crop than an inferior parce! of seed of
a better race, but there is no evidence that this accidental quality
of the seed would be transmitted to the next generation.

Admixtures.—Another systematic error arises if any sub-
stantial admixture occurs in the seed of any race under trial.
A very small percentage of admixture may be regarded as
negligible. One per cent. of “* rogues,’’ if of an obviously
different race of the same species will show quite forcibly when
the crop is ripe, but if the ‘‘ rogue’ plants are only 10 per
cent. less or more prolific than the rest, the difference in yield
due to them will only amount to one-tenth of 1 per cent., which
is negligible. If, however, the crop is to be used for sowing
again, even such a percentage is very undesirable.

Casual Sources of Errors.—These are very numerous. They
include soil variations due to a multitude of causes and extend-
ing over large or small areas, such as those due to previous
cropping and manuring, soil bacteria, etc. ; variations in sub-soil
and in natural or artificial drainage: contour variations, such as
slopes or furrows; irregular shading cr uneven expose to wind;
patches of weeds of all sizes: inroads of insects, vermin, birds,
etc., in patches. It is quite impossible to exclude these sources
of casual errors and they may occur in either small or large
patches. Their occurrence may be regarded as chance events
and they may be all lumped together. because there is only one

344 TrRrALS OF NEW VARIETIES OF CEREALS. [ JuLy,

way of discounting them, viz., to arrange and multiply the plots
of each race at each station in such a manner as to give an
approximately even chance of getting the same proportion of
good and bad patches, and at the same time to keep the 1aces
to be compared as close together as possible in order to secure
general similarity of soil conditions.

On account of these unavoidable casual errors the yields of
cereals cannot at present be compared with the accuracy obtain-
able in physical experiments in the laboratory. With the help
of the statistician, however, we may make steady approaches
in this direction. The value of reliable results when they can be
obtained is sufficiently great to justify the attempt.

Probable Error of Yield Trials.—Every farmer knows that he
cannot obtain a fair sample of the grain threshed from a stack
by taking a handful out of one bag. Neither is it possible to
find the yielding capacity of a parcel of seed by sowing it on
any one patch of ground, large or small. Still less is it possible
to estimate the difference in the yielding capacity of two parcels
of seed by sowing each of them on a single plot, even if the plots
are side by side. ‘To obtain sound comparisons, at any one
station, it is necessary to average the results of a number of plots
of each race. Having done this, if we have excluded systematic
errors, we can calculate, by an arithmetical device based on the
laws of probability applicable to chance events, the probable
error* of the average result. Obviously the probable error of an
average is likely to be less than that of any one plot, and the
creater the number of plots the smaller is likely to be the
probable error of the average.

Briefly stated, probable error is an average error computed in
a particular manner in order to afford a measure of the un-
reliability attaching to any average of results by reason of the
operation of chance conditions.

The degree of unreliability indicated by any probable error
depends on the size of the probable error in proportion to the
quantity to which it refers. For instance:—If the probable
error of a difference between two averages of say 5 per cent. is
as much as 8 per cent. it is an indication that the difference of
5 per cent. is one that might easily be due to chance conditions.
If, however, the probable error of the same difference is only
1 per cent. it would be extremely improbable that such a difference
(5 per cent.) arose entirely from chance conditions. If in com-

* For a full discussion of the theory involved see “‘ An Introduction to the
Theory of Statistics” by C. Udny Yule. 5th Edition.

1922. | Triats or New Varieries or CEREALS. 345

paring the produce of a series of ‘‘ control ’’ plots of un estab-
lished race ‘‘ C ’’ with a corresponding series of a new race “‘A”’
the result was :—

#“¢C*=100. “A”=105+1°0 per cent.
(where + 1.0 stands for the calculated probable error as a per-
centage of ‘‘ C ’’) we could be practically certain that the differ-
ence in favour of ‘‘A’’ was not a chance occurrence.

The following may be taken as a rough standard of the
reliability of any comparison such as we are considering :—-If an
observed difference between two averages, each of a considerable
number of cases, is more than four times the probable error of
the difference, the difference may be regarded as significant in
the sense that it is extremely unlikely to have arisen from the
operation of chance events.

Since it is useless to expect a very rapid rate of advance in the
yield of cereals from the breeding of new races, and since it 1s
highly desirable that published conclusions should have a high
degree of reliability, a ‘‘ fine sieve ’’ is required through which
to sift results of yield trials. It is therefore suggested that a
probable error of 1 per cent. or less in weight of grain should be
aimed at in the difference between any two races at any station
in any one year.

Before considering whether there is any practical arrangement
of plots which will give this degree of accuracy it will be as well
to see how this compares with the kind of results at present
obtained in field trials. Before doing so it will be instructive
to refer briefly to the probable errors which occur in the plant
breeding stage.

The plant breeder usually proceeds year by year somewhat as
follows :—

1. Single plants of different races with equal soil space per plant. The
writer finds that with 12 sq. in. soil space per plant, and with all the plants of
the same race and comparing adjoining plants the differences run from zero
up to a quite indefinite maximum ; the probable error of the percentage
difference is somewhere about 80 per cent. of the average weight of two
adjoining plants. A difference of 300 per cent. between two adjoining plants
is therefore not conclusive evidence of any racial difference, but may be due
to conditions external to the plant. The probable error is mucl: greater even
than this for single plants under field conditions with necessarily wide
differences in soil space per plant. It follows, although the argument cannot
be developed here, that it is practically impossible to select single plants for
racial productivity. Incidentally also it shows the great difficulty, if not
impossibility, of adapting pot-culture methods to estimates of productivity,
except in respect of very great differences.

2. Rows of 12 plants with equal soil space per plant. The probable error
of the difference between two averages of say 12 row weights is likely to be

246 TRIALS oF NEw VARIETIES OF CEREALS. | Juvy,

about 10 per cent., and comparisons at this stage may afford the plant breeder
some slight but very uncertain indication of racial productivity.

3. A chessboard of plots—each planted with the same number of seeds with
equal soil space per seed. This method has been followed by the writer since
1910 in nursery cultivations at Warminster, and has been adopted also by the
Irish Department of Agriculture and the Cambridge Plant-breeding Station.

Where the plots are 16 sq. ft. at seeding time reduced to 9 sq. ft. for
harvesting by eliminating margins; the plot of each race repeated 20 times
(giving about 2,000 Wark of each race); the whole area protected from
birds ; the produce of each plot weighed ; the water-content determined and
the dry weight computed; the probable error of the difference between the
total dry weights of any two races is found to be about 4 per cent. By this
method eight different races can be compared to we degree of accuracy on
less than ten perches of ground, when half a pound of seed of each race is
available. Hstimates of comparative yield based on these nursery chessboards
are generally, but not always quite closely, confirmed by field trials of the
same races on sinilar soils in the same season. The results obtained on 12
such chessboards since 1910 are now being summarised for publication. This
method undoubtedly provides a means of sifting out those races which are
worth carrying on to the field trial stage.

Proceeding now to systematic attempts to estimate the magni-
tude of the probable error to be expected in field trials, Wood and
Stratton, in the paper already referred to, from a very large
number of published results estimate that the probable error
of single plots of any size over 1/40th of an acre is generally
about 5 per cent. i the produce of the plot. This gives a
probable error of 7 per cent. as that which may be expected
when comparing ae two adjacent single plots.

This is fully confirmed by Mercer and Hall in the paper already
referred to, and in addition there is described in this paper the
most elaborate experiment of which there is any record in this
country with the object of determining the number of plots
required to be averaged to produce a prescribed probable error.

An acre of wheat of one variety selected for apparent
iniformity was divided at harvest into 500 equal rectangular plots
and the grain and straw from each plot was weighed. This was
a great undertaking—only possible at such a station as Rotham-
sted. The mass of figures was very thoroughly investigated on
statistical lines, not only by Mercer and Hall, but also by
“Student ’’ in an Appendix in which a still more elaborate
statistical method was devised and shown quite clearly to lead
to a further reduction in the probable error.

In this experiment the actual difference in the weight of grain
between the two half-acres on the east and west of the acre was
8.3 per cent. If, therefore, this acre of ground had been used
for a trial of two varieties—one single half-acre on the east and
one single half-acre on the west side-——there would obviously -

1922. | Trias oF New Varieties oF CEREALS. 347

have been an actual error of about 8.3 per cent. in the com-
parison between the two races due, not to racial characters, but
to soil and other conditions external to the plant. In other
words, the experiment would have been (as most variety trials
in the past have been) a combined trial of soil fertility and race
productivity, and it would have been impossible to disentangle
the two. When, however, comparison was made of the weights
srown on the 250 pairs of adjacent plots, it was found that the
probable error of the average difference between all adjacent
plots taken in pairs was reduced to less than half of 1 per cent.
If therefore 250 plots of each of two races had been planted in
alternating strips of plots across the field, it may be assumed
that whatever was the difference in the total weight of grain of
the two races, the probable error of this difference due to soil
conditions would have been only about half of 1 per cent. and
that if the actual difference amounted to 2 per cent., viz.. four
times the probable error, it might safely have been regarded as
significant.

It becomes a problem in statistical inference to estimate the
number of comparisons necessary with plots of any specified area
in order that the probable error under any fairly normal external
conditions shall not exceed, say, 1 per cent., 2nd also to find the
best way of splitting up any available area into such plots.

Consideration of the above results, and more especially of the
contribution by ‘* Student,’’ suggested to the writer a method
of yield testing for barley which after some early preliminary
experiments was commenced at Warminster in 1920 for field
tests of two different races.

The method appears after two years’ full trial to be practical,
and also economical of area, and furthermore to be adapted to
reduce the probable error of yield trials of cereals to a very sruall
percentage of the observed weight of the erop.

This method may be called the ‘‘ half-drill-strip *’ method and
will be described in Part IT of this paper with a summary of the
results so far obtained. It is in course of triul by tie Nationai
Institute of Agricultural Botany this year for oats and barley.
Whilst it presents distinct advantages there are still difficulties
to overcome and it can probably be further improved on.

(To be concluded.)

348 THe REVIVAL OF VILLAGE INDUSTRIES. [ Jury,

THE: REVIVAL,.OF VILLAGE
INDUSTRIES -

THE WORK OF THE RURAL INDUSTRIES INTELLIGENCE
BUREAU.

Masor L. SuHorren Sack, O.B.E.

Tue decline of rural non-agricultural industries as an impor-
tant factor in the economic life of this country dates from the
introduction of machinery. With the gradual supersession, of
handicraft by mechanical means of production, there began a
steady transfer of nearly every form of manufacture to the towns,
with a consequent withdrawal from the countryside to the urban
areas of the workers required to man, the newly erected town
factories.

The tendency continued unceasingly until the centralization in
towns of every form of factory and workshop came to be regarded
as the natural direction of all industrial development. The
countryside was considered as being suited only to agricultural
work, and the towns claimed control of all manufacturing
industries, even of those where the element of handicraft con-
tinued to predominate over the partial mechanical processes.

As a result of this policy, the break up of the hitherto
prosperous village industries was as inevitable as the steady
depopulation of the countryside. To-day, with isolated excep-
tions, the few rural industries which have survived are carrying
on a precarious and languishing existence. ‘T'oo frequently they
are managed by enthusiastic but insufficiently experienced
amateurs; often their policy is directed by local sentiment rather
than by business principles; usually they are out of touch with
the rapidly changing market conditions and are, therefore,
unable to face the keen competition of their urban competitors.

The outcome of the social revolution consequent on the intro-
duction of machinery has, therefore, been (a) to depopulate the
countryside to such an extent that at present only 15 per cent.
of the working population are country dwellers, and (b) to make
the livelihood of even that proportion dependent almost solely
on agricultural work by withdrawing the stabilizing effect of a
successful non-agricultural industry suited to local conditions
and seasons.

In most continental countries, the retention of profitably
worked village industries has been encouraged by carefully
planned schemes of Government action, having for their object

1922. | THe REVIVAL OF VILLAGE INDUSTRIES. 349

the relatively even distribution of population and industries
throughout the country. Germany, more than any other con-
tinental country, has worked out its distribution of industrial
activities on a considered plan, but other countries have not neg-
lected the problem; for example, the French rural industries
employ more than 14 million persons, and in Switzerland the
prosperity of rural industries is closely associated with agricul-
tural life.

So disproportionate has the rural population of this country
become and so serious is its threatened effect on agriculture,
that the problem of improving the conditions of life of the rural
worker has for several years received the serious thought of the
Government and of leading agriculturists and economists. The
more closely the matter is explored, the more definite appears
the conclusion that the revival of rural industries must form an
essential factor in the stabilizing and revitalizing of the
countryside.

Already in pre-war days the rural worker was being influenced
to a larger and broader outlook on life by improved education and
the more frequent reading of the daily press. The War has here,
as in so many other directions, had a decisive effect. The rural
soldier returned to his village with new experiences and greater
ambitions and his ideas rapidly spread to his fellow inhabitants.
The countryman now demands for himself and his family greater
security and wider prospects for the future than the exclusive
dependence on agriculture can offer. Disregarding even the
seasonal nature of much agricultural work, the farm worker can
gain a livelihood only when he is strong and able-bodied. Purely
agricultural work offers but rare chances of employment to his
wife, to any of his children whose health is failing or to himself
should he become physically weakened. Inevitably, therefore,
the more progressive villagers are attracted to the towns where
the greater variety of openings seems to offer a better future for
himself and his family.

Again, on grounds of high economic policy, it is desirable
that the continued centralization of all industries in the towns
should be checked and that a process of decentralization should be
begun by transferring to the countryside some of those industries
which are still largely dependent on handiwork and in which the
use of modern mechanical processes is subsidiary. The increas-
ing congestion in towns is clearly undesirable on social grounds.
But further, in many industries cheaper production should result
ewing to the reduction of numerous ‘* overhead *’ charges which
are frequently much inflated in towns.

35U THe Revivan oF ViILuacE INpUSsTRIES. | JULY,

The importance of rural industries in meeting the pressing
problem of the disabled soldier cannot be overlooked. There are
probably 100,000 or more ex-soldiers whose state of health unfits
them both for the conditions of work in town factpries and for
the arduous routine of the agricultural labourer. ‘To such men,
capable often of only part time work, the village workshop seems
to offer the employment most likely to encourage their ultimate
return to health.

The pressing importance of these and other aspects of rural
industries development had for some time engaged the attention
of the Development Commissioners. After calling for expert
reports on the matter and thoroughly exploring the whole sub-
ject, the Commissioners approached the Treasury for a grant to
enable some central organization to be established with a view to
providing a recognized centre for the distributicn of authoritative
advice and reliable data affecting the revival or establishment of
rural industries. The Treasury sanctioned the grant, and accord-
ingly the ‘‘ Rural Industries Intelligence Bureau ’’* was formed
under a Trust Deed with the following trustees appointed by the
Ministry of Agriculture :—Major-General Sir Gerard M. Heath,
K.G.M.G., CB, DiS5/0-: ‘Sir -Charles. Meleod=.:Sir- Basil
Mayhew, K.B.E., F.C.A.; Sir Douglas Newton, K.B.E., M.P.;
The Hon. Edward G. Strutt, C.H.

The Committee has as its Chairman the Right Hon. Lord
Hrnle, P.C., M.V.O., and is composed of the trustees in associa-
tion with representatives of the Board of Trade, the Ministry of
Health, the Board of Education, the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, the Ministry of Labour, the Board of Agriculture for
Scotland, the Ministry of Pensions, the Forestry Commission.
the Labour Party, the British Legion and all other interested
associations.

The Director of the Bureauis Mr. E. Cecil Kny, who has devoted
much time to a practical first-hand study of the rural industries
in most European countries and combines with this intimate
knowledge of rural organization a wide technical knowledge of
the industries mainly affected.

The Bureau is thus controlled by a body equally representative
of social interests and of technical and business experience. It is
essentially an organization set up for practical purposes. The
constitution of the Committee seems to indicate that in dealing
with the many important questions that await settlement, the
wider national outlook will be associated with the parochial

* 258/262, Westminster Bridge Road, S.E.1,

1922. | Tue Revival or VILLAGE INDUSTRIES. 351

standpoint, and modern business methods will have due regard
to practical local sentiment. |

he primary purpose of the Bureau is to offer skilled advice
to those who are engaged in, or contemplate, the establishment
of commercially profitable rural industries. ‘The following may
be quoted as typical subjects on which the Bureau will be able to
offer the considerable assistance of their wide investigations and
complete reference data :—

(a) The revival of lapsed, and the extension of existing rural
industries on sound economic lines.

(b) The economic possibilities of establishing, mm any par-
ticular locality, industries hitherto carried on exclusively
abroad.

(d) Market intelligence, including reports on home and
foreign markets, freights, ete.

(e) The decentralization of urban industries which could be
better carried out in rural areas.

The policy of the Bureau will not be restricted by any rigid
rules or formule. It is recognized that no hard and fast system
is suitable for, and still less can be imposed upon, every part of
the country. Normally, it will rest with the local inhabitants to
take the initiative by considering what form of industry is most
suited to the particular local conditions, having regard to such
considerations as the natural sources of power, the railway ser-
vice, the facilities for obtaining the requisite raw materials, ete.
The Bureau will where desired give preliminary advice as to the
general principles which will probably be necessary to ensure the
commercial success of any scheme; when the preliminary scheme
has been worked out, the Bureau will be in a position to go into
the commercial possibilities of the proposals more closely.

While the initial purpose of the Bureau is, as has been ex-
plained, to act as an expert adviser, it is recognized that in many
cases the successful management of newly established industries
may require further practical assistance in obtaining reliable
material at reasonable prices and in securing a good market
for the manufactured articles. In conjunction with the Bureau,
therefore, a co-operative trading society, known as the Country
Industries Co-operative Society, has been established also at
258/262, Westminster Bridge Road. The workine scheme of
this Society will be explained in an article in a later issue of
this Journal.

THE LINCOLNSHIRE Curly CoaTEeD Ptc. | Juny,

en
Or
Lo

THE. LINCOLNSHIRE CURLEY COAt ED
PG,

SANDERS SPENCER.

THERE appears to be little doubt as to the locality in which
the Lincolnshire Curly Coated Pig originated, since in no other
county than Lincolnshire is there found a breed of pig of a
similar type and character. It is true that some forty or fifty
years ago there was to be found in County Cork an occasional
pig with very curly hair, but this was of quite a different charac-
ter to the curly hair of the Lincolnshire pig as it was much softer
and more like wool than hair. Further, the County Cork type
of pig did not seem to possess that robust constitution which is
so characteristic of the Lincolnshire pig. It had more the
appearance of a pig which had been so interbred as to lose its
constitution and which had entered on its last stage. ‘The subject
of these notes is in every respect the exact opposite, as it certainly
appears to have been vastly improved, not only in constitution but
in form and substance since classes for the breed were included
in the prize schedule of the county agricultural society. The
writer’s first experience of the North Lincolnshire pig was in the
fifties of the past century when the curliness of the hair was not
so generally noticeable, nor did the pigs of that period possess in
so marked a degree the quality of early maturity. Then, as
now, the sows were prolific and good mothers, whilst the pigs were
very hardy, but they required to be of considerable age before
they responded readily to the fattening process. This resulted
in fat pigs of a size and degree of fatness which would not find
favour in the eye of the consumer of the present day, even in
Lincolnshire where the average fat pig lilled for consumption on
the farm would scarcely pass muster at any market outside the
particular county.

The probable reason for the very heavy and fat type of pig
finding favour in the county of Lincoln was that, in the northern
part of the county especially, a considerable proportion of the
horsemen, cattle men, and shepherds used to live in the farm
houses or in the houses of the ground keepers or foremen, the
latter receiving from the farmer a certain weight of bacon annu-
ally in part payment of the cost of keep of the men. Both in
the farm house and in the ground keeper’s house bacon formed
the chief meat consumed by the men, whose appetites had not
been pampered, so that they made no objection to fat bacon made

F1G, 1.—Lincolnshire Curly-Coated Boar.

Fig. 2.—Lincolnshire Curly-Coated Sow.

1922. | Tue LINCOLNSHIRE Curty CoaTEpD Pia. 858

from old and matured pigs which was neither so delicate in
flavour nor so tender as is the most highly priced bacon of to-day.
It has, however, the desired qualities of satisfying at little cost
the appetites of the men and of enabling them to perform their
somewhat arduous duties on the farm, or in other words, the
Lincolnshire Curly Coated pig has been most successfully bred
to meet the requirements of the farmer. It fulfils in the most
complete manner its duty of supplying at a fair cost a large
carcass of fat pork within a reasonable time. Indeed we think
that its breeders are justified in making the claim that no other
breed is more suitable, if so suitable, for the special purpose for
which the curly coated pig is mainly kept.

It might not be so great a favourite when transported from
its native county to the southern portion of this country, but
there can be no doubt that a considerable proportion of the
common country pigs would be more readily fattened and at less
cost did they possess an infusion of the blood of the curly
coated pig.

The vast improvement in the Lincolnshire pig which has taken
place during the last half-century may have had its influence
on the system of pig keeping in the county. In the olden time
the fatted pig would be a year and a half to two years old and
not infrequently it would also be a young sow which had reared
one litter of pigs, as the far too common practice was to utilize
the extended growing period of the female pig by breeding a
litter from the young sow and then fattening her. The quality
of the resultant pork would suffer somewhat, but this was not
considered to be of any great importance owing to the absence
of fastidiousness of taste in the general consumer. ‘he farmer,
however, handicapped himself very considerably in the improve-
ment of his pig-breeding stock, as by fattening off the young sow
after she had reared one litter of pigs, it was impossible to make
a selection of the sows which were the best producers of large
litters of those pigs which would grow and mature most quickly.
A permanent and considerable improvement in any breed of
live stock can only be assured by the continuous selection of
those sires and dams whose produce most nearly approaches the
standard of excellence of the breed. We believe also that the
system of mating a young boar with gilts, then castrating and
fattening the boar as soon as the gilts are in pig. has ceased to
be followed to so great an extent as in former times. It is to be
hoped that still further improvement may soon be carried out

354 Hop ** CANKER ’”’ oR “* GROWING-OFF.”’ | Juuy,

by the complete discontinuance of these old practices, which are

now followed only in the breeding of ordinary pigs on the farms.
The following is the official scale of points

Colour.— White.

Face and Neck.—Medium length and wide between the eyes and ears 5

Ears. and not too much over face ... 10
Jowl—Heavy ... oe a ae os 3
Chest.—Wide and deep ... 6 3
Shoulders,— Wide A, Af 15
Back.—Long and level ... a8 10
Sides.—Deep, and ribs well sprung 10
Loin—Broad ... “a0 ants 5
Quarters.—Long, wide and not anotpine 5
Hams.—lLarge and well filled to hocks 15
Tuil.—Thick and set high ee 3
Legs.—Short aud straight ies 5
Belly and Flank.—Thick and well filled a)
Coat.—Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair 73

100

Objections.—Narrow forehead, thin ears.
Disqualijfications.—Pricked ears, dished or long nose, coarse, straight or bristly
coat, any other colour of hair than white.

HOP “CANKER” OR “GROWING-OFF.”

i. 5. SauMon and H. Wormatp,
Mycological Department, S.E. Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

Hop ** canker ’’ has been known for the past thirty or forty
years, if not longer. It is known generally in Kent, Sussex,
Surrey, Hampshire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire as ‘‘ can-
ker,’’* but in many districts of the Weald of Kent and of Sussex,
farmers as well as foremen in the hop garden give the disease
the descriptive name of “* growing-off.’’

A short account of the disease was published’ in 1902 by
Professor John Percival,t who wrote: “‘f have noticed examples
as early as the end of June, but it is most frequently noticed later
in the season, and in many cases the bine may remain connected
as it were by a mere thread almost up to the time of hop-picking

a then suddenly droop and die with its load of hops in an hour

The present disease must not be confused with that occasion: alg caused
by he grub, or caterpillar, of the Ghost Moth rae humuli), which lives
de ground and bores its way into the rootstock of the hop.

+ Jour. 8. E. Agric. College, XI, 87-89 (1902).

1922. | Hop ‘‘ CANKER ”’ on ‘‘ GROWING-OFTF.’ 355

or two. On scraping away the soil, the lower end of the bine
will be found completely severed from the parent plant.’’

The cause of the disease was attributed by Professor Percivat to
the fungus Fusoma parasiticum. During the past ten years the
writers have had, from time to time, opportunities for studying
the disease, and have been able to confirm the general conclu-
sions arrived at by Professor Percival.

Description of the Disease.—Above ground the presence of
the disease is indicated by a wilting of one or more bines at each
affected ‘‘ hill ’’; such bines are usually found to be almost
severed at the base and easily come away from the rootstock
with a sught pull, a condition which, as noted above, is some-
times described by growers as ““ growing-off ’’ of the bines. This
wilting of the bines is accompanied by a canker of the under-
ground rootstock, the infected portions being brown and dead.

The basal parts of diseased bines which have been dead for
some time often bear white pustules of a fungus, the conidia
produced on these pustules being of the Fusarium type. Bines
just beginning to wilt may not show these pustules, but usually
the bark and even the wood is brown, and myceliwm of a fungus
is to be found in the brown tissues. In experiments where
particles of such brown tissues were placed on sterilized culture-
media, the fungus grew out and eventually gave rise to the
Fusarium fructifications.

If the bines become infected but are not killed until late in the
season, their bases become abnormally thickened, presumably
owing to the accumulation of foodstuffs travelling downwards
from the leaves and unable to reach the rootstock because of the
partial severance of the tissues at the junction of bine and root-
stock. These swollen bases become invaded by the fungus,
which produces its fructifications at the surface. If the fungus
is not fruiting at the time the hill is “‘ eut’’ or ‘‘ dressed,’’
Fusarium fructifications almost invariably appear within a few
days if the basal part of the bine—known as a “‘ strap cut ”’
when used for propagation—is kept in moist air.

A serious outbreak of the disease in a ‘‘ Bramling ’’ hop-
garden came under the writers’ notice in 1914, and the following
notes on observations made there will serve to illustrate a typical
case of hop-canker. Many hundreds of bines had been killed
during the first three weeks of June of that year. By the end
of the month the damage had almost ceased but the check was
probably only a temporary one, as in previous infestations in
the same hop-garden a certain further number of bines died

E 2

856 Hop ** CankEr ”’ or ‘‘ GRow1ING-oFr.”’ [ Juny,

later in the season when bearing hops. Some of the diseased
bines were quite detached from the rootstocks, and others showed
various stages in the process of becoming separated. Many of
the dead bines were found to be bearing Fusarium pustules when
examined in the hop-garden; in some cases the pustules had
developed while covered with two or three inches of soil. In
very rare instances the separated bines were found to have
produced tufted growths of adventitious roots, mostly from the
nodes, in the region between the plane-of separation and the
surface of the soil.

it is noteworthy that this Bramling garden was on land which
had not previously borne hops and the plants were only about
four years old; the soil was loamy and certainly not to be
described as a wet soil. In a few hills all the bines had been
killed and only such hills were, in practice, grubbed up and
destroyed. As a rule 1 to 8 out of the six bines trained up
from a hill had been killed; such hills were not grubbed up.

A number of hills which had lost 1 or 2 bines during the
Summer were marked and examined in the following March,
when it was found that in each case some or all of the rema:ning
‘“‘ straps ’’ (bases of the bines) were diseased, a slight pull
usually being sufficient to sever the connection with the root-
stock; in one hill only were all the ‘‘ straps ’’ securely con-
nected with the rootstock and, on cutting, it was found that
two were sound throughout while the third showed a trace of
decay on one side.

Vhere the straps were not wholly destroyed the decay
in every case was at the lower end, the upper end being still
alive and bearing young shoots. This indicates that the disease
spreads from the crown of the rootstock into the straps. One
such strap which was carefully examined showed a sharply
marked margin at the upper limit of the diseased tissue which
extended to about the middle of an internode, the lower node
bearing dead buds, the upper living ones. The same sharp
demarcation of the brown dead portion was also seen on cutting
the ‘‘ strap’’ longitudinally, and on making a microscopic
examination fungus mycelium was found in the brown tissues
up to one or two layers of cells from the sound tissues ; mycelium
was not found actually in the cells not discoloured. The myce-
lium present was proved to be that of the Fusarium.

It was the practice in this garden, at the time the hills were
cut, to remove the straps almost immediately and burn
them; at the time of the visit (March) this was being done, the

‘crowing off” of
the one on the left
Of the three bines attached

FIG. 1.—Hop-canker, showing
bines (stems) from the rootstock ;

is completely severed.
to the rootstock. the one on the left is partly severed,
The detached bine, from the same rootstock, shows
how the fungus (pustules of which are evident at X)
leaving only a

has eaten away the base of the stem.
(Nat. size.)

tapering slender point of attachment.

Fia. 2.—Portion of crown of
hill, showing the thickened bases
of two bines. The funeus is seen
at the lower end of the bine on
the right. (Nat. size.

1922. | Hop ‘‘ Cancer ”’ or ‘‘ GROWING-OFF.”’ 857

fire being at the side of the garden. However, a few straps
from diseased hills had been left lying on the ground for about
two days and on some of these there were pustules which proved
to be the fructifications of the Fusariwm, although none of the
hills, as they were uncovered and examined that day, showed any
pustules. It is evident therefore that if diseased portions of the
plants are not destroyed immediately, but are left lying about
- in the hop-garden, they serve for the continued development and
dissemination of the fungus. It seems probable that the fungus
can remain alive even when the “ strap cut’’ in which it is
living becomes desiccated. Infected ‘‘ strap cuts’’ from the
hop-garden referred to above were brought into the laboratory
in June and allowed to become air-dried at room temperature.
In the following February they were moistened and placed on
damp filter paper in a covered dish. Within four days mycelium
had grown out and already conidia, in general resembling those
seen on the freshly-killed straps but not produced in definite pus-
tules, had developed. The rapid development of mycelium and
fructifications suggests that the growth had arisen from internal
mycelium rather than from chance conidia on the surface, but
the experiment must be repeated under more controlled con-
ditions for confirmation of this point.

In another case, the farmer has described the damage inflicted
as follows :—‘‘ In some years, in my Rodmersham Golding hop-
garden, I lose a small percentage of bines, which die off both in
burr and in full hop. One season we had a most disastrous time
—they were a wonderful looking crop, till they started dying both
in burr and hop and continued to do so up to and through
picking. I should say we lost about 30 per cent. of the crop.”’

In some cases ‘‘ canker ’’ may appear soon after the planting
of the hops. A Worcestershire grower wrote in 1914 :—‘' I am
sending you the enclosed hop roots. They were planted last
year as yearling roots. You will notice that the body of the plant
is going rotten. There are thousands of plants like them in the
hopyard.’’ The specimens sent bore the same fungus as found
in other cases of hop-canker.

Ag will be inferred from the above accounts, hop ‘* canker ”’
is a sufficiently serious disease to cause appreciable damage.
As a rule only a certain number of the ‘* bines "’ on any one
hill die off, and the whole plant—the ‘‘ hill ’’—is not generally
killed. Cases have occurred, however, where from 5 to 10 per
cent. of the hills in a garden have been completely killed. Where
the hops planted belong to a variety which is particularly suscep-

‘

358 Hop “* Canker ”’ on “‘ GROWING-OFF.”’ | JULY,

tible to ‘‘ canker,’’ a certain number of dead hills are almost
invariably to be found.

Varieties Susceptibie to ‘‘ Canker.’’—Some varieties of hops
appear to be more susceptible than others. In the Weald of
Kent and Sussex, Bramlings and Tolhurst are severely attacked ;
Fuggles do not escape the disease, but the injury inflicted is not
usually so great as in the above-noted varieties. In East Kent
the variety Rodmersham (or Mercer’s) Golding has proved par-
ticularly susceptible; Bramling to a less degree, while Cobbs
-and Old Golding are little affected.

In Worcestershire the Mathon White is very hable to the
disease, and in Hampshire the Farnham Whitebine.

Influence of Soil Mcisture.—While by no means confined to
hop-gardens on heavy, wet soils, the disease does appear to be
favoured by moist conditions. The general experience of hop-
growers is that ‘‘ canker ’’ is worse in a wet season or following
a, wet winter. If there is a wet clayey patch in a garden, the
‘‘ ills ’’ are likely to be more severely attacked there than in
the other part of the garden, and that side of a garden which
gets least sun will frequently show the greater number of dis-
eased hills. A grower in Hast Kent writes :—‘‘ My garden of
Rodmersham Goldings which was so severely attacked by ,
‘canker ’’ lay rather low and damp, and somewhat shaded
from the early morning sun; the soil is a deep loam overlying
brick earth. I grubbed this garden and it has not been re-
nlanted, but I planted up some Rodmersham Goldings in another
garden which has a lighter and sharper soil, with a gravel and
chalk subsoil. The plants do not crop so heavily but on the
other hand we have much fewer losses by dead hills or dying
off after the bines have reached the top wire.”’

The Fungus Causing the Disease.—The constant association
of the Fusarium fungus with the disease, and the fact that this
fungus can be directly isolated as a pure culture from tissues of
the hop-plant bordering on the healthy parts supply strong
presumptive evidence that the fungus is the cause of the disease.

Inoculation experiments carried out by the writers on hop
sets, although not conclusive (owing to the fact that some of
the control sets contracted the disease) give further evidence in
the same direction.

ight hop sets were inoculated with the fungus (by placing
on the cut surface mycelium from a pure culture) and planted
up in pots; all gave rise to diseased plants, six of them becoming

1922. | Counci, or AGRICULTURE FoR WALES. 359

cankered and producing Fusarium pustules; the other two pro-
duced wilted bines but when examined no Fusarium pustules
were present. Of the four “‘ control sets,’’ planted up at the
same time but not inoculated, two also became infested with the
Fusarium; the other two produced healthy shoots.

Preventive Measures..—Direct.—(1) In several cases hard
‘ cutting,’’ or ‘* dressing.’’ of all the hills in the affected part
of the garden has been advised, and success has followed this
treatment. All the browned part of the hill (rootstock) con-
tiguous to the swollen or ‘* cankered ’’ bines should be pared
away with a sharp knife. The experience of many observant
hop growers has led them to believe that a thorough “‘ cutting ”’

‘ dressing ’’ of the hills is the best treatment for ‘‘ canker.

(2) All dead hills in the garden should be grubbed up and
destroyed.

(3) In the affected part of the hop-garden all the cuttings from
the hills should be collected and destroyed when they are cut, as
the fungus causing ‘‘ canker ’’ will develop on the swollen cut-
off “‘ straps,’’ and may infect the cut surface of the plant in
the hill.*

Indirect.—Drainage, or cultivation to remove the moisture of
wet land, or letting in the sun, appears to have a favourable

effect on keeping ‘‘ canker ”’ in check.
COUN OF AGRICULTURE FOR
WALES.

Tue half-yearly statutory meeting of the Council of Agricul-

ure for Wales was held at the University College of Wales,
ris stwyth, on the 19th May, 1922, under the Chairmanship
of Mr. W. S. Miller, who was re-elected to the Chair for the
year 1922.

There was a representative gathering of members and the
Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries (Lt.-Col. the Right Hon.
Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen, M.P.), Mr. C. Rryner Jones,
C.B.E., Welsh Secretary, and other Officers of the Ministry were
present.

Address by the Minister.—The Minister gave a general review
of the situation in regard to agriculture during the preceding six

* A Sariier writes to us: “This year for the first time we are collec ting
and burning ev erything eut from the hill at ‘dressing’ time in the pee of
Tolhursts that has ‘ canker’ badly.”

360 CouncIL oF AGRICULTURE FOR WALES. | Juny,

months, and, in the course of his remarks, referred to the anxious
times through which the agricultural industry had been passing
after the comparative prosperity of the war period. The situation
was rendered more difficult as a result of the outbreak of foot-
and-mouth disease, which was the severest visitation of the
disease that this country had experienced since 1883. On the
other hand, the reduction in the wages of agricultural labourers,
which was inevitable having regard to the fall in the prices of
agricultural produce, had afforded some compensation to the
farmer. He expressed gratification over the fact that the
necessary adjustment in wages had been made in a spirit of
conciliation and goodwill, which was essential in order to ensure
peace on the farm, without which it would not be possible to
secure prosperity. The Ministry had, on its part, taken vrompt
measures to meet the Corn Claims, which, with the exception of
those in regard to which queries had been raised, were all paid
in the early part of January.

Dealing with the report of the Committee on National Expendi-
ture, the Minister stated that he had been able to prevail upon
the Government, in spite of the recommendations made by the
Committee, to preserve the Live Stock Scheme, with the excep-
tion of the sections relating to Heavy and Light Forse Breeding.
It had been found possible also to retain, in addition to the Grant
of £850,000 provided under the Corn Production Acts (Repeal)
Act for the promotion of agricultural development in England
and Wales, the full provision already made for aiding agricultural
education and research. He explained in detail the position as
regards the proposed allocation of the fund of £850,000 to
different services and emphasised the fact that no money would
be allocated from the fund for the completion of schemes for the
establishment of Farm Institutes pending a decision as to the
amount required for research into animal diseases.

Proceeding, the Minister called attention to the benefits
derived by the agricultural industry from the land drainage
schemes adopted for the alleviation of unemployment and to the
steps taken by the Ministry to secure a settlement of the difficulty
as regards milk prices. Amongst other things he referred to the
relief given to the farmer in the Budget that had been recently
introduced, which provided for assessments under Schedule B
for income tax purposes to be made in future on the basis of the
annual value. In conclusion, while admitting that the rating
question remained to be dealt with and that under the present

1922. | Councr. oF AGRICULTURE FoR WALBS. 361

system the farming industry was undoubtedly over-rated, he
expressed the hope that it would be possible in the near future
to place the matter on a proper basis.

The Chairman proposed and Col. Curre seconded a vote of
thanks to the Minister.

Importation of Store Cattle —The question of the importation
into this country of live store cattle from Canada was again con-
sidered and the following resolution, which is in the same terms
as the resolution passed at the previous meeting of the Council,
was, on the proposition of Mr. C. D. Thompson (Glamorgan),
seconded by Mr. G. B. Bowen (Pembroke), carried nem. con. :—

‘‘ That the Council of Agriculture for Wales strongly pro-
tests against any proposal to remove the present embargo on
the importation of Canadian cattle, and calls upon the Ministry
of Agriculture to take steps to ensure that the interests of the
acriculturists of this country are safeguarded in this matter.’’

Report of Live Stock Committee.—In submitting the report
of the Live Stock Committee, Mr. G. B. Bowen, Chairman of
the Committee, called attention to the increased number of sires
placed out under the Live Stock Scheme in Wales and Mon-
mouthshire. Although the heavy horse grants had been discon-
tinued, it was particularly gratifying to find that five milk
recording societies were at present carrying out operations in the
Principality. The Committee had at its meeting held on the 28th
April adopted proposals for the allocation of the grants available
for Wales for 1922-23, viz., 110 boar grants, 245 bull grants and
16 ram grants. He moved the adoption of the report and the
motion was seconded by Mr. S. T. Griffin (Monmouth).

On being put to the meeting the report was adopted.

Report of Committee on Agricultural Policy.—The Council
then proceeded to consider the report of a Sub-Committee
appointed at the previous meeting to draft suggestions for the
formulation of an agricultural policy for Wales. Mr. Bryner
Jones explained that the Committee had met on two occasions to
consider this matter, and after fully discussing various aspects
of the question had asked him to draft a report ¢«mbodying
generally the views expressed at the meetings of the Committee.
As indicated in the memorandum circulated with the report,
the Committee, when they met subsequently, were unable to
agree without reservations to all the recommendations included
in the report, but it was their unanimous desire that the report
as drafted should be submitted to the Coune'l for discussion.

362 SwepDes Resistant To F'InGER-AnpD-Tos. [ Juny,

After considerable general discussion it was agreed that detailed
consideration of the report be deferred to a special meeting of the
Council to be called for the purpose at the end of three months.

Credit for Farmers.—Consideration was given to the report
of the Sub-Committee appointed by the Agricultural Advisory
Committee for England and Wales to consider the question of
providing further credit facilities for farmers. On the motion
of Mr. Griffin (Monmouth), seconded by Mr. C. D. Thompson,
and supported by Mr. William Edwards (Anglesey), it was
decided to support the recommendations embodied in ihe report.

Agricultural Statistics —Mr. Bryner Jones called attention to
the memorandum which had been circulated to the members in
regard to the proposed Bill for dealing with the collection of
Agricultural Returns and stated that the Ministry would be glad
to receive an expression of opinion on the part of the Council
as to whether it was desirable that a Bill should be promoted with
a view of making it compulsory upon holders of agricultural land
to furnish the information required in the annual Returns.

Mr. C. D. Thompson proposed and Mr. Thomas Williams
(Montgomery) seconded the following resolution, which was
carried unanimously :

“That provided the information furnished by individual
farmers is not disclosed or used for any other purpose than
the compilation of agricultural statistics this Council approves
of the proposal of the Ministry of Agriculture to promote a Bill
making it obligatory upon farmers to supply the particulars
required in the annual Agricultural Returns.’’

The half-yearly report (No. 3) of the Proceedings of the Agri-
cultural Advisory Committee for England and Wales, dated the
10th May, 1922, was received by the Council. 7

VARIETIES OF SWEDES RESISTANT
TO FINGER-AND-TOE.

T. WurrenEeaD, A.R.C.Sc.,
Agricultural Department, University College, Bangor.

AtrHoucH it has become widely known that clubroot
or finger-and-toe (Plasmodiophora brassicae) can be elimi-
nated, or at least greatly reduced in severity, by the application
of lime, there is no indication that the disease is actually being
controlled on any large scale. Individual farmers, of course,

1922. | Swepes Resistanr To FrNcer-anp-Tor. 363

have succeeded in stamping out clubroot, but in general the
position in the country with regard to this disease has not
changed very appreciably during the last twenty years.

Whilst it is true that liming is not usually resorted to on the
scale which is found necessary to check clubroot, this is not alto-
gether to be attributed to slackness or lack of knowledge on the
part of farmers, but in many cases to the real difficulties experi-
enced in carrying out remedial measures.

It is perhaps significant that clubroot is serious in stock-
raising districts in the North of England, and in North Wales—
essentially pastoral areas. These districts have, generally
speaking, a soil rich in humus and a relatively high rainfall—
factors which will tend to reduce soil aeration and presumably to
increase soil acidity. Moreover, under these conditions lime will
often be applied to grass in preference to arable land. Inciden-
tally it may be observed that liming is a costly and laborious
operation. The cost of applying two tons of lime at present
prices will be at least £5 per acre, and in some cases—as in
North Wales—where a farm may be as much as ten miles from
a railway, the cost and labour involved become prohibitive.

These facts, taken in conjunction with the opportunities which
oceur for infecting land through farmyard manure and the com-
mon farm practice of feeding off roots to sheep on grass which
will eventually be broken up, often result in the soil being kept
permanently contaminated with clubroot spores.

So long as these conditions exist it is not reasonable to expect
any radical change in the extent to which lime is employed and
the uses to which it is put. It becomes necessary therefore, to
determine whether any other method of controlling the disease
is available.

The most obvious alternative is the production of resistant
strains of swedes which can be relied upon to give a good crop
even on land badly contaminated with clubroot. This possibility
has received the attention of some seedsmen in this country,
and in Denmark several highly resistant kinds of swedes have
been produced by selection from two old Danish varieties,
Klank and Bangholm Pajberg.

Preliminary Trials in 1920.—With a view to testing the resist-
ance of varieties of swedes to clubroot under the conditions
usually prevalent in North Wales, preliminary trials were laid
down on three farms in 1920. In these trials eleven British
varieties were tested alongside two Swedish and two Danish
kinds. Although the season was an abnormally wet one (dis-

SweDES ResIsTANT To FINGER-AND-TOE. | JuLy,

364

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1922. | Swepes Resistant To FincEer-anp-T'or, 365

tricts with a normal annual rainfall of 80 in. recording 8.9 in.
in the month of July alone) the results were sufficiently promising
to make a second trial advisable. It is the object of this article
to discuss fully the results obtained in 1921.

1921 Trials.—In order to keep these trials within reasonable
limits only four British varieties were tested, together with the
two Danish strains which had proved moat resistant to clubroot
at Studsgaard and Herning in Denmark.

The seed of the former varieties was obtained from seedsmen
in the ordinary way, whilst that of the Danish varieties was
obtained from the experimental station at Herning through the
courtesy of Mr. C. I. Christensen.

The trials were carried out on three farms in Carnarvonshire,
viz. :—Dinas, Tregarth; Dolgynfydd, Carnarvon; and Pennarth,
Clynnog. At each centre three series of plots were laid down,
and in addition, each series was divided to allow of comparison
of different treatments.

In this way eighteen series of plots were kept under observa-
tion, and a thorough check upon the results was obtained.

The swedes were sown on 13th May at Dinas, 30th May at
Dolgynfydd, and 2nd June at Pennarth. A good and uniform
plant was obtained at each centre, and considering the dry
season the progress of the crops, except so far as they were
affected by clubroot, was fairly good. ‘The swedes were lifted
at all the centres at the end of November.

Method of Examination and Stating Results.—The crop was
examined in the field immediately after lifting, and before the
roots were cleaned. Roots which showed no signs of disease,
and those so slightly attacked that the diseased part would be
removed in cleaning, were classed as sound. Roots so seriously
affected that no cleaning could remove the whole of the diseased
tissue, were classed as bad. ‘The term destroyed was applied
only to such useless roots as appeared to be destroyed by clubroot.
The intensity of attack is shown in tables I and IT by a figure
calculated from the proportions of roots of these three classes in
the crops. The figure ‘‘O’’ would signify that the crop contained
none but sound roots, and is increased with the number of bad
and destroyed roots up to 20, which would indicate a totally
destroyed crop. This is a slight modification of the method used
by Christensen.*

* Christensen, C.I., in Tidskrift for Planteavl : vol. xxvi, pt. 11917 (abstract
in Rept. of Int. Inst. of Agric. Rome, March 1918, p. 317),

366 SwEDES Resistant To FrncErR-anp-Tos. [ Juny,

The Tables show that at Dinas, the field was thoroughly
and uniformly affected with the disease. At Pennarth and at
Dolgyntydd the intensity of attack was not nearly so great, but
they confirm the Dinas results very well. In every case the
Danish varieties proved superior.

Table I gives in detail the results at Dinas, and clearly shows
the great resistance of the Danish varieties as compared with
the others. For instance, on the unlimed land the average in-
tensity of attack of all the British varieties was 8.4, whereas the
two Danish varieties suffered to the extent of only 4.9 and 3.7
respectively.

On the limed plots the difference was even more striking.
Taking the last column but one there is little difference between
the total weights per acre, but the last column shows that the
Danish varieties gave a much better weight of sownd roots than
any of the other kinds tested.

TABLE Ii.—Summary of Results three Centres.

Average Intensity of Attack. Maximum = 20,

Dinas. Dolgynfydd. Pennarth.
So
| oe |
| Sulphate
| | Compound of Super-
imed. |Unlimed| Slag. | Manure. mmonia. | phosphate.
L 1. |Unl Lead M A hosphat
Average | Average | Average} Average | Average | Average
Of 3S > OLS, | cols of 3 OF 24} .-oR2
| series, | sermes. series, series. | serics. | series.
| I J } ,
( os ) | . oe! ~~ f
Lord Derby 4c 6 8:8 1220. | ae 20 2°15 0:90
Danish Variety 5...| 3° soe) Mine ai a 0°93 O84 0°50
Magnum Bonum .. 6° O32 1) PRESS 3°70 0°95 0°84
Pioneer. <= ag =O: O78, |» Ag? 2°90 1°35 1°25
Danish Variety 25 Sia ei 0°36 0-88 0:27 0°23
Dreadnought 6° | 19 1 Ba 2°70 I-37 0-76

Effect cf Treaiment on Clubroot.—It will be seen from the
Tables that in addition to the plots of the different varieties. cross
plots were arranged and treated in different ways. Owing to
some variation in the ground, and the difference in exposure to
infection at Dolgynfydd and Pennarth, it is impossible to draw
definite conclusions from the results at these two centres, but
the different intensities of attack shown in the Dinas results may
be taken as a fair indication of the effect of lime in preventing
clubroot. The results are all the more striking on account of
the fact that the lime was only applied shortly before sowing the
seeds. If it had been applied in the previous year the chances
are that its effect would have been even more marked.

1922. | Swrpes Resistant To FInGER-AND- TOR. 367

= = = Sos — ——

Keeping Qualities.—In order to test the varieties still further
at Dinas, all the roots of each variety from series 1 and 2 of the
unlimed plots which were considered by the farmer to be sound
enough for use, were clamped separately and left till 14th
January, when they were again examined. Many of the swedes
had rotted so completely as to be unfit for feeding to stock.
These were discarded and the remainder were counted and
weighed. The percentage losses in weight for the different
varieties were found to be as follows:—Lord Derby 11.5;
Magnum Bonum 15.6; Pioneer 20.4; Dreadnought 13.8; Danish
Variety No. 4, 3.8; Danish Variety No. 25, 2.7. I'he two Danish
varieties thus showed much better keeping powers than the rest.

Feeding Value.—Finally, it was desirable to determine the
feeding value of the different varieties. This was done by ob-
taining the percentage of dry matter, the analyses being carried
out by Mr. W. McLean, Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry.

The results are as follows :—Lord Derby 8.3; Magnum Bonum
9.5; Pioneer 8.6; Dreadnought 8.7; Danish Variety No. 4, 10.0:
Danish Variety No. 25, 10.0. The Danish varieties contained a
higher percentage of dry matter than the other varieties tested.
Since the feeding value of roots usually varies according to the
proportion of dry matter, it is not unfair to assume that the two
Danish varieties possessed a higher feeding value than the
British varieties. It should be noted that previous experiments
carried out by the University College, Bangor, have shown that
roots grown in North Wales generally have a lower proportion
of dry matter than the same varieties grown in some English
districts.

General Conclusions.—It seems clear from the results ob-
tained that two varieties have been found which resist clubroot
to a marked degree, and in addition, keep better and have a
higher feeding value than the remainder of the varieties in-
cluded in the trial. This is the only conclusion one can arrive
at even though reliable results are only available for one year,
and that a relatively dry one in which the disease was less serious
than usual.

An examination of Christensen’s results shows that the
Danish varieties exhibit an even higher degree of resistance in
Denmark than they do in North Wales. In the present investi-
gation Danish Variety 25 is consistently more resistant than
Danish Variety 4. This is true of both the 1920 and 1921 trials,
and is just the reverse of the results obtained by Christensen.

In assigning a value to the breeding of resistant strains it

368 SweEpDES RESISTANT TO FINGER-AND-TOE. | Juny,

should not be forgotten that at most it is a palliative, though it
would seem that the growing of such strains will tend to starve
out the fungus in the absence of susceptible weeds. The most
certain way of eliminating the disease is to destroy the clubroot
spores in the soil by the application of lime, and by prolonging
the rotation. We do not, however, as yet know the minimum
dressing of lime required for this purpose and, indeed, it is still
uncertain what the effect upon the soil itself will be following the
application of a given quantity of lime to any particular soil.
For this reason as well as for other reasons previously discussed
it is advisable to explore more fully the possibility of raising
varieties of cruciferous crops resistant to clubroot.

Since these experiments were carried out Danish Variety 4
has been placed on the market and is obtainable from the firm
Danske Landhoforeningers Froforsyning of Roskilde, Denmark,
under the name ‘‘ Studsgaard Bangholm.’’ Possibly further
selection from the point of view of resistance to clubroot may
result in the production of a resistant strain of some well-known
British variety.

Acknowledgment must be made of the great assistance ren-
dered by Mr. Edwin Jones, B.Sc., a post-graduate student, in
carrying out the trials here reported upon.

eee aa ee

1922.] Trrap or Timper Jacxs anp A Monkey WISCH. 269

A TRIAL OF TIMBER JACKS AND
A MONKEY WINCH.

A Report* was recently published by the Ministry on hedge
and stump clearing devices, containing the results of tests con-
ducted at Long Sutton in Hampshire. An abstract of this report
appeared in the Ministry's Journal, April, 1922, page 6. One
of the devices tested was a mechanical jack. manufactured by
Messrs. Trewhella Bros., of Birmingham, the results with which
were far from satisfactory. | Messrs. Trewhella therefore
requested the Ministry to subject the device to a further trial,
and with the concurrence of the Hampshire Agricultural Educa-
tion Authorities advantage was taken of a test of sub-soiling and
tillage machinery recently held at Sparsholt Agricultural Institute
near Winchester. to obtain further data. Conditions were
obtained as far as possible similar to those in the former trial
at Long Sutton, and a monkey winch for timber removing manu-
factured by the same firm was also included in the test. Much
better results were obtained in the later trial with the jack. and
the device can be regarded as an economic unit worthy of con-
sideration by any farmer desiring to clear timber over a
protracted period.

The Test Ground.—The plot upon which the jacks and winch
worked was level and consisted of light loam, with chalk at a
depth of from 1 ft. to 1 ft. 6 in. In consequence all the timber
was shallow rooted. The test lasted over a period of two days.
During the first day, the monkey winch only was tested, and
on the second day the jacks were tested. The timber consisted
of elder, hazel and maple stools and blackthorn and maple
trees.

Data were obtained under the following heads :——

1. Weight and volume of timber, size of crater, and quantity

of earth displaced.

2. Number cf hands required to operate the device.

3. Time taken to prepare for work.

4. Capital cost; depreciation, and maintenance.

5. Comparative degree of skill needed to work the device.

6. Mechanical design and construction, and general efficiency

of the device. |

* Miscellaneous Publications No. 35. Price 2/6, post free, from the
Ministry, 10, Whitehall Place, London, S.W.1.

370 TrraL OF ‘Trwper JAcKS AND A Monkey Winen. {Juny,

. Mechanical construction having regard to simplicity and
access to wearing parts.

8. Method of extraction having regard to simplicity and
safety.

9. Ease of handling, including manceuvring to the scene of
operation.

10. Usefulness of the appliance for other work.

Description and Test.

Sale Price: March, 1922.

gS 0s
A. Ten-tonjack - &- See uf 1310 0
Five-ton jack see Bet 0
B. Monkey winch (with aye
tackle) a bE UP aU)
Monkey winch (without Shine
tackle) ar am sek AT “10230

The Timber Jack.—The jack is of the well-known rack and
bar type, the distinguishing feature being that the casing is
made to move up and down the pillar instead of remaining
stationary. This casing carries two lifting claws fitted at different
heights, and on opposite sides, the top claw being at a con-
venient height to go under a load which the bottom claw has
raised to its limit. To transfer the weight from the bottom to
the top claw simply involves turning the pillar round.

The pillar of the jack consists of hard railway steel of great
strength. Each jack is fitted with two spears of different lengths
supported by guides, and by these the working range of the
jack is considerably increased.

A simple device on the side of the casing releases the pawl
action and thus permits the jack to be raised or lowered night
up or down without working the handle.

To uproot a stump, a trench is dug on one side and the
jack placed under a strong root. ‘To prevent the base of the
jack from sinking too far into the ground a steel base or a stout
plank is placed underneath. Upon the lever being worked the
jack rises and tears the stump bodily out of the ground.

Method of Trial_—Two men only worked on these machines
and were equipped with grub axes, a spade and a crowbar. The
jacks first worked approximately 1} hours upon elder, hazel and
maple and shallow-rooted stools. Considerable hand grubbing
was done. It was observed that upon a stool being raised to
a certain limit, the roots holding the stool to the ground were

1922.] Trrar. or Trwper JAcKs AND A MONKEY WINCH. 371

_——

cut and the extraction of the stool therefore presented no great
difficulty. Following this, record was taken of the work of
these jacks in extracting a blackthorn and a maple tree. ‘These
trees had an average diameter of about 10 in. and were
shallow rooted. Jt was observed in this instance also that all
roots were cut by means of the grub axe. Heavy rain fell while
these trees were being extracted and hampered the work con-

siderably.

Pesults.— Stools. Trees.
Average diameter of stumps... diy (LSS -in. +e 9-9 in.
Average time occupied in removing... 9°61 mins. .... 30°5 mins.
Average cost per stump ... : Fe 4d. pe Je es
Average cost per sq. ft. of cross Bacto 1-75d. peu + -23°93d:;
Anvarage cost per cubic ft. of timber lifted 1-04d. suaay + LO°D2ds

The Monkey Winch.—The mechanism of this machine does
not depart greatly from the ordinary winch fitted with a ratchet
gear, except that the steel rope is specially adapted for holding
and pulling timber. The winch gear is fitted in a very compact
steel frame, which can be moved from place to place on its own
two wheels where the ground is not too rough. In other cases,
two men can easily carry the machine from one spot to another.

The winch is fitted between trees or stumps by means of the
steel ropes which are equipped with specially made couplings
which wedge themselves on the rope, thus avoiding any possibility
of slipping at high tension. By means of the single ratchet
gear the load is applied by working a handle backwards and
forwards which has the effect of winding in the rope and
ultimately the strain becomes so great that the stump is torn
from the ground.

Method of Trial.—Three men were allocated to the winch
and were provided with grub axes, a spade and a crowbar. The
stools in this plot consisted of elder and haze! and had very
shallow roots. Little time was required for fixing the cable
round the stool to be extracted, and the winch proved easily
capable of extracting all stumps encountered. Owing to the
radius within which this winch may work, it was found
unnecessary to change the position of the machine.

Abstract of Results —The results are as follows, details of
which are given in the table on p. 872. :—

Stools.
Average diameter of stump ... = aes se. ne IRL,
Average time occupied site se sae ... 58 mins.
Average cost per stump as és e's oud 36d,
Average cost per sq. ft. cross section.. on as 11d.
Rvetiece cost per cubic ft. of timber lifted nace oe ‘6d.

O72 TRIAL oF TrmpeR Jacks AND A Monkey Wiyeu. {Juxy,

Observations on the Use of Each Device.—foth types of
device were simple to operate and no difficulty was experienced
in the test at Sparsholt. It may, however, be cbserved that
before men can become skilled operators a certain amount of
continuous practice is necessary. The mechanical construction
of the machines is robust and simple and there appeared little
likehhood of any defect occurring in the working parts. Both
types of machines have been built to withstand excessive over-
loading. At no time was a very big load imposed on any of
the devices. as the timber was all shallow rooted. whereas the
timber in the test at Long Sutton was deep rooted. For this
reason and the fact that the average diameter of the timber was
smaller it is impossible to compare the results of the two tests.
For similar conditions to those obtaining at Sparsholt the jacks
can be regarded as very useful for land cleaning over a protracted
period. The same remark applies to the monkey winch, though
the usefulness of this device is greater than that of the jacks,
because of its high load extraction capacity and the facility
with which it can work in dense undergrowth.

Jacks. Winch.
faa <7 =)
Stools or Stools or
. Coppice. Trees. Coppice.
Total number of stumps extracted ... 9 z 2
Diameter of stumps in inches—
Smallest oe ate 12 9°5 ip
Largest “+ eee Ee 27 10°3 43
Average zs Sei 18°5 og 23°3
Number of working hours ... we, Lhe26m,. “itis Jam. -—2 ar, tee
Average time per stump in min.—
Grubbing ee oe aes 4:4 De 22,
Extraction... wf oF D°2 8:3 3'6
Total, 3osc (, deh epee 9°6 30°5 ps
Average cost per stump... as 40d. 12-8d. 36d.
Cost per sq. ft. of cross section... 1-7d. 23°9d. 1-1d.
Cost per cubic ft. of timber lifted ... 10d. 105d. “6d.
Average volume of crater in cu. ft. 4°3 2-1 8°5

1922. | Nores oN FEEDING STUFFS FOR JULY. 373

NOTES ON FEEDING STUFFS FOR
JULY,

K. T. Hatnan, M.A., Dip. Agric. (Cantab.),
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

The Feeding Value of Milk By-products.—In the manutac-
ture of butter, cheese and cream, a considerable amount of
buttermilk, whey and separated milk is produced. These milk
by-products are valuable feeding materials if rightly used with
suitable meal mixtures. It is common practice on most farms
where cheese, butter or cream is manufactured, to feed pigs
with the milk residues, although there are still some places
where the residues are thrown away as useless materials. A
correspondent has recently asked for information on the feeding
value of these by-products, and the following notes are appended
in the hope that they may be of value to stock feeders accus-
tomed to deal with such by-products.

Skim Milk.—On farms in favoured situations it is a common
summer practice to sell cream and feed the skim milk. Skim
milk is a highly nitrogenous feed, having a nutritive ratio of
1—1.5, and is of great value for building flesh and the bony
framework of young animals. Experiments have shown that
skim milk is more valuable than whole milk per Ib. of dry
matter. Skim milk is therefore of value for feeding to young
growing livestock. For calves, it is possible to replace whole
milk eritirely at an age of from five to six weeks. For pigs. it
is an excellent food at all ages. Danish experiments have
shown that skim milk, potatoes, and mixed meals produce bacon
of a high quality. Skim milk is best fed in conjunction with
starchy foods, such as potatoes and maize meal. Compared
with grain, 5 lb. of skim milk will replace 1 lb. of grain in
feeding, and may be regarded as having equivalent feeding
value. Skim milk and maize meal together form a good pig
feed, although the inclusion of a little middlings or barley meal
is beneficial, particularly where the production of first quality
bacon is aimed at. In feeding meals with skim milk, the best
proportion is at the rate of 1 lb. of meal to 3 lb. of skim milk.
One last point, skim milk produces costiveness, and the meals
fed with it should possess the opposite tendency.

Whey.—Whey consists chiefly of milk albumen, milk sugar,
and mineral substances. Unlike skim milk, it has a somewhat

374 NOTES ON FEEDING STUFFS FoR JULY. [ JuLy,

| Price :
Starch| per hat
Equiv.| Unit, e
per Starch a
Ton. Ton. 100 Ib. Equiv. Equiv.

\ |
Manurial Cost of

DESCRIPTION. per per per |Value per

,, Canadian No.2 Feed} 34/-| 400 | 9 10
Oats, English White -| 38/-/ 336 | 12 13 |
; ,, Black & Grey} 36/-| 336 | 12 0 |
Canadian No.2 Feed| 29/9} 320 | 10 8 |
, Argentine - -| 27/6) 320 |
Maize, ‘ - -| 38/6] 480 | |
South African -| 37/-| 480 | 8 13
, American - 35/-| 480 | 8
Beans, English Winter -| 61/3*| 582 | 12 18 |
Rangoon - ee eee ecg oi Cl
Buckwheat, Manchurian| 51/—-| 392 | 14 11 | :
Millers’ offals |
Bran - - -| — | — | Bh
Broad Bran - -| — | — |
Fine middlings (Im-
ported) : se

Snr GG as
pond
ie}
—
=
—"
be
or
te)
Or
(St)
ee
—
—

Oo
—

ie)

—"

—_

(0.0)

—

ee Ma
m DO t
=

|S a I oO NS el eel ce

Oo
Sate OOO ©

“I
PSASSSUAC
DAmoOmmOmWAD ©

(o or)
_—
=)
—
—
jor
—
ue
nn
Ot
bo
—
a
=
he DO

~—
So
—
it
for)
SH
—
rs
a
Or

op Ie 2)
rT
[o 2)
ir)
mh
bo
aed
far)
a ol
Own
~T Ol

Coarse middlings -}| —

Or
|

Pollards (Imported) | —

lp
|
|
|
|
|

Rice Bran - -| — |
Barley Meal - : =
Maize ,, S. African

oor Oonnn ©
=
|
~]
—
use
bo
~
or

Germ Meal -

wodsoa
tS Oo Oo

Locust Bean Meal :

—
orc
fowl

if Gluten-feed oA

oe <
es
Ot

Bean Meal - - 2

—_
Or
Or
jeN)
oe
for)

Fish . - = -| —

)

|
|
|
|
|
}
Linseed E ite yi
|
|

bo Ot & 8 DH DW OC eH =“1 4] 0 6
put
~]

bat

~]
= Ole Oe eS OO

for)

or)

pot

_—

> —

—"
oe ae |

—
for)
i)

toe eH

Cake, English
(9°/, oil)| —

Cottonseed,, English!
Debs 11)

—
eo
Li
bo
lor)
poo
(=>)
—
es)
~]
vo
bo
~—
p=
fone
—
Ut
for)

[o/e)
—
(=>)
bo
or)
or)
i
te
bo
bo
—
ey
pa
="
Ot
lor)

Soya Bean Cake

(6°/, oil)} —
Coconut Cake (6°/,
Groundnut ,, (6°/, oil)| —
Palm kernel Cake

fon)
ie)
bo
——
Or
a"
bo
tes)

j_
ite)
wl
—
for)
~
Ou
—
a)
~l
oS
[o.2)
i>

Price Price | Value Food

Qr Ton |

: [a5 fn 8 £ os £ os | aRor ase
| ae ee

Wheat, British - - 58 /-| 504 | 12 18| 1 0 | 11 18 | 71°6| 3/4 | 1-78

Barley, English Feeding| 39/-| 400 | 10 18 | 18/10 0/| 71 | 2/10 “52

(62/. oil)| —

;. Meal | |

(2°/, ofl)) — | — - 6 5] 1-9] 416) 713/1/4 1 0-71
| Feeding Treacle - - — | — | fae) Pd) 8 14 bE a ee
Brewers’ grains,driedale) — | — | 712| 111| 6 1 49 | 2/6 | 1°34
ce >> 3;porter. — | — | 6 15 11d |od Ay Ao pyey jae
, » wet,ale — | —|{ 1 0} @ 8] 012) 15 | -/10 | 0°45

FE "wet,porter) — | — | 016| 0 8| 0/8] 15 |-/6 | 0°27 |
Malt culms? -;15] SER | 224} 8 0% 2! BiG 27NPas Ore a tag

* Prices at Liverpool.

NoTE.—The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which actual wholesale
transactions have taken place in London, unless otherwise stated, and refer to the price ex mill or
store. The prices were current at the end of May and are, as a rule, considerably lower than
the prices at local country markets, the difference being due to carriage and dealers’ commission.
Buyers can, however, easily compare the relative prices of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local
market by the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, suppose palm kernel cake is offered
locally at £10 per ton. Its manurial value is £1 9s. per ton. The food valne per ton is therefore
£8 lls. per ton. Dividing this figure by 75, the starch equivalent of palm kernel cake as given in
the table, the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. 8d. Dividing this again by 2274, the number
of pounds of starch equivalent in 1 unit, the cost per lb. of starch equivalent is 121d A similar
calculation will show the relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent of other feeding stuffs on the same
local market. From the results of such calculations a buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives
him the best valuelat the prices quoted on his own market.

"ve

Te = >
«il ‘
4

1922. | (JOAT-KEEPING IN BririsH COLUMBIA. 375

wide nutritive ratio, and therefore requires feeding with foods rich
in protein, as, for instance, linseed meal and wheat middlings.
Where the meals available on the farm are of a starchy
character, the introduction of a little earth-nut cake, pea meal
or bean meal will be of value. For feeding to pigs, whey has
about half the feeding value of skim milk, i.e., 10 lb. of whey
equals about 5 lb. of skim milk. Whey is laxative in character
and should be fed with foods producing the opposite effect.

Buttermilk.— Buttermilk has substantially the same value for
pigs as skim milk, and the remarks as to the vaiue of skim milk
apply generally to buttermilk, except perhaps with regard to
calves. Buttermilk has been used successfully with calves, but
cannot be generally recommended except in cases where scrupu-
lous cleanliness prevails. Unless such conditions exist, fermen-
tation sets up in the buttermilk, and a comparatively harmless
and useful feeding stuff then becomes dangerous.

* k * * * *

‘ue Department of Agriculture for British Columbia has
recently issued a third edition of its Bulletin No. 64, entitled
‘““ Goat-raising in British Columbia.’’ The
place of the milch goat in the Province is
now well established, and what was at one
time considered a passing fad is looked upon as a profitable and
useful branch of the live stock industry.

The chief place of the milech goat in the Province is as a
provider of wholesome milk for the household at a moderate cost,
hut it is considered that there is money to be made from the
regular supply of goats’ milk to large cities owing to the well-
known pre-eminence of this milk as the best form of nutriment
for infants and invalids, as a result of which it commands a ready
sale at double the price of cows’ milk.

Under the rules of registration of the Canadian Goat Society,
it is interesting to note that in the case of British :milch goats,
Toggenburgs, and Nubians, animals are admitted for registration
if they have already been registered in the British Goat Society's
Herd Book.

The Bulletin gives valuable information on the housing feed-
ing and general management of goats. It also describes methods
of making goats’ milk into butter and cheese and deals with the
utilisation of goat flesh for the table. It is stated that goat’s milk
has been known for centuries as an ideal food for infants and
invalids, because of its easy digestibility, and many hospitels and
sanatoria keep herds to supply milk for their patients. Though ©

Goat-keeping in
British Columbia.

376 Roap REGULATIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL Tractors. [ JULY,

rich in butter-fat, generally averaging about 5 per cent., the milk
does not form heavy curds in the stomach; the curd from goats’
milk is ight and flaky and digests in about one-third the time
of that of cows’ milk.

A special! section of the Bulletin is devoted to the breeding of
Angora goats, some fine illustrations of these animals being
given. ‘The cheaper grades of this breed are kept largely in the
United States, primarily for keeping down brushwood growth.
The goats are turned out on to the brush and kill off all but the
larger saplings by persistent browsing on the foliage and bark.
and thus convert the useless brush into mohair and goat flesh.
Angora goats which are nearly pure bred are stated to produce
a fleece of about 8 Ib. to 5 !b.. and the price of mohair has been
steadily rising of late years. Angora hides of the best quality
are made into morocco leather for books, while the poorer quality
make workmen’s gloves. Angora pelts are in demand for robes.
for baby-carriages and children’s cloaks, and for house-rugs
They are worth from 2 to 3 dollars each.

(The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries has published the following
leaflets on goat-keeping, copies of which may be obtained from the Ministry's
offices, 10, Whitehall Place, London, 8.W.1, price 1d. each :—No. 306, The
Goat as a Source of Milk ; No. 383, Hints on Goat-keeping.)

FARMERS who own agricultural tractors would be well advised
to make themselves acquainted with the recommendations con-
tained in the Second Interim Report of the
Departmental! Committee on the Taxation
and Regulation of Road Vehicles with
regard to the use of iractors on highways.
The Committee point out that the mtroduction of tractors is
comparatively recent and consequent!y the regulations governing
the use of mechanically-propelled vehicles are not always applic-
able. In many cases the use of these tractors on roads is
believed to be illegal, and the Committee consider that the time
has arrived when special regulations should be made to regularise
and legalise this type of vehicle. At the same time, it is
necessary to provide for the safety of the public, and to ensure
that the risk of damage to the roads is reduced to 4 minimum.

The principal recommendations of the Committee are as
follows :—

Road Regulations
for Agricultural
Tractors.

(i) An agricultural tractor is defined as “a mechanically-propelled
vehicle constructed and used for agricultural purposes not exceeding
33 tons in weight unladen, and drawing, but not itself carrying, any load
except such as is necessary for its propulsion and use.”

1922.] Roap REGULATIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL ‘TRACTORS. 377

(ii) The sum of the axle weights of an agricultural tractor and any
trailer drawn by it should not exceed 8 tons.

(iii) The speed of agricultural tractors on a public highway should be
limited to four miles per hour, unless the tractor complies strictly with
the Regulations governing any other class of vehicle, in which case it
might proceed at the speed appropriate to that class, subject to a maxi-
mum of 16 miles per hour.

(iv) Agricultural tractors should not be required to be constructed
with springs between any axle and the frame.

(v) The steering wheels of an agricultural tractor should, when used
on roads, be fitted with a band which should be smooth, and, where the
tyre touches the surface of the road, flat and not less than 23 inches
in width,

(vi) The driving wheels of an agricultural tractor should be not less
than 36 inches in diameter, and wheels, other than driving wheels, not
less than 24 inches in diameter ; it is recommended that this provision
should not apply in the case of tractors weighing 15 ewt. or less unladen,
or in the case of the trailing wheels of self-contained motor ploughs.
This provision it is proposed should not come into operation until
Ist April, 1923.

(vii) All agricultural tractors should be fitted with two brakes, with
the exception of :—

(a) Tractors under 20 cwt: in weight, used exclusively for hauling

agricultural implements and agricultural machinery ;

(b) Tractors of the “ caterpillar” type up to 30 cwt. in weight, used
exclusively for hauling agricultural implements and agricultural
machinery. .

(c) (Up to 1st April, 1923) tractors between 20 cwt. and 30 cwt. in
weight used exclusively for hauling agricultural implements and
agricultural machinery.

In these cases one brake only, it is considered, need be fitted.

(viii) One identification plate only should be required on agricultural
tractors used exclusively for hauling agricultural implements and agri-
cultural machinery, such plate to be affixed in front of the tractor.

(ix) Driving wheels of agricultural tractors used exclusively for
hauling agricultural implements and agricultural machinery should, as
regards their tread, be either smooth and flat, or flat but fitted with
diagonal crossbars of not less than 3 inches. in width nor more than
3 inch in thickness, extending the full width of the tyre, provided that
the space intervening between each pair of crossbars should not exceed
3 inches. The crossbars should be so disposed throughout the tyre that
the aggregate extent of the crossbars or crossbar in the course of a
straight line drawn horizontally across the circumference of the wheel

‘ would nowhere be less than half the width of the tyre. The width of
the driving wheels should be such as to allow no greater load per inch
width of wheel than 3 cwt.

(x) Agricultural tractors of the “‘ caterpillar” type should be legalised
for the same purposes as wheeled tractors, provided that those parts of
the track which are in contact with the ground are either flat or rounded
and have a minimum width or diameter of } inch. The total area of the

378 Covers For Corn Srooxs anp Hay Cocks. [ JuLy,

track actually in contact with the ground should be not less than —
30 square inches in respect of each ton of the unladen weight of the
tractor.

(xi) An agricultural tractor should be permitted to draw only one
trailer but no trailer should be drawn when the tractor is drawing agricul-
tural machinery or agricultural implements running on their own wheels.

(xi) It is not proposed that Paragraphs (v), (vi), (vii), (ix), (x), (i)
above should apply in the case of agricultural tractors not exceeding
10 cwt. in weight unladen.

It is understood that an Order based upon these recommenda-
tions will be issued shortly by the Minister of Transport. The
practical effect will be that owners of tractors will by the dates
laid down in the Order (not necessarily those recommended by
the Committee) have to ensure that their tractors when travelling
on the road are properly equipped. The provisions entailing
most troubie to farmers to be included in the Order if the recom-
mendations of the Committee are adopted, are those relating to
steering wheels and brakes. Where the steering wheels have a
non-detachable sharp projecting flange, it will presumably be
necessary to fit bands which will make the surface flush ; in point
of fact an owner who at present permits any such tractor to be
driven on the highway runs a very serious risk, and the recom-
mendation is in accordance with the precautions at present taken
by reasonable users of the road. It will not be disputed that the
brakes required by the Committee are for the safety both of the
driver and other users of the highway.

It is to be anticipated that tractors in future placed upon the
market will comply strictly with any Order that may be issued,
and any inconvenience which it may cause will be limited to the
transition period when owners are under the necessity of adapting
their machines to the new requirements.

Ix view of the difficulty of successfully harvesting corn and
hay (particularly clover, lucerne, tares, etc.) in wet weather, the
Ministry in 1920 had small tests carried

Covers for !
out with a device for covering corn stooks,
Corn Siooks and
and in 1921 both corn stooks and hay cocks.
Hay Cocks.

1920 Trials.—Description of Covers.—
The covers tested in 1920 were of semi-glazed heavy
paper, which was claimed to be water proof, and _ they
were six feet in length, and in the shape of a _ cot-
tage roof. They were intended to cover and protect from
rain and birds stooks of from 10 to 12 sheaves each. The

1922.] Covers ror Corn Srooxs anp Hay Cocks. 879

fasteners consisted of cord (two pieces on each cover) which were
fastened through eyelets on one side of the cover, and when
adjusted were threaded through the stook by means of a long
steel needle and fastened to eyelets on the opposite side of the
cover.

The trials were carried out in 1920 at Cambridge University,
Armstrong College (Newcastle-on-Tyne), Leeds University, Aber-
ystwyth Plant Breeding Station, Newton Rigg Farm School
(Westmorland), and in the counties of Derby, Cornwall, and
Cardigan.

Durability of Covers.—The covers stood rain well at Cam-
bridge, Leeds, Cardigan and Cornwall. Conditions seem to
have been more adverse at Armstrong College, Aberystwyth,
Newton Rigg, and Derby. More damage was apparently caused
by high wind than by rain. At Armstrong College four weeks
of bad weather rotted and tore the covers, at Aberystwyth 70-80
per cent. were broken after a week of unsettled weather, in
Derby some were ripped by the wind, while at Newton Rigg the
trial covers withstood heavy rain but some were torn by high
winds.

The result of the trials seemed to show that if the covers were
used in districts where the heaviest weather is experienced they
must be made of more durable material.

Efficacy and Special Uses.—At Cambridge the rain passed off
the covers and the corn beneath dried continuously though
rather more slowly than that which was not covered. At Leeds
rain followed the cutting of the barley so that the corn was wet
when stooked. Unfavourable drying conditions followed, and
when stacked the moisture content of the covered corn was
found to be higher than that of the uncovered. At Aberystwyth
the covers that withstood the wet spell kept the stooks in very
good condition, provided they had been covered when the
sheaves were dry. Stooks that were covered when damp were
in a poor condition when the covers were removed.

In Derby the covers kept the oats dry, and, when taken off,
the oats were very clean and bright. In Cornwall the oats under
the covers were in splendid condition and the covers were stated
to provide protection against wood pigeons and to be useful,
therefore, in positions adjoining woods.

It appeared that in Cardigan, Derby and Cumberland the
covers would have to meet the competition of local methods of
covering stooks. In Derby and Cumberland it is usual to place
hooding sheaves on the top of the stook to act as cover.

380 CovERS FoR Corn Stooxs anp Hay Cocks. [Juny,

a —— — —— + =

Labour and Cost.—At 1s. apiece the cost of covers alone is
about £3—L4 per acre, and the cost of labour in fixing and un-
fixing has to be added to this. As regards extra labour required,
at Aberystwyth it was found to take two men about two minutes
to cover one stook, or about two to three hours to cover one acre.
On account of the expense of covers and labour the practice was
not considered economical at Cambridge and at Armstrong Col-
lege, and the extra labour was stated to be an important item at
Newton Rigg and in Cornwall.

1921 Triais.—-As a result of the 1920 trials the manufacturers
of the covers used for the 1921 season stronger paper and dis-
pensed with the arrangement for threading them together with
needles, using instead better twine, attached to the eyelet holes,
for tying to the sheaf bands. 5,000 covers for corn stooks and
5,000 for hay cocks were supplied free of charge and distributed
to 48 different centres in England and Wales by arrangement
with the Ministry. Owing, however, to the exceptionally dry
weather experienced, 23 of the centres were unable to use the
covers.

Durability.—It was again found at a number of centres that
the covers did not stand strong wind, especially after rain. At
other centres, however, they were stated to be quite fit to use
again.

Iffectiveness.—Protection from damage by birds was reported
from the Oxford School of Rural Eeonomy, Cumberland and
Westmorland Farm School, Worcestershire, Cornwall and
Cheshire. Prevention of sprouting in stooks was reported from
Cumberland, Staffordshire, and Cornwall, while in Stafford-
shire, Worcester, Cornwall, Bangor, and Denbigh grain and
straw from covered stooks appeared to be freer from stain. and
brighter and sweeter in smell than that from uncovered stcoks.

From Worcester and Cornwall it was reported that the covers
would be suitable for special seed crops. At Armstrong College
the covers saved oats which were out in bad weather for five
veeks. The report from Montgomery stated that the covers
would be very valuable in a wet season. Rothamsted Experi-
mental Station stated that stooks sink after making and leave
the covers loose and liable to damage by wind, while covered
barley did not bleach so well as uncovered. In EH. Suffolk the
covers were found to prevent hay from drying.

Summary.—-The exceptionally dry weather which was experi-
enced in 1921 did not allow of a fair test as to the strength of the
covers when subjected to heavy rain, but it appears that.

oN 7 * =ay

3
,
j
.
E

1922. ] Live Svrock ImportTarion REGULATIONS. 881

although they stand the rain well, they will need to be made of
a stronger material (especially at the corners where the strings
are attached) to be of use in wet and windy weather. They
should also be made a little larger so as to come below the
bands of the sheaves.

As a protection against birds the covers are very useful, while
graiii and straw from covered stooks appear to be freer from
stain, brighter, and sweeter in smell than those from uncovered
stooks. The covers also prevent sprouting in stook.

They would obviously be useful in the case of special crops,
such as pedigree corn, where protection from birds and preven-
tion of darkening by bad weather is more than usually necessary.

At 1s. each. the initial cost of the covers, which should last
with ordinary use two seasons, is about £3—<£4 per acre, while
the extra cost of fixing averaged about 2s. per acre.

* * * * * *

A summary of the general regulations governing the importa-

tion of Live Stock into the British Dominions, Colonies and

ea Protectorates, and into foreign . countries,

; has been prepared by the Ministry for

Importation aie es |

epartmental use. It is, however, thought

Regulations. .

that copies of this summary may be of ser-

vice to exporters, and typed copies are obtainable at the

Ministry's Offices, 10, Whitehall Place, London, $.W.1, price

10s. each. A copy of the summary relating to any particular

country for which the regulations are available will be supplied
free.

The information given in the summary is an indication of the
general regulations (apart from temporary prohibitions) of the
various countries on the importation of stock from Great Britain
and Ireland, as far as they are at present available. Purchasers
will be informed of any amendments made in 1922 to this sum-
mary in the case of the more important countries. From 1923
onwards a charge, to be notified later, will be made for supplying
such amendments.

382 Novices oF Books. [ JULY,

NOTICES “OF BOOKS:

British Goat Society’s Year Book, 1922.—(Compiled and issued
by the Hon Secretary, Thomas W. Palmer, 5, Fenchurch Street, London, .C.3.
Price 1s. 6d.) The second issue of the British Goat Society’s Year Book
contains much information which should prove useful and interesting both
to goat keepers and to many who may consider the keeping of goats.

The Society has been in existence for many years and has done much to
assist the development of goat keeping and to further the interests of goat
keepers in Great Britain and Ireland, The objects of the Society are stated
to be :—

(a) To circulate knowledge and general information upon goats with
a view to counteracting the prejudices and ignorance which prevail in a
ereat degree concerning these animals.

(6) To extend and encourage the keeping of goats, particularly by
cottagers, so as to increase the supply and consumption of milk in
rural districts where this article is frequently unobtainable.

(c) To improve the various breeds of goats and specially to develop
those qualities which are generally recognised and valued in milch stock.

The Society, which now consists of several thousand members, has for
many years carried on an active campaign in favour of the goat, and it is due
to the Society that any reliable pedigrees and records of the milking qualities
of goats in this country are available. Such importations of foreign blood as
have been made from time to time in the past with the object of improving
the quality of British goats have been due mainly, if not entirely, to the
British Goat Society, and it is to its efforts and the work of its aftihated
societies that goat shows and classes for goats at agricultural shows have
been organised on more extensive lines. The milking trials held under the
regulations of the British Goat Society and the distinguishing descriptions
awarded to good milkers and their progeny under the Society’s regulations
have done much to improve the milking qualities of British goats.

Mr. Reginald Pease, Chairman of the Committee, states that ‘‘ during the
past year a few animals were exported to some of our colonies and elsewhere
and there is no reason why a lucrative and much larger trade should not be
done in this direction.”

An article is contributed by Mr, Arthur W. Abbey, entitled ‘‘ The Goat and
Agriculture,” in which he gives his experiences of the value of the goat as an
agent in the improvement of pasture land,

In an article on Goat’s Milk, Doctor B. D. Z. Wright states that many
infants suffering from what is commonly called “marasmus” have been saved
by goat’s milk, and that many more might be saved if they had the chance of
being reared on goat’s milk instead of tinned condensed and dried substitutes
for mothers’ milk. He also refers to the freedom of goat’s milk from tubercle
bacilli as an enormous asset.

An article on goat keeping in Holland by Mr. P. A, Francis gives a brief
description of the remarkable development of goat keeping in Holland during
recent years. The fact that according to official figures there were in the

“|

,
;
.
)
:

1922. | PROvUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY. 383,

year 1900 some 224,231 goats in the Netherlands is significant when it is borne
in mind that dairy cattle are also kept in large numbers in that country.

Holland possesses perhaps the only Goat Breeding Experiment Station in
the world. This Station was established through the generosity of a private
individual, but the Station is stated to be now maintained by subscriptions
from the provincial Unions, by grants from Local Authorities and from the
Government,

Productive Swine Husbandry.—(George E. Day, London and New
York ; J. B. Lippincott Company ; price 10s. 6d. net.) This volume is a third
and revised edition and forms one of the series of Farm Manuals published
by the J. B. Lippincott Company. As “review questions” are given at the
end of each chapter, it may be surmised that the author had specially in view
the needs and instruction of farm students. Productive Swine Husbandry,
with its chapter on suggestions to beginners, is eminently suitable to farm
students as well as to those who are already engaged in the breeding of pigs
and the production of pork, The illustrations (ninety-five) are well repro-
duced and should be of great assistance to the reader.

One of the early chapters is devoted to a description of the two types of
swine, the lard type and the bacon type—divisions which appear to have been
considered to a greater extent in the United States than in this country, and
in the near future will receive still greater consideration if the pork packers
persist in their endeavour to pay far greater attention to the requirements of
the British market for pork and bacon, and the produce of pigs of the bacon
type which have not been fattened mainly on maize.

A considerable: amount of space has been devoted to descriptions and
histories of the various breeds of swine which have originated in the United
States and in this country. The former appear to be clear and complete,
although the scales of points show quite a number of variations from similay
ones adopted in England. In the Poland China score card, twelve points are
allotted to chest, fourteen to back and loin, ten to sides and ribs, ten to ham
and rump, and ten to feet and legs. Action and style, condition, disposition
and symmetry of points, together claim ten points. The American breeds
described include the following :—Poland China, Chester white, Duroc Jersey.
Thin Rind, or Hampshire, Victoria, Cheshire, Essex, Suffolk and Mule Foo
The descriptions of the British breeds are not so complete and refer to laree
Yorkshires or Large Whites, Tamworths, Small Yorkshires, or Smal] Whites.
and of two so-called minor breeds, Large Blacks and Middle Whites
Probably the cause for this last is that in Canada particularly the two latter
breeds are little known. Further, the fact that in this country these two
breeds have enormously increased in popularity of late years does not appear
to have been realised on the American Continent. The Cumberland.
Gloucester Spots, Lincolnshire Curly Coat, Essex or Wessex Saddleback
not described.

oot,

are

The chapters on selection of bear and sow, on breeding, feeding and
fattening are very complete, and a considerable number of experiments are
described, many of which are acknowledged to be from Henry’s* admirable
work on ‘‘Feeds and Feeding.” The various systems of pig-keeping are
fully given, with illustrations of piggeries varying from large and permanent
buildings to the small movable pen, which is freely utilised in small enclosures

384 Foot-anp-Mourn DIsEAseE 'Juny, 1922.

where open-air pig keeping has been carried on extensively for at least two
or three decades. The chapter on suggestions to beginners is short, but is
full of good advice. To complete a most useful and instructive volume a
chapter is added on the diseases of swine.

F'oot-and-Mouth Disease.—Since the 21st May, the date of the note
contained in the Journal for June, 1922. page 286, only 22 outbreaks of Foot-
and-Mouth Disease have been confirmed in Great Britain, bringing the total
up to the 22nd June,i1922, to 1,121, of which 1,016 were in England, 3 in
Wales, and 102 in Scotland. Of these 22 outbreaks, 5 occurred in Derby-
shire, 8 in Lancashire, 1 in Nottinghamshire, 2 in Staffordshire, 3 in Warwick-
shire, 1 in Worcestershire, 1 in Cheshire and 1 in Northumberland. As most
of the districts had been freed from the Foot-and-Mouth Disease restrictions
in force earlier in the year, all except the outbreak in Staffordshire occurred
in free districts, and necessitated the re-imposition of Orders controlling the
movement of animals over considerable areas around Chesterfield and
Bakewell (Derbyshire), Birmingham, and Rochdale (Lancs.), Holmeschapel
Crewe, in Cheshire, and Ponteland, near Newcastle, Northumberland. The
Scheduled District round Rochdale had to be extended westwards on account
of outbreaks at Westhoughton on 20th June, and near Liverpool on
22nd June. The outbreak in Nottinghamshire involved a small extension of
the Scheduled Area in that county. All the 22 outbreaks above mentioned
were dealt with by slaughter of the affected animals and of the animals in
direct contact with them, involving the slaughter of a total of 346 cattle,
100 sheep and 301 pigs.

During the period under review, the restrictions were withdrawn entirely
from the remaining Scheduled Areas in Midlothian, Forfarshire, Renfrewshire,
Dumbartonshire, Durham, Leicestershire, and the 3 Ridings of Yorkshire
(except a small portion of the West Riding, forming part of the new
Rochdale Scheduled District). In addition the area in Berwickshire has been
considerably reduced.

The origin of the disease at the new centres im Derbyshire, Warwickshire,
Lancashire, Cheshire and Northumberland is unknown, and it is
possible that infection from previous outbreaks may still be lurking in railway
trucks used for stock. Having this in mind the Ministry has issued a circular
letter to all railway companies asking them to give instructions for a special and
thorough cleansing of all railway trucks used for the conveyance of animals
in order that this source of infection may be destroyed, and Local Authorities
have been asked to keep special observation over the manner in which the
cleansing and disinfection of railway vehicles and railway pens used for stock
is carried out. It is also necessary that farmers should remain constantly on
the watch for any symptoms amongst their stock suggesting the presence of
Foot-and-Mouth Disease, and should report such cases immediately to the
police.

Printed under the authority of HIS MAJESTYy’S STATIONERY OFFICE,
By Metchim & Son, Princes Street, Westminster, S.W.1.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xi

The FARMERS’ : WARDEN '

FOR INSURANCE or

HORSES and CATTLE.
STALLIONS, BROOD MARES,G@
FOALS.
EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY.
FIRE. DRIVERS’ ACCIDENTS.
MOTOR CARS, FARM TRACTORS,
and GENERAL INDEMNITIES.

For Best Rates and Terms apply—

WARDEN

INSURANCE COMPANY, LTD.

ESTABLISHED 1875.
Honoured with the Patronage of H.M. THE KING.

Chief Office—21, IRONMONGER LANE, LONDON, E.C. 2.
R. R. WILSON.

LARGE BLACK PIGS.

SEVENTEEN HUNDRED BREEDERS
with more joining daily
TESTIFY TO POPULARITY of the Champion Bacon Breed.

Try them for their following qualities:
Length and Size — Prolificacy

MANAGER AND SECRETARY:

a yes at, et ee Lee.

GREAT
GRAZERS

INCOM PARABLE
‘‘DOERS”’

Splendid Constitutions

CHAMPION BACON PIGS, LONDON DAIRY SHOW, 1921.

Champion over all Breeds, Bath and West Show, 19217, Champion over all Breeds, Tunbridge Wells Show, 1921.

India, Brazil, Peru, Abyssinia, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Portugal,
South Africa, Canada, Cyprus, Denmark, and other countries are buying Large Blacks.

QUARTERLY JOURNAL, 5s. Per Annum. No. 6 just published, 1s. 2d. post free.
Free Descriptive Pamphlet and all Information from

LARGE BLACK PIG SOCIETY, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.1.

xii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

BREEDERS’ ANNOUNCEMENTS.

CATTLE,

ABERDEEN—ANGUS.

MACAINSH, JOHN, Congash, Grantown-on-Spey, N.B.—Pure-bred Aberdeen-Angus Cattle—Particulars on application.

DEVONS.

STANTON, HARWICH.—REGISTERED HERD RED DEVON DAIRY CATTLE. Devons are the best English Dairy
Cattle under all conditions and in any climate.

FRIESIANS.

GILSTON PARK HERD OF PEDIGREE BRITISH FRIESIANS, property of A.S. BOWLBY, Esq. Bulls and Bull Calves

generally for sale, by imported and other leading sires.—Apply Captain S. E. BUCKLEY, M.C., Gilston Park Istate Office,
Harlow, Essex.

ROUGH HERD OF BRITISH FRIESIANS is the herd for production, colour, size, milk and butter-fat. The herd to buy your

next bull calf sired by Routh Victory, third prize Dairy Show, 1920, weighing 133 cwt. at 20 months old, whose dam gave

2,268 gallons, butter-fat 4°66 ; the only cow in the kingdom to produce 1,200 lb. of butter in 365 days. Inspection invited.—
P. FORD, Molescroft, Beverley.

SHORTHORNS.

WELBECK HERD OF PEDIGREE SHORTHORNS, the property of the Duke of PORTLAND, K.G. Young Bulls and Heifers
for sale, from the best strains.—Apply, ALEX. GALBRAITH, Norton, Cuckney, Mansfield.

DAIRY SHORTHORNS.

CHIVERS & SONS, LTD., HISTON, CAMBS.—Pedigree Dairy Shorthorns. Over 100 head, mainly fashionably bred Bates
Families. Milk recorded daily and checked by Ministry of Agriculture recorder. Champion Oow, reserve champion Bull, 100
Guinea Challenge Cup, R.A.S.E., Derby, 1921, etc. Bulls and Bull calves always for sale.

LINCOLN RED SHORTHORNS.

SCORER, CHARLES E., BRACEBRIDGE H®ATH, LINCOLN.—Lincoln Red Dairy Shorthorns. Prizes won in 1921; 2nd Breed

Milking Trials, 3rd Open Butter Test (open to all breeds) Royal. Average yield 1907 to 1914, 805 galls.; 1920-21, 821 galls.
Official records kept. Young bulls from proved dairy cows on sale.

THE STAPLEFORD PARK HERD. A few young Bulls from Royal Prize Winners always for sale from carefully tested
milking strains only. Apply C. S. Harvey, Wymondham, Oakham.

KERRY AND DEXTERS.

PALMER, R. E. Pure Pedigree Kerry Cattle, Oaklands Park, Newdigate, Surrey.

SHEEP.

OXFORD DOWN.

AKERS & 0O., BLACK BOURTON, OXON.—Registered Oxford Downs, Rams and Ewe Lambs on Sale; inspection invited.

SUFFOLKS.

SHERWOOD, S. R, PLAYFORD, IPSWICH.—Registered Flock 105. Holder of Bristol Champion Challenge Cup for Best Flock
of the Breed, 1899 and 1919, Highest awards, Carcase Competition, Smithfield Club Show. Large winner at Royal and
County Shows, Also Breeder of Pedigree Dairy Shorthorns.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

SUSSEX CATTLE

THE
GREAT BEEF BREED

Unsurpassed for Early Maturity, Hardy Constitutions,

and the ability to thrive under the worst conditions.

The Heaviest Steer under 15 months
old at Smithfield, 1921, was a Sussex.

Booklet gratis and all information on application to the
Secretary, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.1.

xiv THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

PIGS.

LARGE WHITE.

OHIVERS & SONS, LTD., Histon, CAMBS.—Over 1,000 pigs bred annually. Breeding Stock live out in Large Grass Orchards,
Stock Boars include Histon Thor, Champion Peterborough and Suffolk 1920, Histon Lion Heart, Champion Royal Norfolk
1919, Dalmeny Macbeth, Ist Highland and Edinburgh 1920, and own brother to 720-guinea Sow. Young Stock always for Sale.

COLSTON & BORROWFIELD HERDS OF LARGE WHITE PIGS, the property of R. Millington Knowles, Esq., The Hall,
Colston Bassett, Notts—Numbers and quality equal to pre-war standard.—Particulars from AGENT, Estate Office, Colston
Bassett, Notis.

GREENALL, SIR GILBERT, BART., C.V.0., WALTON HALL, WARRINGTON. The Walton and Worsley Herd of Pedigree
Large White Pigs. Selections of all ages for sale at moderate prices. Apply to the Manager, The Office, Bridge House, Higher-
Walton, Warrington. Station: Warrington. Trains met by appointment.

THE WARREN HERD OF PEDIGREE LARGE WHITE PIGS, the property of H. T. Williams, Esq¢.— Young Stock of the best
strains for Sale, including a fine selection of in-pig Gilts——Apply to RAYMOND KEER, Warren Home Farm, Broughton, Ohester.
MIDDLE WHITE.

OHIVERS, JOHN, HISTON, CAMBRIDGE.—Select Herd of Pedigree Middle Whites. Champion Cup for Best Middle White Pig
at Royal Show, 1919 and 1920 (won outright). Champion Boar, ist and reserve Champion Sow, Royal Show, Derby, 1921.
Young Stock always for sale.

EDGE, S. F., GALLOPS HOMESTEAD, DITCHLING, SUSSEX.—Albany Herd of Pedigree Middle Whites. Bred on open air system,
Wonderful doers and breeders. Will thrive anywhere.

STAPLEFORD HERD OF MIDDLE WHITE PIGS. A few choice gilts and boars Sired by Royal Winners always for sale at
reasonable prices. C. S. HARVEY, Wymondham, Oakham.

SKIPWITH, Oaptain O., LOVERSAL HALL, DONCASTER.—Loversal herd of Pedigree Middle Whites. Bred on open air system.
Moderate Prices.

LARGE BLACK.

PIOKWELL HERD, Pedigree Large Blacks. Young stock from best strains at reasonable prices.—CAPTAIN CLAUDE W. HEMP,
Stainbridge Farm, Bolney, Sussex.

NEWHOUSE HERD of Pedigree Large Black Pigs. Boars and Gilts from best strains ROBERT FORTUNE, Newhouse,
Oranleigh, Surrey.

DUNSTALL HERD of Pedigree Large Blacks, bred from prize strains under natural conditions. Prolific, hardy, grand doers
and of choice type. Young Boars and Gilts. Prices Moderate—LIONEL E. HORNE. Moreton-in-Marsh, Glos.

EDGE, S. F., GALLOPS HOMESTEAD, DITCHLING, SUSSEX.—Pedigree Large Blacks, marvellous open air strain.

POUEGRY:

BOOTHROYD, F.—Breeder, Exhibitor and Exporter of the finest Rhode Island Reds S.C. White Wyandottes, Light Sussex and
Magpie Ducks, Breeding Pens, Stock Birds, etc. Prices and all particulars on request. F. BOOTMROYD, Shustoke,
Coleshill, Warwickshire.

MAJOR, ARTHUR C.—Breeder and Exhibitor thirty years. Champion Dark and Silver Grey Dorkings, “England’s best
fowl.” Prizes at all Shows, and exported allover the world. Prices moderate. Eggs, is. each—ARTHUR O. MAJOR, Ditton,
Langley, Bucks.

White Leghorns, White Wyandottes, Light Sussex. Stock bred from Laying Competition Winners. Eggs, Day-old Chicks and
Stock birds for sale. Illustrated List free— JOHN CHIVERS, Estate Office, Histon, Cambridge.

MISGCELLANEGUS ADVERTISEMENTS—(Cheap Prepaid).

64 Page Book about Herbs and How to Use Them, 24.—TRIMNELL, THE HERBALIST, RICHMOND ROAD, CARDIFF.

All applications for Advertisements in “The Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture” should be addressed to C. VERNON &
SONS, LTD., 38, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C.1.

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xv

WHAT THE DAIRY SHORTHORN ASSOCIATION
DOES FOR THE DAIRY SHORTHORN BREED.

It promotes the breeding of Pedigree Dairy Shorthorn Cattle.

It gives active support in developing their milk production to the fullest capacity, at th
time maintaining true Shorthorn character.

It encourages the development of the Breed, and upholds its claims as the great
stock throughout the world.

AN INNOVATION.

Registration of Dairy Shorthorn Cows for admission to Coates’s Herd Book.

In order to cover a wider field, and with the object of breeding up Dairy Stock for admission
into Coates’s Herd Book, the Association publishes a Register of approved Dairy Shorthorn Cows
. . ° ) c i i e
with authentic Milk Records.

Entries are invited.

YEAR BOOK AND REGISTER.

The 1919 Year Book contains authentic Milk Records of 1,194 Pedigree Dairy Shorthorn Cows,
with Photographs of typical animals from leading herds, and a collection of general information
of special interest to Breeders of Dairy Stock; also the Second Volume of the Register
containing 1,299 entries of Southern Dairy Cows and Heifers for ultimate inclusion of their
progeny in Coates’s Herd Book.

Copies of the Year Book and Register can be obtained from the Secretary, Price 10s. 6d,

JOIN THE ASSOCIATION.

All owners of Dairy Cattle of the Shorthorn type should become Members of the Asso«
which is doing so much for the general advancement of their interests.

FULL PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION TO—

The Secretary, Dairy Shorthorn Association,

(Dept. 1.) 16, BEDFORD SQUARE, LONDON, W.C.1.
(Established 1905.)

BRICKS ARE TOO EXPENSIVE.

THE CYCLOPS CONCRETE SYSTEM
OF BUILDING SOLVES THE PROBLEM.

You save money and save time by building the Cyclops way.
Your building will be cool in Summer and dry in winter.
Whether you wish to build a new villa or just a silo, there is
no better way than the Cyclops way.

The Cyclops method is NOT AN EXPERIMENT. It has been
tested for years throughout the world and never found wanting.
It is equally suitable for temperate, arctic, or tropical zones.
The method is protected by several patents

Suitable for Houses, Factories, Cinemas, Public Buildings,
Garages, Silos, Farm Buildings, Drain Pipes, Fence Posts, etc., etc.

Our 32 page catalogue tells you all about it. May we send you a copy?

The Cyclops Concrete Company,
HILBRE STREET, LIVERPOOL.

Telephone: ROYAL 1195. ESTAB. 1882. Telegrams: ‘* ASSESSOR.”

xv1 THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

7
ee ee

The “EC-onom-iC ”STEEL SILO
Is the ONLY SILO which is really
1. AIRTIGHT—Perfect Silage.
2. FIREPROOF—Ensured Food Supply.
3. WHATHERPROOF— Cannot Shrink,
Warp or Crack.
4. EKC-onom-ICAL—Holds more than any
other the Same Size, and
5. REMOVABLE—Put up and taken
down in a week by two men.
Write for all particulars to—

THE GEO. H. GASCOIGNE CO. (A.0O.),
3, Centra! Buildings, Westminster, S.W.1
’"Phone--Vict. 7048. ’Grams—Phyrghen, Phone, London.

DEFERRED PAYMENTS IF DESIRED.

Le i eet nn ee

HIGH-GRADE

COMPOUND
FERTILISERS

WITH
GUARANTEED ANALYSIS
SUITABLE

FOR ALL CROPS.

Cx
NAPTHALIM=s
SOIL PEST DESTROYER: AND
FUNGICIDE.
Just PuougH or Die Iv.

No trouble.

4 cwt. per acre.

Write for full particulars and latest reduced price list :—

RENED RAY & CO.,
3, OLD MILLS, HOUNSLOW.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,

CIRENCESTER.
Patron: H.M. Kine Gerorace V.

The College will Re-Open on
OcToBER 8th, 1922, to provide a
CouRSE of PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION
in the Business of FARMING and
of LAND MANAGEMENT.

Principal :
M. J. R. DUNSTAN, 0.B.E,, M.A., F.B.S.E.

(at present Principal of the South
Eastern Agricultural College, Wye.)

Information regarding the curriculum,
fees, &c., from :—

H. Sr. G. Raw ins, Esq., Cirencester.

HALL & CO.

’Phone: Purley 10. LTD.

Lime Burners,
COULSDON, L.B. & S.C. Rly.

GROUND

CARBONATE OF LIME

(For Agricultural Purposes)
17/6 per Ton loaded in Bulk F.O.R. Coulsdon.

WHITE LUMP & GROUND LIME

For Agricultural Purposes.

Delivery can he made direet hy road onto farms
within 10-15 miles. Prices on application.

All kinds of CHALK supplied from Lump
Chalk for road making down to extremely
Fine Powdered Chalk for
Pharmaceutical purposes.

Head Office:

Victoria Wharf, KE. Croydon.

Telegrams :

*Phone :
’
‘* CEMENT, CROYDON. “Croypon, 1104.

Reinforced Concrete Silos

SAVE MONEY.

The Scott Reinforced Silos are better and
cheaper than Timber.

OU can feed
your stock
with Ensilage at
half the cost of
Roots and _ get
double the results.
This is proved by
our friends whom
in many cases
have placed re-
peat orders.
No upkeep re-
quired with our
Silos, your initial

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements. xvii

Certain
Destruc-
: tion to
is assured by the RATS |
well-known and
preparations— MICE

Danysz Virus
Haller’s Extract of Squill
Danzo Rat Killer

Write for particulars to the proprietors—

Haller Laboratories, Limited

(formerly Danysz Virus, Limited),

outlay is the last | §&
and you can pay | §
off the expense in | §
two years.
We are Silo spe-
cialists with expe-
rience behind us
F and we invite you
to write to us for
full particulars.

325, Borough High St.,
London, S.E.1.

We've got no

Scott Silos are found all over the British Isles. work to do.
JAMES SCOTT & SON, a
(ABERDEEN) LIMITED, 2 HARMLESS TOR stv THER NALS

483-485, Union St., Aberdeen.

FERTILISERS for ROOTS

1922.

=\ii-7@Harness
W7 Repairer.

Making harness repairs with BIFURCATED
RIVETS is simplicity itself. Whenever a
strap goes, just slip in a rivet and you have
a strong, neat job. Every carter should carry
them.

Bifurcated
Rivets

are stocked by most ironmongers. If you
cannot buy them locally, we will send you a
good-sized box of assorted sizes for a special
price of 2/-.

TO SECURE INCREASED CROPS OF
BETTER VALUE.
Use along with Phosphates or Phosphates

and Nitrogen—

For MANGOLDS, 4 to 6 ewts. KAINIT to
supply both potash and common salt.

For TURNIPS and SWEDES, 2 ewts.
KAINIT or} cwt. SULPHATE of POTASH
(light soils).

For SUGAR BEET, 1} cwt. MURIATE or
SULPHATE of POTASH.

Write for free booklet on manur ing of root crops on modern
scientific lines, :—

For sound literature and in-

formation on use of Potash : Pare of all Potash Bifurcated and Tubular
G. A. COWIE, M.A., B.Sc., ALLG., i :
39, Victoria Street, F. W. BERK & Co., Lro., Rivet Co seh

Westminster, S.W.1. 1, Fenchurch Avenue, E.C.3. AYLESBURY BUCKS

Ot a

xvii THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

Kingsway Reinforced
Concrete Block Silos Used by Farmers, Gardeners and
It pays to feed silage, Poultry Keepers.

and the less your silo Wave nilolite??

costs the more it

pays, this is why you
should have

supersedes glass for farm buildings,
poultry and garden frames, huts and everygj
outdoor structure. It is a specially prepared
transparent composition, reinforced with rustless
A KINGSWAY SILO bee Very A 8 and flexible, light in weight)
each Hah vaya Sine mas yet durable, it is unaffected by weather con-¥j
saving features and ditions, heat or cold, and is eminently satisfactoryfj)
scan Cantimnetion. to for admitting light to buildings of all kinds,@)
last ntoce icentimce requiring only the lightest of framework. It can
together, with reduced easily be cut to size with scissors, and fitted with-§)

&
ee
5
Re
x
&
i
¥%
is

prices for 1922. out putty or glazing. All plants thrive under
9 PPUEDy, HOU cena p 3 |
Raine Fi ‘‘ Windolite,” with the use of which any handy}
eStre you can hire y Sa ity aval a aT > 7
cy Ghoul, He ee man can make light structures for protecting
znstructions and erect seedlings, fruit, eLe:
y ww Silo by direct : :
: sak ae Wherever glass gets broken replace it with
se “WINDOLITE.”
MOU LDS ALSO oul aeee FOR TANKS, If your local dealer does not stock, we will send any quantity
CISTERNS, RESERVOIRS, MANURE PITS, é&c. (enihe vate merece Ba oe Sie soi, ea
ALSO ON HIRE. Price per yard se 4/11 5/8 6/5 7/2 7/11 |

—= — : ~ = ‘These prices are for single strengt h—clear.
Also made in double and triple strength and in any colour.

“‘ Windolite” Repairing Solution, 2-oz. bottle 1/6, post free. |

C. M. DAVIES & CO. (Dept. 5),
179-185, GREAT PORTLAND STREET, LONDON, W. 1.

Ep Hee r be rticulars Fr omi—

A. J. KING,

Concrete Silo Contractor,

HARROW, MIDDLESEX.

youvillhave € !
you will have '
ebagiaaiaS.:

PSS EET EE EE

BECAUSE it lies jase flat
without curves or bulges
and gives no trouble.

Itismade to stand heavy
strains too, being of
fine grade wire, galva- a
nized after manufacture. =~

High quality and low price is

another combination that makes

“Baultless” the Netting you

should test NOW.

qj] Send us particulars of your require-
ments and we will gladly quote carriage
paid prices for large or small quantities,
direct from works.

THE “CLAYTON”

GA SSING MA CHINE

for DESTRUCTION OF RATS, RABBITS, &c.

NO DANGER TO OPERATOR OR DOMESTIC ANIMALS

See our Exhibit at the Stand of the English
Forestry Association, Ltd., at the following

Agricultural Shows :— j
Royal, Cambridge. / Co
Tunbridge Wells & S.E, Counties. \ T| 0
Yorkshire, Hull. avi & ,

Full Particulars from— TAFF VALE IRON, WORK. S

CLAYTON FIRE EXTINGUISHING & DISINFECTING CO. LTD.,

22, Craven Street, Strand, London, W.C.2 ce ART dt EE
i

Agents § RESSICH & CAMPBELL, 118, Queen 8t., Glasgow. ;
; 7.0. DAY, | Chureh Mons eae ees cos = TRUM ADRAUUR DNDN 2 es 5

eg eR a a

THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

The Colin Pullinger

MOUSE & VOLE TRAP

The Most Efficient and Durable Trap
on the Market.

BALANCE ACTION ALWAYS SET.

Size 12 ins. long, 34 ins, wide, 3 ins, high.

Price 4/9 each, post paid.

Be ee I oe ee |

To be obtained from all leading Ironmongers
or direct from the Makers—

DUKE, WARING, CRISP & C0.,

Wireworkers, Merchants and Sieve Manufacturers,

Scho Wire Works,
139, Wardour Street, London, W.1.
Tele,—Grrard 8798.

CC SS eee

Telegrams —Transpictus
Ox., London.

THERE IS NO BETTER FOOD FOR
, CATTLE, SHEEP, PIGS, OR POULTRY
THAN

i TCO i:

PURE CONCENTRATED
WHITE FISH MEAL

Used in proportion of 10°/,
feed,

The Proportions of Albuminoids and Phosphates are con-
siderably greater and Oil and Salt less than the limits
prescribed by the Bourd of Agriculture experts.

Write for samples and analysis to

BICOL, Lid., Hope Street, Grimsby.

to the ordinary

“The Light of the Future.”

STAN LEYS 400 Candle na Gheapee & Best.

1 lamp will illuminate
a Barnyard 600 ft. sq.
60 Styles to choose
from, Write for
a List. The Lights and
Heaters that never
fail. Guaranteed Safe,
Clean and Economical
Dept. 83, STANLEYS
(Stratford), Ltd.

Mail Orders to Carl-
ton Works, Daubeney
Rd., London, E.5,
Wholesale & Repair
Shops, Ceres Works,

56, Warton R4., London, E.15.
Exhibition & Demonstration Rooms, 357, Oxford St.,
(1st floor), W.1

No. 210 Table Lamp, 60/-
Storm Proof Lan‘ern, 60/-

oo ——

rie

1.—A dvertis« ments. x1X

is the Farmer S lnsur-
ance against shortage

of food and drought.

Prepare for next

son’s drought and erect
one of our

Creosoted Wood Stave Silos

The quality and sound
construction of our Silos
are the best and cheap-

est obtainable. The
advantages in our make
ale =

Extra Strong con-

struction,

Secure Anchorage.

: [you want to know all
: about Silos and Silage,

write for our 20 page
: book, which will be sent
: post free on mentioning

this paper.

Hinged Doors.

Convenience in Filling
and Emptying.

Durability & Stability.

Engl ish Brothers | Ltd

TO make farming pay really well. We have trained
hundreds to succeed. Why not you?

WE have courses of instruction in every branch of
Mixed, Stock, Arable and Dairy Farming, Veterinary
Science, Farm Accounts, &c.

ALSO a special course in Land Agency for those going
in for the management of landed estates.
THE College has been established 18 years. Send

postcard for a free prospectus to The Agriculvsrai
Correspondence College (Sec. N), Ripon.

= LEARN BY POST

aE ARMIN G Sees

THE

YORKSHIRE

INSURANCE COMPANY Limited.

LIVE-STOCK INSURANCE
A SPECIALITY.

SHOW AND TRANSIT RISKS
PROMPTLY ARRANGED,

Chief Offices:

York; ST. HELEN’S SQUARE.
London: BANK BUILDINGS, PRINCES ST., E.€.2.

Branches and Agencies throughout the Kingdom.

xx THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE.—Advertisements.

rg TS

FARIWIERS ?

Stop that Leaky Roof.

A covering of Cuirass No. 6 Liquid
Proofing will make it absolutely water-
tight, not merely for this winter, but
for winter after winter. It will save
you the cost of renewals and the far
greater cost of the labour involved.

Applied cold with a brush.

Manufactured by

Cuirass Products, Ltd.,

69, Victoria Street,
Westminster, S.W.1.

Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire & North Wales. All applications for Advertisements in
Messrs. BOULT, SON & MAPLES, ‘The Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture ”
AL , SURVEYORS, ESTATE AGENTS, AN
VANES: SROPERTY AUCTIONEERS. should be addressed to
Offices: 5, COOK STREET, LIVERPOOL.
Telegrams <3 2erese Leer C. VERNON & SONS,
Telepi —187 Bank—2 lines. 5
Estates, Warme sHeeiden tial and Brginess Propetties only. 38, Holborn Viaduct,
Periodical Sales of Property st Liverpool. Chi ster and Preston. i london rq C
i) GaG.
cereene > M1. RIG’FENCING .. yegerene ||
) BARBED WIRE ~ S SF. EDGE<SAYS — THE BEST — . Le BARBED WIRE.
AT THE BOTTOM. 4” + | BECAUSE THE HORIZONTAL WIRES ARE ONLY AT THE BOTTOM.
j 4 : is 2° 70 6 APART : : : ee : :
|
i
d

1 JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRIQULTURE.—Advertisoments
Pit : Ni:

EPHOS BASIC
PHOSPHATE

a ee ag Natioceiip phosphatic fertilser,
Beek containing 60-65% Phosphates.

HIGHLY SOLUBLE.

| Fo or grain iid roots “EPHOS’” will give results
a Beepssble to superphosphate and basic slag, while
tt t excels both i in the promotion of leaf and stem.

J .
“un vr
gy Dans anaes
y pe Yi

. “EPH OS” counteracts soil acidity.

‘ *EPHOS’ is particularly well adapted for mixing
4 in n compound manures.

>ROOKSTON BROS:

, Grosvenor Gardens, London, S.W.1. eae *

— Ea S Ce)

6030

PHB JOURNAL oF THEAMNISTRY oF aarioute — |||
BO a 10020

ASS

LUMP OR GROUND.

T o All Cultivators of Land: a

Specially Finely Ground for Mechanical Disteiputient Ne

GROUND LIME is a FERTILISER, and secures
HEAVIER CROPS with a MINIMUM of EXPENSE

GROUN D ‘LIME, if siplied to the land in eaanins of abbiit 10 pas or ‘more ||
per acre per annum, will produce greatly augmented CROPS, Whether of Cereals,
" Clovers, or Leguminous Plants. bop, tae Ne oe

THIS LIME is a SOIL FOOD, an INSECTICIDE, a FUNGICIDE,
and the BEST REMEDY for “ FINGER-AND-TOE ’ DISEASE in
TURNIPS, &e.

The Werks are favourably situated for prompt delivery | in
EASTERN, SOUTH MIDLAND and SOUTHERN COUNTIES.

For Prices of

AGRICULTURAL LIME]

GROU ND
CARBONATE OF LIME |

Write to— a ue

THE GEMENT MARKETING COMPANY, ~~

LIME DEPARTMENT, |
8, ‘LLOYDS. AVENUE, LONDON, EG3.

Telegraphic Address:—** PORTLAND, FEN, LONDON.” | ee
Telephone No: ibs he AVENUE (Private Exchesert pee

f
hs tT Bl -

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