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OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND/
VeOrr UM hehe it EN TH.
PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.
APR 17 1987
SISRARIES
LONDO
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1849.
THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEKEBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE
ANONG THEIR MEMBERS.
Von THAR, Principles of Agriculture.
a Vn ane a en
London: Printed by W1iitL1Am CLowes and Sona, Stamford Street.
CONTENTS OF VOL. X.
ARTICLE PAGE
I.—Farming of Lancashire. By William James Garnett. Prize
Report : : : : . : iol
I1.—On a Dress for Drainers. From the Marquis of Westminster. 51
I1I.—On the Giant Sainfoin. By Thomas Hine . : ; 54
IV.—Observations on the Natural History and Economy of various
Insects affecting the Potato-crops, including Plant-lice, Plant-
bugs, Frog-flies, Caterpillars, Crane-flies, Wirew orms, Mil-
lipedes, Mites, Beetles, Flies, &e. By John Curtis, FL Se
Corresponding Member of the Sieseial and Royal Georgo-
fili Society of Florence ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia, &c. Paper XV. d 0
V.—On the Stoppage of Drains by a Stony Deposit. From Lord
Portman ° oS
VI.—On the Farming of South Wales, ‘By C) are Sewell Read.
Prize Report. A . 122
VIi.— Description and Use of an Improved A pridiitenfal Dees
Level, with the Process of Levelling, as required for Agri-
cultural Purposes. By T. Cooke, Optician and Mathema-
tical Instrument Maker, York « 165
VIII.—On Hemp. By Thomas Rowlandson. Pre me erly?
IX.—On the Tussac Grass, To Mr. Matheson, M.P., from Mr.
Scobie, in the Island of Lewis 182
X.—On Labourers’ Cottages. From his Grace the Duke of Bedford 185
XI.—On the Composition and Money Value of the different Varie-
ties of Guano. By J. Thomas Way, Consulting-Chemist
to the Royal Agricultural Society 196
XIJ.—On the Construction of a Pair of Gottaces for Reriealearel
Labourers. By Henry Goddard, Architect and Surveyor,
of Lincoln. First Prize Essay 230
XIII.—On the Use of Ss as Food for Stock. By Ph. nee
' M.P. : , . 247
ao:
iV CONTENTS OF VOL. X.
ARTICLE PAGE
XIV.-—A Lecture on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Maternal
Organs of Reproduction in Animals, with the Principles
ot Practice applicable to Cases of Difficult and Preter-
natural Labour, more especially in the Cow and Ewe. By
James Beart Simonds, Lecturer on- Cattle Pathology in
the Royal Veterinary College, London ; aaa: Mem-
ber of the Royal Agricultur al Society, ke. 248
XV.—Agricultural Chemistry: Sheep-Feeding and Mannire.
Part I. By J. B. Lawes . 3 276
XVI.—On increasing our Supplies of Animal oot By aaien C.
Morton. Prize Essay é 341
XVII.—On Lodging and Boarding TAbous rers, as 2 praeeet on the
Farm of Mr. Sotheron, M.P. By Thomas Dyke Acland 379
XVIII.—The Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. A Lecture deli-
vered in the Shire Hall of the City of Norwich, at the
Annual Meeting of the Society, July 18, 1849, By the
Rev. Edwin Sidney, A.M. : 382
XIX.—Experiments on the Application of Gaine ind sther Ma-
nures, in the Duke of Somerset’s Park at Stover, near
Newton Abbot, Devon. By E.S. Bearne . : ice)
XX.—On the Construction of Labourers’ Cottages. By J. aie
Macvicar. Second-Prize Essay . : 400
XXI.—On the Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Tabalitiss
By T. Rowlandson. Prize Essay f j . 421
X XII.—On the Management of Barley. mel Hall W. Keay. Prize
Essay . . 453
XXIiI.—On the Theory oa Pratice of WatreMenioua! By Ph.
Pusey, M.P. . ‘ 462
XXIV.—On the Composition of Linseed Oil- Gave: Bearig dic Beas
&e. By J. Thomas W ays Consulting-Chemist to the
Society . : . 479
XXV.—On the Advantage of Dee Dane Bhan on Right
Hon. C. Arbuthnot . ‘ . 496
XX VI.—On Suiting the Depth of ee to die Ghaswteses of
the Soil. By J. H. Charnock, an Assistant-Commissioner
under the Drainage Acts . ° OOF
XXVII.—On the Causes of the general Presence of Phesened in the
Strata of the Earth, and in all fertile soils ; with Observa-
tions on Pseudo-Copr olites, and on the possibility of con-
verting the Contents of Sewers and Cesspools into Manure.
By W. Buckland, D.D., Dean of Westminster. . 520
XXVIII.—Report on the Exhibition and ‘Trial of Implements at the
Norwich Meeting, 1849. By H.S. Thompson , p26
XXIX.—A Lecture on the Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of
the Organs of Respiration and Circulation ; with especial
reference to the nature and treatment of Pleuro-pneumonia
in the Ox. By James Beart Simonds, Lecturer on Cattle
Pathology in the Royal Veterinary College, Honorary
Member of the Royal Agricultural Society and its Vete-
rinary Inspector, Corresponding Member of the Société
Nationale et Centrale de Médecine Vétérinaire, &c. . 570
CONTENTS OF VOL. X. Vv
ARTICLE PAGE
XXX.—Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. By J. Thomas
Way, Consulting-Chemist to the Society . ; . 610
XX XI.—On the Blocking-up of Drains by the Rootsof Mangold. By
Mr. Moore. ° : : ; 622
APPENDIX.
Council and Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
1848-1849 . A . . i
Report of the Council to the Gane al Meatines May 22, 1349 : : ili
Report of the Chemical Committee, 5 June, 1849 . ‘ : : vill
Statement of Half-yearly Account ending December 31, 1848 . : 1X
Essays and Reports—Awards for 1849 . : . ; : : X
Fe Prizes for 1850. : : E : F x1
_ Rules of Competition for Prize Essays . : : : : eau AW,
Dates of General Meetings of 1849-50 . ‘ . 5 : : XV
Annual Subscriptions : 4 : : : : : : XV
Election, &c., of Members . : A ‘ : : : : Xvi
General Meetings in 1850. : : : : : : ie, Xvi
Annual Subscriptions . : : : 5 : Si A
Prize Lists for Essays and Repos 1850 s : : : ee XV
the Exeter Meeting 5 : : : oye rEXAVANT
Consulting-Chemist—Charges for Analyses . : : : eae Xvi
PLATES.
Mr. Curtis’s Plates, U and V, of Insects in Potato Crop, to face pages 116, 117
Professor Simonds’s Plate of the Feetus in Utero : to face page 257
DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.
The Binder is desired to place all the Appendix matter, with Roman
numeral folios, at the end of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents,
which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Part or Volume.
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OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.
1.—Farming of Lancashire. By Wiittam James GARNETT.
Prize Report.
Tue county of Lancaster is a very important and a very influential
one; but most assuredly its importance and influence do not arise
from the excellence of its farming: whatever may be our character
for skill in manufactures or success in commerce, we are sadly
behind the rest of the world im agricultural attainments, and any
traveller along the North-Western Railway, from the time of his
entering, by crossing the Mersey near Warrington, to the time of
his quitting Lancashire for Westmoreland, must, I fear, leave it
with the impression that he has been passing through an ill-drained,
badly cultivated, and neglected district. The northern part is
decidedly better than the southern, but he would judge of it as
a whole; and if, in the rapidity of his flight, his eye should per-
chance have rested for a moment on a good field of turnips or a
clean stubble, a straight fence or a neatly-cut hedge, the oasis in
the desert is so small, and the vision so fleeting, that it would
have little effect in alterimg—or even, from the contrast with its
neighbours, might rather tend to confirm—his opinion that the
standard of farming in Lancashire is far below that of more
southern counties he may have traversed in his journey.
Now, however simple and easy a matter it may be to observe
the fact, it is by no means easy at first sight to assign the reasons
for this state of things. If he consider the great wealth and
intelligence which undoubtedly are found amongst a large portion
of the inhabitants of Lancashire, he might reasonably expect
something better in the way of farming ; and before I proceed to
enter into the subject-matter of this report, I would venture briefly
to advert to a few of the causes which may excuse, in some
measure, the defects and short-comings of my native county.
And first, let us look at the map of Lancashire. I propose ta
MOL. X. BR
2 Farming of Lancashire.
divide it into three parts; the Southern, Middle, and Northern
Divisions, of which the three principal rivers of the county, the
Mersey, the Ribble, and the Lune shall be the boundaries. The
Mersey forms the natural boundary to the south, between Lan-
cashire and Cheshire: the land lying between this river and the
Ribble, which runs by Preston, I would call the Southern
Division, or No. 1. The traet of country from the Ribble to the
Lune, I would call the Middle Division, or No. 2, which includes
the whole of that peculiar and interesting district known as the
Fylde; and from the river Lune, which flows by Lancaster, to the
northern boundary, which separates Lancashire from Westmore-
Jand and Cumberland, I would call the Northern Division, or
No. 3. Each of these great divisions is essentially different from
the others in important points, such as the character of the soil,
the climate, and the people, and I therefore would make this new
division, rather than adopt either the ancient boundaries of the
Hundreds or the Parliamentary Divisions, inasmuch as neither of
the latter are marked by any great natural features, nor are they |
suggestive of any striking diversity in the soil or the inhabitants,
and would not convey to the general reader any distinct idea of
the districts as they are successively brought under his considera-
tion; whereas, if we take the three great rivers and divide the
county by these nearly parallel lines, a moment’s glance at the
map will show to any one the part then treated of.
The difference between the Southern Division, and the two
others to the north of it, inits geology, in the nature of its soil, and
the character and habits of the people, is most striking, and ex-
ercises a very important influence on the farming of the whole
county. Its wealth, position, and extent deserve the first place in
considering the causes of the past and present state of farming in
Lancashire.
In the Southern Division he the great coal-fields ; these have
led to the extraordinary development of the cotton manufacture
and all its consequences, and have created a market for labour
and skill far beyond anything the farmer could offer, and the con-
sequence has been that all who were anxious to “get on” in the
world, to make their fortunes rapidly, to gain large profits arid
quick returns on small investments, or who, tempted by high
wages and the prospect of regular work, were not content to plod
away their lives at the plough’s tail, have been drawn into the
great vortex of trade, and now people the large towns of Liver-
pool, Manchester, Bolton, &c.; and whether it be from the
constant and active intercourse between man and man, or the
greater exercise of skill and ingenuity, and the high premiums
offered for clever artisans in the towns, or from whatever cause it
be, I fear it must be admitted that the inhabitants of the towns
OF THE
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A. Clay Slate. | €. Old Red Sandstone. | E-. Red Sandstone. G. Magnesian Limestone.
B. Mountain Limestone. | D. Millstone Grit. F. Coal. | H. Alluvial Grounds.
“REFERENCES TO NUMBERS ON THE MAP.
1. Ambleside. | 11. Quernmoor Park. | 21. Preston. | 31. Rufford, | 41. Newton.
2. Hawkshead. } 12. Lancaster. 22. Longridge. | 32. Southport. | 42. Knowsley.
8. Coniston. - | 13. Scotforth. | 9. Clitheroe. | 83. Ormskirk. 43. Prescot.
4, Broughton. | 14. Glasson 24. Whalley. | 34. Wigan. | 44. Liverpool.
5. Ulverston. | 15. Galgate. 25. Colne. | 35. Bolton. 45. Warrington.
6. Cartmell. | 16. Garstang. ~ | 26. Burnley. 35. Bury. 46. Burton.
7. Kirkby Lonsdale. 17. Fleetwood. 27. Accrington. | 37. Haslingden. 47. Poulton.
8. County Stone, | 18. Poulton. | 28. Blackburn. 38. Rochdale. 48. Todmorden.
9. Hornby. 19. Lytham. | 29. Hoghton. 3. Middleton. 49. Raven Castle,
10. Caton. , 20. Kirkham, _ 30, Chorley. | 40. Manchester. 50. Windermere.
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Farming of Lancashire. 5
greatly exceed in acuteness and intelligence their fellows in the
country districts: thus the capital, skill, and enterprise of the
county being attracted to the towns, the rural districts have been
comparatively deserted and left to those happy men who, content
to live and die as their fathers had done before them, did not
aspire to anything beyond, even in their own business of farming.
The climate of Lancashire is another counteracting cause ; it
varies according to the different districts: in the hilly regions to
the north and east, it is of course cold and piercing, but in the
lower parts, shelving to the south and west, it is generally mild
and genial; but throughout the whole of it the fall of rain is far
greater than in the south of England. Mr. White, Secretary to
the Liverpool and Manchester Agricultural Society, in his evi-
dence last year before the Committee of the House of Commons
on Tenant Right, speaking of South Lancashire and the neigh-
bourhood of Warrington, says, “ We have 36 inches of rain falling
in the twelve months;” but in the more hilly parts of the county
to the north, my own observations, taken from one of Crosley’s
patent rain-gauges, would place it higher than that. ‘The
average quantity per annum in London, and the counties abutting
on Middlesex, is about 20 or 21 inches, whereas in Lancashire I
should say it was more than 40 inches, just double; and though
the air is for the most part naturally pure and salubrious, yet one
great humidity is a serious obstacle with which the farmer has to
contend; and unless his land be thoroughly drained, is an effectual
barrier to success either in growing or harvesting his crops.
The soil again is not naturally good, that is to say, in its
undrained state; it varies of course considerably, and large peat-
mosses or bogs, such as Chat-moss in the southern, and Pilling,
with others adjoining, in the Middle Division, are found through-
out. Of these dreary wastes I shall speak more fully in their
proper place; but naturally they are perfectly sterile, and require
a large outlay to make them produce anything, except, perhaps,
fuel, of which great quantities are consumed by the neighbouring
farmers and cottiers. With these exceptions, throughout the
whole Southern Division, the soil partakes more or less of a clayey
loam, very productive, if well drained, but without this necessary
preliminary, cold and difficult to work; and that it is not in its
natural state favourable to vegetation is clearly evidenced by the
miserable fences, together with the stunted and weather-beaten
trees, which give a starved and bleak appearance, tend rather to
show than hide “ the nakedness of the land,” and scarcely deserve
the name of hedge-row timber. In the Middle and Northern
Divisions the soil is more friable, and throughout the Fylde par-
takes more of the alluvial and peaty character; still, without
draining, it is comparatively unprofitable.
6 Farming of Lancashire.
In the mining districts the ground is in many parts completely
honeycombed and burrowed like a rabbit-warren: the superin-
cumbent weight of earth over these excavations will often sink,
and the levels of the surface becoming quite changed, any drains
that may have been laid there are at once destroyed, and the
owner’s trouble and capital altogether lost; this is very dis-
couraging to a farmer, and an evil unknown in a purely agricul-
tural district.
To these drawbacks, natural and artificial, may be added the
consequence resulting from them, which is this:—That the men
who have grown rich in those great marts of industry and com-
merce, Liverpool and Manchester, and other manufacturing
towns of the county, when they seek a permanent investment for
their property in land, frequently leave the county in which they
have made all their money, and, unwilling in the autumn of their
years to engage in new and untried undertakings, are led to seek
in more southern counties a more genial climate, a more fertile
soil, a higher class of farmers and farming, and a more tempting
investment than Lancashire can offer. Ido not deny that there
are some commendable exceptions to this rule, but for the most
part it is unhappily true, as our rushes and bogs abundantly
testify.
I have thus attempted shortly to describe and account for the
general aspect of the county, as 1t would appear to the eyes of a
passing stranger, but though as a whole I believe the above
description to be a true one, yet if we examine a little more
closely, we shall find many cheering instances of progressive
improvement, both in the case of large landed proprietors and the
more humble occupiers of the lands of their fathers, which give
good grounds to hope that there is a spirit at work which will
soon change the face of the country and enable us to take our
proper place amongst the farmers of England. The Earl of
Derby, at Knowsley, Mr. Clifton, at Lytham, the late Mr. Ffar-
ington, of Worden, whose untimely and premature end has left a
blank at Leyland which can never in this generation be filled up,
Mr. Wilson F france, in the Fylde, and the Duke of Hamilton, at
Ashton, and others, have each in their several districts set a good
example of what may be done by perseverance and skill, com-
bined with a liberal and judicious outlay of capital: they have
now left us without excuse: let each man, then, in his own sphere,
and according to his means and ability, be ‘up and doing” in
the great and good work of improving the land, by employing the
people, and we shall then soon cease to be famous as the worst
farmed county between London and Edinburgh.
The geographical situation of Lancashire is between 53° 20’
and 54° 25’ north latitude, and between 2° 0’ and 3° 17’ west
¥
farming of Lancashire. |
longitude ; it is bounded on the north by Cumberland and West-
moreland, on the east by Yorkshire, on the south by Cheshire
and Derbyshire, and on the west by the Irish Sea. The extreme
length is 74 miles, and its greatest breadth 444 miles: its surface
contains 1765 square miles, of which abont 1125 are compre-
hended in the Southern Division, and 650 in the two other
divisions. ‘The area of the county comprises, according to the
Ordnance Survey, 1,117,260 acres of land, of which about
390,000 are in tillage, 450,000 in pasture, and the remainder in
woodlands, moors, and mosses.
The population in 1821 amounted to 1,052,200, and according
to the last Census in 1841 it had increased to 1,667,054, of
which it may fairly be said that three-fourths are engaged in
commerce and manufactures, or dependent upon them for their
-employment and support; this allows 416,763 for the cultivation
of the land.
The great geological features of the county consist in a chain of
hills which separate Lancashire from Yorkshire on the east, and
which run northwards from Ashton-under-Lyne, near Manchester,
to Hornby. This tract of mountainous moorland is chiefly com-
posed of millstone-grit and hard freestone formations, the soil for
the most part being thin and poor, and in the lower parts a strong
clay. Amongst the highest hills of the range are Blackstone
Kdge, Pendle Hill, which is 1805 feet above the level of the
sea, and the Fells of Bleasdale and Wyresdale. ‘The district north
of the river Lune from Lancaster has the metalliferous limestone
for its immediate substratum; and as we approach the northern
mountains of the county, which form the barrier between it and
Westmoreland and Cumberland, the transition limestone and slate
prevail. These hills, from their picturesque beauty and height,
form some of the most magnificent features of the lake scenery
in this part of England; Coniston Fell, the highest point of which
is well known by visitors to the lakes as the «‘ Old Man,” being
2580 feet above the level of the sea. The soil on this northern
range is better than on the eastern chain, and the natural drainage
more rapid and complete than on the grit formations. On the
western and southern sides of the county is found the new red-
sandstone, which forms an irregular band of some miles in breadth,
extending along the vale of the Mersey, east of Manchester, to
Liverpool, and thence along the western side by Ormskirk and
Preston to Lancaster, and in this stratum is found the red marl,
which is so valuable as a manure in reclaiming dry, sandy, and
peaty soils; to the westward of this line hie the alluvial districts,
and the coal-beds occupy the whole space between the red-sand-
stone and the eastern boundary of the county south of the Ribble.
Westward from the eastern chain of hills flow the three great
8 Farming of Lancashire.
rivers of the county, which with their numerous tributaries empty
themselves into the Irish Sea. In the lowlands and valleys
watered by these streams are found many parts favourable to a
high state of farming, and we will now proceed to consider in
order the three great divisions formed by these rivers with
reference to the subject of this report, commencing with
The Southern Division.—(No. 1.)
The soil throughout the whole tract of country between the
Mersey and the Ribble, and between the sea-coast and the first
rising of the high hills to the east, is in general of a stiffish loamy
kind, always excepting Chat-moss and its kindred wastes. Towards
the sea-coast, to the west of the old high road from Liverpool to
Preston by Ormskirk, there is a district of great fertility, bemg
for the most part of a sandy vegetable loam of considerable
depth; and Mr. White, to whose evidence we have already
referred in speaking of the general character of the South Lan-
cashire land, says, ‘‘ About two-thirds of it is strong clayey loam,
upon a subsoil of clay; the clay requires under-draining before
it can be properly cultivated.” Throughout the whole of the
lower districts of this Division all sorts of grain are occasionally
grown, but oats and wheat are the most prevalent, yet barley is
frequently met with near the coast; potatoes are cultivated
largely in the neighbourhood of Ormskirk and Warrington,
whence great quantities are taken to supply the Liverpool and
Manchester markets; and it is a fact in husbandry worthy of
remark, that the first potatoes raised in England were grown in
this county.
Turnips and the artificial green crops have been introduced
within the last few years, and continue to be grown with increas-
ing success; but as yet a regular and scientific system of cropping
is rarely met with. Around the large towns the grass-land is
mostly preserved undisturbed, and the produce in milk and
butter daily conveyed to supply their never-failing wants.
The only limestone found in this Division les in the extreme
north-eastern corner, in the neighbourhood of Clitheroe : it is, in
fact, the western side of the Craven bed, which here runs into
Lancashire from Yorkshire, and will become most valuable to
the whole of the Southern Division on the opening of the Black-
burn, Clitheroe, and North- Western Railway, now in course of
construction.
On the eastern and hilly side of this Division there is not much
to interest a farmer: in the neighbourhood of Clitheroe and
Whalley there is some excellent land, and the advantages of the
limestone on which this district rests are sufficiently apparent
both in the aspect of the country and the general produce of the
Farming of Lancashire. 9
farms: but from Whalley to Manchester, through Accrington,
Haslingden, and Bury, and still farther to the east by Colne and
Burnley, the land is mostly kept in pasture. This is altogether a
coal district, and consequently a thickly peopled one ; the Marners
find a ready sale for their milk in the towns and villages, and
hence there is little stimulus to exertion. Draining is more or
less required throughout the whole; the soil is a cold tenacious
clay, and the country has a bare and dreary appearance: the land,
being divided into smal! properties and holdings, lets high; 2/.,
3l., and 4/. per acre being a common rent. A population such as
the whole of this is, employed in hand-loom weaving and mills,
is not likely to advance much in agriculture; still there are in-
stances of improvement by the owners of the soil. Sir Robert
Peel has drained almost all his land, to the amount of 1000 acres,
in the neighbourhood of Accrington, under the direction of Mr.
Josiah Parkes, at a depth of 4 feet, and at various intervals, with
1$-inch pipe, tiles, and collars, which are made at an old-
ee niahed pottery at Oswaldtwistle, close to his property ; other
tileries are about to be erected in this district, which will tend to
improve the quality and lower the price of this necessary article.
On leaving the hilly districts and descending into the low
country to the westward, the first important feature in an agricul-
tural point of view is the cultivation of Chat-moss; this is a large
bog or morass, situate about 7 miles to the westward of Man-
chester; itis 5 miles long from east to west, and about 3 miles
broad fein north to Southt: covering an area of about 6000 acres.
The Liverpool and Manchester Railway passes through, or
rather over it, from east to west. Much variety of opinion pre-
vails as to the origin of these mosses; some carry their formation
as far back as the general deluge, but the more probable theory is
that they have been caused by the natural decay of primeval
forests in the valleys or hollows, from which the water had no
escape ; a few trees blown down or felled would readily choke up
the outlet of a small stream with little or no fall, and when decay
had once begun its ravages in a forest so situated, it would pro-
ceed with an ever accelerated rapidity until the whole was reduced
to a mass of decayed or decaying vegetable matter.
The surface of Chat-moss is a sort of long, coarse, sedgy grass
and heath, tough enough to enable a man to walk upon it in most
parts; but it was given in evidence by Mr. Giles before the
Committee of the House of Commons, preparatory to the
making of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, that a boring-
rod, when forced through the surface vegetation about the centre
of the moss, would sink with its own weight to the depth of
34 feet. At that depth there was a vein of 4 or 6 inches of clay ;
below that 2 or 3 feet of quicksand; and at the bottom of all, hard
10 Farming of Lancashire.
clay which kept the water up. ‘The same engineer gave it as his
opinion that a railway could not with safety be made over Chat-
moss without going to the bottom of it; but the late Mr. George
Stephenson, with his usual engineering skill, preserved the surface
untouched ; and, by laying some brushwood and hurdles upon it
to make a foundation, and opening side-drains, carried the rail-
way in safety over the top of this mass of bog, which varies in its
depth from 10 to 37 feet. The railway, in fact, floats upon the
moss.
Few men would ever have dreamt of cultivating such a waste
as Chat-moss; but Mr. Roscoe, of Liverpool, first commenced
this great work by trying to drain 2000 acres; after a series of
Jaborious and costly experiments, the chief fault of which was his
desire to do too much, and to lay the open drains too deep and
too far apart, he was compelled to give up the undertaking ; and
it was reserved for Mr. Reed, assisted with the capital of a com-
pany of gentlemen formed for the purpose, to accomplish the
desired object.
This gentleman; in a very valuable Essay, which gained the
premium at the Liverpool Agricultural Society’s Meeting, Sep-
tember, 1833, and was subsequently published by that Society, has
detailed the method he adopted to reclaim the moss, and to this
day the abundant produce of the soil bears testimony to his com-
plete triumph over its natural sterility.
The drainage was the first step to improvement; this was
effected by cutting open parallel ditches 66 yards apart, 4 feet
wide at the top, and sloping down to about 14 inches at the
bottom, and 3 feet 6 inches deep: in a wet floating mass like
this moss it was not possible to sink the ditch to the whole depth
at once, and the first two spits being taken out it was then left for
time to consolidate the surface; the covered cross-drains, 10
yards apart, laid 3 feet deep, and running into the open ditches,
were commenced, but in forming these, as well as the open drains,
it was necessary to allow some time to elapse between the different
operations, that the water might to some extent run off; the hol-
low drain was made by the top sod, dried by exposure to the air,
being wedged into the open cut, and the peat thrown in again
upon that to fill up.
When the surface was partially dried, the heath and other
plants growing upon it were set on fire and burnt off as closely as
possible; and by ploughing and cross-ploughing, and cutting up
the sods with a roller armed with knives, the ingenious con-
trivance of Mr. Reed, he was enabled to destroy the tough and
elastic character of the surface: after this process marl, which
was found at the southern edge of the moss, was, by means of a
moyeable railway, laid on the top, to the amount of 100 cubic
Farming of Lancashire. 11
yards to the statute acre; the average distance which the marl
had to be removed being about two-thirds of a mile. Whilst
these operations were in progress, I went over the moss with Mr.
Reed, and remember that both men and horses were obliged to
work with pattens, or flat pieces of wood, attached to the feet.
By means of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, then in
full operation, Mr. Reed was enabled to bring from the latter
town any quantity of manure; and he found that a mixture of
night-soil and ashes was preferable to anything else. By growing
a crop of potatoes in the first instance, the different particles of
moss-earth and manure became so thoroughly blended together
that the soil formed would produce anything, and wheat, clover,
and oats followed each other in successful rotation. Since Mr.
Reed left, some years ago, the management has been intrusted to
Mr. Evans, now of the Haigh Foundry, Wigan, and it has been
discovered by experience that it is not advisable to grow wheat or
clover on such land: turnips, oats, and potatoes are considered
the best crops; and instead of marl, which is both bulky and
heavy to move, it is now ascertained that salt mixed with lime is
the most effective instrument in destroying the mossy nature of
the surface, and preparing it for a first crop of potatoes; these
grow exceedingly well on moss-lands unmarled, but if marled,
their failure is as general as on other soils. In Professor John-
ston’s recent work‘ On the Use of Lime in Agriculture, it is
stated, chap. xi., section v., that “The use of lime and salt has
been frequently recommended by Mr. Cuthbert Johnson and
others; and its virtues, in the proportion of one of salt to two or
three of lime, have more lately been experimentally tested and
recommended by Mr. Huxtable. It seems to be particularly
adapted to deep soils, as they are called; to such as are covered
with moss, and to reclaimed and drained ‘peat- bogs.”
There is still much of this moss in its natural state; but it is
to be hoped that, lying as it does in the heart of a populous
district, and traversed by a railway connecting together the two
most important towns in the kingdom, it will not long continue
so; and that, with the example of what may be done, Chat-moss
will in a few years become a cultivated plain, administering to
the wants of an ever increasing population.
To the north-east of Chat-moss, and on the high land over-
looking the whole of the lower part of Lancashire and Cheshire,
is Worsley, the property of the Earl of Ellesmere; within the
last two years his Lordship has established a tilery, ond drained
a large portion of the Old Hall Farm with 2- inch pipes and
collars, at 4 feet deep, and 10 yards apart. ‘They seem to run
well, but the land is stiff and heavy to work ; it produces good
crops of wheat, oats, and beans; last year the turnips did not
12 Farming of Lancashire.
succeed, their failure being attributed chiefly to the constant rain
in the summer of 1848; but they have been grown 25 tons to
the statute acre, whilst the wheat sown by drill averages about 4
quarters, and beans 40 bushels. The milch cows, in number 25,
together with the young stock, is decidedly above the average,
and the milk is immediately disposed of in supplying the neigh-
bouring villages of the district.
Near Newton, half-way between Liverpool and Manchester,
on the London and North-Western Railway, there is a farm
which deserves a passing notice, the property of Mr. Bankes, of |
Winstanley Hall; it lies immediately to the eastward of the
Newton Station, and on both sides of the railway, and is now in
the occupation of Mr. Wilson. This gentleman was one of the
first to set the example of draining in this part of the country,
when living some years ago on a farm of Mr. Greenall’s in
Winwick. His present farm contains 250 statute acres, with a
good house upon it; but the farm-buildings are old, and quite
inadequate to the wants of the present day. When he came to
it, about two years ago, he found the land in a wretched state;
his first object was to get it all drained, and this he has nearly
accomplished with horseshoe tiles and soles, which he obtains
from a tilery close to Newton. ‘The soil being a strong heavy
loam, he has cut the drains 3 feet deep and 5 yards apart, but
made no air-drain, and, with the help of some Irish workmen,
he was enabled to do this at the cost of 4d. a rood of 8 yards,
the tiles being laid by the day at 13s. per week; he has grubbed
up the old irregular fences, and filled up the ditches, so as to
divide the farm, where practicable, into fields of about 25 acres
each, or more. His plan is to plough up the old rushy sward
for oats; 2ndly, turnips, with farm-yard manure and guano;
3rdly, wheat or barley, with seeds to remain as pasture for two,
three, or more years, according to the price of corn or other
circumstances. The land being foul for the turnips, he cleaned
them by hand-labour for five or six weeks, and succeeded in
getting a crop of swedes, about 30 tons to the acre; in preparing
the land for the turnips, he found the Norwegian harrow a most
useful implement: he ploughs with a common iron plough and
two horses, and sows for wheat 2 bushels to the statute acre. But
he unfortunately lives under the shadow of a large chimney, more
than 300 feet high, which is continually vomiting forth its pesti-
lential breath from some extensive chemical-works in the neigh-
bourhood, to the certain damage of all vegetable life within its
range, and that this is not confined to a small extent may be judged
from the withering effects visible upon the trees for miles round.
The nuisance occasioned by these works has been so grievous
and intolerable to the whole neighbourhood, that the farmers,
Farming of Lancashire. IN,
with Mr. Wilson at their head, have taken the matter up, and
are endeavouring to form aSociety for the protection of their
interests, and the removal of such works, which certainly are
most objectionable in the inidst of an agricultural district. It is
to be hoped that by the united efforts of both the landowners and
occupiers this evil will soon be entirely suppressed.
Proceeding westward, towards Liverpool, we come into the
neighbourhood of Knowsley; the soil here becomes lighter, and,
resting upon a substratum of new red-sandstone, is more forward
and more easily worked than the cold clays of East Lancashire.
One of the most interesting farms on the Earl of Derby's pro-
perty in this part of the country is Halewood, comprising 300
statute acres, and now occupied by Mr. Robert Neilson: this
gentleman, since he took the farm about 10 years ago, has spared
no pains or expense to render it one of the most complete and
perfect establishments in the country, nor is it merely as gratifi-
cation of a personal feeling, or the indulgence of a temporary
fancy, that the system which he has adopted is to be viewed; he
has been trying to work out, as a matter of business and practical
inquiry, an experiment in which all the landowners and farmers
of Lancashire are more or less interested. Expensive imple-
ments have been purchased by him, and used on the farm; a
fixed steam-engine of 6-horse power is constantly at work in the
different operations of cutting hay and straw, crushing oats,
cutting turnips, sawing wood, and steaming all kinds of proven-
der for horses, cows, and pigs. A small railway or tramroad has
been laid down in the yards for the purpose of carrying the food
to the animals and conveying away the manure to the dungheap,
whilst a considerable length of light moveable railway, an invention
of Mr. Neilson’s, is used in bringing the produce of the fields to
the farm-yard—in wet weather and on level ground, a most valuable
expedient. If Mr. Neilson has done this as a farmer, it is to be
hoped that the farming community may some day or other be put
in possession of the results, or at least may be informed whether
the balance is on the debit or credit side of the account. All the
farm is drained with horseshoe tiles and slate soles, the latter
being the refuse of the Welsh quarries. I was informed by the
farm bailiff, who kindly took me over the farm in the absence of
Mr. Neilson, that pipes had been tried; but they do not answer
in that neighbourhood, inasmuch as the crevices become choked
up with a kind of weed or the roots of plants—consequently their
use has been abandoned. The drains are laid at a depth of
2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. 6 in., and the mains, where there is fall,
4 ft., the space between the former being 7 or 9 yards. Wheat,
oats, barley, beans, vetches, and turnips are all grown upon the
farm; but potatoes have been given up. The course is as fol-
14 Farming of Lancashire.
lows, with certain modifications according to particular .circum-
stances :—
Wheat, by a broadcast machine on ribbed furrows, 6 to 8 pecks per acre.
if drilled, 2 ft. 6 in. apart, 4 to 5 pecks per acre.
Vetches, till June, and then transplanted with turnips.
Turnips and mangolds i in drills 32 inches wide.
Beans, drilled.
Wheat or Barley.
Seeds for one year.
I was informed on the spot that one field of wheat, manured
from the farm-yard, and sown by a broadcast machine on ribbed
furrows, with a dressing of guano in the spring, produced last
year 48 bushels to the statute acre, whereas that sown in drills
2 ft. 6 in. apart yielded from 32 to 36 bushels; I do not know
whether or not this latter had any guano. A twenty-seven
acre field of turnips also last year, after wheat, with farm-yard
manure ploughed in with the stubble at the rate of 50 tons
the acre, and afterwards 14 cwt. of bones dissolved in sulphuric
acid per acre, produced 40 tons of turnips to the acre; this
was the first trial of bones with sulphuric acid, and the result
most satisfactory. Both the drilled wheat and beans are sown
by the same implement, which consists of a single box or co-
vered barrow, fixed by an iron rod to the handle of a double
mould-plough, at such a distance that the seed falls 1 ft. 3 in.
from the furrow formed by the plough, which is drawn by two
horses; one man of course holds the plough, and another the
handles of the box, which runs on a wheel, and has a small spout
through which the seed drops ; the two men walk side by side, the
box being kept in its place by the iron rod which fixes it to the
plough, and this latter covers the seed, not of course as it is
dropped, but in returning down the next furrow. I saw this
simple machine, which is Mr. Neilson’s own contrivance, at work
sowing beans, and calculated that the two men and two horses
would sow about 5 acres in a day. Mr. Neilson has standing
room for 100 head of cattle, of which from 30 to 40 are milch
cows, the milk being sent to Liverpool, about 6 miles distant ;
he employs a large number of men and women in gangs of from
60 to 100, in hoeing, cleaning, and reaping, so as to get through
the work rapidly, and 14 horses.
The rotation of crops in use by the farmers of the neighbour-
hood of Halewood, was potatoes, wheat, turnips, and oats, with
seeds or not; but the failure of the potatoes has obliged them to
adopt in some cases beans as a substitute: they have no imple-
ments of any importance.
Throughout the whole of the Earl of Derby’s estates in this
part of the country, most of the farms have been held on life
leases, and are in the hands of men who have no capital to lay
Farming of Lancashire. 15
out—and no knowledge or desire to improve. The evil conse-
quences of this system are sufficiently apparent on the surface,
and as any of the old leases drop, the farms are now generally
re-let on terms of years, and for any outlay in draining by the
landlord the tenant is charged 5 per cent. From Knowsley to
Ormskirk the road passes through a tract of mosses, Rainford
and others; a great part of this has been reclaimed by his lord-
ship, and is about to be formed into a farm of 500 acres around
the site of the old Mossborough Castle; the feudal remains have
disappeared to make way for a new and substantial stone farm-
house, which, with the buildings proposed to be erected, will soon
form an establishment more suited to the habits and wants of the
present day; the plough-share and the pruning-hook have here
literally taken the place of the sword and spear of ancient days.
At Bickerstaffe Hall, Mr. Smythies, a gentleman from Here-
fordshire, occupies a farm of 380 acres, which he farms on a six-
course shift—potatoes, wheat, turnips, barley, and seeds for two
years ; the potatoes having for the most part proved a failing crop,
he now proposes to begin with oats, then turnips, &c.: the old
fences have been cleared away, and the fields made of proper
form and size; his buildings are large, but not arranged on the
best plan,—the old barn being retained, and part of the farm-
stead in its original form, they are not so perfect as an entirely
new set would be. Most of the farm was drained before he came
to it, at a depth of 2 ft. 6 in., and on his first proposing to deepen
that to 3 ft. he met with little encouragement; now, however,
both here and elsewhere on the Derby estates the three-feet
system is adopted.
In walking over his young wheat and seeds with him, I ob-
served that some four-footed friends from the adjoining covers
had been rather busy at his expense ;—in fact, winter vetches,
one of the most valuable crops to a farmer, cannot be grown
here.
Proceeding northwards, near Ormskirk, there is a farmer at
Fairhurst, who, without a lease, merely a tenant from year to
year, and occupying about !60 acres, spares no expense and pains
in farming it on the best principles. The Earl of Derby, in ap-
proval and return for his exertions, has lately erected for him
some new buildings (he carting the materials), which are quite
deserving of notice as simple in their arrangement and well adapted
to the means and wants of the practical farmer: the steaming and
boiling-house is not yet built, but this will shortly be done; and
when completed, the whole will form a quadrangle, with a straw-
yard for pigs in the centre, paved at the bottom, and about 23
yards square, enclosed by flags set upright and fastened together
with iron bolts ; this excellent material for the purpose is got from
16 Farming of Lancashire.
quarries in that part of the country. Between the straw-yard and
the buildings there is a space of 95 or 6 yards paved all round ;
the shippon and stables are well ventilated at the top. When I
visited this farm, four horses were at work thrashing with a ma-
chine, which the tenant has put up at his own expense.
The soil throughout the whole of this district is loamy and
tolerably easy to work; still farther to the westward it becomes
gradually lighter, till in the neighbourhood of Formby and
Southport it is almost all sand. In many fields at Formby, near
the shore, there is soil two feet below the sand, that lies beneath —
the greensward: it would seem that this soil, which is about four
inches thick, was originally the surface, and has been buried at
some former period by sand-drifts.
Near Rufford we get into the mosses again; which, however,
have in a great measure been reclaimed: large fields, intersected
with open dykes and watercourses, produce good crops of potatoes
and oats, or are now to a large extent laid down in permanent
pastures and meadows.
The cart-horses throughout the whole of the western side of
this division still preserve the character they bore in Mr. Dick-
son's time; the farmers take a pride in their teams, and as they
were improving in his days they have continued to do so, till now
it would be difficult to surpass them in any district of the
kingdom.
Throughout the greater part of this division the manufacturing
population predominates very much over the agricultural, and
hence the tendency to small farms and holdings. The farmers
as a class are inferior in position and education to those of other
parts of the kingdom. The habit of taking two white crops in
succession still prevails very generally amongst them, and the
practice of laying down the land in narrow butts, often after wheat,
and in many instances allowing it to grass itself over, cannot be
too strongly condemned. The evils of the bad system which has
prevailed for the last 50 years or more, are so manifold, and the
prejudices of the people so deep-rooted, that it will take many
years to eradicate them, and raise the agriculture of this part of
the county to its proper position.
Middle Division. (No. 2.)
On crossing the Ribble to the north, and passing through
Preston, we at once leave the manufacturing districts ; they belong
to the Southern Division, for, excepting Preston with a population
_of 50,000 souls, and Lancaster with 15,000, there is no town of
importance between the rivers Ribble and Lune. Preston is
of course a manufacturing place, and, being situated on the extreme
southern verge of the Middle Division, may fairly be allowed to
Farming of Lancashire. 17
belong to the Southern ; and Lancaster, though it has produced a
few tall chimneys, cannot find in them much to be proud of, they
are evidently exotics, they do not thrive as in the south, nor in-
crease in number; coals are brought from a distance, and the old
county town, with its ancient castle and quiet sombre-looking
streets, cannot in the nineteenth century be classed amongst the
busy and bustling scenes of manufacturing industry.
We are therefore now in a purely agricultural district; the
whole appearance of the country is changed: the trees, no longer
blackened and begrimed with the smoke, wear their natural
colour; the air is pure and the sky clear; and the ruddy looks of
the inhabitants plainly testify that they do not live in mills,
nor pass the best of their days in driving the shuttle. ‘Tall and
strong of limb, and intelligent in countenance, there certainly is
no physical hindrance to their being as good farmers as any in
England.
The soil of this division, on the eastern parts and mountainous
slopes of Longridge, Bleasdale, and Wyresdale Fells is thin, and
of a black mecnan nature ; the lower portions of the sides of the
hills and the valleys formed by them are commonly somewhat of
the nature of the holms, with brooks and rivulets running through
them. At the foot of the hills and through the townships of
Goosnargh, Barton, and Claughton, and for the most part along
the line of the Preston and Lancaster Railway, the soil is of a
stronger quality, in many parts amounting to a stiff clayey loam,
The Fylde is that tract lying to the westward of the above-named
railway, and bounded by the Ribble, the.sea, and the Lune; in
this low-lying country almost every kind of soil is found, from a
stiff clay to sand or bog, but the greater part is clayey loam and
alluvium, intersected in many parts with large and deep mosses,
such as Pilling, Rawcliffe, Nateby, &c. ‘To understand the
nature of the soils of this division, and the geological relations of
Clougha (the northern ridge of Wyersdale), Bleasdale Moors,
and Longridge with each other and with the Fylde, the annexed
sketches, taken from Professor Phillips’ ‘ Report on the Vicinity
of Lancashire,’ may be of service; ali the hills are capped by
lower millstone grit, resting on the limestone shale; this section
is made on a line drawn from north to south :—
Bleasdale Moors.
Vale of
Hodder. Longridge.
Limestone Shale.
VOL, X. C
18 Farming of Lancashire.
This other section is made on a line drawn east and west :—
BLEASDALE MOORS.
lj Millstone Grit.
a
THE FYLDE.
Limestone.
The only limestone fit for agricultural purposes found through-
out the whole of this division is in the neighbourhood of Chipping,
a village seven or eight miles north-east of Preston, in the valley
which separates Longridge Fell from Bleasdale Moors; it is ex-
tensively used in these parts as a top-dressing to the grass-lands
and sheep-pastures, and with good effect. The cost at the kiln
is 1]d. a windle, and two windles are equal to 3 cwt.
The inhabitants of the hills are a manly and independent, but
rather uncultivated, race; shrewd enough as far as their own
immediate interest is concerned, but incapable of looking forward ;
unwilling to lay out stxpence this year in the chance of receiving
a shilling next, and jealous to an extreme of any alteration or
innovation on the customs of their fathers. Many families have
lived on the same farms for generations; and by frequent inter-
marriages they have become connected together almost like one
family, and, with a strong attachment to their native hills, care
little to receive or visit strangers.
Their farms are not large ; some of the most important amount
to 250 or 300 statute acres of enclosed land, with a large nght of
sheep-pasture over the moors adjoining, and held for the most part
on yearly tenancies. ‘The stock on the farm is generally all the
capital they possess, which consists of a herd of milch-cows and
their calves of different ages, little or no care being given as to the
breeding of them; a flock of black-faced sheep of very inferior
quality, ‘and a pig or two, with perhaps a couple of horses when
the farm is large, make up the total of their property: they
generally keep their land in grass, witha plentiful crop of rushes,
which serve, as they say, ‘to keep it warm;” or if they plough it
up and take a crop of oats, which is the most they ever aspire to,
they leave it to time and nature to grass it over again, and never
think of putting any manure on; this is all preserved for the
meadows, which are really of importance, inasmuch as they pro-
duce the hay which is to keep the stock through the winter. The
hay-harvest is therefore the most critical time of the year, and
Farming of Lancashire. 19
they give it all the attention they are capable of. ‘They mow
with large scythes, 5 feet or 5 feet 6 inches long, very heavy, and
therefore slow in action, and they shake out Hine swathe, not with
forks or any implement, but with the hands. The climate being
precarious and the population small, the hay-making on a mode-
rately-sized farm takes a month or six weeks, part of July and
August, and as it is made it is secured in close barns, not in stacks
or open sheds: 2 tons to the acre is a good crop. The produce
of the cows is made into cheese and butter, mostly the former,
and the whey given to the young calves. They have no green-
crops nor farmyards for turning the cattle into and preserving the
manure during the winter. Simple and hardy in their habits,
they have few wants beyond the actual necessaries of life; their
houses are built of the rough gritstone of the country, and the
turf on the moors adjoiing serves the purpose of fuel. Wheaten
bread is a rarity; and the bakestone, or hot hearth, for baking
the large oatcakes upon, forms a necessary appendage to the farm-
house and the cottage; in fact this is the case throughout the
whole of North Lancashire. ‘The oatcake is still the favourite
food both of farmers and labourers.
Draining, wherever it has been attempted, has been done some-
times with sods, but more commonly with stones, the natural
materials of the country: the drain is made in the form of a sough,
with rough stones, at a depth in some cases of 28 inches, but for
the most part not more ie 18 or 20 inches, and carried across
the fall at intervals of 9 or 12 vards, with just sufficient inclination
to allow the water to flow, the object being to prevent thereby
any scour of the subsoil. Some fill the drains half with the soil
taken out and half with broken stones, and carry the latter up to
the surface on the higher side of the drain, so that the surface-
water may ran into the drains as into a_spout at the eaves of a
house—a most effectual means, by the way, of carrying off all the
small particles of manure, whether lime or anything else that
may be lying there. This mode of draining costs 15d. per rood
of 7 yards, but is gradually giving way to a better system; and
the introduction of pipe-tiles enables the drains to be carried in
safety down the fall at a greater depth and at less expense.
On descending the hills the style of farming begins to improve,
and both the soil and climate admit of more attention being paid
to arable culture, and with greater success than in the high lands.
Sul], with the exception of a few large landed propr eters such as
Mr. Brockholes, of Claughton Hall, and Mr. Jacson, of Barton,
there is little improvement on the old system, and ane dislike to
alteration prevails here as elsewhere.
The fields in many parts for whole districts bear the appearance
of having been ploughed till they could produce nothing, and the
ao
C za
20 Farming of Lancashire.
miserable herbage with long rows of rushes in the furrows show
too plainly the great want of draining and management in the
occupiers. Mr. Brockholes has, during the last twenty-eight
years, since he came into possession of the property, drained
upwards of 2000 acres, chiefly with stones and across the fall:
many of the drains were at first laid out by himself so level that
they have been choked up by the deposit of ferruginous matter,
called canker, and require now to be done over again with tiles
and on a better system. His soil is for the most part a stiff clay,
and he does not approve of draining in such cases deeper than
3 feet. Being a constant resident, he is able annually to lay out
large sums in improving his estate, and spares no pains in making
it one of the finest in this part of the county.
On the property of Mr. Jacson, which lies between 4 and
7 miles north of Preston, a series of improvements was effected
during the lifetime of his father, who will long be remembered in
that district as a real benefactor in his generation, and his son
continues to follow in his steps, endeavouring to recover a fine
estate from the effects of former bad management. On a pro-
perty of 2600 acres nearly thirty sets of farm-buildings have been
rebuilt (at a cost of 27,000/.) within the last sixteen years, or so
renewed that it amounts to the same thing; and instead of the old
houses made of mud walls and thatched roofs, may now be seen
throughout the whole of it good substantial tenements built of
brick and covered with slate. They are decidedly above the
average of farm buildings, and though not adapted to the use of
steam-power or any other of the modern scientific improvements,
are justly deemed well suited to the means of those who occupy
them.
The farms are not large, the most important being from 180
to 200 statute acres, but the average is about 80; they were
formerly let on yearly tenancies, but seven years is now the usual
term, and some of the farmers are willing to enter into agree-
ments for ten, but for the most part they are reluctant to’ bind
themselves for so long a period. As a class they are incapable of
estimating the responsibilities which the covenants of a lease entail
upon them; in their anxiety to get the farm, they are willing to
enter into conditions the force of which they do not understand,
and which consequently they care not to fulfil; wanting in capital
and energy both of body and mind, they are unable to appreciate
or carry out an improved course of husbandry, and looking with
suspicion on any plan which seems to differ from their own
method, are reluctant to abandon the practice of breaking-up the
land for successive grain crops; to preserve the greater part of the
farm in grass is the aim and object which a good farmer ought to
have in view throughout this district, but after such a process of
Farming of Lancashire. 21
exhaustion as the land has suffered during past years, it is impos-
sible to restore it to anything like vigour without going through a
judicious rotation of crops, and the system of the schedule, tried
on this property, which binds the tenant to a fixed and regular
course, though at first greatly disliked by him, is the only mode
of accomplishing the object sought after. The rental of the land
averages 3Qs. per statute acre, or rather more, and the rotation
of crops, which is now adopted with success in working and
restoring it, is a five-course, as follows :—
Out of ley—1. Oats.
2. Oats, a better crop than the first.
3. Green crop manured, turnips or potatoes.
4, Oats or barley, with ‘seeds.
5. Seeds for hay or pasture.
And after that one year or more in pasture, according to cir-
cumstances, the object being to get a good permanent pasture for
the dairy, and sometimes it is preserved unbroken for three years.
The land is strong and retentive of moisture, and produces, after
a fallow, a good crop of wheat, 25 or 30 bushels to the acre; but
before any of these crops can be grown, it is necessary to drain it
thoroughly. The first method of draining on this property, before
the invention of pipes, was with horseshoe-tiles and stones, at a
rate varying from 15d. to 18d. a rood of 7 yards, total cost, filled
and completed, and 60,000 roods of drains were so laid at a
depth of not more than 30 inches; but now a drain of 3 feet deep
with a 2-inch pipe for the water, is found to answer admirably at
intervals of 8, 9, or 10 yards, down the fall, at a cost of ll1d. to
13d. per rood, including the tiles, cutting, laying, and filling.
The understratum in which the tiles are laid isa stiff reddish clay,
capable of being made into bricks or tiles; and the drains are,
for the most part, laid 8 yards apart, ath an air-drain carried
along the top of the field, and communicating of course with the
heads of all the drains. ‘This admission of a draught of air is
most advantageous, and may, in fact, be considered as one of the
great secrets of thorough tile-draining: 1. meadow land, or per-
manent pasture, it is quite sufficient to bring the pipe up in a
slanting direction to the surface; this plan I have tried, and it
saves the expense of the additional air-drain.
A large brickyard and tilery has been at work on this property
for more than 15 years, and the horseshoe-tiles were made in
large quantities, as may be imagined from the length of drains
named above, which was generally laid with that kind of tile, the
opening turned upwards, and a stone placed as a cover. [or the
last three years pipes have been substituted for the horseshoe ;
and last year, 1848, upwards of 500,000 tiles were made in that
yard, nor was this supply at all equal to the demand. There are
22 Farming of Lancashire.
two machines ait work, Whitehead’s and Clayton’s, but the latter
was used first, and I believe continues to be the favourite for large
tiles, though the former is preferred for the smaller kinds.
From Barton, proceeding westward, we pass into the Fylde,
which is divided into two paris by the Wyre; this river rises at
the head of the valley that takes its name from the stream, and
flowing by the small town of Garstang, passes thence with a con-
siderable detour near the villages of Church Town, St. Michael’s,
and Great Eccleston, and finally empties its waters into the sea
at the south-west corner of Morecambe Bay, forming there a
harbour to the modern town of Fleetwood. The southera of
these two divisions is much the larger of the two, but nearly all
the mosses of this part of Lancashire lie to the north of the Wyre,
and their history and present state must form one of the most
interesting subjects in any treatise on the farming of the county.
These original wastes may be roughly estimated at 20,000 statute
acres, and from a state of perfect sterility producing nothing but
moor-fowl and snipes, they are now being gradually converted
into the most productive lands in the kingdom; this has been
chiefly done by a good system of draining, and it is remarkable
that the levels of this country should fall to the north. From
within half a mile of the Wyre the water falls to the Lune, and
from within two miles of the Ribble it runs into the Wyre, from
which it is evident that to drain these districts thoroughly and to
keep them in working order, it is absolutely necessary that the
beds of these rivers should be kept as low as possible. From the
constant washings from the hills and from repeated floods they
bring down with them great quantities of sand, which, as the rivers
widen towards the sea, and become more sluggish in their course,
is deposited in the channel, to the manifest injury of the outfalls
above. The natural scour is not sufficient to keep the rivers
deep to the sea, and it is very necessary in any general drainage
measure that particular attention be paid to this point. It is
strange that Ireland should possess the Acts of 1 & 2 Wm. IV.,
cap. 57, and 5 & 6 Victoria, cap. 105, “To empower landed
proprietors in Ireland to sink, embank, and remove obstructions in
rivers ;” and that England should be at this day without the benefit
and power of any such laws. It is much to be hoped that this
defect will soon be remedied.
Each division of the Fylde has its great landowner and im-
prover: Mr. Clifton, of Lytham, in the southern, and Mr. Wilson
F france, of Rawcliffe Hall, in the northern; and both these gen-
tlemen have indeed “deserved well of their country” for their
eminent services in the cause of agricultural improvements.
The climate of the whole of this lowland district is much
milder than in the higher parts of the Middle Division situated to
, Farming of Lancashire. 93
the eastward ; and the town of Lytham, at the mouth of the Ribble,
has become, in consequence of its peculiar situation and warmth,
a favourite place of resort durimg the winter months. The soil
for the most part south of the Wyre is rich and loamy, lighter
than on the eastern side of the Lancaster Railway, and capable
of growing any crops, and when drained most productive. To-
wards the sea-coast, from Lytham to Blackpool and Fleetwood,
the red marl prevails: but to the north of the Wyre it is almost
entirely peat and moss resting on a substratum of marl and clay.
The character of the people and size of the farms are very
similar to what has been already described of the lower part of
this division, in the neighbourhood of Barton, &c.; but the Earl
of Derby and Mr. Clifton, who owns a large tract of country in
this district of the Fylde, have done much towards their improve-
ment. The latter gentleman especially has endeavoured to intro-
duce upon his property a higher system of farming, before
unknown there, and with the help of his intelligent agent, Mr.
Fair, has certainly accomplished great things. He established a
private Agricultural Society, which gave a stimulus to improve-
ment amongst his own tenantry, that has been attended with much
good ; the stock exhibited gradually improved, and the green-crop
system has been successfully tried, and the example thus afforded
of what might be done with care and skill has not been without
its effects beyond the limits of that Society. Large dykes and
drains have been made to carry off the water to the Ribble; one
especially, which extends from five to six miles, was made at an
expense of 3000/. entirely by the proprietor ; and asa proof of the
benefit resulting from this work, offers were immediately made of
an increased rent, which would bring some return for the outlay,
and gave encouragement for further similar undertakings.
Mr. Clifton, in carrying out his views, has also introduced from
Scotland men of capital and position as tenant-farmers, such as
were unknown before in this county ; and by giving long leases of
19 or 21 years on large farms of 400 acres cr more, has effected
a change which promises to be very advantageous; but it yet
remains to be seen whether or not, as a whole, the Scotch system
is the one which is most calculated to suit this part of England,
Mr. Begbie, one of these gentlemen, has kindly furnished me
with some particulars relating to his own farm near Lytham, which
are worthy of notice. Part of his farm he has drained 2 feet 6
inches deep; but during the last two years no drains have been
made less than 3, and some 4 feet; the 3-feet drains being 6
yards apart, and the price paid for cutting and fillmg 53d. to 6d.
per rood of 8 yards. The 4-feet drains are generally placed 12
yards apart, and the price for cutting, &c., 8d. per rood; these
latter have only been made when the subsoil was open and porous.
24 Farming of Lancashire.
The last year he has used the pipe tiles with collars, 12 inch
wide; but up to that time the horseshoe-tiles, with turf for a
covering, or even turf alone, which forms an excellent drain when
the subsoil is sound and stiff. Mr. Clifton supplies the materials
and the tenant does the rest of the work, or Mr. Clifton does the
whole, and charges a per centage. Hitherto Mr. Begbie has not
been able, from the unformed state of his farm, to carry out any
regular course of opp iae? but now he proposes to adopt the
seven-course shift, viz.
ist year, one-seventh of turnips.
ide ie wheat or barley.
ard 53 i grass and pasture.
4th ,, iz pasture.
Sth ,, 3 oats.
6th ,, $5 beans, drilled.
ah; es wheat.
The climate of the Fylde he finds to be wet and uncertain in
autumn and winter, but good in spring and summer. He has a
steam engine of 6-horse power for threshing and bruising corn,
which can also be adapted to crush lmseed without any additional
power, at the same time with the threshing. Thick sowing for
wheat is not so much in use here as elsewhere; 5 pecks in the
autumn, until the middle or end of October, and 6 or 64 as the
season advances, are commonly sown, and many persons at the
beginning of autumn sow under a bushel per statute acre.
Two tileries have been established on this property: one, the
largest, has been at work for some years past; and a second
smaller one was erected last year.
From Lytham we must go to Rawcliffe, and examine the
mosses to the north of the Wyre: a dreary country it is in its
natural state, but the hand of man and the blessing of Providence
upon his exertions are fast converting this wilderness into a gar-
den; oats and potatoes, turnips, and even wheat, may be seen
growing in the greatest luxuriance on the surface of a bog, per-
haps thirty feet deep or more, for in some parts the moss is found
to exceed even this, and the black peat-stacks of turf reared to
dry for fuel. may he een standing in gloomy contrast with the
smiling produce of the sickle.
To enter fully into the details of the method by which this
extraordinary revolution has been effected would of itself require
an Essay; but the limits of this Report will not admit of more than
a full statement of the facts: nor is there space to enter upon the
very interesting question of the formation and origin of the moss—
that belongs more to the geological inquirer—our business is with
the surface ; but it is worthy of a passing remark, that large
remains of ait trees, sound, and black as ebony, and of a size
to
Farming of Lancashire. 2D
equal to the timber of the tropics, are found embedded under
these mosses, as well as large horns of the red deer and elk.
The cultivation of moss-lands appears to be the original farm-
ing of Lancashire; that is to say, that branch of farming i in which
it this a peculiar ghiraite: and position, differing from the other
parts of the kingdom: Lincolnshire has iis fens, Yorkshire its
wolds, and other counties their distinctive characteristics; but
Lancashire has its mosses, and whilst in growing turnips or wheat
we are only doing what others can do equally well, or perhaps
better than ourselves, to produce these crops upon the surface of
a barren moss, varying from 3 to 30 feet in depth, is a triumph
im agriculture—such as no other county, I believe, can lay
claim to.
The value of moss has long been admitted; as far back as
1819, Mr. Nimmo says—
“T am perfectly convinced, from all that I have seen, that any species of
bog is by tillage and manure capable of being converted into soil fit for
the support of plants of every description, and with due management
perhaps the most fertile that can be submitted to the operations of the
farmer.”
And Sir H. Davy says—
*¢ A soil covered with peat, is a soil covered not only with fuel, but also
with manure ; it is the excess of manure only which is detrimental, and it
is much more easy to destroy than to create it. To cultivate a bog isa
much less difficult task than to improve a sand. If there is a proper level
to admit of draining, the larger the scale of operations the less must the
comparative expense be, because machinery may for many purposes take
the place of manual labour ; and the trials which have been already made
by private individuals, and which are stated in the different reports, prove
not only the feas ibility of the generai project, but afford strong grounds
for believing that capital expended upon it, after mature and well digested
plans, would in a very few years afford a great and increasing interest,
and would contribute to the wealth, pros perity, and population of Ire-
land.” *
Now in converting moss into land the first matter to be con-
sidered is the main drains, and these must be determined on with
reference to the extent, form, and situation of the moss, to the
levels of the lands by which the moss is surrounded, and likewise
to the levels of ihe subsoz/ on which the moss rests.
Roads, having open drains on each side, must be made as a
general rule 7 yards wide, and must be laid out so that the fields
and their divisional drains run at right angles with the lines of the
roads. The open drains on each side of the roads are made for
the first year 3 feet wide at the top, | foot wide at the bottom,
and 4 feet deep; but in the second year, when the moss is _ sufii-
ciently consolidated, it is desirable to make these drains 6 feet
wide at the top: at 18 inches from the surface this width of 6
* For this testimony see Irish Farmers’ Magazine, No. 29, March, 1836, p. 100.
26 farming of Lancashire.
feet is contracted to 3 feet by a square ledge of 18 inches on each
ike Gig hoe ead side, so that a section of the
liSein. Is drain is of this form. ‘This ad-
\ ke ditional cutting may increase
(¥ the cost 2d. per rood; but
ft it has been found that the
ditches so cut stand better than the old drains 3 feet wide, inas-
much as the superincumbent weight being removed, the drain is
not so likely to spew up at the bottom, for it is not so much the
sides falling in from the top as the pressure from the bottom that
injures a ditch of this kind. The stuff taken out of the drain is
thrown into the centre of the road, and when tolerably dry and
ready for sanding, the road is formed, and sand or gravel laid on
12 feet wide, 4 inches thick in the centre, and 7 inches on each
side, the object of this additional weight at the sides being to
keep them down.
The moss should be laid out in fields of 300 yards long, and
66 broad. ‘This form contains 19,800 square yards, or 440
square yards more than 4 statute acres; a little more than 24
acres customary, of 73 yards to the perch. Each field takes 2 end
drains and | side drain; and the covered drains in the field should
be 10 yards apart, so that one field of about 4 acres has | side
drain, 2 end drains, and 28 covered drains. The expenses of
draining are calculated after the rate of 8 yards to the rood, as
follows :—
aN me
2 end drains : : . 163 roods of 8 yards
1 side do. ; : . dfs do. do.
| 54 roods.
These end and side drains to be—
3 feet wide at the top,
1 foot do. bottom,
4 feet deep,
being the size of the open drains at the sides of the roads, &c.,
for the first year, and the mode of work and price as follows :—
Inches, £< gaae ae
Dees deep ar 5d. per rood, for 54 roods . ee)
24
d do. f :
he aS, oe 13} 6d, per 100 yards, for54 roods0 15 2
—
Oe eee
48 LMI) Il
The 53d. per rood includes the throwing the stuff
from the sides of the drains on to the road, or into
the field, and chopping it.
Cutting the ledges, 2d. per rood, for 54 roods .0 9 0 second year
ESR i |
Farming of Lancashire. 27
The form of a covered or field drain is—
14 inches wide at the top,
6 do. bottom,
3 feet deep,
and to be worked thus—
Ist sod, 14 inches deep ; ; : . %d. per drain
2nd do. 10 do. ‘ ; : eae do.
ard do. 12 do. : 5 ; Stl do.
36 inches. 24d. per drain.
The first sod makes the wedge-sod, and when dry will be 9 or
10 inches thick ; when taken out it is put on its side on the right
of the drainer to dry, and the second or third sods are thrown out
to the left, and chopped to fill up the drains when wanted ; pattens
are used by the workmen, as on Chat-moss. The breadth of field
is already fixed at 66 yards; but it is calculated as 8 roods, or 64
on payment, so that one covered drain cost 2s., or 3d. per rood,
and the 1ld., being the third charge, includes the returning and
fixing the Wedue: sods, and filling up the drain, &c.
The whole expense of draining a moss-field, rather more than
4 statute acres, will be as follows: —
1 side drain, 373 roods of 8 yards.
2 end drains, 164
ents. ad:
54 roods . : 2S
28 covered drains at 2s., being 10 yards apart 216 0
Total expense for 19,800 square yards . bea end
Per statute acre, 4,840 do. abouty @ lo. 6. 92
Per customary do. 7,840 do. dor aan 2 0
The expenses of the main drains and the roads must be charged
to the whole moss drained.
For the above particulars, and any others connected with these
mosses, | am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Wilson F france, of
Rawcliffe’ Hall.
This gentleman had allotted to him, about 19 years ago, 736
statute acres of moss, which he immediately set to work to im-
prove; it is now all under cultivation, producing beautiful crops
of oats and potatoes, except 8 acres upon which the drainers are
now employed. He has drained it all on the plan given above,
made roads, &e., and after draining, marl, which is found under
the moss, is laid on the top at the rate of 150 to 160 tons per
customary acre, by means of a moveable railway as on Chat-moss.
The marl is calculated by the fall, which is 64 cubic yards ;
] and } fall to the customary acre. The cost of this is thus
Sennen —
28 Farming of Lancashire.
Fall of marl. ‘ 64 cubic yards.
1 cubic yard weighs . 32 ewt.
128
192
1 fall = : . 2048 cwt.
BTR ls : 1024 ,,
i a . : 3072 ,, or 153 tons 12 ewt. to the acre.
1 waggon takes “ ‘ 2 23 ewt.
134 ° 5 S072) ees
One horse will draw 35 Shaccae a day, generally taking 2 wag-
gons at a time, in summer; the marlpit being a quarter of a mile
from the moss-field.
35 waggons X 4 days = 140 waggons.
£. s. a.
2 men in pit 4 days, at 2s. 6d. LOO
2 men in field, pues &e. 4 4 days at 2s. Gas 15.805..0
1 boy driver : : : 0 4 0
1 horse ‘ . C . : : 012 0
Oil and extras : ‘ 0 4 0
a 0-0
1 fall and 2, or 96 cubic yards of marl, at 7d. per yard 2 16 0
which is about the price; for it does not take quite 4 days, nor
140 waggons; and therefore the cost of draining and marling, with
about 153 tons of marl, one customary acre of 74 yards to the
perch, is 4. 18s., Bein about 3/. per statute acre.
To carry all the water from the extensive eneamor Rawcliffe-
moss, and others adjoining, it has been necessary to open a large
dyke 5 or 6 miles long. This little canal is made by a circuitous
course to fall into Morecambe Bay, passing through Pilling ; but
so flat is the country, that it has not more than 7 or 8 inches of
fallin amile. The cost of keeping this dyke clear is paid by the
proprietors, through whose lands it successively passes.
The moss-land is found to produce the best potatoes of any
known ; and whilst in other soils the failure of this crop has been
a total or partial loss to the cultivator, the moss-farmer is reaping
an abundant harvest. On the customary Lancashire acre he can
get
60 loads of large potatoes at 10s.
20 sy small 3 Ss
wo
a5 ®
ror
oc
36 0 0.
One load being equal to 240 |bs.; and the above price is taken
from the average of the first six weeks of this year in Garstang
market. The present price is 13s. 6d.
Farming of Lancashire. 29
As may be imagined, it is not difficult to let such land: an
instance of the value in which it is held occurred not long ago
on a property adjoining that of Mr. Ffrance. A man of the
name of Fawcett took a farm of 36 customary acres (about 60
statute) for 732. per annum, and sublet 12 of the 36 at 6l. per
acre, thereby keeping for his own use and occupation 24 custo-
mary acres, at a rental of one pound per annum.
Another man, who came as labourer from Chat-moss a few
years ago, and is commonly known as “ Chat-moss Joe,”” now holds
a farm under Miss Harrison, at 70/. a year, and the value of the
whole 736 acres belonging to Mr. Ffrance may, on the lowest
calculation, be estimated at the annual rental of I/. per acre,
which, on an outlay of 70002, is rather more than 10 per cent.
The moss, when reclaimed, is let in lots by ticket, subject to
certain conditions, one of the most important of which is, that the
tenant shall keep the divisional ditches open on the side and ends
of his allotment, to the full width of 6 feet at the top and 4 feet
in depth; and in case of failure, the landlord to have the right
tore-enter. Not longer ago than the 19th of December last year,
an allotment of 2a. 2r. Sp., of customary measure, equal to
about 4 statute acres, was let by Mr. Ffrance for 8/. per annum ;
and for another, rather less, as much as 12/. was offered ; sea
is the competition for this kind of land during the present value
of potatoes.
But Mr. Ffrance is not content with draining the moss itself ;
he also makes it subservient to the draining of the lands adjacent.
In a letter to the editor of the ‘ Mark-Lane Express,’ dated
January Ist, 1840, he describes the process of making turves
from the moss, which in a clayey subsoil were found to answer
almost as well as tiles. He says, “ The turves are cut from the
peat where the moss cuts fibrous and tough, which usually may
be 6 or 8 spits deep: below that depth lies a blackish-brown turf,
the moss being in a more advanced state of decomposition, and
such is not considered so well adapted for making draining-turves.”’
The turves are cut with a spade made with sides 12 inches long,
the sides 5 inches in depth—7 inches wide at the top, and taper-
ing to 6 inches wide at the bottom.
«The expenses of completing the turves ready for use have hitherto
been—
S: a
Cutting the draining-turf : . 2 O per thousand.
Wind-rearing ditto to dry , i 80 3 9
Stacking ditto : : ° 0 6 »
Total 5 a ° e ie) ”
In consequence of the moss drying up, and some becoming shapeless, 28
turves upon an average will drain a rood of 7 yards: the cost of the 28
turves being (at 2s. 9d. per thousand) nearly 1d.”
30 Farming of Lancashire.
He then describes the drains made by him as 30 inches deep ;
a aeenes: 1] inches wide at the top, and tapering to
23 inches wide at the bottom, the underside
a the turf when wedged in being about
6 inches from the bottom of the drain, and
calculates that the cuttmg, laying, and
fitting in the turf can be done for 4d. a
rood of 7 yards; so that the whole expense
of draining a statute acre will amount to
17. 15s., the drains being 10 yards apart:
28 turves for Ll rood of 7 yards,
Cutting drains, laying and fitting in the turf .
Carting turves to the field and clay from the drains
Oo}; oo00%
Coe.
For 1 rood :
A statute acre, say 70 x 70 (4900 square yar ds) has 7 7 drains, 70 yards long
each = 70 roods = 35s.
These drains have been known to last perfectly sound in clay
for 50 or 60 years; and, saving vermin, there is no reason why
they should not continue efficient for a much longer period.
Mr. F france has, within the last two years, established a tilery
on his property; he now drains his clay lands with tiles 3 feet
deep, and instead of using collars places a turf wnder the joints of
the tiles where necessary, and turves over the pipe-tiles to cover
the crevice, and relieve the tile from all pressure. This mode of
using tiles and turves together does, in fact, make a double drain,
which, under all ordinary circumsiances, is not likely to get out of
order; and the cost of the turves over and above the tiles is not
more than 5s. per thousand, including carting, &c.
The custom of paring with a push-plough, and burning the
moss for oats after draiming, prevails amongst the tenant- fremons
in this district, and they pursue this for two or three years in suc-
cession ; then, for a change, take a crop of potatoes or seeds,
always burning the surface till the moss is reduced in thickness.
On a farm ae the Duke of Hamilton’s, on Nateby-moss, with
which I am acquainted, the practice is, after draining, paring,
and burning—
1. Oats—if dirty, the burning repeated ;
2. Green crops, turnips, potatoes, &c., with farm-yard manure and
uano ;
3: Manled and ploughed for spring wheat or barley ; and
4. Seeds for mowing or pasture to lie one year, and then pared and
burnt again for oats as before.
Proceeding northwards towards Garstang, and from thence to
Lancaster, we come into the extensive property of the Duke of
Farming of Lancashire. 31
Hamilton, which, from the woods of Ashton Hall to the moor-
lands of Barnacre and Wyersdale, includes a large tract of country.
Under the superintendence of Mr. Lamb great improvements
have been effected on this property, and in a district containing so
great a variety of soils and situations as this does, it requires no
ordinary skill to adapt to each the proper treatment.
Eleven years ago the Duke of Hamilton established the Ashton
Agricultural Society for the purpose of offering encouragement to
exertion amongst his own tenantry: the premiums were confined
exclusively to them; whilst by the adoption of open sweepstakes
a general competition was also admitted. This Society still
flourishes; and the effect has been very beneficial, not only toa
great majority of the Duke’s tenantry, but to the whole of this
part of the country. To assist in the improvement of the stock,
his Grace has purchased, within the last few years, several bulls
of first-rate pedigree, at prices varying from 40/. to 602. and 801. ;
and calves ai less prices. Three of these bulls have been regu-
larly kept on the estate, and are replaced as occasion required.
Both the standard of stock and general management of farms
have been greatly improved. Amongst other results Mr. Lamb
has informed me that there has been a great increase in the growth
of turnips; in fact, one farm now produces as much as the whole
estate did eleven years ago.
On the low lands, where a regular system of arable culture is
admissible, the following rotation of crops is now adopted :—Ist,
oats ; 2nd, turnips; 3rd, barley, and grass seeds, to remain in pas-
ture for two or three years. On the higher lands, exposed to the
severe winds and storms from the westward, and where the soil is
poor, the meadows and pastures are generally preserved unbroken.
Mr. Curtis, who occupies the Heald—a high farm in Barnacre,
of 109 customary acres, equal to 180 statute, and at an elevation
of 500 feet above the sea—has tried a course of oats, turnips with
guano, and oats with seeds, with tolerable success. He does not
recommend swedes in the high moorish soil, as, from his expe-
rience, they do not keep well.
The draining on the whole property is done on a very extensive
scale: in 1847, 50 miles of drains were cut; and in 1848, not
less than 62 miles, at the following rates, and at depths varying
from 3 ft. 6-in. to 5 ft., with 21 in. pipes, and 3-in. ditto for main
drains :-—
ft. in. Ss, atl:
Cost at a depth of 3 6 ; - © 93 per rood of 7 yards
ye dee OI Gut 1G, aPIeESO ri
39 asain | ‘ = aa. 6 ”
the width between the drains being 7 or 8 yards. The prices
vary, of course, according to the substratum, ‘but these are gene-
9
32 Farming of Lancashire.
rally paid for the cutting and filling. ‘To this must be added the
cost of the tiles, which is 19s. per thousand for 2-inch bore, and
30s. ditto for 3-inch ditto, and the laying them, which is done by
the day. To accomplish the draining on this estate it was found
necessary to erect a tilery in the spring of 1845, which has been
in active work ever since, the supply of pipe-tiles being by no
means equal to the wants of the district. During the Jast year,
1848, 598,617 tiles and 33,029 collars were made there by
Clayton’s machine.
The farms vary in size, from 20 or 30 acres to 460, which is ©
the largest on the property, the rent varymg from 10s. to 50s.
per statute acre; the majority are held on yearly tenancies or on
terms of 7 years, and some have leases for 14 years.
In the township of Nateby the land has been let on an oatmeal-
rent since the year 1822, or, in other words, the rent varies ac-
cording to the price of oatmeal; and at Cabus half the rent is
paid in wheat and half in money: these customs are peculiar to
these townships. Inafarm in Nateby, to which I have already
alluded, of 151 statute acres, the variation in two years has made
a difference of 702. in the rent. In 1848 it amounted to 1902. ;
whereas in 1847 it was only 110/., the rental bemg reckoned
according to the price of oatmeal the previous year.
Mr. Ford, of Ellel, and Mr. Richard Hinde, of Lancaster, at
his farm on Ellel Moor, have both set a good example in their
several districts: the latter gentleman deserves especial mention
before we leave this division; for in Mr. Dickson’s Report
(p. 194) it is said of the improvements attempted there, that they
had failed :—< Ellel Moor, near Lancaster, notwithstanding lime
has been laid on and the ground treated according to the usual
custom of improving wastes; yet, after a few crops taken, seems
verging back towards its original state of poverty.” Mr. Hinde
has kindly favoured me with the following interesting particulars
respecting the present state and cultivation of his farm, Newlands
Hall, situated 6 miles south-east of Lancaster ; it lies exposed to
the west winds, and is about 300 feet above the sea :—
‘¢ Ellel Moor was inclosed by a special Act in 1756, laid out into farms,
and brought under cultivation. Draining and trenching have both been
carried on from time to time to a limited extent, but not on a regular or
fixed system. The soil is from 2 to 5 inches deep, growing in its natural
state—rushes, whins or gorse, alder bushes and heather ; it lies upon a
yellow bastard clay, full of stones, and frequently containing large quanti-
ties of oxide of iron, making it very hard to cut for drains ; the rock is the
millstone grit; the land varies so much, that there are hardly two acres
exactly alike. I took possession of the farm, which consists of 77 statute
acres, in November, 1843. It has an excellent house and good farm
buildings. The tenant had been on it for twenty-two years at a rent of 447.
per annum; but for want of energy, and from bad management, he had
brought himself to a stand still. J commenced draining, trenching, and
‘ > ‘ a9
Farming of Lancashire. 33
sub-soiling. Idid not cut any drains the first year on the thorough-draining
principle, not feeling sufficiently informed of, or confident in, the system ;
-since then I cut them 30 inches, and latterly 3 feet deep, at 7 yards apart,
upon Mr. Smith of Deanston’s plan, and find them answer extremely well.
I occasionally used 12-inch tiles, and at other times, from the quantity of
stones there are, sough-drains, with broken stones on the top. I have been
successful in most of my crops: in 1845 I gained the premium for the best
crop of swedish turnips at the Lancaster Agricultural Society’s Show, com-
peting with the best lands in the neighbourhood of Lancaster—Burton and
Milnthorpe; the crop weighed 24 tons, topped and tailed, to the statute
acre. In 1846 I had 8a. 3p. statute of turnips, cabbage, mangold, and
potatoes; the field was thorough-drained, but neither trenched nor sub-
soiled ; it was formerly two fields, and I expended 75/. in draining, levelling
fences, picking stones, &c.; and I may here mention that the value of the
Jand, as made by two most experienced Jand-valuers at the time I bought
it, was 6s. per acre for one field, and 8s. per acre for the other, at twenty-
six years’ purchase. The crop was not weighed; but I sold by auction
2A. 3R. 35P. statute of swedes, which realized me 47/. nett towards the
outlay of 75/., leaving me above 5 acres for my own; last year I mowed a
most excellent crop of rye-grass; so that I think it has nearly redeemed
itself, and is in a very different condition to what it was. In the winter of
1847 and spring of 1848 I trenched and drained 6 acres of old ley, and
trenched 4A. Ir. 35p. of oat-stubble for green crops, the account of which
I give below. The plan I proceed upon is to set my trenching in beds of
7 yards wide, the fall of the land, a drain being cut on each side of the bed.
I provide, in the first instance, stones for the first two or three drains, and
then commence trenching to the depth of the soil only, breaking up the
subsoil to the depth of 10 or 12 inches with a pick, and throw all the stones
on the top of the trenched Jand. This year I have used strong forks about
7 lbs. weight, with a projection at the back in this form T, in order to give
more leverage. I prefer them to the pick, being, I think, more effectual,
and easier forthe men. Whilst the trenching is going on, I have other men
cutting the drains in the entrenched Jand, and the stones on the trenched
land are wheeled in barrows to the drains, the land abounding so in them
that they have seldom to wheel them more than 14 or 20 yards, so that I
hardly ever have a horse and cart in the field. I believe this plan to be the
cheapest and most effectual for my land, and I have given up the subsoil-
plough; the trenching is done by the customary measure of 7 yards square
to the rod, or fall, as we call it; the price 8d. to 9d. ; at which price a good
man can earn 2s. to 2s. 3d. per day ; the drains are cut by the rood of
7 yards long, 3 feet deep for stone soughs at 7d. and 30 inches deep for
pipe-tiles at 53d.; the soughs are made, tiles laid, and stones filled, and
drains filled up, by day-work.
“Expense of thorough draining, at 30 and 36 inches deep, and 7 yards
apart, trenching, &c., 6 statute acres of old ley on Ellel Moor :—
Lae Says
Grubbing whins_. : kaye: : d 2, e0E sO
BY alder-bushes . , : ; F FL ae9
Trenching 595 falls of 7 yards square, at 8d. . 1913 8
Cutting 685 roods of drains at 6d., tiles, stone-
breaking 258 cubic yards, laying tiles, filling
up drains, &e. . : : : : 34.40 18 11
Labour, getting up large stones and alder-bushes,
not let by contract, &e. : ‘ : sie LOD (O:..0)
79 10 4
VOL, X. D
34 Farming of Lancashire.
“I removed 920 one-horse cart-loads of stones from the land after it was
drained and trenched, which I sold to the Surveyor of Roads, and which
paid for the removal, the road being alongside the field, besides 70 loads
of good rubble walling-stones from the large stones we had to break up with
hammers and wedges. I sowed the field with Scotch lean oats, and gave
it 2cwt. of Peruvian guano to the acre; it produced 197 thraves, the band
being made smal! on account of the wet season; the straw was strong and
full, but [ have not weighed it for thrave. In corn it gave 441 bushels per
statute acre, of 39 lbs. to the bushel ; and having made meal several times,
I find it gives me 4 loads of 240 lbs. to the Joad per statute acre. Iam now
ploughing it for a second crop of oats with a hand-dressing, probably super-
phosphate of lime ; and the condition of the land is most satisfactory.
“From the 4a. Ir. 35p. of oat-stubble which I trenched, I removed
nearly 500 one-horse cart-loads of stones, and sold most of them to the
roads. I sowed it with swedes, mangold, carrots, and a few potatoes ; and
considering the wet summer, 1 had a very fair crop of swedes, about 18
tons to the acre; and with what I have sold and have to sell, I shall more
than twice cover the expense of trenching. For mangold-wurzel on poor
Jands like mine, independent of the muck put into the stitches, I strongly
recommend the practice of dibbling in with a trowel every 10 inches a pre-
pared compost, and placing the seed immediately upon it. The compost IJ
made last year consisted of bones, horse-feet parmgs from the blacksmiths’
shops, hen-manure, which I carefully save, and ashes, or, still better, refuse
charcoal: these were put into a heap under cover, and well wetted with
tank-liquid, and left to heat fortwo months. I have a light wooden roller,
the same as a garden roller, 30 inches in diameter, with three strips of wood
projecting about an inch railed on at every 10 inches longitudinally ; it
covers two stitches at once, 30 inches between each, and is drawn by men,
and consequently levels to the top of the stitch, and leaves a mark every 10
inches. The compost is put into buckets, and with a garden-trowel the
labourer takes out a trowelful of earth and replaces it with a trowelful of
manure. The cost of doing this per acre is from 10s. to 12s., if done with
men: could women or boys be had, it would be less. I steep my seed in
liquid manure twenty-four hours, and put in a bag two or three times larger
than required, in order to beable to turn the seed and lay if on the midden
in a gentle temperature from four daystoa week. The bag must be turned
every day, and great care taken not to place it in too hot a berth. Last
year my hind overheated and destroyed the seed, and the consequence was
I had at the third weeks’ end to recibble fresh seed ; notwithstanding which
I had nearly as fine a crop as any I saw in the better land in the neighbour-
hood of Lancaster, owing to the compost and liquid manure. I dibble the
seed in with the finger and thumb, placing three seeds at a little distance
from each other in the compost at every 10 inches, and cover lightly with
the finger. I have thus kad it up ina week from the time of sowing. For
carrots I recommend, after they are weeded and about 2 inches high, to give
them, if the weather be damp, 1 ewt. of guano and J] ewt. of gypsum per
acre, sown on them early in the morning. I did so last year upon my crop,
which I thought worthless, and the effect was astonishing.
“ Rotation.—My general rotation is—of old tough ley, two crops of oats,
both hand-dressed ; two, turnips, mangold, drilled beans, potatoes, cabbages,
and carrots; three, oats, with grass seeds, either mown or left to pasture
three or four years—if mown, ploughed up earlier. I do not, however,
follow strictly any rotation, but depend entirely upon the condition the land
isin. I have two Siquid-manure tanks, and attribute my success in growing
green crops mainly to its use upon the first appearance of the plant. My .
common turnips were sown very late Jast summer; and in applying the-
liquid manure when in seed-leaf several rows were missed. ‘The result was
Farming of Lancashire. 35
that I had not one-third of a crop on that portion, the fly destroying them ;
and what remained, for the want ofa stimulant and ready concocted food—
liquid manure—made very poor progress, the season being late.
“¢ Manure.—Since 1843-4, my first two years, I have bought no heavy
manure, and very little guano—about a ton to 25 cwt. per ann. I find it
the most advantageous to make the manure on the premises, by buying
linseed and straw for bedding, and laying on as many cattle in the winter
as I can accommodate for feeding. I have never bought a single ton of
horse or cow manure—only night-soil from the factories, which nobody
thought much about, when I first commenced.
‘* Cattle-—The greatest number of cattle kept by the last tenant were in
summer never more than five milch cows, and about four or six head of
young stock, a pig, and two horses. In 18461 milked fifteen cows, besides
having young stock; three horses, and three brood-sows and store- pigs.
Last summer I milked twelve cows, having rather more under the plough ;
and this winter l have nine milch cows, two two-year-olds, and five fat
beasts in my shippon, five yearling calves, one back-end calf, two nine-
months-old bulls, three horses, two brood-sows, and eight store-pigs. I
have grown Italian rye-grass, and mown three crops; and now that the
land is in better condition for it, Ishall sow it again. I grew a very heavy
crop of tick-beans in 1847, broadcast, and well mucked with farm-yard
manure. The extent of Jand was a customary acre, or 1A. 2R. 20p. statute,
and I had sixteen loads of 280 Ibs, to the load and 147 Ibs.
(Signed) “ Rico. HINDE.”’
Northern Division—No. 3.
To the north of the river Lune the county becomes rapidly
contracted in its limits, being confined on the one hand by West-
moreland, on the other by the sea; over the sands to the north-
west there is the rich district of Furness and a hilly tract of some
extent, which naturally seems to belong rather to Cumberland
and Westmoreland than to this county. Throughout the whole
of this northern division the transition limestone, slate, and grey-
wacke strata prevail; and the difference in the improved appear-
ance of the surface is very perceptible, whilst the cultivation is
decidedly superior to many other parts of the county. Furness
seems to be the redeeming feature in Lancashire farming. In the
soil, the class of farmers, and their general management, this dis-
trict would not suffer by comparison with other more favourable
and accessible parts of England. It is difficult to conceive two
districts more distinct in every respect that can interest a farmer
than that on the eastern side of the southern, and this on the
western part of the northern division of the same county. The
one cold and wet, growing a bad herbage and rushes, and divided
into small holdings, with a manufacturimg population, who, occu-
pying the land, cannot be said to farm it; the other for the most
part natura ily drained by a substratum af, gravel and limestone, in
the occupation of men who pay, im some instances, as much as
600/. a year rent, producing beautiful crops of wheat, oats or
barley, turnips. and seeds. Soil of every variety, from a strong
Dp 2
36 Farming of Lancashire.
clay to a light sand, may be found within the limits of this division ;
but it is generally light and friable. In the neighbourhood of
Cartmel and Holker there is a good deal of hard land—stony,
but very productive. Over-sands, around Ulverstone and through
the whole district of Furness, it becomes stronger, of a red loamy
nature, and produces good crops of grain; on the sea-coast it 1s
lighter and more sandy. There are two distinct classes of farms
in this district—those which belong to large landed proprietors,
such as the Earl of Burlington, the Crown, and others; and those
which belong to small freeholders. The former are large, and |
superior in number and class to other parts of the county; they
range from a rental of 150/. to 400/., and some few higher than
that, even to 600/. perannum. The latter are freeholds of not
more than 40 statute acres, the property of a class of men known
in that country as “statesmen,” who, living on their own farms
from generation to generation, are content with their small inherit-
ance ; and not having wealth nor the means of procuring it, live a
primitive and independent life amongst their native hills. These
men were formerly the worst farmers in the district, but they are
now becoming more alive to their own interest, and willing to
profit by the good example of their neighbours. What Mr.
Dickson wrote of this district in 1814 is still true with respect to
the occupation and size of the farms. ‘To the north of the Lan-
caster sands they range from 20 to 100 statute acres ; but farther
north, in the vicinity of Ulverstone and in Low Furness, they are
as high as 800 or more; and the Furness Abbey farm, Gleaston
Castle, and Holbeck, the property of the Earl of Burlington,
still hold the first rank, The rental of land in this district
ranges from 15s. to 32s. per statute acre. There is not much
wheat grown now in the northern district, except on Walney
Island, off the west coast of Furness: the prevailing grain crops
are oats and barley, the latter being taken by the maltsters at
Dalton and Ulverstone. The rotation formerly was, out of ley—
Ist, oats; 2nd, barley, manured; 3rd, clover; 4th, oats; and
grass seeds, or turnips afier oats; but the course is now improved
to—lst, oats; then, where the sward is old and tough, a second
year of oats; 2nd, turnips, manured, or potatoes; 3rd, barley; 4th,
seeds for two or three years. This land might be made equal to
a four-course shift, but it will not do yet; and when wheat is
grown, it is not advisable to dispense with a fallow. In Walney
Island wheat is grown generally, and the system is—summer fal-
low, wheat drilled, beans, barley or oats. Mr. John Patterson, of
Holbeck farm, to whom I am indebted for much of my informa-
tion respecting this district, came from Northumberland about
19 years ago, and, after his long experience of the country, finds
no reason to complain either of the soil or the climate ; the latter,
Farming of Lancashire. BY
though more rainy, he finds not so cold as on the eastern side of
England. His farm is about 340 statute acres, and for the most
part naturally drained, with a rich loamy soil capable of growing
anything. His system of cropping is as follows :—lIst, oats, say
60 acres; 2nd, fallow 30 acres, turnips or mangold-wurzel 30
acres; 3rd, wheat after fallow and seeds, barley and seeds after
turnips ; 4th, seeds for two or three years, and so on vice versd,
taking care that all the land lies fallow in turn, as he considers it
quite indispensable, on account of the scarcity of hand labourers
in the district. He grows from four to five quarters of wheat
to the acre, and considers 25 to 30 tons of turnips a good
crop. Rape has been grown in the district and eaten off, but it is
found that the crop of turnips next succeeding it in the course is
not so good, and consequently it is becoming unpopular. His
farm buildings are commodious, with yards “and sheds for. his
young stock attached, and the whole district is well provided in
this respect; Lord George Cavendish, of whom Mr. Dickson
makes frequent mention, having taken great pains to improve
them about 30 or 40 years ago. The farms on this property are
mostly held on yearly tenancies; leases are not asked for, and
therefore they are not granted ; but his Lordship, under the ad-
vice of his able and active agent, Mr. Drew, has lately introduced
a new form of agreement, by which the tenant is bound ‘‘ not to
take two white-straw crops in succession (except the field has
been ten years or upwards in grass, when a second straw crop
may be taken), nor in any year to have less arable land in fallow,
turnips, or other. green crops, properly cleansed and manured,
than is equal to half the land sown with white-straw crops, and
shall not grow white straw, corn or grain, on more than 2-5ths of
the arable land.”” He has also added compensation clauses for
unexhausted improvements, as is customary in Lincolnshire; and
this is allowed (on the fulfilment of certain conditions) to the out-
going tenant, whether he give or receive the notice to quit. The
proportion of the proposed conditional allowances to be regulated
as follows :—
“* For bones used on the land; the allowance to extend to three
years; half the cost price to be allowed after one crop, one-
third after two crops, and one-fourth after three crops. For
guano used on the land, the allowance to extend to two years;
one-third of the cost price to be allowed after one crop, and one-
sixth after two crops. Lor rape-dust used on the land, the
allowance to extend to one year; one-third of the cost price to be
allowed after one crop. or linseed-cake used for feeding cattle
and sheep, one-third of the cost price to be allowed for that
which has been used since the Ist of October then last, and one-
38 Farming of Lancashire.
sixth of that used during the preceding twelve months. N.B.
Cake given to horses, no allowance for.”
Draining, when necessary in this district, has been done
chiefly with horseshoe-tiles, and for soles the refuse slates from
the quarries of the couniry. ‘There are four tileries in Fur-
ness, two belonging to the Earl of Burlington, and two to other
parties. In the former they have made pipe-tiles, during the last
year, of 14-inch bore, still using the horseshoe for the main drains.
The drains are cut 34 to 4 feet deep, at intervals varying from 10
to 14 yards; and the hole expense of making the drains, carting -
the tiles, &c., is paid by the landlord, and the tenant charged 5
per cent. on the outlay.
In the year 1838 the North Lonsdale Agricultural Society
was established ; the shows are usually held at Ulverstone, some
time in October; and to this Society may be attributed in some
measure the great improvement in stock and farming, but
especially the former. But to Mr. William Cranke, of Hawk-
field, is due the merit of first introducing the short-horns
into his native country of Furness. As far back as 1813 this
gentleman brought some of this stock from the banks of the
Tees. They were not favourably received, and for a long time
after their arrival the old long-horns kept their ground; but in
1838 this gentleman received from his friends and neighbours a
substantial proof of the high opinion in which they held his
services as an agriculturist, in the shape of a silver salver of 25
guineas; and, as a whole, the stock Over-sands is equal. if not
superior, to that of any other district in the country.
I have thus endeavoured to describe the soils and important
points in the general or particular management of land through-
out this county, with the chief improvements and alterations at
present going on; and I propose now to consider separately under
their respective heads the character of their buildings, stock,
implements, &c.; with the improvements still required in the
reclamation of waste lands, and conclude with a few remarks
on the present prospects of agriculture in Lancashire, and eee
condition of the farm-labourers.
Buildings—The materials of the buildings in this county
are brick and stone, and vary according to the different situations
and circumstances of the districts. These are, however, easily
defined: throughout the whole of the eastern or northern parts,
the rough stone buildings prevail, with flags or slates for the
roofing. On the low country to the south and west, where stone
is scarce and clay abundant, bricks are in use, with thatch; but
in the better class slate is found, imported either from North
Wales or brought from the north of the county. In the low .
Farming of Lancashire. 59
alluvial districts the old houses and cottages were made by a
framework of wood, filled up with wattled stud-work, and covered
over with a composition of clay and wet straw, locally termed
clat and clay; these houses are thatched with straw, and, being
whitewashed mside and out, have a tolerably clean and pic-
turesque appearance when new; but they are frail tenements
at the best, and apt to get out “of order, and are rapidly dis-
appearing in fayour of more substantial habitations. The farm-
steads are for the most part badly arranged, with little attention
paid to veniilation or the economy of space and labour, now
considered so necessary in a well- regulated farming establichs
ment. The hay and grain crops are generally housed in large
barns, which form a prominent feature in the yard, whilst ee
humble but more important requisites of steaming-apparatus, Wi
chaff and turnip-cutting machines, are seldom met with ; pee
boilers are sometimes used by the more intelligent eee who
are now beginning to discover their true interests in this respect.
Stock- Cattle. 2 Bhe Lancashire long-horned cattle were once
famous all over the kingdom, and “prevailed throughout the
county; they were remarkable for the great length of “horns and
width between the tips, sometimes as St as 4 feet, and even
more ; the hide, thick and firm in its texture, was well adapted
to east the climate; and, though they did not give very much
milk, it was considered to afford more cream in proportion to its
quantity than that of other kinds. Mr. Bakewell. of Dishley,
is said to have made them the basis of his improvements in stock.
As oxen they are quite unprofitable, and not being good
feeders they have gradually given way to the short- a which
are finer in the bone and hide, and in fatting quality superior
to any other breed. At Woodacre Hall, near Garstang, Mr.
Daniel, a tenant of the Duke of Hamilton, on a farm of nearly
-500 statute acres, has still some of the old and now despised
long-horned breed, and prefers them for their hardy constitution
and the quality of their milk. He maintains that 7 quarts from
one of his cows will give as much butter as 10 quarts from a
short-horn. They are longer in coming to maturity, but they
also last much longer, and will produce calves up to fourteen or
sixteen years of age. I saw the horns of one, measured by him,
which were 6 feet 1 inch from tip to tip: the tape being taken
down the horns and across the head. Many gentlemen have
endeayoured to raise the standard of stock in the county: in the
northern districts Mr. Cranke, of Hawkfield, Messrs. Patterson,
Holbeck, Mr. Ashburner, Mr. Ormandy, and a few others in
Furness, and Mr. Robinson, near Ulverstone, the Earl of Bur-
lington, Mr. Rawsthorne, of Heysham, near Lancaster, Mr.
40 Farming of Lancashire.
Wm. Garnett, of Quernmore Park, the late Mr. Ford, of Ellel,
Mr. Birchall, near Preston; and in the south Mr. Bannerman,
near Chorley, Mr. Eastwood, near Burnley, and Mr. Harvey, near
Walton, Liverpool, have each contributed to introduce high-bred
animals; but the finest short-horn stock in the county is perhaps ©
Mr. Townley’s, of Townley, near Burnley. By recent purchases
this gentleman has collected together a most valuable herd, which
must help to improve the stock, not only in the Southern Divi-
sion, but throughout the county generally.
Sheep.—There is no breed of sheep peculiar to this county:
nor, except in the hilly districts, are they an important item in the
farming stock. Large flocks of the black-faced breed ramble
over the eastern moors of the Middle Division, very inferior to
what they might be with a little care and attention in the breed-
ing. Early i in the spring they are put on the hill pastures, where
they remain till November; they are then brought down into
the enclosed lands, and paced with a mixture of butter and tar,
to prevent their having the scab and losing their wool in the
early spring; the young animals, or hogs, in the first winter
suffer from the blackwater, a disease brought on by exposure to
wet andcold. ‘The best remedy for this would be the erection of
sheds, however simple and rude in construction, in which the
sheep might be protected from storms both by day and night, a
luxury at present unknown to these poor animals. In the hills
of the Northern Division there is a considerable improvement;
and on the fine lands of Furness a large white-faced sheep, a
good deal like the Leicester, prevails, Lord Burlington has
lately introduced at Holker the South Downs, which answer
exceedingly well, and the successful result of the experiment
seems likely to lead to their general introduction into these parts.
Mr. Robert Garnett, of Wyreside, has taken some pains to
introduce a better class of black-faced sheep, and about four
years ago sent down to the Highlands for a flock of the improved
Scotch breed. He has met with little encouragement amongst
the farmers of his district: some few, however, begin to appre-
ciate them, and their value is now much beyond that of the
common sheep of the county. Mr. Smithies, of Bickerstaffe Hall,
in the Southern Division, has also for the last two years tried
some Shropshire Downs on his farm: they are a hardy and
productive breed.
FHlorses.— Many horses are bred in Lancashire, and the farmers
naturally have a taste for the practice ; but, except in the western
parts of the Southern Division already mentioned, they are not of
a first-rate class, nor are they as good as they were a few years
ago. There is a fair supply of good carriage-horses and hackneys
Farming of Lancashire. 4]
for general work; at Over-sands, in the neighbourhood of Ulver-
stone and Furness, more high-bred horses are found than else-
where. Mr. Kennedy, of Ulverstone, has by his enterprising
exertions contributed greatly to raise the standard there ; for this
purpose he has brought down thorough-bred stallions from Col.
Peel’s and other racing studs for the season, and horses are sold
out of this country at four years old for 802, 902., or 100J.
a-piece. The depreciation of value alluded to above, especially
in the agricultural horse, is owing to the little care and attention
paid by the breeders to the mares, and the miserable par simony
which pervades their practice in this respect—“ ex nihilo nihil fit ;’
and they seem to forget that it is impossible to breed a good and
valuable foal out of a miserable and broken-down mare.
Pigs—Are generally good throughout the county ; in this re-
spect we are above the average of other better-farmed parts of
England ; the cottager always finds it an advantage to keep a pig,
and it is very seldom that a bad one is seen. At Lathom thier
is a good breed of the small kind; Mr. Smithies has got some .of
the Berkshire breed, and crossed them with Mr. Hobbs’s, which
has produced a good stock and easily fattened. Mr. Billington,
at Preston, has also some of Mr. Hobbs’s breed. Mr. Swift,
of Lowesbury, carried away two of the prizes given by the Royal
North Lancashire Agricultural Society last September at Preston,
for a boar and a sow.
Manures.—The most important manures used are lime, marl,
sea-sand, bones, guano, ashes, town-dung, farm-yard dung, and
compost of various kinds. Lime is used throughout the county
almost universally, and is now mixed with salt, for moss cul-
tivation ; marl chiefly on peat and moss lands ; sea-sand on the
same kind of land near Cartmel. Bones are becoming very
general, and are found most beneficial, both as a top-dressing to
grass-lands, especially on the high grounds, and as a manure for
turnips; but guano takes the precedence in this respect. From
one end of the county to the other, from Holbeck to Halewood,
this foreign manure seems to be valued most highly, especially
mixed with farm-yard manure for turnips. On the Barton pro-
-perty, Mr. Logan, agent for Mr. Jacson, informed me that it
had been applied largely and successfully : 24 cwt. to the acre on
meadow land in the first year, and half the quantity the second,
has produced in both years double the quantity of hay that could
otherwise be grown. For turnips 3 cwt. or 3% cwt. per acre
is necessary, but-a less quantity, mixed with farm- -yard manure,
is found to answer better than anything. The guano first stimu-
lates, and the manure sustains or feeds the plant. Messrs.
Myers and Co. have kindly given me the following return of
imports of Peruvian guano into Liverpool, viz. :—
4? Farming of Lancashire.
1841 : : 5 1140 Tons.
1842
isa ahi bathed WSSU TAN
1844 : 2 Bas BSA tics
1845 iiiy. or ale Oh
1846 i - A 16,221 m
1847 ; : <1 (elas 2 tee
1848 ; : oo SOe ee
Totals . 81,080 Tons.
Besides this, great quantities from Africa have been imported
by different people, and of course it is impossible to say how much
has been sold for farming purposes in Lancashire, but there is
no doubt that a very large quantity has been, and continues to be,
used. Town-manure is by no means collected and made avail-
able as it might be; the difficulty of transporting it is the great
obstacle to the use of it. If we were as careful in this matter as
the Chinese, we should have in the large and numerous towns of
this county mines of wealth from which the produce of the soil
might be increased to more than double what it is. From Liver-
pool it is taken down by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal as far as
Rufford, and from Manchester by the Bridgewater Canal to
various parts of Cheshire, and to Stretford, Worsley, and Chat-
moss in Lancashire, to the amount of 20,000 tons in a year, and
the practice is greatly on the increase. The cost from Man-
chester, exclusive of cartage to and from the canal, is about two-
thirds of a penny, or for short distances 14d. per ton per mule.
It has recently been tried in a liquid state and applied to the
land adjoining the canal by means of a hose—this experiment
gives so far every reasonable prospect of a successful issue. Con-
siderable quantities are taken to Chat-moss by the river Irwell,
which flows to the south side of the moss, and the cost of trans-
port is rather lighter than on the canal.
Irrigation.— This mode of improving grass lands has been
little tried in this county, and when attempted, not on any ex-
tended or scientific plan. Mr. Dickson, in quoting from the
‘“ original Report’’ on this subject, says, “It is a matter of
astonishment that so rich a source of improvement has been
hitherto so much neglected ;’’ and the same remark is still ap-
plicable.
In a country like this, where rivers and rivulets abound, there
would be comparatively little difficulty or expense in throwing
the fertilising streams on the land. Mr. Logan pointed out to
me some meadow land in Barton which had been irrigated with
very satisfactory results, when the land was under-drained pre-
viously; it had produced a double crop: and without under-
draining, irrigation ought never to be thought of. In this instance,
Farming of Lancashire. 43
however, it is right to state that the irrigation was laid down
scientifically, and at a very considerable outlay, by the late Mr.
George Jacson.
Fences.—In the hilly districts a dry stone wall, without mortar,
is the common fence, built about 6 feet high, to prevent the
encroachments of the wild mountain sheep; yet such is their
activity and rambling habits, that thisis scarcely sufficient to stop
them. Inthe low country the fences are professedly made of
quick thorns, but almost invariably they are so badly managed,
and so miserable, that they require thorough renovation. Mr.
Lamb has within the last few years taken some pains to introduce
good fences on the lower part of the Duke of Hamilton’s estates,
and these answer exceedingly well, a sufficient proof that it is not
the fault of the soil or climate that they are generally so wretched.
About three miles of new thorn fences have been made during each
of the last two years. ‘The method and form are after the Scotch
plan, and as follows :— 7
—
Oo 1S Oo oro OF
Width of ditch at top .
~ Ditto | at bottom
Depth of ditto
Scaresment width .
Soil for thorn bed .
Height from scaresment
tomtoprot back =... |
Inclination of slope one
inch in one.
Width of top of backing 1 6
Seonowe®
9.
With posts and railing of two bars on the top of the backing, and
post, with three bars on the field side of the ditch, the cost of
the frame is as follows :—
Three heights of rails and posts, and putting up, pers. d.
rood of 7 yards : . ° : : 20
Two ditto ditto : ¢ : 1 63
Thorns and beaches, say 54 per rood : : Chee’
Planting and making ditch according to subsoil,
varying from Is. to ls. 4d., say average 5 2
Total per rood of 7 yards . . 3 104
The yearly cost of cleaning thorns is from a half-penny to three
farthings per rood for the first five years. Cutting with a Scotch
knife attached to a handle three feet long, costs from a farthing
to three farthings per rood, if done by a man accustomed to the
work; and this plan has produced good fences at five years’
growth. When the posts and rails are removed, by laying a
drain in the bottom of the ditch, the plough may go close to the
fence. The greater part of the old hedges are very irregular, and
occupy a space of four or five yards, with a ditch on both sides of
44 Farming of Lancashire.
the fence; and where land is divided into small fields, as in Lan-
cashire, the acres that are lost by this old system must be very
considerable.
‘Implements.—The use of good agricultural implements has
been rapidly increasing during the last few years; Finlayson’s
cultivator, and a turnip-drill for sowing two drills at once, intro-
duced from Berwickshire, are in common use in the neighbour-
hood of Lancaster; and within the last few years there have
been between thirty and forty thrashing-machmes worked by
horses set up in the same district. These are also brought from
Scotland, and cost about 40/. The Norwegian harrow, Cros-
kill’s clod-crusher, Ducies’s drag, with various grubbers and cul-
tivators, and drills for seed, I have met with on the farms of
gentlemen and large farmers, such as Mr. Patterson of Holbeck,
and Mr. Smithies of Bickerstaffe, but many of these are too costly
for general use.* The one-horse carts which prevail throughout
the county are very good, and the iron ploughs are generally
superseding the wooden ones. On the cheese-farms the old
stone weights are making way for the iron lever-presses, and
there is throughout the county a general improvement in this
respect. The small moveable tram-road used by Mr. R. Neilson,
Mr. Wilson Ffrance, and the Rev. W. Hornby of St. Michael’s,
is on level landa very valuable acquisition to the farmyard, and
in our wet climate the greatest convenience in getting turnips off
the land. The railway, which consists of a light bar of iron
placed longitudinally on wood, in pieces of 16 feet in length, costs
complete, about 11s. 6d. per piece, and the waggons about 3/. 10s.,
but this of course depends upon the price of iron and timber. It
is some credit to the mechanical genius, now first applied to agri-
culture in this county, that at York the prize tile-machine for mak-
ing draining pipes was the production of a Lancashire workshop.t
In the art of Reclaiming and Cultivating Waste Lands, no doubt
‘«“much has been done, but more remains to do.” Besides the
mosses and high lands of the county, which, as we have seen, are
gradually changing their barren nature into fruitful soils, there
exist also large tracts of land by the sea-coast, which at present
form part of the shore, that might, by embankments, be recovered
from the sea.
In the year 1820 Mr. Edward Dawson of Aldcliffe Hall, near
Lancaster, received from the Society of Arts their large gold
* The former gentleman has used for the first time this season Garrett’s Corn-Drill,
which he considers a very excellent implement. In a short note addressed to me on the
subject, he says, “‘ We only use two-thirds of the seed which is used in broadcast, and
our crops look remarkably promising.” —June 2.
+ See Report of Implements at the York Meeting, 1848. Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society.
Or
Farming of Lancashire. 4
medal for embanking 166 acres of marsh land near the mouth of
the river Lune; the particulars of the method adopted are given
in the Society’s Transactions, vol. xxxix., No. vii. p. 35. This
reclaimed land has produced luxuriant crops, and there is no
doubt that land of this description would amply repay the
required outlay: after allowing 5 per cent. on the money ex-
pended in enclosing Aldcliffe Marsh, each acre pays 25s., the
former rental being 2s. 6d. If Cockerham, Pilling, and Thurn-
ham sands were enclosed, on the lowest calculation 5000 acres,
at present worth little or nothing per acre, would by an outlay of
14s. or 15s. per acre be made worth a yearly rental of 55007.
In the year 1838 an extensive project was formed for the en-
closure of 46,000 acres in Morecambe Bay: the intention was to
cross the bay by a railway, but the Commissioners of Railways,
being directed to compare the line with one by Kendal to Car-
lisle, reported in favour of the latter, on account of its being
‘more direct, giving no opinion upon the work of enclosing
the Bay, which, however, by engineers, is considered perfectly
feasible.
Of late years science has been directed to the great scheme
of international communication by railways, which have absorbed
the surplus funds of the country; but as these extensive works
approach their completion, it is to be hoped that public attention
will be turned to such undertakings as the enclosure of the Bay
of Morecambe, and for which the coast of Lancashire seems dis-
tinguished by peculiar advantages, as it is estimated that more
than 80,000 acres might be reclaimed to the north of the river
Wyre.
In other parts of the county no great alteration can be effected
in the produce without a thorough system of drainage, and that
the landowners and farmers are now really becoming aware of the
importance of this first step is clearly proved by the many tileries
which have sprung up during the last few years. ‘There are
now in
The Southern Division.
Tile-kilns belonging to SirT. G. Hesketh, Bart., Mawdesley.
Mir-Slotlands 2! Farrington.
Mr. Fazackerly . . Lathom.
Mr. Hargreaves . . Broadoak,nearAccrington.
The Earl of Ellesmere Worsley.
NMirvitorhton:: -... bold,
Mre Whalley” 2 .).°.. Chorley.
prion Wins Chatter <.:0 74), 4-Burnleye
Mr. Doultonand Co. . St. Helens.
(Name unknown) . Oswaldtwistle.
Col. Rawstorne . . Pennwortham.
Mr. Hatton . . . Moss Hawk Hall.
&e. &e.
46 Farming of Lancashire.
In the Middle Division.
Tile-kilns belonging to Mr. Clifton (2) . . Lytham.
Mr.,C. R. Jacson,. \\ 4.5 Banton:
Mr. W.Garnett . . Bleasdale.
Mr. Hull. 2 os Sierra
Mr. Wilson Ffrance . Raweliffe.
The Duke of Hamilton, Cabas.
Mr. Threlfall . . . MHollowforth.
Mr. Edmondson . . Caton..
In the Northern Division.
The Earl of Burlington (2) Furness.
Other parties (2) . . Furness.
But draming requires great care in the work, and a perfect
knowledge of the circumstances of soil, subsoil, springs, &c., and
the points suggested by Mr. Bullock Webster on this subject
cannot be too well known. ‘The following are a few of the most
important, taken froma short letter addressed to the editor of the
‘ Ayrshire Agriculturist :-— ;
‘1. No general rule can be laid down.
“2. Any one system for all soils is an absurdity.
‘¢3. Depth and distance of drains must depend on the nature of the soil
and subsoil.
‘<9, That grass land can be over-drained.
“10. The direction the drains should be laid must be governed by the
strata to be cut through, the fall, and other local circumstances; the rule
of going always with the fall is decidedly wrong.
‘‘]1. There are instances (in the new red sandstone) where drains will
act perfectly at 40 yards apart; and there are strong clay subsoils that re-
quire drains every 6 or 8 yards.
‘© 15. On the strong clay subsoils (not surcharged with under-water)
drains 30 to 36 inches deep, at moderate intervals, are much more effective
than deep drains at wide intervals, and on these soils the clay should not
be filled in over the tiles or pipes.
‘17. It often happens that drains 4 feet deep and 40 feet apart are placed
over a field, when one drain properly put in would cure the whole.” ?
Nothing has been so fatal to the progress of agricultural im-
provement as the dogmatical assertion of the absolute necessity
of conforming to or adopting one practice, as the only good one,
in all cases and under all circumstances. The real thing to be
studied is, how best to make those circumstances available which
are within reach, and not to abandon the hope of success, or the
effort to obtain it, because the same facilities which have enabled
our neighbours to be successful are not within the compass of
our grasp.
As auxiliaries towards the advance of agriculture and the full
development of the resources of the county, the railways must
not be forgotten; they are extending gradually like a network
over the*face of the county, especially in the Southern Division,
affording facilities before unknown in the transport of produce
Farming of Lancashire. a7
and manure, and are effecting a revolution in this respect, which
is very important to the farmers. In many parts of Cheshire,
where formerly cheese was made, the milk is now taken at once
by the railways to Manchester and Liverpool, and the effect of
this is, that the cheese-merchants come down into the north to
look for that supply which formerly they obtained from the
neighbouring county. ‘This has given a new stimulus to the
dairy-farmers; and I have been informed by a leading cheese-
factor at Lancaster that, during the last few years, the cheeses in
the northern districts have in fact improved wonderfully, and
that now much more care is paid both to the making and the
keeping of them. All this tends to confirm the opinion which
prevails amongst many of the most influential practical farmers of
the county, that the dairy and the cheese-room must be the chief
objects which all our agricultural improvements ought to have
in view.
The Agricultural Societies also deserve a special notice. Within
the last few years the spirit of inquiry and desire to obtain really
useful and practical information on farming matters has extended
throughout this county, im common with the rest of the kingdom:
we are, in fact, in a transition state, in which every advance in
the right direction not only leads to positive improvement, but
affords encouragement to further exertions—‘‘ vires acquirit
eundo.” The different agricultural societies which have been
established in various parts of the county within the last twelve
or thirteen years, are a proof of the vitality of this spirit of im-
provement, They were, in fact, the waking efforts of a people
shaking off their lethargy; and though they may not perhaps
have entirely answered the expectations of the founders, they
have not been unproductive of good. A few years ago every
town, especially in the northern districts, had its pericultural
society. Ulverstone, Lancaster, Preston, aa Blackburn vied
with each other in their autumnal exhibitions, whilst the private
societies of the Duke of Hamilton, Mr. Clifion, and Mr. Ffar-
rington occupied the rural districts. Some of these have now
disappeared, and others are amalgamated with their more powerful
though younger rival, the Royal North Lancashire Agricultural
Society. The same change has been taking place in the Southern
Division ; and Liverpool and Manchester, instead of having each
their separate society, are now united in one. The principle of
these large societies is, that they should be perambulatory, like
the Royal Agricultural Society of England. It is hoped that by
visiting in succession the different districts and important places
within their several limits, they will bring within the reach of
every farmer, at stated intervals of time, a show of sfock and
implements stici”ageno' oval society could possibly present to
48 Farming of Lancashire.
him ; and also, which is very important, afford him the oppor-
tunity of meeting with gentlemen famed throughout England for
their science and practice, and hearing from them, in the shape
of friendly discussions or lectures, their opinions and the results
of their experience.
In education we are still very deficient, and also in capital
amongst the tenant-farmers: both the means and the knowledge
how to apply those means to the best advantage in the cultivation
of the land are wanting in Lancashire. This fact has such an
intimate relation with the whole subject of leases and agreements
between landlords and tenants, that it is impossible to enter fully
into all the bearings of this most important question without
taking it into account.
Lord Stanley, when presiding at Lancaster, in October, 1847,
over the first meeting of the Royal North Lancashire Society,
placed the matter in its true ight as regards this county, and I
hope I may be excused if I refer to his Lordship’s speech on
that occasion. His Lordship is reported to have said—
‘“ With respect to the arrangements between landlords and tenants, if
they were not based on the strong ties and feelings of mutual confidence,
he should then not hesitate to recommend that the holding should be
secured by a lease, rather than by tenancy-at will; because although tenan-
cies may be conducted in a manner that shall be satisfactory to both par-
ties, leases give advantages which cannot otherwise be bargained or stipu-
Jated for. The conditions and durations of leases must necessarily vary
under different circumstances, according to the condition in which the farm
may be at the time of taking it; but if, as he had before said, the agree-
ments between Jandlords and tenants may be considered based on the strong
ties and feelings of mutual confidence, he thought there was little advantage
in leases over tenancies. If the outlay for improving the farm has to be
made by the tenant, then he should by all means be unrestricted, and
allowed to receive the full and complete benefit for all his outlay; and at
the end of the term, if a tenant had so honourably performed his part, the
landlord would be unworthy the name of aman if he did not give such
tenant preference over strangers, and on terms more liberal than would be
proposed to any other applicant. If it should happen that a great outlay
was required, the capital should be advanced by the landlord, and the
tenant charged a reasonable interest upon it.”
The establishment of Agricultural Schools and Farmers’ Clubs
would tend more directly than anything else to raise the standard
of education ; and, when anything of the kind has been attempted,
it is gratifying to find that the advantages are soon appreciated.
The Earl of Burlington has founded a farmers’ club at Dalton,
which works well; and Mr. Wilson Ffrance, at Rawcliffe, has
also tried the same thing on a small scale, which promises to lead
to greater things. In both these instances that I have met with,
a small circulating library, composed of elementary works on
agriculture and agricultural chemistry, and others likely to in-
terest a farmer, has been formed, and the books are lent out on
Farming of Lancashire. 49
certain simple conditions ; they are read with great willingness,
not to say avidity, and the success of these first steps affords
encouragement to further progress in this most desirable direction.
The farm-labourers of this county are as well off, and perhaps
better than in any other part of the kingdom, except where
manufactures are found, asin Yorkshire, &c., and their cottages
for the most part comfortable and substantial, Fuel is cheap
everywhere, whether it be coals or turf, and an able-bodied man
can earn 12s. or 13s. per week in any district. Mr. Patterson, of
Holbeck, gives his men 7s. a week and their meat in the house,
and Mr. Wilson, of Newton Park, has some in the house alto-
gether ; but this is not a good system, nor does it generally pre-
vail. As a class, I should say they were better housed, better
fed, better warmed, and better paid than in many parts of Eng-
land where agricultural occupations are their only employment.
The section of a ‘‘ Corn-Mow.”
February 28, 1849.
To Mr. Garnett.
My vear Sir,—I regret that I was from home when you called here on
the subject of your Report of the Farming of Lancashire; but I now send
you the particulars of the process of working the field you saw in turnips
jast week—a process which several years’ experience induces me to re-
commend as the best and quickest mode of bringing heavy, worn-out Jand
into good play.
The field consisted of many small fields which I laid together, as my
landlord desired.
Having all been for several years overcropped, under-manured, and short
VOL. X. E
50 farming of Lancashire.
weeded, or rather never weeded, I had all to do. I commenced by carting
upon the stubble, in autumn, 40 tons by weight of good farm-yard manure
to the statute acre, and ploughing it in broadcast about 6 inches deep. J
then cross-ploughed it with a four-horse plough 12 inches deep, and sub-
soiled 6 inches below that. A portion was sown with winter-vetches ; the
remainder was exposed to the action of the winter frost. Early in spring
two other portions were sown with spring vetches, at different periods.
The portion unsown was then well worked, weeded of twitch, &c., ridged
up, bow-harrowed, sown with 1 ewt. of a compost of sulphurized bones,
guano, and charcoal, or wood-ashes, ridged up again, so that the compost
would form the seed-bed, rolled, and sown with turnips, which you saw
growing well. As the vetches are cut off, the Jand will be transplanted
with swede turnips, which may be safely done as late as the middle of
July. For work of this kind good implements are essentially necessary,
and I have derived the greatest benefit from Crosskil]’s cloderusher and
Stretton’s Norway harrow, both equally valuable, the one on dry, and the
other on damp land. I have also derived much advantage from watering
the seed-bed, or the young plants, with weak manure-water, so as to
stimulate it through the attacks of the fly; and I have given to Mr. Cross-
kill the mode! of a very simple and cheap contrivance, by which two boys
_ can water four drills at a time, by means of a spout and four Indian-rubber
tubes attached to a common water-cart. If the water is near the field,
they may apply it, with one horse and cart, to about six acres per day.
During the period of the fly I also used, with much success, a straw brush,
which passes over four drills at once—a light pole about 11 feet long, with
a small wheel at each end. The pole is lapped with straw, which trails
along the tops of the furrows, and disturbs the fly. It does not destroy the
fly ; but the chances are hundreds to one that the same leaf is not again
attacked during that day; and a boy and light horse or pony can go twice
over 10 acres in a day with ease.
Many experiments and close observation of the result have convinced
me of the value of this simple contrivance.
As my system of transplanting is different from any other, and has been
very successful, I will give you the particulars.
I prepare a bed, and sow it early in rows about 8 inches apart, and thin
out to 4 or 5 inches in the row. An acre will thus transplant about 20 or
20 acres.
As the vetches are mowed off, the space cleared is ploughed, well
worked, dressed with 2 ewt. of the compost, and ridged up. As this work
proceeds the plants are being prepared, and are planted while each drill
is damp and fresh. As dispatch is only produced by division of labour,
the process is as follows :—One party, No. 1, pulls the best plants, keeping
them “ heads and tails,” and carries them to another party, No. 2, who sits
at the end of the ground to be planted, and who nips off the slender part
of the tap-root and the upper part of the leaves, laying them in a basket,
also “heads and tails ;” No. 3 carries them up the field to No. 4, who lays
them in the drill, with the leaves towards the planter’s left hand; No. 5,
who must be a man or boy, that, striding across the drills, no petticoats
may interfere with the plants just put in. I never use the dibbling-stick,
which, in heavy Jand, only hardens the inside of the hole, but the planter
is furnished with a light, hollow, half-round steel trowel, with which, in
his right hand, he lifts up a portion of soil, while with his left he puts
the plant in a slanting direction below it; then drawing back the trowel,
the soil falls loosely on the plant, and a short stride of one leg takes him
to the next. j
The proportion of labour for pulling and topping depends on the size
-
Farming of Lancashire. 5]
and position of the plants; but one layer will do for two ordinarily quick
planters, though my bailiff, whom you saw, can transplant a statute acre
in the day. I usually transplant from 15 to 30 acres per annum, and have
raised, according to the examination of the Inspector of the Liverpool
Agricultural Society, 26 tons 4 cwt. per acre; but the land must be
*“mucked heavily, ploughed deep, and weeded clean,” which I consider
now, more than ever, the farmer’s motto.
You allude in your Report to my invention of a portable railway, which,
I assure you, is a most valuable implement. Isent a model the other day
to His Grace the Duke of Richmond, for the Entailed Estate Improvement
Committee of the House of Lords, and the railway may be got at a very
reasonable cost from Mr. Crosskill of Beverly. By it I remove the whole
of my green crops without the least injury to the land; and last autumn I
put 127 tons of manure on 3 acres of land, lying from 220 to 400 yards
trom the manure-heap, at a cost in labour of 23s.
I can only repeat my regret that I did not see you on your visit to my
farm, when I would have shown you the modus operandi of these different
implements, and which I shall be happy to do on any future occasion.
Yours, &c.,
Halewood, June 2, 1849. Ropert NEILson.
Il.—On a Dress for Drainers. From the Marquis of
WESTMINSTER.
To Mr. Pusey, M.P.
Dear Mr. Pusrey,—I mentioned to you last summer a plan
we adopt to protect our drainers, when working in a narrow
trench to the depth of 3 or 4 feet, from the moisture with which
their clothes are saturated and their skin soaked for the day,
while exposed to cold and damp, by which rheumatism and its
attendant evils are entailed.
The plan being one which the labourers readily take to, and
from which they derive obvious comfort, | wish to recall your
attention to the subject, giving you the result of what I have
tried for some years with success, and of which others may per-
haps approve.
We supply our labourers with a sort of leathern trowsers, which
protect the hips and legs from coming in contact with the wet
clay. ‘These leggings are used only by the man who digs the
last narrow spit and scoops out the lowest soil from the trench
before fixing the pipe. In bending forwards, his shoulders also
are brought into contact with the upper sides of the wet trench, to
guard them from which a pair of leathern armlets are most use-
ful. These armlets, as well as the leggings, are put on and
taken off with perfect facility, are so far pliable as to create no
impediment to the action of the labourer, fit sufficiently close not
to rub against the sides of the trench, or make it crumble, and
effectually keep out the wet for the entire day. They are easily
rolled up and carried to and from the place of work.
E 2
o2 On a Dress for Drainers.
The leggings are formed of ordinary leather, in two pieces
detached from each other, about 40 inches in length, and 18
inches wide at the top for the waist; 20 inches a little lower
down, allowing a sweep for the haunches; and 15 inches at the
ankle, One strap is placed on the front and one on the back of
the top belt of the right legging; and corresponding buckles on
the left legging, to fasten them up round the waist. ‘Three
buckles are placed on the lower part of the straight front of each
legging, with three straps behind, just below the sweep, ex-
panding round the haunches; which expansion may be restrained, ~
if thought necessary, from sticking out, by another buckle and
strap behind, a little below the belt-strap. The straps and
buckles being drawn together round the leg, form the trowser or
legging, one being above the knee and two below it.
The armlets are also formed in two pieces of rather lighter
leather, 30 inches in length, 13 inches wide round the shoulder,
8 inches at the wrist; a strap and buckle to surround the wrist,
the same just above the elbow, and the same to unite the two
separate pieces of leather across the back; a piece of webbing
on each side to tie loosely across the chest, to keep the armlets
in their place. ‘The leather is scooped inwards at the top, not to
interfere with the face and neck.
For placing the pipes in their bed we use a pair of nippers
made by our own workmen. The handles, which are of oak,
play on an iron pivot—and, where this pivot works, are 14 and 1
inch thick, but are gradually reduced both ways for lightness,
and slightly bulge at the hand-end for convenience in holding.
The additional breadth of the parts that clutch the tile is gained
by screwing on another piece of wood with two screws, which is
additionally secured by the screws of a roughed iron plate (not
one-eighth of an inch thick) with which those parts are faced,
and which is turned over the end and screwed again with two
screws at the back. ‘The advantage of this tool is, that the
drainer can handle the tile readily, in whatever position he may
find it, and place it firmly in its bed, without of course having to
descend himself into the narrow scooped channel prepared for
the reception of the tile only.
The draining leggings cost, the pair, about 20s., the armlets
10s., the tile-nippers 7s. 6d.
I send a pattern pair of trowsers and armlets, and nippers,
with a sketch of each, to the Agricultural Society’s office, for any
one who may have the curiosity to look at them.
Believe me, my dear Mr. Pusey,
Very truly yours,
WESTMINSTER.
Motcombe House, Shaftesbury, 20th Feb. 1849.
On a Dress for Drainers. 53
~. 1ginch. A
- 1 ft. 3 inches
4 feet.
FOSEROS SSG SeSce 20 inches’
RIGHT ARM.
RIGHT LEG.
The measurements given are full size.
The left leg should of course have 2 buckles instead of 2 straps at the top, and the left arm a strap,
XX isa piece of webbing, fastened to each arm, which cross like braces, and are tied on in front,
54 On the Giant Sainfoin.
IIl.—On the Giant Sainfoin. By Tuomas Hine.
Tue Giant SAINFOIN, as it has been styled by Mr. Hart, of
Ashwell, Herts, the fortunate introducer thereof, was totally un-
known in this neighbourhood until about twenty years ago. It
was then, on Mr. Hart’s inquiring in the market for Sainfoin seed,
that he was apprised by the late Mr. Carrington, of Shefford,
Beds, that he had twenty bushels of old seed he was at liberty to
try ; for which, if it did not grow, he would make no charge.
These terms being accepted, the seed was sown, but, owing to
its being late in the season and a dry summer following, it did
not vegetate until the autumn, but in the spring it became vigor-
ous and strong, and turned out to be a distinct species of the
plant, possessing such peculiar properties, as will go far ulti-
mately to supersede the growth of the common stock, unless it be
upon some of the very poorest of our soils, where it is sown for
purposes for which the Giant species would be unsuitable, and to
which I may hereafter advert.
The crop thus obtained was mown for hay in the usual way:
but Mr. Hart was surprised to find, that about six weeks after it
presented him with another crop, in full flower. This also was
mown for hay; but in September it came again into flower, and
again was cut for hay, The same fertility in its growth occurred
in the second year, and with the same results, save that it excited
the wonder of the neighbourhood, and was the subject of general
discussion. ‘This led Mr. H. the third year of its being in plant
to suffer the second crop to go to seed, which, with all the stock
since produced therefrom, has possessed the same peculiar pro-
perties; and a desire being evidenced by many parties to procure
the stock, Mr. H. was enabled to dispose of his seed for many
years at prices varying from 50s. to 80s. per bushel.
Although residing in the immediate neighbourhood where it
was introduced, and a large grower of Sainfoin, I must confess
that I was rather sceptical as to its being so decidedly superior
to the common stock, as to justify the enormous price demanded
for the seed; at length, however, by repeated examinations of the
plant in its different stages for two or three years, I became fully
alive to its important properties, and determined to possess my-
self thereof: I did so, and my success and disappointment I shall
proceed to detail.
Having obtained two bushels of seed, I sowed it in July upon
land which had been prepared for turnips, and obtained a fair
plant; but the fly made such ravages thereon, that I was reluc-
tantly compelled to plough it up. My next effort was made in
the month of March following, by obtaining from Mr. Hart 4
bushels of seed, for which I paid him 80s. per bushel ; and, being
On the Giant Sainfoin. 5)
anxious to make the seed go as far as I could, I planted it by
dibbling between the rows of wheat drilled in the autumn upon a
pea stubble, which had been previously well prepared in reference
to this object. My reason at this time for selecting a wheat crop
upon a pea stubble was, because I thought I could depend upon
such crop not injuring the plant; whereas I felt that, with no
other crop upon the farm, I should be perfectly safe should a
dripping summer ensue. The enormous price I paid for the
seed induced me to use this precaution. I have, however, sub-
sequently discovered other reasons which have induced me to
continue the practice. Wishing to cover as much ground as I
could with my seed, I set six droppers to follow one man, that
only one seed should be put in each hole, making them as close
as possible. In this way I succeeded in making the 4 bushels
of seed reach over more than 24 acres of ground. ‘The seed
planted well; and although the plant was thin, yet, having left
the stubble to protect the plant during the winter months, it
rallied early in the spring, and, by the first week in June, I could
have cut 35 cwt. of hay per acre; but, thinking I could obtain
two crops of seed in one year, J left it for that purpose, cutting it
in July; but the plant being thin, it branched out considerably,
which retarded the flowering, and, consequently, the maturing of
the seed, so that only a scanty crop was realized ; and the second
crop, although it went to seed, was late in October before it
attained anything like maturity, and a frost causing the seed to
fall, the crop was a total failure. By falling into this error I sus-
tamed a heavy loss. ‘The 24 acres as a maiden crop produced
me only 19 bushels of seed ; whereas had I mowed the first crop
for hay, and the second for seed in August, there would have
been more uniformity in its ripening, and I have no doubt, from
crops I saw treated in that way, but I should have obtained 40
bushels of seed, so that, when the loss of the hay crop was:also
taken into account, my loss by this injudicious step amounted to
about 90/., as some of my neighbours obtained 80s. per bushel
this season for their seed. The next season | was more success-
ful, and in June cut about 40 cwt. of hay per acre, and in August
obtained about 20 bushels of seed per acre.
Wishing, however, to notice my failure as well as my success, I
proceed to state that the next season I procured another 4 bushels
of seed, at 70s. per bushel, which I planted by dibbling with
Tartarian oats, sown thinly, but very early. ‘The seed was put in
precisely the same as with the wheat crop of the preceding year,
but it never planted so well, and the oats being heavy, the Sain-
foin was only a partial crop ; still, however, I suffered it to remain
three years in plant, and the price of the seed ruling high during
the whole period, it was, upon the whole, a profitable crop.
56 On the Giant Sainfoin.
[ now feel myself bound in all fairness to notice an unfortunate
occurrence which took place in 1844. Havmg determined to
sow all the seed of my own growth until [ had obtained the
breadth I usually grew entirely of this stock, I sowed all my stock
of seed, for which I could have obtained 70/., by drilling between
the rows of corn, which proved an entire failure, owing to the
excessive drought of that summer. But herein I was not sin-
gular, as I know of no party who obtained a plant in that season.
The clovers, also, were generally affected in a similar way, only
6 acres out of 70 acres I sowed realizing a plant.
Having by this time, from my own observation, discovered the
peculiar properties of this species of the plant, I shall proceed
to detail them, and, with a view to make myself more clearly un-
derstood, [ shall do so principally by showing in what respects
it stands contradistinguished from the common stock. There is
very little difference in the appearance of the two varieties, but it
is generally a shade darker in its colour, is more rapid in its
growth in the spring, and still more so after the first cutting,
Sent in this locality, generally takes place very early in June;
after this it shoots much earlier and grows much faster than the
common stock, and by the end of July will be again in full flower.
The bulk of the second crop will mainly depend upon the state
of the weather. Upon whatever soil it is planted, it will always
be much more bulky in a moist season than in a dry one; still,
however, be the season moist or dry, it will go to flower at the
same time, and produce as much or more seed in a dry season
than in a dripping one. If cut a second time for hay, it will be
in flower a third time in September, but if left for seed, it will be
ready for cutting in August, after which it will produce an eddish
nearly equal to what is generally produced by the common stock
after the first mowing. Again, the root of the Giant species is
not so large as that of the common stock, roots of which I have
sometimes known to penetrate upon a chalky soil to the depth of
four or five feet, bemg proportionably large, but the roots of the
Giant species are much smaller. The stalk, also, will be larger
and taller, especially the first year it is in plant; the reason of
this is, its maturing itself much sooner than the common stock,
The stalk, it is true, will possess a greater cavity in the middle,
and, as a matter of course, will flatten more in the hay stack; but
whether this is advantageous or not I really cannot take upon my-
self to determine. With regard to its nutritious qualities I have
no knowledge; but I have known that when both species have
been sown side by side and depastured, the stock have given a
decided preference to the Giant species ; this, moreover, is corro-
borated by the observations of some highly respectable indivi-
duals, whose testimonials will accompany these remarks. I have
On the Giant Sainfoin. ay
also known where a party grew a small quantity, and placed it in
the middle of a large stack of the common stock, that the horses
gave a decided preference to the few cakes of the Giant species,
whenever it was arrived at in cutting down. JI have also clear
proof that the fodder arising therefrom, when it is cut for seed, is
superior to that produced by the common ‘stock, when each is
equally well gotten.
But before I leave the subject of the peculiar properties of this
species, | must remark, that it matures itself much quicker than
the common stock, which never attains ful] perfection before the
second, or, in some cases, the third year after it is in plant; but I
have known the Giant species produce, upon a chalky soil, 2 tons
of hay per acre the first season it was in plant. Still, however, |
have never yet known a crop of this species but what produced a
greater bulk in the second than in the first year of its growth,
provided the season was equally favourable. I have also known
seed sown in April, without the intervention of a crop of corn,
produce a most abundant crop of hay the same year; and some
sown at the same time produce seed in September. It must be
admitted in each case that the land was good and in high condi-
tion; a crop of turnips having been previously fed off. “There is
‘hii a crop now growing upon land of a heavy character, well
drained, which was sown in February last with oats, which was not
only cut with the oats, but has since then produced another crop,
which was used for soiling the working horses upon a large farm.
I shall now close my remarks upon the merits of the two species
(except so far as an observation or two may be necessary in my
further remarks) with this important fact, viz. :—I have frequently
known the two species tested side by side, but never, within the
period I have recommended it should be continued in plant, an
instance wherein the decided superiority of the Giant species was
not clearly apparent ; and from others, who in different parts have
tested them in a similar way, I have received communications
giving the most unequivocal testimony of the same results attend-
ing their experiments.
Having, as before stated, suffered much from a failure, or par-
tial failure, of the plant, I began most assiduously to inquire what
would be the best method to “adopt. in order to ensure success in
this particular. And here I would acknowledge the obligations
I am under to a gentleman from Berkshire, detailing the success
which generally attended the cultivation of Sainfoin in a crop of
wheat, which practice I was at first induced to adopt from such
recommendation, without ever satisfying myself as to the ground
or reason of such success. And perhaps it may not be altogether
uninteresting to my readers, if I briefly detail the circumstances
58 On the Giant Sainfoin.
which have caused me, step by step, to arrive at my present con-
clusions thereupon.
For upwards of twenty years I had invariably adopted the
practice generally had recourse to in the neighbourhood, of sow-
ing the seed with a crop of barley or oats, sown after turnips,
where the land had been previously well cleaned and cultivated as
a preparation for the crop, and sowing not more than half, or at
most two-thirds, of the quantity of corn, lest it should grow too
large and endanger the plant of Sainfoin, which would of course
prove a greater loss than a partial defection of the corn crop, as it
would extend itself over the number of years the Sainfoin re-
mained in plant. But even with this precaution, | have known,
in seasons of great drought, that the plant has been so far de-
stroyed as to render it unfit for the purpose for which it was
sown. ‘lo obtain a greater certainty in procuring a plant without
any loss in the preceding crop, is what I have been aiming at for
the last ten years ; with what success I shall proceed to detail.
From experience I have proved that land, to ensure success in
planting this crop, should possess a friable surface, and solidity in
the soil immediately below the surface: without the former you
cannot obtain a plant; and without the latter, although a plant
may be obtained, in a season of. excessive drought it cannot be
retained. It is essential for the reception of the first roots; for
however fine the mould may be at the surface, if there be no
solidity, the drought, if long continued, will destroy the plant ;
but with both these pre-requisites I have never yet known a
failure. The question then naturally presents itself, Is this pre-
paration generally found in the ordinary course of cultivation
upon a farm? If not, you must either abandon the cultivation,
or undertake it upon a risk; for I hold it would be altogether
unadvisable to cultivate expressly to meet the requirements of a
plant which is only intended as an auxiliary to a profitable system.
There will, however, be no difficulty as to this ; for upon land in
a perfectly clean state, sown with wheat the preceding autumn,
whatever may have been its previous course of cropping—except
it be a clover layer, which I should not recommend—you will in
the spring find all that is necessary to ensure success in obtaining
a plant. I have seen most excellent crops of Sainfoin produced
in this way : in some cases by drilling the seed between the rows
of wheat, in others across them ; and also in a crop of wheat sown
broadcast. I should, however, in either case, recommend that
the seed should be deposited with a drill, by which means it is
better covered at one uniform depth, and a considerable saving of
seed is effected: from two and a half to three bushels of seed per
acre being amply sufficient, when sown in this way, upon land as
On the Giant Sainfoin. 59
above described. Nor is this all ; it is clear to me that the plant
will mature itself sooner in this way than with a spring crop,
unless the season should prove more than ordinarily favourable
for a crop sown with spring corn. There will also be no loss
with the corn crop. JI have repeatedly known excellent crops of
the Giant Sainfoim producing, by the first week in June, from
35 to 40 cwt. of hay per acre, upon Jand which had produced
4, 44, and in one instance 5 quarters of wheat the preceding year.
I am aware that the introducer of the Giant species recommends
that it should be sown upon land in high condition, without a
crop in the spring; that some superior crops have been obtained
in this way, and that sometimes a crop of hay or seed has been
produced in the summer or autumn, upon land sown the preced-
ing spring; but this is a practice which will never be generally
adopted.
I have been thus particular in detailing the results of my ex-
perience as to the cultivation of Sainfoin in a wheat crop, not
with a view to condemn a different practice, where such practice
has for any length of time been successfully adopted ; on the con-
trary, I should advice parties desirous of cultivating this species of
the plant, to adopt the same course as they have known to be
successful in their various localities in reference to the common
sainfoin, the requirements for its cultivation being, in my opinion,
(with one exception, to which | may hereafter advert,) precisely
similar. Still, when it is evident that a more successful method
is practised in another locality, I hold it to be the duty of enter-
prising characters to try it in their own, taking care to do so with
caution.
I hold that man to be a novice, however valuable and extensive
his acquirements may be, who, upon finding himself placed in a
new locality, should forthwith fancy he has nothing to learn from
his neighbours, who, with their forefathers, have from age to age
been located upon that particular spot, and must therefore have
had ample means of acquiring the knowledge necessary to suc-
cessful cultivation. On the other hand, I should hold those
parties to be anything but wise men who should wilfully shut
their eyes to any experiment which a stranger but newly located
among them might make, merely on account of its novelty.
Having fully explained what [ have found to be the most suc-
cessful method of securing a plant of Sainfoin, | proceed to show
how the Giant species may be brought into profitable cultivation,
in a general way, upon farms where the four-course system of
cultivation is adopted, without any maternal disorganization of
such system, and with such apparent success as, I flatter myself,
will so commend itself to the intelligent cultivator of the soil, by
the ample remuneration it must of necessity produce, as to bri ing
60 On the Giant Sainfoin.
it into general use upon all soils adapted to the cultivation of the
plant. In doing this, I shall first give a brief outline of the
system [ recommend, and then show how far my own experience,
and that of my neighbours, is corroborative of the advantages
which will attend the system propounded.
I take it for granted that the system of sowing the whole of the
barley shift with clover is no longer practised generally, from a
conviction that half the shift, sown every eight years, will produce
at least three-fourths as much food as can upon an average be
produced from the whole of the shift sown every fourth year.
When this plan is adopted, it will leave half the shift to be sown
with some other crop. Here it is that 1 would commence opera-
tions: upon a part of this—say one-sixth of the entire shift—
which I will suppose to be cropped with peas, and which, upon a
farm of 100 acres, in each season will amount to about 17 acres ;
to this quantity, therefore, I should direct my attention so soon as
the peas were harvested, and, by a little extra labour then, and
during the period that elapsed before Michaelmas, I should take
care to render the process of summer fallowing after the ensuing
wheat crop perfectly unnecessary. ‘This being done, I should, in
the wheat crop, whether sown broadcast or in rows, deposit the
seed with a drill in the spring. In that case, the land will present
you with a crop of sainfom in place of the turnip-crop. This
may be mown early in June for hay, and again in August for
seed, and it will then produce a fine eddish in October. This I
should continue in planta second year, when it would displace the
barley crop, and again in the third year displacing the clover layer.
I then propose that it should be taken up for wheat with the rest of
the shift, when, in my opinion, it will with the same treatment pro-
duce the best crop the shift will afford. J am quite aware that the
plant of sainfoin will not be exhausted ; but, upon a sainfoin layer of
four or five years’ standing, the wireworm sometimes makes sad
ravages in the ensuing wheat crop, and even in the turnips and
barley that follow: when the plant has been taken up in full
vigour, say at the end of three years, | have never known these
disasters occur. My practical readers will perceive, that by pur-
suing this system, and planting another 17 acres in a similar way
in the ensuing year, and another in the third year, a breadth of
50 acres may be appropriated each year to the growth of this
valuable plant, without any sacrifice of corn-growing crops, save
the 17 acres of barley in each year. From 50 acres of sainfoin
thus produced, I calculate that from 80 to 100 tons of hay would
be realized (in proportion to the productive powers of the soil)
by the first mowing, which will for the most part be found suffi-
cient for the entire consumption upon the whole farm, especially
when the fodder arising from the 50 acres of seed in each year is
On the Giant Sainfoin. 61
taken into account, which last will be equal in quantity and value
to from 30 to 40 tons of meadow hay, supposing each to be equally
well gotten. By adopting this system, it follows that the whole
of the clover upon the farm may be fed with sheep, except in
such localities where a more successful mode of disposing thereof
can be had recourse to. This practice, moreover, will meet one
of the peculiar properties of this species, which is this:—I do not
think it will remain in plant so long as the common stock ; which,
with its maturing itself so much earlier, and the extra mowing it
undergoes, is not very surprising. Still I have known it answer
well for five years, where most abundant crops of hay were pro-
duced in each year ; but the seed crop of the last year wasa failure,
the seed dropping from the stem after it was set. In another in-
stance, when it was sown upon a weak clay, well drained, in the
middle of a 30-acre field of the common stock, and treated the
same, by being mown once and then depastured, it remained in
plant as long as the other was allowed to remain, being eight
years.
I shall now proceed to show how my own experience and ob-
servation bear out the utility of the system I have laid down in
theory. In 1845 I selected a field of 24 acres, which had been
well manured in February, 1844, and sown partly with beans and
partly with peas. ‘The soil was a reddish loam, with a fair pro-
portion of gravel stones, and the subsoil, at the depth of from 18
o 24 inches, was partly chalk and partly a dry white clay of a
chalky character. This wasall planted with wheat in the autumn:
the sainfoin drilled between the rows in the spring, and the
stubble left during winter to protect the plant. It has received
no manure since that period, but has been mown once for hay
and once for seed in every subsequent year; part was drilled at
the rate of 2 bushels, part at 24, and the remainder at 3 bushels
per acre. The crop was all good, but I gave a decided prefer-
ence to the thickest sown. ‘The hay is not so coarse, and there are
more stems to produce seed on the second mowing. The field
having planted well, I am desirous of ascertaining how long it will
continue in plant, being mown once for hay and once for seed in
each year. The field planted in 1846 was prepared in a similar
way, and although the wheat crop was splendid, and partially
lodged, the sainfoin is very good, 3 bushels per acre having been
sown. In 1847 a piece of exceeding poor chalk land was planted,
after being prepared in a similar way; but, like all the sainfoins
in this neighbourhood, being its first year in plant, it suffered in
the spring from excessive wet weather, and the hay crop was not
so productive as I usually grow, but has since been thrifty, and
promises well for future years. The piece planted in 1848 was
put in with wheat, sown partly after beans and partly after rape.
62 On the Giant Sainfoin.
The wheat was much lodged, but not so long before harvest as to
destroy the plant; and since then it has grown Juxuriantly. The
plants thus obtained in four consecutive years are looking healthy
and strong ; and when the regularity thereof is regarded in con-
nection with the weight of the wheat crops in which they were
respectively produced, to say the least of them, they go to prove that
by planting the sainfoin with wheat, instead of a spring crop, you
do away with the necessity of making a sacrifice in the crop, in
order to ensure a future crop of sainfoin; as, in my opinion, a crop
of wheat will rarely be found lodged to such an extent as to en-
danger the plant growing therein.
In further corroboration of my own experience, I may here be
allowed to remark, that many of my friends and neighbours have
adopted the system herein recommended, and at present I have
never known a failure in obtaining a plant, although one party
lost it when obtained in this way, through its having been eaten
with slugs in the month of May.
The recommendation [ have given for cultivating the Giant
species in accordance with the four-course system of cultivation,
has not been made without mature consideration ; and perhaps I
shall be excused if I proceed to state some two or three of the
most important reasons which have led to this conviction. I have
been more than forty years engaged in agricultural pursuits,
which have been attended with a measure of success, and I have
no hesitation in stating it as my opinion that the Giant species
will be more remunerative to the cultivator thereof in three years
than the common stock will in jive ; this will of course give two
years more for the land to be appropriated to other purposes.
But, besides this, after three years in full plant, you are certain
of your crop of wheat, whereas after five years, to say the least,
it is hazardous. Again, by adopting this practice no derange-
ment is offered to the four-course system, while the land is ap-
propriated without any extra expense to the growth of crops for
three years, equal in value, upon an average, to any crops pro-
duced upon the farm, while they displace only one corn crop—
the barley ; all this is at less expense than would be incurred in the
ordinary way. For instance, the crop of wheat will for the most
part repay the additional expense in preparing the pea stubble
for the reception of the sainfoin. ‘The turnip crop, upon an
average, will cost as much producing as it is worth, the barley
crop will not equal the value of the sainfoin in the second year,
nor will the layer displaced by the third crop be anything like
the value of the sainfoin crop. Besides, on many farms pecu-
liarly adapted to the growth of sainfoin, the occupiers depend
upon the clover for all the hay necessary for general consumption,
and mow a considerable proportion thereof for this purpose ; but,
On the Giant Sainfoin. 63
by adopting this system to the extent required for hay, they avoid
the necessity of repeating the clover too often.
Under any circumstances, | should not recommend more than
half the hay and fodder arising from the sainfoin to be consumed
in the yard; believing as I do that it may be more profitably
applied by cutting it into chaff, and giving it to the sheep upon
land with the turnips. Here the intelligent farmer will be best
able to judge for himself in the selection of his stock. I keep
breeding ewes, and winter my lambhogs, selling them in the
spring, either fat or as stores, or keepimg them during the early
part of the summer upon the clover, as circumstances may re-
quire; but others, who wish to consume much cake and corn,
may prefer keeping sheep wholly for fatting purposes. In either
case, | am of opmion that the consuming alive of the hay will
generally be obtained, and a greater return to the land realized,
than by consuming the whole in the yard. And in either case I
am of opinion that the return to the land from the hay thus con-
sumed thereupon is greater than would be effected by the value
of such hay consumed in corn, in a similar way, in any year, and
especially in a very dry summer, when corn consumed upon the
land is sometimes injurious to the barley crop. When this prac-
tice is followed up year after year, much permanent improvement
will be seen upon the farm, especially when such a practice is
carried out merely as an auxiliary to a system heretofore working
tolerably well.
In various letters respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I have met with
such observations as this: “| think the generality of the Jand in
this neighbourhood is too poor for it.” Now J have known it
answer well within a few miles of this place upon a chalky soil,
where the land was only one remove from unprofitable cultivation.
The land, indeed, was highly cultivated, but not more so than
was profitable. If, in the remark above given, allusion was made
to the system I know to be practised upon some exceedingly poor
soils, of sowing the land with sainfoin, and when it is no longer
remunerative for mowing, using it for a sheep-walk, I must
confess, in that case, I ie not think it is so well adapted, seeing
as before stated, it will lose plant sooner than the common species,
unless it be treated as such species generally is, without regard to
taxing its more productive powers. For my own part, eee ee
reason to doubt but that upon our weakest soils a crop of seed
may be produced proportionate with the stamina such soils may
possess. I would, however, adopt every possible method that I
could reasonably expect to be remunerative, in order to increase
the fertilizing powers of the soil previous to planting the sainfein ;
and, although I have recommended a wheat crop upon a pea
stubble to plant the crop of sainfoin upon, having found such a
64 On the Giant Sainfoin.
practice beneficial in its results, there is, nevertheless, a far better
preparation to be made for both wheat and sainfoin upon weak
soils, by large flock-masters, in the following manner :—by
sowing Italian rye-grass, rye, or tares, as may be deemed most
judicious, upon the barley stubble, so as to produce a sufficiency
of green food for a flock of young lambs by the middle of April ;
they may then be placed thereon, and allowed to run before their
dams in pens, giving them a fresh piece every day. ‘The ewes
following them may be kept upon mangold, reserved for that
purpose, together with such dry food in the troughs as may be
requisite to keep them in condition and enable them to suckle
well. In this way they may be kept to the end of May, at some
additional expense, it is true, but not more than the extra sheep
kept will amply pay for, and the land, by being ploughed as the
sheep pass over it, will be sufficiently pulverized, and in good
condition to produce rape for early feeding, or, with the assistance
of a small quantity of Lawes’ manure (af required), early turnips,
for September feeding, may be produced ; these may be fed with
corn or hay, as the land may require, when it will be in fine
condition for a wheat crop and the sainfoin which follows it. I
merely make these suggestions upon a practice which I have
known to be successfully adopted upon a weak soil, as a prepara-
tion for the cultivation of the Giant Sainfoin.
Newnham, Baldock, Herts,
April 19, 1849.
The Testimonials subjoined are from parties who have tested
the merits of the plant in different parts of the kingdom.
Ichleton, Cambs.
Sir,—I have only grown the Giant Sainfoin one year, but, from one
year’s trial, I shall certainly not think of growing any more of the common
stock in future, as the crop of Hay mown from the Giant exceeded in
weight that grown from the common stock by at least one-fifth; after
which it was seeded, and the after-feed was then equal to that of the
common sort after the hay-crop only.
The soil upon which mine is growing is a dry rubbly chalk.
I am, Sir, yours, &e.,
To Mr. Hine. SAMUEL JONAS.
—
Redbridge, near Southampton, Hants.
Sir,—The Giant Sainfoin has far exceeded my expectation, and fully
deserves the high character you gave it when you sent the seed.
It was sown under very unfavourable circumstances, with a barley-crop,
in March, 1847, upon a piece of our poorest land, the plough frequently
running upon the hard gravel.
The barley, in parts, was much lodged, but the Sainfoin took no damage,
On the Giant Sainforn. 65
and appeared very strong and vigorous in the autumn and during the
winter, the severe frosts making no impression upon it.
Being planted by the side of a piece of clover, the rapidity of growth in
comparison was remarkable in the spring of the year, and by the 26th of
May it was ready for the scythe, when there was at least 30 ewt. of
hay per acre. Ina few weeks afterwards the crop was again knee high,
and in good condition for stable-food or second crop of hay; but wishing
to procure more seed, I allowed it to remain for that purpose, after which
it produced herbage 7 or 8 inches high.
I certainly consider it a most valuable plant for agricultural purposes
generally.
I am, Sir, yours, &e.,
To Mr. Hine. WILLIAM STRIDE.
West Hagbourne, Berks.
Sir,—In reply to your inquiries respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to
inform you that I succeeded very well.
The seed was drilled upon a light loam soil, with a crop of wheat, at
the rate of 2 bushels per acre.
The first crop I mowed for horses, the second was seeded, and the third
fed with sheep.
I certainly consider it far superior to the common stock.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. J. LousLEY.
Moiland, Ash, near Sandwich, Kent.
Srr,—In reply to yours respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to state I
sowed the three sacks of seed you sent me, upon 33 acres of poor thin
staple with a subsoil of chalk, in a erop of wheat, which in the spring was
attacked with wire-worm, and the Sainfoin suffered considerably from the
same cause; but though in consequence the plant was thin, it realized the
next year a good crop for hay, and afterwards a crop of seed, with an
aftermath about equal to that of the old stock after the hay-crop only.
Iam therefore perfectly satisfied with the trial I have given it, and
shall certainly recommend it to the notice of the Sainfoin growers in this
neighbourhood.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. AUSTEN GARDNER.
Lanark, near Weston, Herts.
Srr,—In reply to your inquiries respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to
state that I have grown it about ten years, and have always found its
properties the same.
I have been an extensive cultivator of the common stock of Sainfoin,
and have also grown Lucern for soiling for stock ; but there is no doubt in
my mind as to the superiority of the Giant Sainfoin to either, for any pur-
pose, as it produces more weight per acre, and the quality is decidedly
superior to Lucern, or any other green food I ever grew.
I have experimented upon it in a variety of ways, and do not hesitate to
pronounce it a most valuable plant; and no one who knows its value as
well as myself will for long remain without it.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. JosEPH BEAUMONT.
VOL. X. F
66 On the Giant Sainfoin.
Clare Hall, Cambridge.
Srir,—In reply to your inquiries respecting my opinion of the Giant
Sainfoin, I beg to state it has been cultivated upon my farms about eight
years, partly upon chalk and partly upon heavy land, well drained, on
both of which it has succeeded well; and I have no hesitation in stating
it will produce more weight, whether as soiling for horses or for hay, than
any other artificial grass of which I am aware.
I have kept it in plant five years, and others a longer period, where it
has been more free from grass, and can speak to its superior qualities to
the common stock, in whatever way it may be appropriated.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. Witiiam Wess, D.D.
Royston, Cambridgeshire.
Sir,—The Giant Sainfoin is fast superseding the common variety in this
neighbourhood.
Having watched its progress for many years, I think its merits cannot
be questioned, when the extraordinary produce is known.
The small supply of seed, and consequent high price, are the only im-
pediments in the way of driving the other sort out of cultivation.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. Vatentine BeLpAM.
eee
Boarhunt, near Fareham, Hants.
Sir,—In reply to yours respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to inform
you that, having obtained some seed, I dibbled it in with the barley-
crop in 1847, beside some of the common stock, both under the same
treatment.
The continuation of dry weather during the summer materially affected
the artificial grasses in this neighbourhood, but the Giant species mani-
fested much more strength and vigour than the common Sainfoin.
This year 1 seeded both. Neither produced much seed, but the Giant
the most, and was much stronger and more bulky in crop, producing
afterwards considerably more herbage, which was fed off with lambs; and
I particularly noticed the decided preference they gave to the Giant—
being turned into the field, they invariably went to that part, and ate it
bare before they would go upon the other.
From what I have already witnessed, I am convinced this species is far
more productive than the old stock, and only requires to be known to be
more extensively cultivated.
The soil upon which my seed was sowed is of a strong loamy nature,
with a subsoil of chalk,
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. GrorGE CREED.
Ashwell, Herts.
S1r,—I have had some Giant Sainfoin in plant, more or less, for fifteen or
sixteen years, and have always found it produce more in the first crop
than the common sort, as well as a crop of seed afterwards.
I have carefully observed it since it has been grown in this parish,
and am so convinced of its value, that I should never again sow the
commen stock for any purpose when this can be obtained at any reason-
able rate.
I have used it for soiling for my horses, and find it superior to anything
On the Giant Sainfoin. 67
I have used for that purpose, and am satisfied that those who know its
value as well as myself will never farm without it.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. : JOHN SALE.
Little Marlow, Buchs.
Sir,—In reply to your inquiries, I beg to state I drilled the Giant
Sainfoin seed purchased of you with a crop of barley, beside some of the
common variety, upon a light chalky soil, and from the commencement
there has been a decided superiority in the growth of the Giant over the
old stock.
It produced a good crop of hay, and the aftermath was fed off with
cows, when I was amused and astonished to see these animals, so soon as
from the yard, walk over the old sort to the Giant species, and not take
a mouthful till they arrived at the latter.
My opinion, from present experience, is, that the productive properties
and superior quality of the Giant species render it fully one-third more
profitable than the common sort, though I have for years been aware of
the valuable properties of this plant.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. JosEPH WETHERED.
Shepereth Bury, Cambridgeshire.
Sir,—I beg to inform you that I have cultivated the Giant Sainfoin four
years, and have sowed it beside the common stock, by planting a piece of
the latter between two pieces of the former, when the difference was
clearly discernible at a great distance; indeed, it grew from 8 to 10
inches longer in the stalk, and was more rapid and much stronger in its ©
growth. I should certainly not cultivate the common stock again, nor
would any of my neighbours, but for the high price at which the seed is
now selling.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. Nasu WoopHam.
Lutlington, Cambridgeshire.
Sir,—In reply to yours, I beg to state J have grown the Giant Sainfoin ten
- years, and have frequently tested its properties beside the common stock,
and, in every case, found it much superior, even upon the weaker chalks,
formerly heath-land.
Tam so satisfied of its superior qualities, that I would not be without it
upon any account.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. Tuomas KImrron.
Dunton, Beds.
Str,—I have had a piece of the Giant Sainfoin in plant eight years, beside
some of the old stock, planted upon heavy land, well drained; the former
has always been much more productive than the latter.
Having grazed horses, cows, and sheep upon the piece, I noticed that
each had a decided preference to the Giant species, eating it down bare
before they would go to the other.
In every respect, and for every purpose, therefore, I consider it far
superior to the old stock.
I am, Sir, yours, &e.,
Lo Mr. Hine. RoBert Brown.
Eee
68 On the Giant Sainfoin.
West Halton, Lincolnshire.
Str,—I beg to inform you that the Giant Sainfoin I purchased of you has
succeeded very well.
It is planted upon a light red loamy soil: the seed was dibbled in, and
produced this year a good crop, which I mowed for the horses.
It now looks remarkably well, and in my opinion is decidedly superior
to the old stock, and will doubtless, after awhile, be generally cultivated
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
Lo Mr. Hine. Isaac GREEN.
ee
Newnham, Herts.
Sir,—The Giant Sainfoin has been cultivated by me, upon a small scale,
from a short period after it had obtained so much notoriety.
1 have invariably taken a crop of hay previous to a seed-crop, and have
obtained, in some instances, as much as 80s. per bushel for my seed.
I have planted this species of Sainfoin upon chalk-loam, and also upon
heavy land, well drained, but give a decided preference to the latter,
where it has always grown the best and strongest.
I have one piece now in plant, upon a clay-loam with a subsoil of
clay, which is very thrifty—this was drilled with a wheat-crop after
beans,—and another piece, partly upon clay-loam and partly upon chalk ;
but that growing upon the former description of soil is decidedly the most
thrifty.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
Lo Mr. Hine. Witiiam Doacer.
Litlington, Cambridgeshire.
Sir,—I have proved the qualities of the Giant Sainfoin to be very superior
to the common stock, it having produced a crop of hay and a crop of seed
each year it has been in plant.
The first piece I sowed was in 1840, which remained in plant till 1847,
when I ploughed it up and sowed the land with cats.
The first crop of hay, independent of the seed-crop, is more than equal
to what the old stock would have produced.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
Mr. Hine. THomas RussELL.
Launceston, Dorset.
Sir,—In reply to your inquiries respecting the result of my experiment
with the Giant Sainfoin I purchased of you, I beg to state that I sowed a
field of high, thin, chalk land with Sainfoin, in a barley-crop, planting the
Giant species in the middle of the field, to give it a fair trial beside the
common variety.
During the ensuing winter it appeared more strong and healthy than
the old stock, and at the time of mowing for hay would have produced a
much greater quantity per acre ; but I allowed it to stand for seed, which
was cut. on the 13th July, yielding about 16 bushels per acre.
The field was then laid up till October, when the Giant was too bulky
for sheep-feed, producing in weight full three times as much as the
common sort, or about 25 ewt. per acre, which I used as soiling for my
oxen and colts.
As an alternate crop, where broad clover fails, I consider it one of the
most profitable crops that can be grown upon high chalky soils, with
which the county of Dorset abounds.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
Mr. Hine. JAMES BuRGEss.
On the Giant Sainfoin. 69
Stotfold, Beds.
Sir,—I have cultivated the Giant Sainfoin more with a view to test its
real properties than for any other purpose, and have sowed it upon the
richest and poorest description of soil I occupy.
The former is arich, deep, black gravel-loam, where it remained in plant
four years, being mowed for hay and seed each year. The plant was thin,
but the hay-crop most abundant.
The latter was some land where gravel-stone had been dug and the
surface-soil buried, leaving nothing but the siftings to work upon. Here,
also, it has answered well, producing both hay and seed the last two
seasons ; and it has been remarked by myself and neighbours, that the
hay-crop alone in each year was superior to the average of the corn-crops
I had heretofore grown upon the land.
I now regret that I did not cultivate the plant more extensively at an
earlier period, as no one, in my opinion, who knows its value, will cultivate
the common variety when this can be reasonably obtained.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
BRYAN GIBBINS.
Bassingbourne, Cambridgeshire.
Dear Sir,—I take the earliest opportunity of replying to your note. I
have grown the Giant Sainfoin for some years, and on different soils, but
chiefly on thin chalk hills, which I think peculiarly suited for it. I have
sown it side by side with the common Sainfoin, and the difference in the
growth and produce of the two sorts was astonishing. The Giant comes
earlier to maturity, and, I believe, upon all poor, thin-stapled chalk-soils it
will supersede the former—growing much earlier, stronger, and of greater
produce per acre. You are quite at liberty to make what use you please
of the above remarks.
I am, dear Sir, yours truly,
James LILLEY.
Littlebury, near Saffron Walden, Essex,
Dec. 26th, 1848.
Sir,—In answer to your inquiries, I beg to inform you that I have grown
the Giant Sainfoin four years upon a thin rubbly chalk, and have found it
considerably more productive than the old sort. Some persons have
doubted the distinction, but even the most sceptical have only to see the
two varieties growing together to be convinced of the superiority of the
Giant. Not only does it mature somewhat earlier for mowing (at the
same time producing 20 per cent. more), but the rapidity with which it
grows the second, and even the third time, is quite wonderful.
I think, in a few years, when its properties become more generally
known, it will be considered by the flock-masters, upon light soils, to be
quite indispensable ; for, with a moderate breadth of it in plant, they will
never know in the summer months what it is to be short of keeping;
indeed, I quite expect, at some future time, it will altogether supersede
Lucern, for, with the same attention and manuring, I feel confident as
much weight may be produced, and, I think, superior in quality, as all
growers of Lucern are aware that the second and third cuttings are not
relished so much by their stock as the first ; but this is not the case with
the Giant Sainfoin, which is eaten with avidity at every cutting.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.,
To Mr. Hine. JOHN CLAYDEN,
70 Observations on the various Insects
IV.— Observations on the Natural History and Economy of various
Insects affecting the Potato-crops, including Plant-lice, Plant-
bugs, Frog-flies, Caterpillars, Crane-flies, Wireworms, Milli-
pedes, Mites, Beetles, Flies, §c. By Joun Curtis, F.LS.,
Corresponding Member of the Imperial and Royal Georgofili
Society of Florence; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia, &c.
Paper XY.
Tue disease* which has assailed the potatoes for the last four
years, frequently rendering the crop worthless, and setting human
ingenuity at defiance to discover a remedy, appears to result from
atmospheric influence, produced probably by a succession of cold,
heat, and unusual humidity, which did not agree with the consti-
tution of this imported esculent. Amongst the numerous causes
that have been assigned for the appearance of this alarming and
severe visitation, insects have been frequently taxed as the destruc-
tive agents, but I am convinced the calamity is not to be attri-
buted to their presence.{ It certainly was remarkable that the
Aphides should have swarmed in countless myriads in 1847, but
the malady was not then so bad as it was in the previous and suc-
ceeding years, which appeared to me to be the most fatal to the
potato-crops,t yet, as far as my observations extended, the plant-
lice were so scarce during 1846 that it was with difficulty I could
find specimens, and I did not see a single Aphis upon my pota-
toes in 1848, notwithstanding the crop was worse than it had ever
been before in my neighbourhood, more than half of them being
rotten. The appearance of the Aphides in such unprecedented
swarms may fairly be attributed to the same cause as the potato
rot—namely, certain conditions of the atmosphere, for it is gene-
rally admitted that the appearance of a species of insects in un-
usual abundance, may be the effect either of some exciting influ-
ence, as electricity, or of a congenial temperature, creating a
climate favourable to the increase of the animal, such as heat and
moisture. In other instances it no doubt is owing to the absence
* Murrain, being ‘‘a plague in cattle,” ought never to have been
applied to the potato disease, as it frequently has been.
+ M. Guérin holds a similar opinion, as well as Mr. Westwood and
different members of the Entomological Society of London. Vide Bulletin
of the Royal and Central Society of Agriculture in Paris, vol.v. p. 331, and
Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vill. p. 468.
{ The very great breadth of potatoes planted in 1848 has given so much
larger an amount of produce, that the loss from disease is not felt as it would
have been had the usual quantity only been grown; and this is a very
important fact to keep in view as regards our future prospects. Indeed, is
it worth while, at present at least, to sacrifice so many acres of valuable
land in growing rotten potatoes ?
affecting the Potato-crops. 71
of animals and parasitic insects in the previous year, whose pro-
vince it would have been to keep within bounds these troublesome
enemies to man.
If, however, the prevailing disease amongst the potatoes cannot
be traced to the presence of insects, there is a large number of
species which prey upon, and undoubtedly injure to some extent,
the most healthy crops, and of these the history will now be given.
It will be better to divide them into those which affect the foliage,
and others which infest the roots, first in a sound, later in a dis-
eased state.
Apruipves, or Plant-lice.
Many varieties of these insects are found upon the leaves of the
potatoes during the spring and summer nionths, indeed so long as
the foliage remains green and succulent. Their first appearance
depends upon the mildness of the weather, for when it becomes
cold they do not generate, or at any rate very slowly, so that the
species disappear; but if a plant be taken and protected in a
greenhouse or sitting-room, their economy is not interrupted even
in the winter, as one sees by the Pelargoniums being covered with
Aphides when they are neglected. I have at this time (January)
two tulips in a pot, the convoluted leaves swarming with Aphides,
allied to the one infesting the peach-trees: the apterous females
are daily bringing forth young, and the pupz are hatching and
producing winged females.* But to return: I very much doubt
if there be any species exclusively attached to the potato, for the
one named Aphis vastator by Mr. Smee appears to me to be
identical with my A. Rape, which inhabits turnip-leaves, and
was described and figured in this Journal in 1842.+
In confirmation of my views I may state that, in April, Mr.
F. J. Graham has detected the Aphis Persice { upon the potato-
leaves in his vinery; the beginning of May, Mr. Denham found
A. granarius, or an allied species, in some abundance on the
potato-leaves at Broxmouth Park. On the 5th of June, 1847, 1
observed upon my potato-haulm the hop-fly (Aphis Humuli) and
the turnip-plant louse (4. Rape); on the 13th also a species
without honey-tubes; on the 17th several belonging to a group
separated from Aphis, and called Schizoneura ; and in July, Aphis
Fabe, the broad-bean louse, was-in some force upon the potatoes,
whilst it was swarming upon other vegetables and garden flowers ;
for instance, the shoots of dahlias, the underside of the leaves of
the convolvuli, French and scarlet beans, beet, and parsnips were
* Mr. F. Walker considers they are the A. vastator of Smee.
+ Vol. iii. p. 53, pl. C, f. 1, 2, 3, and Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vii. p. 21.
} Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1047, where nearly sixty species are arranged.
72, Observations on the various Insects
literally covered and black with the winged females, sticking in
closely-packed phalanxes, and in that position they died by the
end of July or earlier—without killing any of the plants, to the
best of my knowledge.
No one acquainted with cultivation will attempt to deny that
the plant-lice have the power to destroy a crop,—for instance, the
horse and broad beans were a light crop, and entirely failed from
the attacks of Aphis Fabe in many districts in 1847; but in that
very year the potatoes in gardens, where the Aphides were abun-
dant, proved sound crops; whilst in 1848, where no Aphides could
be found, the tubers were worse than at any former period.
That Aphides will puncture the potato-leaves there can be no
doubt, and so incline them to wither ; but there 1s no proof of their
poisoning the sap and causing the rot. Indeed it is only when
plants are smothered with them, as we see beans, turnips, hops,
and roses occasionally are, that their presence causes any real
mischief, and then it simply arises from the local exhaustion pro-
duced by the abstraction of the sap from the leaves or young
shoots, and of course when the circulation is impaired and the cel-
lular tissue is deprived of its nourishment and dried up, the foliage
becomes spotted and withers ; but in no instanee have I seen the
Aphides on the potatoes in sufficient numbers to destroy the crop,
or even to injure the produce.
The economy of the Aphides has been so amply detailed in a
former volume,* that I shall now merely identify the species above
noticed.
1. Aphis Rape, Curtis, Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. 1
p. 03, pl. C, figs. '1, 2, 3.
Having received so many different species from various corre-
spondents with the name of A. vastator, it is difficult to decide
which is intended for the authentic one; but some which were
stated to be typical examples, and identical with those figured
and described by Mr. Smee, leave little doubt on my mind that
they are the same as the Aphis Rape.
2. A. Humuli, Curtis, Gardeners’ Chron. for 1846, p. 405.
The winged specimens are exceedingly like A. Rape in size
and colour.
3. A. Persicee, Morren, is very like the preceding species, but
it is rather larger, with much longer and slenderer ducts. In the
autumn of 1834 prodigious swarms of this species were carried
by a hurricane over many parts of Belgium.
4, A. Fabz, Scop, Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. vii. p.
418, pl. R, figs. 21 and 22,
* Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. iii. p. 49.
* Ann. Acad. Roy. des Sci. de Bruxelles, for Aug. 1836.
affecting the Potato-crops. 73
To render the history of this species more complete, the female
and pupa are represented in our plate U; figs. | and 3, magni-
fied; figs. 2 and 4, the natural sizes.
5. Schizoneura lanigera, Hausen? belongs to a group which
has been separated from the genus Ap/is in consequence of the
different neuration of the wings, &c. ‘The winged specimens are
only accidental inhabitants of the potato, and may frequently be
observed on almost every plant in the garden. As a proof of the
great fecundity of these insects, | put three from the potatoes
into a quill, and in 6 hours they had produced 43 young ones.
At the same time the natural enemies of the Aphides were not
inactive: the lady-birds (Coccinelle 7-punctata and C. dispar*)
were laying their eggs, which soon hatched, and the little black
larvee made great havoc, as well as their parents, amongst the
helpiess communities: the beautiful 2-winged flies (Sceva bal-
teatat and Cheilosia teniatat) were also depositing their eggs
beneath the potato-leaves, where they soon hatched, and the mag-
gots commenced feeding on their Aphis prey. These eggs are
white, oval, and beautifully granulated, whilst those of the lady-
birds are smooth, and of an orange or buff colour.
There are likewise some minute bugs and their larve, which
are exceedingly serviceable in destroying the Aphides ; and there
seems to be scarcely a plant or tree where they may not be found ;
the perfect insects inhabiting the flowers, and the immature ones
running about in search of the Aphzdes, which they transfix with
their sharp rostrum.
These bugs are included in the Orper Hemiptera, the
Famity Coreip&, and the Genus Hytopuita or ANTHOCORIS.
The Ist species is called
6. H. Nemorum, ZLinn.: it is only 14 line long: fig. 5; 6, the
natural size. It is black and shining, the head is trigonate,
narrowed before, with a 3-jointed rostrum bent under the breast ;
the 2 globose eyes are prominent, and the 2 minute ocelli at
the base of the crown are remote: the 2 horns are half as long as
the body, straight, 4-jointed and black; Ist joint short, 2nd the
longest, bright ochreous, the tip black; 3rd and 4th of equal
length, the former ochreous at the base, the latter conical at the
apex: thorax triangular, truncated before with two transverse
channels: scutel triangular, acute, and not small: elytra elliptical,
lying flat on the back, and extending beyond the abdomen, pale
ochreous, with a spot at the suture, a bar or spot on the disc of
each, and the oblique margin all fuscous ; the terminal membrane
is white, with a fuscous spot on the disc and a larger one at the
* Jour. of Royal Agric. Soc.,, vol. ii. p. 57, pl. C, figs. 15 and 16.
} Ibid., vol. ii, p. 66.
ay Curtis's Guide, Genus 1241, No. 3.
74 Observations on the various Insects
tip: beneath are 2 transparent but iridescent wings, with a smoky
spot at their tips: the 6 legs are bright ochreous and slender,
the base and tips of the shanks, as well as the feet, are pitchy,
and there is a ring of the same colour near the apex of the hinder
thighs. It varies so much in the markings, that the different
varieties have been described under the following five names by
Fabricius, viz., sylvestris, fasciatus, nemoralis, austriacus, and pra-
tensis.
They hide themselves when disturbed, often running into
chinks in the bark of fruit and other trees, where probably the
eggs are deposited ; likewise under loose bark as well as in moss,
where they hybernate, to come forth again in the spring.
The larva (fig. 7; 8, the natural size) is very minute at first,
yet it resembles the parent in having a rostrum, horns, and 6 legs,
but it is narrower, of a blood or chestnut colour, more ochreous
when fasting, and it has no wings: the head is furnished with a
very acute rostrum, longer than the head, the horns and legs are
ochreous, the terminal joint of the former being the stoutest and
of a blood colour. Fig. 9, the thorax and head nearly in profile.
The pupa (fig. 10; 11, the natural size) is as long and broader
than the perfect insect, which it greatly resemblesin form, and it is
equally active and useful: it is of a deep shining chestnut colour ;
it has no little eyes on the head: on each side of the back lies a
flat rounded lobe, ochreous at the tip, and they contain the inci-
pient elytra and wings: the body is broad, convex and orbicular :
the horns and legs are ochreous, the first and last joints of the
former of a chestnut colour.
7. H. minuta, Linn., is a smaller species, being little more
than | line long: fig. 12; 13, the natural size. It is shining
black : the horns are brown, ochreous at the base: hinder part of
the thorax punctured: elytra ochreous and punctured, the apex
fuscous; membrane smoky on the disc: beneath them are 2
transparent wings: legs ochreous, tips of feet dusky. The larva
and pupa are smaller than those of the former species, but they
are equally beneficial, I believe, in preying upon the Aphides.
Fuses, or Muscipaz.
Mr. E. Doubleday transmitted to me some flies which were
stated to be laying their eggs in the young shoots of the potatoes,
and causing the rot. They belong to the OrpER DrpreEra, the
Famity Muscip@, and the Genus Sapromyza. The species
has been named by Fallen
8. S. obsoleta.* It is bright ochreous, producing a few long
black bristles: the eyes have 2 purple lines when alive, but are
* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. 605, and Guide, Genus 1295.
affecting the Potato-crops. 75
brown when dead: the apical half of the 3rd joint of the horn is
black as well as the pubescent seta: the abdomen is rather smal]:
wings ample, yellowish and iridescent, but transparent, nervures
ochreous: balancers with a large triangular club: legs whitish-
ochre ; at the apex of the hinder shanks, where the spur is in-
serted, is a brown spot ; the feet are dusky, the hinder thickened,
especially the basal joint: expanse of wings 5; lines.
The larvz of most of the Sapromyzide are said to live in putrid
substances, as mushrooms, &c., but Mr. Haliday has bred S.
rorida from fiowers.
THRIPS.
In the summer of 1846 Mr. Barnes of Bicton* and many
other practical gardeners entertained so strong a conviction that
a little Thrips was the author of the potato epidemic, that I care-
fully investigated the subject, and was soon satisfied the disease
could not be attributed to their agency. On the 30th of July
Mr. Barnes sent some diseased potato-leaves with several of the
little Thrips upon them, Being in Oxfordshire at the time, I
immediately visited several allotments where I had observed the
leaves and stalks were spotted. On digging up some of the
worst, we found a diseased tuber of good size, and two more the
following day. After a diligent search I detected the larva and
pupa of the Thrips, as well as the perfect insects, amounting to
about twenty specimens, The Thrips was most abundant where
the plants were sheltered from the wind, invariably inhabiting
perfectly healthy leaves; and on the following morning I could
find very few. In another spot, where the leaves were dead and
the haulm spotted, we did not find one bad potato amongst those
we dug up, nor a single Thrips on the green leaves af a lew
healthy- looking plants still remaining.
Various species of Thrips injure different crops of grain and
fruit, as well as greenhouse plants, by abstracting the fluids which
ought to sustain them, and so far the Potato-Thrips acts upon
the leaves, but that has nothing to do with the rot in the tubers.
When they congregate in countless myriads, as they often do in
melon and cucumber frames, their presence is soon indicated by
ochreous spots upon the cuticle, which end in the destruction of
the leaf, arising from their puncturing it with their short beaks,
and extracting the sap in the same manner as the Aphides;7 but
their number upon the potatoes was never sufficient to effect any
important change on the constitution of the plants.
These minute creatures run with activity over the surface of
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vi. p. 532.
j Journal of Royal Agric. Soe., vol. vi. p. 500, Thrips cerealium.
76 Observations on the various Insects
the substances they feed upon, and no doubt the winged indivi-
duals can fly, ‘The larva is shuttle-shaped and ochreous; the
head is small and oval, with a minute black eye on each side, and
a short beak beneath ; the 2 horns are twice as long as the head,
slightly pubescent and 4-jointed ; first 2 joints small, 3rd egg-
shaped, 4th nearly as long as the others united, ovate at the base
and attenuated to the apex: trunk very long and broad, composed
of 3 segments, the Ist trigonate with rounded angles, the 2 fol-
lowing forming broad bands; the abdomen is as wide as the
thorax, composed of 9 segments, conical and hairy at the apex:
6 short legs; thighs very short; shanks dilated; feet indistinct or
wanting (fig. 14; 15, the natural size).
The pupz are also ochreous, but before they change to the
perfect state they become much darker; and being such atoms
they are not easily detected under the leaves when at rest, lying
close to the midrib or nervures, but they run about lively enough
when disturbed.
They belong to the Orper Hemiptera,* the Faminy
Turtiesip#, and the Genus Turips, The species on the po-
tato was described by Linnzus a century back, under the name of
9. T. minutissima (fig. 16; 17, natural size). It is scarcely
4 of a line long; pale brown or dirty ochreous: the horns are
short and 6-jointed ; the eyes are intensely black: the trunk is
concave, and the sides parallel: the abdomen is oval, pointed,
piceous, and shining: the 4 wings, lying parallel on the back, are
narrow, dirty white, and ciliated: 6 short legs, stoutish and ochre-
ous; shanks and feet simple.
SmyntTuurRus and Popura; the Ground-fleas.
In July and August numbers of these curious little creatures
accompanied the Thrips, running and skipping about the under-
side of the potato-leaves, often falling down upon their backs.
They constitute an OrpeER called Tuysanora, and belong to
the Genus Smyntuurus. As I cannot find any description
which entirely agrees with the potato species, I have named it
10. S. Solani. It is not bigger than a small grain of sand,
and either entirely of a deep ochreous colour with black eyes, or
as black as soot with ochreous horns: the head is large, like a
great mask, and attached by a slender neck: the eyes are placed
on each side of the crown; the horns are more than half the
length of the body, slender, elbowed, and 4-jointed? the trunk
and body are united, forming a large globose mass, with a forked
tail doubled under the latter for leaping: the 6 legs are rather
~)vir: Holiday raised the Thrips to a distinct order, Lhysanoptera ; Ent.
Mag,, vol. ili. p. 439, and Curtis’s Brit, Ent., fol. and pl. 748.
affecting the Potato-crops. 77
short, and apparently triarticulate (fig. 18, magnified; 19 is to
show the leaping apparatus in another species).
These minute animals are nourished by eating the parenchyma
of the green leaves, but some species feed on fungi. In Nova
Scotia the crops of turnips and cabbages are principally de-
stroyed, whilst in the seed-leaf, by some Smynthurus, the size of
a pin’s head, and nearly globular. It hops with great agility by
means of its forked tail, and may be found on every square inch
of all old cultivated ground, but it is not plentiful on new land.
As these “ Ground-fleas” will not remain on damp ground, they
may be expelled by sprinkling salt over the land after the seed is
sown and well rolled down, or a thin layer of sea-weed spread
over the drills is a perfect security against them.*
An allied Genus called Podura has very lately been accused of
being the origin of the potato-disease. W. P. says—
*¢ First, in an early stage of its existence, it lives on decayed vege-
table matter, which it collects by burrowing into the earth ; secondly,
it occurs in numbers sufficient to cover nearly the whole surface of the
earth; thirdly, it collects, as a means of existence, a substance which is
poisonous to vegetables. It has power to infuse this into living plants
by burrowing into the parenchyma. ‘The poison is circulated through
the system, vital action becomes suspended, mildew immediately fol-
lows, and in less than three days some of the plants attacked are dead
vegetable matter, food for the offspring of the newly-discovered
Podura.’’+
Dr. Lindley very justly adds, “ Insects are not the cause of
the potato-disease.”
Cimicip#, or Plant-bugs.
It is somewhat remarkable that whilst portions of these crea-
tures, as we have already shown, are destined to live upon Aphides,
and so preserve our vegetables, others have an opposite taste, and,
like the Piant-lice, pierce the cuticle to feed upon the juices,
causing similar injury by parching up the leaves, or covering them
with blotches.
The appearance of various species of Plant-bugs, their larvee
and pupz, upon the potato-crops, excited the attention of agri-
culturists, some of whom were at once disposed to attribute the
prevalent disease to these insects. The truth is, when an un-
known malady first visits us, it is natural that every one inte-
rested should endeavour to find out the origin, consequently every
imaginary influence is taxed as the cause by the speculative mind;
and from the little attention that is paid by the farmer and gar-
dener to the economy of insects, they are led to believe that cer-
tain tribes of animals are the culprits, because they chance to be
* Halifax Times. ‘+ Gardeners’ Chron. vol. vili. p. 702.
78 Observations on the various Insects
abundant upon the plants, and they never observed them before ;
but if their attention had been directed to the subject earlier,
they would in all probability have detected the same insects upon
the same plants every year, in greater or less abundance.
In July and August, 1846, I had numbers of specimens trans-
mitted to me from Devon, Winchester, and various counties, the
parties expressing a strong conviction that these Potato-bugs were
the cause of the disease. The cry was raised again in 1847, in
the same months, which led to the subject being noticed in the
- Gardeners’ Chronicle.*
That these insects live upon the foliage of the potatoes there
can be no question, and therefore it will be advisable to identify
the species so that at any future period no unnecessary appre-
hensions may be entertained should they appear in unusual
numbers.
They all belong to the OrprrR Hemiptera, the FamiLy
Corisip#, and the Genus Lyeus or Puytocoris. One species
appearing different from any described, I have named it
11. L. Solami (fig. 20; c, the natural length). It is green,
shining, punctured, and clothed with soft depressed pale hairs:
head small, smooth, transverse-oval, and ochreous; face tri-
angular, with a long 4-jointed rostrum bent under the breast in
repose: the eyes are small, prominent, lateral, oval, and black ;
the two horns are ochreous, brown beyond the middle, long, very
slender, angulated, and 4-jointed, basal joint the stoutest, longer
than the head, 2nd twice as long, 3rd longer, 4th shorter than
the first. Thorax ochreous, convex, triangular, truncated before,
twice as broad as the head at the base; scutel triangular: abdo-
men entirely green ; the female with a channel beneath, enclosing
the horny oviduct: elytra very long, elliptical, as broad as the
thorax, resting horizontally on the back; stigma green, like the
elytra; membrane transparent, iridescent, the nervures bright
green: wings ample, transparent: 6 long slender ochreous legs,
hinder very long ; feet ochreous, all pitchy at their tips, and ter-
minated by 2 claws; hinder thighs the stoutest, the shanks very
long, slender and spiny: length nearly 3 lines. It is possible
this species may be a variety only of the Cimex pabulinus of Lin-
neeus, or the Phytocoris prasinus of Fallen. +
As soon as these insects leave the egg they can run about, being
fnrnished with legs, horns, and a rostrum like the parents, but
they are deprived of the organs of flight. As they grow they
attain 2 lobes on the back, which enclose the future elytra and
wings, and then they are called Pupez (fig. 21; d, the natural
length). . In every stage of their existence they feed in the same
* Vol. vii. p. 468. + Curtis's Guide, Genera 1100 and 1103.
affecting the Potato-crops. 79
manner ; but the perfect insects, which emerge from the matured
pupe, can fly well, are exceedingly active, leaping by short flights
and tumbling about in the sunshine, so that it is difficult to cap-
ture these fragile creatures, especially without mutilating them.
They were abundant from the middle to the end of August in
1846 and 1847.
12. L. contaminatus, Fallen, is very similar in size and form
to the foregoing species (fig. 22; 23, natural size; fig. 24, the
head, &c., in profile). It is ochreous, the base of the thorax and
the elytra inclining more or less to green, and the membrane is
margined with a smoky colour; but it varies considerably, some
having a dark spot at the base of the stigma, forming a bar across
when the elytra are closed; the suture is also brown, as well as
the nervures of the wings, and a patch on the back of the abdo-
men. It is 3 lines long: the wings expand 53.
This species was abundant on my potato-crop in August, 1846,
and it abounds on lime-trees from the beginning of May to the
middle of August, or later.
13. L. bipunctatus, Fallen (fig. 25; 26, natural size), is a more
robust insect. It is green, more or less ochreous when dead:
the horns are stoutish, ferruginous, dusky at their extremity, with
a pitchy spot beneath the first joint towards the base; the ros-
trum, in repose, extends to the hinder coxe, and is pitchy at the
tip. In some varieties there are 2 black dots on the disc of the
trunk, and it is ochreous before: back of abdomen shining black,
with the lateral margins pale: elytra with depressed black hairs.
and generally with indistinct stripes or splashes of brick-red ;
membrane smoky: wings ample, smoky, with darker nervures:
legs stoutish, especially the hinder; thighs ochreous, rusty at
their extremities, tips of tibiz and feet pitchy. Length 32 lines,
expanse 7 lines.
This species was very abundant the end of August, 1846, upon
the potato-haulm,* as observed by Mr. Balkwill and other gar-
deners. In summer it is often found on nettles in Ireland and
England. |
14. L. umbellatarum, Panzer (fig. 27; g, the natural dimen-
sions), is a more oval species, with slenderer horns and legs: it is
pale green or ochreous, shining, punctured, and pubescent: head
smooth, inclining to red ; horns rosy, tip of 2nd joint with the two
following brown: thorax rosy behind, and coarsely punctured,
smooth before, with a transverse waved channel: scutel white,
black at the base, sometimes with 2 longitudinal black or rosy
lines next the thorax: body shining black above, margined with
ochre: elytra elongate oval, clouded with red, the costa deeply
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vi. p. 557.
80 Observations on the various Insects
notched at the base of the stigma, which is tipped with brown,
the oblique and oval nervure scarlet; membrane with a smoky
border and a dot within the cell; wings ample, iridescent, nervures
dusky: legs ochreous, slender, and rather short, excepting the
hinder pair; thighs with a reddish or brown ring near the apex,
2 rings in the hinder, the shanks spiny, all tipped with brown ;
feet pitchy. Length 2% lines, expanse 6 lines. This pretty spe-
cies varies much, and some examples are very rosy.
At the commencement of September, 1846, it was abundant on
diseased potato-haulm in many localities. It inhabits grasses in
May, and later in the year it is found upon the flowers of umbel-
late. It is spread far and wide, for I have caught numbers in
Scotland, especially in the isles of Skye and Arran.
Two other species, Phytocoris pabulinus of Linneus, and P.
viridulus, Hahn, are recorded as inhabiting and injuring the
potato crops.* Itis evident, by the following extract from a letter
of a resident in South Australia, communicated to Mr. Thwaites,
that the potato disease in that remote country, in 1847, has been
ascribed to some insect allied to those infesting our own crops.
The writer says—“ The fly which destroyed the potato crop was
a small white Tree-bug, with transparent wings, not half the size
of the common house-fly. They ate up all the tops of the
potatoes, so that there was not a leaf to be seen, and of course
the roots were useless where they attacked them in the early
state.” f
The following accurate observations of Dr. Harris will show
that similar injuries were inflicted upon the potatoes in the
United States ten years back, and that insects had been suspected
of assisting in the destruction of the crops. He states that it was
a species of Plant-bug closely allied to Phytocoris campestris of
Linnzus, and described as the P. lineolaris of Palisot de Beau-
vois, and the Capsus oblineatus of Say.
‘* During the summer of 1838,” says Dr. Harris, ‘‘ and particularly
in the early part of the season, which it will be recollected was very
dry, our gardens and fields swarmed with immense numbers of little
bugs, that attacked almost all kinds of herbaceous plants. My atten-
tion was first drawn to them in consequence of the injury sustained by
a few dahlias, marigolds, asters, and balsams, with which I had stocked
a little border around my house. In the garden of my friends the
Messrs. Hovey, at Cambridgeport, I observed about the same time that
these insects were committing sad havoc, and was informed that various
means had been tried to destroy or expel them without effect. On
visiting my potato-patch shortly afterwards, I found the insects there
also in great numbers on the vines; and from information worthy of
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vii. p. 468.
+ Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. v. p. xxxiii,
affecting the Potato-crops. “3
credit am inclined to believe that these insects contributed, quite as
much as the dry weather of that season, to diminish the produce of the
potato-fields in this vicinity. They principally attacked the buds,
terminal shoots, and most succulent growing parts of these and other
herbaceous plants, puncturing them with their beaks, drawing off the
sap, and, from the effects subsequently visible, apparently poisoning
the parts attacked. ‘These shortly after withered, turned black, and in
a few days dried up or curled, and remained permanently stunted in
their growth. arly in the morning the bugs would be found buried
among the little expanding leaves of the growing extremities of the
plants, at which time it was not very difficult to catch them; but after
they had become warmed a little by the sun they became exceedingly
active, and on the approach of the fingers would loose their hold and
either drop suddenly or fly away. Sometimes, too, when on the stem ofa
plant, they would dodge round to the other side, and thus elude our grasp.
‘¢ J have taken this insect in the spring as early as the 20th of April,
and in the autumn as late as the middle of October; from which I
infer that it passes the winter in the perfect state in some place of
security. It is most abundant during the months of June and July.
It seems to be very generally diffused through the Union.”*
Dr. Harris attributes the great increase of noxious insects to
the exterminating war which has been wantonly waged upon the
insect-eating birds. A hint, to place a hen-turkey or duck under
a crate or cage, and let the young ones scour the garden, is worth
attending to. 7
Porato FRoG-FLIEs.
Equally or more abundant than the Plant-bugs were these
suctorial insects, which were hopping and flying over the potato
grounds from the end of August until the crops were lifted the
end of September. Every one has observed upon holyhocks and
other flowers little patches of frothy matter called “ Cuckoo
spittle :”’ they are occasioned by a tender little animal, which by
sucking the plant buries itself in this froth, which protects it from
heat and other inimical effects, until it is full grown, when it
changes to a pupa, and from this emerges the perfect insect,
called by Linnzus Cicada spumaria.; ‘The Potato frog-flies are
of the same family, only the larvae do not secrete froth, but move
about like their parents.
There are two species inhabiting the potato-haulm: they belong
to the OrpER Homoptera, the Famity TETT1GONID@, and the
Genus Evereryx.t One is closely allied to Fabricius’s 7.
Jjlavescens, which is larger, and, as 1 am doubtful of their being
identical, I have named the Potato species
* Harris’s Treatise on Insects, pp. 162, 163.
{ Zettigonia spumaria, Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1060, No. 6, and Gardeners’
Chron., vol. 1. p. 509.
= Curtis's Brit. Ent., fol. and plate 640.
VOL. X. G
82 Observations on the various Insects
15. E. Solani * (fig. 28, flying ; h, natural dimensions). Itis of
a lively green colour, but fades after death to a yellowish green:
the head is broad, short, and crescent-shaped above, with 2 lateral
prominent brown eyes: fig. 29, head, &c., in profile: the face is
beneath, somewhat oval and very long, the apex producing a ros-
trum, and in a cavity on each side, before the eyes, are inserted
the antennz, which are short, and like 2 fine bristles, arising from
2 minute subglobose joints: the trunk is smooth, transverse, and
semi-orbicular; the scutel is triangular, acuminated at the apex:
the abdomen tapers to the apex, and is conical in the female, with
a long and stout ovipositor beneath, formed of 2 sheaths, ciliated
with hairs and enclosing the oviduct: wings 4, lying over the back
in a convex form, when at rest; the superior, called elytra, are
twice as long as the body, narrow and elliptical, the nervures
scarcely visible; they are very glossy and iridescent, the extre-
mity rusty; inferior wings ample, nearly as long as the elytra,
beneath which they are folded, being exceedingly delicate and
iridescent: the 6 legs are very slender, the first pair are short, the
hinder very long; thighs short and slender; the anterior shanks
are armed with spines on the inside only and not to the apex ;
the hinder are long with a double row of spiny bristles on the
outside ; feet moderately long and tri-articulate, basal joint the
shortest, 2nd the longest, but in the hinder pair the basal joint
is the longest; claws and pulvilli mmute. Length 1 line, ex-
panse 23,
The females have been observed by Mr. F. J. Graham, depo-
siting their eggs under the potato-leaves: these are white, cylin-
drical and somewhat shuttle- shaped, more pointed at one end
than at the other, and striated with numerous furrows forming
ridges: fig. 30; J, natural size: the little creatures which hatch
from them are green with 2 horns and 6 legs, as well as a rostrum
to pierce the cuticle of the plant. The pupa (fig. 31) is green,
and nearly as large as the parents, but narrower: the body tapers
considerably : the head is broad and the 2 black bristles forming
the horns are much longer than in the perfect insect: it has 2
large black eyes: the stout rostrum lies under the breast, extend-
ing to the hinder hips; it is flexible and 3-jointed, enclosing the
4 mandibles and maxilla, which protrude beyond the apex like
the finest bristles: the lateral lobes enclosing the future wings
look like the pinions of a bird: it has 6 legs, the hinder pair
being the longest. When these pupe are full grown they attach
their feet to the stalk or leaf, and by bursting the horny skin on
the back, the perfect insect crawls out and is thus liberated.
These skins, as well as those cast off by the larvae during their
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vi. p. 388.
affecting the Potato-crops. 83
growth, are sometimes seen in multitudes adhering to the foliage
or lying on the ground beneath.
The perfect potato frog-fly is often abundant from the middle
of August to the end of September, when not unfrequently a
dozen may be seen on one leaf. In dull weather they have a
curious mode of evading notice by sidling round to the opposite
side of the stem or beneath a leaf, but in bright warm days they
leap and fly short distances.
The other species, which is equally abundant, has been named
by Fabricius
16. E. picta: fig. 32; m, the natural dimensions. It is very
similar in form to E. Solani, but it is larger and beautifully
spotted: it is of a clear yellow colour, with 2 oval black spots on
the crown of the head, and one on each side of the face, 2 larger
ones on the trunk with 2 dots before, and 2 black spots at the
base of the seutel: the abdomen is black, the margins of the seg-
ments yellow, the superior wings are clouded with brown, leaving
the base, the tip, 2 large spots on the costa, and 2 on the suture,
yellow, with smaller pale spots on the disc; inferior wings irides-
cent and transparent, the nervures brown: legs entirely of a
sulphur colour. Length 14 line, expanse 3 lines.
The pupa of this speciesis of an uniform buff colour: the eyes
and tips of the feet alone being dark.
On the 19th of June, i847, I first observed this species upon
my potatoes, and in August they had increased greatly in num-
bers, the foliage being still green and healthy: they flew about a
foot when disturbed, but did not leave the plants, alighting directly
upon the leaves and sidling under them whenalarmed. ‘The pupe
were equally numerous under the leaves, with the exuvie by them.
This frog-fly also inhabits nettles, the burdock, and mint, and |
have found it as late as November in gardens.
ALTICA.
In company with the foregoing insects was one of the Altice,
or leaping Chrysomele. They first appeared about the middle of
June, and they continued feeding until the leaves withered. Dur-
ing the whole of August, 1846, they were in multitudes on the
Bitter-sweet (Solanum Dulcamara*), a plant belonging to the
same genus as the potato; the leaves of which they completely
riddled. They are also abundant on grass till late in the
autumn, but nothing is known of the larve or where the eggs are
deposited.
This beetle is comprised in the same group as the turnip-flies
(Altica Nemorum +), but owing to the different form of the horns
* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., pl. 102.
+ Journal of Royal Agric, Soc., vol. ii. pp. 195 and 211.
G 2
84 Observations on the various Insects
and feet, it has been separated from them. It belongs to the
Orper CoLeoprera, the FAmiIny CHRYSOMELIDA®, the GENUS
MacrocneEMa,*™ and appears to be the Linnean species }
17. M. exoleta: fig. 33; 34, the natural size. It is oval, con-
vex, shining and ochreous: the head is black, with prominent
eyes, 2 long clavate 10-jointed horns, 2 basal joints elongated,
3rd a little shorter, the extremity dusky: thorax punctured, deep
ochreous, transverse, slightly narrowed before, sides rounded ;
scutel minute: elytra pale ochreous, the suture pitchy; there are
8 faintly-punctured strize on each, and a short one on either side
of the scutel; wings ample: underside pitchy: legs dark ochre ;
hinder thighs very thick and pitchy; the shanks rather short, the
internal angle forming a curved lobe at the apex, which is cut off
obliquely; feet 4-jointed, Srd joint bilobed ; hinder very long and
inserted on the inside of the shank, basal joint as long as the
others united: the apex furnished with 2 claws. Length | line.
SpHinx Atropos, the Death’s-head, or Bee Tiger-moth.
Potato-leaves do not seem very palatable to caterpillars, for
with the exception of two green-striped ones and those of the
Death’s-head Sphinx, I do not know of any which feed upon
them. The noble larva of this moth is occasionally abundant in
potato-grounds, sufficiently so lately to induce the peasants in
Kent to collect and give them to their poultry, yet twenty years
back they were far from common, since British specimens of the
moth were so much sought after by naturalists, that half-a-guinea
was willingly paid for a fine native example. The unusual
abundance both of the caterpillars and moths in 1846, was owing,
it is presumed, to the high temperature in June and September,
and it is nota little surprismg that they should have escaped
being included in the Calendar with the other insects accused of
destroying the potato-crops; more especially as the moth bears a
very bad character: even its name of “ Atropos”’ is intended to
imply its awful errand, as well as the familiar ones of Death’s-
head, Tete de Mort, and Todtenkopf, which it bears in this
country, in France and Germany, appellations derived from the
image impressed upon its back; so that when Afropos intrudes
itself into a dwelling amongst the rural inhabitants of the Con-
tinent, 1t causes no little consternation, since it 1s considered the
messenger of pestilence and famine, if not of death. It is un-
doubtedly to be dreaded by bees, for it has the audacity to enter
their hives and lap up the honey. It is from this propensity it
has received the English name of “ Bee tiger-moth,” and it is
* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 486.
‘+ Fauna Suecica, No, 541, and Curtis’s Guide, Genus 428, No. 10.
affecting the Potato-crops. 85
supposed to gain admission by imitating the note of the Queen
bee,* and being so thickly clothed with velvet over a horny case,
it may laugh to scorn the stings of the bees.
This handsome moth is certainly a remarkable creature—it is
sO conspicuous from its size that no one can overlook it; for it is
as big as a bat, the human skull depicted on its back is often very
perfect, and it can utter a cry something like the faint squeak of a
mouse, but more plaintive. The caterpillar rests like the classic
Sphinx of Egypt, hence that distinction has been assigned to it,
and it is very remarkable that an Egyptian mummy bears a great
resemblance to the brown horny chrysalis.
It is not yet ascertained where the female moth lays her eggs:
they must be as large as mustard-seeds and cannot be deposited
upon the foliage of the potatoes by the autumn brood; indeed it
has been ascertained that the females are then sterile. It is
therefore quite possible that the eggs are generally laid by the
earlier brood upon or under the potato-leaves.
The caterpillars seem to have fed principally upon the leaves
of the jasmine formerly, but I am not aware that they are found
now upon any other plants in England than the potato, although
they will live upon the bitter-sweet, tomato, thorn-apple, spindle-
tree, elder, damason, and hemp. They come out to feed at night,
and grow until they are nearly as long and as thick as a lad’s
middle finger, when they are of a yellow or greenish tint with
7 oblique bands on each side forming acute angles on the back ;
these stripes are blue, lilac, and white: the head is horny and
furnished with strong jaws; it has 6 pectoral feet like claws,
8 fleshy abdominal feet and 2 similar anal ones, above which is a
rough curled tail, and on each side are 9 breathing pores called
spiracles. When full grown the caterpillar buries itself in the
earth, where, with a fluid from its mouth and by the action of its
head and body, it forms a smooth oval cell: having rested from
this labour, it draws off its skin and then is wonderfully trans-
fcrmed into a chrysalis or pupa enclosed in a horny shell of a
chestnut colour; the head blunt, the tail pointed, the eyes, pro-
boscis, and wings being defined, and the body composed of
several rings with breathing pores on each side, and if touched or
breathed upon it wriggles its body to and fro. The first brood
of caterpillars is thus transformed in July, and these produce
moths in September and October, whilst those that arrive at per-
fection in the autumn do not hatch until the following spring.
They were equally abundant in France in 1846 and there they
remained in pupe only 3 or 4 weeks.
The moth belongs to the OrnpER LepipoprTera, the FAMILY
* Reaumur, Hist, Nat. des Insectes, vol. ii. p. 289.
86 Observations on the various Insects
SPHINGIDA, and was included in the Genus Spuinx, until it
was separated from that immense Family and received the ap-
pellation of AcnHERoNTIA. The species was named by Linnzus
18. A. Atropos.* The wings sometimes expand 5 or 6 inches:
it is densely clothed with short pile, like fustian: the eyes are
large and prominent, and close to them at the back part of the
head are inserted the horns, which are stoutest in the males,
rather short, robust, and black, narrowed at the base, white and
hooked at the tips: in front of the head are 2 erect palpi, and
between them a short, stout, horny, black proboscis, which is
rolled up spirally in repose: the thorax, as well as the head and
superior wings, are black, with an ashy tint; on the former is an
orange-coloured figure resembling a human skull, with the neck
and collar-bones: the abdomen is black with a greyish stripe
down the back and 5 or 6 long orange spots on each side, alter-
nating with as many black bands: wings sloping (like the roof of
a house) in repose: superior black minutely freckled with white,
variegated with rusty patches, and several black transverse broken
waved lines ; one near the base, 2 others nearer the apex and a
spot on the disc, bright ochreous: inferior wings bright orange
with 2 black mdented bars nearly parallel with the margin, which
is formed of orange spots; the fringe of the wings is scarcely
visible: it has 6 stout black legs, with 2 strong and distinct claws
on each foot.
Although the Death’s-head caterpillars either retire into the
ground by day or otherwise secrete themselves, coming forth
principally at night to feed, they are not secure against the untir-
ing diligence of an Ichneumon fly, which lays her eggs in the
body of the larvae, where the maggot hatches, grows to a large
size, and changes to a pupa within its victim, from which eventually
the parasite emerges instead of the ‘moth.
It is the largest of our British Jchneumons, and is included in
the Orper Hymenoptera, the Famity ICHNEUMONID2, and
the Genus Troeus.} The species I named, after the insect it
was bred from,
19. T. Atropos.{ It is bright ochreous: head transverse with
a black stripe on the crown, spreading along the base and termi-
nating in a point on the face ; eyes lateral, with 3 ocelli in triangle
on the crown; antenne black, the basal portion orange, long and
setaceous, inserted close together near the middle of the face,
composed of about 40 joints, Ist joint the stoutest: thorax robust,
oval, and black ; scapulars, a line before them and a spot beneath,
* Curtis's Brit. Ent., fol. and pl., 147, where coloured figures of the moth
and caterpillar are given, as well as dissections.
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 496.
t Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 234.
affecting the Potato-crops. 87
ochreous; scutel conical and yellow; postscutel rough with a
shining knop at the base and 2 elevated, lines down the middle,
forked. at their extremities: abdomen long, elliptical, clavate,
atiached to the thorax by a clubbed petiole ;_ slender at the base,
sometimes with a black line beneath, 7-jointed, the 4 last seg-
ments black: wings ample, shining golden yellow, the hinder
margins smoky, superior with a pentagonal areolet; stigma and
neryures ean. legs stout, Ist pair the smallest, lander the
largest; coxe lava hal er thighs the thickest, black at the apex,
especially beneath ; anterior ales short, hinder long, brown at
the tips; feet longer than the shanks, 5-jointed, terminated by 2
strong claws tipped with black, and dusky pulvilli between them.
Length | inch, expanse above 12 inch. The proportion of colour
varies in different specimens, some have only a few orange joints
at the base, whilst others are only black beyond the middle of the
antennz ; a portion, or the whole, of the 4th abdominal segment
is ochreous, as well as the under sides of the coxz, with no black
at the extremities of the hinder thighs and shanks, in other
examples.
My calendar is a proof of the abundance of the Death’s-head
caterpillars in Kent, for I see that all my specimens of this Jch-
- meumon were bred or taken at Rochester, Darent, and other
localities in that county, I believe in July, one towards the end
of that month; but it has been bred from other Sphingide, I
haye heard.
AcARIL, or Mites.
On the dead haulm of the potato these little creatures con-
gregate for the sake of feeding upon the Botrytis or other fungi.
One which Mr. Graham found in March, 1846, had been no
doubt breeding through the winter, for they often generate in
cavities under stones, and a larger and darker species resides in
quantities under the tomato leaves in the autumn.
They belong to the Orper ApTrERaA, the Famiry ACARIDES,
the Genus OripatTes, formerly called Motaspis, and the potato
species is named, apparently by Hermann,
20. O. castaneus. it is as small as a cheese-mite, very glossy,
pear-shaped, and of a rusty chestnut colour: the trunk 1s conical
and conceals the head; it is distinctly separated from the body by
.a transverse channel; the Jatter'is oval and dilated, being very
convex with a few long hairs scattered about: the 8 legs are rather
long and of a dirty ochreous tint, sparingly clothed with longish
hairs, they are 6-jointed ; the hips and trochanters are short, the
thighs are short and clavate, as well as the shanks, which have a
little joint at the base; the foot is elongated but clubbed at the
base, and terminated by a single long curved claw.
58 Observations on the various Insects
I have now to give the history of the second army attacking the
potatoes, and which is unquestionably an enemy to the cultivator,
for these insects subsist upon the tubers and roots, both injuring
and reducing the crop.
The potato-disease in France so greatly alarmed the nation on
its first appearance, that Monsieur Guérin-M éneville was charged
by the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce to draw up a
Report, which was read before the Academy of Sciences in
October, 1845, and afterwards published in one of the French
Journals.* As M. Guérin has also been appointed by the
Government to investigate the origin of the disease in the Silk-
worm caterpillar, called Muscardine,t which is a species of fungus
attacking living animals, his opinion becomes so important that I
may be excused for introducing his observations before I proceed
with my disquisitions. In addressing himself to the Entomolo-
gical Society of Paris regarding ‘“‘ the malady which has for a
long time spread itself over the potato-crops,”’ he says, “many
persons attributed this epidemic erroneously to insects, whilst it is
now demonstrated that it is produced by a malady of the plant,
caused by colds which were felt at the end of the spring, and by
the extraordinary humidity of the summer, which favoured the
production of a Cryptogame that developed itself in great
numbers in every one of the cells of the potato. The insects and
larve that Have been found in spoiled tubers have come there
when the potato has been partly decomposed by the fungi, and
cannot be regarded as having caused the malady.’’}
Although I have discovered a great many insects affecting the
tubers which are not recorded in M. Guérin’s Report, there are
many no doubt which have not yet fallen in our way. I shall
commence with those which live upon and of course injure the
healthy and sound tubers. Amongst these are the
SURFACE GRUBS.
In July, 1844, I received some caterpillars from H. W. B., of
Bedminster Lodge, near Bristol, stating that they were all taken
on the 26th of July from one plant in a field of potatoes: “ They
attacked the haulm just beneath the earth and ate through it.
Acres of potatoes in this neighbourhood have been attacked by
them. Some bore into the potatoes and destroy the small ones.
They have also spoiled scores of celery plants and bored into the
crowns of the carrots, indeed nothing seems to be free from them.”
They were the caterpillars of a moth, the Noctua (Agrotis)
* Bulletin des Séances de la Soc. Royale et Centrale d’Agric., vol. v.
. 331.
: + Annales de la Soc. Séricicole.
+ Ann. Soc. Ent. de France for 1845, vol, ii. p. Ixxxvi.
—
affecting the Potato-crops. 89
exclamationis, which makes such havoc amongst the turnips, as
formerly stated in this Journal.*
Tipvvu.2, or Crane-flies.
Any one may readily imagine what an amount of vegetation
must be consumed by the maggots or larve of these gnats, seeing
that during the summer and autumn it is not possible to step on
a field or meadow without disturbing a family of the winged
parents. Indeed, turnips, potatoes, beet, carrots, and cabbages
often suffer as severely from the attacks of Surface Caterpillars,
the larve of Crane-flies, and the Wire-worms, as from any other
insects.
From the beaked head and attitude of the body and legs in
flight, the Zipule have been termed Crane-flies, but in some
counties they are better known by the name of Daddy or Old
Father Long-legs. As it is mostly in undisturbed ground that the
larve are propagated to any extent, it is most desirable to keep
land clean. Of course weedy banks and hedge-rows will na-
turally be a harbour for them, as they delight to live amongst
the roots under tufts of grass, but their head-quarters are damp
meadows and marshes. Wet, consequently, encourages them, and
to drown them is impossible, therefore the opposite course, of
draining land effectually, would no doubt annoy them more than
any other process, and go far towards freeing arable lands, at least,
from these universal pests.
The eggs are laid by the females, I apprehend, as they fly,
or when they rest amongst the herbage, and are propelled as
from a pop-gun. Those of Tipula Oleracea are little oval conical
grains, shining and as black as ebony; they form a mass occupy-
ing nearly the whole abdomen, and I have taken 300 or more
from the body of one female (pl. V. fig. 35, n an egg magnified).
The little maggots hatched from these grow until they are as
thick as a small goose-quill, cylindrical, and about an inch long
(fig. 36); they are then of an earthy colour and incased in such
tough skins that they are called “ Leather-jackets.” The intes-
tines shining through the back create 2 pale wavy lines, in which
a pulse is very evident. When walking or wriggling along, for
they have no feet, they protrude their little black horny heads,
stretching out the neck, which then tapers, and exposing 2 minute
rust-coloured horns and 2 strong black jaws; when in motion
their tails are thickest and cut off abruptly, the edges above being
furnished with 4 fleshy tubercles more or less pointed, with 2
below, and near the centre are 2 spiracles or breathing-pores
(fig. 0, the stern); they are composed of 13 rings, and when
* Vol. iv. p. 106, pl. G, figs. 6 and 7.
90 Observations on the various Insects
drawn up and at rest look like small Bots. From the beginning
of May to the first week in August I have observed these larvee
at the roots of scarlet beans, lettuces, beet, and potatoes, and
during the same period they are most unwelcome visitors in the
flower-garden, where they commit dreadful ravages amongst the
roots of dahlias, carnations, &c., and even the grass-plots in the
metropolis do not escape, for in Golden-square a few years
since the grass was laid bare by them. It is said they come out
at might in multitudes to feed, and probably to remove from one
locality to another when food becomes short, or it may be in
search of convenient places to change into pupe; at all events
they are then secure from the rooks and smaller birds, which
would speedily thin their ranks, and the dews of night suit their
purpose in every way better than the light and heat of day. Some
of the forwardest change to pupe early in August, perhaps in
July, and certainly in September ; this takes place under the
turf, and even by the sides of gravel walks, if the weeds be left
to grow: they are as long and thick as the larve, of a similar
dirty colour, with 2 slender horns, one on each side of the head ;
the segments under the belly produce transverse rows of stout
spines, and smaller ones on the back, the tail is pointed and
spiny; on each side of the trunk are the cases containing the
wings, and between them those which enclose the legs (fig. 32).
After remaining in this state a short time, the pupa, by means
of these spiny rings, works its way through the surface of the
earth, the horny covering of the trunk splits down the back, and
the gnat crawls forth to dry its wings and harden its limbs, before
it takes flight to pair and generate new families. At this time
thousands of empty cases may be seen sticking half out of the
earth amongst the grass.
The Crane-flies belong to the ORDER DiprerRa, the Fami.y
Tiputipm, and the Genus Trputa.* The species before us
was named by Linneus
21. 'T, oleracea, from its larva injuring cabbages. It is of a
tawny colour, with a bloom over it, giving the fly a dusty appear-
ance. ‘The head is small, almost globose, attached by a short
slender neck, the nose forming a stoutish rostrum or beak, acu-
minated at the apex, and furnished with a short, fleshy, bilobed
lip, and 2 longish 5-jointed palpi; the eyes are hemispherical
and black ; the 2 slender horns are inserted in the face, they are
as long as the entire head, tapering, and 13-jointed, the Ist
longish, 2nd globose, the remainder elongated and bristly; +
trunk large, oval, raised considerably above the head, divided
into 3 lobes on the back, which is brownish with obscure stripes:
*Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1160.
+ Vide Curtis’s Brit, Ent., fol. and pl. 493, for the dissections.
affecting the Potato-crops. 24
underside hoary, as well as the somewhat orbicular-quadrate
scutel: body Jong, slender, and 9-jointed, clubbed at the extremity
in the males (fig. 38, the abdomen, in profile), but it is much
longer and spindle-shaped in the female, with the back slate-
coloured; the apex horny, pointed, and furnished with 2 lateral
tapering lobes, and an oviduct between them: 2 wings, longer
than the body, spreading when at rest, rather smoky, with an
areolet and 7 cells at the apex ; the nervures and a stripe along
the costa, including the stigma ochreous-brown; two balancers,
long, slender, and inibheds: legs 6, slender, very lone g, especially
the hinder pair, bright ochreous; tips of thighs, shanks, and the
terminal joints of the tarsi an the claws are curved and
acute, with minute pulvilli between them. The male is nearly 2
of an inch long, and the wings expand 13 inch; the female (fig.
39) approaches I| inch in length, and the wings expand nearly Z
inches.
There is another species so closely allied to the foregoing,
that it is generally confounded with it: their habits and economy
are similar, but they seem to be distinct, and it has been named
by Meigen * |
22. 'T. paludosa, implying its partiality to marshy ground. It
is of the same size and colour as J. Oleracea, but the back of the
abdomen is not of a slate-colour, the wings are shorter in the
female, as well as her legs, which are also much stouter than those
of the male.
The males of the autumnal ee of both species first make
their appearance about the commencement of August, and the
females are abundant until they are killed by the frosts of au-
tumn. Even in the chilly mornings of October they may be
seen, half stupified by the cold, hanging by their fore-feet, their
wings covered with dew, and lying flat on their backs, until
warmed by the cheering rays of the sun the male takes wing, and
the female drags her ‘heavy body and long legs after her as she
fhes through the grass. The males are attracted by light, as
I have seen great numbers come to a Jamp at night in September,
and the females have been observed at sea in calm weather many
miles from land, standing on their legs, with the wings spread,
sailing along unhurt. A few appear to be hatched in the spring,
and no doubt there would be more, were it not for the larve
furnishing rooks and many other birds with food during the winter
and early spring. This is doing essential service, for in all pro-
bability these weuld produce the parents of the autumn broods,
which, it is evident, are sufficiently numerous, notwithstanding the
checks upon their multiplication.
* System. Besch. Europ. Zweif. Insecten, vol. vi. p. 289.
G2 Observations on the various Insects
Their numbers depend very much upon the seasons, and for
this reason sometimes these troublesome larve are not seen. |
believe they abounded in 1816, 17, and 18, and then were
lost sight of till 1829 and the two following years, In June,
1845, they committed great havoc amongst some Swedish turnips
in the Isle of Anglesea, upon an estate of A. Elliot Fuller, Esq.
Wheat and oats are also laid under contribution by them. Ina
recent number of the Gardeners’ Chronicle,” there are some
pertinent remarks by Mr. B. Maund, regarding the not growing
of wheat after clover-lea, owing to the fly. He says:—
‘¢ My attention was called by an agricultural friend to an instance
of this last spring, where it was discovered that the plant of spring-sown
wheat was dying away, from its being eaten through just beneath the
surface of the earth, and that the enemy was the larva or grub of a
species of Tipula, or Daddy-long-legs. In some parts of the field
these were so numerous just beneath the surface, that half a dozen or
more could be collected within the space of a square foot; and such
devastation had they made, that for half an acre together, in some
parts of the field, very few plants of wheat were to be found. The
field was rolled three times over in different directions, in April, with
Crosskill’s clod-crusher, and in a fortnight afterwards, the weather
being dry, the land was almost as compact as a macadamised road.”
This operation killed many, and saved the crop. Mr. Maund
adds :—
‘Tt is not unknown to farmers in the midland counties, that a crop of
potatoes cannot be grown on some farms after clover, on account of the
existence of this grub; and the only remedy adopted—a most efficient
one—is breast-ploughing the turf and burning it.”
From the immense swarms of a smaller species of Zipula on
lighter arable lands, I am inclined to believe that the corn-crops
suffer more from these than from the 7. Oleracea on sandy and
similar soils, and as I may not have a better opportunity of making
this known to agriculturists, I shall not scruple to introduce
the species here, especially as it attacks the potato likewise. The
pretty gnat alluded to has been named by Hoffmansegg
23. T. maculosa. The male is not 3 aninch long; the female
is more, and the wings expand about | inch. They are of a
bright yellow colour, spotted with black : the male has a pair of
slender blackish horns longer than the thorax; the forehead
projects like a cone, on each side is a black dot, and on the crown
is a black spot pointed over the forehead: the mouth is at the
extremity of a cylindrical beak, the feelers blackish; the eyes
are black, as well as 3 long patches on the back of the thorax,
and various spots on the sides and beneath: the scutel has a
conical mark on the back, with a black hinder margin: the
* Vol. viii. p. 707.
affecting the Potato-crops. 93
abdomen is slender, the apex obtuse (fig. 40), with a broken line
of 8 black spots down the back; on the underside is a similar
line, as well as several black dots at the base: the wings are
smoky-yellow, and iridescent, with brown nervures, a yellow
pinion-edge, and stigma; the 2 balancers are ochreous and clubbed:
the long and very slender legs are ochreous, the extremities of the
thighs, shanks, and the very long feet are black. The horns of
the female are shorter : the abdomen is longer, spindle-shaped, with
6 distinct, black, top-shaped spots down the back, a row beneath,
and several dots on each side: the horny ovipositor is ochreous
and shining (fig. 41).
These gnats are abundant in fields, gardens, meadows, hedges,
&c., during May and June. Sometimes they swarm on the sea-
coast, and I remember once, in the middle of May, seeing myriads
on the sand-banks in the Isle of Portland, also at the back of the
Isle of Wight, and at Lowestoft in Suffolk. Many insects are
driven apparently by the wind to the edge of the sea, where pos-
sibly their course is arrested by a sudden change in the wind, and
they perish in the surf; but no doubt multitudes thus collected
escape and generate in the surrounding country. There must
be 2 or 3 broods of JT. maculosa in a year, or else a constant
succession of the flies during the summer, for although the month
of May seems to be the period when the greatest numbers are
hatched, I have bred them in July, but of course temperature has
a great influence upon the pupe.
I have not the least doubt that many species of Tipule are
bred in the field and garden, but the destructive maggots so
greatly resemble each other, that they can only be distinguished
by actual and careful comparison. A very similar larva is most
abundant in the gardens of London, which produces an allied
gnat, named by Meigen Tipula quadrifaria.
The eggs of TZ. maculosa are oval, spoon-shaped, and black
as soot. They must be scattered over the ground as thick as
poppy-seeds, for probably not one in a thousand arrives at ma-
turity. The larve produced from them are of the same earthy
colour as those of the Cabbage Crane-fly, but they are smaller,
being only $ of an inch long, and as thick as a large crow’s-quill
(fig. 42) ; they differ also from them in the position and form of
the spines; they are wrinkled, and when at rest contract them-
selves, drawing in the head and thoracic segments, so that this
extremity might be taken for the anal end (fig. 43). They are
however, able to thrust out their heads and crawl along very
well, although they are destitute of feet; the small brown head
is furnished with a pair of black jaws, 2 short horns, and I believe
minute feelers: 3 pale vessels traverse the sides and back, termi-
nating in a truncated tail with 2 spreading hooks, and 2 short
94 Observations on the various Insects
teeth between them, with 2 tubercles below, and 2 fleshy pro-
tuberances capable of dilatation and contraction, which materially
assist the maggots in locomotion, and in the centre of the stern
are 2 large spiracles (fig. p). In the spring they change in the
earth to pupz of the like dirty colour, these are about the same
length as the larvee, but scarcely so stout. At this period the
head and thorax of the future gnat are defined, but from each
side of the latter projects a short slender horn, and beneath the
horny case the incipient wings are visible, with the legs placed
between them: the abdominal segments have each a trans-
verse row of minute spines above, and 5 large ones beneath,
and on either side is an elevated spiny line; the penultimate
segment is surrounded by 6 longer spines and 2 small ones,
with a large conical process at the tail and a shorter one beneath
it (fig. 44), |
To ascertain the parents of these grubs or maggots, I paid great
attention to them for several years, and some idea may be formed
of the mischief they occasion in the field, by the ravages they com-
mit in the garden. On the 23rd of April I found these grubs at
the roots of my peas; on the 29th, some had eaten off trusses of
the strawberry flowers close to the crown, retiring afterwards just
beneath the surface of the earth, and I think it was the same, or
the larve of 7. Oleracea, which used to cut through the runners of
the same plants: the first week in May they were not uncommon
amongst the roots of the lilacs and under tufts of grass; they were
also destroying the strawberry and raspberry plants as well as the
carrots: on the 28th of the same month I observed some recently
transplanted lettuces drooping, and on examination I found the
roots separated from the crown a little below the surface, and close
by these grubs, which are difficult to detect; owing to the colour
and their remaining quite motionless when disturbed. At the end
of July they were eating the roots of dahlias, carnations, and va-
rious flowers, and on the 7th of August they were observed infest-
ing some potato ground with the larvee of T. Oleracea ; after which I
lost sight of them.*
We learn, from the ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ that these
larvae abound in some seasons in Holderness to such an extent,
that hundreds of acres of pasture were destroyed by them in the
spring of 1813. “A square foot of the turf being dug up, 210
grubs were counted in it;’ and wheats there when sown upon
clover-lays suffer severely from these grubs.
Lime-water, it is now said, will not kill these tough larva, as it
will the thin-skinned earthworm, and the only remedy I have prac-
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vi. p. 317.
+ Kirby and Spence, 6th edit. vol. i. p. 148.
affecting the Potato-crops. 95
tised with success has been to search for them round sickly plants
and to dig up all that have been just eaten off by them. This
must be done every morning, the earlier the better, otherwise the
search may be unsuccessful, for after a short nap the culprit often
decamps to feast upon some neighbouring plant. I[ should think
water impregnated with brine, or nitrate of soda and perhaps strong
liquid manure, would drive them off and keep the gnats from scat-
tering their eggs in such an uncongenial locality ; and if the mag-
gots come out at night, as [ have reason to believe they do, soot,
sea-sand, and salt, sprinkled over the surface, would, I expect, de-
stroy them; but it must be repeated to prove effectual.
Dickson advises, «“ When the grub is abundant, to roll the land
betimes in the morning in the early spring months, which may
crush and destroy them; and when the fly abounds in summer
evenings on grass lands or fallows, rolling would destroy them and
prevent the deposition of the eggs: they are chiefly deposited in
the long grass, on sides of hedges and ditches: such places should
therefore be kept free from weeds.”’ He also recommends “ Keep-
ing the clover stubbles closely eaten down by sheep or other ani-
mals, after the hay has been taken, till the wheat-crop 1s nearly ready
to be put in, which has been found in some measure an effectual
remedy against the destructive attacks of the insect.”* Children
and women might also be employed very advantageously in destroy-
ing the parent flies, by hand-picking and sweeping with nets.
The farmer must also encourage such birds as render him good
and constant service in reducing the insect tribes. Amongst them
I shall ever believe that the rooks and starlings, seagulls and lap-
wings, are most faithful allies, and labourers worthy of their hire.
I believe it was Sir Humphry Davy who first stated that jack snipes
are very fond of the larvee of Tipule, and Mr. Yarrell tells us he
has repeatedly found them in their crops. Pheasants also must
feed largely upon them in the winter, for Mr. Milton, of Great
Marlborough Street, found in the crop of a cock pheasant, in De-
cember, 1844, 852 of these larve ; they were alive, and nothing else
was found in the crop, excepting a few oak spangles.| A corre-
spondent also of the ‘ Sporting Magazine,’ writes, “ that no fewer
tan 1225 of these destructive larve (wireworms?) were taken
from the crop of a hen pheasant in January.”{ No doubt these
birds pick out the larve in corn and turnip-fields, and when it is
remembered, that the almost incredible numbers contained at one
time in the stomach, only made a single meal, the extent of their
services may in some measure be estimated.
* Practical Agriculture, vol. i. p. 555.
t+ Gardeners’ Chron., vol. iv. p. 814. iesViol? iv. p. 45.
96 Observations on the various Insects
WIREWORMS.
As no crop is perhaps altogether free from these destructive
larvee, we need not be surprised at their inroads upon the potatoes ;
indeed wireworms seem to be especially fond of them, since there
is no better trap than slices of potato stuck in the ground and co-
vered with earth, to be examined daily. In this way every wire-
worm may be attracted from a flower-bed and destroyed.
{ do not apprehend that a potato-crop is ever entirely destroyed
by wireworms, although when young they bore up into the haulm,
as observed by Mr. Graham, and the sets also are stated to have
been greatly injured by them in May; but they undoubtedly
diminish the value of the tubers materially by perforating them,
and thus rendering them a suitable nest for other insects. To-
wards the end of last September the potato-crops in this parish
were greatly infested in some localities by wireworms, millipedes,
and centipedes. A gentleman near Tadcaster* has suggested
that potato-crops may even attract the wireworm. It appears from
our correspondent, that “in 1844, in order to clean and redeem
7 acres of exhausted land, it was planted with potatoes after oats :
the potatoes did not suffer from the wireworm, the crop was as
good as could be expected, considering that the great dryness of
the season had delayed the planting till June. In March, 1845,
6 acres were sowed with oats, 1 acre having been dibbled with
wheat in December. The crops were most healthy, but subse-
quently patches of decay attracted attention, and it was soon found
that the wireworm had been at work to so fearful an extent, that
in ten days the whole crop seemed victimised. Soot was then
applied to 4 acres (16 bushels per acre), and not being able
to obtain more, the remainder was sown broadcast with guano, at
the rate of 2 cwt. per acre, all applied in a pouring rain. This
arrested the evil, and many of the patches, apparently destroyed,
struck up a second growth from about half an inch below the sur-
face, where the wireworms had bored through the shoots, and the
oats eventually became the best crop in the parish.”
Mr. Duncombe also says—* On seeing the change for the worse
in the oats, when averaging about 6 inches growth, I applied my-
self to discover the cause: I carefully removed the soil from very
many plants and rows, for death seemed to go by rows for several
yards together. I collected a paper full of wireworms, and uni-
formly found not a rotten but a dry mouldy potato or potatoes:
some which were not so advanced were full of wireworms. Hence
I conclude that the potatoes left in 1844 either bred or attracted
from a distance these pests to my oats in 1845, If L had not
* The Rey, E. Duncombe, of Newton Lyme.
affecting the Potato-crops. 97
planted potatoes in 1844, or if I had collected every one on taking
up the crop (which I believe to be out of the question), I am
fully persuaded in my own mind that I should have had no wire-
worm; and their numbers in the roots of anemones, on ground
where J] never can detect wireworms without such roots, induce
me to incline to the opinion that gardeners and farmers cause the
evil by neglecting preventives.””’
Here we have additional evidence of the taste which wireworms
evince for potatoes. The tubers left in the ground attracted them
to certain spots where they perforated the potatoes and caused
their decay. If therefore these potatoes could have been collected
before the oats were sown, the crop would have been saved from
theirincursions. When the first crop of oats was grown, they were
probably too young to commit much if any apparent mischief, for
I cannot think they came from any distance; if such were their
habits, they must ere this have been observed when migrating at
night. ‘These remarks of Mr. Duncombe also show the value of
soot 1n recovering crops from the attacks of the wireworms,
In the department of the Moselle, in France, wireworms are
very common, and near Metz great numbers have been found by
M. Rayer, the Inspector of Agriculture, both in sound and diseased
potatoes.* It is worthy of remark that they are a very different
wireworm to our common one,; being more like that of Hlater
murinus and L, lineatus of Bouché,t clearly showing that various.
wireworms feed upon potatoes, all of them making numerous holes.
and burrows in the tubers, both causing and hastening their decay.
An entire Report having been devoted to the wireworms, when
the turnip-crops were under consideration, with descriptions and
figures of all the species, it is unnecessary here to enter further
upon their economy,§ and for the same reasons the false wire-
worms will not long detain us.
SNAKE MILLIPEDES
are found in large numbers in potatoes, as soon as symptoms of
decay appear, especially in September, and they consequently
complete the destruction which the wirewerms began. Julus Lon-
dinensis and I. terrestris| are two of the snake millipedes, which
are said to be injurious to early crops inthe winter. During
frosty and cold weather they lie curled up in the earth, but so slight
a degree of warmth is required to awaken them from their tor por,
that by merely breathing upon them for a few seconds they awaken
from their slumbers, nel move about with their accustomed glid-
* Bulletin des Séances de la Soc. Roy. et Cent. d’Agric., vol. v. p. 331.
t+ Journal of Royal Agric. Soc. vol. v. pl. I. f. 2.
~ Ibid., pl. J. f. 40 and 42. § Ibid., vol. v. p. 180.
| Ibid., vol. v.. pp.. 228 and: 229, pl. J. f. 54.
VOL. X. H
98 Observations on the various Insects
ing gait. They seem to congregate in autumn, and as they are
very fond of fruit, vast numbers may be collected by putting slices
of apples under tiles or in baskets of moss: upwards of forty have
been taken from one slice: but these modes of catching them can
only be practised in gardens; I expect, however, if cabbage leaves
were scattered along the furrows in damp weather, that they would
be nearly as attractive. The most abundant and mischievous
species both in England and France is the Zulus pulchellus,* called
in some ‘French works Blaniulus, from the indistinctness of the
eyes or théir entire absence. It was reported to have destroyed
the potato-sets at Derby in April, 1845, and I have frequently
found multitudes in partially diseased potatoes the beginning of
October, when they were generally accompanied by Polydesmus
complanatus, which has also been figured and described in a former
volume.t
CENTIPEDES OR SCOLOPENDRE.
A large amount of these curious animals inhabit the earth,
Lithobius forcipatus and Geophilus electricus (2) being the most
usually met with. The former of these is said to be entirely car-
nivorous, and the latter will attack allied species as well as each
other. Such being the case, they are probably useful in reducing
the ranks of the various soft larvee which affect the roots of plants.
it is certain that they are very abundant in potato-grounds, and
Mr. Hope ‘attributed the potato disease to the attacks of the
wireworm, and also to a small Scolopendra, which he had found
in myriads infesting diseased potatoes at Southend.”{ I observed
them in rotten potatoes in August, 1845, and in September last
the Geophilus electricus was running about in every direction when
the potatoes were forked out. Vast quantities of the sound tubers
had been perforated by the wireworms, some of which were found
inside, and the cavities were often enlarged by slugs.
These animals, which, like the millipedes, are not true insecis,
belong to an ORDER called Cuitopopa, and to the Famity Sco-
LOPENDRID#&. They wereall included by Linneus in the Genus
SCOLOPENDRA, but from variations of structure one is now called
24. Lithobius forficatus, the 30-foot. It 1s nearly | inch long
and 11 line broad; smooth, shining, horny, of a ferruginous or
ochreous colour, sometimes brown: it has 2 longish tapering horns,
composed of upwards of 40 minute joints: the head is large and
orbicular, armed with powerful jaws like a pair of claws, having
a small group of granulated eyes on each side: the body is flat-
tened and linear, composed of 16 plates like scales, alternately .
* Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. v. p. 228, pl. J. f. 53. Guérin con-
siders this to be the J. guttulatus of Fab.: Supp. to his Ent. Syst.; p. 289.
& Ubidsp. 230, plod. f. 55. £ Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. v. p. 136.
affecting the Potato-crops. 99
quadrate and narrow: it has 15 pair of bristly and spiny legs, the
hinder pair being the longest, they are 7-jointed, curved, taper-
ing, and terminated by a minute conical claw.
The other species may prove to be the true Scolopendra elec-
trica of Linnzus; it belongs to the Genus Anthronomalus of
Newport,* and is certainly Leach’s
25. Geophilus longicornis. This species is from 2% to 3 inches
long, and not more than 2 or 2 of a line broad. It is shining
bright ochreous: the head is oval with a strong jaw on each side
terminating in a sharp blackish claw: eyes none; horns thrice as
long as the head, like 2 hairy threads, composed of 14 joints,
decreasing to the apex : body composed of a multitude of trans-
verse segments, with from 51 to 55 pair of short legs, the hinder
pair not longer than the others; the claws long and slender
(fig. 45).
These creatures move with a very waving motion from right to
left, doubling when they turn, and this as well as a few other
species have the very extraordinary power of secreting a phos-
phoric fluid, which the animal leaves behind as it walks, so that...
when it is dark one sees a luminous broken line of light, some-
times 2 or 5 feet long. This phenomenon is generally noticed
in autumn and spring, and is supposed to be most active when
the animals are pairing : whether the fluid is secreted by both sexes
seems doubtful, and if they be quite blind, the light must be
bestowed upon them for reasons which as yet remain hidden from
us. ‘Their economy is likewise very interesting, for Mr. Newport
has proved that “the female deposits her eggs, from 30 to 50 in
number, ina little packet, in a cell which she forms for them in
the earth, and never once leaves them until the young are
developed, which is at the end of about a fortnight or three weeks.
During the whole of this time she remains in the cell, with her
body coiled around the eggs, incubating them and constantly
turning and attending to them.”;+ They hybernate in the earth
during the winter, and subsist partly on succulent roots, ripe fruit,
and decaying vegetable matter, only coming out at night, appa-
rently in search of food.
We have now arrived at the second section of our subject,
relating to the various insects and allied animals which are found
amongst the potatoes when decomposition has commenced. They
amount to a very considerable number, and yet probably not half
of them have been noticed, for whilst those recorded by
M. Guérin comprise nine different sorts, the species detected in
this country are twice as many.
In February, 1846, a Podura, probably the FP. plumbea of
* Trans, Linn, Soc., vol. xix. p. 430, + Ibid., vol. xix. p. 428.
H 2
100 Observations on the various Insects
Linnzus, was abundant, skipping about the rotting potatoes, with
its beautiful iridescent scaly coat, and in the cavities were numbers
of a milk-white Ricinus, with myltitudes of an ochreous Acarus
allied to A. coleoptratus.* _M. Guérin also describes and figures
an Acarus called Glyciphagus fecularum,} and another which he
names T'yroglyphus fecule, ¥ both of which were found in the
changing potatoes or in cavities of the diseased tubers.
The species, however, which I found most abundant upon them,
was the Acarus farine, which also swarms in meal and flour,
when kept for any length of time, especially in damp places, and
it is very remarkable that the same species seems to delight in
worm-eaten wine-corks, for they have been sent to me from many
cellars. In February, 1846, they were most abundant in decaying
potatoes, and in March, 1847, they were observed by the Rev. L.
Vernon Harcourt, near Chichester, and by Mr. Graham, of Cran-
ford. Being very white, they may swarm, as they often do in
flour, before they are discovered, and no doubt they feed upon
the starch and farinaceous portions of the potato. The mites vary
so greatly in their structure, that the old Genus Acarus has been
split into many Genera, and the one to which this species belongs
is now called
26. Tyrogiyphus farine (fig. 46, magnified), being synony-
mous with the Acarus faring of De Geer.§ It is like a minute
globule of fat, being of a pellucid shining white, with a rusty
cloud on the back of some specimens, and it is not larger than a
very small grain of sand (fig. q): it is oval, the anus slightly con-
cave ; it has some longish rusty hairs scattered over the body, and
the head and legs are of the same colour: the thorax is small and
but shghtly indicated; the head and mouth form a horny cone:
the 8 legs are short, stout, and tapering, the Ist and 2nd pair
incline forward, the former arise close to the head, the latter are
attached to very large white scapes forming the base, the other
two pair are inserted at the middle of the belly and incline back-
ward ; they are all 6-joimted, the joints subquadrate or oblong,
pilose, the penultimate producing a few long bristles and
terminated by a strong hooked claw.
They walk with tolerable alacrity and delight to burrow head
foremost into the flour. I have eaten pie-crust made of meal
in which myriads of these mites were generating, and found no ill
effects from the food. The meal was first spread on the top of
an oven to dry, by which process | found that a small degree of
heat killed them.
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. iv. p. 316.
¢ Bull.des Séan. de la Soe, Roy. et Cent. d’Agric., pl. 5, f. 7
: [bid., pl-5; £49:
: § Mémoire de l’Hist. des Ins., vol. vil. p..97, pl. 5, f. 13:
affecting the Potato-crops. 101
In the potatoes with the Acari were larve of various little
beetles which assist in reducing putrid substances to a simple
state, which is indispensable fof supplying the soil again with the
proper elements as food for the support of vegetation. One of
them was very similar to the larve of a beetle called Dermestes,
but only 14 line long; another, a little larger, would undoubtedly
produce some beetle of the families Carabide or Staphylinide.
A somewhat similar larva was found in France, which Guérin
believes may belong to a Genus of little Rove-beetles,* called
Calodera.+ Another kind was detected by M. Rayer, which is
likewise supposed to belong to one of the Staphylinide.
Nests also of little creatures were found in rotting potatoes,
which looked lke black mites, but on close examination they
proved to be beetles—members of a Family entirely devoted to
the consumption of putrid animal and vegetable substances. [
allude to the Famity HistEriIp#; the species from the tubers
belongs to the Genus Apraus,t and was named by Fabricius
27. A.minutus. It is a little oval, convex, shining beetle, like
a seed, and not more than 4a line long, often only ;: it is of a
dark chestnut colour: the head is bent down, the feelers being
visible but not the jaws, and in front are 2 short, curved,
11-jointed horns, terminated by a distinct somewhat oval club: the
eyes are small and lateral: the thorax is very broad and punc-
tured ; the scutel is invisible: the elytra are broad, semi- oval, not
covering the rump, beneath them is folded a pair of wings: the
6 little slender legs lie close to the body in repose; the anterior
shanks are flattened, and the 5-jointed feet are short and very
slender.
In the early spring these beetles are found under dung, and in
September I have observed them in ripe and decayed cucumbers
in frames, where sometimes they are generated in thousands, the
warmth favouring their increase.
A still more minute beetle was detected amongst the potatoes,
called Trichopteryx rugulosa ;§ it is not larger than this dot . being
scarcely visible to the naked eye, nevertheless its pair of horns and
six legs are complete, and the beautiful wings with a long fringe
are most marvellously folded up under the wing-cases when not
in use.
I have repeatedly found small Rove-beetles in the rotten
potatoes, where I expect they live upon the Acar? and minuter
animals, but of this I have no evidence. Guérin likewise thinks it
probable that their darve may live upon those found in the rotten
* Vide Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. iv. p. 126, pl. H. f. 28 and =
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 219°. ‘. Curtis’s Guide, Genus 142, No. :
§ Bull. des Séances de la Soc. Roy. et Cent. d’Agric., pl. 6, f. 3, a
Sturm’s Deutsch Fauna, vol. xvii. pl. 320.
102 Observations on the various Insects
portions of potatoes. One of the species is very widely spread in
the autumn, and lives through the winter: it is named by
Grayvenhorst Staphylinus nitidulug, and is now called
28. Oxytelus nitidulus.* It is only 14 line long, narrow, fiat,
shining black, and coarsely punctured: the head is broad with
several depressions, the oral organs are visible and the eyes
prominent; before them are inseried the 2 horns, which are not
longer than the thorax, thickest at the extremity, the Ist long and
clavate, 2nd small, 3rd minute, the remainder like strung beads,
increasing in size, the terminal joint ovate-conic; the thorax is
broader than the head, somewhat semi-orbicular, with three
channels down the back: the elytra are quadrate, chestnut-coloured,
black at the base, and appearing striated from short depressed
hairs: body nearly as long as the remainder of the insect, intensely
black and glossy, elliptical, with 7 distinct segments, the sides
margined and pilose, the tail triangular: wings ample, folded
beneath the wing-cases : 6 legs short and tawny ; thighs thickened
and rather pitchy in the middle; shanks flattened and serrated,
excepting the hinder pair, which are slender: anterior notched
outside near the apex; feet composed of 3 or 4 short and 1 long
joint with a pair of slender claws.
These insects are also found in decaying cucumbers, melons,
and various vegetables; they frequent muck-heaps and breed in
the dung of animals.
Poratro F tts.
Dead and silent as the earth appears to be, it teems with life,
for not only is the soil full of seeds, which merely require light
and heat to start them into life, but it must abound with:the eggs
of insects, so minute, that even with the assistance of a lens they
escape one’s notice. To be convinced of the truth of this, if a
flower-pot be filled with mould from a field or garden, and then
tied over with the finest muslin, the experimentalist will be
astonished to find the multitudes of little flies which are con-
stantly making their appearance, bred no doubt from larve
nourished on the vegetable matter which such soils contain.
Where crops are grown and any portion of them becomes decayed,
the number of these minute insects is vastly multiplied, and thus
where the diseased potatoes have existed, additional swarms of
various little flies have been the consequence. As a proof of the
incredible numbers that must be thus generated, I may mention
that from one growing and partially rotten potato I bred, in
August, 1845, 128 flies, independent of many more which had
died in the pupa state, or been destroyed by damp and mites
* Curtis’s Guide, Genus 216, No. 16.
affecting the Potato-crops. 103
before I discovered them in the vessel in which the tuber was
placed, as well as Ue of smaller flies, all of which I will
now describe. .
The whole belong to ee OrverR DiprerRa: the first I shall
notice is included in the Famity Tirutip#, and the GeEnus
Psycuopa, and has been named
29. P. nervosa (fig. 47; 1, the natural size*). The males are
twice as large as the females: they are ashy-white, clothed with
longish wool: the little head is buried under the thorax: the
black eyes are large and lunate: the 2 horns are as long as the
thorax and composed of 1! (?) small joints, black at the base, giving
them an annulated appearance: the abdomen is short and of a
dirty colour: the 2 wings when at rest meet over the back slanting :
they are iridescent, very large, oval, and lanceolate, with numerous
longitudinal hairy nervures: the entire margin is also hairy ;
balancers small, clubbed, and white: 6 legs woolly; the feet
5-jointed, the tips black. Length 2, expanse 3 lines.
In February, 1846, the larvze and pupe were abundant in the
rotten potatoes, also in decaying leaves and dunghills, and the
flies have been bred by Mr. Haliday from putrescent fungi.
These flies sometimes swarm in outhouses and about drains in
spring and autumn.
The larve are not 3 a line long, yellowish-white, cylindrical,
spindle-shaped, with 1] distinct annulations besides the head,
which is triangular ; the tail is elongated and tabular. The pupa
is about 2 of a line long, ochreous, and ferruginous; it is elongate-
ovate in repose (fig. 48. the back; 49, the underside; s, the natural
size), but the body can be stretched out and attenuated when
disturbed, as in fig. 50: from the forehead project 2 slender
appendages, like horns, on either side are laid the short stout
antenne, and the wings meet over the breast, with the legs
stretched out between them : the abdominal segments are ciliated
and the tail is forked.
Several species of a little swarthy two-winged fly were bred
from the decaying potatoes in multitudes. They are called
Sciara by Meigen, and Molobrus by Latreiile. The larve I
received from Mr. Graham: they are slender worms, about a
quarter of an inch long, whitish and opake, but when immersed in
water they become perfectly transparent, exhibiting the ochreous
viscera and the food digesting in the stomach; when in motion
they taper towards the head, which is oval, horny, black and
shining ; the body is composed of 13 segments with 7 or 8 spi-
racles on each side; the tail is broad and rounded, but slightly
pointed in the centre (fig. 51; ¢, the natural size). The Reve is
* Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1151, No. 6, and Brit. Ent., fol, and pl. 745.
104 Observations on the various Insects
shorter, cylindrical, elliptical, and of a dull ochreous tint, be-
coming darker as the period approaches of the birth of the fly:
the antennez, eyes, wings, and legs are visible beneath their horny
sheaths (fig. 52; wu, the natural size). At this period they are
deprived of locomotion, but the larvae, although perfect maggots
and destitute of feet, are able to move along in moisture, at the
same time waving about and thrusting out their heads with great
energy. ‘There are 30 species of these flies which inhabit Eng-
land, and 3 or 4 of them have been bred from putrid potatoes.
One is called
30. Sciara fucata, Meg. ;* when alive it is 1 line long. The
male is of a pale inky-black, the head is small and spherical, with
2 tri-articulate feelers bent under ; the 2 horns are not longer than
the thorax, tapering, pubescent, inserted la in front of the face, and
16-jointed, 2 basal joints the stoutest, the remainder oblong, apex
conical; eyes lateral, kidney-shaped, and coarsely eranulated":
ocelli 3, but unequal: trunk gibbose, subquadrate, scooped out at
the base, with two indistinct lines of short ochreous ‘hairs down
the back ; scutel lunate, postscutel oval, of a greyish colour: ab-
domen slender, greenish black, brownish after death, 7-jointed,
the margins of the segments pale, apex obtuse, and furnished
with 2 incurved bi-articulate lobes : 2 wings, incumbent in repose,
parallel, longer than the body, iridescent, slightly smoky, but
transparent and clear at the base ; nervures brown, excepting the
central one, which is scarcely visible, but forked and dark at the
margin; the costal nervure does not reach the base of the forked
cell: balancers pale dirty yellow or ochreous: 6 legs, long, slen-
der, and of a dirty yellow or pale olive tint. emale similar, but
larger, being 14 line long, the wings expanding nearly 3 lines:
the thorax is not narrowed behind : the abdomen is spindle-shaped,
attenuated, and conical, terminating in 2 little parallel sheaths:
the 2 balancers are dusky when dry.
This was bred in the winter of 1845-46, and again in 1848,
in vast quantities: the flies are also found throughout the summer
in fields and gardens, on umbellate flowers, and on grasses. I have
likewise bred them from rotten turnips in March.
31. S. quinque-lineata of Macquartt is 1} line long (fig. 53,
the female; v, the natural dimensions). “ It is black, with 5 lines
on the therax of a deep dull grey: anterior hips testaceous:
wings almost hyaline: balancers brown or dirty white.
Specimens agreeing with this description were bred from rotten
potatoes in March, 1848, and sent to me with the tubers con-
* Meigen’s Syst. Besch. Europ. zweif. Inseck., vol. i. p. 280, No. 6, and
Gardeners’ Chron., vol. v. p. 784.
+ Hist. Nat. des Ins, Dipteres, vol. i. p. 149, No. 10.
affecting the Potato-crops. 105
taming the larve and pupe also, which resembled figs. 51 and
92. The potatoes were like old rotten cheese, and portions of
the outside were covered with slimy threads, which Mr. Graham
saw the larve spi. He thinks they cause the ‘scab’ in pota-
toes, but I saw not the least vestige of the insect on one variety of
my potatoes, which was very scabby.
32. S. pulicaria ? Meigen,* Hoff., is } a line long or upwards,
and is distinguished from the two foregoing species by its longer
antennze, which are equal in length to the rest of the body. “It
is black, with testaceous legs : the wings almost hyaline: balancers
brown.”
My specimens being as big again as Meigen’s, with ochreous
balancers, I am doubtful if they be the S. pulicaria of that author.
I bred them in August, 1845, from a rotten potato.
Another Dipterous insect was bred from the potatoes in less
quantities. It also belongs to the Famrity TipuLip&, and the
Genus Scatuopst. It appears to be Meigen’s
33. S. punctata.; Itis black and shining: the head is small;
the eyes are kidney-shaped, with 3 little ocelli on the crown; the
antennz are short, stout, cylindrical, and composed of 11 cup-
shaped joints: thorax elongated and somewhat compressed, with
a white dot on each side; scutel small and rough: abdomen broad,
oval, and depressed: wings ample, resting horizontally, transpa-
rent, and iridescent, with a black costal, subcostal, and basal
nervure, the Ist and 2nd united beyond the middle, and divided
near the base, by an oblique nervure ; there are also 4 other very
faint longitudinal nervures, the apical one forked, the anal one
- waved: balancers yellowish: legs simple, longish, and rusty ;
extremity of thighs and shanks variegated with fuscous; feet
brown, 5-jointed, terminated by a pair of minute claws. Length
1+ line, expanse 33 lines. |
The larve from which these flies proceed, live in various
putrid substances, and even in dung: they have also been bred
from the cocoons of silkworms, in all probability containing de-
composing caterpillars or rotten pupe; they are from 2 lines to
nearly + inch long, flat, and narrowed at both ends, of a dirty
greyish-yellow colour; the head is brown and oval, with 2 short
feelers: the body is composed of 12 pubescent segments, the Ist
thoracic one with a prominent. spiracle on each side, as well as
the penultimate, which with the apex is covered with radiating
bristles. The pupa is 14 line long: it is enclosed in the skin of
the larva, a little depressed, and yellowish brown: from the tho-
rax projects a branched spiracle, like a buck’s horn, and the tail
* Syst. Besch. Europ. zweif. Inseck., vol. i. p. 282, No. 12.
+ Ibid., vol. i. p. 301, No. 4, and Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1177, 3.
106 Observations on the various Insects
has a stout spine. It remains from a week to a fortnight in this
state, and the flies are often exceedingly abundant in the autumn.
Two large flies belonging to the Famity Muscrp@ I also bred
from a single potato, as previously stated. ‘There were 48 speci-
mens of one which was named by Fallen
34. Musca stabulans.* The male is 33 lines long, and the
wings expand § an inch: it is of an ash-colour, and clothed with
black bristles; the feelers are ferruginous ; the antenne drooping,
5-jointed and rust-coloured, pitchy at the base, 3rd joint elliptical
and hoary, except at the base, the seta black and feathery, the
basal joint minute: eyes large, approximating, naked, and chest-
nut colour, the margins silvery white, as well as the face, with a
black stripe tapering from the antennz to the 3 ocelli on the
crown: thorax hoary, with 4 black longitudinal stripes before, the
2 central ones the longest, with a spot on each side beyond the
centre ; scutel hoary, with a dark stripe at the base, ferruginous at
the tip: abdomen ashy-ochreous, shining, the back variegated
with brown patches: wings with the apical cell not angulated,
but suddenly rounded, scales at the base with pale tawny mar-
gins, and concealing the ochreous clubbed balancers: legs black,
apex of thighs and tibiz ferruginous; pulvilli at the extremity of
the feet elongated. Female similar, but the eyes do not approxi-
mate, the face has a yellow tinge, and the stripe on the crown 1s
broad and elliptical: the abdomen is broader, with an oviduct at
the tail, and the pulvilli are small (fig. 54; w, the natural size).
The maggots had bred and accumulated amongst the slimy
matter of the rotting potato just as meat-maggots are found, toge-
ther with the horny pupe. Indeed, the largest maggots were
exceedingly like those of the flesh- flies, being fatand whitish, the
ochreous food and white lines of viscera chiming through the
imapeparent skin: the head was pointed with a black proboscis
formed of 2 horny claws, and the two spiracles at the blunt tail
were like 2 black horny knobs (fig. 55). The tough and oval
pupe were of a bright chestnut colour, the segments slightly
marked, the head end rounded and wrinkled to a point, the tail
furnished with 2 black spiracular tubes (fig. 56).
Of the other fly I bred 58 specimens from the same potato
the middle of August. The larve escaped my notice at first
from being so very like the earth in colour, and they are still
more difficult to detect from their sluggishness, ‘They must be
in the greatest force in July, but I have met with them in rotten
potatoes the end of November. The group of flies with these
singular spiny larve have been formed by Bouché into a Genus
* Meigen’s Sra Besch. Europ. zweif. Inseck., vol. v. p. 75, and Curtis’s
Guide, Genus 1286, No. 23.
affecting the Potato-crops. 107
called Homatomyia,* being a section of Anthomyia. The
parent fly of our species is exceedingly like ALusca cunicularis + of
Linneus; still there are differences, and as the larve are also
dissimilar, I have named this Potato-fly
35. Anthomyia tuberosa.t The male is 24 lines long, and
expands 53: it is greyish-black and bristly: the eyes are chestnut
colour, naked, approximating on the crown, the inner margin
silvery white; antenne drooping, 5 jointed, 3rd joint oblong, 4th
a slender elongated basal joint to the longish pubescent seta:
thorax with 5 indistinct broad stripes down the back, 2nd and
3rd abdominal segments with bright echreous spots on each side,
3rd rarely with 2 similar minute spots: wings transparent, ner-
vures dark, the 2 transverse ones not very remote: balancers pale
tawny: legs black, base of shanks indistincily ferruginous (fig.
O/; 2, the natural dimensions). emale ashy slate colour: the
eyes smaller than those of the male and remote; the face not
silvery: thorax with 5 distinct broad blackish lines down the
~back: abdomen ovate-conic, with 2 indistinct ochreous slightly
diaphanous spots on the 2nd abdominal segment; in other re-
spects this sex is similar to the male.
The larve, although indolent, can crawl well; they are of a
dull tawny colour, clothed with long bristly spines, somewhat
depressed, elliptical, tapering to the head, which is waved about,
and when thrust.out is whitish and fleshy, armed with 2 minute
hooks like ebony, and there is a little fleshy horn on each side,
on the following segment is a spiracle, on either side, surrounded
by several stout short.rays, the 2 next segments have tubercles on
the back, the remainder have a double series down the centre
producing bristles, with a double row on each side, and 8 of the
segments have a pair of short spines on each beneath, which
enable it to walk ; the apex is armed with 6 long bristles a little
spiny at the base, but most of the others are naked, or with the
slightest appearance of pubescence or little spines at the base;
on the apical segment are 2 spiracular tubes (fig. 58 ; y, the natu-
ral size). ‘The pupa being formed within the indurated skin of
the larva, it varies from it only in being more convex above, and
the fly escapes by a lateral opening in the thorax.
These larve and pup I find occasionally in my garden where
cabbages have long occupied the ground, and Dr. Harris remarks
that the hairy maggots of Anthomyia cunicularis, or an allied
species, live in rotten turnips;§ they. also abound in privies, and
* Natur. der Inseckten, p. 89.
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1287, No. 104.
~ Gardeners’ Chron, vol. v. p. 817.
§ Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation, p. 414.
108 Observations on the various Insects
the pup cases are sometimes found in multitudes under the
boards.
From the large quantities of these maggots which have been
ejected from the human stomach and intestines, accompanied by
the most distressing symptoms,* I am led to conclude from their
economy, that the eggs or larve are conveyed into the stomach in
badly or half-cooked vegetables, for it is evident they subsist upon
decomposing vegetables and excrementitious substances, and I
have found similar but very small larve on cabbage-leaves in
October. It is therefore very probable that under certain mor-
bid conditions of the constitution they are able to live in the
human body until they have arrived at their full growth, when
they are necessarily ejected to become pupz, and after a short
time to be transformed into flies. It is not a little remarkable
that the maggots of Musca stabulans should have been also voided
from the intestines,t and that fact tends to substantiate the view
1 have taken of the subject, and the cause of their presence in the
human system, for that is the other species of large fly which I
bred from maggots generated in the same potato.
I also detected the larvee and pupz of a smaller species of fly
called Drosophila, which hatched the middle of August with the
foregoing insects. They are also inhabitants of cellars, as their
specific name implies, where the larve are usually very abundant
all the year round. They will breed in stale beer, and probably
are generated where there is any leakage from the tap and oozing
about the bung, as well as from the fungi which spring up round
rotten wood, &c., in cellars. [I have also known them to be
bred from vinegar,} and it will be remembered that one species,
D. flava, lives on the pulpy substance of the turnip-leaves,§ and
another, -D. graminum, 1 have bred from cabbage-leaves. In
spring and autumn the flies abound, and are not unfrequently on
the inside of our windows. They belong to the Famity Mus-
cip#, and the Genus Drosopnita. That bred from the pota-
toes appears to be the Linnzan species named |
36. Drosophila cellaris. It is L4 line long, and expands 4
lines: the general colour is ochreous: the head is broad as well
as the face, in the centre of which are inserted the 2 little droop-
ing pubescent horns, the 3rd joint is oval, and from the back
arises a feathery bristle jointed at the base: the orifice forming
the mouth is very large; eyes large, hemispherical; ocelli 3 on
* Tiff, in Lancet for July 25th, 1840; Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. ii. pp. 152
and 256, pl. 15, f. 19; Memoirs of Med. Soc. of London for 1789, vol. ii.
f. 1—4.
+ British and Foreign Medical Review for April, 1842.
¢ Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and p]. 473, and Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1334.
§ Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. iil, p. 69, pl. D. f. 30.
affecting the Potato-crops. 109
the crown: thorax globose-quadrate ;, scutel semi-ovate : abdomen
small, depressed, oval, blackish, and 6-jointed, with 4 or 5 ochre-
ous bands; the apex pointed in the female : wings incumbent in
repose, very long and ample, yellowish and iridescent, with a
very short marginal cell, and 4 longitudinal nervures, the 2nd
and 3rd united towards the base, the 3rd and 4th towards the
margin; balancers small, clavate: 6 legs tapering; feet long,
slender, and 5-jointed, terminated by minute claws (fig. 59 ; z,
the natural dimensions).
The larve are 24 lines long, of a whitish colour, tapering to-
wards the head, composed of 12 joints; on each side of the tho-
racic segment is a short branching spiracle, and the tail is fur-
nished with 4 divaricating blunt spines, the edges of the segments
bemg serrated with hooked ones (fig. 60; a, the natural size).
When full grown, this skin becomes horny, changing to a rust-
colour, the maggot is transformed to a pupa within an internal
horny shell of a chestnut colour, and of course the pupa (fig. 61 ;
b, the natural size) greatly resembles the larva.
There is also an extensive group of flies called Borborus,* the
larvee of which live upon decomposing vegetable, and probably
animal substances also: at all events they are generated in fungi.
A portion of these flies is now distinguished by Macquart under
the generic name of Limostna;f one of them [ have bred from
rotting potatoes, and it seems to be identical with that author’s
_ 37. L. geniculata.t It is only 1 line long, and expands a little
more than 2 lines. It is black; the head is moderately large,
with an ample cavity beneath to receive the mouth: the eyes are
hemispheric and rust-coloured, and there are 3 minute ocelli on
the crown ; the face is concave, with 2 little horns in the centre,
the 3rd joint orbicular, with a tomentose seta: thorax broader,
very convex ; scutel semi-orbicular and flat : abdomen very short,
the segments equal in]length: wings rather small, smoky, neryures
pitchy ; costal the strongest; submarginal cell not extending to
the apex, 2nd and 3rd longitudinal nervures united at the middle,
ord and 4th forming a loop with 2 minute branches at the ex-
tremity; balancers small and ochreous: legs pitchy; hips ochre-
ous, as well as the tips of the anterior thighs and the base of the
shanks; hinder with a few spines. outside; feet long, 5-jointed,
especially the hinder, which are slender, and longer than the
shanks; dull ochreous, basal joint very long and »itchy, terminal
one very short, and furnished. with short claws.
M. Rayer also observed a species in the infected potatoes which
* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol and pl. 469.
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1350.
t+ Macquart’s Hist. Nat. des Diptéres, vol. il. p. 572.
110 Observations on the various Insects
has been named by Guérin Limosina Payenii,* and it is not im-
probable that it may be the male of Macquart’s species, for it
agrees very well with our female, except in the colour of the
wings and the structure of the hinder feet.
With the for egoing Diptera I often bred a parasitic insect in
considerable numbers, but to which it is attached, or whether to
any of them, J am unable to ascertain. It belongs to the OrDER
Hymenoprera, the FamMity Procrorrupip4, and the GENUS
Crrapsiton, which has been divided by Mr. Westwood into 3
Genera, one of which is called Paramesius,+ and to that section
our insect belongs. It is included by Nees ab Esenbeck in the
Genus Diapria, and has been named by him
38. P. brachialis.{ The Male is scarcely | Jine long, and ex-
pands 12; it is very glossy black; the head is globose ; ;, the face
short ovate, and at the bottom are attached the antenne, which
are nearly as long as the body, ferruginous, and 14-jointed, basal
joint long, 2nd short, obovate, 3rd notched or comma-shaped,
remainder short and obovate, apical Joint conical; eyes small,
lateral, with 3 ocelli on the crown in a triangle: thorax very
globose, scarcely larger than the head: scutel small, semi-oval,
deeply hollowed at the base ; metathorax ferruginous and uneven ;
petiole forming a ferrugimous knob, woolly behind: abdomen
small, ovate-conic, pitchy, base ferruginous, with 4 longitudinal
channels on a very large segment, apical segment very short: 4
wings dusky and pubescent, with a few nervures at the base of
the superior, forming an elongated ceil: 6 legs short, slender,
and ochreous, pitchy at the base; thighs thickened, as well as the
anterior shanks, and pitchy at the middle ; feet slender, 5-jointed,.
tips dusky. Female above | line long, and expanding 132: this
sex is not only distinguished by its larger size, but the horns are
shorter, with only 12 joints, the 3rd being simple like the 2nd ;
and the extremity of the abdomen is acuminated, and very
acute.
This insect belongs to a family which is very serviceable in
keeping down wireworms and other subterranean larve, as will
be seen by a reference to a former volume § and the ‘ Gardeners’
Chronicle.’|| Nees also says that the Diaprie breed in the sub-
terranean larvee of Tipule, or Gnats.
I must not omit to record another fly called Dilophus febrilis,
which is exceedingly abundant every year, the larvee causing
* Bull. des Séances de la Soc. Roy. et Cent. d’Agric., vol. v. pl: 6, f. 4.
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 571.
~ Hymenop. Ichn. Affin. Mon., vol. il. p. 333.
§ Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. v. p. 225, pl. J. figs. 46 and 47, the
pupa, I expect, of a Proctotrupes.
| Vol. vi. p. 36, Proctotrupes Viator.
affecting the Potato-crops. 11]
much mischief in gardens; and at the close of the year 1845
many of them were sent to me as abounding on decayed portions
of planted potatoes, and I have met with them likewise about the
tubers and in flower-pots, where they burrow in all directions.
Some I received in July were about 4 of an inch long,’ of an
ochreous brown or snuff-colour, and shagreened: the back is
slightly convex, with 12 well-defined wrinkled segments and a
horny shining head, much narrower than the body, intensely black
or inclining to chestnut-colour, and slightly hairy; there are $ dis-
tinct spiracles on each side, the penultimate segment is rounded,
with 4 teeth on the margin, and the anal one has 4 smaller teeth,
with 2 large spiracles near the base: it has no feet.
They were transformed to pupe in the earth the beginning of
August, and were then yellowish-white; the thoracic portion was
very thick, with 2 horns in front; the body slender and sub-
cylindric, the segments very distinct, with spiracles down the
sides, and the tail spiny.
The flies hatched on the 21st of August, but they abound in
fields, hedges, especially under trees, and even in the highways
around London, the whole of that month; and there must be two
broods of them, as they are found likewise in May. They belong
to the Famity TipuLip#, and to the Genus Ditorpnus. The
species was named febrilis by Linnzus, from the generally
received opinion in Sweden of these flies resorting to houses
where intermittent fevers existed.
39. D. febrilis is intensely black, shining, and hairy. The
head of the Male is hemispheric, and covered with large densely
pubescent eyes of a reddish-browy colour; there are 3 minute
ocelli forming an elevated triangle near the base: the lip is broad,
and the feelers incurved: the trunk is oval and gibbose, with 2
transverse rows of minute teeth before: the scutel is short and
broad: abdomen sublinear, 8-jointed, the apex clubbed: the 2
wings are incumbent in repose, perfectly transparent and white
but iridescent, the pinion only is slightly tinged with brown, the
costal nervures pitchy, the others very faintly marked; a radial
nervure uniting with the costa at the middle forms a brown spot
at the extremity: 2 balancers, with a large compressed brown
club: it has 6 long legs ; anterior thighs the thickest, the shanks
very short, the apex surrounded by a coronet of teeth; there are
also several short spines outside; feet slender, 5-jointed, termi-
nated by claws and suckers: length 24 lines, expanse 5 lines,
The Female is larger and very different, the head being much
less, with smail oval eyes not meeting on the crown: the abdomen
is brownish and elongated, ovate at the extremity but narrowed
at the base, and the tip is furnished with 2 minute tubercles: the
wings are much longer and very ample, entirely brown, the
1i2 Observations on the various Insects
pinion being the darkest, with a brown stigmatic spot; all the
nervures are pitchy; the anterior thighs are incrassated.
These insects fly heavily, their hinder legs hanging down, and
in the evening they become sluggish, resting on herbage and
bushes. ‘The larvze also inhabit cow-dung and horse-muck : it is
therefore very possible they may be introduced into potato-grounds
with the manure, or the flies may be attracted to highly manured
ground to deposit their eggs; for so. little is known of the economy
of many insects, that it is impossible to determine their exact
habits : indeed no description or figures were to be found of the
larve and pupe of this fly, until I sent them to the ‘ Gardeners’
Chronicle.’ *
Fatse Scorpions,
These singular little creatures have occurred in some numbers
amongst decaying potatoes, where probably they live upon the
mites, as one species is known to be very serviceable in keeping
under those pests in cabinets of natural history; others are found
attached to the legs of house-flies so firmly that it is scarcely pos-
sible to remove them, but whether they destroy the fly or only
avail themselves of their power of flight to be carried from one
locality to another is not known. ‘These false Scorpions belong
to an OrpDER called by Latreille Tracntartia, to the Famtty
CHELIFERIDA, and the Genus Cuetirer. I can find no de-
scription which answers to this species correctly : it is undoubtedly
closely allied to Hermann’s C. nepoides, but the inequality in the
length of the legs seems to distinguish them, and for that reason
I shall call the potato species
40. C. inaequalis. It is ? of-a line long, of a hvely rust-colour:
the head is pointed; the two little eyes are scarcely visible; the
feelers are like the claws of a crab, as long as the body, smooth,
with scattered hairs, and 4-jointed; the basal joint is short,
hatchet-shaped, 2nd twice as long and oblong, 3rd as large, pear-
shaped, 4th the largest, oval, terminated by two long slender
claws, forming pincers: thorax oval, with a transverse suture
across the middle: body oval, and brown with scattered hairs,
furnished with 8 shortish, ochreous, shining legs; 4 first the
shortest, 5-jointed, and terminated by a minute double black
claw (fig. 62; c, the natural size).
W oRMS.
It may be remembered that in discussing the minute animals
which affect the wheat-crops, a very remarkable little worm called
Vibrio tritict was described and figured, 7+ and its history was also
* Vol. iv. p. 868, with figures of the male, female, larva, and pupa.
+ Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. vi. p. 513, pl, O. figs. 27 and 28.
affecting the Potato-crops. 113
detailed. It appears that M. Rayer has discovered a similar
species which breeds in multitudes in rotten potatoes; and the
same animals were observed by Mr. Graham and myself last
March, in myriads in the putrescent tubers. This Vibrio is named
by Guérin, Rhabditis tuberculorum, and is shorter and stouter in
its young state: the tail of the male is rounded; conical and
pointed in the female: the mouth is furnished with 2 rounded
nipples, and a 3rd between them connected with the oesophagus,
and the body is devoid of articulations (fig. 63, magnified) : itis
not thicker than the finest hair, and scarcely visible in repose.
As it is well figured, with dissections, in the Bulletin so often re-
ferred to in this Report, it is unnecessary to comment further
upon this worm at present.
I am not aware that snails injure the potato-crops at any period,
but slugs do much mischief to the late crops, enlarging the holes
perforated by wireworms, snake miullipedes, and other subter-
ranean animals, which is one good reason for lifting the crop as
soon as the tubers are ripe, to prevent unnecessary waste. ‘This
reminds me of a singular fact recorded in a useful monthly pub-
heation called the ‘ Farmers’ Herald.’* A bag was found ina
cooked potato, containing 11 white globular pellucid eggs,
scarcely so large as mustard-seeds: they were a little pointed at
one end, and had every appearance of having been laid in the
cavity by a slug, which is exceedingly probable, as I have found
them half concealed in potatoes, where they had feasted so long
-and increased so greatly in bulk, that it was impossible to with-
draw them without enlarging the orifice.
I believe this may close my observations regarding the insects
and small animals which direcily or indirectly injure the potato-
crops. tee amount to 60 or more, but probably their name
would be ‘ Legion’ if we were thoroughly acquainted with all
the species, in their different stages of development, preying upon
this useful esculent; and although in the foregoing pages no
attempt has been adie to give undue importance to their agency,
there can be no question that insects often injure the potato-
crops to a great amount. Indeed, as we have endeavoured to
show in these Essays, their mission is to labour in the destruction
of vegetable and animal matter, and consequently there is not a
crop in the field and garden that, sooner or later, 1s not subject
to their ravages,
A Summary of the present Essay.
Aphis of potato, the same as that on the turnip, named A.
Rape, and identical with A. vastator.
Various species of Aphides are found upon potato-haulm, as
* Vol. iii. p. 139. Pay mi
WOU: Ks I
Mea Observations on the various Insects
Aphis Rape, A. Humili, A. Persice, A. Fabe, and Schizoneura
lanigera.
It is only when the plant-lice take possession of a plant, breed
upon and smother it, that they can affect its life.
It is by suction they exhaust vegetation.
Lady-birds and their larve, the maggots of dipterous flies, and
some small bugs, live upon the plant-lice.
A fly called Sapromyza obsoleta supposed to cause the potato-
rot, laying its eggs in the young shoots.
Thrips minutissima accused of causing the potato epidemic.
They live by suction, and never are in sufficient numbers upon
the potato-leaves to affect the tubers.
A minute ground-flea, Smynthurus Solani, feeds on the pulp
of the leaves.
A Smynthurus in Nova Scotia destroys the very young turnips
and cabbages.
They generate upon old cultivated ground, and damp drives
them away.
Salt or sea-weeds scattered over the ground will expel them.
A Podura feeds on the pulp of the leaves, and is supposed to
porson the sap.
Plant-bugs believed to cause the potato-disease.
Lygus Solan. L. contaminatus. L. bipunctatus, L. umbella-
tarum, Phytocoris pabulinus, and P. viridis, were the accused
species.
Another species appeared 10 years earlier in the United States,
where similar opinions were entertained of their poisoning the
votatoes.
Frog-flies, called Eupteryx Solani and EF. picta, breeding on
the potato-haulm, and accused of destroying the potato-crops.
They live by suction, as well as the plant- bugs, from the time
they are hatched to their final state.
Macrocnema exoleta, a leaping beetle, feeds upon and niddles
the leaves of the potato and bitter-sweet.
Caterpillars of the death’s-head sphinx feed upon potato- een:
This moth robs bee-hives, and is called also the bee-tiger.
An Ichneumon fly, Zrogus atropos, lives in the caterpillars of
the death’s-head moth.
A mite, Oribates castaneus, congregates on the dead potato-
haulm to feed on fungi.
M. Guérin attributes the potato-disease to atmospheric changes,
and not to insects.
Surface-grubs, the caterpillars of moths, Agrotis exclamationis
and A. segetum, destroy potato as well as turnip crops.
Maggots of Tipule, the crane-flies or daddy-longlegs, seriously
affect the potato-crops.
affecting the Potato-crops. 115
They revel in damp and undisturbed land: draining is therefore
obnoxious to the Tipule maggots.
The eggs are scattered among the grass and weeds.
The larve of Tipula oleracea and T. paludosa are living from
April to August, and destroy turnip, potato, beet, carrot, and
cabbage, as well as corn crops, and injure pastures and sarden
plants.
These gnats are most abundant from July to November.
Wheat cannot be grown after clover-feas, owing to the maggots
of the Zipule and the wireworms.
Repeated rollings with Crosskill’s clod-crusher, or breast-
ploughing the turf and burning it, are the best remedies against
the maggots.
Larve of Tipula maculosa injurious to corn and potato crops on
light lands, and very destructive in gardens in the spring and
summer,
These gnats abound in May and June, when the eggs are laid.
Watering with salt or nitrate of soda would free the land, as
well as searching round sickly and dying plants early in the
morning.
fiepeated dustings of soot, sea-sand, and salt, would probably
destroy the maggots.
fiolling grass at the proper season will destroy the gnats, and
prevent the deposition of eggs.
Clover-stubbles should be kept close fed by sheep, &c., as it is
an excellent remedy.
ftooks, starlings, sea-gulls, lapwings, snipes, and pheasants, con-
sume immense quantities of subterranean larve or grubs.
Wireworms drill potatoes in the summer and autumn, if not
earlier.
Potatoes when left in the ground attract all the wireworms, as
will sliced potatoes when covered with earth.
Oat crop saved by sowing soot and guano.
A different species of wireworm destroys both sound and dis-
eased potatoes in France.
Snake millipedes assist in destroying potato-crops on the first
appearance of disease.
fulus pulchellus is the most abundant and mischievous.
Centipedes in abundance in potato-grounds, especially Lithobius
forcipatus and Greophilus electricus ?
They are said to be carnivorous, and G. electricus leaves a train
of light as it walks.
Podura plumbea? in abundance about rotting potatoes in
February.
A Tick, and 3 mites, named Acarus coleoptratus 2? Glyciphagus
fecularum, and Tyroglyphus fecule, inhabit the decaying tubers.
12
116 Observations on the various Insects
A mite named Acarus farine also swarms in the spring in
diseased potatoes.
They love damp, and a small degree of heat will hell them.
Three or 4 different Jarve, the “produce of little Rove-beetles,
&ce., which probably feed on the mites, are generated in decom-
posing potatoes.
A Rove-beetle, called Oxytelus nitidulus, is a constant inha-
bitant of decomposing vegetables. 3
Nests of little beetles, Abreus minutus, in rotting potatoes.
Lrichopteryx rugulosa, one of the minutest of beetles, also
resides 7n diseased potatoes.
A little gnat, Psychoda nervosa, bred in multitudes from
rotten potatoes in the spring.
The swarthy flies, Sciara fucata, S. quinquelineata, and §.
pulicaria? hatched in multitudes from the same tubers which
supplied food for their maggots.
Scathopse punctata? another small fly, was bred with them.
48 examples of a large fly, Musca stabulans, were bred from a
single potato in August, and |
58 of another fly, Anthomyia tuberosa, from the same rotting
tuber.
Thesé and a closely allied species are produced from maggots
which are occasionally voided in vast quantities from the stomach
and intestines of man.
Are they not introduced into the stomach with badly or partially
cooked vegetables ?
Drosophila cellaris, the Cellar-fly, also came forth from the
same potato as the last-named flies.
Limosina geniculata is another fly I have hatched from putrid
potatoes and £. Payenii also in France.
A parasitic fly, Paramestus brachialis, is often bred where the
foregoing fites are generated.
Larve of a fly, Dilophus febrilis, also infests the tubers in the
ground.
Chelifer inequalis, a false-scorpion, also resorts to decaying
potatoes, probably to feed upon the mites.
A worm, called Vibrio or Rhabditis tuberculorum, is generated
in vast numbers j in putrifying potato-heaps.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE U.
Fig. 1.* Aphis Fabe, female.
Fig. 2. The natural size.
Fig. 3.* Pupa of Aphis Fabe.
Fig.-4. The natural size. .
Fig. 5.* Hylophila Nemorum.
Fig. 6. The natural size.
‘Se Tae,
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Meanie
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MI
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4
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if
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ee
i |
affecting the Potato-crops. 117
ig. 7.* The larva state of Hylophila.
ig. 8,
ity b
Oe
5 ditke
ie 12.
4 Soe
iol.
ele.
SG."
Ie Li.
yee TS ese
1 LO
ig. 20.*
. 38,
The natural size.
The head and thorax in profile.
a. The antenne or horns.
6. The rostrum or beak.
Pupa of Hylophila Nemorum.
The natural size.
Hylophila minuta.
The natural size.
Larva state of Thrips minutissima.
The natural size.
Thrips minutissima flying.
The natural size.
Smynthurus Solan, the potato eround-flea; its natural
size is that of a grain of sand.
A Smynthurus in profile, to show its leaping apparatus.
Lygus Solani; the potato-bug.
e. The natural length.
Pupa of the same.
d. The natural length.
Lygus contaminatus.
The natural size.
.* The head in profile.
e. Base of the antenne.
SJ: The rostrum.
Lygus bipunctatus.
The natural size.
Lygus umbellatarum.
g. The natural dimensions.
Hupteryx Solani, the potato frog-fly.
fh. The natural dimensions.
The head in profile.
é. The antenna.
&. The rostrum.
The ege.
. The natural size.
.~ 'The pupa state.
Eupteryx picta.
am. The natural dimensions.
.* Altica or Macrocnema excleta ; the potato flea-beetle.
The natural size.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.
Eges of Tipula Oleracea.
m.* One magnified.
. The larva or maggot from the same.
o.* Tail or stern, viewed in front.
The pupa state of the same.
Abdomen of the male fly, in profile.
One
Various Insects affecting the Potato Crops.
Female Tipula Oleracea, or crane-fly.
Abdomen of the male of Tipula maculosa.
Female Tipula maculosa.
Larva or maggot of the same.
The same contracted.
p.* The tail or stern, viewed in front.
The pupa state of the same.
Geophilus electricus (?), or Anthronomalus longicornis.
Acarus or Tyrogl: yphus farine : the flour-mite.
g. The natural size.
Psychoda nervosa.
ry. ‘Che natural dimensions.
Pupa, view of the back.
Ditto, ditto, the underside.
Ditto, ditto, nearly in profile and attenuated.
s. The natural size.
.“ Larva or maggot of Sciara quinquelineata.
é. The natural size.
Pupa of the same.
uw. The natural size.
Sciara (or Molobrus) quinquelineata.
wv. The natural dimensions.
Musca stabulans.
w. The natural dimensions.
The larva or maggot of the same.
The pupa.
Anthomyia (or Homalomyia) tuberosa.
ax. The natural dimensions.
Larva of the same.
y. The natural size.
Drosophila cellaris, the cellar-fly.
z. The natural dimensions.
The larva or maggot of the same.
a. The natural size.
.“ Pupa of the same.
b. The natural size.
Chelifer inequaiis, a false-scorpion.
ce. The natural size.
. 63.* Vibrio (or Rhabditis) tuberculorum, greatly magnified.
Obs.—Those numbers with a * attached, refer to the objects which
are represented larger than life, and all the figures are drawn from
nature, excepting No. 63, which is copied from M. Guerin’s plate.
(The Copyright of this Paper is reserved to the Writer. )
Hayes, near Uxbridge, February, 1849.
© lho)
V.—On the Stoppage of Drains by a Stony Deposit.
From Lorp PortMAN.
To Mr. Pusey.
Dear Pusty,—I wish to call the attention of those persons
who are engaged in draining land, to the accompanying state-
ment of facts tending to show the importance of ascertaining the
quality of the water which is to pass through the drains, before
selecting the material of which they are to be formed. I have
seen many cases where drains built with stones—made with
broken stones—filled with boughs of trees or with poles of alder
or larch—made with tiles and soles (as each person has thought
best), have been stopped, adjacent to turf-wedge drains made
from 20 to 40 years before, which were running perfectly. [
have in some cases satisfied myself that a deposit has attached
itself to these materials, and has more or less impeded the
drainage, and that no deposit has been made in the turf-drains
by the same water; but I have not hitherto ascertained with
sufficient accuracy the real cause of the stoppage, though I have
little doubt, from what I now know, that a chemical analysis of
the water would explain it. In tile-pipes I have not yet seen
any similar stoppage, but my experience of pipes is not yet suf-
ficient to justify me in saying that they would not be liable to
similar obstructions. I believe that the aid of the chemist and
of the geologist are essential to the permanent success of the
drainer. | now give you one case in full detail, sent to me, at my
request, by my friend Mr. Goodden of Compton House, near
Sherborne, from whom I received the water and the deposit,
whereof I send you a copy of the analysis made by Professor
Way. Yours truly,
Bryanston, April 28, 1849. PoRTMAN.
« Although I have been doing a great deal of draining of late,
I have been a good deal staggered as to its being an improvement of
long continuance. ‘Twenty years ago a large pasture field of mine
was drained under the old and exploded system of Turf-draining.
There is a carrier of stone of large dimensions in the field; this
was choked some weeks since, and I had it opened a long dis-
tance up, and, to my surprise, I found the whole drain completely
closed with the incrustation from the water; the substance is pre-
cisely the same as that we find in our boilers. The field in
question is 29 acres of old pasture; the soil of which is a loam
with a clay subsoil. It was drained in the year 1829, it being
then in a wet state. The drainage was effected partly by what
is called turf or wedge-draining, and partly by stone. There
was a stone drain straight down the field, into which some of
the side drains emptied themselves; it was a good sized drain,
120 On the Stoppage of Drains by a Stony Deposit.
capable of carrying a large body of water. The expense of drain-
ing this field, being chiefly labour, was 50/. From being quite
in a wet state, it soon became dry; the drainage appeared com-
pletely successful, and so it remained until the winter of 1848.
At this time the field appeared again wet; but in the neighbour-
hood of the stone carrier particularly so. In January of this
year, 1849, on walking over this piece of land, I found it looking
generally bad, the soil was spongy, the herbage looked unhealthy,
and some places presented all the appearance of an incipient hog.
I have no hesitation in saying that this field was in a much worse
condition than it was before it was drained. I therefore determined
to open the stone carrier, which was done on the 13th of January.
We found the drain completely choked with a deposit from the
water. The substance is hard, and in some places the stones of
the drain were so bound together with incrustation, that it re-
quired the pickaxe to divide them. When the drain was first
opened, the water poured down it in large quantities; it has
been opened nearly a month, and the stream could now easily be
carried byal4 inch pipe. Iam happy to say the land presents a
very different appearance, and is nearly dry. With regard to the
drainage of this field, there can be no doubt that it was very im-
perfect. But still the stoppage of the stone drain with a deposit
from the water has caused me to doubt whether draining, in some
localities, is a substantial improvement of long duration. Where
the water is what is called ‘hard’ and liable to form a deposit, the
same thing may happen in pipes as has occurred in my stone drain.
«You ask, How have the turf-drains answered in my field,
which was drained 20 years ago?
‘‘[T have had some opened and particularly examined, and I
find, with scarcely any exception, that the water in them runs very
well. The deteriorated state of the field seems to have arisen
from the stoppage of the stone carrier, because, as many of the
turf-drains led into this stone carrier, the drainage of some acres
was necessarily stopped. ‘The stone drain is still open, and the
side turf-drains run freely into this opened carrier. I am rather
disposed to think that the deposit in the drain must be formed, in
some measure, of earthy matter petrified by the water; the
carrier drain had no stone bottom, so that probably uneven sur-
faces were formed, and thus from time to time earthy deposits
may have formed.
“T send you a bottle of the water and a lump of the deposit, of
which I hope you will obtain an analysis. ‘The drainage ques-
tion is one of great importance to us. Of this I feel satisfied
that a great deal of money is sunk in draining, and unless it is
done well, that is, on scientific principles, we might as well not
drain our land at all.
“ J, GOODDEN.”
On the Stoppage of Drains by a Stony Deposit. 121
From Mr. Way.
“T send you the analysis of the water and the deposit : you will
readily observe that the composition of the water sufficiently
accounts for the deposit, which indeed it closely resembles in
character, ‘The quantity of carbonate of lime in the water is not
however excessive, and it must require some time to form so large
an accumulation. From the analysis it is quite clear that the
drains are stopped, not mechanically, but by a chemical precipi-
tate; this is evident by simple inspection of the substance: the
deposit is principally carbonate of lime, and I believe the pheno-
mena you mention may be referable to the following causes:
the stone drain would probably for the most part be only
partly filled with water, and would leave opportunity for the
escape of the carbonic acid, by which the carbonate of lime is
held in solution; the result being a crystalline deposit of this
substance, which in time would choke the drain. I must add
that the stone acts like a piece of bread in a glass of champagne,
in affording points for the escape of the gas.
“In the turf-drains, on the other hand, there would most likely
be a gradual evolution of this gas from decomposition of vegetable
matter, and the water, remaining fully charged with carbonic
acid, would not afford a deposit, or, if at all, in smaller amount.
From the small size of turf or wedge-drains, I can quite under-
stand that they would not be filled up, because they must contain
less air for the carbonic acid to escape into, and fewer points of
escape for it even were other circumstances favourable.
« Analysis of a deposit taken from a stone drain :—
pACENOMOTe OG NMO eT ec ee yee es 86°38
Sulphate oflime . . - ee ae es ys Oe
iaemesiacommentsait.. "ss 8 5 09 P08" SS traces:
insoluble mattersand; clay, ces: (iso. 29. sie 252 40°22
99°12
- « N.B.—The sand and clay are deposited mechanically in thin
layers, obvious to the eye, between the thicknesses of carbonate of
lime,
«‘ Analysis of the water passing through the drains :—
“ Solid matter in a pint of the water 3°160 grains, consisting of—
Bee HEOOURLCOMMMMC sos es tee ae ee ee
Sulphate of lime 0-270
Ma awesIawOo MINNIE tit) Theo we icr) lins. Shut} eada VOLS
Common salt . eee im Ucartien nice Acasa sO
STNG: ae Rc ee si ee kk ie iSO
Werclabletmathebein 9s. 6 3 4 eee 0°154
3°160”
“<T Tuomas Way.”
VI.— Onthe Farming of South Wales. By Chane SEWELL Reap.
Prize Report.
In attempting a report on the farming of South Wales, the writer
is fully sensible of the importance andl difficulty of the task
which he has undertaken and his incompetency to do justice to
his subject. He trusts, however, that his effort will not be
deemed presumptuous, but that he may have credit for the feeling
which really actuates him, namely, a desire to give some account
of, and to draw attention to, a district in which he lives, and in
the cultivation of which he takes the deepest interest, with the
hope that art may be brought to bear on that fair country which
nature has so lavishly endowed, but which the hand of man has
hitherto comparatively neglected.
The requirements of the Royal Agricultural Society are
fourfold :—
Ist. The character of the soils.
2nd. The peculiarity of the agricultural management.
3rd. The improvements since the report of Walter Davies in
1814.
Ath. The improvements still required.
It is scarcely possible within reasonable limits to describe the
various soils of a country comprising six counties, whose area is
4000 square miles, and above 2,530,000 statute acres; or, to por-
tray the peculiarities of its management, where all recognized
system of farming is wanting, and the peculiarities are nearly as
numerous as the parishes; or to point out the improvements still
required where almost everything which science and capital have
effected for the sister country is still undone.
But it will not be so difficult to deal with the ‘‘ improvements
which have taken place since 1814.” Here, alas! the task is
easy.
It is proposed therefore, to enter, but not minutely, upon the
character of the various soils, and to give the result of the writer’s
experience, observation, and information, in a general outline of
the agricultural management of South Wales, after which the
improvements that have been made and those still required will
be touched upon.
South Wales now comprises the maritime counties of Pem-
broke, Cardigan, Carmarthen, and Glamorgan, and the inland
counties of Brecknock and Radnor, containing, according to
Mr. Cary’s communications to the Board of Agriculture,
2,530,560 statute acres. The population in 1841, the date of the
last returns, was 515,067, being an increase of 186,000 since
yoda *
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®
Farming of South Wales. 125
1811. North Wales, during the same period, on an area of
1,801,720, had given an increase of 118,000. Still the agricul-
tural population is very low in proportion to any similar extent
of area in England; this is doubtless to be attributed to the
farming of South Wales being chiefly pastoral. In the purely
agricultural county of Radnor the population to the acreage is as
1 to 10, whereas in the mineral county of Glamorgan the propor-
tion is as 1 to 22 acres.
Pembroke is divided into 7 hundreds and 145 parishes, and has 6 market
towns. It contains about 345,600 statute acres: its population in 1841
was 88,262, exhibiting a regularly proportioned increase during the last
thirty years. English is the prevalent language in a great part of this
county. In the reign of Henry I. numerous Flemings settled themselves
here ; and it is said, by the Welsh historian, that the King placed among
them some English settlers to teach them the English language and cus-
toms. The posterity of these settlers remain to this day in the southern
parts of the county, where they are plainly distinguishable from the ancient
British population by their language, manners, and customs. Owing to
the geographical position of Pembroke, its extent of seacoast is double
that of its land boundary: the surface is alternate hills and dales. The
whole of Castle Martin Hundred, forming the southernmost part of the
county, is distinguished for its gentle undulating horizontal surface.
Cardigan is divided into 5 hundreds and 64 parishes, and has 5 market
towns. Its population in 1841 was 68,380: its area 377,600 statute acres.
Carmarthen is the largest county in South Wales, and is divided into
8 hundreds and 87 parishes, and has 8 market towns. Its population in
1841 was 106,482; its area 623,360 statute acres.
Glamorgan, the great seat of the iron trade, considerably more than
doubled its population between the years 1811 and 1841; the numbers
being in the former year 81,268, and inthe latter 173,462. Its area is
422,400 statute acres. This county is divided into 10 hundreds and
118 parishes, and has 9 market towns.
Brecknock is divided into 6 hundreds and 61 parishes, and has 4 market
towns. Its population in 1841 was 53,295; its area-512,000 statute acres.
Considerable attention has for a long period been bestowed on the breed
of horses in this county. ;
Radnor is divided into 6 hundreds and 52 parishes, and has 4 market
towns. Its population in 1841 was 25,186, being an increase of only 3387
since 1811: its area 249,600 statute acres. The surface of the county is
throughout hilly. The original Welsh ponies are still bred in the moun-
tains. This county contains a greater number of mineral springs than all
the others of South Wales conjointly.
The principal characteristic of the climate of South Wales is
its great humidity. As compared with Central England, the cold
is not usually so severe, nor the heat so great. The spring is
long and backward, and there is an old Welsh adage, ‘‘ Summer
till January, and winter till mid-June.” At irregular intervals,
but for fully two-thirds of the year, westerly winds prevail. The
changes of the atmosphere are extremely sudden and perplexing.
The high mountains of the interior convert the invisible vapours
from the Atlantic into sensible vapour or clouds, whence misty
rains frequently descend, and sometimes unexpected heavy
€
126 Farming of South Wales.
showers ; still the inhabitants can foretell that rain is close at
hand, when there appears every prospect of a fine day. They
principally ground their observations on the noise of the sea, the
roar of a waterfall, the sound of bells, shape of mists and clouds
resting on the mountains. During the summer and early autumn
heavy dews are of frequent occurrence, and warm close mists will
last for several days: these sometimes considerably impede hay
and corn harvests, and consequently the saving of grain in good
condition cannot be calculated upon with the same certainty as in
England. On the other hand South Wales is, above all others,
the country for grass and green crops, as the moisture and dews |
of summer, and the gentle variation of heat, must exert most
beneficial influence on all such vegetation, especially the young
turnips. All along the coast, and indeed far inland, the gales
from the west are particularly severe, and frequently do much
damage to the growing crops. Of course the temperature varies
with the aspect and aliitude of the district. In the alpine tracts,
the Rev. Walter Davies observes, “rain in lower places is here
sleet; sleet, snow; and storms, tempests.” Meteorological ob-
servations prove that the depth of rain is not so much as in
some counties of England, therefore the humidity of the climate
arises from constant mists rather than heavy rains. The common
opinion of the hazy weather prevailing in South Wales has been
thus expressed :—
«« Winter, mists will fall in snow ;
In spring the winds will coldly blow.
Summer fogs foretel much heat ;
Autumn mists will rain repeat.”
As might be supposed by merely glancing at the geographical
situations of some districts, there are great varieties of climate.
Thus the temperature and humidity of the Vales of the Teify and
the Towy are quite different from those of the Wye and the Usk.
The former open their mouths at the south-west to receive the
accumulated mists of the Atlantic, while the lofty mountains
arrest the vapours before they reach the latter, which, being open
to the east, have a climate similar to, and as cold as, that of the
Midland Counties of England. Again, while Pembroke and
Cardigan are prominently exposed to the violence of the westerly
gales, Glamorgan is partly surrounded by rising ground, and pro-
tected in some degree, even to the south, by the counties of
Somerset and Devon.
The north-western portion of South Wales rests upon the clay-
slate formation, or as they are geologically termed, the upper and
lower Silurian deposits. These formations commence at the north
portion of St. Bride’s Bay, running nearly in a horizontal line by
Haverfordwest and Narberth to Laugharne. They proceed by a :
®
Farming of South Wales. 127
north-east course to the south of Carmarthen and Llandovery ;
then, before reaching the borders of Radnor, make a curve in a
contrary direction, and again bending upwards pass into Hereford,
a little above Hay, ‘This large tract, covering more than 2500
square miles, includes the northern and larger part of Pembroke,
the whole of the county of Cardigan, nearly all Radnor, and a very
considerable portion of Carmarthen. In the neighbourhood of St.
David’s, Fishguard, St. Clare’s, and Radnor, the trappean rocks
frequently occur. In some instances the soil of the clay-slate
formations is tolerably productive, in others quite the contrary.
These formations occupy many elevated and exposed situations in
the district, and often will not there pay for arable cultivation. The
soil is generally good upon the grey shale, but unproductive when
resting on a blue slate. The valleys and sides of the mountains
abound with peat, and clay is in many places within a few inches
of the surface. The south sides of the hills, when not too steep,
often produce better corn than the hollows below. Most of these
soils are deficient in calcareous matter, and the great distance from
lime renders improvement in many parts expensive and slow.
When the soil is ploughed in the upper districts, oats and (till
lately) potatoes were the only crops successfully produced: but
on the low. lands good corn is grown, and there can be no doubt
that nearly all the soil is favourable for the cultivation of turnips.
The best land of Radnor is found in the valleys, through which
the Wye, the Lug, and the Teme flow. In these tracts turnips
are grown toa considerable extent, being drilled on ridges. The
meadows about Upper Radnor are wet and barren, but the hills
afford good sheep-walk. The northern portion of the Brecknock
which rests on these formations is cold and unproductive. In
Cardigan several rich loams are to be met with in the valley of
Teify and Aeron. The Vale of Towy, in Carmarthen, has a rich
fertile soil, and on the level of the Taf from the borders of Pem-
broke to Laugharne, the ground produces luxuriant crops. By
the sea-coast of Pembroke and Cardigan there is a large extent of
table-land, which is of better and lighter quality than the irregular
ground of the interior. This tract which has long been celebrated
for its barley, generally abounds with large porous grey field-
stones. These also cover the pastures, and are not removed, as
in seasons of drought they retain considerable quantities of mois-
ture. The trap-rocks, in districts where they appear, produce
important changes in the nature of the soil. When not too hard
or too much elevated they afford land which will readily produce
all crops, but especially barley. ‘There are anomalous detached
rocks of limestone in the vicinity of Radnor which are very
serviceable in that otherwise limeless tract. The chief mineral
*
128 Farming of South Wales.
productions of the Silurian deposits are slates; but lead, and even
silver are also found.
The whole of the county of Pembroke, south of a line drawn
from Tenby to St. Bride's, is composed of alternate layers of the
old red sandstone and carboniferous limestone. The fertile level
of Laugharne rests upon the old red sandstone, which latter pro-
ceeds in a narrow strip south of the Silurian deposits, till it
reaches Brecknock, where it takes a tortuous course towards the
east, and runs into Monmouth south of Abergavenny. Its
breadth here exceeds twenty miles. It again makes its appear-
ance near Cardiff, and is distinctly visible, in conjunction with the
limestone, in the promontory below Swansea. It will be thus
seen that the old red sandstone occupies a very considerable por-
tion of Brecknock, extending over nearly 400 square miles. A
narrow belt of limestone and millstone-grit enclose, in an irregular
circle, the whole of the extensive coal-measures of Glamorgan.
These small veins commence at Kidwilly, pass north of Merthyr
Tydvil, and extend nearly to Pontypool. They again enter
Wales, about Caerphilly, and lose their distinctive form by
mingling with the las shale in the region of Bridgend and
Cowbridge. In Pembroke the coal-fields form a strip of about
5 miles wide across the county south of the slate formation, and,
with the Glamorgan tract, constitute an area of about 900 square
miles. The red soils are variable, but, although there are many
shallow and light tracts, generally speaking the land is kind,
easily worked, and of superior quality. ‘The principal valleys of
the red sandstone extend on the banks of the Usk and the Wye.
The former river flows only through this formation, a@d as it
brings down with it no tenacious earthy matter, the soil of the
valley is decidedly light, though kind and productive. By the
good agriculture found there capital crops ef grain and turnips
are grown, yet the pastures suffer materially in seasons of
drought: the. Wye on the contrary rises in the Silurian deposits,
and its clayey sediment improves the weakness of the red soil,
which thus becomes able to produce heavy crops of all grain.
The hilly tracts are grand and lofty, and contain the Brecknock
Beacons, which attain an elevation of 2862 feet, and are con-
sequently the highest mountains of South Wales. The pasturage
of all this alpine district is much superior to the higher portions
of the slate formations. Laugharne Marsh, which was originally
enclosed from the sea, is celebrated for its goodness of soil and its
Juxuriant crops of wheat and beans. It is a beautiful sandy loam,
with a substratum of rich clay. The limestone land is always dry
and fertile when a moderate quantity of soil covers the rock ;
should there be much clayey earth upon the limestone, the soil 1 is
Farming of South Wales. 129
cold and poor ; and if the rock is too near the surface, it is light
and weak, but produces sweet herbage for sheep. A mixture of
these last-mentioned formations by the red soil washing over the
limestone produces a beautiful, tender, and fertile soil.
To illustrate the great variety of these soils, and to show the im-
possibility of describing them all, I will detail more minutely those
that appear in the rich and comparatively level hundred of Castle
Martin, in the south of Pembroke. First taking the district
bounded on the north by Milford Haven, there is a long tract of
the old red sandstone, which is for the most part shallow and
light, yet quick, dry, and healthy land: this extends to the north
of Angle and Pwllchrogan, and to the land in the vicinity of the
Dockyard. Next there is a vein of limestone which appears at
Pennar, runs from Greenhill, through Lower Hentland to East-
ington; crosses Angle Bay, and proceeds through that parish to
Pill, north of the Blockhouse, at the extreme point of the Haven.
This formation is generally buried too deep to exercise any dis-
tinctive or beneficial influence on the soil. The limestone is
impregnated with much magnesia, and therefore more prized for
building than for agricultural purposes. A wider belt of lime-
stone commences a little below Tenby, and runs through the fertile
vale of St. Florence to Carew; whereas the country traversed
from Pembroke to Tenby, and commonly called “The Ridge-
way, rests upon the old red sandstone, and affords soils of various
qualities. At Lydstep Haven another belt of limestone presents
itself, and proceeds through the rich soils of Manorbier, Hodge-
‘ston, and Lamphey, to Pembroke and the north of Monkton.
Again, in the elevated part of Manorbier by the sea, the red soil
commences a larger district, running west to St. Dees and
forms a great portion of Monkton, Pwllchrogan, Rhoscrowther,
and Angle. ‘The soil thus comprised varies exceedingly. In
Angle, though pretty good, it is much exposed to the seaand full
of springs. Entering Rhoscrowther at Freshwater West, there
are large accumulations of sea- sand, which form extensive
“burrows.” The soil of the greatly improved farms of Broomhill
and Kilpaison from this cause presents a sandy loam of a weak
description ; whereas after passing Neath the farms in that portion
of Pwllchrogan parish are clayey, wet, and unproductive. On
coming to Monkton, Corston is good land and well cultivated, and
by the south of Pembroke, passing Portclew, the land is of fair
average quality. Altogether the red soil or nalhr og ana retentive
and argillaceous than that of Br ecknock, but generally more in-
fested with springs. The rab is best for grass, the limestone for
corn. A narrow strip of millstone-grit commences at Freshwater
Rast, and runs along the entire valley by Orielton to Freshwater
West on ue opposite side. This deposit is covered with a deep
VOL.. X. K
130 Farming of South Wales.
bed of strong tenacious clay, which is wet from surface-water and
springs that rise above it. Once more the rab appears at
Trewent, and, running to the north of Castle Martin, forms the
upper boundary of the Stackpole estate. In Cheriton the land is
capital, but the higher portions of St. Petrox, St. ‘Twynels,
and Warren are poor. ‘To the north of the village of Castle
Martin lies «The Corse,” a tract of peaty morass resting on clay,
which Mr. Davies mentions as being then recently enclosed by
Act of Parliament. Although it paid well for cultivation, grow-
ing capital crops of wheat, oats, and gigantic coleseed, yet, since ~
the death of the first lessee (who was presented with a gold medal
by the Society of Arts for reclaiming this waste), it has been
allowed to relapse pretty nearly into its primitive state. Nearer
the sea are large tracts of sea-sand, growing principally the sea-
sand sedge, useful only as sheep-walk or warren. ‘The remain-
ing portion of this promontory rests upon the carboniferous
limestone and comprises some of the best land in the Principality.
The plain, stretching from Stackpole to Brownslade, is fertile in
the extreme. Nearer the South Cliffs are extensive downs, which
produce short but sweet herbage for sheep, as the soil is very shallow,
in many places the rock is hardly covered. ‘The great drawback to
this fine district is the scarcity of water. All this limestone when
calcined is perfectly white, and is excellent manure, but not very
strong cement, Mr. Davies, in his report, says, that the red soil
of Pembroke is entirely distinct from that of Brecknock; “its
position is reversed, its substratum different ;” and he considers
the ‘‘most striking instance of anomaly in the limestone is the
intrusion of a red-soil tract upon a substratum of rab.” The old
red sandstone occupies quite half Castle Martin Hundred, the
finest portions of Roose, with a little of Narberth, and as it is also
prominent in Gower, geologists must decide whether it is alto-
gether “an anomaly and an intrusion.” The soil of the lime-
stone is generally a dark marly loam, lighter, and inclined to be
sandy in some districts : it produces well all grain and root crops,
and is equally excellent for pasture, as the white clover (Trifolium
repens) springs spontaneously. The limestone soil of Gower
(the neck of land below Swansea) is identically the same as that
to the south of Pembroke.
The soils which rest upon the coal measures and millstone-grit
consist chiefly of clay, sand, and peat, which are usually distinguished
by their extreme barrenness, and are often not considered worthy of
cultivation. Theyoccupy the highest ground of Glamorgan, asecond-
rate elevation in Carmarthen, but fall much lower in Pembroke.
The land in the vicinity of Swansea, though naturally barren, is
rendered still more sterile by the poisonous smoke of the numer-
ous copper furnaces. A more desolate and unpreductive country -
Farming of South Wales. 131
cannot be found than that part of the coal measures through
which the road runs from Swansea to Carmarthen. In some
favoured spots, by high farming and regular manuring, I have seen
good returns of all kinds of grain and green crop. This is parti-
cularly the case near’ the iron works, where spirited wealthy men
are desirous of improving the soil: it was found highly necessary
to raise provender for the numerous horses employed, and also it
pays better in tillage than in grass. The soil of the coal fields is
often poisoned by acid underground water ; but it is more easily
improved than the poor lands of the slate tract, as the clays are less
retentive, and lime is hereclose athand. This stratum produces
large quantities of iron, and the bituminous and anthracite coal.
The lias shale or las limestone is better known by the com-
mon name of Aberthaw limestone. ‘The lime when burnt is a
buff colour, and celebrated for setting in water, and as a lasting
cement. On the coast of Glamorgan the strata fell down, and
the soft useless part being worn away by the action of the tides,
the innumerable pebbles which are now used consist only of the
nucleus portion of the stone. The blue and grey lias which
occupy most of the Vale of Glamorgan, have soils of a strong dark
loam resting in many instances on a tenacious clayey subsoil,
naturally adapted for wheat, beans, and oats. The lighter por-
tion—the bastard has (which is a link between these strata and
the limestone) is more kind for the production of barley and
turnips. Large cattle are reared in the pastures, and many good
sheep are fattened. The fertile tract by the river Ely, in addi-
tion to its own good soil is covered with large alluvial deposits of
sandy loam, which are supposed to have been washed down from
the hills of the coal measures.
On spots of the coasts of the Bristol Channel, but particularly
below Laugharne, Kidwelly, and Aberafon, are large masses of
sea-sand, which are used as sheep walk, and covered with the
sea mat-weed or sedge (Arundo arenaria).
These are the principal geological divisions of the country.
Most of the formations belong to very early deposits. Geology,
though extremely useful, will not single-handed here faithfully
describe the qualities of the soil, as aspect, climate, and elevation
exert such decided influence.
The agriculture of South Wales-may be considered as a mixture
of “ breeding, dairying, and tillage.” It is curious to see how the
latter has increased, and to trace the various motives which have led
to the more extensive culture of corn. Formerly when the home
markets were very small, the production of grain was limited,
and pasture land was never broken up, but with a view to its im-
provement. After three crops of corn, with two good manurings,
it was again laid down to natural grass. But in the time of ihe
K 2
12 Farming of South Wales.
war, a demand sprang up for corn in the English markets. This
was the case when Mr. Davies made his report, and he observes,
* Corn culture becoming a source of much greater profit than
heretofore, violations of the old approved principles took place,
and they were almost entirely abandoned.’ Since then the
stupendous copper works and large iron mines, the numerous
collieries, and the Dock-yard, have all increased the consumption
and improved the demand. Instead of South Wales exporting
corn to Bristol and Liverpool, she now receives large quantities
from those and other parts. However, the agriculturists of the
districts most accessible to good markets discovered that, in
order to increase their produce, they must improve their farm-
ing and adopt better rotations ; while those more remote exhibit
a similar style of tillage to that practised years ago. Thus
the south of Pembroke, the neighbourhood of Laugharne, and
the great portion of the counties bordering on England, are
farmed in a judicious and most superior manner. Indeed,
many parts of Glamorgan produce such crops of wheat and
turnips as could compete with any county in England. But
to attempt to minutely relate the “‘ peculiarities” of the many
commendable systems pursued on the borders of South Wales,
would only be to describe the various ramifications of Monmouth
and Hereford farming. Even the traveller by the Swansea or
Carmarthen mails cannot fail to notice how conspicuous and
beneficial is the influence of English farming when first he
enters Wales, and how gradually that superiority dies away. But
it is the general farming of the district which must claim special
attention, and I must now proceed to consider the rotation of
crops usually found. As few of the leases of South Wales con-
tain restrictive clauses, each farmer crops as he thinks best, and
probably no two men in one parish pursue a precisely similar
plan. Still in the west and central districts, after comparing the
numerous variations that occur, the following will be found the
common course of the country :—
Goop LAnp. | INFERIOR Solts.
1. Naked Fallow. 6. Clover i. Fallow. 6. Grass.
2. Wheat. 7. Grass 2. Wheat, 7a 1D Yo
3. Barley. 8. Do. | 3. Barley. 8. Do.
4. Oats. 9. Do. 4, Oats. ¥. Do.
5. Barley. 10. Do. | 5. Clover. 10. Do.
It must not be imagined that in the interior of South Wales,
there are not frequent beams of better agriculture. Many gentle-
men farm largely and well, and perhaps some spirited tenant
may follow his example. But their efforts and their improve-
ments are confined to small localities, and are the exception, not
the rule. The other isolated modes do not alter the principle OL:
Farming of South Wales. 133
the system. Thus in some elevated tracts, oats succeed oats, or
may be varied with a crop of potatoes, and at length the land
(when it will not double its seed) is, with oats, laid down in grass,
till the time arrives for its undergoing similar treatment. Again,
in the barley districts, there is, | wheat; Z barley; 3 peas;
4 barley: or 1 wheat; 2 barley; 3 barley; 4 barley: or 1 barley ;
2 barley; 3 peas; 4 barley; and then laid down, generally for
the same number of years as it has borne crops. In a wonderful
district of Cardigan, barley (without other manure than sea-weed
and sea-sand) has been grown for many years in succession. One
field is mentioned as having been cropped with barley for 100
years, without a single alteration. In some parts of Carmarthen
the campaign of cropping is opened with taking wheat on a limed
and manured ley; but still the general practice of the couniry is
the one before mentioned, to the further detail of which I now
propose to return.
The ley field selected for fallow has furrows opened at the
distance of 10 to 15 yards. ‘The furrow slices are then carted
into convenient heaps or ‘‘mixens,” and there mixed with lime.
Very often this is dispensed with, and the lime either set about
the ley, or carted on the fallow during the summer. ‘The land is
ploughed during the winter months, and before the autumn it
receives two more ploughings, and is well harrowed and rolled.
It is generally imperfectly cleaned, as no couch its burned or
picked off. Root weeds, too, are merely allowed to wither; but
should the summer prove wet, they do not die. At some leisure
period the farm-yard manure is carted to the field, and thrown on
those mixens already mentioned. All is packed over, and about
September it is set abont the land, varying from 15 to 20 loads per
acre. Three bushels of wheat are now sown broadcast, and the
field drawn out into ridges three feet wide. Six furrows complete
the ridge; but before the last is taken up, about half a bushel
more seed is applied. Nothing further is done (with the excep-
tion sometimes of a little hand or spud weeding) till the time for
cutting arrives, Theridges are of course nearly semicircular, and
it is stated, that they prevent the water lodging, and the rougher
the surface is left the better, as it protects the plant from cutting
winds, and the land is not so hable to be washed by the constant
rains. Wheat is still often cut with a hook, reaped, swived, or
bagged. But all corn is more commonly mown, and neatly laid
by Sie cradles which are attached to the scythes. The w heat is
expertly and carefully bound, and immediately put into small
“haddocks” or ‘‘ mows.” The foundation of the knee-mow is
formed by placing four sheaves in a square on the ground, the
ears of each sheaf resting on the lower end of the other. A
134 Farming of South Wales.
circle is then formed, the sheaves having the ears inclined up-
wards and inwards. Fresh layers are made, each diminishing
the circle, till at last at the top, four sheaves are placed nearly in
an upright position. ‘These are strongly connected together, and
a small sheaf tied very near the ground end is placed with its
ears downwards as a capping for the whole. The mow gene-
rally contains 100 to 120 sheaves, and when well made, will resist
the weather six weeks or two months. In this humid climate the
system cannot be too much commended, for in wet harvests, when
corn is moderately dry, it can thus be preserved from harm; while,
if placed in a large rick directly, it would invariably spoil. The ~
farmer at his convenience drives the mows (perhaps after airing
the sheaves) to his hay-guard, where they are placed in small
well-made ricks—which are round, or stacks—which have four
angles. The hay-guard or stack-yard is situated close to the barn,
which is just large enough for two men to work and contain the
corn for one day’s thrashing. By the constant removal of the
corn from the rick, much is left each day exposed to the weather
and depredations of fowls. ‘The thrashing is performed in the
following manner:—A single sheaf is laid whole upon “the
plank,” which is formed of a number of boards attached together,
eleyated above the barn floor, and placed in a sloping position.
The sheaf after repeated blows from the flail unties itself; and as
the corn is knocked out, the straw is gradually thrashed off the
plank, when a girl is always in attendance to shake out the loose
grains and take it away. The wheaten straw is carefully made
into bundles for thatch. The woman takes a handful of the straw,
separates it, and shakes out what is loose, and short, and thus
proceeds till she has procured sufficient for a small sheaf, which
is then bound up. As soon as a new rick is made at harvest, it
is immediately covered with these bundles, which secure it from
the rain. The thatching takes place at some convenient time,
which is performed in a dry state, with great strength and neat-
ness. ‘Till within the last few years winnowing machines were
seldom met with; even now corn 1s often cleaned, by taking it to
some exposed situation, where by throwing it up the wind blows the
chaff away, while the grain falls on a large sheet. Corn is carried
to markets, and there sold; but sales by samples are common in
some districts. Grain is frequently sold by the weight, the bushel
of wheat at 62 lbs., and barley at 521bs.* As this year, the,
weight of both grains is 4 or 5 Ibs. under that standard, the
averages are made erroneously high, for they are returned at so
much per bushel, whereas that is really the price of a bushel and
* By the repealed Act of 31 Geo. III. c. 30, the following weight was deemed equal
to a Winchester bushel, viz, :—Wheat, 57]bs.; barley, 49 lbs.; oats, 38 lbs. ,
Farming of South Wales. 135
4or lbs. In the interior of the country the prices of the corn
are often much higher than the English markets, though of in-
ferior quality; but the whole of the transactions are of a very
retail character, and no quantity of any grain can be disposed of
at once. For barley, two of the small wheat ridges are ploughed
together, which is two yards wide. In the spring the Jand is
harrowed, and this is often performed in a very curious manner.
First, a large square harrow, to which the horses are attached at
the corner,—and at the other extremity is fastened by a rope or
chain about a yard long a smaller harrow. The horses always
trot, and the animals and boys are better fed when performing
this sort of work. It is supposed the loose and rapid action of
the small harrow behind, pulverises the ground better, and more
effectually shakes out the couch grass. Two bushels of barley
are then sown and ploughed in, and two more bushels sown in
the top; the sowing all above the furrow is becoming more ge-
neral. The season for putting in barley is generally from the
first week in April to the middle of May. The harvesting the
barley is similar to that of wheat, only the barley is allowed to
lie some time before binding, to permit the weeds and clover to
wither. With the exception that 5 or 6 bushels of seed are used,
the cultivation of oats is the same as barley. Perhaps the land
may remain unploughed till the spring, and then be sown on one
furrow. About 8 lbs. of red clover (Trifolium pratense) and half
a bushel of rye grass is the general quantity of seed sown when
laid down for grass. The rye grass-seed is generally grown by
the farmer, or by some neighbour, and not unfrequently collected
from the hay. It is therefore often impregnated with large quan-
tities of couch (Agropyrum repens); and if the land were laid
down clean, the seed applied is sufficient to poison it. It is need-
less to state that land returned to grass in this impoverished and
foul state can grow very little. The clover makes a feeble effort
to distinguish itself during the first year, and then naturally dies
away. The field for the next four or five years presents a whity
brown appearance, and sends forth nothing but sour unprofitable
herbage, and is often covered with furzes, brambles, and undis-
turbed mole-hills, which tend still more to lessen its produce.
It is a curious fact, that land laid down even in this exhausted
state, will, after a term of rest, again produce very fair crops when
broken up.
A rough Debtor and Creditor Account (without interest of ca-
pital, Kc.) of one acre for ten years, may perhaps assist in con-
veying a general idea of the amount of produce and profit or loss
under the old system. Good land would stand about thus ; and
as nothing is charged for straw, the manure is put at a very low
rate :—
Farming of South Wales.
| |
u Rent, | Cultiva- | Muck |
3 Crops. | Tithes,| tion and | and | Seed. | Outlay. Produce. Receipts.
~ c. |Expenses.| Lime |
Gi Soi ds s. So rds aes aan Bons de
1 | Fallow. 26 40 0 Sf bls Bye ee Tey lO Ni ees teed ORION
2 | Wheat . 26 2 5amn0) Ac 22 9]! 313 9 | 24 bush. at 6s. 6d. M6: 70
3 | Barley . 26 30 0 AG 14520) 310 0] 82 do 3s, 6d. by MPP 0)
AS Oatsies. 26 25.640 56 12 0O 3) (350 365..do: PSS 10 Sl)
5 | Barley fe 26 30 0 30 14 0 5 10) 10> 9249 do: 3s. 3d. 318 0
6 | Clover . | 26 14 0 4; 10 0| 210 0O| Hay, &c. . wale ce WORO
UW LExBSep OS 26 26 56 ais 1 8 6 Grass 0) 680 110 0
8 | Do. 26 B34 in(3) 66 ee Way dey DYER | 56 ° Web) 1)
On Dos! 26 2) 16 5G : as} --@ Do. 6 ‘ 1 00
100) Do. tae" 426 2°56 es . 1. SG o! BRAG .OF40
| | Loss 279)
| 3011 9 30 11 9
|
| |
Inferior land might stand as follows for ten years :—
<4 Rent, | baborr | Muck |
A | Crops. | Tithes, Guitiva: and Seed. | Outlay. | Produce. Receipts.
© &c. : Lime.
> tion.
Se Se Si Se Gana E36 Gs tk
1 | Fallow. 12 40 60 Ac Si TZA OM |) INI eens nates 0 0 0
2 | Wheat . 12 25 oe 21 218 0 | 15 bushels, at 6s. 410 0
3 | Barley 12 30 Bn 13 215 0|24 do. 3s.3d.| 318 0
4} Oats J2 30 se 12 Qak4) Oi) 28a edowy wesa8 fs 216 0
5 | Clover 12 2 a0 10 ly 54: “On Cloverw are a cate Wa oe)
6 | Grass , 12 2 ; c OWA, 105) (Grassivey i atokae 016 O
7 Do. 12 2 ary . 014 O DOS top ire, eouete 014 O
8 Do. 12 2 ate A 014 O IDO 6 012 O
9 Do. 5 12 2 e . 014 #O IDO 656 GS 012 O
10 Do. 12 2 ° e 014 0 DOW ce ie wee 012 O
Loss | 2 19 0
18513550 18 13 0
But it will be naturally asked, If this be a fair statement, how
do the farmers live? ‘They depend chiefly on the young stock
to pay the rent, and rely on the dairy, which continually brings in
ready money to meet other current expenses. In addition to this
the small farmer and his sons do the principal work and repairs
of the farm. They have thus hardly any outgoings for labour or
iradesmen’s wages, and they live in a style of patriarchal sim-
plicity almost entirely on the produce of their own land.
Turnips are the first of the occasional crops that are met with,
and they are generally drilled on 27 inch ridges, though in many
instances they are sown broadcast and not hoed. Sometimes
dung is used alone, occasionally combined with artificial manure,
buat good crops are obtained from 3 ewt, of guano. In more arid
climates summer heat is reckoned as one great foe to turnip
culture, but here it is swmmer moisture ; for, although it nourishes
the turnip, it also encourages the growth of weeds and natural
grasses, and renders it difficult, even with repeated hoeings, to
keep the land clean. With tolerable culture heavy good crops
Farming of South Wales. 137
of swedes are raised, frequently weighing from 15 to 30 tons per
acre. ‘Turnips are not often consumed on the land, and spring
wheat, succeeded by barley, generally follows. As the frost is
seldom so severe as to injure turnips, the bulbs frequently show a
gradual increase throughout the entire winter; early clamping is
never practised.
Potatoes were formerly very successfully cultivated ; since the
appearance of the disease the extent sown has been reduced,
while that of turnips has been proportionably increased. Large
quantities of manure are applied, and in some cases paring and
burning is used as a preparation for the crop. Formerly the
planting of this root did not take place till after the barley was
sown, but since the appearance of the disease early planting has
become universal, and March is generally the month for
setting the potato. Last year the disease attacked the crop with
greater virulence than has been known, with the exception of the
season when it first made its appearance.
Beans are seldom grown but in certain localities, as Laug-
harne and the stiff lias clays of Glamorgan. Peas and rye are
not so much cultivated as formerly. Flax has been more noticed
within the last few years. It generally flourishes well, and in
some parts it springs spontaneously. The seed would be of great
value in this stock-rearing country, as linseed gruel is particu-
larly nourishing to calves.
In returning land to permanent grass, it was common in old
times to sow no seeds, and this was practised in many parts
when Mr. Davies wrote his report in 1814, and it is probable
that our finest old pastures were thus laid down. The farmer of
the Eastern and Midland counties of England would be surprised
to see how rapidly the good and even middling soils of South
Wales return to their natural grass. Mr. Hassell, in his original
report, says, “ that, in Laugharne, barley stubble, without seeds,
will recover its sward and produce good crops of hay and grass;”
and that throughout Carmarthen “ land not run out of condition
will naturally become good pasture.” And he says of Pembroke,
‘‘'The mildness of the climate and the perpetual vegetation that
is going on, even in the winter months, seem in so peculiar a
manner fayourable to grass, that we cannot but lament to see so
much under the plough.” In Radnorshire “ the arable land, if
left unploughed, is soon covered with natural grass; and on the
limestone near Merthyr Tydvil, “ if barley is sown one year and
the land left to rest till next year, the white clover abounds so
much that it may be profitably mown.” So much for the spon-
taneous production of grasses at the conclusion of the last
century ; it points out most forcibly that South Wales is naturally
a rich pastoral district. Still the proportion of good grazing
138 Farming of South Wales.
land to that of pasture is verysmall. The present management of
the meadows and pastures does not present any particular feature.
The land is principally stocked with cows and young cattle;
comparatively few sheep are kept. Not a great quantity is cut
for hay, and then, to have the most, it is frequently left till it is
too old. Mowing the meadow generally begins in the middle of
July. All hay (clover as well) is scattered about as soon as
cut, and allowed to dry in the sun: not being cocked up at
night, but exposed to the heavy dews, &c., it soon loses the fresh
green appearance so much prized in England. When sufh-
ciently withered on one side, it is turned, afterwards raked into
rows, and put into small lumps, which, not being compactly
made, are easily wetted through. On a fine day these heaps
are thrown out and carted to the rick. The hay is not pitched
from the cart, but the load is tripped up, and the pitcher takes 7
off the ground! When it becomes too high for this, a ladder is
placed by the rick and a labourer stationed on it: the pitcher
from below hands him a forkfull of hay, the same fork and the
hay pass up to the man above, who receives the burden and
returns the fork. It is not often that hay is well saved in South
Wales: the humidity of the atmosphere and the frequent rains
of July baffle and confound the most skilful management.
Fogging 1s, 1 believe, peculiar to South Wales, and is still
practised extensively in some counties. Cattle are taken out
of the pastures in May or June, and the year’s crop of grass
remains untouched till the following spring. It is asserted that
an acre of fog will keep more stock and in better condition than
an acre of hay, besides avoiding the risk and expense of hay-
making. Mr. Hassell, in his original Report of Pembroke,
says—‘ By this practice, the farmer provides a good stock of
keep for that season of the year when he stands most in need of
it, puts his cows into good plight for calving, saves a great deal
of hay, and improves his grass-land by the quantity of seeds shed
upon the surface by the fogged grass; and his stock, being on the
fog by day and in his straw-yard by night, augments his dung.”
The old grass shelters and draws up the tender shoot sooner than
if it were exposed to the bleak winds and frosty air of an early
cold spring. ‘The old herbage combines beneficially with the
succulent young grass, and cows produce an immense increase of
milk when fed on it. Such are the grounds advanced by the
defenders of the system ; the arguments that are brought to bear
against it are too well known to be here repeated. However, in
the present state of farming, with no turnips, early vetches, rye,
&c., and a generally late spring, I am not aware how in this
district a more plentiful supply of early keep can be produced.
Top-dressings are not often resorted to: sometimes lime is
Farming of South Wales. 139
used alone, but more commonly it is mixed with mud or other
mould, and spread over the surface during winter. Irrigation is
not practised further than turning the water from the yards or a
road-side ditch across a meadow. This is done simply by
running a furrow out with a plough, and when that portion of
the land has received its share another is drawn in a different
direction and the former one is closed up. A great many in-
stances occur in which a Aill-side spring might be made, at a
trivial expense, of immense service by irrigating some of the
pastures below it.
The cattle of South Wales are principally the Pembrokes and
Glamorgans. There are many runts in the upper district com-
plete nondescripts, being the result of complicated crosses with
all the Welsh breeds. The introduction of the West Highlanders
has much improved these cattle in parts of Cardigan and Radnor.
By the borders of England many excellent dairies of Herefords
are found, some possessing qualities of very considerable merit.
These cattle are well treated and carefully fattened, and [ may
mention that last year Wales contributed two splendid Hereford
oxen to the Smithfield Show.
The Pembrokes are a coal black, with large yellow horns
tipped with black and turning upwards, a clean light head and
neck, and a bright prominent eye. ‘The forequarters of these
cattle are heavy and well made, but they are often deficient in
width across the loin and inroundness ofrib. They are excellent
workers, active and hardy, but now not much used in the plough.
In the neighbourhood of the collieries a great number are
yoked in carts with one or two horses before them. The West
Wales carters, when driving oxen or horses with heavy burdens,
are constantly seated on the load, and it is very difficult to pre-
vent this unfeeling practice. Oxen were formerly worked in
ploughs behind two horses, but farmers find that two horses
tolerably kept are sufficient alone, and have therefore discarded the
oxen. ‘These cattle feed best on rich pastures, are sometimes
restless and quarrelsome in open yards, but graze well in loose
boxes or when stall-fed. An ox when fat at four years’ old will
generally weigh 7 or 8 cwt., and they always prove better to the
butcher than their outside appearance indicates. The cows are
capital milkers if well kept, and even on ordinary pastures give
a good quantity; in summer the best will average 6 or 7 lbs. of
butter per week. A more useful and hardy race of cattle are
not to be found in the kingdom, and with care and attention they
are capable of much improvement. Some successful crosses
have been made with the North Devons. The best Pembroke
cattle are bred in the district of Castle Martin, and they are
principally called by the name of that hundred.
140 Farming of South Wales.
The Glamorgans are generally a ruddy brown, with white
along the back and belly; they will not graze when young, and
have too often flat blacks and high rumps: they are very su-
perior cattle to work, and the cows are kind milkers, averaging
perhaps from 16 to 18 quarts per day.
The other black runts are extremely hardy, but small and light
fleshed, with thick hard hides, and show little disposition to fatten.
There were formerly some good red, brindled, and smoky-faced
cattle in the hilly parts of Radnor, but they have lost much of
their distinctive character by crossing with the Shropshire and
Hereford cattle.
In the internal management of the dairy the Welsh are clean,
economical, and successful: they make a large quantity of capital
butter, but the cheese is hard and poor. There is not much
prospect of the cattle in the interior of the Principality improving,
as too little attention is generally paid to the selection of the male
animal. Cows also are valued only for their milk ; indeed, if one
should present any fattening qualities, the first time beef is dear
and she is dry, she is sure to be sold; while the good milkers are
frequently kept till they are much too old. The calves are dropped
in the field, and run with the dam for three days or a week;
they are then weaned, and generally fed on skimmed milk, and
by degrees are taught to eat hay; during this time they are
huddled together in dark close cribs. As soon as there is grass,
they are turned out, and it is no unfrequent occurrence to see
stock of all ages, from the cow to the yearling, grazing in the
same field. In the following winter they are exposed to the
violent gales and sudden changes of the atmosphere, being sup-
plied with a scanty allowance of lay under the hedge-rows ; the
older cattle wander over the grass-land, and have some of the
coarser hay or barley-straw. At three years old they are gene-
rally brought to the fairs and sold to the drovers, who dispose of
them for grazing on the rich pastures of the Midland counties of
England. The district is at present fortunately free from the
ravages of the small-pox in sheep, and also from the pleuro-
pneumonia and epizootic epidemic which has caused such fright-
ful havoc among the cattle of England.
The native or mountain sheep of Wales are very small, with
white faces, short coarse wool, and numbers of them are horned.
They are extremely hardy, and very active. This class is found
in the open elevated lands and high mountains of the interior of the
country. They are under no particular system of management,
but follow the dictates of their sagacious instinct. They are not so
much kept as formerly, being a great hindrance to improved
tillage. Hardly any fence will stop them, and they constantly
commit nocturnal depredations on the corn-fields, and are suffi-
Farming of South Wales. 14]
ciently subtle to retire to their rugged domain before the return
of day. Flocks of the neighbouring farmers constantly mingle
together, and are distinguished only by marks. ‘They drop the
lambs at any period of the early summer, and the ewes supply
large quantities of milk: in some districts it is still common to
milk the ewes for two months after the lambs are weaned; the
milk is principally manufactured into cheese. The mountain
sheep will graze well when removed to better pasture, but it is
very difficult to restrain their rambling propensities. Some of
these little creatures are constantly to be met with in Smithfield,
where they are much prized as Welsh mutton. As we de-
scend to the more level country, a larger style of sheep is met
with, which is produced by crosses with English breeds—all
retaining marked traces of the Welsh blood. The Glamorgan
Vale sheep have long been naturalized to that tract of country,
and are heavy, good ‘animals. Occasionally flocks of Leicesters
and Downs are to be seen, but not often in their purity, as the
cross-bred sheep are more in favour than the pure-bred animal.
Almost every farmer keeps a few ewes, from 10 to 60, according
to the extent of his land. The produce is either sold off as fat
lamb or disposed of to the butcher before they are twelve months’
old, as the ewes are good milkers, and they are well kept through
the summer and autumn, but there is no winter provender.
This is the cause that the markets are so frequently supplied
with meat which is neither lamb nor mutton, and not the sheep
« killed at 18 months old,” as mentioned by Mr. Davies. ‘The
sheep are kept in the pastures all the year round; should there
be a heavy fall of snow, they are provided with a little hay. In
districts where turnips are grown they are not often folded on
the land, but the turnips are thrown on the pastures for them.
The Welsh hog is distinguished by his large size, long pendant
ears, coarse bristles, and thickness of bone. ‘They are generally
reared where there is a dairy, and those kept for bacon are killed
at about eighteen months or two years old, and will weigh from
16 to 22 score. They are great consumers, and now that
potatoes are so scarce it 1s found very unprofitable to feed them,
as the price of the fresh meat seldom exceeds 4d. or 5d. per lb.
Swedes chopped fine and boiled with meal will be found a good
substitute for the potatoes. A large pig of this description requires
quantity as well as quality of food, and if fed entirely on barley-
meal they will soon cease to be fatted at all. Crossed with the
Berkshire, these pigs retain the great size of the original stock
and the early maturity of the English breed; still for bacon the
old sort is preferred on account of the great ‘quantity of lean in
proportion to the fat. Every labourer, strives to have his pig,
which is reared with great care. ‘They are not confined to styes,
142 Farming of South Wales.
but are fed from a bucket near the cottage door seven or eight
times in a day. They roam all about the roads and lanes, and
retire to their hovel at night. In the summer it is customary to
boil the refuse of the garden and even wild herbs with the bran
that is sifted from the barley and oatmeal. In this way a pig is
brought to a large size, with great solicitude and little expense.
Barley-meal is generally used for fattening, and a pig will con-
sume 10 or 15 bushels. When killed, the meat is salted and
hung up in the roof to dry. The short-eared pigs are common
in the flat districts, where they are generally killed at an early
age as porkers.
The cart-horses are small, but naturally hardy and active.
They are reared, like the cattle, entirely abroad, worked at a
very early age, and frequently badly fed. It cannot therefore be
wondered that many are sluggish and of a very mean description,
not capable of real work for two days together. ‘The tender
shoot of the young furze, bruised or cut into chaff, forms with
some the principal winter provender ; with others a small supply
of poor hay, plenty of barley straw, pea haulm, and corn chaff.
There still exists the practice of baiting cart-horses in a close
stable till eight o’clock on a cold night, and then turning them
out to grass! ‘They feed on the pastures as long as there is
anything to be had, and the allowance of oats in the spring (if
any) is scanty in the extreme. ‘The old Welsh punch is much
degenerated by injudicious crosses with high-bred animals, which
makes them too light and delicate. Another evil is common,
viz. that of breeding from very old, diseased, and worn-up mares.
The management of the farm-yard manure is truly distressing,
and, as if rotten straw and a little dung was not poor enough, all
means of retaining the few fertilizers it possesses are totally disre-
garded. Cows being the stock kept, the manure is mainly made
by them. When brought up to be milked they are driven to a
large enclosure, called “a court,” or to a “ milking back,” where
- they amuse themselves with picking over various lumps of straw,
laid promiscuously about, and treading the remains of the last
meal into manure. The cleanings of the hovels in which the
calves or tender yearlings are kept,.are thrown in heaps by the
door into the same court, where all alike are dried by the sun and
washed by the rain. Some streams run through the farm-yard,
which carry away much of its richness into the next brook.
The use of sea-sand and sea-weed, or “ ore,’ as manure has been
long known, for in the reign of Queen Elizabeth Mr. George Owen
thus wrote :—‘ This kind of ore they often gather and lay on
great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong
and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land,
as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially
Farming of South Wales. 143
barley.”” And again of sea-weed, “ After spring-tydes, or great
rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie
the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which
doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.” These
spoils of the ocean are found in great quantities in many maritime
positions, but chiefly on the Western Coast. Some lay the sea-
weed fresh on the land, and immediately plough it in; others, as
of old, put it in heaps to ferment. Alternate layers of farm-yard
dung and ore produce an excellent compost, as the saline juices
of the seaweed do not escape (as is frequently the case if placed
by itself), but mix with the manure, which thus in an eminent
degree retains its moisture in hot weather. It was till lately suc-
cessfully applied in a fresh state as a dressing for potatoes. ‘The
sea-sand is highly calcareous, containing large quantities of pul-
verized shells. It is applied at the rate of 10 to 20 loads per
acre, and is considered serviceable in destroying many weeds
which the overcropped land naturally produces.
Lime is extensively used in South Wales. In districts it is very
plentiful: some places can be supphed by water, while in many
others none can be obtained but by a long’and hilly land-carriage.
In some tracis it is common to send for lime 20 or 30 miles! The
numerous heavy tolls, which in long journeys amounted to a serious
sum, were the principal causes of the Rebecca riots. When far
fetched, the lime is applied with much skill and judgment, but
too much at once is frequently used where it can be easily had.
The quantity applied per acre is often regulated by the price, and
ranges from 60 to 250 bushels per acre. Extraordinary heavy
limings are frequently given to the stiff loams in the Vale of Gla-
morgan, and Mr. Davies mentions several cases which averaged
for sixty years 100 bushels per acre every year! It may be as
well to state, that this buff-coloured lime is not so strong a manure
by nearly one half as that of the calcined carboniferous limestone.
Of course the price, therefore, varies with the locality. In Car-
digan it is sometimes 7d. or 8d. per bushel, while in the southern
parts of Pembroke it can be produced for 3d.
Marl was anciently much used as a manure. It is said to have
been first discovered by one Cole, a Frenchman, in the twelfth
century. It is much prized by the historian already quoted, for
he says, “It will carry barlie, wheat, and peas continually for twentie
yeares without dong.” This clay-marl is described as being of a
“ blewe coller, sometimes redd,”’ fat and clammy, more adapted for
loose, dry land than moist, where “lyme rather serveth than this.”
It was considered much more durable than sand or lime, for the
old adage says, “that a man doth sand for himselfe, lyme for his
sonne, and marle for his grandchilde.”” Marl abounds chiefly in
the north of Pembroke and south of Cardigan, but is hardly ever
144 Farming of South Wales.
applied to land now, being entirely superseded by lime. I have
merely noted these ancient records, as it appears strange so
lasting a fertilizer on the spot should be universally neglected,
while a more active, though transient, stimulant is procured from
such a distance.
Peat is sometimes used as a manure, and has been successfully
burned with lime, but is more frequently made into a compost.
Coal-ashes, which are obtained in large quantities in the vicinity
of the Iron Works, are very useful, especially as a top dressing for
grass-land.
The operation of paring and burning is often resorted to, —
especially in marshy and peaty grounds, as a preparation for
corn-crops. In this manner the cleaning and breaking up land
that is under furze, &c., is done in a neat and husbandlike
manner. The first crop is generally prime, but land is frequently
cropped to sterility, and this occasions the system to be much
spoken against. It is condemned so far back as the sixteenth
century, for it is the opinion of the Lord of Kemmes that “in the
most mountenous partes which grow nothing but heathe and
small furse, and shallow with all, this kind of ill husbandrie may
be borne, but those who use this kind of betting in land, which
otherwise would have been tilled to better advantage, are much to
be blamed for doing themselves, the land, and the countrye harm.”
Land that has undergone this process is still called bet-land, and
there cannot be a doubt that it stimulates the soil by bringing its
inert properties into a condition available for the support of crops,
while the continued practice of taking corn without manure must
ultimately impoverish the ground. Jn reclaiming wastes, espe-
cially a morass or bog, paring and burning is, in the first
instance, not only very useful but frequently indispensable.
Except where much peaty earth abounds, its subsequent applica-
tion cannot be commended.
The only artificial manure which has been extensively tried is
guano, which (when good) has been found to answer admirably
for corns, root-crops, and grass ; indeed, the effects are sometimes
double those which are produced by the same manure in the Hast
of England. ‘The beneficial influences of all manures exhibit
themselves most rapidly. The great activity and increased luxu-
riance which is imparted to all crops by the application of good
fertilizers, is conspicuous to any one who has seen the small
returns produced by the heavy dressings given to the gravels of
Norfolk. It is supposed, however, that the effect beimg so im-
mediate and extensive will be less lasting.
A better class of zmplements is becoming at last gradually more
appreciated. The old Welsh plough, with its mould-board of
wood, is being superseded by a light iron swing-plough. In the ©
Farming of South Wales. 145
Upper District still many of the implements are made in the
most rustic style possible, and the cumbersome, ill-shaped, old
plough (sometimes 13 or 14 feet long) continues much in favour,
especially for the small wheat ridges. ‘There are very few
waggons ; light carts, drawn by two horses, with moveable frames,
&ec., perform all work. In the flat country there are more
thrashing-machines than are usually seen in England, and some
are propelled by water. Cultivators, drags, &c., are here daily
becoming more abundant. In many tracts the uneven nature of
the ground will not admit of the use of the drill, but on level
land all corn is commonly sown broadcast.
The enclosures are generally small. The banks are from 5 to 8
feet high, and with the ditches sometimes occupy from 29 to 30 feet.
The banks aremade nearly perpendicular, with two shallow ditches,
and each side faced with sods. The quicksets are small bushes of
hawthorn, hazel, blackthorn, alder, and willow grubbed up in copses
or ditches, trimmed and planted upright on the top of the bank.
By the sea coast, and through the red soil and coal tracts, there
are some dry stone walls, but more frequently banks of alternate
layers of stones and sods. Where exposed to the fierce winds,
these and the common sod fences are left without any quickset,
but double rows of furzes sown and kept constantly trimmed
have been found to grow well in any situation. The high banks
are considered to render much service as shelter to the cattle, and
there can be no doubt they are a great protection to the young
stock, which are fed with hay and lodge under them during the
entire winter; but shelter cannot be required for the ridiculously
small, ill-shaped fields that are everywhere met with, having
huge banks which occupy nearly one-fourth of the land. Exten-
sive fields are not desirable; one from 10 to 15 acres is large
enough. <A good hedge-row will break the severe gale that sweeps
across the country from the sea, and thus protect the young
grasses and winter crops; and, till the farm-buildings afford more
accommodation, the cattle must find shelter from the storm some-
where in the open fields. The gates are usually narrow; in
woodless tracts the gate-posts are formed of stones. Frequently
the opening into fields is stopped up with dry stone walling, or
furze and stakes ; and often the gates are rudely constructed with
four light poles, the uppermost resting in a mortice cut in the
post. ;
The wastes of the upland tracts are stocked with small black
cattle, mountain sheep, and ponies. ‘They feed to the summit of
the highest hills during the summer, but retire to the warm and
sheltered spots as the severe weather approaches. Much of the
Jand of South Wales was recently undivided, but in the early part
of the present century most extensive enclosures were made, and
VOL. X. L
*V
146 Farming of South Wales.
since Mr. Davies made his report much more has been taken in.
The principal wastes which still remain unenclosed are too ele-
vated and rugged to be successfully cultivated, and, taking the
whole district, there is not now so much open improvable land as
in many parts of England. Butthere are nearly 5000 acres of fen
and marsh land near ‘Tregoran, and about 6000 more by the
mouth of the Dovey, both in Cardigan, ‘These moors remain in-
the same state as mentioned in 1814, though, if drained, they
could be made some of the best land in that country. 'The ine-
qualities of the surface of the country render it in a peculiar
manner adapted to the growth of timber, and, if the mountain —
sheep and cattle are fenced out, the rough declivities will soon be
crowded with oak, ash, or alder. The beautiful slopes and
dingles of the Wye afford continual instances of these natural
plantations. Even Pembroke, whose exposure to the westerly
winds is now considered unfavourable for timber, was once covered
with woods, but they have gradually become less and less.
Thus, in the time of Elizabeth, the Lord of Kemmes, in his
M. N.S. History, says, “ This country groneth with the general
complainte of the decreasing of woods;”’ and a Mr. Lewis, in the
reign of Queen Anne, observes onthis, “ If there was such cause
of complaint then, how is that cause increased in the course of
another century!’’ Mr. Hassell, in 1793, says, “ The stock of
timber is so much reduced, that in a few years more the farmer
must import wood for the purposes of husbandry,’ which he must
certainly do now, did not the monthly sale of refuse timber at the
Dockyard furnish a regular supply. Many of the woods mentioned
in the last report have since been felled. If there was such a
quantity of timber in Wales in old time, why cannot it be
grown now? Let the plantations of Stackpole and Brownslade,
flourishing on the edge of the Atlantic, furnish a reply. Oak is
the principal timber grown, and this is raised from the old stump,
or stools, which are cut every fifteen or twenty years; and when
the poles are peeled, they are easily disposed of for Cay
purposes.
No part of the kingdom requires draining more than South
Wales. ‘The whole of the coal measures, and many soils on the
red sandstone, are wet from innumerable springs which arise from
the fissures of the rocks. ‘The clay-slate formation and millstone-
grit are also wet from this cause and surface-water ; and, in fact,
no large district of the country, except the limestone soils, can
boast of being sufficiently dry. The West of England and South
Wales Draining Company have commenced a move in the right
direction in the eastern part of the Principality, but the effect of
that progress is not felt in the interior or western portions ; indeed,
very rare instances of regular draiage have been attempted. _
Farming of South Wales. 147
Some springs have been tapped, and a sort of catchwork system
with stones may have been here and there tried.
So far back as the year 1794 the farm-buildings of the west
counties were described as “ incommodious, comfortless, and
wretched ;” and now, midway in the nineteenth century, the same
epithets may be most appropriately applied. Glamorgan, which
contains some fine specimens of old baronial and monastic barns,
has been surpassed by Brecknock in its agricultural premises ;
but, taking the district generally, there is an universal lack of
farm-buildings. A lease-tenant, when he takes possession of a
farm, frequently sees that all his spare capital must be expended
on his homestead, instead of being employed in draining and
other legitimate improvements of the soil. But it is not only on
farms without leases that there are no buildings; where the
tenants are from year to year they are equally bad, several pre-
mises being without a single enclosed yard! Many farmers, when
told to grow turnips, reply, “ What is the use of growing turnips
when we have no sheds to eat them in?”’ But, it having been the
custom formerly for tenants who had taken cheap leases to build
premises, there appears to be an erroneous impression that all
tenants can and ought to do the same!
The average rental of farms may be considered as under 40.
per annum. The smaller holdings are generally dearer in pro-
portion than the larger farm, simply, it is supposed, because there
are so many competitors for small parcels of land. There are
some few leases granted for 999 years, and others for “as long as
the sun rises and water flows;” but generally the leases are for
hives. ‘Those that were granted many years ago are frequently
uncommonly cheap, but what have been recently made exhibit an
increase of rent on the old ones from 50 to 300 per cent., and
land is now let at its extreme value. It is a singular fact, that
cheap leases frequently made the Welsh tenant indolent and
careless, and that an increase of rent has bettered his condition,
by making him a more active and industrious farmer! But too
high rents are now frequently required, and little attention is
paid to the character and pecuniary circumstances of the tenant.
The man who gives more than land is really worth is often one
who has everything to gain and nothing to lose. From these and
other causes the capital of many of the tenantry is utterly inade-
quate for the proper cultivation of the land. The common prac-
tice of giving six months’ credit at all agricultural sales will show
the usual style of money transactions. The lease in the western
counties is often granted for three lives, and may include that of
the occupier and two of his children. There are no restrictive
clauses as to cropping or selling any kind of produce, and nothing
is said about covenants to be observed at the expiration of the
Te
148 Farming of South Wales.
term. Certain pastures are not to be broken up, and the land-
Jord reserves the game, timber, and the right to dig for minerals,
&c. The tenant is bound to keep the house and all buildings in
proper repair. It is the custom of the country, when a lease
expires, to remove all produce, even hay and straw. The entry
is commonly at Old Michaelmas. Should a landlord distrain for
rent, the tenant does not necessarily quit the holding, but strives
to struggle on and patch up his broken fortune. ‘These leases
are liked by the tenantry as giving ample security for all outlay,
and the landlords are relieved from all burdens but the taxes,
and it is impossible, from the uncertainty of life, to run a farm
out of condition with the exactness which is often practised where
the term is for a specified number of years. “It isthe nature of
man to flatter himself and hope for the best, by putting the evil
day of dying far off; thus hope comforts the tenant, and uncer-
tainty the landlord.’ Leases for the life of the tenant only and
for a term of years are more common in the east, and these are
more particularly framed, Many landlords have entirely dropped
the practice of granting leases, and let all their farms from year
to year.
The peasantry of West Wales are contented and thrifty.
Their wages are not often more than 6s. in the upper, and 7s.
per week in the lower country. It is customary to board the
labourers wholly or in part during harvest, giving them the same
wages. They are neat and skilful in some of the minor branches
of husbandry, but in general field work, where strength and
exertion are required, are much inferior to English labourers ;
indeed a Lincolnshire workman at half-a-crown a day is not
dearer than most Welsh labourers at a shilling. In support of
this, I may state that task-work (which is seldom heard of here)
cannot be done cheaper in Wales than in the east of England.
This is naturally the case; a man who consumes wheaten bread
and meat must be in better working trim than the man who eats
barley cake and a little butter ; and until the Welsh labourers are
better fed they cannot be physically capable of sustaining with
equal ease the fatigues of a hard day's work. ‘Their principal diet
is oat and barley-meal merely moistened with water and made
into cakes. ‘These cakes are pressed very thin, and baked on an
iron plank upon the fire. Barley bread is made in large loaves
fermented with leaven. Sometimes they eat oatmeal and butier-
milk, and a common beverage is extracted from the husk of the
oat. The farm cottages are built on the ground floor, and the
rent with a good garden is in the upper country from 30s. to 40s.,
and in the low lands from 40s. tc 50s. per annum, If possible
the spot selected for building is close by a spring, but often it is
so near that it renders the floor damp and cold. The walls are
farming of South Wales. 149
now made of stones and mortar, the roofs thatched or slated. ‘The
cottages built with mud, of which Mr. Davies hopes the descrip-
tion he gives “may be the only existing memorials of such
dwellings in less than half a century,” are rapidly on the decline.
As they fall down one built of stone is generally substituted.
Whitewashing the exterior, which is mentioned by a Welsh
bard in the sixth century, is still universally practised. In many
districts it is common to mix clay with the lime for colouring the
walls yellow, and the slate roofs are washed white! ‘The interior
is divided into two apartments; one, in which the principal
culinary operations are performed, and the other is used for
meals, &c., and contains the beds, which are like high boxes
with sliding panels. ‘The windows are very small, and the rooms
are damp, close, and dark. ‘The fuel consists, in some districts,
of peat, with furze and fern, in others culm,* and the anthracite
and bituminous coal. ‘lhe women are frugal, cleanly, and
industrious. ‘They are well skilled in manufacturing coarse
cloth, but are singularly awkward at needle-work. Strangers
generally notice the market-women, who knit and carry their
baskets on their heads. ‘They do not work much in the fields but
in hay and corn harvests. Most of the farmers have some lads,
or single men, who board and lodge in the house, and look after
the farm-horses. In some instances labourers have smaller
wages and the keep of their cow; occasionally the privilege of
setting potatoes in the field. F'arm-labourers are generally hired
by the year, not by the day, and then mostly have their corn from
the farmer at a fixed price, The religious and secular education
of the poor throughout this portion of the principality is very
much neglected; lately considerable efforts have been made to
provide more ample instruction. In thus noticing the education
of the poor, it would be well to say a word upon the amount of
instruction generally given to the young farmer. Not only is it
‘(as is generally the case) totally deficient in providing a scientific
knowledge of his future occupation, but the common rudiments
of a sound and plain education are frequently dispensed with.
‘The fact that commercial schools are rarely to be met with, will at
once explain the numerous defects that must occur in the Welsh
farmer’s early education.
To glance at some of the important improvements which have
iaken place in the well-farmed districts, will now be a more
pleasing task; but as the description of the agriculture of the
* Culm is the dust of the stone-coal, and is prepared for burning by being mixed
with clay or mud from the shore. It is then made into balls, and in a moist state
applied to the fire, and it produces no smoke, At might a casing of this wet culm is
placed on the fire, which keeps in well twelve hours, and thus forms a cheap and
convenient fuel,
150 Farming of South Wales.
interior of the country has already occupied so much space and
time, the limits of a report will not admit of more than a few
passing remarks on each locality. When Mr. Davies made his
report in 1814, the only three districts that produced any extent
of turnips were the vales of the Usk and the Wye, and a portion
of the plain of Glamorgan. The root was even here imperfectly
cultivated, for we read, “the common farmers sow broadcast, and
take chance crops, thick or thin, clean or not,’ The turnips
were often harrowed to thin them, and this was supposed to
supersede the necessity of hoeing them; and it is further re-
marked, «too many are left entirely in the state of nature.”
Beginning at the west, the first tract that claims our attention is
that of Castle Martin and the South of Pembroke. ‘The course of
cropping mentioned in 1814 was, at St. Florence—< 1. Wheat, on
limed fallow; 2. Barley; 3. Peas; 4. Barley or Oats laid down
with grass-seed.”” In Castle Martin: “ Wheat, on limed fallow;
Barley; Barley; Barley. Produce of first barley crop, 28 bushels;
second, 10 to 20 bushels; and third still less.” In the Hundred
of Roose: “ Fallow, wheat, clover, wheat; and oats.’ Turnips
now form part of almost every rotation, though the courses are
very various. The following are among the principal: Fallow
(well limed and manured), wheat, turnips, wheat, barley, clover ;
fallow, wheat, barley, turnips, wheat, barley, clover; wheat (on
ley), barley, turnips, wheat, barley, clover; oats, turnips, wheat,
barley, clover; and on some of the land unkind for the production
of turnips, the Welsh system moderated is still used. After some
of these courses, the land perhaps remains from two to four years
in grass, generally mown the first season, and depastured the rest
of the tme. The management of corn and hay harvests, and the
principal operations of husbandry, are pursued on the same
principle as has been related, but of course in a better and more
effectual manner. The superiority of the farming diminishes as
it proceeds inland; and above Narbeth the Welsh county com-
mences. Indeed few good crops of corn, and still fewer turnips, are
seen north of the red soil, for the coal-measures are wet, barren,
and generally produce inferior grain, and the pastures are crowded
with furze and brambles.
When Mr. Davies visited Laugharne Marsh, he found “the
soil more to be commended than the management,” and observed
only one piece of fallow in the 3000 acres. He relates that forty
successive white-straw crops had been taken without manure ; and
sums up the rotations as follows :—‘‘ Wheat, beans, barley, oats,
barley; oats, then wheat again; and the same course repeated
for twenty years, or rather from time out of mind.” ‘The marsh
presents a very different appearance now. About 1,000 acres
have since that period been reclaimed from the sea, which is now
Farming of South Wales. 151
some of the best land in the level. Several Englishmen have
taken large holdings here, and are farming well. ‘They all com-
mence their rotation with a white-siraw crop, then barley, then
turnips, and afterwards spring wheat or barley; if the former,
they generally take a fifth crop before the seeds are sown, but
this depends on the state of the land. Beans are sown over a
considerable area, and very good cropsare raised. When the land
is laid down to grass it produces most superior pasturage, and
one of the best oxen ever slaughtered in this part of the country
was grazed here last year.
The neighbourhood of Kidwelly ought not to be passed by with-
out some notice of its improved agriculture. The cropping of this
tract in 1816 was mentioned as—l. Wheat, on limed fallow;
2. Barley; 3. Oats; 4. Barley, or the oat-stubble manured and
sown with 4. Wheat; then 5. Barley; or without clover, to rest
from labour 5 years. ‘There are several enterprising farmers who
now pursue the following and similar rotations:—Ley taken up
and sown with oats, then cleaned with turnips, which are mostly
eaten off by the sheep, then barley or spring wheat, and the last
crop either barley or oats, with seeds, This mode is found to
answer exceedingly well. Irrigating the pastures is here common ;
indeed all through the coal-fields the numerous springs or smal]
streams are made to flow over the saturated clayey ground, which
produces coarse inferior grass and, being undrained, plenty of rush.
Below Kidwelly are extensive salt-marshes; nearer Swansea may
be seen some successful instances of thorough draining the stiff clays
of the coal-measures. This is generally performed by the land-
lord; but there are a few spirited tenants with twenty-one years’
leases, who have tiie-drained their farms, and the general rotation
of crops that they practise is oats on ley, turnips, then barley with
grass-seeds. Few sheep are kept in the western parts of Car-
marthen ; and the cattleare housed in the winter, as the land is so
wet, that the stock could not select a dry spot to lie down on.
The yearlings, steers, cows, &c., are all tied up in sheds; some
receive a portion of hay, but they often subsist entirely on straw.
An intelligent correspondent having kindly forwarded me an
account of the present state. of the agriculture of Gower, I shall
insert hisremarks at length :—
“The western portion of the county of Glamorgan, called ‘Gower,’
may be termed a peninsula, being bounded by the Lianelly Channel on
the north, and the Irish and Bristol Channels on the south and south-east.
“The surface, without rising into hills or mountains, is rather hilly or
undulating, with eccasional slopes and vales capable of being highly
cultivated.
** At a rough estimate I should say that one-third of the entire surface
is waste, a large portion of which is held in common.
“The most fertile, as well as the best cultivated, portions are those
w->
152 farming of South Wales.
which are naturally dry, being a sort of table-land above the limestone-
cliffs adjoining the sea, while the less favoured spots near the commons in
the interior, which are under cultivation, are many of them not so dry,
but quite capable of being made so, by the now well understood process
of therough draining. With these preliminary remarks we shall now
proceed briefly to state the system of farming generally pursued in Gower.
‘Truly and correctly speaking the farmers are without system—each
and every one having a way of his own—which has possibly been pursued
upon the same farm for centuries past; still they have some features in
common, especially as regards their treatment of live stock. All whose
holdings are large enough keep cattle, generally of the Glamorgan breed.
The cows are kept asa sort of dairy; the principal produce sold from
which is butter, generally of good quality. The cheese is miserable stuff, ~
scarcely deserving the name. ‘The calves are reared upon sour milk and
whey, and when two years old, bear witness to the hard treatment they
have received. The steers or oxen, when four years old, are sold to the
dealers or drovers to be driven to the eastern counties of England, where
they are re-sold to be fattened upon the fine grazing pastures of that
district, for the London market. If anything is attempted to be fed off at
home, it is generally some old cow which has become from age unfit for
the purposes of the dairy.
«The sheep are, for the most part, of the smal] Welsh mountain breed ;
but as to their management there is literally none, unless it be that they
are shorn of their wool. But ignorance in this important branch of rural
economy is not confined to Gower, as it prevails at least over the county
of Glamorgan. Ina journey the other day by the mail-road, the writer
cannot say that he saw one flock free from scab from Neath to Monmouth.
‘* The pigs are, for the most part, of the old ‘lank and lean’ sort, but of
jate some of a better breed have been introduced.
‘“‘ There is now evidently a desire amongst the better class of farmers to
introduce better breeds of cattle as wellas sheep. Short-Horns, Herefords,
and Devons of the best sort are now to be found; and sheep, although not
of the best breed, yet of a larger size and more quiet habits, which is
something, as a tolerable fence and a mountain Welsh sheep are seldom
to be found in the same parish.
“Then as tothe Corn Crops. There is for the most part some prepara-
tion for the wheat crop. A piece of foul and weedy ley is ploughed in
May or June, and undergoes what is called a fallowing; that is, being
ploughed two or three times, and harrowed, but no weeds are picked or
carried from the land. In almost every case lime is applied; and some-
times, with good farmers, a little farm-yard dung. After the wheat-crop
is removed, the stubble is ploughed in winter, and again a scratching of a
seed-furrow in May for barley. Seeds, that is clover, &c., are sometimes
put in with the barley crop, but rarely either in quantity or quality to be
of any use. More often oats are taken after the barley, but the land by
this time is so much exhausted and rampant with weeds, that you have
some difficulty, in passing, to tell what the crop upon the ground is.
There are instances of fields having been twenty or even thirty years in
crop without ever having been seeded for grass,
‘In Gower, as well as other places, much of the best lands are in hay-
meadows, but these are often late in being cleared in spring, and late
harvested hay is always of inferior quality.
‘‘ Green Crops.—Potatoes have been extensively cultivated, and bear a
high character in the Swansea market. The late disease has been severe
and destructive, but upon dry sandy soils by the sea the crops have been
better than others. The mode of cultivation has nothing peculiar.
Farming of South Wales. 153
*Turnips and mangolds, until very recently, were scarcely known;
now, however, the cultivation of these valuable roots is extending rapidly.
The soil and climate seem well adapted to the habits of these plants, and
as good turnips and mangolds have been grown in Gower as anywhere
else in the kingdom.
““The example was first set by the present Lord Lieutenant of the
county, who pursues the ‘alternate husbandry, and only takes one crop of
corn after grass, then the green crops. Turnips or mangolds, followed by
spring wheat or barley, with which last crop the land is again sown down
with clover and rye-grass seeds for pasture the following year.
“Good labourers willing to work are sellom unemployed. The money
wages paid at present in the western part of Gower may be from 10s. to
lls. per week, but nearer Swansea they are higher; but those in the
western parts have, for the most part, a few sheep on the adjoining
ee and, take it all and all, they would be unwilling to exchange
places.
** The women and boys engaged in picking couch, hoeing turnips, and
the like, get 10¢. per day. Sometimes the farmers give victuals, and in
that case the wages of a man are ls. per day. But in estimating the
wages of labour in different districts of the kingdom, cottage-rent and fuel
always form an important consideration. Without inquiring into these
and other perquisites, no correct comparison can be made. It is believed
that, although the cottages are often very inferior upon the whole, the
labourers are not over-rated as to rent.
“The farm-buildings are very far from being what they ought to be,
and generally ill-caleulated to carry forward an improved system of agri-
eulture; but I have little doubt that landlords will be, for the most part,
ready and willing to grant every encouragement in that respect to deserving
tenants.
*“* Rent of Land.—it -is rather difficult to form a correct estimate of the
rents in this district, I believe they are thought to be low; and upon the
whole, 14s. or 15s. per acre may be taken as about the average; still I
have no hesitation in saying that, under proper culture, very much of the
land is capable of paying a much higher rent than is now paid for it.”
Having now arrived at the Vale of Glamorgan, it would be well
just to mention some of the distinguishing features between the
East and the counties just quitted. The general style of hus-
bandry resembles ihat of England. Waggons are common,
implements good, fine Hereford cattle and large sheep in
abundance, and the young stock are sheltered during the winter.
The wheat-sheayes when bound are placed in stocks, while barley
and oats are gathered in a loose state, and so taken to the ricks;
the humidity of the air being less, this can be successfully prac-
tised. The hay is made carefully, being regularly cocked up at
night, and kept fresh and green by this judicious treatment. The
large waggon-cocks do not appear so common as formerly. The
cottages are more comfortable, and those of Glamorgan have Jong
been celebrated for their superior architecture and neatness of
thatch. The labourers consume wheaten bread and receive
capital wages, while the numerous mineral-works increase the
competition for labour and open extensive markets for all agri-
culture produce. The Vale of Glamorgan is, perhaps, the finest
154 Farming of South Wales.
district and as well farmed as any in South Wales. Although
Mr. Davies mentions a few courses connected with turnips, it
appears that the wheat, or fallow succeeded by many corn-crops,
was the principal; and sometimes, on the strong soils, wheat and
beans for six years, and laid down for as many years. The fences,
which were described ‘‘as capable of affording harbour for
elephants,’ are now for the most part of moderate size, while the
ricks still retain their superiority in neatness of construction.
The entire absence ef any system of cropping, so often mentioned,
is here the same, and therefore renders the description of the
improvement of its agriculture so difficult and complicated. After
summing up all that I saw and the various information I obtained,
it appears that some turnips are now grown by all farmers, that
wheat is taken on ley; spring wheat or barley succeeds turnips ;
that beans and oats are seldom grown, summer fallows are becom-
ing rare, and the grass-seeds lie from one to four years. Those
farmers who still cherish the remnants of the old system, take
three or four corn-crops in succession, while the more enlightened
are satisfied with two at the most. A portion of the turnips is
usually consumed on the land by the sheep or young cattle. The
Glamorgans are principally kept, and many are stall-fed on hay
and turnips at four years old. The yearlings are fed in sheds
during the winter ; in the day some turn them out to eat turnips
in the fields, and take them in at night, while the two years old
stock are treated in the same manner, but lodge in an open
straw-yard. [he Hereford cattle are more plentiful nearer
Cardiff, and the general farming is of a very superior description
in that locality. ‘The labourers receive capital wages—from 10s.
to 13s. per week, or from 10/. to 15/. a-year, and board and
lodging. The miners at their task-work earn from 18s. to 40s.
per week. Few leases are now granted. The land in the Vale
is injured by the large quantities of hay and straw sent to the
mineral districts, the loss of which, in almost every instance, is
inadequately supplied by manure not made on the farm.
From the Brecknock Beacons Mr. Davies observed that the
fallows in the Vale of the Usk were extremely numerous; and he
expresses a wish that instead of “ such ruddy fields, they were
clothed with luxuriant turnips.’’ It certainly does appear strange
that such a porous silicious soil, in a comparatively dry climate,
should have been so long treated with a summer fallow, which
rendered the land insufficiently solid for wheat. Itis supposed that,
in the original deposition of soil in this beautiful valley, water
washed much of the clayey portion into Monmouth, and thus left
the reddish sand to form the principal ingredient of the soil. The
following were the principal courses in 1814 :—Wheat on fallow,
barley, peas, barley, and clover; wheat on ley, succeeded by
farming of South Wales. 155
numerous corn-crops, and occasionally broad-cast turnips. Some
few farmers of superior discernment practised turniping for barley,
and took wheat on clover-ley with one furrow, to the total ex-
clusion of summer fallow, and this has rapidly gained ground ;
and the four-course, or slight deviation from it, is now the com-
mon system. It appears that the Vale of the Wye, and some parts
of Radnor, were treated with better rotations earlier than most
parts of Wales, for we find it mentioned that the Flemish course,
adulterated with summer fallows, was common at the time of the
last Report. As has been already stated, the soils here are more
clayey and stiff than in the Vale of Usk, but the farming is now
precisely similar; and the following account of the tillage will
explain the general system of this neighbourhood :—When land
is intended for turnips it is made quite clean by frequent plough-
ings, scarifying, and harrowing, and then drilled with turnips on
the ridge, 24inches apart, manured either with farm-yard manure
or artificial, such as guano, and bones dissolved with sulphuric
acid. If the latter are used, two-thirds, and if the former, one-
half of the turnips are consumed on the land by sheep folded,
which are principally Leicesters. ‘The remainder of the crop is
brought to the farm-yard for the fat cattle, and also for young
stock, which receive only the addition of straw.
I now come to the concluding portion of the Report, viz. “‘ The
improvements still required, with reference to the character and
climate of South Wales.” The advances which have been
recently made in the eastern counties of South Wales argue
well for a continued progress in agriculture, and those slight im-
perfections which still exist there may be easily removed by an
enterprising and industrious tenant, with the assistance of a just
and liberal landlord. It would therefore be great arrogance to
suggest a series of improvements in such a rapidly progressing
district, and the few humble remarks that follow will be found
chiefly applicable to the interior and western portion of South
Wales.
[t would be well therefore to commence at the fountain-
head—draining. It is perfectly unnecessary to advance argu-
ments to support that which all commend, but draining is par-
ticularly wanted in South Wales, and till the land is made dry all
other attempts at improvement will be abortive. ‘There being so
little sun and so much moisture in the atmosphere, it is highly
necessary that the rays of the sun should not be employed in
drawing off water from the land, but that they should proceed,
without let or hindrance, to warm the soil and make the plant
grow. The small amount of capital at the command of the
tenantry renders it impossible for them to drain on a large scale.
Giving them tiles would in many instances be a perfect waste of
money, on account of the imperfect manner in which the draining
156 harming of South Wales.
would be performed. ‘The only way therefore to hope for the
accomplishment of such a desirable national object is for the land-
lords to perform it, and charge the tenants five per cent. on the
outlay ; and should the landlord not have a sufficiency of spare
cash, fortunately the Drainage Act supplies money to all who
condescend to apply. Still there are many impediments in the
way. First, the absence of tiles and pipes. It has been sug-
gested that a temporary kiln and a tile-making machine, under
the direction of an experienced workman, would produce a great
quantity very cheaply. There is plenty of clay in almost every
district for the manufacture of pipes, and slates, when cut to the
required size, form capital and cheap soles for the tiles. Again,
the labourers have not the remotest idea of digging an under-
drain; but happily there exists the West of England and South
Wales Draining Company, who really perform the work, as they
profess, in the most “ scientific, economical, and effectual man-
ner.” If therefore one large proprietor, or several smaller ones,
would unite and engage the Company to drain their estates, the
most beneficial results must accrue. Independently of the in-
crease of produce, &c., it would practically show the farmer
the best way hereafter to dispose his drains, and the labourer
would see how to dig the drain, manage the new-fashioned tools,
and judiciously place the pipes. The influence might at first be
confined to a small locality, but as the advantages became glaring,
others, seeing its profit, would follow the example, and the result
would probably be that a large district would be effectually
drained. It has been found that in draining the majority of land
here, a regular system should be pursued, for the soil is so fre-
quently injured by the combined influence of springs and surface-
water, that nothing short of thorough drainage on such ground
will be found satisfactory. The imperfect manner in which
draining has been hitherto executed causes it to be so little appre-
ciated. ‘This must have been the case in Mr. Davies’s time, or
such an able and learned writer could not have asserted that
covered drains in clayey land was an “ ideal improvement,” or
recommended stone drains “to be covered with gravel to the
very surface.”
There can be no doubt that landlords should raise the farm
buildings, and the lease tenants would cheerfully keep them in
repair; but the repairs in this country are so heavy, that it is not
fair to burden the tenant with them entirely. Some tracts are at
a great distance from lime, the winds are continually damaging
the roofs, the moisture of the air rots the wood, and iron speedily
corrodes * if not covered with annual coats of paint. In selecting
** « Armoure will not indure in this countrye halfe the tyme it will doe in England ; .
for let armoure be cleaned ever sve well, in one week it will grow rusti.”—Hist. Pem-
broke, 1600,
Farming of South Wales. 157
the site for a new homestead, water, shelter, and centricity should
be well considered. Barns require to be larger ; warm and shel-
tered yards are wanted for the young cattle; and the numerous
well-known conveniences should be built which are requisite for
rearing stock, and for successfully carrying on an improved system
of agriculture.
The introducers of the new style of farming have frequently
pushed their favourite systems too far.‘ making art to super-
sede instead of assist nature.’ Thus the east of England and
the west of Wales are so totally different in soil cal climate,
that the system which would be best in the one is found nearly
impracticable in the other. The new rotation, therefore, when
introduced in its purity, exhibits such defects, that the farmer of
the old school at once totally rejects it; and the introducer, after
many years of trial, will find that, to make it profitable, he must
relax some of his original exactness. ‘The Welsh farmer, there-
fore, should adapt his system of improvements to his own soil
and climate, and not to that of Norfolk, or any other totally dif-
ferent portion of the kingdom. The foundation of the old system
was not, at the time it was practised, radically wrong, for natural
good grass, excellent both in quantity and quality, constituted the
chief wealth of Wales. The real evil is caused by the extension
of the old system, which, as it now exists, cannot be too strongly
condemned, for it is hardly possible to conceive a worse course of
cropping. For five years the land produces feeble crops, and
for five years it produces nothing, being provincially and appro-
priately termed “resting.” It appears curious that, with a climate
particularly adapted for green crops, so few turnips should be
grown. <A good rotation is the foundation of all farm economy ;
and till some better course is introduced, the agriculture of
Wales cannot improve. ‘Turnips must be extensively cultivated.
Wherever they have been tried, and had a fair trial. in good soils
or bad, on elevated or low lands, they have invariably succeeded.
Fite wland has been once brought under tillage, summer fallows
cannot be necessary. If the land requires rest, let it rest under
the shade of the turnip, instead of roasting in the sun; and should
it want cleaning, use a little extra force, and prepare it for a green
crop, and with ; a less harassing system of cropping it will never
be so difficult to clean again. ‘It is always considered abomi-
nable farming to take two white-straw crops in succession ; still,
with moderately high farming on good soils in this country, that
abomination may ‘be successfully practised. Jixperience has
proved that on the better lands, barley, after a drawn crop of
turnips, will frequently lodge. Even Mr. Morgan, in his Prize
Essay on the Cropping of pe eritnalees admits “ “barley on some
soils is not a safe crop after turnips.” Although the following
>
158 Farming of South Wales,
course cannot be defended on the principles upon which the rota-
tion of crops are founded, yet it 1s practically found to be one best
suited to the good land of this district:—1. Turnips; 2. Wheat ;
3. Clover; 4. Wheat; 5. Barley. Turnips flourish better when
supplied with small portions of manure and guano combined, than
if dressed only with the same value of each. Hand and horse
hoeing cannot be too frequently or too carefully performed, and a
portion of the turnips should be consumed on the land by the
store sheep. Spring wheat flourishes well in this climate, and
has long been cultivated with success. So early as the end of
the sixteenth century, the Lord of Kemmes says, “ Somer wheat
is sowed in the latter ende of March, or beggining of April. It
is a profitable grain, and yieldeth more increase than winter
wheat.’” Mr. Davies observes, “ Spring wheat seems well
adapted to succeed turnips on soils not below mediocrity.” He
also mentions instances of wheat being sown on the Ist of May,
and ripening within nine days of barley sown in the same field
and at the same time. An intelligent farmer in this neighbour-
hood last year did not finish sowing his wheat till May, and even
with that drenching sunless summer, it was cut in the early part
of September, and produced above 32 bushels per acre. ‘There
is thus plenty of time to clear the turnips off the land; but there
is an objection urged against growing clover with the spring wheat,
as it invariably runs up so high, that when the wheat is cut in the
short days of September, the quantity of clover will never die,
and it is often found impossible to save the corn. This results
from sowing the seed early ; but suppose the wheat to be sown in
February, some time in April it may require to be hoed. After
that operation let the clover be sown, and a good bush-harrow
on wheels, or a light seed-harrow, be used to cover the seed.
If hoeing be not required, the harrow will do just as well. There
will then be no trouble with clover at harvest; it will not use-
lessly expend itself, and there is sure to be a good plant, as wheat
seldom lodges, and so grows that it readily admits air to the
young seeds. Should the land be required to be laid down for a
term of years, the natural grass seeds can be sown with the spring
wheat instead of clover. About one-fourth of the land allotted
for clover should be sown with rye for spring feed, and vetches
for soiling in yards, to be followed by rape, which grows beauti-
fully here. This, fed off by sheep, would be a capital preparation
for the wheat-crop, and prevent the too frequent repetition of
clover. After wheat and barley, with the natural tendency of the
soil to produce couch, and the uncertainty of a sufficiency of dry
weather to clean the land for the root-crop, it would be unwise to
grow a large quantity of vetches before turnips. Wheat sown on
clover-ley is considered liable, in this climate, to be choked with
Farming of South Wales. 159
grasses, but using a good plough with a skim coulter will mate-
rially remedy this. It may be found advisable to plough the land
in July, immediately after the hay is carted, and make a bastard
fallow for wheat. This will be found useful to eradicate root-
weeds ; and, with a dressing of lime and manure, will often pro-
duce better crops than the ley ground. Barley after wheat often
yields more corn, and it is decidedly of better quality; for when
barley lodges, as, before observed, it frequently does when fol-
lowing turnips, the grain is light and it readily sprouts, and in
addition to this it kills the layer. By far the most profitable
course of farming weak and shallow land in this moist climate is,
a fallow, oats and turnips, barley, grass. Suppose a field of light
soul; clean it thoroughly, put it in good heart by lime and dung,
and take a crop of turnips. Eat the principal part of these on
the land by sheep or cattle; give the field two shallow ploughings,
sow the barley thin and seed thick with white clover and good
perennial rye-grass. ‘This land will not only keep, but feed, a
great.quantity of stock, and will continue to do so for a series of
years. The time for breaking up will be denoted by its mossing
and fogging; and when ploughed, take but one crop of oats,
turnips, barley, and then down again as before. Shallow land,
when laid down for a course of grass, is often infested with furze
and brambles. The plan of burning them, so often resorted to,
only increases and strengthens their growth. When the ground
is taken up for a ley crop, a boy with a mattock should follow the
plough, and tear up deeply all the roots which have escaped the
share. As soon as the shoot of the young furze makes its appear-
ance in the grass land, it should be immediately stumped up;
and if brambles are cut in a young state, and their branches not
allowed to strike root or shed their seed, the increase of the evil
will be effectually stopped.
Asa simple profit-and-loss statement of the old system hes
been given, it is only fair that a similar account of this rotation
should be here rendered. First, the good land, well farmed :-—
Dr. 3 Cr.
)
E Rent, | Cultiva- Lime
s Crop. | Tithes,| tionand | Seed. and Outlay. Produce.
&e. | Expenses. Manure.
S: S. s. d S. 235 gh @ aie Sse
1 | Turnips 26 70 5 0 60 - 8 1 0 } 20:tons; at5s. . oe | OiesO
2 | Wheat . 26 30 19 6 a6 3 15 6 | 24 bushels, 6s.6d.{| 716 0
3 | Clover,&e.| 26 16 12 0 Ke 214 0 | Clover, hay, &c. 310 0
4 | Wheat . | 26 35 UG 3} 50 6 7% 3 | 24 bushels, 6s. 6d. 7 16> 0
5 | Barley . 26 35 10 6 we 3 PEt 6:1) 82 4 dest 13s. Ge. 512 0
| Prohtsiespny 4 bo
| 29 14 0 29 14 0
This being a calculation for five years only, but half the quan-
tity of lime put on for the old ten-years course is supposed to be
160 Farming of South Wales.
used, and that applied to ley wheat. Being drawn out on a pre-
cisely similar plan to the other, the straw is not charged, and the
manure put at very little, and no interest is calculated for money
invested. It would be foolish totally to disregard the peculi-
arities of some soils, and to dictate this or the other rotation for all
the soils of this variable district. If the land naturally favours
barley, let the chief produce be barley; and if the upland tracts
will not produce that delicate grain, oats must be sown instead.
But turnips will flourish anywhere; only let the principle of
green crops be established, and it is very easy to modify rotations
to suit the peculiarities of any district.
The moisture of the climate of South Wales will always render
the rearing of cattle a principal object. Already it 1s a country
celebrated for its fresh springing grass, and it will soon, it is
hoped, be distinguished by its root and green crops. Whenever
Jey ground is taken up for a course of tillage, let the serious loss
that is now sustained by the poor pasturage of over-cropped land
suggest the important fact that, in returning land to profitable
grass, 1t must be laid down in a dry, clean, and highly manured
state.
The Dr. and Cr. account of the shallow land, well managed, 1s
(by the experience of a large farmer) thus rendered :—
Dr. Cr.
a Rent, | Cultiva- | Muck .
Be Crops. | Tithes,| tion and | and Seed. | Outlay. Produce.
&c. | Expenses.| Lime.
—— eee ee | _ —
S. S. S. Seo Geille Soa £. s. d.
DOatsie i. 12 25 oe 8 0 2 5 O | 32 bush. at 2s.3d. 312 0
2 | Turnips 12 70 75 5 0} 8 2 07 15tons; 5s. 315 0
3 | Barley . 12 30 8 6| 210 6 | 382 bushels, 3s. Bd | bad 5 0
4 | Grass 12 4 12 0 1 8 O | Grass (pastured) 210 0
5 Do. 12 4 . 016 0 DOr yeah omier tae 2h .oe<0
6 | Do. 12 4 016 0} Do. 220° 0
7 | Do. 12 4 016 0] Do. Vibe 5 310
8 | Do. 12 4 | 016 0] Do. | 140.0
g) Do. 12 4 | 016 0 Do. WS) x0)
10 Do. 12 4 te 6 016 0 Do. LOO
Profit 10 yrs. | 5 14 6
| 2416 0 2416 0
It will be found very advantageous, in rearing cattle, to give the
calves new milk longer than is now allowed ; and when skimmed
milk is substituted, a little linseed porridge should be added.
It is necessary to the health of calves to keep them in warm,
fresh, roomy cribs, where they can enjoy plenty of exercise. The
yearlings in winter do best in a well-shedded strawyard, with a
good supply of hay and turnips; and the older cattle in similar
yards, with turnips and fresh oat or barley straw. The cows should
lodge within during the night, and be supplied with hay, of which
they could have more were turnips generally grown and the young:
Farming of South Wales. 161
stock fed on them. But provided there are, unfortunately, no
buildings, that only increases the necessity of growing turnips. If
cattle cannot be warmly kept they must be well fed, or they will
make no progress, as 1s often the case now throughout the winter.
Turnips may be thrown on a pasture, and the young stock will
thrive well there. Convenient farm-buildings would much im-
prove the grass lands of the country. Many meadows are now
poached and puddled, to their great detriment, throughout the
winter ; and by the cattle continually gnawing every young blade
of grass the moment it appears, the spring feed is made so late
—backwarder than in England. In the selection of breeding-
stock it should be remembered that a bull ought to possess other
qualities as well as that ofa sure stock-getter ; and that although
it is very desirable for a cow to be a good milker, there are other
most important characteristics to be considered. By endeavour-
ing to remedy those points where the breed 1s naturally deficient,
the Pembroke cattle will, in an eminent degree, display the
valuable combination of milking and feeding qualities. Giving
the young stock proper exercise, warmth, and nourishing food, will
soon show that they are not such slow feeders at an early age as 1s
generally supposed.
Sheep when very young may be successfully house-fed on
turnips and hay, and of course the addition of oil-cake and corn
will greatly assist. All long-woolled lambs are best shorn;
and those that are intended for the house should be taken in
about October, separated into small lots, and kept clean and
well ventilated. From March to May, when good mutton is
generally scarce, house-fed sheep will sell with profit. Sheep
will not progress so rapidly when exposed to the incessant rains
of the winter, neither will they bear in this climate the hard
folding that is practised in England. The farmer of the enclosed
lands might gradually supplant his present mixed bred ewes with
good hardy Downs, and advantageously cross them with a Leices-
ter or Cotswoldram. ‘The produce would be admirably adapted
for early feeding; and there is ample opportunity to purchase
Downs from those gentlemen and farmers who, with much trouble
and expense, have imported from England flocks of the very best
description. Nothing can exceed the profit of selling all stock
reared on the farm, fat. Thus a gentleman and practical farmer,
whose occupation rests upon a barren tract of the Pembroke coal
measures, stall-feeds all his cattle at two years old; his sheep
(which are house-fed) are sold at thirteen or fourteen months, and
pigs at six or nine months old. No artificial food is consumed ;
the stock is the ordinary produce of the country, yet the amount
of meat and dairy produce that is returned on a small invested
capital is astonishing. It will be replied to this, that the markets
VOL. X. M
162 Farming of South Wales.
are now so limited that this system can only be practised by a few.
This is lamentably true; but when the South Wales Railroad is
finished it will open the mining districts to the Western counties,
and enable the Welsh farmer to dispose of his stock in the English
markets. This gentleman prefers to keep farm-horses by pairs
in loose boxes, with a small yard attached. There is a trough
for water, and a bin for green food in summer in the yard, while
the box is supplied with a rack to contain the bruised gorse, and
two separate mangers, that the horses may be tied up when
feeding and not devour each other’s corn. Horses when at work
on the farm are sometimes exposed to cutting winds, &c., and
when thus treated are not so subject to colds and sore-throats as
those kept in stables. ‘They also appear to rest with more ease
than when tied up ina stall. The horses are kept in the entire
year, and thus all the manure is saved. When turned out to
grass, horses feed it very unevenly, and spoil much of the grass if
long. During the winter the gorse (which will last four months)
is cut into chaff, and, with one bushel of oats and a few swedes
horses are kept in capital condition. In March, as the busy
season advances, hay is substituted and the corn increased.
Vetches will come to hand in May, and will, with clover, last
till the gorse is ready in the autumn. The tender shoot of the
young furze is admitted to be both “palatable and nutritious ;”
cheapness is certainly added to these good qualities. The gorse is
best when cultivated; but the great quantity of land which pro-
duces nothing else, causes the Welsh farmer to prefer gathering
it from the natural plants. By this method of feeding little hay
is consuined, and it is desirable, especially in the upland tracts,
not to place much reliance upon the hay, as it 1s generally badly
saved and of inferior quality. For breeding, the best and
youngest mares should be selected, and the colts sheltered and
well fed during the first two winters.
The lack of accommodation will not allow the Welsh farmer
to resort to the improved methods of making manure, therefore
some suggestions are thrown out that may be of service in his
present condition. After the manure is carted to the fallow in
the summer, it would be well to line “the court” with sand,
ashes, or some porous material, to the depth of 3 or 4 inches.
This would absorb much of the urine, which, from the cow, con-
stitutes the most valuable part of the manure. Instead of having
the drain from “ the court” run into the horse-pond, it might flow
into some mould or peat, which should be collected for the pur-
pose, and now and then turned. All the cleaning of the stables
and hovels should be carefully spread, and the straw for the cows
not placed in heaps, but in bins, which can be roughly constructed
at very little expense. These bins should be constantly shifted,
Farming of South Wales. 163
so that all the manure will receive an equal pressure. The
droppings of the young catile, often met with in large quantities
under the pasture-fences, might be collected and spread about
the court, which would increase the amount of animal excrement
so much wanted, as most frequently the common manure is not
much more than rotten straw. It is not recommended, even for
light and porous soils, to turn manure heaps more than once.
Every practical farmer knows (and chemistry confirms our expe-
rience) “that farm-yard manure begins to lose its most valuable
properties as soon as ever fermentation commences.” When
manure is carted very early in the season, it should be placed
upon a bottom composed of earth not less than six inches deep.
Of course the carts should be drawn over the heap, and all care-
fully spread. The manure cannot be too well mixed; and that
from the fat cattle, the cows, and the horses should be placed in
alternate layers. When the heap is completed it should be well
covered with ashes, road-scrapings, or any mould, and thus no
evaporation or fermentation will take place. For all soils it
should not be turned over more than a fortnight before required
for use, and then well cased with the mould that was below.
When dung late in the season 1s required for immediate use, should
the yards not be wanted, it can be packed up there in a heap,
covered with the earth’s lining before recommended, and it will be
ready to be applied to. the land in about ten days. In both cases
fermentation will then have taken place, sufficiently to kill the
seeds of weeds and the larve of msects,* without losing any
quantity of ammonia. Experiments have proved that plants
flourish most luxuriantly when exposed to the influence of matter
disengaged by fermentation. Although it may be contended
that well rotted dung is more soluble, and therefore more easily
taken up by the young turnip, persons of a contrary opinion think
that the gases given off by the fermentation of manure in the
soil are more easily applied to the wanis of the infant plant.
At any rate, by repeated turnings this is all lost, and there can be
no doubt that well rotted manure is not so lasting in its effects as
the other.
One of the evils of the life leases is the large amount of capital
the tenant sets fast on his entry by building, &c.; and another is
felt by the landlord, who finds it impossible to rid his estate of a
slovenly or bad farmer. But a tenant farming from year to year
cannot be expected to improve permanently the property he hires:
he neglects to expend his capital, lest good crops should bring
increased rent or loss of the occupation. If there is an objection
* In addition to grubs, the egg of the wheat-midge and other insects that prey upon
the cereal crops are deposited in the husk and straw of corn, and will therefore, it is
supposed, be destroyed by fermentation.
M 2
164 Farming of South Wales.
to grant a lease for lives, one for a limited number of years might
be substituted, having a compensation clause for improvements. An
unskilful farmer without capital would not be then a clog for so
many years, and there would be ample security for the money
expended by the enterprising tenant. All leases should contain
clauses prohibiting the occupier from taking more than two white-
straw crops in succession, and making it compulsory that all
manure, hay, and turnips should be left at the expiration of the
term; the two last to be taken ata valuation by the in-coming
tenant. ‘The new comer also to pay for the threshing of the crop,
and receive the straw in return.
Provided the land was properly cultivated, there would be a
very scanty supply of labourers, and consequently the poor man
would receive better wages. This would soon improve his moral
and physical condition. He would be enabled to procure more
nourishing food, and the common necessaries of life for himself
and family; then he could perform his daily labour with more
ease to himself and satisfaction to his employer. By better food,
it is not meant that the best wheaten bread is essential for the
hard-working man. The poor of Scotland, who never see any
flour diet, are an industrious and healthy race. As it is now
admitted that education should be adopted to suit the probable
employment of after-life, surely it would conduce much to the
comfort of the labouring community if, in our National Schools,
where the peasant girls are educated, some brief outline of the
first principles of practical Domestic Economy were taught; for
the wife of a poor man should know how to dispose of and
manage his sma]l weekly wages with the greatest advantage!
The best way for an enterprising landlord, in the Welsh
parts, to disseminate improved and scientific agriculture among
his dependent farmers would be, to encourage the education
of the most intelligent of his tenants’ sons—to place them in
the Royal Agricultural College—to permit him to view various
good farming in England and Scotland, and then take him as his
farm-bailiff. His practical and theoretical knowledge could be
easily explained to the unlearned and unskilful tenantry, and
might convince those who, from real ignorance, are often con-
sidered obstinate. The Welsh have, moreover, a dislike to any-
thing propounded by strangers; and new practices of husbandry
are rarely popular unless introduced by natives of the country. >
The very remote position of the country and the Welsh language
much retard agricultural improvement. It is curious, that where-
ever English is spoken the farming is very superior, and has much
progressed of late, whereas in the Welsh parts little improve-
ment can be traced. On the other hand it may be said, the
Saxons and Flemings of old selected the most fertile and easily
Farming of South Wales. 165
cultivated land for their settlements, and therefore all the best
and level spots are occupied by their descendants. But few of
the Welsh have the chance of witnessing and seeing the effects of
good farming, and the language forbids them to wander out of
their district in search of practical information, and the English-
man, who would introduce improvements, finds that the strange
tongue presents an insurmountable obstacle to his laudable
effort.
The various defects of the agricultural management of South
Wales have been plainly, but, it is hoped, fairly stated; and they
are laid bare with a sincere desire to arouse attention and quicken
improvement. The principal permanent improvements require a
vast outlay of capital, and, with the present low price of all agricul-
tural produce, there is little inducement, either for the landlord
or tenant, to embark money with so poor a prospect of remunera-
tion; still, if good farming is not very profitable. a Lad system is a
certain loss ; and all must strive “ to produce the most at the least
cost.” But it should be particularly remembered in Wales, that
a system of cropping must be adopted which, instead of injuring,
will zmprove the soil. Then may the Welsh farmer hope to over-
come the natural obstacles which now impede his progress, and
place the hitherto neglected agriculture of his country on a level
with the improved distriets of England.
P.S.—I have to offer my warmest thanks and best acknowledg-
ments for the kind assistance I have received from the following
gentlemen, who (among others) have obligingly furnished me
with various and important particulars of the farming in their
respective localities, viz—Mr. Evan Williams, near Brecon;
Mr. E. W. David, Cardiff; Mr. Wm. Edmond, Swansea; Mr.
Geo. Goode, Carmarthen; W. H. Lewis, Esq., Cardigan; and
Mr. Isaac Williamson, Pembroke.
VII.—Description and Use of an Improved Agricultural Drain-
age Level, with the Process of Levelling, as required for Agri-
cultural Purposes. By T. Cooke, Optician and Mathematical
Instrument Maker, York.
THE process of levelling, even for agricultural purposes, is one
that has been generally considered to require a complicated and
costly instrument, and difficult to use; in consequence, many
draining operations have been attempted without the aid of
an instrument for taking levels, and frequently, as might have
been expected, much useless labour and expense have been
incurred, before the object attempted was satisfactorily attained.
166 Improved Agricultural Drainage Level.
The New Dratnace Levet has been constructed for the use
of the’ Farmer, the Land Steward, and persons superintending
Drainage operations, on a cheap, simple, and efficient prin-
ciple. It may be carried in the pocket, and is not at all lable
to get out of order. Its use may be readily acquired by any
ordinary workman, and in the hands of a person who has had
a little practice with it, it is capable of showing the difference
of level between two places, however distant, with great ac-
curacy.
The LEVEL is represented in the preceding figure, and con-
sists of an achromatic telescope, with cross lines, which gives the
instrument a great advantage over all those constructed with
plain sights only, as a staff painted white, and divided by black
lines into inches, can be read distinctly at the distance of 80 or
100 yards.
The telescope tube is made rather wide, to admit the spirit tube,
without interfering with the vision, being placed inside, for greater
protection ; the bubble of which is seen through an opening in the
upper part of the telescope.
There is a bar placed under the telescope and attached to it by
a joint at one end and a screw at the other; with this screw the
telescope and bubble are accurately adjusted to the horizontal -
Improved Agricultural Drainage Level. 167
position. In the centre of this bar is a universal joint that will
allow the telescope to be turned in any direction, and at this joint
the level is fixed to the tripod stand, which is one of a very simple
and firm construction.
The method of adjusting the Instrument, and reading the Staff.
—TFirst place the level on the stand and direct a person to hold a
graduated staff perpendicularly at a convenient distance, say 50
yards. Direct the telescope to the staff, draw out the eyepiece
a little by the edge aa, till the cross lines are seen clearly, then
draw out the telescope tube by the edge JJ, till the divisions on
the staff are also clearly seen.
Move your eye a little up and down while looking through the
telescope, and if the horizontal line seems to flit or move amongst
the divisions on the staff, slide the telescope tube a little in and out
by the edge 0 8, till the horizontal line, while the eye is being moved
up and down, seems fixed upon one part or division of the staff:
if, by doing this, the divisions on the staff have become a little
indistinct, slide the eyepiece aa a little in or out, till the divi-
sions again appear distinct. ‘This latter operation is termed cor-
recting the telescope for parallax, is a very easy one, and is
very necessary to be carefully done where accuracy is required.
Move the telescope on the universal joint till the staff appears
between the two vertical lines and parallel
to them; at the same time put the telescope
as nearly into the horizontal position as
possible, then with the screw d bring the
spirit bubble exactly into the middle of the
opening.
The instrument is now correctly adjusted,
and while in this position the reading of the
staff should be taken.
The telescope inverts objects, but any
difficulty from this, to a person unac-
customed to such a telescope, will be
easily removed by considering the divisions
must be read in the direction in which
they are numbered, or apparently down-
wards.
Thus if the horizontal line in the tele-
scope appears to cut the staff at a, the
reading is 17 inches; if at b, it is 22}
inches, &c. i
If the level move too stiffly or too easily on the universal joint,
it must be altered with the milled screw, ee.
Levelling, as required for Agricultural Purposes.—Levelling is
the art of finding a line parallel to the horizon at one or more
168 Improved Agricultural Drainage Level.
stations, to determine the height or depth of one place with respect
to another.
To find the difference of level between two places, when the distance
does not exceed 200 yards.
First place your instrument at A, midway between the two
places B and C, and direct your assistant to hold the staff per-
pendicular at B; then point the telescope to it, adjust the instru-
ment and read off the staff as directed above. Suppose the
reading 674 inches; your assistant must now take the staff to
station C; turn the level round on the joint, taking care not to
remove the stand, direct the telescope to the staff, adjust and read
as before. Suppose this 52 inches.
‘The difference of the two readings is 153 inches, which shows
that the ground at B is 153 inches lower than at C.
If the line of sight or of collimation of the telescope is known
to be correct (see pages 171, 172), it is not of so much importance
that the Instrument be placed so exactly midway between the
two stations, though it is always better to place it so when prac-
ticable.
>t
If there should be buildings or other objects between the
two stations, place the Instrument on one side as at A, where
‘you can get a view of both stations, and the difference of the
readings will give the difference of level as in the previous ex-
ample.
When the distance of the two places, the difference of level of
which is required, is considerable, a series of observations will be
necessary.
In this case divide the distance into portions of 100 or 150 —
yards each, or into unequal portions as circumstances require, and .
Improved Agricultural Drainage Level. 169
drive short stakes into the ground at each station, even with the
surface, upon which to place the staff. Then put up your
instrument midway between the first and second stations, your
assistant holding the staff upon the first, which call the back
station ; adjust your instrument and take the reading, then direct
your assistant with the staff to the second or front station,
turn your instrument round on the joint, adjust and read off as
before.
After which remove the instrument to midway between the
second and third stations; the second station now becoming
the back station, and the third the front; adjust the instrument
and read off the staff at both stations as before, and thus go on
from station to station until the whole set of observations necessary
between the two extreme stations is completed.
The following example shows the form of Levelling Book, and
the method of reducing the observations :—
Height | Quan |
F of each - Depth |
No. of Bees Back Front Rises Fall, | Station Aes | of Deain | No. of
Stations. | Gtations, | Stations. | Stations. above for | at each Station.
datum Fall, | Station. |
line.
Back-|Front.| Yds. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. Inch.
40 ANE 1
1 2 90 64 | 52 12 52 Gf 45 | D
2 3 100 Uae: | 45 28 SORT a5 Gora 3
3 4 80 69 - | 51] 18 98 214 7634 | 4
4| 5 DO Gea nea * 14 84 | 282} 553) 5
+) 6 | 95 52 76 24 60 36 24 | 6
|
455 315 | 295 58 | 38
=e29n) | 38 |
Rise 20 | 20 |
The first column contains the numbers of the back and front
stations.
The second—-The distance between the stations, in paces, yards,
or chains.
The third—The readings of the back stations.
The fourth—The readings of the front stations.
The fifth—The rise from the back to the front station obtained
by subtracting the front reading from the back reading.
Sixth—The fall from back to front station, obtained by sub-
tracting back reading from front reading.
Seventh—Gives the height of ground at each station above datum,
or a horizontal line passing through the bottom or the lowest part
of the drain at outlet.
This column begins with the number of inches the depth or
bottom of outlet of drain is, below surface of ground at first sta-
170 Improved Agricultural Drainage Level.
tion. In the example it is 40 inches. The numbers in column
fifth are added to, and those in column sixth subtracted from the
number at top of column seventh, as they succeed each other in the
two columns. .
Eighth—Contains the inches to be deducted from the inches
opposite in column seventh, that the drain may have an even and |
uniform fall from its highest part to the outlet. These numbers
are obtained thus :—Add together the numbers in column second,
the sum is the whole length of the drain. Decide upon the fall
the drain should have for that length, or upon as much as
circumstances will allow. In this example it is made 36 inches,
which is put the bottom number in the column. For the num-
ber for each of the other stations multiply the distance of the
station from the first station or outlet by the inches of fall in the
whole length of the drain, and divide the product by the whole
length : the quotient will be the fall for that station.
Thus for the fourth station.
270 yards. distance from outlet.
36 inches. fall in the whole length.
1620
810
Length 455 yards )9720( 214 inches fall from station fourth.
910
————
620
455
165
Ninth—Contains the inches the depth for the drain from sur-
face of ground at each station, obtained by subtracting each of
the numbers in column eighth from that in the same line in
column seventh.
Tenth.—The number of the stations.
In the figure annexed, A is the bottom of drain at outlet. AB
the horizontal datum line. Al, 62, d3, f4, h5, BO, are the
depths given in inches in column seventh. ab, ed, ef, gh, CB,
are the depths given in inches in column eighth. ANG 263;
e4, g5, C6, are the depths for the drain at the different eitions
given in inches in column ninth.
The line A C represents the bottom of the drain.
As a check to the calculations, the difference of the sums tof
columns third and fourth should be the same as that of columns
fifth and sixth, as should also the difference of top and bottom
number of Salta seventh.
If the difference of level between two pldecsn is merely wanted
Improved Agricultural Drainage Level. i71
for the purpose of ascertaining whether
draining be practicable or not, the Level
Book need only contain the two columns,
third and fourth, the difference of whose
sums will be the difference of level of the
two places. No distances need be mea-
sured. If, after this trial is made, draining
is ascertained to be practicable, determine
the best position and direction for the
projected drain, then begin at the outlet
and take a new set of observations, pro-
ceeding as in the preceding example.
It is recommended that the levelling
staff be divided into inches and numbered
as such ; it is more convenient for cal-
culation. The final results can readily be
reduced to feet if necessary.
To adjust the line of sight, or Collimation
of the Telescope-—The line of collimation
is a line passing through the centre of
the object glass and the middle of the
horizontal line near the eye end.
This line of sight should be parallel to
the horizon, when the spirit bubble rests
in the centre of the opening. To ascertain
this, select a piece of ground as nearly level
as you can find, drive in two short stakes
even with the surface, at the distance of
about 60 yards from each other.
Place the level exactly in the middle
between the two B. C., adjust it carefully,
and read off the staff at both the stations,
_as directed in the first example of level-
ling. Suppose the reading at B, 60 at C,
5834 inches, the difference is 14 inches
which C is higher than B. Remove the
level to B, and place it so that the object
end is directly over the stake, point the
telescope to the staff on C, and adjust the
spirit bubble carefully to the centre of the
opening, then measure the height of centre
of object glass above B, which suppose
58 inches ; read off the staff on C, which, as C is higher than B
by 14 inches, if the collimation is correct, will be 563 inches. If
the reading is more, the line of sight points too high, if less, too
low. If too high, unscrew the lower screw c of the level, and
172 Improved Agricultural Drainage Level.
screw in the upper one c. ‘The contrary when the line of sight
points too low; move the screws only a little at a time, and take
care not to force them too tight. Repeat this until the horizontal
line of the telescope intersects the staff at the proper place; in
this example, at 564 inches.
Another method to make this adjustment is by means of a
sheet of water, which, when it can be come at sufficiently large,
is convenient and accurate. At the distance of about 40 yards,
drive two stakes close to the water’s edge, till the upper ends
are even with the surface of the water; fix the level over one of
the stakes, and the staff perpendicularly upon the other; adjust
the instrument for reading the staff, then measure the height of
centre of object glass above the stake over which it is placed. If
the reading of the staff is not the same, make it so, by moving the
horizontal line up or down by the collimation screws, ec.
This is an adjustment, when once well made, that seldom re-
quires repeating.
The Levelling Staff—to accompany the level, is made of ma-
hogany, well seasoned ; light and portable. Its ene when closed
is five feet, when dense out, 94 feet. It is fiva@ed into inches
by strong black lines, upon a white ground, which can be easily
read through the ‘telescope of the level, at the distance of 100
yards.
Price of the new Drainage Level improved, with book of instruc-
tions for using it, 3l. 5s.—Price of Staff, above described, 15s.
VIIIl.—On Hemp. By Tuomas RowLanpDson.
Hemp (Cannabis Sativa of Linneus) belongs to the same order
of plants (Diawcia Pentandria) as the well-known plant which
grows on dry ditch and hedgerow sides—the common stinging-
nettle, which in outward appearance it greatly resembles. The
common nettle has repeatedly been used economically in the ma-
nufacture of textile fabrics.
The soil best suited to the growth of hemp is a deep, rich,
alluvial, and moist, mellow mould; one in which well-decomposed
vegetable matter is mixed with allay composed of fine clay
and sand, and intimately mixed, I have found the best adapted
to its cultivation. Rich old pasture land fresh broken up, if not too
stiff, is the soil on which hemp particularly luxuriates. On such
pastures being broken up, which may be deemed too rich for flax,
and on which the cereals would run too much to straw, hemp can
be grown with the greatest advantage. Hemp isa plant of exceed-
ingly rapid growth when grown under favourable circumstances,
On Hemp. 173
and frequently obtains a height of 6, sometimes 7 feet. It is said,
however, that in Italy, and the warm Oriental climates, to attain
sometimes a height equal to 15 or 18 feet, without any diminu-
tion of the equal texture and fineness of its fibre. The time for
sowing hemp should never be earlier than the 15th of April.
This, however, will greatly depend upon the character of the sea-
son, and general climate of the place where it is intended to sow
hemp. Many persons prefer the first week in May. The latter,
according to my own experience, I have always found the best
suited ; as hemp is a most unprofitable crop, unless it is grown on
such a rich soil as will force it rapidly forward. It is better,
therefore, to wait a short time for more genial weather than to run
the risk of the crop being destroyed by a spring frost; as hemp,
from its eastern origin, is peculiarly obnoxious to the destructive
effects of frost while in its earlier stages of growth.
The quantity of seed to be sown per acre must, according to
circumstances, be regulated from 2 to 2} bushels per acre. If,
however, a very fine fibre is desired, suitable for manufacturing a
coarse species of cloth similar to those manufactured from coarse
flax, 3 bushels may be sown with advantage. On very rich soils,
however, this should never be attempted, and the larger quantity
can only be sown profitably on soil of second rate, but at the same
time, of good quality. At the time the hemp is coming up, care
must be taken to scare away small birds, otherwise they will make
tremendous havoc with the cultivator’s future prospects. This
care will also have to be borne in mind at the time of harvest, if
the female plant is allowed to stand for seed. ‘There are some
very rich pasture lands, which on first breaking up will yield an
excellent crap of hemp without any manure ; the generality will,
however, require a dressing of 10 tons of well-rotten farm-yard
dung per acre. If the cultivation of hemp is carried on with land
that has been previously broken up, the general practice has been
with the cultivators of that article to plough up the stubbles in
autumn, and carry on to the land manure, 20 tons at least, during
the winter ; a practice, in my opinion, reprehensible, whether for
hemp or any other crop. I have made small comparative trials
between this method and carting well-rétten manure on to the
land, ploughing and harrowing it in early in April, and I have
found the advantages greatly preponderate in favour of the latter
method, both in economy of manureand amount of crop. It must,
however, always be borne in mind that the manure carted on in
spring should be well rotted, as hemp, being a quick-growing plant,
requires its nourishment (manure) to be well prepared, the time
of occupying the land not being sufficient to permit its perfect but
slow decomposition. Night-soil exceeds all other manures in pro-
moting the luxuriant growth of hemp; and if applied in abundance
174 On Hemp.
will make hemp grow onany porous soil, provided it is sufficiently
retentive of moisture during the heats of summer.
In consequence of the peculiar nature of hemp, differing as it
does from all our other ordinarily cultivated plants in having the
male and female flowers on separate plants, the harvesting of
hemp has some peculiarities. In taking the hemp crop, two
methods are followed, according as the object in view be either
to obtain a fine fibre adapted to the manufacture of cloth, at the
sacrifice of the seed; or the fibre and seed conjointly. In the
former case, a crop of turnips or rape, to be eaten by sheep, may
be obtained after gathering the hemp.
When the crop is grown entirely for the fibre, it is pulled while
in flower, and no distinction made between the male and female
hemp plants; but it is generally grown on account of both fibre
and seed, in which case the usual practice is to pull the male
plants as soon as the shedding of their pollen has effected the
fecundation of the female. ‘The pulling is effected in the follow-
ing manner: the pullers walk in the furrows, between the ridges,
and reach across to the crown of the ridge, gathering a stalk or
two atatime. At this time the male stalks are easily known by
their yellowish colour and faded flowers. In this operation the
treading down of the female plants must be carefully avoided.
The pulling of the female plants commences when the seed is ripe,
which is known by the colour of the capsules turning to a brownish
or greyish hue, and also by the fading leaves. I had proceeded
thus far on this subject when I received a communication from a
person to whom [ had written for additional information on the
subject, and from whom JI received the following valuable letter.
I may mention that all my experiments were conducted under
the direction of the person to whom I now allude, who received a
medal for his excellent culture and subsequent management of the
fibre, at the period (during the late war) when a considerable
quantity of hemp was grown, and consequently considerable com-
petition existed. I may mention that he is a native of Lincoln-
shire, and that his remarks apply principally as regards culture to
the soil and climate of that county. His remarks about the pre-
paration of the fibre are of peculiar value, as I would with safety
challenge his management and manual dexterity in this respect
against all England as regards hemp and flax—lI might perhaps
challenge with safety the world. I give his communication entire,
as I deem it too valuable to be mutilated, and it would be difficult
to select and re-arrange the matter without in some degree destroy-
ing a portion of its value. He informs me in a subsequent letter
that it was a common practice during the war to give with pupils
1501. to 2007. to a known good hemp farmer as a fee for teaching
the mode. His experience—which, as he justly remarks, has cost
On Hemp. 17D
him a considerable sum of money and much hard labour—is as
follows :—“ The soil best suited for this plant is a fat, strong
mould, from 5 to 6 inches deep, and light clay loam is particu-
larly suited. Care must be taken that the land is not over-heavy
clay, as in the event of sowing such land with hemp it would not
be possible to pull it ; for, when strong clay becomes saturated with
rain, the soil runs together, and on drying sets as hard as a pave-
ment. All soils suitable for the growth of hemp contain a fair
portion of sand, the sand keeping the soil open and light, for the
roots of the plant to work for its food. Sandy and bog land were
cultivated for hemp, during the long-continued wars, in the neigh-
bourhood of Crowland and Spalding; but was gradually discon-
tinued before its conclusion, or nearly so, producing avery inferior
article, that obtained a low price. The best mode of cultivating
hemp, according to my experience, is as follows :—When the farmer
has selected the portion of land which he intends sowing with
hemp, he should ploughit in November, and lay it up in about six
yard ridges, so that it may mellow during the frosts. Care must
be taken to plough the land 6 inches deep, if the soil will allow
that depth, without interfermg with the subsoil. This must be
particularly attended to, as, if the subsoil is clayey or too much
sand, and any be turned up, it will make the soil poor. The land
must be well and properly drained, and the water-courses particu-
Jarly attended to, and the furrows well opened in all parts of the
land where water would be likely to remain at any period of the
year; as wherever water has remained on the land at any time,
there the hemp will be good for nothing. Early in March the
land must be cross-ploughed if the weather is dry, and lie in that
state until the beginning of April. The drainage must be attended
to ;* as in a great number of seasons heavy rains fall in April and
May, which if the water is left to lodge on the land, especially at
that season of the year, makes the land cold and sad, and the
hemp will be of little or no value. The land having been attended
to as just mentioned, it must be well harrowed in dry weather (the
roller passed over it), and harrowed up again, and cleared of all
roots and twitch. ‘Twitch and horse-mint are fatal to the growth
of hemp. The roller and harrow must be applied as often as is
found necessary to get the top-soil into fine tilth: then the land
may be allowed to lie in that state for a few days, to dry up the
small pieces of roots that remain ungathered, and the weeds will
sprout. When this portion of the management has been effected,
the land must be ploughed, the same way of the field itis intended
* At the period ailuded to, 1810 to 1815, superficial drainage was mainly
adopted in the low lands of Lincolnshire, which in fact, from their position,
will always occupy a farmer’s constant attention, and accounts for the
reiterated cautions respecting drainage.
176 On Hemp.
to remain; the sets may be laid out 6 to 8 yards wide. Attention
must be paid to any plots where horse-mint or twitch had existed,
which should be ploughed rather deeper, to raise the roots from
the sole, otherwise the top culture will be of little avail. The
last ploughing (unless the land has been very foul) will fimsh the
tilth ; the roller and harrow must be applied again, and the roots
got off, if such is the case, as often as will be found necessary to
get the top-soil into good tilth. The month of April will be now
advancing, by which time the farmer, if a man of business, will
have his manure prepared; 25 tons of which, well rotted, mixed
stable and feeding-shed manure, should be applied per acre. —
Care must be taken to lay the manure on heavier where the land
has been impoverished by twitch, horse- mint, or other deteriorating
weeds. I have applied yard-manure to rather stiff land with good
success. By the preceding arrangement | calculate the cultivator
will have from the 1st of May to the 12th of May to cart his ma-
nure and plough the land for seed. ‘The manure must be care-
fully and evenly spread on the ‘side of the field intended to be
ploughed first, the plough following close to the spreader. ‘The
cultivator of hemp must direct the spreader of the manure to
throw out half the heap next to the ploughman first, and then
turn down the other half. Long dry days dry the manure up
until it is of little value, if allowed to remain exposed to the sun
and wind. The hemp-grower must be careful to direct his
ploughman to cut a furrow not more than 6 inches, as hemp re-
quires as many seams as possible for the seed to fall in along with
the manure. I ought to have mentioned prior to this, that the
cultivator should have carefully selected his seed, in doing so he
must attentively follow the succeeding directions :—The bulk should
be of a bright grey colour and bold appearance; he must take
care that it has not been heated in the heap in the warehouse.
He may discover this by biting it between his teeth: ifthe taste is
perfectly sweet, and the external appearance as above-described,
he may rely on its goodness; if the taste is bitter, it will be found
worthless. An acre of land requires 3 bushels of seed; if the
hemp is required to manufacture into linen, 2 pecks more must
be added. The thicker it is on the land the finer and more
slender it will grow. ‘The most approved practice of sowing is to
sow the fresh-ploughed land up every evening, and harrow the
seed in well with light harrows. If during this the land rises full
of clods through carting the manure, it will be advisable to run a
light roller over that portion where the clods rise, and leave the
land to be harrowed up again after the roller. The best season
for sowing hemp is from the Ist to the 12th of May; a few days
later must doif the weather is wet. On sowing later than the 12th
of May the fibre grows thin and weak. As the sowing is pro-
On Hemp. 177
ceeded with, what surface drains require to be opened must be
done immediately. As the seeds sprout very quick, it is useless
and worthless to sow hemp on land other than in very high tilth.”
The pulling of hemp was well understood at the breaking up
of the late war; since then it has been very little cultivated ; it
has now become a new article of agriculture. When hemp 1s
sown previous to the 12th of May, it is fit to pull for « white” (or
linen) purposes early after the 12th of August; previous to that
time the fibre has not set, nor has the male stem shed its pollen.
It was a practice many years ago, when white hemp ruled high,
to pull the weak plants, and all the male stems immediately after
the pollen was shed, and leave the female stems to stand for seed.
This labour was all performed by women and old men; the price
of pulling 100 gleans (as they were termed) was ls. or ls. 2d.
per hundred of six score. After the hemp was thus pulled, and
tied round the head with four or five of its own stalks, it was laid
down in rows with the root part spread out; a man must go
round in the evening with a boy or woman to set it up in stooks of
five or six gleans, the boy taking a fork such as farmers generally
use to knock and shake out the soil from the roots, and scrape
out the undergrowth that lies in the bottom of the stems; in the
course of a few days it will be ready to take to the water ; before
doing so, it will require tying near the roots, with a band of
twisted leaf reed, cut two or three days previously in order to
soften, the gleans must then be jumped on the ground to level
the roots. When the hemp is carried to the water, care must be
taken that the tops of the hemp hang well over the sides in order
to cover the stems well; if the sods touch the stems at the sides,
it turns the fibre black; the sods with which it is necessary to
cover the hemp whilst in the water are generally cut at the side
or as near as possible to the water, and are usually replaced when
done with. The sods are sometimes cut with a rip-and-sod
spade; sometimes with a paring-plough, and then cut into short
lengths by the spade. Great attention has to be paid to the pro-
cess of watering or retting, as it is a most important one. After
laying the sods over the hemp they must be trod upon frequently,
to smk them and make the water appear between the sods; care
must be taken that the roots of the hemp are put the lowest in
the water ; the treading must be repeated every day until the
hemp is ready to be taken out of the water, which will be from
nine to ten days if the weather is warm, and rather longer if the
weather is cold. This requires considerable skill and experience
before a person becomes a thorough judge on the point; the
following rules will, however, if strictly followed, answer the pur-
poses of a novice, and, if strictly adhered to, he cannot go far
WOE; Xx N
178 On Hemp.
wrong. Let him, when he thinks the retting has gone far
enough, take out of the water a glean from the middle, from
which take out a stem, then hold the stem by the root end, and
draw the thumb-nail up the stem to the top; if the fibre slip up
the stem, it will be sufficiently retted ; if not, it will require another
day, or perhaps more; also spread the glean on its side on the
land to dry, it will do so im the course of the day; if the stem
then breaks freely, and the fibre leaves it easily, it will have got
a good ret, as it is called. When thus far finished, the sods must
be taken off, and two men will be required to take out the gleans ;
one to lift them partly out of the water with a fork, root first; the
other taking them from him with a fork; and thus, with the
assistance of the bottom man, the gleans are lifted on to the
ground, and form a couch, and so proceed until finished. The
next day, as if suffered to remain longer in the couch it heats and
rots immediately, it is carted out, care being taken that it is laid
straight in the cart and taken to grass-land that has been mown
and the hay taken therefrom for some time, so that a considerable
quantity of new grass or eddish may have grown, in which case
the worms do not take in the fibre so much.* After it is laid
out on the eddish it should be spread by women very evenly in
rows, at ls. 6d. per day and their diet with beer, The hemp will
require to lie on the eddish perhaps three weeks or more to
bleach and the fibre to get free; it will require turning over with
a light long pole, putting the pole underneath the top part and lift-
ing it over ; this must be done very evenly every three or four days:
this labour 1s done by women.
To ascertain when it has lain long enough on the grass to
bleach, the cultivator must after ten days or less, if there have been
heavy dews, examine the stems in different parts of the field; and
if he discovers any pink spots on the stems, it will be sufficiently
bleached, if not it must he longer; there is no fear of the fibre
deteriorating until the pink spots appear: that perhaps by fre-
quent turning may be three weeks; the hemp must then be
gathered and tied into bundles, and set up in stooks to dry (the
stooks consisting of ten or twelve bundles each), and tied from the
middle bundle of each side to each end, to keep the wind from
blowing it over. When perfectly dry, it must be carried from the
field and placed in a barn or ricked in some exposed part with
cullis-roof, where it will keep dry. The scutching has next to be
* When hemp is spread on summer-eaten grass-land, the worms will
draw a considerable quantity of the fibre into their holes; there requires
a good portion of grass after mowing to prevent them (the worms) from so
doing ;—the stumps and new grass prevent the worms destroying the fibre,
provided proper attention is paid to the turning.
On Hemp. 173
provided for, good breaks and scutching-stocks being obtained.
This labour will cost from Is. to ls. 6d. per stone, according to
the goodness and perfect ret and bleaching. The cultivator must
be careful to instruct his scutcher to make the hemp up in half-
stones of four heads each, tied round with its own heads tightly
drawn through the hand; it makes it look remarkably neat; the
pullings, as they are termed, are tied up in half-stones, with a
band round the middle, the ends drawn together bound into a
knot.
I will now notice what is to be done with the female or seed-
hemp, provided the same is left for seed. In the fore part of
September the seed-hemp will be ready for pulling; this may be
known by observing and examining the four low seeds on the
stem, called by growers elbow-seed ; if they are of a dark grey
colour and firm inside, and the husks turning a little yellow, it
will be ready to pull. By this season strong winds may have
occurred, so heavy as to break some of the seed-hemp: instruc-’
tions must therefore be given to the women that pull the hemp,
to gather the fallen stems (as they contain seed) and to be careful
not to break the stem or cramp it in the hand, as it is termed.
Breaking is very detrimental to hemp (I should have observed
the same with regard to pulling white hemp). The same manage-
ment has now to be observed with respect to retting, &c., as pre-
viously noticed with regard to white hemp. The seed-hemp
should be set up in stooks of 40 gleans each; they are convenient
for counting, and the under-growth must be raked up and spread
evenly over the tops of the stooks to keep off the birds which will
infest it, and the heads tied round with a band of the same
material to keep the wind from disturbing it. The cultivator
may know when the seeds are sufficiently matured to thrash out
by the crispness of the capsules and the facility with which the
seeds fall out. A cloth will now have to be procured and spread
in some convenient part of the field, and a bolster raised on one
side of the cloth from the wind to prevent the soil from falling
on the cloth amongst the seed; the stooks must be drawn to the
cloth without being taken to pieces, by a rope passing round the
stook under the heads and passed over the drawer’s shoulder:
this requires a strong man;—he must then place the head part
carefully on the cloth. ‘To prevent loss of seed, thrashing ought
to be proceeded with as soon as ready, as days at this season
(September) are getting short, and fogs frequently occur, so that
a single hour ought not to be lost. As soon as the hemp is
thrashed, the grower may proceed to water it as directed for
white hemp, or make it into a rick, and have what is calleda
spring-ret; if placed in a rick, care must be taken that it is pro-
N 2
180 On Hemp.
perly thatched, as, if the least wet gets into the rick, it will
destroy the fibre. The latter described mode was frequently
practised if the season had got too far advanced for the hemp
to be taken out of the water before the frost set in. In watering
hemp, it must be a dead standing water ; if put into a stream, the
hemp will be damaged. The late hemp in the neighbourhood
of Crowland was frequently watered and taken out of the water,
dried as soon as possible, and peeled by women and children ; it
was of a coarse, tender, and ordinary quality, not applicable for
shipping; it obtained only a low price, and was usually converted
into sacking. To obtain the most valuable white hemp is to dew-
ret it, which is done by letting it, after being pulled, stand in the
stook two or three days in order to stiffen the stem, then carefully
removing from the stook (without tying as before mentioned) and
spreading on a good eddish where the grass is plentiful. It will
take perhaps six weeks to dew-ret hemp, during which time it
must be kept constantly turned over as previously described ; it
will be completed when the pink spots appear, as before noticed,
which must be carefully looked for, when it will be ready to
gather and tie up in bundles to form stooks in order to dry; the
fibre will not sustain any damage before the pink spots appear.
The best land for obtaining fibre of the strongest and purest
description is a fat loam, not too heavy with clay, and a portion of
sand intermixed; on such land succeeding a crop of beans, hemp
will grow 6 to 7 feet high. The cultivator will never be in error
if he alternately sows beans and hemp. I have known 9 quarters
of beans per acre after hemp, weighing 21 stones per sack.
Hemp after beans will produce 30 stones more per acre of the
strongest and heaviest fibre than by any other mode of culture:
the weight of fibre in ordinary culture and circumstances will
produce 60 to 70 stones per acre. After beans the produce will
rate from 90 to 100 stones of a superior description ; bean-stalks
make the best manure for hemp, as they keep the land open and
soft for the roots: this particularly applies to strong loams. Fat
mould is well adapted for growing beans and hemp alternately :
when I allude to fat mould, I do not mean mould that contains
bog; that sort of mould produces hemp of a coarse ordinary
quality of tender fibre, and obtains only an inferior price. In the
hemp-growing districts, when it was much cultivated, it was usual
to take two crops of hemp one after the other, and after the
second crop a crop of flax, and then hemp, and so on for years.
This was a practice amongst small farmers until the land became
exhausted, as hemp and flax produce no manure. The most pro-
fitable mode of growing hemp is with beans alternately, for as
many years as the farmer likes.
On Hemp. 181
A good crop of hemp after beans will produce 28 to 30
bushels of seed per acre; in the ordinary way 20 to 22 bushels
per acre. _
Notwithstanding that heavy crops of beans and hemp, which
has just been noticed, may, under favourable circumstances as to
season, soil, manure and management, be obtained, the average
will fall far short of it. The same great drawback exists in the
growth of hemp that occurs in the cultivation of flax, viz. its non-
production of manure—whilst, on the other hand, the manure-
heap is drawn upon largely for this particular crop. It is quite
true that means might be contrived to make the steep-water avail-
able as a top-dressing for grass land, and by consuming the seed
and husks ground together a material can be obtained equal,
in feeding value, to linseed. Yet, with all the economical
management here pointed out, it is problematical if hemp-growing
will ever prove productive ; on particular soils, well adapted to
beans and hemp, both of which are admirable preparations for
wheat, it is possible that hemp may be profitably grown; but it
must be borne in mind that hemp land will grow other crops of
equal or superior value at a less cost—for instance, if an old
pasture were broken up for hemp, the same soil would yield a
crop of potatoes of equal value and at less expense and trouble.
The only instance in which the hemp-culture can be profitably
carried on is in connexion with a manufactory that will work up
all the less valuable material: on a suitable soil, and when labour
is cheap, this may be done with advantage, as the hands in the
manufactory could be set to pulling, steeping, turning, &c., as
they are employments requiring no particular skill. I throw out
the hint, not expecting that it will ever be practised. On Chat
Moss, a recently-cultivated bog, Mr. Redfern informs me that he
grew hemp the last summer with the object of extirpating weeds,
a purpose for which, in consequence of its rapid growth, it is well
adapted.
The following may be taken as a fair average of the prospects
of hemp-cultivation, both as regards cost and returns, viz. :—
EXPENSES. Sex SR.
Rent and taxes, per acre. : : A AOWO
20 tons of manure. : ae ‘ 5.1504.0
3 bushels of seed ; . : ‘ 015 O
Tillage : vere ene : 1610) 20:
Pulling, steeping, &c. : : : : I A020
Taking from steep, spreading, thrashing, &e. . 2 10
Scutching 1s. 6d. per stone for 60 stone - 4510530
Cleaning seed, taking to market, ke. . : iy ea
Oui
182 On Hemp.
PRODUCTs.
60 stones of hemp, at 4s. 6d. i 3 . HESES ORO
20 bushels of seed, at 4s. 6d. ; : A 410 0
18,,40,,0
Add thereto 10s. as value of dressing to grass-
land or eddish, and for value of husks, &ce.,
as feed for cattle, say 5s. . : : Oeilae@)
Sho 0
Deduct expenses , { : j AM Om Tr O
Balance per acre in favour of the farmer ; O2 <7 256
When it is taken into consideration that hemp-culture is wholly
different from the ordinary crops grown by farmers, and requires
at particular seasons a great amount of labour and attention, I do
not think it probable that its culture will ever be much practised.
The prices for hemp and seed in the above account are certainly
less than the present market price of both; good hemp will pro-
bably bring 5s. per stone, and good seed 5s. per bushel, or
perhaps 5s. 6d. per bushel. I have, however, in the above only
drawn an average.
Mr. Way, of Bridport, obtained, in the year 1811, the thanks
of the Society for promoting Arts, and for his communication on
the culture of hemp; and he mentions that the rotation practised
in Somersetshire, Dorsetshire, &c., at that period was, on ground
well manured, hemp, wheat, barley or oats; clover with the pre-
ceding wheat, barley, or oats; ground well manured, hemp, but
sometimes they dress the ground well for hemp every third year.
Hemp, like flax, should have a change of seed every second year.
Mr. Way mentions that in America, in the neighbourhood of
Boston, a favourite practice was to get off an early crop of tares,
and follow with hemp pulled for the “ white,” and succeeded by
turnips.
IX.—On the Tussac Grass. To Mr. Matueson, M.P., from
Mr. Scosig, in the island of Lewis. :
Str,—You wish me to send you a note of the culture of
Tussac Grass in the Lewis. The seeds which you. sent me in
1844 were sown in the following spring in various parts of
the island, viz., Coll, Holm, Linshader, Galson, &c.; of all
these the two former were the only places where this valuable
grass appeared, and of these two Holm was the most successful
and vigorous, being sown in a square plot of deep brown moss of |
On Tussac Grass. 183
medium dryness, close to the sea. The moss, scarcely yielding
anything previous to its being turned over and enclosed, was
delved over and cut into small pieces with the spade, and the
seeds sprinkled in and roughly covered with a rake, and trampled
in at the same time with the feet. The plants appeared during
the following summer and harvest, and in September were ex-
amined by Mr. Charles Lawson, seedsman, Edinburgh, who
pronounced them to be the real Tussac plant; the second year
the stools were almost as strong as the third, though it is allowed
this grass only attains its maturity the third year; it cast seed
the second and third years. Three acres were delved over, of the
same deep moss, in spring, 1847, to the depth of 12 inches, and,
after it was packed with a hoe, a sprinkling of guano applied,
and single plants dibbled in, three feet four inches apart. ‘The
whole of this prepared moss is drained three feet deep and 20
feet apart, being moss drains, shoulder or wedge as may be found
most convenient, according to the consistency of the moss. The
plant is succulent, with broad green leaves, and three feet long the
second as well as the third year. Many of the stools, when planted
out, were found to have 500 plants. From all I can see of this
grass and itsgrowth (inthe latter particularly), it resembles the bent
grass which grows on the sandy banks along the sea in the most
exposed situations, though differing materially as to their nourish-
ing qualities and the soil in which they flourish ; still assimilating,
in being so very much improved by culture and cutting, and being
capable of being propagated to any extent by planting the tussac
in moss, the bent in sand, each thriving best when most exposed
to the sea. I think the moss for the tussac should be delved
over in January, and a light spading of moss thrown over the
surface, out of the bottom of the trench, to keep out the sun from
drying up the moss too much: February, March, and April
being most advisable for planting, May and June having proved
too late and dry for transplanting. Bent grass I have found to
succeed when transplanted any time from September to March,
and tussac likely the same.
Holm, 2nd January, 1849.
To James Matheson, Esq., M.P.
JOHN SCOBIE.
Note—March, 1849. Mr. Scobie found the plants to which
he had applied sea-ware greener in the leaf and thriving better
than the rest. 2 .
Some failures occurred from wet, rising from below in the
moss, and also from imperfection in the drainage, and from
drought, the peat being liable to become very hard in summer.
Sea-ware, strewed on the surface, recommended.
184 On Tussac Grass.
It appears, from my own experience in Lewis, that the tussac
grass there, as in its native region the Falkland Islands, requires
to be within the near neighbourhood of the sea; that is, within a
quarter of a mile, so as to catch the driving spray of the sea.
James MATHESON.
Agricultural Chemistry Association,
8, Bank Street, Edinburgh.
Dear Sir, 15 September, 1847.
I have the pleasure of enclosing the results of a comparative analysis ~
of the three specimens of Tussac Grass, which you have sent here for
examination—the one of last year, and the two of this season. You will
observe that the proportion of watery extract hitherto considered to repre-
sent the nutritive value of grass, is greater in the Tussac Grass of the
second than in that of the first year (1846).
This appears most clearly in the third line of No. 1. When the pro-
portion of soluble matter in the dried plant is compared, that which you
gave us last year was less succulent, or dryer than that we received this
year, as the proportion of water in the two will show you. Hence
the proportion of matter extracted by water from the grass of last
year appears greater; though in reality, when compared in the dry
state, water extracts more from the whole plant of this year. You will
see also, however, that the under portion contains very much more soluble
matter than the upper part. I would draw your attention further to No. 2,
in which are embodied results not hitherto obtained from any other grass,
and which, therefore, are not comparative.
In this table you see that potash extracts a considerable additional
quantity, which water does not take. This I believe is also to be included
in the proper nutritive matter of this grass.
In protein, or musile-forming compounds, it is also richer: in fact, as
much so in the dry state as dry wheat or oats. I need not say, therefore,
that, according to the results, Tussac Grass ought to be very nutritive.
Yours, &c.
Chas. Lawson, Esq. (Signed) Jas. T. W. JoHNSTON.
No. 1.—Proportion of Nutritive Matter extracted by Water in two samples
of Tussac Grass grown on the Farm of Holm, in the Island of Lewis,
from Seed sent by Mr. Matheson, M.P., proprietor, to Mr. Scobie,
Chamberlain and Tenant of said Farm.
Analysed by Dr. Valcher,
Analysed ; x
by Dr. September, 1847
he Sept. 1846. wer er ole
100 parts of the Grass in the state it"was sent ee Part. Part, Plant.
to the Laboratory contain— a
BVater cis ors iil. ne ee aenle Pile darren ie 45°50 | 86:09 | 75°27 | 80°68
Watery, Extract;;). fr.ite feriee) ei SoPe 9°4 4:34 3°64 3°99
100 parts dried at 212° contain—
Wateryelxtract) is .figt 4) 2) Cate 17°24 | 31°17 | 14°72 | 22-94
On Labourers’ Cottages. 185
No. 2. Composition of Tussac Grass.
—_—_———_—_————SS
In the Recent State. Dried at 230°.
Lower | Upper Lower Upper
Part. Part. Part, Part.
Protem Compounds . . . . =. . . 2°47 4°79 | 17-81} 19-38
eer re Extracting cae ai 3-32 | 3-64| 23-88 5-93
Other Nutritive Substances, insoluble in = ; :
Water, but extracted by Potash . . A ad EL aoa Ea Gs
Woody Fibre(Cellalose with alittle Albumen) 5°68) 11:86 40-88 47-94
Si Sey.) ee 1-f4) = 1°37 8°23 5°12
Water . > 2 . . * 2 7 2 2 . 86 y 09 | ris) ~ 27 . sd
100 100 100 100
X.—On Labourers’ Cottages. From his Grace the DuxKe oF
BEDFORD.
To the President,
My pear Lorp Cuicuester,—Observing in the last volume
of the Royal Agricultural Society’s Journal that the Council is
directing its attention to that very important subject, the improve-
ment of agricultural labourers’ cottages, feeling (in common, I
have no doubt, with many other proprietors of estates) greatly
interested in it, and having bestowed uponit much and anxious
consideration, I am desirous of giving to others the benefit of my
inguiries and experience, to enable them to follow the system |
am adopting, so far as they may think it expedient to do so; and
I therefore beg leave to offer to the Society copies of the plans
and drawings according to which I have lately erected some cot-
tages, and intend to erect many more, on my Bedfordshire and
Devonshire estates.*
My inquiries into the condition of the cottages on those estates
led me to the conclusion, first, that, notwithstanding a very con-
siderable annual expenditure upon them, many of them were so
deficient in requisite accommodation as to be inadequate to the
removal of that acknowledged obstacle to the improvement of the
morals and habits-of agricultural labourers, which consists in the
* Tt is due to his Grace to mention that the original sketches and plans have neces-
sarily been very greatly reduced in size for publication in this Journal, and also that
only a selection from them is here given.—Pu. P.
186 On Labourers’ Cottages.
want of separate bed-rooms for grown-up boys and girls; and,
secondly, that the practice of taking in lodgers had led to still
further evils. The improved methods of cultivation, extensive
draining, and general improvement in husbandry (requiring addi-
tional hands) that are going on, more or less, in all parts of the
couniry, and the breaking up of inferior grass-lands, and convert-
ing woodland into tillage (especially since the passing of the
Tithe Commutation Act), by giving work to many more labourers
than were formerly employed, have caused a proportionate aug-
mentation of their number, and, consequently, an increased want
of cottage accommodation. To meet this increased want, and at —
the same time to improve the habitations of the labourers, I de-
termined to rebuild the worst of my cottages, and to add to their
number in those parts of my estate in which it appeared neces-
sary to do so. I therefore directed my surveyor to prepare a
series of plans of cottages suitable for families of different sizes
and descriptions, sufficient to satisfy the reasonable wants of the
labourers and their families, and to be so constructed as that
(avoiding all needless expense) the cottages should be substantial,
and not subject to premature decay, or likely to require costly
repair.
The experience obtained in erecting the new cottages already
built on my estate has enabled my surveyor to ascertain the quan-
tities of each kind of material required for the construction, sepa-
rately, of the cottages shown in these plans; and in the hope that
this information may be useful to others, I have directed those
quantities to be put in detail upon the plans. I have deemed it
best not to have the prices added, because prices vary in different
localities, and therefore to furnish the prices of one locality would
be useless, and might mislead. The quantities being given, it
will be easy to add the prices they bear in other places in which
the erection of cottages according to those plans may be desired.
As the cottages of many landed proprietors may be, and pro-
bably are, in a state similar to my own, it appears to me that the
information, founded on actual experience, which | have obtained
on the subject of cottage-building, and which is embodied in
these plans, may be acceptable and generally useful.
Cottage-building (except to a cottage speculator who exacts
immoderate rents for scanty and defective habitations) is, we all
know, a bad investment of money; but this is not the light in
which such a subject should be viewed by landlords, from whom
it is, surely, not too much to expect that, while they are building
and improving farm-houses, homesteads, and cattle-sheds, they
will, also, build and improve dwellings for their labourers in
sufficient number to meet the improved and improving cultivation
of the land. : |
On Labourers’ Cottages. 187
But in adding to the number of cottages on our estates, there
should, of course, be a limit, or we may fall into evils of another
kind. That limit may easily be drawn, either by the proprietor
himself, or by an intelligent steward, and made to agree with the
reasonable wants of the districts or parishes in which his employer’s
estates are situated.
To improve the dwellings of the labouring class, and afford
them the means of greater cleanliness, health, and comfort, in
their own homes, to extend education, and thus raise the social
and moral habits of those most valuable members of the com-
munity, are among the first duties, and ought to be among the
truest pleasures, of every landlord. While he thus cares for
those whom Providence has committed to his charge, he will
teach them that reliance on the exertion of the faculties with
which they are endowed is the surest way to their own independ-
ence and the well-being of their families.
I shall not dwell, as I might, on the undeniable advantages of
making the rural population contented with their condition, and
of promoting that mutual good-will between the landed pro-
prietor and the tenants and labourers on his estate, which sound
policy and the higher motives of humanity alike recommend.
Having lately had the pleasure of visiting with you some of
the cottages on your estate in Sussex, knowing the interest you
take in the subject, and having witnessed your success in carry-
ing into effect the views we alike entertain upon it, it is gratifying
to me to be able to address this communication to youas President
of the Royal Agricultural Society for the present year.
I remain, my dear Lord Chichester, with sincere regard and
esteem, faithfully yours,
: BEDFORD.
Woburn Abbey, March, 1849. :
Plans, &c.
188
PNAC Sie AOARN As
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PLAN OF THE GROUND FLOOR.
Ear RRO E ec i EAI EAE RS ARINC
Be ~ BA Sei OD Qe OP a8 eRe
-_-
1. Wood and Coals...10.0 K 6.0 5. Copper.
2. Wash-house.......10.0 X 6.0 6. Sink,
3. Kitchen.....00.06c11.0 KX 11.0 7. Dresser.
4, Pump.? 8. Do.
Scale of Feet. a Boe : 0 40 20 30
QUANTITIES.
a re a emma
EPL (a)
22,950 | Building bricks ......
35 lds. Sand e ° . . . . e . ° . e
BW) CHES |Win E696 ao 60 a6 G oC
NOW uss |iCemente omom ce smictey okies
1750 |6 in. paving squares ....
124 |12in. shell drain tiles... .
54/18 in. earthen pipes, 6 ins.
OVENS IO /O MOT a’d0 oc
(OP) erg 6 6 6°6 Geo G0
84) Vailey tiles! "oh. <<) cl 6 se
[ea
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18 in. ridge tiles . . . 2.6.
Dilinglathsi temo cliciis |<! (6
Plastering laths .....
seer AO 6 po G oO OO oO
York stones for manholes . .
Small scrapers and stones . .
Do. stone sinks with grates,
waste pipes, and traps . .
Cube fir . es 8 s ee BO" 6; 4.9,
s | WOsrOalke (cy ep toureielictetl ec) is
12 ft.3 by 9in.deals....
Posts to fences and hand gates,
3 ft. out ofground ....
Drying posts, 7 ft. out of grnd.
Rails and palings, 3 ft. high .
Hand gates, with hinges and
latchestmansty . vs 6 5s
2 |Solid door-cases, with ledged
doors, hinges, and latches,
Completen ye: orc us real ets
Ditto, with stock-locks ...
Small louvre frames to privies
PLAN OF THE BED-ROOM FLOOR.:: 4 | Solid one-light window-frames,
with iron quarry lights to
open, glazed, complete . .
BED-ROOM.
11.0 X 11.0
5 | Two light ditto, one to open .
2 | Three light ditto and ditto .
4
24 | Iron cloak pins. . . +...
12 prs. | 14 in. cross garnetts . . « .«
= 12 | Vhumb-latches. . . 2...
: DeeiMower bolts, oss, « «6
¢ 4 |Chimney-pots’. ..... «
» 2 | Bedroom stoves, and fixed. .
BS es es 163 ft. | Iron eaves, gutter, and stack-
pipe, fixed, complete...
1 | Double pump, with suctions to
draw from wellandtank .
2 | Commoncloset apparatus, with
: supply cistern and service
from pumptoeach....
Nails and screws . .....
35) 0) (Oil-paintamren ei erchee isi seni
WADOULM Neate ci hoiramealn cite) vette
ELEVATION OF THE ENDS.
Cartazenarur-i cease loins
190
PLANS AND ELEVATIONS FOR LABOURERS’ COTTAGES.
38,830
56 qrs.
58 lds.
10 bus.
3,190
12,150
374
69
21 bun.
29 do.
2c.2qr.
6
3
2452 ft.
2 do.
654
3
TWO WITH THREE BED-ROOMS, AND ONE WITH TWO BED-ROOMS.
GARDEN
a a
s &
: YARDS :
i=] B
WASH-HOUSE.
15.0 X 11.0
eas
KITCHEN.
H 10.0 X 11.0 pal
ye
EN Ne?
/
uN \ ALLOTMENTS,
\ WELLe
/
REFERENCES,
1. Ashes.
2. Oven.
3. Well.
4. Pump.
f woop, &c. z 5. Pigsty, 5.0 X 4.7
8.0 X8.0 é 6. Copper.
7. Pantry.
= & g. Dresser.
ye We >
{ RAIN \ ; 1
WATER | :
\. TANK. / a
Wie a ra)
= |
FOR DRYING | CLOTHES.
a a
KITCHEN.
10.0 X 11.0 |
cage ae
Scale of Feet.
PLAN SF THE GROUND FLOOR.
QUANTITIES FOR HOUSES.
Building bricks
Mime) ae #3) F
Sandit ye jeamere
Cement.
6 in. paving squares
Plain tiles . °
Valley tiles pitti
18 in. ridge tiles .
eeef e
€) 04. 6: (0! fers
Tiling laths.
Plastering laths
Hair eres .
Small scrapers and stones
York sinks, with grates, waste
°
°
°
e
.
.
e
°
.
°
pipes, and traps. a
Curbesfiria\e warsymice sirshan
oak . saniess
39
12 ft. 3 by 9 in. lei '
Solid door- cases and ledged
doors, with hinges, latches,
and bolts . .
Ditto and ditto, with hinges,
latches, and stock- locks .
&.
asad
6 | Small one-light solid window-
frames, with iron quarry
lights to (open, glazed,
complete .
4 | One-light w indow-frames, and
ditto °
10 | Two light ditto, one each, to
open,and ditto . .
2 | Three light ditto, one each, to
open, and ditto... Bean
Nailsand screws . .
20 prs. | Cross garnett hinges 2
20 |Thumb-latches . a
36 |Iron cloak-pins. _.
uy |Chimney-pots .
Bedroom stoves, fixed ,complete
Kitchen ditto and ditto...
Tron gutter and down pipes,
fixed,complete . . .
le.2qr. Paint. . . ai des
| Labour see
Cartage a 6
157 ft,
£.
N? 2,
16 leng.
2
2 qrs.
BED-ROOM. =a PRED-ROOM.
one a ieee
BED-ROOM.
1o.0X11.0_§
$ a
CLOSET,
PLAN OF THE BED-ROOM FLOOR.
QUANTITIES FOR OUTBUILDINGS, &c.
Building bricks Gan 46
Lime .- . Si ERG
Sand . 5 An ie :
Cement . .
6 in. paving squares °
12in. oven do. C
Plain tiles. . 5 S
12 in. shell drain files 6 é
18 in. drain pipes, 6 ins. diam. .
ISane na sertiles ay. 9 tele ey
Milingslathsipijeye sl ce 6 | ls
York man-hole stones . 5
Downdooricills:.. < 6 :
Do. hook-stones, with iron hooks
Do. catch-stones, with iron catches
Cubevingaa 7. Samihs .
12 ft. 3 by 9 in. deal 3 sities
.
.
.
.
°
s
.
.
-Small louvre frames 6 :
Do. piggery feeding doors, with hinges,
hasps, and staples 5
Ledged piggery doors, with hook
hinges only, and hasps and staples .
Do. privy-doors, with hinges, latches,
and bolts Git cet vO: tere ene
Do. outer-doors, with hook hinges
only, latches, and stock-locks. .
Fencing posts, 3 ft. out ofground .
Drying posts, 7 ft. ditto .
Rails and palings, Sft high... | =
Hand gates, with hinges and latches .
Nailsand screws - . . « «
Oven-doorand frame. . :
Com. closet apparatus, with supply cis-
terns,and service from pump to each
Double’ pump, with suctions to draw
from wellandtank . .
Baim tree) eo fey pe yer ie SMpats ae 2
Labour uns : eee
Wartageyn cl) 1G) fo
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ELEVATION OF THE ENDS.
ja)
192 cas
GARDEN ALLOTMENTS,
wn = sews ee eee ew ECE See sesceeseaee
| SS Ones a Set eS SS GCS SESS ces Deen EIe SSB Oenpace GuDSpSensocssnss:
5 ° REFERENCES,
qd
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Se S
1 Ashes.
o 8
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. Be 3. Pump.
es = 4. Pigsty,
fe = 5.0 X 4.7
5 Fe woop, &c. §
Se 4 0 X 8.0 5. Copper.
- a 6. Sink.
io) s
ol eS , : i ° 7. Pantry.
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f=] Qa ‘ 8. Dresser.
i=) A i : : 9. Do.
fa = a 5 | a B
s ' 0 (WELL ‘ : :
mM g , : Se ‘ a 10. Pantry.
a Sa
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A a: YARDS | FOR ‘DRYING ‘CLOTHES.
= : ' =)
¥ A "
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WASH-HOUSE. GZ N &
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Zz - = 12.0 X 8.6 FE — =
a i ie 9 2
4 * TS (| 7 5
a Sar °
a KITCHEN. i KITCHEN, 4 ale g a |
110X110 C8 1.0xX11.0 | pees Ey fe ii
: S
PLAN OF THE GROUND FLOOR.
QUANTITIES FOR HOUSES.
46,970 | Building bricks zs. d. 86 |12ft.3 by 9in.deals . . ec
4 | Small solid one-light window-
frames, with iron quarry
lights to open, glazed, com-
plete Soop Mal. UM at seater ee
14 | Two light window-frames, one
each to open, and ditto .
4 | Three light ditto and ditto .
Nailsand screws . ©. .
48 | Iron cloak-pins,s 9). 3
66 grss ime ee. wu
68 lds; | Sand es <s)iys
13 bus.|Cement . .
4,560 | 6 in. paving squares
12,890 | Plain tiles . ‘
420 | Valleydo.. . -»
68 |18in.ridgedo.. .
ee ee
22 bun.| Tiling laths :
38 do. Plastering dozens
ere! Dem Ohigs Vere 6S @ © 9
@; 6 (8 © 0 6.6) 58' 6. ¢ le
2c.3qrs.| Hair . 26 prs. | Cross garnett hinges .
8 | Small scrapers and stones 26 |Thumb-latches. . .
4 | York sinks, with grates, waste | 8 |Chimney-pots . . «
pipes, and trapsies Give t a. 4 | Bedroom stoves, fixed, compl.
Socata CuUbertine © leurs: eeommmonls 25 4 | Kitchen ditto and ditto. .
2 it. | Do.” oak ~. * 1714 ft. | Iron guttering and down- PE
4 | Solid doorcases, with ledged fixed, complete . .-
doors, hinges, latches, and (2c. LgqrlPaint) 5) 7c" = ase
bolts, complete . | Labour <p, isl? Prom emery eats
4 | Do. and do., with stock- locks Cartage 0 ak peGee et rae
el an | Elam * SNOT |
X23, away awa 193
L777
cx)
a nae
“ELEVATION OF THE FRONT-
1. Closet.
M Br D-ROOM. BED-ROOM.
2. Stairs. :
9.6X7.6 12.0 X 8.6
3. Do
BED-ROOM. eel BED-R00M.
11.0 K 11.0 11.0 X 11.0
QUANTITIES FOR OUTBUILDINGS, &c.
23,240 | Building bricks Sn i ate) : aed
27 qrs. | Lime Mere es ee) te 5
PUPAS SANG ee ee es 5. Se .
Besoss|(Cement, & <i, + -
480 | 6 in. paving squares eagle
10 | 12in. oven do. pote ae
7130 |Plaintiles. . supane
185 |12in.sheildraintiles . .
200 | 18 in. drain pipes, 6 ins. diam.
29 _|U8in.ridge'tiles . . «
WORD UMeMebLineslaths! yee sel ec te
3 | York man-hole stones . .
SmipWO mc Oor Cilismyeaiiesy arse. re
9 prs. | Hook-stones, with iron hooks
9 | Catch-stones, with iron catches
SepieeGubetin iy « . » -«
Gari ttyo Oy 9am. deals. . ° .
4 |Small louvre frames Sisigstre Vente slancokis
4 | Do. piggery feeding doors, with hinges,
hasps, and staples SPetar tarsal sets
4 | Ledged privy-doors, with hinges,thumb-
latehessand bolts . 9... «
4 | Ledged pigsty doors, with hook hinges
only, and hasps and staples . .
5 | Do. outer doors, with hook hinges only,
latches, and stock-locks . .
16 | Fencing posts, 3 ft. out of ground .
10 | Drying do. 7 ft. do. seit
17 leng.| Rails and palings, 3ft.high. . .
4 .
ELEVATION OF THE ENDS.
‘ey ete) (0) en ele.el ne (e) @.Le. ve 97 (0. e seune
Hand gates, with hinges and latches
Nails and screws 4 : 5 C
1 | Oven-door and frame ee : :
1 |Double pump, with suctions to draw
from welland tank . 5
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4 | Common closet apparatus, with supply- Sa
cistern and service from pump to Rah :
qr. lb. each e ° . . . ° . ° “oe
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196 Composition and Value of Guano.
XI.—On the Composition and Miney Value of the different
Varieties of Guano. By J. Tuomas Way, Consulting Chemist
to the Royal Agricultural Society.
Time, which brings change to every thing, has not been idle
with agriculture. Every year ushers in some novelty, if not im-
provement, in the shape of new implements, new plants for culti-
vation, and new manures. Not the least remarkable of these
introductions in modern times is that of guano. ‘The farmer who
employs, it may be, a few cwts. of this manure in the year, hardly
troubles himself to inquire the amount which is annually imported
into England, the distance which it is brought, and the capital
which is employed in its transmission. In one year between
three and four hundred thousand tons of all varieties are said to
have been imported; and at the present time the yearly con-
sumption in this country alone of Peruvian guano does not fall
short of 80,000 or 100,000 tons. What thenis guano? and to what
does it owe that undeniable fertilizing power which can repay
the cost of bringing it so many thousand miles across the seas ?
It does not come within the scope of the present article to
offer a history of guano, or to recount the wonders which it has
effected in the production of all kinds of crops. ‘The reader may
refer to Professor Johnstone’s paper on guano in this Journal
(vol. ii, pt. ui.) for a very interesting account of this singular
substance ; and if he requires any evidence of its value as manure,
he will find such distributed through any and every agricultural
publication of the last eight years.
It will also occur to him that it has not been left to the present
time or to the present writer to place before the public as a
novelty the analysis of guano; on the contrary, many very careful
and elaborate analyses have been undertaken for the purpose of
indicating the true composition of the different varieties, and, as
it is of a highly complex nature, analytical skill of no ordinary
kind has been brought to bear upon its examination. Baron
Liebig has collected in an appendix to his fourth edition of ‘The
Chemistry of Agriculture’ very many of the analyses of guano which
had been published up to the date of that work, and as they com-
prehend pretty nearly all that is known of its composition, the
reader may be referred to the book in question for this information.
These analyses however, highly valuable as they undoubtedly
are in a scientific point of view, are too much complicated by the
minuteness of their details to convey to the mind any definite
notion of the precise manurial value of guano, still less are they
applicable to calculations Laving in view the comparison of the
different varieties, in an agricultural sense, or the determination
of their average money yalue in relation to other recognised
manures.
Composition and Value of Guano. LOT,
To obviate this defect, and to place in a clear light the differ-
ences which exist between the different varieties—to contrast the
money value of the specimens—and, having decided upon the
constituents to which their manurial efficacy is to be ascribed, to
speculate upon the possible substitutes for guano on the score of
economy, or in the event of an ultimate failure of its supply—such
are the objects of the present paper.
It is taken for granted that no one who will take the trouble of
reading papers of a scientific character in reference to agriculture
needs to be furnished with arguments to prove that guano acts as
a manure because zt contains something or other that is favourable
to the growth of plants, that is to say, that there is no talismanic
or mysterious principle about it which would elude inquiry or
defy imitation, but that it is perfectly practicable to ascertain
what the constituent or constituents are which make it a fertilizer;
and that, having so ascertained its active ingredients, a fac simile
of the substance might be prepared by a combination of them
from other sources; and that, whatever these sources might be,
the compound so prepared would have all] the properties and
efficacy of the guano which it was intended to imitate.*
Guano then owes its efficacy as a fertilizer to some one or more
definite ingredients. ‘The question is, Do we know what the
active constituents of guano are? and is its composition for the
practical purposes of agriculture capable of being regarded in a
simple light, and of being made the subject of distinct calculation?
It is hoped’ that these queries may very readily be answered in
the affirmative.
For an instant let the reader give his attention to the elaborate
analyses of guano before alluded to. He will find that mention is
made of the urate, oxalate, humate, &c., of ammonia; these are
what chemists call “ organic salts: then, again, of the phosphate,
carbonate, and muriate of the same alkali. He will also observe
that guano contains sulphates, carbonates, phosphates, and mu-
riates of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda; and lastly, organic
matters containing nitrogen. Now what does all this amount to?
Is it meant that every one of these compounds has its distinct and
individual share in the action of guano as manure ; that the oxalate
of ammonia will have a different effect, and consequently a different
value, to the carbonate; that it will be of material importance that
the phosphate of lime and the phosphate of magnesia should be
separately considered? Surely not. It was before observed, that
the analyses in question are of a scientific rather than a practical
tendency, and that they were not made with a view to agricultural
* This is not literally true. Uric acid is only to be obtained from one or two
sources, such as the solid urine of serpents or the dung of sea-fowl, which latter is in
fact guano. Guano is therefore a manure sa? generis, and it is impossible to produce a
perfect imitation of it.
198 Composition and Value of Guano.
application. It may well be, indeed, that every difference in the
constitution of a salt will give it a distinct influence on the growth
of plants; but it is far more consistent with the present position
of the chemistry of agriculture to refer the value of different che-
mical compounds as manure to the proportion which they
respectively contain of the known agents of vegetation, making, at
the same time, due allowance for the state of solubility and other
accessory circumstances. ‘Thus, if it were a question between
the carbonate and oxalate of ammonia, we must, with our present
knowledge, value them solely by the relative amount of ammonia
they contain, setting aside altogether the difference of the acid
with which they are combined.
It often happens that we have to deal with compounds which
may be supposed to possess more than one source of importance
in an agricultural point of view; thus, for instance, sulphate of
potash is capable of supplying two, in fact three, necessary sub-
stances to a growing plant—-sulphuric acid, sulphur, and potash.
It is plain that in this case we must place a value, not only upon
the potash, but upon the sulphuric acid, since it is known that
both these constituents form part of the materials with which
Nature builds up her vegetable structures. But there is no
reason to think that the sulphur or sulphuric acid of sulphate of
potash is more easy of acquisition than the sulphuric acid or sul-
phur of sulphate of lime. As a source of these substances to
plants, the relative value of the two salts is to be decided solely
by the quantity they contain. Then, again, we are not prepared
by any means to allow that one salt of any given substance, such
as ammonia, will be more efficacious as a manure than another
compound of the same substance with a different acid; there are,
for instance, no good grounds for believing that sulphate of am-
monia is different in its action to sal-ammoniac, otherwise than in
containing a different proportion of the important ingredient, the
ammonia. But, as before said, there can be no equality between
the phosphate and muriate of ammonia, because the former sup-
plies two highly important elements of vegetation, the latter only one.
If (as a provisional doctrine only) 1t may then be considered
safe to value the different chemical substances in reference to
vegetation simply by the quantity of the different constituents
which they can supply, we shall have made very great advance
towards simplifying our views upon these points, and shall much
more readily reduce the question to one of practical economy.
This doctrine, when applied with the requisite judgment, will, it
is conceived, be not very far from the truth, and it is especially
useful in estimating the value of guano.
Very many of the analyses which are introduced in this paper
were made in my laboratory by Mr. Ogston, Mr. Ward, and Mr.
Eggar, and as the greater number of them were undertaken wiih
Composition and Value of Guano. 199
the express purpose of throwing light upon the agricultural value
of guano, and upon the extent of variation in its composition,
great pains have been taken to render the results perfectly trust-
worthy and unexceptionable.
I am indebted to Mr. Lawes for several of the specimens of
which the analysis is given, and for much information and assist-
ance in the course of my inquiries. The samples given me by
Mr. Lawes were taken from the cargoes in the docks, mostly by
himself, and with every care that they should represent truly the
bulks from which they were separated; that they are really fair
averages of the respective cargoes I shall attempt to show ina
subsequent part of this paper.
To Messrs. Gibbs and Sons, the importers of Peruvian guano,
I owe the opportunity of selecting specimens of this year’s im-
portation. ‘These gentlemen, having become aware of my inten-
tion of publishing the results of my earlier analyses, placed them-
selves in communication with me, and afforded me every facility
in taking samples from the ships in dock.
In addition to the analyses made in my own laboratory, [ am
enabled, by the kindness of Mr. Lawes, to enrich this paper by
the introduction of many others which have been from time to
time made for him by Dr. Ure and Mr. Teschemacher, and which
are now published for the first time.
The following analyses of different specimens of guano will
present to the reader its ultima‘e composition (more especially as
regards the mineral portion), and will enable him to judge to
which of its constituents, according to the rules before laid down,
he should attribute its principal value in relation to other available
manures.
TaB Le 1.—Composition of Eight Specimens of Peruvian Guano.*
phage lB ba lA eee gl | F. G. | H
Water . . . . | 18-33| 17-95] 12°57| 12-58] 12-29, 13-09] 14-54) 13-67
Pre anicy Maker and }) 47-04, 47-46) 33-67) 46-61] 48-76 49-32] 50-81 52-97
Salts of Ammonia .
Sand and Silica .. Mrs PeWe sal Pe 72h S279) OLS Mol 42) Vics esd
Phosphoric Acid . | 12°41) 13-16} 20°21] 14:37) 13°61) 14-46] 14°08) 14°56
Sulphuric Acid . . 3°83 3:47; 4°00, 4°54, 4°57) 4-00) 3°60, 2°52
JLT area aa 9-70 10°73) 16°49 11-47/ 11°32 10°84 9°68 10°3
Magnesia 2. 70) *52 “80 -62 °78 ye -54 “ol
Oxide of Iron . Dilee tol * 22ins 323 °23 °23 *20 9 768:
Potash... «. |. 3-07) 2-52; 3°60} 3-22) 4-95) 2-9.| 3-40) 1-42
Soda . Serre 2-13-30) 4°19 9) mite cose -74 none
Chloride of Phiassieiy none | none | none | none none | none | none | 2°02
Chloride of Sodium . 1-21 2-40) 2°57) 2°66) 2°23) 2-1t} 1°29 none
100-00 160°C0 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00|160*C0 160-00
| | | |
* For methods of analysis, &c., see Appendix.
200 Composition and Value of Guano.
In reference to this table, and passing by for the present the
proportion of water and organic matter, for the notice of which a
better opportunity will presently occur, we may observe that the
mineral value of guano would seem to consist solely in the phos-
phate and sulphate of lime and potash. Of soda there is very
little, except in the form of common salt, whilst the proportion of
magnesia is so small as hardly to deserve notice.
It is an interesting and important fact that guano should con-
tain so much potash as is shown by this table to be the case:
that the proportion of the alkali is frequently as much as or
more than 3 per cent. of its weight is proved by the exami-
nation of other specimens. The following are the per-centages
of potash and soda in eight other samples of Peruvian guano,
of whose further composition we shall shortly have occasion to
speak :—
Potash in 100 parts | 3°27
Soda ¥3o2 io ete nS 7;
3°19] 3° 75 | 4:60
°63 75 | none
3°43 hives 74 | 6°49 | 3-73
1-038 Gua) = 79
Although the chlorine has not in these latter cases been deter-
mined, it is probable that, as in the other eight samples, the soda
principally occurs as common salt. I shall shortly point out that
potash is not always found to the same extent as in the tables;
but my present purpose is to show that in guano the ingredients
of any value are few and simple. Jeverting to the table, we find
that under the head of “‘ Animal Matters and Salts of Ammonia”
is comprehended in most cases nearly one-half of the weight of
the guano. These animal matters are of value as manure, solely
in proportion to the ammonia which they can supply; sooner or
Jater they pass into decomposition, giving rise to the usual pro-
ducts. It may be thought by some that as carbonic acid is one
of these products, and as it is well known that this gas is an agent
in vegetation, a certain allowance should be made for the car-
bonaceous elements. ‘here is, indeed, no doubt that the more
dilute manures owe much of their efficacy to the compounds of
carbon, but these are always supplied in large quantity, whereas
the amount of carbonaceous manure furnished by a fair dressing
of guano is really too inconsiderable to be taken into account.
The “organic matters and ammoniacal salts,’ then, must be
valued only so far as they can supply ammonia. But it is to be
observed that part of these substances (as the carbonate and other
salts of ammonia) is capable of furnishing ammonia immediately ;
whilst the other portion (the animal matter—the uric acid, for
instance) will require more or less time to become converted
into it, although to this point they will all eventually come.
Founded upon “this circumstance some chemists have proposed to
distinguish the actually existing ammonia from that which will
Composition and Value of Guano. 201
eventually be derived from the guano. Dr. Ure (who has pub-
lished an able paper on the analysis of guano in this Journal,
vol. v. p. 287) has called the former the actual and the latter the
potential ammonia; and in making this distinction he obviously
considers it important for the farmer to know how much 7s and
how much will be available to the crop for which the guano is
applied. If we had any knowledge of the time which these ani-
mal compounds require for their decomposition when distributed
through any given soil, some advantage might accrue from this
refinement, although from the ever-changing circumstances to
which a manure is exposed in the soil, the distinction would
possess little practecal utility; but it appears to me that in the
absence of such knowledge it is far wiser to take the more simple
view. It is believed therefore that the value of the organic part
of guano is solely dependent upon the proportion oihamonia
which it can eventually supply, without reference to the present
state of the compounds which will furnish it.
With respect to the particular constituents which constitute
the mineral value of guano there can be little doubt: magnesia
and oxide of iron, as existing in minute quantity only, are already
disposed of ; soda, whether in the state of common salt or in any
other form, exists in such small proportion, and, as will be pre-
sently shown, could be supplied from independent sources at such
a trifling cost, that little or no money value can be attached to it:
the same is true of the sulphuric acid, for which gypsum at an
almost nameless expense would be an ample substitute. There
only now remains the phosphoric acid combined with lime and
the potash ; and these with the ammonia are really the important,
and the only important, ingredients in guano.
If the arguments which have been brought forward are consi-
dered eaiastactory! we shall have arrived at a much simpler notion
of the agricultural value of guano than would be derived from an
examination of its recondite analysis. ‘The only important consti-
tuents will be reduced to these :—
1. Ammonia or its elements.
2. Phosphate of lime.
3. Potash.
It is proposed in a later part of this paper to consider the
money value of guano and its constituents, and it will then be
more apparent that the view we have now taken of its compo-
sition is a just one. In the meanwhile we may properly intro-
duce the analysis of a number of specimens which have been
examined upon the principles now brought forward.
The following table contains the analysis of eight specimens of
202 Composition and Value of Guano.
guano taken from the docks in 1847 and 1848, and analyzed in
my laboratory :—
TABLE 2.— Peruvian Guano imported in 1847-8,
Number of Specimen 1 2 3 4 OD ceaial oho i 9
ir aM raC wa a me | | eek
Bly. cael yeh Es dey Me alee
Name of Sh'p sf. eee Tileisor Sa Sane = m
S.8 oc a3 cS & | Ss f= mt
Nie RCM en ce Glan See
Water. . . 16°16) 17:29 8-88 22°68 17°95 16°72} 12°57| 15°85
Organic Matier if 57°13] 50°66 58-82 44-19] 51°39 51-35] 37-781 55-28
Salts of Ammonia
Sand 3°’. 1-17) 1°64" 1°36, 222-32 os eco
Earthy Phosphates . | 19°46] 23°07 25+27, 28-83) 20°98 29°74) 34°45) 20-30
Alkaline Salts . . 6°08) 7-34 5:67 3°05] 834 *61) 13°48) 7-34
100-60|100-00 100-00 100°0C| 100-00 100-00)100- 00 100:00
Ammonia supplied by | |
100 parts of each $} 18:94] 17°46 17°86 16°83] 18°01] 16-40] 18°50) 16-92
epee men) . |
A few words a4 serve to sealin éhe presen tall as sell as
those which follow it. The methods of analysis (described in
the Appendix) are so arranged as to exhibit the total quantity
of ammonia and the earthy phosphates, together with the propor-
tions of sand and water. Under the head of “ Alkaline Salts”
are included the sulphates and muriates of potash and soda,
together with any deficiency occurring in the analysis. The
quantity of potash is not here specified: in sixteen specimens it
has, however, been before given.
The specimens whose analysis is given, in the 3rd table have
been obtained from various persons during the last twelve or
eighteen months. Coming through indirect channels, I am not
able to speak of them with the same confidence as of those which
have been sampled directly from the ships.
Their composition is, however, for the most part such as to
leave no doubt of their being genuine specimens of Peruvian
guano. Specimens 12 and 13 in the table will be seen to be
rather below the usual mark in respect of ammonia. ‘They are
duplicates of the same cargo; and, from the price at which the
guano was bought, I have no doubt that it was what by the
importers is called ‘<‘demaged guano,” and sold at a reduced
price. *
* For an analysis of damaged guano, see Appendix.
Composition and Value of Guano. 203
TABLE 3.—Peruvian Guano.
|
Numberof Specimen) 10 11 12 13 | 14 | 16 17 Ig | 19 20
Water ..... .| 14°61] 10°13| 21°87] 23°74] 18°33) 16-88] 13 09| 11°24) 19-79! 9
Organic Matter and | 51°38| 58°07| 48°72| 47°35| 51°24 54 81| 53°32] 55°17 52°53' 48°54
1
1
Salts of Ammonia | |
Sand... : 1°68] (1731) ¥e01 bok ol) Sls la obs4or is46p 62 °83
Earthy Phosphates -| 23°86} 21°16] 21°09 75| 26 29| 27°89 24°08) 28°02
Alkaline Salts... 8°47) 9°33) 7°31 "80| 7°33) 5°44) 5°88 4°24) °99, 11°85
100°00 100-00 100°00 100-00|100-00 100° 00)100°00) 100 00 105*°u0 106°60
| | |
_
-}O re
00
EH
nw
a
=~?
wo
rm
—
Y
Ammonia yielded | | Not
by 100 parts of | 16°18} 18°66) 14°04 15°51! 16°60 16°81) 17°06) 18°27 ascer-, 17°55
each Specimen , j | | | tained
| |
The next analyses are those of samples sold to different persons
as good Peruvian guanos, but which are so low in ammoniacal
composition as to lead to a doubt of their genuineness :—
TABLE 4.—Inferior Guanos.
Number of Specimen . Lae es ye) | 22 23
Water) .:. ~{. : : 19°74 | 11-29 BLe22
Organic Matter ata Salts of are 46°17 46:45 34°68
Sadie heer ba as AAR ort 2°46 2°63 5:44
Earthy Phosphates oan fal tl cha verSids 31°99 26-71 21:69
WikatmeSalfs-°- i... . . i050) 2592 95°71
100'¢O | 100-60 | 100 00 |
Ammonia yielded by 100 parts. . 11°89 | 10°41 Sales
The large proportion of “alkaline salts” in the third speci-
-men is due to the presence of a quantity of gypsum and common
salt with which the guano has been adulterated, whilst at the
same time the proportion of earthy phosphates has been kept up
probably by the mixture of a certain quantity of one of the
cheaper varieties of guano.
The next specimens are from the importaiions of the latter
part of 1848 and the beginning of the present year (1849).
The first 8 of the following table were taken from the ware-
housed cargoes by Mr. Lawes. Nos. 29 and 31 are duplicate
specimens of Nos, 28 and 30.
* The result of two analyses closely agreeing.
204
Composition and Value of Guano.
TABLE 5.—Peruvian Guano imported in the latter part of 1848 and
the commencement of 1849.
Number of Speci-
AIMCW eter tepie lute
Name of Ship. . -
Ammonia
plied by 100 parts
of each Specimen
Water . . 2-2 o «
Organic Matter &
Salts of Ammo-
TMA: Toduetse core
Sandys is: em cialesis
Earthy Phosphates
Alkaline Salts . .
sup-
24
j
13°39
4
52°37
1:35
23°29
9°60
100°00
17°63
25 26
16°84
14°47
51°62} 49°83
OSs liesliy,
23°53) 24°26
9°15} 7-90
100 00}100°00
16°80} 17°48
27
14°87
52°10
1°35
22°83
8°75
100°00
17°81
—_—[—S | ——___
28
|
100°00
11°96
52°84
1°49
22°93
10°78
Mio
29
11°15
54°46
1°40
23°03
9°96
190°00
17°15
30 31 32 33
3 2,6
aoe Jace .
SSS ESN)
2) Q, Zee $B po
RMECHEINESE
ys BeOls BRO
16°52 | 13°27 10°24 10°21
51°92 | 53°07 54°59 55°14
1°16 2°95 1°42 POWef
22°22 | 22°84 21°31 25°30
8°18 7°87 12°44 TEENS
100°00 |100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00
16°65 | 17°24 18°37 15°98
The next and concluding series of analyses of this variety of
guano exhibits a very great resemblance in composition to those
specimens last described.
The five first samples were brought me by the importers,
Messrs. Gibbs and Son, No. 35 being a duplicate from the ship
Manchester, whose analysis was before given (in Table 2).
The
samples Nos. 39 to 43 were taken from the respective ships by
myself, in the presence of Mr. Lawes and of a gentleman of the
firm of the importers.
I can therefcre vouch personally for their
authenticity. The other specimens are, with the exception of
specimens 34 and 35, from ships lately arrived in the river.
TaBLeE 6.—Peruvian Guano imported chiefly in 1849.*
Number of
Specimen
——
Name of the
Ship......-
Water-toie «
Organic Mat-|;
ter and Salts
of Ammonia
Sand ...
Earthy 7
Phosphates f
Alkaline
Salts)... }
Ammonia
yielded by |
100 parts of |
each Spec.
cote
|
** British Em-
pire.”
35
iv)
for)
** Manches-
ter.”
| “« Parkfield.” |
—
oO
oO:
_
—
22°96
11°58
100°00
eld
w
~
** Henrietta.”
=|
“St.George.” | &
|
13°12 10°94
51°80 53°88
|
2°13) 2°23
24°39 23°73
8°56
100°00 190-00
—_—
9°22
16°95, 17°25
54°32
22°19
elslicali
100°00
17°18
1°22)
|
| ** Parkfield.”
= |
2
ri
a
|
| “ Oceana.” |
|
24°26
8°5]
100 00
16°95
42 43 44
= | | 3
“10°44] 11°20! 8-97
53°51] 52°91) 57°64
NOBLE ORR IOUS)
21°28] 23°97) 23°58
13°38} 10°59, 8°69
100° 00|100- 00/100 +00
17°27| 16°99 18°56;
1
2 | “J.T. Ford.”
=
oO
wo
a}
nS
wr
y
[or]
rs
=t
:
|
|
|
|
“Prince of
Wales.”
2nd Sample.
Ditto,
12°13) 10°46
55°73] 53°22] 55°95
1°20) 1°37) 1°60
25°20) 25°02) 28°98
7°50
100°0)
3°01
100°00
8°26
100°00
¥§°94) 17°63] 17°21
* When this table was arvanged I was ignorant of the names of some of the specimens,
and of their being duplicates of others in the table.
Composition and Value of Guano. 205
Having now before us the analyses of nearly 50 specimens
of Peruvian guano, we may very safely proceed to draw from
them some general conclusion as to its average composition, and
as to the extent of deviation to which that compositionis hable. In
doing so, perhaps the fairest plan will be to take first into consi-
deration those specimens only which have been obtained directly
from the docks.
The Tables 2, 5, and 6, give the composition of 32 specimens,
concerning whose history there is no doubt.
The first ingredient to be noticed is the Water.—Although to
all appearance guano is frequently quite dry, this is not che-
mically the case. A certain quantity of water is natural to it,
being absorbed by the compounds which it contains ; and even
when taken from the centre of a cargo, and quite dusty in character,
guano yet contains about one-tenth part of its weight of water.
It has also a strong tendency to absorb moisture from the air,
and to this circumstance is due the change of colour which it
undergoes when left exposed for a short time.
The drier Peruvian guano is the lighter is its colour; a brown
or chocolate tinge is not necessarily a proof of inferiority, inas-
much as this colour is often due to its having become accidentally
damp. With a knowledge of this disposition to attract moisture
from the air, we are not surprised to find the diiferent specimens
exhibiting some latitude in the amount of water.
The lowest per centage of water (Spec.3) . is . 8:88
The highest - “6 (Speer 4). 5s. tos 22768
The average of 32 specimens being . . . . . 13°09
It will be observed that those most recently examined (Table 6)
are all of them drier than those which were imported at an earlier
period. I have no doubt that the excess of moisture in the
former is therefore due to exposure since the cargoes. were un-
shipped, and that the average of the 5th and 6th Tables (which
is 12-14 per cent.), will express about the real proportion of mois-
_ ture. The water in guano is of no further interest than as, being
of no value itself, it depresses proportionably that of the guano,
Thus, for instance, the addition by accident or fraud of 5 or 10
per cent. of water to an originally dry specimen, wi'l be a loss to
that amount on the farmer’s purchase. At the same time it is to
be observed, that some of the wettest of the specimens of guano
in the table (as for instance, No. 5), are in no way inferior in the
proportion of ammonia, which, as will be presently shown, consti-
tutes its greatest value.
This tendency to absorb moisture is worthy of a passing notice
in reference to the action of the manure; for it is often of the
greatest consequence in dry seasons.
Organic Matter and Salts of Ammonia.—When dried guano
206 Composition and Value of Guano.
is burned in the open air it loses from one-half to two thirds of its
weight; this loss consists of the animal compounds, such as
uric acid, &c., and the carbonate and other salts of ammonia.
Upon an examination of the tables before referred to, it will be
found that under this head—=
The lowest per centage (Spec.7) . is . 37°78
The highest . . (Spec. 3) peas SO Swoe
The average of 32 specimens being . . 52°61
Although the extreme differences above given really occur in
genuine Peruvian guano, the amount ef variation is not by any
means common. In the 32 specimens, only three will be found
having a higher per centage of combustible matter than 56, and
about the same number falling short of 50 per cent.
At first sight the proportion of organic matter and ammoniacal
salts in guano might seem to be a datum of importance, and so it
would be if it were a measure of the ammonia which each sample
can supply. Such, however, is not the case. Specimens | and 7,
which contain very different quantities of organic matter, &c.,
yield very nearly the same amount of ammonia; and this holds
good in many other instances, which will occur to the reader
who examines the tables. An analysis of guano therefore, to afford
an accurate notion of its value, must state the quantity of ammo-
nia—the proportion of “ matiers containing ammonia”’ furnishing
no definite information on this point.
Sand, §&c.—The proportion of sand in guano is of no great im-
portance. It serves, however, to indicate its purity or otherwise.
In some species of guano a large proportion of sand is found.
If the deposit is on the mainland, the sand is introduced into it
during its formation by the action of winds; or if on an island of
a loose texture, the guano becomes mixed with the surface matter
itself.
The genuine Peruvian guano is brought from one or more
islands about 6 miles from the coast of Peru, and is deposited on
a solid rock. Neither of the before-mentioned agencies there-
fore come into play, and the manure is consequently almost free
from sand or other insoluble substances. In the 32 specimens—
The lowest per centage of sand (Spec. 1) . is . 1°17
The highest hy (Spee. 31cm. 10) es Rees
The average of all the specimens being. a) mc 1genme Ae gees
In the great majority of cases the proportion of sand is found
to be within 1 and 1} per cent. This comparative uniformity of
quantity, and indeed the presence of any sand at all, ceases to sur-
prise us when it is remembered that the digestion of birds cannot
Composition and Value of Guano. 207
be carried on without the introduction with their food of a certain
portion of some granular substance.
From the fact that amongst the pure specimens of guano now
described, one or two may be selected which contain nearly 3 per
cent. of sand, great caution is necessary before a specimen is de-
clared to be impure or adulterated, because it contains a larger
quantity of insoluble matter than usual ; but there can be no diffi-
culty in coming to this conclusion if a high per centage of sand
is accompanied with other unusual characters.
Earthy Phosphates.—I\t has been before pointed out, that the
precipitate which receives this name consists almost entirely of
phosphate of lime. Unlike the ingredient which we have just
discussed, the proportion of phosphate of lime in guano is of
positive importance.
The lowest proportion (Spec. 1) . is . 19°46 per cent.
The highest i (SPEC sf iie on est pay Oe LO As
The average of 32 specimens being . . 24°12 55
Here again the exceptional cases are comparatively rare—the
majority of specimens affording a proportion of phosphate of lime
confined within 20 and 25 per cent.
Alkaline Salts.—It has been explained that under this head
are included the sulphates and muriates of potash and soda, to-
gether with any loss occurring in the analysis. Of these ingre-
dients the potash is the only one of any importance, as will he
more clearly shown presently. The quantity has been ascertained
in 16 specimens of guano, and in these it averages 3-64 per cent.
It is not, however, to be thought that it always reaches this high
proportion—for in some samples the total amount of alkaline
salts is so small, as to preclude the presence of any considerable
amount of the alkali. In the 16 cases before alluded to, the
alkaline salts average 8:13 per cent., of which 3-64 per cent. is
potash. We shall not therefore perhaps be far wrong in esti-
mating the potash at something less than one-half of the average
proportion of these salts.
In the 32 specimens the alkaline salts are as follows :—
The lowest proportion (Spec.6) . is . 0°61 per cent.
The highest __,, (Speen ai Cis) eine lS 248) 1,
The average of the 32 specimens being . 8°78. ,,
The last number very nearly agrees with that deduced from
specimens in which the potash was actually determined, and we
shall therefore conclude that the average proportion of this alkali
is about 33 per cent.
The Ammonia.— Of all the ingredients of Peruvian guano the
ammonia is the one of greatest value, and a knowledge of its
208 Composition and Value of Guano.
proportion in the different specimens is of the highest importance.
In the 32 specimens from which the preceding averages have
been drawn, we find—
The lowest proportion (Spec. 33) . is . 15°98 per cent.
The highest ,, (Specimens 1 and 45) . 18°94 5
The average of 32 specimens being . . 17°41 .
That the above per centage of ammonia is higher than most
persons have been in the habit of considering it, [ think will be
readily granted. ‘The great number of specimens examined, and
the period of time during which they have been collected, are
however greatly in favour of an uniformity in the composition of
true* Peruvian guano. The character of the guano islands
themselves is also an additional argument on the same side. I
am informed by a gentleman, who for several years has person-
ally superintended the loading of the guano ships, that the island
from which the Peruvian guano is brought, and which is one of a
group called the Chincha Islands, is one mass of the manure, having
a circumference of 5 or 6 miles,
At the point where the guano is now worked, the height of the
deposit is upwards of 80 feet, and the removal of some 200,000
tons has scarcely affected it in a perceptible degree. As may be
imagined from the immense weight of the mass, and the gradual
way in which it has been formed, its solidity is very considerable,
and in some cases it has been necessary to blast it as we would a
rock of sandstone or limestone. It will be obvious that in such
circumstances the guano would be preserved with little loss.
Leaving the further consideration of ordinary Peruvian guano,
until we are in a position to enter upon the question of money
value, I now pass on to the other known varieties.
There is a variety of guano, of which a few cargoes only have
reached England, and which is known in Peru as Angamos
guano. It is in no way peculiar, except in being above the aver-
age richness in ammonia, and somewhat whiter in colour. It is
a deposit of recent formation, being collected by hand, and at
considerable exyfense, from the rocks which the birds frequent—
not more than 400 or 500 are annually obtainable.
The following Table exhibits the composition of 4 specimens
of this kind of guano :—
* T say true Peruvian guano, because other varieties, such as the Bolivian and
Chilian, are brought from the same part of the world. I have not yet had an oppor-
tunity of examining specimens of these kinds of guano, and am not therefore in a po-
sition to say whether they are of the same value and exhibit the same aniformity in
composition as those above described, The importers are expecting cargoes of Boli-
vian guano during the present summer (1849), and have promised to supply specimens
for analysis, upon which I shall hope to report in a future Journal.
Composition and Value of Guano. 209
Tasie 7.--Angamos Guano.
Number of Specimen. . . . | 48 49 50 | 51
je mf =
Rice ee | . 16829 10°93 7 ua wet oe
ae | | g20 | 1-esf | Tegra: 32°00
Organic Matter and Ammonia Salts 58°84 51°45 59-00 62°50
Earthy Phosphates. . . . .j| 14°69 23°04 22-00 18°50
Bikalmensalts;. . . »« + . | 6°89 13°02 4°00 | 4-00
100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00
Ammonia from 100 parts. . .| 20°07 | 20°79 | 20°89 | 20°40
The Specimens 50 and 51 were analyzed by Dr. Ure. Speci-
men 49 was purchased by the person who placed it in my hands
for analysisin the ordinary way of business from a country dealer.
I have no knowledge of its history; but as it closely corresponds
with the other samples of Angamos guano, I have ventured to
place it side by side with them.
At the same time it is obvious that the difference between this
kind of guano and the best specimens of Peruvian is very trifling,
since there are in the Tables several cases in which the proportion
of ammonia approaches 19 per cent.
We now proceed to the other and inferior varieties, taking them
in the order of ammoniacal value. The Ichaboe guano, therefore,
naturally presents itself first on the list.
Under this head I can offer no results of my own. The analyses
given below were made by Dr. Ure and Mr. Teschemacher.
TABLE 8.—Ichaboe Guano.
| | - | | | | }
Numberof Specimen 48 | 49 | 50 51 | 52 | 53 54 55 | 56 57 58
7S ei Sa a ae bpapbeaess Prien ae | i
ft Vian Sine oer ie | ba tbat Agen ie | Ba. fleas a |
N f the Shi Peseta al celal h pti el ah emai |) cy «ld pears aile gies 5 ‘B
Wwame 0 1e@ Ip. oa S a fe | ra | $ | trey 2 ! = | = > ©
SCL N io) SS gl Os ee ALN ep Z
. ; s S es S eed ae | [es lisse em es s
Water... . . | 29°59 | 29°5 | 2675 | 26°5 | 27°0 | 26+5 | 2975 | aero | 24°8 | eo
Animal Matter and | L | | er lee
° 2207 . en } De i 5 | 33° | 5e ev to | x } 36°
AGH RAEAT Salts | 20°0 | 33°5 41:0 SO oil 4250 [5640 3[e33-00) 39500) 34205) 28 ou as eae
PERG! oki COP A oe 20. 0 °3 aan eee BW AGUA eOGNEL IS (08) | se
Earthy Phosphates . | 37°0 | 33°0 | 28°7 | 27°5 | 26°0 | 27°5 |.29°5 | 29°5 | 30-0 | 35°5 | 29 5
Kune! | ear
| zi | | es | a
Ammonia... ...| 4°5 | MOR MeO s SEV ee Vs Sal SF Ohi yet "Ot, AS.) 4 BeOS ea eet
The relation in composition between the Peruvian and Ichaboe
guanos is at once seen: with less than half the proportion of am-
monia, the latter contains a slightly increased quantity of earthy
phosphate. That the last-named advantage can in no way com-
pensate for a deficiency in ammonia will be better seen when the re-
lative value of these ingredients is ascertained. Of the ammonia—
VOL. X. Pr
210 Composition and Value of Guano.
The lowest per centage inthe tableis . . 4°5
The highest “5 é ‘ 9°5
The average of 11 specimens being . oo) ie a
Of the phosphates of lime :—
The lowest: ;S0 oi.) Gy Pgisit 20) ne) es ee
The highest. . vee Noe
The average of the whole number being 2 B08
We may by-and-bye find occasion to return to a consideration
of this variety; but for the present we pass on to the nextanalyses,
which are those of Patagonian guano.
This variety usually contains more ammonia than the Saldanha
Bay guano, although in either case the quantity is very small.
Nos. 66, 67, and 68, are samples taken from the top, middle,
and bottom of a cargo respectively, the analyses being by Dr. Ure;
69 and 70 are duplicates of the same cargo; the analysis of 71
and 72 were made in my own laboratory ; the remainder are by
Mr. 'Teschemacher.
TaBLeE 9.—-Patagonian Guano.
Number of 7 | | .
yy © w ted
Suecimean i 50°) 260 | 61) 62 | 68 | 64 | 65’ | 66") Jer" F6s MM eay ire eras 22
pe | | wee le i a | | Pa
FS au ar S ori
o isl i or o H j
ee = lS) Relea eer ey a
a=) Ss . bs © ts a Pt) alts) aefii(e) cS} =
Nameofthe| 2.8 |S¢|.4 1 2 | 6 | ele sel Sea ees |* &
ame ofthe| g agi 8 4 ap Go PS) syle oy Sareea ees ea hae 5
Ships ss) Ho | S$ [28/818 | ¢ | # [Se Go| GO eo yos | e~ | ox
S|] 8 iGhi/8 | BE |) = HSS ee Se ieasee es | 85
: = 2 S 3 = ileen|s fan) (=) % =) Z Zz
Water . . .| 24:5 | 27°0 | 285 | 26-5 | 25°5 | 24+0 | 32°0 | 21-0 | 20°5 | 23-2 | 27°0 | 18°0 | 29°5 | 24°8
Animal Mat-}}
ter and Salts|)16°5 | 16°5 | 175 | 17*5 | 16°0 | 16°5 | 21°0 | 16°5 | 12°0 | 9+5 | 28°5 | 30-0 | 18°6 | 28-0
of Ammonia|}
Sand... «| 6°5.|.10°5 | 9°0.| 98*5.|- 7°0 |) 2°52]. | °5) | 1-0)! 85 ameonirecommmr Onimmmes ye 7/9
Earthy . De ° ° ° e e Qe ° e e 296 os °
Phosphates 48°0 | 42:0 | 41°5 | 44°0 | 48°0 | 53°0 | 40°5 | 59°5 | 65°5 | 65°2 | 41°5 | 32°0 | 29°3 | 14°2
Ammonia. .| 2°25} 2°00] 1°60} 1°60 me 2°00} 2°50; 2°00] 2°00] 2-00] 3°25| 4:00/ 3°80} 4°68
The highest per repeee of ammonia is 7 PaaS
The lowest : ; - ) LaGO
The mean of the 14. specimens A . 2°54
Of the phosy@pate of lime, omitting No. 66, which is so very
different from the other specimens,
The bighest per centage is 9.5.) yin aes
The lowest Bs ror gg: hot al alg ge Ore ae
The mean i siti hee a et ae
In this variety of guano we have the state of things reversed ;
the relative proportion of earthy phosphates and of ammonia is 50
changed, that the former constitutes the chief value of the manure.
Patagonian guano, then, is bought for its phosphates, not for its
ammonia, though, of course, the latter is not to be despised. The
same is true, in a greater degree, of Saldanha Bay guano.
Saldanha Bay Guano.—Of this description of guano I shall
give first the analyses made under my own direction :—
Composition and Value of Guano. 211
TaBLe 10.—-Saldanha Bay Guano.*
(Names of Ships unknown.)
| | | | | | | |
eee of \ Pewee | We | Fe, | Fi 4. 18 fF wee Ro | st
pecimen,.:; |
— ——_
Water: 3...7-| 19° 36 15-27, 19°73] 26- ie ly & 92 7°98 18-09) 14°40) 12-22
Orgauic Mat.)
ter and Salts} 14: 00 23°28 15°59) 17- 80 13: 28 21°69| 15:51} 13°29) 19-64
of Ammonia
seer 3-07, 1:12 +89 7-92; +68 +99, 2-26 +99
Earthy fale “49. 01, 55°00 49-24 5s- 3-36 56°99 58-76 60-96 54°82
phates...
Ammonia .... 1:16) 2*49 1:48 -94 1-81) 2°20 1-88 +96 2-18
1
We have here arrived at the last step in the series. In this
kind of guano the ammonia becomes comparatively insignificant
in quantity, andas a natural consequence the proportion of earthy
phosphate attains its maximum,
In the 9 specimens described—
The highest per centage ofammoniais . . 2°49
The lowest + tb te 94
The mean of the specimens «| 4 ie Roe OS
Of the phosphate of lime—
Pie iehes: number is... .. +. »)...- . 60°96
The lowest “A ee oi ae omens aa os. cca Lee
The mean a “pial! : . 99°40
The following analyses of Dr. Ure and Mr. Teschemacher bear
out my own results :—
TABLE 11.—Saldanha Bay Guano.
NumberofSpecimen| 82 83 | s¢ | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 92
roa — | as —_— = y were ——_— ——— =
=, | x a a =. ES =
| >. = on = a | z —_ ZB } =
feasted eo) Bish ee Lice | = a oe ee
NameoftheShip... & (SE & | £=/ £8 s | 2) 2 | se a} 3
|B |e) wa [et ee| § | SS) me 5) B |] w
is = = is ik =) (2S = = : i =
Witter acces <- . | 33-0 | 32-0 | 32°0 | 28-0 | 23-0 | 19-0 23°0 | 3270 | 18-0 | 27°0
< ic N 3 : a cme] EE a z, Ae
aay Seema | 6*O | 11-3 | 12-5 | 13-0 | 10-5 | 19-0 | 17-5 | 1075 | 10+7 | 19-0 | 1495
Cit ees eae | 1°5 5. lo} 95 3} 25 1°0 5 5} 1-0
Earthy Phosphates,.| 57°0 | 53°5 | 51°0 | 56°0 | 62°5 | 61°0 | 59°5 | 63°5S =54°S =61"0 | 51°5
Ammonia ......... bm. | 1°75) 2-00} 1°50) 1°50) 1°50! 2-10 1°00! 1°25 1°50! 0-2
The highest per centage of ammonia is AB he aig
The lowest (omitting 86) ain tas - 2°25
The mean of 9 specimens (also omitting 86) ae E
* For some detailed analyses of this variety of Guano, see Appendix,
Pp 2
DIZ Composition and Value of Guano.
A number which does not differ greatly from that deduced from
the last series of analyses.
The highest per centage of phosphate of lime is . 63°5
The lowest ie 33 3s . O10
The mean of 11 specimens : : : “Oe
Exhibiting also a tolerably close resemblance to that of the
other analyses, and furnishing satisfactory proof of the trustworthi-
ness of both sets.
As a summary of the preceding analyses it may be interesting
to give here the average proportion of ammonia and phosphate of
lime contained in the different varieties which have been ex-
amined.
The ammonia is as follows :—
In Peruvian Guano (32 specimens) . 17°41 per cent.
ITchaboe . » G11 specimens) « 244 7730 M,
Patagonian . (J4specimens) . 2°54 a
Saldanha Bay (20specimens) . 1°62 3
The phosphate of lime in the same number of specimens :—
Peruvian Guano ; : : 24°12 per cent.
Tchaboe e : f ; 30°30 :
Patagonian. : A ‘ 44°60 a
Saldanha Bay . . : : 56°40 F
{n these figures are interestingly apparent the changes which
have occurred in the varieties which originally (that is to say, as
deposited by the birds) were, in all probability, nearly identical.
Every ton of Saldanha Bay guano may, indeed, be regarded as
having originated from two or more tons of Peruvian, from which
fermentation and rain have removed the greater part of its ammo-
niacal compounds.
Having now at our disposal the analyses of a great many speci-
mens of the different varieties of guano, we are in a condition to
apply our knowledge to the question of their money-value. It is,
however, to the Peruvian guano that the reader’s attention will be
principally directed; for although a certain limited quantity of
the other varieties 1s still in the market, it is understood that no
great supplies are henceforth to be expected, except in the case
of the Peruvian guano. It is highly satisfactory to hear that the
mountains of the latter are practically inexhaustible.
A knowledge of the composition of the inferior kinds will, how-
ever, prove useful, not only as exhibiting the points of relation
between composition and the public appreciation which fixes the
selling price, but as furnishing data for the calculations upon
which we are about to enter.
Our present object is, by an examination of the different com-
mercial sources of the fertilizing ingredients in guano, and of the
cost at which they can be supplied in this or that compound—to
Composition and Value of Guano. 213
establish a standard value for each of these—and, having done so,
to apply it to the composition of Peruvian guano. It is hoped
that, independently of the specific purpose to which it is directed,
this inquiry may not in itself be devoid of interest to the agricul-
tural reader.
it has been stated more than once in the course of this paper
that the ammonia, the earthy phosphates, and the mineral alkali,
potash, are the only zmportant ingredients in guano. I say im-
portant, because, without denying the use of sulphate of lime and
of common salt as agents of vegetation, I am prepared to show
that the cost of their separate purchase is so trifling as to prevent
us from attaching any considerable pecuniary value to the small
quantities of these substances existing in guano.
The present is the proper place to discuss this point; and by
eliminating from the question those minor details which will not
materially influence the general results, the inquiry will be greatly
simplified,
After setting aside the ammonia (present or to come), the
earthy phosphates, and the potash, what else is there in guano
deserving of our attention? Referring to Table, No. 1, we find
mention made of “‘ water and sand,’-—these are ingredients of no
value ; again, of “ magnesia and oxide of iron,’’—but in quantity
inconsiderable; and also of “sulphuric acid,’—but in no case
exceeding 44 per cent., and giving us in § cases a mean of 3°82
per cent.
A ton of guano will, therefore, contain on an average 854 lbs.
of sulphuric acid; a quantity which would be supplied by alent
185lbs. of gypsum. Gypsum can be bought in any quantity at
15s. or 20s. a ton.* Assuming the latter as a fair price, and that
| ton of Peruvian guano contains on an average sulphuric acid
equal to 1? cwt. of gypsum; then the outside allowance which
we can make for this ingredient is ls. 8d. or 2s. in a ton of the
guano.
It has been before stated upon what grounds we have adopted
this principle of calculating the value of each ingredient according
to the cheapest form in which it can be supplied.
Upon reference to the Table we find the alkali soda existing
partly as common salt and partly in other forms of combination,
| The mean per centage of common salt is : 1°82
And of soda in its other salts : ° : 1°14
If we assume that on an average in Peruvian guano this alkali
occurs to the extent of 4 per cent. of common salt, that is to say,
* The price of native gypsum is, I believe, somewhat higher than that above stated.
The calculations above rather refer to sulphate of lime, which, as a refuse product in the
manufacture of tartaric acid, stearine candles, &c., may be ‘had in abundance at the
price named.
214 Composition and Value of Guano.
that 4 lbs. of common salt would furnish all the soda of 100 lbs.
of guano, we shall not be far from the mark,
This quantity in a ton of guano would amount to about 90 lbs.,
or a little more than # cwt.; since common salt may be in most
places bought for 30s. a ton or Jess, the sum of Is, 3d. is quite
enough to allow for all the soda compounds in a ton of Peruvian
guano.
These two items, of 2s. for gypsum and 1s. 3d. for common salt,
constitute the entire addition which requires to be made to the
value of the three staple ingredients.
Small though the sums are, it is very fair to take account of
them in comparing guano with other manures; but it would be
absurd to allow them to complicate the present ‘discussion.
Having disposed of all other claims to our attention, we will
now endeavour to ascertain the relative value of the principal
ingredients of guano. It will be obvious that we must look
beyond guano itself for any help in this undertaking; for al-
though eventually it may be very interesting to observe how
far its selling price approaches to the united average value of
its constituents, it would be manifestly impossible without external
evidence to affix to each of these a fair share of pecuniary im-
portance. Itis to external evidence that we must first look for
a decision of this particular.
It may probably be convenient to begin with phosphate of lime,
for it has been shown that the earthy phosphates so frequently
mentioned almost entirely consist of this substance.
In addition to Peruvian guano itself, there are three principal
sources of phosphate of lime available for agricultural employ-
ment—
Bones in their various states ;
The mineral phosphates known as coprolites ;
And the lower priced guanos, such as the Saldanha Bay and
Patagonian varieties.
It seems odd to draw any argument from the last source, par-
ticularly as the supply of phosphatic guano has well nigh ceased,
but some assistance may be derived from such a proceeding,
Whilst, however, we are discussing the relative economy of phos-
phate of lime obtained from different sources, it must never be
forgotten that phosphate of lime, agriculturally considered, is not
always, if we may so speak, phosphate of lime; that is to say, it
may in one case be very different in its action on vegetation to
what it is in another, dependent upon the extent of its solubility
and other circumstances. In putting a price upon the earthy
phosphates of guano, we must select for our guidance that source
of phosphate of lime which exhibits the nearest resemblance in
these essenual particulars. For reasons which will presently be
Composition and Value of Guano. 215
apparent, the mineral phosphate will be first considered. Leay-
ing out of the question the great bed of Estremadura phosphorite,
which at present is not of sufficiently ready access to prove of any
practical importance to British agriculture, there are two chief
supplies of mineral phosphate of lime in England—the phos-
phoric nodules or ‘ coprolites’’ of the “ crag” beds, and the
somewhat similar deposits in the “ green-sand”’ formation,
The former has up to a late period stood alone in practical im-
portance, and it yet remains to be seen whether the phosphoric
strata of the chalk and green-sand will at any future time offer a
more available supply of phosphate of lime. We may shortly
consider both of these sources.
The coprolites of Suffolk occur in rounded Jumps and masses
in a shelly gravelly soil, and in many places very near the sur-
face. ‘They are separated from the gravel by an easy process of
sifting,
These coprolites are sold 2x London, with a profit to the col-
lectors, at about 30s, a ton.
To grind them into a tolerably fine powder (and as they are
eeneely hard, this operation requires very power ful machinery )
a further expense of from 15s. to 20s. a ton is incurred. It is
probable that the ground coprolites could not be sold at a much
lower rate than 3/. a ton. But it is to be remembered that
the coprolites are not entirely composed of phosphate of lime;
on the contrary, not much above one-half of them consists of this
substance.
The average proportion of phosphate of lime in the coprolites
is 56 per cent. A tonof them contains therefore 1332 |bs., and
by an easy calculation it will be found that a ton of phosphate of
lime as supplied by ground coprolites will cost 5. Ss. 1ld.. which
is at the rate of 100. Ibs. for 4s. 10d., or rather more than 3d. for
each pound of phosphate of hme.
‘Turn we now for a minute to the other deposit of mineral phos-
phate of lime.
- At the junction of the green-sand with the gault clay are
conglomerated masses or nodules, of various sizes and forms, made
up of phosphate of lime and sand. These have been fully de-
scribed in the Journal of the Society, vol. 1x., part 1.
Tam not aware that these remains have been collected in any
quantity for sale, and at present any conjectures as to their cost
must necessarily be open to much error. Mr. Paine, who has
dug 50 or 60 tons for his own use, has found them to cost him
in labour, when delivered at his farm by his own men and horses,
about 15s. a ton.
These are not nearly so hard as those of the crag, and would
probably not cost so much to grind. Let us suppose that they
216 Composition and Value of Guano.
could be cotlected and sold, as in the other case, ground at 2.
a ton, which at first sight appears a considerably cheaper rate
than the Suffolk kind.
They contain on an average only 424 per cent. of phosphate
of lime: from this source a ton will consequently cost 4. 14s. 13d.
at the rate of 4s. 24d. for 100 Ibs., or as nearly as can be $d. a |b.*
Allowing for all imperfections in these data, we shall perhaps
not be far wrong if we fix the cost of phosphate of lime derived
from mineral sources at 4d. a |b.
But the argument is by no means complete at this point; it is
not to be supposed that the substance in question, as found in the
coprolite, or green-sand fossils, is equal in solubility, and therefore
to be ranked in value with that contained in guano. From the
fact that, in the latter case, it is derived from the pulpy excrements
of birds (deposited centuries ago, indeed, but preserved com-
paratively unchanged) we should be disposed to give it a high
place in the scale of solubility, whilst a glance at the mineral
substance would convey the very opposite impression.
My own belief is, that of the two varieties of mineral phos-
phates, s¢mply ground, the green-sand variety would prove the most
energetic upon vegetation; but I am bound to say that it would
be an error, in the present state of our knowledge, to place either
of them in competition in this respect with the earthy phos-
phate of guano. It will occur to the reader that there are means
of rendering phosphate of lime soduble, and thus enabling it to
equal and far even to exceed the same substance as supplied by
guano. In superphosphate of lime we are familiar with phosphate
of lime so prepared and rendered soluble, and it might be in-
teresting to inquire at what cost we can purchase it in this soluble
and unexceptionable form.
From calculations, which need not be here introduced, I be-
lieve that phosphate of lime, as supplied by “ superphosphate,”
is bought at a price varying from 14d. to 23d. per Ib., according
to the mode in which the so-called superphosphate is manufac-
tured. This substance, however, has, from its solubility, a
specific action on the turnip crop which would hardly seem to be
equalled by any other form of phosphate of lime, and it is
therefore of very little use to place it in comparison with that of
guano. Of one circumstance, however, we may rest assured, that
phosphate of lime in any form cannot be worth more than about
* Since the above was written, Mr. Paine has informed me that he has this year
dug a quantity of these phosphoric nodules at a much less expense. If at any parti-
cular spot a bed of them should be found within a foot or two of the surface, and
running parallel to it, I believe that it would well repay the expense of working, but
hitherto the nodules have been found in strata which, although tolerably horizontal
themselves, are only accessible at the outcrops on the edges of undulating ground.
Composition and Value of Guano. 217
2d. a |b., since it can be bought at this price in a perfectly
soluble condition; that it has less than half this value will pre-
sently appear.
Thus far the argument has been extremely simple: it is quite
easy to fix a price upon the phosphate of lime derived from
mineral substances, because their entire value is referable to it ;
but the cost of this substance in bones or in guano is of more
difficult decision, because in the latter cases a second element is
introduced into the calculation; in bones, for instance, there are
two chief sources of agricultural value—the gelatin, or nitrogenous
matter capable of yielding ammonia, and the earthy phosphates.
We must establish the money value of the one before we can
calculate the cost at which we purchase the other.
Not to anticipate the argument which will be adduced when
speaking of ammonia, it may be sufficient in the present place to
observe that ammonia may be bought, in a fit state for agricultural
use, and inalmost unlimited quantity, at something under 6d. a lb.
Raw unboiled bones contain* 6:00 per cent. of nitrogen,
which, when converted by decomposition into ammonia, would
furnish about 7°3 per cent. of the latter ingredient. Upon this
presumption 1 ewt. of bones will eventually furnish 8 lbs. of am-
monia. In the following calculations the price of raw and crushed
bones is estimated at 5/. 10s. a ton, or 5s. 6d. a cewt. If the whole
quantity of ammonia which bones can gradually furnish existed in
them, or was capable of being supplied by them as readily as it is
by guano, then it would be quite fair to calculate it at the price
just now named, that is to say, at6d.alb. But itis not so; there
is reason to believe that bones will remain in the ground a great
length of time unaltered, and, valuable as is the prolonged action
of the animal matter, it seems necessary to make a considerable
reduction for the tardiness of its action when compared with that
of ammonia. If we are allowed to deduct one-fourth of the
whole sum on this ground, then 43d. a lb. will be the price of
ammonia as so furnished. It should be clearly understood that
this sum is only fixed by way of argument, and to assist in setting
a value on phosphate of lime; when the latter point has been
satisfactorily determined, the argument may be reversed, and
brought to bear again upon the value of ammonia in bones.
At 43d.a lb. the 8 lbs. of ammonia supplied by | cwt. of bones
will be worth 3s. To the oil or fat of bones we cannot well
ascribe any agricultural value; opinion is divided as to its agency
as manure, but there is very little doubt that bones are better
rather than worse for its removal—a circumstance, however, which
does not set the question at rest; however this may be, the am-
* See Appendix.
218 Composition and Value of Guano.
monia being worth 38s., the remaining 2s. 6d. will here be consi-
dered as the cost of the phosphate of lime of 1 cwt. of bones.
100 lbs. of bones contain 50 |bs., and 1 cwt. therefore 56 lbs.
of phosphate of lime. 2s, 6d. for 56 lbs. will give us rather more
than $d. per |b. as the price of the earthy phosphates of bones.
It is obvious that these two ingredients must bear the cost. between
them, and that, if we diminish the one, we must increase the other
in like proportion; thus, if we take 6d. a |b. as the ammonia
value of bones, the price of the earthy phosphates will be reduced
to one-third of a penny per lb. The sum of 3d. per lb. seems a
very fair price to fix for the earthy phosphates of bones, and as
such it will be provisionally adopted. It now remains to calculate
by the same rule the cost of phosphate of lime in the cheaper
varieties of guano.
In Saldanha Bay guano we buy both ammonia and phosphates ;
the former, however, in small proportion only. Taking for our
guide the averages given at p. 211, we find that Saldanha Bay
guano contains as a mean—
Earthy phosphates . 55°00 per cent.
IAMMOM s,s es T6594
Saldanha Bay guano sells at trom 4/. 10s. to 5/. a ton, more
usually the latter sum. The provisional price of 6d. a Ib. for
ammonia, as before, will give the sum of 18s. to be deducted,
leaving the sum of 4/. 2s. as the price of 1232 lbs. of phosphate
of lime, being at the rate of 100 Ibs. for 6s. 73d., or a little more
than $d. per lb. In the preceding calculation the value of the
guano has been calculated with reference only to ammonia and
phosphate of lime, potash or other ingredients being left out as
needlessly complicating the question.
Reviewing the subject of the last few pages, we find that the
approximative value of phosphate of lime ranges between 3d. and
3d. a \b.
Ammonia.— In endeavouring to fix the money value of ammonia
we must expect to meet with still greater difficulties than in the
case of the phosphates; for whilst of the jatter there are several
sources from whence a liberal and economical supply can be
drawn, it is really as a source of ammonia, pre-eminently so, that
guano possesses so high a manurial value; and, consequently,
any attempt to attach a money value to the ammonia of guano, in
reference to that contained in other recognised manures, presup-
poses a degree of similarity in the economy of the substances thus
placed in competition, which is far from existing. Nevertheless,
it will be found that even in the case of guano the selling price is
to a certain degree in accordance with what it should be were the
substances which it contains to be furnished separately and from
Composition and Value of Guano. 219
various sources. Leaving, however, the further development of
this point for the present, we shall proceed to examine the existing
sources of a supply of ammonia for agricultural use.
The different salts of ammonia, as the bicarbonate (the common
smelling salts), the muriate (known as sal-ammoniac), and the
sulphate, are all to a considerable extent articles of commerce,
being in one way or another employed in the arts or in medicine,
The first of these, however, is not at present sufficiently cheap to
be profitably employed in practical agriculture.
Many years ago the sources of ammonia were extremely limited,
and its salts were correspondingly dear; but, by the general in-
troduction of gas, an abundant quantity of this alkali has been
opened out, It is very commonly known that, amongst the other
products of the distillation of coal in the ordinary process of pre-
paring gas, a large quantity cf an ammoniacal liquor is obtained,
and many who neat this paper may have made use of it as a
manure under the name of “gas-liquor.” ‘The origin of this liquid
is very simple. In all samples of coal which have been examined
with a view to detect it, nitrogen has been found in variable pro-
portion, derived evidently from the plants from which the coal has
been formed. When the coal is heated the nitrogen is converted
into ammonia, which collects in the “ condensers” principally as
carbonate or hydrosulphate. By the addition of mineral acids
and subsequent evaporation any desired salt of ammonia can be
produced.
The sulphuric is of all other acids that which is most valuable
in the arts, and, as its very numerous applications have led to
great perfection in the manufacture of this acid, it is under most
circumstances the only compound of its class which is economically
applicable. Accordingly, large quantities of sulphuric acid have
been used in the preparation of sulphate of ammonia from the
ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works. 7
Muriatic acid is a refuse product in the preparation of carbonate
of soda, and under some circumstances it is employed in the pre-
paration of an ammoniacal salt from gas-liquor with more eco-
nomy than the sulphuric.
Sulphate of ammonia costs from 117. to 12/. per ton, and no
inconsiderable quantity has been sold as manure at this latter
price. The muriate varies in price between 177, and 211. per
ton. Whether these salts can, with a profit to the manufacturer,
at present be prepared at a lower price, I cannot say; but as, by
that mutual dependence of the arts of life which meets us at
every turn, the gas-works of England are destined some day, and
probably before long, to become auxiliary to the production of
fuod by supplying the farmer abundantly and cheaply with am-
220 Composition and Value of Guano.
monia, it may not be out of place here to state the reasons for the
obviously high price of the salts in question.
We have just now stated that coal-gas, as it 1s discharged from
the mouths of the retorts in which the coal is heated, is unfit for
consumption, being contaminated, amongst other things, with
hydrosulphate and carbonate of ammonia. To get rid of these
compounds, which would render the gas more or less impure, the
manufacturer has recourse to some method of purification. For
the sulphuretted hydrogen he employs lime, which retains the
largest portion of the noxious gas. The ammonia is in great part
deposited in the cooling apparatus or condensers. Both of these
processes of purification are a source of considerable annoyance
and trouble in the preparation of gas, and for the separation of
the ammonia in particular the want of some perfect method has
long been felt. Many chemical substances have been proposed
for the purpose, but as yet no method has been found which
should both purify the gas without injury to its quality and at the
same time afford an economical supply of ammonia for agricul-
tural purposes. The object in view would, at first sight, appear
of most ready accomplishment by means of a mineral acid, so
arranged that it should. abstract the ammonia from the gas in its
passage from the retorts. Wath this view the gas has been passed
through sawdust or other porous substances moistened with sul-
phuric acid, by which a perfect separation of the ammonia has
been obtained. But, unfortunately, it appears that the success of
this process, on the one hand, is entirely neutralized by an un-
looked-for objection. It is found that the illuminating power of
the gas is very greatly impaired by its contact with the sulphuric
acid, a result which has of course led to the abandonment of the
method.
The sulphate and muriate of ammonia of commerce are for
the most part made from the ammoniacal liquids of the gas-works ;
and to the evaporation and other manipulations necessary to ob-
tain the salts in the dry state is chiefly to be ascribed their high
price. ‘That such is the case will be clearly seen by examining
the composition of these salts.
Sulphate of ammonia (see note in Appendix) contains, when
perfectly pure and dry,
Ammonia. : : : 5 2277 pen Cone:
Sulphuric Acid : : : 53°3 ‘
Water : : ; 5 : 24°0
+]
This water is, as the chemical reader would understand, water
of composition or crystallization, and its existence is perfectly
compatible with the salt bemg dry. But it is not to be expected
that a salt prepared on the large scale should be perfectly pure,
Composition and Value of Guano. 221
and it will be necessary to allow 10 per cent, for moisture and
accidental impurity.
The sulphate of ammonia of commerce will contain in 100
parts and in a ton respectively—~
In 100 parts, In a ton.
Ammonia : ; PAE Sane Ae 457 Ibs
Sulphuric Acid. : : ASH Ost be O77 ae,
Water . 5 d ile Gitte 7. 708,
100: 2,240 ,,
Here it will be seen that to procure | ton of ordinary sulphate
of ammonia about 4 ton (dry) sulphuric acid must be em-
ployed. Sulphuric acid which has not undergone the final and
expensive evaporation—that is to say, acid of specific gravity 1:70
(see note in Appendix)—can be bought for about 5/. a ton. Ac-
cording to the calculation in the Appendix below, the quantity of
such acid necessary to form a ton of sulphate of ammonia will be
worth 3/. 14s. 44d.
Ee SiGe
Deducting from the value of a ton of sulphate of ammonia . 12 0 O
The value of the acid used in its preparation . : ° 314 43
We have ; 8 5 74
as the value of the ammonia in a ton of the salt, leaving out, of
course, in this case all calculation of the cost of labour, &c.
From the above facts it would appear that a high value was
placed upon the ammonia by the gas-manufacturer ; but, in truth,
it is not so. Asa product of very secondary importance in rela-
tion to that of the gas itself, it is not usually worth his while to
embarrass his operations with its preservation; whilst, on the
other hand, he views the difficulty of its removal as an imper-
fection of his process, and would liberally encourage any improve-
ment which could be suggested. We can only fen conclude, that
of the 12/7. a ton paid for sulphate of ammonia, 8/., or two-thirds
of the sum, represents the expense of manipulation.
- Again: the sum of 3/. [4s., asthe expense of the acid, suggests
the desirableness of discovering some com par atively inexpensive
substance for the absorption of the ammonia. There is good
reason to hope that the ingenuity and industry of those who apply
themselves -to these manufacturing processes will sooner or later
be rewarded by the discovery of an economical means of sepa-
rating the ammoniacal compounds without injury to the illu-
minating power of the gas itself; and then, and not till then, will
this source of ammonia assume the importance which it merits.
If we assume that in sulphate of ammonia the only ingredient
of value in an agricultural point of view is the ammonia, its price
will be 63d. per |b. It may be fairly objected to this mode of
222 Composition and Value of Guano.
calculation, however, that the sulphuric acid is of some value as
manure, and that the whole cost should not be thrown upon the
ammonia. Ina tonof sulphate of ammonia there are 1075 lbs. of
sulphuric acid, which would be supplied by about 202 ewts. of
gypsum, at a cost of 16s. lid. If, therefore,
Eso.
From the cost of 1 ton of sulphate of ammonia ole O
Is deducted the agricultural value of its sulphuric acid O 16 13
ll 3 103
will be the expense of the ammonia, or rather more than 52d.
per lb.
From the preceding calculations it will be evident that we shall
not greatly err in fixing 6d. per lb. as the value of ammonia, as
supplied by the sulphate at its present price of 12/. a ton.
Muriate of ammonia contains, when quite pure and dry, 31°6
per cent. of ammonia. [I am unable to say what quantity of
water and impurity it may usually contain in its crude state, but
it may be sufficiently near for the present purpose to estimate
this at 10 per cent.: accordingly, crude commercial muriate of
ammonia will have about 28 per cent. of ammonia.
Taking its average value to be 19/. a ton, and, without any
allowance in this case for the acid, the price of ammonia in the
muriate will be 7id. per lb. At (70. a ton the ammonia would
cost about 64d. ; qa at 217., rather more than 8d. per lb.
It remains now to inquire what is the cost of ammonia in its
other available sources. ‘The importation of ozlcake into a farm
must be looked upon as an indirect importation of ammonia. In
feeding his stock with oilcake the farmer increases the quantity,
and, in a greater proportion, the quality of his manures; and every
ton of cake thus consumed is equivalent to the purchase of a
certain quantity of ammoniacal manures.
What relation in value the manure so produced (or imported)
may bear to the cost of its importation it is not the purpose of
this paper to inquire, nor is the question to be very readily setiled.
The value of a ton of oilcake regarded as manure is obviously
dependent upon the proportion of its original cost, which may be
fairly placed to the account of profit in feeding with it.
Leaving the discussion of this subject to a more fttting place,
we may simply calculate the value of ammonia as supplied by
oilcake, considered only m a manurial point of view. The market
price of oilcake is so variable, that no actual sum can be fixed
upon as its average cost; we shall therefore make a calculation
for the eatreme of fluctuation.
From the analyses of a great many specimens examined in my
laboratory, I find that the average proportion of nitrogen in oil-
Composition and Value of Guano. 223
cake is 46 per cent. The proportion of phosphoric acid and of
potash furnished by a ton of oilcake, although worthy of consi-
deration under other circumstances, is too small to affect to any
considerable extent the present calculations (see note in Appen-
dix). At 46 per cent. a ton of oilcake will contain 103 lbs. of
nitrogen, capable of becoming 125 lbs. of ammonia. Taking
oilcake at 67. 10s. a ton as a low price, and 117. as the other ex-
treme, the ammonia will cost as follows:—At 61. 10s. a ton the
ammonia will cost 1s. O$d. per lb.; at 112. a ton the ammonia will
cost 1s. 9d. per lb. Considered, then, in the light of manure
only, oileake must at its minimum price be a dear source of
ammonia.
Rape-cake is as nearly as possible of the same composition as
linseed-cake, its cost being, however, only from 47. to 5/. a ton.
At 41. 10s., the mean of these numbers, ammonia as supplied by
rape-cake would cost about 83d. per |b.
Of the price of ammonia as derived from bones we have be-
fore incidentally spoken. From this source a supply of ammonia
will be obtained at a price ranging between 44d. and 6d. per I|b.,
according as the value of phosphate of lime is jecninated at 3d. or
2d. per lb. As the latter sum has been shown to be a fair price
fay the earthy phosphates, it may be assumed that ammonia is
bought rather more cheaply in bones than in sulphate of am-
monia, but with the essential difference that in the case of bones
the ammonia has to be formed—we must wait for it. How great
an advantage this is in favour of the ready-made (so to speak)
ammoniacal manures in certain soils, those readers who rightly
estimate the value of time in relation to practical agriculture will
easily perceive.
There are yet other sources of ammonia within the reach of the
farmer; and it might be thought that these should be referred to
as a guide to its money value. Woollen rags, clippings of skins,
parings of horns and hoofs, dried blood, seal-skins, &¢.—all or
any of them may under peculiar circumstances with great advan-
tage be employed by the farmer. As, however, the supply of
such refuse substances is limited, and as, for want of the more
uniform demand which an unlimited supply would infallibly
create, the price is a matter of perfect caprice, it would be unsafe
to draw any yery general conclusions from the imperfect data so
obtained: individuals may and do buy these nitrogenous sub-
stances for manure with great. advantage to themselves, but the
community of agriculturists could not do so,
We shall reserve the question of the cost of ammonia in
guano itself until we have fixed the price of potash—the only re-
maining datum needed for ascertaining the value of different
specimens of the manure in question.
224 Composition and Value of Guano.
Whatever opinion the reader may entertain of the value of
potash as a direct application to the soil—whether he may think
it highly important, or may deem it unnecessary or productive of
no beneficial results, still it becomes any individual who shall
attempt to fix a money value on a compound manure like guano
to be prepared with a price which shall approximate to the com-
mercial value of all the imporiant ingredients, It will be at the
option of the reader to allow or disallow the value which is thus
attached,
Potash is supphed commercially by four principal salts :—
carbonate of potash, known as potashes or pearlashes; nitrate of
potash, or zztre ; muriate of potash; and sulphate of potash.*
In the first of these (the carbonate), potash is bought at from
od. to 64d. per lb., according to the varying market-price of the
salt.
In nitrate of potash we shall buy potash at 63d. per lb.
Sulphate or muriate of potash will, however, furnish us with
this alkali at the rate of 24d. per lb.
The wide difference in price between the two former and two
latter sources is due to the circumstance that the nitrate of potash
is more valuable in commerce for its combination with nitric acid
than for the potash itself, and the carbonate for its adapta-
tion to the purposes of an alkali. Inthe sulphate and munate
we have the real value of the potash, these being both refuse salts.
With a knowledge of the approximative value of its three im-
portant ingredients, our attention may now be turned to the
money value of guano itself;—this being the only object of all
the preceding calculations. It has been seen that the average
composition of Peruvian guano is the following :—
Ammonia . ‘ : : 17°41 per cent.
Phosphate of lime ; ; : 24°12 .
Potash ; sr 9 fenniden 350). See
Taking ammonia at its ne as supplied by the sulphate—that
is to say, at 6d. alb.; phosphate of lime as it may be bought in
bones or Saldanha Bay guano, at 3d. per 1b. ; and lastly, valuing
* The market value of the different salts of potash is far from constant. For the
calculations above, I have made use of the following prices, which perhaps will be
sufficiently correct :-—
Carbonate of potash, from 28s, to 42s, a cwt.
Sulphate, 12s. a cwt.
Muriate, 13s. __,,
Nitrate, contaiuing 90 per cent. of real nitre, 28s. per cwt.
The per centage of potash in these different salts, when pare and dry, isas follows :—
Carbonate : 3 NOS42
Sulphate . , » 3d4°0
Muriate’. >. » 63°2 (or potassium equal to this quantity of potash),
Nitrate . ; AG
Composition and Value of Guano. 225
potash, as we find it in the sulphate and muriate, at 24d. per |b. :
what will be the value of a ton weight, of an average specimen of
Peruvian guano? The calculation is not difficult :—
The ammonia, at 17°41 percent., amounts to 388 Ibs., which £. 8. d.
at6d.alb.is worth . : negn9; 147 0
The phosphate of lime, at 24°12 per cent., amounts to 540 Ibs.,
which at 3d. is worth 113 9
The potash, at 3% per cent., amounts to 783 Ibs., which at ohd.
per lb. is worth . : : : ° ; : 2 O48
Which together give es ee
as the value of all the ingredients of a ton of good Peruvian guano.
I think it highly important that the above calculations should
not be misunderstood. ‘There may be many persons who would
buy Peruvian guano solely for its ammonia ; although not unwilling
to enrich their soils with the phosphate of lime which accompanies
it, they would object to purchase the latter at the price set against
itin the table. There is indeed no absolute proof of the advan-
tage of always applying these two manures in the proportion in
which they exist in guano: take the instance of a farmer who is
in the habit of manuring liberally with bones or superphosphate
of lime for his root crop ;—it is quite conceivable (although the
case 1s only put here for argument sake) that in any subsequent
application of guano he would be using this substance only as a
source of ammonia. In thiscase he could only afford to pay for it
on its ammoniacal merits. Even in such a case Peruvian guano
will compete with advantage with sulphate of ammonia at its
present price; for with guano at !Q/. a ton the purchaser will
buy ammonia at the same price as in the sulphate, and will get
the phosphate of lime and the potash for the extra 6s.
The preceding observations apply even more strongly to potash,
for which some readers will be inclined to allow no money value
whatever. Jt is impossible for me to meet the different views
which may be entertained on these pomts. It is sufficient that
those who disallow any items in the above calculation can readily
make for themselves any alteration they may think fit.
With its present composition Peruvian guano would seem to
bear a fair market price. Whether a reduction in price might
not remunerate the importers by a greatly increased sale it is
impossible, of course, to say; but there can be no doubt that, if
it could be effected, such a measure would confer an inestimable
boon on the agricultural interest of this country.
With the view of showing the farmer how great a loser he is
by the purchase of an inferior or adulterated guano, I will here
place in contrast with the average value of good guano, an esti-
mate of that which is to be ascribed to an adulterated specimen.
No. 23 in the 4th Table wiil furnish such an example :—
VOL, X. Q
226 Composition and Value of Guano.
Sood.
The ammonia 8°12 per cent, amounts to 182 Ibs., which at
6d. per lb. is worth . 5 A lO)
The phosphate of lime 21°09 per cent. amounts to 472 Ibs. ',
which at 3d. per Ib. is worth é eet Se)
The potash at (say) 33 per cent. amounts ‘to 78 Ibs., ‘which
at 24d. per Ib. is worth : ° : : : . O14 8
Giving 615 2
as the value of a ton of this specimen of guano.
Although those who are familiar with the characters of a good
guano would, from an inspection of the specimen, be led to a
doubt of its possessing the full ammoniacal value, there is nothing
striking or peculiar in its appearance, and nine-tenths of the pur-
chasers of the manure would receive it without suspicion. It is
only by chemical analysis that this point can be decided. The
farmer’s only safety in the purchase of guano is in the character
of the dealer from whom he obtains it, or in the knowledge of its
composition as determined by analysis.
Of the money-value of Saldanha Bay guano I have already
incidentally spoken (page 218).
Its selling price closely approximates to what it should be were
the phosphate of lime and ammonia calentated in the same way
as in Peruvian guano.
It cannot, however, be too often Bee es) that the value of
these two varieties of guano is of an essentially distinct character.
It will not do to suppose that, because they are sold at a fair
price in relation to their composition, they may be employed
indifferently, and that 102. spent in one will be employed to the
same advantage in the other. If the object of the agriculiurist
is to make use of an arnmoniacal manure, he will not attain that
object by the purchase of Saldanha Bay guano. On the other
hand, if he seeks to add phosphate of Inie to his soil, the use of
Peruvian guano would be a most expensive method of doing so. -
Without therefore attempting to point out the exact circumstances
in which it would be advisable to apply the one or the other, it
is right that it should be distinctly understood that they are by no
means to be used indifferently.
Appendix
Composition and Value of Guano. 227
APPENDIX AND NOTES.
1. On the Sampling of Guano.—In taking samples for analysis the fol-
lowing plan was followed :—When taken from the ship, a complete mix~
ture of the guano from several parts of the cargo, to the extent of perhaps
half a ewt., was made in the vessel itself. From this heap a quantity of
2 or 3 Ibs. was removed to the laboratory for analysis. If the cargo was
in the warehouses, the mixture was made from the centre of several bags
which were cut cpen for that purpose. In the selection of the sample, if
a lump of any sort should occur, appearing to bear too large a proportion
to the whole mass, it is rejected.
To prepare the guano for analysis, the sample of 2 or 3 lbs. is made to
pass, by rubbing in an iron mortar, through a wire sieve of 40 holes to the
square inch; it is afterwards thoroughly mixed by continued rubbing in
the mortar. From the mixture so made a quantity of about an ounce is
separated, and carefully powdered in an agate mortar. This last forms the
subject of the analysis.
In the course of the analyses which are given in this paper many cases
have occurred tending to prove that a sample of guano taken in this way
fairly represents the bulk from which it is separated. One or two in-
stances may be mentioned. In Table 3 the specimens 12 and 13 are
duplicates. No. 12 was taken from two or three bags; No. 13 was a mix-
ture of portions taken from more than 100 bags. By an inspection of the
‘Table it will be seen that the differences between the two samples are by
no means large. In Table 6 are two specimens of ‘“ Parkfield” (86 and
40.) These samples were taken at different times, but closely resemble each
other.
Then again, in Table 5, specimens 28 and 29, as also 30 and 31, are dupli-
cates. A glance at the analyses will show that they are very much alike,
although the samples were taken at two different periods during the un-
loading of the cargo.
In order to ascertain to what extent the different parts of a sample of
guano would possess a difference of composition, I made the following
experiment :—A mixture of many different specimens of Peruvian guano
which had from time to time reached the laboratory, and in the same state
as when taken from the ships, was sifted successively on sieves of 40 and
20 holes to the inch. In this way three separate samples of different de-
grees of fineness were obtained :—
No. 1, passing the 40-hole sieve.
No. 2, passing the 20, but retained by the 40-hole sieve.
No. 3, which was too large to pass either.
In the latter the lumps, which were tolerably hard, were of various sizes,
some being as big as pigeons’ eggs. The three siftings were separately
powdered and partially analysed, with the following results :—
Water. Organic Matter, &c. Ammonia.
No.1. . . 11°19 percent. «. 53°42 percent, «. 17°28 per cent.
Niomae 6s Loe 1d o. o4°94 ». not ascertained
No.3... ll 00 ss 00°93 eee LOTAD
' This experiment affords very strong evidence in favour of a great amount
of uniformity, even where small specimens only are compared. It shows
that the white Jumps are really only agglomerations of the smaller particles,
and that indeed they are no richer than the latter. This pone only
Q 4
228 Composition and Value of Guano.
applies to Peruvian guano. Insome varieties of guano which are naturally
very wet, all sorts of collections and erystallizations have been found, and
it excites no surprise that such should be the case; but the experiment
just described strengthens the opinion which would be formed from a know-
ledge of the circumstances under which Peruvian guano has been pro-
duced, and which is, that no amount of separation and rearrangement of
the particles could have occurred since its deposition. In “ damaged
guano,” on the other hand, it is easy to trace a crystallization of its salts
brought about by the water.
2. On the Methods of Analysis——First as to drying the specimen, In all
our earlier analyses of guano the samples were dried before the com-
bustion for nitrogen. It was soon found that this drying could not be
effected in the ordinary way. Even at the temperature of the air guano
always emits ammonia; and at 212° the quantity of ammonia is so great as
to produce a Joss of 2 or 3 per cent. sometimes in the subsequent analysis.
To obviate this defect we had recourse to the use of an acid in the drying.
A specimen of the guano in a shallow platinum dish was treated with a few
drops of hydrochloric acid, which was allowed to soak through the whole.
It was then dried at a water-bath heat without loss, and in the subsequent
analysis the presence of the acid had no influence.
We have subsequently found that a moderately dry specimen of Peruvian
guano—that is to say, containing not more than 15 per cent. of water—can
be mixed with the soda-lime for nitrogen analysis with perfect safety, with-
out drying, provided the soda-lime itself be perfectly dry. The mixture is
made in the tube by the help of a corkscrew wire, and no smell of ammonia
can be detected.
In the detailed analyses given in the first Table the substances were
separately determined in the same way as the ash of a plant is analysed.
One modification of the usual process deserves notice. In burning guano
to obtain the mineral part for analysis, a considerable loss of chlorine and
sulphuric acid occurs from the escape of these substances in the form of
ammoniacal salts. To ascertain the total quantity of the chlorine and sul-
phuric acid, it is necessary to saturate the guano with a strong solution of
potash or soda, which in the subsequent burning retains the acids in
question,
The following comparison of the corrected and uncorrected results will
show the extent of loss due to this cause :—
SuLpHuric ACID. INA eee 183 G DF ile F | G | H
| | |
Uncorrected result -79 | trace | 1°45 | 2°76 | 1°09 | OCR. 1 We 7 | 2°24
Corrected result . . | 3°83 | 3°47 | 4:00 | 4°54 | 4°57 | 4:00 | 3°60 bp apy
| | | ,
CHLORINE. {ews B (3) D | E F G | H
Uncorrected result . | *09 none | none °12 Soi Ebr! °65 | *20
Corrected result. . °O7 | 1°46 | 1*56 | 1-62 | 1°36 | 1°35 | “79 | “97
|
The determination of the actual quantity of these ingredients necessi-
tates also a correction for the quantity of organic matter as ascertained by
burning. Inthe analyses which are given, in all the tables but the first,
the method of examination was as follows :—
The guano is dried at a water-bath heat and afterwards burnt; the ash
is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the solution filtered to separate
sand, The earthy phosphates are precipitated by ammonia. This pre-
Composition and Value of Guano. 229
cipitation of the earthy phosphates does not give a perfect determination
of the phosphoric acid ; for, besides the phosphates of lime and magnesia,
which have the composition of bone-earth, there is in guano more or less
of the phosphates of potash and soda. The addition of ammonia does not
always cause a very uniform precipitate of phosphate of lime, the phosphoric
acid of the potash salt being more or less carried down with the salt of lime.
Phosphoric acid is therefore sometimes present in the liquid after this
precipitation. For ordinary commercial purposes the result is, however,
sufficiently accurate.
The nitrogen analysis is conducted in the usual way, the guano being
burnt with soda-lime and the resulting salt of ammonia weighed as the
double platinum salt. Of the accuracy of this method there can be no
doubt, but it may be satisfactory to mention some cases where the analysis
of a specimen has been repeated with confirmatory results. Two nitrogen
analyses were made of specimen 14 in the third table :—
lst analysis gave . . + « «+ 16°46 per cent. of ammonia.
2nd 9 ° ® ° ° e 16° 75 ”
Two analyses of specimen 16 :—
Ist analysis gave . » + » eo 16°93, per cent. of ammonia.
2nd ry) ° ° . ° e 16°70 9
Two of specimen 34 :—
Ist analysis gave . . «© © © 17°87 per cent. of ammonia.
2nd 9 BG oto, oc eG 3
Two of specimen 36 :—
ist analysis gave . « . « « 16°79 percent. of ammonia.
2nd BS il ere awe ee OS SO i
Two of specimen 37 :—
Ist analysis gave . . . + «© 16°97 per cent. of ammonia.
2nd e ete et tee elo of
Very many other instances could be adduced to show that the results of
two analyses are the same, which in such cases is tantamount to a proof
of correctness in both. The duplicate analyses, specimens 34, 36, and 37,
were made by different persons, and are therefore more than ever satis-
factory.
3. eo Danaaed Guano.”—It is not unusual for a cargo of guano to suffer
from the action of the water by leakage in the vessel]. If the quantity of
water thus entering is not great, it is absorbed by the outer portions of the
guano, that in the centre escaping altogether. The importers set aside
this portion, which is sold, according to its degree of wetness, at a reduced
rice.
5 The following are the proportions of water and ammonia in two speci-
mens of damaged guano sent to me by the importer :—
Water. Ammonia.
Ist Specimen, ship “Commerce” . . 80°68 percent. .. 12°62 per cent.
2nd eS ship unknown . « ~. . 33de13 ete Loa
By a calculation based upon the analysis of a sound specimen of the
cargo of the “ Commerce,” given in Table 6, it will be seen that the de-
terioration in vaiue of the specimen is only slightly greater than to the
extent of the proportion of water thus added toit. There is, however, an
absolute Joss, which is due to the escape of ammonia with watery vapour,
a fact which is always observable to the smell in guano ships which haye
suffered leakage.
230 Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
4, Saldanha Bay Guano.—The following are more detailed analyses of
four specimens of this variety of guano. The specimens are before de-
scribed in Table 10 :—
Spec, 78. | Spec. 79. | Spec. 89. | Spec. 81,
ee
WV alten ivey sie audigy Ged eter pions hes wae 7°58 | 18°09 | 14:40 | 12°22
Organic Matter and Salts of Ammonia . 21:6 10°51 13:29 | 19°64
SANG SCH wie) om ee se tetol te. 6 testers °63 °99 2°26 | 99
' Karthy Phosphates . . % =, = ++}. 56°99 | 58-76 | 60:96 | 54:82
xGessiot Hime wn hie oye a onaes 3°70 2°23 P07 O
Carbonte Mert <a. “ep. 5 2°61 °68 206 3°08
Sulphuric Acid’. * 77s SX 1°94 1-3t 4°09 2°57
Chiorine 0 FS ‘ 73 55 “72 ft °57
Magnesia . . : ° *68 * 86 20 *32
Potash and Soda, ame Loss 3 ‘ 3°40 1°02 2°81 5:22
105°00 | 100-00 | 100-60 | 100-00
a aon SEE = a oR a NL ES I NE EN wee RET RRS SSE EES
This table serves to point out that in Saldanha Bay guano, although the
potash has not been actually determined, it is, in all probability, in less
quantity than in the Peruvian variety.
5. Nitrogen in Bones.—The estimate in the text is thus derived: bones
are supposed to contain 33 per cent. of gelatin, which, according to
Scherer, contains 18°32 per cent. of nitrogen; 100 parts of bones will
therefore contain about six parts of nitrogen.
6. Sulphuric Acid, of specific gravity 1:70.—This is the cheapest form
in which sulphuric acid can be purchased, When first produced, this acid
is diluted with much water, which is driven off by subsequent evaporation.
The evaporation is effected, in the first instanee, in leaden vessels, and
afterwards when the acid, becoming concentrated, begins to act on the
lead, it is transferred to vessels of platinum or glass. The expense of this
process is so great as materially to enhance the value of the acid. The
farmer does not require the acid of ‘full strength, and it would be fre-
quently far better for him to purchase this dilute acid, which for a certain
sum contains a larger amount of acid. The expense of carriage will
sometimes interfere with his doing so.
7. Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Oil-cake—¥From several analyses of
the mineral ingredients of oil-cake, I find that 1 ton would contain about
43 lbs. of phosphoric acid and 32 lbs. of potash, which at the prices before
given would be worth together only about Lis.
SSO LE,
X1i.—On the Construction of a Pair of Cottages for Agri-
cultural Labourers. By Henry Gopparp, Architect and
Surveyor, of Lincoln.
First Prize-Essay.
Tur leading features of this communication being the plans,
specification, and estimate, and as the views of the author are
clearly defined therein, it is his intention as concisely as possible
to confine his observations to an explanation of them, recording
at the outset that no reference has been made to any published
work, and that to a long residence in one of the most important
Cottages for Agricultural Labourers. 231
agricultural districts in the kingdom is he indebted for his ac-
quaintance with the subject. In preparing the accompanying
plans it has been his— |
Object.—To attain at the smallest cost the greatest amount of
comfort and convenience in the construction of suitable residences
for the large majority of the bond fide agricultural labourers. In
effecting this, it has been his desire to avoid excess in cost and
size, and the sacrifice of interior comforts for the sake of pic-
torial effect. It has also been his aim to avoid if possible the
creation of facilities to induce the tenant to “let off’’ a portion of
the rooms which are designed for the exclusive use and due
classification of his own family.
Situation, Aspect, Soil, §c.—Such a variety of circumstances,
both natural and local, have to be considered in determining upon
sites for the erection of labourers’ cottages, that the adoption of
any fixed rules seems almost impracticable. It may not be amiss,
however, to suggest that a plot of land abutting upon, and at a
level of from two to four feet above a good road, forming part or
being in the immediate vicinity of an allotment of land available
for spade husbandry, and possessing facilities for efficient drain-
age, seems most desirable; and in all cases care should be taken
that the habitation of the labourer is not too remote from the
locality of his daily avocations. ‘The aspect should be south, or
as nearly so as can be obtained, and the value of the situation
would be enhanced if protected on the north and east from the
inclemency of the weather, but the close proximity of forest trees
should be avoided as having a tendency to deteriorate the value
of the garden ground, and in the autumn to clog up the gutters
and spouts of the cottages with dead leaves. A good soil of easy
cultivation, with a substratum of gravel or sand, is essential, or
(when the prevailing prejudices are overcome) a piece of used-up
old grass-land, sufficiently elevated for draining purposes, would
not be unsuitable.
Exterior Arrangements —The cottages are proposed to be
built in pairs, and should be placed at a distance of five or six
yards from the road, leaying a small space for the cultivation of
flowers, herbs, and the smaller kinds of garden produce; and
the good feeling which it is desirable should exist between the
occupants, is most likely to be secured by rendering them as inde-
pendent of each other as circumstances will permit. With this
view a separate entrance is made to each, and in the minor arrange-
ments the pump only is used by both tenants. If further sepa-
ration is desired, it may be accomplished by planting a privet fence
between the two in front, and a post and rail fence at the back,
and making the pump with a double handle to work both ways.
232 Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
The author conceives it to be objectionable to make the entrance-
door fronting the road, not only on account of its publicity, but
because an indolent tenant is in the habit of throwing the ashes
and other refuse matters into a heap immediately before the
doorway, owing to its remoteness from the rear of the house. In
the plan it will be seen that a receptacle has been provided
within an easy distance of the door, to render such a practice
unnecessary and inexcusable.
Interior Arrangements.—As the surest preventative of the house
becoming a residence for two families, and as being more con-
sonant with the wants and means of the labourer, one living room
only is provided, which is approached by a small porch for the
sake of privacy and warmth. The fireplace is recessed in the
wall, and leaves an available space for household purposes of 13
feet by 11 feet in the clear (being equivalent to 13 feet by 12
feet 6 inches where the chimney-breast and cupboard project
into the room). ‘The window is designed with a small recess on
each side to receive fall-back shutters. ‘The only door (except
the outer one) in the living room communicates immediately with
the staircase, scullery, pantry, and coal-place. The scullery is §
feet 6 inches by 7 feet in the clear, and is fitted up witha boiling-
copper and stone sink, Another external, or “ back door,” and
a second fireplace in the scullery are purposely omitted for the
reasons before mentioned. If it is deemed advisable to have
either one or the other, the former may be placed between the
pantry and coalplace, and the latter beside the copper in the
scullery. Neither of these alterations are recommended ; another
door would make the living room much colder, and, under any
circumstances, the cooking required for a labourer’s family is
never of such magnitude as to require two fireplaces, or to render
the living room even in summer (when the fire is seldom used
except morning and evening) so hot as to be unhealthy. Imme-
diately contiguous to, but apart from the living room and scullery
is a convenient pantry, the floor of which is intended to be 16
inches below the level of the others, leaving sufficient height
for suspending bacon and other provisions from the joists above,
and permitting a bench to be placed at the end nearest the porch
to receive milk and other articles requiring a cool temperature.
In addition to a sufficiency of shelves, a cupboard is proposed to
befixed at a height of three feet above the bench for the safe
custody of such articles as are usually deposited in a similar con-
venience beside the fireplace in living rooms of cottages, The
upper story is divided into three separate bed-rooms, and from
the mode of construction adopted, a larger amount of space is
secured to these rooms than low walls and high pitched roofs
Cottages for Agricultural Labourers. 233
would permit. The height of each room is 8 feet, and the di-
mensions are—No. 1,11 feet by 10 feet; No. 2, 1] feet by 7 feet
6 inches ; and No. 3, 8 feet 6 inches by 7 feet, containing 860,
645, and 469 cubic feet respectively. One room only (the largest)
is provided with a fireplace, which will be found quite sufficient
both for ordinary and extraordinary occasions. One might be
placed in every room if required, without deranging the plan.
A conyenient closet is obtained at the top of the stairs, and another
in a recess adjoining the fireplace in Bedroom No. 1.
The Out- Offices.—It is very objectionable to make these indis-
pensable adjuncts form part of the cottage itself; and equally
offensive to good taste (if isolated) to have such a primitive out-
line as indicates most unmistakeably their respective uses. In
the plan the two extremes are avoided, and a situation is selected
within easy reach of each cottage, and they are so contrived as to
conceal as much as possible the purposes for which they are
designed. Within the enclosure accommodation is made for
keeping a pig, and where such a practice is not interdicted, it is
better to build a suitable place, than leave the tenant to exercise
his ingenuity upon old wood and thatch, and supply the defi-
ciency in a manner most offensive to the eye, and prejudicial to
the health of those around him.
_ Materials, Construction, Supply of Water, &c.—A difficulty
arises here in laying down rules for universal adoption; the
geology of the district, local customs, and the facilities of transit
may interdict it; the author has, however, endeayoured to hit the
rule rather than the objection, by suggesting as the most appli-
cable—brick for the walls, Baltic timber for the carpenter’s work,
and Welsh slate covering for the roofs. It must be distinctly
understood notwithstanding, that any variation in the materials
will not affect the general arrangements. All the window-frames
are proposed to be of wood as being more economical and agree-
able than iron or stone, and the squares not being large, the
outlay for renewal in the event of breakage will be so trifling as
to offer no inducement for the occupant to substitute a piece of
old newspaper for a square of glass. ‘The eaves of the cottages
project for the sake of appearance and better security of the
walls. The water from the eaves on the south front is conveyed
into the drain leading from the sinks in the sculleries, by which
means any refuse will be effectually washed away at every fall of
rain, and on the north side a sufficiency of water may be collected
in water-butts (for the use of the tenants) placed against the
outer walls of the staircases. The hard water pump (communi-
cating with a well) is placed against the back wall of the cottages
exactly central between the two, and the waste water therefrom
234 Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
will communicate with the drain; in districts where the springs
are ata considerable depth below the surface the well may be
dispensed with, and a water-tight tank substituted, into which the
water from all the eaves should be conveyed.
Warming and Ventilating.—To ensure the carrying out of
these essentials to a poor man’s comfort, simplicity and economy
must be borne in mind, consonant with which and being at the
same time more agreeable to the habits and customs of English-
men, open fireplaces are recommended, viz., “‘ Nichoison’s im-
proved Cottage Range” for the living room, and a small sham
stove for the bed-room fireplace. Iron or lead pipes, heated by
hot air, water, or steam, however effective they may be in operation,
form but a poor substitute for the cheerful fire, however small,
which is most agreeable to the sight and pleasant to the feelings
of an agricultural labourer after a cold wet day’s work. The
living room and bed-room No. |, having each adoor, window,
and chimney opening (considering their capacity also), have suf-
ficient facilities for ventilation. ‘The scullery is ventilated by the
insertion of an air-brick | in the outer wall; the pantry
by similar means, one air- arek being built in the ot beneath
the seat of the porch, and another at the opposite end under
the floor-joists above; the two smaller bed-rooms to have a
perforated wood ventilator in each ceiling, and an
air-brick in each gable above the ceiling on the north and south
fronts.
Cost.—In the following calculations bricks are supposed to be
worth 30s. per thousand, lime 12s. per chaldron of 32 bushels,
and sand 3s. per ton; the estimate may therefore be deemed a
maximum one, and may be reduced in every instance where
Janded proprietors make their own bricks, and the lime and sand
are procured upon the estate. The substitution of stone in
districts where it is abundant and easily worked would effect a
considerable saving, and a further reduction may also be effected
in the items of timber and carriage, where plenty of the former
is available and the latter is not a matter of consideration :—
Note.—Although this essay was considered the best, it is not of course recommended
by the Society as giving a perfect plan. The out-offices seem open to several objec-
tious, The height of the surrounding wall would render the enclosure very offensive,
unless the privies as well as pig- pounds were constantly cleansed. The pig-pounds
are too confined, especially the sheds, the form of which is not good. The privy doors
should not be opposite each other.—CHICHESTER.
The depression of the pantry-floor would be inconvenient when it is washed, and I
should prefer a south-west aspect.—J, F. Burke,
Specification
239
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Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
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VOL. X.
Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
242
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246 Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
WEST ELEVATION, SECTION ON THE LINE A B.
CuQe in be)
XIII.—On the Use of Rapecake as Food for Stock. By
Pu, Pusey, M.P.
Two kinds of oilcake, as is well known to farmers, are used in
high cultivation—one, the refuse of flax-seed, linseed-cake, for
the feeding of stock ; the other, a less expensive article, the refuse
of rape-seed, as a manure for wheat. Having been informed by
UE eacliarmer that at isthe practice in French Flanders to mix
rapecake with oilcake in the proportion of one to two for the
nobler purpose, I tried the experiment last winter, when linseed-
cake cost about 9/. and rapecake about 5/. per ton.
The cheaper cake, having a hot taste, was mixed with the other
at first im the proportion of one-tenth, and the fatting tegs, half-
breds chiefly, but a few of them Downs, ate the mixture with
little reluctance. The admixture of rapecake was gradually in-
creased until it reached the proportion of one to three, or one-
fourth of the whole, when symptoms of mutiny showed them-
selves, and we did not think it expedient further to adulterate the
rations, but continued at that proportion; and among more than
400 tegs so fatted no mishap occurred from the use of rapecake,
though occasional symptoms of purging arose. ‘The rapecake was
tried with some fatting heifers,* but as they did not take to it rea-
dily, and were in an advanced state, I did not think it worth while
to press the point with them, for fear of throwing them back in
condition. In Flanders, however, horned cattle are fed partly with
rapecake, The most decided success was with about 60 old
Down ewes, which, having borne twin lambs, were kept apart as
usual to receive better food. ‘These being more sharply set than
the fatting tegs, allowed my shepherd gradually to increase the
proportion of rapecake until no linseed-cake was given at all.
This of course is an important saving, if the cheaper cake be as
nourishing as the dearer one. In that important respect my shep-
herd could observe no difference; but the question seemed to be
fit for chemical analysis, and was referred by me to Mr. Way,
whose answer was satisfactory, being as follows :—
‘“‘T have had an analysis made of the rapecake Ae sent me: it contains
a Nitrogen .”. : : : 5°23 per cent.
Oil or fat : ° : 11°63 per cent.
In neither of these enmieaties does it much differ from linseed-cake, of
which I have examined eleven specimens, containing on an average
Nitrogen ; She : : 4°60 per cent.
Oil or fat . : ; : 113 90eperjcent;
The oil is in general about from 12 to 14 per cent.”
* I propose, however, trying it next winter for cows kept in the yard upon mangold-
wurzel and barley-straw, as was done successfully last year on Sir Robert Peel’s
farm at Drayton Manor.. Unless the cake scoured the cows, it must, if given in
moderation, improve, I should think, the quality of the milk.
248 Anatomy and Physiology of the
As these two ingredients, nitrogen and oil, representin Mr. Way’s
opinion the feeding properties of cake, science appears to confirm
the experiment, and [ cannot but hope that it may be useful to
farmers, as justifying a saving of some considerable amount in
preparing their sheep for market. I will only add, that though
the use of rapecake as food has had no bad consequence with
nearly 500 sheep of my own, I hope that any one who is disposed
to give it a trial, will do so gradually and with caution, lest any
unforeseen injury be the consequence.
Pusey, May 21, 1849.
XIV.—A Lecture on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Ma-
ternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals, with the Principles of
Practice applicable to Cases of Difficult and Preternatural
Labour, more especially in the Cow and Ewe. By James
Beart Simonps, Lecturer on Cattle Pathology of the Royal
Veterinary College, London ; Honorary Member of the Royal
Agricultural Society, &c.
My Lorp DvuKE anp GENTLEMEN,—On an occasion like the
present, knowing that so many and important matters require your
attention, I shall not presume to intrude unnecessarily upon your
time by the introduction of remarks which are purely of a prefa-
tory nature. It is, therefore, my intention to proceed forthwith to
the consideration of the subject which has been selected for this
lecture, namely, the general structure and function of the organs
of reproduction in the cow and ewe, and the rules or principles
which should guide us in cases of preternatural parturition. As
the latter is that which chiefly interests you as men of practice, so
it will receive from me the fullest description; but it is of equal
importance that I should explain the construction of those parts
in the female which are specially employed in the act of parturi-
tion. It fortunately happens that no argument is needed to show
to either the scientific or practical breeder, or to those more im-
mediately connected with the feeding and rearing of our native
breeds of cattle, the necessity of such imvestigation. It is a matter
which may be said to come home to all, being intimately identified
with our agricultural, and therefore with our national, prosperity.
As Englishmen we may well be proud of our improved cattle and
sheep, which are at once the boast of Britain and the envy of the
world. But we might ask, how frequently are the hopes of the
breeder disappointed, and his endeavours to improve a race of
cattle rendered fruitless, by the casualties attending upon their
birth? In such a dilemma science stands waiting, and offers
a ready hand to guide him through difficulties and overcome
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 249
danger. Essential therefore to success is a knowledge of the
principles to which we have alluded, and which will form the
basis of this discourse.
It is not our intention to enter on the vexed question of the
best means to improve the breed of any particular class of
animals, nevertheless we may be allowed to make a few passing
remarks on what is commonly designated “ the theory and practice
of breeding.”
Breeding with a view to improvement may be said to be founded
on an established law of nature, that like produces like. We
should, however, always bear in mind that in animals there is a
perpetual tendency to change, by which the development of their
frame and strength of constitution are materially influenced,
arising from a variety of causes, such as domestication, system of
management, removal to a different climate, a continued habitation
of the same district, partaking in general of the same diet, feeding
on many kinds of provender, a liberal or niggardly allowance of
food, especially when young, with protection from or exposure to
the inclemencies of the weather, &c. But although these may be
regarded as the chief causes in operation to produce the tendency
to change, still among them we have the required means to pro-
mote the permanent improvement of a breed. Thus it will be
seen that, in the language of Sir J. Sebright, “ it is not always by
putting the best male to the best female that the best produce
will be obtained; for should they both have a tendency to the
same defect, although in ever so slight a degree, it will in general
preponderate so much in the produce as to render it of little
value.”’ *
In order to improve a particular race of animals, two plans are
advocated by the two classes of practical breeders. One of these
is commonly called < the crossing,” the other “the in-and-in”’
system. ‘The latter of these was strongly advocated by the late
Mr. Bakewell, and his example had at least the effect of destroying
the great prejudice which existed against breeding from animals
having a Close relationship to each other. The too rigid adoption
of this plan is found, however, to produce degeneration, and there-
fore its advantages are limited: for animals of the same family,
living in the same locality, and subjected to the same system of
management, are predisposed to the same defects and diseases,
and these become hereditary. Besides which, every improvement
of a breed requires the application of the same means to maintain
it which produced it, and the chief of these is care in the selection
of both the male and female, so as to avoid the consequences of
that predisposition to which we have alluded. As with defects
so it 1s with improvements ; these are transmitted from parent to
* «<The Art of Improving the Breeds of Demestic Animals,’ by Sir John
Saunders Sebright, Bart., M.P. London. 1809.
250 Anatomy and Physiology of the
offspring. Hence when care in selection is fully and efficiently
carried out, deterioration from ordinary causes does not so rapidly
occur. ‘To assist in overcoming these causes, the taking of animals
from different families and localities, or “crossing,” is adopted.
But even here care in selection is of equal importance.
We have spoken of hereditary predisposition to disease: this is
exemplified by the fact that horses bred from “ roarers”’ are so
susceptible of this abnormal state of the respiratory organs, that
“roaring” follows from causes which would be insufficient to
produce it in other horses. And experience has shown that very
many of the young horses sent from this county (Yorkshire) to
London, being in this condition, early become diseased through
the altered circumstances under which they are placed. That
which is true with regard to horses applies equally to cattle, sheep,
and all domestic animals. As with disease so it is also with colour ;
this not only becomes immediately hereditary, but passes back, as
it were, through several generations; hence the necessity of looking
to the purity of a breed. Jn illustration of this position I quote
from Mr. Wilkinson’s Letter to Sir J. Sebright, wherein we
read that, <‘ suppose a number of pure Devon cows to be crossed
with a breed of perfectly white bulls, itis probable that some of
the calves would be perfectly red, others white, and the greater
part would partake of these colours jointly. If we were now to
take the red heifers produced by this cross, and put them toa
Devon bull, it would not be a matter of any great surprise if
some of their progeny, though sprung from red parents, should be
perfectly white, and stil] less that several should be mixed with
this colour ; though it would not, by any means, be so probable as
in the former instance. And were we thus to proceed through
several generations, this white colour would be less and less
apparent in the’ breed, but would most probably occasionally show
itself in some individual or other. If, on the other hand, we were
to breed from pure Devons only, that is, from those that have
been carefully bred for a great length of time, we should reason-
ably expect their offspring to be of the same colour with the
parents themselves.” *
It has often been remarked, that wild animals undergo but
very slight changes either in form, size, or colour ; the reason of
this, in many tribes, is obvious. We may take the class to which
deer belong as an example. At the season of rut, when the herds
commingle, great contentions take place between the males, by
which the larger number of females falls to the most vigorous and
healthy males, and a strong progeny is the result. Besides which,
many of the weaker animals not unfrequently are carried off by
the cold and privations of winter, thus leaving parents of good
* « Romarks on the Improvement of Cattle, in a Letter to Sir J. 8. Sebright,”
by J. Wilkinson. Nottingham, 1829.
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 251
constitutions, and able to support their young, during the earliest
periods of their life. In these uncongenial seasons, the robust,
however, do not suffer to an extent sufficient to produce permanent
injury, as the range they take is extensive, and thus space makes
up for the local deficiency of herbage, and exercise overbalances
the sedative effects of cold. Many other reasons might be ad-
vanced were it necessary: these, however, are eticient to show
that here we have nature’s plan of selectzon, which man but umi-
tates in the care he bestows in pairing animals to breed together.
There are several singular circumstances connected with this
division of our subject, "and which may be here mentioned, al-
though their causes cannot now be discussed. To speak of the
existence of affection, or of favourable impressions in a female
towards a particular male of another variety, but of the same
species to which she belongs, being so strong as to influence the
form and colour of her offspring, the immediate produce of a
different male, appears to be very speculative, if not otherwise
objectionable. Love of animals to man is however an attri-
bute the possession of which will scarcely be denied to them.
We know but little of the affection they have for each other, nor
of its bounds or duration, and consequently it is difficult to say
whether the facts we shall mention do in reality depend upon it
or on the one sexual connexion with a favourite male exciting a
peculiar development in the still immature ova of the female.
The physiologist and the psychologist could each bring forward
many well-grounded arguments in favour of his particular view.
With these we have not now to do, and therefore we proceed to
narrate the cases themselves. The first is as follows:—< The Earl
of Morton, being desirous of obtaining a breed between the horse
and the quagga, selected a young mare of seven-eighths Arabian
blood, and a fine male of the latter species, and the produce was
a female hybrid. The same mare had afterwards, first a filly
and then a colt by a fine black Arabian horse. They both re-
sembled the quagga in the dark line along the back, the stripes
across the forehead, and the bars across the legs. In the filly the
mane was short, stiff, and upright, like that of the quagga; in the
colt it was long, but so stiff as to arch upwards, and hang clear
of the sides of the neck. In other respects they were nearly pure
Arabian, as might have been expected from fifteen-sixteenths of
Arabian blood.”* The second case is analogous, but it occurred
in the pig :—* D. Giles, Esq., had a sow of the black and white
kind, which was bred from by a boar of the wild breed of a deep
chesnut colour: the pigs produced by this intercourse were duly
mixed, the colour of the boar being in some very predominant.
* “ Bell’s British Quadrupeds,” page 392.
252 Anatomy and Physiology of the
The sow was afterwards bred from by two of Mr. Wesiern’s boars..
and in both instances chesnut marks were prevalent in the litter.
which in other instances had never presented any appearance of
the kind.” * The third we shall quote is thus given:—A cow,
the property of Mr. Mustard of Angus, “chanced to come in
season while pasturing in a field which was bounded by that of
one of his neighbour’s, out of which an oz jumped, and went with
the cow until she was brought home to the bull. The ox was
white, with black spots, and horned. Mr. Mustard had not a
horned beast in his possession, nor one with any white on it.
Nevertheless the produce of the following spring was a black and
white calf with horns.” +
We select one other case, and in another animal, namely, the
dog :—‘‘ On one occasion when the Jate Dr. Hugh Smith was
travelling in the country, accompanied by a favourite female
setter, she became suddenly so enamoured of a mongrel that fol-
lowed her, that to separate them, he was forced, or rather his
anger irritated him, to shoot the mongrel. The image of this
sudden favourite, however, still haunted the bitch, and for some
weeks after she pined excessively, and obstinately refused inter-
course with any other dog, At length she admitted the caresses
of a well-bred setter ; but when she whelped, the Doctor was mor-
tified with the sight of a litter which he perceived bore evident
marks (particularly in colour) of the favoured cur, and they were
accordingly destroyed. ‘The same also occurred in all her future
puppings: invariably the breed was tainted by the lasting im-
pression made by the mongrel.”{ The latter two cases, and
many similar ones which might be related, particularly in the
dog, would seem to show that mental impressions received at the
time of cestrum are of themselves sufficient to stamp the progeny.
Be this as it may, each has a practical bearing, which he who looks
to the preservation of the purity of a breed will not fail to profit by.
- Before concluding this section of our address, it will be right
to allude to the circumstance that accidental varieties, or /usus
nature, may, by care in their selection, form the types of a future
progeny. The solidungulous breed of swine, the two digits or toes
being united and covered with a hoof similar to that of the horse,
is thus accounted for, as is also the ancon or otter breed of sheep.
We proceed to speak of the general structure and functions of
the organs of reproduction in the cow and ewe—these are the
vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries, with their several
appendages. In an unimpregnated state the uterus is chiefly
lodged within the pelvic cavity, but encroaches more or Jess within
“ Philosophical Transactions,” 1821.
“ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,’ vol. i., Essays, p. 28.
“ Blain’s Canine Pathology,” 1832.
t+ *
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 293
the abdomen when in the opposite condition. The cavity of
the pelvis is formed by the bones constituting the hips and
buttocks (see fig. 1), and it is important to bear in mind that its
Hig. 1:
a.—'The pelvic cavity. c, c.—The projections, called the hips.
b.—The sacrum, a continuation of the spine. d, d.—The bony prominences of the buttocks.
size will materially interfere both with the rapidity and safety of
parturition. Many an animal is lost from too narrow a pelvis
mechanically obstructing delivery. The practical breeder should
therefore always remember, that external form is but a type of
internal development, and consequently when the hips are narrow,
the buttocks compressed together, and the spine drooping, the
size of the pelvic cavity must be small, and parturition thereb
rendered more dangerous. The annexed woodcut (fig. 1) shows
the relative connexion that the bones of the pelvis have to each
other, and the way in which they form the opening through which
the foetus passes in delivery.
The vagina, 7 (fig. 2), extends from the external shape, the
labia pudendi, to the mouth of the womb, Jb; it is placed at the
- lower part of the pelvis, and has the rectum aboke it, and receives
inferiorily the opening of the urinary bladder, h; previous to par-
turition its walls become flaccid, and its inner surface is bedewed
with a copious mucous secretion to favour the passage of the
foetus. In the act of coition the intromittent organ of the male is
placed within the vagina, and is thus brought in contact with the
mouth of the womb, by which means the fecundating fluid is
conveyed into that organ.
The uterus, or womb, a, is melel 3 in its situation chiefly by the
broad ligaments, ff; at its anterior part its coats are continuous
with the vagina, and posteriorly it is divided into the two horns,
cc, which have attached to their extremities the Fallopian tubes,
d d, and connected with these are the ovaries,ee. During the
period of gestation the os uteri (mouth of the womb) remains
254 Anatomy and Physiology of the
closed; but at the time of parturition it is widely dilated, thus
forming a free and open passage from the vagina to the interior
of the uterus. ‘The coats of the uterus are three, and are united
to each other by areolar tissue: the external or serous coat is
smooth and continuous with the linmg membrane of the abdo-
men ; it gives support to the viscus, and by its reflections forms the
two broad hgaments. The middle or muscular coat varies con-
siderably in strength and thickness, referable to impregnation or
non-impregnation ; it is thin and comparatively weak in the latter
case, and its fibres, which interlace each other in every direction,
become greatly increased during gestation. On the muscular coat
the expulsion of the foetus from the uterus in delivery partly
depends. The internal or mucous coat has a velvety appearance,
and it secretes the menstrual fluid; but its principal use in the
lower animals is to form a bond of connexion between the mother
and her young ones, by which their vitality is preserved and their
development effected. To this we shall her eafter more especially
refer.
Fig. 2
!
I :
i ff
Nay
ih
fF ils
Vay
nilt i
i
yi
it
wy
Wii
Me
if
) i] 1)
Wd HT)
if
WH
wen!)
aé.—The body of the uterus. J; f-—ine broad ligaments,
b.—The os uteri. g-— The urinary bladder.
ec, c.—The horns, one of which is laid open. h.— The opening of the bladder.
d, d.—The Fallopian tubes, with their fimbriated i.—The vagina cut open to show the passage
extremities, leading to the bladder and os uteri.
e, e.—The ovaries.
We will now add a few remarks on the causes of cestrum, 1m-
pregnation, and the development of the foetus. The term cestrum
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 255
is employed to designate that condition of the female which shows
her fitness and desire for the male. Its early or late appearance
is governed by a variety of external circumstances. It is asso-
ciated with puberty, and passes off on the approach of old age. In
some of our improved breeds of cattle, especially when well kept
and tended, cestrum comes on very early in life, and in such in-
stances the animal often conceives when she is little more than a
year old. ‘These early conceptions, however, too frequently prove
injurious, by interfering with the development of the frame of the
female, and also by deteriorating the quality of her offspring. Do-
mestication, with its ordinary accompaniments, exerts a consider-
able stimulating influence on the generative system; thus some
animals which in a state of nature produce but one litter a year,
will, when domesticated, bring forth several: such are the dog
and pig. The immediate cause of cestrum is the existence of
fully matured ova within the ovaries of the female; and when
these escape, without coition and consequent impregnation, we
observe a temporary cessation of the desire uutil ciher ova are
equally perfected. It follows, therefore, that impregnation can
only be effected when the ova are in this condition. The time
occupied in the development of the ova differs in different animals,
hence the variation we witness in their return to the male. The
ordinary symptoms of cestrum in the cow and other animals are
too well known to render it necessary to repeat them; and it is
sufficient to state that they denote a highly excited state of the
system. Impregnation is produced by the fecundating fluid of
the male acting on the matured ovum of the female, which action
probably takes placeintheovarium. Physiologists are acquainted
with many phenomena which illustrate this. The way in which
the male or seminal fluid finds its course through the body and
horns of the uterus, and thence through the Fallopian tube to the
Ovarium, is disputed. Its conveyance, however, is generally be-
lieved to be effected through the agency of ioving filaments, called
spermatozoa, with which it abounds. Hence it is all important
that the Fallopian tubes should be pervious, or impregnation can-
not take place. If their passage be obliterated, as we have often
proved by the experiment of passing a ligature around them, the
animal is as effectually rendered non-productive as if the whole
parts had been taken away. The above facts explain how it is that,
in the ordinary operation of spaying, the simple removal of the
ovaries, leaving in situ the uterus with its horns and Fallopian
tubes, destroys the desire as well as the power of conception, and
when by accident or otherwise the operator leaves behind an
ovarium, all other parts being cut away, the animal returns to the
male, notwithstanding she is sterile.
The impregnated ovum when it bursts and escapes from its
256 Anatomy and Physiology of the
ova-sac is seized or entangled by the fimbriated edge of the
Fallopian tube, and subsequently conducted into the uterus,
where it excites that extraordinary action which leads to the for-
mation of a new creature in every essential particular like its
parent. Should the ovum not be caught by the fimbria, it falls
into the cavity of the abdomen, but is not necessarily destroyed,
as even here, although out of its proper matrix, it sets up an
analogous action to that which otherwise would have been pro-
duced within the uterus. Thus we have explained the formation
of those extra-uterine foetuses, which are occasionally met with
both in human and veierinary practice.
Without describing the earliest stages of the formation of the
foetus from the impregnated ovum, it will be sufficient to remark
that in the descent of the ovum into the uterus it receives a
coating of effused fibrin, which forms the membrane termed the
corium, by which the fcetus is attached to the inner surface of
the womb, and obtains from the mother the materials necessary
for its vitality and growth. The outer surface of the corium (see
Pilate) is thickly studded in the cow and ewe with shaggy pro-
jections, c, named cotyledons, and these are fitted into corre-
sponding concavyities, 6, in the membrane lining the womb, the
tunica decidua uteri, thus forming the bond of connexion we have
spokenof. The tufts of the corium contain the ramification of the
foetal vessels, and the concavities of the tunica decidua uteri the
enlarged and elongated branches of the uterine arteries of the
mother : thus by the two sets of vessels lying in contact, the blood
of the foetus is purified and reinvigorated, as the maternal blood
is more highly oxygenated than that of the foetus. The change
which is effected is a chemical one, and analogous to that taking
place in the lungs of an animal after birth ; the cotyledons, there-
fore, may so far be regarded as the foetal lungs. Besides this
important office performed by them, the vessels of the foetus are
here surrounded by a thick layer of cells which absorb nutrient
matter from the mother and transmit it to the blood of the foetus.
Hence the cotyledons may also be compared to the stomach, or
rather to the digestive and assimilative organs of a perfect
animal. Thus it will be seen that although there is no direct
communication between the vessels of the mother and those of
the foetus, yet every requisite for its life and growth is provided
for.
Besides the corium, there are two other membranes to be
noticed as belonging to the foetus, the amnion, g, and the allan-
toid, e. The amnion immediately surrounds the body of the
foetus, and secretes a fluid, the iqguor amnii, in which it floats, and
by which it is protected from those injuries which might otherwise
destroy its life : it being a property of fluids to diffuse and modify
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 257
the force of a blow. The liquor amnii, with its investing mem-
brane, is also made to serve a no less important office, that of
being protruded into the mouth of the womb at the commence-
ment of parturition, thus acting as a hydrostatic dilator.
The allantoid membrane is situated between the amnion and
corium, where it forms a sac to receive the urinary secretion of the
foetus: it is of large size in the lower animals, and its dimensions
increase with the growth of the foetus, a phenomenon which is not.
observed in the human subject. ‘The allantoid sac has a direct
communication with the true urinary bladder by means of the
urachus (see Plate, f). The umbilical cord, h, is composed of
this tube, the urachus, and the arteries, 7, which convey the im-
pure blood out of the body of the foetus to the cotyledons, and the
veins, 7, which return it after having been re-oxygenated in the
manner previously alluded to. It will be evident from the fore-
going remarks, that a due provision is made for an equal distribu-
tion of this pure blood through the body of the foetus, so that every
part of the frame may be built up at the same time; consequently
we meet with vessels in the foetus that are not needed after birth.
To enter more fully into this interesting and instructive subject,
would be to encroach on the practical part of our lecture, and
therefore I proceed to speak of the symptoms of pregnancy and
the period of utero-gestation.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE OPPOSITE.
a.—The interior of the uterus, studded with,b, | f:—The urachus, or passage through which the
the maternal portions of the cotyledons, urine is conveyed to the allantoid sac.
c.—The outer surface of the corium, with the = g.—The amnion, the membrane which enve:-
tufts of the foetal vessels, some of which lopes the foetus, and secretes the fluid in
are seen in union with the maternal which it floats.
portions of the cotyledons. h.—The umbilical cord, showing, 7, the arte-
d.—The inner surface of the corium. ries conveying the impure blood to the
e.—The allantoid membrane, which forms a cotyledons, and, j, the veins returning
receptacle for the urinary secretion of the it after its purification.
foetus.
The first and most striking indication of impregnation is the
cessation of cestrum, the animal not returning to the male at the
usual period, or refusing his overtures when introduced to him,
With this is associated a general quietude of the system and
tendency to accumulate flesh, and in some animais, as the mare,
a sluggishness while at work. Shortly afterwards the abdomen is
found to increase in size, the loins to droop, and the muscles of
the croup to be less prominent. The labia pudendi are swollen and
flaccid, a blush of redness pervades these parts, extending into the
vagina, from which an augmented quantity of mucus is discharged.
The abdomen gradually gets larger and larger, and has a peculiar
round appearance at its lower portion, with a falling im immedi-
ately beneath the bones of the loins. As the period of labour ap-
proaches, the mammary gland enlarges, the secretion of colostrum
Vole XxX: 8
238 Anatomy and Physiology of the
takes place within its follicles, and the teats are hot and full.
When delivery is about to be effected, the animal becomes rest-
less, often lies down, strains, rises again, changes her position,
looks to her flanks, and carries the tail higher than natural, &c.
As I shall have again to allude to these indications, I pass on
to remark on the means taken to satisfy ourselves that a foetus
does exist within the uterus. During the earliest periods of gesta-
tion the question of pregnancy is a most difficult one to decide,
but subsequently that which was ambiguous becomes clear, and
we are then enabled to make a correct diagnosis. As the foetus
is early located within the womb, so we shall find that, in such
animals as will admit of the hand being passed up the rectum,
we can detect its presence in the form of a small, roundish,
and slightly moveable body situated below and without the
intestine. ‘The hand being quietly kept in this situation, and
pressed upon the enlargement, will occasionally recognise volun-
tary movements in the living embryo. Some persons prefer to
introduce the hand into the vagina, and carry it towards the os
uteri so as to ascertain its condition; for, as I have else-
where observed, the mouth of the womb is closely shut during
gestation, and we also find at this time that it contains a layer
of thick albuminous matter. There are serious objections
to this latter proceeding, for when the manipulations are most
carefully performed abortion will not unfrequently result. Per-
cussion over the uterine region is also of great assistance; and
auscultation has its advocates, who inform us that the ear placed
in contact with the abdomen of an impregnated animal, and moved
gently from spot to spot, will often detect the sound of the feetal
heart. We confess, however, that we have not succeeded to our
satisfaction, although we have made very many investigations of
this kind. With reference to percussion, all are practically ac-
quainted with the manner in which this is adopted, and the side of
the cow, viz. the right, that is selected. The inclination of the
impregnated uterus to the right side depends upon the rumen
being situated in the left division of the abdomen. In the still
more advanced periods of gestation, foetal movements can be seen
while standing by the side of an animal; and as these are often
found to be both stronger and quicker in the mare after drinking
a full quantity of cold water, grooms and stablemen have frequent
recourse to this plan; to which, however, we object, as spasms of
the intestines and death have occasionally been produced by it.
The period of utero-gestation, or length of time that the feetus
is detained in the uterus, depends upon several causes, and
differs in nearly every variety of animal unless belonging to the
same tribe or family. The average period that the mare carries
her young may be stated as being near to forty-eight weeks, the
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 209
cow forty, the ewe twenty-two, the bitch nine, and the sow
sixteen weeks. It certainly is a remarkable fact, and one which
shows the mighty power of the allwise Creator, that, in animals
placed so high in the scale of organised beings as the canine
race, full and perfect development of their young should be
effected in the short space of sixty-three days. If, however, we
descend the scale, we shall find that this is comparatively a
long period to be occupied in the perfecting of the offspring of
the lower animals.
The late and much lamented Earl Spencer has recorded in the
pages of your Journal * his observations on the duration of gesta-
tion in no less than 764 cows; and we are much gratified in being
able to say that he has thereby rendered most efficient aid to
science, as well as considerable service to the practical breeders
of cattle. I refer to the table accompanying the paper for full
details, but I shall nevertheless make an extract or two in con-
sequence of the important bearing these statements have on this
part of our subject :—‘‘ From the inspection of this table,” his
Lordship says, ‘it will be seen that the shortest period of
gestation, when a live calf was produced, was 220 days. Any
calf produced at an earlier period than 260 days must be con-
sidered decidedly premature, and any period of gestation exceed-
ing 300 days must also be considered irregular, but in this latter
case the health of the produce is not affected. It will also be
seen that 314 cows calved before the 284th day, and 310 calved
after the 285th ; so that the probable period of gestation ought
to be considered 284 or 285 days, and not 270, as stated in the
book upon Cattle, published under the superintendence of the
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.”
The facts here mentioned with reference to the great differ-
ences in the time of gestation cannot, even in the present ad-
vanced state of science, be satisfactorily accounted for. Dr. Car-
penter, writing on the same subject, remarks that “ the average
length of time which elapses between conception and parturition
in the human female appears to be 280 days or 40 weeks.
There can be little doubt, however, that gestation may be occa-
sionally prolonged for one, two, or even three weeks beyond that
period ; such prolongation not being at al] unfrequent among the
lower animals, and numerous well authenticated instances of it,
in the human female, being on record. Upon what circum-
stances this departure from the usual rule is dependent has not
yet been ascertained; but it is a remarkable circumstance, ascer-
tained by the observations of cattle breeders, that the male has
an influence upon the length of gestation—a large proportion of
* Vol. 1.,-p. 165; ef seq.
260 Anatomy and Physiology of the
cows in calf to certain bulls exceeding the usual period, and a
small proportion falling short of it. Hence we must attribute
the prolongation of the period to some peculiarity in the embryo,
derived from its male parent.” * Alluding to the opinion which
is also entertained with respect to the sex of the foetus influencing
the time of gestation, Karl Spencer observes, ‘‘ there is a preva-
lent belief among farming men, and I believe farmers, that, when
the time of gestation of a cow is longer than usual, the produce
is generally a male calf. I must confess that 1 did not believe
this to be the case, but this table shows that there is some
foundation for the opinion. In order fairly to try this, the cows
who calved before the 260th day, and those who calved after the
300th, ought to be omitted as being anomalous cases, as well as
the cases in which twins were produced; and it will then appear
that, from the cows whose period of gestation did not exceed
286 days, the number of cow-calves produced was 233, and the
number of bull-calves 234; while from those whose period
exceeded 286 days, the number of cow-calves was only 90, while
the number of bull-calves was 152.” This places the matter in
so clear a light that it 1s unnecessary to add another word, and
therefore I shall pass on to the last division of this lecture,
namely, natural and preternatural parturition.
Labour, although perfectly natural, may occupy some time, or
be rapidly effected; we observe a considerable difference in this
respect among the different animals which man by domestication
has rendered subservient to his use, Delivery under ordinary
circumstances is quick in the mare, the birth of the foal rarely
occupying more than a few minutes; in the cow half an hour
may be regarded as about the average time after labour-pains
show themselves; while in the ewe it not unfrequently happens
that several hours will be spent in labour. I will here advert to
a table in which [ have attempted a classification of labours,
showing the several varieties met with in practice.
CLASSIFICATION OF PARTURITION,
DivisIon. VARIETY.
Natural. . . . » Quick. Lingering. Twin,
Preternatural . . . Lusus Nature. Every kind of Malpresentation.
Premature! 9/2 0.0, do. do,
Protracted . . . . Mechanical Impediments. Imperfect Throes,
Impractical. . . . Maternal Defects.
Instrumental . . . Destructive, or not, of the Foetus.
Uterine Dropsy, Hemorrhage, Rupture.
Inverted Vagina, Bladder, Rectum.
Complicated . . .{Ruptured do. do. do.
Scirrhous Os Uteri, Lacerated Vulva.
&e. &e, &e.
* Carpenter’s “ Manual of Physiology,” p. 478.
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 261
Before describing preternatural labour arising from false pre-
sentations, I must speak of natural delivery and the way in
which it is accomplished. The symptoms denoting the approach
of parturition have been before described, namely restlessness, fre-
quent change of position, lying down, quick rising, straining, &e. ;
these all indicate an excited state of the system accompanied with
pain; this pain is not, however, of the ordinary character, but
early becomes propulsive or bearing down, and also intermittent.
It is important to distinguish between straining and the true pro-
pulsive pains of parturition; the former not unfrequently depends
on the dilatation of the os uteri, and this, in many cases, precedes
labour for some days. The dilatation of the mouth of the womb
is often associated with great pain, and this is apparently pro-
portionate to the freedom with which it expands. Proprietors of
stock should not be in too great a hurry with their animals at
the time of parturition, although they may express much uneasi-
ness by continued straining. I have known many cases where
valuable animals have been lost in consequence of impatience on
the part of the owner in seeking too soon to give assistance. [
have also frequently seen cases where the symptoms of approach-
ing parturition have disappeared, and not returned for two or three
days. A careful examination per vaginam may be made under
these circumstances, and should the mouth of the womb be found
only partially dilated, the case must be left to nature’s efforts,
when all will generally end well. I should state, however, that
in extreme cases of this description an ounce dose of tinct. opii
administered to a cow, and followed by an ordinary aperient,
will be productive of much benefit.
The act of parturition, by which the foetus is expelled from
the uterus, is in part effected by the contractility of the muscular
coat of the womb, and in part by the energetic action of the
abdominal muscles, The cause of this contraction taking place
at the expiration of a given time cannot be satisfactorily ex-
plained: it does not arise from the full development of the foetus,
nor its capability of living, comparatively, independent of its
parent ; if so, neither abortion nor premature labour would occur.
Nor can the length of gestation be said to depend on the mere
life of the foetus, for then a dead foetus would be cast off imme-
diately, no matter what might be the stage of gestation; whereas
daily instances are met with where a dead feetus is retained the
full time.
The mouth of the womb being freely dilated, and everything
prepared for the birth of the young, the simultaneous and re-
peated contractions of the uterus and abdominal muscles propel
the foetus, covered by its membranes, first towards and next
into the vagina. This advance is assisted by its position, and also
Anatomy and Physiology of the
262
5d
3
This fluid, con-
within its proper membrane, first appears at the “ shape
and is commonly designated “the water bladder ;” as soon as
wor amnil.
gh
tainec
by the pushing forwards of the liq
the propulsive action of the uterus is brought to bear
diately on the body of the foetus, by which it is ultimately
2%
aes
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if e We AN
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‘Sntojn OL-—-"9 “9 "Lop PRTG Jaye ay —*p
;
SX
AN
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In fig. 3 we have a view of the calf placed in the
RS STERN
Sl
eM = = >
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wt
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from the shape: the sketch will ma-
n I have given.
terially assist the descriptio
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 263
With the birth of the young the mother experiences an
immediate relief, but labour is not considered to be completed
until the membranes have also been cast off. This is effected by
a more gradual and far less painful action of the uterus, which
first detaches the cotyledons from their numerous connexions, and
then ejects the membranes by an augmentation of the propulsive
power. After this the womb contracts with some force upon
itself, and thus effectually compresses the mouths of the uterine
vessels and stays the escape of blood.
It is not always that delivery is accomplished with the facility
I have described, although the presentation is perfectly natural :
delay may arise from a disproportion between the size of the fcetus
and its dam, when force will be necessary to assist the expulsive
throes. This assistance ought only to be rendered during the
continuance of each alternate pain: by a steady adherence to this
rule considerable resistance may be overcome, and the life of
both the mother and her young preserved. We can call to mind
one case in particular, where we succeeded to our perfect satis-
faction in removing from a small Suffolk cow a calf, which
weighed, when taken away, no less than 8 stone; (14 lbs. to the
stone.) Upwards of two hours were occupied in the act; never-
theless we had the gratification of being instrumental in saving
both the parent and her offspring.
PROTRACTED LABOUR in a natural presentation may result
from congenital disease of the foetus ; that whichis most commonly
met with is dropsy of the abdomen, and this is depicted in the
annexed sketch. Under these circumstances no advance can be
made by the application of a proper amount of force, and the
life of the foetus should at once be sacrificed. To effect the
necessary reduction in the size of the body by giving an exit to the
fluid, a trocar of sufficient length should be thrust through the
chest into the abdomen (as represented in the sketch), and the
stilet withdrawn, when the pressure which is brought to bear on
the foetus, by the traction employed, together with the labour-pains
of the mother, will be sufficient to forcibly drive the fluid through
the sheath of the instrument, thus reducing the enlarged abdomen
and facilitating delivery. Several years ago I was called toa
mare in labour, where the obstruction to its progress depended
on the accumulation of a large quantity of urine within the blad-
der of the feetus, from a congenital closure of the urachus; the
case cost me a great deal of labour and anxiety; the mare, how-
ever, did well; and I make mention of the circumstance for the
purpose of stating that I was led to the subsequent employ-
ment of this imstrument from the difficulty [ then experienced.
The particulars of the case are given at length in the ‘ Trans-
actions of the Veterinary Medical Association for 1841-2.’
Anatomy and Physiology of the
264
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~ Sees}
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SS =
SSS
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bY
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SS ea
f
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SSK
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ws
ES
sets
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GRC SNE SSS =
SSS SS SSS SSE =I
=
>
Among other causes of LINGE
disease, and w
nS
atural, is an accumulation
RING LABOUR from congenital
here the presentation is n
la
we
al cavity, designated water on the brain.
the crani
of fluid within
such instances the body
4
(
of the foetus is unusually small, so tha
v
265
e-legs be returned into the
Maternal Organs of Reproduction im Animals.
have little to apprehend if we can succeed in reducing the size of
Having satisfied ourselves by an examination of the
real condition of the parts, let the for
the head,
WSS
SSE
>
y
——
=
pe E43) —
DS FS eee
> Gtiry
Teel
—
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anaes My) Zig
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SSS Se eee Ss s Sst GA yyy ee
SS SS SSS <= SSS SSNS SSS SS SSS SSS SS = —, \ NY Ze Gy) EE
: . SSS SS Se = Lp PFET TG) =
SESS a Was SS See
SAS es SSS:> os
"¢ “81g
a
body of the uterus (represented in fig. &), thus making more room
in the vaginal passage for our further manipulations. Then place
266 Anatomy and Physiology of the
a hook attached to the end of a cord within the orbit, draw firmly
at this with the left hand, so as to fix the head against the brim of
the pelvis below, and the sacrum above. Introduce with the
right hand an instrument called a perforator, thrust its point
through the bones of the head, and split them asunder by com-
pressing the handles of the instrument; an exit will thus be given
to the fluid, and the bones will consequently now yield sufficiently
to allow the fcetus to pass through the pelvic cavity. Prior
to attempting delivery it is, however, necessary to re-adjust the
legs by bringing one after the other into the vagina, when mode-
rate traction alone will be needed to remove the feetus; the force
being applied in this, as in every other case, only during the
maternal efforts to unburden the uterus.
Among the varieties of natural delivery we may name TWIN-
LAKOUR, although it rarely happens that both foetuses are presented
with the head and fore-legs advancing; one being thus placed,
and the other in the reverse position. It1 18, however, in but few
instances that the veterinary accoucheur is required when par-
turition is delayed, simply in consequence of twins: the young
are generally of small size, and the one which lies in the natural
position is first expelled, thus bringing the parts into a fit condi-
tion to favour the birth of the other. And here I would remark
that neither the veterinary practitioner nor the farmer should
ever leave a case of parturition in which his services had been
required, without a manual exploration of the uterus to satisfy
himself that another foetus was not present.
I pass on to consider some of the principal forms of PRETER-
NATURAL PARTURITION; and the first to which I shall allude is
the one depicted in fig. 6. It will here be observed that the two fore-
legs have passed through the mouth of the uterus into the vaginal
passage, while the head is turned back and lies in contact with
the side of the young animal. This presentation is of common
occurrence, and may be regarded as a mere alteration of the
natural position, arising from the circumstance that, when the
head reached the pelvis, instead of its passing onwards in a straight
direction, it became turned a little aside, and the repeated throes of
the mother acting on the hinder part of the body of the foetus,
forced it into the position here represented. The difficulty of
adjusting the foetus, and effecting delivery, will be proportionate to
the distance the head is placed backwards. In some cases it will
be found within our grasp, while in others we can only succeed,
after repeated efforts have been made to reach the ear or the
orbit. Under either circumstance we are first to secure the fore-
legs, by passing around each, directly below the fetlocks, a cord
having a running noose; they are then to be returned into the
body of the uterus; after which pressure is to be made upon the
t~
ZZ a ae
N
\
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals.
~~ SS
SS
=
SSS Ss
g on the position of the
dependin
t resist the propulsiy
3
curved side of the neck or chest.
e efforts of the
k
d the head consequently brought nearer to the
head, which pressure mus
will be thus
mother, when it will be found that the nec
straightened a
n
pelvic opening.
We should remark, that in this presentation the
and therefore we may venture to
foetus is often found dead,
7
adopt those means_ which otherwise we should not have recourse
In extreme cases, however, of this description, the preser-
to.
268 Anatomy and Physiology of the
vation of the life of the mother is of the first consideration, and
we must not hesitate to use instruments to facilitate our manipu-
lations. A hook attached by a hinge-joint to a steel rod, and
which has at the other end a cross-handle, removable at pleasure,
is the most useful instrument which can be employed. The
operator, taking the hook in his hand and carrying it towards the
orbit, directs his assistant to advance or draw it backwards, as he
may find it necessary, so as to aid his efforts to place it within the
orbit. After having adjusted the head, the legs by means of the
cords are to be brought up, and delivery accomplished in the
usual manner,
The second form of false presentation that I shall describe is
shown in the annexed sketch, fig. 7. It will here be seen that
the head of the calf is protruding from the labia; in other words
it is born, while the fore-legs and the rest of the body of the
animal still occupy the vagina and uterus. The first remark
to make is, that at the commencement of labour this was a pre-
sentation of the head within the vaginal passage, unaccompanied
with the simultaneous advance of tne legs, a condition of things
of not unfrequent occurrence. Occasionally it will happen in
this presentation, when the pelvis is large and the parturient
pains very strong, that the head will be forced out; but far
more frequently, its being born depends on the misapplied efforts
of those who are called to give assistance to the cow. Farmers
and others are too apt to imagine, when an examination proves
the head of the foetus to be located in the vagina, that by applying
force and bringing it through, delivery will be effected; but it
should be always remembered, that in mares and cows, and even
in ewes, unless the lamb is very small and the pelvis of the ewe
of full dimensions, it is impossible for this to be done. In a head
presentation the operator should first place a cord, with a running-
loop, on the lower jaw of the foetus, next exercise force sufficient
to return it into the uterus; afterwards adjust the legs, then
bring up the head by drawing at the cord on the jaw and proceed
to deliver. Should he be called to a case like the one figured,
no attempts to return the head, or to draw away the foetus, as I
have before stated, ought to be made, as these will be altogether
futile. The foetus must at once be sacrificed that the life of the
mother may be saved. Let an incision be made through the skin
from the pole to the muzzle, and another from the gullet to the
end of the lower lip; dissect the skin on either side from off the
head so as to unite the upper and lower cuts, and then detach the
skull from the trunk at the occipital joint. Having done this,
attach a cord to the incised skin, and put back the neck into the
womb; feel for, and place in, their proper position the oe legs,
then brine up the neck and deliver.
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 269
—
—-~
SS ee
——
——
{
i) mn
Faiths
AN K
Fig. 7.
=
j ee
iy Z LP
Ail
SS
=
——=_
ZZ ZE
FZ
ZZ
GA
LAA
EZ
LEIA
=
LE
SE
yj
Wa
a= ——S
The third kind 1 shall mention is represented in fig. 8. In
this instance one of the fore-feet protrudes through the os uteri,
while the other foot and the head are still in the body of the
womb—the latter being curved downwards and pressing on the
brim of the pelvis. We have here an occipital and foot presenta-
tion, but which is not very difficult to overcome unless the labour-
pains are very powerful. The first step to be taken is to secure
the fore-foot in the manner described in the preceding cases, and
270 Anatomy and Physiology of the
the next to fasten a hook to one of the orbits. The hand is
then to be re-introduced and carried towards the chest, following
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the direction of the protruding limb, and sufficient force employed
to drive the foetus backwards ; this being accomplished, the hand
is to be shifted to the upper part of the neck immediately behind
the occiput, when moderate pressure being here made it will be
effective in straightening the head and neck. When the operator
has thus far succeeded, his assistant is to draw the cord attached
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 271
to the head moderately tight to prevent it again bending down-
wards. Another cord is now to be carried in and made fast to
the other leg, as shown by the dotted line in the sketch. The
legs are then to be alternately brought forwards, and by simul-
taneously drawing at them and the head the fceius will be ex-
tracted.
The fourth variety I select for explanation is shown in fig. 9.
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272 Anatomy and Physiology of the
In this instance the calf is lying on its back in the womb, with
the legs turned towards the spinal column of the cow. Labour
here is usually of long duration, and various expedients are adopted
by practitioners to adjust the foetus prior to the employment of
traction to remove it: but in most cases [ have proceeded as
follows :—first a cord has been placed on the lower jaw to secure
the head so that at will it might be brought forward. Next,
similar cords have been fastened on each fore-leg; the one
attached to the leg represented in the fore-ground running on the
outer side of the other limb, marked ain the sketch. An assistant
has then been directed to draw tightly at this so as to facilitate ©
our endeavours to turn the foetus on its side, by placing the hand
near the withers, as represented in the sketch. This being
effected, the legs are brought into the vagina, and then the head :
these additional manipulations will cause the foetus to turn, as it
were, upon itself, when it may be safely extracted.
One of the most difficult forms to deal with, and which in-
variably costs the practitioner considerable labour and anxiety,
is that represented in fig. 10. Here we observe that the foetus
is lying with its head towards the chest of the cow, having
the hinder parts pressed against the brim of the pelvis, and the
hind legs placed under the body, so that on introducing the hand
we can only feel the breech. We have here to reverse the posi-
tion of the hind-legs and bring them into the vaginal passage, as
delineated in fig. ii, or delivery will be impossible. The great
difficulty in doing this arises from the little command we ier over
the parts from our inability to grasp the hind legs: consequently
many years since I was led to construct a simple instrument to
enable the practitioner to surmount this difficulty. The instru-
ment, which is sketched in fig. 10, consists of a curved piece of
steel having an aperture at one end, to which a small cord is
attached, at the other a female screw is placed, which admits of
its junction to a whalebone staff, and between the two another
opening exists, into which is inserted a stronger cord.
Taking the staff with the two cords in his hand, the operator is
to pass the instrument between the thighs of the calf, and push it
in front of the stifle-jomt, and then with a turn of the wrist to
direct the small cord outwards. An assistant holding the instru-
ment, the hand of the accoucheur is now to be introduced and
directed to the front part of the stifle-joint, when the cord can be
readily grasped and brought out; thus the limb will be embraced
between the two cords: the whalebone stafi is then to be detached,
and the smaller cord to be run through a noose at the free end of
the larger one, when, by drawing the smaller cord, the curved
part of the instrument will travel round the limb, bringing with
it the larger cord, and thus a looped ligature will be placed upon
273
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274 Anatomy and Physiology of the
turn the legs as to place them in position of fig. 11; after which,
ordinary traction during each throe will enable him to effect
delivery with safety, both to the mother and the young.
The above constitute the principal varieties of preternatural
presentations; there are, however, some modifications of each,
but these will not require from me a further explanation. The
rules I have laid down are applicable as general principles, and
can be adapted to each particular case.
Besides the methods of extraction which I have spoken of, it
will sometimes be necessary, from the great size of the foetus and
other causes, to have recourse to embryotomy, or the dissection
of the foetus. Ina lecture of this kind it is not to be expected
that we can describe this process, which must necessarily differ in
almost every instance, and ought never to be undertaken by any
but those who have made this subject their especial study. One
rule, and only one, I will mention, and that is never to remove a
hmb before having dissected back the skin, so that the various
instruments employed may be attached to it, thus securing all the
advantages of the limb to exercise traction upon without having
the disadvantage of its size.
To the veterinary surgeon I need scarcely say that, varying
the position of his patient will materially assist his efforts, and that
he is enabled to manipulate with far greater facility when the
animal is standing ; but whether standing or otherwise, he must
not cease his endeavours to adjust the fcetus and accomplish its
early removal.
During protracted labour the patient’s strength should be sup-
ported by diffusible stimulants and cordials, for the expenditure
of the vital powers is very great: many cases are lost even after
delivery from inattention to this circumstance; good ale, with the
addition of some alcoholic spirit, constitutes a most useful agent
for the purpose.
When the foetus has been extracted, no stimulants should be
given, as these would bring on inflammatory action; but to quiet
the system, a dose of tenet. opiz, varying from 1 to 2 ounces,
ought to be exhibited. The quantity here named wili be proper
for a mare or cow, a fourth part of which will be sufficient for a
sheep. And I should also state that, although my remarks
have been chiefly confined to parturition in the cow, still the
rules laid down are equally applicable to other animals.
It was my original intention to have spoken of the consequences
of parturition and the diseases and casualties immediately con-
nected therewith, but having already exceeded the limits of an
ordinary lecture, I must bring our observations to a close, thank-
ing you sincerely for the kind attention I have received, and
expressing a hope that the principles I have laboured to expound
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 275
will hereafter prove of advantage in regulating your proceedings
in these difficult and dangerous cases.
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XV.—Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
Part I. By J. B. Lawes.
A PROMINENT feature in the best agriculture of Great Britain is
the concentration of produce on the land, by means of the purchase
of cattle-food or direct manures; and it may safely be affirmed
that, with a rapidly increasing population and a limited area of land,
this system must become more and more general if the enhanced
demand for human food is to be in any degree adequately met
by the supplies of the British farmer. The importance to him,
therefore, of a clear conception of the nature and sources of value —
of manuring substances generally, as well as of the characteristic
differences or identity of those derived from the various resources
at his command, will at once be obvious; yet, it will be admitted
that even the most intelligent and observant practical farmer is
far from possessing that clear and definite conception of the
rationale of the practices he adopts, which alone can prove an
unerring guide in his operations, and ensure such conduct of
them in detail as is consistent with true economy, and calculated
to yield the full advantages which a perfect application of their
inherent principle must attain. Much has, however, been done
of late years, both by societies and individuals, towards providing
that basis of facts without which fixed principles in agriculture,
and a right understanding of the practices already approved by
experience, cannot be attained; yet, much remains to be done
before even the more general and fundamental usages can be
satisfactorily explaimed, whilst the circumstances of their local
adaptation may be said to constitute a distinct and not less
important, and at the same time more extensive and permanent,
field of inquiry.
The growth of green and fodder crops, to be consumed by
animals upon the farm, is recognised as a most important source
of manure, and it is decided by the practice of the best farmers,
that the full advantages which such a course is competent to yield
are only attainable when it is aided by the purchase of foreign
food for home consumption, or by the direct supply of purchased
manure, and it is indeed probable that increased production at
home is far more necessarily dependent on the accumulation
of material from external resources than is usually supposed.
Before, however, the exact economical effects of alternate cropping,
the consumption upon the farm of roots or other home produc-
tions, or of purchased food, or the supply of foreign manure, can
be clearly appreciated or explained, much precise information has
yet to be provided, as to the chemical circumstances connected
with the growth and appropriation of the more important plants
which enter into rotation, and the employment of food and manure
Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 277
from abroad; and the investigation which we have in progress has
been designed more especially with a view to providing data
which may legitimately serve to elucidate these more fundamental
practices of an improved agriculture. ‘The more important ques-
tions connected with such an inquiry relate—to the conditions re-
quired for the growth of wheat and the allied cereal grains, which
constitute so material a proportion of the saleable products of the
farm, and the nature of the exhaustion resulting from their growth
and export—to the growth, and sourees of restorative influence,
of root-crops—to the growth of the more important agricultural]
plants of the leguminous family, both those which are cultivated
for their seeds, perhaps to be sold off the farm, such as beans,
peas, &c., and those, such as clover, trefoil, vetches, &c., which
are supposed to be employed in the production of meat and
manure—and, to the chemical circumstances involved in the con-
sumption of food by animals upon the farm, whether of home or
foreign growth.
With respect to the first two of these branches of the inquiry,
we have already laid before the readers of this Journal many of
the results of our experiments relating to them, and in the course
of their diseussion have endeavoured to show their bearings upon
the general principles of agriculture, so far as they seemed to be
indicated by a consideration of the facts adduced ; and also, to
direct attention to the more immediate and direct useful applica-
tion of them to such of the details of practical farming as they
tended to explain and enforce. Both before and since the publi-
cation of our former papers many additional facts relating to the
subjects respectively of which they treat have been aceumulated,
which, when leisure is found to complete and arrange them, we
hope to make the subject of future communications. Before
doing so, however, it seems desirable to give some account of the
results obtained in connexion with the other two branches of the
investigation; and, although neither that relating to the chemical
circumstances of the growth, the uses, and the adaptations in a
system of alternate cropping, of the leguminous plants, nor that
having reference to the consumption of food on the farm asa
source of meat and manure, are at present in that state of for-
wardness which will admit of so full an application of them as we
could wish, yet it is thought that a consideration, especially of
those relating to the production of meat and manure, will add
something to the information already at command on the subject,
and serve to give an useful direction to the observations and con-
ceptions of the mtelligent farmer respecting it.
We propose then, in the present article, to give an account of
some carefully conducted experiments, undertaken with the view
of ascertaining, what becomes of food when consumed by animals
278 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
upon a farm, and in what form, and in what proportions, some of
their most important constituents come to be available for the
market-—thus taking into account the quantities and qualities of
the manure obtained, as a consideration by no means less essential
in estimating the comparative value of different foods, than that
of the amount of meat produced. Looking at the subject in this
point of view, it has not been our special aim so much to deter-
mine between one food and another as such, or between this or
that mode of preparation, as to select those the general value and
applicability of which are well recognised. Some information on
these points will nevertheless be afforded by our results ; and, as —
the question of the comparative feeding values of barley and malt
has of late been much discussed, several comparative trials have
been made with them, and the results of these will be more fully
detailed and considered than would otherwise have been necessary,
on account of the general interest at present excited by the
subject.
The experiments upon feeding were commenced early in 1847,
and bullocks and pigs were the animals first selected. It was
soon found, however, that the former were in several respects ill
suited to our purpose. Owing to their great bulk, and the large
amount of food consumed and of manure produced, it was im-
practicable to keep such a number under exact experiment at the
same time as would ensure anything like an average constitution
of animal, and it was deemed See and useless to rely upon the
results of a single animal on each description of food. Bullocks,
moreover, are sometimes very unmanageable, and as it was
essential to our object frequently to put the animals in the scales,
this was a material objection ; though by usage indeed, those even
which are at first the most violent and refractory become compa-
ratively quiet and easy of management. ‘Thus-—four bullocks were
taken for experiment, of which the first weighing took several
hours, yet they were after a short time weighed daily without any
difficulty whatever, the animals frequently running playfully into
the scales as soon as they were let loose. In consequence how-
ever, it is supposed, of too frequent weighings and other sources
of disturbance incidental to experiment, these animals gave but a
very small increase, and, owing to this circumstance and to the
difficulty of fairly sampling, arising from their great bulk and
weight, no analyses were made af their food and excrements.
The pigs gave a tolerable increase, but no attention was paid to
their excrements, as they had not been fed upon ordinary food
alone, but upon the dried flesh of the whale which remains after
the extraction of the oil, and which is used in Newfoundland as
fuel. ‘The animals increased upon it remarkably fast for a time,
but it required a considerable dilution with other food, otherwise
Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep feeding and Manure. 279
they soon became surfeited, a fact which is not to be wondered at,
considering that the substance contained about 12 per cent. of
nitrogen, a circumstance which we shall see as we proceed would
be much in favour of its use, so far as the resulting manure is
concerned,
Sheep were next taken, which, from their docility and manage-
able size, are convenient subjects for experiment; and, owing to
their very general utility, they seem better fitted than any other
description of farm-stock to be assumed as their type, in an in-
vestigation of the general chemistry of the production of meat and
manure, though at the same time it must be admitted, that it
would in some respects have been desirable to have included
bullocks also in the inquiry. It being essential to our object to
collect, without loss and free from litter or extraneous matter of
any kind, the whole of the excrements of the animals, both liquid
and solid, to be accurately weighed and sampled for analysis, pens
were constructed in a spacious barn, each about 8 feet by 74 feet,
and having a flooring of rafters, on the plan proposed by the Rev.
A. Huxtable, the width of the rafters being about 3 inches, and
the distance between them about ? inch, so as to allow the whole
of the excrements to pass through. Below this floormg, which
is raised perhaps 2 feet or more above the ground-level, sheet-
zinc is fixed at such an incline as to allow the urine to run off,
while the dung is retained upon it. The urine passes through a
spout into a covered pail kept constantly underneath to receive it,
and to which a straining basket is fixed to stop any solid portions
that may come down, the dung being removed from the zinc at
pleasure for weighing, sampling, &c. The food, of course, was
also accurately weighed. This arrangement appears sufficiently
simple, and well calculated to attain the end desired, but we shall
see as we proceed, that in the details of practice difficulties are
met with from which serious errors in result may easily arise,
unless great care be taken to avoid them. These sources of error
are chiefly connected with the great difficulty of obtaining samples
for analysis which shall accurately represent the budk of matters so
heterogeneous and variable in their composition as the food and
excrements of animals; and when it is remembered that in some
processes of analysis a few grains only of substance are operated
upon, and that from the composition of these that of the whole is
calculated, it will readily be understood, that in an investigation
like that in question—which itself constitutes indeed from the
beginning to the end one process of quantitative analysis—the
greatest care is requisite, if erroneous conclusions are to be
avoided. And, that the reader may be enabled to decide as to the
legitimacy of such as we shall found upon the results, a full de-
scription of the experiments will be given, which moreover may
280 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
further serve both as guide and monitor to any who may choose to
follow in a field of inquiry at present somewhat new.
The sheep employed in the experiments were Hampshire
Downs, and the selections were made from large flocks, usually
nearly 100 being weighed; from these a few animals of nearly
equal weight and apparently equal make were taken, and one put
into each pen—a second lot being then taken and divided in the
same way, and so on—until each pen contained the desired number.
It will nevertheless be seen by the results, that the selections and
distributions were in some cases far from satisfactory, and that,
although five sheep were placed in each pen, the average result of —
these can by no means be taken as representing unconditionally
the relative feeding value of the foods employed.
In the account which we shall now proceed to give of several
separate series of experiments, the order adopted will be, to discuss
the whole of the results—first, so far as they relate to the pro-
duction of gross increase in live weight—secondly, as to the qualities
and composition of the increase obtaimed—and, thirdly, as to
the production of manure. We shall then endeavour to give a
summary of the more important facts elicited, and to show the
connexion between the conclusions to which they may lead, and
those arrived at in our former papers,—concluding with some re-
marks on their general application to the details of practical
agriculture.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.—WSeries I.
The first series of sheep-experiments was commenced on Ja-
nuary 5, 1848, and was continued until April 11, a period of
13 weeks and 6 days. ‘There were 4 of the experimental pens,
as described above, employed, into each of which 5 animals were
placed, their weights at the commencement being as under.
SERIES I.
TaB LE 1.—Showing the Weight of Sheep in pounds, when put up,
January 5, 1848.
Numbers of Sheep. Pen 1. | Pen 2. | Pen 3. | Pen 4.
a eee age lbs. lbs. or bas lbs.
No. 1 , 1183 1173 M7; 115
a tigeteeye 1123 1123 114 1143
Oe inehibiady idee 111 112 1103 112
Ah coer a tisdale 110 110 110 1104
Oe Ne val oes 106 96 107 95
Total weight per Pen | 558 548 5583 5462
The sheep were brought from the field, where they had been
receiving swedes and hay chaff; and, with the exception of the 5th
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 281
sheep of pens 2 and 4, which appeared however the most eligible
at command at the time, the 4 pens seemed to compare sufhi-
ciently with each other, so far as weight can be taken as a guide.
The results will show, however, that although one of these light
sheep soon proved itself unfit for experiment, the other increased
considerably more than one of the heavier sheep on the same food,
and also more than several of those on the different foods. ‘The
special foods selected were—for pen I, oil-cake; for pen 2, oats ;
pen 3, clover-chaff; and pen 4, oat-straw chaff; besides which, all
were supplied with cut swedes as many as the animals chose to
eat. ‘Taking | Ib. of oil-cake per sheep per day, as a fair and
ordinary allowance, it would in some respects have been desir-
able to apportion the other dry foods so as to provide an equal
amount of nitrogen in each. ‘The experiments were commenced
however before the analyses of the foods had been undertaken,
so that no allotment founded on their exact nitrogenous contents
could be made, and it was supposed that considerably more than
two pounds both of oats and of clover would be required to equal
1 |b. of oil-cake in this respect. These quantities would ob-
viously be too great; but it was decided to gain the end approxi-
mately, by giving to pen 2 as many oats, not exceeding 2 lbs., and
to pen 3 as much clover-chaff, not exceeding 2 lbs. per sheep per
day, as the animals would eat, and to pen 4 oat-straw chaff ad
libitum. It was found, however, that even the oil-cake was not
eaten to the full amount provided; and, as might be expected,
that the consumption of oats, and clover-chaff, did not nearly
approach that required to equal in supply of nitrogen that of 1 lb.
of oil-cake; whilst, the oat-straw chaff was taken to such a small
extent, that its use was entirely discontinued after a few weeks.
In the following table are given the average weekly consump-
tion of food per sheep in the several pens, and the pounds weight
of increase of each animal between each period of weighing
(chiefly weekly intervals), throughout the course of the experi-
ments. Wherever the minus sign ( — ) occurs before a figure, loss
anstead of gain is indicated.
The statement of the results thus in all their detail is useful,
exhibiting as it does the liability to error in judging of the feed-
ing value of different foods, or of the disposition to increase of
animals of different descriptions, unless both a sufficient number
of animals are experimented upon, and the trial be extended over
a considerable period of time. By a glance down-the columns of
the table it is seen, that there is not a sheep which does not during
one or more, sometimes consecutive periods of the experiment,
show a gain of 4, 5, or even 6 or 8 Ibs. in a week, whilst at an-
other period it apparently gains nothing at all, or even loses
weight. It is perhaps scarcely necessary to observe, that these
282 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
SERIES I.
TaBLe 2.—Showing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep in
each Pen, the pounds Weekly Gain or Loss of each animal, the weekly
average for each Pen, and the total and mean weekly gain of each animal
throughout the period of the experiment.
PEN 1. PEN 2.
Periods. Average Food per Week per Sheep. Average Food per Week per Sheep.
Oilcake, 64 lbs. ; Swedes, 89% lbs. Oats, 8+ lbs. ; Swedes, 824 lbs.
No. Sheep Numbers. wer Sheep Numbers. eet
From To of gain or gain or
los: SSS SSS SSE HOS OP
DAYS Te, ideas 2aipi oi Bs dle, Sibel gabe clits ree oal MMe Ne aan mee Ie Me SUNN rc
Jan. 5 | Jan. 18 13 11¢ Wie uf 3 5 3°7 134 12 11 1 6 4°7
18 25 q 3 $ 4 24 2 2°4 %/- 1 14 5 —1t 0°9
25 | Feb. 1 q 2 44 1 14 0 1°8 2 2h 0 j= ota 1-2
Feb. 1 8 if 3 34 24 2 14 2°5 4 3 14 4 2 1°5
8 15 " 2 re 1 $ #] 1°3 4 ed a 3 2 204
15 22 7 3 i 4h l 2 2°3 34 24 4 24 5 3B°5
22 29 7 0 4 0 j— £¢]/— 4 |—0°2 2 2 |— 2 |— 2 0 0:0
29 | Mar. 7 7 5 4 5 2 —13 0°6 5 4 3 3 6 4°2
Mar. 7 14 Gi- £]— 2 t $ 0 |—0°3 34 2 6 4 2 3°5
14 21 q 24 8 14 34 12 9°95 4} 5 1 0 5 3°]
21 28 7 |- 1 =e 0 |j— 3 1 |-1°0 0 |—- 2 |—2 |— 3 |— 2 |—-1°8
28 Apr. 4 vf 2 1 4 |— 1 3 1°8 0 1 0 |- 6 1 |-—0°8
Apr. 4 11 7 4 2 1 1 4 | 2r4e 0 2a} 4 4 |=) | 1°9
Totals. 97 | 365|345|320]|130 | 140 355 | 36 32 ll 27
lbs. 0z.| 1bs. oz.| lbs. oz.| lbs. 0z.| lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.} Ibs. oz.| lbs. oz.| lbs. oz. ibe. oz.| lbs. 0z.| lbs. oz.
Means. 29% |2 74 | 244] 0 148| 10114] 2 84] 29 | 2 44 | o 124] 1 148] 2 oF
1
PEN 3, PEN 4,
Periods. Average Food per Week per Sheep. Average Food per Week per Sheep.
Clover Chaff, 8} lbs. ; Swedes, 116 lbs. | Oat-straw Chaff, 4 1b.; Swedes, 1203 lbs.
Week
No. Sheep Numbers. wee Sheep Numbers. Mis
From To of gain or igein or
loss per Oss per
Days. pee pS [advan Ge. | Sheewsy s1: Me es Rabe e: #01 | sheep.
Jan.) 5: Jan, 18 13 2 8 9 84 114 4°2 6 5g 4 CEO eee) Dez
18 O50 say 3 Sey anaes SE | evel ae ee arias == 24) | 0°43
25 | Feb. 1 é 4 24 3 34 5 3°5 2 1] 23 $ $ 1°5
Feb. 1 8 q 4 34 g 2 5 2°3 34 34 + 6 ste 3°4
8 TB, PF Ale hd een alos | Qin | aded ia) <oeoe ermal Fol ale Selec. | O'S
15 LIM ie? 5¢ | 8 42| 5 Sehilwd one S312 5 vo ei!
22 29 7 14 24 |- 1 — 2 0 O2/— 7 |— 34 t$i- #4 oe —2°6
29 | Mar. 7 " 5k 3 4 4 4 4°4 8 " 2 2 ay 4°
Mar, <7, 14 7 1 —- 1 14 4 1} 1°4 J— 2 1-1 j-1 oe O°7
14 21 q 4 4 24 2 44 3°4 4 6 3 5 oe 4°5
21 28 7 0 0 0 j-— 1 0 |—0°2 0 j- 3 J-— 1 |— 2 Of —1°5
28 Apr. 4 7 4 0 1 4 2 2°24,-— 1 0 0 2 66 0°2
Apr. 4 11 7 |I— 2 2 0 2 1 0°6 2 4 |— 2 ie il a O°7
Totals. 97 | 25 30 274 31 42 21 234 12 184
lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.| 1bs. oz.| lbs. oz. | lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.} lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.! lbs. oz.| Ibs. 0Z.| lbs. oz.
Means. 1 124] 2 22 | 1 154] 2 34 | 30] 232]1 8 | 1 108] 0 138] 1 53 1 54
* Sheep No. 5, Pen 4, lost weight considerably from the commencement, and being evidently very unwell,
was removed from the pen after the third week, and fed upon better food; its increase is therefore omitted
trom the table.
Agricultural Chemistry-—Sheep- feeding and Manure. 283
variations mainly depended on the amount of the matters of the
food retained at the time in the stomach and intestines of the ani-
mals, an irregularity which was guarded against as far as seemed
practicable without imposing unnatural restraints upon the animal,
the plan adopted being, to weigh them always about the same hour
of the day, and just before their second meal of dry food, their
troughs being, however, constantly supplied with turnips. This
variation is indeed a source of error which it 1s very difficult to
control, and it is probable that many of the published results of
very rapid increase are subject to objection on account of it. The
fluctuation, as would be supposed, seems to occur nearly as promi-
nently with those sheep which in the main show a good result as
with the rest; and, although there is nevertheless considerable
difference, yet there is, excluding the extreme cases of loss or
gain of individual sheep, to an extent an uniformity throughout
each pen at the several periods, and even between pen and pen,
as a view of the columns of weekly average gain or loss in each,
placed side by side, will show.
SERIES I.
TABLE 3.-— Showing the Weekly Average Gain or Loss per Sheep in
each Pen throughout the course of the experiments.
PERIODS Brora aera ae nee
| From. To Penl. Pen 2. Pen 3. Pen 4
1 Jan. 5 | Jan. 18 S617 4-7 AOD) 2°79
2 18 295 2°4 0:9 2°7 0°4
3 25 | Feb. | 1°8 1-2 3° Thos)
4 Feb. 1 8 9) 1:5 2°3 3°4
5 8 15 1-3 2:4 — 2:2 0:2
6 15 22 2°3 3:5 a2 1600 bog
7 22 29 | ,—0:2 0°0 0:2 —2°6
8 29 | Mar. 7 0°6 4+2 4°4 4°7
9 Mar. 7 Id | —0°3 3°95 1°4 0:7
10 14 21 5:5 3° or 4 4°5
I] 21 28 | —1:°0 —1°8 —0:2 —1°5
19) 28 | April 4 T's —0:8 2:2 O22
13 April 4 ll 2°4 i9 0:6 0:7
1°8 1:9 2°] 1°5
|
Thus it is seen that during the Ist, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th
periods, there is throughout the pens a general disposition to more
than the average increase, especially at periods 1, 8, and 10,
excepting in pen 1, but on reference to the details it will be
found that the small average of pen | at the two latter periods, de-
pended upon a considerable loss of one single animal which was
so unwell as to require removal and change of food for a time.
Again, at periods 5, 7, 9, and Il, there is throughout the pens a
gain much below the average, or even a loss, the cases rather ex-
284 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
ceptional being pen 2 at periods 5 and 9; on the other hand the
uniformity is most striking at periods 7 and 11; at the former, pen
3 is the only gainer, to the small extent of 0-2 lb., pen I losing
that amount, and pen 4 considerably more; whilst at period 11
there is a loss of weight in every pen. Considering the uni-
formity as to time and circumstances of weighing, it is scarcely
likely that these results are attributable to an irregular allotment
of food on the days of weighing, but is more likely to be de-
pendent on the state of the weather as to temperature and other
circumstances, so influencing the appetite, the action of the
lungs, the liver and the circulation, as materially to affect the ©
temporary amount of the contents of the alimentary cavities and
passages. A reference, however, to the exact amount of food
consumed, and to the maximum, minimum, and mean tempe-
ratures during the several periods—whilst it is not without interest
as bearing upon these points—does not so satisfactorily account for
the facts observed, as to justify a full consideration of them in this
place. The remarks already made, however, will serve some
useful purpose, if they direct the attention of other experimenters
to sources of errors which have not unfrequently been overlooked,
and which, if not avoided, are in danger of leading the farmer
sadly to miscalculate in reference to a very important branch of
his operations.
The following summary will bring to view the average weekly
increase of each animal upon the same and the different foods,
for the entire period of 13 weeks and 6 days :—
SERIES I.
TasLe 4.—Showing the Average Weekly Increase of each Sheep for the entire
period of the Experiment.
Quantities stated in Pounds and Ounces.
Average Average Weekly Increase of each
Weight Sheep in pounds and ounces. ean
Pen | of Sheep Racd a Week Sh eekly
Nos, | at com- ‘ood consumed per Week per Sheep. : l Increase
e mence- Sheep, | Sheep, | Sheep, | Sheep, | Sheep,| in each
ment. No. 1. | No.2. | No.3. | No. 4.| No. 5.{ Pe?
Pen lbs. Ibs. oz. |Ibs. oz. |Ibs. 02. |Ibs. oz. Ibs. 02. |Ibs. oz.
l 1114 | Oileake, 6$]bs.; Swedes, 89$lbs.. . | 2 92/2 74/2 44/0 142/1 0 |114
2 1093 | Oats, 84 lbs.; Swedes, 824 lbs. . 2 8 |2 9 | 2 42] 0122] 1142/2 0%
3 | 111% | Clover Chaff, 8} Ibs. ; Swedes, 116lbs, . | 1124/2 24| 1 15¢|2 32/3 0 |2 33
4 | 113 Swedes, 1204 lbs.; Oat-Straw Chaff,$1lb. | 1 8 | I 102 | 0132/1 53); -. 1 5%
Such is the variation between one sheep and another as shown
in the Table, that taking the results of each pen collectively, little
exact information can be obtained from them respecting the re-
lative value of the different foods as meat-producers. In pen 1
with oil-cake, there are 2 sheep giving an amount of increase con-
siderably less than half that of the other 3 on the same food.
In pen 2 with oats, there is one animal scarcely exceeding 1-3rd
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 285
the mean increase of the other 4. In pen 3 the clover-chaff does
not give a single bad result, and owing to a comparatively Jarge
gross increase in one case (which, as we shall afterwards see, was
an over estimate of the real progress), gives the highest mean of
all the pens. As has been observed already, the oat-straw chaff
was almost entirely refused by the sheep of pen 4, and it was
therefore discontinued after 4 weeks’ trial. One of the animals,
moreover, No. 5, lost from the commencement, and it was re-
moved unwell from the experimental pen after the 4th week, but
recovered on better diet. The 4 remaining, give, as might be
expected, an increase very inferior to the mean of the other pens,
and the result can scarcely be fairly compared with them.
Setting aside pen 4, the mean increase of the first 3 pens, taken
together, is believed to be a fair practical result ; and it is probable
that such variations upon tlie same food as have been noticed are
by no means uncommon, and although they arise chiefly from
variations in constitution, and cannot therefore be attributed to
the food consumed, yet it is probable that they will be more
likely to exhibit themselves under a high than under an inferior
diet, provided this be not deficient.
In endeavouring to estimate the comparative feeding value of
the several descriptions of food with such a small number of
animals on each, and with such variations among them, perhaps
the truest indication will be obtained, by excluding those sheep
which appear to have been unhealthy, or at least ill adapted to
food, the general value of which is fully recognised. Leaving out
of view then the 2 sheep of pen 1 before mentioned, one of which
was at one period so unwell as to require removal for a time, and
the single sheep in pen 2 whose increase was so far below the
average, we shall find that the oil-cake had given the best in-
crease, the oats coming 2nd, and the clover-chaff 3rd. It is,
however, chiefly as showing the probable average increase ob-
tainable from a given amount of foods of known value and com-
mon utility, rather than as pointing out any nice distinctions
between them, that the results are useful.
In the next Table are given the results of analyses of the
various foods, by which we shall be enabled to estimate the
amounts of some of the more important constituents consumed.
The large quantities of the foods operated upon will surprise
those accustomed to ordinary laboratory processes. It has been
found, however, that the composition of most agricultural sub-
stances is so heterogeneous, as to require that special attention be
paid to the averaging and preparation of the specimens; and, that
it is necessary to take from the bulk with great care somewhat
large quantities in the first instance, more especially of roots and
other succulent or moist substances. These, if necessary, are
partially dried, to render them capable of being finely divided
286 Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
SERIES I.
TaB.eE 5.—Showing the per Centages of Dry Matter, Ash, and Nitrogen,
in the Foods.
Description of Food, particulars of Sampling, &c. Per Centage results.
Dry Matter. Ash. Nitrogen.
Period of Fresh
C ore re Particulars | Weight |
Description ae ae See ae and taken | Inclu- on In In In In
of Date of for sive ania fresh dry fresh | dry
Food. Sampling. Drying,}| of a ~ | Sub- | mat- | sub- | mat-
From To &e, Ash y+ | stance.| ter. | stance.| ter.
lbs. oz.
Swedes, No. 1. | Jan. 5 | Feb. 4 | From the field,| 43 2% | 10°58 | 10°002| 0°577 | 5°458 | 0°263 | 2 49
Dec. 1847
Swedes, No. 2. | Feb. 4 | Apr.11| Clamped, Nov.| 14 84 | 12°12 | 11°49 | 0°632 | 5°214 | 0°151 | 1°25
1847 ;
Sampled, Feb.
9, 1848
OZ
American Oil- | Jan. 5 | Apr.11 |} At commence- 50 89°50 | 84°08 | 5°420 | 6°060 | 5°083 | 5°68
cake ment
Oatsi, 64 2 Jan. 5 | Apr. 11 | At conclusion, 25 | 85°18 | 82°24 | 2°940 | 3°450 | 2°078 | 2°44
Clover Chaff . | Jan. 5 | Apr.11 | From large 100 | 78°61 | 72°33 | 6:280 | 7°990 | 1°847 | 2°35
quantity cut
at commence-
ment
Oat-Straw Chaff | Jan. 5 : ; 25 | 81°28 | 84°86 | 6°418 | 7870 ,
and well mixed, and smaller proportional amounts are then taken
if required for fully drying and burning ;
for organic analysis. It will be seen, however, that notwithstand-
ing these precautions, we have in some cases fallen short of the
desired result. The dryings and burnings are accomplished by
means of apparatus arranged specially for the conduct of these
processes on the scale required i in agricultural investigation. The
drying-bath consists of a fubles cased iron box with water
between, heated by a furnace underneath, the internal dimensions
being about 5 feet 6 inches length, by 2 feet 6 inches width, and
18 inches height. The burnings are conducted on sheets of pla-
tinum placed in a series of cast-iron muffles about 16 inches in
length, about 5 in width, and 3 to 4 in height, which are so fitted
into a cast-iron furnace, heated by coke, as to prevent any dust
whatever from the fire getting into them, a gentle yet sufficient
draft over the surface of the burning substance being secured by
means of a chimney of iron piping, fixed into the back of each of
the muffles, and projecting some height externally to the furnace.
Referring to the results of the Table. it is worthy of remark,
that the eedes No. 1, which were consumed from January 5
to February 4, had a per centage of nitrogen nearly double that
of swedes No. 2, which were commenced at the latter date, and
lasted to the end of the experiment. The former were part of an
a portion being reserved
Agricultural Chemistry-—Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 287
experimental crop grown by rape-cake, ammoniacal salt, and
superphosphate of lime; the latter were grown in the ordinary
course of farming from farm-yard dung and superphosphate of
lime, We have shown in a former paper in this Journal, the
effect of nitrogenous manures in increasing the per centage of
nitrogen in iiiel white turnip, and the oa lis given above, support
the supposition that the composition of the swede turnip js in-
fluenced in the same way. It is probable, however, that a part of
the result may be due to a difference in the stage of maturity, and
to the circumstances of storing in the two cases. Weight for
weight the oil-cake is seen to contain more than twice as much
nitrogen as either the oats or the clover; the latter is the poorer
of the two in that respect, and also so far as dry organic matter is
concerned, and this latter moreover in the clover would probably
consist to a much greaier extent of inert woody fibre, which would
pass through the animal unchanged, than in the oats. ‘The clover,
however, contains a much larger per centage of mineral matter.
Below are arranged side by side the total amount of fresh
food—of dry organic matter—of mineral matter—and of nitrogen
(the three latter calculated from the data provided in the last
Table), consumed in each pen during the entire period of 14
weeks ;
also the total increase of live weight obtained at their
expense, from 5 sheep in the first 3 pens, and from 4 in the 4th
pen.
SERIES I,
TABLE 6.—Showing the Amount of Food or Constituents consumed, and of
Increase produced.
Total o.
Total Description and Dry aetna Total Nitrogen ee Bess
Increase | Quantities of Food con- Organic Nitrogen in In-
: B ; Matter ix crease, to
in Live sumed in each Pen Matter bowie con- crease at | 109 con-
Weight. in 14 Weeks. con- ened sumed. | 3 percent. non.
sumed.
lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs.
é Oilcake, 4564 lbs... 383% 242 232
Pen 1. Swedes, 6286 lbs. . A 6914 384 11% ; :
5 Sheep. | 3: ; ; Flac ibe eS 3°9 11°14
Total’ ye) sila 1075 634 35
“Oats, 598 Ibs... 4914 173 124
Pen 2. 143 Swedes, 5756 lbs. . . . 633 414 10$ 4°3 18°43
5 Sheep. — — ea =
Total 1,124 583 224
(cee Chaff, 578 lbs. . 418 364 10¢
Pen 3. Swedes, 81214 lbs. 899 50 14§ 5 :
5 Sheep. 157 ; ‘ e aewtd| (eter y i hacen ea 4°7 18°43
Motal: su 4 i lseSl7 864 253
| Oat- Straw Chaff, 294 lbs. . 243 13
Pen 4, _ Swedes, 6742 Ibs. A 747 41} 124 : =
4 Sheep. is ; ——. — oe va
Total TW 434 | 124
19 Sheep. 5074 For the 4 Pens 4,2884 2514 96 15°2 15°83
288 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
The actual amount of nitrogen contained in the gross in-
crease in live weight of an animal fed upon food containing a
given amount of that substance, cannot of course be experiment-
ally ascertained; it is believed, however, that the estimate of
3 per cent., by which the last 2 columns of the Table are ar-
ranged, is not wide of the truth, though it is more probably too
high than too Jow, as we shall have occasion to show further on.
Assuming the figures as given in the Table to be correct, it is
seen, that by the feeding of 19 sheep for 14 weeks, during which
time they consumed 1662 Ibs. of dry food, and 26,905 Ibs. of
swedes, containing together 96 Ibs. of nitrogen, only 15% Ibs. of
that element are obtained in the increase of weight produced.
We learn too from the Table, that although the actual amount of
nitrogen consumed in pen 4 was only one half that in pens 2 and
3, yet the amount of nitrogen retained by the animal to 100 con-
sumed is almost identical in the three cases, thus indicating a close
connexion between the amount of nitrogen in the food, and that
of increase produced. It is possible that the actual per centages
given may not be correct, yet the relation of the amounts to each
other is probably a pretty close representation of the truth. It
would appear, however, that the sheep upon oil-cake, although
they consumed a larger amount of nitrogen in their food than those
in either of the other pens, yet they gave an increase not only less
in actual amount, but far less in proportion to the nitrogen con-
sumed, than those in either of the other pens. This result is
partly due to taking into the calculation the 2 sheep which in-
creased so very much less than the rest; yet other experiments
seem to show, that however important to the progress of the ani-
mals a Jarge amount of nitrogen in their food may be, their in-
crease will by no means be unconditionally in direct numerical
proportion to the amount of the nitrogen consumed, especially
when this is increased beyond a certain limit.
With the exception of the last two columns, of which chiefly
we have been speaking, the figures in the preceding Table repre-
sent the actual experimental results obtained. For more conve-
nient reference, however, and for the study of the general bearing
of the facts as to the probable amount of food or constituents re-
quired to produce a given effect, they are arranged in Tables 7
and 8, which follow, so as to show the weekly consumption in
each pen by every 100 lbs. of live-weight of animal, and also the
amount consumed to produce 100 lbs. of zncrease. Before leaving
Table 6, however, we may remark, that of the mineral matter con-
sumed, there were in the Ist pen 60°8 per cent., in the 2nd 70:2
per cent., in the 3rd 57°9 per cent., and in the 4th 95-9 per cent.
derived from the home-produced root-crop, the remainder being
due to the dry, purchased or marketable food.
289
try—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
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VOL. X.
290 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
In explanation of the construction of Table 7, it should be ob-
served, that the live weight, which is supposed to have consumed
the total food in each pen, as given in Table 6, is the mean of the
weight throughout the entire period of the experiment, obtained
by adding together the total weight in each pen at the commence-
ment and at the end of the experiment, and dividing by 2. Sekt
may be well also here to mention, as affecting the correctness of
Tables 7 and S—and, indeed, Table 6 also, Gunga the subject
will be again referred to—that the samples of swedes No. | were
taken direct from the field on the day they were carted from the
land, a short time previous to the commencement of their use, and
those of swedes No. 2, also near to the commencement of their
consumption ; so that, if, as we have shown in a previous paper, a
considerable exhalation of water takes place from roots and other
succulent substances after they are gathered in, it is evident that
the quantities weighed out to the animals, after being cut day by
day as the experiment proceeded, would represent a larger amount
of the fresh swedes such as came to the feeding-shed than was
indicated by the scales. Indeed, it is to be feared that the amounts |
of dry matter and of nitrogen in the swedes, are from this cause
estimated too low in the Tables given above; and, judging by the
aid of other results since obtained, it is supposed that they ought
to be raised by about one-sixth of the total amount of those sub-
stances stated as contained in the swedes. Supposing the error to
exist, it would not materially affect the correctness of any observa-
tions we shall hazard respecting the results, though its probability
will certainly add to reasons already suggested for the exercise of
caution in founding any nice calculations 1 uponthem. It is thought
better thus to give the results as they were actually obtained, with
such observations as may indicate in what respects they may be
subject to error, than arbitrarily to amend them, upon data which
are uncertain.
With these precautionary remarks we may safely call attention
to the fact, that whether we take the figures as given in the Tables,
or consider them amended, it would seem that there was very
nearly the same amount of gross dry-organic-matter consumed
weekly by 100 lbs. of live weight of Aaiural G in all the pens ; and
when we consider that in the Bred pen with clover, which gives the
highest amount, there would be a larger proportion of it inert
woody fibre, which would pass through the animals unchanged,
than in any of the other pens, and that in the 4th pen, which
gives the least dry-organic-matter consumed, the swedes only
would probably contain less effete matter than the mixed foods in
* This rule is applied in all the cases of a similar kind occurring in this
article.
Agqriculiural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manuye. 291
Gg y -P 4
the other cases, it would appear that the amounts of really digest-
ible dry organic food were almost identical in the four cases. The
amount of nitrogen, on the other hand, which is consumed by a
given weight of animal within a given time, varies exceedingly in
the four pens: there being to 100 lbs. live weight per week,
0:39 lb. in pen I, 0:25 1b. in pen 2, 0°26 |b. in pen3, and (0:17 lb.
only inpen 4. If we now turn to Table 8, however, we shall see
that the amount of nitrogen required to produce a given increase
of weight was almost identical in pens 2, 3, and 4, with oats and
swedes, clover and swedes, and swedes only, respectively : whereas
in pen |, with oil-cake, in which by far the largest amount of
nitrogen was consumed within a given time, a less effect was pro-
duced by a given amount of it. It would thus appear that con-
sumption 1s regulated much more by the amount of available non-
nitrogenous substance in the food than by that of nitrogen; whilst
the increase would seem to beara much more direct relation to the
quantity of nitrogen consumed, when this does not exceed a certain
limit—beyond which, however, the proportional effect would ap-
pear to be lessened. From Table 8, again, we gather that although,
in pen 4 with swedes alone, a given amount of nitrogen produced
an effect equal to that of any of the other foods, yet this would
seem to have been attained at the cost of a larger consumption of
available non-nitrogenous food; for not only is the gross amount
of dry-organic-matter consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase
greater in pen 4 than in any of the others, but it is supposed that
less of it would be necessarily at once effete than in any of the
other cases. From these facts we learn, that, so far at least as the
production of increase is concerned, the nitrogenous constituents
were, in pen 1 with oil-cake, in excess over the available non-
nitrogenous ones; whilst in pen 4, on the other hand, where
swedes alone were given, they were in defect.
Turning to the seneral rather than to the particular facts
brought to view, we find—taking the average results of 15 sheep
fed for 14 weeks on oil-cake, or oats, or Ane SRAe. and swedes,
as shown in the bottom line of Table 7—that every 100 lbs. live
weight of animal consumed weekly 61 lbs. of the special foods,
and 763 of swedes, which contained together 1311bs. of dry-
organic-matter, 2 lb. of mineral matter, and 0-3 lb. (about 5 oz.)
of nitrogen; and from Table 8 we learn that 377 lbs. of the spe-
cial foods and 4658 lbs. of swedes—the two containing 814 lbs. of
dry-organic-matter, 463 lbs. of mineral matter, and 192 lbs. of
nitrogen—were required to produce 100 lbs. increase in live
weight. The results of pen 4 are excluded from this estimate,
as the food consumed in it, being almost wholly swedes, can
scarcely be compared with those of the other pens, nor was it,
like them, such as is usually considered sufficient for animals
preparing for the butcher.
wu 2
292 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
We have now given an account of the first series of experiments
with sheep, so far as they relate to the production of increase in
gross live weight of animal, to which point we for the present
confine our attention. In so doing it has been our endeavour to
arrange them in such form as would be convenient for their study,
and to make such remarks respecting them, as may serve usefully
to direct the attention of the reader to the chief points of interest
in the results; at the same time pointing out several sources of
irregularity, nil seem to demand that great caution should be
prenceed boon in the conduct and the interpretation of such ex-
periments.
We shall now proceed to consider the results of a second series,
in relation, first, also to that branch of the subject to which alone
we have as yet referred—viz. that of the production of gross hive
weight; leaving the question of the probable qualities or SUR
tion of the increase obtained, for consideration further on, in refe-
rence to all the series collectively.
EXPERIMENTS with SHEEP.—Serves IT.
This series, like the former one, comprised 4 pens of 5 shee
each. On June 5, 1848, 80 yearling wethers (part of a flock of
200) were weighed, from which the selection was made. In
matching the animals in sets of 4, for the distribution of one of
them into each pen, attention was paid rather more to the breed
and make than to actual identity in weight, any discrepancy in re-
spect tothe Jatter in one distribution, being compensated for, as far
as possible, in the next; so that eventually a sufficiently equal
weight was obtained in each pen, as the following Table will show:
SERIES II.
Tas iE 1.—Showing the weight of sheep in pounds when put up,
June 5, 1848.
l |
| Sheep Numbers. Pen 1. | Pen 2. | Pen 3, | Pen 4.
| Leese. bss) eee | Ibs.
PAC UNG: et Ace ne eTOD 195.) |) 199.) ae
| Oh ey eaten pri 193°) Vy le alee
SW. ONS 125 LZ e120 ke (2210)
| ern Peiemremibige ania |). 10%
| 5 Bel ee CS 1i9 eae) | 124
| Total weight perPen| 607 | 607 | 602 602
The sheep having corresponding numbers in the several pens
do not agree here so well as in the former series. The result will
show, however, that the selection was probably somewhat an im-
provement upon the last ; at least, with one or two exceptions, the
variations upon the same case are much less, and do not so seriously
interfere with the legitimacy of the comparisons between pen and
pen, unless, indeed, inoderate uniformity be insufficient to give |
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 293
confidence in results obtained from so small a number of animals
in each case. It should be mentioned, however, that No. 5 sheep,
in pen J, fell ill and died in the fifth week of thd experiment, when
his place was supplied by another from the same flock, having a
weight the same as the one which was taken away before it had
lost by the attack of illness.
Whilst, as we have before stated, the primary object of the ex-
periments was not alone to decide the comparative value of diffe-
rent yet allied descriptions of food, as such, the selection of foods
was nevertheless made in the hope that some interesting facts
bearing upon such points might be ascertained; and those taken
were—for pen |, oil-cake; pen 2, linseed; pen 3, barley; and
pen 4, malt. It would have been desirable to have given green
clover, or tares, or some other summer green crop, as the comple-
mentary food, such constituting the usual practice at the period
of the year at which the experiments were made. But as such
substances are even more variable and changeable in their compo-
sition than roots, particularly as to the amount of dry matter they
contain, 1f was decided that it would be quite impracticable so to
supply such food as to obtain a trustworthy estimate of the actual
amount of dry solid matter consumed, and as the accurate deter-
mination of this point was essential to our object, there was no
alternative but to supply dry hay, the composition of which would
vary little, compared with that of any other substance at command.
Clover-chaff was therefore taken, free allowance of water being of
course necessary. It may be objected that the supply of dry food
only, with water, was not in all respects favourable to the progress
of the animals; it is, indeed, more than probable that a larger
increase would have been obtained upon other food; but the re-
sults by no means lead to the conclusion that they are far short of
such as are frequently met with in practice, or that the value of
the comparative indications Is thereby lessened.
In the absence of previous knowledge by analysis of the compo-
sition of the food, it was considered desirable to give to each sheep
i lb. per day of the special foods, as this was about the quantity
that would be given of them in ordinary practice. It was found,
however, that the sheep receiving malt would not eat it well at
first, though afterwards they did so. The Eee was allowed
to all,in any quantities the ‘animals chose to eat it; the amount, of
course, being always accurately weighed, as alee" was that of the
water taken. The oil-cake was broken small under an edge-stone.
The linseed (excepting during the first few weeks, when some was
found to be voided whole), the barley, and the malt, were also
ground,
Below are given the average weekly consumption of food per
sheep per w Bel and the pez riodical gain or loss of each animal
throughout the course of the experiments :—
294 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
SERIES II.
TaBLeE 2.—Showing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep in
each Pen, the pounds Weekly Gain or Loss of each animal, the weekly average
of each Pen, and the total gain of each animal throughout the period of the
experiments,
Pen I. PEN 2.
Periods. Average Food per Sheep per Week, Average Food per Sheep per Week.
Oil-cake, 7 lhs. ; Clover Chaff, 22 lbs. 2 0z.] Linseed, 7 lhs.; Clover Chaff, 20 lbs.
a | Weekl : Ww kly
No. Sheep Numbers. Esoaed Sheep Numbers. eos
From To of een or ain or
——— loss per ss per
Days. | 2 3. 4, 5. |Sheep.J 1. 2: Se ite sb oD. Sheen
| i Sk
June 5 |June 13 gs |—ll 1 |-9 |-1 8 |-21]—6 |—4 1si—9 | 4 |—2°5
13 200 aeag! 8 3 vi Sen a IN fej fer tl eG Oe e es lt 7-2
20 on Peg ital a4 6 14] 4¢| 5:5] 3h] 5 4 5 4¢ | 4:4
27 | July 4 U 0 2 2 B25). 84 | eee 1¢ 0 Sale ai Dera) | (O53
July 4 1 eicdaal aes 3 ie 1 2 |— 2h) o2}t—1 #}-4 | 1 iz —0°4
aial 18 7 3 14 5 3 pallertets 3°1 5 1¢ 4 poe vl DECENT
18 25 ul 0 0 oS 1. (= 6e) tO tes 0 Soe te?) o4
25 | Aug. 1 7 t— OF i oe Ay eg $i) 03 52 0 5 2 4 Vb) 3°38
Aug. 1 8 7 5F | 4 |— 2 6 8 4°3 ly 4} 4 | 1] 4 3°0
8 15 7 Gye | nei 2k 7 ze + 4°] {— 2 $ 2 | EP pci Ol.
15 22 a OF 2 2% 1 i peg 0 |j-—- ¢ Os} 2 2a One
22 a9] 7 3) OS See TS 1) OF) * Osnls See mem 1d 20
29 | Sept. 4 7 0 Q |— 2 2 0 0°0 ays 4 7 | 4 24) 4°1
Sept. 5 12 Thy ee 1 j- 1 i) L092 0 | 0 1 | Tey eat (056
12 19 7 Sith 3 8 4 6 5°2 ae OE Oy teary BR a Be 1°6
19 26 7 4|/-—3 |-3 |- 14 ]/-—1. |-1-6 [— 2 2 2 IS LOS
26 |} Oct. 3 7 3t i ot 2¢ 3 4°3 3 |— #¥$ 1 1 Wass Le]
Octave 10 Th VSO P= Sie ies 2 |-~ 1 |-0°9 0 2r ail 1 Sh pon
10 17 | ) 3 1 1 0 1°0 0 j—~ 5 |—2 j= 1 |= 2 1-2-0
Total 27 33 | 32 30 304 16 23 44 28 32
|
| PEN 3. PEN 4,
Periods. Average Food per Sheep per Week. Average Food per Sheep per Week.
Barley, 7 lbs. ; Clover Chaff, 20 lbs. 14 0z.|Malt, 6 lbs. 9 0z.; Clover Chaff, 20 Ibs. 12 oz.
| = | Weekly = |Weekly
| No. Sheep Numbers. ayerage Sheep Numbers. Ears
From To of | gain or feain or
. = Oss per as a) er
Days... 7 Oy. 3. 4. 3. Seep: eat mace 3. 4. Jea| Sheep:
June 5 |June 13 Sai =aS and 8 4 = 4 j= O72 | hee eel 1 5 1—0°5
13 20 uf 14 4 6 3 9 ee 8 13 8 1 2 6°4
20 27 7 loi 2 5 3 il 0 0 2 4 4 2°0
27 july, . af 14 2 1 0 — 3 0°3 4 0 0 j-—I!1 2 1°0
July 4 | 7 i ys} 2 3 1 2 1°8 4 1 1 5 2 2°6
ll 5 7 6 j-1 2 3z 4 2°9 |j— 1 2 2 i— 1 0 0°4
18 25 naa ip. cael 22 1 0°5 |— 2 1 A eae ay 2 | ol
25 | Aug. 1 he | ete eset alleen 1 1 |—0°4 silts al 13 } 1d | 1:7
Aug. 1 8 u 2 3 2 4 At | 38°0 $ d 4 14 Peale 21
8 15 7 4 |—2 2g lheisO, hams Sey be Ons al aces 0 Oy, wasp 1°2
15 Pe ey 0 3 34) 4 SP) 278) pera 2 Sy |o Bea pee
22 29 7 j-1 1 j— ¢'—4 —1 = —I°1 f= 2 J! pe %¥.—3 (-1°5
29 | Sept. 5 7 5 3 4 3 6 4°2 Syrup, Oe Om 4, | 428
Sept. 5 12 7 bE j—- B= Fj 2 = aw (Se = ey as a ee ee it 0-6
12 19 rp oni 3 5 7 bi al S378 Seelam 4 13 See oss
19 26 7 5 OMS et ee Ost aa eee ee 2 i/—1 |-6'l
26 | Oct. 3 7 2 3 2 6 54 Bye 41-3 1; 2 5 1-2
Oct. 3 LOR 7 0 j-1 /-1 OG Ue | 1 ) 0 |— 2 |—0°4
10 Wait 7 j— 3 0 0 ji— 1 ae 1 \—0°8 [= 2) j= 2) #— 2 0 }—1 |-1°4
Total | 28 17 29 36 | 29 | 23 22 21 2 WES |
When dike sheep were put up it was intended to allow them a
week in their new situation and upon their new food before com-
mencing the experiments, they having been fed upon green clover
Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 295
in the field; but as almost every animal lost, and some very con-
siderably, during the first 8 days, and then gained within a week
or two very large amounts, it was thought that the average results
would be overstated if the first week were not taken into ac-
count. This is accordingly done ; and as the clover-chaff was not
weighed during the first eight days, it is supposed to have been
taken at the same rate as the mean of all the other periods. With
this exception, and the replacement of No. 5 sheep in Pen 1 by
a fresh one, as already noticed, the results of the ‘Table are
exactly as obtained by experiment. On inspection of the ‘Table
it will be seen that there is not a single animal which does not
indicate a loss of weight at some, generally several periods of
the experiment; whilst at others there is frequently during one
week, or for several weeks together, an increase far above the
average. Indeed such is the apparent generality of this fluctua-
tion, which was so prominent also in the case of the first series,
that the plan frequently adopted of deciding upon the quality of
different foods by putting animals for a week or two on one, and
then a week or two on another, and comparing the results, would
seem on this account alone to be sufficiently condemned.
The average weekly gain or loss placed side by side will show
how far there is any uniformity as to fluctuation throughout the
several pens at the different periods of weighing.
SERIES II.
TABLE 38.—Showing the Weekly Average Gain or Loss per Sheep in
each Pen throughout the course of the experiment.
eey Average Gain or Loss per Sheep in pounds
AINTOIDS and tenths.
Pen 1. Pen 2, Pen 3. | Pen 4,
j From To Oil-cake Linseed and Baey and Malt and
| and Clover. Clover. Clover. ie! Clover. |
| 1 | June 5 | Junel3 —2°] | —2°5 —0°2 — fb) —0°5
| 2 20 5:0 | hate, 1s2 { 6°4
te 20 27 ay) 4:4 2°] | 2°0 |
| 4 27 | July 4 2°2 | 0°3 0°3 | 1-0
| 5 July 4 1] —0°2 —O0:4 1°8 | 2°6
6 st 18 3°1 Deva 2°9 0:4
| 7 18 25 —1-0 0-4 0:5 0°] |
8 25 | Aug. 1 0:3 3°3 —0°4 Mishra)
gor ql cue: J 8 4:3 3°0 3°0 me Leese |
LOE 8 15 4] Hou 0:7 |
tee? | 15 Os a PO 0:7 2°8 S104
lee Dre: 22 29 | 0:7 2°0 — dy, | ali Shay al
3 | 29 | Sept. 5 0-0 ALO} | 4-2 4°8
| 14 | Sept. 5 F b= 0-2 0:6 |} —2°2 | 0-6
yea ks) 12 19 | 5:2 1°6 3°8 2°35
1G: «| 19 26; -1°6 0:2 0:3 | —OQ-l
| 17 26° Oct. Ss 4:3 | 11 ood | 1-2
18 Oct. 3 ~~ JO} —0°9 | 2°1 —0:2 — —Or4
ae 10 1 ilisss 4120 Se ee
296 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
It can scarcely be said that there is more than a general coin-
cidence as to tendency to greater or less gain or Joss at the-dif-
ferent periods, as shown in this summary. Some coincidence,
however, there certainly is, for we find that at almost every period
three if not four pens will bear the same general character as to
gain or loss at the same time; and that, if any figure which is
discrepant, be not explained on bnalenence to the table of detail, by
the evidently casual or unhealthy state of a single animal, a
change to the opposite character immediately succeeds. There
is at any rate a sufficiency of regularity to show that its cause is
connected with a condition of the animal, apart from the casual
irregularities in their management and the supply of their food,
which a closer observation in relation to the health of the animal,
and to the external circumstances affecting it, may serve to ex-
plain. Whatever be the cause of the fluctuation, however, the
fact of it should be kept constantly in view by the experimenter,
in order that erroneous conclusions founded upon temporary or
accidental indications may be avoided.
In the following table are shown the average weekly consump-
tion of food, and increase of each animal, throughout the entire
period of nineteen weeks :—
SERIES II.
TABLE 4.--Showing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep,
and the Average Weekly Increase of each Animal in pounds and ounces.
Average | Average Weekly | Average Weekly
Tounds exci, | a Increase per Increase per
| Weight Description and | Sheep Numbers. Sheep in each | Sheep in each
p of Sheep | Quantity of Food per | Pen during the | Pen during the
oe sae Sheep per Week. ee evod iret dnevugehs
a ment. | 1 9 3 4 5 experiment. experiment.
| lbs. 02. |
‘ Oil Cake 7 00
+ s | 3 1 1) pt j El
Loe ere Nalsreseien Le sie 63] 1 114] 111] 1 93/1 98} 1 oF ee
} |
Linseed 1 One} |
¢ L ° ° Al 1 r m1)
Sgillunene, Wis clurcem ty rad of | ose 1 332 5) 1 7a). 1 8 IW
“ Barley Fone | |
oO 4 e ae aln s L ps
3 1203 Clover Chath.20u1 4K 1 7H O 142] 1 82 1 N44 1 8} I (s3 114
ie Malle pelts 16 1G ye] igs fee
4 | 1204 | Clover Chaff 20 12 | 1 3) W251 1 1 1 42) 1 10 1 44 113
| | | | |
By this summary it is seen that the average weight of the ani-
mals in the first and second pens, having respectively oil-cake
and linseed, were identical at the commencement of the experi-
ment; that of those in Pens 3 and 4, upon barley and malt, is
I lb. less than that of the first two pens, but is identical in the
two pens, the foods of which are supposed to compare with each
other. The amounts of oilcake in Pen |, and of linseed in Pen 2,
are seen also to be identical. In the case of the pens upon barley
and malt respectively, owing, as before stated, to the sheep on the
Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 297
latter not taking all that was provided for them at the com-
mencement of the experiment, the average weekly consumption
of malt is rather less than it was intended it should be, and by so
much less than that of barley. We shall see further on, how-
ever, that this circumstance brings the experiments in some re-
spects more nearly to the conditions required for exact comparison
of the relative feeding values of the two substances than had the
designed amount been eaten; for, though the actual weight of
malt was less than that of barley, the amounts of dry-organie-
matter consumed in the two cases are almost identical, and the
quantity of malt actually taken moreover exceeded to a small ex-
tent that which would have been yielded by the amount of barley,
with which its effects have to be compared.
It will be remembered, that in the first series of experiments
there was so serious a variation in the degree of progress of the
different animals on the same food, that the results were consi-
dered to be quite unfit to be taken as representing as they stood
the comparative values of the several foods. This variation was
specially remarkable in the pen upon oil-cake, and considerabl y
with that upon oats, and it was attributed to a faulty matching of
the animals; and it was suggested also that any defective vigour
of constitution might probably be more likely prominently to
show itself in disease upon the higher foods, such as oil-cake,
than upon others. Be this as it may, Table 4, just given, shows
a great improvement in this respect, and especially in Pen 1, in
which again oil-cake is the special food, the uniformity is quite as
good as could be at all anticipated. In Pen 2, with linseed, there
is much less regularity than in Pen l, there being one sheep
giving an increase low compared with the rest, and another giving
one as much higher; the two giving a mean so near to that of the
other three, however, that the average of the entire pen may pro-
bably be taken as not far from a fair measure of the effect of this
food as compared with the others. Although the general uni-
formity within each pen in this entire series is aa as to give
some confidence in the results compared one with onners yet
the average weekly increase is throughout considerably less than
in the case of the former series, notwithstanding that the animals
were somewhat heavier to begin with, that the temperature of the
period was considerably higher, and the amounts consumed of
some of the more important constituents of food were greater.
This may be supposed to be due to the fact of confinement
within doors being less appropriate during the summer period,
and perhaps indeed not attended with benefit as in the colder
one, in part to the want of green food, which 1s so much relished
during the summer season, ‘and also in part to a rather long con-
tinuance of the same food, for in the last column of the Table in
298 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
which is given the average weekly gain at an earlier period of the
experiment, we see that it exceeds that calculated on the entire
period. ‘That the confinement and want of green food were not
without effect is rendered probable from the fact that the re-
mainder of the flock from which the experimental sheep were
taken, and which were allowed the run of 40 acres of very highly
manured clover, and about | lb. each per day of oil-cake besides,
gave during eleven weeks about double the average weekly in-
crease of those in the experimental pens, as the particulars given
below of those whose marks remained legible will show.
TABLE.—Showing the Mean Weekly Increase of 30 Sheep, fed upon
Green Clover, and 1 lb. each per day of Oil-cake, during a period
| sh |
| Stise Weicht | Weight Pounds | Average |
| Nomber. | Jones. | alluvai | Wiveske | meena |
| | | | lbs. tenths, &ce.
| l EEN FS ORCR 4D. 1 ROAOO
| y) V0 Sil 133 30:4.) 1k seueeene
| | 112 147 35 3-18
| 1 os 108 148 ag” of Ses aiGat
| Ae Vineet 134 33 1) We BaC0
haa 166 143 31 ce eunteoRee
7 100 13] S1ou' | eee
8 123 161 Bann lh eee
9 115 155 40 ¢ on esre4
10 9gi 142 432 4:00 |
1] 113 145 32 POG) OE |
| 12 126 157 31 2-82
| 13 11] 145 a) 34 3-09
14 117 Vase Al 3°73
15 113 145 32 2-91
16 129 162 33 3-00
17 116 154 38 3°45
18 109 149 A0 Hl eee
19 114 145 31 2-82
20 111 142 31 2°82
21 103 138 35 3°18
NPD 110. 146 36 3:27
pees 107 145 38 3°45
He eae 116 146 30 2°73
25 101 144 43 3°91
26 97 131 34 3-09
27 Jide 158 43 3:91
28 101 140 39 3-54
29 109 143 34 3-09
30 116 152 36 3°27
3,3174 4,300 1,072 3° 28mean
The rate of increase here indicated falls little short of the
wider estimates usually formed on this subject; and, whilst we
are satisfied of the correctness of the figures given above, and do
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 299
not doubt the statements of others, yet we are convinced that
such results are very mischievously misapplied, if it be concluded
that they 1 in any degree fairly represent the average increase ob-
tained in practical farming. Indeed the circumstances under
which these sheep were placed were in every respect the most
favourable that could be imagined, viz. summer weather and
the feed of a luxuriant crop of highly manured clover, with oil-
cake besides—conditions which at best can be equalled during a
few months only of every twelve.
We now turn to a consideration of the composition of the food
consumed in the experimental pens :—
SERIES It.
TABLE 5.—Showing the per Centages of Dry Matter, Mineral Matter, and
Nitrogen in the Foods.
Per Centages.
Dry Matter. Ash. Nitrogen.
| Period of | bf ; = . be
+e Consumption. EIN: | |
Description Date taken Inclu- (ape Te) dice In In In
of | | of for sive bates | fresh | dry | fresh | dry
Food. Sampling.| Drying, of Bore | mat- | mat- | mat- | mat-
From Rovers &c. Ash, y: ters i| ters. eater. |. ters
2 Samples, |
Oil-cake . . | June 5/| Oct. 17] Sept.12 | 250z, each | 87°36 | 81°88 | 5°48} 6°27 | 5°01 | 5°74
Linseed, No. 1. | June 5 | Aug.23| Sept.12 | 12302. ,, | 90°56 | 86°28 | 4°28 | 4°72 | 3°68 | 4:07
Linseed, No. 2. | Aug.23 | Oct. 17| Sept.12 | 25.02 ,, | 91°54 | 87°46 | 4°08 | 4°45 | 4°05 | 4°44
Barley. . . | June 5/ Oct. 17] Sept. 12 | 25 oz, ,, | 85°54 | 83°23 | 2°31) 2°70 | 1°49 | 1°74
|
Malt 2%) < June 5) Oct. 17 | Sept. 12 25 OZ ;, 91°65 | 89°34 2°31 } 2152 1°51 | 1°65
|
Clover Chaff . | June 5.| Oct. 17] Sept. 16 | 50 oz. ,, | 84°66 | 77°39 | 727) 8°58} 2°11 | 2°50
|
From these analytical results it appears that weight for weight
the oil-cake contained about 5 per cent. less dry-organic-matter
than the linseed; the former has, however, about one-third more
mineral matter, and nearly one-third more nitrogen than the
latter. We believe that such may be taken, as representing, in
general terms, the usual comparative composition of the two sub-
stances, as respects the constituents here named. We see, how-
ever, that one of the specimens of linseed contained 0:37 per cent.
less nitrogen than the other, and it must be understood ihat dif-
ferent samples of both oil-cake and linseed are found to vary con-
siderably from those referred to, and that the remarks made
above are only mtended to indicate a general fact, and do not at
all do away with the desirableness of deciding upon the purchase
of foreign food or manure, only upon the results of special ana-
lyses, for the ready provision of which the Royal Agricultural
Society has recently made arrangement open to all iis members.
300 Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
The barley used in the experiments as such, and that wl
ich
was malted, were both of the same stock and quality; the weight
of the malt produced was, exclusive of screened and hiln-dust, only
about four-fifths of that of the barley operated upon, so that as
the
weekly allowance of barley was 7 lbs. per sheep, that of malt
would have been little more than 53 |bs., instead of 6 lbs. 9
0Z.,
as were actually consumed, if so much only were to be given as
was the produce of the amount of barley with which it was to
compare. Nearly one-half of the loss of weight sustained in
the
conversion of the barley into malt was, however, only water,
and a portion of the remainder consisted of the ‘ dust,” which, if
malting were adopted to any extent for feeding purposes, would
certainly not be separated from the malt; and this, as we shall
afterwards see in discussing other experiments with barley and
malt, is a point of some importance. Weight for weight, how-
ever, the malt is seen to be about 6 per cent. richer than
the
barley in dry-organic-matter, and to be equal to it im mineral
matter and in nitrogen; and it will be found that the quant
ities
consumed of the two foods were in fact almost identical, so far as
above-named constituents are concerned.
The followimg Table brings to view the total amount of food
consumed in the pens during the entire period of the experi-
ment—the total increase produced, and the amount of some of
the more important constituents contained in the food, these being
calculated from the Table of Analyses last given.
SERIES IH.
TABLE 6.—Showing the Total Amount of Food or Constituents consumed, and
| Total Nitrogen
, | Total Rane
| Total: Descriptions and | Dry 5] ‘Mineral: | eee wn ls
| Increase Q aie cor esl) (Ole nnKe F | Nitrogen | crease of
; Z uantities of the different | B | Matter | : 2
in Live Boas 1 Matter | : con- Animals,
Weieht cods consumed, [i aageece: Vi oacany ean at
Sir sumed. | ;
sumed, 3 percent.
lbs. | | Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs.
Oil-cake, 665 lbs... . «| 5444 364 33°31
Pen 1. 1524 Clover Chalf, 2,1024 lbs.. | 1,627 152} 44°36 4:6
5 Sheep. i— —_— ——_—
H Totaly wei. | 2,1714 1894 7°67
| \inseed, «665 lbs. | us ive: | ey 57, 273 25°50
Pen 2. ; Clover Chaff, 1,9084 lbs... | 1,473 1384 40°16
iS 143 | 4°3
5 Sheep. i— —_-—-— ——_——
otal ae 2,050 166 65°66
| Barley, 665 lbs. . , -« 5534 | 154 9°90
Pen 3. 129 | Clover Chaff, 1,986 lbs. . | 1,537 1444 41:90 10)
5 Sheep. i | = [= oe
| | Motal wis 5 I se 090 a elo 94 51°80
| Malt, 625 Ibs... Siete 5584 14} 9°43 |
Pen 4. a St Clover Chath, W072 Wbses a) sl aae7 1434 41°63 p
mies 121 | ? 3°6
5 Sheep. ees ees es
UO Wis gill “20S Matis 51°06
of Increase produced, in each Pen, during the entire period of 19 Weeks.
Nitrogen
in In-
crease, at
| 3 percent.
| to 100
consumed,
lbs.
Agricultural Chemistry—=Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 3801
Taking the aggregate results of this Table, and again assuming
the approximate correctness of the estimate of the nitrogen con-
tained in the increase of animal produced, we find that by the
feeding of 20 sheep for 19 weeks, during which time they con-
sumed 665 lbs. of oil-cake, 665 Ibs. of linseed, 665 lbs. of barley,
625 lbs. of malt, and 7965L]bs. of clover-hay, the amount of
increase obtained is Balontaced to retain only 16% lbs, of nitrogen,
though 246 lbs. of it were supplied in the foods a result in this
respect considerably inferior to that obtained in the first series of
experiments, there being in that case 151 lbs. of nitrogen retained
for 96 Ibs. of it swallowed. We may notice too in this place, though
the point will presently be referred to in another form, that here
again it would appear, as in the case of the former series, that the
larger the amount of nitrogen consumed beyond a certain limit,
the smaller will be the proportion of i sent to market as meat.
The case of the malt in the 2nd Series is, however, somewhat
exceptional—a fact to which we shall again refer.
The amounts of dry-organic-matter consumed in each pen
during the entire period of the experiment, as shown in the
‘Table, when considered in connection with the nature of that
contained in each of the special foods supplied, and with the
total amount of nitrogen consumed, are such as pretty clearly to
indicate that the consumption of the clover-hay, which was sup-
pled ad libitum, was regulated toa great extent by the demand
of the system for, or its competency to take up, digestible non-
nitrogenous substances. ‘Thus there were 5444 |bs. of dry
organic substance contained in the oil-cake, and 577 lbs. in the
linseed, whilst of the smaller amount taken in the oil-cake there
would be a much larger quantity indigestible and at once effete,
and hence we find that more clover is consumed to make up the
deficiency. Again, taking the pens upon barley and malt, we
find the total amount of dry-organic-matter in these foods re-
spectively to be 5533 and 5583 lbs.—a difference of only 5 lbs. ;
and although in the one case there would be a predominance of
starch, and in the other of sugar, vet the amounts of matters
capable of digestion, and of those which are at once effete, would
probably be very nearly identical, and hence we have a differ-
ence of only 10 1bs. in’ the total amount of dry-organic-matter
consumed in the form of clover-hay: and, taking the two foods
of each pen together, there is only a difference of 5 |bs., equal to
only 4 per cent. in the amount of “dry- organic-matter consumed in
the two cases. ‘Throughout all four of the pens, indeed, the
coincidence in that respect is very manifest, when the apparently
excessive amount in Pen | is explained as above.
That the demand of the system for nitrogen had little to do in
determining the amount of clover consumed, is evident from the
302 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
fact, that, with the striking coincidences above noticed in the
amounts consumed of non-nitrogenous substances available as
food, the total amounts of nitrogen taken were—in the first pen,
77% lbs.; in the second, 653 Ibs. ; in the third, 512 lbs. ; and in
the fourth, 51 lbs. It is true that the nitrogen and dry-organic-
matter are both nearly identical in Pens 3 and 4, but the nitrogen
of these differs much from that of either of the other two pens,
which again are widely different from each other—the variation in
amount in the four pens being as three to two. These indications
are interesting as pointing to the fact, that although nitrogen is a
very important constituent in the food of animals, yet the economy —
of providing it in food, im quantity beyond a certain limit, must
depend upon other circumstances than the amount of meat pro-.
duced.
These points will be further illustrated by a consideration of
Tables 7 and 8, which follow, in which the actual results of
experiment as given in Table 6 are applied so as to show the
average weekly consumption of food in each pen, by each 100 lbs.
of live weight of animal, and also the amounts which were required
to produce 100 lbs. of znerease.
It should be observed in reference to these Tables, that the in-
crease during the entire period of 19 weeks is taken as the basis
of calculation. It will be remembered, however, that the average
weekly increase at the end of the first 11 weeks, as given in
Table 4, was more favourable throughout the pens than that
after a further continuance of the experiment. This was par-
ticularly the case with respect to the pen on malt, and on refer-
ence to the details it will be found that several of the animals on
that food gained scarcely anything whatever during the last eight
weeks, though even at the earlier period the result was still rather
in favour of the barley as compared with the malt. It is evident,
therefore, that the indications, especially of ‘Table 8, are less
favourable throughout than they would have been had the ex-
periment been earlier closed, and that the results of the malt
oe are more affected than the rest. In vindication of the fair-
ess of the comparisons shown in the Tables it may be said, that
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or irregularities, if taken on the longer than on the shorter
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quently kept upon the same food when fattening for the market.
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animals malt may be when employed only to a limited extent,
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Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-keeding and Manure.
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TL SHLYHS )
804 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
to some extent by virtue of the large amount of sugar it con-
tains. ;
From Table 7, we learn that the average quantities of dry-
organic-matter consumed weekly to 100 ]bs. live weight of
animal, were, in Pens 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, in round num-
bers 162, 15%, 164, and 164 lbs.—amounts which, when the dif-
ference in the qualities of the food are considered, are probably
very nearly identical, so far as the supply of the convertible non-
nitrogenous organic substances is concerned. ‘The mean of
these is about 16} ]bs., an amount which, as we shall see more in
detail when the results of the several series of experiments are _
brought together, is about one-third more than was consumed in
the case of Series [., notwithstanding that the mean temperature
of the period of the latter was 40°6, and that of this 2nd series
58'4. The fact is, however, to be explained by a consideration
of the character of the foods employed in the two cases. In
Series I. swedes were the standard food, and in Series II. clover-
hay, which, compared with the former, would contain a very
large amount of inert woody fibre, and hence a much larger
amount of gross dry organic substance was taken into the stomachs
of the animals, to supply the same amount of that which would be
subservient to maintaining the heat or promoting the increase of
the body.
Looking, on the other hand, to the consumption of nitrogen in
the several pens by a given weight of animal in a given time, we
find here, as in the former series, a want of coincidence in this
respect, the amount, as shown in the Table, being, in the first
pen. 0:60; in the second, 0-51; in the third, 0°41 ; and in the
fourth, O°40lb. It may be ahceave however, that ‘hie order of
increase in the pens is that of the assumption of nitrogen within
a given time, though the amount of it is not in exact proportion to
that of the nitrogenous supply. The average weekly consumption
of nitrogen in this series is, however, more than half as much
again as that in Series I., whilst the rate of increase in the former
is less than that of the latter. |
Thus, turning to Table 8, we see that, taking the mean of the
four pens, there: were 474 lbs. of the special foous and 1442 lbs.
of clover-hay consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in hyve
weight, and that these together contained 1521 lbs. of dry-organic-
matter and 44 lbs. of nitrogen, whilst there were in Series is only
860 lbs. of the former and “194 Ibs. of the latter required to pro-
duce the same amount of imereade. chiens being therefore nearly
twice as much gross dry-organic-matter and more than twice as
much nitrogen consumed in the one case as in the other, to
produce the same effect; from which we learn that the circum-
stances of adaptation of the animal and of the food, as well as the
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 305
actual composition of the latter, materially affect the amount of
increase obtained.
Comparing the results of the several pens one with another,
we find that the amounts of food consumed to produce the same
effect were (excepting the case of the malt) such as to supply
nearly identical amounts of gross dry-organic-matter ; though,
allowing for the varying amount of effete matter in the several
substances, there would appear to have been notably less of such
as would be really available as food, in proportion as the supply
of nitrogen is greater. The amounts of nitrogen are seen to be
Jess uniform than in several cases in the former series, yet here,
as in the latter (excepting in the case of the malt), the increase
is less in proportion to the nitrogen consumed, the larger the
amount of the latter, though the actual increase is somewhat
greater. Indeed, whether we view the results alone or con-
jointly with those which have gone before, it may safely be con-
cluded that in all the pens in this second series the supply of
nitrogenous compounds within a given time exceeded the limit
that would have been required to yield the result obtained, pro-
vided the non-nitrogenous ones had been better adapted to the
season, and to the natural inclinations of the animals at the time.
If we take the indications of the malt-pen as givenin the Table,
and calculated from the results of the entire period of the experi-
ments, we see that there was a considerably larger amount of
dry-organic-matter consumed in it, to produce a given effect, than
in any of the other cases, and the amount of nitrogen moreover
was considerably greater than in the case of the barley ; ; and when
it is considered that the dry-organic-matter of the malt would be
nearly one-tenth less than that in the barley from which it was
produced, the results tell still less favourably tothe malt. If we
were to make the calculations upon the results of the first eleven
weeks, however, instead of the nineteen weeks as supposed
above, the comparison would still, though to a small degree, be in
favour of the barley, irrespectively of the cost of the malting
process.
Relying upon the results of these experiments, it would appear
that the increase obtained by the consumption of a given amount
of wnmalted barley is considerably greater than would be pro-
duced by the same amount after it had been subjected to the
malting process; and, indeed, that not only is the weight of the
malt considerably less than that of the barley which yielded it,
but that weight for weight, independently of loss and cost of pro-
cess, the feeding qualities of the former are not superior to those
of the latter. It would obviously be unsafe, however, to trust to
the results of a single experiment; and since, in the one in
question, dry food alone was given, the malt-dust was not em-
VOL. X. x
306 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
ployed, and the use of the malt seems to have been continued
beyond the period of its best result, its indications may be open
to some objection. ‘To these points, however, we have paid par-
ticular attention in the conduct of further experiments on this
subject, and the results will be detailed in the sequel.
In reference tothe comparative effects of oileake and linseed, we
observe that a larger amount has been required of the latter than
of the former, to produce the same gross increase in live weight,
whilst in a given weight of the two, a larger amount of nitro-
genous and of mineral matter would be brought upon the farm in
the oilcake than in the linseed; the latter would, on the other
hand, contain more of the non-nitrogenous organic substances.
These points will be treated of more fully, however, when we
come to consider the comparative composition of the manures
obtained by the consumption of different descriptions of purchased
or saleable food; and it will then be seen that a consideration of
them will materially assist in deciding upon the economy of one
food rather than another, when the results of the feeding-shed
may be uncertain in their indications.
Reviewing the more general results of the second series of ex-
periments, it is observed that there was upon the whole a greater
regularity in each pen upon the same food than in the former
one; yet, that such again is the evident fluctuation in the apparent
progress of the animals, so far as it is exhibited by the scales,
that 1t would appear necessary to admit its occurrence as a general
fact, which, when the comparative value of foods is to be decided
by the increase in weight of the animals fed upon it, should never
be overlooked; and further, that such is the variableness in the
amount of constituents consumed, and in the effects they produce,
according to their appropriateness to the demands of the animal
at the time, that not only may there be a larger amount of food
expended within a given time, but that its product of meat will
be defective in spite of a liberal supply of the more umportant
constituents as shown by analysis, provided these be not in such
state of combination and adaptation to each other as is suitable
to the season of the year, and to the habits and tastes of the
animals.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SuEEP.—WServes III.
In the series of experiments last discussed, it was found that,
although the amount of the highly nutritive nitrogenous com-
pounds consumed by the animal was very large, yet the increase
produced was far inferior to that obtained from a less amount of
them in the case of the former series; and, the results now to be
detailed will still further show, that the value of food depends
materially upon other circumstances than the per-centage of
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 307
these substances in them, though in the instances now before us
the sources of insufficiency will be found to be opposite in their
character to those already referred to.
The special object of this series was to trace the relative
feeding and manuring values of turnips grown by different ma-
nures, “by. which, as we have shown in our paper on ‘ Turnip
Culture’ in this Journal, the composition of the produce, espe-
cially so far as the per-centage of nitrogen is concerned, may be
materially influenced.
The turnips selected for the four pens were Norfolk-whites,
grown in the season of 1848, in continuation of the experiments
detailed in the paper above referred to. ‘Those consumed in pen
1 were grown by mineral manures alone; those in pen 2 by the
same manures, with sulphate and muriate of ammonia added ;
those in the 3rd, by the mineral manures, with rape-cake added ;
and in the 4th, with both rape-cake and ammoniacal salt, in addi-
tion to the mineral manures. ‘These conditions, it will be re-
membered, are in kind the same as those supplied in the experi-
ments of the season of 1845; the quantities have, however, been
considerably varied, the amount of rape-cake being much in-
creased, and that of ammoniacal salt diminished, by which, as
will be explained on some future occasion, the progress of the
plots relatively to each other has been somewhat altered.
In order that the amount of food consumed in each pen, and
the effects produced, might fairly be taken to be attributable to
the qualities of the different lots of turnips, and to their com-
petency or insufficiency to supply the wants of the system, it was
decided that the turnips should themselves constitute, almost ex-
clusively, the supply of food to the animals. It was thought,
however, that cut straw would interfere but little with the results
in this respect, and that it would assist in providing the bulk of
dry substance, which, independently of matters of more directly
nutritive quality, seems to be essential to healthy digestion in
ruminant animals more especially. It was found, however, that
although both straw and turnips were finely cut and mixed to-
gether for some time before being given to the animals, the former
was almost entirely refused, in consequence of which its use was
abandoned after a sufficient trial, and the turnips were given alone.
It could not be expected that the animals would do well upon such
food, but as the composition of the turnips was supposed to vary
very greatly, especially as regarded the per-centage of nitrogen,
which is generally believed to determine, to a great extent, the
value of produce for feeding purposes, it was thought, that what-
ever the results might be, they would not be without their lesson.
It happened, indeed, that many of the animals lost weight, yet
the results, thus negative in their character, are found to provide
x 2
ed
308 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
much useful information as to the conditions, other than those of
mere per-centage composition, which are required to constitute a
healthy food. Having reference, for the present, to this part of
the subject more especially, and leaving the question of the ma-
nure produced for future notice, it will not be necessary to give
the results in much detail, but only such a summary as will illus-
trate the point in question.
The animals taken were ewe lambs, bred upon the farm. About
one hundred were weighed November 27, 1848, from which six
were selected for each of the four pens. They were supplied
with Norfolk-white turnips from the commencement, but the
weighed quantities of those grown by the different manures were
not commenced until December 9, up to which time there was a
loss of weight in all the pens. The average weight of the animals
was about 79 lbs.
The Table in the following page gives some insight into the
composition and quality of the four lots of turnips.
In our former papers in this Journal we have called attention
to the fact, that, notwithstanding it is well known that turmip-
leaves are far inferior to the roots as food, yet they contain a
much higher per-centage of nitrogenous compounds, which, other
things being equal, are taken to indicate the feeding value of dif-
ferent articles of food; and we have suggested, that to the rela-
tively low state of elaboration of the constituents of the leaves may
be due their defective feeding properties, containing, as they do,
a comparatively large amount of matters, “only brought within
the range of the organism, themselves as yet unorganized, and
existing as saline and other changeable fluids, to which we may
readily attribute a medicinal and purgative rather than a direct
nutritive effect— elaboration to some extent being, as we are aware,
an important element in the condition of food for animals.” We
have further shown, too, that although the per-centage of nitro-
genous compounds in the root may be much increased by the use
of nitrogenous manures, yet when these are in excess, the tendency
to the over-production of leaf will be much enhanced, whilst the
root, though richer in nitrogen, may not be profitably developed ;
and the results now to be detailed will sufficiently prove, that the
high per-centage of nitrogen in the root can no more than in the
leaf be taken as unconditionally indicating its feeding value.
Referring to the Table of composition just given, and assuming
that, other things being equal, a greater degree of ripeness or
maturity of specimens of turnips—after an equal period of growth,
and the produce of different manures—is indicated by a large
amount of dry matter, a small amount of mineral matter and of
nitrogen, and a small proportion of leaf to bulb—and, that a rela-
tively small amount of dry matter, a large amount of mineral
309
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310 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
matter and of nitrogen, and a large proportion of leaf to bulb,
betray, on the other hand, to a great extent, a less maturity of
growth—we should at once decide, that of the four specimens of
turnips, those consumed in pen | were the ripest, those in pen 2
coming next, then those in pen 3, and that those in the 4th pen
were much below the others in this respect ; for, we find the pro-
portion of leaf to bulb, and the per-centages of mineral matter
and nitrogen, are progressively greater as we proceed down the
columns from the Ist pen to the 4th; whilst, with a trifling excep-
tion in the case of the turnips consumed in pen 4, the per-centage
of dry-matter isin the inverse order. These inferences, indeed,
accord perfectly with the judgment which was formed of the
crops at the time they were drawn from the land, for the turnips
grown by mineral manure alone had become somewhat ‘ pithy ;’
those of pen 2. the produce of mineral manures and ammoniacal
salts, were fully ripe; those of pen 3, from mineral manures and
rape-cake, were scarcely so; whilst qhdse of pen 4, having the
mineral manures, and both rape-cake and ammoniacal salts in
addition, were far behind the rest in fitness for consumption, and
indeed they were considerably short of this point. If, however,
the per-centage of nitrogen were to be our guide in deciding upon
the feeding value of the several specimens, the crude turnips of
pen 4 would far exceed the rest in this respect.
The results of the feeding experiments are arranged 1 in the
three following ‘Tables (p. 311). In the first are given the actual
quantities of fresh turnips, of dry-organic-matter, of mineral matter,
and of nitrogen, consumed in each pen by six sheep during 68
days, and the increase or loss of weight of the animals; in the
second is shown the weekly consumption of fresh food, and of the
several constituents, to every 100 lbs. live weight of animal; and
in the third, the amounts required to produce 100 lbs. increase
in live weight.
In explanation of the construction of the first of these Tables,
which supplies in fact, to a great extent, the materials for the
other two, we should observe, that—in order to avoid the error to
which it is sapposed the determination of the quantity of swedes
consumed in the first series of experiments was subject, and
which was attributable to the constant loss of weight of roots after
removal from the land—in the present instance, 5 tons of each of
the lots of turnips were weighed as nearly direct from the field
as was practicable, and from this stock smaller quantities were
weighed out to the sheep as they were wanted. It was thus found
that the sum of the weights taken during the course of the experi-
ments, which ended about three months after the carting of the
turnips, fell short of the original amount by 204 per cent. in the
turnips grown by mineral manures only, by 18 per cent. in those
311
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
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312 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
grown by mineral manures and ammoniacal salts, by 15} per
cent. in those having rape-cake as well as the mineral manures,
and by 138: per cent. in those having both ammoniacal salts and
rape-cake in addition to the mineral manures. It is evident
therefore, that the weights of the turnips, as they were given to the
sheep, by no means indicated the amount of such as originally
came to the shed; and it will readily be understood that the error
from this cause in the estimate of the swedes consumed in the
case of the first series of experiments, might easily amount to
one-sixth, or more, of the whole quantity supplied, as has been
already assumed.
The figures in the four columns constituting the first divisions
of the Tables, show the quantities of food or constituents con-
sumed, supposing the weights taken during the course of the
experiments to denote the. quantities of turnips provided in the
state in which they were brought from the field; and those in the
second divisions are obtained by calculating from the per-centage
of loss as given above, to what amount of turnips, in their original
state, those left at the end of the experiment would be equivalent
—deducting this amount from the 5 tons brought to the shed, and
calculating what proportion of the remainder was consumed, and
what was offal, according to the relative weights of these, as ascer-
tained as the experiment proceeded.
A glance at the Tables will show that the estimate of the con-
stituents consumed would have been very far below the truth, if
the analysis of the turnips as carted from the field, and the
weights as given to the animals from time to time, were taken as
the basis of calculation. It is obvious, however, that although the
figures of the second division are much nearer the truth than
those of the first, yet they may probably slightly overstate the
facts; for the per-centage of loss, or waste, would certainly be
somewhat higher upon the turnips which remained to the end of
the experiment than upon those which had been weighed at an
earlier period, from the amounts of which the per-centages as
given above are calculated. ‘The discrepancy would not be great,
however, since the actual amount remaining at the conclusion
formed but a small proportion of the entire bulk, there having
been a considerable quantity thrown away as offal throughout the
period, part of this bemg what the animals left in their troughs,
but the greater portion those which were rotten, of which there
were more than twice as many in the turnips of the 4th than in
those in any of the other pens, there being least in pens | and 2.
These statements are only brought forward to illustrate the
fact that a considerable change of some kind or other takes place
in succulent food after it is stored, and to show that the estimate
of the quantity of constituents consumed to produce a given
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 313
amount of meat or manure, is subject to a wide range of mis-
calculation, unless special care be taken to avoid it. For our
present purpose we shall assume the figures in the second division
of the several Tables to be correct, though, as will be seen when
we come to the question of the manure produced, some further
corrections may require to be made, which, however, are unim-
portant just now.
Looking to Table 2, and excluding the results of the 4th pen,
wherein all the animals lost weight, we find that upon this insuf-
ficient diet of turnips only, there were of them 22,260 lbs., or
about 10 tons, containing 1757 lbs. of dry organic matter, 1403
Ibs. of mineral matter, and 37% lbs. of nitrogen, consumed to pro-
duce 95 lbs. increase in live weight, which may be estimated to
contain about 3 lbs. of nitrogen. This result, as far as regards
the consumption of and produce by nitrogen, is as favourable as
that of the second series, wherein the amount of dry substance
in the food consumed was in excess rather than in defect, as in
the present instance: they are, however, less favourable than that
of series 1,
Turning to Table 3, we see that the average weekly consump-
tion to 100 lbs. live weight of animal was about 14 cwt., there
being, however, a smaller quantity consumed in pen 4, the roots
in that case being more unripe than in any of the other pens. ‘The
cémparisons will, however, he brought more clearly to view in
the column of dry-organic-matter consumed.
Thus we have to each 100 lbs. live weight, 144 Ibs. in pen 1,
13 Ibs. in pen 2, 124 in pen 3, and only 114 lbs. in pen 4, of dry-
organic-matter consumed weekly; and when we take into con-
sideration the comparative qualities of the several lots of turnips,
the relation of these quantities to each other would seem to be
just such as might have been anticipated, and to offer further in-
dication of the fact, that consumption, to a great extent, is regulated
by a demand for available non-nitrogenous organic constituents of
food. The highest amount of dry-organic-matter consumed was in
pen |, where the turnips were too far grown, and such as are usually
termed pithy; and it is probable, therefore, that the amount of
matters strictly applicable as food to the animal was less than in
pen 2, where the roots were Jess fully grown. In pen 3 there is a
less amount of dry-organic-matter consumed than in the former
ones, though it will be seen that the quantity of fresh roots was
larger in this than in any of the other cases; and it is probable
that, independently of the defective nutritive quality of these tur-
nips arising from their lower state of maturity, the large amount of
water necessarily swallowed with the food, would put some check
upon the quantity eaten, and thereby prevent the supply to the
animals of as much as would provide the amount required for
314 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
their health and increase, of the fully elaborated substances. In
pen 4 there was much less dry-organic-matter consumed than in
any of the rest, whilst it would appear that the limit of consump-
tion was here less regulated by the amount of water taken with
the food than by the composition of the solid substance itself, which
was known to be not matured, and seems to have been quite unfit
for food, since all the animals lost weight, notwithstanding that
the weekly consumption of nitrogenous compounds was considerably
greater than in any of the other cases; indeed, in pen 2, with a
gain in weight of 45 lbs., there was only 0°29 lbs. consumed per
week, whilst in pen 4 there was a loss of 20 lbs., with a con-
sumption per sheep per week of 0°39 Ibs. of nitrogen—an amount
as great as that provided in the pen with oil-cake and swedes in
the first series of experiments!
Here then we have a striking illustration of the fact, that, how-
ever important the ultimate composition of food may be, its state
of combination may materially affect its value. Indeed it is seen
that double the requisite amount of some of the more important
constituents of food may be expended upon the animal without
any benefit whatever; and with these facts before us in reference
to the turnip bulb in different stages of growth and maturity, it
can scarcely be wondered at that the deaves, notwithstanding their
high per centage of nitrogen, should be comparatively valueless
as food; nor can it be doubted that the want of nutritive quality
is due, as we have before observed, to the amount they contain of
unorganized or deficiently elaborated constituents.
The variableness in the amount of ultimate constituents re-
quired to produce a given effect, according to their condition of
combination and elaboration, is clearly seen in Table 4, in which
are given the amounts of fresh turnips, of dry-organic-matter, of
mineral matter, and of nitrogen, which were consumed in the
several pens to the production of 100 lbs. increase in live weight,
the results, of course, of pens I, 2, and 3 only being open to this
calculation. There is a difference in this respect, according to
the composition of the turnips in the several cases, of about 7
tons of the fresh roots—there being about 74 tons consumed in
pen 2, about 112 tons in pen 1, and 142 tons in the 3rd, or nearly
as many more as in the first. It is worthy of remark, too, that
in pen 2, the turnips of which were taken at the best stage of
growth, though their per centage of nitrogen was less than those
of pen 3, there is not only a less amount both of dry-organic-
matter and nitrogen consumed to produce a given amount of gross
increase than in either of the other cases, but the quantity of these
is less in this case, with common white turnips alone, than in any
of the cases of the second series of experiments, in which, as will
be remembered, there were given in one pen oil-cake and clover-
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 315
chaff, in one linseed and clover-chaff, in another barley and clover-
chaff, and in another malt and clover-chaff.
The prominent inference from the results of the second and
third series of experiments—in the former of which it is sup-
posed that there was probably an excess of all required con-
stituents of food, and in the latter at least of some—is, that in
neither were these in a favourable condition to meet the wants of
the animals; and that if, as we believe to be the case, other things
being equal, the amount of nitrogen in food greatly determines its
value as such, there will be a very wasteful expenditure of it,
unless the food employed be suited to the tastes and circum-
stances of the animals; and that if these points be not attended
to, any calculation as to the probable amount of meat and manure
respectively, produced by the consumption of a given amount of
food, will be uncertain and unsatisfactory. Under any circum-
stances, however, the attainment of so desirable an end as bringing
within the range of fixed rule and measurement the subtle, yet
not capricious, operations of animal life, would seem, from the very
nature of the subject, to he fraught with difficulty, as indeed the
results of experiment are found to furnish ample testimony.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.—WSeries LV.
It was intended by this series of experiments further to test
the feeding and manuring value of barley and malt, compared
both one with the other, and with other articles of food. It will
be remembered that in the former experiments with these sub-
stances, the complementary food was clover-chaff; and, that the
animals not making much progress, this was supposed to be due
to the want of succulent food, which, however, could not at the
time be employed.
The present series was commenced in February, 1849; and it
was at first intended to have given Swedish turnips with the other
foods, but it was feared that they would not remain ina good and
sound condition so long as the experiment was required to be
continued, and mangold-wurzel was therefore decided upon as
better suited to our purpose in some respects, though in others
not without objection; for although the mangoids would remain
ina sufficient state of preservation to the end of the experiments,
yet they are seldom a genial food so early im the season as it was
required to use them, whilst sheep do not seem to relish them as
they do the turnip; aud the results to be detailed will show that
these circumstances were not without their influence.
A flock of 100 three-year old wethers, which had been recently
fed in the field upon swedes and clover-chaff, were weighed
February 26, from which, according to weight and general simi-
larity of breed, 45 were taken, and 5 put into each of 9 of the ex-
316 Agricuitural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
perimental pens, it being so arranged, that, as far as possible, each
sheep had its counterpart in weight and make in each of the other
pens, though within each pen the animals might in both these
respects show a somewhat wider difference. Six of these pens
comprised the experiments now to be described, the other three
constituting a series of themselves, of which we shall speak here-
after.
When first weighed, the sheep were very dirty, and it would
have been desirable to have had them previously trimmed ; but it
was considered that they would compare with each other in this
respect, and that as it was intended to allow them a week or more
to get accustomed to the new food and situation before com-
mencing the exact experiment, they would by that time have lost
much of their adherent dirt, and that their second weights would
be somewhat uniform. For some time, however, scarcely any of
the animals did well upon their food, by no means a fair allow-
ance of the mangolds being eaten. One or two of them, indeed,
it was found necessary to kill; and most were in such a condition
as to require that the commencement of the experiment should
be postponed until the animals had been three weeks in the pens,
during which time none had done well. Many had, besides the
loss of dirt, apparently depreciated in actual live weight also;
whilst the order within each pen, and the uniformity between one
pen and another, were considerably deranged, as will be seen by
an inspection of the following Table :—
Series LV.
TABLE 1.—Showing the Weight of each Sheep and each Pen on
Feb. 26, when put up, and on March 20, when the experiment was
commenced. Quantities stated in lbs.
6 5 March 20, when the experiment April
No. February 26, when put up. Ceara area 17
ot Pen | Pen | Pen} Pen| Pen| Pen | Pen} Pen | Pen} Pen} Pen | Pen | Pen
Sheep.| 1 2 3 4 Fetal lew (3 ‘Malad Mohit 3 4 5 6 6
1 143 143 143 143 143 | 443 136 | 146 139 144 134 142 | 150
2 140 140 139 140 139 140 136 121 ee 144 145 ee 55
3 13% 136 136 138 136 137 136 133 133 135 134 130 | 135
4 134 135 135 134 135 | 135 ste 130 127 137 136 ZO ete
5 Wey 132 133 132 133 132 lil 123 137 eo 117 107 | 120
average|137,2 |137,2 |137,2 |187,4 |137,2 |137,4 129 130 134 140 133 126 | 134
| |
Taking the first division of the ‘Table, it is seen that the average
live weight was the same in all the pens when the animals were
first put up, and that the weights of those bearing similar numbers
in the different pens were also nearly identical. ‘There is, how-
ever, a difference of about 10 lbs. between the heaviest and the
lightest sheep in each pen. The second division shows that, on
March 20, when the more exact experiment commenced, nearly
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 317
every sheep had lost—some very considerably—and the uniformity
between pen and pen, as well as between the sheep previously
supposed to match with each other in the different pens, was also
lost, so far as weight is concerned. In some cases the loss was
probably chiefly dirt and moisture, though in some it was mani-
festly owing to an inaptitude of the food. This, however, can
scarcely in any case be attributed to the special foods, but much
more certainly to the mangolds, so that it would be unfair, in
judging of the effects of the former, to calculate the result from
the first weighing, though on the other hand a careful examination
of the tables of increase which will be given, will show that several
of the instances of rapid increase after the second weighing occur
where the animals had previously lost considerably, so that the
natural effect of the food during the actual experimental period
is from this cause occasionally somewhat overstated. For, as we
have already remarked, any considerable loss arising from causes
of but temporary influence, is generally succeeded by an appa-
rently excessive gain, and wee versd. It is obvious that these
irregularities must to some extent depreciate the absolute legiti-
macy of the numerical results; yet it is nevertheless thought that
attention thus being called to any probable sources of objection
to which the second weights are liable, they may be taken as the
fairer starting-point in comparing the effects of the several special
foods. These are, therefore, mainly relied upon, though the
results, as calculated from the first weighing of the animals, will
also be given, in order that the reader may form his own judg-
ment in the matter.
The special foods selected were barley, malt, and beans, the
latter chiefly as containing a much larger per-centage of nitrogen
than the former. They were allotted to the several pens as
under :—
Pen 1.—1 |b. of ground barley per sheep per day.
Pen 2.—Ground malt, with its dust (the produce of | |b. of
barley), ditto.
Pen 3.—1\b. of barley, ground and steeped, ditto.
Pen 4.—Malt and dust from | |b. of barley, ground and steeped,
ditto.
Pen 5.—1 |b. of malt and dust, ground, ditto.
Pen 6.—1 lb. of beans, ground, ditto.
The mangolds were supplied. to all the pens in any quantity
the animals chose to eat them. ‘The beans were, from the com-
mencement, scarcely touched; one of the animals fed upon them
had soon to be removed and killed, and the rest, with the excep-
tion of a single sheep, lost so much as to bring the average
weight down below that of any of the other pens—a result which
. 1s not easily accounted for by a consideration of the character of
318 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
the food supplied. It was soon discontinued, however, and oil-
cake and swedes, a few mangolds only being intermixed, were
given to the animals until they were supposed somewhat to have
regained their position, after which mangolds and oil-cake were
given alone.
The collected results of the experiments are given in Table II.
An account of the progress of those animals which either died
from illness, or were killed, is excluded from this Table; and it
will be seen that there was one such in pen 1, with dry harley; ,
one in pen 3, with steeped barley; one in pen 4, with steeped
malt; and one in pen 6, with the beans. No. 1 sheep, i in pen 3, —
also with dry malt, became unwell during the last few weeks of
the experiment, and it was found necessary to kill him a few days
after the experiment closed. As, however, his increase was fair
at the commencement, and he actually lived to the end of the
experiment, his weights are admitted into the calculations. ‘Phis
bad result, as to the health of the animals, is sufficiently general
in the different pens to show that the explanation of it cannot be
sought in the character of the special foods employed. It is
indeed more probable that the mangolds, and perhaps not imma-
terially the confinement also, were at fault.
A glance at the top line of results in the Table will show how very
general throughout the pens was the loss of weight during the
first 22 days. In the bottom one is given the total gain of each
animal, inclusive of this preliminary period. ‘This estimate, how-
ever, 1s an under-statement of the effects of the special foods, since
it is affected both by the amount of dirt and moisture lost, and by
the depreciation due to the inaptitude of the succulent food em-
ployed. The results of the experimental period, on the other
hand, being, as has been before observed, more probably in excess,
depending chiefly on some few cases of individual irregularity.
In some few instances, however, the somewhat excessive rates of
gain of single animals, after the commencement of the experimental
period, are seen not to have been preceded by a corresponding
loss, and in such cases the results of the experimental period are
not open to the objections referred to above.
The average weekly gain of the animals is given in Table IIT.
Looking across the columns of the Table, we see that whether
we calculate from February 28, as in the first division, or from
March 20, as in the second, the rates of increase of different
sheep upon the same food are very variable, and so general is the
irregularity in all the pens, that it cannot be determined that one
food was less subject to it than another. The variations are,
however, more prominent on the experimental than upon the
longer period—a circumstance already explained.
So far as the average results can be relied upon as providing a
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 319
SERIES IV.
TaBLE 2.—Showing the Weekly and the Total Increase of each Animal
and Mean Weekly Increase in each Pen.
Periods. Pen 1, Pen 2.
Sheep Numbers. Mean Sheep Numbers. Mean
No. Weekly Weekly
From To of Increase Increase |
er Jer
DAYS Ne omelet abey Maer To.) gum 4a le! \anee,.
Feb. 26 Mar. 20 22 |—7) —4 j-1 — 21 3 /—19 |—3 |—5 | —9
Mar. 20 | April 3 14 2 —3,|| 3 TOES 3 Ae Gi) 12, | V4 Bao
April 3 HO mai aves 1 4 ] 3 2°2 2|—2 |—1 2|—4|—'6
10 We a 4 4) 8 1 4°5 oe 7 5 2 8 4°4
Ane Mayen ol 14 3 2 \|—3 15 Pat 6 il 1 2 a rele
May 1 8 i (ea ee an 38 Je=3) |) ae — La 3 ep heg
8 15 tdi 3 8 4 q 5°95 1 2 2 1 4 2°0
15 22 7 4 oo | ee —2 0°5 oe 4 1 3} —1 1°4
22 29 7 |—2 oe 2 50 0°0: |=—1 te 4} oe 4 1°4
Total increase during
experimental period | 70 17 15 | 15 34 Bi) ARB al eseia | Tie
Total increase from
time of putting up 92 | 10 11 | 14 13 ll 4 | 14] 20} 23
Periods. Pen 3. Pen 4.
: 2 Mean Sheep Numbers. Mean
No. Sheep Numbers Weeltly p s Weatly
From To of Increase Increase
er er
Peele Veale: ay Seq) 44. Br) vsucep. le 14 | 2ia0) Bel 4.| ge lsheep:
Feb. 26 Mar. 20 22 |—4 —3 |-—8 4 1 4 |—3 3
Mar. 20 | April 3 47 db aa oe 1°5 |—4} —2 |—4 |-2 1°5
April 3 10 7 j-1 7 3 3 3°0 oe 4 6 2 3°0
10 17 7 9 Sinllenite 5 4°0 4 6 6 5 5°2
Wei May 1 14 5) 2 41-3 1°0 12 Sal uf 4°]
May 1 8 cal 9 ait 63 5 3°3 3 1 2 4} 2°6
8 15 7 2 2 1—1e 1 0°8. j—1 Z|. 3 4 1°6
15 22 dt 2 4 4 1 2°8 1 —}\—1 t 0°0
22 29 7 7 6] 6 6 6°3 1 4 1 HO’?
Total increase during
experimental period | ‘70 | 40 WOSN 24: poms) eves2 ue Ves Wien 275) 22
Total increase from
time of putting up 92 | 36 162} 16 | 14 17} 1% 4 244 25
Periods. Pen 5. Pen 6.
No Sheep Numbers. Mean Sheep Numbers. Mean
° Weekly Weekly
From To of Increase Increase
per per
Days.| 1. | 2. | 3.) 4. | 5. | Sheep. | 1 2. 3. |] 4. | 5. | Sheep.
Feb. 26 Mar. 20 22 |—9 6 |—2 1 j—16
Mar. 20 | April 3 14 6 Le Aaa G: || era aig
April 3 10 7 0 ZW ind te Beatle ei 2) haw }Oy2)
10 17 7 1 4 5 4 7 4°2
Maal aye Veal Tara leer iss Sede) Sih Diels G6 | “Ses e i) a B49 1. G
May 1 ST nee 2 1 Page ap gee 3 haoee > ml Fees Gas Ss 21 1| —#
8 15 a 4 34|—43 + 2 alsa 4 6 4 4}
15 22 7 |—2 0 4 i 8 2°2 |—3 1 4 4
22 29 q a! eal 2.\—4 M Q°2 3 7 3 9
_ Total increase during
experimental period | 70 | 16] 16] 16] 19] 41 8 21} 21] 23
Total increase from |
time of putting up 92 7 | 22) 14) 20 | 25
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320 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
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Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 321
measure of the comparative effects of the different foods, it appears,
taking either period, that the dry malt with its dust (the produce
of 1 lb. of barley), as in pen 2, gives a slightly higher increase
than the I Ib. of dry barley, as in pen 1, but that in both periods,
again, the steeped barley of pen 3 gives a better result than the
steeped malt and dust of pen 4, and better, also, than either the
dry barley of pen 1, or the larger quantity of malt and dust, as in
pen 0; and it is remarkable, too, than in pen 3, with steeped barley,
which on both periods is thus seen to give the best result of the
five pens, there was a larger amount of mangolds consumed than
in any of the other cases.
Comparing the steeped malt and dust with the dry malt and
dust, we see that the dry gives the best results on the experi-
mental period, and the steeped on the entire period: the dis-
crepancy is due to the fact of a dissimilar condition of the animals
in the two pens during the three weeks prior to the commence-
ment of the experimental period—those on the dry malt losing in
aggregate weight, whilst those on the steeped took better to their
food at first, and did not, therefore, like the others, give afterwards
an unnaturally rapid increase.
The barley and malt were at first both steeped for about 12 or 14
hours, but it was thought that the barley at least was not suffi-
ciently softened, and therefore the time of soaking was extended
to 36 hours or more for both malt and barley. This seemed to
increase the relish with which the barley was taken, but the malt
was almost entirely refused, and so long as it was thus prepared
very few mangolds either were eaten, and within a few days all
the sheep were seen to be deteriorating, and one was necessarily
removed and afterwards killed. When, however, the short time
of steeping was returned to, the animals took their food again,
and progressed as well as before. Upon the whole, it may at
least be said that there is much less necessity to steep malt than
barley; and if the former be improved at all by such treatment.
it should be exposed to it for a few hours only. The steeping of
barley, however, from 30 to 40 hours, has been seen to increase
the gross increase in live weight beyond that of the same amount
of barley dry, of malt and dust, the produce of the same amount
of barley, either dry or steeped, or than the dry malt and dust,
the produce of one-fourth more barley.
These results are, it is admitted, wanting in some respects in
that regularity which is calculated to give undoubted confidence
in the conclusions to which they lead, and zt 7s possible that the
mangolds, contaiuing as they do such a very large amount of sac-
charine matter, may on this account be somewhat less appropriate
as an accompaniment to the malt than to the barley. Upon the
whole, however, we see in the facts adduced in reference to this
VOL. xX. Yy
322 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
series, as well as to the one previously discussed, nothing whatever
that is favourable to the malt, as compared with the barley; and,
indeed, taking the results as they stand, the simpler process of
steeping seems prominently to exceed in effect the more expensive
one of malting. As, however, we have before remarked, gross
increase is ut a conditional indication of the progress of the
animal, as we shall endeavour to illustrate further on.
As a check upon these trials between barley and malt in the
shed, the remainder of the flock, after the selection for the expe-
rimental pens had been made, were allotted, sheep by sheep,
according to weights, into two nearly equal sets. To one of these
were given 3 lb. of barley and 4 |b. of clover-chaff per sheep per
day ; and to the other, malt and dust, the produce of 4 |b. of barley
and 4 lb. of clover-chaff; the two lots being penned side by side in
the field, and both allowed as many swedes as they chose to eat.
The results are given in the following Table :—
Taste 4.—Showing the Total and Average Weekly Increase per
Sheep, of 27 Animals fed with Malt, Clover-Chaff, and Swedes;
and 27 upon Barley, Clover-chaff, and Swedes, both lots in the field,
during a period of 9 weeks.
| | ]
| 2.T otal Total Average
| Description and Quantities of Food | Weight | Weight as Weekly
She per Sheep per Week. | in lbs. in lbs. 9 Weeks Gain
ver | March 12.| May 14. Sper Sheep.
i 34 lbs. Clover-chaff ; 3} lbs. Barley ; and 2 | KS | a %
zt ; Swedes, ad lib. : ANGE) Gee Gt 4 3602 2000 abe Dinas
| 3% lbs. Clover-chatf, Malt. and Dust, ) | |
27 | produced from 34 lbs. of Barley ; and 3598 40354 4374 1°123
Swedbss ad Ubsisi.) icc 0 esis fe peter pteres | |
In this experiment it cannot be considered that the food was
either ill adapted to the habits or tastes of the animals, or to the
season of the year at which the trial was made; and here again,
as in the previous trials, which might by some, perhaps, be con-
sidered to be open to more or less objection, we have a result
still in favour of the barley. The difference, it is true, is not
great; yet, if it be not sufficient to show a decided superiority in
the barley as compared with the malt, it nevertheless clearly
indicates that there was no advantage in the use of the latter, the
more expensive substitute; and since the result, as here given,
does not stand alone, but is consistent with those of the two pre-
ceding trials, we must confess that at least, so far as the produc-
tion of gross increase or live weight of sheep * is concerned, we
can see nothing in the experiments which should favour the opinion
* The question as to the utility of malt as food for oxen is of course only settled by
inference from these experiments with sheep ; but even were itshown that the effects were
greater with the former than with the latter, the cost of the malting process and the
depreciation of the manure would have to be considered before deciding upon its use.
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 323
that the extended use of malt would be of any material benefit
to the farmer.
The animals on oil-cake, in pen 6, are seen to show a much
higher increase than those in any of the other pens. Since, how-
ever, they had not, at the commencement of the use of that food
(with the exception of a single animal), regained the weights as
at first put up, it is probable that the rapid increase afterwards
may unduly represent the effects of the oil-cake, so that we do
not much insist upon the comparisons they might otherwise afford
in relation to the question of increase, though the results will not
be open to objection on this account, when we come to the material
one of the manure produced.
We now turn to a consideration of the composition of the several
foods consumed ; and in the following Tabie are given the results
of analyses in reference to their contents in dry organic substance,
in mineral matter, and in nitrogen :—
SERIES IV.
Description of Food, Particulars of Sampling, &c. Per-centage Composition.
TABLE 5.—Showing the particulars of Sampling, and the per Centage of Dry
Matter, Ash, Nitrogen, &c., in the several descriptions of Food consumed.
Dry Matter. Ash. Nitrogen.
Period of : Weichti.||tessaace:
F ‘Particulars 2
Description USE OTe and | ete Inclu- On In Tels: In in
of Date of “ sive ., | fresh | g fresh |
eee P | Drying, ganic : Ty a Iry
Food. | Sampling. | rae of ale UDR [eaters suUs enattor
From | To : Ash stance. “| stance.
———s — -— —_ — — = — | — | —__ -_—.
| | Ibs. oz
Long Red Man- | Mar.20 | Apr. 17; Mar. 16 00 2 12°94 11°938 1°002 | 7°743 | 0°30 2 36
gold, No. 1 |
Ditto, No. 2 .| Apr. 17 | May 29 | Apr. 30 46 74 13°14 | 12°161) 0°979 | 7°447 | 0°28 2°18
‘ ae) | ee eS ee ee a | es
Mean ,_ . | 13°04 | 12°049, 0°990 | 7°595 | 0°29 ORs
e | | |
Barley. . . | Mar.20|May29| Mar.12 | 2samples, | 81°84 | 79°51 | 2°32 | 2°84 | 1°45) 1:78
100 oz. each |
Malt . = ..| Mar.20| May 29| Mar.12 | 2samples, | 95°39 | 92°78} 2°60 | 2°73 | 1°62] 1°70
; 100 oz. each
Malt Dust . Mar. 20 | May 29} Mar.12 | 2samples, | 93°76 | 85°06 | 8°70 | 9°28 | 4°10) 4°38
100 oz. each |
Oileake. . . | Apr.17| May 29| Apr.26 | 2samples, | 89°74 | 83°60 | 6°12 | 6°82 | 5°26) 5°87
| #5 0z. each | | |
| |
The two lots of mangold-wurzel were from different fields,
No. 1 having been somewhat more highly manured than No. 2:
and we find at the same time a slightly higher per-centage of
nitrogen in the former than in the latter. This might have been
due to changes in the clamp as the season advanced, the lot
No. 2 being sampled and used later than No. 1. The relative
per-centages of dry matter and of ash in the two specimens support
the notion, however, that there wasin reality some variation in the
>
Y «z
324 Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
composition of the mangolds as produced; for with the higher
manuring and higher per-centage of nitrogen we have a lower
amount of dry substance, and a higher amount of ash, conditions
which lead to the supposition that the plants were not so ripe
when drawn from the land as the others; and it is not improbable
that much of the bad effect of tne mangolds at the commencement
was, in fact, due to a deficient maturation, which both analysis
and experience would indicate was more perfect as the season
progressed. For our present purpose the mean composition of
the two specimens will be taken as sufficiently near the truth.
The oil-cake here, as in former instances, is seen to contain a -
considerably higher per-centage of nitrogen than any of the foods
tried by its side—indeed, weight for weight, it contains more than
three times as much of that element as either the barley or the
malt. The important fact is here seen also, that the malt-dust
contains about 24 times as high a per-centage of nitrogen as the
screened malt; from which we learn, that although the quantity
of “dust” bears but a small proportion to that of the malt, yet it
may on this account be of much importance that it should not be
separated from malt which is to be used as food. The “malt-
dust’’ is, moreover, richer than the malt, in mineral matter, to
a greater extent than in nitrogen. ‘The malt is seen to be,
weight for weight, considerably richer than the barley in dry
organic substance, and rather so in mineral matter and in nitro-
gen; the weight of the malt, however, being much less than that
of the barley which produced it, this superiority in composition is
owing tothe Joss of water only; and we see, accordingly, that both
mineral matter and nitrogen, though higher in the malt in the fresh
state than in the barley in the same, are in a lower per-centage
to the dry organic substance.
We shall now give such a sketch of the malting-process as will
aid a conception of the losses to which the barley submitted to it
is subject.
The malt used in the first series of experiments was made at
the premises of Mr. William Lattimore, of Wheathamstead, who
kindly observed and supplied an account of the weights and mea-
sures of the barley, and of the malt, and of the “ dust” produced.
The process was, however, in this case conducted very late in the
malting season; and as the sampling for analysis was not made at
the time of taking the weights, and as both malt and dust gained
moisture, and therefore weight, very considerably after leaving
the kiln-room, it was not thought that the results of further ex-
amination in the laboratory would be sufficiently trustworthy to
repay the expenditure of labour.
In order to trace with more certainty some of the changes
which take place during the process, permission was asked and —
lad
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 525
freely granted by the Board of Excise to disturb the “ floors,”
and remove samples for analysis from time to time, at the malting
of Mr. Curtis of Harpenden, who kindly fontlered the end in
view by his assistance and advice.
The barley being all measured over, the weight of every eighth
bushel being taken, an average was struck from which the actual
weight of the barley to be steeped could be calculated. ‘The
grain, as is well known, first remains for a certain time ina cistern
under water, where it swells considerably, having absorbed a large
quantity of water, and lost by solution a considerable amount of
saline matter and of organic substance containing nitrogen. The
water being run off, the ‘‘ wetted” grain is then removed to the
“couch,” where it remains for some time in a layer of from ]2 to
16 inches in depth. It is afterwards spread out at aless depth on
the floor, and is frequently turned over, and moved along by degrees
from time to time, until it is conceived to be sufficiently grown,
when, provided it has been in progress as long as is required by
the rules of the Excise, it is dried in the kiln, ivere it 1s placed
upon a frame of wire- “gauze, which allows more or less of the
young shoots or “ dust” to pass through; this portion being then
called “ hiln-dust,’ which being contaminated with the ashes from
the furnace is rendered unfit for food. ‘The remainder of the
young shoots still adhering to the grain is separated by treading
and screening, and the dust thus obtained is distinguished as
“‘ malt-dust,” and is valued for feeding purposes.
Samples were taken of the barley, of the wetted barley in the
couch, and several times afterwards from the “ floors,”’ at intervals
of about four days, and finally from the malt and the several qua-
lities of dust; and the following Table provides a view of the re-
sults of analysis so far as already proceeded with, and as is essential
for our present purpose, though specimens of all the products
have been sufficiently dried for preservation, in order that the
subject may be more fully worked out when leisure shall
permit :—
SERIES IV.
TABLE 6.—Showing the Composition of Specimens of Barley, and
products, taken at intervals as the Malting process proceeds.
] | |
Let | Description | Dry Matter. Ree rea aes im a ee ye
Y of | |
Sampling. | Period ed pels Organic In In Dry In | In Dry
(Days). Ash. only. | Fresh. | Matter.| Fresh. | Matter.
Feb. 14 ey Dry, Barleyys gs2 < 81°84 | 79°51 2°325 2°841 | 1°45 1°78
ae a8 4 Inthecouch . . 57°74 |
avers 4 Growings) 5... 4. |, 57°86 |
eG) 4 Witton ee eae 2a | |
March 3 5 Dittoves rs See VSS | |
ss 6 3 DELON ee ea oos an
cence 1 Malt. . 5 ly MRSS) 1) CEMA OTROS Wi) SOO rs als alah) 1°70
‘ ae Malt Dust& Kiln Dus st| 93°76 | 88°06 | 8°70 | 9°285] 4:j9 4°38
| \ {
ee
326 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
For the purposes of these determinations four samples were
usually taken, each consisting of 100 ounces. All of these were
immediately so far dried in a stove as to prevent their further
growth, and render them fit for preservation. Two of the lots
were then fully dried and burnt, thus giving the per-centages
of dry-matter and ash respectively ; ; the other samples remaining
for further examination at any future time.
From the first column of Table 6 we learn that the barley
acquired nearly half its weight of water in the steep-cistern, and
that this amount was gradually reduced as the growth proceeded,
for the per-centage of dry matter is seen to increase at a some-
what uniform rate of progression. ‘The exhalation would appear
to be somewhat more rapid as the process advances, for it is greater
during the period from the 22nd to the 26th than in the previous
one, notwithstanding 568 lbs. of water had been sprinkled upon
the floor.
At the period of each of these samplings the whole of the grain
on the floor was measured, and the weight of every eighth bushel
taken, from which the average being struck, the actual weight on
the floor could be determined.
The actual and the applied results of these measurings, weigh-
ings, samplings, dryings, &c., are arranged in the following
Tables :—
SERIES IV.
ABLE 7.—Showing the Actual and Corrected Quantities of Barley, Malt,
and Intermediate Products of the Malting Process.
A | | |
cy Actual Cor- Total
p a ea . 6
= cz Description | Number| Weight | guen Qpanely rected fo Dry eels Total
Sle coe of of per | 2 eye Organic Nitrogen
= By orS |: Specimens, | Bughels!| Bashel. as ptox Weight Matter Matter Matter ening
= g a P / Weighed Samples.) in Ibs. | in Ibs. | jy), | in Ibs. j
QF '!4h in Ibs. | Fresh. :
Feb. i4| .. | Dry Barley 144 53 7,632 | ee 7,632 | 6,246 | 6,0681 | 1774 | 110°6
|
;, 18} 4]|Inthecouch| ., SEANAD kid ty (igh OR
», 22| 4 | Growing «| 2514 41% |10,482 | 25 | 10,504 | 6,0773
,, 26| 4| Ditto. .| 288 36 |10,368 | 25 | 10,4143/ 6,0632
Mar.3| 5 | Ditto . .| 295 334 | 9,9412 | 25 10,0104] 5,889
39 6 3 Ditto e e ee ee | oe 25
yo TTL [aMalt t,. Mlepaap 40} | 5,837 ar, 5,907%| 5,6354/ 5,4814 | 153°90 | 95°7
Malt-dust . Aa ie 190 F 5
Ral eeaeee ee he We e. 266 249}, 2344 | 23°14 | 10°90
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 327
TABLE 8.—Showing the Proportion to 100 of Barley, of the several
Products of the Malting Process.
Date =o ig ; |
SR Description Dry :
of bos P : Dry 4) allt Mineral | x,
; i gas of | Fresh. | Organic | x¢- Nitrogen.
Sampling. Sau Specimens. Matter. ETE: | Matter.
Heb mmecM een (Barley ry ue a 100 100 | 100 | 100 100
1) 22 6 8 | Ditto, growing. . 137 97°30
Ree PA ge 4 Witton ittoewks -.61) 136 97°07 |
Mar. 3 5 Dittondittor.: .. . 130 94°28 | |
Meee 2 Malta, yo yo rece (7774 90°22 90°32 | 86°74 | 86°52
Malt-dust ’
: ok 3°99 | *85 43? 9°85
Kslneduse.¢ 3°48 3°99 3°85 13°04
Total products . , 80°89 | 94°21-] 94°17 99°78 96°37
LLCS MEIGS MRI a OO | 5°79 5°83 0°22 3°63
Mota creas oh. elO0S 00% je. 100700 10006 | 100700 | 100°00
|
|
Ve learn from Table §, that although the weight of the pro-
ie malt was 224 per cent. less on that of the barley which
yielded it, yet the mon in dry substance was less than half as much ;
that of mineral matter and nitrogen is, however, proportionably
greater than that of the gross dry vegetable substance. If, how-
ever, we include the “ dust,” or young shoots, as a product of the
process, the loss is considerably lessened, for then we have a reduc-
tion of scarcely 6, instead of 10 per cent. of dry organic substance,
and of scarcely 4 instead of 134 per cent. of nitrogen. The loss
in mineral matter also would appear from the figures to be still
less considerable, when the dust is received into the calculations:
as however the crude ashes of the products are here assumed to
represent their mineral contents, it is obvious that the estimate of
them in the Table is somewhat too high, and this indeed is the less
to be doubted when the large amount of saline substances carried
off in the steep water are borne in mind. It is worthy of especial
remark that the nitrogen in the “ dust ” amounts to 3th as much as
is contained in the whole amount of malt produced! Itis evident
then, that when malt is used for feeding purposes, the important
nitrogenous constituents of food are reduced by about 13 per cent.
of the entire amount contained in the barley, unless the “dust”
be also supplied to the animals. Whilst, judging trom the quali-
ties of other highly nitrogenous yet young and very succulent vege-
table substances, it would appear by no means improbable that the
9 or 10 per cent. of the whole retained in the dust may have lost
much of its nutritive properties. We have, however, seen on several
occasions in the course of our report that the condition and quality
of the non-nitrogenous constituents of food, as well as those of the
nitrogenous ones, materially determines its productive effects; and
if the results of experiments in the shed, or in the field, were found
clearly to bear testimony as to the increased value of barley as food
after being subjected to the malting process, we should be bound
328 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
to conclude that by the conversion of the starch into sugar, or
whatever the changes may be, the loss of the admittedly valuable
nitrogenous compounds had been, toa certain degree, compensated.
Our experiments with sheep, hoveran have led us to no such con-
clusion, whilst an analytical examination of the malting process has
shown that in the barley submitted to it there is a reduction in
some of its constituents which must obviously influence the value
of the manure resulting from the consumption of the produced
malt, Whilst, however, the results detailed do not in any degree
encourage the idea that a much more extended use of malt for
feeding purposes would prove to be of essential service to the
farmer, we at the same time do not doubt, that, leaving out of view
its cost, and the consideration of the comparative value of the
manure produced, its occasional employment in admixture or
alternation with other articles of food, may havea favourable influ-
ence upon the progress of the animal; and, indeed, when used as
a relish rather than as a staple article of food, it is as such an use-
ful and genial auxiliary. But, in speculating as to the economy of
its adoption, the loss of manuring constituents must always be
charged against it; whilst the cost of the process of manufacture,
as estimated by Mr. Curtis, would, at the lowest calculation, amount
to 2s, 6d. per quarter on the barley, provided the process were
conducted as is usual for brewing purposes. It is probable, how-
ever, that a comparatively partial growth might yield a somewhat
better result, with a cost and loss proportionally reduced ; and such
a process might indeed be suggested for trial as an improvement
upon that of “merely steeping, in cases where it may be deemed
expedient to consume the highly elaborated* cereal grains upon the
farm.
Having given some account of the per centage composition of
the several foods employed in the experiments, and of the pre-
paration of the malt, we now turn to the application of the in-
formation thus provided to the actual facts of the feeding experi-
ments themselves.
In the next Table are given the total increase in live weights
in the several pens during the 10 weeks of the experimental
period, and the total amounts of fresh food, of dry organic matter,
of mineral matter, and of nitrogen consumed to produce it.
* Tt is true that the samples of the cereal grains which are generally used as food for
stock are not as cereal grains “highly elaborated ;” though when compared with other
articles of cattle food of home production they are so in an eminent degree, whilst
they have been produced at a cost which would require that their beneficial effects
upon the animal should be very considerable, if it is to be repaid by their consumption
upon the farm to a great extent as the means of obtaining manure, the ultimate object
of which ts the reproduction of the same description of produce, but possibly of a
better quality.
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 329
SERIES IV.
TasBiE 9.—Showing the Total Amount of Food or Constituents consumed,
and of Increase produced, in each Pen, during the Experimental Period.
Nitrogen
Totaly4|), : in
Total Total ior Total Hopat Nitrogen} Increase
Increase Food | Oseanic (Mineral /Nitrogen in at 3
in Live Description of Food Con- Bi Matter x Increase | nerCent.)
5 Matter . Con- ; Pp :
Weight sumed | “yn. Con- at 3 to 100
in 10 consumed. Fresh. anand’ sumed, | sumed. |perCent.| (Con-
Weeks. sumed.
Pen | Barley(Ground but not Steeped )} 280°0 | 222°64 6°51 4°06
4 81 Mangolds ° ° . - |38867°0 465°93 38°28 VLOP 2°43 13°91
Sheep Total . . |4147°0 688°57 44°79 15°27
Pen 2 Malt (Ground but not Steeped)| 271°25 | 251°67 7°06 4°39
5 105 | Malt Dust . ° . ° 12°03 10°23 1°04 0°49
Sheep Mangolds . 6 ° . 4693°60 | 565°53 46°46 13°61 Bia) 17°03
Total . . [4976-88 | 827°38 | 54°56 | 18-49
Pen 3 Barley (Ground and Steeped). | 280°0 | 222°64 6°51 4°06
4 1014 | Mangolds 6 e ° « [5321°7 641°21 52°68 15°43 3°C4 15°62
—— | ——_—_——— ————— || _———
Sheep Total . » |[5601°7 | 863°85 | 59°19 | 19°49
Pen 4 Malt (Ground and Steeped) . | 217°0 201°34 5° 65 3°51
4 78 | Malt Dust . 6 é a 9°6 8°16 0°83 0°39
Sheep Mangolds e ° ° e |4458°0 537° 14 44°13 12°92 2°34 13°91
Total . 2 |4684°6 746°64 50°61 16°82
Pen 5 Malt (Ground but not Steeped)| 335°0 | 310°82 8°72 5°42
5 108 Malt Dust . ° ° ° 15°0 12°76 1°30 0°61
Sheep Mangolds ., ° : - (5403°9 | 651°11 | 53°49 | 15°67 3°24 | 14°93
Total . . (9753°9 974°69 63°51 21°70
Pen 6 In Oil-Cake 6 ° ° » | 142°8 | 128°14 8°73 7°51
6 Weeks
+ 73 Mangolds . ° ° e |2635°9 317°59 26°09 7°64 2°19 14°44
Sheep Total. « |2778°7 | 445°73 | 34°82 | 15°15
6 Pens, Total special food . . 1562} | 13683 | 46°35 | 30°44
26 5464 Total mangold wurzel . | 263803 | 31783 | 261°13 | 76°48 | 16°39
——_ +__—_—_
Sheep sam ee |] |
Total , e | 279423 4547 3074 106°92
|
The comparative indications of this Table will be more con-
veniently studied when the results are arranged to an uniform
standard, as in those which shortly follow; but, attention may
here be recalled to the enormous expenditure of food and its
constituents to obtain a comparatively small amount of market-
able produce, as shown in the aggregate result given at the foot
of the Table. Itis seen that for the production of 5463 lbs. of
increased live-weight, there are. consumed 1,562 lbs. of barley,
malt, or oil cake, and 26,380 lbs., or nearly 12 tons, of mangold
wurzel—together containing 4,547 lbs. of dry organic substance,
3074 lbs. of mineral matter, and 107 Ibs. of nitrogen. It may
be observed too that, on the supposition that the increase pro-
duced pretty constantly contained 3 per cent. of nitrogen, the
aiount of this element stored up in the animal, in proportion to
330 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
that supplied in the food, is more uniform throughout the pens,
and that the average amount is greater in this than in the former
series of experiments.
In the following Tables are given the amounts of food or con-
stituents consumed weekly in each pen, to every 100 lbs. live
weight of animal, and also the amounts consumed to produce
100 lbs. increase in live weight.
In the first division of Table 10 we at once observe that there
was a considerably larger quantity of mangold-wurzel consumed
per week to an equal live weight of animal, with the steeped
barley, than with any of the other foods; and if we turn to the
second division of the Table, we shall gather that this cannot
altogether be accounted for by the demand of the system for non-
nitrogenous organic matter, unless, indeed, there was in this case
a more rapid expenditure of food than in the others, which how-
ever not improbably was the case, since in this instance the in-
crease Was greater than in the rest. ‘There is, nevertheless, some
indication that such demand did so operate to a certain extent.
Thus, taking the instances of pens | and 3, in both of which the
special food was barley, we find that with the smaller amount of
dry organic substance in the barley (of which the composition,
though not the condition, would of course be similar in the two
cases) of pen 3 than in that of pen I, there is at the same time in
the former a more than compensating increased amount consumed
in the mangolds; and again, taking pens 2 and 4, with malt,
we see that with the smaller amount of dry organic matter
consumed in the malt in pen 4, there is at the same time an
increased amount in the mangolds, The Sth pen, also having
malt as a special food, is, however, quite an exception to this
rule; for with about one-fourth more dry organic substance in
the malt than in either pen 2 or pen 4, we have at the same time
a larger quantity consumed in the mangolds, the cause of
which may possibly be sought in the fact before alluded to, of
a more active circulation and passage of the food in and
through the body, dependent here probably upon the larger
amount of the more fully elaborated and less amount of the crude
constituents of the food as supplied in the malt. It is interesting
to observe, too, that, excepting pen 6, there is almost identically
the same order observed in the supply of nitrogen as in that of
the dry organic matter in the respective foods of the several pens.
This is a result very contrary to that obtained in the former
series, but as there was here a much more uniform proportion of
the nitrogenous to the non-nitrogenous compounds in the several
foods than in those of the other cases, it 1s not in any degree
opposed to the conclusion before arrived at, viz. that consumption
is, within a certain limit, regulated more by the amount of the
31
e
3
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
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332 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
non-nitrogenous, than of the nztrogenous constituents supplied in
the food; whilst the much larger amount of the latter consumed
in the oie cake pen than in any of the others, with, at the same time,
anearly identical amount of the former, would seem to afford con-
firmation of this supposition.
“Tour ning to Table 11, we observe a striking uniformity 1 in the
quantities of nitrogen consumed to produce a given amount of
increase. It is seen, however, that the case most exceptional in-
this respect is that of the dry malt in pen 2, in which, according
to the Table, a less amount both of dry organic matter and of
nitrogen has been required than in any of the other cases with
mnalt or with barley. It has been before explained, however,
that the indications of that pen, as calculated on the experimental
period, were probably more open to objection than those of the
rest, whilst the results of pens 4 and 5, the one with steeped and
the other with the larger amount of dry malt, would seem to dis-
prove the correctness of the conclusions to which the figures as
they stand might lead. It has also been supposed that the
effects due to the oil-cake in pen 6 may probably be somewhat
overstated in the Tables: if this be not the case, however, the
figures in this ‘Table may be taken to show, that in the pen with
oil-cake, wherein the consumption of nitrogen, both within a
Oy en time and in proportion to other organic constituents, was
Hale as great again as in any of the other pens, the amount of it
comsumed to “produce a given amount of increase is almost
identical with the average of the other pens, whilst that of the
gross dry organic matter is very much less than in any of the other
instances. ‘This fact, if it be to be relied upon, would lead us
to conclude that the nitrogen taken in the pens with barley and
se though proportionally uniform throughout, was insufficient
amount to turn to full account the large quantity of highly
Soeeeal non-nitrogenous compounds as supplied in the cereal
grains in these cases. ‘The weekly supply of it, mdeed, was not
much below the average in the former series, but in these the
food was rarely, if ever, so rich in the more perfected non-nitro-
genous constituents as in the instances at present under notice.
It was our intention to have given the results of a fifth series
of experiments with sheep before leaving the question of the
gross increase in live weight of the animal : as, however, the de-
tails connected with this branch of our subject have already ex-
tended beyond the limits originally anticipated, we shall defer, unul
some future occasion, the further consideration of such matter.
Before closing the present article, however, it will be useful to
provide in a tabular form a summary of some of the results
already discussed, and to this we shall subjoin a collected state-
ment of any of such results of other observers in relation to this
subject as we at present remember to have met with.
N99
JO)
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
SUMMARY.
TaBLeE 1.--Showing the Weekly Consumption of Dry Organic Matter
and of Nitrogen for each 100 lbs. Live Weight of Animal, as indi-
cated by the results of the several series of Experiments with Sheep.
Sertirs 1, SeRTEs 2. SERIES 3. SeRIEs 4,
an) Norfolk Whites, oops <a |
| Special Food : grown by Special Heol:
| Special Food : | Mineral Manure; | Barley (ary),
Saas oe an | Oileake, aes ie cae ma Malt (dry),
Oilcake, Oats, . : S x oit..| Barley (steeped),
Linseed, Barley, | Ammoniacal Salts ; Malt (steeped)
| Clover-chaff; Malt; (i eee 2t)| Extra Matei(dry)s
ypstandard Hood’: Standard Food ; i Ditto and Uillcalel;
Swedes, Cloverchatr "| Rape-cake and Rete Reed:
ts aaa Ammoniacal Salts. her raw
ac a il ees ee pit planes
|
Pen 1 | 12°31 16°71 14°33 12°92
Pen 2 12-94 15°87 13:00 iD ka7ey
Pen 3 14:76 16°37 12°50 14°69
Pen 4 11-24 16°54 11°25 12°47
Pen 5 Beis | anes 13°52
Pen 6 is sls ae 13°08
: Sai Tears GU CED ( Se aaa SHAPER | PLOT OR Gd cera
Meaty vas. | 1281, | 16°37 120) ee 12°96
| |
NITROGEN,
| SeriEs l. SERIFS 2, SERIES 3. | SERIES 4.
{ —
| Norfolk Whites a7 :
’ | Special Food : grown by See. ao
| Speci Food: | Oileake, Pet weapon 5 Mane (ary),
Ollcalce,/Oats, | Linseed, Barley, | Ammoniacal Salts ; Male Gene ay u
Clover-chaff’; Malt ; ook ir) | Batra Malt (dry);
| Standard Food : Standard Food : | . Ditoiand a Oilcakes;
Swedes. Cl x half | Ranecakeana Sapa ea
| : over-enal’ | Ammoniacal Salts. a ee
Pen 1 0:39 0-60 | 0:24 0:27
Pen 2 25 | 0°51 0229 0:26
Pen 3 0°26 | 0-41 | 0°31 0:33
Pen4 | 0°17 | 0-40 | 0°39 0-28
Pen 5 | Sines | one | Si isea 0°30
Pen 6 eens | mae see 0°45
Mean. . O27 oir. .| Qs48ue; |. O53 | 0-31
|
Dry OrGanic MATTER.
384 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
MINERAL MATTER.
| |
Series l, | SERIEs 2. SERIES 3. SeRIEs 4.
| Norfolk Whites, |
Special Food :
Special Food: | grown by
Special Food : Oileake Mineral Manure ; ae ae cay. 2
Oe. | z Ditto and :
Onlcalve 1Gats; | Linseed, Barley, Ammoniacal Salts ;} Barley Creeper).
Clover-chaff ; Malt: Ditto - : t cS Tera )»
| Standard Food : wat. | and Naperenkes ey teaces o>
(ie ‘| Standard Food : Ditto and Re ae eANRood:
| Swedes. Glove ener Rape-cake and Sat 1 ae ;
| 2 Ammoniacal Salts. eas
Pen? | 0-71 | 1°45 1:03 0-79
Pen 2 | 0°60 | 1°28 1°06 0:76
Pen 3 | 0:95 1°25 eae 1-00
Pen4 | 0-61 1+24 1:09 0°83
Pen a . e se e e s 0 = 88
Pen6 | cat Bee ene 1-04
Meany }:-j «| 0°72 1°30 1°07 0-88
SUMMARY.
TaBLE 2.--Showing the Consumption of Dry Organie Matter and
of Nitrogen to produce 100 lbs. Increase in Live Weight, as indi-
cated by the results of the several series of Experiments with Sheep.
Dry OrGANIC MATTER.
| SERIES 1. SERIES 2. SERIES 3. SERIES 4.
| | | Norfolk Whites F =
| : Special Food : _ grown by : | ee on
| Special Food : Oilcake, Mint ae 5 | Malt (dry >;
| Oileake, Oats, Linseed, Barley, _Ammoniacal Salts : pe. eas
| Clover-chaff ; M Ditto l Mal v 4
| Malt ; d Rape-cake; | “*t2 78 t (dry),
Standard Food : | Bee oS] Oilcake ;
ae Standard Food: | Ditto and ; StaridariuFaod:
wedes. | x | Rape-cake an | ; E
| - | Clover-chaff. var oneal Sults,| - Mangolds.
eee — -___. =e SS =
Pend |) <817-25 | 1424°0 | 2288-25 | §49-93
| "
Pen 2 | 736°25 1433°5 1321-23 | 7&8°28
| |
Pen 3 | 838°50 1504-0 | 2371°25 850-98
Pen4 | 101500 1723-5. | oie | 957-58
Pens | Le oar | om | 902-89
Pen 6 | were Bigs0 | 2 tee 598°48
SSS ES ee eee a |
| |
Mean) a7.) 864*25 | 1521°25 | 1993*58 824-68
| } |
Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 335
NITROGEN,
a,
SERIES l, SERIES 2. | SERIES 3, Serigs 4,
| Norfolk Whites Ms
Special Food : | grown by me cies Hove :
Special Food : Oileake | Mineral Manure; ERE
: aa | Ditto and Pits 7
Oilcake, Oats, Linseed, Barley, Ammoniacal Salts; | Raney Gteeped),
Clover-chaff ; Malt; | Iiktto I ext Male cae
Standard Food : | and Rapecake; | Oil ok ( Ty);
toe pee Standard Food : Ditto and St ‘ aa Fr ae
Swedes. | | Rape-cake and re STC OOU
| Clover-chaff. | ; Mangolds
| Ammoniacal Salts. 5 7
— —_—— a —- ——
Pen 1 96°59 | 50:92 | 39°00 | 18-84
Pen 2 16° 2407. | 45°90 | 29-50 17:61
. ' |
Pen 38 16-23 | 37°26 | 60°75 19-19
Pend | 16+13 42-19 | a 21-58
Pen 5 z e e | . . 20 . 10
Ren 6 | 5 8 lemme Ie axe | ut | 20°75
EE Se ce
|
|
Wea 2s =‘. 18-80 44-07 | 43-08 19°67
| |
MINERAL MatTrTer,
| |
SERIEs 1. SERIES 2. SERIES 3. | SERIES 4.
| Tre eae |
Norfolk Whites, | oe as :
Special Food : rown by npecial Bonde
Special Food : | Mineral Manure ; Barley Cru),
< | 5 i v\ 3 ~
heroine one, 4 cess Dittoand. | ie Foes
Daten 78 | einseed. Barley, Ammoniacal Salts ; | Malt Gieeeans
Clover-chaff; | p Ditto * 2?
Senietd Food: | me and Rape-eakes | SG ai Ary)
ee. | Standard Food : Ditto and Standard Food 1
Swedes. Mee sete Rape-cake and pa
| WM att | Ammoniacal Salts. Mangolds.
Pen 1 Ag *T2e if)" 194-07 164 | 55+ 29
Pen 2 26:97, ||. 116;23 | 1063 | 52-02
Pen 3 se-9g— | 114:90 | 2128 | 58°31
| |
Pen 4 56°74 | 130+48 | capa 64-96
Pen 5 out Sean iy 58 +89
Pen 6 eae a Rn suis 47:70
Mean . . 121°40 161°17 56°19
336 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
TABLE, showing the Consumption of Food and the Increase of Animal
per Week, for each 100 lbs. Live Weight,* as recorded by various
observers.
BEASTS.
f Food consumed per Week to Tareas
Description |Number Donen each 100 Bes Hive weight of per Weeste
of of Exr ore Authority. meres upon each
Animal. Animals| “Dt 2 or am ara Gai 100 lbs.
Description. |Quantities. |!ve weight.
Wks. Days vel lbs. 02. hee
Linseed . . 0 13!
Oxen . . 4 5 0 | H.S. Thomson Bean-meal_ . 2125 |} 1 8
Straw & turnips oes
Oileake . . 113
Oxens haro wee 4 4 0) H.S. Thomson Bean-meal_ . 1 13 ae
Turnips cy ye : |
| Peasig i veins 1 13
Oxen §. ..| 6 | 22 °0 | Mr. Postle Linseed . . 0 8 0 14
| | Turnips . . {| 64 0
| Oilcake 3 5
r | 2 2 0
Oxen ise os 6) Wy 22) NO) emt : Tami eaeee \ 0 134
Oxen rie ga) wT 9 0| J. H. Leigh | culate esti tL Ae
Doe ae ue 30 L 10.0 Ditto® <-,. A Rates cull sceeaulee
* Tt is obvious that, if description of animal, breed, age, length of continuance upon
the same food, &c., have any influence upon the progress of the animal, these Tables
of weekly consumption of food, and weekly gain upon 100 Ibs. of live weight, cannot
be taken as supplying facts in every respect strictly comparabie with each other. They
may, however, be taken as affording some useful information as to the average result
of the feeding process, by which at the same time some judgment may be formed as to
how far our own results agree in the main with those of other observers. The method
adopted in the construction of the Tables, with the view of bringing to one uniform
standard results obtained under such dissimilarity of circumstance, has been to calcu-
late the food consumed and the increase obtained upon the mean weight of the animal,
as illustrated by the following example :—
Five Downs fed at Rothamsted for 14 weeks, upon oats and swedes, gained 1314 Ibs,
The weights were :
Atcommencement . . . © 908
Atconclusion . « %» « .« 689%
2)1247+5
Mean weight. . » 623-75 lbs.
The total gain for 14 weeks being 1314 lbs., the weekly gain would be 9°4 Ibs.
Then say—
623°75 : 9°4 ome 100
100
623+75)940°000(1°5 = 1 Ib. 802.
623-75
316°250
311°875
weekly gain upon 100 Ibs, live weight, the food being estimated in like manner.
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 337
TABLE, showing the Consumption of Food and the Increase of Animal
per Week, for each 100 lbs. Live Weight, as recorded by various
observers.
SHEEP.
: Food consumed per Week to I
Saye | Duration each 100 lbs. live weight of CreASe
Description |Number of TEC per Week
of ha OF Experi- Authority. i upon each
Animal. Animals} ment, 100 lbs.
Description. |Quantities. live weight.
| Wks. Days Ibs. oz. | Ibs. oz.
Cotswold Ewes) 10 8 0| Rev. A. Huxtable! . : sare 2 3
Do. e e 10 8 0 Do. ry e ° ° ° ° 1 84
Leicester Ist Week Swedes} . .
Lambs in 10 4 0 Do. 3) eo last (ages waht 3 93
Shed. . J! Weeks | Barley
Leicester |
Lambs in 10 ATOR ie DOrwee .y-t ) owedesonly: Slee 1 12¢
Field. . | |
Dee iegg) | 10 5 |. B Lawes Se cleo aa
Wether Tegs sane 4 : if =
Oil-cake .. 5 38
Swedes . . | 72
Oats. Fh, 6 1
Swedes . . | 66
Clover Chaff, 6
Swedes . . | 91
Downs . . 5 14 0 DOR ihre
LDS: St Sele 14s +0 Dos ven.
e. e e
pws OOO
woet NS ©
Dow e % 5 14 0 IBYe}s. arene
Nie BR bl=
—
—
bo
B=
Do ese. 4 14 0 DOr, cee Swedes . . | 98° 5 1 1%
| OP De... tl Cie cram 116 ae |p! 2
Dor +: 3 19 0 Doras i Gieesaiaal id 1s M1 MN
Boe | | 19 De. Clove Chat | so puoi
Do. . on) Ter 0") Do { arya ea | 15 ibe bo 153
Dae versit 8 2S pee ii(De; 6. . | : : : 1 08
Do + + 5 9 0 Do. { anes of ie a 52
Do.) (5G) ond 9 0| Do . fees | ae a 64
Bets) ule | 810,401 eee aie calle af
Sheep . . 5 16 0 | Morton \ Sai ‘ 100 i eng}
Do [MBL] Teoers. “sf Se ee anes
Do." Beale 161,40 | Do. { Se a i i 196
Do 5 | TeiMlahDoy ints, “(Vara i ten gf ee
338 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
: Food consumed per Week to
Pots Duration each 100 lbs, live weight of Increase
Description |Number of ‘Animal. per Week
co) of Experi- Authority. bpon each
Animal. {Animals nt. 100 lbs.
ave Pan i Description. hepeseee live eight.
Wks. Days lbs. 02. lbs. oz.
Sheep . . 5 16 0} Morton . 4 aaa He 5 } sae
; Hayate 5.33
Shem Tel to 5 | 12k + | Lord Radnor .4| Pnicem as i 0 a
fads cat ate Swedes 133 0
Hay.) ., &'. 6 3
Southdown . 5 123 Do. °/ ay egcllsers 12 5 2 153
Swedes . 180 0
Hay C e | 4 6 }
Half-breds . 5 123 Do. : Pulser ge ae 2 62.
Swedes . 138 0 {
Hayes!) suo te 4 8. }}
Cotswold 5 123 Do. . « 4 | Pulser 3 elligmonme 2 3
Swedes . a
Leicester .| 5 TSeeOe Dor . Grass. , eo t 12
Southdown . 5 18 0 Do: °. : Do. al lak: 124
Half-breds . | © 5 | 18 07] Do, «| Aon. bare |. 1,48
Cotswolds. 5) 4/18) 0. |. Doe | Do: 5 eel 0 142
Leicester 5 12 70" Do... - ale Se ai 3 } 2 O04
Southdown. | 5 12 0! Do. 4 aoe eet on ‘ } 1 12
| E 1
Half-breds Bohr Oui, Do, {| swaneopie inlays ty Meine
Cotswold 5) | 12 .0/..Do. Alerts eee pees ae tet
Tee | Oilcake . ./| 2112
ee i 22 | 17 0| Mr. Rt. Woods }| Barley . . | 2114 |$1 83
ae | Turnips . | ad lib.
| Oilcake . 2 113 ;
Half-breds . 22 1s 10.,|.e Do: Barley . . 2115 |) 1 98
Turnips <. . | “ad lib:
Southdown . | 4 10 0| J. B. Lawes 4 i= oF Me 5 } 1 62
| Barley steeped | 412 |
Doi 2) 44 ia on eltao: \cwengaag 90 8 } ie
| Malt,dry .| 4 12
LSA Be ios a aa DA nloMangeldst flee be |) Pg te
| Malt, steeped. | 3 123
Do, 1:6) 64 |KO) 0 ieee 4 Mahgeldé Bate 1. 43
| Malt, dry 4 133
Doge 1) 5) | 10 .0sleDe: | Mangold. a a 8
| Oilcake. . ) 2) ania A
Bop) 224 | 26--0e'Do. « {hchtangeladil : ahem f2 ag
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 389
The reader of the foregoing pages will at once discern that the
results as thus far detailed are not alone fitted for direct application
to those general questions which, in our introductory remarks, we
have stated it to be the object of this investigation to elucidate ; it
beiag obviously essential to such purpose that the collateral in-
formation as to the composition of the increase and of the manure
should also be before us. Some few observations, however, upon
the Tabulated Summary which has been given, as well as upon
the collected results of other experimenters by the side of our
own, might with advantage have been offered in this place, had our
time and space permitted it. The omission is, however, perhaps
the less to be regretted, since the remarks which have been made in
the course of the detailed examination of the results may probably
serve, in the mean time, sufficiently to guide the observations of
the intelligent reader to some of the chief points of interest in
these concluding Tables, whilst, in re-opening the subject in our
next communication, a suitable opportunity will occur for passing
in review the facts already recorded, which, indeed, may now be
accomplished with less fear of undesirable repetition. We pro-
pose, then, in our next, first to recall attention to the facts of
more prominent import which have thus far been brought for-
ward, relating to the consumption of food or its constituents,
and the increase in gross live weight obtained ; then to consider
in detail, first the question of the composition of increase, and
secondly that of the manure produced, each in relation to the
general and special characters of the foods employed ; and, this
being accomplished, we shall be prepared to direct attention to
the more important bearings of the results, especially in relation
ae characters and composition of manuring substances gene-
rally,
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B44)
XVI.—On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. By
Joun C. Morton.
Prize Essay.
AGRICULTURE is an art which, by its plants and its animals,
enables us to gather up and assort those atoms or particles
existing in the air and soil and in vegetables, respectively, which,
thus assorted and combined, are food for man.
That is the theory; and the practice bears it out: for in reality
the farmer does but direct a succession of processes whose effect is
to detach these particles from useless positions and connexions
in earth, air, and water, and from comparatively useless positions
in the substance of plants, in order, with such materials, to erect
the structure of the ripened crop in the one case, or of the
fattened animal in the other. His every act of cultivation, by
assisting the action of atmospheric solvents, loosens these atoms
from previous combinations in the soil—his manuring is a direct
addition to them—his draining furthers their more ready trans-
mission to the roots of his plants—the hoeing by which he
stimulates the growing crop accelerates their assimilation into its
substance; all the details of preparation have for their aim the
easiest and most economical collection of these particles for the
use of man, either as vegetable food or as MEAT on the bodies of
fattening animals.
These remarks may be too general, but they will serve as an
introduction to our subject, by showing—what, however, is evi-
dent, almost at first sight without them—that increase of animal
food, as of every other agricultural product, is to be looked
for in the promotion of an increased fertility of the soil. It
is true that our produce of meat depends much on our animals
being of the largest growth in their best parts and of rapid growth
throughout—much on their being fed on well-selected and
rightly-prepared food in warmth, and comfort, and health—and
much on those crops being grown which best supply this food,
and those kinds of each which are most productive of the parts
required ; but it is the soil ztself* whose substance furnishes that
of the plant in the first place, and that of the animal in the end;
and it is to the fertility of his fields that the farmer should first
look who aims at increasing their productiveness in this as in any
other respect.
For this reason I venture to depart somewhat from the order
in which the Society has dictated the subject, and postponing
consideration of the lean stock supplies, and of other statistical
* I do not forget that the greater part of a plant is supplied by the air: but I
may overlook that here, as the consideration of it would not affect the argument.
VOL. x. FX
342 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
parts of the question, to discuss, in the first place, those answers
which seem to claim the earliest consideration. The question is—
How can we best increase our supplies of animal food ?
And the answers are :—
1. First; by increasing the fertility of our land; by increasing
in the soil the amount of that matter which, after union with con-
tributions from air and from water in the substance of growing
plants, really supplies the very particles which are ultimately
gathered up by animal digestion into the form of meat.
2. Secondly : : after the attainment of a maximum fertility of land,
by such a skilful use of the building materials it supplies, as shall
result in the erection, along with the due proportion of grain and
other vegetable produce for the use of man, of a maximum of
nourishing food for the use of animals. Under this head the
questions | of, arable versus pasture-land—rotations of crops—
selections of the best plants, &c.—will require consideration.
3. And thirdly; after the attaimment of this maximum produce
of food, by the selection of such animals and the adoption of
such modes of treating them as shall occasion the least waste in
the conversion of this food. Here, the qualities of our different
breeds of cattle and sheep as regards early maturity, proportion
of offal, &c.—the various modes of preparing and administering
food—and the methods of housing and treating live stock will
need consideration.
When perfect fertility shall have been attained, and the best
crops in the best order of succession shall have been employed to
develop it; and when the best animals, under the best circum-
stances shall have been fed upon the produce of them, then will
any farm have attained its maximum productiveness of animal
food. And after considering the successive steps to so desirable
an end, it will be necessary to refer to the other points which the
Society has named, and to inquire how far economy in the process
is served by the purchase of lean stock instead of breeding it, or
by keeping animals fattening to greater age than is common; and
taking a national view of the subject it will also be right to inquire
what dependence for the supply of lean stock can be placed on the
sources now in operation.
It will be seen that the subject the Society has proposed is
thus a very extensive one, requiring, if fully treated, a discussion
of what is in fact the whole practice of agriculture. Space, how-
ever, would not be allowed me to enter into such detail as might
be desirable on all the branches of the inquiry; and I shall
therefore give, as briefly as possible, the earlier answers, stating
at full length only those more immediate ones which, prilbad:
might alone, at first sight, appear to belong to it.
I. First; it is to an increased fertility of the soil that we must _
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 343
look as the source of any great or general increase in the produce
of animal food.
The soil, not to speak of its exclusively mechanical offices, is
itself the food of plants; it is also a store-room of their food ; it
is a laboratory in which their food is prepared; and it is the
channel of conveyance through which their food is administered.
Its fertility depends on all these circumstances: the soil is most
fertile in relation to any particular plant when, in addition to pos-
sessing a texture suitable to its growth, it is composed of material
whose gradual decomposition furnishes the food the plant re-
quires; and fertility is at its highest in relation to any particular
climate when in addition to a texture fitting it for the growth of
the most valuable plants which that climate can ripen, the soil
is in all its characters of storehouse, laboratory, and food vehicle,
the best fitted to meet the extremes of heat and cold, drought and
moisture, to which it is subjected. By the improvement of a soil
in any of these respects its fertility may be increased; as to its
texture, this may be altered to a standard adapting it for a better
rotation of crops or fitting it more perfectly to the climate under
which it lies ; as a storehouse it may be kept more constantly full
by less expensive methods; as a laboratory, limimg ‘may be used
to convert its inert or poisonous ‘“‘ chemicals” into nour ishing
food, and draining will with the best effect introduce air and rain-
water into its mixtures: while as the food vehicle, if its action be
too rapid and wasteful, it may be retarded by claying or marling ;
if too slow, it may be accelerated by drainage. But, to drop the
language of theory, we have not space to allude particularly to
the modes of improving the texture of soils which marling and
draining and burning them supply, nor to refer at any length to
the increased fertility occasioned by a more economical manage-
ment of home-made manures and by the use of purchased fer-
tilisers, as guano, bone-dust, &c. I have not room to estimate
here in detail the benefit arising from the more extensive cultiva-
tion of manure-producing crops, as the turnip, mangold wurzel,
&e., and from the fallow cultivation of which these crops admit
during their growth; nor can I do more than merely allude to
drainage as the great fertiliser, which it is by admitting the air
and all its food particles into the land, by subjecting the soil
throughout its substance to the action of atmospheric solvents,
and by facilitating the conveyance of the food it thus provides
and prepares to the roots of plants. All these are subjects
proper for long and interesting essays of themselves; I can do
little more than-merely enumerate them here in reference to
their influence on the ultimate products of agriculture, as they
induce an increased produce of vegetable food on which a more
numerous herd of cattle may be fed.
Z2a2
344 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
The connexion between all these means and the resultant pro-
duce of meat is most intimate. It is not merely that the extra
manuring induces the extra crop—the manuring furnishes the very
building material out of which the increased produce is made.
Those very atoms of nitrogen and of phosphorus you are adding
in guano—those very particles of potash and soda you are de-
taching from impracticable positions in the soil by the influences
which drainage has brought to bear upon them—those very atoms
of carbon which your plants, vigorous owing to more thorough
cultivation, are extracting Grol the air in the sunshine, may
travel various roads, but they will come to an ultimate residence
side by side in the flesh and the blood of the fattening animal.
The various additions you make to your soil, the fertility you
extract from it, may indeed be said to “occasion” the increased
produce of meat which succeeds them, but it is in the same way
as the stone and the lime occasion the buildings of which they are
the very substance and material.
There is one topic connected with this branch of our inquiry
to which we may usefully refer; and this is the fact that the pro-
cesses of meat-manufacture when once commenced are conserva-
tive of their own continuance through the thus maintained fertility
of the soil. The more turnips the more stock and the more
meat; the more stock the more manure; and the more manure
the more turnips again. ‘There is no way of insuring and in-
creasing fertility in land more certain of success than that of
keeping a large head of stock upon it. Mr. Lawes has satis-
factorily illustrated this in the eighth volume of the Society’s
Journal, The manufacture of meat is not only a thing desirable
on its own account, but it is the very method of all others to
insure a larger produce of everything else. There is no cheaper
way of supplying the soil with the material which is to feed the
wheat plant as well as the turnip, than that of feeding a certain
quantity of meat upon the land, and applying the manure made
meanwhile.
So certain is this truth that we may safely quote Mr. Lawes
when he says of the farmer, that ‘‘ so long as a due relation be-
tween his production of meat and export of corn were maintained,
there would be no fear of an exhaustion of the soil, even if he
grew no green crops whatever.” We need not follow the technical
argument urged in proof and illustration of this opinion, It is
sufficient to appeal to all agricultural experience on the subject.
Other things being equal, the greater the produce of meat upon
a farm, the greater also, in peneralk will be the produce of corn.
Increased fertility, then, not only lays the only sure foundation
for an increase in the produce of meat, but is itself augmented by
the very processes of the manufacture to which it gives iI rise.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 345
II. Secondly ; having attained a perfect fertility, our second
point is to develop it in the manner most useful to feeders of
stock. Having reached the highest capability of land to grow
plants, our next object must be so to select and so to culti-
vate the plants to be grown that there may be a maximum of
food for animals. Of course agriculture is not a merely meat-
producing art; it has other products, among which its profits as
a business lie. ‘The methods by which the greatest weight of
meat is to be obtained are thus not likely to be adopted ona
large scale, or except for experiment. Possibly a climate may
exist in some parts of the country—in western Ireland for in-
stance—so unsuited for the growth of grain that meat might be
made the exclusive staple of agricultural manufacture, any there
perhaps farmers might be reasonably induced to pay exclusive
attention to the cultivation of those plants on which sheep and
cattle feed; but here, grain and other crops for the direct use of
man have to be provided, and though, to be sure, our produce of
them is dependent on the manure made in meat manufacture, yet
to them directly, and not to the others, has the farmer hitherto
been forced to look as the source whence to meet the rent and
labour outgoings of the farm. In those cases where these are
large—where intensive farming prevails—it is still a problem for
solution how to convert green crops with sufficient profit to in-
duce their exclusive cultivation; and this, not to speak of the
straw of grain-crops, which is, one might almost say, necessary to
the process, will long and perhaps always render a rotation of
both kinds on the land indispensable.
There is indeed a state of things prevalent over a large part of
the island, which it must be acknowledged is easily productive of
both rent and profit, in which the land is made to yield but one
class of plants in constant succession—a class indigenous to the soil,
and thus requiring but little attention from the cultivator, and here
meat, or other animal produce, is the exclusive result of agriculture ;
but this system remains and will remain chiefly because its labour
cutgoings are so small. Over large districts where it prevails,
a more artificial farming might be profitably substituted.
it will be our first duty to compare grass and arable land in
reference to our particular subject. But I must confess that
it will not be any result to which that comparison may lead that
will justify or condemn the continuance of the former. It is the
value of the free produce—the worth of the remainder after all
outgoings have been deducted from the gross returns of the land,
except those for division between the only parties immediately
concerned in the proposition, that will determine whether the
condition to which those are owing shall continue. And it must
be confessed that over a large extent of good land now in pasture,
346 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
the deduction on account of labour is so small, and the gross pro-
duce so considerable, that neither landlord nor farmer has any
interest in breaking them up. Land yielding 12 or 15 tons of
green food per acre yearly without any labour but that of repair-
ing the fences which divide it, destroying the docks and the
thistles which invade it, and supplying manure to maintain it, is
producing more at less expense than perhaps it could do in any
other condition. It is not in such cases as this, then, that our
comparison must be made: there is much poor pasturage in the
country, which lies nevertheless under a climate proper for arable
farming ; and it is about this that the question obtains.
There is no doubt that over much of this which, though
drained, would not yield 30 tons of green food per acre in four
years, an equal quantity might, if it were properly cultivated, be
obtained in turnips and clover, with probably 2 tons of straw and
60 or 70 bushels of grain in the same time. Grass is probably
more nourishing per ton than turnips; but when the one is con-
sumed in all weathers by unsheltered animals, and the other in
well-bedded houses, it may be doubted whether the resultant pro-
duce of meat may not be about the same in either case—with a
clear balance of course of so much grain as food for man in favour
of arable culture. But this matter requires a detailed estimate,
and this I shall endeavour to give, merely premising that the
above figures are not given without reason; as on the farm I
write from, three quarters of which were formerly grass, a stock
of about 40 head of oxen fattening to 60 or 70 stones, and be-
tween 200 and 300 sheep fattening to 24 lbs. a quarter,
with 50 or 60 pigs, are now kept during winter, and about half
those numbers during summer, where formerly a herd of 25 cows
and about 20 yearling and 2 year-old heifers, with a few pigs,
were maintained in store condition; while, in addition to the
above, the land now permits an annual sale off it of about 4000
bushels of wheat.
Grass-land worth 30s. per acre of annual rent may be supposed
to yield 8 tons of grass per acre per annum: and this may be believed
able, by careful consumption, to produce 9 imperial stones of beef ;
or at 6d. per lb. a money value per acre of 18/. 18s. in six years.
The same land, broken up, would under good management,
yield durmg—
The Ist year 25 ewt. of wheat straw
2nd 24 tons of mangold wurzel
3rd. 25 ewt. of wheat straw
4th 18 tons of Swedish turnips
5th 20 cwt. of barley straw
6th 10 tons of clover
Or 52 tons of green food, and 34 tons of litter, in six years, beside the
produce of grain.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 347
Of course it is easy so to state figures as to arrive at any result
that may be desired ; but in the above I have gone upon what [
believe to be reasonable data, viz.—
That 24 or 25 cwt. of hay is a probable produce from land of such
value;
That hay is one-fifth or more of the grass from which it is made ;
That the growth of aftermath is to the growth up to hay harvest as
1 to 3 on such land.
We know from experience that turnips consumed without any
artificial food, as it is called, given with them, will not generally
yield more than | |b. of beef or mutton for every 150 lbs. of
green food; and giving grass credit for a little more nourishment
than this, we have assumed that 140 lbs. of it will yield the same
meat.* On the side of arable land, again, I have stated
amounts of produce which from several years’ experience I know
to be probable.
The 52 tons of green food (supposing the straw to be all used
as litter) will on the above datum yield 776 lbs. of beef, and
this at 6d. per lb. is worth 19/7. 8s., an amount rather larger than
that which was the whole return from the grass, while here we
have in addition the produce of three crops of grains. Whether
the whole extra expense of this mode of managing the land will
be more than paid by this extra produce is hardly within the
province of this inquiry.
We may now suppose another case—that of arable land wholly
devoted to meat-producing crops, and it may be supposed to yield
thus :—
Ist year 26 tons of mangold wurzel
2nd 30 ewt. of bean straw, and
34 bushels of winter beans, harvested in time for rye to be
sown, which would yield
ord 12 tons of green food in the following May, to be succeeded
by rape yielding
16 tons in November
4th 30 ewt. of barley straw, and
48 bushels of barley
5th 20 tons of Swedish turnips
6th 30 cwt. of pease straw, and
32 bushels of pease; the land then to be thoroughly tilled
- for the following mangold crop.
* The best grazing-land in Lincolnshire we are told on first-rate authority will,
under the best circumstances, feed an ox and a sheep from New May-day till Old
Michaelmas. The former will gain 20 stone, or 280 lbs., and the latter 10 lbs. a qr.,
or 40 lbs, in the time. —The acre will thus yield 320 lbs. of meat. Its produce of
grass may be 16 tons—perhaps more, This is 1 lb. of meat for every cwt. of grass,
but we must remember that the grass of such Jand differs from the average in the
quality as well as the quantity of its produce.
348 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
Here we have 26 tons of mangold wurzel
12 or ss eye
16" > 0s) rape a
20°, 5,7 nturmips
Or in all 74 tons of green food.
And 30 ewt. of bean straw
BO! F552.) Danley,
30 ,, pease
Or in all 43 tons of straw.
And 34 bushels of beans
48 ~ barley
32 3 pease
Or in all about 3 tons of grain.
The average produce per acre of the different crops is put
higher now than before, as every farmer will admit that under
such circumstances (all the produce being converted into manure)
it ought. Now if an ox consume | cwt. of turnips daily, in the
above case he will need to eat 5 lbs. of grain and use 8 lbs. of
litter daily, in order that all may be finished together. ‘The straw
will be little enough, but oxen fattening to 7 cwt. will fare well
on the food: they will pay at least 5s. a week upon it, 2. e. 5s. for
every 7 cwt. of roots and 35 lbs. of grain; and the stock of food
would at these rates keep 4 oxen for 50 weeks, yielding a money
return of about 50/. from the sale of the meat produced. Ac-
cording to this, about 8/. 10s. per acre is the highest produce of
meat from land of the quality named; and whether that, taking
the large labour of the crops into account, is a profitable produce
does not appear.
But we may suppose a third method of cultivation in which
the produce, summer and winter, is fed upon the land by sheep,
and the following amount of the several crops may be expected :--
1st year 20 tons of early turnips, followed by rye yielding next May
2nd 12 tons of green food, followed by rape yielding in November
16 tons of rape
3rd 26 tons of mangold wurzel, followed by vetches
4th 16 tons of vetches, consumed in time to sow Italian rye-grass
oth 8 tons of rye-grass, followed by
20 tons of Swedish turnips
6th 20 tons of Belgian carrots,
Here we have a gross produce of 138 tons of green food in six
years, which at 1 Ib. from every 150 would yield 2060 lbs. of
meat, or 512. 10s. worth per acre in six years; rather more than
in the former case.
The two latter cases are not likely to be generally adopted
until long experience shall have determined their profitableness :
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 349
and to no subject, we are convinced, could an agricultural expe-
rimenter more usefully devote himself than this. If a cultivation
of this kind would pay, it would be a source of immense wealth
in many parts of Ireland, where waste-land reclamation proceeds
so slowly mainly because of the unprofitableness of corn-culti-
vation under their watery skies. The results of our first estimate,
therefore, must be the standard with which to compare the pro-
ductiveness of grass, and it has been seen that the former, be-
sides the large crops of grain on the arable land, yields more
meat than the latter. The conclusion which therefore seems to
be unavoidable is, that in cases when equal skill and care have
been brought to bear both on arable and pasture farming, the
latter might be converted without diminishing, and probably with
an increase to the national supply of animal food. What other
advantages would follow the breaking up of poor grass-lands
have already been considered in this Journal.
Suppose, then, that the land in high fertility, drained, ma-
nured, and cultivated as our first section requires, is arable, the
question still remains, What crops are to be grown upon it?
What rotation of crops will it be most advisable to adopt? Of
course the ultimate ce tetion on this point will depend on
the consideration of profits to be expected under the existing
circumstances of markets, climate, labour, &c. But we may
refer to some of the better known successions in use, and discuss
their relative merits as meat producers without regard in the mean
time to the economics of the question. In the first place, how-
ever, it seems proper to remark that not only is a good selection
of crops, but a right choice also of the best sorts of each, required.
The question is not only in what crops shall our fertility be de-
veloped, but what varieties of each will most successfully exhibit
it. We must not only ask whether swedes or mangold-wurzel
are the most nourishing per acre, but also whether Skirving’s or
Matson’s kind of the one—the long red or the globe variety of
the other—is the bestto grow. ‘Two kinds of anycrop may make
an equal draught upon the fertility of the land, but they may
differ very materially in the quantity of food they respectively
provide; and that of course is the measure of their use to the
farmer. ‘Twenty tons of swedish turnips may mean 16 of bulb
and 4 of leaf, or 10 of bulb and 10 of leaf; the latter would be
equally severe upon the land -as the former (probably severer),
but the former is by far the more valuable result; and a result
of this kind is much more frequently the consequence of habit
of growth peculiar to variety than of circumstances connected
with soil or with climate.
It opens up an extensive subject connected with the one in
hand, when we remark that this habit of growth—the distinction
350 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
of variety or breed—may be conferred upon and rendered perma-
nent in plants just as it has been conferred upon animals, And
if there were room, I could name many reasons why the society
should bestow equal patronage on the breeding of plants with
that of animals: the latter has hitherto engrossed its attention ;
but the former even more than the latter determines the quantity
of meat which land shall produce. It determines the quantity of
real food out of which meat is produced, and that is of greater
importance than the mere arrangement of the particles on the
bodies of animals. A short-horn ox, or a Hereford or Devon,
has attained its perfect form in consequence of a long and patient
attention by the breeder to the laws of good breeding—laws
which it is not mere confidence in the analogies of vegetable and
animal existence to say have equal jurisdiction in the vegetable
world. For they have in some instances been acted on by growers
of plants, and they have been productive of as valuable results
here as have been obtained under them by breeders of animals.
Mr. Maund, of Bromsgrove, has more than once, by crossing
varieties of wheat, obtained a hybrid of greater vigour and more
useful growth than either of its parents had exhibited: the cross
of the common and swedish turnips has resulted in Dale’s va-
luable hybrid. Gardeners well know the use of hybridising as a
source of variety in fruit and flower, and this is not the only
art of value which agriculture might, under the influence of its
guardian societies, if they would only exert it, be mduced to
borrow from the horticulturist. Under the present accidental
sort of benefit which the facts of this art have hitherto conferred
upon the farmer, we can enumerate many useful sorts of well-
known crops as their result. Natural hybrids accidentally formed,
have been selected by careful observers—when artificial ones of
the kind required might have been created. But even this less
valuable use of hybridising has been of great service: it has given
rise to our best varieties of turnip, rye-grass, tare, and even of
wheat, oats, barley, &c. Messrs. Laing, Lawson, Matson, and
Skirving, and others, have sent out well-marked varieties of
swedish turnips selected from natural hybrids, and propagated
with care and intelligence. Messrs. Rodwell and Dickenson
have in like manner selected natural hybrids of Italian rye-grass.
To Mr. Sherriff, late of Mungoswells, in Kast Lothian, we owe
remarkably vigorous descriptions of the vetch and the oat; and
all these plants deserve a more particular notice of their qualities
as developers of fertility than either our room or our acquaint-
ance with them permits. My experience among swedish turnips
is, that Laing’s is the neatest grower of any, and one which on
very rich land I should choose ;—that Matson’s, with its re-
markably small head, and as being the least likely to run to seed,
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 351
is the best for early sowing ;—that Skirving’s yields the heaviest
crop per acre, but that its somewhat coarse head renders it more
liable to run to seed if early sown; and that perhaps the Fetter-
cairn, a Scottish swede, is among the best as regards the quality
of its flesh. JI have nothing to add on varieties of the vetch, of
grass, or clover. On mangold wurzel I recommend the globe
variety as retaining its juices till a later period in the spring than
the long red variety, and as being, on that account, preferred by
the cattle. A trial of their relative productiveness too was fa-
vourable to the former. JI have also little to say on the relative
nutritiveness of the different cattle crops. There is this difficulty
connected with experiments on this subject—that contempora-
neous trials of the different kinds can, alone, on the ground of
circumstances being then common to all, be admitted as of au-
thority ; and yet contemporaneous trials cannot be admitted at all,
because at no one time are any two kinds of crop equally. ripe, so
to speak, for use. The common turnip should be used in early
winter—the swedish in early spring—and the mangold wurzel
should not be consumed till March and April. If the two last
kinds be tried together in December, it would not be fair to the
latter, which would be still too juicy; if, in March, it would not
be fair to the former, which would by that time have lost its
juices. Lord Spencer found that the mangold wurzel was more
productive of beef than the swedish turnip, per ton; but his expe-
rience, we imagine, has not been generally realised : most farmers
I think agree, that there is no better food for cattle than a good
swede, and that it is better per ton than mangold wurzel: though
as not being so productive in South England, it certainly is not
so good per acre. ape, again, is another crop of most variable
value. In the fen district it 1s considered the most valuable of all
the green crops, and certainly nothing can exceed the rich crisp
and juicy substance of the stem of that plant grown there; but on
sandy soils of less luxuriant fertility it is far from being equal to
the swede. Among other crops that deserve more extensive cul-
tivation, kohl rabi, and some of the varieties of field cabbage
which yield enormous bulks of food in rich soils, may be named.
The Jerusalem artichoke, too, has been recommended for trial :
and it is especially proper for cultivation in the case of corners
and out of the way places inconvenient for ordinary plough
culture.* :
I fear that no sufficient trials of the relative nutritiveness of
* It can also be grown with little or no manure, and may be allowed to remain in
the ground, without danger to the crop, during the greater part of winter. In the
feeding of cows, the bulb not only increases the quantity of milk as much as turnips,
but has the advantage of improving the quality, stead of giving it the unpleasant
flavour imparted by that root. It is planted in the same manner as potatoes,—
F, Burke.
352 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
our cattle crops have yet been made even to the extent that was
possible: at least we know of none; and having but little per-
sonal experience of the subject, at least of any definite kind, we
are forced to fall back upon the analyses of chemists; and the
following table, taken from Professor Johnstone’s work, exhibit-
ing the quantity of solid matter per cent. of the crops named will
be held by many to be instructive on this subject.
Varieties of Turnip. Mangold Wurzel.{" Beet. Carrots. |
(MbMRede Ml iebcdes suse ss Napa 9S d Psa hal
8
dey : ° °
Authorities. ‘3 3 2 oS ¢
° ty i) fea] aS Le 0)
o Ea & A O z oD © 3
2) 2 5) S| Sib Si Seely Sa amie eal eae
eid eet eh -Oa ain<-e a==fo S fes W=meaCOat temp ea | fom, bale S)
Ejinhof © ° 8 123 eo 14 ) e eo ° 14 ®
Playfair ° ° 13 15 e eo ° oo ° r) 13 °
Hermbstadt QT) DOM. DOr Seas : 20 | .
Horsford ° eo 17 1 184 @ 18 @e 14 ° °
oregon ealel oun NEV Side 185
Johnstone . { \.. va NS OPS Re { ee
a @eo 12 iD eo ee 20 20 8
Payen . e e @e ee ee °° eo eo 15 eo e
There is difference enough among authorities here to make
reliance upon any particular set of figures a very difficult thing ;
the probability, and, indeed, in reference to some of the crops, the
certainty is, that individual specimens vary too much in the
quantity of water they contain to allow one set of results to stand
as the representative of a crop. There is great difference too in
the composition of the dry solid matter these roots contain. Some
of them have a larger proportion of fatty substances, or a larger
quantity of the flesh-forming principle than others; but I prefer
on this subject to abide by the experience, imperfectly ascertained
as it is, of the farmer, rather than by the doubtful* figures of the
chemical analyst. We may prefer a ton of swedes to one of
mangold wurzel, notwithstanding the enormous superiority of the
latter, according to the chemist; and we may prefer the orange
globe to the long red beet, notwithstanding that the specimen of
the latter, hitherto examined, appears to have contained a smaller
proportion of water. For this reason I do not further extract
from Professor Johnstone on the composition of the other cattle
crops; but I must not forget to remind the reader that the one
given above professes to state the relative value per ton, not per
acre, on which of course the farmer’s opinion must depend. ‘The
* “Doubtful” in respect that, however accurately true of the individual, they can
rarely be held true of the species or genus,
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food, 353
variable. and unforeseeable sources of error in agricultural esti-
mates, still so far exceed in their effect the decimal differences of
which the chemist professes to take account, that the latter often
are hardly of that importance to the indication of results which
some would attach to them. ‘The quantity of protein compounds
or flesh-forming matter in a plant may not be so influential on the
quantity of meat it produces, as is the indefinable influence of the
breed and constitution of the animal which feeds upon it; and I
therefore abandon an unsuccessful attempt to determine the
relative value of the different green crops as food for the more
promising one, to ascertain thes relative merits of our rotations by
comparing the weight per acre of green food produced by each.
a The first, the Norfolk or four-course rotation, may be sup-
posed able to yield in the
First year, 25 cwt. of wheat straw per acre.
Second year, 19 tons of Swedish turnips.
Third ,, 20 cwt. of barley straw.
Fourth ,, 11 tons of clover and grass.
This is equal to 30 tons of green food in four years, or 73 tons
per acre per annum, a quantity which, at the rate of one for every
150 lbs., is able to produce about 1 ewt. of beef per annum.
6 In the second, when this rotation is extended one year by
keeping the grass down two years, we may suppose a somewhat
larger acreable produce of green crop. Thus—
First year, 25 cwt. of wheat straw.
Second year, 20 tons of swedes.
Third ,, 20 cwt. of barley straw.
Fourth ,, 11 tons of clover.
Fifth », 7 tons of clover.
Giving 38 tons as the produce of five years, or nearly the same
acreable produce per annnm as in the former case,
c We now may take the Dunbar six years’ course of crops as
our third rotation, and here we may expect
First year, 20 tons of Swedes.
Second year, 20 cwt. of barley straw.
Third ,, 12 tons of clover.
Fourth ,, 25 ewt. of wheat straw.
Fifth ,, 25 ewt. of bean straw.
Sixth ,, 25 ewt. of wheat straw—
which will yield 32 tons of green food, or 478 lbs. of meat per
acre in 6 years, a quantity equal to about 80 Ibs. per acre per
annum.
d In our fourth instance we take the eight years’ course fol-
lowed on the farm from which we write. It may produce
First year, 25 ewt. of wheat straw.
Second year, 25 ewt. of bean straw.
Third ,, 25 cwt. of wheat straw.
Fourth ,, 24 tons of mangold wurzel.
354 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
Fifth », 25 cewt. of wheat straw.
Sixth,,:...5 12 tonsiof clover.
Seventh ,, 25 cwt. of wheat straw.
Eighth ,, 20 tons of Swedes—
or, in eight years, 56 tons of green food, corresponding, according
to our original datum, to 104 Ibs. of meat per acre per annum.
e As regards heavy land rotations of crops, we take the following
from Mr. Stace’s Essay on that subject in the 4th vol. of the
Journal, It will produce probably
First year, 12 tons of vetches and 16 tons of rape and
turnips.
Second year, 25 cwt of wheat straw.
Third ,, 12 tons of clover and tares.
Fourth ,, 25 cwt. of wheat straw.
Fifth », 2 cwt. of bean straw—
or 40 tons of green food, 7. e. about 600 lbs. of meat per acre in
five years, equal to nearly 120 lbs. per acre annually,
Ff Our last instance shall be selected from Professor Low’s
work, where it is praised for its suitability to rich clays. It may
yield
First year, Nothing—summer fallow.
Second year, 25 cwt. of wheat straw.
Third ,, 12 tons of clover.
Fourth ,, 25 cwt. of oat straw.
Fifth ,, 29 ewt. of bean straw.
Sixth ,, 20 cwt. of barley straw.
It thus produces 12 tons of green food in six years, or 30 lbs. of
meat per acre per annum.
It is proper to remark that the above estimates are more likely
to be relatively than positively true; the datum on which their
produce of meat is calculated is, of course, subject to the vicissi-
tudes which affect all agriculture, and stultify all farm estimates :
the herd which is to convert this food may be carried off by
disease, and its produce of meat will then of course be anything
rather than 1-150th the weight of the food. But all the rotations
named are liable to this risk alike, and it may therefore be useful
to compare them :—
Lbs. of meat
Name. Period. produced per
acre per ann.
a Norfolk . . . | 4 years 110
b Ditto Dies 110
c Dunbar . Ont. 80
d —— .« e« . Sar 104
ereStace wake nue D195 120
Ff Lowras’: taser. 6 t55 30
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 355
Of these the 5th is less likely to realise its estimate than
any of the others, as its large produce depends upon the possi-
bility, on an average number of years, of obtaining 16 tons of
rape or turnips on a clay soil after a spring crop of vetches, and
this is extremely doubtful. Of the fourth rotation—our own—we
would only say that we have grown in the past year 30 acres of
clover (15 of them for horses), 30 acres of mangold wurzel,
15 acres of swedes and turnips, 14 acres of carrots and potatoes
(of which at least 12 acres have been sold, or eaten by horses), so
that on 3-8ths of the farm we have had a produce for consumption
of 960 tons of green food; and if all had been converted into
meat, as it might have been, the produce available for that pur-
pose would have been—
30 acres of clover . = 360 tons.
BOE 4 bs:h mangold wur zel = | AZO) ey.
Wage ae SW edes A =) a
14 eis carrots, &c. . =p PASO 5
Motal Hic) ke VON G2 A1B6O.e, §
The meat made from 960 tons has been as follows :—
70 sheep bought at probably 15 Ibs. a qr. are being _Ibs.
sold now at 25 lbs. =70 x40 . 2800
About 160 sheep bought at 13 lbs. a qr. will be sold
in April at probably 23 lbs. = 160 x 40g - 6400
10 oxen weighing 5 cwt. have become 6 cwt. each . —:1120
20 oxen weighing 6 cwt. have become 8 cwt.each. 4480
6 cows weighing 5 cwt. have become 7 cwt. each . . 1344
Add say 30 ewt. of bacon and pork : : - 3360
Total meat made. : : - 19,504
But at least 240/. worth of food have been purchased, and if
it be supposed to have made its worth of meat, which is by the
way a very doubtful thing, then at 6d. per lb. we must deduct
at least 9504 lbs. from the amount of meat made, leaving 10,000
Ibs. as the produce of 960 tons, or about 13000 lbs. as the produce
of 1360 tons—the produce, in fact, of afarm of 240 acres. This
is only about 60 lbs. of meat per acre; it is only 1 lb. of meat
produced by the consumption of about 200 lbs. of green food.
It isa result, however, probably as near the truth as we can
attain; including the circumstances of illness suffered by stock,
and of a deduction of the whole value of cattle-food purchased.
_ In the sixth rotation named, the small produce of meat illus-
trates the effect of the naked fallow. I believe that there is
no more effectual method of increasing our supplies of animal
food than the substitution of a green crop such as the vetch, the
cabbage, or the mangold wurzel—all clay soil plants—for the
naked fallow. ‘This substitution could be effected without ex-
pense, that is at a cost paid for by the additional returns it would
306 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
produce; acrop of 24 tons per acre once in four or six years
would be a clear gain of animal food to the amount of 90 or
60 lbs. respectively per acre annually over those districts which
admit of the change.
We have thus to recount, as the conclusions to which the second
section of our subject has led, that the substitution of green-
cropping for naked fallows would be cheaply productive of meat.
That the rotations in use on arable land vary as much as from
4 of a cwt. to more than | cwt. per acrein their produce of meat,
and that much therefore may be added to the national supplies by
the selection of a good succession of crops.
That the conversion of inferior grass land to arable culture,
while it would add largely to the supply of human food in the
shape of grain, would also to a small extent probably increase
the supply of meat. And among the details of this branch of
the subject—not to speak of the effect of mere variety in any one
kind of crop—we have seen that the produce of meat depends
considerably on a right choice of the plants to be cultivated for
food. Thus I advise the trial of the field cabbage and the
white carrot—the latter from several years’ experience—and on
all low-lying lands in south and central England, I confidently
recommend the substitution to a large extent of the globe man-
gold wurzel for the swedish turnip. On the farm here we can
grow 30 tons of the former per acre more easily than 20 tons of
the latter; and our crop of Belgian carrots is generally heavier
than our crop of Swedish turnip.
III. We have now to suppose the case of a thoroughly pro-
ductive farm, and to consider the most economical method of
converting its produce into meat. And I must remark in the
outset, that the skill required to produce the crop and that re-
quired for its profitable consumption are two very different things.
It is for the former that the Scottish farmer is generally held to
be distinguished ; both are essential to a fully profitable result.
Many questions arise under this head of our inquiry. Thus,
we may ask—what sort of animal will most economically convert
food, the ox, the sheep, or the hog? and what breed of each, the
Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, or other breed of the first—the
Southdown, Leicester, or longwoolled breeds of the second—the
Berkshire, Yorkshire, or Essex breed of the third? At what
age, too, is any of these breeds most productive of meat? Again,
how should the food be given to these animals-—cooked or raw—
wholly succulent or mixed with dry food—green crop exclusively,
or oilcake and farinaceous food as well? Lastly, how are the
animals to be treated during the consumption of their food; are
they to be sheltered or unsheltered; and if the former, should
they be kept in yards, or stalls, or boxes ?
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 307
The unfortunate thing is, that in agriculture, as in other de-
partments of knowledge, we can ask a great many more questions
than we can answer. ‘There are many points in farming on which
we must be content with the loose average sort of judgment
which memory enables an unrecorded experience to pronounce ;
and indeed, till we have the exact results of very many cases, I
must prefer this rough average memory of things to the single
instances, on which, if we would affect accuracy, we are at present
forced to base our eobimnates. The few instances in which exact
observations have yet been recorded cannot, in so variable a matter
as ‘‘ feeding,” be taken as trustworthy guides; and, as published
statements on this subject have generally been among the maxima
of agricultural truth, as otherwise most probably they would not
have been published, they are the less worthy of confidence. No
one but the educated man, who has long been a farmer, can be
aware of the extremely inexact state of the art, or how few trust-
worthy facts exist as the groundwork of sound calculation in
agriculture. Of course no amount of knowledge would enable a
confident estimate in the case of a small farm, because there
variations would be sure to occur in successive seasons—one year
would be better than another. But when the result of extensive
operations has to be estimated, the variations of season on the
many small farms of different soil, which they would then affect,
may be supposed to balance one another, and the average of a
long and truthful experience would then be most useful. Perhaps
all that can be said of this matter, in relation to the manufacture
of meat, is that data such as this we do not possess; and
thus a writer on this subject can do little more than state im-
pressions and prevailing ideas on the topics which he requires
to mention.
1. Our first question is, What sort of animal will most econo-
mically convert vegetable produce into meat? A cottager would
say, the hog; most farmers will say, the sheep. ‘The decision of
the former is perhaps induced by the omnivorous character of the
animal, which, where all sorts of waste have to be used, is a most
useful quality. I believe that perhaps, if the same price could
always be obtained for the carcase of the hog as for that of the
sheep or the ox, the first would be the most profitable of the three.
There is less waste of food in the growth of offal; the proportion
of offal to carcase in a well-bred -hog is often not more than as 1
to 2, or one-third of the live weight of the animal; while in the
sheep not more than a Smithfield stone of mutton out of every
imperial stone of live weight can be calculated on; and in the ox
the offal is very often heavier than the carcase.* Another most
* Tn published works the proportion of beef has generally been put much higher:
VOL. X. 2B
358 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
valuable property of the hog, though hardly connected with this
subject, is the rapidity with which it multiplies ; and this is apt to
bias the judgment in its favour. Certain it is that, however pro-
fitable to the cottager as the savings-bank of scraps that would
otherwise be lost, the hog has not been found profitable when
cultivated as the exclusive consumer of the farm produce. A
farm near this was once wholly devoted to the produce of pork
and bacon; the full details of its history I have not been able to
obtain, but the result is well known, that the farmer lost money
by the speculation and soon abandoned it. And the general idea
I believe to be that, except for breeding and sale as “stores,”
hogs on farms should be kept not many more in number than
will suffice to consume the “ waste.”’
Of the sheep, by which probably as much as by any other
animal the green produce of our arable lands is consumed, I
have only to say, that the result of a winter’s consumption by a
healthy flock of well-bred Cotswolds, folded on 30 acres of
Swedish turnips, was the yield of | lb. of mutton for every 150
Ibs. of the food; a quantity which I believe to be as great, or
greater, than is yielded by feeding cattle. And there is this in
favour of the impression of the superiority of sheep to oxen as
converters of green food into meat, that of about 150 sheep, cross-
bred Cotswolds and Downs, weighed alive and sold by weight the
winter before last, about +? of their weight alive * was mutton—
a proportion nearly the same as, or a Smithfield out of an
imperial stone—while of 20 or 30 oxen that we have weighed
alive, and as beef, certainly not more than so has been carcase.
The profit of feeding is certainly no index to its produce, which
alone, it would seem, is the subject proposed by the Society ;
and therefore, however satisfactorily the following figures show
that great averages by no means resemble the maxima of the
items out of which they arise, we do not lay any great stress
upon them as answering the question we are now considering.
They are extracts from the annual balance-sheet during the
past four years{ of this farm, where the system adopted has
been exclusively the purchase of cattle and sheep, feeding and
selling them.
and there is no doubt that in very fat animals the proportion of offal is smaller. But
so far as our experience goes of beef in the condition in which butchers on the average
buy, not more than 55 per cent. of the live weight is carcase ; and this has been in the
case of a good breed.
* The wool was heavy upon them at the time, which would diminish the proportion
of meat to weight.
+ Shillings and pence omitted.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 359
|
DATE. OXEN. SHEEP. | SWINE.
Year ending 6th April. Cost. | Receipts. Cost. | Receipts. Cost. | Receipts.
[Say aes £ | £ £ £
1845 ° . ° 642 | 672 467 579 121 158
1846 e a e 36453): 0158 961 1024 | 121 209
1847 e - ° 643 | 693 627 583 ys 282
TGES™: ° . 1067 | 1115 421 393°) + abe 305
Bale ie 1|). 2916 -| 3938) "| 12476 | 2579 |
|
| 1004
There was thus on the whole four years a profit on the
Oxen of 322/. on a cost of 29167. or 11 per cent.
sheep 103/. ,, ,, 2476/. or 43 i
Bias 2531. 2", (5 Jalil. or 33 ss
Do not let me be mistaken however: these sums are not net-
profit. . It is merely the cost of purchase, of attendance, and of
bought food (a very large item), with which these accounts are
debited: the expense of cultivating the green crops on which the
animals were fed has not been charged on them at all; had that
been accounted for here, a great apparent loss would have been
exhibited instead of this apparent profit; a loss, however, pro-
bably balanced by the value of the manure of whicha great deal
of excellent quality is made from animals so highly fed. And,
neither must the proportionate nominal profit be taken accurately
to represent the merits of the different kinds of stock as meat
producers; for independently of the fact that profit and produce
have rarely any direct proportion, | am by no means confident
that each kind of stock was debited with the actual proportion of
purchased food it consumed ; so that all I can possibly vouch for
is that the gross result is accurate; namely, a profit, excluding
the cost of home-grown food, of 67 81. on a cost of 6143/., that is
of about 103 per cent. on the outlay. Supposing during the four
years our sel consumption of the farm produce in green crops
to have been 1000 tons, then this 678/. is all that we ae got for
4000 tons of green food. This is about 3s. 4d. per ton—a result
singularly similar to some other tolerably extensive and very
trustworthy specimens of experienee given hereafter.
I confess the extremely unsatisfactory character of the answer
to the first question that was put—what animals make the most
meat out of the food? but I imagine that their respective
growths of offal and rapidity of return must furnish the best
reply; and if so, the hog must be placed first in merit, then the
sheep, and lastly the ox.
2B2
se
360 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
2. All the carcase is not meat; and some breeds of the hog,
the sheep, and the ox respectively are more remarkable for
fineness of bone and lightness of offal—trom being of larger
growth in their best parts and of smaller growth where the meat 1s
coarse—than others. And thus the next question is, what breed
is best to adopt. But this is a question to which, if it be put to
agriculturists generally, no one need ever expect to receive a
unanimous answer. ‘The circumstances of localities differ so
much, aud the habits and constitutions of animals are so variable,
that a variety of breeds will, and indeed should, always exist.
The Cheviot sheep and the blackfaced will retain their position
on their hills and heaths, however superior to them the Leicester,
or Cotswold, or Down may be either in carcase or wool: these
breeds could not live under the exposure which those must bear.
And so with cattle—the Kylo and the Galloway will still be
bred notwithstanding the superiority of the short-horn and
Hereford. And when meat is not the exclusive, nor even the
main produce of a breed, other reasons for maintaining existing
varieties come in to complicate the matter. The Ayrshire breed
and the Jersey are not likely to be dispossessed of their respective
localities, however suitable the better breeds of Durham and
North Devon may be for the agriculture there: their character
as milkers saves them.
There seems to be less reason for maintaining the existing
varieties of the hog; for this animal is kept so much in shelter
that any climate would suit any sort; but even here we need
large breeds and small breeds to meet the market, and to suit the
calls respectively for bacon and for pork.
The answer to the question about breeds, if any be attempted,
is thus not likely to satisfy either our readers or truth itself. For
our own locality we have no hesitation in choosing the Hereford
ox, the cross-bred (Down and Cotswold) sheep, and the Berk-
shire hog; but [I do not pretend to dictate this as a right
decision for all localities. Farther north one would probably
prefer a short-horn and a Leicester, and farther south a Devon
and a Down, simply because there it would be easier to procure
good individuals of these breeds respectively, our plan having
been to purchase our fattening animals, not to breed them.
But to be more particular:—-I have been unable to discover
any exact information on the relative merits of the different
breeds of the hog, as meat-makers; and all | can say on this
point is, that taking all the circumstances of rapid growth, con-
stitution, and lightness of offal, it is a general idea that a well-
bred Berkshire hog is as likely as any other variety to manu-
facture food into pork or bacon with economy.
Regarding sheep there certainly is more information, but not
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 361
so conclusive, as to silence those against whose interests it may lie.
We may probably state as its result that a well-bred Leicester
sheep carries more meat in proportion to offal than any other
breed; anda well-bred South Down more than individuals of other
short-woolled varieties. The relative precocity, or early maturity
of these breeds stands also probably pretty much in the same
order. The question regarding offal is, however, to be answered
satisfactorily, only by a long series of facts regarding animals of
either sex, of all ages and condition; for certainly a fat animal
carries less offal proportionally than one but half fat; and to
compare a fat Leicester with a fleshy South Down cannot be a fair
thing. But we donot possess detailed information on this subject;
perhaps as good a single set of facts connected with it as we
possess is that furnished by Mr. Moore of Coleshill, in the 7th
volume of the Journal. ‘The experiment included four breeds
of sheep—the Leicester, Down, Cotswold, and half-bred (Down
and Cotswold); but I do not quote the results, because even
here the trial was of only three or five on either side, a number
which cannot be held sufficient to decide the question.
Of oxen we may remark that in a very full and instructive
paper on the carcase weight of cattle, in a monthly periodical
called ‘ The Plough,’ the breeds are placed in the following order
as to proportionate lightness of offal :—
1. Durham, Shorthorn, Hereford, Sussex, Devon.
2. Craven, Lancashire, &c., Galloway, Suffolk, &c.
3. Argyleshire, Kylo, &c.
There is no doubt that the Short-horn, Hereford, and Devon
oxen are the most economical beef-makers we have. ‘The question
remains, which of them is the best in this respect? and we have
no exact answer to give it. But just to show the bearing of
breeds on their relative manufacture of offal and meat respec-
tively, out of food we may give the following figures, calculated
from Mr. Ewart’s data in the paper alluded to. A short-horn ox
(prime fat) of 70 stones carcase weight must, according to his
estimation, have weighed 111 stones alive: —
st. lbs.
It yielded beef of Ist quality . : 19 eS
ads oo) cQnddsoe, id, es Algo vt 16
Ch ee Sr ee oasis ADT ELEO
70-0
A Kylo of 40 stones carcase weight must in like manner have
weighed 71 stones alive.
st. lbs.
It yielded beef of Ist quality : : J)
99 99 2nd ” ° ° 13 6
SIE are ke UPN Rye ok fa Da ae
40 0O
362 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
Or on the whole live weight, all of which of course in each case
was made out of the food consumed, the per centage of offal and
of the different qualities of meat is as follows :—
Shorthorn. Kylo.
b st. lbs. st. lbs
Ist quality . : 17. 6 : : 15 12
2nd 7,3 j 3 20 4 - : 18 8
SECs 3 ; ‘ 25 4 : y 21 8
Total meat : 63 0 eS : 56 O
Offal : : 37 «0 : 44 0
100 0 100 O
So that in the former case 37 only, while in the latter 44 per
cent. of the food consumed has, so to speak, gone to waste.
But no merely proportionate account of this matter can present
the whole truth. A quantitative statement is required. In the
one case we have 70 stones of beef and in the other 40. What
if as much food has been consumed in the manufacture of the
latter as of the former? {tis not in the mere relation between
the live and carcase weight of cattle of the different breeds that
their relative merits lie when the national supply of meat is under
consideration. It is not so much the circumstance that this
animal lays little meat on the coarsest joints and carries flesh most
on the best parts, though that is of importance, but it is because
out of this quantity of food it has in so short a time acquired such
a weight that its possession is of value to either producer or con-
sumer. The great national benefit which our breeders of cattle
and sheep have conferred lies in the earlier maturity as well as
the better form that they have communicated. An ox did not
use to reach maturity till its fourth, nor a sheep till its third year ;
now, thanks to the skill and perseverance of Collins and Bake-
well, and Tomkins and others—we have fat beef of two years, and
fat mutton of fourteen months of age. A farm may have pro-
duced a maximum of food for animals during the last century;
but its produce of meat could not have equalled what it now is,
because the same herd which it then turned out fattened once in
four years is now sent to market once in every two years; and the
same flock which was fed and sold once in three years is now
converted into mutton every fourteen months. This, it must be
confessed, illustrates the fact that the choice of breed does greatly
affect the produce of meat, rather than the question,—Which is
the best to choose? But in the absence of more satisfactory
information on this branch of our subject we must pass on to the
next.
3. The third question that is asked is.—What kinds of food are
to be given to cattle, and in what condition are they to be admi-
nistered ?
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 363
Many, perhaps most, sheep and cattle are fed and fattened on
grass alone or on turnips and other green food, with at best a
little hay. In Scotland, where a turnip is a very different thing
from that which it is in England, cattle may be, and to some
extent are, fattened on turnips and straw. In England and in
Scotland too, however, it is now more generally the custom to use
oil-cake and other nutritive food in the process. In Lincolnshire
large quantities of this linseed-cake are consumed every winter in
the straw-yards: and the farmer is repaid for his outlay in this
respect by the production of a large quantity of valuable manure.
Of course the value of this manure as a fertiliser depends upon
the quality of the food from which it is made, as well as on that of
the other products of its consumption ; oil-cake minus the growth
of a growing animal, which is zs manure in such a case, is a
much better thing than mere straw minus the same, which would
be the manure of a young animal fed on straw alone. The
former contains various nitrogenous and mineral substances use-
ful as food for plants, of which the latter is almost destitute.
And so, by the way, is the manure made by a fattening animal
better than that made by a growing one feeding on the same
food ; just, indeed, in the proportion in which the mere extraction
of fat, which is nearly all the growth in the one case, would leave
a better remainder than the subtraction of flesh and bones from
the food, which is the growth, in the other. But this is a di-
gression. .
More lately the eyes of farmers have opened to the real compo-
sition of the oil-cake, as it is purchased either from home or foreign
makers. It is found in many cases to be very much adulterated
with all sorts of seed and rubbish; and, in good measure owing to
the exertions of Mr. Warnes, of Trimmingham, in Norfolk. the
method has latterly prevailed of giving animals whole linseed (not
the mere husk, which is all that oil-cake at its best contains), and
along with it of adding to the straw chaff in which it is conveyed
to the animals, some farinaceous substance, as Indian corn, barley
or bean meal. ‘The question whether it is profitable thus to con-
sume these concentrated sorts of food in feeding stock, depends
altogether on the kind of animals that are fed. A sheep or ox
which will not waste its food either in growing offal or in tedious
growth, will convert that profitably which on an animal of coarser
build and less thrifty growth would be thrown away. The latter
would lose more of their food than the advantage of the propor-
tion they managed to assimilate would repay; and thus the only
question to deiermine is, what degree of nutritiveness is it most
profitable to confer on the food given? ‘The use of this better
food is perfectly economical even with a poor stock, provided it
be used only to raise what of the farm produce may be below the
364 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
standard of quality which this question indicates. With poor
stock I have used linseed with profit. A thin linseed soup poured
over straw chaff will confer a savoury taste, even though it be
so diluted as to leave the food thus prepared of less nutritive
strength than the ordinary green food of the farm ; and there is
perhaps no better door open to an increased produce of meat for
the country at large than means such as this afford of imducing
the larger consumption of what is now trodden under foot. A
salt, hot, and weak linseed soup thrown over straw chaff, while
conferring its own flavour, brings out that of the straw, which is
thus far more readily consumed than the mere addition of oil-cake
is likely to make it. This fact is submitted to those who are in the
habit of using such large quantities of oil-cake as cattle food. We
have kept oxen through winter in a rapidly improving condi-
tion* on turnip-tops at the commencement, and half a cwt. of
turnips daily a-piece afterwards, along with an ad lib. allowance of
straw chaff, over which about half a pailful of salt water, for each
beast, containing | |b. of linseed meal boiled in it, had been thrown.
Of course a more intensive system of feeding is profitable in
the case of well-bred animals. Many instances of this are scat-
tered about in agricultural publications, but they illustrate the
possibility rather than prove the truth of our statement. They
are not numerous enough, nor various enough, to show that the
average experience of farmers bears us out; but I may specify
one or two cases as illustrations, and for the rest appeal to the
common impression which has arisen, however carelessly, out of
experience, to corroborate the assertion that high feeding, by its
greater produce of valuable manure, is profitable to the farmer ;
and in the case of well-bred animals, by its greater produce of
meat, is profitable even to the feeder. The following is a bit of
our own experience during the past winter :—Four ‘good Here-
ford oxen were bought towards the end of October for 60J. at a
dear market, and sold again in thirteen weeks at 6d. per |b., for
771. These four oxen, in thirteen weeks, gained 17/., or 26s. per
week, or 6s. 6d. per ox per week. They consumed during that
time 18 tons of mangold wurzel, 30 bushels of beans, and 4 cwt.
of linseed meal, for which, besides the manure, we have thus ob-
tained the following prices :—
4 cwt. linseed, or more than'l Ib. daily per ox, at lls. . £2 4
30 bush. beans, or nearly 5lb. daily per ox, at 4s.6d. . 615
18 tons of mangold wurzel, or 1 cwt. daily per ox, at 9s. 8 2
£17 1
* At a cost of for turnips (at 10s. a ey i daily
A » linseed 5 lésng
Ad. a-day
Or 2s, 4d. a-week, beside fuel, attendance, and straw.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 365
This has paid well; but though one of the oxen was ill fora
fortnight, and lost flesh by its illness, I have no hesitation in
saying that the result is far beyond the average truth in such
matters.
Again, to add a case of older date, but well authenticated by
the names of living farmers. In 1835, Mr. Brodie and another
East- Lothian farmer communicated the results of a trial they had
made on this subject to the Agricultural Society of that county.
The whole report will be found in the 16th annual statement of
that Association. Its results are given in the following Tables :—
1. Mr. Brodie’s experiment on four lots of seven Durham
oxen :—
No, |Q8!2l) Valuation | Increase. CONSUMPTION.
Cet half ee
| £. eee Sy ey US. Laas:
l.; 95 | 150 10! 55 10 | 96 tons turnips at 11s. 6d. per ton . . 55 10
2.| 95 | 157 10 | 62 10 | 58 tons turnips at 11s. 6d., and 16 tea 62 10
potatoes at 35s. 10d. per ton 2 . .
3. | 95 {| 175 0] 80 O | 93 tons turnips at 11s. 6d., and 23 tons
5 cwt. 56 lbs. cake at £11 13s—£3> 80 O
OVEL COSL Priceless) rami ert ne. G
4.| 95 | 147 0) 52 O | 115 qrs. draff at 4s., 83 puncheons of
dreg at 2s., cartage £9, 4 qrs. peas 52 0
42s., 13 qrs. oats 28s. bruising, &c. .
Here, so high a price was obtained for the turnips, and yet the
oil-cake was more than refunded by the value of meat obtained.
In the second case the potatoes did not repay their consumption.
In the fourth, the distillery refuse and peas seem to have just
paid their account. Draff is the spent malt and dreg the liquor
after the spirit has been distilled from it.
2. The other experiment on four lots of five oxen :—
No, |_Value | Valuation | Increase. CONSUMPTION.
Noy, 10.| Mar. 24.
iE. ee £. ee
Ie 35 61 26 33 acres furmips at'£7. 8s. 2 6: 3 2s 26
2.1 35 68 33 12 acre turnips at £7. 8s., 14 acre potatoes
8 33
| BG Ocsiinel alison toca e ceeli ie
3. | 395 74 39 12 acre turnips at £7. 8s., 59 bushels 39
bran at 8s. 9d.—double the value . :
ABN 85) 70 35 Potatoes as No. 2, 59 bushels bran at 5s. ld. 35
Here again the best result was obtained where the most
366 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
nourishing food was given, and it was again shown that potatoes
(supposing them to be an ordinary crop) are valued too highly for
feeding purposes at 15/. per acre.
The method of feeding adopted in the case of our four Here-
ford oxen was the same as we have for the last few years adopted
with all our cattle and sheep. Each sheep gets about one-eighth
the quantity given to an ox, with about 20 Ibs. of swedes daily in
the beginning of winter, or of mangold wurzel in the spring.
The same method is adopted with cattle during summer: they
are fed on the linseed compound along with cut clover or vetches
ad lib. ‘The following is our present arrangement, in which, simply
owing to the proportion of the stock of food on hand, our pro-
portion of linseed-meal and bean and other meal varies from it
much. Every day—40 lbs. of linseed are boiled in 70 gallons of
water, and thrown over 44 heaped bushel baskets full of chaff, on
which again 250 lbs. of bean and other meal are dusted. Of this
the sheep (200) get 16 baskets, 7. e. about 15 Ibs. of linseed and
90 lbs. of meal, equal to 14 oz. of linseed and nearly 4 lb. of
meal daily apiece; and the cattle (30) get 24 baskets, 2. e. 22 lbs.
of linseed and 135 lbs. of meal, equal to about 12 oz. of linseed
and 43 lbs. of meal each daily. The rest is given to horses. I[
might give other instances of the profit of feeding cattle on pur-
chased food, and of the greater economy of home-made food
compared with the oil-cake whichis generally used. Mr. Warnes’
own published experience has furnished instances; and the fol-
lowing is a case which he quotes :—
Mr. Postle, of Smallborough, Norfolk, tried the merits of oil-
cake against those of linseed and peas. He found that six cattle
consumed 20/. 6s. 1}d. in linseed, peas, fuel, and labour, besides
the swedes and hay they received; and that the other six
consumed 217. 14s. 9d. in linseed cake, besides an equal quantity
of grown food and hay. The former lot, though apparently of
only equal weight and quality with the latter at the commence-
ment of the experiment, had gained by the close of it, during a
period of six months, about 45 stones of beef more than the other.
And this advantage on the part of linseed and meal over oil-cake
holds good in the case of sheep as well as cattle. Mr. Bruce, of
Waughton, in areport communicated to the Highland Society in
1844, gave the result of an experiment on this point, in which
lots of twenty sheep each were fed variously and tried against
one another for a considerable period, and the increase of each
being compared with the food consumed, it was found that to
every pound of increased weight in one case, there had been a
consumption of 101 oz. of linseed-cake ; and to every pound of
increased weight in another, there had been a consumption of
59 oz. of linseed and beans (mixed |! to 6); and to every
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 367
pound of increased weight in a third, there had been a consump-
tion of 563 oz. of linseed and beans (mixed in the proportion of
3 and 2); while in a fourth instance, the same growth had been
effected during the consumption of only 46 oz. of linseed by
itself. It appears, therefore, that it is economical to use linseed
whole rather than the mere husks of it which we obtain in oil-cake.*
In all the former cases it was ground to meal and boiled in water
enough to make a mucilage, and then thrown over chaff enough
to make nearly a bushel of the porridge to every beast, the bran
and other meal being’ first dusted over the whole and incorpo-
rated with it. In the last the linseed was given tothe sheep whole,
and they ate it out of troughs as they ate the oil-cake. Mr. Warnes
has latterly recommended the linseed to be given in a cold mucilage,
which can be obtained at less cost by the mere soaking of the meal
in cold water for a day and a half. One measure of linseed meal
is to be placed in 7 measures of water stirred up and allowed
to stand; it will forma jelly in about 30 hours, and may then
be thrown over chaff, and used with other meal just as the hot
solution is: cattle, it is said, are found to do as well on the cold
as on the warm food. I have no experience to offer on this
assertion, but I should doubt it.
* T extract a passage on this subject by Mr. Valentine, of Leighton Buzzard, in the
‘ Agricultural Gazette.’ He says :— Our fatting cattle still continue to tbrive very
fast upon the prepared food. We weighed a quantity of meal, hay, and turnips, and
by this means ascertained the cost per head over a lot of 28. The meal is a mixture of
linseed, lentils, and barley, in about equal proportions, and costs, including grinding,
ld. per 1b. The hay consumed on the ground where it was grown we value at 22, per
ton ; the turnips we value at 7d. per cwt., or about lls. 8d. per ton. The following
account will therefore show the cost of each beast per week :—
g. 'd.
“ 52 lbs. meal per day, at ld. per lb., or 40 lbs. per week « -« - . 3 4
** 56 lbs. turnips per day for seven days, at 7d. percwt. . 2» - « « 2 OF
* 20 lbs. hay chaff per day, or 140 lbs. per week, at 2s, percwt. . . 2 6
$,Cost,ot food persweelks <4, syireyi ferris Seas cede (od lOk
*“* Attendance and interest upon capital employed, about ld. per week . 0 1
pPhetall costibiel Pied Sh ile VPOMIS MILEY? GUI
“ The system of preparing and giving the food is nearly similar to Mr. Warnes’s, and
need not be repeated here. Butchers who have inspected our stock annually, and
previous to the adoption of feeding on prepared food, confidently assert that the beasts
thrive faster now than before. We are quite satisfied that this is the case, and ought
not to omit to state that the unprepared food cost from 12s. to even 16s. per week per
head, in the years 1845 and 1846. Beasts of equal ages and equal sizes, when tried
upon prepared and unprepared food, consumed by far the largest quantity of raw food,
without a corresponding increase in size or value. I recently saw some fatting beasts
living upon hay and oil-cake, at an expense of 18s, per week, and thought such a system
enough to ruin a mint, I have no personal interest in recommending the fatting of
cattle on prepared food, apart from a desire of diffusing an econominal system of farm
management. But should any,one feel desirous of more detail, I shall be happy to
furnish it. Butchers have given us 10s. per week for allowing half-fed beasts to live on
the prepared food, and are satisfied with the proportionate increased value of their
animals,”
368 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
And this leads to the question in what condition should food
be offered to cattle. Of summer food, vetches, &c., cut and
carried to the house, a somewhat costly experience makes us say
that it should be cut and left to wither some hours before use.
Green and succulent as the vetch or clover is, they are as often
physic as they are food, unless somewhat dried before consump-
tion. Of winter food—turnips and mangold wurzel—I have
only to say that they should be used in the order of their ripen-
ing. Common turnips first, then the hybrids, then swedes, and
lastly mangold wurzel. ‘They are rarely given boiled: Mr.
Warnes has recommended them when cut to be laid in a heap or
mashed in a cask along with the hot linseed mucilage which he
pours over them, so that the whole is warmed; but the few exist-
ing experiments on the subject, however fanaa to the feed-
ing of pigs on boiled food, have not recommended its use for
cattle. Mr. Walker, of Haddington, found five oxen and heifers
on steamed turnips, &c., to cost 5l. 19s. more during the
period of the experiment than the same number on food un-
cooked ; and while the latter, after putting a certain value on the
food consumed, paid 4/. 12s. beyond their cost, the former did
not repay their expenses, similarly estimated, by about 16s. on
the lot.
And as regards the condition of the artificial food given to
cattle. The Harleston Farmers’ Club recommend the boiling
of the corn even more than of the linseed with which it is mixed.
Our practice has been to boil the linseed merely, and then dust
the corn meal over the chaff after the boiling mucilage has been
added. And that it is of importance thoroughly to reduce the
linseed by grinding, and boil it, and convert it perfectly into a
mucilage, is proved by the experiments of Mr. Thompson, of
Moat Hall, near York. He found that of 1000 grains of un-
crushed linseed, boiled for one hour, 845 were still insoluble,
while of the same quantity crushed, and similarly treated, only
525 were insoluble. And, notwithstanding that most of our
meat- producing animals chew the cud, it is well to be particular
in assisting mastication and digestion by the utmost reduction of
their food before it is administered. Turnip-cutters, and chaff-
cutters, and corn-crushers, are useful in a meat manufactory, not
only by causing the consumption of what would otherwise, to a
great extent, be lost, but also by enabling the more perfect
exhaustion of the nourishment contained in that which is con-
sumed.
I have said nothing of swine in this part of our subject, but
it is well known that they allow of a more concentrated nutritive-
ness in their food than other animals, so that it is even the
practice to give them greaves, and grease, and blood, and other
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 363
animal matters, which they convert into pork or bacon with a
profit.
The following is a case of high feeding with profit in the in-
stance of the hog. Two sows and thirteen pigs were bought for
15/.; they consumed 68/. worth of Indian corn and barley, both
bought at so much as 5s. per bushel; they ate the produce of
one-eighth of an acre of potatoes, and they had the run of a grass
field during the period of feeding; they ultimately yielded 276
score lbs. of bacon, which, selling at 8s. 6d. per score, realised
115/., or 357. beyond the actual cost of animals and food; a sum
which was ample payment for the potatoes and the grass. But
every one can find in his experience instances of profitable feeding
in the case of the hog, as well as in the case of the other animals
also which the farmer fattens. The difficulty is to give only their
due importance to detached instances of this kmd. The following
instances appear to be average truths. They are extracted from
the‘ Agricultural Gazette’ in 1847-8. Ona Galloway farm, thirty
aged cows and heifers were tied up to feed :-—
i S20
They cost . ° : ° ° ° . 2922008: 0
Were fed 30 weeks, Interest P 2 Wipe)
Attendance : : ‘ ‘ 5 : Ly OO
Fuel ‘ : 40.0
Linseed 10 qrs., beans 30 bshls., oats 50 Ibs. . - 40 18°" 6
Total cost : S@3G61 +9210
They were sold for . ; . : - 425 0 O
having consumed 400 tons of swedish turnips, which, at 3s. a
ton (the price they thus obtained from them), make about 602.
the amount they gained. Again, on a north Lincolnshire farm,
sixty head of cattle (forty Galloways and twenty shorthor ns) were
put up to feed :—
Ste Seb sth.
They cost : : - 905 0 O
Were kept from January till May. Interest . . 22 10° ©
12 tons of oil-cake . ° - - - 138 0 O
5 tons of hay - . . . : : din 2A OLD
Attendance : : : - . ° si. 26,0, 0
Total cost : <a yt A yo had |
They were sold for . - . : . : 119¢ 2 0
—_—
having consumed about 580 tons of swedes, which, at nearly 3s,
per ton, the price their feeding obtained fei them, make about
86/.. the amount they gained. These prices do not pay for
growing these roots; but inthe one case 150 tons of good manure
were made, and in ‘lie other 1300 cubic yards, nee it is to this
that the farmer looks for repayment of his cost.
370 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
There is no truth more unwillingly learned by the amateur, or
yet more certainly forced on him in a few years, than the small
influence of maxima on agricultural averages; so that the expe-
rienced farmer comes to look on all these reports of individual
cases with an indifference which might appear unreasonable. It
is a hard matter to say what is truth in so variable a matter as
feeding ; or where it is to be found, if not in the instances whose
details are recorded in our agricultural publications. But I
believe that average experience concurs in recommending a treat-
ment of fattening animals very much—if profit be our end—in
proportion to their quality. Well-bred stock may be forced from
calfhood forwards with the highest feeding from beginning to
end; its precocity will take every advantage of every aid to deve-
lopment: but coarse unthrifty animals will pay for little beyond
a self-obtained livelihood from poor pasturage, where there is no
labour, little rent, and nothing bought to swell the debit side of
its account. And between these extremes of course every variety
of treatment may be demanded by varying circumstances. If
high feeding be adopted, the object should be to give, in the
most digestible form—cut or crushed or even boiied, and inter-
mingled — food combining nourishment and cost in the most
economical proportion. Linseed, as a source of the fat, and
pease or bean meal, as a flesh-forming food, seem to offer the best
mixture. ‘This, with Swedish turnips and mangold wurzel to fur-
nish water enough—not to speak of their own really nutritive
quality—and hay and straw chaff to give the bulk without which
the stomach cannot rightly perform its functions, and salt as a
wholesome condiment, will fatten an ox or a sheep as fast as
other circumstances permit.
4, What these other circumstances are we must now consider.
They are all included in the words health, warmth, comfort.
I do not intend to discuss methods of restoring health when
it has once been disturbed. It is very seldom that a veterinary
surgeon can make much good of a fat patient. The best plan is
to kill such an animal on the first symptom of anything serious,
and sell the carcase. But it is with comfort and warmth as the
preventives of illness that we have to do. I shall not quote at
any length the explanations of the chemist on the advantages of
warmth. No one doubts these advantages. The factis, that the
quantity of food which is consumed—z. e. burned—in the body
for the maintenance of its heat depends on the weight of the air
drawn into the lungs. If an animal be artificially warmed it
neither will nor can inspire so much as if it were cold. There
is not so much loss of heat to restore, and less fuel burned will
maintain it; and the animal, not needing so much air to burn that
fuel, will not draw so much into its lungs. But it could not if it
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 371
would; for assuming that an equal bulk of air is breathed one
day with another, the warmer it is the rarer and less heavy it will
be; so that the artificial circumstances which mduce external
warmth hinder the animal from making so much use of the
means which have been provided for the natural maintenance of
its temperature. The warmer, therefore, in reason, that an animal
is kept the less of its food goes to waste as fuel. But it is not
merely cold that an exposed animal has to sustain. A flock of
sheep folded on the turnip-fields, as they often are, amidst frosts
and snows and rain and wind and sleet, are in as miserable a
plight for making mutton as can be conceived. And itis by the
avoidance of ail the stagnation and disease consequent on this, as
well as by the direct saving of food which warmth effects, that
shed-feeding recommends itself. Mr. Childers first proved and
published the benefits of the plan in the case of sheep to British
farmers ; but it had long been known on the Continent.* The
Society’s Journal contains several cases of the advantages attend-
ing this mode of treating them. And Mr. Huxtable has latterly
recommended a still more artificial treatment, of which we have
as yet had no experience. He advises, in order to save straw as
food, and to obtain manure in a state to drill, that sheep be kept
without litter on a sparred floor, through which their dung may
drop into a pit below. Of shed-feeding sheep we have had seve-
ral years’ experience over, in the whole, nearly 1500 fattening
sheep; and the plan, so far as yet appears, we shall continue to
follow. Our balance of accounts, published in a past page, may
not appear to speak well for the plan; but it is not out of this we
are persuaded that the small returns from our sheep have arisen.
It is the great expense of feeding them that has reduced our
apparent profits. We have had this winter 230 heavy sheep in
sheds, their litter and manure accumulating under them for
three months together. The shed does not cover the whole of
the space on which the animals stand. Every eight sheep have
a pen of 10 feet by 15 feet, and of this a roof covers about 10 feet
by 10 feet. Not asingle case of lameness has attended our flock
this winter, and they have been growing fast.; They eat their
food (7 lbs. turnips at 6 a.m., linseed porridge at 10 a.m., 6 lbs.
turnips at 2p.M., and 7 lbs. turnips in the evening) and lie down
the rest of the day. To this continual rest we attribute their
* Having farmed, largely, many years ago, on the shores of the Baltic, I was com-
pelled to keep the sheep under sheds to guard them, during the winter, from the attacks
of wolves, At first they were housed in an enormous barn ; but, afterwards, in covered
sheds, in which they were found more healthy, and I could not perceive any advantage
in the greater warmth of the barn than of the sheds in respect of their fattening.—F,
BurKE.
+ The feet of about two pens of sheep are pared every day, so that the shepherd gets
over the lot every fortnight, -
372 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
tendency to disease of the bladder, which certainly is somewhat
remarkable: but upon the whole we do not hesitate to recom-
mend shed-feeding of sheep as, other things being equal, the
healthiest and fastest method of making mutton.* Whether it
be the fastest way of making money is another thing: the modes
of feeding come in for consideration then, as well as the cost of
carrying food and manure.
I have nothing to say on the hog in this part of the subject.
He has always received more care than the other stock of the
farmer; and a warm, clean, and well-littered sty is as good an
apartment to live in as any fattening animal can desire.
Of the ox there is more to say. I shall not refer to summer
grazing, because that is so thoroughly inartificial a method of
management. But as regards the winter feeding of cattle there
is a choice of methods requiring discussion. Oxen, when fatten-
ing, are sometimes kept in large yards, 10 or 12 together; or, as
in East Lothian and other counties, in hemels—small yards
containing about two feeding cattle each; or, as is a still more
general practice, in stalls, each tied by the neck to a trough, and
having a width of about 5 feet on which to stand or lie; or, as has
latterly come to prevail, in covered boxes, as they are called—
that is, in railed divisions, one ox in each, under a roof—the
litter and manure being allowed to accumulate under them from
one month to another.
The first plan is clearly inferior to the others. ‘The hemel
system has been experimentally compared with the stall feeding
by Mr. Boswell, of Balmuto, in Fifeshire. He found that 4
3-year old cattle, and 4 2-year olds, in hemels, gained from 17th
October, 1834, to 19th February, 1835, 23 stones | lb. of meat
more than the same number of similar animals fed on similar
food in stalls. But this was not all profit, for the former con-
sumed more turnips than the latter by about 34 tons. The gain
of 23 stones of meat was accompanied with a greater consumption
of 33 tons of green food.
I have not met with any other instance of exact experiment
on this subject; but this one seems to indicate very clearly the
advantage of giving the animals more exercise than they can take
when tied by the neck. And I have no hesitation in recom-
mending—from 4 years’ experience of above 160 head of feeding
cattle—box-feeding, as combining the complete shelter and the
comparative freedom characieristic respectively of stall and hemel
feeding. In a box about 10 feet square, an ox will need about
15 to 20 lbs. of straw daily as litter. The dung and soiled liter
* It may be well just to mention that Lord Talbot and Sir R. Simeon, of the Isle of
Wight, have adopted a plan of stall-feeding sheep, of which they speak highly, but the
expense of which is we fear too great for an economical manufacture of mutton.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 373
are allowed to accumulate for months together. The trough
should be moveable, so as to be raised as the animal rises in his
lair. The advantages are, that under these circumstances none of
the liquid manure is lost, and the anima!s are dry, and clean, and
warm, and the air they breathe is sweet. There has been a good
deal of opposition to the system of box-feeding in the agricultural
periodicals of late; but it certainly has been an unreasonable
opposition. What though the tendency of manure when it accu-
mulates is to ferment, and generate nauseous gases? What though
these gases be injurious to animal health, and though an ox
cannot lie down daily amid its own excrement without injury ?—
All this I most readily admit; and yet the fact remains un-
assailed, that a box-fed: ox, properly littered, will allow its litter
and manure to accumulate under it, and maintain notwithstanding
a dry and clean coat, and a healthy growth. The fact is, that
under his weight the manure does not ferment in any mischievous
degree ; the straw does not rot. The fact is, that he can choose his
bed ; while a stall-fed animal lies where he stands whatever be
under him, The fact is, that the former has twice the-space to.
live in that the latter has: and the racr is, that the former lives.
more comfortably in a warmer, drier, more healthy condition than
the latter. I have not the smallest hesitation in recommending
box-feeding, as, ceteris paribus, the fastest method of making beef,.
and shed-feeding as the fastest method of making mutton.
These, then, have been the conclusions at which we have ar-
rived—that box-fed or shed-fed animals of good breed, fed on
purchased food properly prepared, in addition to the utmost pro-
duce of the best-grown crops which a thorough fertile farm can
yield, will turn out more meat per acre, than is possible by any
other animais under any other circumstances. ‘That land must
be raised to the highest fertility which the cost of drainage or
burning, or marling or liming, of manuring and cultivation, per-
mits—that it must then be made to yield alternately with grain
crops, the best descriptions of Swedish and other turnips, of man-~
gold wurzel, of carrots, of clover, vetches, rape, or other green
crops, which skilful cultivation can produce, and the best crops of
each that cost and climate allow: that, with this produce, linseed
and, say, beans, must be bought (or grown) for consumption in the
proportion of 1 of the former, and about 3 of the latter, with
every 100 of the green food: that this, properly prepared, must
be given to good individuals of the Short-horn, Hereford, or Devon
breeds of eattle, kept in clean, well-littered boxes, or to good in-
dividuals of the Leicester, South Down, long-wooled, or cross-bred
breeds of sheep, in well-littered and well-sheltered sheds, before
a maximum of meat can be expected.
IV. I have now to consider some other points, perhaps less
MOL. X- 2c
374 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
immediately connected with our subject, to which the Society has
called attention ; and this I shall do by presenting them in the
form of questions, and I put them in the order in which the
Society has dictated them.
A. What are the sources from which the supplies of lean
stock are derived, and are such supplies on the increase or de-
crease? ‘To the latter part of this question I imagine the
proper answer to be that, excepting our altogether foreign sup-
ples, these sources will, no doubt, generally diminish in produc-
tiveness as the agriculture of their several localities improves.
There can be no doubt that this will be more and more true of
the more improvable districts, such as Herefordshire, &c., from
which we now draw the best of our lean supplies. When each
locality fattens its own stock, as in the case of an improved cul-
tivation it does, then any extra stock that each may require must,
excepting what is reared in uncultivated districts, be brought
from abroad. ‘To the former part of the question we may
answer :—
]. That it is an increasing practice, already prevalent in our
best counties, to fatten one’s own stock, and not look to other
districts for lean cattle. But this is the subject of our second
question, and need not be discussed here.
2, That Ireland has been a productive source of lean stock for
the English and Scottish farmer, though not much to his benefit,
if our own experience of the quality of Irish beasts is any guide ;
but that it 1s a source which, with an improved state of things
there, we may expect will gradually dry up. The following are
the only returns of importations of live stock from Ireland that
I have succeeded in obtaining, and as they include the period
of famine, they cannot be considered very instructive. If the
quarter ending the doth of July, 1846 and 1847 respectively, be
any guide to a conclusion, it would appear that the supplies have
not fallen off as yet:—
Imported Number of
from Ireland during
Quarter ending Cea Caimee ar eestor Sine.
5 January, 1846. 32,883 583 32,576 104,141
5 April A) oS 14,859 183 1 EA | 15284 1
5 July spite 33,850 1,923 06,669 124, 762
10 October ,, .| 71,728 | 2,909 | 123,372 89,941
5 January, 1847. | 66,046 | 1,348 68,095 | 113,276
5 April spits ie! 28 1672 329 25,701 45,993
5 July » | 64, 017s ataes 88,173 14,750
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 375
3. That the hill districts of Scotland have been a large
source of lean stock. Some of them will more and more feed
their own stock than they have yet done, and supplies from
some of them, Galloway for instance, will decline. ‘Thus, I am
informed by one of the most extensive Galloway dealers, that
the quantity of lean stock sent from the three counties, Wigton,
Kircudbright, and Dumfries southwards, is at present from
13,000 to 14,000 annually, and that ‘these numbers are likely
to diminish rather than increase, as every year the extent of
home feeding is increasing. ‘The Highland districts of Scot-
land, however, are likely to supply us in undiminished quantity
for many years to come. The stock sold at Falkirk tryst and
Doune fair, in the county of Stirling, is a sufficient measure
of the Highland supplies; and the following details respecting
these markets, extracted from old files of the two Stirling
papers, I have been enabled by the kindness of a friend to
procure :—
ESTIMATED STOCK AT MARKET AT
FALKIRK. DOUNE.
DATE. |-
‘ Observer.’ ‘ Journal.’ * Observer.’ ‘ Journal.’
1836 |
October . 40,000 55,000 Bad market Dull
1837
August . | Beyond expectation | Very extensive ae oe
September | Better than last year} Average oe o
October . Ditto Greater Little business done 10,000
1838
August . Ditto Greater Great number ; sales oe
brisk
September Bad tryst 18,000 a a.
October . Full 50,000 50,000 | oe Good market
1839
August . Average 6,000 ze oe
September} Smaller number 30,000 oe oe
October . Full 70,000 70,000 Sales brisk 5,000
1840
August . About 15,000 15,000 oe oe
September} Less numerous Short oe an
October . | 80,000 to 90,000 oe Sales brisk Brisk
1841
August . 18,000 18,000 to ve oe
20,000. |
September Good Good oe | Not so mapy
October . Numerous Full Dull ce
1842
August . Greater number Very great oe oe
October . Great number Full ve | oe
1843
August . Ditto oe ve ve
September Fewer ve v6 ve
October . Great show 7 Not good | oe
Ie 2
DATE.
1844
August .
October .
1845
August
September
October .
1846
August .
September
October .
1847
August .
‘September
October .
1848
August .
September
October .
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
ESTIMATED STOCK AT MARKET AT
FALKIRK. DOUNE.
¢ Observer.’ ¢ Journal.’ ‘ Observer.’
Bad market : te
Over average
One-third more, and
dull and dear,
Below average
Fair average
Half the average
Half over average
Short
Full average
Below average
Not extensive
Most extensive
Very large number
A great show of cattle
Short supply
Good supply
eo 38
Oo @
Beyond the demand
* Journal.’
—_==2
Upon the whole, the above extracts show that these markets
are still as fully stocked as they have been, and that we may
depend upon their at least maintaining their supplies for a long
time to come.
4, But the great source of lean stock now open to us is the
Continent: and the supplies imported thence are very rapidly
increasing. ‘The following numbers tell us that plain enough,
but, unfortunately for the farmer, much of it is not lean stock,
but butcher-meat already fatted.
Se aoe
Oxen and Bulls. .
Cows «
Calves .
Sheep. .
Lambs .
Swine and Hogs ,
Noumser of Awimats Imported.
SP An SR olet
sie 16
265
Year ending January 5,
18409.
9,782
6,502
586
15,846
112
1,598
1846, 1847.
17, 191) We 7eert
25,349 | 35,138
2,503 | 12,389
91,732 | 136,527
2,892 3,349
3,856 1, 242
Nine Months
- ending
October 10,.
1848,
16,791
15,919
12,389
79,388
175
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 377
Another return, between which and the above there is some
unexplained incongruity, states that there were imported in the
years—
1842, 1843, iff Pel ee ed sa
@atttlex .) % 4,264 1,521 4,889 16,870 |
Sheep... 644 217 ZrO oh ato. 958 |
Wine. «3 | 410 361 | 265 1,598 |
|
These numbers show that there is a source in operation of
unknown productiveness, from which we may continue to draw
our supplies of lean stock for many years to come, with what
profit to ourselves the quality of the animals thus obtained to feed
will determine.
B. But let us now inquire in what degree it is profitable, or
even possible, to breed our own stock ? That, other things being
equal, it is advisable to breed one’s own stock is apparent from
the fact that then the feeder knows the stock he is fattening, and.
can treat them, as regards quality of food, according as his expe-
rience of them has shown to be profitable; and that it is possible
the experience of Berwickshire farmers proves.* There the
farmer purchases every few years a good bull, keeps a stock of
perhaps a dozen cows, and rears, it may be, from 30 to 36 calves;
his cottagers, having cows which are covered by his bull, sell him
their calves, which are reared along with those of his own cows.
One cow thus brings up 23 to 3 calves; and the cattle thus
reared are sold at little beyond two years old, often as heavy as
upwards of 7 cwt. a piece. It may be well to state the mode of
management somewhat more in detail. The calves are made to
drop at various times between the 1st of February and the Ist of
April. As soon as dropped the calf is removed from its dam,
rubbed dry, fed liberally on new milk thrice a day for a fortnight,
then tempted to eat Swedish turnips and oilcake, giving the same
quantity of liquid as usual, but now not new milk alone, but
gradually more and more diluted with water, and containing
perhaps a little oatmeal porridge. The cows all this time receive
globe-turnips (but we English farmers cannot grow turnips of
such quality as they can in the North), as being more productive
of milk than the Swedish. When the calves are from 4 to 6
weeks old they are moved from cribs to a house, several together ;
and as soon as the yards are empty, to the best and warmest of
* The statements regarding Berwickshire experience in this respect are adopted from
the paper on that subject i in the Highland Society’s Transactions, 1841, by Mr. Wilson,
of Edington Mains, Ayton, Berwickshire.
378 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
these. At6 weeks the mid-day meal of milk is discontinued,
and at 14 weeks they are weaned altogether. At that time their
allowance of cake is increased, and they readily eat enough to
improve in condition: they are put to grass, and the cake then
gradually diminished as they take to this kind of food. They are
not permitted to lie out late at night in autumn, but are soon
brought in and receive foddering of tares or clover. When put
on turnips they receive | lb. of cake each in the yards daily,
which keeps them improving ; and this continues till spring, when
they are again put to grass, and then it is discontinued. ‘They
are brought in the second autumn, and are fed liberally on turnips
and Swedes, &c., during the second winter, and may be sold fat
in the following May.
There are two sides even to this subject, however, and there are
advantages connected with the purchase over the breeding of your
stock, which, if you can easily obtain stock of good quality, may
justify the abandonment of the latter plan. The chief of them
is its economical use of the farm’s resources. When full-grown
stock are purchased and brought to a farm, they remove from it
when sold only the fat and flesh with which its crops have supplied
them. When fat stock, bred at home, are sold, the whole of their
substance is an extraction from the land, which, if bones are thus
taken from it, must be replenished with bone-dust purchased for
the purpose, or it will worsen in the process. In the former case
the food purchased more than balances the material removed
from the land ; in the latter, manures as well as food must be
bought if fertility is to be maintained. Still there is no doubt
that to breed one’s own stock diminishes the demand, which
would otherwise injuriously increase, upon our supplies of lean
stock, which are probably on the decline.
c. Another method of diminishing this demand, and so of
suiting it more accurately to the supply, is to keep on fattening
stock fully up to maturity before selling it as beef; and it isa
question which the Society has put—how far it may be advisable
thus to abandon the system of sending stock to the butcher at a
very early age? Probably the right answer is—-the earlier the
age the better, provided that, whatever it be, the animal shall
have attained full maturity and such a degree of fatness as the
market requires. The more rapid the process of feeding, the
less the operation of all those constant sources of waste which the
lungs and other excretory organs of the animal create; and the
more complete the growth and maturity of the animal before it is
sold, the fewer will be the individuals required to convert a given
quantity of food, and thus the less will be the demand upon an
already overtaxed supply of lean stock, and the less will be the
demand for bone and other substances out of the soil of which
Lodging and Boarding Labourers. 379
the animal framework is built. It appears impossible to give
any other than a qualitative answer to this question. ‘To state
the ages at which the different breeds may be profitably disposed
of to the butcher would not only be an invidious and probably
inaccurate performance, but it would, to do each of them justice,
require a specification of the mode of feeding and treatment
proper to each, which it would be impossible to give with accu-
racy or without great tediousness.—This, then, is all | have to
offer on the subject of our supplies of animal food.
XVII—On Lodging and Boarding Labourers, as practised
on the Farm of Mr. Sotheron, M.P. By Tuomas Dyke
ACLAND.
To Mr. Pusey.
Dear Pusey,—The arrangement made by Mr. Sotheron for his
farm servants at Bowden Park, near Chippenham, so fully comes
up to the account we had heard of it, that I cannot refuse to
comply with your desire that | should send you a description of
it to be inserted, if you think fit, in the Journal. Mr. Sotheron
has given his consent to my doing so, and furnished me with the
details of the plan and of its results.
When Mr. Sotheren took his farm in hand about four vears
ago, he found, as usual, a barn of double the size required, and
divided one end of it into three compartments, a dining hall, a
sleeping room containing six beds, a washing room with a loft
over it, for keeping chests of clothes, and a sink communicating
with the tank in the yard. The barn doorways are walled up
with brick and fitted with glass casements, a large window with a
swing sash is opened over the sleeping apartment, one of the
threshing floors forms the dais of the dining hall, on which stand
a plain iarge table and some wooden chairs. A lamp, and a long
pole for drying clothes, are let down by pulleys from the tie-beams
of the reof, a plain hearth and chnnney corner have been added
at the end, and a cupboard completes the furniture. In this
building from five to seven lads have been housed and fed during
the last four years. Their wages commence at 4J. and rise gra-
dually to 8/7. 10s. per annum. They purchase their own clothing
out of their wages. The married man is a good workman and
manages the steam-engine. Several of the boys have become ex-
cellent ploughmen and have won prizes. After work they occa-
sionally amuse themselves with cricket or other games, or with
reading and writing, playing the flute, &c. The weekly expenses
of their board per head are as follows :—
sy od.
Bread and flour e ; ocee lcm
Meat and bacon : te)
Groceries . : : : Papin bine 0)
Beer 1-8
Dip ede
They are allowed to come at sixteen years of age, and remain
till they marry or obtain situations. The youngest boy cleans out
the room, and they take it in turn to prepare the table for meals,
which are cooked by the wife of the bailiff, who lives in an ad-
joining house and has the assistance of one female servant, who is
not allowed to go into the building where the young men live.
The bailiff’s wife also provides for their washing. The young
men are under the superintendence of the bailiff, who presides at
their meals, and reads prayers with them morning and evening.
A. bell rings at meal times, and those who are absent from a meal
without leave or good cause, go without it. They are required
to observe some rules, few and simple, tending to order and
cleanliness—such as to sit down to their meals in clean smock
frocks, which they put off when they go out again to work. [
ascertained that these rules are in no way irksome to them, but
have inspired them with a feeling of self-respect—as their phrase
is, they are glad to keep themselves respectable. 1 sat with them
at their breakfast table, and conversed with them while the bailiff
was out of the room, and can therefore testify to their demeanour
being at once intelligent and respectful. There can be little
doubt that such a plan, carried on with kindness and good sense,
must tend to the best results, and such in fact have been pro-
duced.
* The following details are taken from the average of the consumption for several
weeks :—
GaSe ate
38 lbs. bread-at 13d. 1) 27S 04g
43 lbs. flour at 13d. . - O 0 7;
93 lbs. butcher’s meat at 5d. 0 3 113
143 lbs. bacon at 5d. ous oe On mOnmOs
24 Ibs. cheese'at 61d. 5. 82's OFS
2% lbs; sugarat 4d)0s. be a0) LOMO
3 lb. coffee at 1s. 2d. . : 0 0 5}
* lib. cocoarat (Sd. j.9 56 yu Ue:
2B elbs; ricelat 2d.’ 4. le fi Oe Oe
PRepper,salt Se." >. aos ee Ome
Board of five boys . . . . 1 0 62
Board of one boy « . - . O 4 Id
Been in addition’ 2 iy... 0s <i
Actual food ofeach boy . . 0 5 13
‘To this must be added a small sum per head for washing, soap, and candles and
firing.
Lodging and Boarding Labourers. 381
Of the total number of youths who have been admitted, two
have married, one of whom works on the farm, the other for a
neighbouring gentleman; four have been placed out in good
situations ; three, having absented themselves without leave, were
not taken back ; one left owing to ill health, and afterwards died ;
five are now at the farm. None have misconducted themselves
nor been discharged for any fault.
in connection with these arrangements for the boarding of the
farm servants who live in the house, two advantages are provided
for the ether labourers. A cup of cocoa is given to every person
employed on the farm at the time appointed for the beginning
of work ; and during the winter months nourishing soup 1s offered
to those who choose to pay for it, at the rate of one-halfpenny per
quart, which covers the actual cost, and is even more valued than
it would be if it were given without payment. The early cup of
cocoa is found to have the great merit of allaying the feeling of
thirst during the day, which is so great a temptation to labourers:
this probably is owing to the irritation of the stomach caused by
beginning the day’s work fasting being prevented.
The receipt for the soup, which is made a la Soyer, is as
follows :—
S. ud.
Meat 2 lbs. minced . Ore
Sago 6 lbs. : i +6
Pepper and salt Ort
2 4
Making sixteen gallons, which are sold for 2s. 8d., leaving 4d.
to set against the value of the vegetables grown in the garden,
fuel, and the time of the servant who makes it.
The merit of these plans, especially of the boarding of the
boys, seems to be, that they are natural and simple, in fact a
revival of an old English habit, universal some years ago, and
still practised, even on very large farms, in the north of England,
but driven out in the southern counties partly by the encourage-
ment given to early marriages under the old Poor Law, and
partly by the refinement of modern habits, which have banished
the labourer from the, society of his master, whereas he would
derive great advantage from it, and be made a more useful
servant.
Yours sincerely,
T. D. Actanp, jun.
XVII.— The Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. A Lecture
delivered in the Shire Hall of the City of Norwich, at the
Annual Meeting of the Society, July 18, 1849. By the Rev.
Epwin SIDNEY, A.M.
My Lorvs anp GEeNTLEMEN,—I have no common satisfaction
in addressing you in a county where for many years my humble
efforts, made long before similar exertions had become at all
general, were so favourably received and kindly acknowledged by
all classes of persons. I will not, however, indulge myself by
any further preface, but proceed at once to the task I have cheer-
fully undertaken. I shall endeavour to describe in simple
popular language the nature, habits, and, as far as I can, the
preventives or palliatives of the principal parasitic fungi of the
British farm, beyond which, of course, | cannot go; avoiding
all needless technicalities, and stamping my explanations with
those characters which will promote their currency with every
hearer. Whenever I am obliged to use a scientific term, I shall
try to explain it; and I commence by remarking that the epithet
parasitic applied to a plant, means that it lives at the cost of that
on which it grows. A fungus is a cellular plant without flowers,
living on air, and nourished through a stalk, stem, or spawn, called
its mycelium. It is propagated by minute seeds or spores, or
sporules, either colourless or not, but never green, and occasionally
enclosed in skinny coverings, termed sportdia, or spore-cases.
Fungi live by imbibing juices impregnated with the peculiar
principles of the matrix on which they grow. The spores mostly
germinate either by a protrusion of the inner membrane, or by a
lengthening of the outer covering ; and the spawn is the develop-
ment of these spores, or of itself already produced, possessing
the power of imbibing the juices just alluded to. ‘The most
familiar example is common mushroom spawn, which the little
seeds will sometimes throw out on strips of glass, so as to be
well observed. #ungals most commonly grow upon animal or
vegetable substances in a state of decomposition ; but many of
simplest organization attack tissues, in which its commencement
is at least not ascertainable, or, if commencing, hasten it beyond
recovery.
The simplest form of a fungus is common mouldiness, which
has two types. ‘The first, as may be seen by the aid of the mi-
croscope, is composed of jointed threads made up of simple
cells placed end to end, which separate and seem capable of
reproduction. This is represented in Fig. 1, where the little
cells may be seen placed as described. ‘These cells are ca-
pable of being separated, and appear to be reproductive. The
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 383
second -assumes a threal-like appearance, bearing spores on
the tips of the threads, or on short processes, and sometimes
Fig. 1. The jointed Threads of
Common Mouldiness.
BLS
PINS
Fig. 2. Threads bearing Spores.
in cases, by the rupture of which they are dispersed. They
sometimes assume the beautiful appearance delineated in Fig, 2,
where the jointed threads and the attachment of the spores in
the way mentioned will be perceived. The actual forms even of
these simplest fungals are thus shown to be extremely interesting.
384 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
Examples of spores in cases will be pointed out as we proceed.
In a higher state, fungi take a determinate figure formed of a
mass of cellular tissue, the centre of which is all spores, attached
to it often in fours. ‘This at length dries up, leaving only the
dusty spores, as in the case of a common puff-ball. The most
completely formed fungi have two distinct surfaces, one of which
is even and without any opening, the other separated into plates,
called the hymenium, or gills, to which the spores are attached,
generally four together, as seen in Fig. 3.
Upon these differences of structure de-
pend those various attempts at botanical
arrangement which I have no time to
describe. So numerous are the seeds,
spores, or sporules of fungi, that 1t is not
easy to conceive a place whence they are
excluded. Those which grow on matter
in which decomposition has decidedly
begun, have been well called “the sca-
Fig. 3. Showing the attachment of Vengers of nature ;’ but others of a most
the Spores in fours. minute description, some of which belong
to my subject, apparently attack tissues in full health and vigour.
With regard to the properties of fung?, 1 can only mention, in
a word, that they are respectively eatable, poisonous, medicinal,
intoxicating, and even luminous, lighting up with their living lustre
mines and caverns where they grow, and in some places assuming
at night the appearance of pendulous lamps hanging from the
trees on which they vegetate.
I. I now propose first to describe the chief of those minute
parasitic fung? which injure the corn and grasses of this country,
premising that corn-plants are themselves only grasses, the seeds
of which are sufficiently large for our food.
These little pests generally present themselves to the unassisted
eye under the form of masses of dust, differently coloured, and
appear on all parts of the plants, except the roots.
(1.) The stems or straw of our corn-plants, and also the leaves,
are frequently disfigured by a dark series of patches, constituting
true mildew, and called by botanists puccinia, from the Greek
guna, thickly, because of the dense masses of which it consists.
It is found upon reed as well as corn, but the microscope reveals
a slight difference in the structure of the spores, by which the
puccinia of one species of plant is distinguishable from that of
another. It was imperfectly noticed by Felice Fontana in 1797,
but in 1804 was investigated more closely under the auspices of
Sir Joseph Banks, on account of its ravages that season, and
microscopical! drawings, still in the British Museum, were exe-
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 385
cuted by Mr. Bauer. Its common appearance is seen in Fig. 4,
Vig. 4. Common appearance of Mildew.
which represents it on the siraw a little magnified. Its appear-
ance, under a first-rate modern microscope is shown in Fig. 5,
Spores.
\ } NN
Nil aK \
ae - “ es ay BNNs
ee S y
wf ENN
eae le ae
ESS ee
ae. ee is ae
Fig. 5. Puccinia ah or Mildew, magnified,
where you perceive that these dusty patches are crowds of
club- shaped fungi (spores), the thicker end of each of which
is divided into two chambers containing the reproductive sporules.
They burst through the epidermis, or upper skin, which they
lift up, and the sporules, dispersed through the air, have been
thought to find entrance by the stomata or pores. ‘The ground
of this notion is, that the patches of mildew are first seen in
small cavities immediately beneath these pores, which, as Pro-
fessor Henslow, to whom [ am indebted for the specimens
now before you, observes, “certainly looks very much as if the
sporules entered there.” With his usual caution, he remarks,
‘that the fact stands in need of proof,’ and that hitherto the
evidence is more in favour of similar fungi being imbibed by the
roots of the plants which they attack.” We shall shortly see
that some experiments on another fungal parasite of wheat, tend
to show that these fungi are developed in a manner little sus-
pected even by the most accurate observers. This parasite robs
the living plants of their juices, and must not be confounded
with a very minute fungus called dipazea, which is peculiar
to the joints of the straw; nor, as is more common, with another
black fungus, which gives a dingy aspect to whole fields
towards harvest, and is often called mildew, but which never
attacks a plant till it is previously diseased, and which, for want
386 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
of any other name, I am obliged to announce by its botanical one,
cladosporium herbarum, the character of its growth being, as you
see in Fig. 6, totally unlike mildew. It grows on old leather as
Fig. 6. Cladosporium Herbarum, magnified highly,
well as on wheat. The dissimilarity to Pucciniais visible enough.
Spores may be seen here in their cases. ‘The common appear-
ance on the straw, as shown in Fig. 7, not being accurately ob-
=<
Sa
Fig. 7. Common appearance of Cladosporium on Straw, slightly magnified.
served, misleads. ‘Though I have no other name but the botanical
one by which to call it, I can trace its derivation to the Greek
xrados, a branch, because the spores grow on minute branches.
Whatever tends to preserve the health of the wheat will prevent
also the attacks of this fungus.
(2.) We now come to other minute parasitic fung? of corn-
plants. ‘They are called wredines, the plural of uredo, from the
Latin uro, to burn, on account of the scorched appearance of the
parts on which they vegetate. Dufferent parts are attacked by
different species: the wredo of the maize alone growing every-
where except on the roots. ‘The first wredo I shall notice is
known familarly to the farmer as rust, red-rag, red-robin, red-
gum, and comes out in yellow or orange blotches on the stem, the
leaf, and the chaff-scales, appearing as a powder. The hue of a
whole field is often affected by it, and fears naturally arise, but
it frequently happens that a few days bright sunshine dissipates
the fungus ;. but mischief has been done, and the crop feelsit. It
is called uredo rubigo, and under the microscope the spores appear
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 387
asin the drawing, Fig.8. You may observe the spores in the highly
Fig. 8. Uredo rubigo.
magnified diagram, most accurately drawn from the microscope by
Mr. Leonard. They are seen growing on the mycelium, which
finds its matrix in the tissues of the plant. There is a curious
botanical question whether this wredo passes to puceinia. I think
the best evidence confirms the opinion that such is the case.
(3.) The sooty powder on the flowering parts of corn-plants,
called smut, chimney-sweepers, and dust-brand, is formed of the
spores of another uredo, called uredo segetum. It renders the
whole interior abortive ; the pedicel of the flower swells, and a
black dust occupies the whole. ‘These spores are so diminutive
that the diameter of one is only ss57 inch. Strange to say, some
farmers welcome its appearance, because they conceive it augurs
a good crop, forgetting that whatever ear it attacks, it makes one
less in that crop.
(4.) Another wredo, called bunt, or pepper-brand, seizes on the
grain of wheat, and that to a great extent if not guarded against.
This wredo is termed uredo fetida, on account of its filthy odour.
If you break a grain of wheat infected, you will find the flour
replaced by a black mass, oily and fetid, and all the ovary is seen
to be destroyed, except the integument, which swells and encloses
the spores, amounting in a single grain to nearly four millions.
They are, like those of
uredo rubigo, shown in
Fig. 9, on their myce-
lium or spawn, and are in
diameter about <3> inch.
This drawing, also from
the pencil of Mr. Leonard,
shows the spores perfectly
as they would appear un-
der an achromatic of +>
inch focal length, with an
eye-piece of moderate
388 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
power. This wredo confines its attacks chiefly to the seed of
wheat amongst our cereals, but some other plants, as the convol-
vulus, and of the grasses, rye-grass, bromus, and poa, are subject
to have their seeds destroyed in a similar manner.
(5.) These uredines, as well as mildew, though till recently not
understood, have long been the subjects of observation. Moses
threatened ine Greobediont Israelites with mildew, and the Romans
had their false god Robigo, whom they thought to propitiate for
the preservation of their fields from the disastrous attacks of these
diseases. A feast called Robigalia, to this deity, was always kept
on the 25th of April, to deprecate blasting and mildew. The
diseases themselves were long matters of curious speculation, and
they were, till lately, regarded as accidents of vegetation resulting
im a mass of injured cells from the dampness of the soil, excess of
manure, or fogs, or punctures of insects, and have even been
attributed to the presence of the berberry, a fungus of which,
called wcidium, is shown in Fig. 10. On the left is seen a piece
Fig. 10. Cicidium of the Berberry.
of the leaf of the berberry with the spots of ecidium upon it.
On the right, one of these receptacles, containing spores, is
magnified to show the form of this fungus. ‘The mycelium on
which it grows is also visible. ‘There have been many botanists
who have believed that the spores of @cidium come up as uredines
when they fix upon any cereal, It is the microseope which has
enabled us to recognise in all these parasites a true fungal cha-
racter, and to trace their growth; but the damage accruing from
them has not been adequately estimated for they never appear in
the farm or garden without injury to the produce. For example,
few can have failed to notice the effects of wredo on the rose-trees,
and also, but less frequently, on geraniums.
(6.) Numerous have been the speculations, and often inge-
nious the experiments, on the way in which the reproductive
sporules find entrance into corn-plants. Various remedies have
been tried, and some with success, as in the case of bunt, or
pepper - brand, which may be Sige ly checked by good dressing
of the seed. The principle of the dressing is the conversion of
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 389
the adhesive oily matter of the spores into that which is soapy,
which is easily washed off. This requires an alkali, and suggests
the use of a ley of potash, soda, or wood-ashes. Liming also
has a good effect. Sulphate of copper and arsenious acid, the
arsenic of the shops, are often used; but, besides the other
objections to them,'there is the danger to the vegetative powers of
the seed. It is not usual to dress for smut, which attacks not
only wheat, but barley and oats; yet the same reason applies in
these cases, except that more difficulties are in the way because
of the dissipation of the sporules before harvest, and the remainder
beimg knocked out in threshing. It is important to ascertain with
certainty how the contents of the spores grow. ‘hose of bunt are
too large to enter the stomata, yet if sown with wheat it reappears.
Some think the mycelium divides in the earth into molecules, each
of which has a vegetative power, and that any one absorbed by
the roots extends till it reaches its peculiar point of election in the
system. Others conceive that the spongioles of the roots imbibe
the fine contents of the spores, which grow. It is certain that due
dressings and washings prevent the reappearance of bunt, and
that excess of manure encourages red-robin and mildew, which
have also been observed to follow long feeding with sheep.
Amongst the antidotes to mildew, I venture to name clean farm-
ing, amendment of the texture of the soil, ventilation and letting in
light, checking over-luxuriance in the young plants, growing early
varieties in places subject to it, and avoiding putting on manure
directly before wheat, and hoeing the wheat when young.
(7.) There seems no reason to believe that any uredo men-
tioned is deleterious, though bunt is disagreeable in the flour.
It has been said that in past times there were gingerbread-bakers
who had no objection to flour which contained the black matter
of buné, as it saved them the brown sugar which they must other-
wise have used to render this confection sufficiently dark-coloured
for the approbation of their customers. If such customers there
ever were, they must have had more regard to appearance than to
quality. But J] am now about to describe a fungus closely allied
to uredo, which attacks grasses for hay, that appears to be quite
poisonous. It is termed uwstilago, having a similar derivation
with wredo, and is left by Corda in his general classification, in
the same group. Tulasne wrote a long paper on ustz/ago in 1847,
with drawings. ‘The one in question is called hypodytes. Its
spores are black, round, and very small, and [I shall call it grass-
smut. ‘There was a great deal of it in 1848, Ina field near
King’s Cliffe almost every flower-stem of the bromus sylvatica,
which was one of the principal grasses, was infected by it.
A plan twas taken by Mr. Berkeley from this field, and instead
of its throwing up fertile spikes, almost every one is attacked,
VOL. X. 2D
390 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
SOs SiR
—
s
ee
ae,
OS
Fig. 11. Ustilago Hypodytes.
1. Represents the stem covered with
the black spores.
2. Shows a portion magnified,
3. Shows the spores under a high
power of the microscope.
The structure in a very young stage is
thread-like, but all traces of mycelium
soon disappear, and nothing remains
but a mass of minute spores (Fig. 11).
The whole was drawn by Mr. Leonard
from the specimen this day exhibited to
the audience. In addition to the ruin
of the grass, this fungus is most per-
nicious. According to Leveillé, the
immense quantity of black dust result-
ing from it in the hay-fields in France, |
produces disastrous consequences on
the haymakers, such as violent pains
and swelling in the head and face, with
a great irritation over the entire sys-
tem. A like account was given of these
peculiar maladies by Michel, in 1845,
which he compared to the well-known
effects of ergot, on which singular abor-
tion of the seeds of corn and grasses I do
not enlarge here, because though accom-
panied by a fungus called ergotetia, it
cannot be called one. Botanists term
it ergotetia abortifaciens, or ergot fungus,
rendering the seed an abortion; but the
only argument they adduce in favour of
its producing ergot is, that it constantly
attends it. But it is clear that because
two things are coincident it does not
follow that they are cause and effect,
while the best examination does not
warrant such an inference in this in-
stance. I will only remark that it is
more common than is supposed, and [
am persuaded that cattle in ill-drained
localities, where it always abounds,
derive serious injury from it, and that
it is the unsuspected cause of many
disorders both in them and human
beings.
Another ustilago, named typhoides, damages the stems of
reed, swelling and distorting them, and rendering them almost
useless for thatching.
The only remedy for such a disease in a grass-field seems to
be breaking it up, and substituting for 1t a crop not subject to its
ravages.
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 391
I have not time to dwell on other kindred fungi found occa-
sionally on the gramineous tribes. All are more or less subject
to some uredo peculiar to them.
(8.) I may be expected to allude to the true theory of fairy
rings, which are due to three species of the most highly organized
fungi, called agarics. Mushrooms are agarics. ‘Those of the
fairy rings throw out their spawn in a circular direction, and the
ground being continually exhausted by it, a ring is formed, which
is rendered greener than the surrounding grass by the stimulus
of the spawn itself. -
I may just observe that in some countries, grasses and corn,
and particularly barley and rye, are destroyed bya curious mould,
which is developed beneath the snow, and if it appears in snow
without previous frost, it is often fatal to the whole crop. It has
not yet been noticed in Great Britain, but the matter will be
worthy of attention should any long frost occur.
I cannot omit to state here that the mouldiness in stacked hay is
generally the commonaspergill, to be described presently, and some-
times the common penicillium, also coming under review. The spores
of these will be seen to be injurious, and therefore such hay ought
always to be steamed. ‘The cut surface of hay-stalks is sometimes
covered with a light orange or brick-dust red fungus, which is a
fusarium, so termed from the spindle shape of the spores, but it is
entirely confined to the section of the stems composing the hay.
If. I go on next to the parasitic fungi of leguminous plants,
which are particularly subject tothem. A small dipazea destroys
peas in wet seasons, attacking all parts, especially the pods; but
the blight which we mostly see on peas, bears the botanical name
erysibe, or erysiphe, the Greek for mildew, and is the same kind of
mould that infests peach-leaves. In its early stage it is a jointed
mould, seemingly superficial, which on examination shows little
globules, changing from yellow to black, and springing from a
flocose web, filled with minute sacs containing the sporules. (See
Fig. 12.) These globules, and the sacs containing the spores, are
Re <—_ (5
Fig. 12. Erysiphe highly magnified.
wn
392 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
here depicted ; and a good idea may be formed from inspecting the
drawing, of the character of this fungus, as exhibited by the micro-
scope. They put out fibres, which lift them up from the surface
of the leaf, and are preceded by threads, white or greyish, consisting
of bead-like joints, of which it seems the uppermost fall offand grow.
Beans are injured by a wredo—the uredo of the bean—which
was very prevalent last year.
Vetches are attacked by a fungus styled botrytzs, from the
Greek forpus, a bunch of grapes, because the spores grow in this
way. (See fig. 15.) This drawing
shows a minute portion very highly ~
magnified, and will convey a just idea
of its appearance and of the cause of
itsname. It is called the botrytis of
the vetch, but in some places it attacks
peas and lucerne, and it might there-
fore bear the name of the leguminous
botrytis. Botrytis is distinguished from
other moulds, which are articulated,
and so named monila or necklace
\ moulds, by it not having its threads
jointed.
Dutrochet first stated, and I have
verified it myself by a series of experi-
ments detailed in my little work on the
blights of the wheat,* that if a single drop of almost any acid is
mixed with albumen, in eight or ten days necklace moulds appear ;
but, on the other hand, caustic alkali gives botrytis. With fibrine
of blood and phosphoric acid, the results are reversed. Every
sort of vegetable matter I tried with acid yielded a mould, but
when albumen contained a neutral salt none appeared. If salts of
mercury are present the development is stopped; zthiops mineral
does not check it; oxide of lead hastens it; oxides of copper,
nickel, and cobalt, retard it; oxides of iron, antimony, and zine,
have no effect; all perfumes stop it. Flowers of sulphur effec-
tually check the erysiphe on the peach, but they could not be
applied to pea-fields. How far a knowledge of the facts I have
just stated may lead to a remedy, easily applied in the shape of
manure, future experiments may show.
III. These observations naturally lead to the botrytis infestans,
found on the leaves of the potato when suffering from the true
murrain. The mycelium of this fungus traverses the entire
cellular structure of the plant, and emerges from the stomata
of the leaves, choking them, and the consequence is decay.
Fig. 13. Botrytis of the Vetch.
* The title is “ Blights of the Wheat and their Remedies.” |
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 393
Fig. 14 shows the microscopic appearance. This fungus is,
I believe, new to Europe; so widely distributed a species
Fig. 14. Botrytis infestans.
could not have been overlooked. This diagram is the same
as that given by Mr. Berkeley in his admirable paper on the
potato fungus. The mycelium may be observed traversing the
cellular tissue of the leaf, and one of the threads of botrytis,
that to the left, issuing from a stoma. Mr. Berkeley, the very
highest authority, is of this opinion; and he
writes me word, “Iam convinced more and
more that the fungus is the real enemy.” Cer-
tainly, all other theories have failed. The prin-
ciples of the geographical distribution of food-
plants plainly show us that extremely minute
and inappreciable differences in climateric con- |
dition may throw plants into an unhealthy state ; |
which conditions might exist unsuspected for a |
few years. Hereby plants may be brought |
being attacked by certain parasitic fungi, of }
which the potato blight may be an example, \A
and the botrytis infestans become, as it really \'
seems to be, the proximate cause of the malady.
The dotrytis is found on the tubers ; but besides
this a fusarium, which must not be confounded
with the former, nor regarded as characteristic
of the potato disease, but of another, often
occurring in the same tuber with it. (See
Fig.15.) This fusarium, highly magnified, is
represented in this figure. It will be per-
ceived to be totally different from the botrytis,
and the spindle-shaped spores tell the origin
of its designation. Genuine science alone yy, 15. Fusarium, from
enables us to make such discriminations ; and _ the tuber of Potato,
394 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
it is not too much to hope that experiments founded on some
such results as | have announced from the few I have had leisure
to make, may lead to the discovery of a check to the growth of
this pestiferous botryéts. |
The root crop of the farm suffers much occasionally from
fungal diseases. Parsnips are subject to a variety of the botrytis
parasitica, which blights the leaves. ‘The leaves of turnips are
attacked by the same fungus; but a different one, called fusz-
sporium, is found on the roots, but with no extensive injury.
Mangold-wurzel is affected by the uredo of beet, with brown or
black spores like that of the bean; but in all these cases the con-
nexion between the disease of the leaves and decay of the roots
has not been sufficiently observed.
IV. Hops are damaged by an erystphe, having the habits of that
of the pea. It seems to be in its early stage a peculiar mould,
but this opinion needs fuller confirmation. The whole subject
needs investigation, and I therefore do not dwell upon it.
V. I now pass from the parasitic fungi of the fields to those
found in other parts of the farm, its buildings, yards, and interior
economy. The fungi destroying timber are not sufficiently
known, though their effects are so common. Dry-rot is gene-
rally attributed to the spawn either of the merulius lacrymans, or
weeping morel, so called from the little drops of water it contains,
or to that of the polyporus destructor, named from its many pores.
But any of the fungi found on wood, and they are numerous, are
capable of producing it; and amongst them are, besides the two
mentioned, another morel called vastator, the dedalea of the oak,
deriving its appellation from its labyrinthine structure; various
polypori, thelephora, from 8ndn, a nipple, by reason of its papillose
surface, and sporothricum, the spores bearing hairy filaments.
(See Fig. 16.) ‘The microscopic view of a morsel of sporothricum
Fig. 16. Sporothricum.
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 395
(wide Fig. 16) is here given, very highly magnified. The
effects of all these pass by one designation, dry-rot. I will now
describe its progress. The first signs are small white points
from which a filamentous substance
radiates parallel with the surface of
the wood. ‘This is spawn, which, as
it gains strength, insinuates itself into
any crevices however minute, and the
threads are so fine that they pass be-
tween the tubes from which the wood
is organized, and forcing them apart,
destroy all cohesion. (See Fig. 17.)
This diagram shows these threads
from one of the polypori. Sometimes
various spawns interlace and form a
tough stratum; and the rapidity and
force of increase are such as to cause,
under favourable circumstances, the
total ruin of the wood. From the
experiments previously described on
the growth of fungals, you will perceive
that the acidulation of the fermenting
sap promotes their growth. Kyanizing, or the application of
corrosive sublimate, has been resorted to as a preventive. An
experiment may he made to show its effects: a solution of fish-
glue will be found to yield fungi in abundance, but if corrosive
sublimate be mixed with it none appear, and the same result will
follow additions of certain preparations of copper and other
mineral poisons. Oak felled in the spring, when full of sap, is
almost sure to have dry-rot, therefore that which is destined for
farm erections should be cut in winter, for otherwise the only
chance of stopping the appearance of the fungi is to substitute
_some poison by saturation for its proper juices, or to force them
out by an objectionable pressure. Immersion in water is bene-
ficial, but heat applied to dry the wood only hastens the malady.
In Brest dry-rot is said to be unknown, and all the timber used
in its yards is kept in a creek of the harbour.
VI. Fungi of a different kind from any yet described follow.
the British farmer into his dairy, and interfere with his household
economy. Penicillium and aspergill are two terms applied to
some of them, because in their microscopic appearance, given in
the delineation before you, they resemble sprinkling brushes.
(See Figs. 18,19.) Fig. 18 represents the Penicillium very highly
magnified. Aspergill is shown in Fig, 19. They are sufficiently
indicative of their names. Penicillium is the mould on hay, as
<< =
Fig."17. Threads from a Polyporus.
396 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
Fig. 18. Penicillium. Fig. 19. Aspergill.
was mentioned, and is found on bread, and also in the inside of
casks, and there is reason to believe its spores poisonous, for two
coopers who entered a great tun, covered with this mould, to
Lecture on. the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 397
clean it, inhaled them, and were seized with violent pains in the
head, giddiness, and vomiting, which only yielded to severe medical
treatment. A penicillium is the mould of milk, and we have
here a magnified representation of itsdevelopment. (See Fig. 20.)
The penicillium may be here
noticed developing itself from
the mass of mould. If these
moulds appear much in the
dairy or on the bread kept in
it, the best remedy is washing
the walls with chloride of lime,
which it is important to know,
as milk often suffers greatly in
this way. Foreign badly made
cheese has an unpleasant mould
in brilliant scarlet patches; but
in England the principal one on
cheese is an innocent mould
called torula, from torus, a bed,
from its coming in layers. I
may here just observe that the vinegar plant, as it is called, is in
its advanced state a penicillium; and the beer fungus has been
called torula; but before we decide the latter, we must see a
regular fructification in air. There are hundreds of non-pro-
ductive spawns for want of air and light, as, for example, the
strange forms which diffuse themselves in cellars, which are
incomplete developments.
You will permit me to state in this place, that the fungi on
stored fruit are a torula, a penicillium, common fruit mucor, and
a mould like the first stage of the erysiphe. Harting asserts that
he has actually propagated the potato disease from the brown
matter in mouldy apples and pears, and it is remarkable that
some ingenious experiments of Mr. Berkeley, on the growth of
bunt, lead to show that its propagation may arise from mere
grumous matter in the spores, which proves that many of our
theories are immature. The experiments were thus made :—
Wheat seeds were immersed in a mixture of water and the spores
of bunt. A curious mould with conjugated spores sprung up on
the spores of bunt. The wheat was sown, and the plants came
up infected; but no communication could be traced between the
cells and the shoots thrown out by the spores; no intrusion of
the mycelium developed by the spores into the wheat could be dis-
covered. The inference is that the fine contents of the spores
propagate the fungus ; but this is quite opposed to our general
ideas of the growth of fungals.
398 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
VII. I will lastly touch on the facts now established relative
to the fungi attacking animal tissues, which are very surprising.
Sapy meat has always a fungus something analogous to what is
called the yeast fungus. This fungus is a mass of molecules. pro-
bably an early state of the same that is called the Vinegar Plant,
the last stage of which has been stated to be a penzcillium.
What are called sclerotia, from cxdrnpos, hard, appears in ammal
matter under particular circumstances; but these are only states
of other fungi, for even agarics have been known to spring
from them. The fungus of the West Indian wasp, of the
caterpillar of New Zealand, and the muscardine of the silk-
worm, are all well-known examples of fungi attacking living
animals. The last is easily propagated by inoculating healthy
caterpillars, which I mention to show that a fungal disease may
be conveyed from one animal to another ina state of health. I
believe a more accurate knowledge of such facts will be ultimately
of great use in investigating certain diseases prevalent among
animals of the farm and hitherto inexplicable. Sclerotia have been
found in bad fractures, but they are not parasites; true parasitic
animal fungi grew only on the skin or mucous membranes. M.
Robin published in 1847 a most curious account of the vegetable
matters growing on living mammalia, which he classes into two
divisions—those of the skin, and those of the mucous membranes.
The mucous membranes of the digestive canal and of the lungs
are subject to their attacks ; nor is the stomach free. All herbi-
vorous animals are liable to moulds in the digestive canal, very
like the yeast fungus, but larger; yet it is confined to them, and
never found in carnivora, birds, or reptiles. A penicrllium of
birds is tolerably well known; and pheasants, fowls, and pigeons
are the prey occasionally of amould as yet imperfectly described.
An aspergill is found in eggs; and that found in the air-cells of
the lungs of the eider-duck has been often noticed. Parasitic
animal fungi yield, it is said, to sulphuric acid, whence a hint
may be obtained as to remedy; but I wish to speak with due
caution on these novel investigations. Attempts have been made
to inoculate dead animals with these fungi; they have entirely
failed ; the life of the animal is essential to their growth, the con-
ditions of which seem generally to be imperfect states of respira-
tion or nutrition, or irregularity. ‘There seems to be a moment
when the powers of assimilation flag, and then the fungz step in
and appropriate the nourishment designed for the system. It
may be the same with apparently healthy plants. We may here
have the first ward of the key to many a hidden secret as to the
ailments of the animals of the British farm.
VIII. I. have now completed my humble attempt to give a
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 399
popular outline of the chief parasitic fungi of the farms of Eng-
land, which only require simpler names to be easily understood ;
and the farmer must learn to distinguish them from the diseases
of the superficial tissues. It is a subject well suited to farmers’
clubs, where good botanists and microscopists might be induced
to attend with their instruments, and give simple explanations.
Let it be remembered that simplicity is the handmaid of all use-
ful science, whose truths are only impeded by needless grandilo-
quence. I can say by experience that endeavours to propagate it
will be found good subordinate auxiliaries to the higher aims of
men of my own sacred calling; and while we see that there is
not a thing so small or so apparently mean, but that it sparkles
with some beam of the skill of its great Maker, I conceive that it
befits the office I bear to show that the nobler teaching of Divine
Wisdom by things revealed, does not tend to deface, but to elevate,
our conception of God’s perfection in things created. ‘This earth
was not made to be neglected, nor man to be unobservant ; andif
these unpretending gleanings I have gathered in my few moments
of leisure shall this day have proved in the least degree acceptable
to the present audience, or generally of any interest to the British
farmer, of the kindness of whose disposition | had more proofs
than I have deserved, I shall rejoice in the honour conferred upon -
me by being allowed the privilege of addressing you.
XIX.—Experiments on the Application of Guano and other
Manures, in the Duke of Somerset’s Park at Stover, near
Newton Abbot, Devon. By E. 8S. BEarne.
No. I.
Report of an Experiment to test the comparative efficiency of
five different kinds of Artificial Manure in improving Pond
Mud, the experiment being made on an acre of inferior pasture
land in Stover Park, in the years 1847, 1848, and 1849.
The land on which the experiment was conducted is of uniform
quality, the soil being a light, sandy loam, a few inches in depth,
incumbent on a stratum of white clay.
The land underwent thorough draining in 1844, prior to which
it would not produce a rent of more than os. an acre.
No manures were applied to the land in 1848 or 1849.
The object sought to be attained by extending the experiment
over a period of three years was to test the durability of the
different manures.
400 Experiments on the Application of Guano.
Weight | Weight | Weight | Weight | Weight | Weight
of hay | of hay | of hay | cut per | cut per | cut per
cut in | cutin | cutin | acrein | acre in | acre in
1s47. | 1848, | 1849. | 1847. | 1848. | 1949, | Manures.
Cost
No. | Manures applied in 1847. of the
— |. $$ __. —_______. | | | | | —..
Seams of|Seams of |Seams of
lbs. lbs. lbs. 8cwt. | 3cwt. | 3cwt. |. s. da.
1 | Six cubic yards of mud
mixed with sixcwt.ofSalt| 312 327 613 42 43 9 0 14-0
2 | Six cubic yards of mud
mixed with 14 hogshead
Of Mime eye) fal teyie 353 337 538 51 BS) 8 0 13 6
3 | Six cubic yards of ‘nud
mixed with three bushels
of Bone-dust. . « . e 511 419 670 74 64 10 Oo V4 3
4 | Three cubic yards of mud
mixed; with three cubic
yards of Tan-yard refuse 524 354 558 73 54 8i |0 14 0
5 | Six cubic yards of mud
mixed with 90 lbs. of
Peruvian guano .. . . 930 550 125 13% 8 10% 0 14 0
N.B.—The after-grass in 1847 was stocked with sheep, but in 1848 it was left unconsumed.
No. 2.
Report of an Experiment made with the under-mentioned
Manures on an acre of pasture land in Stover Park, in the
year 1849 :—
The manures, when mixed with a small quantity of fine earth,
were applied broadcast on March 29th, and during the rainy
weather which prevailed at the time.
The land is of a fair average quality, and was formerly used as
tillage land, but has been in pasture for many years.
The crops were mown on 22nd June, and the herbage pro-
duced by the different manures was of a superior quality.
: Quantity | Quantity | Weight | Weight | Cost of eens
No. Manures applied. Manures | 2PPlied | of hay | cut per the Mctiitues
applied. | Per acre- cut. acre. Manures. per acre.
an ee ane mea, Vato 1 Ee ON Se ee eae
ewt. cwt. Ibs. |of3cwt| & s. d. | &. s. d.
WS INO ay Bod GG 1G As 50 401 4% Oued 5.5
2 | Superphosphate of lime 2} 9 616 ven 0 18 0 HTP)
3 | Nitrate ofsoda ... . 1 4 706 84 0 18 0 3 12 0
4 | Peruvian guano... . 14 6 1210 144 0 18 0 Sh wl2ip.0
Stover, near Newton Abbot, Devon,
September 22, 1849.
re re
XX.—Labourers’ Cottages. By J. Youne Macvicar.
SECOND Prize Essay.
Tue want of Labourers’ Cottages throughout the country is much
to be deplored; nevertheless it is a paramount duty incumbent
on every proprietor to provide habitable dwellings for the la-
bourers belonging to his estate.
Labourers’ Cottages. 401
How often, however, do we find a state of matters the very
reverse! In some instances, no opportunity is lost of removing
a cottage in order to rid the property of what is deemed an
incumbrance ; and, with the exception of the favoured villages
adjacent to the mansions of our nobility and gentry, Cottage
building—of a kind adapted to the wants and within the means of
our agricultural labourers—is far from being popular.
How this neglect has arisen towards so industrious and peace-
able a portion of the community—how so little attention (with
some praiseworthy exceptions) has hitherto been paid to the
dwelling of the agricultural labourer, it may be well to inquire.
We believe the omission is in a great measure attributable to
two causes. First, to the want of due consideration of the claims
of the labourer, in comparison with those of the larger occupier :
for, on the one hand, we have seen arise the commodious farm-
house, replete with every convenience suited to a refined state of
society, and extensive offices attached thereto, adapted to the
wants of every domesticated animal. On the other hand, without
drawing a comparison farther than we are warranted, we shall
find upon investigation that the labourer’s cottage has not ad-
vanced in respect of comforts in the same proportion. Secondly,
it may be attributed to the want of personal knowledge, on
the part of our English noblemen and gentlemen, of the actual
state or manner in which the labouring population is in general
housed.
Their sympathy may have been excited on perusing the sicken-
ing details of the evils arising from the crowded state of the
dwellings of the poor, as set forth in the valuable Report on the
Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes; but they have little
suspected that a careful examination of the cottages on their own
estates would, in all probability, have shown these to be not the
abodes of comfort and cleanliness, but of squalid wretchedness,
resulting from the unavoidable and indiscriminate mingling of
their numerous inmates and occupants.
It is saddening to reflect on the demoralizing influence which
such a state of society must inevitably produce upon the minds of
the rising generation. Much, of late years, has been done to extend
the advantages of education to the poorer classes ; and, no doubt,
giving their children both religious and moral instruction is a great
national advantage ; but it must be kept in mind, that the lesson
of morality and religion taught in school will be of no avail, will
be neutralized, if at the same time the child is not brought up at
home in habits of cleanliness, order, and the external proprieties
of life, by which, conjoined with a sound education, and in de-
pendance upon the Divine blessmg, we can alone hope to render
him a good and useful member of society.
402 Labourers’ Cottages.
To the kind and considerate proprietor—to the zealous paro-
chial clergyman—to all who consider the bearing and tendency
of such a measure upon the moral and physical condition of
the labourer, this step in the nght direction will at once re-
commend itself; and all, practical men especially, who have had
opportunity of seeing and forming a judgment of the necessities
and privations of the agricultural labourer, must hail with satis-.
faction well-considered and matured plans for the amelioration of
his condition.
Before proceeding to detail the construction of the cottage I
have found best adapted for the dwelling of the labourer, I beg
to offer a few remarks upon the auxiliaries connected therewith,
for the improvement of bis condition, which I trust will with
the aforegoing not be deemed altogether irrelevant to the subject
now under view.
Considering it most desirable that the bands of mutual good-
will and attachment should be strengthened between the pro-
prietor and his cottager, we would hold out to the latter a fair and
reasonable prospect that industry and good conduct will assuredly
lead to his advancement in life and the increase of his comforts.
Those who are acquainted with the wishes and ambition of the
industrious cottager well know how ardently he desires to be-
come the occupier of land sufficient for the keeping of one or two
cows; an advantage which, connected with the cottage garden or
allotment, will effect a most salutary and beneficial influence on
his life and morals, by giving him something to look forward to,
as a prop in his old age, or an ‘assistance when his strength through
sickness has failed, and, although willing, not so able for work as
heretofore.
And here let me not be misunderstood: I deprecate the idea
of the cottager becoming a poor and needy husbandman; but
no dread of this result need be entertained by an extensive pro-
prietor allotting in his different parishes to the most deserving
cottagers in his village a convenient portion of grass-land, at a
rent not exceeding that which would be charged to the farmer.
In the next place, | would recommend that the cottage holdings
should be rented direct from the landlord, as it induces him to
exert a greater influence in correcting and removing any evils
which may exist either in the state of the cottage dwellings or in
the habits or morals of their mmates. ‘These considerations are
too frequently overlooked when they are sublet.
In support of my argument, that cottages should be held direct
from the landlord, I gladly quote the followine remarks made
by His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch at the last general meeting
of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, lately held
at Edinburgh i
Labourers’ Cottages. 403
‘¢ The Duke of Buccleuch said that nothing was more disgraceful than
the condition of the cottages of the labouring classes in many parts of the
country, even at this present moment, though of late years great improve-
ments had certainly been effected. The system in many parts of Scot-
land was unfortunately a very erroneous one, for it was very rare that a
cottager held his cottage directly from the proprietor. In almost all
cases, especially in the south of Scotland, the cottages, often in whole
rows, were let to the farmers as a portion of their farms. The proprietor
had no more to do with the cottagers and with these houses than he had
with the animals which occupied the stall of the farm-ofiices.
‘“« The system of letting the labourers’ houses with the farm was neither
good for the proprietor nor the labourer, and he had felt it to be so great
a grievance, that whenever it was practicable he had tried to remedy it.
He had only the day before taken an immense number of cottages entirely
into his own hands, reserving for the farmer such as were necessary for
the accommodation of yearly servants, but letting the greater number of
the cottages to the day-labourers, who were to pay the rent directly to
himself. It was their interest also to keep} respectable people in those
houses; and if any one was in possession of a cottage who had not that
character, the proprietors would be enabled by that means to keep them
under control.”
Upon the estate which the writer of the aforegoing remarks
has the honour and pleasure of superintending, the proprietor
has within the last few years erected upwards of fifty labourers’
cottages of different designs; some single, others double, and in
two instances four and six dwellings combined together; but the
plan which has been found most suited to the habits of the
labourer and his domestic privacy, at the same time combining
economy in expenditure, is a double cottage, with three bed-
rooms (in each), for the best arrangement and construction of
which the Royal Agricultural Society of England has offered a
prize.
Two plans, accompanied by the elevations, specifications, and
estimates of the cost, are hereunto annexed.
Plan No. | has been erected in numerous instances, according
to both the elevations, and the arrangement has given general
satisfaction to the occupiers.
Plan No. 2 has not been executed, having been presented to
the writer of this essay during the prosecution of the subject, by
the architect who has drawn out the plans and specifications ; and
whose able assistance in bringing the author’s ideas and wishes
into a tangible and practical form, he has great pleasure in
acknowledging.
Situation.—Although this must be determined by local cir-
cumstances, the cottage should, as a general rule, be placed near
to, and the front (or side) parallel with a public road, having, if
practicable, a south, or what is even more to be preferred, a south-
east aspect.
The ground on which it stands, if not naturally quite dry,
should be made so by thorough-draining; and, where attainable,
404 Labourers’ Cottages.
the cottage should be surrounded by an ample garden, divided into
two portions, the smaller in front, and the principal one behind
the cottage. Where this arrangement can be carried into effect,
We consider it much more convenient and desirable than an allot-
ment of land in a distant field.
The garden in front for raising vegetables, with a small plat for
flowers, should contain about 20 per chee. A garden of this size, the
labourer, generally speaking, can easily manage at his vacant hours.
The principal garden, for the cultivation of the potato, may vary,
according to the circumstances of the occupier, from a rood to half
an acre; “bey ond which size it is very rarely advisable it should be
extended, as interfering with the duties of the daily labourer.
Pian No. Il.
_ Description.—A. Is the porch, entered by two steps, forming an ascent of 12 inches,
and from which there is a separate entrance to the front and back kitchens,
B. The back kitchen or scullery, 9 feet 6 inches by 9 feet, and provided with a fire-
place, boiler, and sink.
C. Front kitchen, or living room, 14 feet by 18 feet.
Warmth being essential for the comfort of the cottage, the fire-
place is carried up in the middle wall; and, from the position of
the window and doors in this room, it will be observed that no
draught of air can incommode the inmates. A cupboard, or
shelves, may be placed in the recess on each side of the fire-place.
The kitchen-range ought to be fitted up with an oven on the
one side and a boiler on the other. (We have tried the cottage-
grate by Nicholson of Newark, for which a prize was awarded
by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1848, and have found it
well adapted for the use of the cottager, “ combining safety and
economy of fuel, with effectual war mth and facility for cooking.”’)
D. Pantry, 8 feet by 6 feet. The walls are fitted up with shelves, and there is a
closet under the stairs. The window ought to be provided with a zine perforated
blind,
HE. Cupboard, off the living-room.
F. F. Staircase and landing, from which there is a separate entrance into each of the
bed-rooms. There is also a small window, for lighting the stairs, &c.
G. Principal bed-room, 14 feet by 10 feet, in which there is a fire-place, which,
although perhaps seldom used except in cases of sickness, is most desirable on account
of ventilation. (We have seen the drawing of a bed-room cottage-grate, also by
Nicholson, on the same principle as his kitchen-grate, which we think will be equally
efficacious. )
Hi. Bed-room, 9 feet by 8 feet.
J. Bed-room over back kitchen, 9 feet 6 inches by 9 feet.
EK. Coal-house, 9 feet by 5 feet 3 inches.
I. Privy, screened by a porch, leading to it, and to the coal-house.
M. Dust-bin.
N. Pigsty. That the cottager should keep a pig has been condemned by some; but
when properly and carefully attended to, we think without sufficient reason, as we
consider the pigsty an essential, as it certainly is a profitable appendage to the cottage.
The pigsty should be built by the landlord. When placed in
a proper situation and drained, it should not offend either the
Labourers’ Cottages.
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406 Labourers’ Cottages.
NO.1. DESIGN FOR LABOURERS’ DOUBLE COTTAGES.
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Labourers Cottages. 409
NO. 2. DESIGN FOR LABOURERS’ DOUBLE COTTAGES.
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eye or the sense of smelling, especially in the country (for in the
crowded localities of the poor in towns it is highly objectionable),
and is in no respect injurious to the health of the inmates of the
cotiage.
Pran No. 2.
Description —The two cottages are precisely alike, and the
entrance to them is beneath a shedded porch, which should front
the south or south-east, and open upona small plot of ground
reserved for a few flowers and fragrant herbs.
Each cottage contains in the ground-floor a living-room, scul-
lery, and pantry.
The living-room is 14 feet by 12 feet, and it will be observed
that no encroachment is made upon this area by the projection of
the fire-place, and that a useful closet is also obtained without
any deduction from the dimensions of the apartment.
The scullery is 12 feet by 8 feet, and has a fire-place by which
culinary operations may be carried on at seasons when the tem-
perature may not make it convenient to have a fire in the living-
room. A tinned iron or a copper pan is proposed to be placed
in the recess near the fire-place, from which a flue should be
built within the chimney-shaft for the purpose of conveying away
the steam without the liability of its passing into other apartments.
410 Labourers’ Cottages.
The pantry, which is 8 feet by 6 feet, has a northern aspect,
and has its entrance from the passage in preference to entering
from the scullery, that the vapour occasioned by washing or
similar operations may not pass into it.
A closet, in which a barrel may stand, is proposed to be made
in the pantry beneath the staircase.
On the chamber-floor are three bed-rooms, respectively 12 feet
by 104 feet, 10} feet by 8 feet, and 11 feet by 83 feet, and on
the stair-landing is a good store-closet for cheese, &c.
The detached offices consist of a pigsty, coal-house, privy,
and ash-pit, which are so arranged as to form a small kitchen-
yard to each cottage, one side only of which would require to be
inclosed by a paled fence.
Construction.— The foundations should be dug out to a width
and depth beyond what is actually required for carrying the walls
of the cottage, and filled up with concrete, as a preservative from
damp; and, for the same reason, the floor-line should be raised
12 inches above the level of the surrounding ground, the earth
removed 18 inches beneath the ground-floors, and the space filled
up with broken stones, brick-rubbish, or gravel and lime, so as to
form a bed of dry materials, impervious to damp, for the floors to
rest upon.
The walls may be constructed either of brick or stone, which-
ever material the locality affords the cheapest. If bricks are
used, the walls should not be less than 9 inches in thickness, and
20 inches when of stone; but in either case a layer of slates,
bedded in cement, should be laid upon the course of brickwork
immediately below the floor-line of the ground apartments, which
will effectually prevent any damp from rising in the walls.
I particularly desire to call attention to the precautions re-
commended to be taken against damp, as in our experience we
find so many cottages suffering and prematurely decaying from its
evil effects; and peculiar care is requisite for a dwelling formed
without underneath cellars.
In several instances of cottages recently built, the inner walls
of the ground apartments, instead of being plastered, are made of
dressed bricks. ‘This, besides being a saving in expense, has,
when painted, a neat and clean appearance, and is not so liable
to be injured or chipped by accident, or by the children.
The floors of the ground apartments are laid either with dressed
bricks or paving-tiles, which make a clean and smooth floor.
With respect to the bed-room floors, experience has dictated
a change of opinion; formerly I considered boarded floors the
most comfortable, but latterly I have given the preference, as
likewise the occupiers themselves, to plaster floors, as being more
cleanly, comfortable, and less liable to fire.
Labourers’ Cottages. All
The. roofing can either be of slates or tiles, and should be
made to project considerably, as another means of keeping the
walls dry; and, where expense is not an object, we should
recommend the asphalted roofing felt to be used under the tiles
or slates, which, being a good non-conductor, would add mate-
rially to the comfort of the bed-rooms by making them warmer in
winter and cooler in summer.
Windows.—Although the lattice-window looks the prettiest,
yet, having comfort and economy in view, I give the preference to a
window reaching to the ceiling, thereby affording perfect ven-
tilation, with a wood frame, one half of which is made to slide
horizontally; the squares to be of moderate size, consequently
more easily replaced when broken.
The cottages’ should be spouted with cast-iron spouting. I
have shown no rain-water cistern, finding the cost to be too ex-
pensive. In practice, an oil-cask, which can be obtained for
about 15s., will form an ample water-butt for the cottager’s
wants. The same remark applies to spring-water, as probably
one well may be made to supply several cottages.
An efficient drain, for carrying off the waste water, should be
laid up as far as the scullery, and the ground between the porch
and the pigsty either paved or gravelled, as both the comfort and
neatness of the premises materially depend upon this portion
being kept dry.
Elevations.—Design No. 1. I have submitted two elevations ;
of these the first is a plain and simple cottage built of brick, and
which we should recommend to be adopted where economy is
the chief object of the proprietor. ‘The estimate is formed from
this plan.
The second is an ornamental cottage built of stone, of the
style in which cottages have been erected near the residence of
the proprietor. This elevation will of course be more expensive
than the other, but hasa handsome appearance. The same effect
may be produced, should the design be executed in brickwork
with the dressings or ornamental parts of stone.
Design No. 2. This elevation, which is characteristic of the
cottage style of building, will look well when erected either in
brick or stone.
Estimates —On reference to the specifications and estimates
annexed, it will beseen that a pair of cottages after our first plan,
with the necessary outbuildings, will cost 295/. 15s. Ll4d.,* and
* Lest the amount of these estimates should deter any gentleman from
engaging in this most necessary field of improvement, I must remark that
in many neighbourhoods a pair of cottages, with three bed-rooms each,
may be built fora much smaller sum. A builder has lately engaged with
me to build such a pair for 160/.; the team labour being provided for him
412 Labourers’ Cottages.
according to the second, 2961. 9s. 8d. At the first glance this will
probably appear to many a large outlay, when contrasted with
other estimates professing to build cottages at a much less cost.
Having had considerable experience in cottage-building, I do
not think that a substantial cottage, containing the same accom-
modation, can be erected much, if at all, below my estimate.
Fully sensible that the more economically suitable dwellings
can be erected, the more will the labourer really be benefited, by
inducing the landlord to build, I have endeavoured to com-
bine economy with utility, while at the same time not professing
so much to build cheaply as substantially, and at fair remunerating
prices to the builder, below and without which no work can be
expected to be executed in a proper and durable manner. And
here I also beg to call attention to the circumstance, that in our
estimates the total expense of cottages and outbuildings connected
therewith is given; whereas in other estimates possibly the expense
of the cottage alone is stated. This, at first view, would present
a startling difference; but when necessity and discomfort call for
the after-addition of these, it will be found that the final, actual
expense, will be assimilated.
it may be confidently depended upon, that the cost of the cot-
tages, &c., will not exceed the estimates, the first having been de-
duced from the actual measurement and valuation of similar cot-
tages built in 184, and tested by the cost of those erected in pre-
vious years. Where materials afforded by the estate are used,
the cost will be still less, but no advantage has been taken of this
circumstance in forming the estimates: the materials are calcu-
lated at the current prices of the country, and we entertain no
doubt that similar cottages may be built in almost any locality for
as in the present estimate ; and, in addition, rough timber, which however
on most estates may be provided from thinning of plantations, and can
scarcely be called, certainly would not be felt as, an expenditure. The deal
floors, &e., to be found by himself. The cost of digging rough building-stone
is here 6d. per cubic yard, and lime is put by himself at 6d. per bushel.
Every one now feels the necessity of improving our labourers’ cottages, but
as to the best plan we can only say, I fear, that we have made a beginning.
Economy is necessary, because the complete work would require millions,
and the means are very limited. Experience, however, will probably
reduce the expense. One necessary step is, that gentlemen should become
acquainted with the details of building, so as to check fraud, or at least
carelessness, on the part of builders and measurers. A gentleman who
attends to his own affairs may build, as I have seen, for 100/. what would’cost
another 2007. It also seems a formidable thing, even at the lowest estimate,
to rebuild a whole village, but though many villages consist entirely of
mean cottages, even they need not be renewed altogether. For two bad
cottages of two rooms each, if laid into one, might make an extremely
good one; and thus half the new building is saved at once. A useless
barn too may be converted into an excellent pair of cottages.—Pu. Pusry.
Labourers’ Cottages. 413
the same cost; in some districts not so far inland, for somewhat
less.
Rent.—I\n determining the amount of rent of the cottages before
spoken of, the consideration was, how much the daily labourer,
earning from 12s. to 15s. per week, could really afford to pay,
rather than what he would readily have promised to give, had ad-
vantage been taken of his necessity and the utmost rent exacted.
The rent charged for one of these cottages, with a garden contain-
ing about 20 perches of land, is 3/. 10s. per annum; all the taxes
and rates of every description being paid by the landlord. This
rent yields only a small rate of interest upon the outlay, but while
our appeal is made to generous feeling more than to calculating
speculation, we yet venture to say that it will bear comparison
with the return upon the generality of farm-buildings.
These cottages have been erected for the express purpose of bet-
tering the moral and social condition of the labourer and his family ;
and it will be seen in the following rules, that in accordance there-
with, one of the conditions is, that the tenant shall not take in
lodgers without express permission. But in cases where the pro-
prietor takes every shilling which the cottage will let for, can he,
in fairness, enforce so salutary a proviso? While, on the other
hand, the occupier, from the profits obtained from lodgers, can
easily afford to pay a higher rent in the one than in the other case.
In addition to the customary agreement in use upon the estate,
the following condition should be strictly enforced :—
That no tenant-cottager shall take in any lodger or lodgers
under penalty of forfeiting a quarter’s rent for the first offence,
half a year’s rent for the second, and deprivation of his cottage and
land for the third transgression; unless he has first obtained, in
writing, the consent of the proprietor, or his agent, and of the
clergyman of the parish. This permission should in no case be
granted, unless the circumstances of his family, in regard to num-
bers, sex, age, &c., are such as, with the strictest propriety, admit
of it being given.
Observation.—1 have experienced considerable difficulty in
enforcing this important rule relating to lodgers; and recom-
mend that great vigilance be used, as the temptation of gain
from this source outweighs the inconvenience and annoyance
the lodger causes to the cottager, and endangers the re-produc-
tion of all those evils from which, perhaps, he has but recently
emerged.
General Remarks.—These cottages, placed in groups of three,
each surrounded by a neat garden, and the centre cottage slightly
in advance of the others, have a neat and comfortable appearance,
rendering them agreeable features in the rural landscape; more
especially when associated with the pleasing consideration that
414 Labourers’ Cottages.
under the cottage roof dwells a family amply provided with all
the requisites and conveniences of a comfortable home.
It would be unjust to the occupiers not to state my experience
that the rents are punctually and cheerfully paid, and that, gene-
rally speaking, both cottage and garden are kept clean and in
good order—in some instances to a much greater degree than
might have been expected, contrasting the state of the dwellings
they had previously occupied.
The landlord taking upon himself the payment of the parochial
assessments upon cottage property rented under 10/. per annum,
is a plan I venture strongly to recommend ; thereby conferring
a great boon, not only on the cottage occupier, but on the parish
generally. Every parish officer can bear testimony to the diffi-
culty of collecting the rates from the small householders—them-
selves frequently not far removed in ¢hezr circumstances from the
poor whom they are called upon to pay their quota to support.
SPECIFICATION of Works to be done in the Erection of Two
Labourers’ Cottages.
General Conditions —The land-carriage of all materials will be
executed without cost to the contractor ; the sand and gravel re-
quired for the works will be provided from the estate.
The whole of the works are to be executed with the best mate-
rials, in a substantial and workmanlike manner, to the satisfaction
of the surveyor of the proprietor, and according to the directions
which may from time to time be given by him; and his certificate
that the works have been so executed will be required to be pro-
duced before payment is made.
Diggers, Bricklayers, Mason's, Plasterer’s, and Slater’s Works.
—The surface-soil for 6 inches in depth to be removed from the
site of the cottages, and the areas of the rooms to be filled up with
gravel to receive the brick-paving. The soil thus removed, and
also that which may arise from the excavation of the foundations,
is to be distributed round the exterior, so as to give a descent in
every direction from the buildings. The ash-pits and privy-
vaults to be sunk 3 feet below the floor. :
A bed of concrete, composed of one measure of lime and seven
measures of gravel, 2 feet 6 inches wide and | foot 6 inches thick,
to be laid throughout all the walls beneath the footings.
All the brickwork to be executed with hard-burnt kiln bricks,
laid with close joints, all the return and cross joints being flushed
at every course. The walls of the coal-houses, piggeries, and
ash-pits to be pointed on both sides.
A course of strong slates, bedded in cement mortar, to be laid
throughout every wall of the cottages, intermediately between the
surface of the ground and the floor-line.
Labourers’ Cottages. 415
Twenty yards of drain, formed of cylindrical pipes 4 inches
diameter, with socket-joinis, to be laid from the sink of each
cottage towards the outfall drain. Drains of similar pipes,
2 inches diameter, to be laid from the feet of the descending
pipes into the larger drains.
The jambs and arches of the fire-places of the living-rooms
and sculleries to be built with pressed bricks, laid in fine mortar,
projecting three-quarters of an inch in front of the other walling,
so as to stop the plastering. The arches of these fire-places to
be turned upon iron chimney-bars.
The flues to be well pargetted with mortar mixed with cow-
dung; the gatherings to be made as nearly as possible over the
centres of the fire-places. The flues in the chimney-shaft above
the roof to be reduced to 9 inches square, and the two upper
courses to be laid in cement mortar.
Rubbed hearth-stones to be laid to the fire-places of the living
rooms and chambers; brick hearths to be laid to the sculleries.
Mantels and jambs 5 inches wide to be fixed to the fire-places of
the bed-rooms.
The contract to include the provision and setting of two
Nicholson’s cottage grates with side ovens and boilers, two small
chamber grates and coves, and a small range with brick cheeks
and coves, and a fifteen-gallon metal boiler, with furnace-bars,
door, and frame, for the scullery, of the aggregate value of 8/. at
the first cost.
The ground-floors of the cottages are to be paved with 6-inch
square paving-tiles bedded in mortar. ‘The coal-houses and
privies, ash-pits and privy-vaults, to be paved with bricks laid flat
in mortar. ‘The pigsties and courts to be paved with bricks laid
edgewise in mortar, A tooled flagstone 4 feet by 2 feet, with a
plain wrought-iron scraper fixed therein, to be laid in front of
each porch door.
The windows to have rubbed, weathered, and throated stone
sills, 10 inches by 3 inches. The outer doors to have 3-inch
tooled flag sills 9 inches wide, morticed for door frames.
A 5-inch dished sink-stone, 3 feet by 1 foot 9 inches, to be
fixed on brick piers in each of the sculleries, and the lead pipe
and air-trap hereafter described to be let into the same.
The whole of the walis of the cottages and privies to be ren-
dered and set fair, and the ceilings of the living-rooms and bed-
rooms, the soffits of the stairs, and the external eaves and gables,
to be lathed, plastered, and set fair. The ceilings of the scul-
leries to be pane-drawn between the joists.
The floors of the bed-rooms to be of grey floor-plaster upon
laths, and to be at least 24 inches thick.
The roofs to be covered with Bangor Countess slates, nailed
416 Labourers’ Cottages.
with two copper nails in each to red wood battens 14 inch by
3 of an inch, and laid with not less than 23 inches lap in any
part. The ridges to be covered with rolled slate ridging, fixed
with copper screws.
Carpenter's, Joiner’s, Smith's, and Ironmonger’s Works.—The
works to be executed with best Memel fir timber and Petersburgh
deals, excepting otherwise hereinafter directed.
A course of bond-timber 43 inches by 3 inches to be laid in
all the walls of the cottages immediately beneath the chamber
floors. The lintels to be 3 inches thick, and the breadth of the
wall to be supported. A sufficiency of wood bricks to be fixed
to receive all casings, frames, and skirtings.
The roof over the front chambers to be framed with trussed
purlins, having timbers of the following dimensions, viz., sills of
trusses for purlins 5 inches by 3 inches; purlins 5 inches by 3
inches ; trussing pieces 4 inches by 3 inches; rafters 33 inches by
2 inches ; wall plates 5 inches by 3 inches; ceiling joists nailed
up to trussing pieces 3 inches by 15 inch.
The roofs over the back chambers, coal-houses, and piggeries,
to be lean-to roofs, having rafters 4 inches by 2 inches; wall-
plates 5 inches by 3 inches; purlins 6 inches by 4 inches ; and
hip and valley pieces 8 inches by 14 inch.
The ends of the rafters, and the plates and purlins, to be
carried 9 inches beyond the walls, and to be faced with inch
beaded boarding.
The eaves of the cottages, to have 4-inch cast-iron spouting
fixed on neat metal bearers to the facia boarding, with proper
falls to the descending pipes. Three stacks of 24-inch cast-iron
descending pipes, with S heads to conduct the water from the
spouts, and with long elbow shoes to lead it into the drains, to
be fixed in the position shown on the plan.
The floors of the front chambers to have joists 8 inches by 24
inches, and those of the back chamber joists 54 inches by 23
inches ; the latter to be wrought where exposed.
The staircases to have inch-treads on 32-inch risers, upon strong
carriages, the underside being bracketed for lath and plaster. —
The external doors of the porches to be of 14-inch grooved,
tongued and beaded battens with four ledges at the back, hung
with 16-inch Scotch hinges to rebated and beaded frames 5 inches
by 3 inches. ‘The other doors to be of Z-inch battens with four
ledges, hung with 15-inch cross garnets, the coal-house and privy
doors having frames 4 inches by 3 inches, and the internal doors
1d-inch and half rebated jamb linings. The porches and coal-
house doors to have each a 9-inch stock lock, and all other doors
except the piggeries to have strong Norfolk latches. The doors
of the piggeries to be $-inch ledged doors, hung with hooks and
Labourers’ Cottages. 417
bands to oak posts 5 inches square, and fastened with hasps and
pins.
The windows to be 13-inch slide sashes in solid frames, with
2-inch linings, and l-inch window-boards, with rounded edges
to stop the plastering. Every window to have a proper screw
fastening.
The living-rooms, bed-rooms, staircases, and porches, to have
#-inch plain skirtings 34-inches wide. Angle beads to be fixed
up the chimney breasts, and all other external angles not de-
scribed to be otherwise protected.
The privies to be fitted up with l-inch wrought seat and front
boards on proper bearers.
Plumber’s, Glazier’s, and Painter’s Works.—The valleys to be
lined with milled lead six pounds to the foot, 18 inches wide.
The flashings round the chimneys to be of milled lead five
pounds to the foot.
A 3-inch lead pipe to be fixed from each of the sink-stones in
the sculleries, and carried at least a foot into the drain.
An air-trap and grate to be fixed to each pipe.
The sashes to be glazed with thirds sheet-glass sixteen ounces
to the foot.
The wood and iron-work to be painted three coats in oil
colour, the woodwork being previously knotted and stopped.
EstiMaTE of Design No. 1 for Labourers’ Double Cottages.
Mdsveettey in. Stee Csti lel oe Saude
88 10 0 | Cube excavating and distributing soil . ele Ay alae OMrae,
dl 25 0 +, concrete . ° : : . open latlie Ob] CeO ReLO
Rods. ft. in.
12 10 0 | Superficial reduced brickwork : - |146 0 | 87 17 4
0 83 6 3 extra facing of pressed bricks ot OMe) 0 10N"S
0163 4 * slate course in cement . 3 Si calie De EMT yc eae
:Yds, ft. in
380) 0 0 * 6-inch ae Ee yneile floor, laid
in mortar . ° : ° 4 I Gas
28 0 0 | Superficial brick flat paving : . . alte s4 Iie Ve!
14 4 6 - brick on edge paving . he 88) 1 5 42
Extra to two courses of brickwork in cement to
chimney heads : : : ° : ate #0" 12" 0
No. 2 chimney bars. °
Q 29 0 | Superficial rubbed stone hearths. ° are FR Rea ele AD)
0 16 0 tooled flagstone . : sae, be sOr oe ck
ORO) 6 f 3-inch tooled terete 5 ‘ 0) 9h" Oh 72105
Ore LOw 6G if 5-inch dished sink-stones, including
brick piers, air-trap, and 3-inch lead pipe. oe PLL A0
0 20 0 | Lineal rubbed mantles and jambs, 5 inches wide | 010| 016 8
0 44 OU =, rubbed, weathered, and throated window-
sills, 10 inches by 3 inches é : ie OLO 116 8
40 0 0 | Lineal 4-inch drain-pipes, and laying . ° 2 0 4 0 0
40 0 0 ye 2inch ditto ditto 61) SOLOrvo
418 Labourers’ Cottages.
EstTiMaTE of Design No. 1—continued.
So) Gen ease.
Yds. ft. in.
No. 2 plain iron scrapers, and letting in . .
», 8 mortice holes cutting . ay Genes A
., 2 Nicholson’s cottage stoves aad pees
and setting the same : ° ° °
Solr As 2 Superficial two coats rendering 5 SauOne dal ablan 2 ot
152, 0,0 0 two coats lath and plaster . AP (Mer Ori cde be eerie)
66; 16, 0 > two coats pane drawing Bea [Dew es 9
192-0770 plaster floor : ° o) olen Ome Oneles NG
Squ. ft. in.
V7. 27,0 5 Countess slating . : . 24 0| 2014 6
0 78 0 | Lineal slate ridging . a) Onin 2 geo 6
0 240 0 | Cube fir without labour, including sawing and
waste . : : Pk Se iezqanO x, 0
0 91 6 | Superficial 3 3-inch valley boarding - : 6 Opal ky 408
0 87 6 a 3 inch plain casings. é o | OO 2 Oe 1
0 15 4 ey qinch window boards , 6 22 OV ROm I ORs os
0294 5 . Z-inch ledged doors ° ie bene Vamye= ator Lile 5 ee)
0 60 O A l-inch shelves and bearers. Pee Voces ib a7 aa
0100 5 Af) 1-inch steps, risers, and carriages. 0 10 4 3 8
0 29 4 ~ 14-inch wall string housed for steps i C0 ise ee Seas)
OF 21,0 - l-inch privy seat and bearers . O.5S5(2 20 12. 0
OAL. 6 Pi ly 4-inch ledged doors ° ° ~ | OL OU 2a lor 7s
0 88 0 = 13-inch rabbeted jambs : | [OPO Ginmoy Gr 0
0 157 6G Peon slide casements and frames. | 1 2| 9 3 9
0 68 0 Lineal beaded and rabbeted door-frames, 5 inches
by 3inches . OT lla lO) FS
0 94 O | Lineal beaded and rabbeted Naaratthoncce 4 inches
by 3 inches : a : 5 5 Rem Oe Oia aero)
0 66 8 | Lineal centres on frames : : occhsl Locke] Onan eG gOS.
0 463 4 », single mouldings . 5 : oO mona wee
0 90 0 » angle beads 5 5 5 : “ 0 23; 018.9
Ore Coyne C6} » Geal pole handrail : 5 ; 1 Oa tee ane
0 43 0 5» square balusters : 5 ° Hee fe ntl | rn
0 22 0 » o-inch newels - A . : : 0 6 OFS =0
OseOen0 »» footing and nosing. ° Osa Oe2 20
0114 0 cast-iron-eaves spouliPe ane bears, fixed
complete . . 0 OTF spa. 0
0 45 0 » descending pipes, fixed complete : 0 & PPO 0
No. 5 heads and 3 shoes to ditto . é :
», 22 thumb-latches, 12 screw fastenings ° ‘ Be ies G
», 2 hasps and staples ° : ° : :
», 6 9-inch stock locks : : :
»» 6 pairs of 16-inch Scotch hinges : :
» 16 pairs of 15-inch cross garnets : hon 912 4
» 6 cut brackets : : A : s
» 4 oak posts to piggery . ° ; d
Labour and Nails.
16 84 6 | Superficial roofing, with trussed Bunn ° - | 6. 6 lig Sato tor
5 69 6 ha ceiling floor 5 3 HOT rOneide or
7 50 O A thorough joist flooring, Gnrouett on
the under side . . A ° . oxy al eho 1 p10 0
3 33 6 | Superficial stud partition . ; : aa OG 0 dake
0 74 O | Lineal extra to hips and valleys. on sO a ees
0120 0 hae hn; 008 Ooo
7» | bond : A
Labourers’ Cottages. 419
Estimate of Design No. 1—continued.
| | s d.| £2. d.
Yds. ‘ft. in. | 1
| No. 32 lintels. ; : : “ |
| Centring to 2 semi-arches - . ? ial _ eee e
54 cwt. milled lead to flashings and labour to |
“the same : S26" Ot ae’ 20
0 102 0O | Superficial g glazing of thirds shectplacs ° Pi EY Fal He
211° +O 0 - three coats painting . ° Os te Gok
| Total AP Sige | £/295 15 112
Estimate of Design No. 2 for Labourers’ Double Cottages.
Yds. ft. in. | Swe. 3 de
78 0 O | Cube excavating and distributing soil . o it O14. F 1640
29 0 0} 4, concrete . : ° - . A 9 210 0
Rods ft. in. |
10 74 O Superficial reduced brickwork ° . - 1460 7419 83
0 83 6) = extra facing of pressed bricks . - |0 13) 010 5
0170 O| - slate course in cement . : s |.0 -4 5 2:16 58
Yds. ft. in
ford =O pa 6-inch amas paving-tile floor, laid
/ in mortar : : . - 2 4 15. 38
28 60 O Superficial brick flat paving > : ° a tiliclnee 4) td 2 a4
Pet G: se brick on edge paving 13 1 5 43
| Extra to two courses of brickwork in cement to
| chimney heads. . - = ‘ = ee 1-2. 0
| No, 2. chimney bars .
_ Extra labour to weatherings of phaaierse v6 2 0 0
0 29 O | Superficial rubbed stone hearths. : oid “Ory be 26
0 16 0} = tooled flagstone . : ay SAO ee Oi Oe oe
07 10. 6 | re 3-inch tooled flag door-sills . - | 0 9) O 7 103
G> 1026: - 5-inch dished sink-stones, including
| brick piers, air-trap, and 3-inch lead pipe. | ve 1 Ti 40
0 20 0 | Lineal rubbed mantles and jambs, 5inches wide | 0 10 016 8
0 20 0 4, rubbed, weathered, and throated window- |
_ sills, 10 inches by 3 inches. - ~ Or 10) 0°16 78
40 0 O Lineal 4-inch drain pipes, and laying oat, 2a OF eet 0
49, 0. 0}. ,,.: : Zinch ditto ditto “ ail 6 eis 0:70
, No, 2 3-light windows with stone dressings =i]
ee 2-light ditto ditto ~ :
ae plain iron scrapers, and letting in . ~{ | 2 4 4
3, & mortice-holes cutting | ox
» 2 Nicholson's cottage stoves and grates, He |
- setting the same - ° ° =
374. 0 0) Superficial two coats rendering : ° Foot ba ya eae
150 0 0| * two coats lath and “plaster ° Eprae iel ehs 1 fade ELS
cee ee. two coats pane drawing . : eel gear Petes
ia OSU S plaster floor . - E : «oj 2-6 9° 7-6
Sau. ft. in.
17 96 0O - Countess slating . - ° tte | Se EE
0 91 0 Lineal slateridging . seuss). 2 la 2
0 227 O | Cube fir, without labour, inelading sawing and
waste , - A : 2 : ey oat 20 10° 9
420 Labourers’ Cottages.
Estimate of Design No. 2—continued.
Sidauiee. Sd,
Wadssettswan.
0 140 9 | Superficial 3-inch valley boarding . : « av Op 3dt) 2 0 10
0 32 9 vs # inch plain casmgs . : «iO rox 0 14 8
0 15 4 $3 Z-inch window boards . : 2 | O62) e028) 35
0 262 0 i, Z-inch ledger doors 5 ° ; 0 7 1210
0 60 0 is l-inch shelves and bearers . a Ors) 1s 7.6
0100 5 a l-inch steps, risers, and carriages. 0 10 4.3 8
0 429; 4 3 14-inch wall string housed for steps. | 0 10 1, 4.5
0 21 0 HS i inch privy-seat and bearers . . 0 8 014 0
0 7i 6 ss 13-inch ledged doors. ° : Og 213 72
0 74 OU a Tz 4 inch rabbeted jambs . . A (Vie i) 2loy 6
0157 O “3 14. inch casements and frames ‘ L422 D.peBe~-9
Ope a0 l4-inch bargeboards ° 0 10 ZAUS- 2
0 68 O Tinea beaded and rabbeted door-frames, 5 Banichies
by 3inches . Verne 7 ITI 8
0 94 O | Lineal beaded and rabbeted doce: frames) 4 arches
by 3inches . ¢ é 5 . een OR a6 Pye ert)
0 46 8 | Lineal centres on frames ° : : : 0 3 011 8
0 401 O » single mouldings : ° ‘ 9 OR 20 ia te OxlO
0 60 0 5, angle beads : 5 ° : © ORL ee On a6
0 6 6 » deal pole hand-rail : A Omwerie: OF Fo, 72
0 43 0 » Square balusters. : ° . A WV 2 ORNs «2
0 22 0 » 98-inch newels . ° : < « -lc0e s6hiM Ole 0
On a0 » footing and nosing . : = Oe a ee Ona aires
0 84 0 cast-iron eaves, spouting, and ieee
fixed complete. Oy cdhitesee o> 30
0 80 0O | Lineal descending pipes, fixed complete ° 6 ORS Bl ear 13) 4
No. 6 heads and 6 shoes to ditto . : 5
», 20 thumb-latches, 12 screw fastenings . . 310 6
2 hasps‘and staples Bin
39 ps: Pp a ° . e
55 69-inch stock locks , A
» 6 pairs of 16-inch Scotch titees ‘ 4
», 14 pairs of 15-inch cross garnets 4 :
>», 6 cut brackets . : : “ . oe 201908
» 4oak posts to piggery . ° :
», 1 ditto with brackets to porch . .
Labour and Nails.
15 18 0 | Superficial roofing, with trussed purlins . Gi Fog t4” 18) 8
5 47 6 ” ceiling floor. 3.0; 016 54
7 54 0 x thorough joist flooring, wrought on
the under side . A é 7 . ° 4 0 110 2
3 40 0 | Superficial stud partition 5 A : 4 0 013 7
0 92 0 | Lineal extra to hips and valleys . P 0 4 110 8
0 120 O 5 abond ° ° : . ° pO, wUsiO co. O
No. 30 lintels’. & ° oe 010 0
62 cwt. milled lead to helene and lanern to
Yds. ft. in. the same 4 - (26 0 8 15 6
0 98 O | Superficial glazing of thirds sheet-elass ; EO 29 0
1987 (70770 re three coats painting : : 2 0) OA Op LO. 6
totaly. ; a ‘ Seid GO Oe
eee
G (42 lis)
XXI.—On the Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Lo-
calities. By T. RowLanpson.
Prize Essay.
Prorit being the ultimate object of the farmer, it is necessary, in
considering this subject, to review other circumstances than the
mere fact of which breed will produce the most meat on a given
quantity and quality of herbage, as sheep, unlike other animals
bred by the farmer, yield a certain amount of annual revenue by
the sale of their fleece, prior to their final disposal to the
butcher. Wool, and in some instances the sale of lambs, form
prominent items in the profits derivable from sheep farms: these
circumstances, combined with the fact of different breeds being
more suited to one locality than another—respect being had to
climate and herbage—render the solution of this question one of
the most difficult, whilst at the same time it is one of the most
important problems connected with the science of agriculture. In
endeavouring to solve this complicated subject, it will be expe-
dient to separate the returns which may fairly be anticipated from
wool, meat, and lambs into separate heads, prior to summing up
the whole. ‘There are certain districts, however, where the ques-
tion of wool may fairly be set aside, long experience having
proved that only particular species of sheep are adapted to subsist
on the dreary wastes where such breeds are only found: the
question in such places being not as to the return which may be
derived from wool, but will the animals live at all; in these cases
the wool forms a very secondary consideration. Notwithstanding
the character of the herbage and climate found on the wide
spreading moors and craggy hill tops of North and South Wales,
Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, the Highlands and West-
ern Islands of Scotland, Wicklow, Kerry, Mayo, and Galway in
Ireland, is much alike, the breeds are as dissimilar as the countries
named are geographically distant, several of which are greatly
inferior to others living under like conditions, which point will be
more dwelt upon in its proper place; we shall now proceed to
investigate the various bearings which the quantity and quality of
the wool of different breeds of sheep have upon the profits of the
sheep-farmer.
Wool has for centuries been-esteemed our staple production,
and was the original source of our greatest manufacture,* em-
blematical of which the Lord High Chancellor’s seat in the
* In the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. flourished at Newbury, in Berkshire,
John Winchcomb, commonly known as Jack of Newbury one of the greatest clothiers
that ever existed in England prior to the use of the steam-engine in forming textile
fabrics. He kept 100 looms in his house; and in the expedition to Flodden Field,
marched 100 of his own men, armed and clothed at his own expense.
MO Xs OF
422 ~=6 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
House of Lords is formed of a wool-pack covered with velvet.
A large portion of the revenues of our earlier kings was derived
from an export duty on wool and woollen cloths. Smith, in his
« History of Wool and the Woollen Manufacture,” qeeonis the
prices of English wools in 1341, for home use and exportation—
it is valuable not only as giving the price of wool, but the relative
value of wools grown in different districts at that period.
To the Staple for Home use. | For Exportation.
Per Sack, |PerStone.| Per Sack. Per Stone. Per Sack. PorStone
Leese Gi Atisee Gg, £8S.) denise ae £55 sn tao ds
Salop Saar i as) 7, 6 BO OP pS One aar ds
Ditto, Stuffs, eluaime Lact
Leicester’ soi) 5 OW Seer col nee fe 14 6 6 8| 411 8 6 8|6 43
Nottingham. . Apt oee 4 6 fond Ou en An Aga 7:13.41 5 102
York and Ratland 4°10 0 | 3" 53) 510 OR 4 ego oars
Derby . a ge A 438 4/3 2 6 3 4/4 8
Garibevettl and West- |
morelandyettcey « 9-434.) 2 3) | 3018-42 Oe Ser eee eel
| |
Anderson also, in his “‘ Origin of Commerce,” gives a nearly
similar list of prices of some of the wools in 1343, when exported
—Shropshire, 9/7. 6s. 8d. per sack; Oxford and Staffordshire,
8/. 13s. 4d.; and Leicester, Hereford, and Gloucester, 8/., the
lowest price being that of Cornwall, which is set down at 41.
In 1342, the king (Edward II.) sent a great number of sacks of
wool to Cologne, in order to redeem Queen Philippa's crown,
which was pawned there for 25001. ; the average price of that wool
was is. 34d. per |b. In 1354, the exports had risen to 31,651
sacks, equal to 8,356,864 lbs., on which Edward levied duties to
the amount of 277,606/. 2s. 9d.
At this period, the first mention is made of exported manufac-
tured goods, viz. :—47744 cloths, of the value of 40s. each, and
also 8061 pieces of worsted goods, valued at 16s. 8d. the piece ;
on the other hand, there were imported 1832 cloths of the value
of 6l. each. The preceding extracts are important as indicative
of the fact that the finest cloths were imported, whilst no worsted
goods were needed from abroad; indeed, the quantity and value
of the latter which were exported show that their manufacture in
this country had arrived at a very high degree of perfection, as
compared with the fine cloth manufacture, and further shows that
a large portion of the wools exported were of the fine or short
description: in fact, the fine wool of Britain was celebrated in the
time of the Romans, and that luxurious people had British wool
manufactured into the finest description of cloth, such as robes,
&c., which were only used on festive and other celebrated occa-
sions: these circumstances, together with the fact that in 1172,
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 423
Henry II., by statute, ordained that Spanish should not be mixed
with English wool ; and in 1186, the prohibition of Spanish wool
Was more strictly enforced, and it was ordered, that all cloth of
British manufacture found made of Spanish wool, or in which
that material should be mixed, should be burned in the presence
of the Lord Mayor of London. Now it is well known to manu-
facturers that foreign wool may be mixed with those of British
growth, with a decided advantage to both; this the manufacturers
of that period appeared fully to understand. Such mixture not
appearing equally beneficial to the wool grower, the practice was
ordered to be prohibited in so far as a statutory enactment could
enforce the prohibition.
The preceding details, coupled with the fact that when
Henry III. permitted the importation of fine cloths, the price
of home grown wool declined and stocks accumulated, show
clearly that fine wools which competed with those of this country
were grown on the Continent ; they also show that wool of sufh-
ciently fine quality for making broad cloths was grown in this
country. The disuse of such in making English broad cloth has
arisen from two causes,—first, a slight deterioration in the quality
of fine- British wool for fulling purposes, and secondly, the in-
creased attention paid in recent years to the growth of wool in
Spain, Germany, Australia, &c., where the efforts in improving
the fineness of the fleece has been seconded by natural causes,—
warmer and drier climate, a somewhat arid soil, and consequently
not so luxuriant pasture. Without a thorough knowledge of this
fact, persons unacquainted with the woollen manufacture may
be permitted to doubt that such a thing is possible as that, in the
course of two or three years, the fleeces of a flock of the same
breed, bred on the same land, should so far deteriorate as to be-
come unfit for fulling purposes, and this solely attributable to the
fact of a greater variety and luxuriance of food being given to
them ; yet such statement is strictly true; on ihis and several
other points most valuable evidence was given before the Com-
mittee of the House of Lords with reference to the wool duties in
the year 1828, from which we shall draw some copious extracts
illustrative of the changes which have taken place in the growth
of British wool and manufacture of British woollen fabrics. Mr.
Bull stated that
‘“‘There are not many more sheep kept in Sussex than formerly, but the
Guantity of wool has increased.”
Mr. Fison,—
‘‘The farmers now return their sheep, as they are accustomed to call it,
much quicker—that is, fatten and sell them at earlier periods. The
farmers formerly were not able to fatten and sell their sheep before they
were two or three years o], b ut under the improved gate eee,
Z2E 2
424 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
they fatten and sell them at from one to two years old, so that there has
been a gradual deterioration of wool since 1793.”
With reference to the question respecting the change which 1s
alleged to have taken place in the weight of the carcase of the
sheep, in the quality of the fleece and in its usefulness for the pur-
poses of manufacture, it was stated by Mr. William Pinkey of
Salisbury Plain,
“that he did not think the quality of wool from ow Southdown sheep has
deteriorated within the last four or five years. It is generally considered
that our wool, since the introduction of Southdown sheep, is of a finer
description than that grown upon the Wiltshire sheep, which preceded
them, and which were larger: we could not keep so many Wiltshire sheep
on the same quantity of land.”
Mr. J. Ellman, jun.—
“T think the quality of the wool from our Southdown fiock is as good
as it was six years ago; each sheep produces upon the average about
three pounds of wool. I keep my sheep better than they were kept
before, and I fatten my sheep now, which I did not before, and of course
the fleeces are heavier.”
It may be observed that farmers may most conscientiously
believe that no deterioration has taken place in the quality of
their fleeces for manufacturing purposes, yet still such may be
the fact ; the choice and assortment of wools for the finer kinds of
goods is a much more delicate matter than is usually imagined.
The whole of the evidence given by the agricultural interest went
to show that no deterioration of Southdown wool had taken place,
the only cases of alleged improvements were adduced by Mr.
‘Thomas Duke of Sussex, who considered the wool of the Duke
of Richmond's flock * to be a great deal better than it was, and
those of the Duke of Norfolk and of Mr. Huskisson were no
worse than they were formerly.
The evidence of all the woolstaplers and manufacturers was
conclusive as to the deterioration: this part of the evidence
abounds with so much interesting imformation, and will be
almost totally novel to farmers, induces us to give some copious
extracts, '
Mr. William Nottage, fellmonger of Bermondsey, stated—
‘that in the year 1800 he was ordered to make a trial of several different
sorts of skins as to their produce. Southdown skins slaughtered in
London, when at full maturity, produced about 3} lbs. per skin; now they
are estimated to produce from 4 lbs. to 44+ Ibs.; and we find a corre-
sponding increase in weight, from the farmer’s fleeces, generally in Kent
and those parts. Where the weight has increased there is always a less
quantity of fine wool and a larger quantity of coarse. Considered there
is a great deal less fine wool grown now than there was twenty years back ;
* If this should ever meet the eye of the Duke of Richmond, that patriotic nobleman
could afford, most probably, some interesting information respecting the cause of this
improved quality.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 425
but the sheep which are now kept by farmers generally he considered an
improved sheep—improved in size, and in the produce as to quantity, as
applicable to carcase, and also more wool, but not of so fine a quality.
In sorting wool in that part of the county of Kent, at the time that fine
wool bore a good price, used to make about one-eighth of our best quality
of English wool ; now (1828) we do not set a basket for it at all; the
quantity 1s so small we do not throw it out, we do not separate it. Had
been in the habit for several years of purchasing the fleeces of particular
flocks ; there is one flock of Southdown wool in the county of Sussex that
he has had from the year 1792 up to 1828; and in the year 1814 the
fleeces ran, some fourteen to the tod, and some few fifteen, and some few
sixteen and seventeen. Had some wool last year and it ran eleven and a
half fleeces to the tod all the way through, so that there has been an in-
crease of weight of probably one-third, and of course a deterioration of
quality; the quantity of coarse wool has greatly increased from that
description of sheep. As far as his observation goes, wherever in-
closures take place and the land becomes better cultivated, they keep a
better kind of sheep, and Southdown sheep of a good size are always more
marketable than of a small size. There are some few Southdown flocks
now, the wool of which is as good as ever it was, but generally they are
deteriorated.”
Mr. William Cunnington, woolstapler, Wiltshire, principally
purchased Southdown wool, and gave the following particulars of
Southdown wool assorted :—
ice os Tt
Razer 42
Cross :
| List. | Wash. | Abbs. | Drt. | Head. Super. ‘Choice. | Prime. | Pick
Flower Farm : Ths. | Ibs. | Ibs. | tbs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs, | Ibs
BM eee? 4) 568 |, 205 | 11. |, 20, | .56, | 202. | 412. |" 43
ies) = | 167 | 117 | 70°} 52 | 86 || 160° | 323 "| 915° | 170
1822 . 62 | 95 | 134 | 93 | 288 | 274 | 309 | 665 | 19
Aytons:
Pea! 23 2), 98 | -41| 21 | 50. | 131 | 305. | 387 “| 127
eee) 52° | 106) | 62 | 65. | 145 |"213 | 329° 468)
Heoee Se ch102 (952 12 55° .57 -| 120 | 200 | 272 | 392 | ..
Deveriest: |
1823. . | 110 | 209 | 353 | 369 58 | 614 | 800 | 848 | 16
baer S| 96. 1 93.1 397 «=| 374° | 758°. | 956° | 6386" | 444° |
Te a2 56 | 297 | 10 | 16 21 | 95 | 247 | 493
|
{
Nowlson: |
|
|
|
Is17 . .| 23 | 100 | 55 | 67 | 59 1159 | 386 | 946 | 72
ime. | Sl s3 | 190 | 188 | 425 | 322 | 308 | 272 8
Powell: |
1815. .| 7 | 112 | 64 | 40.) 67 g | 347 | 875 | 90
2 2) Se Sy. 52. | 218 G4 a S76, . oda 2 Uk Mie none.
“Tn the year 1815 one of those portions of wool, the gross weight of
which was 1006 lbs., made the best quality in sorting 60 Ibs.; and in the
year 1827 the same wool, grown on the same farm, made none of that
quality. From the year 1811 till 1822 lived at Heytesbury, and sold the
whole of my wool, or nearly so, to the Frome Market; and when I
removed to where I now reside, near Pewsey, I sold then the greater
portion of my wool stil] in Frome; but within the last two years the
greater part has been sent to Rochdale, and that-district, where it is used
principally for flannels, baizes, and goods of that description. Attributed
426 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
that alteration to the great deterioration of quality, and to the taste of the
country ; the public will not wear the coarse Southdown cloths, they are
so very coarse. Attribute the deterioration to the improved system of
agriculture.
“The farmers are in the habit of growing so much more artificial food
than formerly, and paying greater attention to the size of the sheep than
to the quality of their wool ; they have now much larger framed sheep
than they had fifteen years ago.” |
Mr. John Brooke, of Honley, manufacturer, stated-—
‘That he had purchased the Duke of Norfolk’s clip in Norfolk and the
Messrs. Ellmans’ of Sussex, viz., Mr. E., junior’s, clip from 1817 to 1822,
and Mr. E., senior’s, from 1817 to 1821; the latter clip was
In 1817. . . 384 lbs. 77 prime. 84 choice. 65 super.
aaa 8 ose Go 32 1G, 126M A
‘* Mr. Ellman, junior’s clip had a similar result. The ‘greater part of
the fine Southdown wool was used in the manufacture of livery cloth.”
That a deterioration in the character of Southdown wool for
felting purposes has taken place there cannot be a question, not-
withstanding which the depreciation in value has been much
greater than the depreciation of quality: this has arisen partly
from an increased taste for wearing fine cloths having thrown the
Southdown wool entirely out of the market as a clothing wool,
and partly from the shortness of the staple of Southdown wool not
adapting 1t for combing purposes; improvements in machinery
have, however, been effected, which combined with the constantly
annual increasing length of the staple of Southdown wool, causes it
now to be pretty extensively used for fine flannels, &c., and will no
doubt in a few years become one of our most valuable, and at the
same time one of our most extensive combing wools; on this
point I shall have something more to state hereafter as cor-
roborating in some measure what has been just stated,
viz., that the depreciated value of Southdown wool has arisen
partly from its short staple not adapting it for combing pur-
poses. It was stated by Mr. William Nottage, in the evidence
already so extensively quoted, that wool from the Southdown
sheep, crossed with a larger breed and fed on enclosed lands,
having a longer staple, meets with a readier sale, and is worth
more money than fine Southdown wools of better quality.
In the year 1800 a prime Leicester skin in the wool weighed s. d.
20 Ibs., the wool of which was 83 Ibs., pelt 133 Ibs.; the
carcase supposed to be about 14 stone: the skin was worth 7 0
A middling Lincoln skin. ‘The wool was 8 lbs., the pelt 9 lbs.,
the carcase 12 stone: the skin : 3 : 5 Tr Dik te,
A Hereford skin. The wool was 5 lbs., the pelt 10 Ibs., the
earcase 14 stone: the skin . : : S 7 cee one
A Southdown skin. The wool 34 lbs., the pelt 72 lbs., the
carcase 10 stone: the skin . : : : : - Lion
A Norfolk skin. The wool 3 Ibs., pelt 7 Jbs., carcase 8 stone:
the skin». 5 ; ; : : : , Sty EAS
Shortlings . : : : ; : : 1.2
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 427
The following valuable table of the prices paid by Mr. Not-
tage in Kent, in the spring, for wools, indicates the eradual
change which bites taken place in the relative values of Silanes
and long or combing wool :—
Southdown, Marsh. Southdown, Marsh, Southdown, Marsh,
per lb. per lb. per 1b. per lb. per lb. per lb.
Some ae Sd Sa de S. ae Ss. d. S. d.
1792 2 0 113 1805 i 9 LAs chee LOG Lane | Pee
1793 0115 O 94 1806 1 a | 1 23 _ 1818 2 ie el
1794 16 0 93 |} 1807 1.10 ee eal “ESS 2 0 Bes
Pee Bs. | 0.106) 180825551229) 2 he Oa) 482005)-de Soc Do 4
1796 1 4 0 93) 1809 a | Ol OSL | NE ee (A |
1797 1 33 0 94) 1810 2 8 ice L822 i Np ae 0 11
1798 eae 0 92. [2 18ti 129 Reo 1823 Nt ales tulad
ieee Ao: AKO Arot812 sro o6k) oy IZ | 1824 1.0 15:1
PU eee. OF) 18i38 le ze, 8 | 1825 1.4.1 4
1801 Ligh: times ge 1 1814 2 OF Eo ey 1826 0 10 Oat
1802 Lbdaiie | 12 | 1815 2 A 110 ; 1827 0 9 0 104
Peewee as | E816 =) 4,26 + E38 |}1828.. 0. 9: 0-112
1804 I Tt Ss
"The preceding feneihened statements $ respecting the Price, Ke
of wool, have been Pade | in order to demonstrate, as it does most
clearly, that it is now impossible to seek an increased money return
from Southdown sheep by its increased price as a felting wool:
the attention paid on the Continent and Australia to the finer
qualities of wool will for ever render abortive attempts to rival those
countries, either as regards price or quality, particularly as the
wool-grower in this country has a climate to contend with adverse
to the growth of the finer qualities. I state this advisedly,
notwithstanding I hold a very strong impression that the major
part of the broad and finest cloths were almost exclusively manu-
factured from British wool from a period commencing with the
Christian era up to the thirteenth century, and that a large por-
tion of the wool exported during that period was of the finest
description. The account previously given of the price of Shrop-
eer wool, the highest in England, is in a great degree con-
rmatory of this opinion, and was composed most probably of the
fleeces of the more common sheep, which were so long the pride
and boast of Shropshire, producing as they did the finest wool in
England, superior to the Ryelands. The Morfe sheep have
small horns, with speckled dark or black faces and legs; their
general characteristics are more or less to be found amongst all
the short-woolled breeds throughout the British European
dominions, whether we search amongst the Kerry, Wicklow, and
Galway mountains in Ireland, the Ryelands, Southdown, and
Herdwicks in England, or the diminutive race found in the
Orkneys and Shetland Isles. The Herdwicks may be classed
amongst the middle woolled species: this arises ina great measure
from the great quantity of kempy locks which compese the fleece
428 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
of this breed: the fine wool which is found on the neck and
underneath the kempy covering, together with their general
aspect, indicate one generic origin. Whether the long-woolled
sheep, such as the Cotswold, Lincoln, Teeswater, &c., are de-
scended from the same common stock, viz., the short-woolled
variety, or the reverse, is a question that can never be satis-
factorily answered ; that a change of character may arise from
depasturing such on rich plains and alluvial soils through a series
of ages without having the blood intermixed with the smaller
breed and short-woolled variety is highly probable. ‘The change
now going on in the character of the wool from the improved
Southdown sheep is an apt illustration of such an alteration
which it would be well if the breeders of Southdown stock would
direct more attention to, as Southdown wool at the present time is
not fit for carding, neither is it well adapted for the more valu-
able kinds of combing. If the staple could be lengthened, and
consequently a heavier fleece produced without deteriorating the
present fine, smooth, silky character of the fibre, the Southdown
would then yield a money return equal to that of our heaviest
long-woolled sheep. By judiciously crossing with a Cotswold, and
an occasional dash of the Anglo-merino, I feel persuaded that
such a desideratum might be obtained, in which case the carcase
would be increased and the wool at the same time be adapted for
the manufacture of cashmeres, challis and all the finer kinds of
manufactures, where silk and worsted are combined in one fabric,
by which means it would realise as high a price as any of the finest
German wools, with the exception of a very small quantity selected
with particular care for the purpose of forming the bodies (known
as felts) of the finest beaver hats. A wool of the description named
would find a ready market when the finest felting wools are com-
paratively unsaleable : the vacancy in this species of wool is now
in a great measure filled up by Alpaca* wool from South
America, but there are many purposes for which Alpaca wools
are unsuitable, and for which a combing wool such as described®
would be well adapted.
The Duke of Bedford made several experimental trials on the
relative values of different descriptions of sheep, on some of which
the greatest amount of care and attention was paid, and were the
longest continued of any similar experiments made in England.
The following is a synoptical table of the results of one of these
experiments made on four different breeds, viz. twenty, each of
Southdowns, Leicesters, Worcesters, and sixteen of Wiltshire: the
experiment was only carried on with sixteen Wiltshires, as they
were found to consume as much food as twenty of the other breeds :—
* An animal of the Llama tribe which inhabits the mountains of Peru. The sub-
stance here alluded to possesses, in some degree, the joint properties of goats-hair, silk,
and wool,
429
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
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450 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
In order to ascertain the consumption of turnips, they were
weighed from October 19th, 1795, to February 14th, 1796, as
they were given to the sheep, and the remnants not eaten also
weighed and deducted: the following is the result :—
se ag a Twenty Twenty Twenty Sixteen
Sheep’s Food—17 Weeks. Southdowns.} Leicesters. | Worcesters- | Wiltshires.
p ; lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs.
Turnips given 2 : ° 54,036 54,036 54,036 54,036
>, taken away ° , 1,812 2,001 1,361 les Re
eaten . ° - | 52,224 52,035 02,675 02,847
23
Hay given . ° : ° 64 | o4 68 76
Turnips, per week . ° . 3,072 3,061 3,098 3,108
Hay, ditto ° ° 5 4 3 4 5
A good acre of turnips, supposed) | __ |
to weigh 14 tons, or 31 ,3601bs., Weeks. day. | Weeks. day.| Weeks. day. | Weeks. day.
will keep 20 sheep, with the/} 10 1 | 10 1 10hea Sei
hay asabove. . °
Between December 4th, 1794, and February, 1795, at which
period the whole of the lots receded in condition, the consump-
tion of turnips was as follows :—
Southdowns . : 4 : ; 10,945 Ibs.
Leicesters . : ‘ 3 : TT Score.
Worcesters . : A ; : 11,498 ,,
Wiltshires . uf (hi sae
All the four lots had 120 lbs. of hay each.
From the above it appears that, notwithstanding the great
deterioration in condition of the Leicesters as compared nik the
Southdowns, and from which the former were so long in recover-
ing, still the Leicester yielded an equal money return per week
with the Southdowns, and would have exceeded the latter if the
wool were valued at present prices. ‘The Wiltshire return is also
higher than it would be according to the present prices of wool ; it
was not necessary to alter the price named, viz., 74d., as the same
price being carried through all the lots made the comparison
hold good throughout. In order to make the experiments still
more complete and more satisfactory, one from each lot was
chosen; the second best as nearly as could be, for killing and
weighing; and that the question of bone might not depend on
any g Penekal assertions, they were ordered to be carefully kept
and weighed from every joint as eaten. The following is the
result :—
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 431
Sonthdown Leicester Worcester Wiltshire
Sheep. Sheep. Sheep. Sheep.
lbs. oz. Ibs: "07. lbs. oz. Ibs. 0z,
Weighed alive A ; . 155 0 152 0 161 0 755-0
Shin 5 ‘ 4 ° ies 20 0O 23 0 Zp: 0
RAW th Rete kABTs I 9 11 8 12 8 13 8
Head and pluck F s 10 8 9 6 120 14 0
Entrails ° , A aye 1 15 0 L746
Blood . . é ° ° Qo. 14 6-0 rope A) Sey)
Four quarters 4 A : 92 6 92° 0 89 0 a7 OD
Waste ; viz, urine and evaporation 2a 6 2 0.4) ets} T 12
Bones, selena ; 5 . 6 52 Be ue || 6 0 We
Fat, with the ties) im % ; o6 ats aaa 6 12 4 33
Kidnies ; é : ; 0 43 0 4 O; 775 O55
weight 20 gives 112) 20 gives 12 20 gives11 | 20 gives 11
Proportion of live and mast
By which it appears that a new Leicester, which weighs about
114 stones, carries as much flesh, when freed from the bones, as a
Wiltshire of 12 stones, and would consequently have made a
greater profit than the Wiltshire when that half stone has been
deducted and the difference in the value of wool accounted for.
It is a very singular circumstance, in connexion with the preceding
experiment, that the Leicesters should have eaten a greater
quantity of food between December 4th, 1794, and February 24th,
1795, than the Southdowns, yet should have decreased in weight
between November, 1794, and the latter date, so much as 269 lbs.
live weight, while the Southdowns only decreased 194 Ibs. weight.
On the contrary, between October, 1795, and February, 1796,
the Southdowns consumed a trifling weight more food, and in-
creased only 162 |bs. in weight, whilst the Leicesters mierensed
264 1bs. The ikensetatice is the more remarkable, as the
_ decrease and increase occurred at corresponding periods in their
respective years. It has, perhaps, arisen in the following manner:
the latter end of 1794 and the commencement of 1795 has pro-
bably been cold and frosty, accompanied by bleak, windy weather.
In such case all the sheep might be expected to suffer as they did;
but the Leicester, as being most obnoxious to such influences,
suffered the most of any. On the other hand, if the termination of
the year 1795 and the commencement of 1796 had been wet, but
mild, such weather would be equally obnoxious to the Southdown.
The experiments just detailed have led us rather prematurely to
enter on the discussion of the question respecting the merits of
the Leicester and Southdown. As these two classes of sheep
occupy by far the largest share of the attention of agriculturists
at the present day, a better opportunity will not perhaps be
432 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
found to discuss their respective merits. ‘The respective advo-
cates of the breeds under notice struggle not only for the pre-
dominance of their favourites, but would appear, from their earnest
advocacy, not content with anything less than the absolute dominion
of all the arable and grazing land being ceded to their pets. In
this I believe both sides to be wrong. From observations care-
fully made, I feel convinced that ordinary Leicesters will succeed
better, return a greater amount of money to the farmer in less
time and on a smaller amount of food, both of flesh and wool,
than an ordinary Southdown, if they are fed on a pasture fairly
succulent, up to a rich one, or on artificial food, such as rape,
Swedes, &c.; and this will be still more distinguishable if the
experiment is made in a moist country. On the contrary, if the
experiments were made on wide, open, bleak downs, with a scanty
herbage, where the animals will be compelled to travel far for their
food, exposed at the same time to cold, cutting winds, the merits
of the Southdown would be found decidedly to preponderate. In
passing an opinion on this matter I do not include the merits of
the Southdown for folding, that being a practice, which, however
indispensable it might have been in former times, is now
questionable, since the benefit derived by folding on arable land
is more than balanced by the loss sustained on the sheep and
pastures.* ‘Three hundred weight of guano will be a much
better dressing to an arable field than the best folding; and as
regards treading the land, in order to render it firmer, the roller
and seam-presser will be much more effectual. To sum up this
matter in a few words, regard being had to the climatic cir-
cumstances already alluded to, Southdowns will be found most
advantageous on dry soils much exposed to the bleak winds of
winter and the drought of summer, the herbage of such places
usually consisting of varieties of rye-grass (Lolium perenne), bent
(Agrostis), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), sweet-scented vernal-
grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), hard fescue (Festuca duriuscula),
crested dog’s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus), annual meadow-grass
(Poa annua). With such herbage, and on arid downs and plains,
the Leicester would cut but a sorry figure ; the Southdown, how-
ever, will do well in these places. In stating this, however, it
must be clearly understood that ordinary Southdown sheep—not
the splendid prize animals extibited occasionally by the Duke of
Richmond, Jonas Webb, and — Grantham, Esqrs.: such animals
must be fed equal to Leicesters.
On pastures where several of the above grasses, such as rye-
grass, sweet-scented vernal, hard fescue, crested dog’s-tail, &c.,
are accompanied more or less with cocksfoot (Dactylis globerata),
* Upland downs, however, on a farm would probably form one exception.—Pu. P.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 433
Timothy grass (Phleum pratense), meadow fescue (Festuca pra-
tensis), meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), white and red
clovers, &c., the Leicester will be found to flourish; and if the
grasses consist in a great degree of timothy, meadow foxtail, and
cocksfoot, a still heavier animal, the long-woolled sheep, may be
fattened profitably.
I consider there are two causes which may be assigned for
the increasing adoption of Leicester sheep in districts where,
until a recent period, the Southdown knew no nival. One is the
or adually i increasing practice of breaking up down-land and sandy
pastures in the south of England, for the purpose of converting
the same into arable cultivation, and the adoption of turnip-hus-
bandry. For this description of husbandry I think it will be
conceded that the Leicester has no rival; added to which is the
circumstance of the greater annual return for wool made by
Leicesters, in consequence of the great change which has taken
place in the relative prices of short and long wool. Our long
wools, for combing, have ever stood unrivalled. Besides its longer
staple (foreign wool being about 5 inches, whilst Lincolnshire is
8 inches, sometimes 9 or 10 inches in length), its much stronger
and more endurable fibre, has caused the foreign demand far
long wool to continue after the call for fine felting wool has
ceased. The French buy a considerable quantity “of wool in
Ireland, for the purpose of manufacturing their mixed stuff
fabrics, the soft quality and long staple of the superior kinds of
Insh sheep rendering the wool well adapted for the purposes
intended, but which would fall infinitely inferior to such a wool
as we presume might be engrafted on the Southdowns, In the
opinion that a superior combing wool might be produced or
engrafted on one or more of our native stocks, 1 am happy in
having to record that the late Lord Western, than whom no man
paid greater attention to the growth of fine wools, concurred in
opinion, for he observed in a letter to the late Karl Spencer :—
‘‘But I am of opinion that we should never stand still, but rather be
always aiming at new objects; and I sincerely think that that for which I
am now striving is not absolutely Utopian. There is plenty of room for
the introduction of another breed of animals without trenching upon or
superseding in any way those which are valuable and now in existence.
My object then may be familiarly stated to be the placing merino wool
upon a Leicester carcase, perhaps not exactly resembling the short finest
clothing wool of Saxony, but a fine combing wool superior to any that
has heretofore been grown.’
In continuation, he further justly adds—
‘“‘T Jook upon what is commonly called a Southdown to be now a very
different animal from the little pure Southdown of fifty years ago.’
I shall only make a few brief remarks respecting the Rye-
lands, the Wicklow, Kerry, &c., sheep, as these are the only true
454 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
short-woolled sheep which we have at present left within the
British islands: of the first kind there are not probably to be
found two pure flocks in existence, but were at one period much
valued for their fleece, and also for the practice of cotting. They
were hardy, and could endure hardship and hunger equal to
any breed, but were of small size; their shape was very much
like the merino, and a tradition exists that the merinos are de-
scended from the Ryelands. The Kerry and Wicklow sheep
partake of the fleece and form of the Ryeland, with the prolific-
ness of the Dorset sheep, which they in other respects somewhat
resemble, particularly in the circumstance of their receiving the
ram at an earlier period of the season, by which means what is
termed housefed lamb is procured at Christmas and during the
first months of the new year; in Kerry, lamb is quite common at
the latter end of March, and the Cork market is tolerably well
supphed with house-lamb from this species during the month of
January. Dublin is similarly supplied by the Wicklow sheep ;
London receives its early lamb from the Dorset; the latter are
larger animals than the Wicklow or Kerry. Feeding house-lamb
forms only a very minor portion of agricultural economics: we
have merely alluded to the subject for the purpose of indicating
the breeds best adapted for the purpose of such persons as may
feel disposed to practise this part of rural economy.
Setting aside for the present the consideration of the Cheviots,
black- faced, and other varieties of mountain sheep, we will pro-
ceed to examine the various qualities, as adapted to different
situations, of the long-woolled races of sheep—these consist of the
old Lincolnshire, Teeswater, Romney Marsh, Bampton, and
Cotswold sheep. ‘The thorough old Lincoln and ‘Teeswater are
all but extinct; they were ungainly in every way, were long
arriving at maturity, arrived at very great weight, and possessed
heavy fleeces: both these descriptions of sheep are now much
mixed with Leicester blood, the cross doing better than the pure
breed of either race, as, although the Leicesters when first put
on the rich Lincolnshire marshes do better than any other sheep,
it has been observed that after the third or fourth generation,
successively bred on the same rich lands, the wool sensibly
deteriorates in quality, known on the banks of the Tees by the
term cotting; the frame also assumes an awkward appearance,
and the disposition for early fattening in some measure disappears.
The Romney Marsh were originally somewhat similar in charac-
ter to those just described ; in consequence, however, of the more
heavy stocking of the Kentish marshes, together with the fact of
the herbage on Romney Marsh not containing so heavy a per
centage of the most succulent and feeding grasses, the Romney
Marsh sheep did not attain the same weight of carcase or wool
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 435
that the old Lincoln or Teeswater did, but, like the last named,
did not arrive at maturity until they were three years old. ‘The
meat and wool were, however, of a finer quality than the Lincoln
and ‘leeswater. ‘The modern Romney Marsh sheep is a very
superior animal, containing a cross of about one-third new Leicester
bleod ; the wethers now arrive at market at two years old, instead
of three as heretofore: the fleece and flesh continue good, and
the cross has become gradually acclimated to the bleak winds of
the exposed marshes. The upland Kentish sheep contain a
still greater amount of the blood of the new Leicester and im-
proved Southdowns, and is the only county with which we are
acquainted where the mixture of the two latter with the original
large breed of the country has effected a permanent improvement ;
this. is probably owing to the fact that the uplands of a large
portion of Kent possess a milder climate than such sheep walks
of similar altitude in other parts of the kingdom ; also to the cir-
cumstance that the chalks of Kent are aon intermixed with a
soil composed of debris from the gualt, green sand, and wealdean
clay ; in consequence of which the downs of Kent possess a much
richer herbage than others composed principally of sand or chalk.
In conclusion, it may, however, be observed that the pure South-
down or new Leicester will not answer on Romney Marsh;
the former will not return an adequate amount of wool and flesh,
and the latter would starve in winter.
Of the Bampton sheep I know little, and believe they are
principally confined to the vicinity of Taunton and the more
fertile vales of Devon and Somerset. The present breed is a
cross from the old breed with the Leicester, and from the few
specimens which I have seen in Smithfield market, I should
judge from their appearance that their qualities are very similar
to those of the improved Kent just described. The breeders of
this class of sheep assert that it 1s the most profitable for wool
and mutton of any breed in the kingdom; how much of their
famed quality in this respect is due to ine. richness of the vales
and the mildness of the climate in which they are reared and
fattened we cannot say: that they are admirably adapted for the
country in which they are adopted we are not prepared to dispute,
but were their qualities to be tested on the Cheviot Hills with
the native breed of that district, or on Romney Marsh during
winter, we anticipate they would not come off altogether victorious,
On this point it may be stated as a general rule, that whilst
animals or crosses from animals bred on inferior pastures or
severe climates may safely and often advantageously be removed
to milder climates and better pastures, the reverse of this is often
most disadvantageous, and should not be attempted without great
cireumspection and previously well weighing and balancing the
436 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
beneficial or injurious effects that may arise therefrom; under
such circumstances the cross should only be proceeded in with
great care, and as it were experimentally, until the benefit was
clearly seen and established by indubitable proof.
I now proceed to the consideration of the Cotswold, or,
as they are more generally and emphatically known in places
distant from the Cotswold Hills, the long-woolled sheep. The
name of the hills has undoubtedly been derived from the practice
pursued there centuries ago of cotting the flocks on the Glouces-
ter Wolds known by that designation, and at one period was very
generally practised in the counties of Hereford, Worcester, and
Gloucester. Camden states that these cots were long ranges of
buildings, three or four stories high, with low ceilings, and with
a slope at one end of each floor, reaching to the next, by which
the sheep were enabled to reach the topmost one; from this and
other circumstances, there are good grounds for believing that
the original breed of the Cotswold Hills were similar to the
Ryeland and Morfe Common sheep of Shropshire. The fineness
of the Ryeland fleece and freedom from kemps is probably
attributable to the shelter and warmth they thus received during
the inclemency of winter nights: whether this opinion is correct
or not, there cannot be a doubt that the system of cotting has the
effect of causing the staple of the wool to be much finer than it
otherwise would have been.
The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, and is the stock
from which the class called new Oxford is sprung: they are
superior to the new Leicester in hardiness of constitution, are
more prolific, will sustain themselves “ by holding their own,” or
improving on pastures and in severity of weather where the new
Leicester would decidedly deteriorate. In suckling their lambs
the Cotswold ewes are decidedly superior to those of the new
Leicester; in this quality and in being more prolific the Cots-
wold agrees with those breeds which have been least indebted to
the care of man. Although I have previously said that the
Cotswold Hills were formerly occupied by a short-woolled
breed of sheep, I by no means infer that the race known as
Cotswold is descended from the diminutive Ryeland ; I believe
the Cotswold to be the original and finest type of all our long-
woolled breeds; the old Leicester was a much coarser animal
than the Cotswold, which I attribute in a great measure to the
richness of pasture in that celebrated pastoral county. The fine
upstanding sheep found in the wide-spreading and fertile vale of
York, and known as Yorkshire sheep; the celebrated sheep on
the Currah of Kildare, and the rich dry loamy soils of Kilkenny,
approximate closely in character to the Cotswold sheep, the
principal difference being that the former are not quite so large
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 437
in the carcase, and the fleece not being quite so heavy, but pos-
sessing a much finer staple, the coarser wool of the Cotswold
sheep being very probably attributable to the coarser herbage on
the wet “spewy” pastures of the Cotswold Hills, for which
description of places the Cotswold is the best adapted as com-
pared with all other breeds of large sheep: it is only upon hills
not exceeding 900 feet in perpendicular height above the level of
the sea that the Cotswold sheep will flourish; and it must also
be remembered that although they are cold and wet, yet they are
covered with a soil otherwise tolerably rich, and yielding a con-
siderable quantity of rough coarse herbage, greatly superior to
that found on the Grampians, Cheviots, and hills of Cumber-
Jand, Westmoreland, &c., on which the Cotswold sheep would
starve. Crosses of the Coiswold with the Leicester have answered
exceedingly well in some places, and many of the carefully bred
Cotswolds are scarcely to be excelled by any breed in England :
for wet coarse pasture no large sheep is so well adapted as the
Cotswold.
I have now taken a somewhat extensive review of the most
widely diffused breeds of sheep which occupy all our level
grounds and downs; we are therefore now about to enter on a
review of sheep adapted to our more elevated and less fertile
mountains. How the Cheviot came to be classed amongst short-
woolled sheep by Sir John Sinclair and others is to me inex-
plicable, except from the circumstance that people were content
to use a coarser cloth formerly than at the present day: that the
staple of the wool has been lengthened, and the wool otherwise
become coarser, I am prepared to admit, but certainly not to the
extent that the fleece has been changed from a short felting wool
to a combing quality. The Cheviot, when carefully bred, is a
handsome compact sheep, not quite so “leggy” as the Cotswold
and Yorkshire sheep, notwithstanding which they are an active
race, are jamous foragers, and withstand the vicissitudes of the
weather exceedingly well, more so than any of the breeds pre-
viously noticed. ‘They are particularly adapted to that class of
hills from which they derive their name, and also to an extensive
range of mountains which are to be found more or less extended
over the whole of the Lowlands of Scotland. These hills princi-
pally consist of the upper silurian rocks (a large part of them
argillaceous), limestone, and Plutonic rocks, the decomposition of
which has produced a soil of tolerably fertile quality, but only
thinly spread over the subjacent rocks and boulders, and much
intermixed with stones; a great quantity of heathy bogs and
moory soil are also to be found on these hills. Arable cultivation,
on many accounts, 1s wholly out of the question; on places such
as described, elevated from 800 to 1500 feet above the level of
VOL. X. 2G
438 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
the sea, no sheep will pay the farmer equal to the native Cheviot.
The present breed is largely crossed with the new Leicester, and
is found an exceedingly profitable cross for the purpose of
putting on turnips when hoggets. On a large part of the lower
Grampians the Cheviots might advantageously replace, and in
some instances are superseding, the black-faced breed, which we
are about to notice.
The black-faced sheep are of the horned kind; they are a
straight, upright sheep, with a short body, and from that cireum-
stance are locally known on the borders as the short breed of
sheep in contradistinction from the long or Cheviot sheep. They
will clip on an average five pounds of wool, suitable for making a
medium description of worsted, and would clip considerably more
only from the circumstance that they are not shorn until late in
aS season, and then by no means close, otherwise if an unfayour-
able winter set in early the sheep would suffer most materially.
Of the breeds generally known and extensively used, none have
been found so well qualified to withstand the inclemency and
hard fare of our highest mountains, with the exception of another
breed, the Herdwicks, which are not generally known, but which
will shortly be noticed.
The black-faced sheep are extensively bred on the Cumber-
land, Westmoreland, and Lancashire mountains, better known as
“the Lake District,” and more or less on the Lowland Scottish
hills, and, with the hardy race of black cattle, are the sole occu-
pants of the northern highlands of Scotland. That this breed
can be greatly improved was evidenced by the fine animals
shown at our Society’s Newcastle Exhibition. They are exceed-
ingly hardy. This breed has been very much improved in many
places, but the improvements are made entirely by selection.
All the crosses with heath sheep, having in view the improvement
of the progeny as heath sheep only, have proved decided failures ;
but crossing with the Leicesters and Southdowns for the purpose of
procuring lambs of superior quality, or with the intention of
selling the produce of such cross as hoggets to the Lowland
farmers, is a practice that has proved decidedly successful, and is
practised in some places to the utmost extent that heath farms are
capable of sustaining. To follow this system it is necessary that the
farmer should possess some dale land, in addition to his heathy
pastures ; they will not fatten until they have quite turned three
years old, and will then attain a weight of about 15 or 16 Ibs.
a quarter; we have seen some extraordinary fine ones attain
a weight of 20 lbs. per quarter. It is worthy of remark at the
same time, that these have generally been black-woolled sheep.
The ewes are not put to the ram until about November, at which
time they are brought from the mountains into the vales and
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 489
enclosed lands in the vicinity of the homestead, for the purpose of
salving or smearing, an operation to be noticed hereafter. A
large number are also retained there until the commencement of
the succeeding spring; to such, in severe weather, a little hay 1s
given in addition to their ordinary pasture. The practice of
drawing turnips, and distributing them to these sheep on their
winter pastures, is also much increasing; the introduction of
turnips amongst the dale lands of the mountainous districts has
enabled farmers to maintain 50 per cent. more stock during the
winter months than they were formerly capable of doing; the
ewes are excellent mothers, with an abundance of milk; the
lambs are weaned about three months after being dropped.
These sheep are again collected in the vales about the latter end
of June or beginning of July, for the purpose of being shorn,
prior to which they receive a thorough washing in some adjacent
stream. It has been doubted by some whether the black-faced
sheep, which now graze the greater portion of the wildest
mountains of England and Scotland, are those which have
immemorially inhabited those districts; for Cully, on ‘Live
Stock,’ observes that the dun-faced sheep were the early inhabit-
ants of these mountain ranges; which sheep he describes as
being sometimes to be seen, and as—
“having faces of a dun or tawny colour; the wool is fine and mixed and
streaked with different colours.” ‘They are polled, small in size,
weighing at four or five years old not more than 7 or 8 lbs. a quarter,
the flesh being of excellent flavour. They are hardy and require little
trouble ; but in every essential quality, except the fineness of the wool,
they were far inferior to the black-faced.”
Dr. Anderson also shows that a breed of sheep that produced a
finer description of wool than the black-faced sheep now yield
was once common in districts of Scotland where the black-faced
sheep only are now to be found. It prevailed in Annandale,
Nithsdale, and Galloway; it lingered longest in some of the
mountainous parts of Aberdeen. It was known not fiity years
ago in Fifeshire. Hector Boethius, who wrote about the year
1460, takes notice of the fineness of the wool produced in various
parts of Scotland. Speaking of the sheep in the vale of Esk,
and where of late, until the introduction of the Cheviots the
rough-woolled black-faced sheep alone were found, he says, accord-
ing to Hollinshed, ‘“ Whose sheep have such white, fine, and
excellent wool, as the like of it is hardly to be found again in
the whole island.” Sebastian Munster, in his ‘ Cosmographia
Universalis,’ published ninety years afterwards, says, in each
country (speaking of the borders of England and Scotland) is
such that nowhere is there better or finer wool.
Having made these incidental remarks, I shall proceed to the
262
440 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
consideration of a breed which is very little known, the name not
having extended much farther than the narrow precincts within
which they are tobe found. The breed alluded to is denominated
the Herdwick, which is a polled breed, whilst the black-faced
are horned. Its origin is involved in some obscurity; the tra-
ditional history is as follows: Early in the last century a ship was
stranded on the coast of Cumberland, which had on board some
sheep, stated to have come from Scotland. They were got on
shore, and, being driven up the country, were purchased by some
farmers living at Wasdale Head. They were small, active,
polled, and their faces and legs speckled.* They were at once
turned upon the neighbouring hills; they had not been there
Jong before they evinced a peculiar sagacity in foreseeing the
approach of a snow-storm, as it was invariably seen that a little
before its coming, they clustered together on the most exposed side
of the mountain, where the violence of the wind usually prevented
the snow from lodging. ‘This instinct caused them to be regarded
with a degree of interest amounting to superstition; and their
excellent qualities and adaptation to their new situation became
speedily evident; some portions of the fleece were considerably
finer than that of the common black-faced sheep, whilst the
matted quality of the wool enabled them to endure any severity
of weather. The proprietors of these animals determined to
keep them as much as possible to themselves, and an association
was formed,—one of the regulations of which was that no member
should sell a ram and not more than five ewe lambs in one
season. ‘This monopoly, however, was soon evaded, and the
breed has gradually spread; but it is still confined within very
narrow limits, relatively to its adaptation to such extensive
breadths of mountains. ‘They are principally to be found on
Langdale Pikes, Wasdale, Eskdale, Ulpha, part of Coniston, and
Seathwaite, or, in other words, in that part of the lake district
stretching from Ambleside, at the head of Windermere Lake, to
near Whitehaven, in Cumberland; its northern boundary bemg
Keswick Lake, and its southern Coniston Lake. The breed is,
however, spreading fast into Westmoreland, viz., at ‘Troutbeck,
Sleddle, Grayrigg, &e.; they will doubtless ultimately displace
the old heath or black-faced sheep. Great endeavours are now
being made by the farmers in the district named to procure
flocks of pure Herdwicks: some of whom have been constantly
aiming at this point for upwards of twenty years, and are still
under the impression that they have not got their flock to the
* From observations made in North and South Wales, subsequent to this paper
being written, the writer is strongly inclined to believe that the Herdwicks are a Welsh
variety of sheep, and also thinks that the Welsh mountain sheep might be greatly im-
proved by situation and attention.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 441
proper degree of purity of blood; it is certainly an indirect
proof of the great value of this breed for its own peculiar
locality, that farmers should strain and devote themselves to a
point so apparently simple ; but there are difficulties to surmount
of no ordinary nature in order to procure a genuine flock, which
serves in a like manner to indicate their great worth. These
sheep, not being at first properly appreciated, got more or less
crossed with the prevailing black breed, and to restore the breed
to its original purity is one of the difficulties that a Herdwick
flockmaster has to overcome. ‘This difficulty is greatly enhanced
by the peculiar habits of the animal, who is exceedingly shy, and
cannot be held within any bounds in an enclosed country, except
it is kept very quiet for a week. Another cause is that they are
always depastured on the open mountain, where black-faced
flocks also frequently pasture ; this isa common source of disap-
poimtment to the breeder; in addition to which it must be
remembered that if a Herdwick ewe gets with a black-faced
ram, the sheepowner is often compelled to retain the progeny ;
for if he sells it, he cannot obtain a Herdwick in its place,
in consequence of the scarcity and growing demand for the
breed, not only to breed from for the perpetuation of the pure
race, but also for the value of the ewes in rearing lambs
crossed from Leicesters and Southdowns. When we see a set of
careful farmers, than whom there is not a more thrifty and hard-
working body in. the United Kingdom, thus strenuously and
perseveringly bending themselves to the one object—the im-
provement of the breed under consideration—we may rest assured
that their superiority over the old black-faced race is of no
ordinary description. As a proof of the value set on this breed,
I insert the following account of the exhibition for the year
1848, which is annually held at Ennerdale Bridge. It will be
satisfactory to agriculturist to know that the spirit of enterprise
and improvement is to be found in this wild and remote district,
and will serve as an example to others more favoured but less
enterprising to follow in the lke steps.
West Cumberland Fell Dales Association Sheep Show.—The annual exhi-
bition of the Fell Dales Association for the improvement of the Herdwick
breed of sheep, took place at Ennerdale Bridge on Friday last. The day
was exceedingly fine—a circumstance which tended very materially to
increase the numerical importance of the meeting, for which most ex-
cellent arrangements had been made by the Committee of Management
and Mr. Robert Beck, who proved himself as good a caterer in that as in
the culinary department. The full attendance of breeders and agriculturists
generally, caused the trade in tups to rule with unusual activity, and it is
computed that not less than two hundred specimens of the genuine breed
changed hands on the occasion. Great impartiality and discernment were
shown by the judges (Mr. Henry Steel, of Catta, Mr. Thomas Gasgarth,
and Mr, Joseph Porter), who complimented the competitors on the ex-
442 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
cellence of the stock exhibited, and the visible improvement which had
annually been effected in the different breeds since the show was instituted
four years since.
The following are the awards made by the judges :—
Herdwick Sheep bred and depastured in the Ward of Allerdale-above- Derwent.
= A af
For the best Herdwick Tup of any age:—
Robert Briggs, Wasdale Head, « . best . é 6 wee Dae O
Robert Briggs, ditto ox 0) ) NG Gest wer POR)
Edward Nelson, Loweswater . . 3rd best . . ff OU
Kleven competitors,
For the best Herdwick Tup, not showing more than four
broad Teeth :—
Robert Briggs, Wasdale Head . . best . ° + 9 12,10..0
Charles Rawson, Nether Wasdale . 2nd best . pele 3) eh)
John Bowman, Mire Side, Ennerdale, 3rd best . 0) OO oO
Seven competitors.
For the best pen of five Herdwick Ewes, of any age,
Lamb-sucked :—
Joseph Tyson, Tows, Eskdale . . best . . s «bdo-0
Thomas Pearson, How Hall, Ennerdale, 2nd best . tig to. 40
Joseph Wright, Roughton . . . dSrdbest . > 010, 0
Twelve competitors.
For the best pen of five Herdwick Ewes, not showing more than
four broad teeth :—
Joseph Tyson, Tows, Eskdale . . best . ° s) POs 0
Charles Rawson, Nether Wasdale . 2ndbest . =» 0) 1o5.8
Joseph Wright, Roughton . . . 3rdbest . 010 O
Seven competitors.
For the best pen of five shearling Gimmers, of the
Herdwick Breed :—
Robert Briggs, Wasdale Head . . best . . SB i ean he
Charles Rawson, Nether Wasdale . 2ndbest . - 015 O
John Tyson, Gillerthwaite . . . 3rdbest . + 010 0
Ten competitors.
For the best Shearling Tup, of the Herdwick Breed :-—
William Ritson, Wasdale Head . . best . 5 « Oe 0
John Tyson, Gillerthwaite . . . 2Qndbest . - 010 0
Charles Rawson, Nether Wasdale . 38rdbest . ot) (ONT 2 1G
Kight competitors.
For the best pen of five fat Herdwick Wethers.
No competitors,
Herdwich Sheep bred and depastured in the Ward of Allerdale-below-Derwent, and
the other Wards. .
For the best Herdwick Tup, of any age:—
Allan Pearson, Lorton . « « « best. 5
J.Sanderson, Beck Stones, Thornthwaite 2nd best .
Five competitors.
oo
oo
For the best pen of five Herdwick Ewes, Lamb-sucked :—
Thomas Richardson, Threlkeld . . best . 3 3) CG
Thomas Richardson, ditto . . . Qndbest . it, BOT
Five competitors,
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 448
Premiums offered by the Keswick Manufacturers for the best white-fleeced Sheep of
the genuine Herdwick Breed, bred and depastured in the Ward of Allerdale-
above- Derwent.
For the best white-fleeced Tup :—
John Bowman, Mire Side, Ennerdale best . é °
John Tyson, Gillerthwaite . . . 2nd best :
Robert Briggs, Wasdale Head . . <ordbest . °
Twenty-three competitors.
oc m=
—
Ow oO
(SS (SVs)
For the best pen of five white-fleeced Kwes :-—
Thomas Pearson, How Hall . « «best . eee BO) ea)
Edward Nelson, Loweswater . . . 2ndbest . (0 1220
John Jackson, Swinside End. . . <drdbest . = Uy ie MY)
Three competitors.
Being ninety-four competitors for prizes exclusively devoted to
one description of sheep, all of whom dwell within, and have their
flocks within a very limited extent of country.
The Herdwicks of the present day are characterized by being
polled, and have brownish or speckled black and white or mottled
faces; some few have black faces, and also some have horns, but
neither of these are considered genuine; they are also known
from the circumstance that, as they get older, they assume a white
or grey appearance about the nose and legs (in the shepherds’
phrase they grow raggy).* The ewes should always be polled;
on a few wethers and rams small smooth horns make their appear-
ance—a proof of intermixture of blood: the wool is fine, only
about the neck and fore-quarters often intermixed with kemps.
The wool on the body is open and very kempy, assuming in some
instances the appearance of hair, and is only used for the coarsest
purposes, such as horse-rugs, &c., and consequently obtains only
a low price, notwithstanding which Herdwick flock-proprietors
prefer this sort of fleece to one of better quality, as it is found
from experience that stock with coats as described withstand the
severe winter weather on the bleak mountains which they inhabit
much better than sheep with a better fleece. A singular anatomical
character is also found amongst many of them, viz. that of having
a rib more than any other breed, fourteen instead of thirteen. if
“they keep their ground well,” as it is locally termed, the ewes
are kept as long as they will breed, which is often until they are
ten or fifteen years of age, and some few have been known io
attain the age of twenty years. The wethers go off at four and a
half to five and a half years old, and are generally killed without
being placed on any better pasture, being found sufficiently fat off
the mountain : in fact, they have been tried on turnips, clover, and
other artificial food, without any commensurate advantage, and
sometimes with an evident loss of crop and deterioration in the
weight of the sheep. When fat, they weigh from 10 lbs. to 12 lbs.
* Orrimy; that is, have an appearance something similar to hoar frost. The true
sort always assume this “rimy ” aspect,
A444 = Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
per quarter, and are the finest mutton produced in England, assi-
milating in flavour closely to venison; they also, when at the
fattest, possess a larger portion of lean meat than any other sheep ;
and, when the legs are cured in the same way that pigs’ hams are,
make a most exquisitely-flavoured grill. The ewes are frequently
sold to graziers in the vales, and are put to Leicester and South-
down rams; and, if put on good fair land, will fatten a lamb as
large as themselves, being excellent mothers and possessing an
abundant flow of milk. No hay is given to Herdwicks during
the winter; they support themselves in the deepest snow by
scratching down to the herbage, and if any part is blown bare
they are certain to discover it. ‘The lambs are dropped about the
12th of May, and are well covered with wool when dropped ;
sometimes the lambs are taken to the lower grounds the first
winter, ‘The ewes are not put to the ram until they are two years
and a half or three years and a half old. ‘There is another breed
of sheep which are taken to the mountains in the north of
England in April and May, and are brought to the lower grounds
in November to winter. ‘These are sometimes but improperly
called Herdwicks; they are a mixed breed, bemg crossed with
the heath or black-faced sheep, and the white-faced sheep of the
low country, called “ mugs:’* they are larger, and have more wool
than the Herdwicks, and have not the propensity of fattening
on the hills, equal tothe latter. There is a striking peculiarity in
connexion with the Herdwick sheep, viz. that when once domes-
ticated, as it may be termed, to any particular portion of mountain
land, the shepherd 1s always certain to find them on their proper
locality, unlike the black-faced sheep, who are desperate wan-
derers. ‘This valuable quality in mountain sheep has, however,
this disadvantage, that the ewes, if removed from the place
where they were reared, will be invariably found to return to
their native locality at the lambing season. This renders it
almost impossible to procure a flock of Herdwicks except by
purchasing lambs, at which early stage of their growth this fixed
attachment to the place of their birth may be presumed to be not
so strong.}
The sheep of North and South Wales need not be mentioned,
as they are every way inferior to the black-faced heath sheep,
and greatly so to the Herdwicks; neither is the flavour of the
mutton, size of the carcase, nor value of fleece, equal to the
latter.
* This diversified cross is often termed mugs also. The term ‘‘mug” amongst the
mountains alluded to is very generally, but ignorantly and improperly, applied to all
large, white-faced sheep,
+ This remark applies with full force as to the Principality, notwithstanding the pre-
ceding note in which the writer expresses his belief that the Herdwicks were originally
derived from a Welsh stock.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities, 445
It will be here proper to make some observations on a matter
connected with sheep farming, which is only practised in the
north of England and Scotland, viz, smearing, which is the name
given for rubbing on the skin of sheep an ointment formed of
tar and reasty butter, oil, or the foots of oil. The tar that
should be used for this purpose comes from America, and
is called “roany,” being of a fat unctuous nature of the con-
sistence of very thick molasses; although, for naval and general
purposes, Baltic tar obtains a very superior price to this descrip-
tion of American tar, we have known instances where American
roany tar has obtained double the price of the Baltic species
when required for sheep-smearmg. The usual proportions are
8S lbs. of tar of the kind described and 6 lbs. of butter, well mixed
together and formed into a fluid ointment ; which being prepared,
the smearer commences operations by dividing and opening the
fleece of a sheep along the back, laying the skin bare—when
bared, he dips his forefinger in a pot containing the ointment,
and by drawing it along the skin of the animal from the head
to the tail, a portion of the mixture becomes attached to the
skin; this being finished, he proceeds to open the fleece in the
same manner on the part next the place first operated on; and so
on until the whole of one side of the sheep is finished, when he
commences on the other side: the cost averages from 43d. to Gd.
per sheep. The practice has been much decried, amongst others
by “the Ettrick Shepherd,” who states that, if the sheep are kept
supplied with a sufficiency of food, smearing is unnecessary. That
an abundance of food will in some degree counteract the ill effects
of severe cold is perfectly correct, but I know that the neglecting
to smear sheep in mountainous districts has been attended with
the worst results to both animals and fleece.
The ill effect of smearing is that it stains the wool, but not so
much as is generally imagined, if the operation is carefully per-
formed in the manner previously described and properly com-
pounded.
- Mild weather, about the latter end of October and the begin-
ning of November, should be chosen for smearing, as the sheep
suffer very much if cold weather sets in before the wool has risen
from the skin. When the wool has risen from the skin after
smearing the animal does not suffer—a fortnight generally elapses
prior to this taking place.
Having now reviewed at some length the different characteris-
tics of the principal breeds of sheep, I will proceed to re-
capitulate briefly their adaptation to various situations as regards
climate, soil, and food. It would be ridiculous to suppose that
one of the large Lincoln, improved Cotswold, or, as they are now
frequently termed, Oxford sheep, could compete with Down sheep
446 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
on the bare pastures and hard stocked down lands. The natural
habitat. of the first is on rich moist pastures, or at least such
pastures where, from the prevalence of moisture, a great weight of
herbage is thrown up, though perhaps of a coarse nature, the result
of which is that, a number of successive generations being thus
abundantly supplied with food, without having occasion to use any
considerable amount of exercise, the lurigs decrease in size; exercise,
in consequence, is fatiguing to the animal, which, as soon as its im-
mediate wants are supplied, immediately lies down and begins to
ruminate. In this way, after the frame has been fully developed,
the greater portion of the food ingested is formed into fat and
muscle; the quantity consumed in supporting the requisite animal
temperature being decreased to an almost minimum amount in
consequence of the little exercise used: in this way has the large
Lincoln and Teeswater breed been formed. It will easily be seen
that if Southdowns* were placed on the rich Lincolnshire marsh
lands, their naturally active disposition would lead them to expend
a considerable amount of force and consequently of food in exer-
cise. Under such circumstances the down sheep would suffer in
comparison with the larger animal. Under areversed experiment,
namely, take a large sheep to down land, the former would be
starved on the short bite and dry herbage with which he would have
to subsist, as compared with his foirtner more succulent marsh pas-
ture ; independently of which it would have to travel over a greater
extent of ground for its food, which, to a heavy animal requiring
so much larger an amount of food than the native down sheep,
would not only retard its feeding properties, but most probably
would entirely put an end to them; or perhaps a diminution of
flesh would take place. Now the native unimproved Cotswold,
and sheep of an analogous description, such as the Yorkshire,
Kildare, Kilkenny, and similar Irish sheep, a large sheep with
white faces, called mugs in the north of England, are all of a
hardier nature than the first described, doing well on rough,
cold pastures, are longer legged in proportion to the weight
of carcase than the former; are more active, as they have
to seek their food over a greater extent of country, where the
herbage is of a less nutritious nature, and consequently are
furnished with a greater development of lungs, a circumstance
intimately connected with the feeding qualities of animals, as I
shall proceed to show when I take “into consideration the dis-
cussion of the physiological and anatomical part of the subject.
Another matter of some importance in reference to the varied
adaptation of different breeds of sheep to different localities, irre-
* By Southdown is here understood not prize animals, but such as actually obtain
their subsistence on the downs without any particularly extra amount of care.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities, 447
spectively of the questions of climate, soil, &c.,is the different
character of the grasses composing the pastures of varied localities.
For instance the down sheep are exceedingly fond of that grass
which is found so abundantly on their native habitats, viz., the
Cynosurus cristatus or crested dog’s tail grass, yet will not touch
the Festuca Cambrica or Welsh fescue; the Welsh sheep are
equally fastidious, and would not touch the dog’s tail grass so long
as they can get the Welsh fescue. <A very happy illustration of
this difference of taste is givenin Marshall’s ‘ Survey of Norfolk,’
where a flock of Lincolns and Downs were turned into the same
pasture, which consisted partly of dry upland, partly of a marshy
bottom, throwing up a great quantity of rank grass. The two
flocks separated, the Lincolns being always found on the marshy
part, the Downs as invariably on the dry part of the pasture. In
making experiments on the relative value of sheep, it will always
be necessary to keep in view that they are not too suddenly
removed from one pasture to another of a totally different
nature.
It will never be known in what manner the celebrated Bake-
well proceeded in the first instance in order to obtain his cele-
brated stock. I agree in opinion with Marshall that he did not
confine himself to any particular breed, but selected well pro-
portioned animals which he considered would suit his views, from
any breed: the Cotswold and old Leicester, doubiless, were those
principally used; Down blood being little if at all employed.
That there was a considerable amount of crossing, from sheep
procured from various sources, is tolerably well evidenced by the
fact that none of our celebrated breeds degenerate so soon from the
true blood, after a second or third descent with foreign blood, as
the descendants of the Leicesters on the third and fourth remove.
They also vary greatly from the original type, even though kept
to true Leicester blood, when removed to inferior localities as’
regards food and climate.
On looking at sheep of different breeds, it will be found almost
invariably, that square, compact, and well-proportioned sheep
have been grazed on good land, or otherwise well fed; whilst
sheep bred and fed on indifferent pasture, will as constantly be
found with deep but narrow chests. In very starved sheep, such
as the Welsh, the fore legs will almost touch each other at the
breast ; at the same time the flanks will be pinched up like a
greyhound’s, thus greatly narrowing the compass of the intestines ;
such a form is emphatically entitled by farmers ‘ nip-gutted,’ and
amongst domestic animals is the invariable indication of slow
feeders, although when fat they are generally found to contain a
more than average proportion of internal fat. The Irish grey-
hound pig, now nearly extinct, is a remarkable example of this
448 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
profitless kind of animal. Amongst sheep we find this form
amongst the Welsh mountain, the Herdwicks, and black-faced
sheep, The Southdowns more or less partake of this form in the
unimproved state. It must, however, be always kept in view, that
though the above described sheep have not the quality of fatten-
ing early, they possess what is particularly desirable in order to
fit them for their natural habitat, namely, great hardiness, powers
of endurance and activity, which combination of properties
enables them in their respective localities to obtain a subsistence
and make a return to their proprietors where a finer kind of
sheep would not only be unprofitable, but would most probably
perish.
It is well known that all our improved breeds of animals are
remarkable for their wide chests and deep flanks; the former
appearance is usually considered an indication of large sized
lungs; such, however, is not the fact. The attention of agricul-
turists was first drawn to this circumstance by Dr. Lyon Playfair,
in the course of one of his admirable lectures, given during
December, 1843, to the members of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, in which he remarks on this subject—
‘¢Now let us take two well-marked breeds and compare them. The
Leicester breed of sheep have round, broad, and capacious chests ; while
the Southdowns have, comparatively speaking, narrow shoulders and
breasts. But an inspection at the butcher’s shop shows that the lungs of
the Leicester breed are small, firm, and compact in their texture, while
the lungs of the Southdowns are larger and coarser.”
It was further stated that the habits of these breeds show this,
as—
‘‘the Leicester sheep cannot inflate its lungs like the Southdown, and
pants for want of breath.”
It is also observed, that according to the aptitude of different
‘animals to lay on fat is the relative size of their lungs, viz.—pig,
sheep, ox, horse, &c. A further comparison may be made
between the wild boar, with his high shoulders and narrow but
deep chest, and the modern improved race of pigs, with their
broad, capacious chest; also between the improved Leicester and
the Herdwick, the Arabian and the Flanders cart-horse. The
racehorse and the greyhound are probably the largest consumers
of food as compared with other animals of the same races, and
these are remarkable for their deep chests and large lungs,
accompanied by the pinched-up flanks .already noticed. From
the preceding illustrations it may fairly be inferred that the
broad-chested and square-formed animal is naturally adapted,
from its weaker lungs, to a pasture sufficiently rich that it can
obtain its food without much exercise: thus contributing in three
ways to the desirable quality of fattening early from asmall amount
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 449
of food—in the first place, in consequence of possessing small
lungs, the consumption of the carbonaceous portion of the food,
such as starch, sugar, &c., is less than in an animal with larger
lungs, the difference serving to furnish fat; secondly, the smallness
of the lungs makes the animal indisposed to use much exercise,
and thus becomes naturally addicted to those quiet habits which
are so well known to aid materially in the well doing of fattening
animals ; and, thirdly, but indirectly, in consequence of the two
first named qualities, such animals being found to be ill adapted
to poor pastures, are placed only upon those of richer quality,
where their profitable qualities become developed. The very
fine prize animals which are exhibited of the Southdown breed
would be almost equally unfit to graze the arid and bare pastures
of the exposed downs as the Leicesters, and that just in proportion
as their anatomical and physiological structure assimilated. It
thus appears to be a rule which pretty generally holds good, that
as a sheep gains in feeding properties, it loses in hardihood, and
the reverse ; notwithstanding which there are some cases which,
although they do not amount to exceptions, yet are such variations
that they give the farmer a considerable choice in selection: for
instance, the Welsh, the black-faced, and the Herdwick sheep
are of a nearly equal hardy nature, the last named being the
hardiest, whilst at the same time it will return a greater value of
wool than the first, nearly equal to the second, and in fat and flesh
will yield a money return for its food greater than either, whilst
heavy losses through hard weather rarely occur with the Herd-
wick,
On some pastures between the character of down and heath-
land, it may be desirable to possess an animal of considerable
endurance, good size, with aptitude to fatten—for such we must
look to the Cotswold and crosses thereon, together with the
Cheviots. 'These breeds possess moderate activity, endurance,
and fair fattening qualities, and will do well on pastures where a
first-rate Leicester would scarcely obtain a living. The character
of these pastures has already been described. ‘The downs appear,
for the reasons already given, as well as from long experience, to
be best adapted for their own localities ; should, however, arable
cultivation take piace on down land, it will then become a
question which breed is best adapted under the altered circum-
stances—the Leicester, or the Southdown? In considering this
question we entirely put out of view the value of folding, which
was always a doubtful practice, and was only justified under
peculiar circumstances; besides it is capable of proof in a
great degree that what was gained in corn by this method was
lost in meat and wool ; it is the more questionable now, when the
benefit that was formerly derived from folding can be obtained
450 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
from using a few hundredweights of guano. or mountain sheep
there are none comparable with the Herdwicks.
I cannot leave the subject without again adverting to a practice
previously noticed in describing the Herdwicks, viz., putting first-
class Leicester and Southdown rams to Herdwick ewes; the
produce is avery superior animal for grazing purposes, and fattens
quickly to a large size, combining hardihood and aptitude to fatten
beyond any other breed or cross, particularly as hoggets.* If this
kind of sheep should become generally distributed over our worst
description of mountain land, I believe the mountain flock-owner
would find it his most profitable business to rear the crosses
alluded to as stores for the lowland farmers, and that the latter
would find it more profitable to purchase such stock than to be
rearing lambs. From these considerations, and also from ob-
serving that, unless carefully looked after, both the improved
Southdown and Leicester gradually become changed for the
worse in the course of two or three descents, I look upon it as
an established fact in husbandry, that tup-breeding will become
more and more a distinct occupation. In stating this I do not
anticipate a continuance of very high prices for male animals;
but I believe the practice of buying or hiring tups, instead of
using a home-bred animal, will become more generally adopted,
as flockmasters will find their profitable account in doing so,
whilst the extended demand will remunerate tup-breeders for the
lower prices accepted. In viewing the original habitats of the
large and small breeds of sheep, it will be seen that the Tees-
water, Lincoln, and Leicester were originally produced on rich
lowland pasiures, where the absorbent properties of the soil,
whether it consists of marl, clay, or vegetable loam, except in
very dry seasons, yields a plentiful supply of juicy herbage; con-
sequently ammals grazing such pastures would not be under the
necessity of using much exertion in procuring sufficient food.
The combined effects of using little exercise and passing a con-
siderable part of their time in the act of rumination, would
cause the air-cells of the lungs to be constantly surcharged
with blood.t This deficiency of exercise would also predispose
the animal to be still more inactive, by which means a large
part of the carbonaceous matter of the food, which would other-
* The practice of putting Southdown rams to mountain sheep isnow much followed
amongst some farmers adjacent to the Choydiar Range of hills in Flintshire and Den-
bighshire, and is found a very profitable method of breeding good useful lambs; the
practice is principally followed by the lowland farmers of this district, who purchase
in autumn a flock of ewes from the mountain farmer, feed them on turnips, &c., during
the winter, send the lambs to market in summer, and the ewes in the autumn following.
7 Prize runners, in order “ to obtain wind,’ as it is termed, undergo severe training,
in running and walking exercise, in order to remove the partial state of repletion of
the lungs, arising from the inactivity and overfeeding of ordinary life.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 451
wise have been consumed in the Jungs and exhaled in the form
of carbonic acid, becomes deposited in the cellular tissue as a
hydro-carbon—fat.
With the hardier active breeds of sheep, such as the South-
down, Ryeland, Black-faced, Herdwick, &c., the lungs are more
largely developed in consequence of the additional exercise which
they are compelled to take in order to obtain a sufficient amount
of nutriment; on the dry downs being deficient in quantity, whilst
on the heathy mountains it is deficient in quality—either or both
causes will necessarily compel the sheep occupying such pastures
to make increased exertions to satisfy their appetites, beyond what
would have been required from them were they grazing on a
luxuriant plain; thus a development of lung and corresponding
activity of disposition become concomitant physiological features
of the respective breeds. From this cause arises the fact that
the old down and black-faced sheep will not fatten until they
have passed the third year, for which the following reason may be
assigned : in the earlier stages of life the circulation of the blood
is much quicker than at a maturer period, being the most rapid
in infancy, and the slowest in old age. This is one of the most
beautiful provisions of nature, as by this means the warmth ne-
cessary during youth and infancy is secured; every extra pulsation
which drives the venous blood through the lungs in order to be-
come again oxygenated is attendant with the formation of carbonic
acid gas, evolved in the act of respiring, heat at the same time
being developed. As the animal becomes older, the circulation —
ceasing to have the same rapidity, consequently consumes less of
the carbonaceous matter in the food, the difference being, as in
the former instance, converted into fat: a large development of
lung is therefore inseparably connected with a breed which is con-
stantly exposed to the effects of cold, as ona bleak down, in order to
maintain the requisite animal heat; this scantiness of herbage
enforces on the animal increased exercise. Large lungs and
great exertion are both adverse to the formation of fat. It is
therefore clearly impossible to obtain a breed of sheep which
will withstand the effects of cold and scanty herbage, and at the
same time possess the valuable property of arriving at early ma-
turity. All the breeds which are of a hardy nature possess deep,
but not wide chests, such are the black-faced, the Herdwick,
the old-horned Wiltshire, the old Southdown, the Welsh, &c.,
and all require to have passed their third year before they will
put on fat profitably. The Chevioits and the Cotswolds hold
an intermediate position between the Leicesters and the more
hardy races, not possessing the early fattening property of the
former, nor quite so hardy as the latter; in this respect it will be
found that their position is fixed in a great degree by the character
452 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
of the country they inhabit,* the Cheviots being found on rocky
and lofty hills, covered with heath, but with a soil tolerably rich
formed from the decay of trap and other decomposed Plutonic
rocks, which with the moisture of the climate affords a not incon-
siderable amount of nutritious herbage, often a much greater
weight of herbage per acre than is found on the dry downs of the
south vf England; with the Cotswold, though on a different
geological formation, the same general remark holds good. The
Cotswold hills vary greatly in the character of their soils, having
generally, however, much more moisture than down land; being
composed of the following strata, viz., lower lias shales, lias marl-
stone, upper lias shales, inferior oolite, fuller’s earth, stonesfield
slate, and ragstone, and bedsof clay. Atseveral of the outcrops of
the impervious argillaceous beds, numerous small land-springs are
formed, which keep what would be the otherwise arid calcareous
and arenaceous soils tolerably moist, and consequently yielding a
considerable amount of rough herbage adapted to the breed of
sheep found in the district. It must, however, be remembered that
although the herbage is abundant it is not equally nutritious, and,
consequently, imposes on the animal a considerable amount of
exercise, which, by a natural reaction, causes an increased develop-
ment of lung, which last property depreciates the early fat-forming
propensity. We cannot, therefore, ever expect to obtain a breed
of sheep which will possess the hardihood of the Herdwick with the
early fattening property of the new Leicester, neither can we ex-
pect the fine felting property of the Saxon merino with the long
staple of the new Leicester wool; all that we can do is to select
each kind for the locality to which its physiological condition and
general habits best adapt it: these will be the new Leicester for
rich pastures, and also those of moderate fertility in moist cli-
mates: it 1s also the breed especially adapted for that part of
arable husbandry which consists in consuming root crops, such as
turnips, rape, &c., on the ground. ‘The Southdown is particu-
larly well suited to dry exposed downs—their natural dwelling
place. They will also do well on good pastures, but will not make
a proportional money return equal to the new Leicester, par-
ticularly since the change that has taken place in the wool market ;
if, however, down flockowners would only produce a wool seh
as has been already described, there can be little doubt but they
would be made to rival if not to exceed the new Leicesters in the
money return. <A heavy fleece like the Leicester must not be
* On the lower Silurian Rocks of Denbighshire, known as Mudstones, the Cheviots
are found to do well by Colonel Myddleton Biddulph of Chirk Castle, and H. R.
Sandbach, Esq., of Hafodunos. We doubt, however, whether they would do well on
the arenaceous greywacke soils of the Upper Berwins, and the slate clay alpine summits
of Caernarvonshire,
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 453
looked forward to, as the arid nature of down pastures forbids
such a result; a lengthened quality possessing fineness of staple,
so as to obtain an enhanced price per |b., with no great addi-
tional weight of fleece, is what must be aimed at. For moun-
tain sheep none equal the Herdwick, of which sufficient has
already been said. On rough pastures exposed to cold and wet,
yet not partaking of the nature of heath, the Cotswold will be
found well adapted, as also on wet, cold, impervious clays; the
Cheviots possess a somewhat similar character.
XXI.— On the Management of Barley. By Haut W, Keary.
PrizE Essay.
Barwey, unlike the more valuable grain, wheat, can only be
grown successfully upon certain soils, and under certain circum-
stances adapted to its culture; for while the latter may be sown
with advantage upon almost every variety of land, and under
apparently disadvantageous circumstances, the former, that is to
say, the finest malting samples, cannot be produced in perfection
without great care and management in the preparation of its seed-
bed. ‘The time of sowing and variety of seed are also important
considerations ; I propose therefore to treat this subject under the
following three heads, those pointed out by the Society, viz. :—
lst. The preparation of the land.
2nd. Advantages and risks of early sowing.
3rd. Different varieties of seed as suited to various situations.
Upon the proper preparation of the land depends most
materially the quality, even more perhaps than the quantity of
the future crop; and although the finest samples of barley are
only produced on soils generally known as decidedly barley
lands, yet even on these the greatest difference is often seen in
the same season, and with other circumstances alike, when dif-
ferent systems of tillage have been adopted; I shall now
endeavour to describe the different modes of growing barley
which have come under my observation in various districts of the
kingdom. In several of the Midland counties there are fine
deep loams upon gravel, and also upon clay, which produce very
bold heavy barley, although it cannot be said to hold for malting
purposes the first place in the London market. The usual sys-
tem followed in those districts, upon what are termed turnip and
barley soils, is to sow barley after turnips, which have previously
been wholly or partially fed off by sheep. ‘The firm and beaten
WO: X. 24H
454 On the Management of Barley.
state produced by the continual treading of the sheep is generally
broken up during the autumn and winter months by the plough,
and in this state the ground remains until the time of seed.
Scarifying and harrowing is the only additional preparation given
before the seed is sown or drilled ; which latter plan is now very
general, although there are some farmers in those districts who
still contend for the broadcast system. Unquestionably the more
the seed can be dispersed over the ground the better; but the
difficulty of depositing it at an equal depth is the great objection;
for hence two or three growths are the result, entirely spoiling
the quality of the grain and involving much trouble and difficulty
at the time of harvesting. ‘The drill, on the other hand, sows
exactly the same quantity throughout at an equal depth, and thus
all grows together and is ready for the scythe the same day.
The sowing season varies according to circumstances from the
middle of March to the end of April. The chief varieties of seed
are the old common barley, the Chevalier, and the Nottingham
long-ear. Chevalier is now more generally grown than it was,
although some contend that it does not produce so muck per acre
as other varieties; it is also more sought after by maltsters and
commands the highest price. On some of the rather strong clay
lands of the Midland counties it is not unusual to grow barley
after fallow. ‘The land being left rather rough and cloddy in
the autumn, the seed is sown broadcast as early after February
as the weather will permit upon the stale furrow, and dragged or
scuffled in without any further preparation. Very good crops
too of barley are frequently grown upon this plan; and for such
soils I very much doubt whether a better one could be adopted.
In some of the southern counties the turnip-land is ploughed up
as soon as it is dry, and then well worked twice with the scarifier
or drag-harrow, upon which the seed is drilled, at the rate of
about 3 bushels per acre.
On all warm genial soils the sowing commences as early after
February as possible; but on the colder lands it is thought
preferable to leave it until April, unless indeed they are very
rich, in which case the earlier the seed is sown the less will it be
laid.
Generally speaking the common sort of barley is more usually
- grown in the south ; the Nottingham long-ear is occasionally sown,
and so 1s the Chevalier, but the latter is somewhat out of favour in
some districts, as it is said not to produce sufficient quantity on
those soils.
Hertfordshire is much celebrated for the quality of its barley,
and I believe the London brewers consider the malt made in
some parts of that county the best in the market. The finest
samples are grown in the light districts, which have generally a
On the Management of Barley. 455
chalk subsoil. The land is, for the most part, ploughed only
once, and the seed sown in March or April. On the stronger
lands, on which some years ago a fine malting sample could
not be produced (when the old common barley was sown),
very good crops of superior quality are now obtained, since the
introduction of Chevalier, which has very much superseded the
other varieties.
The Yorkshire and Lincolnshire wolds have of late years
become large barley growing districts, and although their northern
climate is somewhat unfavourable for producing in perfection
that grain, which delights in warmth; still the system of high
fanning so extensively apne on in those counties has enabled
them to rival, if not excel, some of their more favoured southern
neighbours.
In those districts the white turnip is chiefly grown, and the
whole or greater part of the produce is fed off with sheep; when
Swedes are grown, they are seldom or ever stored, but are left
standing where they grow, until they are wanted in spring. It is
a prevailing opinion amongst the Wold farmers that they obtain a
much better crop of barley after white turnips than after Swedes ;
whereas a completely contrary opinion exists in Norfolk, so cele-
brated as a barley growing county. It may not be amiss to com-
pare the different systems, and endeavour if possible to arrive at
a correct conclusion. As the feeding properties of the Swede are
decidedly more nutritive than those of the white or common tur-
nips, it is fair to presume that the manure from sheep fed upon the
former will prove a richer fertilizer than that from sheep fed upon
the latter. In Norfolk the Swede turnips are generally speaking
stored in November and December, and the land is thus relieved
from the exhausting effects of a root crop, drawing for so long a
period nutriment from it. May not this circumstance explain in
some degree why a difference of opinion exists in two districts
alike celebrated for good farming and for intelligent agriculturists ?
After close observation of the difference in crops of barley after
Swedes, as compared with barley after white turnips, I must decide
im favour of the former ; and I cannot but think that if more atten-
tion were given to this, subject by those eminently practical men,
the farmers of the Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, and if
the Norfolk plan were fairly tried and tested, opinions, which I
am bound to think erroneous,.would gradually give way. Then
I believe we should see that most valuable of roots, the Swedish
turnip, growing on the best wold lands, producing infinitely more
sheep feed, and consequently more mutton, and, from the increased
fertility imparted to the soil, producing more barley also; nor
would the advantages end here, although it may perhaps be
foreign to the subject to trace it further; but if the soil be ferti-
2H 2
=
456 On the Management of Barley.
lized for barley it will also tell upon the clover, and this again on
the wheat crop.
The plough is mostly used in the Wold districts for breaking
up the turnip land after feeding sheep. The land thus remains
until seed-time approaches, when it is dragged and harrowed, and
the seed occasionally drilled. In many instances the seed is sown
broadcast, and then well dragged in with the scarifier. The
objections to this plan, which I have previously alluded to, are,
however, becoming apparent, and the drill is more frequently seen
than formerly. From 10 to 12 pecks per acre are usually sown.
The general seed-time varies, from the first week in March to the
end of April.
The Norfolk system of storing Swede turnips has been already
alluded to, and I will now endeavour to describe the different
plans of growing barley generally adopted in that county. In
addition to the growth of a large breadth of Swedes, the most
spirited farmers consume a large quantity of linseed cake, crushed
barley, or peas, with their feeding sheep; and it may here be right
to notice one circumstance connected with this practice, which I
think must be admitted to be true, viz., that although the produce
per acre of the barley crop may be increased, it 1s yet thought that
the quality is somewhat deteriorated, perhaps, however, not to such
an extent, but that the increase in produce more than makes up
for any deficiency in price. To this system, perhaps more than
any other, is to be ascribed the fertility and corn producing capa-
bility of some of the worst lands of West Norfolk. I believe also
it is universally allowed that the above is by far the best and
cheapest mode of bringing a poor farm into a state of high culti-
vation. ‘The cake passing through the animal, an increase of
mutton is added to the increase of corn, and the cost of artificial
manure is thus doubly paid for. It is usual to draw off a larger
proportion of the root crop for consumption in the yards by oxen,
from those fields where the fatting and cake-consuming sheep are
intended to be fed.
The system of ploughing twice for barley very generally
prevails in Norfolk. Experience has invariably shown that
more barley can be grown from twice ploughing than from once.
By the former system, the manure of the feeding sheep is more
equally and intimately mixed with the soil than when it is merely
turned over once ; and, of course, the greater part of it left at
the bottom of the furrow. As the last ploughing generally takes
place immediately before sowing, a lighter, kinder, and more
genial seed-bed is also obtained than when sowing takes place on
the dead surface of land ploughed up many weeks previously.
It is, however, frequently found that in all soils, except those of
the lightest and most sandy character, the use of the plough in
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On the Management of Barley. 457
the first instance, for breaking up, is not altogether the best; the
land is left too close and impervious to the action of frost, and
frequently does not work so well in the spring as when some of
the followmg modes are adopted. A strong scarifier, with the
teeth closely set, and drawn by four horses, is frequently used to
break up the turnip-land ; in which state it remains, rough and
uneven, until the proper time for the second ploughing arrives,
which invariably is performed immediately before it is thought
proper to sow barley. Another plan occasionally followed, is to
remove the iron breast or mould-board, substituting a piece of
rough wood in its place, or anything, in fact, to keep the furrow
open, without turning it completely over, which thus presents a
rough and accessible face to the action of frost, or other numerous
atmospheric changes, which invariably mark our English winters.
If this operation be well performed in dry weather, and a small
and sufficiently deep furrow taken, I believe the land is left in
the most favourable state for producing a good and genial seed-
bed for the future crop. This surface is of course well harrowed
before the second ploughing takes place, which, as before ob-
served, is not done until immediately before barley sowing ; upon
the large light-land fields of West Norfolk it is usual to plough
the whole field, and then drill across the furrows. If the drill
follows the plough, it does so upon a less level and even surface,
and the seed is not deposited so equally at one depth; nor can
the dmill-man perform his work so straight and well, from the
impossibility of preventing the drill-coulters running into the
furrows made by the ploughs. Harrows follow the drill, and, in
some instances, the roll; and the small seed-machine, followed by
light harrows, complete the operation.
Upon stronger land, and especially in a wet season, it is usual
for the drill to follow the plough; so that all the work may
be harrowed and finished close up at night. Upon these soils
the rolling does not take place generally until the barley has
made its appearance above the ground and become strong in
the blade; when the passing of a light roll across it breaks the
mouldering clods, and gives a little fresh soil and firmness to
the roots.
It used to be a very common practice in Norfolk some years
ago, to sow the barley broadcast, and then plough it in with a one-
horse plough. In some parts of the county, on lght tender land,
this system still prevails, though it cannot be said to be at all
generally practised.
On strong soils, which are apt to work unkindly in the spring,
the plan of two-furrowing or ridging is frequently adopted. The
ploughman takes rather a shallow furrow to start with, and
458 On the Management of Barley.
returns with a deeper, leaving a small balk, and turning it over
so as to leave a complete ridge; when this has been exposed to
the atmospheric changes for some weeks, an opportunity of dry
weather is taken to reverse these ridges and expose the inside to
the weather. It thus remains till seed-time, when a skeleton
plough is used to split open the ridges ; it is then well harrowed,
and levelled as much as possible. The drill follows imme-
diately ; and if the above operations are performed properly
in dry weather, an admirable seed-bed will generally be the
result.
There are, however, objections to the above mode which ought
to be stated. It is most difficult to make the land completely
level: and hence, particularly in a dry season, the furrows show
themselves in the growing crop, which always looks much stronger
and healthier in alternate rows all through the field. This is
more seen in the early part of the season, but it cannot be
doubted that it must operate unfavourably upon the yield when
the time of cutting arrives,
The usual time of sowing may be said to extend from the
middle of March to the end of April, although the two first weeks
of the latter month are generally considered, in average seasons, -
the most favourable. Upon some of the stronger and more back-
ward soils, barley is sometimes sown early in March, and, pro-
vided the land works well, undoubtedly the quality is improved
by early sowing ; but it is generally thought that the quantity is
somewhat diminished. The old common barley is now but little
sown in Norfolk. Within the last few years Chevalier has
become very general. “The Brewers’ Delight” is almost, if not
quite, equal to Chevalier for malting purposes, grows stiffer in
the straw, and is gradually coming into use. ‘The Nottingham
long-ear is a great favourite with some, while others prefer Ame-
rican barley. Another variety, obtained from Leghorn, has
lately been introduced, and it is favourably spoken of by the
maltsters, but experience has not yet tested its productive qualities.
Chevalier, however, is still grown by many, and when eare is
observed to change the seed, by taking it from a different loeality,
I believe few kinds will be found to equal it.
Having now described the different systems pursued in some
of the most important barley-growing districts, I shall, in con-
clusion, make a few observations, founded on experience and
personal observation.
It has before been noticed how much depends upon the way in
which the land is treated in the first instance, not only as to the
mode of performing the work, but also as to the weather in which
that work is performed. It is no uncommon occurrence to see
On the Management of Barley. 459
ploughing going forward upon land intended for barley when
the water stands in puddles on the surface, and the whole ground
is perhaps saturated with moisture, the idea being to get the
ploughing done in order to accelerate the spring work. The
ploughing is then done, it is true, but it is not sufficiently
considered that numerous harrowings, rollings, and perhaps
clod-crushing, must be gone through before barley can be
sown amongst clods, which are the sure result of working in
wet weather. Nor is the labour and loss of time of those opera-
tions the only evil; soils forced into tillage by harrows and rolls,
rarely, if ever, become kind and genial for the reception of the
seed ; and it must be strong in the recollection of all who have
sown barley under the above circumstances, that_an inferior crop
has generally been the result. Upon very light sandy soils
liberties may be taken in wet weather, with little or no bad effect,
but upon land with any degree of staple in it, 1 am inclined to
think that too much importance cannot be attached to working it
at every stage in dry weather. There are, however, peculiar
seasons when the weather is so constantly wet, that it is almost
impossible to carry out the above practice strictly. Asa modi-
fication of the bad effects of ploughing turnip land for barley,
when the soil is too wet, I last vear saw tried, and with remark-
ably beneficial effects, a most simple plan, which, although from
its very simplicity some may be tempted to despise, | am con-
vinced is most efficacious. A piece of cord was tied round the
fore-part of the breast or mould-board of the plough, which pre-
vented that smooth shiny surface left by it in wet weather, and
entirely removed the necessity for rolling; whereas in the same
field where the cords were taken from the ploughs, Jarge clods
prevailed, and the greatest possible difference was perceptible to
the most casual observer. For those soils generally denominated
turnip and barley soils, I think there can be little doubt that the
system previously described, of breaking up in the first instance
by a scarifier, or skeleton plough, ana then ploughing imme-
diately before sowing, is preferable to the more common mode
which prevails in some districts, of merely ploughing once and
then putting in the seed. In the first place the manure is
thoroughly mixed and ready for the young roots of barley as soon
as they begin to shoot, and in the generality of seasons. more-
over, a better tilth will be obtained. For these lands, also, the
drill system must, I think, be considered the best and safest,
There may be districts, circumstances and seasons, which would
point out another mode of sowing to be more advantageous; but
these may be deemed exceptions to a practice, which, T cannot
but think, will be still more universal. After drilling very much
460 On the Management of Barley.
harrowing and rolling are by no means desirable: the land may
with advantage be left somewhat cloddy, provided the clods are
small, until it is time to sow the small seeds, when the light roll
makes it sufficiently fine, and gives a little fresh soil in which
to sow the young clover.
Advantages and risks of early sowing.—Although very early
sowing is strongly advocated, I hold it to be quite impossible to
fix any period which will suit all circumstances and seasons. If
the weather be perfectly dry and the land works well in February,
the quality of the barley will unquestionably be improved by
early sowing; but that a corresponding increase takes place in
quantity may, however, I think be doubted. ‘There is a great
difference in seasons, and a practice which would prove highly
suitable to one year might, if persevered in under different cir-
cumstances and with different weather, be productive of very inju-
rious results in the next. It can never be judicious to meddle with
the land in the spring until it is dry and works well. On strong
cold land also, barley should be sown much earlier, senerally
speaking, than. upon light sandy lands with a warm dry subsoil.
Ty the (onmer there 1 no danger of a too rapid growth in the first
stages, and the land having sufficient staple to carry it out, the
quality of the grain will be decidedly improved and the period of
cutting will be accelerated. On the other hand, if sown before
the land is in proper tilth and fit to receive the seed, a rough
coarse sample will be produced. ‘The invariable result of very
late sowing, there can be no doubt, is an inferior quality of corn.
From the 20th of March to the same date in April will, I think,
in average seasons be found a safe and judicious period for barley
sowing.
There is at the present day a great difference of opinion as to
the question of thick and thin sowing ; after several careful expe-
riments, [ am inclined to favour a middle course. From 8 to 10
pecks per acre on kind and genial soils will generally suffice; but
on unkind land in imperfect tilth it may occasionally be necessary
to sow a larger quantity.
The different varieties of barley comprise the old common
barley, Chevalier, Brewers’ Delight, Oakley, American, Notting-
ham Long-ear, Berkshire, &c. ‘The Chevalier decidedly ranks
first for malting purposes, and is most eagerly sought after by the
brewer in every district. The objections urged against it are, that
it does not produce so much per acre as some of the other varie-
ties. Jam, however, inclined to think that, under proper culti-
vation and with occasional change of seed, there are few sorts that
can be compared with it. I will give the result of some experi-
ments carefully tried between 1836 and 1845:—
On the Management of Barley. 461
CORN. STRAW.
In 1836 a ae
Bush. pecks. Tons cwt. lbs.
Chevaliers. ipo) ois a0 4en, O 0 14 1
Common barley . . 42 0O 0 15 6
mMmericai. «3. 40’ =O O 14 4
1841
Brewers’ Delight... . 57 1 185.16: 26
IBETKSNWC er ss. 1G 2 Gao 2
Chevalier er. 2s OO'y 1 tw G
Nottingham 7.) *. “56 3 Sa 0
1845
Brewers’ Delight. . 52 0O
Chevalier. es 7 48,03
The foregoing experiments are strong proofs in favour of Che-
valier—in every year it was the best quality. « Brewers’ Delight”
is, I believe, quite equal to Chevalier for malting purposes ; “and
in appearance, there is in fact little or no igen Tam a very
strong advocate for a constant and judicious change of seed, and
although it may sometimes be expensive to obtain it from a great
distance, J believe it will generally repay the cost by an increase
of produce and an improvement of quality.
A few years ago a very strong instance confirming my opinion
in this respect came under my observation. On two adjoining
farms, in a barley growing district, both much alike as to quality
of soil, the occupier of No. 1 being in the habit of constantly
changing his seed and sowing tolerably early, and the occupier of
No. 2 systematically never changing his seed and sowing rather
late, the quality of the barley grown upon No. 1 in the year
referred to, was remarkably good; and upon No. 2 it was so very
inferior, as to be quite unsaleable for any but the most common
purposes; and 2s. per bushel, or 16s. per quarter, was the differ-
ence in the price these barleys fetched at several times during
that season, on the same day and at the same market. The pro-
duce per acre also was, as nearly as could be ascertained, very
much greater on farm No. L.
I have never heard that Chevalier, or any of its varieties, were
not hardy, or incapable of beimg produced in cold and bleak
situations ; but rather the contrary, and on the whole it appears
that the charge brought against it, of yielding badly in some
districts, is not borne out by universal opinion. Before it be con-
demned, I should strongly ‘recommend all to test it accur ately by
careful experiments.
There may be, and probably are, descriptions of land quite
incapable of producing the best quality of barley, and upon such
soils, a greater produce of the common barley may perhaps be
grown. It would, however, be going too far to recommend this
462 On the Management of Barley.
or that variety as being the best or most productive for every
locality ; but my own opinion is decidedly in favour of Chevalier
and Brewers’ Delight; bearing always in mind the necessity for a
change of seed, and care being taken to sow the boldest and best
that can be obtained. There can, I think, be no doubt that the
same laws prevail in the vegetable as in the animal world. Few
will dispute the fact, that strong and healthy animals propagate
a like progeny, and vice versGé. So we may fairly infer, and it is
moreover borne out by the results of practice, that from the largest
and best kernels of grain of every description the best crops will
be produced.
XXITT.—On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
By Pu. Pussy, M.P.
SoME years since a slight account of some Devonshire water-
meadows, and of the cheap rate at which they are formed, was
inserted by me in this Journal. Having now formed some myself
on the same plan in Berkshire, | am thus enabled to state dis-
tinctly what they have cost me; and if the money so spent yield
a profit of 30 per cent., which at a moderate estimate it can be
shown to do, this mode of improvement must deserve the atten-
tion of landlords, now especially, when tenants stand so much
in need of assistance, and labourers of employment.
It is well known that, in forming water-meadows, to moisten
them is not the main object, the stream being laid on chiefly in
winter, when commonly the ground is already rather too wet.
Yet a slight film of water trickling then over the surface, for it
must not stagnate, rouses the sleeping grass, tinges it with living
green amidst snows or frost, and brings forth a luxuriant crop in
early spring, Just when it is most wanted, while the other meadows
are still bare and brown. It isa cheerful sight to see the wild
birds haunting these green spots among the hoar-frost at Christ-
mas; or the lambs, with their mothers, folded on them in March.
A water-meadow is the triumph of agricultural art, chang-
ing, as it does, the very seasons: but though our rustic fore-
fathers so long since mastered the result, the mode of the water's
action has been left a mystery. It consists not in moistening
the roots, for they are moist enough—nor yet in covering the
surface, for stagnant surface-water is merely injurious, the fluid
must be kept in motion, however slow—it is not in the deposit of
fine mud, for though the first runnings after the autumn rains
are rendered the most beneficial by the thickness of the waters, a
stream, clear as crystal, is often employed. About Exmoor I have
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 463
seen a stream issuing near the top of a steep moor-side, down
which, in its descent, it draws a straight line of vivid verdure, visible
at a mile’s distance against the black heath. Not but where a
deposit does take place, it is most beneficial. However dull the
stream when it enters, after trickling through the grass it issues
clear. So that, as I have heard, at Tempsford, a sluggish mill-
stream previously thick, allows you, after it has passed over the
meadows, to detect the pike basking six feet deep under its surface.
The matter thus left behind is proved to be fertilizing by the
superior efficacy of the first floods ; but where are we to seek the
cause of the clear water’s action? An experienced maker of water-
meadows examining a spring, told me, after feeling the water by
holding some of it in the palm of his hand, that it must be good
for watering : all streams, it should be remembered, are not equally
good, some are even injurious. When asked the ground of his
opinion, he answered, that it felt warm and oily. To confine our-
selves for the present to the former quality warmth—springs, issuing
as they do from different depths, and partaking therefore more or
less largely of the earth’s central heat, vary much in their tem-
perature, though most of them, perhaps all, are warmer than the
earth’s surface in winter. But the warmer the spring the better
it is considered for water-meadows in Devonshire, where spring's
are much used for the purpose; elsewhere it is chiefly small
rivers which are so employed. We must suppose, then, that the
water acts in irrigation partly by the warmth it communicates to
the soil. A curious proof of this view is afforded by the following
circumstance :—There is a stream in Devonshire which was use-
less in irrigation until it reached a station of the Atmospheric
Railway, where warm water escaping into it from the steam-
engine, rendered it at that point, for the first time, beneficial to
the land it passed over. In that county where the warmth of
springs is much studied on this very account, a wide difference of
temperature is found in springs issuing from the same hill-side.
Some springs freeze at once in a hard frost, a thick basin of ice
forming around the well-head. Another spring a few hundred
yards off may be seen on a frosty morning steaming like a caul-
dron. It not only does not freeze at the source, but its waters
will continue to pass in a fluid state over meadows during a frost.
The warm spring is selected for irrigation: the cold one is kept
aloof. Itis also supposed that the south sides of hills yield warmer
streams than the north sides, and these southern streams are there-
fore preferred for meadows. We may safely conclude then, I think,
though [ have never seen it so stated in any agricultural work,*
* Since the above was written I find that, though recent agricultural works deny
the efficacy of warmth in irrigation, Sir H. Davy, himself a west-countrymanp, asserts
it in his Agricultural Chemistry.
464 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
that the main principle of irrigation is the warmth produced by
the water trickling over the surface. Warmth is a prime agent
in vegetation, and a slight difference in warmth has a marked
effect in hastening or retarding the growth of plants. On hills of
avery moderate height—as the chalk range in Berkshire—the
harvest is sometimes a fortnight later than in the vale at their feet.
The warmth of the London air opens the buds earlier. A south-
ern wall, by reflecting heat, hastens the growth of vegetables near
its foot. ‘The warm spring too or river does not merely flow over
the surface, but sinks largely into the land if it be at all porous,
and suck land is most benefited by irrigation; some of the best
water-meadows being mere gravels, almost bare of soul. Thus the
roots of the grass are kept in a state of genial warmth. But the
conclusive argument, as appears to me, may be drawn from avery
curious operation called Gurneyism, of which an account was
given in the seventh volume of this Journal.
Mr. Gurney having observed, what many may have remarked, that
wherever any loose object,a bare branch, or an old gate, lies on a mea-
dow in March, the grass grows exuberantly beneath it, conceived the
idea of spreading a field with straw, at the rate of about a ton to
the acre, and thus promoting the growth of the grass. ‘The scheme
succeeded so well that it was adopted by many neighbouring
farmers in Cornwall ; and thus, curiously enough, a thin coat of
dry straw produced the same effect which had hitherto been
obtained only by a thin sheet of moving water. How, it may be
asked, did the straw produce its effect? J can see but one way.
Gardeners, it is well known, spread light nets over their young
crops in order to protect them from morning frosts in the spring.
This effect is clearly due to the interception of the radiation of
heat. ‘The earth is constantly sending forth, in a perpendicular
direction upwards into empty space, especially when the sky is
clear, its warmth derived from the sun, just as a stove darts its
heat around it; but avery slight interruption, such as the gar-
dener’s net, is found to check the passage of the heat, and thus to
prevent that morning frost on the surface so much dreaded by gar-
deners. Gurneyism must actin a like manner, though on a larger
scale, by preventing the escape of the natural warmth from the
soil of a meadow. Irrigation, we have had reason to conclude,
acts by imparting to the meadow the superior warmth of the
stream or the spring. ‘The effect is the same: the mode of
action is the same nearly. The difference is as between covering
up asick man with blankets, or placing him in a warm bath.
The one is stronger treatment than the other, and so also irriga-
tion acts in winter—Gurneyism only in spring. It may even
be questioned, I think, whether irrigation do not also act in
some degree by intercepting the radiation of heat. Myr. Gurney
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 465
found that round rods of transparent glass suspended over grass
acted as well as opaque bodies in promoting its growth. Is it not
possible that the rippling water may act like these rods of glass?
It is true that water, after passing over a portion of water-meadow,
is found to have lost much of its power when turned over another
portion. ‘This we should expect, because in travelling over and
through the ground it has parted with its native heat, and will
produce a diminished effect. I believe that it produces still some
effect, otherwise the conjecture must, of course, fall to the ground
—the point need, however, not be pursued further.
But, it may be asked, if streams act by their warmth when
turned over meadows, why do not all streams of the same tem-
perature act equally well? Why are some streams better than
others? Why do some not act at all? ‘lhe answer, I believe,
is this. Several foreign substances, present sometimes in streams,
are found by experience to be noxious to vegetation. Thus it
was mentioned above that water for irrigation should feel, ina
practised hand, oily as well as warm. ‘This oiliness, I suppose,
is the same with what is commonly called softness, the opposite
of hardness, which is caused by the presence of carbonic acid,
of which latter quality the laundress also complains when the
soap will not dissolve in her washing-tub without the aid of
wood ashes or of soda. <A spring which contains carbonic acid
largely is a petrifying one. We have some streamlets in this
neighbourhood which, for the first mile or two of their course, en-
crust their sides and bottoms with lime. Such are declared to
be unfit for irrigation, why I know not, butso experience teaches.
It is observed that the two favourable and the two unfavourable
qualities are generally found together in springs; softness with
warmth, and cold with hardness. Ochrey springs, having on their
surface a film, which presents the colours of the rainbow, and
containing iron, are said also to be injurious; though in one district
this iridescence was mentioned to me as even a favourable sign for
irrigation. There is another substance most certainly mischievous
to vegetation—the matter suspended in bog-water. Such water
is destructive to the growth of meadow-grass. Marsh peat is
itself so highly injurious, that when marsh peat has been put
by a mistake into flower-beds for the growth of rhododendrons,
it destroyed the garden turf for some breadth on each border.
But this is not a hopeless obstaele, though found in a stream.
I have seen water which a year or two before dribbling from
a bog had been worse than useless, now issuing from the drain-
pipes of that bog, ztseJf cultivated, and after resting in a reser-
voir, spreading verdure over a field lower down the hill-side.
This vegetable extract, however, sometimes infects rivers them-
selves, as in the romantic scenery of West Somerset round Dul-
466 On the Theory and Practice of Water- Meadows.
verton, a neighbourhood well known to fishermen. In that beau-
tiful district, four mountain torrents, rushing in a perpetual fall
along deep wooded valleys, join to form the river on which Exeter
stands. The Haddyo has the finest trout, and is best for water-
meadows. ‘The Exe is moderate in both respects. ‘The Barle
has poor trout, and is useless, or if not utterly useless, is rated
so low that other streams are carried over 1t by wooden aqueducts
for irrigating the fields on its very banks. The Danesbrook has
no trout, and is injurious upon meadows. The Barle and the
Danesbrook,* though clear as crystal, are brown as a cairngorm
with bog-water from Exmoor. When those moors are drained,
the fish may yet thrive in their waters, and the winter’s grass —
become green on their banks. It may be instructive to pursue
* Ishall be forgiven for recalling to the reader that these four romantic
streams have twice been admitted into English poetry—once by the late
Dean of Manchester :—
‘Oh, how I love the woody steeps to climb
Which overhang thy solitary stream,
Clear-flowing Barle! or tread the broken stones
Round which thy never-ceasing waters foam,
And ever and anon rough-tumbling roar
Beneath the oaken shade... .. .
And thou, romantic spot where close beneath
Mountsey’s proud brow and Anstey’s stately moor
Danesbrook and Barle their noisy streams unite :
Upon your sides abrupt the pausing eye
Dwells charmed as it views each sparkling spring
Shine through the gloomy woods and trickle down.”
Miscellaneous Poetry, by Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, 1801.
And once again, among a later generation, in the tender recollections
of his boyhood, by a dear departed friend :—
“With beating heart how many a reckless day
Has marked my boyish step delighted bend
Where Haddon’s heights of purple heath ascend,
Where Hawkridge’ wild and sullen wastes extend :
And verdant Storridge to the thundering wave
His mighty mass of oaken forest gave
By Haddyo’s foaming flood and Danesbrook’s tide
That parted once a rival people’s pride. . ...
Here have I heard in summer’s liveliest glow
Mid hail and mist the raging tempest blow,
Eternally on hoarse resounding shore
The infant Exe with tide impetuous roar.
In Pixton’s woods the chase was fierce and strong ;
At night their limbs on couch of heather spread,
The mountain fern wild pillow for their head,
And, if they listed melody, might hear
Our rushing Barle make music for their ear.”
The Moor, by the late Earl of Carnarvon.
—Pu. Pusry.
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 467
the united streams further. The conjoint river is unfit for water-
ing until it has received another stream of excellent quality near
to Bampton, after which it is capable of being used not alone,
indeed yet, but to assist in making up the volume of tributary
streams which are diverted along its banks. When the Exe
however, now a broad river, has passed through the busy town
of Tiverton—every street of which has a running stream washing
away the ordure—the Exe becomes again fertilizing, and mea-
dows are formed to receive its waters. The theory of irrigation
appears then to be this :— Water acts upon meadows by im-
parting its warmth to them; perhaps also as a covering, by
enabling them to retain their own warmth. If the water contain
mud or fine soil its action is stronger. If the drainings of yards
or of towns, stronger still. On the other hand, the colder the
stream the less likely it is to act, and its powers are weakened
or destroyed by the presence of carbonic acid (by hardness),
or of iron, or of tannin. The quality of the fish has been seen
to indicate that of the water. A well-known herb, the watercress,
is said to be an unfailing witness for the goodness of the stream
along whose bottom it flourishes.
We may now turn from the theory to the practice of irrigation.
Water-meadows are formed on two systems. In the southern
counties, Hampshire, Berks, Wilts, Gloucester, and Dorset, the
Itchin, the Kennet, the Avon, and other rivers, are diverted ; and
the neighbouring land being flat is entirely reshaped to receive
them. The turf is pared. The whole surface is laid up in high
regular ridges, about thirty feet wide, along whose summit the
water runs in gutters, overflowing the sides to the bottom, where
other gutters receive them and carry them off. In form the
meadows are like the sea after a storm, when the long waves are
subsiding.
Plan of Water-Meadow.
Section of Water-Meadow.
aw
CO) cas
A. Dam across river. B. Main Carrier. c. Watering Gutters
d. Draining Gutters. E. Main Draining Gutter.
468 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
Those who are conversant with earth-works will see at once
that to make a water-meadow on this plan must be an expensive
process. Twenty pounds per acre would be a low average:
thirty pounds not unusual. I remember having asked in Dor-
setshire to see a cheap water-meadow, and being shown a field of
eight or ten acres, which had just been made at a cost of forty-five
pounds for each acre. Few new water-meadows, however, are
any longer made in these southern counties, as the heavy ex-
pense of the system is barely compensated, now that the growth
of green crops has supplied more food for flocks in March and
April. It is to the south-west we must turn, to Somerset and
to Devonshire, for patterns of future irrigation. In those two
lovely counties, which have the valleys without the Alps of Switzer-
land, abundant streams roll cheerfully in a rapid descent over
stones, or among mossy rocks, and the sheltered sides shelving
rapidly upwards, have long since tempted the farmers to lead the
water along their sloping face in tiers of channels, each of which
receiving the overflow from above, as it begins to gather irregularly,
receives it in a level trough to brim over anew, until it reaches
the lowest channel, which deliversit back tothe river's bed. The
horseman as he rides along sees meadows of a few acres rising
above his head, bright as emerald, glistening against the sun with
their thin film of water, alternating with orchards in which cottages
are nestled, that seem to cling to the hill, with a canopy of oak
copse above, whose russet leaves, a remnant of the last summer,
look the ruddier against the narrow space of blue sky that roofs
in the glen. These are called catch-meadows, because each
trench thus catches the water from its neighbour above it.
Section of Lower Part of a Valley.
a. Stream. 6. Gutters.
‘The catch-meadow is as cheap as the water-meadow is expen-
sive toform. For the slope being already there, it 1s necessary
but to take the levels for the gutters; which being done, these
may be dug, and the surface be laid smooth, for two or three pounds
per acre instead of twenty or thirty. J have seen near Winsford,
a water-meadow on the hang of a hill so steep that one could
scarcely climb it without help of the hands. It had been until
lately rough furze ground. The tenant had given it rent free to
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 469
a labourer for two years. The labourer broke it up, grew two
crops of potatoes for himself, smoothed it, and actually cut the
gutters, so that the farmer had converted moorland into rich
grass at the cost only of a good dressing of lime which was given
it. Many a hill-side in Cardiganshire, or Argyleshire, or Kerry,
might be thus transmuted, if one energetic landowner would lead
the way. Catch-meadows have been successfully formed in
more level counties by the Duke of Portland, and by Lord
Hatherton, who possessed natural slopes. But most English
streams are sluggish, flowing through level tracts. It is dis-
tinctly stated in one of our best and handiest agricultural works,
‘« The Dictionary of the Farm,” by the late Mr. Rham, that
“‘catchwork is only applicable where there is a considerable fall
of water, and a gentle declivity towards the river.” If this pre-
vailing opinion be sound, a large part of England must remain
without increase of its irrigation.
This opinion, however, is a mistake ; for in Devonshire—the
classic land of catch-meadows-—catchwork has been lately applied
to levels as flat as the banks of the Cherwell, and is spreading
rapidly on such levels. At Killerton, near Exeter, Sir Thomas
Acland has two wide catch-meadows, each of about 60 acres, with-
out perceptible fall, called ‘ Wish meadows’ and ‘ Beer-marshes’
Gan Devonshire a meadow means a water-meadow ; a low unwatered
grass-field is called a marsh), and Lord Poltimore, on a farm
occupied by Mr. Norris, has a catch-meadow 3 furlongs long, with
a fall in that distance of only four inches and a half; what is
important, the land is irrigated in the line of this fall, that is,
by cross gutters. For there are two falls we have to consider
in catchwork, as in the quotation from Mr. Rham, the fall of the
stream onwards and the fall of the land towards the stream s7de-
ways. The fall of the stream is required for diverting its water
to a point from which it may run over the land: the fall of the
land is required for carrying the water off from the land into
a lower part of the stream. A stream might have but a slight
fall, say a foot, in passing through a water-meadow a quarter of
a mile long, yet if the neighbouring land shelved towards the
stream, and if the meadow were but 200 yards broad with the
stream in the middle, there would be a side fall for the water re-
turning over the land into the stream equal to 1 foot in 300,
though the fall of the river is assumed to be only 1 foot in 1320.
Fall, 1 foot. Length, 2 furlongs. Fall, 2 feet.
Fall, | foot or 3 feet
Length, 100 yards,
VOT x. Py
A470 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
Ifalittle higher up there were a fall of 2 feet, and the water could
there be diverted, a side fall of 3 feet, or of 1 in 100, might be
obtained on the water-meadow.
But if the land adjoming a stream do not shelve sideways, the
only fall to be obtained will be in the direction of the river’s de-
scent, and that fall cannot be increased by damming the stream
higher up. The gutters must be cut athwart the line of the
river, and the course of the irrigating water must be in the same
direction with the course of the stream thus,—
!
a. River. 6. Watering gutiers.
Tn this case it follows that the fall of the irrigated land cannot
exceed the fall of the river. Since the fall of the river on this
meadow of Lord Poltimore’s is only 43 inches in a course of 3
furlongs, or 1980 feet, and the course of irrigation is not lateral
but direct, it follows that the fall of irrigation is but ] im 5280.
This is so wonderfully low, that unless the measurement had
been given me by the person who laid it out I could not have
believed it, for the fall considered desirable, if not necessary, on
the old-fashioned system is about lin 18. A new meadow is now
being made for Lord Poltimore where the river has a fall of 24
feet only in half a mile length. On one side of the stream the
field is 2 furlongs wide, so that even where the fall is lateral it
will be but 23 in 2 furlongs, or 1 in 528. Another is being
made for Mr. Barber with the exceedingly low fall of 24 inches
in 23 furlongs. This is a direct irrigation. The fall of one inck
ana furlong, or 1 in 7920, is remarkable even according to the
new system of Devonshire. There is indeed one old meadow near
Crediton exceedingly flat, so flat that, as the stream which waters
it brings down large quantities of mould from the hills, as well
as refuse from the town, the land rises rapidly, and in order to
keep down the levels the surface has been removed twice in
seven years to a depth of 2 feet, to be. carted off as a top-dressing
for other fields. These flat meadows are now spreading widely
in South Devon. That they pay for their formation there can
be no doubt, costing from three to four pounds an acre to form,
and yielding three pounds of rent, whereof two pounds may be
taken as the new value imparted by the operation. This, for
an average rate of profit, is a very high one. In single cases it
is exceeded. About two miles from Exeter there is a small .
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 47 i
property of 156 acres, all but eight of which, that are orchard-
ground, are watered by two moderate brooks. Jt is let at more
than six pounds an acre all round to different occupiers. ‘Three
acres, worth naturally three pounds an acre, let at ten pounds,
six acres at eight pounds per acre. The whole was worth about
two pounds an acre originally, and the portion recently made
cost about three pounds twelve shillings per acre to form. These
are actual dettings. ‘The Clipstone water-meadows are valued by
Mr. Denison at eleven pounds fourteen shillings per acre yearly,
without allowance for rates and taxes. ‘They are, indeed, a noble
creation of the Duke of Portland’s. Great difliculities have been
overcome, and great perfection attained. As you wind up the
valley you see ‘nothing but one universal luxuriant tapestry of
grass spread on each side along the well-moulded slopes—
“ Hic ver assiduum atque alienis mensibus estas.”
“ The fields here Spring’s perpetual beauties crown,
Here Summer shines in seasons not her own.” *
This work, however, cost his Grace one hundred and thirty pounds
per acre in forming, or 39,2971. for 800 acres—a price few could
pee ete shove case from the neighbourhood of Exeter, we
have the value not merely estimated, but realized in the form of
rent, and the cost insignificant. if ] dwell often on cheapness
of construction in farming it is because no improvement can be-
come general if it be not also cheap. It is by reducing the cost
of production that the Lancashire manufacturers have sent our
cottons round the whole world.
As to the management of the catch-meadows in Devonshire,
the watering is begun in autumn with the heavy rains, and great
importance is attached to these first floodings. Sometimes the
use of a stream is divided among neighbouring farmers by periods
of three days. I have been told by one who contracts to keep
such meadows in order, that when an unneighbourly farmer
insists on keeping his water for the full term, that is till midnight,
my informant is obliged to remain out half the night, perhaps wet
to his skin, setting re bays and distributing the water on the land
of the next recipient, who, he says, might lose ten shillings an
acre if he waited till morning. So much value does the experience
of Devonshire attach to water.
Sometimes a crop of feed is forced before Christmas ; but in
general the water is so shifted, that the strength of the land and
the grass may be reserved for an early crop, which in Devonshire
is often ready by the end of February. If the ewes are admitted
into a field on the Ist of March, they feed it down perhaps ina
fortnight, and are removed. The water is let in, and kept on
* Warton’s Virgil.
7 je 1p
472 On the Theory and Practice of Water- Meadows.
for a fortnight; after a few days there is a good bite of grass, and
the ewes are let in once more. Sometimes on good land, and in
good seasons, a third crop even of feed is grown before the land
is laid up for hay, which is generally done on the Ist of May;
in six weeks from that time, by the middle of June, the hay is
ready to cut. Afterwards the meadow is “damped,” that is, wa-
tered for about three days. A longer watering is improper in
warm weather, as it leaves a white scum on the land, the dried
remains of the same loose green vegetable matter (a conferva),
which is often seen in stagnant ditches.
Such being the cheapness and such the advantages of the level
catch-meadow in Devonshire, it becomes an important question
whether the system would answer generally in the south of Eng-
land. A question it is certainly, for the marked difference of
climate forbids us to form a peremptory conclusion.
It is well known now, that the western sides of both England and
Ireland are more favourable to grass than the eastern sides; the
western breezes being loaded with vapour which, whether retained
in its invisible form or condensed as rain, is most propitious to
vegetation. The air too is warmer in winter, and, the sky being
more clouded, the sun less scorching in summer. On a naked
field it is as difficult to check the natural grasses in Devonshire
as to bring a turf, if wanted, in Berkshire. Severe frosts too are
much less frequent in Devonshire, as well in winter as spring, at
which latter period they destroy grass which has been forced
forwards, unless its roots be well covered with running water.
Two years since, however, I determined to try the experiment in
Berkshire, and secured the assistance of an experienced “ gut-
terer”’ (as the makers of water-meadows are called in Devon-
shire), Mr. Ley, of Newton St. Cyr, near Exeter, who with his
son had laid out the meadows instanced above for their exceed-
ingly low gradients—a matter of the nicest skill in agricultural
engineering. His son formed for me sixty acres, at a contract
price of Al. per acre, to which price must be added 30s. an acre
for bringing water from the streams, and for trunks and sluices.
Much of this land is flat, and there is also a great scarcity of
water. Catchwork, it should be remarked, has the further ad-
vantage, that it works not only with little fal/, but with little
water, as upon fields almost level the water with so slight a fall
flows very slowly. ‘The water is also spread very thinly. Mr.
Ley says that, if a catch-meadow be laid out well, you ought to
be able to walk across it, while the water is on, without wetting your
feet. This perhaps isa figure of speech, but it illustrates the point.
The meadows were completed early in 1848; but appeared, except-
ing one small field, to be a total failure. The crop was not earlier
than in other years. Mr. J. Ley accounted for the deficiency by
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 473
the natural poverty of the soil, and its want of condition. Both
these imputations were just; but the undertaking seemed hope-
less enough. I dwell upon the circumstance, because it may be
useful to others. It seems to be a principle that irrigation may
gradually raise the condition of land, but requires either good
land or fair condition to produce a marked immediate effect. One
field looked decidedly worse than before, because there had been
previously more moss than grass on it, and the moss had been
killed by the water. But on the worst part of that field the ashes
of some burnt bull-peats or hassock-grass had been spread, and a
luxuriant crop of grass had sprung up. The hint was taken, and
there being peat at command for burning, a liberal dose of ashes
was applied in March, 1849. The effect was marvellous, espe-
cially on some worn out rye-grass, which is now full of young
clover and is become at once a close sward. This is not the case
where either the ashes or the water have been deficient. Here
is a remarkable agreement with what is said of Gurneyism in the
following passage :*—
‘‘Many experiments were made. The results of those experiments
were very interesting. They showed that the action was general; that
the difference in growth in a given time was i proportion to the natural
fertility of the soil. On some of the coarse moors where experiments were
tried, the increase of growth was very slow as compared to better soils.
It was found that the rate of action was also influenced by artificial
manuring, and that the increase of vegetation was in a ratio with the
natural quantity that would be produced by a given manure when laid on
a field, and not assisted by the operation of any fibrous covering. A
certain quantity of stall-dung, which would double the quantity of grass in
a given time when laid on in the usual way, was found to increase it to
siz times when properly treated with fibrous covering.”
It appears to me that in irrigation also the water does not
merely add to the produce, but tends to double or treble it. If
the produce by other means be half a ton, water will make it
one ton. If the produce be one ton, it will become two tons by
irrigation; a remarkable agreement with the action of fibrous
covering, and a great encouragement to maintain or to raise the
condition of water-meadows.
In one way or other, partly by ashing the land, partly by the
irrigation alone, an entire change was made by last spring. The
grass grew so rapidly that we could not feed it all off, and were
obliged unwillingly to make much of it into hay. I say un-
willingly, because to carry off a crop of hay is of course not the
way to raise the condition of the land. As far as possible, how-
ever, sheep were penned regularly over the new catch-meadows,
in general three times successively on the same land, and partly
with artificial food because they were new and poor; but to show
* Journal of Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. vil. p. 279.
474 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
the amount of stock kept, I will give the account of sheep folded
onasmall field without other food. ‘The field is under two acres,
better land than the rest, but so much out of condition that latterly
the hay-crop had been hardly worth cutting.
Day’s keep of
a Sheep.
First penning, sheep put on, but grass too strong to feed, and made
into hay, say only ° 7 3,000
Second feeding, 400 lambs for eight days, | say 240 sheep : ° 1,920
Third penning, 250 sheep for ten days» ° ° ° . 2,500
Fourth ditto, 250 sheep, fourteen days . ‘ : ‘ : 3,500
10,920
The total amounts to 5 months’ keep for 73 sheep on two acres,
thirty-six sheep to an acre.
‘The calculation is made for five months, because that is the
period for which the wintering of sheep on turnips is reckoned.
A thoroughly good crop of turnips is said in Lincolnshire to keep ten
sheep an acre for five months. It is difficult to find a standard of
comparison upon grass-land, because beasts and sheep are usually
grazed together. I know one instance, however, in which sheep
were fattened on grass-land in the five summer months at the rate
of seven sheep to an acre, and the number was thought to be
large. ‘This might be equal, however, to fourteen sheep of mine,
which were merely kept in store order. Still the account would
stand thus: fourteen sheep kept on an acre of superior grazing
land unwatered, thirty-six sheep on an acre of moderate land
watered. ‘The very high rate of my sheep to the acre certainly
surprises me, but the figures are perfectly accurate. The large
number may be partly accounted for by a peculiarity of the
management, namely, that the sheep were folded not only for
the first time, but every time after, instead of roaming at large.
In his report upon Gloucestershire, Mr. Brayender mentions
that a farmer who adopted this system found an increase of
twenty per cent. in the number of sheep he could keep on his
farm. ‘This point seems to deserve attention, tndependently of
irrigation. ‘The allowance of 20 per cent. for folding would still
leave the numbers at 14 and 29. But as sheep at turnips
are equally folded, the comparative numbers per acre will there
stand at thirty-six and at ten, not to mention the expense of culti-
vation for turnips, and the absence of labour on water-meadows
once formed. ‘This meadow is a very flat one; in fact before it was
levelled it appeared to have no fall; there is a fall however of 3 feet
8 inches in 140 yards, or 1 in 114. I mention this because the
most doubtful point for our cold counties seems to me to be the
slow fall,-and hitherto certainly a fall six times sharper, has been
thought requisite. On other parts of my new meadows: a much
lower fall is found sufficient.
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 475
As in other branches of farming, so in the management of
water - meadows, constant attention and the master’s eye are
essential to complete success. Even in Devonshire, where all
understand water-meadows, the farmer’s management materially
affects their production. The plan of repeated folding has
answered, as has been seen, with me hitherto. On many water-
meadows, where the animals roam at large, they neglect to eat
portions of the field which thus become rank. JSesides, the
droppings are distributed more equally. One agricultural work
intimates that there is danger of rot in feeding sheep on water-
meadows during summer. In Devonshire, I am told, they have
no such fear, nor have I suffered by it as yet; but I gave my
sheep large lumps of rock salt to lick constantly in their folds.
The danger may arise from improper flooding in summer, or it
may be a real risk, and I therefore mention it. It certainly
occurred on a part of the Clipstone meadows. In new water-
meadows which require to be raised in condition, I should parti-
cularly recommend it as a cheap way of effecting that object.
Probably, if continued in after years, it might raise the condition
to too high a point; in order to lower which it might be necessary
that a crop of hay should be severed and carried off in the usual
manner. ‘he yield of food for sheep would be, of course, the
same, though in a different form. I should also recommend
folding when ashes are applied to the land: as ashes being what
was called formerly a stimulant, a manure of quick but passing
action, might impoverish the land if the sudden crop produced by
them were carried off. If the grass be fed off on the land, the
extra produce is returned to it, and a solid foundation of future
high condition is laid.
There is another point of detail which appears to answer. In
folding the sheep I endeavour to have the hurdles so set that on
each day, or second day, as they are shifted forwards, the water
may be passed ever the recently manured land. Every one knows
the strong smell of a sheep-fold. Without entering upon the
power of water to fix ammonia, a substance on which it is dan-
gerous unless for a chemist to enter, and which led even Liebig
astray, there is no doubt that the water thus following destroys the
stench and must therefore distribute the manure. In fact, when
this is carefully done no spots of dark herbage are seen to arise
from the droppings. The water carries the salts down among
the roots of the’ plants: for a great deal of the water sinks into
the earth. When land is formed into water-meadow it is rather
disheartening for a beginner to see a strong stream sink for days
into the bottom of the carrier without overflowing at all; and
when it does at last overflow, to see it creep over the land, ad-
vancing but a few inches perhaps im an hour. Even though the
476 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
stream be strong it sinks through the worm-holes, from which the
escape of the air-bubbles produces a general noise like the distant
singing of birds ; the ground indeed is said to sing. The worms
however die (they are found dead in large numbers), and the
pores of the earth are gradually filled up by fine particles of soil
carried down by the water. It is a good sign when the water
begins to lie in the bottom of the gutters after the stream is
drawn off. This effect may be anticipated by rendering the water
muddy where that is possible, or, according to Mr. Roales in his
Prize Essay, by spreading fine earth on the surface.
Still a great deal of water is drunk by the land, and this circum-
stance may be made serviceable. In summer only “ damping,’
as it is called, is allowable. Here, however, ina dry summer we
have not water enough even for damping. But by leaving the
gutters brimfull, so that the whole stream might be absorbed in
the channels, J was enabled to make the most of the dribbling
brook which the long drought had left, and to keep some very
dry land green and grassy, while other pastures were parched
and had ceased growing. For our inland counties, which are
subject in summer to constant droughts, | believe that this power
of keeping the land moist would alone go far to pay the cost of
making a catch-meadow.
There is another use which may be made of water-meadows.
The two streams employed here | have turned through two of the
farm-yards, The cattle in these yards are kept loose, even while
fattening, in the old-fashioned way, though tied up at feeding-
time. When heavy rains come, the muck-water is washed down
into the passing stream, and distributed over the meadow without
labour to man or to horse. In this case, and whenever a reservoir
is filled with black water from other yards, as happens in sudden
rains, the manager is desired to put only so much of this rich
water on a piece of the ground as will sink into it, and then to
turn the dark liquor over a fresh portion of meadow. ‘This is
done lest the soluble salts should be carried away over the
surface of the field into the stream, and so wasted. As to the
winter management of the water it may generally be left on any
particular portion for a fortnight at once. When the grass turns
dark, the water should be taken off. A standard Scotch work on
farming directs that it should be taken off on the arrival of frost.
The true rule, however, at least in Devonshire, is not to take zt off
nor to day it on in a frost ;—not to take it off, because the water
freezing on the ground forms a coat of ice which protects the grass
exactly as a covering of snow guards the young wheat,—not to
lay it on, because the ground, being already frozen, can be no
longer protected.
There is a novel use of irrigation which I may be permitted to
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 477
mention, as it has answered in the only experiment I have hitherto
made—the application, I mean, of artificial manures. ‘The two
chosen were—guano, as an universal manure; and sulphate of
ammonia, the refuse, I believe, of gas-works, as being the most
likely of chemical salts to favour the growth of grass. The guano
was applied by mixing it in the gutter as the water was laid on;
the ammonia by distributing it along the edge of the same gutter
in another part, where it was rapidly dissolved by the water.
Both applications have succeeded: the chemical salt answered
the best. The land should be previously dry, that the solution
may enter it.
It may now be convenient, perhaps, to sum up shortly some of
the practical points mentioned above.
It is clear that in the moist climate of Devonshire the system of
catchwork which originated on steep slopes has been gradually
transferred to land which an unpractised eye would regard as a
dead flat.
It appears also that this inexpensive method of irrigation may
be transferred in some degree to our drier and colder inland coun-
ties, though caution is still necessary, as Mr. Denisen says, that at
Clipstone Park, | in 9 is the best fall, and that very flat lands will
not answer for irrigation. Clipstone Park, however, is far towards
the north. The degree of fall suited for each shade of climate is
matter for further trial. It should be observed, that since the
Devonshire system does not profess to recast the land on a per-
fect model, but only to effect its object by using and improving
the natural irregularities of the surface, the distribution of the
water on the level catch-meadows will not be perfect at first; but
a constant improvement may be made in these meadows by rolling
them while they are wet, and by using the earth which is taken
out of the gutters in cleansing them every autumn, for raising
gradually any spots where the water lodges.
It should also be remembered that land, if at all unsound, must
be underdrained when it is irrigated, and the drains must be
larger than ordinary, as Mr. Denison informs us in the excellent
paper* to which reference has already been made. The drains
should be laid so that the water issuing from them may be made
to flow again over on a lower part of the meadow. Drains are
the only source of water on Lord Hatherton’s meadows at Ted-
desley.
The safest mode of agricultural improvement is, not the adop-
tion of entirely new principles or contrivances, but the cautious
yet courageous development of existing practice. The level catch-
meadow is clearly a promising ground to be worked out; and in
* See Journal, vol, i.
478 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
endeavouring to carry it further, the following points should, I
think, be attended to:—
1. The increased use of folding for sheep.
2. 'The conveyance of the stream through farmyards, as the
simplest method of preventing the waste of manure.
3. The rapid application of the water as the sheep-pens are
shifted, for preventing the waste of manure deposited
on the land.
4, The increased use of the water for maintaining vegetation
during the droughts of summer.
5. The use of the water for diffusing chemical manures on
the land watered.
6. The cultivation of Italian rye-grass, which grows three
times as rapidly as the common meadow grasses under
the influence of irrigation.
7. It being necessary, where the stream is scanty, to form a
reservoir, the ornamental sheets of parks may be used
for the purpose, by placing, as I have done, an addi-
tional but removable board on the sluice-gate, so as to
raise the pond occasionally a few inches above its level
—a considerable rise for the purpose, if the sheet of
water be at all extensive.
There is nothing more that I need now add. I will not pre-
tend to teach how catch-meadows are to be made. Since the
natural irregularities of the ground, which an unpractised eye
would overlook, are to be used for distributing the water, the
work must be left to a professional manager, as in Devonshire.
Even among “gutterers” there is great difference of skill ; thus
it is said of Mr. Ley, that his eye is better than many another
man’s level. I have proved what I set out by promising, that
money expended on catch-meadows may pay 30 or even 50 per
cent. ; and as the work is done by contract, there can be no error
as to its cost. In any branch of manufacture, to prove this fact
would be to ensure its immediate accomplishment. If such a
profit were likely to arise from cutting through the Isthmus of
Suez or Panama the canals would be dug at once. Much more
persuasion I know is needed in stimulating landlords to the im-
provement of even English estates. I will only say that it is
mainly these catch-meadows which enable me to keep a flock of
550 ewes, and winter their lambs also, on nearly the same farm
upon which my predecessor kept 170 ewes with their lambs. There
is one test, however, often applied by farmers, when a person
adopts and recommends some improvement in farming. They
ask the question—Has he gone on with it? This is a very good
test, for there are many disappointments in new systems of farm-
ing. I may therefore be allowed to mention, that having last
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 479
year suspended any fresh plan of irrigation, on account of the
apparent failure of those which were already executed, I have con-
tracted this winter for 26 acres of catch-meadow to be made at
ol. 10s., and 30 more at only 2/. an acre. But what is described
gives no clear impression; a work of art must be seen. Next
year, however, our Society meets at Exeter. July, indeed,
is not a good season for seeing catch-meadows, as the water
is not upon them, and the grass wears no unusual verdure.
Still the method of irrigation may be even then understood,
and some one of the meadows could easily be watered slightly
for the inspection of visitors. ‘To see what might be done in
Wales or in Scotland, the owners of mountain properties might
make a pleasant excursion along the Exe towards its source
northwards. ‘The scenery will beguile the way, and near the
Bristol Channel they will find excellent samples of hill-side
catch-meadows about ‘Timberscombe and upon Dunkerry not
much below the Beacon. For level meadows the patterns are to
be found within ten miles of Exeter, and I hope that they will not
be seen in vain by English gentlemen having villagers without
winter work, as who of us is there that has not ?
Pusey, Nov. 23, 1849.
XXIV.—On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake, Beans and
Peas, §c. By J.'THomas Way, Consulting Chemist to the
Society.
THE consumers of linseed-cake in this country are almost unani-
mous in the belief that the different samples of this article are of
very varying value as food for stock. Where such an opinion as
this is general, it would argue little wisdom to dispute. its cor-
rectness: it only remains to investigate the cause.
When linseed, ground into coarse powder and digested with a
small quantity of water, with the aid of heat, is exposed to strong
pressure, two products are obtained—the one, an oil of well-
known characters, linseed oil; the other, the cake which remains
in the presses. No other substance but oil* is separated from
the cake; and the two products, therefore, correctly represent
the composition of the seed from which theyare derived. Linseed
is known to consist principally of mucilage, or gum, sugar, oil,
and albuminous matter—the three former being substances devoid
of nitrogen, the latter having the same composition as the flesh
of animals, or the gluten of wheat. Now as linseed oil contains
* Unless it be some very small quantity of water.
480 On the Composition of Linseed Oil- Cake,
no nitrogen, it is obvious that the cake must be richer than the
seed in albuminous principles in the exact proportion of the oil
which it has lost by pressure. Given, then, the composition of
any sample of seed, and the quantity of oil which is expressed
from it, we have by the simplest calculation the composition of
the cake. In the present inquiry the order of procedure has
been reversed: instead of starting with the examination of linseed,
and speculating from the results upon the necessary composition
of the cake produced, I have applied myself first to ascertain
whether, in samples of cake taken carefully but indiscriminately
from commercial sources, there existed chemical differences sufii-
cient to account for the variations in feeding qualities observed
by the farmer. Not disputing, as I before said, that such supe-
riority of one sample over another was a fact, it yet seemed
gratuitous in the outset to allow that it resulted from difference
of composition.
There are indeed two distinct circumstances which might influ-
ence the value of cake, independently of its chemical characters :—
the flavour, which is more or less agreeable to stock, and the
state of division—the fineness or otherwise to which the seed Is
ground, To this latter circumstance, in all probability, very
great differences in the feeding properties of specimens of cake
might with justice be referred. Mr. H.S. Thompson published
some time ago experiments made by him upon the relative merits
of using linseed whole and crushed.
He found that of linseed used in its entire state, a very con-
siderable proportion passed through the stomach of the animal
undigesied, being present in the dung, and apparently in an
unaltered condition. The same result in kind, though not in
degree, might be expected to occur in the case of linseed-meal
of various degrees of fineness, and with greater reason in cake,
the particles of which in addition are, by the extent of pressure
to which they have been subjected, closely compacted together.
Both these causes of variation—the mechanical condition of
the cake and its flavour—lie, however, out of my province, which
is confined to the chemical composition of the substance in
question.
Ist., then, we must inquire, Is there any real difference in
the chemical composition of various cakes; and if so,
does the distinction apply to those of different manu-
facture or origin ? |
2nd. Is the difference (supposing there to be any) sufficient
to account for the observed effects in feeding ?
And 3rd. Is it to be attributed to adulteration, or to neces-
sary variation in the composition of the seed ?
Beans and Peas, §c. 481
These three points of inquiry will, it is believed, successively
develope themselves as we proceed to detail the analyses.
I should here state to what kind of analysis the inquiry has
been limited. Linseed, as before mentioned, contains albumi-
nous matter, oil, mucilage, and sugar, together with a certain
quantity of mineral matter, or “ash.”
The mucilage (or gum) and the sugar have no doubt their
share in the value of the cake as food. It is indeed contended
by some that sugar serves in the animal to the production of fat:
they are more usually, however, considered in the light of “ ele-
ments of respiration”’ only, and not as employed either in the
formation of flesh or fat. And holding, as is generally done by
chemists of the present day, the doctrine of the simplest adoption,
so to speak, of the vegetable principles into the animal frame—
the more nearly allied to each other, the less being the effort on
the part of the system—it is hard to believe that, in the presence
of oil in abundance, nature should have recourse to sugar for the
production of fat.
The quantity of oil, as representing the fat-forming principle,
and of albuminous matter, as indicating the feeding qualities,
seemed the points of principal importance in the chemical history
of linseed-cake. With these it appeared important to ascertain
the per-centage of ash, in order that any introduction, accidental
or intentional, of sand or other inorganic matter might be
detected.
The quantity of albuminous matter in vegetable substances is
now usually estimated by the proportion of nitrogen which they
yield. ‘The different modifications of albumen, gluten, casein,
&c., are, with one exception, so nearly alike in composition (con-
taining about 15:75 per cent. of nitrogen) that it is more exact
to determine their proportion by that of the distinctive element
(nitrogen) than by recourse to methods for the separation of the
proximate principles themselves. It is not doubted that a full
analysis of linseed-cake, as well as of the other vegetable sub-
stances used in feeding cattle, would be a great boon to agricul-
ture; but in the existing state of knowledge as to the relative
offices of different constituents in the production of muscle and
fat, the present inquiry has appeared to offer advantages, as em-
bracing a far larger number of specimens than could be examined
in a more detailed form.
The larger number of the analyses of linseed and oil-cake that
follow were made by Mr. Ogston in my laboratory; some few,
however, having been executed by Mr. Ward and Mr. F. Eggar.
Of the nitrogen, a duplicate determination has in all cases been
made; and, both to give confidence in the results and to impress
upon the present contribution that air of exactness which should ~
482 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake,
never be wanting in chemical papers, wheresoever they may be
published, I have made a point of recording the double result.
It has not appeared necessary to make a second analysis for oil ;*
but some cases are mentioned which show that the liability to
error is not great.{
In order that any differences between the varieties of cake
might be perceived, [ have grouped them accerding to the dif-
ferent countries from which they were imported.
The first table contams the analyses of eight specimens of
French cake, all of them imported this year, and the growth of
1848.
TABLE 1.—Analyses of French Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN.
1st es omy Oil. Water. Ash.
|
| Analysis. | Analysis. | Mean.
ae,
|
Nosd of ec OT 4°56 4°58 9°97 6°96 | 21°62
ISRO LSS See ROG [PGeCY) 4°08 3°98 7°45 7°48 | 22°66
No. 3. Dunkirk . .| 4°45 4-82 4°63 10°12 7°20 8°72
No. 4. Treport . .| 4°66 4°78 4°72 | 10-16 7°32 7°61
No. 5. Bordeaux. .| 4°65 4°56 4°61 9-99 8-16 8:08
No. 6. Marseilles. .| 4°61 4°58 4°59, cise9 26 7°50 8-02
INO 0. 4-96 8:40 7°85 7°25
riot 5
Marseilles. .| 4°98 4:94 |
5
Marseilles. . -68 5:76 °72 7°89 8°31 7°66
Any remarks about the extent of variation will come better
when the whole evidence is before us; in the meanwhile, the
mean composition of the above may be given.
In the Vable is one very high and one equally low per-centage
of nitrogen. These will in great measure balance each other,
and not greatly affect the result. The mean of eight specimens
of French cake is—
Nitrogen . : : : . 4°72 per cent.
OMil ° ° . . = 9706
Water . : . 5 » 7:60
Ash (omitting Nos. 1 and 2) 7°89
* The oil was obtained by extraction with ether in the usual way.
+ It may appear to some unnecessary and objectionable that the pages of the
Journal should be occupied with the detai] of experiments where the results only are
immediately serviceable. To these it must be answered, that in all scientific journals
it is usual to give the most minute details, in order that the reader may possess ample
means of discovering error, whether of experiment, calculation, or opmion; and this
amplification forms, in the eyes of the scientific man, an indispensable requisite of sci-
entific writing. Neither is it just to the writer that the evidences of his labour should
in large measure be suppressed, for it must be remembered that, when the results of a
research have been published in this Journal, the details are of no value to any other ;
and as they would never meet the public eye, all trace of them would be eventually
lost, These remarks apply more to other instances than the present, where the double
results, being tabulated, occupy no additional space.
Beans and Peas, §c. 483
The next Table gives the analyses of seven specimens of Ame-
rican cake :—
TaBLE 2.—Analyses of American Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN.
nee ona Qj] Water. Ash
Analysis. | Analysis. | Mean
WNOMON es 6s a ye |) 4°58 ae 4+58 13°04 | 7°63 6+49
INOS LUGS is ae 4°09 4-10 4:10 13°57 9°51 7°56
INOtallerie ove! 4.1.8 5:30 5:19 5°25 10°71 6°56 5:76
INOEMCtuts se 8 8 4°59 4°68 4°63 D497 753 5:67
No. 13. . eet 4°86 4:96 4-9] 7°45 | 8:81 6:04
INO PMLA ree vet foes eet hve 4°91] 4°79 4°85 11°51 7°06 HONE
No. 15. New Orleans 4°85 or 4°85 12°11 | 6°09 5°78
We may fairly take the mean of the nitrogen in this table
without the exclusion of any one specimen.
The mean of seven specimens of American cake will be—
Nitrogen ° : - ° 4:74
Oil $ . : : A 11°41
Water . : . 5 6 7°60
Ash. 5 3 A 6 6°39
The next table gives the composition of nine specimens of
English cake. I am unable to say how many of these cakes
were made from foreign seed—no doubt the greater number.
They were all pressed at home.
TasLe 3.—Analyses of English Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN. |
“ie a I>. Oil. Water. Ash.
Analysis, | Analysis.| Mean.
INO Hall Opeaeraroente a! 3°91 3°94 3°92 16°55 8:23 6°18
INOseliZienzes ce Pee 4°29 4°18 4°93 13°43 8°66 6°92
INOS Sete eee St 4-94 4°84 4-99 13°88 8°83 6:90
-No. 19, ° e ° ° 5°04 5:12 5:08 13°34 9-38 8:04
NOD OF sealord eck. 6 4°95 4°85 4°90 14°33 8:10 7°54
INom ile cee é 4°55 4:47 4°51] 10°05 9-25 6:94
INGA ee eh Oe 3:93 on 3°93 16:10 10°26 5°45
No. 23. Coase rey 4-3] 4°97 4-99 | 11-98 7-20 9°63
Non beter re in eee he gg Pa 4-62 | 15°32 7-51 6:04
The mean of the foregoing specimens of English cake is, for
the s |
Nitrogen : 5 ° : 4°57
Oil a s : 5 13°52
Water . : A 5 : 8:60
AShy > . a : : T°27
484 On the Composition of Linseed Oul-Cake,
The nitrogen is, on the aveage of these specimens, somewhat
lower than in the case of the French and American series; but
this arises from the extreme lowness of specimens Nos. 16 and 22.
If these be thrown out, the average on the remaining seven
samples will be 4°66, which practically does not differ from the
mean of the French and American. Of the other varieties I
have fewer samples to describe.
The following are analyses of two specimens of Russian
cake :—
TaBLEe 4.—Analyses of Russian Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN.
; an Oil, Water. Ash.
t 2
Avialyis: eases Meat:
No. 25 . : 5°08 4-92 5°00 11°83 8:84 8°67
No. 26 ‘ 5°21 5°36 5°28 11°89 8°92 6°21
Mean of the two Russian Cakes :—
Nitrogen . ° 5°14
Oil A ° 11°86
Water 9 ° 8°88
Ash 4 8°39
TaBLE 5.—Analyses of German and Dutch Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN. |
a Oil. Water. Ash
Ist
pena yest Kasia eae
No. 27. German 4-88 | 4:79 | 4:84 | 10°62 | 7°54 | 905
No. 28. German 4-81 4°90 4°85 8°58 8°11 8°54
No. 29. Dutch 4°23 4-30 4°26 | 10°33 8-29 iW hot |
Mean of the three Specimens of German and Dutch Cake.
Nitrogen . ° : 4.65
Oil ° ° . ; . 9°84
Water e ° e 7°98
Ash 5 9°56
TaBLe 6.—Analyses of Italian Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN.
te ae Oil. Water. Ash,
s n
Analysis. | Analysis. Mean:
No. 30. Genoa 4:77 4°88 4-82 12°34 8°77 8°37
No. 31. Genoa . . 5°33 5°38 5°35 11°32 9°29 6°74
Beans and Peas, &c.
Mean of two Italian Cakes.
Nitrogen 5+03
Oi: 11°84
Water 9-03
Ash ° e ° ° 2 °55
TasBLeE 7.—Analyses of Sicilian Linseed Cake.
485
NITROGEN.
ond Oil. Water. Ash.
Ist n
Amal ysis: Analysis. wean:
No. 32. 4°40 4°39 4-40 6°60 8°97 8°53
INOMOSM Wa lite 5°03 5°05 5:04 7°00 9°96 7°51
Mean of two Sicilian Cakes :—
Nitrogen 4°72
Oil 6:80
Water . ; 3 9°46
Ash e e ° 8°02
The preceding tables present one specimen of cake (No. 16)
with 3°92 per cent., and another (No. 8) with 5:72 per cent. of
nitrogen.
Calculating from these data the quantity of albuminous * ingre-
dients, we shall find that No. 16 will contain 24:9 per cent.,
whilst No. 8 will contain as much as 36:3 per cent., or in other
words, it is possible to meet with specimens of which one has half
as much again of the “ flesh-forming principles” as another. It
is not certain even that the extreme limits of variation may have
been reached in either of these cases; but I do not imagine that
it is usual to meet with them either so poor or rich as the
samples in question.
It may be asked, Is this variation sufficient to account for the
different results obtained in feeding with oil-cake? The question
is only to be answered by another: Do we possess trustworthy
numerical data of these results? The above variation in the
composition of oil-cake is undoubtedly great, and would, I think,
go far to explain the matter if it were at all common, which it
1s not.
Of the thirty-three specimens examined, twenty-one, or two-
thirds, afford quantities of nitrogen varying only between 4°5 and
oO per cent.; whilst of the whole number only two are to be
found under 4:0 per cent., and four sensibly above 5:0 per cent
As I before remarked, it is impossible to say whether the differ-
ence in composition sufficiently explains the difference in feeding
* The expression is used in a general sense, without reference to the particular forms
of nitrogenized principles,
2K
VOL. X.
486 On the Composition of Linseed Oil- Cake,
qualities, whilst the latter is not capable of being expressed even
approximately in figures. It must, therefore, for the present, be
left to the intelligent farmer to decide for himself upon this point.
The per-centage of o7/ 1s more uniformly variable, if we may so
speak. The extremes are found in No. 16, which contains 16-55
per cent., and No. 32, where it is only 6:60. Between these
points the samples present every degree of variation, although in
this respect the cakes of different countries possess well marked
peculiarities.
In order that the reader may trace the above-mentioned differ-
ence, and that he may also observe the absence of any such dis-
tinction in the case of nitrogen, I shall offer a table of the average
composition of the specimens from different sources.
TABLE 8.—Mean Composition of Linseed Cake from different countries :—
| Nitrogen. Oil. Water. Ash.
French . . «. 8 specimens 4°72 9-06 7°60 7°89
AIM@NIGal ieys, tee ppd: 5 4°74 11-41 7°60 6°35
Rang lish casks ae Ae 4°57 13°52 8-60 7°27
German and Dutch 3 ips 4°65 9°84 7°98 9-56
Riussianyen) eevee ae 5°14 11°86 8°88 8:39
Ttahians, ccecseea tion 22 vA 5°03 11-84 9-03 7-55
Sicilvamipssgias eee e5 4°72 6°80 9.46 8°02
From this statement it would appear very evident that the
specimens of French, American, English, German, and Sicilian
cakes are on the average practically alike in regard to nitrogen.
Neither should we be inclined to believe that the Russian or
Italian would have furnished an exception to this rule, had a
sufficient number of samples been examined.
On the other hand, there is an obvious difference between the
quantity of oil in the cakes of different countries. ‘To instance
only those of American, French, and English manufacture, which
are sufficiently numerous to afford an average:—In French we
have 9, in American 114, and in English 133 per cent. of oil;
that is to say, English cake contains on the average half as much
again. Neither is this peculiarity irregular, as in the case of the
nitrogen. Of eight specimens of French cake, no case occurs of
a greater proportion of oil than 10 per cent., whilst this number
expresses the least per-centage of nine English cakes. This
circumstance, which, from the great perfection of English ma-
chinery, we should have been at first unprepared to expect, will
go far to explain the superior softness and mellowness of English-
made cake. How far it may influence the fattening properties
I cannot pretend to say. It hardly admits of a doubt that, to
Beans and Peas, &c. 487
obtain the greatest advantage from a given weight of food, either
in feeding or fattening, it is necessary that the flesh-forming, fat-
producing, and heat-evolving principles should bear a certain pro-
portion to each other.* Of what that proportion may be, we are
at present ignorant. Practical men are nearly agreed that, in
linseed itself, the quantity of oil is, in relation to the nitrogen,
too great for the general purposes of cattle-food, and that the two
ingredients are better proportioned in cake ; but it does not follow
that 13 per cent. may not be a more advantageous proportion
than 9; and although an opinion on this subject would be pre-
mature, I would suggest to the intelligent farmer to bear this
peculiarity in mind in any trials which he may institute between
the cakes of different countries.
Having by the preceding analyses given answers to the first
and second points of inquiry which were proposed in the com-
mencement, namely, first, whether there existed any real differ-
ence in chemical composition, and if so, whether there was any
marked distinction between the cakes of different countries, and
secondly, whether the variation was sufficient to account for ob-
served effects in feeding, we may pass on to inquire, thirdly, Is
the difference attributable to adulteration, or to necessary variation
in the composition of the seed?
Adulteration might be effected in two ways, either by admix-
ture with the cake of sand or other earthy matter, or of sawdust,
bran, or other vegetable substance.
I omit in this place the deterioration produced by the use of
mixed and badly harvested seed; for although no doubt this is
of very common occurrence, dl very prejudicial to the interests
of the consumers of cake, it is hardly to be called adulteration—
a term which we apply to the wilful and dishonest falsification of
any article of commerce: but of this there will be presently
occasion to speak.
In the first place, then, Is cake ever adulterated with sand or
earthy matter? Farmers are in the habit of taking a portion
between their teeth, and, should they find it ‘ gritty,” believe
‘that it is so adulterated. ‘To me it has always seemed unlikely
that the cake-manufacturers should resort to so clumsy a method
of falsification, because, if the mixture of sand should be made
with the meal during the earlier pressings, it would not only
diminish greatly the yield of oil, but would increase to an im-
portant extent the labour of its-extraction. If, on the other hand,
the mixture were reserved till after the complete extraction of the
oil, it would demand an additional pressing. Unless, therefore,
—* See Mr. Lawes’s paper on Sheep-Feeding in the last (July) Number of this Journal.
2 K y)
458 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake,
the per-centage of sand or earthy matter introduced were very
considerable, the manufacturer would hardly find his account in
such adulteration. So much for speculation. Let us now look
at the analyses. With the exception of two cases (specimens
1 and 2) the proportion of ash never rises above 10 per cent.
The exceptions are two French cakes: but even here the in-
crease of mineral matter is not due to sand, but to the real ash
of some other vegetable substance than linseed. Of the 22 per
cent. of mineral matter in these specimens, more than one-half
was carbonate of lime, of which very little is found in the ash of
cake in general. It was obviously the ash of some woody matter,
and so far might be due to adulteration, but certainly not by
sand. The greater number of the ashes are under 8 per cent.—
a quantity which will presently be shown to be but little above
the proper proportion, supposing the cake to be made from pure
and perfectly clean seed. ‘The following analyses of the ash of
four of these cakes, made in this laboratory by Mr. Ward, will
help to explain the point under discussion.*
TaBLe 9.—Composition in 100 parts of the Ash of Linseed Cake :—
Mean of 3
American. | American. Russian. Russian. PP ce menes
| Spec. 11. Spec. 12, Spec. 25, Spec. 26. 11, 12, & 26.
Per-centage of Ash . | 5°76 5°67 8°67 6:21 5°88
Silica and Sand. . | 9°08 12°86 39-10 14:41 12-12
Phosphoric Acid. . 33°43 28:02 25°52 34:91 32°12
Sulphuric Acid . . 2°38 5°29 1-43 1°63 3:10
Carbonic Acid . . 6°88 °64 26 -19 °90
Moines: 5. 4s ty atc 9°04 7°87 5:60 7°52 8°14
Magnesia 4 5 15°33 15°27 9°35 15°43 15°34
Peroxide of Troan : 2°64 3°28 1°45 1-60 Zr ol
Potasha dukes ieuell «kv. 24°32 23°50 16:01 22-90 TROBE
Soda. a 93 “51 °43 1°01 * 82,
Chloride of Pocus — — — — —
Chloride of Sodium . 1°06 1°87 85 *42 e112
100-09 99-1] 100°00 100°02 99°74
In taking the mean composition of the ash of linseed-cake, the
specimen in the third column has been omitted from the high
per-centage of sand which it contains. The other specimens
afford a mean per-centage of 5°88 of ash, of which 12°12 is sand
* These per-centages of ash will all be a little above the mark from imperfect burning.
Specimens 11, 12, 25, and 26, give the true ash, the charcoal, being weighed in the
analysis and deducted. The average quantity of sand and charcoal in these ashes was
determined upon the mixed ash of 25 specimens, which gave 9°54 per cent. of char-
coal, and 22°32 per cent. of sand : consequently the ash determinations are 10 per cent.
too high, except in the 4 specimens just meutioned.
Beans and Peas, &c. 489
in other words, 100 parts of cake contain less than one part of
sand, whilst even specimens 25, which has an outside per-centage
pe ash, two-fifths of which consist of sand, will only contain
4 grains of sand in every 100 grains of cake. So far, then, as
the 33 analyses here recorded of specimens taken indiscriminately
may enable us to judge, we are justified in stating that sand is
not employed, or not often employed, to adulterate linseed-cake.
Other remarks occur to us in examining the last table, but they
will be better deferred.
Since, then, mineral adulteration is not practised, Is any vege-
table substance ever mixed with the cake, having the effect of
altering the per-centage of nitrogen to the extent we have seen?
This question rightly belongs to the microscopical observer. It
is possible that such may be the case; but the low per-centage of
ash, together with the general absence of carbonates in it, forbids
the notion that any large proportion of woody matters, such as
sawdust, &c., should be used to adulterate the cake. And,
independently of this negative evidence, it can be shown that the
composition of the seed sufficiently accounts for all differences in
that of the cake. To this point I therefore at once pass.
Linseed.
The following analyses of linseed will serve to show to what
variations the seed is liable, although their number is insufli-
cient to afford very satisfactory averages of its composition.
Circumstances did not allow of the extension of this part of
the inquiry; but as the analyses are sufficient for the present
purpose, I regret it the less that another opportunity of publish-
ing a larger number of these results will no doubt occur, when
the question can be entertained at greater length.
The first specimens to be described are foreign linseeds: they
were obtained from an intelligent merchant and manufacturer,
who is practically conversant with the whole subject.
No. 1 is average Riga, weighing 524 Ibs. to the bushel, and should
produce from 90 to 95 Ibs. of oil per quarter (22 per cents):
No. 2, good Memel, 56 Ibs. per bushel, should produce 100 to 105 Ibs.
of oil per quarter (22°8 per cent.).
No. 3, Black Sea, 53} lbs. per bushel, should produce about 112 Ibs. of
oil per quarter (26°3 per cent.).
All ‘of these specimens were mixed with other seeds: these
were carefully picked out, and their proportion ascertained.
No. 1, Riga, contained of other seeds (principally cabbage, turnip, and
rape) 9°30 per cent.
No. 2, ewer 10°34 per cent.
No. 3, Black Sea, 7°56 per cent.
We do not possess any analyses of these seeds (with the ex-
490 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake.
ception of rape), and cannot therefore judge what would be their
effect on the composition of the cake. They are, however, all of
the description which we know to be rich in nitrogen as well as
oil; and although they might injure the flavour, it is not pro-
bable that they would much diminish the albuminous principles
of the cake which should be made from the linseed containing
them. It is to be observed, however, that the analyses which
follow were made upon the pure linseed itself, after the separation
of the other seeds, and no peculiarity of composition is therefore
to be referred to their presence.
TaBLz 9.-—Analysis of Specimens of Foreign Linseed :—
NITROGEN. |
| Oil. Water. Ash,
Ist 2nd
Analysis. | Analysis. Mean.
No. 1. Riga Linseed . 3°57 3°64 3 60 | 34°70 9°45 5°25
No. 2. Memel Linseed 3°31 3°36 3°33 | 36:00 8°74 3°56
No. 3. Black Sea Linseed} 3°36 3°27 3°31 | 38°42 | 10°12 5+ 64
The mean of these specimens 1s :—
Nitrogen : , ° : 3°41
Oi ae: Se Me : A 028)
Water . : . ° . 9°44
Ash*™ =< % . . . ° 4°78
The next table gives the composition of four specimens of
home-grown seed, the first having been grown by Mr. Warnes,
the second by H.R.H. Prince Albert, and the other specimens
obtained from Messrs. Gibbs, of Half-Moon Street. These
samples were all free from dirt or other seeds.
TasLE 10.—Analyses of Specimens of English Linseed :—
NITROGEN.
Ist 2nd
Analysis. | Analysis. Meap:
No. 4. Grown by Mr.
Warnes, 1847.
No. 5. Grown by his
H.R. H. Prince
Albert, 1847.
Mow G. Growth of 184711 4-91 | 4-29 | 4-95 | 33-5084 MOpnas aed -08
No. 7. Growth of 1848,)| ,. |
Messrs. Gibbs . } 4°22 4°37 4°29 38°11 8°57 4°03
eer rn ora errata at ec
\ 4.54 4°66 | 4-60 |.36-66..1 12-33 | 2-68
* For the reasons given in the analysis of the cake, I believe the stated per-centage
of ash to be somewhat over the truth,
Beans and Peas, ec. 491
The mean being—
Nitrogen. ° : ° 4°35
Oil: A ; R A 34:76
Water : 3 : ; 10-62
Ash . 4 : z ° Biot)
Comparing the results in the table with those of foreign linseed,
we find that great differences occur in the proportion of albu-
minous matters. No.3 contains only 3°31; No. 4, 4°60 per cent.
of nitrogen—which numbers are equivalent to 21:0 and 29:2 per
cent. of albuminous principles respectively. It is not my inten-
tion to assert that foreign linseed is uniformly or generally less
rich in nitrogenous substances than home-grown seed: the number
of specimens examined does not warrant such a conclusion, and
for the present, whatever may be the result of a further exami-
nation, the question must be left open. But the facts do appear
to justify us in believing that the seed itself, even when free from
the admixture of other seeds and from dirt, is subject to great
variation in composition. Neither in the present case is the low
per-centage of nitrogen to be referred to an inferior or imperfectly
ripened seed, since No. 2 is called by a competent judge “ good
Memel,”* and has a high weight per bushel (56 lbs.). Whether
the variation in albuminous constituents is to be attributed to
climate or any other circumstance is not the question at present,
but simply whether the difference in the seed is sufficient to
account for the difference in the cake. ‘The quantity of oil yielded
on the large scale by samples of linseed varies considerably.
Average Riga, for instance, will yield about 20 per cent. of its
weight, whilst Bombay seed affords as much as 26 per cent.
For the convenience of calculation, let us suppose that two
samples of seed, the one containing 3°31, the other 4:54 per cent.
of nitrogen, lose upon pressure 20 per cent. of oil each. As the
whole of the nitrogen remains in the cake, whilst the latter is
diminished in weight by one-fifth, the per-centage of nitrogen
in the resulting cake will be one-fourth | more than the above
numbers, Consequently the two samples instanced would afford
cakes containing 4:14 and 5°67 per cent. of nitrogen respectively,
which numbers represent, within a very little, the amount of varia-
tion actually observed between different samples of linseed-cake.
No doubt, had a larger number of samples of hnseed been
examined, the limits of variation might have been extended ;
but the instances now adduced amply prove that differences
* In the eyes of a linseed crusher a seed would probably be “good” which would
give a large yield of oil.
+ Thus 80 of cake wil] contain the same nitrogen as 100 of seed—then
Cake. Nitrogen. Cake, Nitrogen.
AS S06. -d* al oy 100 : 4:14
which is therefore the per-centage.
492 On the Composition of Linseed Ourl- Cake,
occur in the composition of the seed adequate to account for
similar differences in the composition of the cake. Thus an
answer is afforded to the third question proposed, and indirect
evidence supplied in the negative to the question of adulteration.
That this subject may be as complete as possible, I insert
here the mean of two ash analyses of linseed.
TABLE 11.—Mean Composition of the Ash of Linseed :—
Silica - . 5 ; 1°45
Phosphoric Acid. . : 38°54
Sulphuric Acid. B < 1.56
Carbonic Acid : ‘ : °22
Lime ; 5 é : 8:40
Magnesia . : ‘ 4 13°11
Peroxide of Iron . ; a °50
Potash ‘. . s ° 34°47
Soda . 5 . . : 1°69
Chloride of Potassium . A oe
Chloride of Sodium 4 ° 36
100-00
The composition of the ash of linseed, and that of linseed-
cake, should exhibit no other difference than that produced by
the accidental introduction into the latter of a little sand and dirt,
as well as of some portion of the substance of the stones used in
grinding the seed. Accordingly we find that, making allowance
for this circumstance, the per-centage composition of the ash of
the cake approaches very nearly what would be expected.* In
quantity of ash, the cake of course exceeds the linseed in propor-
tion to the oil expressed. Where the per-centage of ash in the
cake is high, it is mostly due to its containing more sand, as in
the case of specimen 25, which is given in the table at p. 484.
We may conclude this subject by recapitulating the conclusions
to which we have been led :—
1. That samples of cake differ considerably both in the pro-
portion of albuminous matter and of oil contained in
them.
2. That in respect to the former (the albuminous matter)
there would appear to be no general distinction between
home-made j or foreign cakes.
3. That in the proportion of oil there is reason to believe a
general distinction does exist, more especially between
English and French cakes, and in favour of the former.
* Except in the potash—some of which seems to have been lost—for whilst in the
ash of the seed it stands to the phosphoric acid in the relation of 34 to 383, in the cake
it is as 233 to 32, which is a very different proportion. Is potash expressed from the
seed in the form of soap dissolved by the great excess of 011?
+ I say ‘“‘ home-made.” This term merely implies that the seed was pressed at home
—there being no evidence to show that the seed inany of the English cakes described
was other than Foreign seed,
Beans and Peas, §c. 493
4. That there is no reason to believe that linseed-cake is
adulterated at any time with sand or other earthy matter
—adulteration by other matters being also rendered
unlikely, by the next fact, namely,
5. That different samples of seed, free from admixture of
other seeds, or from impurity of any kind, present vari-
ations in the proportion of albuminous matter amply
sufficient to account for those found in specimens of
cake.
But whether the differences in chemical composition of the
cake are such as to account for observed differences in feeding
properties, it is left with the reader to decide.
Of the relative price of different samples of cake I have
nothing to say. Under the most favourable circumstances for
comparison, it would be difficult to fix upon any starting-point,
where the price is so fluctuating. Some of the samples described
were sold at 9/. 10s., others as low as 6/. per ton. The only
general relation at all perceptible between price and composition
is in the fact before mentioned, that the English-pressed cakes,
which are richest in oil, also bear a very generally high price in
the market. That this is no rule, however, the higher price of
French than American cake, coupled with a smaller per-centage
of oil, sufficiently proves.
Rape- Cake.
Two analyses of this cake, and one of rape-seed, are given
below. Of their history I am unable to speak.
Analyses of Rape-Cake :—
NITROGEN.
1st 2nd Oil. Water. | Ash.
Analysis. | Analysis. Mean.
No.1]. —— .. - 5°29 5°17 5°23 11°63 7-06 5°70
Now 2st a SS 5°62 5°54 5°58 10:62 6-62 10°41
\
All that can be said from the above analyses of the compo-
sition of rape-cake is, that it is very much the same with that of
linseed-cake. ‘Till lately, however, the hot flavour of rape-cake
has been an insurmountable objection to it as a substitute for the
more costly article.*
Rape-cake has been more often employed as manure. The
following analyses of its ash, made for me by Mr. Eggar, will
not therefore be without interest :—
* See Mr. Pusey’s notice on this subject in the July Journal, 1849.
494 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake,
TasLe 12.—Composition in 100 parts of the Ash of Rape-Cake (Spec. 1) :-—
Sand and Silica . s § 3 § 13°07
Phosphoric Acid . ° . ° - 32-70
Carbonic Acid . 5 ’ . 2 2°15
Sulphuric Acid . ° ° ° ° 1°62
Lime 2 3 c . ; . 8 62
Magnesia . a . ; : - ol4*75
Oxide of Iron 4 5 : : 4°50
Potash 5 és Fi : ae EZ
Soda . 5 4 4 4 —_—
Chloride of Potassiam , ¢ ; 5 °17
Chloride of Sodium ¢ 4 3 h °46
100:00
The ash of rape-cake is therefore in every respect the counter-
part to that of linseed-cake. A ton of the cake will contain
128 Ibs. of mineral matters, one-third of which is phosphoric acid,
one-fifth potash, and one-seventh magnesia. Even although, as
in the second specimen, the total quantity of ash should be
greater, the above numbers will hold good, the excess being sand.
Only one specimen of rape-seed has been examined: it was the
seed of dwarf-rape, and obtained from Messrs. Gibbs.
Analysis of Rape-Seed :—
NITROGEN.
ist ond Oil. Water. Ash.
Analysis. | Analysis. Mean.
4: 26 Adil 7°84 6°44 3°31
Beans and Peas.
The want of certain data as to the composition of even the
commonest agricultural produce is constantly felt by all those
who are engaged in investigating the principles of agriculture,
and every trustworthy analysis will therefore be welcomed as an
addition to our stock of knowledge. Such analyses, though they
may serve no immediate purpose, must greatly smooth the way
for those experimenters who, having chalked out for themselves
a path of inquiry sufficiently arduous in itself, are anxious to
deviate as little as possible into secondary or collateral subjects
of research.
As a contribution to the scientific statisties of agriculture, I
offer a few analyses of peas and beans, which will serve to show
the average composition of these grains, so far as the albuminous
principles and fatty matters are concerned.
The specimens were those of which the ash analysis is given
in a former number of this Journal (vol.ix. part 1); and although
Beans and Peas, &c. 495
I do not propose to offer any remarks upon their composition in
relation to the soil on which they were grown, it may not be
amiss so far to record the history of each. ‘The nitrogen analyses
were made for me by Mr. Ward; the estimations of oil prin-
cipally by Mr. Eggar.
TaBLE 13.—Analyses of Peas :—
NITROGEN.* OIL. |
On the Onthe Dry} On the On the Water.
Undried. | Matter. | Undried.! Dry.
—-—_ —_— ——__—.
-98 | 4-61 Not Jestimated| 13°60
57 4-22 01 1-19 15°40
97 3°44 Not jestimated! 13°60
No. 1. White Peas (Seed) «. .
No. 2. Ditto (Produce on Clay) .
No. 3. Ditto (Produce on Sand) .
—
|
Go co Co bo GO CO
No. 4. Maple or Grey Pea (Seed) 0S 3°67 1°56 1°83 14°60
No. 5. Ditto (Produce on Clay). °47 4°16 1:54 1°85 16°60
No. 6. Ditto (Produce on Sand) . -28 3°92 1:04 1°24 16-40
The mean result of the foregoing analyses is as follows :—
Undried. Dry.
Nitrogen in White Pea . : See oe of 6 4: mee of 6
Nitrogen in Grey Pea . : 3°28) 3:40 3°92$ 4-00
Oil, Mean of 1 White and3 Grey 1-29 1°53
TaBLE 14.—Analyses of Beans :—
NITROGEN. OIL.
ional lontiepr| onthe || on the | Water
| Undried. | Matter. | Undried. Dry.
Heligoland or Tick Beans (Seed) | 3°57 | 4°11 | 1-15 | 1+29 | 13-20
Ditto (Produce on Clay) . .~ | 2°81 3°27 |. 1°25 1°45 | 14°20
Ditto (Produce on Sand). . .| 3:40 | 4-04 | 1:53 | 182 | 15-80
Mazagan Bean (Seed). . . . | 2°36 3°74 1:47 | 1°69 | 17°00
Ditto (Produce on Clay). . . ong 3°59 a ee ah 00
Ditto (Produce on Sand). ». . 3°49 4°18 171 2°05 | 16°50
| .
Mean Composition—
Undried. Dry.
Nitrogen in Heligoland Beans . 3°26) Mean of 6 3°81
Leer of 6
Nitrogen in Mazagan Beans . 3°01 3°13 SrOay on ou.
Oil inHeligoland Beans . 1-31) Mean of 5 1°52) Mean of 5
Oil in Mazagan Beans , . 1 59} 1°45 1; 37} 1-79
Of these analyses, I would merely say that they show a very
close resemblance between beans and peas in the proportion of
albuminous matter, although it is at the same time obvious that
* A second analysis for nitrogen was not made in all cases; the following, however,
may be mentioned :—
‘i Ist Analysis. 2nd Analysis. Mean.
No: Ss of 2 4°64 4°58 4-6]
INO sos. sek cig OnOae 3°72 3°67
No! Os A 2.0. NAS20 4°12 4:16
496 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake, &c.
their composition is liable to very considerable variation. Neither
in the peas nor beans does the average composition appear to
fluctuate with the variety, but to rise or fall in obedience to laws
which the analyses are not intended to elucidate.
Note by Mr. Pusey.
I am glad to be able to report favourably as to the discovery
accidentally made by me (as mentioned in the last number), that
sheep, when at turnips, can be fed on rape-cake without the ad-
mixture of linseed-cake. This autumn I have kept 700 fatting
sheep in this way, on rape-cake, with entire success ; and in order
to be certain that the progress in condition was equal, I put up
two little lots of ten sheep each, keeping one upon rape-cake and
the other on linseed-cake. Not the slightest difference could be
perceived between the two lots. As the best linseed-cake costs
71. 10s., and the best rape-cake only 4/. 10s. per ton, the saving
in the production of mutton, arising from the use of rape-cake, is
really considerable. In that of beef it is not so much, as I do not
find that my beasts like a larger proportion of rape-cake to linseed -
cake than pound for pound of each.
XXV.—On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. From the Right
Hon. C. ARBUTHNOT.
To the Secretary.
Walmer Castle, October 9, 1848.
My pear Sirr—No consideration could induce me at any
time to engage in litigious controversy upon any subject whatever,
and much more unwilling should I be upon the question, whether
it be the more advisable to have deep drains or shallow ones.
If, therefore, J fee] inclined to make some observations upon
the stbject of drainage, 1 can assure Mr. Bullock Webster,
whose article I have read in the Royal Agricultural Journal of
August last, that, to use his own words, I am neither of the deep
nor of the shallow faction; but that I will confine myself to
stating what has been my own experience, and what that of friends
to whom I had communicated the result of my practice.
I had happened some years ago to read an article in the
Royal Agricultural Journal on deep drainage by Mr. Josiah
Parkes, and it struck me to be so reasonable that I resolved to
try the plan upon some very stiff clay on the farm I cultivate in
Northamptonshire. I wrote to my bailiff, Mr, Andrew Thompson,
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 497
to drain a small field of seven acres, and to put the drains at the
depth of 4 feet, and at wide intervals between the drains. This
was effected as I had desired. My bailiff, being a very intelligent
and unprejudiced man, made no objection, but he only doubted
much whether the very wet and most tenacious clay which I had
selected could be rendered dry by drains at wide intervals and
4 feet deep.
The field in question, at the time of trying the experiment,
was old grass-land, which, previous to the deep draining, was
pared and burnt; and being in high ridges of various widths, it
was necessary to place the deep drains at intervals of unequal
width. The width of the intervals was 40 feet upon an average.
My experiment succeeded so completely that I was then
anxious to communicate with Mr. Parkes, but I neither knew him
nor where he resided. You may perhaps remember that I sent
to you the letter which I had written to him, desiring that you
would be so obliging as to forward it.
Since that first experiment I have drained a considerable part
of my cold clay land on the same principle, and invariably with
the same success. It would, therefore, be quite unnecessary to
enter into further details as to my own practice; but, neverthe-
less, I must be allowed to notice one particular field which has
been subjected by me to the deep-drainage system. This was a
field a. varied at top, but chiefly Of strong clay; and the
subsoil in particular is so tough, and so difficult to work, that
doubts were entertained as to the practicability of laying the land
dry by means of drains sunk so deep as 4 feet from the surface.
The work, however, was perfectly well executed; and the ques-
tion then was, what should be the first crop on this deep-drained
field. My bailiff, who had become a perfect convert to deep
drains at wide intervals, resolved to sow it with turnips. The
farmers of the neighbourhood said that such strong clay land was
not calculated for turnips. They, however, turned out the best
that I saw that year; and my bailiff, having gone in the autumn
to see his father in Roxburghshire, declared to me on his return
that he had seen no crop superior to it in Scotland. More than
this, it had happened that Lord Lilford, livmg not many miles
from me in Northamptonshire, saw that particular field while
under the process of draining. He was struck with the very bad
appearance of the soil, consisting, as I have said, of very strong
clay above and below; and his lordship was again at my place
when the field was covered with a magnificent crop of turnips.
His astonishment was the greater, frou seeing upon that field of
strong clay a flock of sheep, which remained flere without the
slightest injury to the land during the winter ell all the turnips
were consumed.
498 On the Advantage of Deep Drainage.
Having satisfied my own mind that deep-draining is advisable,
I naturally stated the result of my proceedings to those of my
friends whose lands required draining. I will mention some of
those friends with whom I communicated upon the subject,
selecting those whom I knew to be possessors of very strong clay-
land. I advised the Duke of Wellington, the Duke of Bedford,
Sir Francis Lawley, and Sir Robert Peel, to try the system
which had so entirely succeeded with me. I have seen land
belonging to the Duke of Wellington, at Stratfieldsaye, so
drained, and upon tenacious clay, as I know by the analysis of
it; and with him it has had such good effect that his land-steward
is intending by degrees to have the whole of the Duke’s estates
in Hampshire drained to a great depth; never at a less depth
than 4 feet, but in some instances, according to the nature of the
soul, at a still greater depth.
I have seen also the beneficial effects of deep drainage at
Drayton Manor, the seat of Sir Robert Peel, in Staffordshire.
Some of Sir Robert’s land in that county is strong, and some of
it inclining to sand. On all of his land, that which is clayey and
that which is sandy, the deep drains have been efficacious ;
taking care, of course, to drain at greater and at lesser depths,
and at wider or closer intervals, according to the nature of the
soil; but never, I believe, on land in his own occupation, putting
in a drain at less than 4 feet deep.
I have not seen Sir Francis Lawley’s land. He has, however,
told me that he considers deep drainage, upon his very strong
clays in Shropshire, the greatest improvement that he had ever
practised himself, and, in his belief, the greatest that had ever
been introduced into the agriculture of this country.
I have reserved for the last what I have to say respecting the
practice of the Duke of Bedford.
I wrote to the Duke soon after I had read the article by Mr.
Bullock Webster, and I requested him to let me see againa
letter which last spring he had received from Mr. Bennett, his
principal steward at Woburn.
I have no doubt erroneously, but certainly I had imagined
that Mr. Bennett, when some few years ago | wrote to the Duke
of Bedford upon this subject, was adverse to deep-drainage upon
the very strong Bedfordshire clays, termed there “ gault,’ I
think ; stating, as I thought, I recollected that it would be im-
possible for rain to percolate through their tenacious subsoils.
Whether I was mistaken or not respecting Mr. Bennett's first
opinion, it was highly satisfactory to me to read a letter of his to
the Duke of Bedford, in which he mentioned that after the
heavy rains of last sprmg he had found the deep-drained land
made sounder to ride upon than the land which had been shallow-
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 499
drained. It was the more satisfactory, as I knew that Mr. Ben-
nett was a very sensible, and, in agriculture, a very practical
gentleman.
On the 4th of the present month (October) the Duke of
Bedford wrote to me as follows :—
<¢ T have not been able to find the Report you asked for about draining,
but I spoke to my steward, Mr. Bennett, on the subject the other day, and
I have since received from him the enclosed letter. These last rains have
caused great floods in Beds and Northamptonshire. Mr. Bennett has
looked at several of the drains since, and finds his deep ones again acting
best. Return his letter, but take a copy of it if you please.”
Thus writes the Duke of Bedford, and towards the end of his
letter he reverts again to the subject of draining. He says :—
<*T went in August to Castle Howard, where I saw a field that had been
drained. Half by —— shallow ; the other half by Mr. Parkes deep.
The advantages of the latter were very great, both as to cost and effect.”
Having quoted parts of the Duke of Bedford’s letter, I will
now give a copy of Mr. Bennett’s letter to his Grace, which I
have been allowed to make use of as I please. ‘The following is
Mr. Bennett’s letter :—
*¢ Park Farm Office, 3rd Oct. 1848.
«* My Lorp Duke,
‘¢ In reference to the question your Grace asked me about draining,
I beg to inform you that when the work was first begun in the park the
drains were put in 30 inches deep and 1 pole apart. They have gra-
dually been increased in depth and distance apart up to 43 feet, and in
some instances 5 feet deep, and 11 yards and in some cases more apart.
After last spring, which was the longest continued wet we had experienced
since the work was done, I found the deepest drained land was the soundest
and the driest to ride over. I do not know whether I may be classed as a
convert to deep draining or not, for I always was of opinion the nature of
the subsoil ought to regulate the depths of draining, and that one uniform
depth would not suit all piaces alike.
‘¢ T find the 11 yards apart is on strong clay land as great a distance as
can be depended on, but I have sume at 15 yards which answers exceed-
ingly well, the subsoil being more porous.
‘“‘ T have the honour to be
‘‘ Your Grace’s most obedient servant,
“‘ THomas Bennet.
“To his Grace the Duke of Bedford.”
After what I have written, and after what I have heard from
others, it will not I think surprise any one that I should be an
advocate for deep drainage. The gentlemen who have given a
different opinion to Mr. B. Webster must know best what they
think is suitable to the land they occupy. I say nothing against
their expressed opinion, except only that in more emcee than
one I have observed that the land drained by them was a /iat,
from which, without an adequate fall, or without methods attain-
able for the purpose, it would not be possible for deep drains to
300 On the Advantage of Deep Drainage.
emit the water contained in them. I have given some of the
many instances in which deep draining has been found far supe-
rior to the shallow mode. I am satisfied with the result, and my
hope is that the system of draining deep will in time be generally
adopted.
Mr. Webster says that the deep-drainage system is pretended
to be a new one; I believe that it has been newly reproduced,
and by the science and good sense of Mr. Parkes; but that the
system is not new, and only revived, may be proved by a book
written in the time of Oliver Cromwell, and called ‘ Blyth’s
Improver Improved; and still more anciently was the system
practised in our country by the Romans, as was discovered by
excavations to have been the case some few years ago, when a
regular system of deep drains at wide intervals was found to have
been the practice when the Romans had possession of the greatest
part of Britain.
I should be exceedingly sorry if I had said a word which Mr.
B. Webster could think offensive. It would appear to me as
absurd to belong to a “ faction” for deep or shallow draining as
we all think it laughable in ‘ Gulliver’s Travels’ that there should
be in Lilliput a deadly feud between Big and Little-endians. I
have sought to establish what I believe to be the truth; but I do
not say a word against Mr. B. Webster's practice nor against that
of the friends he has quoted. J make no comment on the prac-
tice of others; I merely state what I have witnessed myself and
what I learn from my friends.
There is indeed one additional observation which I ought not
to omit. My first experiment in deep-draining was, as I have
already mentioned, on a field of 7 acres. ‘That small field was
separated only by a hedge from a much larger field, which had
previously been drained according to the shallow system by drains
30 inches deep and at intervals of 18 feet. Nothing conld be
better executed than the drains in that field; and the soil and
subsoil (as I knew by analysis) were precisely similar to those in
the adjoining field which had been drained 4 feet deep and at
very wide intervals. I happened to be at home soon after the fall
of very heavy rains. I myself saw the deep drains begin to pour
out water from their main drain before the same occurred in the
shallow-drained field; and subsequently I saw that the shallow
drains ceased running long before the deep ones.
I felt that if was due to Mr. Parkes, and due also to the
farming world in general, that I should make known what has
been my practice, with its results, and what also has been that of
some of my friends.
We need not be alarmed by the apprehensions intimated by
Mr. B. Webster. He fears that deep drains, though efficient at
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 501
first and for a time, will become inoperative after a lapse of years.
Some have doubted whether rain could ever force its way through
very strong clay; but, when channels have been made, every suc-
ceeding shower must tend more and more to keep those channels
open and also to cause new ones. In this way deep draining may
to a certain extent produce the effect of subsoiling; for deep-
drained land becomes annually more porous and more accessible
to the roots of plants.
I am, dear sir, very faithfully yours,
CuHarLes ARBUTHNOT.
To James Hudson, Esq.
Below Mr. Webster’s article a note is added by Mr. Pusey.
With him I have not the honour to be acquainted, but I know
his character sufficiently to respect him greatly. I have under-
stood that Mr. Pusey had never himself practised deep draining ;
and indeed his note leads me to believe that he was, as he had
done before, merely advising caution in draining, and that his
observations have not been on drains of his own land. If in this
I am correct, he could not have so well known whether the
drained land shown to him was underneath and out of sight pro-
perly or ill executed.
Cu, A.
P.S.—Since writing the above I have had a letter from Mr.
Bennett, in which he says that the shallow drains at Woburn were
not by his advice, but upon the recommendation of a person
thought an authority in such matters. It will have been seen by
the letter above quoted to the Duke of Bedford that the shallow
drains were superseded as ineflicacious, and, being replaced by
deep ones, the land had become drier and sounder to ride upon.
Mr. Bennett also states in his letter to me that last year he had
put in drains at 11, 15, and 22 yards apart, and at 4, 43, and
_ Ofeet deep in the same field, and that after the rains of Jast month
there was no perceptible difference, all having been equally effi-
cacious, The subsoil in that field, he says, 1S a very strong clay,
interspersed with small veins of sandy loam and gravel, which of
course act as so many arteries and feeders to the pipes.
Thus writes Mr. Bennett, and nothing can be more valuable
and conclusive than his testimony in favour of deep drains at
wide intervals.
[t would have been unjust to Mr. Bennett if I had not let it
be known that he had not been the adviser of shallow drains at
Woburn.
Cu. A.
Note.—The above letter to Mr. Hudson was written,as the date will
show, in October of last year. I sent it too late for the next publication
VOL. X. 2 L
502 On the Advantage of Deep Drainage.
of the Journal, Other circumstances prevented its appearance in the
Journal of July last; but this delay has enabled me to add an additional
proof of the superior advantage arising from deep drainage. On the 5th
of this month of August the Earl of Ellesmere wrote to me from Lan-
cashire, that ‘* he was busy organising further drainage, and that he shall
have enough to do in that way for the rest of his life. He had been
obliged,” he says, “ to redrain Jand which remained wet after a 3-feet
drainage, and to insert 4-feet drams.”
I know from Lord Eljesmere himself that he had on the chat moss
gone from necessity so deep as 10 feet before he put in his drains, and
that the part of the moss so drained had been rendered quite dry.
August 7, 1849. CuarLes ARBUTHNOT.
Note by Mr. Pusey.
There can be no doubt that agriculture is much indebted to
Mr. Parkes for the talent with which he has pointed out the ad-
vantage of deep-draining upon the majority of soils. The only
question is, whether it be applicable to all soils without exception.
Mr. B. Webster, in the paper referred to, brought forward cases
in which farmers, having laid down deep drains in tenacious clays,
had taken them up, and replaced them with shallower drains at
their own expense. It still appears to me, therefore, that caution
is required in employing very deep drains on very tenacious clays,
and that Lord Portman * is right in saying,—
“Tam more and more convinced, by experiment and observation, that
no rule can be safely fixed for the depths and distances of drains. I think
that in each case it would be wise to make experiments prior to the en-
gaging in any large work of draining, having regard to the strata of the
earth, as well as the sources of the supply of water.”
Quite recently two careful but contradictory experiments have
been made in Scotland on this very subject. They are here sub-
joined from the Mark-Lane Express. The first tells in favour of
deep draining :— ,
« At the last monthly general meeting of the East of Berwick-
shire Farmers’ Club, D. Milne, Esq., of Milnegraden, the pre-
sident of that very efficient club, read the following report of
experiments he had recently made on the above subject :—
« Mr. Milne stated that, having to drain a 24-acre field, he took
the opportunity of trying the effect of drains varying in depth and
distance. He divided the field into four parallel breaks—each
about 6 acres in extent. In the westernmost the drains were 34
feet deep and 30 feet apart; in the one next to it the drains were
3 feet deep and 15 feet apart; in the third the drains were 33
feet deep and 15 feet apart; in the fourth they were 3 feet deep
and 30 feet apart, The furrow-drains in each break led into a _
* Roy. Agric. Journ., No. XXII, p. 452.
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 203
large drain at the ends; and at the mouth of each large drain a
water-meter was placed. The field was drained in the winter of
1847-48. It had been 14 years in grass. Its last crop (viz. in
1834) was wheat, of which the land produced on an average 33
bushels per acre. In the spring of 1848 the field was partly
sown with sandy oats, and partly with black oats got from Essex.
The water-meters were set in June, 1548, and were removed in
April, 1849, At harvest of 1848 the stooks were counted, and
the following was the result :—
Sandy Oats.
On 3 feet and 15 feet drains, 5583 stooks per acre.
9» 35, 30 9 503% 3
Black Oats.
On 3 feet and 15 feet drains, 5623 Ee
Ox 5; 30 As 542$ 55
These crops, on being thrashed, yielded as follows :—
Sandy Oats.
On 3 feet and 15 feet drains, 44 bushels per acre.
393 OF 39 30 ak 632 a
— Weight—41 lbs. per bushel.
Black Oats.
On 3 feet and 15 feet drains, 522 a
» SF 30 743 ¥3
Weight—40 Ibs. per bushel.
Some modification of these results was, however, necessary, in
regard to the black oats, in consequence of one of the breaks on
which it grew having been on nearly one-half of it shaded by
trees. That the trees had the effect of considerably lessening
the produce, particularly of grain, is evident from the following
Statement :—
Black Oats.
Break shaded, produced 611 stooks per acre.
» unshaded _,, 5144 »
99 shaded 9 703 99
ae unshaded. - «5, 343 a
If the shaded break is thrown out of view, the result, as regards
black oats, would be as follows :—
On3 ft. and 15ft. drains, 611 stooks per acre.
34 ~=and 30 bs 5422 ,,
3 and 15 ws aii cOs bushels s:,,
3} and 30 7 T9355
The quantity of seed sown for both kinds of oats was at the
rate of five bushels per acre. ‘The water discharged from the
two sets of drains was as follows :— !
From the 3 ft. and 15 ft. drains, 35,711 gals. per acre.
toy BE amdi80to0 any 46.500 if
2uL2Z
504 On the Advantage of Deep Drarnage.
In this calculation the quantity of water which fell on the few
acres shaded with trees was thrown out of view. From these
results it would appear that rather more water had been dis-
charged by the 3$ drains than hy the 3-feet drains, though the
latter were twice as numerous as the former. In those parts of
the field therefore drained by the 3-feet drains there was more
water left in the land, or went off by evaporation; and there was
also less depth of soil for the roots. This fact seemed to explain
the produce obtained, If the number of stooks afforded a correct
criterion of the quantity of straw, there was most straw on the 3-
feet drains, and most grain on the 33-feet drains; from which he
would infer that a damp soul, theuen favourable to large produce
in straw, was unfavourable to large produce incorn. The 33-feet
drains probably produced with greater dryness greater warmth, as
the larger quantity of rain which they carried off would impart to
the soil a greater amount of heat. Why the 3§ drains, though
one-half as numerous as the 3-feet drains, should carry off as large
or a larger quantity of water, was a separate question. Of course
the deeper drains would draw from a greater extent of surface ;
but he had not anticipated that a 33- feet drain would have drawn
off double, or rather more than double, the quantity of water that
a 3-feet drain draws. The water-meters, however, showed that
this had been the case, unless indeed there were springs in those
breaks where the deeper drains were. He was not aware that any
such springs existed. The subsoil was pretty uniformly retentive
throughout the field; and the upper soil was not perceptibly
more open in one part than in another. So far, therefore, as his
experiments had proceeded, they showed that if drains were
made 31 feet deep, only one-half the number will produce the
same or a little better effect than 3-feet drains. The expense per
acre of the former, in the field referred to, had been 4. 6s. 4d. ;
of the latter 87. 12s. 43d. Mr. Milne stated that he had heard
of a similar experiment having been tried in East Lothian by Mr.
Hope of Fenton, with an opposite result. He had seen no
account of Mr. Hope's experiment but if correctly reported to
him it would lessen his confidence in the results obtained by him-
self, and would be an additional inducement to persevere with his
observations, in order to obtain further data for coming to a right
conclusion. Probably, 1 in another year, more correct data could
be obtained, as in a few months only after the drains were made
the soil could not have been opened very thoroughly, He had
last winter put the subsoil plough through the field, and he would
endeavour to ascertain what was the produce of this year’s crop
on the several divisions, and report the result to the club. One
thing was quite evident, that with almost any system of drainage
the increased produce amply compensated the cost. From the
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 505
crop which had been yielded on the field above referred to, even
after only six months had elapsed from the execution of the
drains, he calculated that an increase of about 20 bushels of oats
(equal to about 2/.) per acre had been obtained. This result
was in conformity with what had been obtained from other fields
previously drained by him. Sut on the generai benefits of drain-
ing it was unnecessary to dwell. ‘The great question now was,
What is the system of drainage which could be done most effi-
ciently, and at the least expense? ‘To this point inquiries ought
to be specially directed.”
Mr. Hope’s experiment, alluded to by Mr. Milne, is favour-
able to shallow draining, as the following account shows :—
To the Editor of the North British Agriculturist.
‘‘Sir,—In reply to your inquiry as to the result of the experiments made
by me, in draining with tiles at different depths and distances, I may pre-
mise that the field operated on may be described as rather a free loam, but
upon a very stiff retentive clayey subsoil, mixed with small stones, quite
free from under-water. The ridges were 18 feet in width, and were
gathered up from the stubble, leaving every furrow open, to save spade
labour. Into eight contiguous furrows, each upwards of 330 yards in
length, there was put a drain of 3 feet in depth below the plough furrow.
Then one furrow was missed, but in the following another drain of the
same dimension was put. After that followed two furrows without any
drain, thus leaving a ridge which may be said to be undrained. The rest
of the field was done with drains 1 foot 8 inches in depth below the plough
furrow. The land since then having been ploughed flat, the drains may
be considered as 10 or 12 inches deeper than the depths cut with the
spade. The cost of the 3-feet drains was 6d. per rood, or 4/. per S. acre ;
the ebb drains, 23d. per rood, or 1. 10s. per statute acre.
“The draining of the whole field, which contains 15 S. acres, was
finished early in February, 1841, and in summer was sown with turnips,
the drills running across the drains or ridges. One half was made white
globe, the other half Swedish turnip, the manure applied being half a ton
of rapedust and 12 carts of farmyard dung to each variety per acre. The
crop was removed and weighed on the 14th December, and the produce
- found as follows, per Scotch acre :—
White Turnips. Swedish Turnips.
tons. cwt. tons. cwt.
- On 3-feet drains, 18 feet apart . ° ° 2S 13° 15
On 1 foot 8 inches ditto, 18 feet apart : . 24 G UG Saal U7
On 3-feet drains, 36 feet apart . A - - 20 14 1 —
On portion undrained : . ° OPA is) 10 15
“It was only after the white turnip had finished growing that the land
could be said to be wet, and to receive any benefit from the draining.
The subsoil, from the deep drains, appeared to be against the white tur-
nips ; but the Swedish were much larger where they came in contact with
it. At the same time they were obviously thinner en the ground.
‘‘ About the middle of February, 1842, the field was sown with wheat,
drilled across, that a like quantity of seed might be given to each part of
it. Three bushels per acre was the quantity sown. The different portions
were cut, stacked, and threshed separately ; and the following is the result,
per Scotch acre, the weight of all being the same, 62 Jb. per bushel :
506 On the Advantage of Deep Drainage.
Wheat. Straw.
qrs. bush. tons. cwt. lbs.
On 3-feet drains, 18 feet apart . : - 5 62 Lia alos
On 1 foot 8 inch drains, 18 feet apart . eye NO el Doe Ayo
On 3-feet drains, 36 feet apart . : 3. Ov WeO 1 9 84
On portion undrained ° * : OO) IN) ie! bit 22
‘From the period when the land was sown, until the crop was reaped,
there never was more moisture in the soil than what was requisite for the
growth of plants.
‘The field was grazed in 1843 and 1844. Little or no difference was
observed in the pasture during the first year, though, in the second,
appearances were against the portion with deep drains. In the spring of
1845 the whole was ploughed up and sown with grey Angus oats. Before
harvest the effects of the drains were very obvious, the crop on the ground
ebb-drained being much heavier and bulkiest; at one period it was laid
when the crop on the deep drains was all standing. On the Jatter, and on
the ridge undrained, the crop was sooner ripe, though the field was all cut
in one day. This accounts, in part, for the weight per bushel being greater
on these portions ; indeed, the quality improves as the quantity diminishes.
The following table exhibits the result, per Scotch acre :—
Oats. Weight per bsh. Straw.
qrs. bsh. pks. Ibs. tons. cwt. 1b.
On 3-feet drains, 18 feetapart . . 10 0 O 40 2 6 108
On I foot 8 inch drains, 18 feet apart 12 1 2 39 2 GTP 96
On 3-feet drains, 36 feetapart . . 9 4 2 40 Zi s..26
On portion undrained . . 2. . 9 0 O 403 2 4 40
On the removal of the crop there was a marked difference in the condition
of the land, the deep-drained portion being full of couch grass, while the
part with the ebb-drains was comparatively clean.
“In 1846 the field was sown with Skirving’s purple-top yellow turnip,
the manure applied being 5 cwt. of guano, 1 qr. of bone-dust, and 16 tons
of farmyard manure, per Scotch acre. No difference was observable by
the eye, the whole crop being fine. One-half of the crop was consumed.
on the ground with sheep, they being allowed at the same time I Ib. of
linseed cake each daily. While the sheep were on the ground it was
found necessary to complete the drainage of the whole, every 18 feet, the
water having stood from end to end of the field on the undrained furrows,
for even the deep drains had little or no effect on the undrained furrow
betwixt them. In 1847 the field was again in spring wheat (Fenton), and
was a most magnificent crop throughout; it yielded, over the whole,
7 qrs. 6 bushels per Scotch acre, and weighed 63 lbs. per bushel. The
field was pastured last year, and it kept but a small stock. It is now in
oats, which, unfortunately, are a light, shabby crop, similar to most of the
oats this season in the neighbourhood, and one part of the field cannot be
said to be better than another. I have therefore no hesitation in giving it
as my decided opinion, that on Jand with a stiff clay subsoil free from
under-water, 30-inch drains are all that is required to carry off the surface
water. All practical men are well aware that no general rule ever can be
laid down for either the depth or the distance betwixt drains; this can
only be determined by the nature of the soil and subsoil in each particular
case. I have seen material benefit obtained from making drains 4 and 5
feet deep, when 23-feet drains would have been money thrown away; but
from the above and other experiments under like circumstances, I am also
satisfied that to insist upon it as a rule to go deeper than 30 inches in all
cases, the difference of the expense may be worse than money lost, that
the crops may be materially hurt into the bargain.—I am, Sir, &c.,
Fenton Barns, Aug. 10, 1849. GrorceE Hops.
a
On Draining. 507
XXVI.—On Suiting the Depth of Drainage to the Circumstances
of the Soil. By J. H. Cuarwnock, an Assistant-Commissioner
under the Drainage Acts.
A Lecture before the Darlington Farmers’ Club.
Looxine with a present and prospective glance at the several
circumstances and events which have to some extent aroused both
the apprehension and the energy of the agricultural interest, and
which are in all probability destined to exercise, for good or for
ill, a still greater influence over that portion of the community,
it may be affirmed that at no former period in the history of this
kingdom did a more urgent necessity exist for a progressive ad-
vance! in the science of agriculture, nor, happily, at the same
time such an available amount of practical and scientific know-
ledge for furthering and securing so desirable an end. We have
but to look back a comparatively few years and trace in our
minds the several gradations by which we have arrived at the all
but perfect adaptations of those discoveries and appliances which
it has been reserved for our own era to complete, to realize their
full influence. The day, for instance, was, and that within the
recollection of most of us, when the application of gas in its pre-
sent convenient form for illumination was considered at least of
doubtful practicability, if not wholly chimerical ; now, it is more
common than the candles it eclipsed. Who does not also well
remember the sceptical prognostications of the multitude, if not of
the impossibility, at least of the very great improbability of steam
power ever being beneficially applied to locomotion—and yet
look at the result! See, too, the last crowning effort of man’s
research and application in the transmission of his embodied
thoughts from one end of the land to the other in no longer time
than is required for their utterance. And shall the cultivator
of the soil, witnessing and experiencing the benefit of these
achievements, remain stationary, when he, of all men, in matters
pertaining to his vocation, has need of skill and observation ?
‘That a considerable advance towards a higher, and therefore
more profitable state of cultivation, has been made in many locali-
ties, is beyond doubt, and from the growing desire evinced on all
hands for information on agricultural matters, it is equally mani-
fest that this improvement will be extended; but, after all, how
insignificant, unless as an earnest of more, is that which has been
effected, when compared with what yet remains to be attained.
Take, for example, an area of country with which you are pro-
bably more or tess familiar, comprised for miles on either side
of the line between Northallerton and Newcastle: now, with occa-
sional exceptions, is not the general condition of this otherwise
really fine corn-producing country, such as might be expected,
508 On Draining.
were there neither hands nor appliances to be found to till it, nor
mouths to be filled by its products, when in truth both are in
excess? And yet by a judicious expenditure of about 4/7. or 5.
per acre in an effective course of drainage the great proportion
is capable of having its average yield of wheat increased by
from 10 to 20 bushels per acre. What possible chance has the
occupier of such undrained wet land of competing with his more
fortunate neighbour on the naturally dry soils? Where the latter
with two horses ploughs an acre or more a day, he has to use
three or four horses for about one-half the same extent of work ;
and every other operation is subject to the same discouraging
hindrances. He gets a scanty and precarious crop of wheat
and weeds, yielding it may be 20 to 25 bushels per acre, whilst
the other is comparatively certain, with less labour and anxiety,
of 30 or even 40 bushels per acre. What, therefore, is 10s. or
20s. per acre additional rent for dry land, compared with the
ruinous cost of cultivating these undrained soils? Not worth one
moment’s consideration; and the more so since at this day means
and facilities for the execution of the work are within reach, on
easy terms, of every owner. Some few years back a really valid
and prudential reason did exist for the possessors of land
having only a life interest, and being under other disabilities, not
expending money in improvements which they might never
enjoy. But these difficulties and prohibitions (for such they
were in effect) are at length matters of history only; and any
owner of entailed and settled estates, or tenant for life or lives,
may improve his property by drainage, inclosure, building, &c.,
and his rent-roll at the same time, without any cost to himself,
and with the greatest benefit to his tenantry. ‘‘ What,”’ the pos-
sessor of some long-neglected and water-logged property may
exclaim, “do you seriously mean to tell me that without any
greater interruption to my accustomed ease than the execution
of a few forms and documents for the purpose, I can, at no abso-
lute cost to myself, so improve this unfortunate property as to
make it yield me a clear additional rental, and be the saivation
of my half-ruined tenantry?’’? We do—and will endeayour to
show how. :
Within the area of the clay districts already alluded to it would
not, in all probability, be difficult to find enclosed estates the
average rental of which does not exceed from 10s. to 15s. per
acre, and yet the occupiers barely able to live upon them. Now
I dare say you know that, under the General Drainage Act
(9 & 10 Vic., cap. 101), Government was authorized to advance
the sum of two millions for the drainage of lands in England and
Scotland, repayment being made by a rent-charge on the lands
drained of 64 per cent. per annum on the outlay, for 22 years,
On Draining. 509
which paid both the principal and interest in that period. The
whole of this sum has been long since applied for; and later
applicants are left regretting their ill fortune. All this, I say,
you probably know, and may think, with many others, that seeing
the inconvenience of such grants in times of pressure, Parliament
may be slow to vote any further sums for the purpose ;* but you
may not be aware of the powers and facilities which the legisla-
ture has given for obtaining the means from other sources on
terms but little if at all inferior to those of the Government loan
itself. Suppose then an owner of an estate of 500 acres of this wet
land obtains 2500/., or 5/. per acre, under the provisions of this
Act,} the rent-charge on the land will be about 6s. 4d. per acre,
which, with the original rent of 10s., gives 16s. 4d. an acre as the
rent of the land when effectively drained, but without adding any
present profit for the owner. But I apprehend once let the occu-
piers of such land experience the benefit of cultivating it in the
drained state, and they will infinitely prefer paying 20s. an
acre, or more, to continuing in the old course; and thus both they
and the owner will realize all they desire.
As respects the practical execution and effects of drainage,
without wearying you by entering into minute details; there are
yet some leading points which it may be well to notice. That
there is no one mode of drainage equally applicable and effective
on all soils, may now be considered as a settled truth; and
hence it necessarily follows that a certain knowledge and ex-
perience must be exercised in conducting the work in such a
manner upon each character of soil and subsoil as shall attain the
most perfect result at the least cost. And what, you will natu-
rally ask, is a perfect result? for assuredly without a definite
perception of this there is little hope of its being attained. But,
fortunately it is one of those essential points which is not de-
pendent upon mere opinion for a practical settlement, because
we have presented to us in all the naturally dry turnip and barley
soils of the kingdom an example of suitable and effective dryness
which ne one can dispute or gainsay. The more nearly then by
artificial drainage we make the mechanical condition of the clay
soils approach this standard, the more nearly shall we secure that
perfect state for cultivation which every scientific drainer ought to
understand and aim at obtaining. There may be, and doubtless
* The Legislature have in the past Session passed an Act, entitled “ The Private
Money Drainage Act,” giving the same facilities, and continuing the Inclosure
Commissioners and their staff the medium for its operation, as was given under the
general Act, the only difference being that the money is obtained from private sources
instead of from the public purse.— York, October, 1849.
+ The West of England Drainage Company’s Act of Incorporation enables owners
of a limited interest to make the charge absolute on the land, as well as for a limited
period of 25 years; and the advantages thus afforded may be regarded by some as
exceeding those given under the General Drainage Act.
510 On Draining.
are, many whose scepticism and prejudicial love for the beaten
track, be it ever so toilsome and slippery, will not admit of their
crediting the practicability of the drainage of clay lands being
rendered so thoroughly effective as these remarks indicate; but
since we must feel, from past experience and the evidence of
practical results in things of much more improbable accomplish-
ment, how mistaken we were, I venture to think that none of those
I am addressing will be found in that state of doubt.
Experience and observation have convinced me that in the
drainage of retentive subsoils it is quite impossible to insure a
proper uniformity of dryness over the entire surface if the drains
are at too great intervals. Additional depth will not in these
cases compensate for additional distance; and it must always
be borne in mind that -the safe side is the best, for nothing but a
satisfactory result can attend the more frequent, whilst only a
doubtful or protracted effect may follow the more distant; and in
a season like the present practically render the work of little or
no use. I know some land which in the autumn of 1847 was
pretended to be drained in a masterly manner, with the drains
41 feet deep and 60 feet apart, but the work being completed at
too late a period to be sown with wheat, it was reserved for spring
sowing: as ill-fortune, however, would have it, the spring of
this year was so unpropitious that there never was a long-
enough interval from rain to allow these drains to act so as to
dry the land sufficiently to be worked; it consequently remained
in fallow, and it may be questionable whether it is even yet sown.
See therefore the serious loss to all parties from such a misappli-
cation of deep and distant drains. For an instance of the proper
application of deep drainage, we may refer, amongst numerous
other examples, to that on the estate of Sir Samuel Crompton, at
Wood End, near Thirsk, where one or two independent drains of
from 7 to 10 feet deep, are laying perfectly dry a very large
area of land on either side of them. ‘The subsoil is a sandy
gravel, into which, as into a basin, the water from the adjoining
hill percolated and lodged, oosing to the surface as the supply
kept up the pressure, until by one of these drains an outlet was
made through the side of the basin and the whole of this subsoil
immediately became an active natural drain, and the land con-
verted into fine turnip, wheat, and barley soil.
But in confirmation of the general adoption of deeper and
more distant drains, we are told that if land of a retentive cha-
racter be drained at 4 feet and 3 feet deep, the 4 feet drains will
be the first to emit water; and under certain circumstances this
may be the case, which has given plausibility to some very falla-
cious reasoning for the efficacy of deep drains under all circum-
stances. I could enumerate instances, where land has been drained
at 3 feet deep and 30 feet apart, of very great improvement
On Draining. 511
thereby; but from certain indications, after a time, that a perfect
effect was not obtained, other drains from 5 to 6 feet deep and
120 yards apart were put in, and the result is that not a single
one of the shallower drains has run since, and the land is now
perfectly dry at all times. But is this any proof that the same
result will follow a similar plan of operation on the uniformly
tenacious subsoils? Most certainly not. Suppose 4-feet and
o-feet drains to be laid alternately throughout a clay-land field
of uniform contour and tenacity, it 1s quite possible, and even
probable, that the 4-feet will run first after rain. But take
two distinct portions of such land, having similar characteristics
in all respects, and drain the one at from 30 inches to 3 feet deep,
and from 18 to 24 feet apart, as may be judged necessary to
insure that completeness for which we contend, and the other with
drains from 4 to 44 feet deep, and 26 to 40 feet apart, as may be
deemed sufficient, and I maintain it is a physical impossibility for
these deeper drains to run before the shallower, or to dry the
land in the same time, or so effectually ;—that they will run
the longest is manifest, and is of itself an evidence of their in-
sufficiency.
The more clearly to demonstrate this, let us look at a section
of such drains, drawn to the same scale :—
eel ox
LY)
irl
LLL RD
1—Shows 4-feet and 3-feet drains, cut alternately at 21 feet
apart, under which circumstances we say, it may be probable
that the deeper ones will run first after rain. Each 3-feet
drain has on either side of it an opening for the exit of the
water at a foot lower level, the effect of which, as you will rea-
dily imagine, may be that when the rain has per colated to the
bottom af the 3-feet drain, mstead of passing off, its natural
tendency is to descend to the lower level, where it meets with
a fully saturated bed, and having no longer a lower attraction,
of course runs off by the drain at that level. This may not
O12 On Draining.
always be the case; but we are showing its probability, and
hence that such a mode of experiment is by no means con-
clusive evidence that drains 4 feet deep, in clay subsoils, will
emit the water sooner than 3-feet drains.
2—Is a section of land drained 3 feet deep, and at 21 feet
apart.
3—A section of the same land with the drains at 30 feet apart,
and 4 feet deep. And with these three sections in juxta-
position it would be a reflection on your perception to attempt
any more detailed arguments to prove the truth of the asser-
tion, that it is physically impossible for the deeper drains to
run before the shallower. I shall, however, presently have
the pleasure of placing before you the results of some experi-
ments on filtration, which will still further confirm what we
have advanced.
While, however, showing the superior efficacy of compara-
tively shallower and more frequent drains on clay-lands, it must
not be understood that anything but a safe and permanent depth
is contemplated; and which cannot, I think, be depended upon
at less than about 3 feet. Assuming the general fall and breadth
of the lands to be suitable, the best and most economical plan of
setting out the drains will be in the furrows; and then by cutting
them full 30 inches, and subsequently working down the ridges, a
good 3-feet drain is secured. It is most essential, after proper
and effective drainage, that the land should be laid flat, and not
retained in ridge and furrow. The mechanical action of drains
is two-fold—the discharge of superfluous water; and, in propor-
tion as that is complete, the admission of atmospheric air and
influence with each succeeding shower of rain or fall of dew—
but if the surface of the land be such as to cause the rain to
flow into the furrows, instead of sinking into the soil where it
falls, it cannot be otherwise than productive of a partial action of
the drains, in lieu of that uniformity which is always observable
on naturally dry land. Why not lay turnip and barley land in
ridge and furrow? Because it is dry and does not require it.
And is not the same reason equally conclusive on drained land,
properly dried? 1 saw an instance, last spring, of the bad effects
of retaining the ridge and furrow after draining ; and, inasmuch
as it had the effect of making a convert of the prejudiced
occupier, may be worth mentioning. One of a succession of
tolerably strong land fields was being drained in fallow, and as the
intention was to sow it with wheat I particularly requested (after
a long discussion of the advantages) that it might be worked down
flat. Bent, however, upon practically showing me I was wrong,
and ‘that it would not do in that country,” the occupier kept it
in the old form: and the consequence was that the heavy rains
On Draining. 513
washed the finer particles of the soil into the furrows, forming
a puddle which prevented the action of the drains, and much
of the crop was damaged. When I visited the land on the
completion of the entire work, you may judge of my annoy-
ance at seeing what had been done; but which was in some
degree appeased by observing that the adjoining field was laid
perfectly flat, and that the barley upon it looked particularly well.
The man admitted he had seen the error and its palpable conse-
quences on the first field, and resolved not to commit it a second
time.
In the execution of what may properly be termed drainage
works, 7. e., the draining of entire and extensive estates, it is a
matter of some surprise how comparatively few are conducted
upon any prescribed plan, or with any view to apply the drainage
water to other useful purposes, such as irrigation, power, or
ornament. The drainage of a field here, and another there,
without regard to entirety of design or purpose, is the usual
course, and although it might have been expected that on many
of the extensive properties which are being drained under the
general Act such a course could have been adopted with benefit
to all parties, yet it may be doubted whether there is any one
instance in which such an attempt is being made. The provi-
sions of the original Act evidently contemplated such works, for
they required the production of plans of each property, and the
delineation thereon of the proposed drainage, for the inspector’s
consideration, suggestion, and approval; and had this systematic
and safe course been adhered to some very complete works.
would have been the result, for general imitation ; but the outcry
of proprietors against what they esteemed an unnecessary trouble
and expense, induced the legislature in the Amendment Act to
dispense with these plans, the consequences of which may, I fear,
be felt when too late. How manya homestead by a little simple
engineering and suitable direction of the drainage water might be
supplied with power sufficient for every purpose of threshing,
grinding, chopping, &c., at a comparatively insignificant cost.
How many an extra crop of grass a year might be cut from the
lands of the lower levels irrigated by the drainage water from the
higher grounds. And Hews many a town, village, and mansion,
now but precariously provided, might, by a proper system of col-
lection, conservation, and filtration of the drainage from the
adjoining lands, be supplied, at an easy cost, with abundance of
the purest water for every purpose. And I say purest, because
there can be little doubt that, subjected as in such cases it would
necessarily be to repeated filtration and aeration, it would not
only be soft and peilucid, but more free from those mineral con-
stituents which spring-water imbibes from the foundation on
which it is found, and which are frequently very objectionable
514 On Draining.
both for domestic and manufacturing purposes. And would not
such a supply be preferable, at least in idea, if not in palatable
reality, to that which so many of our towns now obtain by water-
works; many of which receive their supply from the river after
it has passed the town. ‘The consequence being that, in the
summer months, it might not require any very close calculation
to estimate the repetition of purposes and processes through
which each gallon passes in the eight and forty hours, however
disgusting one result might prove to the lovers of a pure beverage.
Were an area of country thus treated, that is, the land subjected
to a perfect course of drainage, and such portion of the water as
it was practicable to obtain applied to other useful purposes, it
wouid be found, after the heavy rains of autumn and spring which
now swell our rivers and brooks with water washed from the sur-
face and so thickly intermixed with the finer particles of the soil
as in its deposit to choke up the outfalls of the lower lands, that
it would pass off in a filtered and almost colourless condition, and
thus two important results would be secured ;—the best of the soil
would not be washed away; and the water of the rivers would be
kept comparatively pure.
And is there anything impracticable or even difficult in such
an application, under ordinary circumstances and with common
engineering skill? ‘The cost too in many localities would be
trifling compared with that at which towns often obtain their
supply by pumping from the river level. ‘The same mechanical
means by which draining pipes are now made will mould clay
sewerage pipes of any form and dimensions ; and by having them
of a suitable substance, well burnt, and if necessary glazed, they
will bear a very considerable pressure. Pipes for the purpose of
sewerage are now being made with socket-joints and glazed, and
sold at 8d. per yard for 6 inches, and Is. 10d. per yard for
12 inches diameter. In districts, however, where fuel is reason-
able, the clay suitable without glazing, and without sockets (which
I should much prefer for making a joint, as well as for other
reasons) these rates might be reduced. It is very common for
the Water-works of towns of 10,000 to 20,000 inhabitants to cost
from 20,0002. to 40,0002., for which of course the population
must pay a handsome crue len impost in the shape of profit to
shareholders, as well as being subject to all kind of surveillance
and annoyance from officials and collectors. The average fall of
rain in /ngland may be taken probably at 25 inches a year, each
inch being equivalent to about 25,000 gallons per acre. Suppose,
however, that we estimate the available quantities at 20 inches
per annum and 20,000 gallons to the inch, we have a supply of
400,000 gallons a year from every drained acre of area from
which it can be collected; therefore you will see that no very
excessive extent of surface is necessary for the abundant supply of
On Draining. 515
many of our towns; and in point of first cost | am persuaded that,
where practicable at all, the plan indicated may be applied at one
quarter the sum expended upon many existing works.
Let me now direct your attention to some ‘of those meteorolo-
gical effects which, without pretending to any very intimate know-
ledge of that interesting science, I nevertheless believe exercise
an important influence in promoting the efficiency of drainage, as
well as that completeness in that operation will in its turn have
an equally observable effect over meteorological causes them-
selves. It is very common to speak of undrained land as being
cold, and a more significant designation could hardly be given,
for it is literally so, and that at a time when, for the purposes of
vegetation, it ought to be the warmest. ‘The following observya-
tions on evaporation and filtration (for which we are indebted to
the patient and carefully conducted experiments of my relation,
Mr. Charles Charnock, of Holmfield House, near Ferrybridge)
present some curious facts for ane See demonstrating the
cause of, and suggesting the remedy for, this baneful coldness.
(See Table in next page.)
In the first place, it is observable how much greater is the
amount of evaporation from water than from land, and how near,
as shown by columns 2 and 5, the evaporation from wet land is to
that from water itself—hence the wetter the land the greater the
evaporation, and, as the well-known consequence, the greater its
excess of coldness. We have a familiar illustration of Nature’s
process in this particular, in the method often adopted to cool
our wine on a hot summer’s day, by wrapping a wet napkin round
the bottle and exposing it to the full sun: as the moisture from
the napkin is evaporated, the temperature of the wine declines to
almost freezing-point. The school-boy’s experiment of producing
ice before a fire, by incasing the vessel in wet flannel and adding
a portion of salt to the water, is a similar example, with this addi-
tional lesson to the farmer—that to apply certain limes to wet
land is only increasing the evil.
You will then, in the second place, notice how much less the
evaporation is in the shade than in the sun, and consequently that
wet land must be the warmest when there is the least sun. From
which cause no doubt arises that too vigorous growth of young
wheat, so often observable on such land in the winter and spring
months, which never fails to produce serious injury to the crop in
all its subsequent stages. And, thirdly, you will remark how com-
paratively small a proportion of the rain which falls is shown to
be carried off by filtration. ‘Taking the average of the five years’
experiments, it will be seen that only 4-82 ese out of 24-60
inches of rain, passed through the land to the depth of three feet.
We might, therefore, be led at the first glance to infer that land
in general stands less in need of drainage, or may be drained by
2
“AUNING
r)
On D
516
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On Draining. 517
a less perfect system, than is supposed to be requisite, did not
daily experience oppose such a conclusion. We must, therefore,
endeavour to reconcile this seeming incongruity, and deduce at
the same time from the facts disclosed such data as may guide us
in determining the essential requisites to ensure completeness of
effect in drainage.
Now, although there can be no reason to question the accuracy
of the experiments on filtration made by Mr. Dickinson, and
recorded in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, vol. v. part i., yet there is a very considerable differ-
ence in the aggregate result, as shown by them and the account
before us. “ The first important fact disclosed,” says the com-
mentator, page 148, “is that, of the whole annual rain, about
42% per cent, or 11,8, inches out of 26,55, have filtered through
the soil ;’ whereas in the Holmfield House experiments there is
only Shean; as we have already said, 4:82 inches out of 24°60, or
about 5, per cent. against 42! per cent. This is certainly a
very great and somewhat irreconcilable difference in the result of
two experiments made professedly to ascertain the same fact.
Now, on referring to the ‘ Memoirs of the Literary and Philoso-
phical Society of Manchester,’ vol. v. part ii., you will finda paper
on rain, evaporation, &c., from the pen of the celebrated Dr. John
Dalton (the father of the science of meteorology), wherein he ex-
plains a series of experiments made by himself and his friend Mr.
Thomas Hoyle junior, to ascertain the amount of evaporation and
filtration, and giving the following table of results, viz. :—
Water through the Two Pipes.
Mean Mea
Months. MAG he 8 a ase Mean. Raine Evapora-
W796i (179% | .LI98. oe
January : : 1°897 680 | 1°774/] 1°450 | 2°458 | 1-008
February 2 : 1°778 e918: Gle122 1¢273 1°801 *528
March . é °431 °070 °335 *279 °902 *623
April . fs B *220 295 °180 +232 NLOeity) 1+485
May “ 2°027 | 2+443 °010 1°493 | 4°177 2°684
June * : °17) +726 <6 299 | 2°483 | 2°184
July : °153 °025 ee 059 | 4:154 | 4:°095
August ° ° . oD °504 168 | 3°554 | 3°386
September . : O76 Son °325 | 3°279 | 2-954
October : 7 aie 680 Ain 224 2:°899 2°672
November . od 1-044 | 1°594 °879 | 2°934 2°055
December . : °200 | 3:°077 1°878.| 1°718 3°202 1°484
ee | |
6°877 | 10°934 | 7-379 | 8-402 | 33-560 | 25-158
Rain . : - | 30°629 | 38°791 | 31-259
Evaporation . ~ | 23°725 | 27°857 | 23-862
‘* Having got a cylindrical vessel of tinned iron,” says the Doctor, “ ten
VOL. X, 2M
518 On Draining.
inches in diameter and three feet deep, there were inserted into it two
pipes turned downwards for the water to run off into bottles: the one pipe
was near the bottom of the vessel, the other was an inch from the top.
The vessel was filled up, for a few inches, with gravel and sand, and all
the rest with good fresh soil. Things being thus cireumstanced, a regular
register has been kept of the quantity of rain-water that ran off from the
surface of the earth through the upper pipe (whilst that took place), and
also of the quantity of that which sank down through the three feet of
earth, and ran out through the lower pipe. A rain-gauge of the same dia-
ney was kept close by, to find the quantity of rain for any corresponding
Ime.”
You will notice that the general result of these experiments
accords pretty nearly with that of the Holmfield account; and —
yet it may be readily conceived that circumstances of situation
and stratification may often occasion as wide a difference in the
amount of filtration as is shown between Mr. Dickinson’s and
Mr. Charnock’s observations.
On an examination of the details registered in the account
before us, it will be evident that the amount of filtration is not
exclusively dependent on the fall of rain; but that a variety of
other causes combine to affect its proportion. or instance, in
March, April, May, June, and July, of 1842, the fall of rain was
13-65 inches, and the filtration for the same period was only 2°05
inches; whilst in April, 1846, there was 5-97 of rain and 2:99 of
filtration. Similar instances are also noticeable in Mr, Dickin-
son’s details. From March to October, inclusive, of 1840, a fall
of 11°52 inches of rain is recorded, without any filtration ; but in
November, 1842, the rain was 5°77, with 5 inches of filtration.
Dr. Dalton’s table also shows the same variations. The lesson,
therefore, derivable from these experiments, so far as regards fil-
tration by drains, is one rather of a speculative than of a definite
character ; for, allhough we are assured filtration must be secured,
we are left with a large and varying margin as to the proportion.
We must not, however, overlook the fact, that all the registered
details show occasionally an amount of filtration nearly equal to
the rain that falls, and therefore, in determining the size of pipe
to be used, the ready exit of this maximum quantity must be
provided for.
Considering the Holmfield House observations as a whole, and
the result of each experiment in conjunction with the others, they
establish very conclusively this important fact—that drainage, to
be complete in its effects, must secure the greatest and most uni-
form amount of filtration of which the land is capable with a
given outlay ; for of course there is always a compensating balance
between cost and effect to be regarded. Seeing then that, even
in a comparatively open subsoil of gravel and calcareous sand,
this desirable proportion of the rain that falls only very occasion-
On Draining. 519
ally passes off by filtration at a depth of 3 feet, how is it possible
in the retentive clay subsoils to obtain the proper proportion at a
depth of 4 feet, with any wide interval between the drains? A
judicious difference may be made where the land is intended to
remain permanently in grass, and where it may be sufficient to
remove merely the really injurious surplus water, without laying
it so perfectly dry as is essential to the most profitable cultiva-
tion of arable land. Much has of late been said upon the efficacy
of what are termed air-drains—that is, a drain at the head of the
field connected with each of the parallel drains, and so with the
main-drain, producing a current of air through the whole. Ina
former paper before the Wakefield Farmer’s Club in 1843, and
which was published at the request of that body, I suggested the
adoption of head-drains, showing, as I then conceived, their be-
nefit; but further reflection led me to doubt their advantage,
and to discontinue their application. They not only add to the
cost of the work, but, having a current of air through the drains,
must necessarily tend to the early decay of all the pipes of a pe-
rishable character, as we see exemplified in the brickwork of
many of the railway tunnels; as well as to promote the growth
into the pipes of any roots that may approach them.
There yet remains to be attained one other desideratum in the
execution of drainage, which perhaps more than any other would
facilitate the operation and reduce its cost, and so in all the strong
clay lands allow of the drains being sufficiently near to ensure
completeness without an extravagant outlay. I allude to the
application of some better mode of cutting the drains, either
wholly or in part mechanical, whereby a more suitable section of
cut would be obtaimed without the removal of so much of the
subsoil as is now necessary. A course of experiments are being
made, which, so far as they have yet gone, promise success, and |
hope ere yery long to be able to announce the attainment * of
the object.
York, Oct. 1849.
* Tam since fully satisfied, by further experiments, of the practicability of con-
structing a very efficient implement, to be worked by manual power, whereby the
cutting of drains to a depth of 3 feet in suitable subsoils may be accomplished at a
cost of ¢d. per yard, in lieu of 3d. as by the present means, and without encumbering
the land with so much of the subsoil.
520 Causes of the Presence of Phosphates
XX VIT.— On the Causes of the general Presence of Phosphates in
the Strata of the Earth, and in all fertile soils; with Observa-
tions on Pseudo-Coprolites, and on the possibility of converting
the Contents of Sewers and Cesspools into Manure.—By W.
Bucktanp, D.D., Dean of Westminster.
Proressor Liepie five or six years ago invited the attention of
agriculiurists to the possibility of applyig to the same use as
bone-dust and guano the fossil bones and coprolites which occur
together in certain beds of the has formation. This invitation
took place not many months after I had the honour of conducting
him to the well-known bone-bed in the lower region of the lias,
at the Aust Passage Cliffs, on the left bank of the Severn, near
Bristol, where two beds of lias (each from one to two feet thick)
are densely loaded with dislocated bones and teeth and scales of
extinct reptiles and fishes, interspersed abundantly with coprolites
derived from animals of many kinds, which seem to have converted
that region into the cloaca maxima of ancient Gloucestershire, at
the time of the commencement of the formation of the lias.
Coprolites are also dispersed plentifully through the strata of
many other parts of the has, e.g. on the coast at Lyme Regis ;
but neither there nor in the bone-bed at Aust Passage is a suff-
cient quantity accessible at a cost that would repay the digging
for the express purpose of collecting these mineralized fragments
of skeletons and fzecal balls of digested bones for use as a sub-
stitute for recent bone-dust or guano.
Geologists have long been acquainted with the abundant occur-
rence of rolled fragments of the bones and teeth of large qua-
drupeds, and of whales and sharks, and also of the bones and teeth
of many marine fishes, in the tertiary beds of gravel and shells,
called crag, in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk; and in 1846
Professor Henslow Jaid a paper before the British Association at
Cambridge, on the abundant occurrence of the ear bones of whales
in the crag beds of Felixstow, on the coast of Suffolk, together with
large quantities of rolled pebbles of phosphates of lime (which he
then supposed to be coprolites) among the miscellaneous gravel
and shells that compose the bulk of the crag formation.
About this time also, Professor Solly’s analysis of these sup-
posed coprolites proved their chemical composition to be nearly
identical with that of real coprolites from the lias; and the atten-
tion of agriculturists was invited to their use as a manure of nearly
equal value with guano or bone-dust. Mr. Solly’s advice to
agriculturists to make use of this newly discovered storehouse of -
fertility has been duly responded to; and many thousand tons of
these pebbles and bones have been collected from the shore near
Felixstow ; whilst many occupiers of inland farms near Felixstow
in the Strata of the Earth. 521
and Woodbridge have been and are still collecting similar pebbles
from superficial beds of gravel of the crag (eeahiou! varying
in thickness from one foot to many feet, “and extending over
areas of variable extent and irregular forms, modified by the
sweep of currents, by which the bottom of the tertiary sea was
affected during the formation of the crag.
The contents of these crag gravel-beds are of three kinds,—
]. Siliceous sand, and rolled chalk-flints and miscellaneous gravel.
2. Marine shells, and rolled bones and rolled teeth of land
quadrupeds and fishes. 3. Rolled pebbles, resembling cropolites,
among many thousands of which in the coilections of Professor
Henslow and Professor Solly, | have never found one that has
just pretensions to that name and title; although, from this acci-
dental fictitious resemblance, the name of coprolite manure has
obtained an agricultural and commercial currency, which now
cannot be withdrawn, but to which the name of pseudo-coprolite
would be more appropriate; better still would be the name of
phosphorite, which I shall use in the following observations.
Mr. Lawes has established, on the east bank of Deptford creek,
near Greenwich, very extensive works for grinding to powder these
false coprolites or phosphates, and my attention will be directed—
1. To the origin of the pebbles, and the causes which have
charged them with phosphoric compounds, 2. To the causes
that have dispersed similar phosphoric compounds through nearly
all rocks and soils. 3. To the possibility of imitating the natural
processes that co-operated to their production, and of converting
the valuable phosphates of our sewers to the manufacture of a
similar manure, by placing sewage-water in conditions analogous
to those which attended the formation of phosphates in the crag,
and in other strata formed at the bottom of ancient seas and lakes.
We may here observe that the presence of peroxide of iron,
which pervades all these pebbles, and incrusts or pervades also
all the rolled fragments of bones and teeth, and the shells of the
crag formation, may be an accident not essential to the production
of the phosphorites, though possibly auxiliary to or connected
with it.
I believe the essential condition was the admixture (in a fluid
or semi-fluid state) of all the now consolidated ingredients of the
marlstone and of the septaria (which we use to make our Roman
cement), viz., of clay, carbonate of lime, and protoxide of iron, in
a state of mud on the sea bottom, at the time of the disengage-
ment of phosphoric compounds from the dung and putrefying
bodies of fishes, and of molluscous animals and marine worms,
at the bottom of the seas in which the deposition of the London
clay was going on. ‘These conditions that attended the depo-
sition of the material of the London clay, were similar to those
attending the deposits of sedimentary mud (subsequently con-
522 Causes of the Presence of Phosphates
verted to beds of clay and marl) in all geological formations, since
the waters were first peopled with swimming creatures of ten
thousand kinds, with creeping things innumerable, both small and
great beasts.
From the first creation of fishes to fill and multiply in the
waters, there must have been a never-ceasing deposition of phos-
phoric compounds in every bed of mud that was in progress of
accumulation at the bottom of all inhabited portions of seas, and
lakes, and rivers ; and thus the fecal dejections of all subaqueous
animated nature must, by their decomposition, have supplied
daily and hourly accessions of matter convertible to phosphorite.
There must have been also a further never-ceasing supply of
phosphates from the decay of the bodies of all these animals after
their death, 7. e., from the dead bodies of all fishes and molluscs
and sea-worms that were not devoured by other animals.
From these twofold sources incessant additions of phosphoric
matter must at all times have been falling into decay, and mixing
phosphoric compounds with the earthy sediments at the bottom
of ail inhabited waters; and these incessant and almost univer-
sally diffused supplies of animal exuviz must, in the act of decom-
position, have been continually evolving phosphoric compounds
in the nascent state, which is the state most apt to enter into new
chemical combinations.
Where the bottom of the sea was covered only with siliceous
sand, no phosphoric combinations could take place; and hence
the barrenness of the great siliceous sandy deserts of the world ;
but wherever the bottom of the water contained (in an unconsoli-
dated state) the ingredients of future marl, or marlstones, or
septaria, conditions were present favourable to the formation of the
new combinations of phosphorite.
Now, as both phosphate and carbonate of lime are soluble in
water charged with carbonic acid, and as carbonic acid is one of
the most abundant substances in nature, evolved under all kinds
of animal and vegetable decay, it follows that wherever decom-
position of faecal dejections, or of dead animals, or of sea-weeds
was going on, over the entire bottom of all the ancient seas,
and great oceans, beds of these cumulative additions, in every
day and every hour of antediluvian time, became the grand
receiver-general and cloaca maxima of the terraqueous globe, an
universal laboratory and conservative storehouse of universally
dispersed manurance for the future corn-fields and pastures of the
earth, when these ancient sea-bottoms should be raised up to
become dry lands, and in process of time be converted into vine-
yards and oliveyards, and lands of wheat and barley, for the sus-
tentation of man, and of land animals, of higher functions and
higher organization than those multifold generations of marine
reptiles, and fishes, and worms, and creeping things which were
in the Strata of the Earth. 523
the appointed purveyors of future food for man, destined by
the functions of their daily digestion, and of their life and death
and decay, to lay up stores of universal fertility in the deep foun-
dations of the earth, and to prepare the nascent strata in the very
act of their construction, to become, in due time, a grateful soil
to reward the labours of the agriculturist.*
As the processes we have been tracing in the London clay are
types of operations that have more or less pervaded all deposits
formed under water, in all formations, I will state further parti-
culars respecting this London clay. Phosphoric matter, elabo-
rated in the bodies of animals, has not only become combined
with the earthy ingredients of its larger septaria, the Roman
cement stones, but also with the millions of minor concretions
that crowd the London clay, and which often envelope fragments
of some animal or vegetable that formed a nucleus around which
the materials of these concretions were collated and aggregated
while in a fluid state.
Many of these half-calcareous concretions in the London clay
contain enough of phosphoric matter to place them in the family
of pseudo-coprolites, the history of which, im other formations, !
shall presently describe; we are now considering the fate and
fortune that has attended these minor phosphoriferous concre-
tions of the London clay. From their matrix in the London
clay they were dislodged by the waters of the seas of the eocene
period, and accumulated by myriads at the bottom of those shal-
low seas where is now the coast of Suffolk. Here they were long
rolled, together with the bones of large mammalia and fishes,
and with the shells of molluscous creatures that lived in shells.
From the bottom of this sea they have been raised to form the
dry lands along the shore of Suffolk, whence they are now ex-
tracted as articles of commercial value, and ground to powder in
the mills of Mr. Lawes, at Deptford, to supply our farmers with
a valuable substitute for guano, under the accepted name of copro-
ite manure.
But it is not certain that these pseudo-coprolites collected all
their phosphates whilst they were in the Londonclay. Itis possible
that many, if not all of them, and also many fragments of the larger
septaria, which we find rolled and broken in the crag, may have
absorbed a larger dose of phosphorus than they contained before
* This self-same process, which has beén made to lay up in every stratum, during
the act of its formation, stores of fertility for the then future ands and continents, pro-
duced a simultaneous reaction advantageous to the sanitary state and habitability of
the waters of the sea; for had not this or some other process of purification been in
continual operation, from the time when living things of all dimensions, from the
infusorial animalcules to the sharks and great sea lizards and whales (Enaliosauri and
Ceteosauri), were first created to inhabit the sea, the exuvie of these myriads (not-
withstanding diffusion) would, in a few centuries, have tainted all oceans and waters
with impurities exceeding those of which we hear so much complaint in the waters of
the Thames at London Bridge.
524 Causes of the Presence of Phosphates
they were washed out of their matrix in the London clay, from
the dejections and decaying bodies of fishes and molluscs and
worms, that inhabited the tertiary sea, at whose bottom they
were for a long time rolling, while the gravel of the crag was in
process of formation.
The bodies of the molluscous creatures that inhabited the very
shells of which the crag is composed, must have given out phos-
phoric compounds during their decay, which may, by absorption,
have supplied additional phosphoric matter to that which these
concretions brought with them from their matrix in the London
clay. Experiments are wanting to show whether concretions of
other fragments of marlstone, and of marl, and chalk, and soft
limestone, bathed in sewage water, mixed with salt enough to
equal that in sea-water, and with peroxide of iron, and burnt clay,
and at a temperature approaching the probable warmth of the
shallow sea-water in which the crag was formed, may absorb
and form similar phosphoric compounds from the ingredients of
sewage. I earnestly commend such experiments to the care of
the many accomplished chemists who are now directing their
attention to sanitary and agricultural improvements.
There seems to be little doubt as to the power of the chemical
agents I have spoken of, the chief difficulty lies in the time
required to effect the desired combinations. Experiments on this
subject are at the present time of pressing importance, with a
view to the grand desideratum of turning to a profitable use the
noxious contents of our sewers. The great difficulty seems to lie
in discovering a method of expediting the processes of com-
bination.*
In many of the red marl districts, from Devonshire to Durham,
through the entire centre of England, it is the practice to lay
quicklime in long heaps parallel to the hedges of fields under
preparation for wheat, and to mix lime with the vegetable rubbish
and rough soil from the ditch and foreland margin of the field ;
these are left together many days before the compound is laid on
the furrows, and ploughed into the soil before the wheat is sown.
* The stronger affinity of lime for carbonic than for phosphoric acid may cause a
decomposition and conversion of carbonate of lime, or of marl, or marlstone, or chalk,
into phosphate of lime by a substitution of phosphoric for carbonic acid; and a similar
effect might follow if slightly baked or sun-dried clay or marl, or powdered chalk, be
submerged in sewage. The result being (as Dr. Lyon Playfair has suggested) a kind
of exchange and pseudomorphic conversion of carbonate to phosphate of lime. It is
probable that by a similar process the phosphorites were formed in all the strata of the
crag. But the formation of these strata occupied longer periods ef time than the
chemists have at their disposal, and the great desideratum to which I would call
attention, is the discovery of a cheap and easy method of accelerating this process. I
repeat what I have before stated, that the addition of carbonic acid to sewage, and of
protoxide of iron and salt, and moderate heat, may induce conditions, approaching to
those under which analogous compounds were formed from putrescent animal and
vegetable matter in ancient deposits, both under salt and fresh water, throughout all
geological time.
in the Strata of the Earth. 525
The efficacy of this manure may in part be due to the decompo-
sition of the phosphates contained by the vegetable rubbish, and
by the weeds and roots in the soil of the field, during two or three
weeks’ contact with quicklime.*
The practice of manuring with quicklime for a crop of wheat,
though not exclusively limited to the red mar! districts, pervades
all those parts of England in which this kind of red soil prevails ;
and as Dr. Lyon Playfair has found phosphate of lime in very
many samples of this marl, it may exist more or less through its
whole extent.
Before the introduction of lime asa manure, more than one hun-
dred years ago, the preparation for wheat was a coat of red marl, the
decomposition of which, by the winter’s atmospheric action, must
have set free many of its phosphoric and other ingredients.
Quickiime produces a similar effect more rapidly. By the first
rain that falls upon it, lime-water is formed; this lime-water (by
its affinity for carbonic acid) disengages from the carbonate of
lime within the marl, enough cabonic acid to make it dissolve
further quantities of carbonate of lime, and also of phosphate of
lime, from the phosphoriferous mar], in a state fit to be absorbed
by the next crop of corn.
It has been stated that the quicklime sets free carbonic acid
from all the vegetable matter in the soil to which it is applied,
and that this acid decomposes and renders soluble not only the
phosphoric and numerous other compounds of vegetable matter
present in the clods (viz. old roots and stems and dead leaves),
but also any mineral phosphoric compounds that may be present
in the marl. The practice of laying marl on land under prepara-
tion for wheat, was in usea century and a half ago in Devonshire,
and through the Midland districts, extending thence N.E. through
Worcestershire and Staffordshire, into the south of Derbyshire,
and along the valley of the Trent and vale of York, to the mouth
of the Tees. Fields on the red marl through this district are
full of old deep marl-pits, that were abandoned as soon as the
cessation of the use of marl followed the introduction of lime,
which was found to be a more quickly acting and more efficient
substitute.
in water, and fit to be absorbed by the new crop. Now as one of the essential elements
of this crop is phosphorus, should any fixed phosphates be present in the soil or subsoil,
they also would be decomposed in consequence of the lime setting free carbonic acid
from fragments of dead plants present in the soil; this acid (being absorbed by rain
water) enables it to dissolve both carbonate and phosphate of lime from any fixed
carbonate or phosphate of lime contained in the marl.
ST SE ET LTE TEINS
( 526)
XXVIII.—Report on the Exhibition and Trial of Implements at
the Norwich Meeting, 1849. By H.S. Tuompson.
CONTENTS.
Pag
InTRODUCTORY REMARKS : . ; ; é : 527
Prizes offered by the Society : C : : EY,
Judges and Consulting Engineer, Names ie Addresses of . 5384
Awards . fe ‘ é : é : ‘ i « 004
Ploughs . : : ‘ : : : ; : . 040
Skim or Paring Ploughs . . : : ; . Ys O4)
Draining Ploughs . : ° : . : 5 einiOat
Drills. : é 2 : : ; : . 642
Wand-drilling salelienee : ‘ : : é ‘ . 0438
Broadcast Manure Distributor . : ‘ : . - o40
Horse Seed-Dibblers . ; A é : : : . 043
Scarifiers or Grubbers : : : ‘ : : #5 fod
Harrows ; < ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ é » O45 -
Norwegian Harrows : . 5 : : : 2 O40
Horse-Hoes on the fiat : : : é : : . 046
Horse-Hoes on the ridge. ; . : ; F . 46
Horse-Rakes_ . : ; : , : : : a1 O46
Drain Tile or Pipe Machines. ‘ ‘ ; : . OAT
Steam-Engines. : - : : : ° : . 549
Threshing Machines . : : : ° ° : . dod
Steaming Apparatus . : i ; . é g . 909
Corn-Dressing Machines . ‘ 6 : : ‘ - 560
Grinding Mills ‘ é 5 ‘ ‘ : : . d61
Chaff-Cutters . : : ; : : : : =) O02
Linseed and Corn-Crushers : ° ‘ ° j eS
Carts and Waggons . : : : ° : é ee OO
Haymaking Machines : . : é : ° - 066
Gorse-Bruisers : : ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ « 666
Cake-Breakers . : : ; ; : : ; ON,
Portable Railway . ° : ; i ‘ : . 668
Miscellaneous Articles F . : : « 668
Amos’s Machine for testing fea Peat 1 $ 4 =) 069
Report on the Exhibition of Implements. 527
Tue Eastern Counties have long been celebrated for the manu-
facture of agricultural machinery; and on the occasion of the
Society’s late Meeting at Norwich great exertions were made by
the implement-makers of that district to maintain their well-
earned reputation. [The number of implements at York was
unprecedentedly large, yet three hundred more were exhibited at
Norwich; and it is satisfactory to be able to trace from year to
year a gradual weeding out of bad implements, and a progressive
improvement in their general principles of construction, which is
highly encouraging to those who take an active interest in this
department of the Society’s proceedings.
On no occasion has this improvement been more marked than
at the last Meeting, and it was particularly observable in the
steam-engines, carts, and waggons. ‘The nature of the im-
provements introduced into these machines will be described
in a subsequent part of this report, and it will be sufficient to
state here that the rapid progress made in these cases may be
partly attributed to the improved mode recently adopted of testing
the machines under trial, and partly to the greater degree of
precision with which their faulty construction was pointed out in
the reports of the judges at the York meeting.
This opinion is one the correctness of which it is desirable to
ascertain, as, if true, it goes far to prove that the rapidity with
which the improvement of agricultural implements progresses is
materially influenced by the mode of trial adopted, and the kind
of judges employed by the Royal Agricultural Society. The
whole question, therefore, has an important bearing on the future
management of these trials; and to obtain data for arriving at
a sound conclusion respecting it, it will be necessary to give
a brief sketch of the progress which the Society has hitherto
made in rendering the exhibition and trial of implements effective
for the purposes for which they were designed.
The Society’s early shows of implements must be viewed chiefly
in the light of bazaars or expositions. ‘Those who attended the
Cambridge meeting in 1840 will not have forgotten the brilliant
collection of implements exhibited by the Messrs. Ransome, and
thongh every one praised the excellence of their workmanship,
and admired the skill with which eighty different kinds of ploughs
were grouped tier above tier with artistic effect, still it was evident
that this imposing array was not prepared in anticipation of such
a searching ordeal as that to which candidates for prizes are now
subjected, but was rather intended to teach the visitors what
sort of implements they ought to have, and to show them to what
perfection this branch of manufacture had been brought.
Nor could it well have been otherwise, since the knowledge
028 Fieport on the Exhibition of Implements
of these matters possessed by a few of the leading manufacturers
was quite in advance of the general agriculture of the day.
Neither stewards nor judges had yet acquired the experience
requisite for the adequate discharge of their office, so that such
men as Messrs. Garrett, Hornsby, Ransome, and a few others
would have laughed in their sleeves had they been told that they
could learn anything i in the Society’s show-yard. In spite, how-
ever, of acreditable display on the part of a few leading firms,
the majority of the implements exhibited at these early shows
were of inferior construction and workmanship, and the general
appearance of the exhibitions meagre and unsatisfactory.
The attention of some of the leading members of the Society
(especially of the late lamented Mr. Handley) was earnestly
directed to the improvement of this department, and they soon
perceived that httle was gained by collecting implements in a
show-yard for people to gaze at, unless an adequate trial could be
made of their respective merits. To attain this end great
exertions were made, and every improvement in the mode of
trial was followed by so marked an increase in the number and
merit of the implements brought forward at subsequent shows,
as to prove the strongest incentive to further effort.
At the Cambridge and Liverpool meetings, when these trials
were in their infancy, their main attraction consisted of ploughing-
matches on a large scale, which gratified sight-seers, but gave no
results that could be depended upon, and, therefore, disappointed
all practical men. It would occupy time unnecessarily to trace
the gradual changes which have led to the discontinuance of these
showy exhibitions, and the substitution in their place of quiet
business-like trials in the presence of stewards and judges alone.
Suffice it to say, that what they have lost in display they have
gained in efficiency, and, consequently, in favour with those classes
for whose benefit they were designed. At the York meeting the
improved mode of trying the threshing-machines supplied a de-
ficiency which until that time had been much felt, viz., the
absence of any means of ascertaining the amount of power ex-
pended in working the machines ane trial ; and it may now
be asserted with some confidence that, with the exception of an
occasional error or accident, the best implements are uniformly
selected for prizes.
It now remains to answer the question proposed for con-
sideration, viz., to what extent the great improvement made of
late in agricultural implements is due to the exertions of this
Society, and with this view a tabular statement is subjoined,
which shows the relative extent and importance of the Society’s
two first and two last shows of implements :—
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 529
|
Awards.
No. of |
| Exhibitors. yl |
| Money. | Medals. |
| | a ee
peesos Oxiord . < . s--« | 23 5 | 4
| 1840 | Cambridge. . . .| 36 Ohba
Ea Vork. 6) ieee. yess eyo: 146 OR a | |
be hlS849..< |) Norwich)» 5:0) | +:: «ss 145 S64 va ulen wl ieee
| |
From this it will be seen that at Cambridge, where the trial
of implements was confined to one day and was in other respects
so immature as to be of little practical value, the number of
exhibitors was only thirty-six, and the judges, in whom a certain
discretionary power was vested, awarded no money and but seven
medals, in consequence of the scarcity of objects deserving of
reward ; whilst at York, eight years after, when the trials lasted
several days and had attained a considerable degree of perfection,
the number of exhibitors had increased fourfold. The additional
amount offered in prizes at the later meetings has undoubtedly
assisted in creating this great increase of competition, but it
cannot be considered the principal cause, since the implement-
makers are unanimous in declaring that, even when most success-
ful, the prizes they receive do not reimburse them for their
expenses and loss of time. How then are the increased exer-
tions of the machine-makers to be accounted for? Simply by
the fact that the trials of implements have gradually won the
confidence of the farmer, so that when selecting implements for
purchase, he gives the preference to those which have received
the Society's mark of approval. This inference is corroborated
by the makers themselves, who readily admit that the winner of
a prize for any implement of general utility is sure to receive an
ample amount of orders, and that the award of a medal is worth
on an average OO/,
It thus appears that concurrently with the extension and
improvement of the trials, a corresponding increase and improve-
ment has taken place in the exhibitions of implements, and though
it is difficult to prove that the one has been the cause of the other,
still the probability that such is the case almost amounts to cer-
tainty when it is found that classes of implements which are so
faulty in construction as to be strongly animadverted on by the
judges at one meeting, are at the next nearly free from those
defects which had been previously pointed out. This is precisely
what has occurred during the past year in the case of carts and
steam-engines, which were severely criticised at York, and found
530 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
to be greatly improved at Norwich in those points to which atten-
tion had been specially directed.
If the foregomg reasoning be correct (and the facts on which
it is founded will not admit of question) the Society may fairly
claim to have been in great measure the authors of the very rapid
improvement made of late in almost every kind of agricultural
implement. ‘The managers of the Society have, ther efore, every
reason to be satisfied with the past, and it may perhaps not be
thought presumptuous to endeavour briefly to show that the
prospect for the future is equally encouraging.
It has been already stated that the trials as at present conducted
are effectual for the selection of the best implements exhibited.
‘To have obtained this result is to have done much—t is, in fact, to
have attained all that has hitherto been contemplated or desired ;
no sooner, however, had it been secured than another point of
equal importance suggested itself, and the experience of the
Norwich meeting has shown it to be no less attainable than the
good results which have already been realized. The object
alluded to is to obtain so accurate a register of the force required
to work the different kinds of agricultural machinery, that the
public and the manufacturers themselves may be informed
whether the results obtained are satisfactory, when compared with
the means employed. Thesame arrangements which are required
for deciding this question will also in certain cases be useful in
showing in a complex machine the respective efficiency of its
several parts. To make this more plam, it may be said that what
has been hitherto accomplished has been limited to selecting the
best of a class—the point now aimed at is to decide whether that
class is a good one; whether, therefore, the best implement in it
possesses intrinsic ‘merit, and, if not, which are the defective
parts which require amendment. A good illustration of the im-
portance of this object occurred in the trial of threshing-machines
at Norwich, where two of the best machines produced very nearly
equally good results. When, however, the different parts of
these machines were separately examined, one was found to excel
very much in its horse-works, the other in its barn-works, so
that it is fair to presume that if they could have borrowed from
one another, both would have been improved, and at any rate
neither of them are as good as they will probably be made now
that their deficiencies have been pointed out.
The full importance of this question will probably not be
recognised at first sight, but it 1s one which will assuredly be
more and more appreciated in proportion as the necessity becomes
more apparent for increasing the amount of capital applied to
the cultivation of the land. Leaving all political probabilities
and improbabilities out of the question, it is clear that the British
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 931
farmer is exposed to constantly increasing competition, and it
becomes him to take a rational survey of the means which he pos-
sesses for meeting it, and to consider in what way he can make
the most of the resources within his reach. Whuilst making such
an estimate of his position, he can scarcely fail to perceive that
the abundance of British capital and the superiority of British
machinery are important items in his fayour when called upon to
contend against the superior climate of other corn-growing coun-
tries ; and without mooting the question whether or no these alone
will enable him to maintain his position, it is yet sufficiently clear
that if he neglects these advantages he cannot retain the pro-
minent place he now occupies amongst the leaders of the agricul-
tural world. It would be foreign to the subject of the present
report to offer any suggestions respecting the use of additional
capital, except in so far asit applies to increasing the use of
machinery for farming purposes ; and when considering this point,
the question immediately arises, In what does excellence in
machinery. consist? In any other branch of industry it would
not be necessary to ask this question, as not only are all the
manufacturing community aware that their profit, nay, their
living depends on obtaining any desired result with the smallest
possible amount of motive power, but they are provided with
tests by which any undue expenditure of force would be at
once detected. ‘This, however, is quite out of the farmer's reach,
and it is therefore necessary to tell him that a machine which
makes good work may nevertheless be a bad machine, a wasteful
one that is—which it is very expensive for him to use. ‘This is
precisely the case where a great national society may confer a
great national benefit, by stepping in between the manufacturer
and the public, and telling the former that if he wishes for the
Society's award of merit, he must submit to the most searching
test which scientifie engineers can devise, one which shall enable
the Society to point out those cases where a machine requires the
expenditure of two bushels of corn (in horse-keep) or two bushels
of coal (for steam-power), where only one ought to have done the
work. Many will doubtless think it a hopeless task to introduce
such aceuracy into the trials of farming implements, but it will be
sufficient to refer them to what took place at Norwich, where,
with Mr. Amos’s excellent arrangements and ingenious apparatus,
great progress was made in convincing even the makers them-
selves of the feasibility and advantage of the new mode of trial.
One exhibitor of a threshing-machine (a winner, too, of more
than one important prize at this meeting) publicly confessed that
he did not know how a threshing-machine ought to be made
until he had witnessed the trial on that occasion. In the case
also of drain-tile machines, the merits of two were very nearly
Cr
32 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
balanced until the hand-power machines showed a considerable
difference in the power required to work them. ‘This had pre-
viously escaped notice, but when thus accurately recorded it
materially influenced the decision of the judges. Other instances
might be quoted, but enough has been said to warrant the
assumption that if so much was accomplished when the arrange-
ments were confessedly incomplete, it is reasonable to anticipate
that by judicious encouragement on the part of the Society the
trials of implements may be made productive of stil] higher
benefits to the farmer than they have hitherto been.
PRIZES OFFERED BY THE SOCIETY.
For the Plough best adapted to heavy land . . Five Sovereigns.
For the Plough best adapted to light land. . Five Sovereigns.
For the Plough best adapted for General Purposes _‘ Five Sovereigns.
For the best Paring Plough : : : . Five Sovereigns.
For the best Subsoil Pulverizer é : Five Sovereigns.
For the best Drill for general purposes, which shall
possess the most approved method of distributing
Compost or other Manures in a moist or dry state,
quantity being especially considered
N.B.—Other qualities being equal, the preference will be given to the
Drill which may be best adapted to cover the manure with soil before
the seed is deposited.
Fifteen Sovereigns.
For the best Corn Drill. 2 : . Ten Sovereigns.
For the best Turnip Drill on the flat, which shall
possess the most approved method of distributing
Compost or other Manures in a moist or dry state,
quantity being especially considered :
Ten Sovereigns.
N.B.—Other qualities being equal, the preference will be given to the
Drill which may be best adapted to cover the manure with soil before
the seed is deposited.
For the best Turnip Drill on the ridge, which shall
possess the most approved method of distributing
Compost or other Manures in a moist or dry state,
quantity being especially considered ‘
N.B.—Other qualities being equal, the preference will be given to the
Drill which may be best adapted to cover the manure with soil before
the seed is deposited.
Ten Sovereigns.
For the best Probe) Drill for deposiins Seed ed eane Ten Sovereiens
Manure
For the best Horse Seed Dibbler ° : . Ten Sovereigns.
For the best. Hand Dibbler : : . Three Sovereigns.
For the best Barrow Hand Drill, to ee with cups Three a
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. d00
For the Manure-Distributor which is best adapted
for distributing broadcast any kind of compost or
hand-tillage when in a moist state, and which is> Five Sovereigns.
capable of adjustment for the delivery of any
quantity from ‘Two to ‘Twenty bushels per acre .
For the best Liquid Manure Distributor _. . Five Sovereigns,
For the best Heavy Harrow. : 5 . Five Sovereigns.
For the best Light Harrow ; : : . Five Sovereigns.
For the best Norwegian Harrow 5 : . Five Sovereigns,
For the best Scarifier A : : ; . Len Sovereigns.
For the best Cultivator or Grubber : . Ten Sovereigns.
For the best Horse Hoe on the flat. : . Ten Sovereigns.
For the best Horse Hoe on the ridge . : . Five Sovereigns.
For the best Horse Rake . : . Five Sovereigns.
For the best Machine for making Deine Tiles or
Pipes for Agricultural purposes. Specimens of
Tiles or Pipes to be shown in the Yard: the
price at which they have been sold to be taken; ‘Twenty Sovereigns.
into consideration, and proof of the working of the
Machine to be abe to the satisfaction of the
Judges : 5 :
For the best Set of Tools for General brains . Three Sovereigns.
For the best portable Steam-Engine, applicable i} Fifty Sovereigns.
Threshing or other Agricultural purposes . ‘
For the second best ditto, ditto . : : . Twenty-five Sovereigns.
For the best and most economical Seegene pokee ees aeeeo ste
tus for general purposes . : : : a
For the best portable Threshing Metin. 0 PE eat Twenty-five Sovereigns.
to Horse or Steam-power : :
For the best Corn-Dressing Machine . : Ten Sovereigns.
For the best Grinding-Mill for breaking g Agricaly alls Sewrersioae.
tural produce into fine Meal . ;
For the best Linseed and Corn-Crusher ; . Five Sovereigns,
For the best Chaff-Cutter . : : : - Ten Sovereigns
For the best One-Horse Cart . - : . Ten Sovereigns
For the best Harvest Cart cries ‘ . Ten Sovereigns,
For the best Waggon : . : 4 . Ten Sovereigns
For the best Haymaking Machine. ores, ut Five Sovereigns:
For the best Gorse-Bruiser ; x . Five Sovereigns,
For the best Turnip-Cutter : Siagh in hie . Five Sovereigns.
For the best Oilcake Breaker. 2 : . Five Sovereigns.
Silver Medals estimated
Miscellaneous Awards-and Essential Improvements at ''wenty-six
Sovereigns.
Such sum as the Council
For the Invention of any New Implement . : may think proper to
award.
Vode X. 2N
534 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
PRIZES OFFERED BY ROBERT AGLIONBY SLANEY, ESQ., M.P-
For the best Drain-Plough, to cut out, at one, two,
or three cuts, to shee greatest depth, wich nail
more than four horses, so as to prepare a drain mii
far for deeper cutting . ° ° ° °
For the best Plough, to fill in the soil cast out of
drains, with not more than four horses (two sal Ten Sovereigns.
two abreast), and not to exceed 5/. in cost 5
JUDGES.
Wiiiam N, PArRssown.......... Gravel Lane, Southwark, Surrey.
CHARLES JOHN CARR.......... Belper, Derbyshire.
Wiliam IUISTER Dunsa Banks, Yorkshire.
PlENRY DAV POR hei. fccceses: Dilham, Norfolk.
OWEN WW AMUNS i St, tele Seveaet Overstone Grange, Northamptonshire.
Wi LT AM SHAW, tou vcoscveceee.: Far-Coton, Northamptonshire.
THOMAS HAWKINS .......0..00000 Assington Moor, Suffolk.
PETER LOY Ge Nee Ra ---Naseby, Northamptonshire.
Tuomas W. GRANGER..........Stretham Grange, Cambridgeshire.
JH. NALDER (oiciss aie. Alvescot, Gloucestershire.
Ten Sovereigns.
CoNnsULTING ENGINEER—CHARLES Epwarps Amos (of the Firm of EAsron and
Amos), The Grove, Southwark, Surrey.
AWARDS.
Description of Implement and Name of ,
Exhibitor. Prize.
PLovuaus.
To William Williams, of Bedford, and Law-
rence Taylor, of Cotton End, near Bedford,
for their Patent Wrought-Iron Plough with
Two Wheels, for heavy “land, marked US;
invented, improved, and manufactured by
William Williams, of Bedford
To John Howard and Son, of Bedford, for
their Patent Iron Plough with Two Wheels,
for light land, marked J D; invented and
manufactured by the exhibitors
£5
To William Ball, of Rothwell, near Kettering,
for his Tron Plough for general purposes,
marked ‘ Criterion” Plough; invented by
the exhibitor, and improved by James Biggs,
of Desborough ° :
£5
To George Kilby, of Aa ae aate near
Leicester, for his Turf and Stubble Paring
Plough; invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by Thomas Glover, of Thrussington,
near Leicester : e
Supsoin PuLvERIZER.
To James Comins, of Southmolton, for his Iron
Subsoil Pulverizer ; invented, improved, and
manufactured by the exhibitor . ° °
Referexce to Catalogue.
Stand.
£5 122
37
98
86
18
Article.
11
bo
Price.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849.
AWARDS.
Ov
eo
Or
Description of Implement and Name of
Exhibitor.
DRILLs.
|
To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Gran- )|
tham, for his Drill for general purposes, and [|
Depositing Compost; invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibitor , |
near Saxmundham, for their Eleven-row
Lever Corn-Drill; improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibitors.
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, =
for his Six-row Tumip Drill on the flat, ae
for Depositing Compost; invented,
proved, and manufactured by the exhib?
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, :
To Richard Hornsby, of ai ey Grantham, 4
near Saxmundham, for their Two-row Turni p
Drill on the ridge, and for Depositing Com-
post; invented and manufactured by the | |
exhibitors . = z
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works,
near Saxmuudham, for their Patent Drop
Drill on the flat and ridge; invented and
manufactured by the exhibitors
|
|
}
Hanp SEED-DIBBLE.
To Dr. Newington, of Knowle Park, Frant,
near Tonbridge Wells, for his Patent Kco-
nomic Hand Seed-Dibble; invented by the||
exhibitor, and manufactured by Mary Wed- [|
lake and Co., of Hornchurch, near Romford,
and Penfold, of Ticehurst, Sussex. ;
Hanp-Barrow DrRItt.
To John Holmes, of Norwich, for his Hand-)|
Barrow Drill, to work with Cups; invented,
improved, and manufactured by the exhibitor} |
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works near
Beverley, for his machine for Distributing
Pulverized Manures broadcast; invented,
improved, and manufactured by the exhibitor? |
Liquip-MAnurE DISTRIBUTOR.
To Robert and John Reeves, of Bratton, et
Westbury, Wilts, for their Liquid-Manure
Distributor; invented and improved by
Thomas Chandler, of Stockton, Wilts, and
manufactured by the exhibitors .
£15
£10
£10
£10
£10
th
Cr
|
|
Reference to Catalozne.
Stand.
65 1
Sl 10
65 3
8] 8
si | 9
|
1Gy Local
|
|
|
|
S651 - OE
26 51
90 1
PN 2
Atticle.|
!
Price.
eB
a3 «9
27 (0
| 29 9
25
| 24 5
ba si GRS
2 10
10 10
| 30 0
d.
536 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
AWARDS.
| Ref t logue.
Description of Implement and Name of ' eference to Catalogue
Exhibitor. Prize.
Stand | Article. Frice.
LS a7 P
Harrows.
To William Williams, of Bedford, and Law-
rence Taylor, of Cotton End, near Bedford,
for their set of Patent Four-beam Diagonal
Iron Harrows for Heavy Land ; invented by £5 122 3 5 10 0
Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End; im POEs
and manufactured by William Williams, of
Bedford : ° : ° ° °
To William Williams, of Bedford, and Law-
reuce Taylor, of Cotton End, near Bedford,
for their set of Patent Four-beam Diagonal
Tron Harrows for Light Land; invented by
Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End; improved
and manufactured by William Williams, of
Bedford ° ° °
| £5 122 2 415 0
To Stratton, Hughes and Co., of Bristol, for
their improved Norwegian Harrow, with
Bodkin and Shafts; invented by George
Edward Frere, Esq., of Roydon, and the ex-
hibitors; improved and manufactured et by|
the exhibitors 3 .
SCARIFIERS.
To Ransomes and May, of Ipswich, for their
Biddell’s Patent Scarifier with seven wrought-
iron tines, No. 2; invented by Arthur Bid-
dell, of Playford; improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibitors .
£10 116 50 18 18 0
To Smith and Co., of Stamford, for have im-
proved Caltivator or Grubber ; invented by
S. Smith, of Northampton; see and
manufactured by the exhibitors
HorseE-Hoks.
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works,
near Saxmundham, for their patent Horse-
Hoe on tlie flat ; invented and manufactured
by the exhibitors.
his Horse-Hoe on the Ridge; invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibitor .
To William Busby, of Newton-le-Willows, for
£5 9 12 210 O
HorseE-RAKE.
To Willam Williams, of Bedford, and Law-
rence Taylor, of Cotton End, near Bedford,
for their Patent Horse-Rake; invented by 2
Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End; improved £5 a G ‘ng leet
and manufactured by William Williams, of
Bedford - . ° ° °
Or
Ww
a |
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849.
AWARDS.
Reference to Catalogue.
Description of Implement and Name of
Exhibitor. Prize. 1 |
| Stand. | Article.! Price,
DRAIN-TILE OR PireE-MACHINES.
To John Whitehead, of Preston. for his Machine
for making any description of Tiles or Pipes ;
invented and manufactured by the exhibitor
their set of Draining Tools ; manufactured by £3 KenGidgy ale; O4 hile Legon O
the exhibitors 3 : : :
To Mapplebeck and Lowe, of Birmingham, |
STEAM-ENGINES.
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Myon | |
near Saxmundham, for their Six-horse power ||
Portable Steam-Engine; improved and ma-{/
nufactured by the exhibitors . ° -/ |
To Clayton, Shuttleworth and Co., of Lincoln, } |
for their Seven-horse power Portable Steam- |
Engine with improved Tubular Boiler; = £25 5 =|
invented, improved, and manufactured by
the einlhae : : : 5 :
th
Ou
fous)
bo
Or
j=)
Cc
oO
Sia ten
9 | 209 0 0
To William Prockter Stanley, of Peterborough,
for his Portable Steam-Generator with Com- |
pound Tub and Vegetable Pan; invented, £5 4] Sy cgdo 159) 0
improved, and manufactured by the ex- |
hibitors ‘ 3 By Ee ; : |
STEAMING APPARATUS, |
|
THRESHING MACHINES.
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works,
near Saxmundham, for their Bolting Thresh-
ing Machine for Steam or Horse Power; in-
vented and manufactured by the exhibitors
GIS1 00s
CorRN-DRESSING MACHINES. _
To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Grantham,
for his registered Corn-dressing Machine ; in-
vented, improved, and manufactured ty the
exhibitor . ° .
£10 65 12 13 10 0
To Clayton, Shuttleworth and Co., of Lincoln,
for their Grinding Mill for breaking agricul- ! £10 40 0 0
Or
“I
tural produce into fine meal; mavented: im-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibitors
To Hurwood and Turner, of St. Peter’s Foundry,} |
Ipswich, for their Linseed and Corn Crush-
Ing-machine; improved aud manufactured |
by the exhibitors . .
10 10 O
oo
£5 | 107
|
538 Report on the Exhilition of Implements
AWARDS.
Description of Implement and Name of
Exhibitor.
CHAFE-CUTTING MACHINE.
To John Cornes, of Barbridge, near Nantwich, ) |
for his registered Chafi-cutting Machine with
three Knives; invented and manufactured
by the exhibitor . ° : °
CaRTs.
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works near
Beverley, for his improved One-horse Cart,
or Harvest-cart ; improvedand manufactured
by the exhibitor . : : °
HARVEsT-CaRT.
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works, near
Beverley, for his improved One-horse Cart,
or Harvest-cart ; improved and manufactured
by the exhibitor . A : A
W AGGONS. |
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works near|
Beverley, for his Waggon; improved and >
manufactured by the exhibitor . ° |
HAYMAKER.
To Smith and Co., of Stamford, for their Patent
Double-action Haymaker; invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibitors
GORSE-BRUISERS.
To Barrett, Exall, and Andrewes, of Saget
Tron-works, Reading, for their Gorse cutting |
and bruising Machine; invented and manu-
factured by the exhibitors ° ° °
TuRNIP-CUTTING MAGHINE.
To the Executors of the late James Gardner, of
Banbury, for their Patent Turnip-cutting
Machine, with 26 knives for sheep, and 8
Gardner, improved and manufactured by the
Prize.
——_—$—_—- |
£10
£10
£10
£10
knives for beasts; invented by the late James
exhibitors e ° ° ° °
OIL-CAKE MACHINE.
To William Newzam Nicholson, of Newark-on-
Trent, for his Machine for Breaking Oil-cake
for Beasts antl Sheep; invented and manu-
factured by the exhibitor A ; ;
Reference to Catalogue.
Stand. | Article.
26
26
26
95
113
38
38
28
|
Price.
oy Sk
14 0 0
13% 6 0
13 0 O
29 0. ®
lo, to, 0
28 0 O
510 0
dase 0
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849.
AWARDS,
539
Description of Implement and Name of
Exhibitor.
MIscELLANEOUS.
To Ransomes and May, of Ipswich, for their
Patent Universal Corn and Seed Dropping
Machine; invented and manufactured by the
exhibitors . ° : ° .
To William Busby, of Newton-le-Willows,
near Bedale, for his registered Ribbing and
Drillmg Machine; invented by Rev. Wil-
liam Wharton, of Barningham, near Barnard-
castle, and manufactured by the exhibitor .
To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, near
the Manure on the ridge before the Roller,
and combining the two principles of the| |
ridge and flat in the same implement
To Richard Downs, of Ryhall, near Stamford,
for his Plough for general purposes, w ith
Subsoil Attached to it; inv ented and manu-
factured by the exhibitor. :
Grantham, for his invention of =
To Ransomes and May, of Ipswich, for their
Universal Patent Trussed-Beam Iron Plough,
marked YUL; invented by John Clarke,
of Long Sutton, improved and manufactured
by the ‘exhibitors. 4
To James Hunter, of Kelso, N.B., for his Cart
Saddle; invented and manufactured ue! el
exhibitor ° : :
To Wedlake and Thompson, of Union Foundry,
Hornchurch, near Romford, for their Patent
Irrigator ; invented by George Coode, of
Haydock Park, Lancashire ; manufactured
by the exhibitors ; 3
Tc Ransomes and May, of ries for their
Digging Fork; invented by J. Sillett, of
Kelsale, and manufactured by the exhibitors
To John Whitehead, of Preston, for his regis-
tered Churn ; Bees afaotuned by the osdnintias
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works near
Beverley, for his Portable Farm Railway,
Turn-Table, and Waggons; invented, -im-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibitor
To Charles Burrell, of ‘Thetford, for his Cir-
cular-Saw Bench, for aking hurdles or
gates ; invented by Walter Palmer, of South-
acre; improved and manufactured by the
:
|
=
:
exhibitor - : °
Prize.
Silver Medal.
SilveriMedal.|
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal. |
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal,
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal.
if
Reference to Catalogue.
|
Stand. lArticte. | Price
| | Seon O
116 | 49 | 28 0 0
|
|
9 eglO: 3}, tA 14. 20
Ce lel aaa :
125 Fl 610" 0
95
NIG © 4g ome meuberey
98 |
Gora et deo. 0
190 cl a dsb. 20-1080
T16 | 127 0 6 6
75 Ga], Ptah. 0
Ree sae
26 | 48 | to
| 49 | so 10 0
aay
13 | 9 | 45 0 0
540 Report on the Lxhibition of Implements
AWARDS.
Reference to Catalogue.
Description of Implement and Name of
Exhibitor. Prize.
Stand. | Article. Price,
a Ss cl
To Thomas Scragg, of Calveley, near Tar-
porley, for his improvements in cutting wires
and die-plates, as exhibited in his Single- Silver Medal. (039 9 22 0 «0
invented and improved by the exhibitor, and
action Tile-Pipe and Brick-making Machine;
manufactured by James Hewett, of ir an
COMMENDATIONS.
To Thomas Scragg, of Calveley, near Tar-
porley, for his Single-action Tile-Pipe and Hichl
Brick-making Machine; invented and im- ee
proved by the exhibitor, and manufactured
by James Hewett, of Calveley .
commended.
To Hurwood and Turner, of St. Peter’s Foundry,
Ipswich, for their Portable Threshing Ma-
chine; invented and manufactured by the
exhibitors . ; . ; °
Commended. | 107 2 60 0
fo Ransomes and May, of Ipswich, for their 95
Universal Patent Trussed-Beam Iron Plough,
marked YUL; invented by John Clarke,
of Long Sutton, es and manufactured
by. the exhibitors : ‘ ° °
To Richard Downs, of Ryhall, near Stamfor Hi
for his Plough for general purposes, with
Subsoil attached te it; invented and manu-
factured by the exhibitor. ° : :
Commended. | 116 ao 6 0
Commended. | 125 1 610 0O
Ploughs.—The following is the Judges’ Report of the trial of
these implements :—
Heavy Land Plough.—* This prize was awarded to Messrs,
Williams and Taylor, for their plough, Art. 11. The judges
particularly commend this plough, for it was almost the only
one that could make decent work when ploughing 9 inches
deep, which was the depth first attempted. Owing, however,
to the hardness of the ground, the whole were altered to 6
inches, and at that depth it preserved the same superiority.”
Light Land Plough.—‘ The prize for this implement was
awarded to Messrs. Howard and Son, for their champion plough.
In reference to this prize the judges wish to remark that the
Jand upon which the ploughs were tried was of so hard and
stubborn a character, that it was by no means a fair trial for
them. ‘They do not wish to infer that the result would have been
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. d41
different, but they are of opinion that many of the ploughs selected
for trial, which were of excellent construction and first-rate work-
manship, would, under more favourable circumstances, have made
very different work.”
Plough for General Purposes.—“< The prize for this plough was
awarded to Mr. W. Ball, for his ‘ criterion’ plough. On _ both
the light and heavy land it came into very close competition with
the winning ploughs; and for all farms of mixed soils the judges
consider this an excellent implement, and one that will render
two descriptions of ploughs on the same farm quite unneces-
sary.”
Paring Plough.—* This prize was awarded to Mr. G. Kilby,
for a plough invented by Thomas Glover. This plough, for
paring old turf, stands unrivalled; and though there are others
that answer well on stubble, this, for all purposes, was decidedly
the best exhibited.”
Draining Ploughs.—“<The ploughs exhibited for this prize
were either bad in principle, or so hastily and imperfectly
constructed as to be entire failures, and the prize was not
awarded. That invented and exhibited by Mr. Joseph Paul,*
was, on a trial subsequent to the public one, by far the most ef-
fective, though it fell far short of a perfect implement. Whether
it will ever be made to answer all the purposes for which it is
intended it is impossible to say, but the judges are of opinion
that Mr. Paul well deserves the thanks of the landlords and his
brother farmers for having expended so much time, money,
and ingenuity on an implement which, if perfected, will be of
such great national utility.”
Subsoil Pulverizer.—‘ This prize was awarded to Mr. Comins,
for an implement which performed its work in a very excellent
manner ; not only dog more execution than any other by fairly
entering the soil and thoroughly breaking it up, but it passed
through its trial without being in any way ‘broken or injured.”
« The judges commended and awarded a medal to a universal
plough, exhibited by Messrs. Ransome, which is applicable to
all the purposes of a ridge plough, a moulding-up plough, a
horse-hoe on the ridge and on the flat, and a broad-share.”
“ ‘The judges also commended and awarded a medal to a
plough for general purposes, with subsoil plough attached, ex-
hibited by Mr. Richard Downs. ‘There is nothing new in the
principle of this implement, but it was more successfully
* T attended very closely to the working of this implement, and, although it is at
present very far from perfect, it is in my opinion the first step in the right direction
towards obtaining an implement of sufficient power to cut a deep drain at once.—
C. B, Cxrattoner.
042 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
carried out than they had before seen it, and they consider it the
best method of subsoiling, as the treading by the horses after the
subsoil plough is by this means obviated.”
Drills for General Purposes.—( Judges’ Report.) “ Mr. Hornsby
obtained this prize for his ten-coulter corn, seed, and manure
drill. This drill did its work in a very effective manner; a
valuable addition has been made to insure a uniform de-
livery of seed: the slides which regulate the supply from the
pigeon-holes all move simultaneously; they are attached to a
light bar, which is raised in an exact horizontal position by two
small racks and pinions; the feed of every coulter can by this
means be increased or diminished at pleasure without even stop-
ping the drill.”
Corn-Drilis.—“« The prize offered for this implement was
awarded to Mr. Garrett for his eleven-coulter drill. It has an
improved parallel steerage,—a great improvement on the swing
principle, as it remains in one position, without being touched,
the whole length of a field; and yet at the ends, where a
steerage 1s so important, possesses the most perfect movement.
The seed was deposited in good style on very rough ground.
Mr. Hornsby had avery good corn-drill, but, having no steerage,
it was not considered so generally useful. Mr. Busby, of Newton-
le-Willows, had a new implement, a ribbing-drill, to which a
medal was awarded, and which promises well to compete with
any of its more costly rivals; the working of this implement was
quite astonishing, there certainly being nothing in its appearance
to recommend it.”
Turnip-Drill on the Flat.—< Mr. Hornsby’s six-row drill for
turnips and manure did its work in a most satisfactory manner.
That exhibited by Mr. Garrett also performed well, but the
manure was not exactly of the description to test the powers of
these drills. Mr. Hornsby’s buried the manure the best, and
the coulters appear most capable of a large delivery of tillage of
a rough description. We accordingly awarded him the prize.”
Turnip-Drills on the Ridge.—< Mr. Garrett obtained this prize,
and, we think, for the most perfect implement of the description
ever produced ; a large amount of manure was deposited in front
of the fore-rollers, which effectually covered it and again pro-
duced a beautifully formed ridge to receive the seed coulters ;
after which a second pair of concave rollers finished the work
in a style most creditable to the maker. The plan of fixing the
manure-coulters before the concave rollers having originated with
Mr. Hornsby, we also awarded his drill a medal.”
Drop- Drills.—“ Mr. Garrett was awarded the prize for his
drop-drill. .It worked with the greatest exactness at the trial
depositing any reasonable quantity of manure, covering it beau-
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 543
tifully, and then setting the seed over it; the oscillating move-
ment of the tins is so very rapid that we think it not unlikely to
get out of order. |
Messrs. Ransome and May exhibited and obtained a medal for
a new implement,—a. corn and seed dropping machine ; it plants
the seed with the greatest regularity, but the weight is strongly
against it, and it appears doubtful whether it can supersede the
drill: but in such hands as theirs nothing appears impossible.”
Horse Seed-dibblers.—«<'There being no competition this prize
was withheld.”
Hand-Dibblers—“<'The only machine of this kind tried which
did not injure the grain was Dr. Newington’s. This drops any
- quantity of grains, which are thrust into the soil by blunt-ended
dibbles. It looks complicated, but is in reality the least so of
any, and obtained the prize.”
Hand-barrow Drills with Cups, for Ridge-work.—“« Mr.
Holmes’s was the most useful drill under this head, and obtained
the prize.” :
Manure- Distributors.— Five manure distributors were tried ;
none of them were quite so perfect in their operations as we
could have wished, not sowing small quantities sufficiently even
for powerful manures. Mr. Crosskill had the advantage, how-
ever, having this year introduced a number of small scrapers to
the delivering roller, which could not fail to have the desired
effect on the moistest manures. We considered this addition
entitled him to the prize, and awarded it accordingly.
Liquid Manure Distributors—*« Myr. Chandler obtained this
prize, his.being the only machine likely to act effectively with any
thick or muddy fluid; the delivery being by two series of endless
buckets, the choking or stopping is rendered impossible, as in the
ordinary method of perforation. Mr. Stratton’s was not so ma-
nageable as might be, but may become very useful in the double
capacity of water-cart and distributor.* Mr. Coode obtained a
medal for certainly a novel invention,—a patent irrigator. In its
present form it would require the liquid to be in a strictly hmpid
state, or its action would be impeded altogether.” +
The foregoing remarks of the judges of drills show that the
two great rivals in drill-making, Messrs. Garrett and Hornsby,
have not been idle since the York Meeting; but that both
brought out at Norwich substantial improvements which de-
* Mr. Chandler’s appeared to me to he the best principle we at present know of for
the delivery of liquid manure; and I suggested to Messrs. Reeves, the manufacturers,
to apply the same principle to a simple and cheap water cart, in which case it would
be a most valuable implement.—C. B. CHALLONER.
7 It seems more particularly calculated for market gardens, though upon a farm it
would possess the advantage of being used without horse-labour, poaching the land, or
injuring young crops,—Duprity PeLnam.
344 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
servedly obtained for their implements the prizes appropriated
to their respective classes. These improvements are not of a
showy kind, and would be overlooked by a casual observer,
but they materially add to the precision with which the seed is
deposited, and therefore to the value of a drill. Mr. Hornsby’s
improved mode of regulating the feed is so fully described by
the judges, that any additional remarks would be superfluous ;
but of Mr. Garrett’s parallel steerage it may be as well to men-
tion that it is especially applicable to stetch work where the
stetches or lands are narrow. Where, for instance, the stetches
just require a single bout of the drill, one wheel-is always in the
furrow, and the parallel steerage not only enables the drillman
to start the coulters exactly in their right places, but keeps them
true to their position as respects the crown of the land, without
any attention on his part, until the steerage is again called into
action when the horses turn at the end of the field. ‘The cause
of the superiority possessed by the parallel over the ordinary swing
steerage is, that in a drill made on the latter principle the coulters
when acted upon by the steerage describe part of a circle, and
have a natural tendency to fall to the centre, which is the lowest
point. They therefore lie heavy on the hands of the attendant
whenever removed from this position, 7. e., whenever the steerage
isin action, ‘The parallel steerage, on the other hand, moves the
coulters in a direct line, so that they have no tendency to any
particular point, and remain where they are placed. For stetch
work, therefore, this steerage is very superior to anything that
has hitherto been brought out. For broad flat work, the fore-
carriage steerage previously in use by the Messrs. Garrett, is
capable of somewhat greater accuracy ; but most farmers would
be satisfied with the performance of the drill with parallel steer-
age, especially when they knew that it was cheaper than the fore-
carriage steerage, and required one man less to work it.
In the Implement Report of last year an appeal was made to
the implement makers to supply a cheap and simple corn-dmill
for the use of small farmers. This appeal has been well re-
sponded to by Mr. Busby, who brought out at Norwich a drill,
on an entirely new principle, the invention of the Rev. W.
Wharton, of Barningham, near Greta Bridge, Yorkshire. The
working of this drill was, to use the Judge’s own words, ‘‘ quite
astonishing, as there was nothing in its appearance to recommend
it.” It is well known to those who farm strong land, that it is
frequently very difficult to make the coulters of an ordinary drill
enter the land to a sufficient depth to deposit the seed out of
harm’s way; and even where a pressbar is able to effect the
purpose, the: draught of the drill is so much increased that an
additional horse is required at a time when the land will ill bear
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 545
any additional trampling. In such cases the ribbing-plough is fre-
quently had recourse to, nor is there any better method of securing
a good plantof wheat: though the slowness of the process and the
necessity for sowing the seed by hand are decided drawbacks to
this mode of preparing the land. Mr. Busby’s implement adopts
the mode of opening the seed-furrow which forms the peculiar
merit of the ribbing-plough, but combines with it the method of
delivering the seed which is usual in corn-drills; so that it
promises to be animplement of great utility, especially in those
cases where other drills fail. The Judges found fault with
the appearance of this implement; this will probably be ium-
proved when it next comes before the public: but it is to
be hoped that in any extra finishing which Mr. Busby may
bestow upon it, he will not lose sight of one of its great merits
at present, viz., that it is a cheap as well as effective drill for small
farmers.
Harrows for Light Land.—(Judges’ Report.) “This prize
was awarded to Art. 12, stand 122, exhibited by Messrs. Williams
and Taylor. For strength of construction and steadiness in
working the Judges consider these harrows superior to any others
exhibited. With respect to Howard’s jointed harrows, they wish
to remark that though they would in all probability work exceed-
ingly well under ordinary circumstances, on the hard ground on
which they were compelled to try them they worked very unsteadily,
pulling up the furrow instead of cuttimg through it, and conse-
quently leaving the surface very rough.”
Harrows for Heavy Land.—*‘'This prize was also awarded to
Messrs. Williams and Taylor, for Art. 3, stand 122, for the same
reasons as the above.’
‘*Mr. Coleman, stand 32, exhibited a set of expanding lever
harrows, which worked exceedingly well; but they are nearly
double the price of the above, and more liable to get out of
order.”’
Norwegian Harrows.—“'This prize was awarded to Messrs.
Stratton. Their Norwegian harrow, after having been closely
tried with others on both heavy and light land, performed
its work most to the satisfaction of the Judges. It. however, did
very little good on the heavy land, and they are of opinion that
this implement i is not of that general utility which it was expected
it would have been,”
Scarvfiers —<'This prize was awarded to Messrs. Ransome for
their Biddell’s scarifier, as it was the only one, with the exception
of Smith’s, of Stamford, that would enter Ae ground in its then
hard state. The Judges consider the (ight scarifiers can never
fairly compete with the heavy ones, and that a separate prize
should be given for them, as they are, as to price, within the
3416 Report on the Exhibition of Lmplements
means of the small farmer, and are, in ordinary seasons, very
useful implements.”
Cultivator, or Grubber.—< "This prize was awarded to Messrs.
Smith and Co., for their cultivator, Art. 10. It is a very
effective implement, either as a scarifier or grubber, both of
which operations it is capable of performing in a very efficient
manner; and as it is moderate in price, and very strongly made,
it was considered fairly entitled to the prize.”
Florse- Hoe on the Flat. Yor this prize there was no one to
compete with Mr. Garrett’s well-known implement, which on this
occasion fully sustained its previously well-earned reputation.”
Horse Hoe on the Ridge.—<'This prize was awarded to Mr.
William Busby, for his horse-hoe, Art. 12. This implement is very
strong, and well made, and performed its work exceedingly well. Its
moderate price also recommends it to the notice of every farmer.
The Judges feel bound to notice Mr. Garrett's double ridge hoe,
which did its work in a most satisfactory manner; and to those
farmers who use a double ridge drill, which it is best adapted to
follow, it is a great acquisition. By having additional knives it
is convertible into a hoe for corn or root crops on the flat.”
«The Judges wish to notice Art. 7, stand 105, a five-tined
drill grubber, exhibited by Gray and Sons, as a very strong and
well-made implement, and most effective for deep cultivation
between the rows of root crops.”
Horse-rakes (Judges’ Report).—* In this class great improve-
ment had taken place in all the implements, with a few exceptions,
where the alterations had been rather in the wrong direction. We
selected the following six for trial :—
‘“‘ Stand 9, art. 19.—Mr. Bussy’s—This rake worked tolerably
well.
“ Stand 37, art. 25.—Messrs. Howarp’s did not work so well
as expected, as it had all the appearance of being the same as the
prize implement, but in working had not its merits, although it
worked well.
“ Stand 64, art. 9.—Messrs. HensmAn’s did its work pretty
well.
“ Stand 95, art.4.—Smirn and Co’s did its work very well
indeed, and stood next in merit to the prize implement.
“ Stand 104, art. 2.—Mr. Granv’s did its work in its usual way.
“ Stand 122, art.6.—Mr. WittiaAms’s rake did its work in that
way which has so long been desired, the peculiar curve of the
teeth causing the hay, corn, or stubble to rise round their face
until its own weight caused it to fall over, so that the whole is
rolled into a piece like a lady’s muff or the roll of wool from a
carding-machine, giving the air and wind free circulation through
the mass; the same action also allows the stones and lumps of
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 547
soil to fall between the teeth while the stuff is being pushed
round the face of the teeth. ‘The leverage for raising the teeth
worked easier thanany of the others; so with all these advantages
we felt justified in awarding it the prize.”’
Drain-tile or pipe-machines (Judges’ Report).—‘‘ There was a
considerable falling off in the number of these machines this year,
only 24 being exhibited, and the principal part of those appear
to remain unimproved, or have not advanced in the same propor-
tionas Whitehead’s, Scrage’ s, and Clayton’s: these three machines
are much improved ; mmdecdl so nearly balanced were the two
former, that it would have ee a difficult task to decide between
them, had not Amos’s machine for testing hand-power been
applied: by this very ingenious instrument it was discovered that
Whitehead’s machine required much less power to work it than
Scragg’s did, and the prize was accordingly awarded to him. It
is well finished; the clay-box has a planed, smooth surface, which
very materially reduces the friction on the sides, top, and bottom ;
the method of closing and fastening the box-lid 1s also well worthy
of remark. In this machine there are two racks, by which the
great power required to force out the clay is more distributed ;
in Scragg’s there is only one, and all the strain is on two cogs
alone; he fixing the die-plates is most effective and simple :
the cutting apparatus is very good; indeed, the machine in all
respects is worthy of the prize. Mr. Scragg has made improve-
ments in his cutting apparatus and die- -plates, which are very
creditable to his ingenuity; and we highly commended his ma~
chine, and awarded it a medal,
“Mr. Clayton’s machine is still on the combined principle of
vertical and horizontal. This maker has displayed a vast deal of
patience and ability in the endeavour to perfect an erroneous
system—not that a horizontal motion will produce pipes of very
large bore so perfect as the vertical, but when it is considered
how few pipes of this description are required compared with the
smaller sorts, it must at once be seen that a machine which re-
quires the cylinders at ail times to be filled from such an ele-
vation, cannot be economical of labour.
« Franklin’s combined plan of pugging, screening, and moulding
was shown. ‘The earth was of a description to test its utmost
powers ; the work was done in good style, but was not expeditious
enough to answer.
«The following tabular statement gives the result of five minutes’
work of the ejght machines selected for trial. Every preparation
was made beforehand by the respective exhibitors to ensure the
largest delivery in their power within the time aa ified; any
faulty pipes were thrown aside and not counted :”
548 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
Length of No.
Stand. | Art. Name. Pipes of 2-inch |Men.!Boys.| Horse.| Price.
in Inches. Pipes.
| sn) 8
5 2 ice Clay tOWe veniiueet te 133 110 21 Valk wees 29h) 0
7 Soa alOM as Velen same 13 4] 2] oe ’ 20 0
39 2 | Scragg Biriter inte 13 134 DF ile eli] Bete ge GO
75 1 Whitehead . .j| 132 185 2 1 oe 23 0
81 AGy s | Garrettaiiets sical is 14 718 ] 1 e 25 0
94 ] Ainslie nit nme 15 40 1 4 30 «(0
101 1 Franklin 2116 13 24 1 2 1 25 0
122 13 Williams Wind si cea 13 54 1 1 ° 13 13
|
‘There were ten less of these machines exhibited at Norwich
than at York. All the best machines extant were, however,
brought forward, and there was no reason to regret the reduction
im numbers. The names of Whitehead, Scragg, and Clayton
still appear at the head of the list, and with one or two exceptions
their machines are the only ones which call for any particular
notice. One of these exceptions is the one invented by Mr.
Weller, and exhibited by Messrs. Garrett. This machine un-
doubtedly made very good tiles at a tolerably rapid rate; and had
the principle of construction been as good as the workmanship, it
would have been very hard to beat, for, as might be supposed
from its being in Messrs. Garrett’s hands, it was exceedingly well
got up and admirably served. It is, however, impossible for skill
and zeal on the part of master and man to enable a machine to
compete successfully with those on a decidedly better principle;
and there are two weak points in this implement, either of which
would be conclusive with the present close competition: one is,
that it is worked by lever, a very objectionable mode of applying
hand-power ; and the other, its having cylinders which require to
be placed in a different position for filling to that which they
occupy when at work. ‘This necessarily takes up time and com-
plicates the construction, and contrasts unfavourably with the
simplicity and substantial character of the fixed clay-box.
The case of Mr. Clayton’s machine is somewhat similar, and
the duty of a reporter becomes painful when it 1s necessary to
point out objections to an implement upon which great labour
and mechanical ingenuity have been perseveringly bestowed, and
which when first introduced was a decided improvement upon
those which had preceded it. That Mr. Clayton’s machine
makes excellent work is undeniable, but when it is necessary to
decide which is the best principle of construction, it is at once
apparent that the numerous clever contrivances by which his
shifting cylinders are made as little objectionable as possible, are
yet proofs of the faulty nature of the original plan. The first
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. J49
requisite in an agricultural implement is efficiency, the second
simplicity, and this last is scarcely less important than the first,
inasmuch as simplicity is the very quality which ensures its being
efficient in the hands of ordinary unskilled labourers, and at the
same time affords the best guarantee for its being rarely out of
order, and being easy to repair when an accident does happen.
Let the two prize-machines (which may be considered identical
in principle) be compared with Clayton’s in the two points above
mentioned. With respect to efficiency, all three make very good
tiles, and though the prize-machines are more rapid in their per-
formance, Clayton’s is sufficiently expeditious for most tile-yards,
and the additional number, though a point in favour of the
former, is not one of a decisive character. Under the head of
simplicity, however, the case is very different. If a labourer of
the most ordinary capacity were once shown how to open and fill
Whitehead’s clay-box and which way to turn the handle, it is
hardly conceivable that he could ever after make a mistake, and
the strength and simplicity of construction of the whole machine
are such as almost to defy wear and tear. Clayton’s machine,
however, has several additional movements, and is therefore of
necessity more complicated, and when the men who work it have
become thoroughly acquainted with its action, there must always
be a good deal of nicety and exactness required in stopping at
the moment that a length of pipes is complete, and in holding
the horse in the right position for receiving the tiles. This only
applies to the vertical mode of delivery ; but if the horizontal plan
be practised, then the height to which the clay must be handed,
and the additional labour required in filling small cylinders instead
of a large clay-box, besides the extra cost of the machine, will
cause an unfavourable comparison to be drawn between it and
the prize-implements of Messrs Whitehead and Scragg. _
The machine invented by Mr. Ainslie made pipes of better
quality than any other in the yard. This excellence of manu-
facture is attained by the forcible compression of the clay between
iron rollers, which gives it a more uniform density, and effec-
tually gets rid of the air-bubbles which more or less blister the
tiles made by all other machines. _ Its high price and the slowness
of its action must prevent its coming into common use unless much
improved, but it would be valuable to any one who was anxious
to make a limited number of tiles of very superior quality, re-
gardless of expense. ——
Steam-engines (Judges’ Report).—“ In making our report of the
trial of steam-ergines at the country meeting of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society held at Norwich, July, 1849, we would remark
that the arrangements made by the Society were very judicious,
and gave every facility for the application of the force-resister,
VOL. X. 2.0
900 feport on the Exhibition of Implements
which has proved so excellent a test of the relative powers of the
different engines and machines. And we think great credit also due
to the Society’s engineer, Mr. Amos, for the very efficient arrange-
ments made by him for ascertaining the real power absorbed for
the amount of work performed by each threshing and other ma-
chine subjected to this trial.
‘‘In the following remarks we have taken the engines in the
order as entered in the Catalogue, and under their respective
stands and numbers, for easy reference.
Page 16.—Stand 5, art. I, 2, 3.
“Three portable steam-engines, manufactured by Messrs.
Clayton, Shuttleworth, and Co., the powers of 5, 7, and 9 horses
respectively. ‘Iwo of these engines were of the same construction,
the third a two-cylinder engine, which we think an unnecessary
complication when designed for agricultural purposes. The
three boilers were all tubular, and precisely the same in make,
thereby cbtaining on the trial an unfair advantage over but one
of a kind exhibited by other parties. In saying this, we intend
not the slightest reflection upon Messrs. Clayton, Shuttleworth,
and Co., but under similar circumstances we should recommend in
future that but one of a kind should be tested for each exhibitor.
The workmanship of these engines was good, the arrangement for
working the governors new, and the general performance satis-
factory, doing good duty for the fuel consumed, as will be seen by
reference to the tabular statement.
The crank-shaft we thought too short between the bearings to
remain steady in constant wear; the piston and valve-rods worked
through screw stuffing-boxes, which is a method now seldom
adopted but for the sake of cheapness; the engines were mounted
on iron wheels, which we think not so suitable for farm roads as
wooden ones. Having made these observations, we have now the
pleasure to add that we felt so well satisfied with the quick gene-
ration of steam and duty done by these engines, as to select the
7-horse article, No. 2, for the second prize of twenty-five
pounds.” |
Page 22.—Stand 13, art. lL.
““A 4-horse portable engine, manufactured by Mr. Burrell.
This engine in workmanship was moderate: it was fitted with
three different speeds, the governors being made adjustable to the
same, ‘he duty performed for the coal consumed will be seen to
be less than half that of the prize-engines, which sufficiently
stamps its comparative merits.”’
Page 134.—Stand 65, art. 8.
« A 6-horse portable engine, manufactured by Mr. Hornsby.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. dol
The workmanship of this engine was good; working parts firm,
and strong-fitted; complete; with mercury-gauge, and an ad-
ditional safety-valve placed out of the control of the engineman,
thereby giving greater safety. The boiler was tubular, but
formed of two sets of tubes, the one direct, the other returning
the smoke from the smoke-box to the chimney placed in front of
the boiler. This arrangement caused a great deficiency in the
draft, so that combustion of the fuel proceeded very slowly, and
consequent upon this, the time used in getting up steam, namely,
92 minutes, was too long to be good in practice, and the effective
duty performed by the engine showed a corresponding result.”
Page 156.—Stand 81, art. 21.
“©A 6-horse patented portable engine, manufactured by the
patentees, Messrs. Garrett and Son. The boiler of this engine
was formed with two direct.side flues and one return circular
flue, the chimney being over the fire-box, and was the only flue-
boiler exhibited, which makes it interesting to notice, that with a
good draft and capability of burning an inferior description of
fuel, the duty done was equal to several of the tubular boilers,
while the price is Jess) The workmanship of this engine was
good, working parts firm, strong, and well fitted, with mercury
and water-gauges and governors well adjusted. The force-
pump is fitted with a tap so constructed as to return a portion
of water back to the cistern when the boiler is sufficiently sup-
pled, thereby rendering the bursting of the joints through the
carelessness of the attendant, impossible. ‘This engine was
mounted on strong wooden wheels very suitable to farm roads.”
Page 157.—Stand 81], art. 22.
«“ A 6-horse portable engine, also manufactured by Messrs.
Garrett and Son. The general remarks made upon. their
former engine are also equally applicable to this as respects
workmanship and strength; it is also fitted with the necessary
steam and water-gauges and governors, and we would espe-
cially notice the strength and construction of the one carriage
of the four bearings of the crank-shaft, admitting of their being
bored out at one operation in the lathe. ‘The boiler of this engine
is tubular, but the fire-box circular, the outer case being an uni-
form cylinder throughout, thereby ‘attaining great strength and
durability, points so essential to be noticed in engines to be w orked
by unexperienced hands ; the plates of this pouee were $, and tube-
plate 23-inch thick, showing much greater strength than in the one
which obtained the second prize. The duty ‘performed by this
engine was very satisfactory, as will be seen by refereuce to the
tabular statement: and if we make due allowance for a cold rain
falling during the whole of é/zs trial, the other engines having the
2 o2
D024 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
advantage of a hot sun, the result will assign to this engine in duty
done, as well as in strength and durability, the first prize of fifty
pounds, which was awarded accordingly. We would observe in
addition, that the driving-wheel of this engine contains a groove
for a round band, which cannot be too highly recommended for
working threshing-machines, as avoiding the great exactness ne-
cessary in placing the machines when working with a flat belt.”
Page 161.—Stand 83, art. 1.
«A 6-horse portable engine, manufactured by Messrs. J. and
E. Headley. ‘This engine was made with a double cylinder,
and had a tube-boiler, workmanship good, but working parts too
slight for the power stated; the throttle-valve was placed in the
smoke-box, an arrangement which we think bad and incon-
venient; 107 minutes were occupied in raising the steam to 45
Ibs. pressure, and the duty performed was comparatively small ;
the result would have been something better had the firing been
properly attended to. The exhibitor stated that his engine was
better suited to work with coke than coal.”
Page 188.—Stand 98, art. 1.
«A 6-horse portable engine, manufactured by Messrs. John
Ferrabee and Sons. The general workmanship of this engine
was very moderate; cross-head cast instead of wrought-iron ;
the boiler tubular, but the number of tubes too few, and of
insufficient diameter. In work, this engine was unable to sustain
the weight on the force-resister at the required speed, con-
sequently there are no tabular results given.”
Page 199.—Stand 107, art. 1.
“A 6-horse portable engine, manufactured by Messrs. Hur-
wood and ‘Turner. The tube-boiler of this engime was too
large and heavy for the power stated; the cylinder and starting-
gear being placed out of reach from the ground, and was fitted
with two heavy fly-wheels, which is unnecessary. The workman-
ship generally below mediocrity, and after three hours consumed
in a fruitless effort to get up steam, the trial was abandoned: the
exhibitors wishing it recorded that their engine was suited to work
with coke in preference to coal.”
Page 206.—-Stand 116, art. 1.
« A 6-horse portable and locomotive engine, manufactured
by Messrs. E. B. Wilson and Co., and exhibited by them in
conjunction with Messrs. Ransome and May. ‘This engine,
excellent in workmanship, was fitted with two cylinders; its
weight for the power very light, and strong in all the working
parts; the boiler tubular and beautifully made; but we think
such an engine not suited to put into the hands of farmers’ engine-
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 00d
men generally, and should doubt its locomotive powers being of
much practical benefit as connected with agriculture, entertaining
a fear also that accidents might be of frequent occurrence in
steaming from farm to farm.”’
«The duty performed for the coal consumed in this case was
below that of the prize-engines, as will be seen on reference to
the tabular statement.
«This engine was stated to be better adapted to work with coke
than coal.
«The other engines entered in the catalogue were not brought
into the trial-yard, with the exception of one by Mr. John Smith,
which was withdrawn by the owner without trial.”
While working
TABULAR, STATEMENT OF RESULTS.§ up to their
Nominal Powers.
Semis Saree ayn Weneme 1 aegia
5 Seis] aa oy ea @ le ale
ys gee Bla IN Ge ole eae
Name: so | Segal) She) SSe|Sacloees
Blas ‘8 eeu (eee| S83) 425214555
SB) 5] Sm | swat | Sha | She | Gos |S on 8,
Minutes Ibs. lbs lbs ii
Clayton, Shuttleworth,& Co.| 5 | 1 | 5 Horse 44 324 | 20 5 11-8
Ditto ditto. 5 DY fae 45 372 20 753 | 10°78
Ditto ditto. OS st 9) is, 37 4lz | 20 |. 105 11°66
Bureelivgr ilies fei: *s 13 | 1} 42 ,, 57 282 | 20 | 1143 | 25:5
Hornsby Rete Sh isda | GO SuieG ; 92 464 20. 1 8d2e) Fag
Garrett and Son . . ./| 81/21/16 ,, 61 593 | 20 | 84 | 14
Ditto. - ditto ~ . Sie22 Owe... 63 733 20 69 11°35
J. and E. Headley . g3| 1/424, | 107 | 44%] 20 | 108 | 24
E. B. Wilson and Co., acid 1
Cae. LG. | PEE | 4054): 47 294 | 20 | 61 | 14
Threshing-Machines.*—Great pains were taken with the trial
of these machines, as it was felt that their importance could
hardly be overrated, and yet that no trial of them had hitherto
been made which could be considered really satisfactory. <A
great step in advance was undoubtedly made at York, where
for the first time the power required to work each machine
was ascertained ; but even this important step fell short of the
real requirements of the case, as the mode of registering the
power was by no means perfect, and the method then adopted
was also deficient, from its furnishing no means of judging of the
efficiency of the horse-works. A large majority of threshing-
machines are necessarily worked by horse-power, so that no state-
ment of their relative merits could be generally satisfactory which
* The judges of threshing-machines requested the writer of the report to draw up
the account of the trial of these implements, and furnished him with the tables A, B,
C, &c., for that purpose.
o04 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
left the horse-works unnoticed. The importance of this point
will appear when the tabular statement (A) comes under con-
sideration, The trial commenced by a general examination of
each machine by the judges and consulting engineer, after which
a single horse (and in some instances a second) was attached,
with a dynamometer, and the empty machine driven at such a rate
as, according to the maker’s description, would cause the drum to
revolve at the requisite speed. After trying a few of the machines
it became evident that the specifications furnished by the makers
were not accurate, and it was found necessary to count the cogs of
all the working parts and calculate the number of seconds in
which the horse-wheel should revolve in order to produce the
number of revolutions of the drum intended by the exhibitor. It
is much to be wished that exhibitors would be strictly accurate in
describing their machines, as misstatements not only lead to great
waste of time and trouble in conducting the trials, but frequently
place a machine in an unfavourable position as respects other
competitors. To show the extent to which these inaccuracies are
carried, it is only necessary to mention that in the description of
one of the machines it was stated that two revolutions of the horse-
wheel produced 700 revolutions of the drum, whereas on calcu-
lation it was found to produce 1146, so that, had there been no
check to the exhibitor’s estimate, he would only have had the
credit of making his drum revolve 700 times per minute, whilst
the dynamometer charged against him the amount of draught re-
Table A.—Showing the Draught of the Horse and. Barn Works of
Threshing-Machines when Driven Empty, as indicated by a
Draught-Gauge.
1 2 3 4. 5. 6 7. 8 9 10.
dps
4 © oH
aks | BB bas
Diameter te BS joe Revo- | 28
Horse of Sa | es lutions | = 9 ¢ :
Stand.) Art. Name. Power.) Horse- | % 2 F a2 8 o of 28 Price.
Walk 5 Dd 4S rum SO
ones | aa Sp Q
a n a
£. SS.
54 19°} Sparke «3. > « 4 21°5 2 1°53 728 26 60 0
36 1 Holmes... . = 6 20 3°15 2°25 1141 48 79 40
51 1 Pageipe fe veiplesie ve 4 18°25 3 1°81 891 20 52 10
107 2 Hurwood ..-. 4 21°6 2°45 1°88 830 28 60 0
58 1 Bxalliyey ie) vo Vientze 4 22 3°6 2°85 900 24 53 0
13 3° | Burrell. 2 + 6) 4 23 225) 2°04 950 21°5 50 0
100 8 Ferrabee, . . « « 4 20 3°1 Pa 1k) 895 Wes 60 0
79 i] Cornish . cee 4 19°5 3°5 2°45 912 2285 48 0
24 1 Bly thyeweeiye) et tte 4 22°3 3 2°38 867 24 70 O
44 1 Woods. 60 «6 « 4 24 2 iA 1146 44 65 0
at least.
81 23 Garrett jo: eh 4 22 aur hs) 2°18 900 37 61 10
65 10 TOrnsbyieu- ie) si 4 23°6 2°6 2°20 900 32 85 0
64 6 Hensman. . .”. 4 24 2°14 1°83 900 35 53 0
116 9) Ransome 3 .)%s 4 4 20 3°22 2°31 1000 20 68 0
26 54 Groraiwl, A Galo 4 24 2°77 2°33 840 22°5 56 10
ne ean
C
~~
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. DOD
quired to produce 1146 revolutions, a rate of speed 62 per cent.
above his estimate.
Table A gives various particulars respecting the machines tried
with the dynamometer. These for the most part require no
remark; but column 9, which gives the draught in stones when
the machines were running empty, is well worthy of notice from
the great variation in the amount of power required. In one
instance it amounted to 48 st. It should be mentioned that this
was a six-horse machine, but after making all due allowance on
this score its draught when doing no work was far too great.
In another instance it will be observed that the draught was
44 st. To assist in forming an opinion respecting the figures
in this column it may be mentioned that the average draught of
a plough turning a furrow 9 inches by 6 rarely exceeds 24 stone,
and on light land (when not too dry) is generally under 20
stone. Yet this is considered a fair amount of work for a pair
of horses, and taking 10 to 12 stone as the average draught of
each horse, it appears that in no less than four of pili machines
tried on this occasion, and which professed to be four-horse
machines, it required the ordinary pull of three horses at plough
to drive them at their proper speed when doing no work. Had
these machines acquitted themselves ill when put to work, the
fact would scarcely have been worth notice, but it becomes im-
portant when we find that they were subsequently proved to be
some of the best exhibited. The result then of this first trial was
to show that the best threshing-machines now manufactured are
still far from perfect, and as the trials proceeded some progress
was made in detecting their weak points.
It will have been gathered from the preceding remarks that
Table A gives the result of the application of an entirely new test
to threshing-machines, one, viz., which registers the amount of
force required to drive the machines when empty. Table Bb
records a further attempt to ascertain the proportions in which
the amount of draught given in column 9 of Table A should be
apportioned between the horse-works and the barn-works of the
respective machines. It will be observed that the number of the
Table B.
i | | }
i a 3, peas Giehche sure
——— —E————— oS cee eee
| {
sky suebtieorvclee ices
| Fo | Friction | Friction | Friction |
Stand.) Art. Name Power ioe whole} of Barn | of Horse |
| | we " Machine Works. | Works. |
= oe ee Eee fd
64.) 6 Hensman\egiok. ceiie tele 4 | 2°39 WB8i hE or
107 See eLUn WOO wanker le ls vcs 4 1°99 69 1°30 |
36 | 1 FLOIMeS eae, os at eae ene 6 | 4°02 97 | 3°05
SIgA tse Garrett ese ee ete | 4 2°78 2°07 STH.
44 | 1 IWi0odSsfebisjest coeieuere 4 2°81 46 2°39 |
| | u
Scealinceniiciemiezimactidienbaimtiariadiontemmscmemnmemmmemmemmmmenmmmeemnmteemmntamatiiatimmtieteataetiantiadampaceameemamamacmmmntia dicate ex ee
006 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
machines tried is reduced from 16 to 5. This arose from the trial
in question being a new suggestion which occurred to the consult-
ing engineer at a period of the proceedings which did not admit
pilates being extended to more than a very limited number, those
being selected which had acquitted themselves the best in the
previous trials,
The mode of conducting this trial was as follows:—The
machines were driven by steam, and the power registered which
was required to drive them empty. This gave the friction*® of
the barn-works alone, and is recorded in col. 6. The friction
of the whole machine (7. ¢., both horse and barn works) is
shown in col. 5, and is in fact identical with col. 9 of Table A,
the power being given in stones in one case, but expressed
in the equivalent horse-power in the other. The difference
between these two (see col. 7) gives the friction of the horse-
works, ‘T'his method does not pretend to absolute accuracy, but
it furnishes an approximation which will in the opinion of the
reporter do much to improve the construction of these machines.
Its importance will be best seen by comparing two machines in
which the whole friction was about equal, but where it was due in
very different proportions to the barn-works and_ horse-works re-
spectively. The machines of Messrs. Garrett and Woods furnish
an excellent illustration of this point, the whole friction being in
these cases 2°78 and 2°81; the friction of the barn-works being,
however, 2:07 and -46; whilst that of the horse-works was -71
and 2°35. It is not an improbable supposition that both of these
makers on their return home might have endeavoured to reduce
the draught of their machines, and had the whole friction only
been ascertained, they would have had no clue to the particular
part which was in fault. If therefore they had both endeavoured
to improve their barn-works, the result would probably have been
that the former maker would have improved his machine, but the
latter made his worse; and if, on the other hand, they had both
altered their horse-works, the case would just have been reversed.
From the success which attended this first attempt it is probable
that the consulting engineer will be prepared at the next meeting
to conduct a trial “of this kind in a still more complete and satis-
factory way; and it is worthy of remark that itis only by some such
method as that above described, in which the draught is ascertained
of both horse and barn works combined, that an opinion can be
safely given respecting the efficiency of the whole machine when
set to work in the farmer’s stack-yard.
* The term “friction,” which is used for the sake of brevity, is here intended to
represent the whole resistance offered to the acquirement and maintenance of the stated
velocity, whether arising from friction, vis inertiz, or any other retarding cause.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. HDL
Table C.
1. 2. 3. 4, 5. | 6. th 8. Sk 10.
x Horse} Wheat- Clean State State “a
Stand ye Name. Power |Sheaves, MiG Threshed. mee Straw. of Grain. Price
ere eer EN A littl 4 A ue | x. $
5 4| Clayton... 6 100 9 23 | Nearly clean Broken! i vols. t 40 0
Simos) Garrett oir 7) 4 100 6 26 | Quite clean Good pane fee } 30 0
24 1} Blyth. ... 4 100 8 47 | Nearly clean aera tit \ Not broken. | 25 0
116 3 | Ransome . . 4 100 8 57 Clean Broken { ey i 27 10
100 8 | Ferrabee . . 4 100 9 14 Not clean Broken Broken. 22
51 WisPagebevct. « 4 100 9 8 Clean Broken {icra } 19
58 ] Bee Co. t Had a very Hae Cast-Iron Concave, which i
54 | 19] Sparke... 4 100 8 58 | Nearly clean { mn us Not injured 25 0
36 1 | Holmes... 6 100 5 34 Clean { Saeee ee we j 28 9
65 | 10 | Hornsby . . 4 100 6 17 Clean Broken Not injured aoe
Very much oe AY
26 | 54 | Crosskill. .| 4 100 | 735 Clean | Not broken |{ Moers ze. with 2
wheels.
feten part
clean, but A lit 2
13 3 | Burrell. ..| 4 100 6 47 bunches >} ) Ret fe eheais } O.<
not ; "
threshed. ’
44 Woods ... 4 100 5 52 Clean Broken linea } sto
5 5 | Clayton. .. 4 100 6 16 | Not threshed Not injured. ee
ee BY) Bienes . HOY ae Nils Gem | Base \ ee } hecho
A little Very little 27 0
un ei purroeds 2). 4 OD § 2 ae broken. } { injured. } with 2 wheels
Table C gives the performance of ali the machines which
were adapted for steam power, and the trial was conducted as
follows :— Each machine was furnished with 100 sheaves of mown
wheat, and the time it took to thresh them, as well as the quality
of the work, with regard to clean threshing and the state both of
straw and grain, is given in the columns “appropriated to those
details. The following attempt was made to place all the
machines on an equal footing as regarded motive power. Two
steam-engines were employed, and a communication established
between their boilers, one being used simply to generate steam,
the other both for this purpose and to drive the machines. By
this arrangement it was anticipated that the supply of steam would
be so great that the boiler of the driving machine could be kept
constantly supplied with steam of the desired pressure even whilst
the machines were at work, and on trial this was found to be the
case. At first sight nothing could appear more satisfactory than
this trial, as all the machines worked under an equal pressure of
steam, and the time they occupied in doing the same quantity of
work would seem to be the fairest possible test of their respective
008 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
powers. The consulting engineer, however, who watched the
trial with great care, discovered that though the steam was con-
stantly at the same pressure, some machines were able to obtain
a greater quantity of it than others, and that this depended on the
size of the driving pully, which varied in different machines, and
thus enabled some to obtain, as it were, a greater number of
measures of steam than others. This trial, therefore, was not
quite conclusive, but it enabled the judges to select seven of the
best for further trial, and the following mode of obviating the
above-mentioned inequality was adopted :—Two steam-engines
were employed as before, and their boilers connected by a pipe,
in which was a cock which regulated the supply of steam from
the boiler which merely generated steam to that belonging to the
driving engine. The working engine moved at equal velocities in
all the experiments, consequently the machine requiring least
power was the one which worked with steam of the lowest pressure
in the second boiler. The plan adopted, therefore, was to record
the pressure of steam which was required to drive each machine,
as indicated by a pressure gauge (see Table D).
Table D.
1 2 3 4 5. 6. qi 8 9. 10.
ea cemi alae
H5¢o 1/28 / 9
State s FE — 5 15
Wheat- Clean State of Corn. BS Bes S
Stand. |No. Name. sheaves.| Threshed. | of Straw. eos | oH e 2
oO oO
2 Syl Suieie
meee <
min
64 63\Flensmant., cou. 100 |Not threshed oie Lar 6°00 3°96 | 23°76
j A little
36 Wale Eolmess sen saice 100 Clean. { beckons Oe 5°07 5°41 | 27°42
44 Te Wioodsis 52 4.4?) 100 Ditto. ote Bhs 4°26 6°55 | 27°90
Rather
107 2| Hurwood. .. 100 Ditto. broken Slee a eae 3°92 | 6°75 | 26°46
: : Rather Aj >
13%i/8)| Burrell) 2° '.(23|'- Joo |") Ditto. buken ft] eB «| 6:69 15-63 | 37"66
_ 81 | 23| Garrett . . .| 100 Rosetta Not broken.| , 6 ~. | 715 | 3°43 | 24-52
65 Th). Hornsby?" wren te Drum broke.
Col. 8 gives the actual pressure of steam expressed in its equi-
valent horse-power ; col. 9 gives the time of threshing 100 sheaves
of wheat, and multiplying the two together we obtain a result which
expresses the comparative expenditure of power in each case;
this is given in col. 10. The quality of the work is shown in
cols. 5,6, 7. ‘The numerals in col. 7 refer to the proportion of
broken grain found amongst the threshed corn; Hensman’s
machine, which is marked lL, having the fewest broken grains,
the rest following in the order of the respective numbers.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. Dog
Table E.—Barley. 20 Bundles threshed ; each Bundle weighing 20# lbs.
lee 3. 4 5 beve'6 "7 8 92104 [FL0:
® 4 a g
Bion aN SO. ,
SFH) 98 1 os
F Sod as °
deigee nhs Barley- Clean State State eso l/ee |] 8
Sees No Name bundles.) Threshed. of Straw. of Corn, mo S We SR
2 ra o 5 S
HO o & i) a2
gee | Ae | 8°
a0 in <q
| min.
64 67 Hensman, < « 20 Quite clean. | Much broken in ae BU | IG) te
107 2} Hurwood, . . 20 Ditto. 18.0 DOBYNS ye (6) alk ur fool Uap
36 Me | PEKOlmesi sty sue 20 Ditto. aii 3°92 4°80 | 18°81]
Sin 23) |G A little {| .. : Neos
TLE LGN oli. lature 20 Not threshed injured. { 7°15 QAM e235
AV Nh Wogds. is. «|» 20 Ditto. || ele Good. | 3°00 || 8°51] 10°53
81 | 23'| Garrett '. . . 20 Quite clean. || Broken. perils t 5°53 | 4°28 | 23°66
41 Ie Woods): eh"? 2 20 Clean. | oie . 2°07 6°85 | 14°18
|
Table E records a precisely similar trial to the last, except
that 20 bundles of barley, each weighing 202 Ibs., were
threshed by each machine, instead of 100 sheaves of wheat.
Messrs. Garrett and Woods were, with the steward’s consent,
allowed a second trial, in consequence of the men who fed their
machines having mistaken their instructions, and believed that
the object of the trial was to getthe corn through in as little time
as possible, without reference to the quality of the work. It will
be seen that the 20 bundles were threshed in a marvellously
short time ; it was, however, done in a very slovenly manner, and
they were each desired to thresh 20 bundles more, as they could
not be allowed the credit due to rapidity of execution if it was
attained by sacrificing the goodness of the work.
After a careful comparison of the results of the above-men-
tioned trials, it was found that Messrs. Garrett’s machine was
entitled to the prize.
A hand-power threshing-machine was exhibited by Messrs.
Barrett and Exall, which was tested by Amos’s machine, and
found to require a force to work it which was about equal to the
power of 34 men or + of a horse.
Steaming apparatus (Judges’ Report).—“<28 Ibs. of coal and
10 lbs. of wood were allowed to each competitor, and they were
directed with this quantity of fuel to heat as many gallons of cold
water as they were able to 180°. The following table shows the
performance of the four which were tried :—
560 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
Time of | Gallons Gallons a oF
Stand. | Art. Name. getting up| of Water added Saiueaeeeotn Price.
Steam. /|in Copper. | afterwards, 60° to 180°,
Min. eens
41 3. | Stanley < 4 «. 19 40 86 126 15 15
30 2 | Robinson ... 23 40 30 70 9 10
29 3 | Richmond . . 23 30 58 88 17 0
56 1 | Thompson . .| 253 30 63 93 | 21 10
«The prize was consequently awarded to Mr. Stanley’s appa-
ratus. The Judges have to observe, that Mr. Thompson’s
steamer worked under a disadvantage, as some of its fittings did
not arrive at Norwich, but were lost on the railway.”
Corn-dressing machines (Judges’ Report).—* 1st Trial. In this
trial the dressing-machines were supplied with the corn and the
chaff just as it came from the threshing-machines. Column 5
of the annexed table gives the weight on the lever of Amos’s
machine, and shows the comparative power required in each case.
They were directed to do as much work as they could with 62
turns of the handle :—
: Length :
iiieatis Weight on Best Tail : Screen-
Art.| Name. Tames Lever. eee Grain. Corn. AUIEETIS ings.
Inches.| B. p. q.| B. p. q.| Quart. | Quarts.
12 | Hornsby . 62 14 lbs. empty, 14 Bio Bt al 02 0 1 43
Turns.| 015 lbs. working.
15 lbs. empty 13 2 2 6; 1 0. 23 50 11
36 | Holmes. . | ails 17 lbs. working. %
29 | Garrett. . ans 124 lbs. empty. Fai ed to feeditself,.
1 | Kilb 14 lbs. empty, 13 3 3 3] 2 2 O of Tail-corn Screen-|
Spies oe 15 lbs. working. ings, and much good Corn
14 ene } Failed to feed itself. see
& Taylor shed e Arion ; f ue Fae
Tei@och } 9 lbs. empty, 13 1 3 2) 2 0 4 of Tail and Screen-
it utuige 10 lbs. working. ings mixed.
11 | Nicholson. | , , ll lbs. empty. | Failed to work properly. | |
Price.
ase
13 10
11 11
« 2nd Trial. The corn that had passed through the machines was
now dressed a second time over ; 6 bushels were allowed to each—
Weight Quantity of Height of
Stand.| Art. Name. Time. on Grain Feeding
Lever. supplied. Box.
Feet. In. | Time. Power.
65 12 | Hornsby . . » | 35 Turns | 15 lbs. 6 Bushels 4 9 35) hb — p25
4 il
45 | MC Ooch tomearies ae 50 rake
. Best Grain came out with inferior,—failed to work satisfactorily.
86 Wel SW 5 ey G5 1) OB Turns 15 lbs. | 6 Bushels
4 10 | 63 X 15 = 945
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. d61
In this trial Kilby’s machine made nearly as good a sample as
Hornsby’s of the best grain, but was unable to divide the refuse
in the masterly manner that Hornsby’s performed this part of the
work. It is worthy of remark, that Hornsby’s performed as
much work as Kilby’s ina better manner, and 1 in little more than
half the time. It therefore won with ease.”
Grinding-mills (Judges’ Report).—“ The portable mills for
grinding fine meal did not possess much merit, with the exception
of Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth’s, to which we awarded the
prize. It both kibbled and ground in superior style to any of the
others, grinding barley perfectly well at the rate of 6 bushels per
hour without much heating the meal. It was upon the same
principle as fixed mil] stones usually are, was well got up in
point of workmanship, and took little room, so that we considered
it a valuable implement, though we are aware that a pair of 2-feet
8-inches millstones can be put up at considerably less cost where
the motive-power is fixed, and applicable to several machines for
different purposes.
««Mr. Sparke’s mill made very good work for a steel mill,
grinding at the rate of 3 bushels per hour, and as a cheap imple-
ment deserves the attention of small farmers.”
Root-Cutters (Judges’ Report).— In this class there was
nothing new or worthy of notice, except that there were several
machines exhibited that cut both for cattle and sheep by merely
reversing the motion of the crank or handle.
«Out of the number we selected four for trial, the result of
which we have put in a diagram, showing the quantity of roots cut
and the amount of power required to accomplish the work :”—
W eight Comparative
pecan Stand.| Art. | Price.|of Roots Does @5 OBSERVATIONS.
required.
£a..Se lbs. Ibs.
The executors of the 8 2 |5 10 112 910 Did its work admirably, both for cattle and
late James Gardner. sheep, cutting into pieces $ by ¢ inch for
sheep, and 2% by 3 for cattle.
Crosskill. . . .{| 26 61 5 0 112 1500 Worked well, cutting both for cattle and
sheep; for sheep into pieces 14 inch by 3,
and for eae slices 2 inch thick.
Gillet 2s 7. | 02 3 | 415 112 1568 Cut pieces $ by 43-inch, convex on one side
and concave on the other, well adapted for
mixing with chaff. Worked well.
Phillips and Co. .j| 89 aur ko 0 112 | | 1664 The same as Gardner’s, with the addi-
tion of Mr. Phillips's grating for pre-
venting the last slice of the root from
passing unslit, which it performs admi-
rably, but at nearly as much expense in
power as the whole cutting amounts to,
the cutting absorbing 910 lbs. of power,
and slitting of the last slice 754 lbs. of
power, which is well worthy the con-
sideration of the farmer, as it is possible
it may cost more to do a thing than it is
worth.
© tana ata aaaaa ae
K
562 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
Chaff- Cutters (Judges’ Report).—“In this class there was
some improvement, but there did not seem to be any principle in-
troduced that was better than Cornes’s ; although many makers are
turning out machines of his sort better got up than he turns out
some of his ; and if he does not look very active, he will find an
awkward competitor in Messrs. Richmond and Chandler.
«‘We do not approve of the difference generally made between
large and small chaff-cutters, inasmuch as they have a narrower
box and also one knife less. Narrowing the box gives great
additional lever-power to the man or other power employed at
the crank; and we see no reason why the narrow width, with
three Lies should not be the most efficient and useful plan of
making small chaff-machines.
«Fight were selected for trial, and supplied with the barley-
straw that had just been threshed, which was very short, soft,
awkward stuff to get through the machines; the result is given in
o
the annexed diagrams :”’—
‘ Comparative
Sea 5 Weight | Amount of
Peg Stand.} Art. | Price. | of Chaff Power OBSERVATIONS:
rade Cut. required.
£. Ss. lbs. lbs.
Cornes); i tier) > | 228 a |V4o-40 112 14,126 Did its work well, and had no tendency to
choke. Well managed in feeding.
Richmond and 29 7 |14 0 112 15,740 Worked well without choking, although
Chandler, very badly fed, sometimes too fast and at
others too slow ; ; the chaff was cut a little
longer than the others, but very even.
Smithand Co. . . 95 WEP ee @) 112 16,187 Worked well 3 did not choke; tolerably
well fed ; would cut a great quantity ina
short time.
Stanley « . . .] 41 14 |12 12 112 21,166 Worked well, though very badly fed ; it is
the same as Cornes’ s, with some im prove-
ments.
Ransome and May . | 116 4. \21 0 112 26,128 By some means this machine got choked ;
the quality of chaff cut was good.
Womaxsaes denies 87 1 9 0 112 30,291 Had an ingenious description of knives,
but through bad feeding it was choked.
Garrett and Son. . 81 31 Om 0 112 31,291 Cut rather shorter chaff than the rest, but
with only two knives it could not compete
with three-knived machines.
Crosskill . . . 26 56 {18 0 112 44,800 This machine made very rough chaff.
« Another diagram, showing the quantity that each machine
would cut per hour, when driven at the rate chosen by the ex-
hibitor as the best for his machine :—
iy ib Weight | Amount
Exubitors Stand.| Art. | Price.) Cut per| of Power OBSERVATIONS.
Hour. required.
£. Ss. lbs. lbs.
Cornes . 78 "ooVaO | 1 470 185,400 | Cutslitter into 4-inch lengths, but not fast.
Richmond & Chandler 29 7 (\14 0 1,560 219,240 | Beautifully got up, and strong.
Smithand Co. . . 95 12% |17 0 |. 2,040 294,840 | Cuts litter into 6-inch lengths at the rate
of 5 tons per hour. Price 3/, extra when
fitted with a litter-cutter.
Stanley . . C 4] 14 {12 12} 1,080 204,000 | Cuts litter into 4-inch lengths, but not fast.
Ransome and May | 116 4 |21 0 840 195,960 | Does not cut litter.
Womaxciere Meta tm) | aS 1S Ne9= 40 420 113,400 | Likely to come out well when the feeding.
parts are improved.
Garrett andSon., . 8 31 |10 10 1,380 385,560 Does not cut litter.
‘Crosskill , . . 26 56) 1820 660 264,000 | We think this ought to be the last ofits sor
eS a SR A TEEPE NEE
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 563
« All the machines were tried cutting chaff three-eighths of an
inch in length, and each exhibitor was allowed to fill his machine
until he was satisfied with the feed and speed at which it was
driven ; the machine was then stopped, and re-started with the
“register attached that records the power consumed.”
Linseed and Corn-Crusher (Judges’ Report).—< Of these
machines there were many that cut or ground the linseed rather
than crushed it. Crushing is better than partially grinding, be-
cause when crushed it does not become lumpy, nor burn to the
copper so much as when ground. We therefore tried only those
that crushed linseed and corn.
the annexed diagram :””—
The result we have recorded in
| 258
Linseed. Oats Ze
| Total| £8
o
Exhibitors’ oi gf |\23 | ¢ (2 | Time eS
Nae i ps = [8 oo Pt “4 | ue| for | 8 23 OBSERVATIONS.
° 2 . mon » Es Dames > x te =-=
Z/Si 8 lg2 2 [ESSER] © [53 |Both.| ge
aie a n| acl inn | om S180.) B16 So ed 2
alala @ |e 8S 16 |) 6 1 c
£&. s. | lbs. M.Sec.) lbs. | lbs.|M.Sec.| lbs. |M. Sec,| lbs
Hurwood and 107 3/10 10 |112 35 12 |27,456)112 | 43 52/36,848) 79 4) 64,304 | Made beautiful work,
Turner. | and had a highly im-
| proved feeding appa-
| ratus.
Stanley . . .| 41] 6 |12 O |112 30 O |24,388/112 | 47 36/39,984| 77 36] 64,372 es exceedingly
well,
Richmond and 29 | 11 | 6 10 j112 ‘61 52 |46,400|112 | 52 32/41,496|114 24) 87,896 | Pressed the oil out of the
Chandler. seed,and was defective
in feeding, but crushed
| well.
Ferrabee and Son 100 | 12 | 8 10 j112 69 20 |33,680/112 | 93 20/56,800|162 40) 90,480 | Pressed the oil very
much out of the lin-
seed, which is jobjec-
tionable.
Garrett and Son | 81 | 35 |11 0 {112 |39 28 |33,152/112 | 78 24/63,856|117 52) 97,008 | Did its work well,
Ransome and {116 | 31 |12 10 /112 '48 32 |40,768/ Did not crush Grain. ee Did its work well, but
May. ¢ defective in feeding.
Stratton and 3 | 54 |12 12 |.12 62 24 |46,800/112 |107 20/80,500/169 44|127,300 | Pressed the oil very
Hughes. much out of the liv-
seed; work in other
respects well done.
Taylor and Dean} 96 | 4 | 6 15 /112 80 0 |67,200)112 | 78 24/65,850)158 24/133,050 | The feeding very im-
perfect, but crushed
well.
W. N. Nicholson }113 | 8 | 5 0 /112 |130 40/94,080) Did not crush Grain. ee Work very well done,
: | but slow, and expen-
sive in power.
J, C. Grant . . {104} 18 | 6-10 | Would not work.| .. | .. aie 46 as A new machine on a
promising principle,
and likely to come out
well when matured.
«The time recorded is that in which the power of two men
would crush I cwt. of linseed or oats.
The principal things to
be considered are cost price, durability, and the power required
to perform a given quantity of work. We did not try them with
any grain except oats and beans, and finding that none of them
would do beans either so well, so fast, or with so little power
as a common bean-splitting machine, we have not recorded the
result. It will be observed that we have made the diagram show
564 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
the relative powers of each machine in crushing both linseed and
oats; also the total time and power consumed by each machine
in crushing | cwt. of linseed and | ewt. of oats.
« As the power employed and the interest upon the cost price
to cover wear and tear, are the expenses incurred in perform-
ing the work, the machine that costs the least and absorbs the
least power is the machine that will crush the cheapest. Taking
these as just data, we have arranged the machines in the diagram
according to their merits.
« We entertain a very high opinion of the value of the machine
introduced by the Society's consulting Engineer, for testing the
various machines which come under the notice of the Judges;
discovering, as it does, any waste of power, we think that it will
prove of incalculable advantage in driving all the power-devouring
machines out of the show-yards, and preventing them from get-
ting into the farm-yards of the kingdom, to the injury both of man
and beast.”
Carts (Judges’ Report).—‘In this class of implements we
found that great improvement had been made since last year,
“Firstly, in their being made generally upon more simple
principles, with less foolish ornamental carving and shaving, by
way of forming apertures for dirt to lodge in.
“Secondly, in the bodies of the carts being placed upon the axle
without bolstering up, thereby giving greater facility for filling,
less alteration of the weight upon the horse’s back in ascending
and descending hills, and in rough roads less lateral pressure on
the wheels, and less jostling of the horse.
« Thirdly, in several of the exhibitors, especially Messrs. Strat-
ton, Hughes, and Co., Mr, Eaton,and Mr. Crosskill, having wheels
made upon the principles best calculated to sustain the lateral and
perpendicular pressures of the load when in motion, also in being
less liable to cut into the land, from the tire of the wheels being
perfectly cylindrical, which gives the true rolling motion desired.
«‘ Fourthly, in the power of making a harvest-cart of sufficient
dimensions for one horse, by placing a frame upon the body of
these low carts. This frame should turn up at both ends at least
two feet higher than the wheels, so as to overcome the spliting
action of the arch that goes over the wheels (to defend them
from the load), and should not be less than 11 feet in length,
being made the full width of the wheels, thus gaining sufficient
surface to carry a load for one horse without going higher with
the load than its own width ; there will also be but little liability
to upset, and in short distances it will not be requisite to bind the
hay or corn with ropes, as the high ends will have the effect of
condensing the load by the motion of the cart as it passes over
the various inequalities of the field or road.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 065
«* Inasmuch as we found all these advantages carried out most
in Mr, Crosskill’s cart, Stand 26, Article 38, we felt justified in
awarding it the prize, not only as the best cart for general pur-
poses, but also as the best harvest-cart, seeing that when the
harvest-frame was placed upon this cart, it was only six inches
higher than Hannam’s harvest-cart (exhibited by Messrs. Strat-
ton, Hughes, and Co.) ; and the frame being 11 feet long by
6 feet wide, gave sufficient surface to build upon, thus realizing
the principal advantages of Hannam’s cart, at the small expense
of 27. The mode of altering the cart for general purposes
into a harvest-cart is also simple and easy. In Hannam’s
and Morton’s (both exhibited by Messrs. Stratton, Hughes,
and Co.), the whole body has to be taken off the wheels, and
another put on every time a change of work takes place; whereas
in Crosskill’s the harvest-frame only has to be put on or taken
off. Lastly, the expense of this frame is but a little more
than a third of the price of either Hannam’s or Morton’s harvest
bodies.
«We recommended to Mr. Crosskill to raise the ends of his
harvest-frame at least two feet higher than the top of the wheels,.
for which improvement we thought he would be justified in
charging 13 guineas instead of 13/. for the complete cart.
‘*'To parties who are in the habit of carting any sort of soft sub-
stance, such as road or street scrapings in a wet state, night-soil,
&c., we would highly recommend Mr. Stratton’s tumbler-cart,
Article 18, Stand 3, as truly adapted for scavengers. The
body of this cart can be always kept level, whether the horse
be ascending or descending a hill, thus preventing any loss of
manure or soiling of the street or road. It is also very low, and
turns completely over, so that there 1s no difficulty in either filling
or emptying it, whatever be the nature of its contents.
« Asa cart exclusively for carting hay and straw, or for harvest
work, we recommend Messrs. Stratton, Hughes, and Co.’s im-
proved Hannam’s cart, Stand 3, Article 2, and Mr. Eaton’s cart,
Article 6, Stand 7.” }
Waggons ( Judges’ Report).—< In this class, as in that of carts,
we found the elevation of the body by bolstering up was greatly
done away with; but with regard to the simplifying of their con-
struction, the advance was but very meagre, except by Mr.
@rosckilll who seems to have quite diolen a taal upon the
other exhibitors in simplicity, with its attendant cheapness. We
regret that the other makers did not think the waggons worthy of
being mounted upon a set of wheels made on the principles best
adapted for bearing hard work and running straight forward, and
it is to be hoped that this will not be the case another year.
“We highly recommend Mr. Crosskill’s break as a great im-
VOL. X. 2P
566 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
provement for hilly roads; but where roads are generally level,
the extra weight to be carried about would be more expensive
than the occasional advantage would be worth. We would also
recommenda pole, as used in Yorkshire, this method being superior
to double shafts, which are too confining, and expose the horses to
a great deal of jostling that with a pole they would avoid. They
would also escape the burden of the heavy harness which is re-
quired to enable them to carry the weight of the shafts.
«« Perhaps we may now be allowed to make a few remarks
on the advantage of lightening wheel-carriages for agricultural
purposes. We have found that a good cart with wheels 43 feet
high, with hoop-tire 3 inches by ¢ of an inch, will, if properly
cared for, last until it has travelled over greatly above 12,000
miles in road and farm work. Now, if we take the cost of a
horse at 2s. 6d. per day, and the carter at Is. (as he will
attend to and drive two horses), making 3s. 6d. altogether, and if
we further assume that 20 miles per day is a fair day’s work,
drawing | ton net material, we find that each ewt. costs about 2d.
per day’s journey of 20 miles: so that if we reduced the weight of
the cart 1 cwt., we could add that amount to the load without in-
creasing the work of the horse. In this way we should save 2d.
in every day’s work; and, as in 12,000 miles there are 600 days’
journeys of 20 miles each, if we multiply the 2d. by 600 it gives
us 5/. as the amount saved before the cart is worn out, for every
cwt. by which we can reduce the weight of the cart;’ and even
supposing that some additional repairs might be required in a
eart of lighter construction than ordinary, there would still be a
considerable balance left in favour of using light carts.”
Haymaking Machines (Judges’ Report).—“ We found that in
this class of implements there was practically no competition, as
Smith and Co.’s machine, stand 95, article 1, was very superior
to any of the others in all its parts and performance of work ; in
fact, we think it so near perfection that no man need fear buying
under the impression that any great improvement will take place
in itin future. We regret to say that all the others fall into the
shade when brought into competition with it, yet we hope that
others will, after another year’s application, be able to give Mr.
Smith a closer run for the prize.”
Gorse-Bruisers (Judges’ Report).—* In this class there were
only two machines, ‘That made by Mr. Charles Burrell (Stand
13, Article 11) did its work exceedingly well, but slow, viz. at the
rate of 3 cwt. per hour. The trial was interrupted by the giving
way of the leverage used for pressing the rollers together, in con-
sequence of the owner having imprudently put extra weight on so
as to reduce the gorse to a proper state at one operation, which it
failed to do, the gorse being too old. With two-year old gorse,
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 567
however, we think that this machine would accomplish it. Price
251.
“The other machine, made by Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and
Andrewes (Stand 58, Article 9), did not perform its work quite so
well as Mr. Burrell’s, the exhibitors not having used any extra
weight of pressure, but it did a much larger quantity, namely, at the
rate of nearly 9 cwt. per hour—the power required being, as nearly
as we could judge, about that of 3 horses. ‘This machine did its
work pretty well, although the gorse was too old, there being a
great many old dry twigs which it was impossible, with any rea-
sonable power, to bruise sufficiently ; and with two-year old gorse
we think it would do its work sufficiently well. It also got
through three times as much work as the last-mentioned imple-
ment, so that we felt justified in awarding it the prize.
“« We are of opinion that a smaller machine than either of the
above would be more generally useful, as many farmers have a
limited quantity of land that might be profitably employed in
growing gorse, but the great expense of a machine for bruising it
acts as a barrier to its cultivation, even under favourable cireum-
stances.”
Orlcake-breakers (Judges’ Report).—‘“ In this class there was
great competition. Mr. Hornsby’s (Stand 65, Article 14) was a
most efficient machine, doing its work exceedingly well, and
working easily.
« Mr. Maynard’s (Stand 88, Article 3) was avery good ma-
chine, having a decided improvement in the means of conveying
the motion to the rollers. This also worked exceedingly well.
«« Messrs. Ransome and May’s (Stand 116, Article 47) is also
a capital machine, doing its work exceedingly well.
«« Mr. Nicholson’s (Stand 113, Article 4) was powerfully made,
worked easily and well, and was calculated to do a great quantity
of work.
« We decided to try only those machines possessing merit as
breakers for both cattle and sheep, considering them best calcu-
lated to supply the wants of farmers in general. We accordingly
selected seven possessing the greatest merit, one of which was
withdrawn, and one—namely, Mr. Hornsby’s—was not tried,
owing to his being taken up in the field, and not able to attend
to its working. ‘This we were sorry for, as we had a high opinion
of his machine.
« We have given the result of our trial in the following tabular
form :— F
968 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
See nr
Weight | orrount
Exhibitors’ Stand.| Art. | Price. ax of OBSERVATIONS.
Names. ae Power
ESOS required.
aes: lbs. lbs.
Barrett, Exall, and 58 24 | 410 112 3,696 Worked well, breaking the cake
-Andrewes. very well for sheep, but too
fine for cattle.
W.N. Nicholson 113 1 3 112 &64 Did its work well, both for cattle
and sheep, making very little
dust.
W.N.Nicholson . | 118 2) 6) 5 112 1,288 Did well, breaking for cattle and
sheep, and tolerably well for
tillage.
W.N. Nicholson , | 113 BAGG 112 3,696 Did its work well, both for cattle -
and sheep.
Ransome and May. | 116 46 |4 4 112 2,688 Broke the cake rather too fine
for cattle, but did it beauti-
fully for sheep.
«In these trials we used the large square Marseilles cake, break-
ing it into pieces, of which the largest were about 2 inches square
for cattle, and about | inch square for sheep. In the trial recorded
above the cake was broken for cattle alone, but we found that it did
not take above a fourth more power to break it for sheep, and in the
machine, Stand 113, Article 1, the power was but little increased ;
and as it did its work well, making the smallest amount of dust,
and taking a small amount of power, we awarded it the prize as
the best machine for breaking cake for cattle and sheep. It
was not, however, calculated to break cake for manure, and
for that purpose we would recommend either of those noticed
above.”
Miscellaneous Department.*
The Judges have not made any report on the miscellaneous
* Portable Farm Railway. (Stand 26, Articles 46, 47, 48, 49. Silver Medal.)
“ JT have requested Mr. Crosskill (and it would be wellif other exhibitors
of implements would consider this point) to turn his attention to a method
of avoiding the change of load from the cart to the truck, or from the
truck to the cart, whichis necessary in the present arrangement of this rail-
way. This might be accomplished either by having carts that would run
upon the rails as well as upon the land, or by some mechanical contrivance
for lifting the bodies of the carts off their field-wheels, and placing them
on the rails, and vice versa.
‘¢ There are many situations where rail or tram ways might be made use
of at the homestead or in the field, with much economy of time and labour,
if some such plan were adopted.
Circular-Saw Bench, or Machine for making Hurdles and Gates, as well as
Sawing Planks, §c. (Stand 13, Article 9. Silver Medal.)
‘* The consulting engineer considered that, with a little additional cost,
this machine might be much improved. A hurdle was completed in
twelve minutes in the trial-yard, from a larch-tree in the rough state, when
the machine was worked by steam-power, and with practice less time
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 969
articles which were this year very much reduced both in number
and importance, in consequence of specific prizes having been
offered for several classes of implements, which on previous occa-
sions were placed in the Miscellaneous Department. The report
will, therefore, conclude with the following description of the
apparatus frequently referred to in the preceding pages, viz. :—
Amos’s Machine for Testing Hand-power, to which the
Society’s Gold Medal was voted by the Council_—: This machine
consists of a fly-wheel, 3 feet 9 inches diameter, with a winch-
handle placed in one of the arms and having a radius of 154
inches. This is fixed on the principal shaft, which is placed
in a horizontal position, resting in bearings on cast-iron fram-
ing at both ends. A spur-wheel is keyed on this shaft, 14
inches in diameter; and on the boss through which the shaft
works a lever is loosely fitted, say 50 inches long, and balanced
by a cast-iron weight on the opposite side of the boss, or centre of
motion. The lever has a bush or pivot hole through it, at 14
inches from its centre of motion, and a hook at the end for re-
ceiving the weights used in testing.
«¢ A second shaft is carried at one end by the bush or pivot hole
in the lever last mentioned, having aspur-wheel | 4 inches diameter
keyed upon it, and is driven by the wheel on the first (or fly-
wheel) shaft; while at the other end it rests in a bearing in the
iron framing of the machine. It is carried a short distance beyond
this bearing, and has a cast-iron drum or rigger, of 31 inches dia-
meter, keyed on its end, for driving the machine to be tested.
«A counter is attached to the first or fly-wheel shaft, and
registers the number of revolutions made by the testing machine.
‘¢ A pendulum is attached to the framing, and its vibrations
indicate the proper velocity. After a little practice, the labourer
has no difficulty in timing the revolutions of the machine with the
pendulum. 7
« The whole of the testing machine is mounted on wheels, and
moves (upon a temporary railway) to the machine to be tested.
The mode of using it is as follows, viz.:—The machine to be
tested has a pulley placed upon the spindle, of the same diameter
as the circle described by the winch by which the machine is
would be necessary. It is adapted for vse in woods and plantations, in
making fencing and hurdles, and can be worked by horse-power.
“The attention of exhibitors of implements should be drawn to the re-
quirement of a good portable and not expensive arrangement for sheltering
sheep in the field, and feeding them under cover. The arrangements exhibited
hitherto are neither sufficiently portable nor low enough in price to be of
practical service, nor are they adapted to uneven or hilly ground.
_ “© Dupitey PELHAM.”
970 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
usually worked, and motion is given to it by a strap from the
pulley on the testing machine.
«« The resistance (or the work done) now causes the spur-wheel
and one end of the second shaft to be carried upwards, and par-
tially (in an orbicular manner) round the first shaft. By hanging
weights on the lever, the wheel and shafts are prevented from
rising, and the power applied and work done indicated by the
weights employed.
« For instance: If the work done is equal to one man’s power,
81 lbs. will be the weight required on the lever to keep the whole
in equilibrium, supposing the standard of a man’s power to be
3750 lbs. lifted one foot high per minute.
«« A modification of the principle of this machine has long been
in use in paper-mills for disengaging the driving machinery of
presses.”
Moat Hall, Dec. 1849.
XXIX.—A Lecture on the Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology
of the Organs of Respiration and Circulation ; with especial re-
~ ference to the nature and treatment of Pleuro-pneumonia in the
Ox. By James Beart Simonps, Lecturer on Cattle Patho-
logy in the Royal Veterinary College ; Honorary Member of
the Royal Agricultural Society, and its Veterinary Inspector ;
Corresponding Member of the Sociéié Nationale et Centrale
de Médecine Vétérinaire, &c.
My Lorp,—Pursuing the course which I have heretofore
adopted in addressing the members of this Society at their annual
meetings, 1 shall not venture to trespass upon your time by a
lengthy exordium. ‘To speak of the great and rapidly increasing
benefits which arise from these periodic meetings, however in-
viting the theme is but a work of supererogation, for all are
ready to admit, from the prince of royal blood to the humble ple-
beian, that they exercise an important influence both socially and
morally over our rural population, and contribute in no small
degree to our national welfare and independence. The’subject
which has been selected for this lecture is one of considerable
importance to the agriculturist, as it relates to ‘the Anatomy,
Physiology, and Diseases of the Organs of Respiration of Domes-
ticated Animals,’ and to an investigation, in particular, of the
nature of that destructive malady affecting the Ox tribe, termed
Pleuro-pneumonia.
In directing your attention to the general structure and func-
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 571
tions of these important parts of the animal organism, it will be
necessary, first, to take a somewhat rapid glance at the processes of
digestion and assimilation, for the purpose of placing the office
of the lungs in a clearer view. ‘The propriety of this course will
doubtless be admitted when we state that here are to be traced the
various changes which the nutritious part of the food passes
through, prior to entering the circulating fluid, the blood, to con-
tribute to the support eke Anas. “During life the repeated
demand for new materials to supply the constant waste of the
tissues, which arises from a multiplicity of causes, gives origin te
those sensations which are designated hunger and thirst. The
former of these shows the requirement of solid, and the latter of
fluid alimentary matters; and they only yield to the proper
amount of food and drink being received. Notwithstanding that
both the quantity and the quality of the food which is partaken of,
will depend on the habits and conformation of each particular
animal, still in all it undergoes a successive and similar series of
changes before it ministers to the wants of the system. In the
mouth it is masticated, or divided by the operation of the teeth
into smaller masses, and while this reduction in size is being ac-
complished, it is mixed with the saliva, a fluid abundantly fur-
nished by the ducts of the contiguous glandular structures. This
insalivation of the food produces both a chemical and mechanical
effect; by the former the mass is fitted for digestion by the alka-
line action of the saliva, and by the latter for deglutition by being
rendered soft or pulpy. Thus prepared, the food descends the
gullet and enters the stomach, where, uniting with the gastric
juice, it is subjected to a second chemical change, in which lactic
and hydrochloric acid are chiefly concerned. This process, com-
monly called the digestive, is effected, as we have seen, by the
succus gastricus; a fluid which is secreted within the follicles of
the stomach, whence it is poured on the reception of alimentary
or other matters.
Digestion thus converts the aliment into a chymous mass, and
portions of this are alternately passed out of the stomach into the
intestimal canal, where they are mingled with the hepatic and
pancreatic secretions furnished by the liver and pancreas. The
result of the commingling of these fluids with the chyme is the
speedy separation into its nutritious and non-nutritious parts, te
which is given the name of chylification; and, like the other
changes we have described, this separation is most probably pro-
duced by chemical agency.* ‘The chyle thus formed is next pre-
cipitated upon the villous coat of the intestines, to be absorbed or
* For fuller particulars of these various processes, see ‘Lecture on the Digestive
Organs,’ Society’s Journal, vol. ix. part i.
072 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
conveyed into the general circulation, while the effete matter is
passed onwards in the canal to be expelled from the system.
The vessels which transmit the chyle are designated the lac-
teals ; and as its entrance into them is one of the most interest-
ing and instructive phenomena in the animal economy, we shall
describe it somewhat at length. The absorptien of chyle taking
place in the small intestines, the lacteals are freely distributed
here, and consequently a different development of their internal
lining membrane exists compared with that of the large intestines.
In the former it is thickly studded with shaggy projections, villi ;
hence the name, the villous or velvety tunic. Each vidlus is plen-
tifully supplied with blood-vessels, besides which it contains
nerves and the radicles of the lacteal absorbents. The minute-
ness of these tubes, added to other physical causes, has however
prevented their precise arrangement being demonstrated ; but it is
generally believed that they are formed into
loops more or less perfect, as shown in the
annexed diagram.* ‘The several component
parts of a villus are united together by areolar
tissue, and are protected by a scaly epithelial
covering. This epithelium is a membrane
analogous to the cuticle of the true skin, and
is formed after a like manner, and performs
a similar office by defending the sensible struc-
tures beneath it from injury. By some phy-
siologists the epithelium is supposed to be
cast off from the surface of the villi during the activity of chylifi-
cation and absorption, and tc be reproduced in the intervals of
their suspension ; by others however this shedding is not regarded
as an essential step in either process. Immediately beneath the
epithelial scales les a great number of cells varying in size from
the z+)'s7 to the sj5y of an inch, whose office it is to imbibe the
chyle and transmit it to the radicles of the lacteals. The trans-
mission of the chyle to these minute tubes is effected by the
bursting or deliquescence of the cells after acquiring their full
size; but its entrance into them is due to the law of endosmose
and exosmose. The imbibition, however, of chyle alone by the
cells, as they are surrounded by other matters, some of which are
even necessary to the well-being of the various organs, shows a
power of selection by them, which doubtless is an act of vitality.
We cannot now speak of the means provided for a constant deve-
lopment of new cells; but it is right to add a few words on endos-
mose and exosmose, and which we prefer to do in the appropriate
language of Dr. Carpenter. He says, that “when two fluids
* From Kirkes and Paget’s ‘ Handbook of Physiology.’
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 573
differing in density are separated by a thin animal or vegetable
membrane, there is a tendency to mutual admixture through the
pores of the membrane; but the less dense fluid will transude
with much greater facility than the more dense: and consequently
there will be an increase on the side of the denser fluid; whilst
very little of this, in comparison, will have passed towar ds the less
dense. When one of the fluids is contained in a sac or cavity,
the flow of the other towards it is termed Endosmose, or flow-
enwards ; whilst the contrary current is termed Lxrosmose, or
flow-outwards. Thus, if the cecum of a fow] filled with syrup
or gum-water be tired to the end of a tube, and be immersed in
pure water, the latter will penetrate the cecum by endosmose,
and will so increase the volume of its contents as to cause the
fluid to rise to a considerable height in the attached tube. On
the other hand, a small proportion of the gum or syrup will find
its way into the surrounding fluid by exosmose. But if the
cecum were filled with water, and were immersed im a solution
of gum or syrup, it would soon be nearly emptied, —the exosmose
being much stronger than the endosmose.” *
Tile chyle, by the operation of this law being conveyed into the
lacteals, is carried by them into a receptacle marked c in fig. 2
situated near to the lumbar vertebree, and in its course it passes
through the mesenteric glands, where it is further elaborated and
fitted for its conversion into blood. For the purpose of making
this better understood, it is necessary to state that the intestines
are attached to the spine, by a double reflection of the serous
membrane which lines the abdomen, termed the mesentery, and
that the lacteals travel upon this to reach the receptaculum chyh.
These several parts are depicted in fig. 2, where the lacteals are
marked-a, the mesenteric glands b, and the chyle-receptacle c.
To enter into a description of the particular changes which are
wrought in the chyle by passimg through the mesenteric glands
would encroach too much on the subject of this lecture, and it
will be sufficient to observe that, quitting the glands, it is found
to contain a large number of spherical corpuscules, and to possess
a power of clotting, like the fibrine of the blood. These corpus-
cules are formed from the lining membrane of the chyle-convey-
ing tubes; they average in size about the 4600th of an inch, and
are probably identical with the white corpuscules of the blood,
as these latter are well known to be chiefly concerned in nutrition.
The lacteals form frequent unions with each other, by which their
size 18 increased, but their number diminished, so that they ulti-
mately enter the receptacle by avery few trunks. (See fig.2.) The
mesenteric glands are composed of coils of these tubes, ramityang
* Carpenter’s ‘Manual a Bice “ips 281,
and Pathology of the
Ys
Physvolog
Anatomy,
74
nae Te cs —
eit = ee
SE See Be :
it pcee aa: ates ES
— irk
A A AY Al yi =\\ al
AE \ \ \ \
ARS \\\\ \\ \\ ; \ 4 M " \
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. O79
among a minute network of blood-vessels ; they are likewise dilated
or enlarged within the glands, and make their exit from them in
fewer numbers than they entered. Thus the vasa afferentia are
more numerous than the vasa efferentia.
Within the receptacle the chyle unites with the lymph, a fluid
which is carried there by the lymphatic absorbents which are freely
distributed throughout the body. The lymph is chiefly composed
of the excess of the materials of the blood which had been exuded
by the capillary blood-vessels proper to each organ for its nutrition,
and which is thus conveyed back to the general circulation. This
fluid in its passage undergoes a series of changes, like the chyle,
by traversing the /ymphatic glands in its course; and’ the vessels
carrying it make frequent unions with each other, so as to end,
like the lacteals, in very few trunks. It is thus seen that the
supply of new blood takes place from two sources, the chyle and
the lymph, and which in health is sufficient to compensate for its
continued waste. The contents of the receptaculum chyli are
conducted into the circulation through a canal, called the tho-
racic duct. (Seed, fig. 2.) This duct passes through the chest
(hence its name) very near to the spine, and empties itself into the
left jugular or auxiliary vein: in the accompanying sketch it is
represented as joining the former at the point marked e. The
new materials are thus mingled with venous blood, which of itself
is unfitted for the support of life until it receives fresh elements
of nutrition, and is re-oxygenated by its transmission through the
lungs. It is also probable that the chyle and lymph, being almost
immediately after their entrance into the circulation exposed to
the action of the atmospheric air in the lungs, thus pass through
the last stage in the process of converting them into pure blood.
We proceed to speak of the blood, the changes which it un-
dergoes during its circulation, the constituents of which it is
composed, and the vessels by which it is conducted throughout
the system, as without this we cannot explain the functions of the
lungs. Blood may be defined to be a fluid circulating through
-the heart, arteries, and veins, carrying the materials necessary
for the support of vitality, nutrition, and secretion, to every organ
of the body ;—building up the frame of the young, and support-
ing that of the old animal. It not only circulates for the pur-
poses of nutrition or renovation, but also to maintain the heat of
the frame,—all animals possessing a power of keeping up a heat
within themselves, independent of the temperature of the atmos-
phere they inhabit, be it higher or lower than their own. This
is designated animal heat; and its modus operandi will hereafter
be explained. The heart may be viewed as the central pump
from which the system derives the fluid; the arteries the trans-
mitting, and the veins the returning conduits.
076 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
In vertebrated animals the blood is of a red colour, but it is
colourless in the invertebrated. While circulating it not only
appears to be red, but of a homogeneous character; however, on
investigating it after being removed from the vessels, it is found to
be composed of dissimilar parts. Its chief components are four—
fibrine, albumen or serum, corpuscules, and salts; and each of these
contributes to the maintenance of the varied functions of the body.
‘The redness of the blood is owing to the presence of red par-
ticles or corpuscules, a fact which is demonstrated by their removal,
when a colourless fluid, the Miquor sanguinis, remains behind.
Thousands of these bodies exist in a few drops of blood, and conse-
quently they are so minute as to require the aid of the micro-
scope to detect them. It was formerly supposed that the vessels
in many parts of the system, of which those of the eye were ad-
duced as an example, did not contain red corpuscules; modern
research has, however, disproved this position; and the true ex-
planation of the white appearance of the eye is, that its vessels
are so small as not to transmit a sufficient number of these cor-
puscules at one time, to give colour to the circulating fluid. We
have frequent means of ascertaining this, for when inflammation of
this organ takes place, these minute vessels are then enlarged,
and consequently the red particles, entering in greater numbers,
colour the fluid. Hence the cause of the “ blood-shot eye.”
The microscope, as before stated, is necessary to develop the
existence of the red particles, and when
thus examined they are found to be flat-
tened discs, of a round form (see fig. 3),
varying in size from the 4500th to the
2800th of an inch. We may state their
average size as being near to the 3000th
of an inch. Bulk of animal seems not
to influence their dimensions, and they
differ but little in this respect if taken
from the elephant or the mouse. Asa
rule, they may be said to be small in
These figures represent the blood- : ;
discs of the ox, highly magni- the Herbivorous Mammal, larger in the
fied, and placed in dierent Po” Carnivorous, and largest in Omnivorous,
They are of greater specific gravity than
the other constituents of the blood, and hence, when blood is kept
in a fluid state, after being drawn, they will be found to sink
towards the bottom of the vessel, and thus tend to give that
peculiar appearance which is called its buffy coat or inflammatory
crust, for the blood in general is longer in clotting when inflam-
mation exists. ‘The red particles are intimately connected with
the health, strength, and vigour of an animal; and are found in
fewer numbers in ill-health. Wald animals are said to possess
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. a7
a greater quantity than domesticated, and those which are fat less
than those which are lean. The redness of these corpuscules is
due to the presence of ared pigment, hematosin, which is diffused
in the fluid which distends their walls, and it is in consequence of
this pigment being chemically acted upon in the minute vessels
of the system by the carbonic acid, and in those of the Jungs by
the oxygen, that the difference in the colour of arterial and venous
blood is observed. The change in the colour of the blood is
hkewise connected with the process which generates animal heat
—facts which we shall again advert to.
We pass onwards to speak of the fibrine of the blood. It
is generally known that very shortly after the withdrawal of
blood it clots or coagulates into a tolerably firm mass; this is
owing to its fibrine, and in no way depends on any other of its
constituents. This peculiar quality of the fibrine has led to its
being called self-coagulating lymph—a term very rarely employed
in the present day. It is only by abstracting blood that we are
enabled io obtain this material, and to investigate its properties.
Various means are had recourse to for this purpose, such as filter-
ing the blood while it is fluid, washing the crassamentum or clot,
or stirring the blood while it is undergoing coagulation. The
latter is the plan usually adopted ; and if a small bundle of twigs
are used for the purpose, it will be observed that the fibrine will
adhere to them more or less in a colourless condition, leaving
behind the serum and red particles.* Washing the mass thus
obtained renders it white by removing the colourmg matter from
the few red particles which were entangled in its meshes while
coagulating. An examination of the fibrine shows not only that
itis white, but also that it is very tough and elastic, and, when
viewed by a magnifying lens, it is found to be made up of fibres
which intersect each other in every possible direction. The
fibrillating or self-coagulating power of this material serves most
important purposes in the animal economy. It forms the tem-
porary bond of union between broken bones, and plugs to arrest
the flow of blood from vessels which have been lacerated or torn
asunder: and were it not for this, death would frequently result
from causes which are now nearly inoperative. Fibrine may
justly be described as the basis of the animal machine; and
as its appropriation takes place during its circulation through the
capillary blood-vessels, and as these form the connecting link
between the arteries and the veins, so it will be apparent that
venous blood must eontain a smaller portion of it than the arterial.
The relative quantity in these vessels is calculated by Muller to
be in the proportion of 29 to 24. In health, about 3 parts of
* Some fibrine thus obtained was exhibited at the lecture.
578 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
fibrine exist in every 1000 of blood; but it becomes increased in
inflammatory affections, and often rises to 8 or 10 parts in the
same quantity. ‘This fact explains why a larger amount of blood
can be abstracted during the acute stage of inflammation than in
health, without the system suffering to an equal extent.
We pass on to consider the serum. After the coagulum of
blood has stood at rest for a short time, a fluid of a pale straw-
colour appears on its surface: this is the serum. The separation
of-the serum from the clot is due to the contraction of the fibrine,
which continues long after the blood has coagulated. The fluid
therefore is forcibly expelled; being, prior to its separation, me-
chanically retained in the coagulum, as water may be said to be
in a sponge. Serum holds in solution the albumen and salts of
the blood, and it is chiefly composed of these matters with the
addition of water. Its viscosity will depend on the relative amount
of albumen, which in health has been estimated at about 8 per
cent. An alteration in the specific gravity of serum will hkewise
indicate the proportion of its albumen; as in healthy subjects its
specific gravity is about 1030. Under disease, and more espe-
cially when of a debilitating nature, such as dropsy, the watery
parts of the serum are increased, and become effused into various
cavities of the body, as the chest, abdomen, or ventricles of the
brain. Ordinary serum is also quickly transuded through the thin
coats of the capillary vessels, of which we have daily proofs in
local inflammation of the external structures, where the swelling
is referable to that cause. Unlike fibrine, serum, whether in or
out of the body, remains fluid ; but as it contains albumen, this is
capable of being solidified by heat, and likewise by the admixture
of mineral acids, or alcohol.* The heat required to accomplish
this is 162° of Fahrenheit—a temperature the body never attains
to. Albumen is believed to be converted into fibrine, and thus
to minister to nutrition ; and it is also thought that the white cor-
puscules of the blood, of which the limits of this lecture will not
allow of a further mention, are the agents which effect the con-
version. The salts can be only incidentally alluded to; they
amount to between 6 and 7 parts in 1000, and are chiefly com-
posed of the chlorides of sodium and potassium, and the phos-
phates of lime, magnesia, and soda.
Having now described the constituents of the blood, we pass
on to explain its circulation, and the changes which take place
during its passage from one part of the system to another. We
have before likened the heart to a central pump, as it is by the
contraction of the muscular walls of this organ that the blood is
* The solidification of the albumen of serum was demonstrated in the lecture by the
employment of hydrochloric acid.
Organs of Resptration and Circulation. 579
driven into the arteries, that arise from two of its cavities, to be
conveyed throughout the body. ‘The heart is a double organ,
and usually described as having two sides, a right and left. It is
also divided into four cavities; the right auricle and ventricle,
and the left auricle and ventricle. The two auricles, and also the
ventricles, are separated from each other by a muscular partition,
so that the right side has no direct communication with the left.
In the accompanying sketch, fig. 4, the cavities of the right side
are laid open to illustrate the course of the blood. The two vene
cave, marked d and e, receive the blood from the veins of the
system which unite to form these vessels, and they empty them-
selves into a, the auricle. From this cavity, by the contraction
of its muscular sides, the blood is driven into 6, the ventricle.
The filling of this second cavity leads likewise to the contraction
of its walls, by which the blood is propelled into f, the pulmonary
artery ; as the rising of the valve e prevents the blood passing
back into the auricle by closing the auriculo-ventricular opening.
Fig. 4,
a. The auricle. _6, b.. The ventricle. c. The valves which prevent the return of the blood from
the ventricle to the auricle. d, The anterior vena cava. e. The posterior cava. f. The
pulmonary artery. © g. The anterior aorta. h, The posterior aorta, i. The pulmonary
veins,
580 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
This valve is called the valvula tricuspis, being divided into three
portions, each of which tends from its base which is attached
to the sides of the ventricle towards a loose or floating apex.
From the pulmonary artery the blood enters the capillaries of
the Jungs, where it undergoes a peculiar change, hereafter to be
explained, and is thence conducted back again to the heart by the
pulmonary veins. ‘The action of the artery in assisting the on-
ward course of the blood would drive a portion of it into the
ventricle, but this is prevented by three valves of a semilunar
form which guard the mouth of the vessel. The pulmonary
veins, 7, empty themselves into the left auricle, and this into the
left ventricle ; a similar valve to that of the right side, the valvula
bicuspis, preventing any retrograde motion of the fluid into. the
auricle. From the left ventricle the blood passes into the aorta,
which, bifurcating into g, the anterior, and h, the posterior aorta,
conducts it through the medium of the arteries branching off
from these vessels to ali parts of the body. Semilunar valves are
also placed at the origin of the aorta from the heart, and serve a
like purpose to those existing in the pulmonary artery. The
arteries of the system in their course give off many branches, all of
which end in hair-like vessels, capillaries (see figs. 6 and 7), by
which the blood is appropriated to the maintenance of the several
tissues; here it likewise undergoes a chemical change (which
we shall presently describe), and is afterwards returned to the
heart by the veins which unite and form the two cave before
spoken of. ‘This circulation of the blood is divided into the pul-
monic, or that which conveys it from the right to the left side of
the heart through the lungs, and the systemic, or that which takes
it from the left to the right side, through the arteries and veins
of the system. The contraction of each auricle is simultaneous,
and precedes a little that of the ventricles, which likewise con-
tract together. ‘This action of the heart produces the pulse, and
the number of its pulsations within a given time materially assists
the surgeon in arriving at a correct diagnosis when an animal is
suffering from disease.
Having explained “ the general round of cir culation,” we shall
add some further remarks on the arteries and veins, and after-
wards speak of the chemical changes of blood. ‘These vessels
are represented in fig. 5, the artery beimg marked a, and the
vein B: it will also be seen that their inner structure is exposed
by a section being carried through their coats.
It has already been stated that the arteries arising from the
heart are two, namely, the aorta and the pulmonary, and that valves
_are placed at their origin to prevent a retrograde movement of the
blood ; from which it will be inferred that these vessels are not
mere passive conduits for the fluid. The amount of their action
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 581
A. An artery partly cut open to show its Inner coat.
B. A yein also opened, and showing c, its valves.
in assisting the circulation is a vexed question among physiologists,
but no doubt it is very considerable. The simple fact of these
vessels being found empty after death, goes very far to prove their
importance as active auxiliaries to the heart: ; for were they passive
tubes merely, they would then be in the opposite condition, viz.,
full. The early ‘anatomists were acquainted with the circum-
stance of these vessels being void of blood after death, and conse-
quently they were led to suppose that the ‘animal spirits, being
of an aeriform nature,’ were conveyed by them; hence the name
artery, or air-carrying tube. At their origin oe lear large,
but they gradually decrease in size as they proceed from the heart,
which is produced in part by the number of the branches they give
off in their course. It has been rightly said that the capacity of
the arterial system is rather increased than diminished by this sub-
division, and therefore no mechanical obstruction from that cause
can interfere with the flow of the blood in the small arteries.
The rapid splitting up of these vessels into smaller ones is in
VOE. X. 2.Q
582 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
proportion to the nearness of the organ they are going to, and in
every part, as before stated, they end in tubes so minute as to be
named capillaries. As the blood which traverses the arteries is
destined to supply the system with the materials necessary for the
support of life and development, so do we find that they usually
take the most direct course to each particular organ. ‘They also
run in parts which are most protected from injury, such as the
inner side of limbs and bend of joints. Occasionally also they gain
security by passing through canals formed in bones—a fact which
can be demonstrated in the skull and the feet of several of our
domesticated animals. In number the arteries are considerably
less than veins, it being necessary that due provision for the return
of blood should be made to balance the circulation, as from the
situation of veins the current through them is frequently obstructed.
The section of an artery (see fig. 5) shows that its inner coat,
which is an epithelial membrane, is, unlike that of a vein, perfectly
smooth. Besides this coat, these vessels have four others—a serous,
a muscular, an elastic, and a cellular. These tunics are not of
equal thickness throughout the course of the artery; and espe-
cially do we find that the elastic is increased in substance the nearer
the vessel approaches the heart; but, on the contrary, that the
muscular is most developed at a distance from that organ. The
elastic coat gives strength to the vessel, and yields to the distend-
ing force of the blood at each stroke of the heart; but as soon as
the volume of the blood has passed, it returns by its inherent pro-
perty to its former condition. . The expansion and recoil of the
elastic coat converts these jets of blood into a continuous stream ;
but this stream is still augmented in volume at each contraction of
the heart. Hence we observe that, when an artery is divided, the
flow of blood from its cut end is alternately increased both in quan-
tity and force, synchronously with the heart’s action. Under these
circumstances we likewise perceive that the vessel rises in its bed
with a peculiar vermiform action, which proves that the elastic
coat is not simply distended, but also elongated by the passing
current. The elongation is always greater than the expansion,
and the two actions combined produce the arterial pulse. Thus
we feel the pulse of the artery when its calibre and length are in-
creasing, and that of the heart when its ventricular cavities are con-
tracting. In the language of the anatomist, the heart is ima state
of systole, and the artery of dzastole, during their respective pulsa-
tions. It is not to be inferred from the foregoing remarks that the
elastic coat exerts any propulsive power on the passage of the blood,
as this can only be effected by lessening the area of the arterial tube,
and must consequently depend on its muscular or contractile coat.
It is right that I should state that the muscularity of arteries,
although strongly insisted upon by the immortal John Hunter,
has since his time not been generally admitted. I could adduce
D>
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 583
a multiplicity of facts, were it necessary, to prove the correctness
of Hunter’s views, but content myself by stating that I am of
the number of his disciples.*
As the arteries everywhere terminate in capillaries, so do we
find that the veins arise from them. A vein (see B, fig. 5) differs
materially from an artery, first in the thickness of its coats, and
secondly in having its internal lining thrown into folds here and
there, forming thereby its valves, marked c, fig. 5. These valves
perform the office of such structures in general, namely, that of
allowing a fluid to pass but in one direction; and as their free
edges are directed towards the heart, it follows that they prevent
any retrograde motion in the blood by rising and closing the
canal. This arrangement is rendered the more necessary in con-
sequence of veins not exerting any power per se in the return of
the blood, this being chiefly effected by their being pressed upon
by the various muscular movements of the body. Veins are also
non-pulsatory, and the stream of the blood through them is con-
tinuous and even. They are far more numerous than arteries, and
are divisible into a superficial and deep-seated set, which freely
communicate by anastomosing branches. ‘They likewise increase
in size, but diminish in number as they approach the heart, near
to which those of the system ultimately terminate in the two cave.
The blood which they carry is dark in colour, unlike that of the
arteries, in which vessels it is of a scarlet hue. ‘This change in
the colour of the fluid is produced in the capillaries; the cause
and the consequence of which we shall now consider. Fig. 6
Fig. 6.
Capillaries <f fat. a. The terminal artery. b. The primitive vein.
(From Todd and Bowman's ‘ Physiological Anatomy.’)
* Since this lecture was delivered, an opportunity has been afforded the author, by
the death of the rhinoceros in the gardens of the Zoological Society, of confirming these
opinions. He examined a portion of the carotid artery, and found its muscular coat
extensively developed, The fibres were arranged more or less in a circular order.
2 or2
084 Anatomy, Physielogy, and Pathology of the
shows an artery, a, terminating in a capillary rete of vessels, and
a vein, 0, arising therefrom; it will also be observed that, in
accordance with the facts we have described, the former is repre-
sented light, and the latter dark in colour.
The brightness of the arterial blood is due to the presence of
the oxygen of the air acting on its coloured corpuscules, and which
it receives by its passage throvgh the lungs; and the darkness
of the venous blood, to the influence of the carbonic acid of the
system on the same bodies. ‘These gases, however, affect only
the pigment of the red corpuscules to produce this altered appear-
ance of the circulating fluid ; and consequently the corpuscules
can only be viewed as the indirect carriers of the oxygen into,
and the carbonic acid out of the body.
I have before stated that the various tissues of the frame are
undergoing a continual waste or change, and therefore they need a
constant reparation, which is provided for by the appropriation of
the blood by the capillaries. ‘The thinness of the walls of these
vessels allows of a transudation of the liquid fibrme, which being
imbibed by the surrounding structures administers to their sup-
port ; while any excess is carried back into the circulation by the
lymphatic absorbents. ‘The metamorphosis, however, of the tis-
sues furnishes both carbon and hydrogen, and with these the oxygen,
which has been conveyed into the capillaries by the red corpus-
cules, unites, forming thereby carbonic acid and watery vapour. In
this process heat is evolved ; and as it takes place in every part of
the system, so it follows that the temperature of the body 1s every-
where kept up to its standard, viz., about 99° of Fahrenheit, inde-
pendent of external causes. An animal may thus be said to carry
with him a self-supplying furnace, which continues in active
operation so long as health and vigour of constitution remain. It is
this generation of heat by chemical union which is designated
animal heat. By the loss of some of its fibrine, and by the pre-
sence of carbonic acid, the blood is now rendered unfit for the
purposes of life, and in this condition it returns to the heart by
the veins (see fig.6). Near to this organ it receives a fresh sup-
ply of nutritive matter through the medium of the thoracic duct
(see fig. 2), and passing from the heart to the lungs it again obtains
the required oxygen, and parts with the carbonic acid and watery
vapour (see fig. 7).
The function thus performed by the lungs, of which we must
speak more at length, will be better understood by again referring
io the diagram, fig. 7. One portion of this diagram represents the
four cavities of the heart laid open, and the vessels which are
going to and from them; and the other a branch of the windpipe
terminating in the air-cells of the lungs, which are surrounded by
a network of capillaries indicating the change in the colour of the
blood. ‘The intervening arrows show the course of the blood to
585
reulation.
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586 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
and from the lungs to the heart. The atmospheric air which
enters the lungs at each inspiration through the medium of the
windpipe, contains by weight 77 parts of nitrogen and 23 of
oxygen; but the expired air is deficient of oxygen, its place being
supplied by carbonic acid gas.* An interchange of the oxygen
of the air and the carbonic acid of the system is thus effected,
these gases displacing each other by permeating the thin walls of
the capillaries, which are everywhere spread out as a minute net-
work on the surface of the air-cells. ‘The immediate result of
this change is the conversion of the blood from a dark Modena
red to a bright scarlet colour, and the fitting of it again for the
chief purposes of life.; ‘Thus we see that the blood in circulat-
ing through the system becomes unsuited to life, and that it is
re-invigorated by its passage through the lungs. The function
of respiration is therefore no less important than that of circula-
tion. Many operations of the animal system may be suspended
for a considerable time with but little ill consequence, but re-
spiration must be continued, or life quickly ceases. It is true
that respiration may be increased or diminished even at plea-
sure, but it cannot be altogether arrested; for if we attempt
to hold the breath for a long time, we experience so much
inconvenience, that irresistibly we are compelled to resume
the act of breathing. ‘This without doubt depends on the cir-
cumstance that during its suspension there is an accumula-
tion of carbonic acid in the system, the continuance of which
would produce asphyxia or suffocation. We have here another
proof of the wisdom and design of the omnipotent Creator in
making respiration, like the circulation, independent of our will.
As the circulation has its central organ, the heart, so has re-
spiration—namely, the lungs: and both these are situated within
the same cavity, where they are secure from external injury or im-
pediment to their function. We may in this place observe that the
osseous portion of the body of an animal forms three important
cavities: an anterior, called the skull, which contains the brain and
the nerves of special sense ; a middle, the thorax, in which is lodged
the heart and lungs (see fig. 8) ; and a posterior, the pelvis, holding
the uterus and its appendages, the chief of the female organs of
generation, ‘The thorax, however, is constructed on a different plan
from the other cavities, for there is an all-important necessity that
its area should be capable of being enlarged and diminished, in
accordance with the altered volume of the lungs during respira-
* This fact was illustrated by breathing into some pellucid lime-water, by which it
was rendered turbid; the carbonic acid uniting with the lime, and forming thereby ~
an insoluble carbonate of lime.
+ The experiment of pouring some dark, or carbonized, blood into a vessel of oxygen
gas was introduced, and immediately it became of a bright red colour.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 587
Represents the heart and left lung in situ, the side of the chest being cut away.
tion. Such not being needed in the skull or pelvis, the bones
forming these cavities are firmly and immovably united together.
The thorax is bounded above by the spine, on the sides by the ribs,
below by the breast-bone or sternum, and behind by the diaphragm ;
a muscular tendinous partition separating it from the abdomen.
The form of the thorax is that of a truncated cone placed hori-
zontally, having its apex formed by the near approximation and
shortness of the first pair of ribs, and its base by the diaphragm.
The dimensions of the cavity are consequently increased from before
backwards; while the hinder part, or base of the cone, is cut off
obliquely from above downwards and forwards. The first pair
of ribs are situated nearly perpendicular; and more especially in
the ox, where they form a right angle with the spine. One of
these is represented in situ in fig 8. ‘The ribs of the horse num-
ber eighteen on either side, but in the ox and sheep they are only
thirteen. ‘They increase in length from the first to the eighth, and
likewise in their curve obliquely backwards from the spine, from
the first to the thirteenth ; but they gradually diminish in length
from the eighth to the last. “Their interspaces are filled up by
muscular fibres, the zztercostal muscles, which are active agents
in inspiration. The ribs therefore with the diaphragm form the
moveable boundaries of the chest; the spine and the sternum
being more or less the fixed points from which they act.
As seen in the annexed figure, No. 9, the ribs are united to the
588 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
spine above by moveable joints, and to the sternum below by means
of their cartilages. ‘The inferior attachment is not, however, in all
of them directly to the sternum, some being joined by their carti-
lages to each other, and thus indirectly to that bone; hence their
division into sternal, or true, and asternal, or false ribs. [In the
sketch the hindermost rib is a false one.} Each rib articulates by
its rounded head and tubercle, marked 6, with corresponding hol-
lows in the vertebrae, marked a, forming the moveable joints al-
luded to: these distinct articulations by the head and tubercle are,
however, less perfect as we proceed from before backwards. ‘That
every facility may be given to the movements of the chest while
the ox is recumbent—a position, as is well known, he frequently
assumes during rumination—the attachment of the ribs to the
sternum, as well as the development of that bone, differ consider-
ably from the horse. These peculiarities, which we are about to
earn ee
hE SS
a. The cavities in the vertebra which receive b. The head and tubercle of the rib. c. The
surfaces of the synovial joint uniting the rib to the cartilage. d. The icint formed by the
eartilage and sternum.
-
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 589
describe, will be at once recognised by a reference to the annexed
figures 10 to 13. In the first-named figure the under surface of
the sternum of the ox is de-
picted, and it will be observed
that it is perfectly flat, conse-
quently it can be subjected to
pressure without inconvenience
to the animal when he is rest-
ing on the ground. On the
contrary, this part of the ster-
num of the horse has a thin
cartilaginous edge, similar in
appearance as well as in posi-
tion to the keel of a boat, see
fig. 12, which ill adapts it to
receive a similar pressure. In
both animals the sternum is
originally composed of several
bony pieces, which as age ad-
4 vances are more or less per-
ZY fectly umited together: these
Sternum of ox, inferior view. a. The manu- pieces are, however, very differ-
brium, b. The ensiform cartilage. ently arranged, so that in the Ox
bone supplies the place of cartilage in the horse, and forms
the flat surface before mentioned. The loss of elasticity, and
consequently of motion, cartilage being highly elastic, is however
more than compensated for by the manner the first bone is united
to the second in the ox. In this animal, the first bone, manu-
brium, is attached by a synovial joint, which allows of a free
motion in yarious directions, but more particularly from side to
side; see a, fig. 1]. The cariniform cartilage in the horse (a,
fig. 12) is substituted for the manubrium with its synovial joint.
The arrangement here spoken of allows the anterior portion of
the thorax of the ox to yield the more readily to the respira-
tory movements, and likewise facilitates the curving of the lower
Fig. 11.
Lateral representation of the sternum of the ox.
a. The joint formed by the union of the first bone, manubrium ; the cartilage of the rib being partly
removed to bring it into view. 6b. The manubrium. c. The ensiform cartilage,
090 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
part of the neck upon the front of the chest when the ani-
mal’s head is directed towards his side. The posterior portion
of the sternum in both animals presents fewer differences for ob-
servation, being terminated bya cartilage called the ensiform,
lettered c, fig. 11, and 8, fig. 12. The attachments of the ribs
Fig. 12.
F
i ,
Samy Abe
a Mi) Hl ’
Sane
Lateral view of the sternum of the horse, showing its keel-like shape.
a. The cariniform cartilage. b. The ensiform cartilage.
to their cartilages also varies considerably, as seen im the sub-
ioined sketch, fig. 13, where a represents a portion of the nb of
the horse, with its cartilage, and 6 the
same paris of the ox. In the former the
lower end of the rib is received into a cup-
like cavity in the upper part of the car-
tilage; a union which is further strength-
ened by indentations of their edges, locking
into each other, but greatly limiting the
extent of the motion between them: d,
Portions of the ribs ane wer | fo. 13. » In the latter; howevemame ameet
tilages of the horse and ox.
a. bib of horse, showing d, itsin- with a true synovial articulation in this
gna aes Ramet place, marked e, in figs. 9 and 13. The
articulation with the cartilage. nature of this attachment was several years
since pointed out by Mr. Varnell, Demonstrator of Anatomy in
the Royal Veterinary College. Besides the facilities for motion
hereby obtained, the cartilages at their lower extremities are united
to the sternum, as in the horse, by synovial joints: see d, fig. 9.
Having described the mechanical arrangements of the walls of
the thoracic cavity, we proceed to speak of the principal organs
which are concerned in respiration: they are the larynx, the wind-
pipe with its branches, and the lungs. At the upper part of the
windpipe, which, as its name unplies, is the conduit of the air to
the lungs, we observe a peculiarly constructed organ, called the
larynx, It differs in many particulars in nearly every variety of
animal, and is more complicated in man than in any of the in-
ferior creatures. The larynx discharges a double office, being
the organ of voice, as well as the conduit for the air in breathing ;
and in proportion as the voice is incapable of modification, so do
we find simplicity in its structure, It presents the same general
Fig. 13.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. o91
appearance in all animals, being slightly altered to suit the tones
uttered by each ;—this will be observed on comparing figs. 14
and 15, which represent the larynx of the horse and the ox.
The larynx is composed of a number of cartilages which are
united to each other more or less firmly. One of these, the
epiglottis, a, figs. 14 and 15, defends the entrance into the wind-
pipe, and in the act of swallowing it rises and closes over the
opening of that tube, thereby preventing the passage of the food
into it. Except in deglutition the epiglottis is always depressed
to preserve a free and open conduit for the air to and from the
lungs. ‘The larynx is held in its situation through the medium
of a singularly shaped bone, the os hyoides, 6, figs. 14 and 15,
which is united to the under and back part of the skull. The
os hyoides gives attachment also to the muscles of the tongue,
and as this organ possesses a great freedom of action in ruminants,
we find the bone to be composed of more pieces in these animals
than in many others : these pieces are likewise connected to each
The larynx of the ox.
The larynx of the horse. The references are the same as in
a. The epigloitis. 6. The os hyoides. Fig. 14.
other by synovial joints. (Compare the os hyoides in the horse
and Ox.) The necessity for a modification of the cartilages of the
larynx 1s apparent when we reflect on the varieties of the voice
of our domesticated animals. We recognise the horse by neigh-
ing, the ox by bellowing, the dog by barking, the sheep “by
bleating, the pig by grunting, &c., &c. Many of these sounds
are influenced by the existence of folds in the lining membrane
of the larynx, called vocal cords. In the ox and the sheep we
‘have the simplest form of the organ, for bellowing and bleating
are little more than long-continned expiratory acts.
592 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
The ingress and egress of the air in respiration also differs.
In the horse each is carried on through the nasal passages, ex-
cept in coughing, when a portion of the air is expelled by the
mouth. But in the ox and sheep the air enters and escapes both
by the mouth and nostrils, This variation in part depends on
the situation of the larynx with reference to the velum palati, and
also on the length and position of the velum ; peculiarities which
can only be alluded to.
The lower part of the larynx is continuous with the windpipe,
which is likewise composed of a series of cartilages arranged
in acircular order. The windpipe, in common with the other
portions of the respiratory passages, is lined with a mucous
membrane, the secretion of which defends these parts from the
irritation of the atmospheric air. This membrane not unfre-
quently suffers from a change of temperature, &c., and is the
seat of those diseases recognised as catarrh, laryngitis, bron-
chitis, &c. The number of the rings of the windpipe will
of course be governed by the length of neck: in the ox we
usually find from 55 to 60. These rings are greater in sub-
stance at their front, being here more exposed to external in-
juries, than at their hinder part. ‘They are united to each other
by elastic tissue, which allows the windpipe without inconvenience
to accommodate itself to the various movements of the neck.
On the inner and back part of the rings, lying between them and
the mucous membrane, is a thin layer of muscular fibres, the
use of which is one of the vexed questions of physiology. The late
Mr. Youatt denied the existence of this muscle in the ox ;*
I have satisfied myself, however, that it not only exists in this
animal, but in every other which hitherto I have examined.
It is a singular fact, and one which I am desirous of naming
in this place, that in the dog the muscle is situated on the
outer, and not on the inner, part of the windpipe. Mr. Percival
is of opinion that the muscle resists the tendency of the elastic
cartilaginous rings to form an elliptical-shaped canal; and, by
converting the ellipsis into a circle, may thus tend to expand
and not to contract the calibre of the tube.t Whether it be
so in moderate action of the muscle or not, it is clear that when
its fibres are contracting with energy, or are unduly stimulated,
it must diminish the area of the canal. I would ask if it be not
specially employed in the lower animals, in whom the vocal appa-
ratus is exceedingly simple, compared with man, for producing
the voice, by regulating the volume of the exhaled air, entering
the larynx from the lungs; and also whether some of their into-
nations do not depend on the amount of its action ?
* See ‘Cattle,’ p. 374, Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
+ Anatomy of the Horse, p. 225,
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 593
The windpipe, passing down the neck, enters the chest between
the first pair of ribs (see fig. 8) ; and, in the ox and sheep, it
almost immediately afterwards sends a branch to the anterior
part of the right lung (0, fig. 16) :—this is called the third
bronchus, and does not exist in the horse. A little below this,
the windpipe divides into the two main bronchial tubes: one
of which penetrates the substance of each lung, dividing and
re-dividing into smaller and innumerable branches, which ulti-
mately communicate with the air-cells (figs. 16 and 17).
Bea
Set Nest
Sos
SS}
= 7:
4
> SY
S S 4
a. The windpipe. b. The third bronchus. _ c. The two principal bronchi. d, d. The rami-
fication of the bronchial tubes throughout the lung.
It may here be mentioned that the chest is divided into two
cavities by a membranous partition, the mediastinum, extending
from before backwards, by which the right and left lung are
separated from each other. Hence an explanation in part of
the fact that pleuro-pneumonia, as well as other diseases, are
frequently confined to one lung. The air-cells are clustered
594 Anatomy, Physiology. and Pathology of the
around each terminal bronchus, somewhat after the manner
of grapes upon their stalk (fig. 17); and “it has been calcu-
lated by M. Rochaux, that in the human subject about 18,000
surround each bronchus, and that the total number in the
lungs amounts to six hundred millions.” <<If this estimate,”
says Dr. Carpenter, “be even a remote approximation to the
truth, it is evident that the amount of surface exposed by the
walls of those minuie cavities must be many times greater than
that of the exterior of the body.’* The
air-cells follow no definite shape: they
are tor the most part flattened against
each other, and are said to vary in size in
the human subject from about the 200th
to the 70th of aninch. [In the ox the air
cells are many times smaller than in man,
and even more minute than those of the
horse ; and injected preparations of their ca-
pillaries show thatthe rete formed by these
vessels is likewise finer, or more closely
woven. This circumstance throws some
light on the peculiar appearances met with
in pleuro-pneumonia, and will hereafter be
alluded to. rE : i d. Terminal bronchus, commu-
From the foregoing remarks it is ap- nicating with ¢, the sir-cells.
parent that the chief bulk of the lungs is Bio uae a ae a
made up of air-cells, surrounded by their
network of vessels, and communicating with the minute ramifica-
tions of the bronchial tubes. Through the medium of these
structures both elastic and contractile tissue enter into the com-
position of the lungs, by which they possess a certain amount of
action independent of the expansion and contraction of the boun-
daries of the chest, and are thus enabled of themselves to assist in
the process of respiration. ‘The various structures forming the
lungs are united together by areolar tissue, and they are also col-
lected into small masses, termed lobules, which are joined to each
other by the same material. Hence the expressions interstitial
and znterlobular areolar tissue: the former being applied to the
bond of union between the different structures, and the latter to
that connecting the lobules to each other. In the ox the lobules
are very distinct, and the amount of areolar tissue is proportion-
ably large (see fig. 19); thus again accounting for the appear-
ances produced by pleuro-pneumonia. |
Each lung is divided into lobes by a deep fissure :—the num-
ber of these lobes varies, although not to great extent, in different
classes of animals. [In the ox and sheep, the right lung consists
of four, and the left of three lobes. The lungs are held in their
* Manual of Physiology, p. 389,
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. O95
situation principally by the large vessels which are going to and
from them, and also by the windpipe: they are covered externally
with a serous membrane, the pleura, which is reflected upon the
sides of the thoracic cavity, and forms also the mediastinum before
spoken of. The lungs are everywhere free in the chest, except
along their middle and upper surface, which is connected by the
large vessels, &c. before mentioned, to the spine. They may be
said to completely fill the cavity, their external covering of pleura
being in contact with the reflection of the membrane which lines
the chest.
Respiration consists of inspiration and expiration, and the bulk
of the lungs will accord with the dilatation or contraction of the
cavity; nevertheless they are not, as elsewhere stated, mere
passive agents in the process. Many of the muscles which lie
externally to the ribs, as well as those filling the spaces between
them, the musculo-tendinous partition between the thorax and
the abdomen, the diaphragm, and the abdominal muscles, are
concerned in breathing, In expiration a portion only of the air
contained in the air-cells is forced out by the pressing forwards
of the viscera of the abdomen upon the thoracic cavity, through
the contraction of the abdominal muscles, the diaphragm being
at that time in a relaxed condition ; the sides are also compressed
at the same instant by the fall of the ribs, which is aided in part
by their cartilages. This action ceasing, the diaphragm contracts,
and assumes a flatter aspect ; the viscera of the abdomen recede,
and the ribs, the motion being assisted by their synovial joints,
are drawn forwards and outwards, thus enlarging the cavity. To
fill the vacuum which would thus be occasioned, a rush of fresh
atmospheric air down the windpipe takes place: this equalizes
the density of that portion of the air which had not been expelled,
and which by its retention had become rarefied, and thereby assists
the expansion of the lungs; the pressure to which they were sub-
jected in expiration being now removed. As the chief use of this
function is to eject carbonic acid gas from the system and produce
oxygenated blood, so the quantity of air respired ina given time will
be regulated accordingly. Ina state of quietude and in health, the
number of respirations in the ox are about 12 in the minute; being
in proportion of 1 to 44 of the pulsations. The puny of apebonte
acid evolved varies peu four to even eight per cent. ; the rapidity
of its production depending, amongst Baer causes, on the amount
of exertion an animal undergoes. ‘To supply the necessary
quantity of oxygen to aout with the carbon, an increase of
breathing must take place, otherwise death will quickly ensue.
This rapid combustion of the carbon would, however, raise the
temperature of the body far too high compatible with the main-
tenance of its functions; and consequently, as the circulation is
increased, so will be the secretion from the follicles of the skin,
F
O86 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
bedewing the surface with a copious perspiration, which, by its
evaporation, tends to regulate the amount of heat by depriving the
system of its excess of caloric.
I might dwell at far greater length on this part of our subject ;
but having to speak of an important disease to which the respi-
ratory organs are subject, I pass now to its consideration. ‘The
name given to this affection by almost universal consent 1s PLEURO-
PNEUMONIA. I object, however, to the malady being thus de-
signated ; and if my view of its nature be correct, a less appro-
priate name could scarcely have been selected. ‘The term pleuro-
pneumonia, or pneumo-pleuritis, which has been proposed by
some who consider the pleura more especially implicated, would
immediately convey to the mind of the medical man that the
disease was an inflammatory one, involving the substance of the
Jungs, with their investing membranes, Although there may not
be much in a name, nevertheless it were to be wished that a
better one had been adopted for this disease; as inflammation
is not its essential feature, especially at its commencement. An
incorrect nomenclature is sure to lead to false conclusions with
regard to treatment, and thus the life of the patient will be greatly
endangered.
Prior to our discussing the question of the true nature of this
malady, I shall take a rapid view of the epizootics which have
visited Europe from the earliest history to.the present time.
Mention is frequently made in the pages of Holy Writ of these
diseases, and we read that among the plagues of Egypt a griev-
ous murrain swept off the cattle. Homer frequently alludes to
their ravages in Greece; and Virgil, Ovid, and other Roman
authors, speak of their destructive effects among the cattle of
Italy, &c. Of late years these maladies appear to have been on
the increase, and within a short period England has been visited
by eczema-epizootica, pleuro-pneumonia, and variola-ovina. The
prevalence in this country of these particular diseases may certainly
be said to be new to the present generation ; but whether they have
existed here at a remote period is somewhat doubtful. Believing
this matter to be of some importance, we are induced to look into
the history of these outbreaks; and should it appear that there is
a reasonable ground for the supposition that pleuro- pneumonia 1s
not altogether new, but that it has long since both visited and
quitted our shores, we have thereby a strong reason to hope that
it may again disappear from among us.
About the commencement of the Christian era diseases of this
class are mentioned by Columella, who considered that they spread
by means of their contagious properties. In the fourth century
they are again noticed by Vegetius, who described some of their
symptoms, and entertained similar views to Columella with
regard to their extension.
a
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. d9T-
In 810, it is recorded that all the cattle in Charlemagne’s
dominions, France, Italy, and Germany, were destroyed by one
of these pests, the nature of which can only be conjectured, for the
term ‘‘murrain” seems to have been of general application, and
consequently its adoption throws but little light on the inquiry.
_from this period to the revival of the arts and sciences, nothing
satisfactory can be learned respecting these epizootics; but in the
sixteenth century we have detailed accounts of their progress and
devastating efiects. According to Ramazim, in 1514, and again
in 1599, the Council of Venice forbade the use of beef and veal,
and even milk, on account of the diseased condition of the cattle.
The same author likewise states, that in 1691 sheep were swept off
by thousands—pustular eruptions covering their bodies, which he
unhesitatingly affirms were of the nature of small-pox. In 1693,
the cattle in Hesse fell victims to “pulmonary phthisis:’” it may,
however, be reasonably doubted whether the disease was properly
named ; and it is probable that it was identical with the modern
pleuro-pneumonia. Both cattle and sheep in Lower Hungary
suffered severely at the commencement of the eighteenth century,
the former from an epizootic, which is undefined, and the latter
from small-pox: these maladies made their appearance early in
1712, and continued with great virulence throughout the year.
About the same period the cattle in England were likewise
attacked with a disease which bore a great resemblance to
eczema epizootica. -
During nine months in the year 1715, no less than 30,000
cattle are said to have died in Rome and its environs, of malig-
nant dysentery, accompanied with tumours and ulcers on various
parts of their bodies. And in 1730-31, Bohemia, Saxony, France,
&c., experienced a heavy loss from the outbreak of a similar dis-
ease. In 1745, thousands of the cattle of Italy, France, Ger-
many, and England, again fell victims to one of these pests. The
' malady seems to have been accompanied with many symptoms |
akin to those of pleuro-pneumonia, and to have been equally
destructive. ‘ihe lungs-are described as its seat, and the post-
mortem appearances, as recorded by Dr. Barker, bear a strong
resemblance to those observed at the present day. Whether this
disease extended hither through the medium of a vitiated condi-
tion of the atmosphere, or owed its origin to a more direct intro-
duction, has not been satisfactorily proved.
«Some authors assert that it was brought from Holland by certain
calves, imported into the neighbourhood of London by a farmer for the
purpose of crossing the breed; while others state that the lucrative views
of an English tanner, who bought a parcel of distempered hides in Zea-
Jand which were forbidden to be sold, was the origin of the affection.” *
In a pamphlet written in 1745 by Dr. Barker, it :s stated that
* Simonds on Variola Ovina.
VOL. X. oR
598 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
the malady was centred in the lungs; and its acute symptoms
were preceded by a dry and husky cough, lasting from ‘a fort-
night to three weeks.” In the second stage, he says—
“They begin to forsake their food, and if they be milch-cows their milk
dries up—the fever, which was before obscure, begins now to be very per-
ceptible: the cough increases, they breathe with great difficulty, and the
eyes and nostrils in many of them begin to run with athick and sometimes
fetid rheum ; the body grows hot, and the pulse is very full and hard. In
three or four days after their milk is gone off, and they have ceased to eat
and chew the cud, a purging most commonly comes on. The stools are
at first thin and watery, soon afterwards they grow slimy and fetid, and
sometimes they are mixed with blood. The purging continues for a week
or more, if the cattle live so long; but if at the end of six or seven days
it begins to abate, and the excrements grow more solid, it is a token of
their recovery. The difficulty of breathing does not seem to be relieved
by this discharge. When the disease has been of long continuance, the
body has sometimes swelled extremely, either before or immediately after
death, and even to such a degree as to burst the paunch; but in those
which have died early in the disease, the body has seldom or never been
known to swell. If the cattle begin to swell, and their flesh grow cold
towards the end of the disease, it is a certain sign of approaching death.
The continuance of the disease is very uncertain and precarious, for many
have died in two or three days after the fever has appeared, others have
lived six or seven, and some even twelve or fourteen days.”
This graphic account of the symptoms of the epizootic observed
by Dr. Barker, agrees in many essential particulars with those of
pleuro-pneumonia; as is likewise the case with the post-mortem
appearances, which he describes as follows :—-
‘Upon opening the bodies of several which have died of this disease,
I have constantly found the blood-vessels of the lungs stuffed up and dis-
tended with grumous or coagulated blood, and the bronchia or air-vessels
so much inflated as to make the bulk of the lungs appear much larger
than usual, And though some of these cattle were opened before the body
was cold or the blood congealed in the other vessels, yet in those of the
lungs it was constantly found to be coagulated to such a degree as not to
flow out of the vessels upon cutting them.” *
The lesions here spoken of, as well as the symptoms, bear so
striking an analogy to those of the present malady, that I am most
strongly inclined to believe it to have been pleuro-pneumonia which
thinned the herds of the British agriculturist rather more than
100 years since ; and it follows that it had so long disappeared
from among us, as not to be recognised in its recent outbreak.
If therefore I am right in the conjecture that the disease is not
in reality new, it is evident that certain causes, of which we are
now ignorant, came into operation and produced its withdrawal ;
and we are thereby encouraged to hope that ere long it will
assume a milder type, and ultimately cease altogether.
It has already been stated that pleuro-pneumonia was preceded
by the affection vulgarly called ‘‘the old epidemic,” im which
* An Account of the present Epidemical Distemper amongst Black Cattle. Lon-
don, 1745.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 599
vesicles arise on the tongue, lips, feet, &c.: by some this malady is
regarded as its cause. In my opinion they are perfectly distinct
diseases,and neither of them can be viewed as a necessary sequela
of the other. It is true that animals which have been affected with
eczema are occasionally the victims of pleuro-pneumonia; but it
is equaily true that many of those which have died of pleuro-
pneumonia have not been attacked with eczema. The two ma-
ladies are often seen on the same farm at the same time, and run
their course perfectly independent of each other ; besides which,
eczema, unlike pleuro- pneumonia, shows no EE Ne for the ox
tribe ; but extends to sheep, pigs, and even poultry. ‘These facts
are sufficient to prove their separate independence, without look-
ing to the special characters of either affection.
The origin of pleuro-pneumonia, like all other epizootics and
epidemics, cannot be traced to any positive cause :—
** Exposure to the changeable state of the weather, the partaking of
bad provender or stagnant water, are viewed by many as the chief causes
of epizootics, while others trace them to a vitiated condition of the atmos-
phere: but whether such state consists of a mingling of mephitic vapours,
or deleterious gases arising from either animal or vegetable decomposition,
or from an excess of humidity or dryness, affecting the electrical condition
of the air, they scarcely venture to conjecture.” *
Pleuro-pneumonia undoubtedly existed on the Continent for
several years before showing itselfin England. Its extension here
did not however depend, like variola ovina, on the direct impor-
tation of infected cattle, but the destructive poison was wafted
hither through the medium of the air, as has been the case with
that of Asiatic cholera and similar pests. The atmosphere is,
consequently, to be looked to as the source of the disease; but in
the present state of science we are compelled to admit that the
precise nature of the poison is as little understood as it was cen-
turies since. Experience proves that a vitiated condition of the
air gives rise to diseases which speedily destroy both animal and
vegetable life; but we fail by analyzation to detect the delete-
rious matter. The true cause of the potato disease has engaged
the attention of our scientific investigators, but both it and the
laws which govern the extension of the affection have hitherto
remained undiscovered. Nor is this a matter of surprise; for
chemistry equally fails in demonstrating such substances as our
senses quickly recognise. ‘The perfume of a bouquet, and the
most offensive odour, are alike undetectible by chemical means.
We often judge, therefore, by the effects which we observe to follow
the inhalation of an atmosphere which is thus charged, and of this
we have a striking illustration in the deleterious results of the
malaria engendered by the rays of the sun on stagnant water in
marshy districts.
* Simonds on Variola Ovina,
Ps as
600 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
The mingling of noxious matters will occasionally produce a
physical change in the air; a remarkable instance of which is thus
described by Dr. Prout in his Bridgewater Treatise.* He says
that—
‘He had for some years been occupied in investigations regarding the
atmosphere ; and for more than six weeks previously to the appearance of
cholera in London had almost every day been engaged in endeavouring to
determine, with the utmost accuracy, the weight of a given quantity of air
under precisely the same circumstances of temperature and pressure. On
a particular day, the 9th of February, 1832, the weight of the air suddenly
appeared to rise above the usual standard. As the rise was at the time
supposed to be the result of some accidental error, or of some derange-
ment in the apparatus employed, in order to discover the cause the suc-
ceeding observations were made with the most rigid scrutiny ; but no error
or derangement whatever could be detected. On the days immediately
following, the weight of the air still continued above the standard, though
not quite so high as on the 9th of February, when the change was first
noticed. The air retained its augmented weight during the whole time
these experiments were carried on; namely, about six weeks longer. The
increase of the weight of the air observed in these experiments was small,
but still decided and real. The method of conducting the experiments
was such as not to allow of an error, at least to an amount so great as the
additional weight, without the cause of that error having become apparent.
There seems, therefore, to be only one mode of rationally explaining this
increased weight of the air at London, February, 1832; which is, by admit-
ting the diffusion of some gaseous body through the lower regions of the
atmosphere of this city considerably heavier than the air it displaced.
About the 9th of February the wind, which had previously been west,
veered round to the east, and remained chiefly in that quarter to the end
of the month. Now, precisely on the change of the wind the first cases of
cholera were reported in London; and from that time the disease con-
tinued to spread. ‘That the epidemic cholera was the effect of the peculiar
condition of the atmosphere is more perhaps than can be safely main-
tained; but reasons, which have been advauced elsewhere, lead the writer
of this treatise to believe that the virulent disease termed cholera was
owing to the same matter which produced the additional weight of the
air.
I am not aware if any physical alterations of the atmosphere
have accompanied the present outbreak of Asiatic cholera; but
the foregoing statements, together with the quotation I have just
made, are sufficient to establish the point that the air may be
vitiated by an admixture of various matters.
By a careful investigation of epizootic diseases we become
acquainted with certain laws which govern their spread, as well
as with the secondary causes which predispose animals to their
attack. Some of these maladies are contagious or infectious, as
is the case with the small-pox of sheep, and may be also with
pleuro-pneumonia. Many an outbreak can be clearly traced to
diseased animals being brought upon the farm; nevertheless this
is not a necessary consequence of such a procedure; and very
* Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Functions of Digestion considered with reference
to Natural Theology, by William Prout, M.D., F.R.S., &c., p. 853 e¢ seq.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 601
often the malady breaks out independent of any such cause. The
very existence of a doubt on the contagious nature of pleuro-
pneumonia should put the purchaser of cattle on the alert, and
prevent his obtaining them from an infected district. Having
been led to make ae following remarks in my work on Variola
Ovina, with reference to infection, and they having a practical
bearing on this subject, I trust I shall be excused for introducing
them here :—
“« Whatever the combination of causes may be which produce these
maladies, certain it is that very many cf them assume an infectious nature,
otherwise we could not account for animals separated and kept avart from
those which are diseased, frequently, and sometimes altogether escaping ;
while those are sure to become early victims that are allowed to pasture or
live with the affected: besides we can often succeed in producing the
malady by inoculating healthy cattle ; thus showing how closely the spread
of the disorder depends upon contagion or infection. The fact, however,
of animals when in health, if placed with affected ones, contracting a dis-
ease of the same kind as that which the latter are suffering from, is the best
proof of the infectious or contagious nature of a complaint. An animal
escaping an attack, when such affections are raging in the locality in which
it is placed, may arise from a variety of causes, as non-susceptibility, and
also the possibility of the exciting agents never having been brought
within its sphere of inhalation.”
Whether an epizootic be or not a contagious disease, its victims
are rendered susceptible of receiving the malady by the opera-
tion of secondary causes. This predisposition, as it is called,
may be induced from a variety of circumstances, and a mere
alteration in the food will be occasionally sufficient to produce it.
A want, however, of nutritious diet—exposure to the changes of
the weather—pasturing on wet and cold soils—neglect of a proper
ventilation of the building the animals occupy—inhalation of
offensive gases from accumulated manure—the fatigue of being
removed from one locality to another—are the general predis-
posing causes of pleuro-pneumonia and similar diseases. Care
should, therefore, be always taken by a better system of manage-
ment, ede &c., to av oid ev ery thing which tends to bring the
system into a condition fay ourable for the reception of the special
‘cause of an epizootic, and more especially when such is raging in
the neighbourhood. All these means will, however, fail when
the disease is purely an infectious one, from a neglect of isolation
or the removal of the healthy from the diseased. It is a well
established fact that infection has its limits; and although these
may ever remain undefined as to their extent, still daily experience
proves that the removal of animals but a Ehext distance from each
other, and the prevention also of indirect communication between
them. will at once put a stop to the spread of the malady.
From the preceding remarks, it is evident that I look chiefly
to a viuated state of the atmosphere as being the cause of pleuro-
pneumonia, and hence the greater necessity for the avoidance of
602 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
all predisposing causes. If this be the case, it may be asked how
the empoisoned air produces its morbid results? I answer, not
by its direct irritation on the membrane lining the air-passages,
but by its specific action on the blood, which fluid, thus acted on,
does virtuaily by its changed condition subsequenily affect the
pulmonary tissues. [| have before stated my conviction that
pleuro-pneumonia is not an inflammatory disease in the strict and
legitimate meaning of the term. In order more distinctly to
explain my view of the manner in which the abnormal condi-
tion of the lungs is produced, I beg to direct attention to the
annexed sketches, which exhibit sections of the lung of the horse
and ox. Fig. 18 represents the lung of the horse, which on
Fig. 18.
A section of the lung of the horse, showing its condensed structure, and relative deficiency of the
interlobular areolar tissue, which is represented by the irregular dark lines scattered on its cut
surface.
being compared with fig. 19 (a similar portion of the lung of
the ox) shows its structure to be more condensed, and a less
Fig. 19,
A section of the healthy lung of the ox, with its lobules and interlobular or connecting areolar
tissue. a,a. The lobules. b, b. The interlobular areolar tissue.
amount of areolar tissue to enter into its composition. in the
anatomical portion of this lecture, mention has been made of
the lobules of the lungs and their connexion to each other by
areolar tissue, designated the interlobular tissue. ‘The lobules in
the ox are much more distinct, and they are also very loosely
joined together, consequently a much larger proportion of the in-
terlobular tissue exists here than in the horse. This excess of
the connecting medium when infiltrated with the colourless por-
tions of the blood, gives rise to those light-coloured or yellowish
bands which intersect the lungs in all directions in pleuro-pneu-
603
Organs of Respiration and Circulation.
re, as well as to the character of
do not show a similar condi-
the disease; and the reason the lungs of the horse, when loaded
These appearances, therefore, are
with the serous parts of the blood
monia (see figs. 20 and 21).
to be referred to original structu
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604 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
tion, is their deficiency of the interlobular tissue. Besides the.
union of the lobules here spoken of, I have also stated that
the various component parts of the lungs are held together by
interstitial areolar tissue. ‘The network of this tissue is very
minute, and when in this disease the red corpuscules of the blood
escape from the capillaries by a rupture of their coats, it retains
these bodies in its meshes, and assists in producing the dark
colour of the isolated patches. This colour likewise depends in
part on many of the capillaries being distended almost to bursting
by the red corpuscules. The united pressure of the overloaded
vessels, and of the infiltrated interlobular and interstitial tissues,
Fig. 21,
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a. The right lung of the ox, considerably increased in size, and covered here and there with
effusions of fibrine. b. The left lung, still retaining its healthy condition. ¢;1¢: The
yellowish bands which intersect the diseased lung in various directions, being produced by the
interlobular tissue surcharged with the fibrino-albuminous portions of the blood. d,d. The -
dark-coloured patches, arising from a retention of the red corpuscules, &c.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 605
compresses the air-cells of the lungs, and prevents the entrance
of the atmospheric air into them; hence the absence, in the
advanced stages of pleuro-pneumonia, of the respiratory sound
in the affected parts. ‘The great depth in the colour of some of
the patches is also produced by the same cause; for the pigment
of the accumulated corpuscules cannot be decar boueed from the
non-entrance of the oxygen of the air into the cells.
I have already remarked that the vitiated atmosphere does not
act as a direct irritant to the pulmonary tissues or mucous mem-
brane of the air-passages, a fact which is proved by the absence
of all the usual symptoms of catarrh, laryngitis, or bronchitis, as
precursors of pleuro-pneumonia. Besides, if such were the case,
both lungs would be equally affected ; whereas it is well known
that the disease is very partial, and that the nght lung is princi-
ek involved (see fig. 21). The aerial poison, whatever may be
its nature, being carried by the ordinary process of respiration
into the air-cells of the lungs, exerts its baneful influence upon the
blood in its circulation through the capillaries. The blood thus
impregnated with something detrimental to its healthy condition
undergoes changes similar to the solids when diseased, and these
changes are figured forth in the pulmonary tissues.
Each organ of the body seems susceptible of being acted upon
ma special manner by deleterious matters entermmg the circu-
lation: thus the poison of small-pox reacts on the skin ; that of
glanders on the mucous membranes of the nasal ceriiee ED
rabies on the nerves,—of eczema on the lips, tongue, and feet,—
and of pleuro-pneumonia on the lungs.
The amount of the deleterious matter received at each inspi-
ration appears to be sufficient to interrupt at once the functions
of the lungs, for, were this the case, death would speedily occur
from asphyxia ; ; whereas we have constant proofs that the disease
we are considering is partial in its attack, and insidious in its
nature, making its way stealthily ; being very often unobserved,
until it has made great inroads on the constitution. This cha-
-racter of the affection is alone sufficient to create a doubt of its
being inflammatory, for inflammation of the lungs, even at its
commencement, is marked by unmistakable indications of ill-
health. ‘The absence of the ordinary symptoms of pneumonia,
together with the peculiar changes observed in the lungs, have
satisfied me that pleuro-pneumonia is not of an inflammatory
nature ai its outset, and that inflammation is rather the result than
a cause of the disease. It is difficult to explain the precise change
which takes p!ace in the blood from the operation of the aerial
poison ; but it appears to me that the vitality of the fibrine is in-
terfered with, and that it, with the albuminous constituents of the
fluid, also altered in quantity, is transuded from the capillary
606 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
vessels, and finds its way into the areolar tissue of the lungs,
accumulating where this tissue exists in greater abundance, namely,
in the interlobular spaces. This inordinate transudation seems to
depend on a tendency in the blood to separate into its several con-
stituents, arising most likely from the diminished vital force of the
fibrine, and an arrestation to the conversion of the albumen of the
serum into fibrine. ‘The fibrino-albuminous portions of the fluid
are thus changed, and probably also augmented, and their exudation
is a natural consequence of such condition. ‘The red corpuscules,
being in part deprived of the liquor sanguinis in which they float,
are retained in the capillaries, where they accumulate in un-
limited numbers, obliterate their passage, and compress the air-
cells they surround, so as to stay the entrance of the air, and
produce, as elsewhere stated, the dark-coloured spots which stud
the lungs. It is these effusions and the obliterated condition of
the vessels which give bulk, increased weight, and solidity to the
lungs, and destroy their function as aerifying organs.
From this explanation it is evident that I regard pleuro-
pneumonia to approach nearer to a dropsical than to an inflam-
matory disease. ‘The lungs, if examined at the commencement of
the affection, will show that the morbid action commences here
and there in their substance, and that these patches quickly
increase in size so as to run into each other. We have also
frequent opportunities of verifying these remarks in animals
which have died in the advanced stages of the malady, from
the circumstance that one lung is principally affected, the other
exhibiting the beginning of the disease. Fig. 22 is inserted
for the purpose of rendering this description more evident.
The spots marked aa represent the tumified portions of the
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’ Lung, showing the commencement of pleuro-pneumonia.
a. Elevated spots produced by effusion. 6. A cut carried through one of the spots, to demon-
strate the nature of the change producing it.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 607
lung, which the cut 6 discloses to be referable to effusion into its
substance.
The exudation of the altered liquor sanguinis is not limited
to the lungs themselves, but extends to their investing mem-
brane, the pleura, thus accounting for the depositions of semi-
solid fibrine on their exterior, and the existence of serous effusions
in the cavity of the thorax. That these results are not pro-
duced by inflammation is clear from the circumstance that in
innumerable cases no redness of either the pleura covering the
lungs or lining the chest can be detected; both the fibrine and
the serum being likewise perfectly colourless. Dyropsy of the
chest may be said to be now associated with dropsy of the lungs.
Although inflammation takes no part in the original production
of these morbid lesions, still, as previously remarked, it may arise
as a consequence, and this I believe is generally the case with
those animals which recover. The blocking up of the air-cells,
vessels, &c., produces death of these structures ; and when this is
partial and of little extent, portions of the lung will ultimately
become detached, and be enclosed in sacs formed by the adhesive
stage of the subsequent inflammation. ‘This will also explain
how it is that collections of pus and other morbid products are
occasionaily met with in our post-mortem examinations of long-
existing cases of pleuro-pneumonia. It ought therefore to be no
matter of surprise, nor to be viewed as an opprobrium of the vete-
rinary art, that an affection which depends on an empoisoned
atmosphere, and is associated with such extensive lesions of organs
so essential to health, and which stealthily but securely wends its
Way and saps the very vitals, should prove so destructive to life,
and likewise resist the most vigorous and scientific treatment.
Having given my view of the nature of the malady, I proceed
to narrate the symptoms which accompany it. The disturbance
of the animal’s health is rarely observed until the disease is fully
established, and effusion into the lung has made some progress.
Proprietors of cattle should, therefore, be early and late with
their stock, narrowly watching the slightest indication of ill-health.
It will often be observed that oxen at pasture, when the dis-
ease is commencing, will early in the morning be separated from
the herd, standing under the hedge with their backs arched, coats
staring, and refusing to eat; while as the day advances they will
join the rest and appear in their usual health. A slight but
husky cough will be occasionally recognised, and now and then
the breathing will be increased, as if the animal had under-
gone some extra exertion; while in milch-cows there will bea
diminished amount of milk in addition to the above symptoms.
As the disease progresses, the cough becomes more frequent and
husky, the respiration is hurried, the pulse increased and some-
608 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
what oppressed, the appetite diminished, rumination suspended,
bowels constipated, surface of the body chilly, &c. In the more
advanced stages the respiration is difficult, laboured, and pain-
ful; the patient is frequently lying, or if standing, the head is
protruded ; the mouth is covered with a frothy saliva; the muzzle
is cold ; rigors occasionally come on; and the pulse is rapid and
often indistinct. An enlargement of the right side of the chest
can generally be detected in this stage of the malady; percus-
sion gives a dull sound, and auscultation detects an increased
bronchial respiration, with a crepitating rale in some parts, but
a total absence of sound in others. Approaching death is shown
by frequent moaning, grinding of teeth, total loathing of food,
cold extremities, wavering pulse, distressed reve: liquid
stools, and distension of the rumen by the disengagement of
gaseous compounds from the ingesta. This deranged condition
of the digestive organs is probably owing to the high carboniza-
tion of the blood; as the elimination of the carbonic acid is
prevented by the obliteration of te anleclio oman lungs.
The length of this lecture forbids a more minute decal as well
as a separate analvzation of the symptoms, and therefore I pass
on to speak of the principles which should govern our treatment
of the disease. The first remedy to which I shall allude is
bloodletting. ‘The propriety of abstracting blood will depend
on the stage of the malady, and the amount of symptomatic fever
which is present. It must be done early, or not at all; for m
proportion to the extent of the effusion, so will be the debility of
the patient. To bleed late is to hasten a fatal termination ; but
if we attend to the animal at the very commencement of the
disease, much good will be done by a bold bloodletting. No
rule, however, can be laid down as to quantity to be abstracted,
but the pulse must be carefully watched, and as soon as its
character is altered the bleeding must be suspended. I do
not recommend an early bloodletting for the single purpose of
allaying the febrile condition of the system, but to withdraw a
portion of the vitiated fluid which has laid the foundation for, and
is quickly building up, the disease.
Another remedy of frequent adoption is the exhibition of
purgative medicine. In most disorders it is of the first import-
ance to clear out the prime vie, as thereby we not only remove
offensive and offending matters from the system, but subdue the
excitation which is present by the nauseating effects of the medi-
cine, which is furiher assisted by the agent increasing the intes-
tinal and other secretions. If constipation is present, even in the
advanced stages of pleuro-pneumonia, a gentle aperient may be
given, but. cathartics should be avoided. I have already stated
that diarrhoea often comes on as the case approaches its end ;
and it should be remembered that this morbid condition of the
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 609
bowels is very easily excited by purgative medicine. Cathartics,
like bloodletting, must be used cautiously. ‘They are admissible
at the beginning of the affection, but rarely afterwards. ‘The
ordinary saline mixtures are as good as any, but they ought to be
given without the large doses of ginger, &c., with which they are
too generally blended.
Diuretic agents stand next in the list. Medicines of this class
stimulate the kidneys to increased action, and their employment
is found to be associated with far less weakening effecis on the
lower animals than is the case with purgatives. They may,
therefore, be frequently and quickly repeated. Diuretics carry
off a considerable portion of the watery parts of the blood, and
hence their great use in affections of a dropsical nature. ‘The
nitrate of potash is one of the safest and best of our diuretic
agents, and I especially recommend it in the treatment of
pleuro-pneumonia. [I do this for several reasons; among
which is the established fact that the alkaline carbonates and
nitrates are of the greatest benefit when the blood itself is in an
abnormal condition. One of the best ways of using the nitrate
of potash is to add it to the water which is given to the animal
to drink,
Sedative medicines have been extensively employed by some
persons in treating this disease, but in my experience they have
rarely proved of service; nevertheless, their occasional adminis-
tration will be needed, especially when the circulation is much
excited: Pulvis Doveri; opium; and ext. belladonna are the
most valuable agents of this class. Calomel in combination with
opium has also its advocates, and in certain cases I have given
it with advantage.
Diaphoretics, or medicines which promote the secretions of the
skin, are beneficial, but their action should always be assisted by
warm clothing, without which they are nearly useless. Antim.
tart. is one of our chief diaphoretics; I have found it, however,
to act too freely on the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal
and to produce thereby considerable mischief; as a rule I do
not employ it, and more especially in protracted cases of the
malady. The other preparations of antimony are not open to
the same objection, and these, with the Pulvis Jacobi. should be
selected. ‘To effect a copious meerenOn Of perspiration, the skin
of a recently killed sheep, applied while yet warm to the back
and sides, surpasses everything we have as yet tried.
Diffusible stimulants and tonics are, in my opinion, the most
valuable of all remedies, and invariably I have recourse to
them as early as circumstances will permit. Of late we have
heard much of the beneficial effects of brandy as a diffusible
stimulant, and doubtless in the second stage of the malady it has
proved of service. I prefer, however, the spt. eather, nitr. and
the liq. ammo. acet. in combination, the ammonia being in excess.
610 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
In the advanced stages, however, even these agents fail to support
the system against the debilitating effects of the disease, and we
must now employ both vegetable and mineral tonics; the sul-
phates of iron, and quinine, gentian, ginger, columba, and the
barks, are the best. Before concluding these remarks on the
treatment, which are of necessity very much condensed, I shall
allude to another remedy which has many advocates, and properly
so in my opinion, namely, counter-irritation, or the application of
stimulating ointments and liniments to the sides of the chest. This
class of remedies is generally adopted when active inflammation
pervades some internal organ, and with the happiest results; and
although I do not view pleuro-pneumonia as essentially an inflam-
matory affection, still we can easily understand that benefit will
follow the use of a counter-irritant. By the long-continued
action of an agent of this kind, the inflammation which it excites
in the skin will be attended with effusion of the albuminous parts
of the blood into subcutaneous tissue, and thus we artificially
produce a disease here analogous to that of the lungs and thereby
give relief to those organs.
I might add many observations to the foregoing on the
nature and treatment of this disease, but hope to have said
sufficient in explanation of the principles which should govern
our proceedings both with a view to its prevention as well as
cure. It is evident that no specific can exist for such a malady ;
and it is likewise equally so that he who undertakes its treatment
without a knowledge of its nature, and of the structure and
functions of the organs it affects, is acting like an ordinary artisan
who sets about the repair of a machine the wheels and levers of
which he has never investigated.
XXX.—Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. By J.
Tuomas Way, Consulting Chemist to the Society.
’ (It is proposed to publish under this title, from time to time, the re-
sults of isolated analyses made by the Chemist of the Society, which,
although not sufficiently important to form the subject of a separate com-
munication, may yet possess an amount of value to justify their introduc-
tion in a Journal devoted to agricultural improvement. )
Analysis of Sprats.—It is well known that on the coasts of Sussex, Kent,
and Essex, such quantities of sprats are at certain seasons taken, that they
are frequently employed as an economical and very powerful manure.
They have been used for many different kinds of crops; but more espe-
cially for wheat and hops, which plants are known to be benefited by
highly nitrogenous manures.
Although the general chemical characteristics of fish are well known, I
was induced to examine the composition of sprats, partly to develope their
exact manurial value, and partly in the hope of finding some way of
cheap preparation by which they might be rendered fit for transportation
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 611
to a longer distance than their perishable nature will now admit. They
were first examined in the year 1847, and, to ascertain that their composi-
tion was not variable, a second time in the following season, Decem-
ber, 1848.*
In all cases a sufficient number of fish was operated upon to ensure an
average result. They were bruised in a mortar, and then dried at the
temperature of boiling water; from the dry mass, the oil or fat was ex-
tracted by digestion with ether; after which, the residue, again dried, was
analyzed for nitrogen. The mineral matter was obtained by burning a
quantity of the sprats previously dried. Thus examined, they were found
to yield in 100 parts :—
Sprats of 1847. Sprats of 1848.
BViateryis Fe ei . 64°6 ee 63°65
Open hc he leur ie hire ua) LOVOOK gs Meron 18260
Dry Nitrogenous matter . 15°90 ++ 17°75
100-00 100-00
The specimen of 1847 was not examined for nitrogen; that of 1848 was.
The dry matter (after separation of the oil) gave :—
Per Cent.
of Nitrogen.
First experiment . . » « «» 11°75
Second experiment .« . . . 11°31
MiCaner meta as cists wemeas) wet oliloo
Upon this datum it will be found that the sprats in their natural condi-
tion contain 1°94 per cent. of nitrogen. The quantity of mineral matter
obtained by burning the fish was—
Sprats of 1847. Sprats of 1848.
Ash per cent. on the natural fish .« . 2. .« 2°12 «- 2°10
A result which is identical for the two years. These ashes had the fol-
lowing composition :—
‘Sprats of Sprats of
1847. 1848.
Silicaedi cause ii) ts Mies traces °30
Phosphoric Acid .-. « - 43°52 40:49
Sulphuric Acid .« «© « « traces 1-40
@arbonic) Acid’) >. « «6 Ue none none
1 baie Sa ae ie vee ea a ace Sacer 23°57 27°23
Magnesia) < © »« « =» 3°01 3°42
Reroxidejof rom es) arte se °28 °65
Potash er wie wh! outs | eres 17°23 21°89
S Olam ep went eh nt erunieh tte uuie 1-19 none
Chloride of Potassium. . none 2°31
Chloride of Sodium. 11°19 2°31
otal heuncaih ks 100°00 100-00
1060 ers. of the fish in its natural state, when examined directly for sulphur, gave
1.50 gers. ;
This ash is precisely what we should expect to find it—the phosphate
of lime being furnished by the bones, and the potash by the fleshy sub-
stance of the fish.
It is worthy of remark, that the quantity of potash should be so consi-
* Iam told that there is a marked difference between the fish of the early and late
months of the season; they are at first plump and fat, and subsequently become
shrivelled and lean, when they would probably contain much less oil.
612 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
derable, not as a physiological fact of an unexpected character, but in
relation to the composition of guano, which is in reality produced from
fish, having probably a chemical character very closely allied to that of
those we are discussing. It will be remembered that in guano, according.
to analyses I had the honour of publishing in this Journal, the per centage
of phosphoric acid being 25-0, that of potash was shown to average 3°95,
or about 1-7th. In the original fish, however, if we may judge by the
present analysis, the relation is more nearly as 2 to 1; so that in the pro-
duction of guano, three parts out of four of the potash disappear. This
peculiarity is mentioned rather as curious than as of any importance.
The size of bone in the fish in relation to its flesh might possibly account
for the above-named circumstance ; but of this I have no means of judging.
As a matter of more practical importance, I would draw attention to
the similarity in composition between some of our cultivated crops and
that of sprats. Wheat, for instance, contains about 2 per cent. of nitrogen;
so does this fish. 100 Ibs. of wheat require about 12 lbs. of ash, of which
about one half is phosphoric acid, and 1-3rd potash. 100 Ibs. of sprats
coutain 2 Ibs. of ash, of which 2-5ths is phosphoric acid, and 1-5th potash.
What manure should be more fit to produce a bushel of wheat than 3 ewt.
of sprats ?*
Indeed, there is nothing surprising in this resemblance. ‘The composi-
tion of sprats would probably be found nearly identical with that of any
entire animal examined in the same way.
We know that wheat contains everything that is necessary to support
life and to increase the animal frame; in other words, it is identical or
nearly identical in composition with the body which it nourishes. Sprats
then may be taken as the type of animal—wheat as that of vegetable life,
and there can be no doubt of their mutual convertibility, when placed in
the proper circumstances.
I have dwelt upon this point in order to show how very valuable a
source of manure, and consequently of food, we have in the waters that
surround our shores, if we could. work out the problem as one of economy.
Practically we do so at this day, by bringing guano, which is digested fish,
from far distant parts.
The use of fish manure is very limited, being confined to within a cer-
tain distance of the sea-shore, and this for obvious reasons. In the first
place, it requires to be used in large dressings, although it is, weight for
weight, at least four times as powerful as farm-yard dung; consequently
the expense of carriage, added to its original cost, soon places a limit to
the transportation of this kind of manure. Secondly, it will not keep for
any length of time ; and at whatever season it is taken, it must be at once,
or within a few days, applied to the ground. . This is another serious draw-
back to its employment. The third and last objection which we shall
bring against the employment of sprats as a more general manure, is the
great uncertainty of the collection ; in some seasons being very scarce, in
others so abundant that it pays the farmer to send his waggons 20 or 30
miles for them.
I stated that my motive for examining sprats was to ascertain whether
by any means they could be preserved and concentrated for transportation.
I was unprepared at the time for the discovery of so large a per centage
of oil in the fish ; but it immediately occurred to me that the circumstance
might render it possible to make them more generally available for ma-
nure.
So far as we know, oil is of no value as manure, or at all events of a
* That ts to say, supposing that in the production of wheat no loss of manure occurs,
a supposition whichis rendered very doubtful by Mr. Lawes’ experiments. .
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. G15
value far beneath that which it holds as an article of commerce. The
oil of sprats is a clear, limpid fluid, and would no doubt be highly prized
in the market. It would probably be capable of easy extraction by pres-
sure,* which at the same time would remove the water and reduce the sprat
to a dry mass. This dry residue would contain nearly 12 per cent. of nitro-
gen,t a quantity greater than in any known manure, with the exception of
guano. ‘The manure would be portable, and worth its carriage to any
distance ; and from the pressure to which it had been subjected, together
with the absence of water, capable of being kept for any length of time
till it was required for use as a drill manure.
These remarks are only thrown out as hints to the many reflecting men
who are ever anxious to take advantage of the opportunities which are so
generally presented to us, if only the intelligence and energy to benefit
by them be not wanting. It is not for me to say whether the preparation
of a dry manure from fish, depending for its expense on the product of
oil, is economically practicable ; but should it be so, 1am sure that sooner
or later the redundant capital of the country would be brought to bear
upon this new zmportation of manure, to the advancement of general agri-
culture and the benefit of the speculators.
The circumstance which alone makes the maiter worthy of considera-
tion is the fact—previously, I believe, unobserved—of the large quantity
of pure oil which sprats contain, together with the possibility of ex-
tracting it by pressure with equal or greater ease than that of linseed.
The great difficulties which would stand in the way of this manufacture
would be, first, the wncertainty of the season in regard to quantity ; and,
secondly, the short period of the year during which the manufacture
could be carried on. Of the first circumstance I have very little know-
ledge ; but the remedy in such case would be of the same kind as that
which I should propose for the second trouble. In order that the presses
and other machinery of the sprat-manure maker should not be idle during
two-thirds of the year, he should also be a manufacturer of linseed-cake,
in the production of which he should employ himself when the other
branch of his business was from circumstances impracticable.
It is probable that many other kinds of fish, some of which are caught
in enormous quantity, might be applicable to the same purposes.
Liquid Manure.—The following analysis of the contents of Mr. Huxtable’s
liquid-manure tank will probably be of use as furnishing a practical basis
upon which the farmer may build his calculation for the use of tank-water.
The tank in question receives the liquid running from the cow-houses,
the stables, and the piggeries—none of the water from the yards or the
buildings is allowed to find its way into it; Mr. Huxtable’s practice being
to dilute the tank-water at pleasure and according to circumstances at the
time of using it. The liquid mainly consists, therefore, of the putrid urine
of cows. In taking the specimens for analysis, the contents of the tank
were stirred in such a way that an equal proportion of the sediment could
be collected ; owing, however, to the mode in which the urine is conveyed
to the tank, the deposit in it is very slight.
It must be understood that the analysis exhibits the composition of
putrid urine, or tank-water which has been kept some time; in this con-
dition all or almost all of the animal matters will have passed into the state
of ammonia; but with this exception, there is no difference between the
urine in the two states, and the analysis will for all practical purposes
equally represent the value of fresh tank-water as a manure.
* Since the above was in type, I have been informed by a gentleman, that with the
aid of a powerful press he had failed to extract more than 13 or 2 per cent. of oil from
the fish,
+ Practically perhaps so perfect a result could not be hoped for.
VOL. x. 2s
614 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
The analysis was made in my laboratory by Mr. F. Eggar:—
Grs. of solid residue.
One gallon of the liquid manure gave upon evaporation . 1208°42
of which
Grains.
The combustible portion weighed . . . . «+ e 397°63
The incombustible portion, or ash . . »« « «= e« « SiO579
The combustible portion consists principally of carbonate and muriate
of ammonia, with some unchanged animal matters. To ascertain the pro-
portion of ammonia—the only point considered of importance in the com-
bustible portion—two experiments were made by distillation of the
original liquid with potash, the ammonia being collected in the usual
way.
a Grs. of Ammonia
in the Gallon.
The first experiment gave . 9. « « . «) 362°33
The second ,, 5 : lvl tol 68 9aigisalizas
The mean of the two results giving 356°45 grains of ammonia as the
quantity in an imperial gallon.
The ash was analyzed in the usual way. I have placed in one column
the per centage composition of the ash, and in another the quantities of
by different mineral substances which exist in a gallon of the tank-
water :—
In a gallon
In 100 parts
of the Ash. | ee
| Grains.
CLF cer i ea a Soe A re 1:01 8-18
Phosphoric Acid . «6 « « 1-10 8°91
| Sulphurie Acid vos. res 12°97 105°16
Carbonic Acid™., 7. eos] ao 100:05
Times sie GAs ae 2°61 21°24
Mapnesia Xj Sl) aati ate dreaty 9°49
Peroxide of Iron .5-40 > ay Ait 1°73 14:02
43°47 303'01
MINE none none
Chloride of Potassium . 4+28 34°86
Chloride of Sodium . 18°75 152:26
Sand, &c. (accidental impurity) | “44 3°56
Potashyeavise 346 wie
Soda Sesion: 2
Totaly, <- are. 99-85 810°74
In addition to the chlorine, set down in combination with potassium
and sodium, another portion escapes in the preparation of the ash with the
ammonia.
A direct determination of chlorine was made in the original liquid,
which gave an excess of 98°84 grains in a gallon of this ingredient over
that obtained by the method of burning.
The first column of the preceding table is interesting on more than one
account. It will be seen that the chief ingredients of tank-water (setting
aside the ammonia) are the sulphate and carbonate of potash and com-
mon salt, the latter obviously derived from the turnips or mangold-wurzel,
which form the staple of the food of cows. (See Analyses of Turnips, &c.,
in this Journal, vol. viii., part i.)
Phosphoric acid is a very minute ingredient of the liquid manure ;
indeed, in the examination of pure cow’s urine, some chemists of great
authority have been unable to detect it at all; and Baron Liebig has as-
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 615
sumed that the whole phosphoric acid of the food finds an exit in the
case of this animal by the solid excrements and the milk. Be this as it
may, the quantity of the acid in liquid manure is very small, and in the
use of tank-water it should never be forgotten that such is the case.
Again, as might be expected, the proportion of silica in the urine is
equally minute; this substance being necessarily in great part removed
from the body in the dung.
1000 gallons of undiluted tank-water will, according to the above ana-
lysis, contain about—
POHANG Cand ate ek ce ch es ey ss wt OS
Geist, Peewee os ts, c.g le tmalelo ehioe is
Phosphoric Acid, and Magnesia, each . . . 1 ,,
The other substances it is unnecessary to calculate.
_ The foregoing analysis has not been given as a correct statement of the
ingredients of urine, but as a guide to the practical composition of tank-
ela supposing it to be collected without dilution, and carefully pre-
served.
ftefuse Manures.—The different manufacturing processes carried on in
large towns give rise to certain waste products, which, some of them being
of animal origin, and others containing one or more of the mineral ingre-
dients considered indispensable to growing crops, will possess some value
as manures. Advantage may frequently be taken of local circumstances
to procure in this way a supply of particular manuring substances, at a
cheaper rate than from any other source. Whilst, however, I believe
that these refuse manures may be occasionally most valuable adjuncts to
the ordinary resources of the farm, I feel convinced that their purchase is
often a source of joss and disappointment, owing partly to mistaken ideas
of their composition and value, and partly to the great variability of
those which may at times be well worthy the farmer’s notice. In the
purchase of manures of this description one circumstance is often over-
looked; namely, the expense of their conveyance. Waste manures are
usually cheap, that is to say, low priced; and though they may really be
economical when they are to be had within a few miles of home, they
will seldom bear the cost of transportation. This truth must be obvious
to all. it costs as much to convey a ton weight 50 miles, when its value
is i/., as when it is 102. ; but in the one case the price is doubled, in the
other increased only by 1-10th. Nor is the matter mended when the
expense of carriage is nominally taken by the dealer, for the farmer may
be assured that one way or the other it becomes chargeable upon the
manure.
Having offered these few remarks in reference to the value of refuse
substances in general, under the conviction that their importance in an
agricultural point of view is often overrated, I shall proceed to give the
analyses of two or three of these which have come under my attention.
Scutch.—A substance accumulates in the yards of the glue-maker and
fellmonger, to which the above name is given. It is in general a mixture
of hair and other animal matters with lime, partly as carbonate and partly
in the caustic state. It has a smell, which is more or less offensive ac-
cording to the time it has iain decomposing, and bears a price in propor-
tion to its age. P
* The above will furnish the data for regulating the quantity of gypsum to be em-
ployed in a tank where this substance is used to fix the ammonia, 17 parts of ammonia
require 86 parts of pure gypsum; 51 lbs. therefore (the quantity in 1000 gallons) will
require 258 lbs, of the salt—in practice about 3 cwt. to 1000 gallons.
+ For many years, indeed as long as I could procure it, I used Scutch for agri-
cultural purposes extensively. I procured it immediately from the ee of the glue-
2s 2
616 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
The following analyses of Scutch were made in my laboratory by Mr.
Ogston. The specimen No. 1 was said to be worth 25s., and No. 2
40s., per ton :—
Scutch, Scutch, ©
No. 1. No. 2.
W ater ° ° ° e ° e e 26°48 QA- 30
| Animal matter and Salts of
IAMMOMIae | ot Well Went enelG 12°42 82°42
(Sanh Vacea ste ek) euik or eemee 18-00 6°10
Carbonate of Lime. . . © 33°19 29°98
Sulphate of Lime . . . . 7°25 3°79
Phosphate of Lime, . «- . °50 1°84
Magnesia cules see dnioumns traces °56
Peroxide of Iron and Aluminum 1°87 of7
Potaly ey oee te: ne 99°71 99°76
When examined for nitrogen :—
No. 1 gave +89 Nitrogen, equal to 1-07 per cent. Ammonia.
No: 2>),, 1:57 99 ” 1-90 39 ”
The only ingredients in this case to which any money value can be
fairly attached, are the ammonia and the phosphate of lime. Taking the
ammonia of the 2nd specimen at 2 per cent., and the phosphate of lime
at the same.amount, we shall in a ton obtain 45 Ibs. of each of these sub-
stances.
I have elsewhere shown that ammonia may be bought in Peruvian
guano for 6d., and phosphate of lime in the same form for éd. per Ib.
We should thus have for the value of the ton of scutech—
s. d.
45 lbs. of, Ammonia at Gd. 3 6» se sek eee
45 lbs. of Phosphate of Lime at $d. - »« . ». « 210
25 4
If, then, specimen No. 2 were sold at the same price as the inferior kind,
whose analysis is given, the expense would be barely made good.
It is quite possible that the refuse may at times be of greater value, and to
be had at a less cost than in the cases I have instanced, and its use will
then be economically admissible. It should, however, be borne in mind,
that 2cwts. of Peruvian guano, at a cost of 1/7, would supply very nearly
the same quantity of ammonia, and more of phosphate, with the advantage
of a known composition, and requiring only one-sixth of the cartage, mixing,
&c., previous to its application.
Alkali Waste-—In the manufacture of carbonate of soda from common
salt, large quantities of sulphuric acid are employed for the purpose of con-
verting the muriate into sulphate of soda. In a subsequent stage of the
maker in its wet state, and paid 7s, a waggon-load for it. Iused it on various de-
scriptions of land, red sand, clay, mountain limestone, and marl, and on all found
the most beneficial results to ensue from its application. The advantage of using it _
was apparent not only in the first and second crops, but the parts of the fields to which
this species of manure was applied were easily distinguishable by the greater luxuriance
presented in the last crop of the four-course shift. It is possible that the Scutch
analyzed by the learned Professor may have been subjected to a process which I under-
stood was common some years back, viz. the abstraction of the bones from the mass
left as refuse after the glue had been extracted.—W. MILEs.
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 617
process this latter product is heated in a furnace with powdered chalk and
coal, in which operation the) sulphate of soda is changed into a mixture of
carbonate and caustic alkali. When removed from the furnace the mix-
ture is treated with water to wash out the soda. An insoluble residue now
remains, containing lime and sulphur in astate of combination, which it is
unnecessary to explain in the present place. It should be observed, how-
ever, that this alkali waste when fresh possesses caustic properties which are
believed to be highly dangerous to vegetation. After a time, by exposure
to the air, the whole sulphur compounds become converted into sulphate
of lime, or gypsum; and the refuse can then be employed without the
smallest fear to any variety of produce. ,
A gentleman in Wales, living near to some alkali-works, had the oppor-
tunity of purchasing a quantity of this refuse, which accumulates largely
in the works, much to the annoyance of the alkali manufacturers. A spe-
cimen was sent to the laboratory, and analyzed by Mr. Ogston, with the
following results :—
Analysis of Alkali Waste.
Carbonate of Lime wee eae ask OU OO
Sulphate of Lime ° ° e e e . 60 °: 17
Water e e se e e s e e e 2 °. 13
Sand, &e. . s s e e e « . 3 : 38
Oxide of fron, Alumina, and loss in ,
; 3°82
AMON VSISitiee se, Lot od elite
100°00
It might reasonably be imagined that some portion of soda would
remain in the mass—such, however, was not the case; the manufacturers
taking especial care to lose none of their important products. Nor, if
it had been so, would it much have affected the value of the waste as
manure.
Essentially, then, alkali-waste consists of sulphate and carbonate of lime,
and may be used with advantage and economy wherever gypsum would be
of use.
The above was purchased at the rate of Is. per ton.
Woollen Refuse.—W oollen rags are well known to farmers as a powerful
manure. Owing to their slow decomposition they are not well fitted for
root-culture ; turnips, and other plants of this kind, requiring active and
readily-soluble manures to produce a rapid growth.
To wheat and to hops woollen ragsareapplied with the best effects. For-
merly they were to be purchased of good quality and unmixed with any
jess valuable substance; but of late years rags of a size that used to be
sold to the farmers are bought up to be re-converted into an inferior
kind of cloth. The supply, being thus in part cut off, is frequently made
good by the admixture of such linen or cotton rags as may not be worth
the paper-maker’s attention. The composition of wool in a state of purity
was some years ago ascertained: it contains upwards of 17 per cent. of
nitrogen. Were woollen rags, therefore, of the same strength as the wool
itself, they should produce wémately a larger amount of ammonia than
even pure Peruvian guano. ;
To reason from the composition of a raw material of any kind upon that
of the manufactured article which has passed through perhaps half a dozen
different processes, is often to lay oneself open to much error ; and nothing
short of the direct analysis of the rags themselves would enable any person
to form a correct notion of their manuring value.
A short time since the Earl of Tyrconnel suggested to me the desirable-
ness of analyzing specimens of wool refuse, very justly remarking that, if
618 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
they contained anything like the proportion of nitrogen which their origin
would lead us to expect, they would furnish a supply of ammonia at an
excessively cheap rate. His Lordship subsequently furnished the speci-
mens, of which the analysis is given below.
Specimen No. 1.—Rags costing (at Leeds) 2/. per ton, and consisting of
the seams and other useless parts of old cloth clothes which (from the
appearance of these remnants) have been cut up, as before mentioned, to
be remanufactured into cloth. To the rags are attached portions of the
calico linings, together with the cotton thread used insewing them. Of
the quantity of these in relation to the cloth itself no accurate notion can
be formed.
No. 2, called ‘‘ premings,” and No. 3, “cuttings,’* appear to be much of
the same character, but totally different from the rags; they both consist
essentially of coloured wool less than one-eighth of an inch in length.
No. 2, ‘“‘premings,” is sold at 15s., and No. 3, ‘‘ cuttings,” at 3/. 5s. per
ton.
These three specimens were analyzed for nitrogen, with the following
results :—
Per centage of Nitrogen in Woollen Refuse, dried at 212°.
No. 1, Rags. No. 2, Premings. No. 3, Cuttings.
First experiment . . ~ 11:54 —¢ + 10°49 6+ 13°18
Second experiment ./ 14 casi ‘sin WD ihe sal TOW aye 1281
Mean of the two experiments . 11°37 ++ 10°67 ++ 12°97
These results were afforded by the dry refuse. As all the specimens
contain a certain quantity of water, a correction requires to be introduced
in order to arrive at their value in the ordinary state :—
No. 1.—“ Rags” contained . . 7°87 per cent. of Water.
No. 2.—“Premings” . . . . 7°00
No. 3.—“ Cuttings” . . . . 8:70 iS is
The following table gives the quantity of nitrogen in the specimens,
taken in the ordinary condition of dryness, together with the ammonia
which, by decomposition of the animal matter, willeventually be produced.
No. 1, Rags. No. 2, Premings. No. 3, Cuttings.
Per centage of nitrogen in
Woollen refuse in | 10°47 ee 9*92 ee 11:84
ordinary state of dryness
Ammonia to which the
ern * (acy Pe a egs any eet
9? >
It appears, then, that it is quite incorrect to estimate the value of the
different kinds of woollen refuse by the known composition of wool itself ;
for to whatever cause the inferiority may be due, it is plain that they do
not, on the average, contain 2-3rds of the nitrogen found in the raw material.
Again, it is worthy of attention that the “cuttings” and “premings,”
differing in composition from each other only by 2 per cent. of nitrogen,
should bear a price in the relation of 4 to 1; whilst the rags, which are
pede ed alike in composition with the “premings,” are three times as
costly.
I place very little stress on the relative price as of general application,
inasmuch as nothing can be more capricious; but it is very evident that
by a knowledge of the composition great economy may be effected ; but
this can only be by a special analysis of the individual sample which it is
proposed to employ.
For obvious reasons the “rags” are the least desirable of the above
EEE EE Gn 3c LT Hs evi 74 © eu ep ne
* The “cuttings” are obviously produced by the shaving process, which gives
smoothness to the cloth,
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 619
specimens, being both more difficult to incorporate with the soil and of
much more tardy decomposition when placed there. Where, however, the
direct value cannot be ascertained by chemical analysis, it would be pro-
bably better for the farmer to purchase woollen rags, of the genuineness
and purity of which he may form a fair notion by simple inspection, rather
than those kinds which are more open to falsification.
The price of ammonia, as furnished by the “ premings” at 15s. a ton, will
be exceedingly moderate.
One ton of “‘premings” at 12 percent. will yield 269 Ibs. of ammonia for
15s., or less than 13d. per lb.
In guano ammonia 1s bought at 6d. a Ib., so that wool-refuse affords a
very cheap supply ; allowance, however, being always made for the slow-
ness with which the wool suffers decomposition. The conversion of the
animal matter of the wool into ammonia may be facilitated by watering it
with urine or mixing it with the dung-heap, but it will probably be
always more advantayeously applied to corn than as a substitute for
manures containing ready-formed ammonia.
Lord Tyrconnel subsequently sent me some “shoddy,” which is, I believe,
the sweeping of the mills and other mixed refuse from the cloth-works—
it costs 16s. a ton in Leeds. Upon analyzing it, Mr. Ogston found that in
its original state it contained—
Per centage of Nitrogen.
By the first experiment . . . 4°43
By the second experiment . . 4°68
Mean of the two experiments . 4:55 equal to 5°52 of Ammonia.
It contained 6°11 per cent. of water.
Shoddy, if we may judge by this specimen, is not half so valuable
a manure as the other woollen matters. As it is excessively full; of
oil, it was thought worth while to ascertain whether the quantity of this
ingredient was adequate to explain the low per centage of nitrogen. The
shoddy, when treated with ether, gave 26°36 per cent. of oil, containing
some colouring matter. The presence of one-fourth of its weight of oil
does not, therefore, sufficiently account for the inferiority.
The above results are borne out by an analysis which some time since
was made in this laboratory of some wool-refuse for the Rev. A. Huxtable,
with the following result :—
Analysis of Inferior Wool-Refuse from Mr. Huxtable.
Water eI eOls eee ak, ae 7°15
Animal Matterang Ors) so. ne 2 OStO2
Phosphate of Lime Selon Cleaned chu es AS
Oxide of Iron and Alumina Sea kes stilivan 2:10
Carbonate or lime 6%" of ee 9°42
Sand saccntrcdi se tte. tiene ote e 21°23
Alkaline Saltsand lossin analysis . . . -10
100-00
Analyzed for nitrogen, the above afforded about 2°5 per cent., or less
than that in the specimen of shoddy before described.
The per centage of pure ash in woollen refuse is not great, and the ingre-
dients of the ash are of small agricultural value. One of the above speci-
mens when burned afforded 10°12 per cent. of ash, principally clay and
sand, and of the mineral matter only 44 per cent. was found to be phos-
phorie acid. ‘
Worthless and Inferior Manures.—The adulteration of manures of real
value, and the sale of others possessing little or no fertilizing power, is a mat-
620 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
ter of common notoriety at the present day. In spite, however, of all that
has been said or written on this subject, farmers persist in purchasing from
dealers, of whom they know little or nothing, manures of which they know
even less. To those who have any faith in composition as the test of
manurial efficacy, I offer the following analyses as specimens of the kind of
stuff to which, under the plea of economy, many are content to intrust the
success of their crops.
The first analyses, No. 1 and No. 2, are those of so-called ‘ animal
guano,” offered for sale by the same dealers to two gentlemen on different
occasions; No. 1 at 5/., and No. 2 at 4/.a ton. They consisted respec-
tively of
No. 1. No. 2.
Waiter tg 7 ont ono ate eens 1°95 3°43
Organic Matters"). s.) ¢s 26°23 32°43
Sang Gestie « cues 9°68 28°35
Oxide of Iron, Anan witha
little Phosphoric Acid . . | 5:40 6°29
Carbonate of Lime’. 93" .! °.)'|/° 43¢o7 15+30
Sulphate of Lime . ». . . 2°80 11-97
Causticof Lime . . 4°26 ve
Common Salt and loss in analysis Gel oe
| 100: 00 100°77
When analyzed for nitrogen—
No. 1 gave . . 1°62 percent., equal to 1°97 per cent. of ammonia,
No.2 gave . . 1°61 per cent., equal to 1°96 per cent. of ammonia.
Practically these, no doubt, were one and the same substance. The
analysis closely resembles that of scutch (Specimen No. 2); and the
“animal guano” was, in all probability, that article. I have already said
that scutch cannot be, on any showing, worth more than 25s.a ton; and con-
sequently the purchaser of either of the above specimens would be defrauded
of three-fourths of the sum paid for them.
The next analyses are those of two specimens of manure purchased by a
gentleman in Yorkshire :—
No. 3. No. 4.
Wiateninms aitcte le@ yeti tt cae me 27°61 | Dian"
Organic Matter. 0% 2 hetl: 26:60 9) Sao 0
Sand : Sete. 9:02 9:00
| Phosphate of Tew tei. . is 98 } 14°62
Oxide of Iron and Marana 5 4°7]
Sulphuric Acid she caine [33735 10°23
| AIGtme pike) oc: SI rer 5°3 5°45
| Magnesia inn rgne ty. ntl aon “23 ee
Goan Salty’ fishhiwsree Se 3°77 o
| Free Sulphur ao rephaeh ae ee 3°78
| Loss . e ° ° ° © ° 1°02 4°15
——| raha
100°00 100°00
The nitrogen was as follows :—
InNo.3 . . . ‘*78 percent. = +96-per cent. of ammonia.
In No.4 . . . 1°65 per cent. = 2:01 per cent. of ammonia.
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 621
These were samples from the same manure, purchased at different times.
Although possessing a quality which farmers much like, that is to say, a
very offensive smell, there is evidently nothing to justify the price of 41.
per ton which was charged for them—their outside value, in relation to
standard manures, being from 25s. to 30s.
I will conclude this list by the analyses of two specimens of manure
ee exceed the former in price, while they fall short, if possible, of them
in value.
The first of these, No. 5, is a manure of which, by the talents and per-
severance of its originators, a very considerable amount was disposed of in
the neighbourhood of Leeds, as well as in more distant markets. The
second (No.6) was sold as a “tillage for turnips,” bearing the dealer’s
name.
The following will give the idea of their value :—
FICE oc ne ec we ite hs
Common Salt . .
° e e ° i 94 ] * 62
Substances not determined, and loss 1
°Q1 ee
No. 6.
No. 5. *¢ Tillage for
Turnips.”
WATERSS St, SUL G1EC9..08. ile 31°34 4+93
Sandvandc Clay ts Gish )@ Meliss 8:96 74°16*
Organic Matter); 6) 6 102)) i)} ian 15°30 4:43
Phosphate of Limé. « . - .. + “40 trace.
Oxide of Iron and Alumina ers 7°94 13:88
WrEHOMICTNCIU rec ou eae en hoists 2°23 trace,
Sulphuric Acide so sje ye 3°80 none,
; 6°88 1°05
9
3
Total e e ° e e e 100°00 100°07
* Including 12-06 soluble silica.
No. 5, analyzed for nitrogen, gave ‘5 per cent., equal to °6 per cent. of
ammonia.
The first of these ‘‘ manures’ was sold at 7/. 10s. per ton; the second, at 82.
per ton. The “tillage” is nothing more nor less than a red soil (probably
of the new red-sandstone formation) broken down into a tolerably fine
powder, the dealer not having even troubled himself to disguise its real
character by the addition of any known manuring substance.
No wonder that ‘ no beneficial results were obtained from its trial.”
I shall take leave of this subject with the expression of my belief that
thousands of pounds are annually wasted upon such rubbish without the
smallest return ; which, employed to purchase a smaller amount of standard,
recognised fertilizers, would be amply returned to the farmer’s pocket.
SE EI IT
(62249)
XX XI.—On the Bloching-up of Drains by the Roots of Mangold.
By Mr. Moore.
To Mr. Pusey.
Dear Srr,—The specimen of mangold-wurzel roots which I showed you
at Pusey a short time since, and which at your request I purpose taking to
London the second week in December, was taken from a drain constructed
of two large horseshoe tiles (6 inches by 3 inches), and placed in the land
at an average depth of about 27 inches. This drain was made some thirty
years ago to convey water to the farmhouse, and, consequently, there is a
constant stream flowing along its channel; the whole of the field across
which the drain passes has recently been thorough-drained, and in the
month of September, the water having ceased to flow into the trough at
the farm-buildings, a man was sent to examine the ground to discover if
there was any appearance on the surface of the drain being stopped; not
finding any, he was directed to open the drain in a few places. Not being
acquainted with its exact course, he opened on a place where the mangold-
wurzel leaves appeared darker than the general crop, and on reaching the
drain ata depth of about 3 feet 6 inches it proved not to be the water-drain
already referred to, but one of the main drains laid down in the winter of
1847. This drain (size 44 inches by 3 inches) was not stopped, the water
running freely (after the early rains we had in the autumn), but there was
a mass of fibrous roots formed in the bottom tile about 2 inches deep and
14 in width, very similar to what I showed you, though much more white
and delicate. After having satisfied myself, both by tracing the roots from
the surface and tasting those in the drain, that it was really from the man-
gold-wurzel above, we proceeded to examine the water-drain, and had no
difficulty in finding its course, as the leaves of the wurzel were so decidedly
dark and Juxuriant, more so than in the former case. On arriving at the
drain it was found completely choked with these roots, and the water was
totally stopped and forced out at the joints of the tiles in another part of
the drain. There can by no possibility be any mistake about the matter,
as the piece of mangold-wurzel was about 6 chains wide (4 acres), and on
either side potatoes and swedes ; and directly we were off the land on which
the wurzel was growing, the appearance of roots in the drain altogether
ceased. The impression produced on my own mind is this: that man-
gold-wurzel will always be lable to stop drains along which water continu-
ally flows, but not otherwise, because, generally speaking, in dry summers
there will be no water in drains on strong or clay soils to attract its roots,
and in wet seasons, or, as they are often designated hereabouts, “ dropping
seasons,” the plants would always have sufficient moisture in the active or
cultivated soil, and therefore would not be tempted to penetrate into the
uncongenial strata below. I think it may be accounted for, with reference
to the roots having gone down into the main drain first referred to, by the
fact of its being so recently laid; the land was hollow, and a good deal of
the top soil had been mixed with subsoil; no doubt, from the appearance
of the plants, they had found nourishment on their way, as well as in the
drain. I should therefore say it would be wise to wait a few years before
growing mangold-wurzel on recently drained land.
Between this and the Society’s meeting in December I purpose having
a few drains examined where we have grown large crops of mangold-
On the Blocking-up of Drains by Roots of Mangold. 623
wurzel since they were drained, and if any injury has been done I will
communicate it {o yourself or at the meeting.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
E. W. Moore.
Coleshill, November 19, 1849.
P.S.—I may add, that in the furrow-drains (pipes 12-inch bore) no
fibres had penetrated, though here and there traces of roots were found
underneath the pipes. In the water-drain the whole extent of the drain
across the mangold-wurzel Jand was filled.
END OF VOL. X.
PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET.
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Hopal Aaricultural Sortetp of England,
1848—1849.
PresiVent.
THE EARL OF CHICHESTER.
Trustecs.
Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P. Portman, Lord
Braybrooke, Lord Pusey, Philip, M.P.
Clive, Hon. Robert Henry, M.P. Richmond, Duke of
Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir Jas., Bart., M.P. Rutland, Duke of
Lawley, Sir Francis, Bart. Spencer, Karl
Neeld, Joseph, M.P. Sutherland, Duke of
Pice-PrestVents,
Barker, Thomas Raymond Fitzwilliam, Earl
Chichester, Earl of Gooch, Sir Thomas Sherlock, Bart.
Downshire, Marquis of Hardwicke, Earl of
Ducie, Earl of Hill, Viscount
Egmont, Earl of Wellington, Duke of
Exeter, Marquis of Yarborough, Earl of
Members of Counctl.
Austen, Colonel Jonas, Samuel
Barnett, Charles Kinder, John
Bennett, Samuel Lawes, John Bennet
Blanshard, Henry Leicester, Earl of
Booth, John Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P.
Bramston, Thomas William, M.P. Miles, William, M.P.
Brandreth, Humphrey Milward, Richard
Burke, J. French Pelham, Hon. Captain Dudley, R.N.
Challoner, Colonel Pendarves, Edward W. Wynne, M.P,
Childers, John Walbanke, M.P. Price, Sir Robert, Bart., M.P.
Denison, John Evelyn, M.P. Pym, Francis
Druce, Samuel Ridley, Sir Matthew White, Bart.
Foley, John H. H., M.P. Sewell, Professor
Garrett, Richard Shaw, William
Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth Shaw, William, junior
Grantham, Stephen Shelley, John Villiers
Hamond, Anthony Slaney, Robert Aglionby, M.P.
Hatherton, Lord Smith, Robert
Hillyard, C. Stansfield, W. R. Crompton, M.P
Hobbs, William Fisher Stokes, Charles
Howard, Hon. Captain Henry, M.P. Thompson, Henry Stephen
Hudson, George, M.P. Turner, George
Hudson, John Webb, Jonas
Hyett, William Henry Wilson, Henry
Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P.
Secretary.
JAMES HUDSON, 12, Hanover Square, London.
Consulting-Chemist—Joun Tuomas Way, 23, Holles Street, Cavendish Square.
Consulting-Engineer—JamEs Easton, or C. KE. Amos, The Grove, Southwark.
Seedsmen—Tuomas Gipss & Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly,
Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street.
Bankers—H., A.M., C,, A.R., G., and H. DrumMonp, Charing-Cross,
VOL. X. b
( u)
Wonorvary PHembers.
Austria, His Imperial Highness, The Archduke John of.
BuckianD, The Very Rey. WiL.1Am, D.D., Dean of Westminster.
Carr, Captain J. STANLEY.
Corman, Henry, Agricultural Commissioner of the State of Massachusetts.
DausBeny, Cuares, M.D., Professor of Rural Economy, University of Oxford.
De 1a BecuE, Sir Henry Tuomas, Director of the Ordnance Geological Survey.
Everett, The Hon. Epwarp, President of Cambridge University, U. S.
GrauAm, Tuomas, Professor of Chemistry, University College, London.
Henstow, The Rev. J. S., Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge.
Hormann, Dr., Professor of Chemistry, Royal College of Chemistry, London,
Jounston, JAmEs F. W., Reader in Chemistry, University of Durham.
Lizzie, Baron, University of Giessen.
Morcuison, Sir Roprrick I., K.S.P., President of the Royal Geographical Society,
Parkes, Jos1au, C.E., 11, Great College Street, Westminster.
PiayralR, Dr. Lyon, Chemist to the Ordnance.
Srwonps, James Beart, Lecturer on Cattle Pathology, R. Veterinary Coll., London.
Sotty, Epwarp, Professor of Chemistry, Hortic. Society, and Addiscombe College.
SPRENGEL, Dr. CHAR zs, Secretary to the Pomeranian Agricultural Society.
STEVENSON, The Hon. ANDREW, Washington.
VAN DE Weyer, M. SytviAn, Belgian Minister.
Way, Joun Tuomas, Consulting-Chemist to the Society.
Gun
Ropal Agricultural Society of Gngland.
GENERAL MEETING,
12, HANOVER SQuARE, Tuxspay, May 22, 1849.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Tue Council have to report to the Members at their present
General Meeting, that during the past half-year 3 Governors and
226 Members have been elected into the Society, 3 Governors
and 35 Members have died, and the names of 6 Governors and
893 Members have been, on various accounts, omitted from the
list of the Society, which accordingly now comprises—
89 Life Governors,
178 Annual Governors,
582 Life Members,
4643 Annual Members, and
20 Honorary Members.
They think it, however, right to remark that, in the lst of
names which have been erased from the books of the Society,
are included, not only those of Members who, for various
reasons in the course of things, have signified their desire to
withdraw; but a much larger number. who, with reference to
the transactions of former years, have ceased to belong to the
Society. A corrected list of the Governors and Members will
be printed at the end of the Volume of the Journal for the
present year. : 7
The Council have elected Mr. Thomas Raymond Barker a
Vice-President of the Society, in the place of the Earl Talbot,
b2
iv Report to the General Meeting.
deceased ; and Mr. Henry Blanshard, a General Member of the
Council, to supply the vacancy created in that body by the
transfer of Mr. Barker’s name to the list of the Vice- Presidents.
They have also elected Professor Simonds an Honorary Member
of the Society.
By the sale of 10007. Stock out of the invested capital of the
Society, and the application of a portion of the current cash
balance in the hands of their Bankers, they have been enabled
to pay off the loan contracted with Messrs. Drummond in the —
autumn of last year; and they have received from the Chairman
of the Finance Committee an intimation that previously to the
ensuing Country Meeting, the Committee will be fully prepared
to report in detail the result of their investigations into the whole
financial condition of the Society, both in reference to points in
which the expenditure may be submitted to judicious control,
and to measures by which the income of the Society may be
relieved from the inconvenience arising from unpaid arrears of
subscription.
The Council receive with the highest satisfaction the con-
tinued assurance of the increasing value of the Journal of the
Society ; and it is a most gratifying fact, that out of an issue by
post of upwards of 5000 copies of the last part, addressed to
Members residing in remote localities in the kingdom, only one
instance of miscarriage has been complained of. They cannot
but regard the combination of these most important circum-
stances, namely, the increased value of the: work and the fa-
cilities for its mechanical transmission, as calculated very essen-
tially to effect the diffusion of sound practical knowledge among
their Members, and through them among the agricultural com-
munity in general. They have decided, that the price of the
Journal to non-members shall henceforward be ten shillings for
each part, instead of six shillings as heretofore.
The Council, feeling the essential importance of calling in
the direct aid of science for the purpose of effecting a decided
advancement in the great object of improved cultivation, by the
development of the latent energies of the soil, and a more exact
Report to the General Meeting. V
knowledge of the sustenance required by or taken up by plants,
have, after mature deliberation, agreed to the following Report of
their Chemical Committee, in the hope that while an immediate
personal privilege is conferred by it on the Members of the
Society, a decisive step will have been taken for the attaiment
of the more remote, but not less certain advantages resulting
from a well-organized system of chemical research, on questions
connected with the mutual relations of the plant and soil, and
from analytical investigations into the composition and yalue of
substances produced by the farmer or employed in his ope-
rations.
“* REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL COMMITTEE.
“The Committee recommend that in future the privilege of ob-
taining analyses of manures, agricultural products, and soils, at the
following reduced rates, be made a privilege of all Members of the
Society.
‘“ No. i. An opinion as to the genuineness of a manure in the
market, 7s. 6d. By this is meant such an opinion as could be
formed by a scientific person, by inspection, with a few simple con-
firmatory experiments.—|It will protect from fraud, but is not calcu-
lated to assist materially in the choice of the best specimens, where all
are genuine; it will inform the applicant whether a specimen of guano
or oilcake, for instance, be adulterated or not; but will not touch the
question of its relative value as a pure specimen. Such an opinion
will only apply to ordinary market articles, as guano, oilcake, super-
phosphate of lime, sulphate of ammonia, gypsum, common salt, &c.]
No. 2. Guano. <A determination of the nitrogen (ammonia), or of the
same and of the earthy phosphates, &c., 14, The following is an
instance, taken at random, of such an analysis:—Water, 17:95;
organic matter and ammonial salts, 51°39; sand, &¢., 1°34; earthy
phosphate, principally phosphate of lime, 20°98; alkaline salts, and
loss to make up the difference, often consisting of common salt, &e.,
8°34: total, 100°00. This is all that is needed to give the agri-
cultural value of guano, or a close approximation to it. No. 3. Lime-
stone. The proportion of lime, 7s. 6d.; the proportion of magnesia,
10s.; the proportion of lime and magnesia, 15s. This analysis is
sufficient for many purposes; but in most limestones, sulphur, lime,
phosphorus, and magnesia are present. ‘The next analysis is better
for farmers, inasmuch as it is impossible to say how much of the effect
vi Report to the General Meeting.
may be due to minute ingredients. No. 4. Limestone, or Marls,
including carbonates, phosphates, sulphate of lime, and magnesia, with
sand and clay, If. No. 5. Partial analysis of a soil, including sand,
clay, organic matter, and carbonate of lime, 1l. No. 6. Complete
analysis of soil, 3/. No.7. Letter, asking advice, one topic, 7s. 6d.
On more than one topic, 10s. No. 8. Oileake, or dung, or any animal
products (such as cheese or butter in milk), nitrogen, and phosphoric
acid, 1/. Oileake, including nitrogen, oil, and phosphoric acid, 30s.
“That a salary of 2001. a-year be paid to Prorrssor Way for this
purpose, and that the Committee have further power to expend a sum
not exceeding 800/. a-year in such chemical inquiries for the Journal
as the Council shall yearly direct, on consideration of the report made
by the Chemical Committee.”
The Council have decided that the ensuing Country Meeting
of the Society, at the city of Norwich, shall be held in the week
commencing Monday the 16th of July, the Thursday, as for-
merly, being the principal day of the Show; and they have the
satisfaction of reporting that, great as was the number of imple-
ments exhibited at the York Meeting of last year over the
entries on any former occasion, the number entered for ex-
hibition and trial at the ensuing Norwich Meeting exceeds that
amount by a very considerable number. They have received
from the principal railway companies throughont the kingdom a
grant of the same liberal concessions in favour of the Society’s
exhibitors as was made by them last year, namely, the free con-
veyance of live stock, and a reduction of one-half the usual rates
ef charge for implements, on proceeding to the Show, and with
similar concessions on returning from it, provided the’animals or
implements are unsold and remain bond fide the property of the
respective exhibitors. The authorities of Norwich have granted
the free use of St. Andrew’s Hall, fitted up at their own expense,
for the purposes of the Great Dinner of the Society, and of the
Council Dinner; and Professor Simonds, and the Rev. Edwin
Sidney, have kindly consented to deliver Lectures before the
Members on the occasion of their meeting in that -city—the
former, ‘‘On the Diseases of the Organs of ‘Respiration, with
particular reference to Pleuro-Pneumonia, in the.Ox ;” the latter,
Report to the General Meeting. vil
«On the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.” It has been
decided that the Country Meeting of the Society for the Western
District shall be held next year at the city of Exeter; and that
the District for the year 1853 shall be comprised of the counties
of Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, and Rutland, and be desig-
nated the East-Midland District.
The Council have the satisfaction of receiving from their
Journal Committee the most favourable report of the number
and value of the Essays competing for the Society’s prizes of the
present year. They believe that the spirit of inquiry thus
aroused On sO many important topics of practical interest will
lead to that continued progress in the improvement of agri-
cultural economy, in all its branches, which it has hitherto been
the great object of the Society to promote. But while they
regard the stimulus of honorary distinctions and pecuniary
rewards, the collection and dissemination of important facts, and
the communication of personal experience among farmers them-
selves at the Council Meetings in London, and at the Country
Meetings held in successive districts of the kingdom, as most
effective means for the extension of agricultural knowledge; they
rely with the greatest confidence on the friendly co-operation of
the owners and occupiers of land, for devismg and carrying
out, to their mutual advantage and the common good of the
country, the most approved systems for the cultivation of the soil,
and the best measures for promoting the comfort and welfare of
those who depend upon it for their support.
In conclusion, they beg to remind the Members of the Society
that the Council Meetings, onthe first Tuesday in each month,
are set apart for the strictly official business of the Society, in
order that the Meetings on the other. Tuesdays of the month may
be devoted to the consideration and discussion of such communi-
cations of apractical nature as may from time to time be made
to them ; and they are desirous to make it extensively known
that every Member of the Society has the privilege of attending
such three Weekly Meetings of the month, and has it in his
power to-contribute, by his participation in their proceedings, to
Vill Report to the General Meeting.
the common interest of the parties present, as well as to the
gradual promotion of the several objects of the Society.
By order of the Council,
(Signed) JAMES HUDSON,
Secretary.
London, May 18, 1849.
REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL COMMITTEE, 5 June, 1849.
THE Chemical Committee have considered the charges for the different
subjects of analysis, and have seen no reason for any material alteration in
the scale, which stands as follows :—
No. 1. An opinion as to the genuineness of a manure in the market,
7s. 6d. By this is meant such an opinion as could be formed by a scientific
person, by inspection, with a few simple confirmatory experiments.—[ It will
protect from fraud, but is not calculated to assist in the choice of the best
specimens, where all are genuine: it will inform the applicant whether a
specimen of guano or oil-cake, for instance, be adulterated or not; but
will not touch the question of its relative value as a pure specimen. Such
an opinion will only apply to ordinary market articles, as guano, oil-cake,
superphosphate of lime, sulphate of ammonia, gypsum, common salt, &c.]
No. 2. Guano. A determination of nitrogen (ammonia) and of the earthy
phosphates, &c., 17. No.3. Limestone. The proportion of lime, 7s. 6d. ;
the proportion of magnesia, 10s.; the proportion of lime and magnesia,
15s. This analysis is sufficient for many purposes; but in most limestones
the phosphate and sulphate of lime, and magnesia, are present, though in
small proportions ; and inasmuch as it is impossible to say how much of
the effect may be due to other minute ingredients, it is recommended that
their quantity should always be determined. No. 4. Limestone, or marls,
including carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime, and magnesia, with
sand and clay, 17. No.5. Partial analysis of a soil, including sand, clay,
organic matter, and carbonate of lime, 1/. No. 6. Complete analysis of a
soil, 32. No.7. Letter asking advice, one topic, 7s. 6d. On more than
one topic, 10s. No.8. Oil-cake, or dung, or any animal products, nitrogen,
and phosphoric acid, 1/. Oil-cake, including nitrogen, oil, and phosphoric
acid, 17. 10s. They have also added a ninth subject, namely, No. 9. A
determination of the quantity of carbonate and sulphate of lime in any
specimen of water, 1/. ;
They recommend a grant of 300/. for the ensuing year, to be apportioned
in the following manner :—A sum not exceeding 100/. for an account of
analyses of guano (a paper on which subject is nearly completed). 2. A
sum not exceeding 100/. for an account of analyses of oil-cake and linseed,
with reference to the nutritive qualities of different specimens. 3. A sum
not exceeding 100/. for an account of analyses of chalk and marls used in
top-dressings.
“¢ The Committee further recommend that when Mr. Way is applied to
for an analysis he shall inform the applicant the cost of such analysis,
together with the cost of carriage of any specimen sent up, and shall not be
authorized to make such analysis until the amount due shall be sent to him.
‘¢ That a printed copy of this resolution be sent to every member apply-
ing for an analysis.”
. (Signed) Puitip Pusey, Chairman.
Statement of Accounts.
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Cssaps and Reports.
I. AWARDS MADE IN 1849.
To Cuare Sewevt Reap, of Kilpaison, near Pembroke, the prize of
Fifty Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Farming of South
Wales.
To Tuomas Rowxtanpson, of Greek Street, Liverpool, the prize of
Twenty Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Breeds of Sheep
best suited to different localities, respectively with reference to
soil, climate, elevation, and mode of farming.
To Tuomas Rowuanpson, of Greek Street, Liverpool, the prize of
Fifteen Sovereigns, for the best Essay on Top-dressing of Soil with
Mineral Substances.
To Wiiu1am James Garnett, of Bleasdale Tower, near Garstang, the
prize of Fifty Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Farming of
Lancashire.
To Joun Farncomse, of Patriot Place, Brighton, the prize of Fifty
Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Farming of Sussex.
To Tuomas Rowranpson, of Greek Street, Liverpool, the prize of
Twenty Pounds, for the best account of the Breeding and Manage-
ment of Pigs.
To Hatt W. Kearny, of Holkham, Norfolk, the prize of Fifteen
Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Management of Barley.
To Joun CHatmers Morton, of Whitfield Farm, Gloucestershire,
the prize of Fifty Sovereigns, for an account of the best method of
increasing the existing supply of Animal Food.
To Henry Govparn, Architect and Surveyor, Lincoln, the prize of
Fifty Sovereigns, for the best Essay on the Construction of
Labourers’ Cottages. |
To Joun Youne Macvicar, of Barkwith House,. Wragby, the prize of
Twenty Sovereigns, for the second-best Essay on the Construction
of Labourers’ Cottages.
“ji
Prizes for Hssays and Reports. x1
Il. PRIZES OFFERED FOR 1850.
All Prizes of the Royal Agricultural Society of England are open
to general competition.
** Competitors will be expected to consider and discuss the heads enumerated.
I. FarMInG oF LINCOLNSHIRE.
Firry Sovererens will be given for the best Report on the Farming
of Lincolnshire.
1. Character of the soils of the county, especially of its marsh and
fen lands.
2. The peculiarities, whether advantageous or defective, in its
agricultural management.
3. The drainage of the county in a general view and the improve-
ments which may yet be effected therein, especially by effect-
ing natural instead of artificial drainage.
4. The management of the farm-yard, with the advantages and
disadvantages of putting up the ricks at one central homestead.
5. The suitability or otherwise of the present long-woolled breed of
sheep to the ranges of light turnip land in the county.
6. The desirableness or otherwise of increasing the proportion of
Swedes in the turnip crop for spring consumption.
7. The grounds of the present practice in consuming the straw with
oil-cake given to beasts on light arable farms.
8. The comparative merits of rape and turnips on peaty land, and
the best mode of growing and feeding off rape.
9. The condition of the labourer and the improvement required
therein, by bringing his dwelling nearer to his place of labour.
Il. Farminc or SOMERSETSHIRE.
Firry Soverriens will be given for the best Report on the Farming
of Somersetshire.
1. The soils of the county.
2. The peculiarities, advantageous or otherwise, in its farm
management.
3. The general drainage of the Bridgewater and other levels, and
the improvement yet required’in the outfalls.
4. The degree to which the cultivation is mjured by small inclo-
Xl Prizes for Essays and Reports.
sures and hedge-row timber, and the extent to which they
ought to be removed, unless in high situations, where they
may be required for shelter.
5. The causes and remedies for the foulness of arable land, whether
with couch or rootweeds.
6. The defective cultivation of the turnip crops, and the best
mode of management, keeping in view the peculiar moisture
of the climate.
7. The advisability or otherwise of abandoning the alternate system
of arable and grass cultivation in the western parts of the
county.
8. The quality of the soil on the moor-lands, and the advisability
of bringing them into cultivation, with any instances of
success in such improvements.
9. The formation of catch-meadows in valleys or on mountain
sides, according to the cheapest methods, with an account of
the improved value thus given to the land so employed.
10. The state of the labourers as to employment, with the means
of increasing it, and as to their habitations.
III. Asortion 1n Cows.
Tuirty SovEREIGNS will be given for the best Report on Prevention
of Abortion in Cows.
1. The extent of its prevalence.
2. The causes thereof.
3. The means of prevention.
IV. DisrasEs or CATTLE AND SHEEP OCCASIONED BY Mis-
MANAGEMENT.
THIRTY SOVEREIGNS will be given for the best Essay on the Diseases
of Cattle and Sheep occasioned by Mismanagement.
1. Insufficient food in different stages of growth.
Insufficient shelter and exposure to rain and cold.
Insufficient drainage of soil.
Carelessness of shepherds and feeders.
. Inattention to contagiousness of disorders.
- Inattention to first symptoms of disorders.
ork wD
Prizes for Essays and Reports. XL
V. MANAGEMENT oF Oats.
Twenty Soverricns will be given for the best Essay on the
Management of Oats.
1. Soil best adapted to oats.
2. Whether the effect of the cooler climate of Scotland in pro-
ducing superior oats can be compensated in the southern
parts of the island by any improvement of cultivation.
3. Different varieties as suited to different situations and different
purposes.
4. General management.
VI. ReEaRING AND MANAGEMENT oF PovuLtRy.
Twenty SoverEiens will be given for the best Essay on the Rearing
and Management of Poultry.
1. Construction of poultry-house.
2. Rearing young broods of fowls, ducks, geese, turkeys, and
Guinea-fowls.
. Limit, if any, of numbers, in proportion to size of farm.
. Different kinds of food.
. Different varieties or breeds.
Best mode of fattening according to the received practice of
districts which afford the chief supply of each kind of poultry
to the London market.
Oo wb w
VII. Cummate or Britisu IsLANDs IN ITS EFFECT ON CULTIVATION.
_ Firry Sovererens will be given for the best Essay on the Climate of
the British Islands in its effect on Cultivation.
1. Increase of winter cold in passing from south to north, and from
west to east.
2. Different distribution of heat in the various seasons of the year,
3. Different amount of imsensible vapour in the atmosphere on the
western and eastern sides of England and Ireland.
4, Different amount of sensible moisture or fogs.
. Different degree of general cloudiness of the sky.
6. Different annual quantity of rain, and difference in the distri-
bution of rain, with the signs of its approach.
Or
X1V Prizes for Essays and Reports.
7. Effect of elevation on temperature and lateness of harvest, with
the highest level for the growth of corn in different latitudes.
8. Effect of climate on the growth of grass, the different kinds of
corn and roots, fruit and timber trees.
9. The situations in Great Britain and Ireland proved by experi-
ence to be best suited for each kind of agricultural produce
and stock.
10. How far it is desirable to adopt the regular four-course arable
system on the western sides of England and Ireland, the same
being naturally fitted for the spontaneous growth of grass.
N.B. It is not expected that competitors should necessarily
answer the whole of these questions, which in the
present state of agricultural meteorology, would be
unreasonable to require.
VIII. Destruction or WiREWoRM.
Firry Sovererens will be given for the best Essay on the Destruc-
tion of the Wireworm, provided the proposed remedy be founded on
practical grounds.
These Essays must be sent to the Secretary, at 12, Hanover Square, London,
on or before March 1st, 1850.
*..* Contributors of Papers are requested to retain Copies of their Communications,
as the Society cannot be responsible for their return.
RULES OF COMPETITION FOR PRIZE ESSAYS.
1. All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on experi-
ence or observation, and not on simple reference to books or other sources.
2. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a stated
scale, shall accompany writings requiring them.
3. All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a sealed
cover, on which only their motto, and the subject of their Essay, and the
number of that subject in the Prize List of the Society, shall be written.*
4. The President or Chairman of the Council for the time being shall
open the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the Prize
has been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.
5. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered to
open the motto-paper of such Essays, not obtaining the Prize, as he may
* Competitors are requested to write their motto on the Paper on which their names
are written, as well as on the envelope.
Prizes for Essays and Reports. XV
think likely to be useful for the Society’s objects, with a view of consulting
the writer confidentially as to his willingness to place such paper at the
disposal of the Journal Committee.
6. The copyright of all Essays gaining prizes shall belong to the Society,
who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or any part of
such Essays; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the
writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss.
7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one
of the Essays deserving of it.
8. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed.
9. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which calcula-
tions are to be made.
10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.
11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful
candidate.
12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the
Society.
Greneral ¥leetinas of 1849-50.
The GeneRaL DecemBer MEETING, in London, on Saturday,
- December 15, 1849.
The Generar May Meeting, in London, on Wednesday, May
22, 1850.
The Annuat Country MEETING, at Exeter, in 1850.
Annual Subseriptions.
SUBSCRIPTIONS may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct
and satisfactory manner, either at the Office of the Society, No.
12, Hanover-Square, London, between the hours of ten and four,
or by means of Post-Office orders, to be obtained on application
at any of the principal Post-Offices throughout the kingdom, and
made payable to him at the General Post-Office, London ; but
any cheque on a London banker, or other house of business in
London, will be equally available, if made payable on demand.
The subscriptions are due in advance for each year on the Ist of
January, and are in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June ensuing.
No Member is entitled to the Journal, or to any other privileges
of the Society, whose subscription is in arrear.
ELECTION, &., OF MEMBERS.
Nomination.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be
proposed by a Member; the proposer to specify in writing the name, rank,
usual place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a
Council, or by letter to the Secretary. Every such proposal shall be read
at the Council at which such proposal is made; or, in the case of the
Candidate being proposed by a letter to the Secretary, at the first meeting
of the Council next after such letter shall have been received.
Election.—At the next Meeting of the Council the election shall take
place, when the decision of the Council shall be taken by a show of
hands; the majority of the Members present to elect or reject. The
Secretary shall inform Members of their election by a letter, in such form
as the Council may from time to time direct.
Payments.—1. Annual.—The subscription of a Governor is 5/. and that
of a Member 1/., due in advance on the Ist of January of each year, and
becoming in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June. Members elected in
November or December may date the commencement of their liabilities
and privileges with the Society from the Ist of January in the ensuing year.
2. For Life.-—Governors may compound for subscription during future life
by paying at once the sum of 50/., and Members by paying 10/7. No Gover-
nor or Member in arrear of subscription can be allowed to enter into
composition for life until such arrears have been paid.
Privileges.—The Journals of the Society for the year during which their
subscription has been paid, transmitted by post, free of charge, to their
address; analyses performed at a reduced charge by the consulting chemist ;
the “liberty of attending all weekly Meetings of the Council in London,
and of consulting the books in the library ; free entry of stock, and priority
of claim for dinner and lecture tickets at the Country Meetings of the
Society. No Member in arrear of his subscription is entitled to any of the
privileges of the Society.
Inabilities: —All Members belong to the Society, and are bound to pay
their annual subscriptions, until they shall withdraw from it by a notice in
writing to the Secretary.
Resignation.—Members can only withdraw their names legally from the
Society by a written notice to the Secretary, and the payment of all sub-
scriptions due from them at the date of such notice.
Eixpulsion.—Members may be dismissed from the Society in the fol-
Jowing manner :—Any ten Members of the Society may send, in writing,
signed by their names, to the Council, a request that any Member of the
Society shall be dismissed from the Society. Such request shall be placed
in a conspicuous part of the Council-room, and a copy thereof transmitted
by the post to the Member proposed to be so dismissed, signed by the
Secretary. At the monthly Meeting of the Council which shall take
place next after one month shall have elapsed after such request shall
have been placed in the Council-room, the Council shall take the matter
thereof into their consideration; but the Council shall not so take it into
consideration unless twelve Members of the Council at the least shall be
present. If this number is not present, the consideration of the request
shall be adjourned to the next monthly Meeting of the Council, and so on
till a monthly Meeting shall take place at which twelve Members are
present. If the Council so constituted shall unanimously agree to the
dismissal of such Member, he shall be no longera Member of the Society ;
but if they do not unanimously agree to’his dismissal, their decision shall
be considered to have been made in his favour : Provided always, that his
dismissal shall not relieve him from the payment of any debt previously
due by him to the Society; and that if a Life-Governor or Life-Member,
he shall not have any claim to any portion of the commutation he has paid.
C isuriy <))
Grenerval Meetings in 1850.
The Generat May Meertine, in London, on Wednesday,
May 22, 1850.
The Annuat Country Merrine, at Exeter; principal day of
the show, Thursday, July 18, 1850.
The GENERAL DecemBer Meerrina, in London, on the Satur-
day of the Smithfield Club show-week,
Annual Subscriptions.
SUBSCRIPTIONS nay be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct
and satisfactory manner, either at the Office of the Society, No.
12, Hanover-Square, London, between the hours of ten and four,
or by means of Post-Office orders, to be obtained on application
at any of the principal Post-Offices throughout the kingdom, and
made payable to lim at the General Post-Office, London ; but
any cheque on a Bank, or other house of business in London,
will be equally available, if made payable on demand. ‘The
subscriptions are due in advance for each year on the Ist of
January, and are in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June ensuing.
No Member is entitled to the Journal, or to any other privilege
of the Society, whose subscription is in arrear.
srise Wists.
The followmg Prize Lists of the Society, for the year 1850,
may be had on application to the Secretary, No. 12, Hanover
Square, London.
1. Prize List for Essays and Reports.
2. Prize List for Agricultural Implements, &c. at the
Exeter Meeting.
3. Prize List for Live Stock at the Exeter Meeting.
The competition for Essays and Reports closes on March 1,
1850. All entries for Implements are to be made by the First
of May, and all entries for Live Stock by the First of June.
The Prizes of the Society are open to general competition.
NOTICE.
In consequence of the appearance of a new List of Members, and of an unusual
press of matter, the ordinary Appendix, and several contributions to the
Journal, are unavoidably postponed.
VOL. X. C
(sayy)
Consulting: Chemist.
Tue Council have fixed the following rates of Charge for
Analyses to be made by the Consulting-Chemist for Members of
the Society; who, to avoid all unnecessary correspondence, are
particularly requested, in applying to him for analyses, to mention
the kind of analysis they require, and to quote its number as
specified in the subjoined schedule. The charge for analysis,
together with the carriage of specimens, must be paid to him by
the members at the time of application.
No. 1. An opinion as to the genuineness of a manure in the market,
7s. 6d. By this is meant such an opinion as could be formed by a sci-
entific person, by inspection, with a few simple confirmatory experi-
ments.—[It will protect from fraud, but is not calculated to assist in
the choice of the best specimens, where all are genuine: it will inform
the applicant whether a specimen of guano or oil-cake, for instance,
be adulterated or not; but will not touch the question of its relative
value as a pure specimen. Such an opinion will only apply to ordi-
nary market articles, as guano, oil-cake, superphosphate of lime, sul-
phate of ammonia, gypsum, common salt, &c.] No. 2. Guano. A de-
termination of nitrogen (ammonia) and of the earthy phosphates, &c.,
1Z. No.3. Limestone. The proportion of lime, 7s. 6d.; the propor-
tion of magnesia, 10s.; the proportion of lime and magnesia, 15s.
This analysis is sufficient for many purposes; but in most limestones
the phosphate and sulphate of lime, and magnesia, are present,
though in small proportions ; and inasmuch as it is impossible to say
how much of the effect may be due to other minute ingredients, it is
recommended that their quantity should always be determined. No.
4. Limestone, or marls, including carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate
of lime, and magnesia, with sand and clay, 12. No.5. Partial ana-
lysis of a soil, including sand, clay, organic matter, and carbonate of
lime, 1/. No. 6. Complete analysis of a soil, 37. No.7. Letter ask-
ing advice, one topic, 7s. 6d. On more than one topic, 10s. No.8.
Oil-cake, or dung, or any animal products, nitrogen, and phosphoric
acid, 17. Oil-cake, including nitrogen, oil, and phosphoric acid,
17. 10s. No.9. A determination of the quantity of carbonate and
sulphate of lime in any specimen of water, 1/.
Theaddress of Professor Way, the Consulting-Chemist to the
Society, is No. 23, Holles Street, Cavendish Square, London.
*.* Assistants.—As competent assistants will from time to time be re-
quired to carry on the increased operations in Professor Wav’s
laboratory, he has made arrangements to receive a few pupils who
may wish to qualify themselves in the practice of Agricultural
Analyses.
Ropal Agricultural Society of Englany.
LIST OF GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS,
AU TUMN.—1849.
gS~ The Council particularly request the favour of communications being made to the
Secretary of any errors observed in this List.
1
ee
+i Gain Sale
>
‘erry
Ropal Aqricultural Soctety of Englanv.
1849—1850.
PRESIDENT.
THE MARQUIS OF DOWNSHIRE.
TRUSTEES.
Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M. | Portman, Lord
Braybrooke, Lord Pusey, Philip, M.P.
Clive, Hon. Robert Henry, M.P. Richmond, Duke of
Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir Jas., Bart., M.P. Rutland, Duke of
Lawley, Sir Francis, Bart. Spencer, Earl
Neeld, Joseph, M.P. Sutherland, Duke of
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
Barker, Thomas Raymoné Fitzwilliam, Earl
Chichester, Earl of s Gooch, Sir Thomas Sherlock, Bart.
Downshire, Marquis of Hardwicke, Earl of
Ducie, Earl of Hill, Viscount
Egmont, Earl of : Wellington, Duke of
Exeter, Marquis» Yarborough, Earl of
MEMBERS OF COUNCIL:
Austen, Colonel Lawes, John Bennet
Barnett, Charles s Leicester, Earl of
Bennett, Samuel Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P.
Blanshard, Henry Miles, William, M.P.
Bramston, Thomas William, M.P. Milward, Richard
Brandreth, Humphrey Pelham, Hon. Captain Dudley, R.N.
Burke, J. French Price, Sir Robert, Bart., M.P.
Camoys, Lord Ridley, Sir Matthew White, Bart.
Challoner, Colonel Sewell, Professor
Childers, John Walbanke, M.P. Shaw, William
Denison, Jolin Evelyn, M.P. Shaw, William, junior
Druce, Samuel Shelley, John Villiers
Foley, John H. H., M.P. Simpson, William
Garrett, Richard 5 Slaney, Robert Aglionby, M.P.
Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth Smith, Robert
Grantham, Stephen Southampton, Lord
Hamona, Anthony Stansfield, W.R., Crompton, M.P.
Hatherton, Lord Stokes, Charles
Hillyard, C. Stradbroke, Earl of
Hobbs, William Fisher Thompson, Henry Stephen
Hudson, George, M.P. Turner, Charles Hampden
Hudson, John Turner, George
Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P. Webb, Jonas
Jonas, Samuel Wilson, Henry
Kinder, John Wilson, Hon. H. W.
SECRETARY.
JAMES HUDSON, 12, Hanover Square, London.
Consulting-Chemist.—John Tiiomas Way, 23, Holles Seedsmen.—Thomas Gibbs and Co., Corner of Half-
Street, Cavendish Square moon Street, Piccadilly
Consulting-Engineer.—James Easton, or C. E. Amos, Publisher.—John Murray, 50, Albemarle Street
The Grove, Southwark Bankers.—H., A. M., C., A. R., G., and H. Drum-
mond, Charing-Cross
re
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Austria, His Imperial Highness The Archduke John of
Buckland, The Very Rev. William, D.D., Dean of Westminster
Carr, Captain J, Stanley
Daubeny, Charles, M.D., Professor of Rural Economy, University of Oxford
De la Beche, Sir Henry Thomas, Director of the Ordnance Geological Survey
Everett, the Hon. Edward, President of Cambridge University, U.S.
Graham, Thomas, Professor of Chemistry, University College, London
Henslow, The Rev. J. S., Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge
Hofmann, Dr., Professor of Chemistry, Royal College of Chemistry, London
Johnston, James F, W., Reader in Chemistry, University of Durham
Liebig, Baron, University of Giessen
Murchison, Sir Roderick I., K.S.P., Belgrave Square, London
Parkes, Josiah, C.E., 11, Great College Street, Westminster
Playfair, Dr. Lyon, Chemist to the Ordnance
Simonds, James Beart, Lecturer on Cattle Pathology, R. Veterinary College, London
Solly, Edward, Professor of Chemistry, Horticultural Society, and Addiscombe College
Sprengel, Dr. Charles, Secretary to the Pomeranian Agricultural Society
Stevenson, The Hon. Andrew, Washington
Van de Weyer, M. Sylvian, Belgian Minister
Way, John Thomas, Consulting-Chemist to the Society.
DY)
LIST OF GOVERNORS.
+ Life Goyernor’s mark.
+Acland, Sir T. Dyke, M.P....Killerton Park, Col-
lumpton, Devonshire
+Albert, H. R. H. the Prince... Windsor Castle
+Alcock, Thos., M.P....Kingswood Warren, Epsom,
Surrey
7yAldam, William, Jr., M.P....Frickley Hall, Don-
caster
Alford, Viscount. ..Belton House, Grantham
Amherst, Earl... Knole, Seven Oaks, Kent
yAngerstein, John... Woodlands, Blackheath, Kent
Antrobus, Sir Edmund, Bart.,,. Amesbury Abbey,
Salisbury, Wiltshire
Arkwright, C....Burton-upon Trent, Staffordshire
Arkwright, John...Hampton Court, Leominster,
Herefordshire
Arkwright, R....Sutton Hall, Chesterfield, Derbysh.
+Ashburton, Lord...Bath House, Piccadilly
Austen, Col. Thomas ... Kippington, Seven Oaks,
Kent
+Aylesford, Earl of... Pakington Hall, Coventry,
Warwickshire
+Bailward, J....Horsington, Wincanton, Somerset
+Baker, R. W....Cottesmore, Stamford, Lincolnsh.
+Barclay, Charles... Bury Hill, Dorking, Surrey
+Barclay, Dayid ... Eastwick Park, Leatherhead,
Surrey
+Barker, John Raymond... Fairford Park, Fairford,
Gloucestershire
Barker, Thomas Raymond...Hambleden, Henley-
on-Thames, Oxon
Barrow, Wm. Hodgson...Southwell, Notts
+Beach, Wm....Oakley Hall, Basingstoke, Hants
Beauchamp, Earl... Madresfield, near Worcester
+Beaufort, Duke of...Badminton, Chippenham,
Wiltshire
Beaumont, Lord. ..Carleton Hall, Selby, Yorks.
Bedford, Duke of... Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire
Benett, John, M.P....Pyt House, Hindon, Wilts
Benyon, Richard de Beauvoir...Englefield House,
Reading, Berkshire
‘Blake, William,.Danesbury, Welwyn, Herts
+Blanshard, Henry...Kirby-in-le-‘Soken, Colches-
ter, Essex A
Blount, William. ..Orchhill, Gerrard’s Cross, Bucks
Bonsor, Jos....Polesden, Great Bookham, Surrey
Bosanquet, G. J. ... Broxbournebury, Hoddesdon,
Herts me
Boucher, J. G....Shidfield, near Wickham, Hants
+Bowes, John ...Streatlam Castle, Staindrop, Dur-
ham
Bramston, T. W., M.P...Skreens, Chelmsford, Essex
Brandreth, Humphrey...Houghton House, Dunsta~
ble, Bedfordshire
Braybrooke, Lord.,,Audley Ind, Saffron Walden,
Essex
Bridport, Lord...Cricket Lodge, Chard, Somerset
Bridges, Sir Brook Wm., Bart. ... Godnestone Park,
Wingham, Kent
Briscoe, Jolin Ivatt... Fox Hills, Chertsey, Surrey
Brown, James.,.Rossington, Bawtry
Buccleuch, Duke of... Whitehall
+Buller, Edward, M.P....Dilhorne Castle, Cheadle,
Staffordshire
Buller, Capt. T. Wentworth, R.N....15, Sussex Gar-
dens, Hyde Park
+Bunbury, Sir Henry E., Bart....Barton Hall, Bury
St. Edmunds, Suffolk
Burlington, Earl of...Holker Hall, Milnthorpe,
Westmoreland
Buxton, Sir Robert Jacob...Shadwell Pk. Thetford
Cabbell, Benjamin Bond, M.P....2, Brick Court,
Temple
Calthorpe, Lord...33, Grosvenor Square
7Cambridge, H. R. H. the Duke of... Kew Palace,
Surrey
Camoys, Lord...Stonor Park, Henley-on-Thames,
Oxon
Campbell, Alex. Francis...Great Plumstead, near
Norwich, Norfolk
Campden, Viscount,..Exton Park, Stamford, Lin-
colnshire
Cator, Rey. Thos....Skelbrook Park, Pontefract
+Cavendish, Hon. Chas. Compton, M.P....Lati-
mers, Chesham, Buckinghamshire
Cayley, Sir George, Bart....High Hall, Brompton,
Pickering, Yorkshire
Challoner, Col. C. Bisse...Portnall Park, Virginia
Water, Chertsey, Surrey
Chichester, Earl of.. .SStanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex
+Childers, John Walbanke, M.P....100, Eaton Sq.
+Christopher, Robt. Adam, M.P....Bloxholm Hall,
Sleaford, Lincolnshire
Clifford, Hon. Chas. Thos....Imnham Hall, Colsters-
worth, Lincolnshire
Clifton, Thos.... Lytham Hall, Preston, Lancashire
+Clive, Hon. Robert Henry, M.P....Oakley Park,
Ludlow, Salop
Colvile, Chas. R., M.P....Lullington Hall, Burton-
on-Trent, Staffordshire
+Copeland, Alderman, M.P.,..The Poplars, Leyton,
Essex
Cotes, John,,. Woodcote, Shiffnal, Salop
6 Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Craven, Earl...Coombe Abbey, Coventry
Crawley, Samuel,..Stockwood House, Luton, Beds.
Creyke, Ralph... Rawcliffe Hall, Selby, Yorkshire
Crompton, John Bell...Duffield Hall, Derby
Curteis, Major E. B., M.P....Leesam House, Rye
Dacre, Lord... The Hoo, Welwyn, Herts
De la Warr, Earl... Buckhurst Park, East Grinstead,
Sussex
Denison, John Evelyn, M.P....Ossington, Newark,
Nottinghamshire
Dering, Sir Edw. Cholmeley, Bart.,..Surrenden-
Dering, Charing, Kent
Devonshire, Duke of,..Chatsworth, Derbyshire
Dickinson, Francis Henry, M.P.... King’s Weston,
Somerton, Somersetshire
Douglas, Sir Charles, M.P....27, Wilton Crescent
Downshire, Marquis of...East Hampstead Park,
Bracknell, Berkshire
Drummond, Chas.,..Newsells, Royston, Herts
Drummond, Henry, M.P....Albury Park, Guildford
+Ducie, Earl of,..Tortworth, Wootton-under- Edge
Duffield, Thos., M.P....Marcham Park, Abingdon,
Berkshire
+ Dysart, Earl of...Buckminster Hall, Colstersworth,
Lincolnshire
+Egerton, Wilbraham...Tatton Park, Knutsford,
Cheshire
Egmont, Earl of,..Cowdry Lodge, Petworth
Essex, Earl of.,.Cassiobury Park, Watford, Hert-
fordshire
Esteourt, T.G. Bucknall.,.Esteourt, Tetbury, Glouc.
+Etwall, Ralph...The Monnt, Nursling, Southamp-
ton
Euston, Earl of, M.P....47, Clarges Street
Evans, William, M.P....Allestree Hall, Derby
+Exeter, Marquis of...Burghley House, Stamford,
Lincolnshire
Eyre, Charles...Welford, Newbury, Berkshire
Farquharson, J. J.... Langton, Blandford, Dorset
+ Fellowes, E., M.P....Ramsey Abbey, Huntingdon
Feversham, Lord...Helmsley, York
Feilding, Viscount...Downing Holywell, Flintshire
+Fitzwilliam, Earl,..Milten, Peterborough, North-
amptonshire
Foley, J. H. H., M.P....Prestwood, Stourbridge,
Worcestershire
+Fortescue, Earl of...Castle Hill, Southmolton,
Devon
Freshfield, J. W....Moor Place, Dorking, Surrey
+Fuller, Francis...29, Abingdon St., Westminster
Gibbs, B. T. B.... Brompton Lodge, Old Brompton
Gillies, Robert Maule...17, Mark Lane
Goldsmid, Baron...St."John’s Lodge, Regent’s Park
Gooch, Sir Thomas S., Bart....Benacre Hall, Wren-
tham, Suffolk
Gore, Wm. Ormesby, M.P....Porkington Hall, Os.
westry, Salop
Grafton, Duke of...47, Clarges Street
7Graham, Right Hon. Sir J., Bart., M.P... Netherby-
by-Carlisle, Cumberland
Grey, Earl... Howick House, Alnwick
Guest, Sir J. J., Bart., M.P....Dowlais House, Mer-
thyr Tydvil, Glamorganshire
Guise, Sir John W., Bart.... Rendeomb Park, Ciren-
cester, Gloucestershire
Hale, Robert Blagden, M.P....Alderley Park, near
Wootton, Gloucestershire
Hale, Wm....Kingswalden Park, Welwyn, Herts
Hall, Sir Benjamin, Bart., M.D., M.P.,..Llanover
Court, Newport, Monmouthshire
Hamond, Anth....Westacre Hall, Rongham, Norf.
Handley, W. F....Newark-upon-Trent, Notts
+Harcourt, George Simon,...Ankerwycke House,
Staines
Hardwicke, Earl of... Wimpole, Arrington, Cambs.
Hartley, W. H. H....Lye Grove, Cross Hands, Sod-
bury, Gloucestershire
+Hastings, Lord.,...Melton Park, East Dereham,
Norfolk
Hatherton, Lord...Teddesley Hall, Penkridge, Staf-
fordshire
Hayter, Right Hon. W. Goodenough, M.P....Stow-
berry Park, Wells, Somersetshire
Heathcoat, John, M.P....Bolham, Tiverton, Devon.
Heathcote, Gilbert J., M.P....Stocken Hall, Stam-
ford, Lincolnshire
+Heneage, G. F....Hainton Hall, Wragby, Linc.
+Henniker, Lord...Brome Hall, near Eye, Suffolk
+Herbert, Right Hon. Sidney, M.P..,. Wilton House
Salisbury, Wiltshire
+Heywood, Thos. P..,.Claremont, near Manchester
+Hill, Viscount... Hawkston Park, Shrewsbury,
Salop
Hippisley, Henry...Lambourne Place, Hungerford
+Hobbs, Wm. Fisher...Boxted Lodge, Colchester
Hodges, T. L., M.P....Hempsted Park, Cranbrook,
Kent
+Hoghton, Henry... Hafod, Aberystwith
+Holford, R. Steiner... Weston Birt House, Tetbury,
Gloucestershire
Holbech, Wm.... Farnborough, Banbury, Oxfordsh,
Holland, E....Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcest.
Hope, Hen. T....The Deepdene, Dorking, Surrey
Hoskyns, Chandos Wren. . Wroxhall Abbey, Warwick
Hulse, Sir Charles, Bart.....Breamore House, Ford-
ingbridge, Hampshire
+Hulse, Lieut.-Col....Breamore House, Fording-
bridge, Hampshire
Hyett, W. H.... Painswick House, Painswick,
Gloucestershire
+Ilchester, Earl of....Melbury House, Sherborne,
Dorsetshire
Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P....Hackness
Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire
Keene, Rev. Charles Edmund Ruck... .Swincombe
House, Nettlebed, Henley, Oxfordshire
Kerrizon, Lieut.-Gen. Sir E., Bart., M.P....Oakley
Park, Eye, Suffolk
Kenyon, Lord,...Gredington Hall, Whitchurch,
Salop
+Knight, Frederick Winn, M.P....Simon’s Bath,
Exmoor, Devonshire
List of Governors. 7
Labouchere, Rt. Hon. H., M.P....Stowey, Somerset
Langston, J. Haughton, M.P.....Sarsden House,
Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire
Lansdowne, Marquis of,...Bowood Park, Calne,
Wiltshire
+ Lawley, Sir Francis, Bart.... Middleton Hall, Faze-
ley, Staffordshire
+Le Couteur, Colonel, Viscount of Jersey... Belle
Vue, Jersey
Lefevre, Right Hon. C. Shaw, M.P....Hecktield
Place, Hartford Bridge, Hampshire
Leicester, the Earl of... Holkham Hall, Norfolk
Leigh, Lord.....Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,
Warwickshire
Lemon, Sir C., Bart., M.P.....Carclew, Penryn,
Cornwall
Lisburne, Earl of. ..Crosswood, Aberystwith, Cardi-
ganshire, S.W.
Liverpool, Earl of....Pitchford Hall, Shrewsbury,
Salop
+Long, W., M.P...Rood Ashton, Trowbridge, Wilts
+Lonsdale, Earl of,.. Lowther Castle, Penrith
Lovelace, Earl of... East Horsley, Ripley, Surrey
MacDouall, Col. James,..2nd Life Guards
+Malcolm, Neill,.,Kilmatin, Lochgilphead, Argyle-
shire, N.B.
Maitland, E. F....Henley-on-Thames, Oxon
+Marshall, Wm. M.P....Pattendale Hall, Penrith
}+Miles, W., M.P.... Leigh Court, Bristol, Somerset
Milward, R....'Vhurgarton Priory, Southwell
+ Morrison, Jas... Fonthill Abbey, Hindon, Wiltshire
Moseley, John.,.Glemham House, Saxmundham,
Suffolk
Mostyn, Lord...Pengwern, St. Asaph, Flints. N.W.
Mostyn, Hon. Ed. M. Lloyd, M.P....Mostyn Hall,
Holywell, Flintshire, N.W.
Murray, Chas. R. Scott, M.P....Danesfield, Marlow,
Buckinghamshire
Naper, Jas. Lennox W..., Lough Crew, Old Castle,
Ireland
Neeld, Jos., M.P....Grittleton House, Chippenham,
Wiltshire
Newry and Morne, Viscount.,..Marine Parade,
Brighton
Northampton, Marquess of.,.Castle Ashby, North-
amptonshire
tNott; John...Bydown House, Barnstaple, Devon
Nugent, Hon. M. W. Bellew...
Oldham, F. Oldham,..Belle-amour Hall, Rugeley,
Statfordshire
Palmer,
Berks
Patten, John Wilson, M.P....Bank Hall, Warring-
ton, Lancashire
}Peel, Right Hon. Sir Robert, Bart., M.P... Drayton
Manor House, Fazeley, Staffordshire
Pelham, Hon. Captain Dudley, R.N., M.P....St.
Lawrence, Isle of Wight
}Pendarves, E. W. W., M.P.,,.Pendarves House,
Truro, Cornwall
Robt., M.P....Holme Park, Reading,
Pennant, Hon. Col. Ed. Gordon Douvlas..,Penrhyn
Castle, Bangor, N.W.
f+ Percival, John... Woodlands, Ryde, Isle of Wight,
Hants
+Perkins, H.,. Hanworth Park, Hounslow, Midlsex.
Petre, Hen....Dunkenhalgh, Blackburne, Lanca-
shire
Plowden, W...Plowden Hall, Bishop's Castle, Salop
Pole, E. S. Chandos,,.Radbourne Hall, near Derby
+Popham, F. L...Littlecott, Hungerford, Berks'
+Portman, Lord....Bryanston House, Blandford,
Dorsetshire
Powlett, Lord William...Downham Hall, Brandon,
Norfolk
Price, Sir R., Bt., M.P...Foxley Hall, near Hereford
Pryse, Pryse... Lodge Park, Aberystwith, S.W.
+Pusey, Philip, M.P..., Pusey, Faringdon, Berkshire
Pym, F.,.The Hasells, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire
Quantock, John,..Norton House, Yeovil
f¢Radnor, Earl of,...Coleshill House, Faringdon,
Berkshire '
Rayleigh, Lord... Terling Place, Witham, Essex
+Richmond, Duke of...Goodwood Park, Chichester,
Sussex
Ridley, Sir Matt. White, Bart...Blagdon, Morpeth,
Northumberland
Ripon, Earl of...Nocton Hall, Lincoln
Rogerson, Joseph...24, Norfolk Street, Strand
Rosebery, Earl of,,.Warren Wood, Hatfield, Hert-
fordshire
+Rutland, Duke of....Belvoir Castle, Grantham,
Lincolnshire
Saint Germans, Earl... Port Eliot, Devonport
St. Quintin, Wm....Seampstone Hall, Scarborough,
Yorkshire
+Sanford, Edward A...Nynehead Court, Wellington,
Somersetshire
Scarborough, Earl of...Sandbeck Castle, Bawtry
+Scholey, W.S....Thurlow Terrace, Larkhall Lane,
Clapham
Fcott, Jas. Winter...Rotherfield Park, East ‘Tisted,
near Alton, Hampshire
+Shadwell, Lucas... Fairlight, Hastings
Shaw, William...7, King’s Road, Bedford Row
tSlaney, R. A., M.P...Walford Manor, Shrewsbury,
Salop
+Smith, J. A., M.P...Dale Park, Arundel, Sussex
+Sondes, Lord...Elmham Hall, Elmham, Norfolk
Somers, Earl... Eastnor Castle, Tewkesbury, Glost.
Sotheron, Thomas H. S. B. E., M.P... Bowden Park,
Chippenham, Wiltshire
Spencer, Earl...Althorp, Northampton
Stanhope, J. S...Cannon Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire
+Stanley, Lord... Knowsley Hall, Prescot, Lance.
Stansfield, Wm. R. C., M.P....Esholt Hall, Leeds,
Yorkshire
+Stradbroke, Earl of... Henham Park, Wangfvrd,
Suffolk
+Strutt, Edward, M.P...St. Helen’s, near Derby
+Sutherland, Duke of...Trentham Park, Newcastle-
under- Lyme, Staffordshire
& Royal Agricultural Society of England.
4 Sutton, Sir R., Bart...
Sutton, Hon. John Manners, M.P.... Kelham,
Newark, Notts
+Tanqueray, John... Hendon, Middlesex
+Thorold, Sir John Charles, Bart.....Syston Park,
Grantham, Lincolnshire
+Torrington, Lord Visct.... Yokes Court, Mereworth,
Kent
+Townley, R. Greaves, M.P,..Fulborne House, near
Cambridge
Tremayne, J. H,..Heligan, St. Austell, Cornwall
Tunno, E. Rose... Warnford Park, Bishop’s Waltham
+Turner, Charles H...Rook’s Nest, Godstone, Surrey
Turner, Thomas...Croydon
Villebois, Fred... Benham Place, Newbury, Berks
+Wakeman, Sir O. P., Bt...Perdiswell Park, Wor-
cester
Walsh, Sir John, Bart., M.P... Warfield Park, Brack-
nell, Berkshire
Walsingham, Lord...Merton Hall, Thetford, Norf.
Waterton, Capt. Geo...Grove House, Hunslet, Leeds
Watson, Hon. R...Rockingham Castle, Northamp-
tom
+Wellington, Duke of,..Strathfieldsaye, Hampshire
+ Wenlock, Lord...Escrick Hall, Selby, Yorkshire
West, F. R..Arnwood House, Lymington; Ruthin
Castle, Denbighshire
+Whitbread, W. H...South-hill House, near Bedford
Wilbraham, G..... Delamere House, Northwich,
Cheshire ‘
+ Williams, Sir Erasmus, Bart...Marlborough, Wilts
Wilmot, E. Woollett... Hulme, Walfield, Congleton
+Wilson, Henry.... Stowlangtoft Hall, Ixworth,
Suffolk
Wilshere, William, M.P...The Frythe, Welwyn
Wingate, W. B....Hareby House, Spilsby, Lincoln-
shire
Wood, Edward Robert...Stout Hall, Swansea
Wood, Col. Thos., M.P... Littleton House, Chertsey,
Surrey
Wroughton, B... Woolley Park, Wantage, Berkshire
Wyndham, Col. George... Petworth House, Sussex
Wynn, Sir W. W., Bart... Wynnstay, Rhuabon, Den-
bighshire
7Yarborough, Earl of.....Manby Hall, Glanford
Bridge, Lincolnshire
Zetland, Earl of,..Aske Hall, Richmond, Yorkshire
LIST OF MEMBERS.
+ Life Member’s mark.
+Abbey, G....Silsworth Lodge, Daventry, North-
ampton
Abbey, John...The Grange, Wellingborough
Abbey, Thos...Dunnington, York
Abbot, C. H.. .. Bower, Long Ashton, Bristol
Abbott, Charles T....36, Gower Street
+Abbott, Step., jun....Castleacre, Swaffham, Norf.
Abel, John...Rising SunInn, Chapel Field, Norwich
Abel, Philip... Northampton
Abinger, Lord...Abinyer Hall, Dorking, Surrey
Ablett, J....Llanbedr Hall, Ruthin, N.W.
Abraham, Wm....Barnetby, Brigg, Lincolnshire
+Ackers, J., M.P....Prinknash Park, Painswick
Ackland, R.I....Boulston, Haverfordwest
Acland, Thos, Dyke, M.P....Killerton, Exeter
+Adair, Alexander,..Heatherton Park, Wellington,
Somersetshire
Adair, Sir R. S., Bart....20 (a), St. James’s Square
Adam, Alexander... Boulogne
+Adams, Edward... Bassford Hall, Newcastle, Staff.
Adams, Francis H....Alton Court, Ross, Herefords.
Adams, G. T.... Hawkhurst, Kent -
Adams, Henry...High Street, Windsor, Berkshire
Adams, Rev. Thos. B....Aldridge Lodge, Walsall,
Staffordshire
Adcock, E....Farmdish, Wellingborough, Northam.
Adcock.W....Farmdish, Wellingborough, Northam.
Addams, Charles ...Moor House, Kilton Holford,
Bridgewater, Somersetshire
+Adderley, C. B...-Hams Hall, Coleshiii, Warwicks.
Ade, Charles... Westdean, Lewes
Agar, Hon. G. C.... Boyton House, Heytesbury,
Wilts
Aglionby, H. A., M.P.... Nunnery, Cumberland
Ainslie, William...Wood Hill, Ripley, Surrey
Aitchison, Capt. R., R.N....».Mapperton, Beamin-
ster, Dorset
Aitchison, Wm ...Hazelridge, Belford, Northum.
Aitken, Andrew. ,..Deeping Fen, Spalding, Linc.
Akroyd, Edward...Denton Park, Otley, Yorkshire
+Albright, Arthur... Edgbaston, Birmingham
Albright, Nicholas. ..Charlbury, near Enstone, Oxon
Alderman, Robert, jun....Farmdish, Wellingboro. -
Aldous, Robert...Burlingham, Norwich
Aldridge, James... Throop Farm, near Christchurch
Hants
+Aldworth, W., jun... Frilford, Abingdon, Berks
Alexander, C..,.Sudbury, Suffolk —
Alexander, James. ..Doncaster, Yorkshire
Alexander, Rev, John... Norwich
Alexander, Wm. Maxwell... Ballochmyle, Mauch-
line, Ayrshire, N.B.
+Alington, G. M....Swinhope House, Louth, Line,
Alington, H. W....Welton-on-the-Hill, Louth, Linc.
Allday, John,..Griston, Watton, Norfolk
+Allen, B. Haigh... Longcroft’s Hall, Lichfield
Allen, Chas. W....The Moor, Kington, Herefordsh.
Allen, Henry...Oakfield, Hay, Herefordshire
Allen, J....Holt Farm, Pilton, near Shepton Mallett
Allen, John... Wellington, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Allen, Seymour... Cresselly, near Pembroke
Allen, Thomas. ..Thurmaston, Leicester
Allen, T., jun....Upton Cottage, Macclesfield, Ches.
Allen, William...The Lodge, Malton, Yorkshire
+Allfrey, Robert...Wakefield Park, Reading, Berks
Allhusen, Christian.,.Elswick House, Neweastle-
upon-Tyne
Allies, George, . Hill House, Worcester
Allin, Richard... Little Moore, Oxford
Allin, Wm....Great Hendred, Wantage, Berkshire
Allington, Rev. J....Little Barford, St. Neot’s,
Huntingdonshire
Allison, Joseph... Bilby, Retford, Nottinghamshire
Alliston, John. ,.38, Russell Square
Allix, Chas.... Willoughby Hall, Grantham, Linc.
Allnatt, John Joseph... Wallingford
Allsop, Henry... Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Allsop, John...Wellow Farm, Romsey, Hampshire
Allsop, Thomas... Ridge Green, Ryegate, Surrey
Almack, Barugh...18, Sackville Street
Almack, John, jun.,..Leckonfield Park, Beverley,
Yorkshire
+Ambler, Henry.. Watkinson Hall, Halifax, Yorksh.
Ambrose, John...Copford, Colcliester, Essex
Ames, George Henry. ..Cote House, near Bristol
Ames, John. ..33, Green Street, Grosvenor Square
Ames, Lionel,..The Hyde, St. Albans, Herts
Anderdon, J. L....3, New Bank Buildings
Anderson, Jos.... Whitley, Tynemouth, Northum-
berland
Anderson, Robert. ..Cirencester, Gloucestershire
y+Anderson, Robert...Grey Street, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne
Anderson, Robert... Weston, South Shields, Durham
Anderson, Thomas...Little Harle Tower, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, Northumberland
Anderson, William...Bont House, South Shields
Anderson, William, jun.,..Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Andrew, George...Carne, St. Austell, Cornwall
Andrewes, Charles James,.Kate’s Grove Iron- Works,
Reading, Berkshire
Andrews, Edwin...Shroton, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Andrus, Francis... Scadbury, Southfleet, nr, Graves-
end
Cc
10
Angeworth, William...The Hay, Bridgnorth
tAnnandale, Peter....Shotley Grove, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Annesley, Rev. Charles A. F.,..Eydon Hall, near
Banbury, Oxon
Ansley, G.... Houghton Hill, St. Ives, Hunts
Anslow, William ..Eyton, Wellington, Salop
Anstice, J..,. Madeley Wood House, Broseley, Salop
+Anstruther, J. H. L...Hintlesham Hall, Ipswich
yAnstruther, Sir R. A., Bart...,Balcaskie, Leven,
Fifeshire
Antrobus, Joseph... Barnton, Northwich, Cheshire
Aplin, Henry...Combe St. Nicholas, near Chard,
Somerset
Appleby, Wm.... Eastfield, Alnwick, Northumb.
yApplewhaite, Edw.,..Pickenham Hall, Swaffham,
Norfolk
Arbuthnot, Right Hon. Charles,..Kettering, North-
amptonshire
yArbuthnot, John A..,.Coworth, Chertsey, Surrey
Arch, J..,.Clifton, near Shefford, Bedfordshire
Archbold, James... Neweastle-upon-Tyne
Archbold, John...Riffington, Berwick-on-Tweed
FArchbold, Robert, M.P....David’s Town, Castle
Dermot, Ireland
Archer —Burton Lancelot... Woodlands, Emsworth,
Hampshire
Archer, Edward... Trelaske, Launceston, Cornwall
Archer, Thomas. ,.Ely, Cambridgeshire
Archer, William.,.Tullibardine Cottage, Auchter-
arder, Perthshire
yArden, Hon. R. P....Pepper Hall, Catterick
Arkcole, Wm....Langney, Westham, Eastbourne,
Sussex
yArkell, Thomas...Pen Hill Farm, Cold Harbour,
Swindon, Wiltshire
Arkwright, E....Rock House, Matlock, Derbysh.
Arkwright, Rev. J....Mark Hall, Harlow, Essex
Arkwright, Peter... Willersby, Matlock, Derbysh.
Armitage, Arthur..,Moraston, nr, Ross, Hereford-
shire
Armitage, George... Yattendon, Newbury
Armstrong, Charles,..Axwell Park, Gateshead
Armstrong, George... Heddon-on-the-Wall, Neweas-
tle-upon-Tyne
Armstrong, Joseph...Higham Place, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Armytage, Col....Broomhill Bank, near Tonbridge
Wells
Arnett, Henry...Ifield, Crawley, Sussex
Arrowsmith, W. L....Island of Malta
Arundell, Hon. Robert A... Houghton Lodge, Stock-
bridge, Hants
Ashdown, George....Braxted Hall Farm, Witham,
Essex
Ashdown, Samuel H..,.The Hern, Shiffnal, Salop
Ashhurst, John Henry.. - Waterstock, Oxford
Ashley, Charles Gordon...Butcombe Court, near
Wrington, Somersetshire
Ashlin, John... Frisby, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Ashmore, Joseph... Norton, near Evesham, Woresh.
+Ashton, Hen... - Woolton, near Liverpool, Lancash.
Ashton, Richard... Limefield, Bury, Lancashire
Ashwin, Thomas. , »Stratford-on-Avon, Warwicksh,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Askew, Sir Henry...Pallinsburn House, Cold-
stream, N.B.
Assheton, Wm....Downham Hall, Clitheroe, Lanc.
+Astbury, William... 4, Munster Terrace, Fulham
yAstley, Francis L’Estrange...Melton Constable,
Thetford
Aston, Rt. Hon. Sir Arthur...Aston Hall, Preston
Brook, Cheshire
+Aston, Samuel... Lynch Court, near Leominster
Atcherley, Thos. C....The Hurst, Westbury, Salop
Atherton, George T.... Mount Alyn, Wrexham
+Athorpe, J. C....Dinnington Hall, Sheffield
Atkins, E, M....Kingston-Lisle, Wantage, Berks
Atkins, Thomas.. Kimberley, Wymondham, Norf.
Atkinson, Charles... Broughton, Cartmell
+Atkinson, George.. Morland Hall, near Penrith
+Atkinson, James... Winderwath, Penrith, Cumber-
land
+Atkinson, James Henry Hollis...Angerton, Mor-
peth, Northumberland
Atkinson, John... Newbiggin, near Hexham
Atkinson, John...Charlton, near Salisbury, Wilts
Atkinson, Joseph... Embleton, near Alnwick
Atkinson, J. R. W....Elmwood House, Leeds
Atkinson, Matthew... Peepy, Hexham, Northum-
berland
Atkinson, Ralph...South Gosforth, Newcastle-on-
Tyne
Atkinson, Thos...Kidside, Milnthorpe, Westmoreld.
Atkinson, Tobias... Kendal, Westmoreland
+Atkinson, Wm, James..,Marlow, Buckingham-
shire
Attenborough, James,..Brampton Ash, Market Har-
borough, Leicestershire
Attenborough, Robert... Braybrooke, Market Har-
borough, Leicestershire
Atterbury, Henry Thomas, ’*. Woburn, Bedfordshire
Attwood, William... Manor Farm, Longstock, Stock-
bridge, Hampshire
Atty, James...Rugby
+Austen, Col. Henry...Bellevue, Seven Oaks, Kent
Austen, Robt... Merrow House, near Guildford, Surr.
Austin, William Hazledine,..Manor House, Woore,
near Market Drayton
Avery, Thomas Charles,,.Gloucester
Aylmer, John Harrison... Walworth Castle, Darling-
ton, Durham
+Aynsley, J. Murray...Torkington, near Bristol
Ayre, Thomas...Trafford Park, Manchester
Ayres, Robert. ..Girtford, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire
+Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A....St. John’s
College, Cambridge
Back, Hatfield James.. Hethersett Hall, Norwich
+Back, John Alfred..,Hethersett Hall, near Nor-
wich
+ Backhouse, Edmund.,.Polam Hill, Darlington
Bacon, James... Pluckley, near Ashford, Kent
Bacon, Rich. Noverre...Mercury Office, Norwich
Bacon, William.,..Chilton House, Darlington
Badcock, Benjamin, ..Broad Street, Oxford
Baddeley, Thomas... Wellington, Salop
Baddeley, William...Brutton, Wellington, Salop
Baden, Andrew, . Long Street, Enford, Pewsey, Wilts
List of Members.
Bagge, Richard.,.Gaywood, Lynn, Norfolk
Bagot, Hon. Wm... Blithefield, Rugeley, Staffs.
Bagshawe, Wm. John,..The Oaks, near Sheffield
Bailey, Charles.. .5, Stratford Place
Bailey, Edward... Martyr’sWorthy, near Winchester,
Hants
Bailey, George..,Lea Hall, Albrighton, near Wol-
verhampton
Bailey, James... Nynehead, near Wellington, So-
mersetshire
Bailey, James Wm..,.Shenley House, Stony Strat-
ford, Bucks
}Bailey, Joseph, M.P...Glanuske Park,Crickhowell,
Brecknockshire
Bailey, Joseph, jun., M.P.., Easton Court, Tenbury,
Worcestershire
TBailey, William...Hazling, near Belford, North-
umberland
Bailey, Wm....Hursley, near Winchester, Hampsh.
Baillie, Wm. Hunter,..4, Upper Harley Street
Bainbridge, C. H....Lumley Park, Fence Houses,
Durham
Baines, John.. -Goosnargh, Preston, Lancashire
Baines, John Fuller...Stisted, near Braintree, Essex
Baird, Sir David, Bt.... Newbyth, East Lothian
Baker, Benj. Heath...Acle, Norfolk
7Baker, Sir Edward Baker, Bart..,.Ranston House,
Blandford, Dorsetshire
Baker, George Williams. ..Park Farm, Woburn
Baker, Joseph Brogden...Throxenby Hall, near
Scarborough
Baker, Rev. R. H....Linchmere, Liphook, Hampsh.
Baker,-Robert... Writtle, Essex
Baker, R....Chisshill Hall, near Royston, Hert-
fordshire
Baker, Robert... West Hay, near Bristol
Baker, T. Barwick L.,.. Hardwick Court, Gloucester
Baker, T., jun...Chilton, near Ferry Hill, Durham
Baker, T. Baker. .. Hastings, Sussex
Baker, William Robert...Bayfordbury, Hertford
Baldwin, T.,.Barnt Green, near Bromsgrove, Wore.
Baldwin, W. W. T....Stede Hill, Maidstone, Kent
Bale, S....Flint Hall, East Harling, Norfolk
Balguy, Johbn...Duffield, near Derby
Ballard, James...Llwynhelig, Cowbridge, Glamor-
ganshire
Balls, George... Brixton Hill, Surrey
Balman, W...Radley Barton, South Molton, Devon
Balmer, Thomas... Fochabers, N. B.
+Bankes, John Scott...Corfe Castle, Dorsetshire
7Bannerman, Alex.....South Cottage, Chorley,
Lancashire
Bannerman, Henry... Hunton Court, Maidstone
Bannister, J. S.... Weston, near Pembridge, Here-
fordshire
Barber, John...Derby
Barber, Thomas...Hobland Hall, Great Yarmouth
Barber, Rev, William... Duffield, Derby
Barberie, John...House Dean-Farm, Falmer, Lewes
Barclay, Donald...Mayfield, Uckfield, Sussex
Barclay, J. Pringle... Wickham Market, Suffolk
Baring, Hon. Francis Thornhill,...Buckingham
House, Brandon, Norfolk
11
Baring, Hon. and Rev. Fred....Melchit Park, Salis-
bury
Baring, John...Oakwood, Chichester, Sussex
Barker, Rev. Benjamin,..Shipdham Rectory, Thet-
ford, Norfolk
7Barker, G. Raymond,..Fairford Park, Fairford,
Gloucestershire
Barker, H. B. Raymond..4, Garden Court, Temple
Barker, Horace...Suffolk Fire Office, Bury St. Ed-
munds
Barker, James... North Shields
Barker, James...The Hall, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Barker, J. H...East Lodge, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Barker, Robert...Glynn, Barmouth, Merionethshire
Barker, William...Claremont, Poulton, Bebington,
Cheshire
Barkus, William, senior...Coxhoe, Durham
Barlow, Frederick Burgh... Woodbridge, Suffolk
Barlow, Rev. Peter...Cockfield Rectory, Staindrop,
Durham
Barnard, Charles... Norwich
Barnard, E...Coldham Hall, Wisbeach, Cambs.
Barnard, E.G., M.P... Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex
Barnard, Ferdinando... Manor Farm, Wantage, Berks
Barnard, Fulke Toovey. . Bristol
Barnard, John...Olives, Dunmow, Essex
Barnardiston, N. C...The Ryes, Sudbury, Suffolk
+Barneby, William...Clater Park, near Bromyard
Barnes, John Stagg. . Middleton in Teasdale, Durham
Barnes, Thomas... Whitburn, near Sunderland
Barnett, C...Stratton Park, Biggleswade, Beds.
Barnett, Henry..»Glympton Park, Woodstock
Barnett, Joseph... Remenham Dill, Henley-on-
Thames, Oxon
Barratt, John, ., Winterton, Brigg, Lincolnshire
Barratt, William,..St. John’s, Wakefield
Barrett, G. A....Kate’s Grove Jron-Works, Reading,
Berkshire
Barrett, James, .. Royal Hotel, Ross, Herefordshire
Barrington, Visc., M.P...Beckett House, Faringdon,
Berkshire
Barroby, Christ... Baldersby, near Ripon, Yorkshire
Barrow, Charles James... Lopham, Norfolk
Barrow, G. H... Ringwood House, Chesterfield
Barry, Thomas... Chilton, near Thame, Oxon
Barter, Rey. V. C...Sarsden, Chipping Norton, Oxf.
Bartholomew, Thomas... Largton, Wragby, Lincoln-
shire
Bartholomew, W...Goltho, Wragby, Lincolnshire
Barthropp, Nathaniel...Cretingham Rookery, near
Woodbridge, Suffolk
Barthropp, N.G....Cretingham, Woodbridge
Bartlett, Wm...Burbage, near Marlborough, Wilts
Bartlett, William... Whatcombe, Blandford, Dorset
Barton, Henry... Rangemoor House, near Lichfield
Barton, Humfrey C... Hastings
Barton, John...East Leigh, Emsworth, Hants
Barton, Nath,..Corsley House, Warminster, Wilts
Barton, R. Watson...Springwood, Manchester.
Barton, Thomas...Threxton, Watton, Norfolk
Barwell, John,..Norwich
Bascombe, Thomas... Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Baskerville, H. .Crowshy Park, near Reading, Berks
c 2
12
Baskerville, Thos. B. M., M.P....Clyro Court, Hay,
Herefordshire
Bass, Michael... Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Batard, Thomas M. Bearda...Sydenham, Kent
Bate, Edward... Keisterton, Flintshire, N.W.
Bate, G... Houghton, Rougham, Norfolk
Bate, Robert...The Square, Bridgewater, Somerset
Bate, Samuel....Knutton, Newcastle-under-Lyme,
Staffordshire
Bate, William... Yaxley, Eye, Suffolk
Bateman, Henry...Asthall, Witney, Oxfordshire
Bateman, Henry...Maple Lodge, Rickmansworth,
Hertfordshire
Bateman, Thomas... Guilsborough, Northampton
Bateman, Thos. Hudson. . Halton Park, near Lancast.
Bates, Rev. C. C...Castleton, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Bates, Edward...Shieldykes, Alnwick
Bates, George... Heddon, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Bates, Thos... Kirkleavington, near Yarm, Yorkshire
Bates, Thos. Ellis... Fittleton, Amesbury, Wilts
Bath, Robert Phippen...Northover, Glastonbury,
Somersetshire
Bath, Thomas... Northover, Glastonbury, Somerset
Bathurst, Earl of. . Cirencester; Gloucestershire
Bathurst, Hon. Wm. L...38, Half-moon Street
Batley, Benj. James..,Lee Road, Blackheath, Kent
+Batson, Thos... Kynastone House, near Ross, Here-
fordshire
Batt, William...West Drayton, Uxbridge, Middlesex
Batten, Abraham, ,Ayott St. Peter’s, Welwyn, Herts
+Batten, John... Yeovil, Somersetshire
Batterham, John... Terrington, near Lynn, Norfolk
+Battersby, A. G. Harford...Stoke Park, Redland,
near Bristol
+Battersby, John Harford....Stoke Park, Redland,
near Bristol
Batty, Benjamin R.... Fenny Hall, near Huddersfield
Bawden, H. J. Norris...Southmolton, Devon
Bawtree, F....Abberton, Colchester
Bawtree, John...Abberton, near Colchester, Essex
Baxter, Robert... Doncaster, Yorkshire
Baxter, S. S.... Atherstone, Warwickshire
Baxter, William Edward...35, High Street, Lewes
Bayes, T. H....Oak Farm, Iltringham, Aylsham
Bayning, Rev. Lord... Honingham Hall, Norfolk
Bayne, William...High Street, Oxford
Bayzand, Joseph,.Kingley, near Alcester, Warwksh.
Beach, John... Redmarley, near Gloucester
+Beach, Sir Michael Hicks, Bt....Williamstrip Park,
Fairford, Gloucestershire
+Beadel, James...Witham, Essex
Beadon, Rev. Frederick... North Stoneham Rectory,
Southampton
Beale, James,..Canford, Wimborne, Dorset
+Bearcroft, Edw...Mere Hall, Droitwich, Worcestsh.
Beard, Rev. Jas....Goldington House, near Bedford
Beard, John... Berwick Hall, Whitecolne, Halstead,
Essex
Beard, William...Tormarton Cross Hands, Ciren-
cester, Gloucestershire
Beards, Thomas...Stowe, near Buckingham
Beare, Samuel,.. Town Close, Norwich
+Beart, Robert. ..Godmanchester, Huntingdonshire
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Beaseley, John... Brampton, near Northampton’
Beaseley, Thomas Calvert...Harston, Grantham
Beauchamp, George Edw...The Priory, near Read-
ing, Berks
Beauclerk, Lord Chas.. .80, Piccadilly
Beauford, Henry W...Bletsoe, near Bedford
Beaumont, E. B...Firmingley, Bawtry, Notts
Beaumont, John...Dalton, Huddersfield
+Beaumont, John Aug....Westhill, Wimbledon,
Surrey
Beaumont, Joshua...Parkton Grove, Honley, Hud-
dersfield
Beck, Charles Wm....Upton Priory, near Maccles-
field, Cheshire
Beck, Edw.,.Harpley, Lynn, Norfolk
Beck, John...Congham, Castle Rising, Norfolk
Beck, John, jun...Castle Rising, Norfolk
Beck, Peter...Shrewsbury
Beckett, William, M.P...Kirkstall Grange, Leeds,
Yorkshire ;
Beckford, Wm...12, Upper Belgrave Street
Beckwith, Rev. Henry... Eaton Constantine,
Shrewsbury
Beddall, Charles... Dairy Farm, Finchinfiel¢e, Brain-
tree, Essex
Beddall, Henry... Finchinfield, Braintree, Essex
Beddall, John ..Brent Hall, Finchinfield, Braintree,
Essex
Beddall, Thomas, jun... Justices, Finchinfield, Brain-
tree, Essex
Beddoe, Richard Cartwright.. .Bristol
Bedford, John... Woodcote, near Shiffnal, Salop
Beevor, Henry... Barnby Moor, East Retford, Notts
Beevor, Sir T. B., Bart...Hargham Hall, Attle-
borough, Norfolk
Belcher, Robert Shirley...Burton-on-Trent, Staf-
fordshire
+Beldam, Valentine... Royston, Hertfordshire
Belding, George... Newmarket Road, Norwich
Belding, Geo. B., jun.... Newmarket Road, Norwich
Bell, Christopher Seymour... Park Cottage, Alnwick
Bell, Henry.. . West Sherbourne, near Durham
Bell, John... Break’s Hall, Appleby, Westmoreland
Bell, Matthew, M.P... Woolsington, near Newcastle-
on-Tyne
Bell, Richard Hansell... Deckham Hall, Gateshead
Bell, William...32, Bucklersbury
Bell, William Read...Gillingham, Shaftesbury
Bellairs, Rev. Henry...Bedworth Rectory, Coventry,
Warwickshire
Belliss, Thomas... Brittle Street, Birmingham
Belliss, William... Burlington, Shiffnal, Shropshire
Beman, Robt., .Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Gloucesters.
Bence, Henry Alex....Oxford and Cambridge Club
Bencraft, Stephen... Barnstaple, Devon
Benington, Wm.,.Stockton-upon-Tees
Benn, Joseph... Lowther, Penrith, Cumberland
Benn, Thomas,..Greenbank, Whitehaven
Bennet, Philip...Rougham Old Hall, Bury St. Ed-
munds, Suffolk
Bennet, Philip, jun., M.P....Rougham Hall, Bury
St. Edmunds, Suffolk
Bennett, Absalom... Mertyn Hall, Holywell, Flint.
List of Members.
+Bennett, Barwell Ewins,..Marston House, Market
Harborough, Leicestershire
Bennett, Charles... New Inn, Stowe, Buckingham
Bennett, Edward... Tettenhall, Wolverhampton
Bennett, John.,.Ingstone, Ross, Herefordshire
+Bennett, Joseph... Hitchin, Hertfordshire
Bennett, Joseph B. H..,Tutbury, Burton-on-Trent,
Staffordshire
Bennett, Samuel... Bickering’s Park, Woburn, Beds.
Bennett, Thomas,,.Penk Farm, Woburn, Beds.
Bennett, Thomas Oatley... Bruton, Somersetshire
Bennett, William...Lewsey, near Luton, Beds.
Bennion, Edw. David.,.Summer Hill, Oswestry
Benson, Alan..Papcastle, near Cockermouth, Cumb.
+Benson, Rev. Henry B....Utterby House, Louth,
Lincolnshire
Benson, John,..Secretary of Farmers’ Club, York
Benson, John... Tavistock, Devonshire
Bent, John... Liverpool
Bent, Major John.,. Wexham Lodge, Slough, Bucks.
Bent, William, jun....Walton Grove, Walton-on-
Thames
Bentall, Edward Hammond,..Heybridge, near Mal-
don, Essex
Benyon, Rev. E. R....Culford Hail, Bury St. Ed-
munds, Suffolk
+Bere, Montague B...Exeter
Beridge, Rev. Hele .Algarkirk, Spalding, Line.
Bernard, Rev. W....Chatworthy, Wiveliscombe,
See ice
Berners, Captain Hugh, R.N....Gatcombe House,
Newport, Isle of Wight
Berners, John... Holbrook, Suffolk
+Berney, Sir Henry, Bart....Sheepy, Atherstone,
Warwickshire
Berney, Rev. Thomas.. brivekeriie, near Norwich
Berridge, Matthew...Ingarsby, Leicestershire
Berry, John...Chagford, Exeter, Devonshire
+Berwick, Lord. ..Cronkhill, Shrewsbury
Besley, Henry...South Street, Exeter
Best, Rev. F....Flyford Flavell, Alcester, Worcest.
Best, George. ..Compton, Guildford, Surrey
Best, Jas....Park House, Boxley, Maidstone, Kent
Best, Hon. and Rey. Samuel...Abbots-Ann, An-
dover, Hampshire
Best, Rey.T....Red Rice House, near Andover, Hants
Bethell, John... Brighton
Bethell, Richard... Worglesdon, Guildford, Surrey
Bethell, William...Rise, Beverley
+Bethune, J. D....Thorncroft, Leatherhead, ‘Surrey
Betts, John...King’s Langley, Hertfordshire
Beyan, George Rees... Brecon, S. W.
Beynon, Join...Adpar Hill, Newcastle Emlyn,
Carmarthenshire
Bick, Michael... Park Hill, Bromsgrove, Worcestsh.
Bicknell, Charles...Beaumaris, Anglesey
Biddle, Waring...Long Ham, Wimborne, Dorset
Biddulph, Robert... Ledbury, Herefordshire
Biddulph, Robert M.... Chirk Castle, Chirk, N. W.
Biel, Wm....St. Leonard’s Farm, Beaulieu, near
Southampton
Bigg, Edward Smith. ..The Hyde, Slangham, Sussex
55?
Bigg, Thomas...21, Church Place, Hampstead
2
2)
]
Bigge, Chas, Wm....Linden, Morpeth, Northumld.
Bigge, Matthew Robert. ..Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Biggs, H....Stockton House, Heytesbury, Wilts
Biggs, James. ..Desborough, Kettering
Bigmold; Samuel... Norwich
Bilbie, Thos... .Nettleworth Hall, Mansfield, Notts
Bill, Joun...Trent Vale, Newcastle, Staffordshire
Billington, Leonard.,.Bull Hotel, Preston, Lancash.
Binks, Christopher... Friars Goose House, Gateshead
Birch, William John... Pudlicot, Enstone, Oxon
Birch, Wynley...Wretham Park, Thetford, Norfolk
Birchall, A. C.,.. Darlington
+Birchall, T....Kibbleton Hall, Preston, Lancashire
Bircham, Robert...Dunton, Fakenham
Bircham, Samuel...Booton Hall, Reepham, Norfolk
Bird, Rev. Christopher... Chollerton, Hexham
+Bird, Rey. James Waller...Breston, East Dereham
7Bird, Jolin... Yaxley, near Stilton, Huntingdonsh.
Bird, J. A....Park Cottage, Brixton, Surrey
Bird, Thomas... Westerfield, Ipswich, Suffolk
+Birkbeck, Henry... Norwich
Birket, Chas....Plungington Hall, Preston, Lancash.
Birks, J....Hemmingfield, near Barnsley, Yorksh,
Birt, Jacob, ..50, Sussex Gardens, Hyde Park
Biscoe, Thomas P. B....Kingellie House, Inverness
Bishop, John...23, New Bridge Street, Blackfriars
Bishop, John... Norwich
Bishop, Thomas...Brecon, S. W.
Bissill, Edward. .,Sutterton, Boston, Lincolnshire
Black, John.,. Marske, near Guisborough, Yorkshire
Blackbourn, D..,. Temple Brewer, Sleaford, Linc.
Blackburne, John Ireland, M.P....Hale, near War-
rington, Lancashire
Blackburne, Captain John Ireland, junr..,.Light
Oaks, Cheadle, Staffordshire
Blackden, J. C.... Ford, Berwick+on-Tweed
7Blacker, Murray...Loft Monks House, Beccles,
Suffolk
Blacker, William..,Armagh, Ireland
Blackett, Sir Edwd., Bart....Matfen, Newcastle-on-
Tyne, Northumberland
Blackett, Henry...Sockburn, Darlington, Durham
Blackstone, J....31, Bayham Terrace, Camden Town
Blagrave, Edward.,,Magdalen College, Oxford
Blagrave, Col. John...Calecot Park, Reading, Berks
+Blair, John...
Blake, Francis John...Norwich
Blake, James,..Bathingbourne, Newport,
Wight, Hampshire
Blake, S. W....Venne House, near Wiveliscombe,
Somerset
Blake, Thomas... Horstead, Norwich
Blake, William Jex....Swanton Abbots,
Norfolk
Isle of
Scottow,
.| Blake, Wm. John..,62, Portland Place
Blakeway, William...Leigh Hall, Worthen, near
Shrewsbury
Blakiston, Thomas...Thorpe Old Hall, Norwich
Bland, John.,. Wine Street, Bristol
Bland, William...Hartlip, Sittingbourne, Kent
Blane, Capt. Robert...2nd Life Guards
| Blane, Sir Seymour, Bar¢....The Pasture, Derby
|
|
+Blane, Lieut.-Col..,.16, Lower Grosvenor Street
4
+Blanshard, Richard...37, Great Ormond Street
Blayds, C. C.... Seal Lodge, Farnham, Surrey
Blayds, John...Oulton Hall, Leeds
Blencowe, John George. .The Hooke, Chailey, Lewes
Blencowe, Robert W...»The Hooke, Lewes, Sussex
Blenkensop, John...Slake House, South Shields
Blennerhassett, Rev. William...Iwerne Vicarage,
Blandford
Blick, Rev. Charles...Brandesburton, near Beverley
+Bliss, Rev. Philip, DD....Oxford
Bliss, William...Dean House, Kimbolton
Blisset, Rev. H....Letton, Weobley, near Hereford
Blomfield, Lieut.-Col....Necton Hall, Swaffham
Blomfield, John, jun.... Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Blood, J. Howell... Witham, Essex
Bloodworth, Thos.... Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire
Bloxham, William...28, Duke Street, Grosvenor
Square
Blundell, Joseph...Maidenstone Heath, Hound,
Southampton
Blundstone, Wm....Lady Wood, Rick Hallam, near
Derby
Blunt, Edwd. W....Kempshott Park, Basingstoke,
Hampshire
Blyth, D’Urban...Great Massingham, Rougham,
Norfolk
Blyth, H. E....Burnham Westgate, Norfolk
Blyth, Robert John... Norwich
Blyth, William... Weasenham, Rougham
Boards, William...Edmonton, Middlesex
Roby, Charles... Alton Hall, Stutton, Ipswich,
Suffolk
Boddington, Benj....Burcher Court, near Kington,
Herefordshire
Boden, Henry ..The Field, Derby
Bodenham, Francis Lewis...Hereford
Bodley, John...Stockleigh, Crediton, Devonshire
Body, Moses... Northiam, Rye, Sussex
Body, Wm....South Brent, near Cross, Somerset
Boger, Deeble...Plympton, Devonshire
Boileau, John Elliot... Ketteringham Park, Wy-
mondham
Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart.. .Ketteringham Park,
Wymondham, Norfolk
Bolam, Christopher...Low
Northumberland
Bolam, Isaac W...:Fawdon, Whittingham, North-
umberland
Bolam, Jno... Easington Grange, Belford, Northumb.
Bolam, William... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Bolden, John...Hyning, Lancaster
Bolden, Samuel Edward... Lancaster
Boldero, H....South Lodge, Horsham
Bolton, George.. .Shropham, Larlingford
Bolton, Lord... Hackwood Park, Basingstoke, Hants
Bompus, G. G., M.D....Fishponds, Bristol, Som.
Bond, Barnabus...Alburgh, Harleston, Norfolk
Bond, Benjamin... Draycot, Stone, Staffordshire
Bond, Rev- N....Eglestone Holme, near Wareham,
Dorsetshire
Bond, Thomas... Bishop’s Lydeard, Taunton
Bond, Thos. James... Perry Elm, Wellington,
Somerset
Trewitt, Rothbury,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Bonham, Rey. J....Ballintaggart, Ballitore, Ireland
Booker, Josias... Allerton, near Liverpool
Booker, Thos. Wm.... Velindra House, near Cardiff,
Glamorganshire
Booth, James Godfrey... Hamburgh
Booth, John...Kelston Grange, Louth, Lincolnshire
Booth, John... Killerby, Catterick, Yorkshire
Booth, John...Cotham, Newark, Nottinghamshire
Booth, Richard... Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorksh.
Booth, Wm. B....Carclew, near Penryn, Cornwall
Bocthby, J. B.... Twyford Abbey, Acton, Middlesex
+Borough, C. B....Chetwynd Park, Newport, Shrop-
shire
Bosanquet, Rev. R. W....Roch, near Alnwick, Nor-
thumberland
Bostock, Ellis...41, Hunter Street, Brunswick Sq.
Boswell, Thos. Alexander. ..Crawley Grange, New-
port Pagnell, Bucks.
Bosworth, Charles...Dishley, Loughborough
Bosworth, Thos. Wright. ..Spratton, Northampton
7Botfield, Beriah.,.Norton Hall, Daventry, North-
amptonshire
+Botham, George... Wexham Court, Slough, Bucks.
Bott, John...Coton Hall, Burton-on-Trent, Staff.
Boucher, Chas....Greenway House, Wiveliscombe
Boucher, Jas....Kinlet Hall, Bewdley, Worcest.
Boucher, Jas. G., jun....Shidfield House, Wickham,
Hampshize 2
Boucherett, A.... Willingham House, Market Rasen
Boughton, Sir W. E. R....Downton Hall, Ludlow,
Salop
Boultbee, John... Noyadd House, Aberayron, South
Wales
7Bourn, James, jun....Mawley Town Farm, Cleo-
bury Mortimer, Shropshire
Bourne, John,..Hildenstone, Stone, Staffordshire
Bourne, John,..5, South Parade, Leeds
Bourne, Wm. Kemp...Fisherwick, Lichfield
Bouverie, Edward,..De la Pré Abbey, Northampton
Bonverie, Hon. P. Pleydell...Brymore, Bridgewater,
Somersetshire
Bouverie, Rey. W. Arundell,..Denton Rectory,
Harleston, Norfolk
Bowden, Henry...Coopers, Chislehurst
Bowen, Geo....Coton Hall, Prees, near Whitchurch,
Shropshire
Bowen, Jas....Troedyraur, Newcastle-Emlyn, S. W.
Bower, Thomas Bowyer...Iwerne House, Blandford
Bowers, John... Westdean House, Chichester, Sussex
Bowett, Thomas... Warsop, near Mansfield, Notts
Bowles, J. T....Milton Hill, Abingdon, Berks
Bowly, David,..Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Bowly, Edw..,.Siddington House, near Cirencester,
Gloucestershire
Bowly, William C....Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Bowman, Chas....Greatford, Market Deeping, Lin-
colnshire
Bowman, Fred....Belmont Cottage, Duddington,
Stamford, Linc.
Bowser, Richard,..Bishop Auckland, Durham
Bowser, Wm.,...Tunstall, near Hartlepool, Durham
Bowstead, John.,.Beckbank, Penrith, Cumberland
Box, Philip... Radclive, Buckingham
List of Members. 15
Boxall, W. B....Stepham, Petworth
Boycott, Thos..,. Rudge Hall, Wolverhampton, Staff.
Boycott, Wm.,.. Donnington, Shiffnal, Shropshire
Boyd, Thomas...Holt, Norfolk
Boyes, Wm. Edw....Alkerton, Banbury, Oxfordsh.
Boyle, Robert...Ayr, Scotland
Boys, Robert... Eastbourne, Sussex
Bracebridge, C. H....Atherstone Hall, Atherstone
Brackenbury, Wm, T....Shouldham-Thorpe, Down-
ham, Norfolk
Braddock, Henry... Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk
Bradfield, Jas. B. Sanders. ..Stoke Ferry, Norfolk
Bradley, Edward.,.Traguff, Cowbridge, Glamorgan-
shire
Bradley, John...Blyth, near Worksop, Notts.
Bradley, Thomas. ..Richmond, Yorkshire
Bradshaw, F., jun....Barton-le-Blount, near Derby
+Bradshaw, John...Knowle, Cranley, Surrey
Brady, Robert Watts... Kerdiston, Reepham, Norf,
Bragg, William..,Cockermouth, Cumberland
Bragge, Colonel...Sadborough Park, Chard
Bragington, George... Torrington, Devon
Braithwaite, J.,..Orresthead, Kendal, Westmoreld.
Braithwaite, Septimus... Powell Villa, Weymouth
Brakenridge, John... Bretton Park, Wakefield
Bramwell, D. K.,..Funtington, Chichester
Brand, Henry...Glynde, Lewes
Brand, Thomas,..The Hoe, Weiwyn, Hertfordshire
+Brander, Robert Burnett...Essex Lodge, Norwood
Brandford, W. W....Godwick, Litcham, Norfolk
Brandram, John B..,.Chapmore End, Ware, Herts.
Branson, T.,.Norton Cottage, near Shiffnal, Shrops.
Branwhite, Chas. H...Gestingthorpe, Sudbury, Suff.
Brasnett, Thomas,,,Saham, Watton, Norfolk
Bravender, John...Cirencester _
Brent, Dr....Sydney Cottage, Woodbury, Exeter
+Bretts, Chas..,.Exbury House, Fawley, Hants
Brewer, Edgar,...The Maindee, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire
Brewer, John...8, Upper Bedford Place, Russell Sq.
Brewit, Thomas...Rayleigh, Essex
Brewitt, John,.. Wickford, Ingatestone, Essex
Brewster, Joseph. .. Brewood, Penkridge, Staffordsh.
Brickwell, C....Overthorpe Lodge, Banbury, Oxon
Brickwell, John D....
Brickwell, William Henry..Leckhampstead, Bucks.
Bridge, Sealy. ..South Petherton, Somersetshire
Bridge, Thomas... Buttsbury, Ingatestone, Essex
Bridges, John. ,. Westwood, Tuxford, Notts.
+Briggs, Rawdon....Birstwith Hall, Harrowgate,
Yorkshire
+Briggs, Rawdon, jun.....Birstwith Hall, Harrow-
gate, Yorkshire
+Bright, J... Teddesley Park Farm, Penkridge, Staff.
Bright, John, M.D.,..19, Manchester Square
Bright, Joseph... Leamington, Warwickshire
Bright, Paul.. .Sheffield ;
Brigstocke, Rey. Augustus..,Gellidywyll, Newcastle
Emlyn, Carmarthenshire
Brigstocke, W. O.... .Blaenpont, near Newcastle
Emlyn
Brine, Rev. A.J... Boldre Hill, Lymington, Hamps.
Brine, W...Tolpuddle, near Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Brisco, Musgrave, M.P....Coghurst Hall, near Has-
tings, Sussex
Brise, John Ruggles...Spains Hall, Finchingfield,
Braintree, Essex
Brittain, G. Dawes, ...Ercall Park, Wellington, Salop
Broade, P.B... Fenton Hall,Stoke-upon-Trent,Stafls.
Broadhurst, Thomas M... Brandiston, Woodbridge,
Suffolk
Broadmead, Nicholas.,.Langport, Somerset
Brockman, F. H....Beachborough, Hythe, Kent
Brodhurst, J. E..,Crow Hill, near Mansfield, Notts.
+Broke, Sir A. de Capell.. .Oakley, Kettering
Brokenbrow, Wm. Perrins,..Beenham Farm, near
Reading, Berkshire
Bromfield, W. Williams... Dunchurch, Warwickshire
Bromley, John... Derby
Bromley, Robert... Derby
Bromley, Rev. Walter Davenport... Wootton Hall,
Ashbourne, Derbyshire
Bromwich, Thomas, ..Wolston, Coventry
Brook, Arthur Sawyer... Bexhill, Hastings, Sussex
Brook, Thos... .Pencraig Court, near Ross, Hereford
Brooke, Edward,..Burnage, Withington, Manchester
Brooke, James,..Park Farm, Brading, Newport, Isle
of Wight
Brooke, John William...Sibton Hall, Yoxford
+Brooke, Sir Rich., Bart....Norton Priory, Runcorn,
Frodsham, Cheshire
Brooke, W...Babworth Cottage, near Retford, Notts
+Brooke, Wm. de Capell,..The Elms, Market-Har-
borough, Leicestershire
Brooker, Pitman... Foot’s Cray, Kent
Brookes, William... Elmstree, Tetbury, Glouc.
+Brooks, Bernard...Lyford, Abingdon, Berkshire
Brooks, Rey. Jonathan,.. Everton, near Liverpool
Brooks, Thomas...Croxby, near Caistor, Lincoln.
Broomhall, T. T... Beech Cliffe, Stone, Staffordshire
Bros, Thomas,..16, St. James’s Place
Brough, Wm....Shaw Farm, Overton, Wiltshire
Broughton, Richard N.... Llwynygroes, Llany-
mynich, Oswestry
Brouncker, Richard... Boveridge, Cranborne, Dorset
+Brown, Alex....Birely Grange, Wetherby, Yorksh.
Brown, Chas...Redbourn, St. Albans, Hertfordshire
Brown, David...Cathendine House, near Brecon
Brown, Edward.,..Harewood, Leeds, Yorkshire
Brown, Francis... Welbourn, Grantham, Lincolnsh.
+Brown, Frederick,...King Street, Norwich
Brown, G..., Avebury, near Marlborough, Wiltshire
Brown, Geo. .. Kingsley Cottage, Alton, Hampshire
Brown, Henry..Ashby-de-la-Zouche, Leicestershire
+Brown, Rey. H. H....Burton, Sleaford, Lincolnsh,
Brown, Henry Langford...Barton Lodge, Kings-
kerswell, Newton Abbot, Devonshire
Brown, Isaac..Cowpen Lodge, Blyth, Northumberl.
Brown, John,..,Compton, East Ilsley, Berkshire
Brown, John,..Pear-tree Hill, Elm White Lion,
Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
Brown, John,..Lower Upham Farm, Hogbourne
St. George, Marlborough, Wiltshire
Brown, John,,.Wingerworth Hall, Chesterfield
Brown, John...Seaton Delaval Hall, North Shields,
Northumberland
16
Brown, John Thomas,.. Pitt Street, Norwich
Brown, John W.,..Ufcott, near Swindon, Wiltshire
Brown, Joseph Lyne...Beaumont Cote, Barton-on-
Humber
Brown, Rev. L. R.... Kelsall, Saxmundham, Suffoik
+Brown, Potto... Houghton, near Huntingdon
Brown, Robert Jefferys...Cirencester
Brown, Thomas... Packington, Lichfield, Staffordsh.
+Brown, Thomas...Branbridge, Hand Cross, near |
Horsham, Sussex
Brown, Thomas C...Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Brown, William...Tring, Hertfcrdshire
Brown, William...Horton, Devizes, Wiltshire
+Brown, William... Richmond Hill, Liverpool
Brown, William.,.South Mills, Blunham, St. Neots
Brown, William...New Court, Ross, Herefordshire
Brown, William... Winterbourne Stoke, Salisbury
Browne, George Lathom ..3, Brick Court, Temple
Browne, John...Chisledon, Marlborough, Wiltshire
Browne, Rey. R. G.S...Atwick Vicarage, near Horn-
sea, E. R. Yorkshire
Browne, Rich...Duncombe Farm, Crediton, Devon
Browne, T. Beale...Salperton House, Andoversford,
Gloucestershire
Browne, Rev. T. C...The Priory, Sydenham, Kent
+Browne, Wade...Monkton Farleigh House, Brad-
ford, Wiltshire —
Browne, William...Titchwell, Lynn, Norfolk
Browne, Wm....Stuckeridge Farm, near Tiverton,
Devon
Brownlow, George... Woottondale, Barrow-on-Hum-
ber, Lincolnshire
Broce, C. L. C., M.P...Dunphail, Forres, N.B.
Bruce, J... Tiddington, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwick-
shire
Bruges, William...Haxon, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Bruges, W. H. L., M.P...Seend, Melksham, Wilts
Bryan, Fred. Thomas...Knossington, near Oakham
Brymer, J... Burgate House, Fordingbridge, Hants
+Bubb, Anth,..Witcombe Court, near Gloucester
Buck, James... Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Buck, William...East Farleigh, Maidstone
Bucke, L., M.P... Moreton House, Bideford, Devon
Buckland, George.. Benenden, Cranbrook, Kent
Buckland, Thomas, jun... Wraysbury, Staines
Buckley, Col. Edwd. P.... New Hall, near Salisbury
Buckley, John N.., Normanton Hill, Loughborough,
Leicestershire
Buckmaster, J. C.... Parkhurst, Isle of Wight
Buggins, John..,Sutton Coldfield, Birmingham
+Bulkeley, Sir Rich. W., Bart....Baron Hill, Beau-
maris, Isle of Anglesey ;
Bull, Alban...Hanwell, Banbury, Oxon
Bull, Humphry...Aston Clinton, Tring
Bullen, John...Charmouth, Lyme Regis, Dorset
Buller, Sir A...Pound, near Plymouth, Devonsh.
Buller, James Wentworth... Downes, Exeter
Buller, John Buller Yarde...Churston Court, Tor-
quay
+Buller, Sir John Buller Yarde, Bart., M.P....Lup-
ton, Torquay
Bullimore, W... Witham, near Grantham, Line.
Bulling, John.,.Great Tew, Enstone, Oxon
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Bullock, Benjamin. ..Spital Hill, Morpeth
+Bullock, F...East Challow, Wantage, Berkshire
- Bullock, Henry... Marden Ash, Ongar, Essex
Bulmer, Charles... Hereford
Bult, Jas. S...Dodhill House, Kingston, Taunton,
Somersetshire
Bulwer, Rev. James...Aylsham
Bulwer, Wm. Lytton...Heydon Hall, Reepham,Norf.
Bunbury, H. M...Marlston House, Newbury, Berks
Bunny, Edward Brice.. ,Speen Hill, Newbury
Burd, T,.. Whiston Priory, near Shrewsbury, Salop
Burden, Rowland...Castle Eden, Stockton-on-Tees,
Durham
Burder, Alfred H...Hinnington, Shiffnal, Shropsh.
Burdon, George,...Heddon House, Newcastle-on-
Tyne, Northumberland
Burgam, H...Bickerton Court, Ledbury, Herefrdsh.
Burgess, Henry...29, St. Swithin’s Lane, City
Burgess, James... Ridlington Park, Uppingham,
Rutlandshire
Burgess, John....Muston, near Blandford, Dorset
Burgess, Joseph S...Holme Pierrepont, Notts.
Burgess, Robt... Winterbourne Zelston, Blandford,
Dorsetshire
Burgess. Stephen. . » Westbrook, Lydd, Kent
Burgess, Wm...Wiggenhall, St. Mary Magdalen,
Lynn, Norfolk
Burgoyne, Sir John M., Bart... Sutton Park, Biggles-
wade, Bedfordshire
Burke, J, French.. .William Street, Woolwich
Burn, Richard...Orton Hall, Penrith
Burn, William. ..Shirland, near Alfreton, Derbyshire
Burne, T. H...,Loyriton Hall, Newport, Shropsh.
Burnell, Edward... Hanham, near Bristol
Barnell, Edward Pegge...Winkburne Hall, near
Southwell, Notts.
Burnham, Geo.... Wellingborough, Northamptonsh.
Burnham, James. .,Winwick, West Haddon, North-
am ptonshire
Burnbam, Wm. Booth,..Spital Farm, Lower Beb-
bington, Birkenhead
+Burr, Daniel Higford...
Burr, Edward... Dunstable, Bedfordshire
Burrard, Geo... Walhampton, Lymington, Hants
Burrell, Bryan...Broome Park, near Alnwick
+Burrell, Charles... Thetford
Burrell, James F., jun...Manor Farm, Frimley, Bag-
shot
Burrell, John...Fornham St. Martin, Bury St. Ed-
munds
Burrell, Robert... Durham
Burrell, Walton... Westley, Bury St. Edmunds
Burroughes, Hen. Negus, M.P....Burlingham Hall,
Norwich
Burroughes, Rey. Jeremiah... Lingwood Lodge, Nor-
wich
Burroughes, Rev. T....Gazeley, Newmarket
Burroughes, Wm...-Burlingham, near Norwich
Burroughs, James Burkin.,.Burlingham Hall, Nor-
wich
Burt, Henry...Gincocks Farm, Oxted, Surrey
Burt, Wm..,.Witchampton, Wimborne, Dorsetsh.
Burton David, jun.,.Cherry Burton, Beverley
List of Members.
Burton, Robert... Longnor Hall, Shrewsbury
Burton, Thomas, jun....Thurton, near Norwich
Burton, Thomas...Langley Grange, Loddon, Norf.
Burtt, James..,Clenston, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Bury, Edward...Hanslope Park, Wolverton, Bucks.
7Bush, John Whittaker....Fairwood, Westbury,
Wilts
Bushell, W.,.Poulton, Ash, Kent
Busk, E. Thos... Ford’s Grove, Edmonton, Middlesex
Busk, Joseph. .. Little Birkhempstead, Hertfordsh.
Buston, Roger,..Buston, near Alnwick
Butcher, Edward...Tring
Butcher, Richard... Longville, Wenlock, Salop
Butler, Ambrose E,...19, Call Lane, Kepstearn,
Kirkstall, Leeds
Butler, G.,.Bowling-green, eoaedo Berks
7Butler, Henry...Tulse Hill, Brixton, Surrey
Butler, John...Caerleon, Newport, Monmouthshire
Butler, Capt. John... Kirby House, Inkpen, Hunger-
ford, Berkshire
Butler, Major Robert...
Butler, Thomas... Walwick, Hexham
Butler, Thomas... Ewell Hall, Kelvedon, Essex
+Butterfield, C. Cotton....The Bank, Petersfield,
Hants
+ Butterfield, John Hen... Brackley, Northamptonsh.
+Buxton, Sir Edw. North, Bt.,M.P...Runcton, Norf,.
Byron, Robert...Bradford, Yorkshire
Cadle, Joseph... Westbury-on-Severn, Gloucest.
+Calcraft, J. H...Kemstone, Corfe Castle, Dorset
7Caldecott, Thos., .Rugby Lodge, Rugby, Warwicks.
Caldecott, William..,Frating Lodge, Frating, Col-
chester
Caldicott, C.M...Holbrook Grange, near Rugby
Caldwell, H. B.,.Hilborowe Hall, Brandon
Caldwell, J. S...Linley Wood, Newcastle, Staffs.
Caldwell, Capt. William...3, Audley Square
Caley, Digby... Ripon, Yorkshire
Calhoun, W. F..,.Binderton, near Chichester, Sussex
Calvert, Edmund...Hunsdon, Ware, Hertfordshire
Calvert, Maj.-Gen. Felix,..Hunsdon House, Ware,
Herts.
7Calvert, Frederick,..9, St. James’s Place
Calvert, Dr. J. W....11, Blandford P1.,
Park
Cambridge, William,..Market Lavington, Devizes,
Wilts
Cambridge, Wm....South Runcton, Downham Mar-
ket, Norfolk
Camden, Marquis.., Wilderness Park, Seven Oaks,
Kent
Cammell, Charles... Wadsley House, Sheffield
Campbell, Rev. Chas....Weasenham, Norfolk
Campbell, Robert... Fakenham, Norfolk
Campion, Arthur. ..Circus, Exeter
Campion, Rev. C. H...Albourne Rectory, Hurstper-
point, Sussex
Campion, Edwd..,.Melchbourne, Higham Ferrers,
Northamptonshire
Campion, Wm. J., jun...Danny, near Brighton
Cane, Rev. T. C...Southwell, Nottinghamshire;
Cannon, Joseph Sims, ..Beckley, Oxford
Regent’s
| Capron, George.
| Carew, John F...
17
Cantrell, Charles S., jun....Shaw Farm, Windsor,
Berks.
Cantrell, Hy... Bayliss Court, Stoke, Slough, Bucks.
7Capel, Arthur....Bulland Lodge, Wiveliscombe,
Somersetshire
Capel, Wm...The Grove, Stroud, Gloucestershire
Capper, Henry...The Willows, Coar’s End, near
Great Marlow, Bucks
.. Stoke, Northamptonshire
-Crowcombe Court, near Taunton,
Somersetshire
+Carew, W. H. Pole...Anthony House, Devonport,
Devon
Carey, John..,Pylle House, Shepton Mallet, Soms.
Cargey, George...Sandon Hall Farm, Stafford
Carins, Michael.,.Meldon, Morpeth, Northumberl.
+Carleton, Hon. and Rey. Rd...25, Bruton Street
Carlin, Wm., jun... Haverfieid, Pattrington, Hull
+7Carline, R... Lincoln
Carlisle, Bishop of... Rose Castle, Carlisle
Carnac, Sir J. R., Bart... Warborne, near Lyming-
ton, Hants
+Carnarvon, Earl of...Highclere House, Newbury,
Berkshire
Carnegie, Hon. J. J.,..Fair Oak, near Petersfield,
Hampshire
Carpenter, John Nelson,..Eardisland, near Leomin-
ster, Herefordshire
Carpmael, William...Streatham Hill, Surrey
Carr, George...Greenla Walls, Berwick-on-Tweed
Carr, John..,Roseworth, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Carr, Ralph....Dunstan Hill, near Newcastle-on-
Tyne
Carrington, Fred. A...10, Henrietta Street, Covent
Garden
Carrington, Geo., jun..
Buckinghamshire
Carrington, John,..Croxden, near Uttoxeter, Staffs.
Carrol, H.,.Tulla House, Nenagh, Tipperary
Carruthers, Day...Grondra House, Chepstow, Mon-
mouthshire
Carter, John... Scales Farm, Richmond, Yorkshire
Carter, John,..65, Southmolton Street
+Carter, John Bonham,..Ditcham Grove, Peters-
field, Hampshire
Carter, J. R....Spalding, Lincolnshire
Carter, John Thomas...Hunstanton, Lynn, Norfolk
Carter, J. W.... Little Totham Hall, Maldon, Essex
Carter, Thos....Styvechale, Coventry, Warwickshire
Carter, Thomas A.,..Lynn Regis, Norfolk
Carter, Thomas S...Moor Place, Much Hadham, near
Ware, Hertfordshire
Carter, T. S.... Watlington Park, Tetsworth, Oxon.
Cartlich, Thos... Chill Lodge, Tunstall, Staffordsh.
Cartwright, Geo... Cliff Cottage, Lyme Regis, Dorset.
Cartwright, Moses,...Stanton House, Burton-on-
Trent, Staffordshire
Cartwright, Nathaniel... Haugham, Louth?
Cartwright, Richard Aubrey...Edgceott, Banbury
Cartwright, R. Norton... The Abbey, Ixworth, Suff.
Cartwright, Sir Thomas...Aynhoe Park, Brackley
+Cartwright, Thomas W....Ragnall Hall, Newton,
Newark, Nottinghamshire
-The Abbey, Gt. Missenden,
D
18
Cartwright, Col. W.... Weedon, Northamptonshire
Carver, W. C....Melbourn, Royston, Heitfordshire
Carver, William...Ingarsby, near Leicester
Case, Frederick...Testerton House, Fakenham
Case, John Ashton...Hartham Park, Corsham,
Chippenham
Castellain, Alfred... Liverpool
Castellain, Hermenegild,..Belgian Consul, 3, Cort-
hall Court
Castle, T... Worle, Weston-super-mare, Somersetsh.
Castlereagh, Viscount...25, Chesham Place, Bel-
grave Square
Castree, Josiah. ..Gloucester
Cathcart, Sir John Andrew...Cooper’s Hill, Chert-
sey
Catherall, John...Mold, Flintshire, N. W.
Catlin, Thomas..Butley Abbey, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Cator, Capt. J. H....10, Wood Street, Woolwich
Cator, Col., R.H.A... Beckenham, Kent
Catt, Wm... Bishopstone, Newhaven, Sussex
+Caulfield, St. George...Wentworths, Chertsey,
Surrey.
Caulton, John Thomas...Spalding, Lincolnshire
Cavan, Earl of... Barford House, Bridgewater
Cave, Sir John Cave Browne, Bart... Stretton-in-the-
Fields, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire
Cavendish, Hon. F....Codicote Lodge, Welwyn,
Herts
+Cavendish, Hon. Capt. G., R.N....Lyne Grove,
Chertsey, Surrey
Cavendish, Hon. George H., M.P....Ashford Hall,
Bakewell, Derbyshire
Cavendish, Hon. William Geo... Latimer, Chesham
Bucks.
+Cawdor, Earl of,..74, South Audley Street
Cawley, James. ..Heath House, Runcorn, Cheshire
Cayley, E. S., M.P...Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire
Chadwick, E...4, Stanhope St., Hyde Park Gardens
+Chadwick, Elias...Pudleston Court, Leominster
Chaffey, R. T...Perridge House, Shepton Mallet
+Chafy, W. W...»Connington House, St. Ives, Hun-
tingdon
Chalcraft, W...Bramshot House, Liphook
Challenor, John... Blackwood, near Leek
Chamberlain, Hen... Bredicot Court, near Worcester
Chamberlain, Henry...Desford, near Leicester
Chamberlain, Robert. .. Norwich
TChamberlayne, Thomas...Cranbury Park, Win-
chester, Hampshire
Chamberlin, Fred....Toft Monks, Norfolk
Chambers, George...High Green, Sheffield
Chambers, J...The Hurst, Tibshall, Alfreton
Chambers, Joseph. ..Wilne, near Shardlow, Derbysh.
Chambers, Thomas, jun....Colkirk, Fakenhara
Chambers, William Frederick.,.Hordle Cliff, Ly-
mington
Chamhers, Wm., jun....Llanelly House, Llanelly,
Carmarthenshire
Champion, F. B... Edale, near Castleton, Derbyshire
Champion, H...Ranby, near East Retford, Notts.
Champion, Rev. John...Taxal Rectory, Stockport,
Cheshire
Champion, T. A,, ,Sarr, near Margate, Kent
>
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Champion, W...Bridge House, Worksop, Notting-
hamshire
Champneys, Rev. T. Phipps...Snarleston, near
Wakefield
Chandler, Henry...Salford, Manchester
Chandler, Thomas...Stockton, Warminster, Wilts.
Chaplin, F...Tathwell, Louth, Lincolnshire
Chaplin, W. Jas.,M.P....Ewehurst Park, Basingstoke
Chapman, Benjamin...Lambcroft, Skelton, Guis-
borongh
Chapman, George...3, Arundel Street, Strand
Chapman, Thos...Stoneleigh, Coventry, Warwicksh.
Chapman, Thomas...Esher Lodge, Esher, Surrey
Chapman, Thomas...3, Arundel Street, Strand
Chapman, T. S.... Aston Clinton, near Tring,
Herts.
Chapple, William...Gornhay, Tiverton
Chare, Robert... Buckland Marsh, Faringdon, Berks
Charleton, Charles Forster.,.Alndike, near Alnwick
Charlton, P...Withyford Hall, Shrewsbury, Shrops.
+Charlton, St. John Chiverton...Apley Castle, Wel-
lington, Shropshire
Charlton, Thos. P... Hilden, near Tonbridge, Kent
Charlton, W. H....Hedleyside, Hexham
Charnock, John Henry...Copmanthorpe, near York
Charrington, Nicholas...Leytonstone, Essex
Charteris, Hon. F., M.P....Armisfield, Haddington,
N. B.
Chasemore, P...Horsham, Sussex
Chatterton, Richard. .Hallington, Louth, Lincolnsh.
Chatterton, William..,.High Risby, Barton-on-
Humber
Chattock, J...Hay House, Castle Bromwich, near
Birmingham
Chawner, Henry... Hound Hill, Uttoxeter, Staffs.
Chawner, Rich,..Sudbury, Derbyshire
+Chawner, Richard Croft... Wall, Lichfield, Staffs.
Cheale, Alex. J....Uckfield, Sussex
Cheatle, Farmer... Dosthill, Fazeley, Staffordshire
Cheere, Rev. G... Papworth Hall, Caxton, Cambs.
Cheere, W. H... Papworth Hall, Caxton, Cambs.
Cheese, John...Castle Weir, Kington, Herefordshire
Cheffins, H.... Little Easton Manor, near Dunmow,
Essex
Cheney, Edward...Gaddesley Hall, Melton Mow-
bray
Cheney, R. H...Badger Hall, near Shiffnal, Shrops.
Cherry, Alfred Henry...Clapham, Surrey
Cherry, George H...Denford, Hungerford, Berks.
Chester, Thomas....Haven Farm, near Tickhill,
Bawtry, Nottinghamshire
Chetwode, Sir John Newdigate Ludford, Bart....
Ansley Halli, Atherstone, Warwickshire
Chetwynd, William Henry...Longdon, Lichfield
Chetwynde, Major Wm. Fawkner...Brocton Hall,
near Lichfield, Staffordshire
Chichester, Bishop of... Palace, Chichester, Sussex
Child, Thos....™Michelham Priory, Hailsham, Sussex
Child, Rev. V. Knox...Takeley, Dunmow, Essex
Child, Wm...Wigmore Grange, Ludlow, Shropshire
Child, Wm....Vernham Manor, Andover, Hants.
Chitty, Edward. ,.Guildford, Surrey
Cholmeley, Henry... Brandsby, near York
List of Members.
{Cholmeley, Sir M.J., Bart.... Easton Hall, Col-
stersworth, Lincolnshire
Cholmeley, Waldo....Staincross, near Barnsley,
Yorkshire
+Cholmondeley, Lord H...Holly Hill, Southampton
Chouler, Chas....Wollaton, near Nottingham
Choyce, W....Ham’s Bridge, Atherstoue, Warw.
Chrisp, Thomas. ..Hawkhill, Alnwick, Northumb.
Christian, John Robert....16, St. Mary Abbott’s
Terrace, Kensington
Christie, Langham...Preston Deanery, Hackleton,
Northampton
Christmas, James...Hayling, near Havant, Hants.
Chune, Geo... .Coalbrookdale, Salop
Church, John... Woodside, Hatfield
Churchill, Geo...,Buckland-Reapers, Dorchester,
Dorsetshire
Churchill, Henry. ,Barton House, Morshard Bishop,
Exeter
Churchward, Henry....Stone House, Brideslow,
Oakhampton, Devon
Churehyard, Isaac... Petistree, Wickham Market,
Suffolk
+Churton, John.. -Foregate Street, Chester
Chute, W. L. Wiggett, M.P....The Vine, Basing-
stoke, Hants
Clare, W. H...Twycross, Atherstone, Leicestershire
Clarina, Lord...Elm Park, Limerick, Ireland
7Clark, Edwin...Ellinthorpe Hall, Boroughbridge,
Yorkshire
Clark, Geo....Hyde Hall, Sandon, Buntingford,
Herts.
7+Clark, Heaton. .Ellinthorpe Lodge, near Borough-
bridge, Yorkshire
fClark, James...Chapel Farm, Burley, Oakham,
Rutlandshire
Clark, Rev. Johu Crosby...Chertsey, Surrey
Clark, John Wm...Timsbury Farm, Romsey, Hants.
Clark, Joseph...Maidenhead, Berkshire
Clark, N., jun. .. Urpeth, Chester-le-Street, Durham
Clark, Thos., jun.,..Derndale, near Hereford
Clark, Wm. John...Buckland Toutsaints, Kings-
bridge, Devon
Clarke, Charles...Aisthorpe, near Lincoln
Clarke, Sir C. Mansfield, Bart., F.R.S.... Wigginton
Lodge, Tamworth
Clarke, Edward. ..Canwick, near Lincoln
Clarke, George Rochfort. ,.Chesterton Lodge, Bicester
Clarke, Jno... Long Sutton, Lincolnshire
Clarke, John Altham Graham...Kinnersley Castle,
Hereford
Clarke, Joseph, jun....Waddington Glebe, Lincoln
Clarke, R. Trevor... Welton Place, Daventry
Clarke, Thos. Truesdale...Swakeleys, Uxbridge
Clarke, W. R.... Wymondham, Norfolk
+Clavering, W....University Club, Suffolk Street :
Clay, John...East Boldon, near South Shields |
+Clay, Sir William, Bart., M.P....Fulwell Lodge,
Twickenham, Middlesex
Clayden, John... Littlebury, Saifron Walden, Essex
Claydon, Charles. ,.Cambridge
Claypon, Joseph. .9, Westbourne Street, Hyde Park
Gardens
19
Clayton, David S..,. Norbury, near Stockport, Ches.
Clayton, Hy...21, Upper Park Place, Dorset Square
Clayton, John.,.Chesters, Hexham
Clayton, Nathaniel...Melvell Street, Lincoln
Clayton, R. C. B....Adlington Hall, Wigan, Lance.
Cleave, Benjamin... Newcombe, Crediton, Devon
Clement, Hampden...Snareston Lodge, Atherstone,
Warwickshire .
Clement, W. J....Shrewsbury
Clerk, Edmund Hugh..Westholme House, Shepton
Mallet, Somersetshire
Clerke, Rev. Francis.,Eydon, Brackley, Northamp.
Cleveland, Augustus,..Tapley Park, Barnstaple
Cleveland, Duke of.. Newton House, Bedale, Yorks.
Clifford, Henry Clifford... Frampton Court, Dursley
Clifford, Hy. Morgan...Llantilio, Crosseney, Rag-
land, Monmouthshire
Clinton, Colonel F....No. 1, Haymarket
Clinton, Lieut.-Col. H....6, Audley Square
Clinton, Lord...Hinton House, Hatherleigh, Devon
+Clive, Rev. Archer... Solihull Rectory, Warwicksh.
Clode, John ... Great Linford, Newport Pagnell,
Bucks.
+Clonbrock, Lord .,.Clonbrock, Ayaseragh, Ireland
Clough, John... Bootham, York
Clover, John... Kirtling Place, Newmarket, Cambs.
+Clowes, Edmund. ..Warton, Lancaster
Clowes, Wm. Leigh,..Spondon, near Derby
Clutterbuck, Rev. Jas. Charles...Long Wittenham,
Abingdon, Berkshire
Clutterbuck, Robert... Watford House, Watford,
Herts.
Clutton, John...8, Whitehall Place
Clutton, Robert... Hartswood, Reigate, Surrey
Clutton, Thos. C.,,.Chorlton Hall, Malpas, Chesh.
Clutton, Wm....Edwinsione, Ollerton, Notts.
Clutton, Wm. James...The Mount, York
Coape, Capel...Union Club
Coape, H. Coe...Maldon, issex
+Cobb, Henry. ..18, Lincoln’s Inn Fields
Cobb, Robt....Town Place, Faversham, Kent
Cobb, Robt. L....Higham, Rochester
Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P.... Ipswich, Suffolk
Cobham, T....Marley Lodge, near Exmouth, Devon
Cobon, James... Well Hall, Lynn, Norfolk
Cock, Wm....Courtledge, Appledore, near Tenter-
den, Kent
Cockell, Charles... Bridgham, East Harling, Norf.
Cockeram, Thomas...Up Cerne House, near Dor-
chester, Dorset
Cocks, Rev. W....Neen Savage Rectory, Cleobury
Mortimer, Salop
Coe, Robert, jun.... Tilney, Lynn, Norfolk
Cogan, Thos. S....Eastdean, Chichester, Sussex
+Colborne, Lord,.. West Harling, Norfolk
Colchester, Benjamin. .. Ipswich
Coldham, H, W....Anmer, near Lynn, Norfolk
+Cole, Richard John...Chertsey, Surrey
Cole, T. H...The Green, Wick, near Bath, Somerset
Cole, William Henry...Pulham, Harleston
Coleman, John...Kearsney Court Farm, near Dover
Coleman, John.,.Runhall, Wymondham, Norfolk
Coleman, Richard,.. Langdon Abbey, Dover, Kent
D 2
20
+Coles, Alfred...Snelsmore, Newbury, Berkshire
Coles, Colonel... Kean Hall, Wells, Somerset
Coles, Colonel... Woodcote, Alresford, Hants.
Coles, H. B.. . Middleton House, Whitchurch, Hants.
Collard, Edwin...Chislett Park, Chislett, Canter-
bury, Kent
Collard, Thomas W....Canterbury, Kent
Collett, Russell... .The Jungle, near Lincoln
Colley, John. ,,Osbaston, Wellington, Salop
Collier, John,..Panlathy, Muirdrum, Forfarshire,
N. B.
Collin, Rev. John, jun....Rickling Vicarage, near
Bishop Stortford, Herts.
Collings, Daniel Harson.,.Sneed Park, near Bristol
Collingwood, Edward, ..Tissington Hall, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
+Collins, Henry. . Berkeley Lodge, near Chichester
+Collins, John... Wonham, Bampton, Devon.
Collison, Brown . . New England, Hitchin, Herts.
Collyer, Rev. R...Warham Rectory, Wells, Norf.
Colquhoun, J. C., M.P....8, Chesham Street
Colthurst, Jonathan...Hantworth Park Farm, Bridge-
water, Somersetshire
Coltman, Wm. Joseph...Alborough Hall, Borough-
bridge, Yorkshire
Colvile, Rev. A. Asgill...Livermere Rectory, Bury
St. Edmunds
Colvile, Col....12 a, Great Cumberland Place
+Colvin, Beal Blacknell. .Monkhams Hall, Waltham
Abbey, Essex
+Colyer, William... North End, Crayford, Kent
Combermere, Viscount..Combermere Abbey, Nant-
wich, Cheshire
Comins, James. ..South Molton, Devonshire
Comins, Richard...Tiverton, Devon
+Commerell, Will. Augustus...Strood, Horsham
+Compton, Henry Combe, M.P....Minstead Manor
House, Lyndhurst, Hants.
+Compton, Richard...Eddington House, Hunger-
ford, Berkshire
Connell, Dr....2nd Life Guards
Connop, N....Honeylands, Waltham Abbey, Essex
Conroy,Sir J., Bart.,.K.C.H.. Arborfield Hall,Reading
Conway, Wm. Shipley...Bodryddan, St. Asaph’s,
Flintshire, N.W.
Cooch, Joshua... Harleston, near Northampton
Coode, Geo.... Haydock, Newton-le- Willows, Lance.
Cook, Charles...High House, Litcham, Norfolk
Cook, Henry G....Lacton Hall, Willesborough, near
Ashford, Kent
Cook, Rev. J. G...-Purley Hall, nr. Reading, Berks.
+Cook, John...Hothorpe, Welford, Northamptonsh.
Cook, William, jun....Orton, Rowell, Kettering
Cooke, Rev. Jas. Y....Semer, near Hadleigh, Suff.
Cooke, John...Flemston Hall, Bury St. Edmunds
Cooke, John Malsbury...Towcester, Northamptonsh.
+Cooke, P. D.,..Owston, near Doneaster, Yorksh.
Cooke, Thomas... Newport, Monmouthshire
Cooke, Wm... .Catraw, Stannington, Morpeth
Cooke, Wm....Camerton Hall, Workington, Cumb.
Cooke, Wm....Risby Hall, Bury St. Edmunds
Cooke, Sir Wm. B.; Bart.... . Wheatley Hall, Don-
easter, Yorkshire
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Cooke, Wm. Fothergill... Eliot House, Blackheath
Cookson, Charles Edward... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Cookson, I....Meldon Park, Morpeth, Northumb.
Cookson, John...Hatherton, near Nantwich
Cookson, Thomas...Swinburne Castle, Hexham
Cookson, Wm....Benwell Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Cooling, John...Lower Winchindon, Thame, Oxon.
Cooper, Geo. F.... Langenhoe Hall, near Colchester,
Essex
Cooper, G. Kersey... Euston, Thetford, Norfolk
Cooper, I....Long Brackland, Bury St. Edmunds,
Suffolk.
Cooper, J. G....Blythburgh, near Halesworth, Suff.
Cooper, Jonathan... Barton, Bury St. Edmunds.
Cooper, Lewis Judah...23, Broad Street, Reading
Cooper, Samuel, jun....Ardleigh, Colchester, Essex”
Cooper, Thos.... Norton Seaford, near Lewes, Suss.
Cooper, Thomas,..Ashford, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Cooper, Thomas H...Camden Street, Camden Town
Cooper, William... Barningham Park Farm, Ixworth
Cooper, William D. C....Toddington Manor, near
Dunstaple, Beds.
Cooper, William Henry...Shrewsbury
Cope, Sir John...Bramshill, Hartford Bridge, Hants.
Copeman, George...Aylsham
Copeman, Robert, jun....Hemsby, Great Yarmouth
Copeman, Thomas...Aylsham, Norfolk
Copestake, Thos. G....Kirkby Langley, near Derby
+Coppard, Thomas.,..Horsham, Sussex
Corbet, Andrew W....Sundorne Castle, Shrewsbury
Corbet, Sir A. V., Bt....Acton Reynald, Shrewsbury
Corbett, Edward... Longnor, Hall, Shrewsbury
Corbett, James,,.The Sheriff’s Farm, Pembridge,
Herefordshire
Corbett, Rev. Joseph...Tugford, Ludlow
Corbett, Vincent... Worthy, near Sheffield
Cornes, John... Barbridge, Nantwich
Cornewall, Sir Velters, Bart....Moccas Court, near
Hereford
Cornwallis, Earl of...Linton Place, Staplehurst,K ent
Corrance, Fred....Lowdham, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Corringham, R. W....Gringley-on-the-Hill, near
Bawtry, Notts.
Corsbie, John... Horrenger, Bury St. Edmunds
Cosens, William, ..Langdon, Dawlish, Devon
Cotes, Rev. Chas. Grey. ..Stanton St. Quintin, Chip-
penham, Wilts.
Cother, William...Middle Aston, Woodstock, Oxon.
Cottam, Geo....Winsley Street, Oxford Street
Cottenham, Lord...Coppice Hill, Wimbledon, Surr.
Cotterell, Jacob Henry... Bath
+Cottingham, Edmund..,.Chunb Farm, Cove, Hythe,
Wrentham
Cottingham, John G.,..Chesterfield, Derbyshire
Cottingham, L. O....Reydon, Southwold, Suffolk
Cottle, W....Cheney Court, Box, near Chippenham
7Cotton, Alexander...Hildersham Hall, Cambridge
Cotton, Chas. Robert...Broughton Hall, Worthen-
bury, near Wrexham
Cotton, H....Amor Hall, Washbrook, Ipswich, Suff,
Cotton, W. A... .Ellesmere, Salop
+Coudie, James...Perth
Coulman, Robt. Jno.... Wadworth, Doncaster, Yorks.
List of Members.
Coulson, Col.,..Blenkinsopp, Haltwhistle, Northum.
Coulson, John, jun.. .-Kenninghall, Harling, Norf.
Coupland, J....Southampton
Coupland, John Geo....Freeston, Boston, Linc.
+Courtenay, Viscount, M.P....Powderham Castle,
Exeter
Courthorpe, G. C....Whyly, Lamberhurst, Sussex
Coussmaker, Lannoy... Westwood, Farnham, Surrey
Coward, Charles Leach...Masbro’, Rotherham
Cowen, Joseph... Blagdon Burn, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Cowper, Earl...1, Great Stanhope Street
Cox, E. W...-Haddenham, Aylesbury
+Cox, Henry. ..Trevereux, Edenbridge, Kent
Cox, John Henry...Parkfield, near Derby
Cox, Samuel Walker...Breadsall, near Derby
Cox, Thomas... Walton Hill, Burton-on-Trent
Cox, William..,Brailsford, near Derby
Cox, William...Scotch Grove, Thame
Cox, Wm. Thos....Cottage, Spondon, near Derby
Coxe, Francis L.... Wye Cottage, near Chepstow
+Coxe, James... Newtown Lodge, Hungerford
Coxe, Philip S....Ardington Mill, Wantage, Berks.
Coyney, Chas.... Weston Coyney, Newcastle-under-
Lyme, Staffordshire
Cozens, Robt... . Norton Farm, Sutton Scotney, Win-
chester
Cozins, John... Wraxhall House, Charlton Kings,
Cheltenham
Crabtree, John... Halesworth, Suffolk
Cradock, S....Hartforth Hall, Richmond, Yorkshire
Cradock, Thos....Woodheuse, Loughborough, Lei-
cestershire
Craig, John...Quatt, Bridgnorth
+Crallan, Thomas...3, Ardwick Green, Manchester
Crane, Henry...Oakhampton, Stourport, Worcester-
shire
Crane, Jno....
Crawford, Rev. W. H....Haughley Park, Woolpit,
Suffolk
Crawford, William... Newton Purcell, near Bicester
Crawhall, Isaac... White House, Stanhope, Durham
Crawhall, Joseph... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
+Crawhall, William...Stagshaw Close House, Hex-
ham, Northumberland
Crawter, Henry...7, Southampton Buildings, Chan-
cery Lane
Crawter, Thomas...Cobham, Surrey
Cree, John...Ower Moign, Dorchester, Dorset
Creed, George... Boarhunt Farm, Fareham, Hants
Cresswell, A. J. Baker, M.P....Cresswell, near
Morpeth, Northumberland
Cresswell, Oswin A. Baker..Cresswell, near Morpeth
Cresswell, Robert...Idridgehay, near Wirksworth,
Derbyshire
Cresswell, William G. Baker...Cresswell, near
Morpeth
Cretney, Thomas... Dunsfold, Godalming
Cripps, J.Martin. . Novington, Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Cripps, Thomas... Oxford
Crisp, Fortunatus...1, Smith Terrace, Smith Street,
Chelsea
+Crisp, Thos....Gedgrave Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Crispin, Henry, jun....Chumleigh, Devon
21
Crockford, Henry...Dee Cottage, Queen’s Ferry,
Flintshire
Crockford, Rev. William John. ..The Vicarage, More-
ton Say, Market Drayton
Croft, Archdeacon James, M.A....Saltwood, Hythe,
Kent
Croft, Sir J., Bart... Millgate Lodge, near Maidstone
+Crofton, Lord...Mote Park, Athlone, Ireland
Crofton, Thos... Holywell, Durham
Croggon, T. J....8, Laurence Pountney Hill, Cannon
Street, London
Crompton, Joshua Samuel...Sion Hill, Thirsk
Croome, James...Breadstone, Berkeley, Gloucesters.
Croote, William, jun....Lapford, Chumleigh, De-
vonshire
Crosby, John..,Kirkby Thore, Appleby, Westmore-
land
Crosland, J. S.... Burbage House, Hinckley,
Cross, John... Ely
Cross, William Assheton...Red Scar, near Preston,
Lancashire
Crosse, Henry... Boyton Hall, Stowmarket, Suffolk
Crosse, James...Gringley, Retford, Notts.
Crosse, William...One House Hall, Stowmarket
Crosskill, William. ..Beverley, Yorkshire
Crossley, J...Scaithcliffe, near Todmorden, Lancs.
Crosthwaite, John,..Much Wootton, near Liverpool
Crouch, James...Cainhoe, Silsoe
Crouch, John...Cirencester
Croughton, William Peel. ,. Heronden House, Tenter-
den, Kent
+Crow, G...Ornhams, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire
Croxon, John... Llanforda Isaf, Oswestry, Shropsh,
Crump, Jos.... Wooler’s Hill, Tewkesbury
Crundwell, George... Manor House, Southborough>
Tunbridge Wells
Cruso, John, jun... Leek, Staffordshire
Crutchley, Percy H....Sunning Hill Park, Chertsey,
Surrey
Cubley, Tamberlain,..Quarrington, Sleaford, Lin-
colnshire
+Cuff, W. F...Merriott, Ilminster
Culley, John, jun...Guton Hall, Norwich
|} Cullum, S...Townsend Farm, St. Albans, Herts
Culverwell, J... Wedmore, near Wells, Somerset.
Cummins, Thomas,..Gateshead
Cunliffe, Sir Robert, Bart....Acton Park, Wrexham,
Denbighshire, N.W.
Cuninghame, John,..Hensol, Castle Douglas, Kirk-
cudbright, N.B.
+Cure, Capel, ..Blake Hall, Ongar, Essex
Cureton, George... Westbury, Salop
Cureton, John...Hordeley, Ellesmere, Salop
Curl, Jacob... East Winch, Lynn Regis
Currie, Edmund...Oakley House, Abingdon, Berks.
Currie, H...West Horsley Park, Leatherhead, Surrey
Currie, Jas... Hillside, King’s Langley, Herts
Currie, Raikes, M.P. . 4, Hyde Park Terrace ,
Curteis, George. ..Canterbnry
Curties, Rev. Thomas Chandler, .. Linton Vicarage,
Ross
Curtis, Edward...New Barn Farm, Gatcombe, New-
port, Isle of Wight
22
Curtis, Admiral Sir Lucius, Bart. ..Gateombe House,
Portsmouth, Hampshire
+Curtis, Sir William, Bart... . Ramsgate
Curtler, T. G.... Bevere House, near Worcester
Custance, H. F... Weston House, Norwich
Cuthbert, James...12, Clayton Square, Liverpool
Cuthbert, William... Beaufront, Hexham
+Cuthbert, William, jun....Beaufront, Hexham
e
Dadds, James... Wingham, Kent
Dadds, John, sen... Wingham, Kent
Daintree, R... Hemingford Abbots, St. Ives, Hunts.
Daintry, T. R...North Rode, Macclesfield, Cheshire
Dalgairns, William...Guernsey
Dalton, James.. eae near Colchester, Essex
Dalton, John... West Bilney, Lynn
Dalton, Rev. William. . swaffham
Damen, Angel.. .Isle Beever! Langport, Somerset
Damen, John Angel...New Farm, Winforth, Dor-
chester, Dorset
Damer, Hon. Dawson,.
Chelsea
Dand, Robert... Field House, Alnwick
Dandridge, Daniel...East Hendred,
Berks.
+Daniel, John,..Parson’s Green, Middlesex
Daniel, Thos., jun...Stoodley, Tiverton, Devonshire
Daniel, William...Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Darby, George, M.P....Marklye, Warbleton, Hurst
Green, Sussex
Dare, R. W. Hall...Rossana, Ashford, Ireland
Darley, Charles Albert...Burtonfield, near York
Darling, Geo...Hetton House, Wooler, Northumb.
Darling, Thomas,...Beau-Desert Farm, Lichfield,
Staffordshire
Darnell, Thos. Smith...St. Neots, Huntingdonshire
+Dartmonth, Earl of...Sandwell Park, Birmingham
Darton, Thos. H.....Temple Dentley, Hitchin,
Hertfordshire
Dartry, Lord... Dartry, Rockcorry, Ireland
Dashwood, Francis... Halcott, Bexley, Kent
Dashwood, Henry... Kirtlington, Gosford, Oxon
Daubeny, Rev. Edw. A... Ampney, near Cirencester,
Gloucestershire
Daubuz, J. B...Offington House, Worthing, Sussex
Davenport, Edward,..Spurstow Hall, Bunbury, Tar-
porley, Cheshire
Davey, George...Dorchester, Oxon.
Davey, George, jun... Buckland, Faringdon, Berks.
Davey, Richard... Redruth, Cornwall
David, Evan...Fairwater, Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Davidson, A. D. Greaves..-Hylton Grove, West
Boldon, Gateshead
Davidson, Thomas Atkinson... Police Office, New-
castle-upon-Tyne
Davidson, Wm.,..Scotter, Gainsborough, Lincoln-
shire
Davig, Sir H. Ferguson, Bart...Creedy, Crediton
Davies, D. S., M.P....Pentre, Newcastle Emlyn,
Carmarthenshire
Davies, James... Foschydgaled, Aberystwith
Davies, John... Halford, near Ludlow, Salop
Davies, Rev. Lewis Charles.,.Ynishir, Aberystwith
-Rectory, Church Street,
Abingdon,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Davies, Rev. R. W. P..Court-y-Gollen, Crickhowell,
Brecknockshire
Davies, Rev. S...The Grange, Oystermouth, Swansea
Davies, Mrs. Susanna...Rochlayeston Manor, Not-
tingham
Davis, Cornelius Butler...East Woodhay, Newbury
Davis, Hy...Old Downs, Oakhill, nr. Bath, Somerset.
Davis, Major H. T. . Waterhouse, near Bath, Somerst.
+Davis, John...Cranbrook, Ilford, Essex
Davis, John... Banbury, Oxfordshire
Davis, John...Maperton, Wincanton, Somersetshire
Davis, Peter. ..Milton House, Pembridge
+Davis, Richd....Skeynes, Edenbridge, Kent
+Davis, Samuel...Swerford Park, Enstone, Oxon
Davis, Thos.. Little Wenlock, Wellington, Shropsh.
+Davis, Thos. Henry...Orleton, near Worcester
Davison, Thomas... Durham
Davison, William...Seaton Delaval, North Shields
Davy, Francis...Topsham, near Exeter, Devonshire
Davy, H...Warsop, ur. Mansfield, Nottinghamshire
Davy, James...Churchill, Broad Clist, near Exeter
Davy, John...Owersby, Market Rasen, Lincoln
Davy, John T... Barton, Roseash, nr. South Molton
Davy, Joseph...Kelling, Holt, Norfolk
Davy, Robert... Ringwood, Hampshire
Davy, Walker... Thorseway Vale, Caistor, Lincoln-
shire
Dawes, Edward Nathaniel...Rye, Sussex
Dawkins, Henry...Encombe, Folkestone, Kent
Dawson, Edward..,Aldcliffe Hall, Lancaster
+Dawson, Edward,..Long Whatton House, near
Loughborough, Leicestershire
Dawson, G. P...Osgodby Hall, Selby, Yorkshire
+Dawson, H.., Launde Abbey, Uppingham, Rutld.
Dawson, J...Gronant, Holywell, Flintshire, N. W.
Dawson, William... High Street, Bedford
+Dawson, William Edward...Plumstead Common,
Kent
Day, Francis...Priory, St. Neot’s, Hunts.
Day, John... Newick, near Lewes, Sussex
Day, John Woodhouse...Pelau House, Durham
Day, Thomas,.. Wornditch, Kimbolton, Hunts.
Day, William...St. Neots, Huntingdonshire
Dayman, John...Trebarfoot, Stratton, Cornwall
Dean, Alex...Pershore Road, Smithfield, Birming-
ham
+Dean, A. Keball...East Brent, Axbridge, Somerset.
+Dean, F. Keball,.. East Brent, Axbridge, Somerset.
Dean, G. A...Stratford, Essex
Dean, Henry... Weston, Petersfield, Hanupehige
Dean, James...The Yews, Tottenham, Middlesex,
Dean, John... Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Deane, George...46, King William Street, City
Deane, John...46, King William Street, City
Dearden, Jas... Rochdale, Manchester, Lancashire
De Berg, M...30, Dover Street, Piccadilly
De Broke, Lord Willoughby...Compton Verney,
Stratford-on-Avon
Deedes, William...Sandling Park, Hythe, Kent
De l’Isleand Dudley, The Earl of.,.Penshurst, Kent
Dell, Thos... Broadway Farm, Great Berkhampstead,
Hertfordshire
Delves, William Frank...Tonbridge Wells
List of Members.
+De Manley, Lord.,.Canford House, Wimborne,
Dorsetshire _
+Denbigh, Earl of...Newnham Paddock, Lutter-
worth, Leicestershire
Denison, Edmund,.. Doncaster
+Dennett, Mullens...Lodsworth, Petworth, Sussex
Dennis, Robert...Greetham, Horncastle, Lincolnsh.
Dennison, William, jun....Redbrook Manor Farm,
Blackheath
Dent, John... Worcester
Dent, John...Streatlam Castle, Barnard Castle
Dent, Joseph... Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire
Dent, Ralph...Streatlam Castle, Barnard Castle
Dent, Villiers, ..Avon Cottage, Ringwood
Dent, William... Brampton, North Huntingdon
Denton, Thomas...Lew, Witney, Oxfordshire
Derry, Charles M...Gedney, Holbeach, Lincolnshire
Dester, Joseph... Bramcote, Tamworth, Staffordshire
Des Veeux, Henry...Drakelow Park, Derby
Devas, Thomas. .. Dulwich, Surrey
Deverell, John...Purbrook Park, Portsmouth
Devon, Charles... Teddington Place, Middlesex
Devon, Earl of, ... Powderliam Castle, Exeter, Devon.
Dew, J...Cradock, Ross, Herefordshire
Dew, Tomkins...Whitney Court, Hereford
Dewey, Lewis... Woodcock Lodge, Little Berkhamp-
stead
Dewing, Augustus... Ash Wicken, Lynn Regis
+Dewing, R...Carbrooke, Watton, Norfolk
De Winton, J. Jetfrys...Priory Hill, Brecon
De Winton, J. Parry...Maesderwen, Brecon, S. W.
+Dickens, Charles Scrace...Horsham, Sussex
Dickin, John...St. John’s Hill, Shrewsbury
Dickins, Robert A...Woodford Grange, Wolver-
hampton, Staffordshire
7Dickinson, E. H.....King’s Weston, Somerton,
Somersetshire
Dickinson, Harvey...Sundridge, near Sevenoaks,
Kent
Dickinson, Henry...Severn House, Colebrook Dale,
Salop
Dickinson, John...Abbot’s Hill, Watford, Herts,
Dickinson, John...Red How, Cockermouth
Dickinson, Joseph... Westbury, Salop
Dickinson, William...7, Curzon Street, May Fair
Dickinson, Wm. Lindow. . Workington, Cumberland
Dickon, Thomas... Doncaster
Dickons, Thomas...High Oakham, Mansfield
Dickson, James...Chester
Dickson, John...Feelwalls, Ayton, Berwickshire
Dickson, Robert....East Wickham, near Welling,
Kent
Didsbury, Thomas... Rotherham, Yorkshire
Digby, E...Minterne House, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Digby, Rev. K...Tetteshall Rectory, Litcham, Norf.
Digby, Lieut.-Col. Robt. ..6, Chapel Street, Gros-
venor Square
Dighton, Francis...Northallerton, Yorkshire
+Dilke, Capt., R.N....Maxstoke Castle, Coleshill,
Warwickshire ‘i
+Dilke, C. Wentworth...76, Sloane Street
Dilke, C. W....9, Lower Grosvenor Place
Dinning, John. -, Newlands, near Belford
23
Disbrowe, Sir Edward Cromwell...the Hague
TDivett, E., M.P...Bystock, Exmouth, Devonshire
Dix, Robert...Stamford Rivers, Romford
Dixon, Charles..,.Stanstead Park, Chichester, Sussex
Dixon, Henry...Witham, Essex
Dixon, Henry...Oxford
Dixon, James... Page Hall, near Sheffield, Yorksh.
Dixon, John,,.Harmston, near Lincoln
Dixon, Joln...Knells, Carlisle
Dixon, John Bond,..Freechase, Slangham, Sussex
Dixon, J. G....Caistor, Lincolnshire
tDixon, John William.,.Beasby, North Thoresby,
Louth
Dixon, Peter... Holme Eden, Carlisle
Dixon, Thomas.... Darlington, Durham
Dixon, Thomas J....Holton, near Caistor, Lincoln-
shire
Dixon, William Frederick... Birley House, near
Sheffield
Dobito, Geo.... Kirtling Hall, Newmarket, Cambs. °
Dobree, Harry... Beau Séjour, Guernsey
Dobson, William... Tritlington, Morpeth
Dod, J. Whitehall, M.P.,..Cloverley Hall, Whit-
church, Shropshire
Dod, Henry D....Mansfield Woodhouse, Notts.
Dodd, Thomas... Rainham, Sittingbourne, Kent
Dodds, Ralph... 32, Prudhoe Street, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Dodds, Thomas...Standish, Wigan, Lancashire
Dolby, Charles.. .Spalding, Lincolnshire
Dolby, Wm....Marston, Grantham, Lincolnshire
TDollond, Geo.... North Terrace, Camberwell
Dolphin, Thos....Swafield, North Walsham, Norf.
Domett, Samuel,..Westhay, Axminster, Devon
Domvile, Charles Compton William...Hampreston
Rectory, Wimborne
Donkin, Edward...Westow, near York
Donkin, Geo... .Wyfold Ct., Henley-on-Thames
Donkin, Samuel. ,Bywell, Felton, Northumberland
Donkin, Thos....Westow Hall, Whitwell, near York
+Donovan, George... Buckham Hill, Uckfield
Dorchester, Lord. ..Greywell, Odiham, Hants.
Dormer, C. Cottrell, ..Rousham, Woodstock, Oxon.
+Dorrien, Charles. , .Sennecotes, Ashling, near Chi-
chester, Sussex
Dougill, John... Finthorp, near Huddersfield
Douglas, Rev. H. Cockburn ... Duntze, Weaver-
thorpe, Sledmere, Yorkshire
Douro, Marquis of, M.P.... 3, Upper Belgrave
Street, Belgrave Square
Dover, Henry... Caston, Watton, Norfolk
Dowden, Thos... .Mitcheldever, near Winchester
Downes, William. ,.Dedham, Colchester, Essex
Downes, Wm. Henry...New House, Much Wen-
lock, Salop
Downing, John Cole ..The Hill, Earl Soham, Wood-
bridge, Suffolk
Downs, John Henry...Grays, Essex
Dowson, Henry G....Geldeston, Norfolk
Dowson, B..,.Quay, Yarmouth
Downward, Rev. Geo. Rich.. ..Shrewsbury, Shrops.
Doyne, Robert... Wells, county Wexford, Ireland
Drage, Thomas, ,, Haddenham, Ely
24
Drake, F. W. T.... Hitchen Hill, Hitchen, Herts
Drake, George...Manor Farm, E. Tytherley, Stock-
bridge, Hants.
Drake, Sir T. Trayton F. Elliot, Bart....Nutwell
Court, near Exeter, Devonshire
Drake, T. T....Shardloes, Amersham, Bucks.
+Drax, J. S. W. Erle, M.P....Charborough Park,
Blandford, Dorsetshire
Dray, William...46, King William Street, City
Drew, John...Peamore Cottage, near Exeter, Devon.
Drew, John, jun.....Powderham, near Exeter
Drew, P....Glanhassen, Newtown, Montgomerysh.
+Drewe, E. S....The Grange, Honiton, Devonshire
+Drewitt, George... Manor Farm, Oving, Chichester
Drewitt, John. ..North Stoke, Arundel, Sussex
+Drewitt, R. Dawtrey... Burpham, Arundel, Sussex
Drewitt, Thomas, jun....Guildford, Surrey
Drewry, George. ..Holker House, Cartmell, Lancas.
Driver, Edward...8, Richmond Terrace
+Driver, George Neale...8, Richmond Terrace
Druce, Joseph... Ensham, near Oxford
Druce, Samuel, ..Ensham, near Oxford
+Druce, Samuel, jun....Ensham, near Oxford
+Drummond, Andrew Robt...Cadland, New Forest,
Southampton, Hants.
Drummond, Dr. Henry...103, Gloucester Place,
Portman Square
+Drummond, Hon. W. H....Castle Strath Allan,
Auchterarder, N. B.
Drury, George V....Eastbourne, Sussex
Drury, Thomas. ..Shawbury, near Shrewsbury
Du Cane, Capt. Chas....Braxted Lodge, Kelvedon,
Essex
+Duckworth, Sir John, Bart....Wear House, near
Exeter, Devonshire
Duffield, James...Great Baddow, Chelmsford
Dugdale, John. .. Manchester
Duke, Charles... East Lavant, Chichester, Sussex
Duke, Henry...Earnley, Chichester, Sussex
Dumolo, John...Dunton House, Fazeley, Stafford-
shire
Dunbar, Hon. Robert... Latheronwheel, Dunbeath,
Caithness
Duncalfe, R... Honington Grange, Newport, Shrops.
Duncan, William George....Great Houghton
House, near Northampton
+Duncombe, Hon. Octavius M.P....24, Arlington
Street
Duncuft, John, M.P.... Westwood House, Oldham
Dunn, Geo....Ellingham, Alnwick, Northumberld.
Dunn, Richard,.. Ryden Farm, Evesham, Worcest.
Dunn, Thomas...Richmond Hill, near Sheffield
+Dunne, Thos., jun... .Bircher, Leominster
Dunning, Ralph... Bishop’s Burton, Beverley,
Yorkshire
Dunning, William, jun....Friar Waddon, near Dor-
chester, Dorsetshire
Duppa, Thos. Duppa... one rile: Church Stretton,
Shrewsbury, Shropshire
Du Pré, Caledon George, M.P.... Wilton Park,
Deaconsfield, Bucks.
Dyer, George... 3, Pollington Villas, Holloway,
Middlesex
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Dyke, Henry...Parade, Monmouth
Dyke, J. D....Glovers, near Sittingbourne, Kent
Dyke, Sir Percival Hart...Lullington Castle, Dart-
ford, Kent
Dyke, Rev. Thomas Hart...Long Newton, Stockton-
on-Tees
Dymock, Rey. Edward,..Penley Hall, near Elles-
mere, Salop
Dymoke, Sir Henry, Bt....Scrivelsby Gourk Horn-
castle, Lincolnshire
Dyott, Capt....Freeford, Lichfield, Staffordshire
Dyson, Thos...Manor House, Braithwell, Rotherham
Eames, James. .Beck Farm, Beaulieu, Southampton
Eames, John... Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire
Eardley, Sir Culling E....Belvedere, Erith, Kent
+Earle, Richard...Knowsley, Prescot, Lancashire
Earle, Thomas...Itchen Stoke, near Alresford,
Hampshire
East, Edwin...Streatham, Surrey
East, Sir East Clayton, Bart....Hall Place, Maiden-~
head, Berkshire
+Easthope, Sir John, Bart.... Fir Grove, Weybridge,
Surrey
Easton, Richard... Moortown Farm, Canford, near
Wimborne, Dorset
+Easton, James...Nest House, Gateshead
Eastwood, Richd.... Townley Brimshaw, near Burn-
ley, Lancashire
Eaton, George...Spixworth, Norwich, Norfolk
Ebbetts, John... Witchingham, Reepham, Norfolk
Eckley, Richard. ..12,°Darlington Place, Bath
+Eddison, Edwin...Headingly Hill, Leeds
+Eddison, Hy....Gateford, Worksop, Notts.
Eddowes, John...Grimmer, Shrewsbury
Eden, John....Beamish Park, Chester-le-Street,
Durham
Eden, Robert... Hampton Court, Middlesex
Edgar, Rev. Mileson G....Red House, Ipswich,
Suffolk
Edgell, Richd. Wyatt. .Milton Place, Egham, Surrey
Edgington, Benjamin ...2, Duke Street, Southwark
Edmondson, John...Grassyard Hall, Lancaster
Edmunds, Edmund... Rugby
Edwardes, Hon. William. .Edmondthorpe, Oakham,
Rutlandshire
Edwards, Frederick... Barnham, Thetford, Norfolk
Edwards, Henry... Winchester
Edwards, Sir John, Bart.,..Greenfields, Machyn-
Neth, N. W.
Edwards, John...Ness Strange, near Shrewsbury
Edwards, Joseph... Ross, Herefordshire
Edwards, O. H....Chesterford, Essex
Edwards, Richard... Roby Hall, Prescot
Edwards, Samuel... Foxhall, Ross, Herefordshire
Edwards, Thomas...Hapton Hall, Long Stratton,
Norfolk
Edwards, Thos. Downes...Hodgebatch, Bromyard
Edwards, William...Brook House, Ross, Herefords.
gerton, Major-Gen. Richard...Eaton Banks, Tar-
porley, Cheshire
Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., M.P....
Oulton Park, Middlewich, Cheshire
List of Members.
Egerton, Rev. Thomas....Middle Rectory, Shrews-
bury
Eggar, Frederick.. .22, Whitehall Place
yEland, Stephen Eaton. ..Manor House, Stanwick,
Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire
Eldin, Joseph...Cottam Grange, Sledmere, Yorks.
Eley, Charles,.Beavere Farm, Hounslow, Middlesex
Elgar, James.,.Wingham, Kent
jy Elkins, Joseph Norton...Elkington Welford, Nor-
tham ptonshire
Elliot, John...Field House, Clifton, Bristol
7 Elliot, John..Chapel Brampton, near Northampton
Elliot, Rev. T. Elphinstone,.., Whalton Rectory,
Morpeth
Elliott, Eustace...Smeaton Pellaton, Landulph,
near Devonport
Elliott, John...Chichester, Sussex
Elliott, William...Fawley, near Ross, Herefordshire
Ellis, Charles... Franklands, St. John’s Common,
Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Ellis, John...Beaumont Leys, near Leicester
Ellis, John...12, Clement’s Lane, City
Ellis, Richard. ..Northampton
Ellis, Robt: Ridge ., Yalding, Kent.
Ellis, Thomas R. ...Oxnead Hall, Buxton, Norwich
Ellis, William, LL.D... .Caistor, Lincolnshire
Ellis, William...Ashford, Chertsey
Ellison, John...Sandbeck, Rotherham, Yorkshire
Ellison, J. ... Allerton Park, Green Hammerton,
York
Ellison, Michael ...Sheffield, Yorkshire
Ellison, W....Syzergh Castle, Kendal, Westmoreld.
Ellman, Rev. H. J....Carlton Rectory, near Bedford
Ellman, John...Landport, Lewes, Sussex
Ellman, R. H....Landport, Lewes, Sussex
Ellman, Thomas...Beddingham, Lewes, Sussex -
Elton, Sir Edw. Marwood, Bart..,Widworthy Court,
Honiton, Devon ;
Elton, Major Robt. J....Whitestanton, Taunton,
Somerset.
Elwes, H...Colesburne, Cheltenham, Gloucestersh.
yElwes, Capt. Henry Cary...2, Aurora Place, Ex-
mouth, Devon
Elwes, J. M.....Bossington House, Stockbridge,
Hampshire
Elwood, Lieut.-Col. Charles W....Clayton Priory,
Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Embleton, Robert... Embleton, Alnwick
Emery, Charles... Burcot, Wellington, Shropshire
Emery, Richard...Huston Place, Storrington, Pet-
worth, Sussex
Emlyn, Viscount, M.P....Stackpole Court, near
Pembroke, S. Wales
Empson, Henry.... West Ravendale, Binbrook,
Spital, Lincolnshire
Emson, H. H....Nether Hall, Cherry Hinton, Cam-
bridge :
England, Richard,..Bingham, Wells, Norfolk
Enniskillen, Earl of..Florence Court, Fermanagh,
Ireland ‘
Ensor, John...Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Enys, John Samuel...Enys, near Penryn, Cornwall
+Erle, Rey. C.,,.Hardwicke, Aylesbury, Bucks.
|
25
Errington, John...High Warden, Hexham, Nor-
thumberland
+Escott, Bickham...Hartrow, Taunton, Somerset.
Etches, J. Clifford...Hareby Thorn, near Stone,
Staffordshire
Ethelstone, Rev. C. W....Up Lyme, Lyme Regis,
Dorset.
Etheredge, Charles... .Starston, Norfolk
Etheredge, Fred. Wm.... Mill Hall, Maidstone
Etwall, William...Penton, Andover, Hampshire
Evans, C. H...Plasgwyn, near Beaumaris, Anglesey
Evans, H. R., jun.... Ely, Cambridgeshire
Evans, Isaac P....Griff, Coventry, Warwickshire
Evans, Rich....Tyny Park, Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Evans, Robt....Foleshill Road, Coventry, War-
wickshire
Evans, Robt., jun.... West Hallam, near Derby
7 Evans, R. W....Eyton Hall, Leominster
Evans, Samuel... Darly Abbey, near Derby
Evans, Capt. T. B...Deane House, Enstone, Oxon
Evans, Thomas William...Allestree, Derby
Evans, Wm..Glascoed, near Llansantffraid, Oswestry
Evans, William... Roath, near Cardiff, Glamorgan-
shire, S. W.
+Evans, Rev. W. E.... Burton Court, Herefordshire
Eve, William .... Manor Farm, North Ockendon,
Romford, Essex
Everard, Edward. ..Middleton, Lynn, Norfolk
Everard, James Elsden,.,Congham, Castle Rising,
Norfolk
+Everett, William, Chase Side House, Enfield
Everett, Isaac...Capel St. Mary, Ipswich, Suffolk
Everitt, Isaac. . .Pottergate Street, Norwich
Everitt, James... North Creake, Fakenham, Norfolk
Eyershed, John...Albury, Guildford, Surrey
Ewen, Thos. L’Estrange... Dedham, near Colchester,
Essex
Ewings, William,..213, High Holborn
Exall, Wm....Kate’s Grove Iron Works, Reading,
Berkshire
Exley, William H....Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
Exton, John.,.Eastwell, Melton Mowbray, Leices-
tershire
+Eyre, Geo. Edw....Warrens, Stony-Cross, South-
ampton, Hampshire
_ Eyre, Robert... Bartley Totton Wear, Southampton
Eyston, Charles... Hendred, Wantage, Berkshire
Eyton, John Wynne...Lee’s Wood, Mold, Flintshire
+Eyton, Thos, C...Donnerviile, Wellington, Shrops.
Eyton, Thomas W....Brook Park, Northop, Flint.
Eyton, William.. Condover, near Shrewsbury
Fair, James... Warton Lodge, Lytham, near Preston,
Lancashire
Fair, Thomas...Frenchfield, Penrith, Cumberland
Fairhead, W. F....Totham, Maldon, Essex
Faithful, Rev. Geo. D.... Lower Heyford, Wood-
stock, Oxon
Falcon, Thomas... Workington, Cumberland
Falkner, Edward Dean... Fairfield, near Liverpool
Fane, Cecil...4, Upper Brook Street
Fane, John... Wormsley, Watlington, Oxon
Fardell, Rey. Henry... Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
E
26
7Fardon, Henry Fowler...The Firs, Bromsgrove, |
Worcestershire
7Farhall, John N....Tillington, near Petworth,
Sussex
Farhall, Richard. .. Billingshurst, Sussex
Farley, George. ..Henwick, near Worcester
Farmer, Edw....Fazeley, Staffordshire
Farmer, Henry Grimes....Haven Farm, Tickhill,
Bawtry
Farmer, Rd....Sheldon, Birmingham, Warwickshire
Farncombe, Geo... .Bishopstone, Lewes, Sussex
Farnham, E. B., M.P....Quorndon House, Lough-
borough, Leicestershire
Farquharson, Hen. J... Langton, Blandford, Dorset.
7Farr, Wm. W....Iford, Christchurch, Hampshire
Farrell, Richard,,.35, North George Street, Dublin
+Farrer, Edmund...Sporle, Swaffham, Norfolk
Farrer, James... Ingleborough, Settle, Yorkshire
Farrer, Rev. Richard. .Ashley, Rockingham, North-
amptonshire
Farrington, J. Nowell.,.Worden Hall, Chorley
Lancashire
Faulkes, Robert.,.Beckingham, Newark, Notts.
Faulkner, Chris F. A...Bury Barnes, near Burford,
Oxon
Faux, Edward... Yaxley Hill, Stilton
Faviell, W. Fred....Bakeham House, Egham
Fawcett, Rev. Chris. ., Boscombe Rectory, Salisbury,
Wilts
Fawcett, John...Durham
Fawkes, F. Hawkesworth...Farnley Hall, Otley,
Yorkshire
+Fearnhead, P,..17, Clifford’s Inn, Fleet Street
Fearnley, Fairfax. ,,Bishopsfield, Bawtry, Notts
Featherstonhaugh, Walker...Hermitage, Chester-
le-Street
Feilden, Joseph, . Wilton House, Blackburn, Lancash.
Fell, William...The Close, Lichfield, Staffordshire
+Fellowes, Jas....29, Gloucester Place, Portman
Square
Fellowes, J. Newton...Eggesford, Chumleigh, De-
vonshire
Fellowes, Hon. N....Eggesford, Chumleigh, Devon
Fellowes, Richd.... Englefield House, Reading
Fellowes, Rey. Thos... Beighton Rectory, Norwich
Fellowes, Thos. Abdy...Chippenham
Fellows, Wm. Manning...Ormesby,Great Yarmouth
+Felton, Clement...Dunton, Fakenham
Fenn, George... Beccles
Fenn, J. G....Ardleigh Rookery, Colchester, Essex
Fenton, Kirkby...Caldecote Hall, Nuneaton, War-
wickshire
Fenwick, Andrew Robert....Netherton, Morpeth,
Northumberland
Fenwick, J. Manners.,.Gallow-hill House, Morpeth
Fergnsson, Archibald.,.Dunfallundy, Pitlochry,
Perthshire
Fernandez Edward...Hatton Parsonage, Warwick
Fernie, George... Fron, near Oswestry
Ferrabee, John...Phoenix Iron Works, Stroud,
Gloucestershire
Ferrers, Earl...Chartley Castle,
Staffordshire
near Lichfield,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Ferris, Thos... Manningford Bohune, Pewsey, Wilts
Ferris, William...Draycot, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Festing, Richd. Grindall...35, Green Park, Bath,
Somersetshire
Fetherstonhaugh, Timothy...The College, Kirks-
wald, Penrith, Cumberland
Ffrance, R. Wilson... Rawcliffe Hall, Garstang
Ffrance, T. R. Wilson... Rawcliffe Hall, Garstang
Field, James Pope...Tring, Herts
Field, Jonathan... Laceby, near Limber, Lincolnsh.
Field, William David...Ulceby Grange, Barrow-on
Humber, Lincolnshire
Fielden, Samuel,..Centre Vale, Todmorden, Lan-
cashire
Fielding, Jas... Denbigh House, Haslemere, Surrey
Fieldsend, Charles, jun....Kirmond, Binbrook,
Lincolnshire
Fifield, Job...Hill Park, near Romsey, Hants
Filder, James Moses,..The Pages, Bexhill, Sussex
Fiiliter, Geo... Trigon Hill, Wareham, Dorsetshire
Finch, Henry...69, King William Street, City
Finch, Hon. Col. John, C. B....The Castle, Berk-
hampstead
Finch, Rev. W...Warboys, Huntingdonshire
Finden, Geo. Fred.,.254, High Street, Borough
Firth, John, jun... Wentworth, Rotherham, Yorksh.
Fisher, George. ..Cambridge Bank, Cambridge
Fisher, Rev. R. W,..Hill Top, Kendal, Westmld.
Fison, Cornell...Thetford, Norfolk
Fison, Thomas... Barmingham, Ixworth
+Fitzgerald, H. T. G...St. Mary’s Vicarage, Read-
ing, Berkshire
Fitzgerald, William Seymour. ,. Hollbrook, Horsham
Fitz-Herbert, Sir Henry, Bart...Tissington Hall,
near Ashbourne, Derbyshire
Fitz-Herbert, William...Somersal Herbert, Uttox-
eter, Staffordshire
Fitz-Hugh, Thomas... Plas-Power, near Wrexham,
Denbighshire
Fitz-Hugh, Kev. W...Street, near Lewes, Sussex
Fitz-Patrick, Right Hon. J. Wilson, M.P...Lesduff,
Rathdowny, Queen’s County, Ireland
Fitz-Patrick, Richard Nelson..,Granstown Manor,
Queen’s County, Ireland
Fitzroy, Geo... Grafton-Regis, Stony Stratford, Bucks.
Fitzroy, Lieut.-Col. Hugh...Sennowe Lodge, Guiest,
Norfolk
Flack, William... Water’s Place, Ware, Herts.
Flesher, Rev. J. T....Tiftield, Towcester, Northamp-
tonshire
+Fletcher, Major E. C....Ulcombe Place, Maid-
stone, Kent
+Fletcher, Sir Henry, Bart...Ashley Park, Walton-
on-Thames, Surrey
Fletcher, Jno... Knipton, Melton Mowbray, Leicests.
+Fletcher, John Philip...Ashley Park, Walton-on-
Thames, Surrey
Fletcher, Josiah... Norwich
Fletcher, W....Radmanthwaite, near Mansfield,
Notts.
Flint, John., .Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire
Flowerdew, J. S,... Hinderclay, near Botesdale,
Norfolk
List of Members.
Floyd, Cookson Stephenson,. Holmforth, Hud-
dersfield
Floyd, Thomas... Frilford, Abingdon, Berkshire
+Floyer, John.. .Stafford, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Floyer, John...Hints, Tamworth, Staffordshire
Floyer, Jno. W....Caukwell, near Horncastle, Linc.
+Foljambe, Geo. Savile...Osberton House, Worksop
Folkes, Sir Wm. Browne, Bart....Hillington Hall,
near Lynn, Norfolk
Folkestone, Viscount...Longford Castle, Salisbury,
Wiltshire
Fookes, Henry, jun.... Monkton, Blandford, Dorset
Footner, W. A....Romsey, Hampshire
Forbes, Sir J. S., Bart....Pitsligo, Fettercairn, N. B.
Ford, A. R....Ellel Hall, near Lancaster
Ford, John, jun....Preston Farm, Blandford, Dorset
Ford, Richard S..,..Clifford’s Wood, Stone, Staffs.
Fordham, J. E....Melbourn Bury, Royston, Herts,
Fordham, John George... Royston, Herts.
Forester, G. T....Ercall Magna, Wellington, Shrops.
Forester, Rev. R. T. ..High Ercall, Wellington,
Salop
Forrest, John...Stretton, near Warrington, Lancs.
Forrester, George... Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset
Forrester, John,..Stanmore Priory, Middlesex
Forster, John...18, Carey Street, Lincoln’s Inn
Forster, Richard Carnaby...Whitehouse, Gateshead,
Durham
Forster, Robert...Tottenham Green, Middlesex
+Forster, Samuel...Southend, Sydenham, Kent
Forster, Wm... Burradon, near Rothbury, Northumb.
Forsyth, Thomas. ..South Shields
Fort, George...Alderbury House, Salisbury, Wilts.
Fortescue, Hon. G....Boconnock, Lostwithiel, Corn-
wall
Fortescue, Rev. H. R....East Allington, Totnes |
Fosbrooke, Leonard... Ravenstone, Ashby-de-la-
Zouch, Leicestershire
Foster, Aug... Warmwell House, Dorchester, Dorset.
Foster, John... Lingodell, Tickhill, Rotherham
Foster, Jno... Rumbridge Street, Eling, Southampton
+Foster, John James... The Scaws, Penrith
Foster, Joseph... Blunt’s Hall, Witham, Essex
Foster, Richard...Castle, near Lostwithiel, Cornwall
Foster, Richard, jun....Cambridge
Foster, Robert Carr...4, Marine Parade, Worthing
Foster, William...Hanworth, Sleaford, Lincolnshire
Foster, Wm....Wordsley House, near Stourbridge,
Worcestershire
Fothergill, Mark...Chaleot Villa, Haverstock Hill
Fothergill, Matthew...Cefmachder, Bedwelty, near
Newport, Monmouthshire
Fothergill, Richard... Lowbridge House, Kendal
Fothergill, Richard... Tredegar, Abergavenny, Mon-
mouthshire
Fothergill, Rowland..,Hensol Castle, Cowbridge,
Glamorganshire
Foulkes, James Hassall. ..Chester
Foulkes, John...Penyboyn, Newtown, Montgome-
ryshire ;
+Foulkes, John Jocelyn... Eriviatt, Denbigh
Fountaine, Bernard ... Stoke Hammond House,
Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire
27
Fouracre, T. W.... Durston, near Taunton, Somerset.
Fowle, Wm..,.Market Lavington, Wilts.
Fowler, Geo. W....Prince Hall, Tavistock, Devon
Fowler, Henry... Kingham, Chipping Norton, Oxon
Fowler, John Kersley, jun....Aylesbury, Bucks.
Fowler, Marshall,..Preston Hall, near Stockton-on-
Tees, Durham
Fowler, Michel... Little Bushy Farm, Stanmore,
Middlesex
+Fowler, R.C....Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk
Fowler, Rear-Admiral M.,.,Walliscot House, Whit-
church, near Reading
Fowler, Rd. jun.. .Gravelly Hill House, Birmingham
Fowler, Thomas...Tottenham, Middlesex
Fowler, William Barrett... Freazley, Fazeley, Staffs.
Fowler, William M....59, Grosvenor Street
Fowlie, Wm....Red House, Hursley, Winchester,
Hants
Fox, Baruch. ..Beaminster, Dorsetshire
Fox, Rev. Dr....Queen’s College, Oxford
Fox, Frederick F....Melbourne, near Derby
Fox, George C....Grove Hill, Falmouth, Cornwall
Fox, Hy. Hawes, M.D.....North Woods, near Bristol
Fox, Robert...153, Westbourne Terrace, Bayswater
Fox, William ... Elfordleigh, Plympton St. Mary,
Devon
Foxwell, Thos. S....High Street, Shepton Mallet,
Somersetshire
Frampton, Hy....Oakers Wood, Dorchester, Dorset.
Francis, Samuel... Ford Place, Stifford, near Rom-
ford, Essex i
Francis, S. R. G....Scranham Place, North Ocken-
don, near Romford, Essex
Francis, William... Packsfield House, Raynham,
Fakenham
Franklin, Edw. L....Ascott, near Benson, Oxfordsh.
Franklin, Jno....Ewelme, near Benson, Oxfordshire
+Franklin, Richd....Clemenstone, Bridgend, S. W.
Franklin, Robt....The Park, Thaxtead, Essex
Franklyn, Thomas,..Maidstone
Franks, George... Hunsdon, near Ware, Herts
Franks, James...Albury, Guildford, Surrey
Fraser, Alexander...Gatwick, Crawley, Sussex
Fraser, Alex....Middle Claydon, Winslow, Bucks.
Frederick, Sir Rich., Bart.... Burwood Park, Walton-
on-Thames, Surrey
+Freebody, W. Yates...9, Duke Street, Westminster
Freeman, John,..East Rudham, Rougham, Norfolk
Freeman, Jno., jun...Summerfield, Docking, Norfolk
Freeman, John Gardner... Rockfield, near Hereford
Freeman, Joshua... Dersingham, Lynn
Freeman, W....Heigham Grove, Norwich
Freeman, W. Peere Williams. .. Fawley Court, Hen-
ley-on-Thames, Oxon.
Freestone, Thomas. ..Irthlingborough, Wellingboro.
Fremantle, Rt. Hon. Sir W. H...Englefield Green,
Chertsey, Surrey
Fremantle, Rev. W. R....Rector of Middle Claydon,
Winslow, Bucks.
+Frere, Geo. Edw... -Roydon Hall, Diss, Norfolk
Frere, Ph. H.... Downing College, Cambridge
Frogley, Ralph Allen. . .-Hounslow, Middlesex
Fryer, Wm. R.... Lytchett, Poole, Dorsetshire
Hee
28
Fulford, Baldwin.., Great Fulford, Exeter
Fullagar, James... Milton, Sittingbourne, Kent
Fullard, Thomas....Thorney, near Peterborough,
Northamptonshire
Fuller, Aug. E., M.P....Rose Hill, Robert’s Bridge,
Sussex
Fuller, Hugh.. .Portslade, Brighton, Sussex
Fullerton, Rey. Arthur,...Thryberg Rectory, Ro-
therham
Fulljames, Thos...,Hasfield Court, near Gloucester
Fulshaw, Richard... Knighton, near Leicester
Furniss, Lawrence, ..Birchill Farm, Bakewell, Der-
byshire
Fussell, Rev. G. C....Chantry, Frome
Fust, Right Hon. Sir Herbert Jenner. , ,Chislehurst
Gabell, Chas... Hollyfield, near Crickhowell, Breck-
nockshire
Gage, Hon. William... Westbury House, Petersfield,
Hants
Gale, Edward M.,., Upham, near Bishop’s Waltham,
Hants
Gale, Richard Christopher... Winchester, Hants
Gale, Wm. Hy... -Grately, near Andover, Hants
Gale, Rev. W. W.,,.Pylle Rectory, Shepton Mallet,
Somersetshire
Gall, John...New Buckenham, Norfolk
Galpin, John...Dorchester, Dorset.
+Galton, Darwin. . Edstone Hall, Stratford-on-Avon,
Warwickshire
Galton, Erasmus.,.Loxton Manor
Cross, Somersetshire
+Galway, Viscount, M.P....Serlby Hall, Bawtry
Gambier, Chas. S.,..19, Upper Harley Street, Caven-
dish Square
Gamble, John... Manor Farm, Shouldham, Thorpe,
Norfolk
Gamble, J. C....Sutton House, St. Helen’s, Lancash.
Game, John....Pointington, near Sherborne, Dorset.
Gamlen, Wm. H.,..Hayne House, Tiverton, Devon.
+Gandy, James. .Heaves, near Kendal, Westmorld.
Gape, Thos. Foreman.. .St. Albans, Hertfordshire
Garbitt, Richard... Lawley, Wellington, Salop
Gardener, Jas....Oxford Arms, Kington, Herefordsh.
Gardiner, George...Horsford, Norwich, Norfolk
Gardner, Robert...Leighton Hall, near Shrewsbury
Gardner, Wm. Nettleton... Wells, Norfolk
Gardner, Wm. Wells... Biggleswade, Bedfordshire
7+Gardom, Thomas...The Yeld, Baslow, Bakewell
Garland, Captain Joseph G., R.N.... Stoneleigh,
Wimborne, Dorsetshire
Garmston, John... Worcester
Garne, Wm....Aldsworth, Northleach, Gloucestersh.
+Garnett, Robert... Wyreside, Lancaster
Garnett, Wm....Quernmore Park, near Lancaster
Garnett, Wm. Jas.... Bleasdale Tower, Garstang,
Lancashire
Garrard, Chas. B. D.., Lama Hall, St. Albans, Herts.
Garrard, James...Pinner Place, Watford, Herts.
Garratt, Francis. ,.Ellacombe, near Torquay, Devon.
+Garratt, John, jun... Farringdon House, nr. Exeter
Garrett, John...Ickleton, Saffron Walden, Essex
Garrett, Rich., jun... ,Leiston, Saxmundham, Suffolk
House, near
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Garrod, James... Wells, Somersetshire
Garsed, John. ..Llanwitt, near Cowbridge, Glamor-
ganshire
Garth, Rev. Richard...Farnham, Surrey
Garth, Thomas C....Haines Hill, Reading, Berks.
Gascoyen, George. ..Stanwick, Higham Ferrers
Gascoyen, George...Birehmore, near Woburn, Beds.
Gaskell, W. P....Rolfes Hould, West Wycombe,
Buckinghamshire
+Gatacre, Edward L....Coton, near Kidderminster,
Worcestershire
Gataker, George... Mildenhall, Suffolk
Gater, C. H...Swathling, near Southampton, Hants
Gates, John A....Grange Farm, Sapistone, Ixworth
+Gates, Richard...Marshall Vale, Bramley, Guild-
ford, Surrey ;
Gatrell, Wm. Verling... Lymington, Hampshire
Gaudern, John...Earl’s Barton, Wellingborough,
Northamptonshire
Gaussen, Robt. Wm.,..Brookman’s Park, Hatfield,
Hertfordshire ;
Gawler, Henry... Ramridge Cottage, Andover, Hants
+Gawne, Edward M....Kentraugh, Isle of Man
Gay, James...Thurning Hall, Norfolk
Gayford, Geo....Rymer House, Thetford, Norfolk
Gayner, John... Filton, near Bristol
Gearey, James. ..Gt. Westwood, Watford, Herts.
+Geary, Sir Wm. R. P., Bart....Oxen Heath, ‘Tun-
bridge, Kent
Gedge, Johnson...Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk
Gee, Thomas... Brothertoft, Boston
Geldard, George A....Aikrigend, Kendal, West-
moreland
Geldard, John,..South Benwell House, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
George, James...Cotham, Bristol
George, James Gilbert...Monmouth
Gerrish, Thomas...Upton, near Andover, Hants
Gervais, Rev. Francis...3, Grafton Street, Dublin
Gibb, John...Coollatin Park, Wicklow, Ireland
Gibbon, Alexander.. Staunton, near Coleford, Glou-
cestershire
Gibbons, Edward...Minster, Isle of Thanet, Kent
Gibbons, Stephen...Brocklesby, Great Limber
Gibbons, Thomas.., Wolverhampton, Staffordshire
Gibbs, Chas... Bishop’s Lydeard, Taunton, Somerset-
shire
Gibbs, Geo... .26, Down Street, Piccadilly
+Gibbs, Geo.... Belmont, near Bristol .
Gibbs, Joseph... Elsfield, near Oxford
Gibbs, Wm....Tyntesfield, Bourton, near Bristol
Gibbs, Wm....Itchenor House, Chichester, Sussex
Gibbs, William, jun....Alveston Hill, Stratford-on-
Avon, Warwickshire
Gibson, George...Kendal, Westmoreland
Gibson, Geo. John...Sandgate Lodge, Storrington,
Steyning
Gibson, John...Leazes Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Gibson, Richard,..Swarkeston Lowes, near Derby
Gibson, William... Kirkby Green, near Lincoln
Gidney, Jeremiah W....East Dereham, Norfolk
Giffard, Rev. Jas., M.A....Viear of Wootton, near
Barrow-on-Humber, Lincolnshire
List of Members.
Gilbert, Henry...Castle Gate, Newark, Notts.
Gilbert, James. ..120, Bordesley Street, Birmingham
+Gilbert, Robert,..Ashby Hall, Berghapton,
Norfolk
Gilbert, Wm.. .Chute, Hippenscombe, near An-
dover, Hants
+Gilbert, Wm. A. ...Cantley, Acle, Norfolk
Gilbertson, M....Elm Cottage, Egham Hill, Surrey
Gill, George... Weston, Shrewsbury, Shropshire
Gill, Wm....Billingford, Dereham
Gillespie, Robert...33, York Place, Portman Square
Gillett, John,..Brailes, Shipston-on-Stour, War-
wickshire
Gillett, John...Tunstall, Acle, Norfolk
Gillett, Joseph Ashby...Banbury, Oxfordshire
Gillett, Richard..,Plumstead, Norwich
Gillett, William...Southleigh, Witney, Oxfordshire
Gilling, Thos....Wells, Somerset
Gilpin, George...Sedbury Park, Richmond, Yerk-
shire
Gilpin, Lieut.-Col. Richard... Hockliffe Grange,
Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire
Gilstrap, J.... Hawton, Newark, Nottinghamshire
Ginders, Samuel...Ingestre, near Stafford
Girdlestone, Rev. H....Landford, Salisbury, Wilts.
Girdlestone, Robert... Kellinghall, Holt, Norfolk
Girdwood, John...Chirk, N. W.
Girling, John...Earlham, Norwich
+Gisborne, Matthew...Walton Hall, Burton on-
Trent, Staffordshire
Gleaves, Wm....Abbotsley, St. Neot’s, Hunting-
donshire
+Glegg, Baskerville, . Backford, Chester, Cheshire
Glegg, Jno. Baskeroyle... Withington House, Chel-
ford, Knutsford, Cheshire
Glencross, William... Luxstowe, Liskeard, Cornwall
+Glendining, A....Ash Grove, Seven Oaks, Kent
Glover, John...Bangley, Tamworth, Staffordshire
Glover, Wm....12, Northumberland Street, New-
castle-upon-Tyne
Glynne, Rev. Henry... Hawarden Rectory, Chester
Glynne, Sir Steph. Bart., M.P.... Hawarden Castle,
Flintshire
+Gobbett, John...Iken Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk
Goddard, Ambrose... The Lawn, Swindon, Wilts.
Goddard, Horatio Nelson,..Cliffe, Wootton Bassett,
Wiltshire
Goddard, Thos...St. Fagons, Cardiff
Goddard, William Gilbert....Berwick St. John,
Salisbury
Godfrey, George...Childrey, Wantage, Berkshire
Godsell, Thos.,..The Bower, Holme Lacy, near
Hereford
Godwin, Shadrack...Grove Hill, Hemel Hempstead
Godwin, William...Bossington, Stockbridge, Hants.
+Goldhawk, Rowland, jun.,..Hasle Hall, Steer,
Guildford, Surrey
Golding, Wm., jun... Leavers, East Peckham, Kent
Goldsmith, John... North Farm, Crostwich, Norwich
Goldsmith, Thomas,..Dairy Farm, Ixworth
Goldsmith, William...30, Parliament Street
Gomme, John...St. Julians, near St. Albans, Herts.
+Gooch, Edward Sherlock, M.P...Ashmans, Beccles
29
Gooch, John Kerr... East Tuttenham, Norwich
Gooch, Stephen... Honingham, near Norwich
Goodacre, R... Ullesthorpe, Lutterworth, Leicesters.
Goodall, Michael... Evelith Manor, Shiffnal, Salop
+Goodden, J....Qver Compton, Sherborne, Dorset
Goode, Edw.... Aston Court, Tenbury, Worcesters.
Goode, George... Croft Cottage, Carmarthen
Goode, Hy. Philps....Scotchwell, Haverfordwest,
Pembrokeshire
Goodenough, Joseph ... Godmanstone, Dorchester,
Dorsetshire
+Goodlake, T. Mills...Wadley House, Faringdon,
Berkshire
Goodman, Timothy ..Warminster, Wiltshire
Goodricke, Sir Fras. L. H., Bart....Clermont Lodge,
Watton, Norfolk
Goodwin, Capt. Fras. Green... Wigwell Grange,
Wirksworth
Goodwin, George... Langar, near Bingham, Notts.
Goodwin, Wm...Birchwood, near Alfreton, Derbys.
Goodwyn, S. C.,.Huntingfield Hall, Yoxford, Suff.
Gordon, Alexander...Eudon, Bridgenorth, Salop
Gordon, Charles... Heavitree, near Exeter, Devon
Gordon, Jas. Adam...Naish, near Bristol, Somerset.
Gordon, Rey. Lord George...Chesterton, Stilton,
Huntingdonshire
Gordon, Robt...Kemble House, near Cirencester,
Gloucester shire
Gorham, John... West Wittering, Chichester, Sussex
Goring, Chas... Wiston Park, Steyning, Sussex
+Goring, Sir H. D., Bart....Highden, Shoreham,
Sussex
Goring, Mrs. M....Wiston Park, Steyning, Sussex
Gorringe, James...Selmiston, Lewes, Sussex
Gorringe, J. P... Eastbourne, Sussex
Gosford, Wm...Everingham, Pocklington, near York
Gosling, Bennett... Roehampton Grove, Surrey
Gosling, John ..Bocking, Essex
Gosling, Robert. ..Hassobury, Bishop’s Stortford
Gosling, Thos....10, Chandos Street, Cavendish Sq.
+Gosset, Capt. Arthur... Eltham, Kent
Gotch, T. H.., Kettering
Gough, Edward...Gravel Hill, Shrewsbury, Salop
Gough, Ralph...Gorsebrook, Wolverhampton
Gough, R. D.... Yniscedwin, near Neath, Glamorg.
Gould, John... Poltimore, Exeter, Devon
Gowan, George...20, Park Crescent
+Gower, Abel L...Castie Malgwyn, Llechryd, New-
castle Emlyn, Pembrokeshire
Gower, A. W...Hook, near Hartford Bridge, Hants.
Gower, George... Dilham, near Smallburgh, Norfolk
+Gower, J. Leveson...Gonver, Alverstoke, Gosport
+Gower, Robt. Fred...Glandovan, Pembrokeshire
+Gower, W. Leveson, jun...Titsey Place, Godstone,
Surrey
Gowing, George... Trowse, Norwich
Graburn, R. S....Butleigh, Glastonbury
Graburn, William... Barton-on-Humber, Lines.
Grace, Edward,.. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Grace, Edward Nath. ...Byker Hill, Newcastle-on-
Tyne
Grace, H..,.Gates Ewhurst, near Northiam, Sussex
Grace, Jas... Wardrobes, Princes Risborough, Bucks.
50
Grace, Wm....Saltwick, Morpeth, Northumberland
Graddon, Wm....Bratton House, Chittlehampton
Devonshire
+Greme, Major Geo. D....Inchbrakie House, Crieff,
Perthshire®
Graham, Carolus J. H.,..Strawan, Crieff, Perthshire
+Graham, James...Berstead Lodge, Bognor, Sussex
Grain, Peter,..Shelford, near Cambridge
Grain, Peter, jun....Shelford, near Cambridge
Grainger, Richard... Newcastle-on-Tyne
Granger, John...Stretham, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Granger, Joseph. ..Stretham, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Granger, Thos. W...Stretham Grange, Ely, Camb.
Grant, H. J...The Gnoll Castle, Neath, Glamorg.
Grant, John...Manningford Bruce, Pewsey, Wilts.
Grant, Jonathan.., East Coulston, Westbury, Wilts.
Grant, Joseph Cooke...Stamford, Lincolnshire
Grant, Wm...Litchborough, Towcester, Northamp.
Grantham, George... Barcombe Place, Lewes
Grantham, Stephen... Ryder’s Wells House, Lewes,
Sussex
Grantham, Rev. Thos... Bramber, Steyning, Sussex
Granville, Bernard ... Wellesbourne, Stratford-on-
Avon, Warwickshire
+Granville, Earl... Aldenham, Bridgnorth
+Gratwick, W. G. K...Ham, Arundel, Sussex
Graves, Robt....Charlton, Shaftesbury, Dorsetshire
Gray, Alex. Geo... Newcastle-on-Tyne
Gray, Edw... Leazes Hill, Burnop Field, Gateshead
Gray, Russell... Barcombe, near Lewes, Sussex
Gray, William... East Bolton, Alnwick
Grazebrook, George.. .Stourbridge, Worcestershire
Greaves, James... Radclive, near Buckingham
Greaves, William...Matlock-Bath, Derbyshire
Green, Daniel... Fingringhoe, Colchester
Green, Francis...Court Henry, near Llandilo, Car-
marthenshire
Green, Rev. Geo. Wade...Court Henry, Llandilo,
Carmarthenshire
Green, James... Wroxham, Norwich
Green, James... Prescot, Lancashire
Green, Joseph B....Marlow, Ludlow
Green, Rich... Deepdene, Bury St. Edmund’s, Suffolk
Green, Rich.,..Metheringham, nr. Sleaford, Lincs.
Green, Robt....Odstone Hill, Measham, Ashby-de-
Ja-Zouch, Leicestershire
Green, Thomas...Trench Hill, Gateshead
Green, Rev. Thos. .. Vicar of Badby, Daventry
Green, Wm. Geo.. .Belford Villa, Belford, Northumb.
+Greenall, Gilbert, M.P... Walton Hall, Warrington,
Lancas.
+Greenall, John... The Bank, Warrington, Lancas.
Greene, J., M.P....Greenville, co. Kilkenny, Ireland
+Greene, T., M.P....Whittington Hall, Lancaster
Greene, Capt. W. Burnaby... Wickham, Hants.
Greenfield, James,..Brynderiven, Usk, Monmouth.
Greenham, Jas....Blankney Fen, Lincoln
Greenhow, John... Kendal, Westmoreland
Greenway, Henry..-Hambrook, near Bristol
Greenwood, Chas... , Wallingford, Berkshire
+Greenwood, Edwin,..Swarcliffe, Harrowgate
+Greenwood, Fred....Ryshworth Hall, Bingley
Greetham, Thomas,, .Stainfield Hall, Lincoln
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
| Greg, Thos....Ballymenock, Hollywood, co. Down
Gregg, James ..Ledbury
+Gregg, Thomas...
+Gregor, Gordon H. F,...Trewarthewick, Tregony,
Truro, Cornwall
+Gregson, Mathew...Toxteth Park, Liverpool
Grenfell, C. P., M.P....38, Belgrave Square
Grenfell, Riversdale... Ray Cottage, Maidenhead
Grenville, Hon, and Rev. G.N., Dean of Windsor. .
Butleigh Court, Glastonbury
Greville, Algernon,..North Lodge, Potters’ Bar,
Barnet
Greville, Fulke S.. North Mims Park, Hatfield,Herts.
Grey, Hon. B. N. Osborn De... Fawley, Southampton
+Grey, Capt. Chas, Bacon...Styford, near Hexham,
Northumberland
Grey, Hon. and Rev. F. De..Copdock Rectory, Ips-
wich
+7Grey, Capt. Hon. F. W., R.N...Howick, Alnwick
Grey, Right Hon. Sir George, Bart., M.P....Fal-
lowdon, near Alnwick, Northumberland
Grey, G. A....Milfield Hill, Wooller, Northumb.
Grey, Hon. G. De...Rokeley, nr. Watton, Norfolk
Grey, Jas...Kimmerston, near Wooller, Northumb.
Grey, John. ..Dilston House, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Grey, Thos. R.... Norton, near Stockton-on-Tees
Griffin, John... Borough Fenn, Peterborough, North-
ampton
Griffin, Richard. ..Coleshill, Amersham, Bucks.
Griffin, Wm. Ervin..,Werrington, Peterborough,
Northamptonshire
Griffinhoofe, Rev. T. S...Arkesden, near Bishop’s
Stortford, Hertfordshire
Griffith, ©. D... Padworth House, Reading, Berks
Griffith, E, H...Ty-Newydd, near Denbigh
Griffith, J..Llwynduris, Newcastle-Emlyn, Carmar-
thenshire
Griffith, Samuel Y...Queen’s, Cheltenham
Griffithes, Thomas J. ..Bishop’s Castle, Salop
Griffiths, Edward...New Court, near Hereford
Griffiths, Henry... Bryndafydd, near Swansea
Griggs, Money...Creake, Fakenham
Grime, Thomas... Ticknall, Derbyshire
Grimmer, Fred... Thurlton Hall, Loddon, Norfolk
Grimmer, H.S...Haddiscoe, Norfolk
Groom, Rich...3, Henrietta Street, Cavendish Squ.
Grose, Nich. M... Wadebridge, Cornwall
Grove, Dr...Fern, Shaftesbury
Grutt, Collings de Jersey...Sark, Guernsey
Guilford, Thomas... Nottingham
Guillonneau, Jacob...Twickenham
Gundry, Joseph, .. Bridport, Dorset
Gunner, William... Will Hall, Alton, Hampshire
+Gurdon, Brampton...Grundisburgh Hall, Wood-
bridge, Suffolk
+Gurdon, John Barrett...Assington Hall, Boxford,
Suffolk
+Gurdon, Rev. Philip...Cramworth Rectory, Ship-
dham, Norfolk
7Gurdon, R. J...,Wivenhoe Park, Colchester
+Gurdon, Wm....11, Crown-office Row, Temple
Gurney, Charles... Launceston, Cornwall
Gurney, Jobn.,.Earlham, Norwich, Norfolk
List of Members. 3
+Gurney, John Henry...Easton, Norwich
Gurney, K. H.., Hethersett, Thickthorn, near Nor-
wich, Norfolk
Gwatkin, John... Pare-Behan, Tregony, near Truro,
Cornwall
Gwilt, Rey. Dan..Icklingham Rectory, Mildenhall,
Suffolk
Gwyn, H., M.P....Baglon House, Neath, Glamor-
ganshire
Gwyn, KR. H...Astbury Hall, Bridgnorth, Shropsh.
Gwynne, Capt. A. L...Monachty, Cardiganshire
Gyles, John,,.Aplayhead, East Retford, Notts.
Hack, James...Torquay, Devonshire
Hacker, John Heathcote... Leek, Staffordshire
Haggard, Wm. M. R...Bradenham Hall, Shipdham,
Norfolk
Haggitt, Henry... Bury St. Edmunds
Hague, John...Coursehourne, Cranbrook, Kent
Haigh, Geo... Erdington, Birmingham
Haines, Edw.,..Moor Wood House, Cirencester
Gloucestershire
Halcomb, Wm...Poulton, Marlborough, Wilts.
Halcomb, W. H...Chilton, Hungerford, Berkshire
Hales, Baseley...Salehouse, Blofield, Norwich
Hales, Rey. Robt... Hillington, Castle Rising, Norf.
Halford, Rey. Thos., Downing College, Cambridge
Halford, Wm...Broughton Astley, Lutterworth
Halke, Rev. J... Weston-by- Welland, Northampton
Halket, Geo.,.. Wainskeel, Bridgend, Glamorgansh.
Hall, Benj..., Hanley Castle, Upton-on-Severn
Hall, Benj. E....Cilgwyn, Cardiganshire
Hall, Col., M.P. (ist Life Guards)
Hall, Edward Lloyd C.,..Emlyn Cottage, Newcastle
Emlyn, Carmarthenshire
Hall, Francis...Park Hall, Mansfield, Notts.
Hall, George. ..Ely, Cambridgeshire
Hall, George, .. Barton Seagrave, Kettering
+Hall, Henry...Fritwell Manor House, Brackley
Agho, Oxon
+Hall, Henry...Neasdon, Willesden, Middlesex
Hall, James, ..Scorborough, Beverley, Yorkshire
Hall, J. W. R....Springfield, near Ross, Herefordsh,
+Hall, John... Wiseton, near Bawtry, Notts.
Hall, J. O....1, Brunswick Row, Queen's Square,
Bloomsbury
Hall, John.,.Arnold Lodge, near Nottingham
Hall, John... Kiveton Park, Sheftield, Yorkshire
Hall, Joseph.. .Callington, Bromyard, Herefordshire
Hall, Richard. . .Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Hall, Thomas. ..Hopton, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Hall, Thomas Kirkpatrick... Holly-bush, Burton-on-
Trent, Staffordshire
+Hall, William...Ashton, near Leominster
Hallam, John...Newcastle, Staffordshire
Hallett, John James, M.D....Queen’s Farm, Jersey
Halley, Francis. ..Shiffnal, Shropshire :
Hallowes, Thos... .Glasswell Hall, Chesterfield
+Halls, Joseph...Denham Hall, Bury St. Edmunds
Halsey, Rev. J. F. Moore... .Gaddesden Park, Hemel
Hempstead, Hertfordshire
Halsted, Thomas ....Woodcote, near Chichester,
Sussex
vi
]
Halton, Rev. I.,..Winfield Manor, Alfreton, Derby
Halton, Rev. L. M. ... Woolhampton, Newbury,
Berkshire
tHambrough, Albert J...Steephill Castle, Newport,
Isle of Wight
Hamersley, Hugh...Great Haseley, Tetsworth, Oxon
Hamerton, James...Hellifield Peel, Skipton
}Hamilton, Capt. Archd.... Rozelle, near Ayr, N.B.
Hamilton, Edward... Bridgnorth
Hamilton, G. A., M.P.... Hampton, near Balbrigan,
Treland
Hamilton, Geo. Ernest,.. Wolverhampton
tHamilton, John...Sundrum, Ayr, N. B.
Hammond, Geo... Manor Farm, St. Mary Cray, Kent
Hammond, Horace John...Lewis Heath, Horsmon-
den, Cranbrook
Hammond, J.W... Wistaston Hall, Nantwich, Chesh.
Hammond, Thomas...Penshurst, near Tonbridge
+Hamond,W. Parker... Pampisford Hall, Cambridge
Hanbury, Edward....Hacheston, Wickham Market,
Suffolk
Hanbury, Rev. G....Swaffham
Hanbury, John...Carborough, Lichfield, Staffordsh.
Hanbury, Robert...Poles, Ware, Herts
Hancock, Abraham... Hall Place, Ropley, near
Alresford, Hampshire
Hancock, J.... Halse, near Milverton, Somersetshire
Hand, James... Ludlow, Shropshire
Hand, Rob. .. Woolsthorpe, Grantham, Lincolnshire
+Handley, Major Benjamin... Pointon House, Fol-
kingham, Lincolnshire
Handy, Edward...Sevenhampton, near Andovers-
ford, Gloucestershire
Hanford, C. E... Woolas Hall, near Pershore, Worc.
Hanham, Joseph Carey...Gunville, Blandford
Hankey, J, Barnard... Fetcham, Leatherhead, Surrey
Hanmer, Colonel...Bear Place, Maidenhead
Hanmer, Sir John, Bart., M.P....Bettisfield Park,
Whitchurch, Salop
Wannam, Charles..,Northbourne Court, Deal, Kent
Hannam, Henry J....Burcot, Benson, Oxon
Hannam, John.. North Deighton, Wetherby, Yorksh.
Hannay, Rev. James.. Ashley, Stockbridge, Hampsh.
Hanson, John..,346, Strand
Harbin, George...Newton House, Yeovil, Somerset.
+Harcourt,G. G., M.P... Nuneham Park, nr. Oxford.
Harcourt, Capt. Octavius, R.N....Swinton Park,
Bedale, Yorkshire
Hardcastle, J. A., M.P.... Coptfold Hall, Ingatestone
+Hardcastle, Jonathan..Blidsworth Dale, Mansfield,
Notts.
Harding, Egerton William...Old Springs, Market
Drayton, Shropshire
Harding, G....Fern Hill, Market Drayton, Salop
Harding, Geo...Durweston, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Harding, James... Waterson, Dorchester, Dorset.
Harding, J. C....Upton, Scudamore, Warminster
Harding, J. Goldie... Monkleigh, Torrington, Devon.
Harding, Richard... Warren Farm, Finmer, Bucks.
Harding, Stephen T....Stinsford Farm, near Dor-
chester, Dorset.
Harding, Wm. C... Lower Winchendon, Aylesbury,
Bucks
32
Hardy, James...Jaques Hall, Manningtree
Hardy, Joseph... Midville, Boston, Lincolnshire
Hardy, Robert...Tendring Hall, Colchester, Essex
+Hardy, W. H. Cozens...Letheringsett Hall, Holt,
Norfolk
Hare, Jabez...10, Nelson Square, Southwark
Hare, Joseph... Wilton Farm, Beaconsfield, Bucks
+Hare, Sir J....26, Royal Crescent, Bath
Hare, Sir Thomas, Bart...Stow Hall, Downham
Market, Norfolk
Harewood, Earl of,... Harewood House, London
+Harford, John S....Blaize Castle, near Bristol
+Harford, W...Barley Wood, Wrington, near Bristol
Harkes, David...Mere, Knutsford
Harland, W. C...Sutton Hall, York
Harper, George... Belvidere, Whitchurch, Salop
Harper, John...Isham, Kettering, Northamptonsh.
Harper, John...Madley Manor, Newcastle-under-
Lyne, Staffordshire
Harries, Francis, jun....Cruckton Hall, Shrewsbury
Harries, Gilbert J....Llanwnwes, Haverfordwest,
~ Pembrokeshire
Harris, James..,Plumstead Common, Kent
Harris, James...Long Sutton, near Odiham, Hants
Harris, John...Hinton, Abingdon, Berks
Harris, John...Springwell Cottage, Clapham Com-
mon
Harris, Joseph...Graysouthern, Cockermouth
Harris, Rich. .. Wootton Grange, near Northampton
Harris, Thomas ..Fletchamstead, Stoneleigh, Co-
ventry, Warwickshire
Harris, Wm....Weston, Leamington, Warwickshire
Harrison, Anthony...Hexham, Northumberland
Harrison, Daniel... Kendal, Westmoreland
Harrison, Rev. J...Dinton, Aylesbury, Bucks
Harrison, John...Summerlands, Kendal
Harrison, John...The Bank, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Harrison, John, jun.,..Snelston Hall, near Ash-
bourne, Derbyshire
Harrison, John B,.. Douglas, Isle of Man
Harrison, Rev. J. H...Erdington, Birmingham
Harrison, Richard... Wolverton, Bucks
Harrison, Rev. R. J... Caer Howell, Welshpool
Harrison, Thomas,..Norris Green, West Derby,
Liverpool
Harrison, Rey. T. H... Bugbrooke Rectory, Weedon
Harrison, William... Walsall, Staffordshire
Harrison, William...Bagworth Park, near Market
Bosworth
Harrowby, Earl of... Norton House, Campden, Essex
Hart, Henry P...Beddingham, Lewes, Sussex
Hart, John Geo. ..Stowmarket, Suffolk
Hart, Thos. , Wing, nr. Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordsh.
Hart, Thos. Fred...Barham House, East Hoathly,
Hurst Green, Sussex
Hart, Thos. P...Housham Hall, Matching, Harlow,
Essex
Harter, Rev. G. G.,.-Cranfield, Newport Pagnell
+ Harter, J. C...Broughton Hall, Manchester
Hartley, Gilfred William... Rose Hill, Whitehaven,
Cumberland
Hartley, Thomas...Gilfoot, Whitehaven
Harvey, Chas. W...2, Dale Street, Liverpool
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Harvey, Edw. N...Mount House,
Southampton
Harvey, John,..Hemsworth, Wimborne, Dorset
Harvey, Matthew... Balderton, Newark, Notts.
Harvey, Robert E.... Walton Priory, near Liverpool
Harvey, °Maj..Gen. Sir R. J....Moushold House,
Norwich
Harvey, R. J....Brancondale, Norwich
Harwood, Samuel... Bradley Hall, Ashbourne
Haselfoot, R. C.,. Boreham, Chelmsford, Essex
Haselwood, Wm....Hoddesden, Herts
Haslar, Richard,..Aldingbourne, Chichester, Sussex
Hassall, Wm....Hadley, Whitchurch, Salop
Hassell, John...Shelford Manor, Nottingham
Hastings, John...Longham, near East Dereham,
Norfolk ;
Hastings, John, jun...Gressinghall, East Dereham
Hastings, John Kerr... Hereford
Hatfield, Charles T...Hartsdown House, near Mar-
gate, Kent
Hatfield, R... Thorpe Arch Hall, Wetherby, Yorksh.
Hatfield, Thomas... Yarwell, Wansford, Northampt.
Havers, Wm...Bacon’s Farm, Mountnessing, near
Ingatestone, Essex
Hawdon, Robert. ..Morpeth, Northumberland
Hawker, Admiral E...Ashford Lodge, Petersfield,
Hampshire
Hawkes, Matthew...Melton Constable, Dereham,
Norfolk
+Hawkesworth, R. S...Forest Mountrath, Queen's
County, Ireland
Hawkins, H. M...Tredunnock, Usk, Monmouthsh.
+Hawkins, Thos...Assington Moor, Sudbury,Suffolk
Hawkins, Wm. W...St. Botolph’s, Colchester, Essex
Hawks, Geo. . -Redheugh Hall, Gateshead-on-Tyne
Hawthorn, Wm....Benwell Cottage, Newcastle-on-
Tyne
Haydon, Joseph...Guildford, Surrey
Haydon, Samuel... Guildford, Surrey
Hayne, John,..Ferdington, Dorchester, Dorset
Hayne, Capt. Rich... .Stanley, New Brunswick
Hayward, George... Walford House, nr. Dorrington,
Shrewsbury
Hayward, Harry... Wilsford, Devizes, Wiltshire
Hayward, Jolin.. .Hisland, Oswestry, Shropshire
Hayward, J. C... Quedgeley House, near Gloucester
Hayward, Joseph.,.Beechingstoke, Devizes, Wilts.
Haywood, Henry... Moccas, Hereford
Haywood, James... Derby ;
Hazlerigg, Sir A. Grey, Bt... Noseley Hall, Leicester
Heacock, Philip... Buxton, Derbyshire
Head, Charles... Hexham
Headlam, Morley... Wycliffe Rectory, Greta Bridge,
Yorkshire
Headlam, T. E., M.P....Newcastle-on-Tyne
Headly, Richard...Stapleford, near Cambridge
Heanley, William... Croft, Wainfleet
Heard, W..-.St. Margaret’s, Ware, Herts.
Hearn, John Henry...Newport, Isle of Wight
Hearsey, Rich...Greatham, near Petersfield, Hants.
Heath, Samuel... Frankton, Southam, Warwickshire
Weath, Sergeant,..Kitlands, Dorking, Surrey
Heathcote, A. H... Blackwell, Bakewell, Derbysh.
Hythe, near
List of Members.
7 Heathcote, J. Moyer..,Connington Castle, Stilton,
Huntingdonshire
Heathcote, Richard...Bayterby, near Atherstone,
Warwickshire
Heaton, Chas...Endon, Leek, Staffordshire
Heaton, Thos... Endon, Leek, Staffordshire
Hedding, James..,Manor Farm, Chawson, near St.
Neots, Huntingdonshire
Heelis, Thos....Skipton Castle, Yorkshire
Hegan, Joseph... Liverpool
Helps, Richard. , .Gloucester
Helyar, C. J....Poundisford Lodge, Taunton, Soms.
Hemsworth, H. D’Estere.. -Shropham Hall, Lar-
lingford, Norfolk
Henchman, Fras....Kew, Surrey
Henckel, Count Hugo. .Donnesmark, Siemianowitz,
Konigshutte, Prussia
Henderson, Edward. .Lowick, Berwick-upon-Tweed
Henderson, Matthew...Landends, Hexham, Nor-
-thumberland
Henderson, R...Langles Ford, Wooller, Northumb.
Hendy, James... Trethurffe, near Truro, Cornwall
Heneage, Geo. H. Walker, M.P....Compton Basset,
Calne, Wiltshire
;Henley, Jos, Warner, M.P....Waterperry, near
Wheatley, Oxon.
+Henning, Jas,..Wolveton, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Henning, W. L...Frome House, Dorchester, Dorset-
shire
Henshall, Edward... Huddersfield
Hensman, William...Woburn, Beds.
Hensman, William, jun.... Woburn, Beds.
Henty, Robert... Chichester
Hepworth, Joshua. ..Rogerthorp, near Pontefract
Herbert, John...Powick, near Worcester
+Herbert, John Maurice...Rocklands, Ross.
Hercy, John...Hawthorn Hill, Maidenhead, Berks.
Hereford, Viscount ..Tregoyd, Hay, Herefordshire
Herrick, William...Beau Manor Park, Loughbo-
rough, Leicestershire
Herring, John Barnwell... North Barsham, Walsing-
ham, Norfolk
Herring, P. B...Finchley, Middlesex
Hersee, Dennett... Wepham, near Arundel, Sussex
+Hertefeld, The Baron... Liebenberg, near Berlin
Hervey, Wm...Bradwell Grove, near Burford, Oxon
Hesseltine, Wm.,..Worlaby House, Barton, Lin-
colnshire
-+Hester, G.P... Town Clerk’s Office, Oxford
Hetherington, Joseph Walker...Newcastle-upon-
Tyne
Hetley, H...Long Orton, Peterborough, Northamp-
tonshire
Hewer, George... Leygore, Northleach
Hewer, Wm...Hill Farm, Northleach
Hewitt, Richd....Dodford, Weedon, Northampton-
shire i
Hewlett, Thomas Barnard... Northampton
Hews, Richard Scott. .Hoo Pall, Revenhall, Witham,
Essex
Hext, Thos...Trerarren, St. Austell, Cornwall
Hey, Richard...York
Heytesbury, Lord...Heytesbury, Wilts
33
+Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart,..Claremont, near
Manchester
+Heywood, James, M.P...Atheneum Club
Heywood, John Thos... Brimington, near Chester-
field, Derbyshire
Heyworth, Rey. James..Henbury Hill, near Bristol
Heyworth, Ormerod...OQakwood Hall, near Stock-
port, Cheshire
+Hibbert, John, jun....47, Great Ormond Street
Hibbert, Nathaniel...Munden, Watford, Herts.
+Hibbert, Washington... Bilton Grange, Rugby
Hickin, John... Bourton, Dunchurch, Warwickshire
Hicks, Leonard... Paddock Lodge, Kentish Town
Hickson, Rich... Hougham, Grantham, Lincolnsh.
Higgens, Wm. W. . Fairfield, Hambledon, Horndean,
Hants,
Higgins, Rev. Edward...Bosbury House, Ledbury,
Herefordshire
Higgins, Henry...Brinsop Court, near Hereford,
Herefordshire
Higgins, John...Alford, Lincolnshire
Higgins, Wm. Thos....George Hotel, Northampton
Higgins, W.B....Pict’s Hill, Turvey, Bedford
+Higginson, Edmund,..Saltmarsh, Bromyard
Higginson, Jonathan.... Reaseheath Hall,
Nantwich
Higginson, Rev. J....Thormanby Rectory, Thirsk,
Yorkshire
Highmore, J. N.... Preston Yeovil, Somersetshire
Hilder, James, ..Bodiam, Staplehurst, Sussex
Hilder, John..,Sandhurst, Kent
Hilder, Thos.....Salehurst, Robertsbridge, Hurst-
green, Sussex
Hilditch, George... Treflach Hall, Oswestry
Hildyard, Colonel.,.Stokesley, Yorkshire
Hilhouse, Henry. ..Halstead, Leicester
Hill, Charles... Winceby, Horncastle, Lincolnshire
Hill, Charles...Great Harrowden, Wellingborough
Hill, Col. C. J....Tickhill Castle, Bawtry
Hill, Rev. Copinger. .Buxhall, Stow Market, Suffolk
Hill, Clement Delves...Sandford Hall, Salop
Hill, Edw... Brierley Hill Iron-Works, near Dudley,
Worcestershire
Hill, Edward...63, Gray’s Inn Lane
Hill, Harcourt...Hevers Wood, Brasted, Kent
Hill, Rev. John,..The Citadel, Hawkstone, Shrews-
bury, Salop
Hill, Josiah... Briston, East Dereham
Hill, Robt. Broadhurst... .Backe Hall, near Chester
Hill, Col. Sir Robert Chambre, Knt....Prees Hall,
Shrewsbury, Shropshire
Hill, Rd. Clarke...Stallington, Stone, Staffordshire
Hills, David... Norwich
Hills, Henry...Span, Godshill, Isle of Wight
Hillyard, C....Thorpelands, near Northampton
Hilton, Henry,..Sole Street House, Selling, Faver-
sham, Kent
Hilton, Stephen Musgrave... Brambling, Wingham
Hilton, Thomas... Nackington House, Canterbury
Hincks, T. C....Breckenborough, Thirsk, Yorkshire
Hinde, Geo. T. Preston... Harmston Hall, Lincoln
+Hinde, John Hodgson, M.P.... Acton House,
Felton, Northumberland
near
F
34
Hindmarsh, Wm. C....West Horton, near Wooller,
Northumberland
Hine, Thomas C....Nottingham
Hipkin, John...Singleton, near Midhurst, Sussex
Hippisley, Edw. Burgess...Chewton Mendip, Bath,
Somersetshire
Hippisley, John.. Stone Easton, Bath, Somerset
Hirst, Godfrey...Longdon Hall, Knowle, Warwicks.
Hitchcock, Simon,... Allcanings, near Devizes,
Wiltshire
Hoare, George Wm.... The Lodge, Morden, Surrey
Hoare, Henry Chas....7, York Street, St. James’s
Hoare, Sir Hugh Richard, Bart... Lillingstone, Tow-
cester, Northumberland
Hoare, Capt. Richard, . Tag’s End, Hemel Hempstead
Hobbs, B....Earl’s Colne, near Halstead, Essex
Hobbs, Wm....Bocking, Braintree, Essex
Hobgen, Chas... .Siddlesham, Chichester, Sussex
Hobgen, J., jun....Aldingbonrn, Chichester, Sussex
Hobhouse, Henry...9, King’s Bench Walk, Temple
Hoblyn, D. P....Colquita, near Bodmin, Cornwall
Hobson, Edward..Stoke Park, Stapleton, nr. Bristol
Hoddenett, James...Silberlake Farm, Sherborne,
Dorsetshire
Hodding, Matthias Thos....Fryem Court, Salisbury
Hodge, Henry... Lower Bossistow Vale, St. Levan,
near Penzance, Cornwall
Hodgkinson, Rev. G. C.... Training Institution,
York
Hodgkinson, John.,.Hardwicke, near Chesterfield,
Derbyshire
Hodgkinson, R., sen....Morton Grange, Retford,
Nottinghamshire
Hodgkinson, R., jun....Osberton Grange, Retford,
Nottinghamshire
Hodgson, James...Eldon Street, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne
Hodgson, Isaac Scott...14, Furnival’s Inn
-+Hodgson, William...Wanstead, Essex
Hodson, Rev. J. J....Yelvertoft Rectory, Rugby
Hoff, William...Halton, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Hogarth, John... Akeld, Wooller
Hoggins, Thos..,.Trafford Lodge, near Chester
Holcombe, Rev. George Francis... Brinkley, New-
market, Cambridgeshire
Holden, Edw. A....Aston Hall, Derby
Holden, Robt... Nuthall Temple, Nottingham
Holder, John...Cubberly, near Ross, Herefordshire
Holding, Henry...Shaldon, near Alton, Hants
Holdsworth, Geo...2, Upper Dorset Place, Clapham
Road, Kennington
Hole, James...Knowle, Dunster, Somersetshire
Hole, William... Hannaford, Barnstaple
Hole, William...Clare House, Tiverton, Devonshire
+Holland, Dr. Charles...Rodbaston Hall, Penkridge
Holland, Sam., jun...Plasy Penrhyn, Port Maddock,
Carnarvonshire
Holliday, James...Lord Street, Liverpool
Hollier, W... Walton, near Burton-on-Trent, Staffs.
+Hollist, Hasler. ..Lodsworth, Petworth, Sussex
Holloway, Harry... Ringwood
Holloway, Horatio... Marchwood, Southampton
Holman, John,..Glastonbury, Somerset
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Holmes, Fred.,..Tibbenham, Attleborough, Norfolk
Holmes, George.. .Brooke Lodge, Norwich
Holmes, Rev. John... Brooke Hall, Norwich
Holmes, John...Prospect Place, Globe Lane, Nor-
wich
Holmes, Hon. W. A’Court... Westover, Newport,
Isle of Wight
Holton, George... Wiston, Sudbury, Suffolk
Homer, J., . Martinstown, near Dorchester, Dorsetsh.
Honnywill, W. Henry...Alveston, Bristol
+Hony, Rev. P. F...25, Old Bond Street
Hony, Rev. W. E....Baverstock Rectory, Salisbury,
Wiltshire
Honywood, W. P...Mark’s Hall, Kelvedon, Essex
Hood, Hon. Colonel A. N....50, Grosvenor Street
Hooper, George, jun...Cottington, near Deal, Kent
Hope, Thomas Henry... Netley, Shrewsbury
Hoper, John, jun.,..Shermanbury, Hurstperpoint,
Sussex
Hopkins, Jno.... Tidmarsh House, Reading, Berks.
Hopkinson, Luke...10, Bedford Row
Hopkinson, Dr. W. Landen.. .St. Martin’s, Stamford,
Lincolnshire
Hopper, John Mason,..Newham Grange, near
Middlesbro.
Hopton, Rev. John...Canon-Frome Court, Ledbury,
Herefordshire
Hopton, Rev. W. P... .Bishop’s Frome, near Brom-
yard, Herefordshire
Hordern, Alex...Oxley, Wolverhampton, Staffordsh.
Horlock, Frederick... Handcox Farm, Seddlescombe,
Sussex
Horne, Allen... Bridge Street, Sunderland
Hornby, H...Ribby Hall, Kirkham, Preston, Lanc.
Hornby, Joseph...Everton, near Liverpool
+Hornby, Rev. R... Walton-le-Dale, Preston, Lanc.
Hornby, Rev. William....St. Michael's Vicarage,
Garstang
Horneastle, John, jun... The Yews, Tickhill, Rother-
ham, Yorkshire
Horner, Rev. John... Mells Park, Frome, Somerset.
Hornsby, Rich....Spittle Gate, Grantham, Linc.
Hornsby, R., jun,...Spittle Gate, Grantham, Linc.
Hornyold, Thos....Blackmoor Park, Great Malvern,
Worcestershire
Horton, R...Audley End, Saffron Walden, Essex
Horwood, John...Stean Park, Brackley, Northamp.
+Hoskins, T...Haselbury, Crewkerne, Somersetshire
+Hoskins, W... North Perrott, Crewkerne, Somerset.
Hoskins, Kedgwin....Birch House, Ross, Hereford-
shire
Hoskison, John Mayon. .Thiestleyfield Farm, Wilne-
cot, Fazeley, Staffordshire
Hoskyns, Sir Hungerford, Bart....Harewood, Ross,
Herefordshire
Hotchkys, Arundell Calmady... Cleverdon House,
Bradworthy, Holsworthy, Devon.
Hotson, John... Long Stratton, Norfolk
+Houblon, Richard A...Coopersall, Epping, Essex
Houghton, Henry...Baginton, Coventry, Warwick-
shire :
Houghton, John... Broom Hall, Sunninghill, Berks.
Houldsworth, Henry...Coltness, Wishaw, N. B.
List of Members.
Houldsworth, Thomas, M.P..,.Portland Place, Man-
chester
Hovell, John Rayner...Soham, near Mildenhall,
Suffolk
How, Wm....Hammond’s End, Harpenden, Herts.
How, William Wyburgh..,Shrewsbury
Howard, Charles. ..28, Castlegate, York
+Howard, Hon. Capt. H... Norton Court, Gloucester
jyHoward, H. ..Greystoke Castle, Penrith, Cumberl.
+Howard, Hon. James,..Hazelby, near Newbury
Howard, John...Brereton Hall, Sandbach, Cheshire
Howard, John... Bedford
Howard, W.. . Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northumberl.
Howell, Henry... Driffield, Cirencester, Glostersh.
Howell, H. Williams...Glasspont, near Newcastle
Emlyn, South Wales
Howell, W. Parker...7, Britannia Square, Worcester
Howes, Ephraim... Holt House, Leziate, Lynn Regis
Howey, T...Lilburn Grange, Wooller, Northumber-
land
Howlett, John...Bowthorpe Hall, Norwich
Hubbersty, John, C. E....
Hubbersty, Rev. Nathan... Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Hubbersty, Philip... Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Huckvale, T....Choice Hill, Chipping Norton
Huddlestone, Peter... Little Haugh, Norton, near
Ixworth, Suffolk
Huddlestone, Purefoy...Norton, Woolpit, Suffolk
Hudlestone, Andrew Fleming...Hutton John, near
Penrith, Cumberland :
Hudson, ©. 8... Wick, near Pershore, Worcestershire
Hudson, George, M.P... York
Hudson, Henry, jun...Wick, near Pershore, Worc.
Hudson, John. ..Castleacre Lodge, Swaffham, Norf.
+Hudson, John, jun.. Lower Swell, Stow-on-the-Wold
Hudson, John...Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Hudson, Peter... Warham, Wells, Norfolk
+Hudson, Thomas Moore....The Grove, Warham,
Wells, Norfolk
Huggup, James...Shieldykes, near Alnwick
Hughes, Alfred...Stowe Park, Bungay
Hughes, Edw....Smeeth Hill House, Ashford, Kent
Hughes, George Huglhres... Middleton Hall, Wooller
Hughes, John....Donnington Priory, Newbury,
Berks.
Hughes, John,..Phennant, near Wrexham
Hughes, Samuel... Bristol
Hughes, William...Browning’s Grove, Blackboys,
Hurst Green, Sussex
Hogill, John... Whitby
Hulme, James Hilton... Manchester
Hulme, Wm...Pembroke Bank, Pembroke, S. W.
Humbert, Charles F.... Watford, Hertfordshire
Humble, Edw.....Renishaw, Chesterfield, Derbysh.
Hume, John...Beau Regard, Jersey
Humfrey, John...Upton, Wallingford, Berkshire = -
Humfrey, Robt. Blake... Wroxham House, Norwich
Humphreys, E....Walcot, near Montgomery
Humphreys, John...Evenhall, Oswestry, Salop
Humphreys, John..,Berricw Rectory, Welshpool,
Montgomeryshire mt
Humphries, John,..Cranmere, near Bridgnorth,
Salop
PN
Pa r8)
Hunloke, Sir H., Bart.... Wingerworth Hall, Chester-
field
tHunt, Geo....The Grange, Broughton, Preston,
Lane.
Hunt, Henry John... High Street, Lambeth
Hunt, John,..Thornington, near Wooller, North-
umberland
Hunt, John...Shirley, Southampton
Hunt, Joseph... Addlesthorpe, Spilsby
Hunt, Robert... Aldeby, near Beccles
Hunt, W. A...St. Mary’s Street, Stamford, Lincolns.
Hunt, Wm....Bretton Park Office, near Wakefield,
Yorkshire
Hunt, William... Leicester
Hunt, Zachary D....Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire
Hunter, Henry L....Beech Hill, Reading, Berkshire
Hunter, Wm....Lovaine Row, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Hurle, John...Clifton, Bristol
Hurley, Rich....Gadden House, Uffeulm, Collum p-
ton, Devonshire
Hurry, J... Knarefen, Thorney, Whittlesea, Cambs.
Hurt, Francis...Alderwasley, Belper, Derbyshire
Hurt, Francis, jun... . Duffield, near Derby
Hort, Richard..,Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Hurwood, George... Ipswich, Suffolk
Hussey, Edw.,..122, Park Street, Grosvenor Square
Hussey, Richard H....Upwood, Huntingdon
Hussey, Thomas... Waybrook, Alphington, Exeter
Hussey, Thos....Hambledon, Henley-on-Thames,
Oxon
Hutchins, John... Waltham, Melton Mowbray
Hutchison, John...Monyrny, Peterhead, N. B.
Hutchinson, Rich... .Stanhope, Weardale, Durham
Hutchinson, Hon. Col. H. H...Weston House,
Towcester
Hutley, Jonathan...Rivenhall Hall, near Witham,
Essex
Hutley, William...Pounds Hall, Witham, Essex
Hutt, John.,. Water Eaton, near Oxford
Hutt, William,..Thrupp, Woodstock, Oxon
Hutton, Rev. H.,.Rector of Filliegh, South Molton
Hutton, John...Sowber Hill, Northallerton, Yorksh.
Hutton, Thos. .. Upton Gray, near Odiham, Hampsh.
Hutton, Wm.,.Gate Burton, Gainsborough, Lincoln-
shire
Huxtable, Rev. Anthony.. Sutton Waldron, Shaftes-
bury, Dorsetshire
Hyde, Francis C....Syndale, Feversham, Kent
Hyde, Thomas... Manor House, Maidstone
Ide, John... West Wittering, Chichester, Sussex
Ibert, William R....3, Cavendish Crescent, Bath
+lles, F....Barnoldby-le-Beck, Grimsby, Lincolnsh.
Iles, John... Binbrook Hill, Market Rasen
Inett, W...Asfordby, Melton Mowbray, Leicestersh.
Inge, Captain W....Thorpe, near Tamworth, Staffs,
Ingham, Robert... Westoe, near South Shields
Ingle, Thomas...Belper, Derbyshire
Ingle, Thomas, M.D.... Wood Hall, Hilgay, Norfolk
Ingram, Herbert...198, Strand
Ingram, Hugh...Steyning, Sussex
Ingram, Hugo F. M....Hoarcross, Rugeley, Staffs.
+Ingram, Rev. James. . Trinity ae Oxford
FZ
36
+Ingram, John Andrew...Codford St. Peter, War-
minster, Wilts.
Instone, Thomas...Calaughton, Wenlock, Salop.
+Ireland, I. Ireland C....Brislington, near Bristol
Treland, Philip...Muckleton, near Shrewsbury
Isaacson, John...Clare, Suffolk
Isaacson, Wm. Parr... Newmarket, Cambridgeshire
Isham, Sir C. E., Bart... Lamport Hall, Northampton
Isham, Rey. Robt... Lamport Rectory, Northampton
Ivatt, Robert...Cottenham, Cambridgeshire
Ivens, Thomas. ..Lutterworth, Leicestershire
Ives, George... Norwich
Ives, Capt. Ferdinand. .St. Catherine’s Hill, Norwich
Iveson, John... Marlborough, Wilts.
Izon, John...Sowe, Coventry
Jackson, Daniel... Boston, Lincolnshire
Jackson, Geo. V... Carramore, Ballina, Ireland
Jackson, Hugh...Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
Jackson, John S.,..Eastham, near Chester
Jackson, John... East Haddon Grange, near North-
ampton
Jackson,
Notts.
Jackson, W. K.,..Barbot Hall, Rotherham
Jacson, Charles R....Myerscough Cottage, Preston,
Lancashire
James, Rev. Chas. Thos....Exeter College, Oxford
James, C. F....Kirknewton, near Wooller, North-
umberland
James, Edward... Wylam Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
James, Herbert G....243, Whitechapel Road
James, Joseph R.,..Burnewhall, St. Buryan, Pen-
zance, Cornwall
James, Robert...Carden Thursby, near Carlisle,
Cumberland
James, Thomas...Brandon, Wooller, Northumb.
James, Thomas...Otterburn Tower, Newcastle-on-
Tyne
James, William... King Street, Hereford
y;James, Captain W. E....Barrock Lodge, Carlisle
James, William P....Pantglasse, Trelleck, near
Monmouth
Jarratt, George Jarratt... Elmfield House, Doncaster
+Jarrett, John...Camerton House, Bath, Somerset.
Jarvis, Sir R. ..Cove Cottage, Ventnor, Isle of
Wight, Hants
Jebb, George...The Lyth, Ellesmere, Salop.
Jecks, Charles...Thorpe, Norwich
Jefferson, Rev. J. D....Thicket Priory, Escrick, near
York
Jefferys, N. N....Hollybrook House, Shirley, near
Southampton, Hants
Jeffkins, George....2, Crosby Square, Bishopsgate
Street
Jeffs, Wm....Costow House, Marston St. Lawrence,
Northamptonshire
Jeggo, Thos. Bayley ..Pear Tree, Gosfield, Halstead,
Essex
Jelley, Thomas. ..Tickencote, Stamford
Jenkins, G. John...Pantirion, near Cardigan, S. W.
+Jenkins, John, jun. ,.Caerleon, Monmouthshire
Jenkins, Richard David,..Cardigan
Matthew...Bilsthorpe, near Southwell
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Jenkinson, Joseph. ..Millwich, Stone, Staffs.
Jenner, Arthur Rice...Chislehurst, Kent
Jenner, Montagu Herbert.. Chislehurst, Kent
Jenner, Robt. Fras... Wenvoe Castle, Cardiff, S. W.
Jennings, J. C...Evershot, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Jennings, Richard...21, Portland Place
Jennings, Robt. F....Little Belshanger, Sandwich,
Kent ,
Jenyns, Geo....Bottisham Hall, Cambridge
Jermyn, Earl, M.P....Bury St. Edmund’s
Jersey, Earl of...Middleton Park, Bicester, Oxon
Jervoise, Samuel Clarke... Porter’s Shenley, Barnet,
Hertfordshire
Jessop, Joseph. ..Grove Farm, Chiswick, Middlesex
Jessop, Wm... Butterley Hall, Alfreton, Derbyshire
Jesty, Charles...Holywell, Evershot, Dorchester,
Dorset.
Jesty, Thomas ..Druce Farm, Piddleton, Dorset.
Jewett, Llewellyn. .. Headington, Oxon.
Jex, William... Hopton, Gt. Yarmouth, Norfolk
Jobling, John....Seaton Lodge, North Shields,
Northumberland
Jobling, J. C... Newton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Jobling, Mark L...Percy Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Jobson, Thomas... Bank Farm, Shrewsbury
Jobson, William...Glanton by Alnwick, Northum-
berland
Jodrell, Sir Rd. Paul, Bart....Sall Park, Reepham,
Norfolk
Johnson, Cuthbert Wm... Waldronfield, Croydon
Johnson, Edward... The Deanery, Chester-le-Street
Johnson, Fras, Dixon...Aykley Heads, Durham
+Johnson, George... Blaco Hill, Retford, Notts.
Johnson, George... Willington, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Johnson, Rev. H. Luttman,...Binderton House,
Chichester, Sussex
Johnson, John G...64, St. Giles’s Street, Norwich
Johnson, John G.,..Bentley, near Ashbourne, Der-
byshire
Johnson, Joseph.,, Ravenswood, Manchester, Lan-
cashire
Johnson, Rev. N. P...Aston-on-Trent, near Derby
Johnson, Rev. P...Wimborthy, Chumleigh, Devon.
Johnson, Robert... Westborough, Long Bennington,
Newark, Notts.
Johnson, Samuel...Somersall Hall,
Derbyshire
Johnson, T. C....Chevet, Wakefield
Johnson, Theophilus F...Spalding, Lincolnshire
Johnson, Thomas ..Cheapside, Leicester
Johnson, Thomas... Whittlesey, Cambridgeshire
Johnson, Walter... East Field, Warkworth, Northbd.
Johnson, William B...Strathfieldsaye, Hants.
Johnston, Charles. ..Claramount, Cheshunt
Johnston, John A...Crondall, Farnham, Surrey
Johnstone, George...53, Tavistock Square
tJohnstone, Rev. George... Broughton, Hunts
Johnstone, Capt. J... Ashfold, Crawley, Sussex
;Jolliffe, Col. J. T...Amnerdown Park, near Bath
Jolliffe, Sir Wm. G. H., Bart., M.P...Heath House,
Petersfield '
Joly, Fred...4, Hatton Court, Threadneedle Street
Jonas, Samuel...Ickleton, Saffron Walden, Essex.
Chesterfield,
List of Members.
Jones, Anthony Gilbert. ..Gloucester
Jones, Benjamin H... Lark Hill, Liverpool
Jones, Charles...Poole Keynes, Cirencester
+Jones, David.., Blaennose House, Llandovery
Jones, Edward...94, High Street, Borough
Jones, Edward...6, York Crescent, Clifton, Bristol
Jones, George... .Lower Hill, Hereford
Jones, George, -.Stanton, near Warwick
Jones, John...Pant-y-Corred, Brecon, Brecknock-
shire
+Jones, John...Blaennose House, Llandovery
Jones, John... Harrington, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Jones, John, ..Glanhonddi, near Brecon
Jones, John Edw... Baysham, Ross, Herefordshire
Jones, J. H. W....Chastleton, Chipping Norton,
Oxon
Jones, J. O...Dollycorsllwyn, Welshpool, Montgo-
meryshire
Jones, Matthew LEaston..,Henningwell Lodge,
Wellingborough, Northamptonshire
Jones, Matthew Edw....Stalloe, Montgomery
Jones, R. P....The Hermitage, Whitchurch, Salop
Jones, Thos...Kensworth, Market Street, Herts.
fTJones, Sir Willoughby, Bart.... Cranmer Hall,
Fakenham, Norfolk
Jones, Walter David, M.D... Lancych, Newcastle
Emlyn, S. W.
j;Jones, Wm....Harrington, Shiffnal, Shropshire
Jones, Wm.... Waterloo Villa, Spa, near Gloucester
Jones, Wm...Record Street, Ruthin, Denbighshire
y+Jones, Wm. Bence... Kilgariff, Clonakilty, Ireland
Jones, Wm. T...Gwynfryn, near Aberystwith
Jordan, Francis...Eastburn, Driffield
Jordan, G. B. J.,..Pigeonsford, Newcastle Emlyn,
S. Wales ;
Jordan, Wm....Charlton Kings, near Cheltenham,
Gloucestershire
Josselyn, John...Sproughton, Ipswich, Suffolk
Jowett, Rev. J. F.... Kingston, Bagpuze, Abingdon,
Berks
Joyner, Henry St. John... Chadwell Place, Grays,
Essex
Juckes, Richard...Cotwall, Wellington, Shropshire
Juckes, Thos....Tearn Farm, Wellington, Shropshire
Julian, John...Bury, Huntingdon
Justice, Henry...Hinstock, Market Drayton, Salop
Justice, Rev. John...Ightfield, Whitchurch, Salop
Jutsum, Edward. ..Gibbs-at Perry, Romford, Essex
Karkeek, W. F...'Truro
+Kay, John Robinson..,Bass Lane House, Bury,
Lancashire
Kay, Richard...Hansfield, Rochdale, Lancashire
Kaye, Lister L...Denby Grange, Wakefield
Keary, H. W...Longlands, Holkham, Norfolk
Keeling, Chas...Congreve, Penkridge, Staffs,
Keen, Jas... Weston Park, Campden, Gloucestersh.
Keen, Thomas...Croydor, Surrey
Kekewich, S. T...Peamore, near Exeter
Kelham, R.K.,.Bleasby, Southwell, Notts.
Kell, William... Gateshead, Durham
Kelsey, Fred. J... West Lavington House, Wiltshire
+Kemble, Horatio... Leggatts, near Hatfield, Herts.
37
+Kemble, Thos...Leggatts, near Hatfield, Herts.
Kemp, James C.,.. Liverpool
Kemp, Jesse... Thurlby Grange, near Alford, Lin-
colnshire
Kempson, J., jun.. Birchyfields, Bromyard, Here-
fordshire
Kendall, John. .. Hog Hall, Burbage, Hinckley
Kendall, Nicholas..,Pelyn, near Lostwithiel, Corn-
wall
Kendall, Samuel... East Moulsey, near Kingston,
Surrey
Kendle,C. J... Fordham, Downham Market, Norfolk
+Kennaway, Sir John, Bart.. Escot, Honiton, Devon.
Kennett, Rich... Lagenhoe Wick, Colchester, Essex
Kent, John...Mortimer, Reading
Kenward, J. W...Fletching, near Uckfield, Sussex
Kenyon, Hon, Thomas... Pradoe, Oswestry
Keppel, Hon. and Rev. Thomas..North Creake, Fa-
kenham, Norfolk
Kerl, Wm...1, Hans Place, Sloane Street
Kerr, Robt.. .Heywood, near Kington, Herefordsh.
+Kerrich, John,. Geldeston Hall, Beccles, Norfolk
Kerrison, E. C...-31, Old Burlington Street
Kerrison, John... Ranworth, Norwich
Kersey, Henry. ..Helmingham, Stoneham, Suffolk
Kersey, James..Tarlton Farm, near Cirencester
+Kesterton, Thomas ... Woodlands, Leatherhead,
Surrey
Kett, Geo. S...Brook House, Norwich, Norfolk
Keyworth, Joseph. ..Spital, Lincolnshire
Kidstone, Thos....Prospect Hall, Horn Hill, Chal-
font St. Peter’s, Rickmansworth
Kilby, George.,.Queniborough, Rearsby, Leices-
tershire
Killick, Henry... Liverpool
+ Kinder, John...Sandridge Bury, St.Alban’s, Herts.
Kinder, Thomas....Sandridge Bury, St. Alban’s,
Herts.
7Kinderley, Geo. Herbert...Kilpaison, Pembroke-
shire
King, Benj... Bilsden Hall, Chipping Ongar, Essex
+King, Chas...Little Brinton, Northamptonshire
King, Charles... New Cottage Farm, Potter's Bar,
Barnet
King, E. B...Umberslade, Henley-in-Arden, War-
wickshire
+King, Fielder... Buriton, Petersfield, Hampshire
+King, Frederick. ..Oxford
King, James...Dullingham, Cambridge
King, Rev. James... Longfield Court, Dartford, Kent
King, James K....Staunton Park, near Leominster,
Herefordshire
King, Rev. J. M....Cutcombe Vicarage, Dunster,
Somersetshire
King, Hon. P. J. Loche, M.P....Woburn Park;
Chertsey, Surrey
King, R. K. Meade... Walford,
Somerset
King, R. Meade... Pyrland Hall, Taunton, Somerset-
shire
King, W. F... Wincanton
Kingdon, Rev. S. N,..Bridgerule Vicarage, near
Holsworthy
near Taunton,
38
+Kingscote, Thos...Kingscote, Tetbury, Glostsh.
Kingsford, John,..Esher, Surrey
7Kingsmill, Wm....Sydmonton Park, Newbury,
Berkshire
Kinlock, Col. John...Logie, Kirriemuir, N. B.
+Kirk, Richard...Gale Bank, Leybourne, Wensley
Dale, Yorkshire
Kirkby, Thomas,..Cuxwold, Caistor
Kirkham, John,,.Hagnaby, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Kirkland, Sir John...80, Pall Mall
Kirkpatrick, William ...Delves House, Ringmer,
Lewes, Sussex
Kirsopp, James...The Spittal, Hexham, Northumb,
Kitton, John.,.Norwich
Knatchbull, H. E....Elmham Vicarage, East Dere-
ham
Knatchbull, Rev. Wadham...Cholderton Lodge,
Amesbury, Wilts
+Knatchbull, William...Babington, Frome, Somer-
setshire
Knight, ©. A...Simondsbath, Southmolton, Devon
Knight, Edw.,..Godmersham Park, Canterbury,
Kent
Knight, Edw., jun...Chawton House, Alton, Hants
Knight, John B... West Lodge, Dorchester, Dorset.
Knight, Richard...Dunton Hall, Brentwood, Essex
Knight, Richard...Headley, Liphook, Hampshire
Knight, Rev. Robt....Tythegston Court, Bridgend,
Glamorganshire
Knight, Thomas...Norlington, near Lewes
Knight, Thos... Bobbing Court, Sittingbourne, Kent
Knight, Thos... Edmonton, Middlesex
Knightley, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P...Fawsley Park,
Daventry, Northamptonshire
+Knighton, Sir William, Bart... Blendworth Lodge,
Horndean, Hants
Knipe, J. A... Manor Street, Clapham
Knollis, J. E... Langford, Brandon, Norfolk
Knollys, Colonel. ..Blount’s Court, Henley, Oxon
Knowles, Joshua...Stormer Hill, Tollington, near
Bury, Lancashire
Knowles, Joshua...Old Manor House, Tinsley, near
Sheffield
Kynaston, Cabot... Caldy Island, Tenby
Kynnersley, T. C. Sneyd...Loxley Park, Uttoxeter,
Staffs.
Kyrke, Richard V.,.Pendrell Cottage, Wrexham
Laborn, Daniel...Eske, Bever’ey, Yorkshire
Labrey, John... Yew Cottage, Huddersfield
Lacey, Wm...Adboulton House, Nottingham
Lacey, W. Chas....Sutton, Carshalton, Surrey
Lacon, Sir Edmund H. K., Bart...Somerton Hall,
Great Yarmouth, Norfolk
La Coste, Thos. B... Abbey Mills, Chertsey, Surrey
Ladbroke, Felix...Hedley, Epsom, Surrey
Ladds, James...Deanshanger, near Stony Stratford,
Bucks.
Ladds, Wm.... Ellington, North Huntingdon
Laidler, Matthew...West Fenton, near Wooller
Laidler, Thomas,..Fenton, near Wooller
Lake, Machin,..Saham, Watton, Norfolk
Lake, Robert... Milton, near Canterbury, Kent
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
| Lamb, Joseph...Axwell Park, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Lamb, William...Hay Carr, Ellel, Lancaster
Lamb, William...Cranwell Grange, near Sleaford,
Lincolnshire
Lamb, Wm....Fair Mile, near Henley-on-Thames
Oxon
Lambard, Wm... Beechmont, Seven Oaks, Kent
Lambert, Wm. Chas....Knowle House, Wimborne,
Dorsetshire
y;Lamothe, Fred. J. D...Ramsey, Isle of Man
Lamprell, Wm...Little Bradley Hall, Newmarket
Lance, Edwd. J... Blackwater, Bagshot, Surrey
Lance, Rev. John E...Buckland St. Mary, Chard,
Somerset
yLandor, H. Eyres, ..Warwick
Landor, Thomas... Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Lane, John...Barton Mill, Cirencester, Gloucest.
Lanfear, Thos... Avington, Hungerford, Berks.
Langdale, Hon. Charles,..Houghton Hall, Market
Weighton, Yorkshire
Langdale, Marmaduke R....Garston House, God-
stone, Surrey
+Langford, Fred. ., Udimore, near Rye
Langham, Herbert. ..Cottesbrooke, Northampton.
Langlands, John Chas... Bewick, near Alnwick
Langley, Henry...2nd Life Guards
Lansdale, R., jun... Worsley Hall, Manchester
Lanwarne, Nicholas...St. John Street, Hereford
Large, Charles... Broadwell, Lechlade, Gloucest.
Large, John, .. Hill Field, Combe Abbey, Coventry
Lasham, R. S... Woodlands, Westmeon, near Peters-
field, Hants
Latham, R. Cousins... Clifton Hampden, near Abing-
i don, Berkshire aioe
La Touche, David...Marlay, Dublin
Lattimore, Chas. Higby....Wheathampstead, St.
Alban’s, Herts.
Lavender, William...Biddenham, Bedford
+Law, Rev. R. V...Christian Malford, Chippenham,
Wiltshire
Lawes, John Bennet...Rothamsted Park, Harpen-
den, Herts
Lawford, Edward, .. Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordsh.
Lawford, John... Mount Pleasant, Tottenham, Mid-
dlesex
+Lawford, Thomas, jun. ..Tirydail, near Llandilo,
Carmarthenshire
Lawford, Wm. R....Oerley Hall, near Oswestry,
Salop :
+Lawley, Hon. Beilby R...Escrick Park, York
Lawley, Hon.and Rev. S. W...Escrick Rectory, York
Lawrance, T. M...Dunsby Hall, Folkingham, Lin-
colnshire
Lawrance, Wm ., Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Lawrence, Charles...Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Lawrence, George... Cowsfield, Salisbury, Wilts.
Lawrence, Capt. I. R.... East Harptree, near Bristol,
Somersetshire ;
Lawrence, Wm. E.,.The Greenway, Cheltenham
Lawrence, Wm. Scott...Stapleton, near Bristol
Lawson, Andrew, M.P.,..The Hall, Boroughbridge,
Yorkshire
+Lawson, C...George the Fourth’s Bridge, Edinbro.
List of Members.
Lawson, Edw.,..Redesdale Cottage, Newcastle-on-
Tyne
Lawson, Robt...Everley Lodge, East Barnet, Herts.
Lawson, William...Longhirst Hall, Morpeth
Lawson, Sir Wm., Bart... Brough Hall, Catterick
Lawton, J. B..Newark, Nottinghamshire
Lax, George... Wells, Somersetshire
Lax, J., jun... East Horsington, Wells, Somerset
Lax, William... Darlington
Laxton, R. W...Morbone, Stilton, Hunts.
Laxton, William... Pinchbeck, Crossgate, Spalding
Lay, John G...Great Tey, Colchester, Essex
Laycock, Joseph... Lintz Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Laye, Lieut. H.T., R.N...8, Albion Place, Scarboro.
Layton, Robt. M....Thorney Abbey, Peterborough,
Northamptonshire
Layton, William,..Soham Place, Mildenhall
Lea, John...Ellesmere, Salop
Leach, Frederick. ..Grove Mill, Watford, Herts.
Leach, George...Stoke, Devonport, Devonshire
Leach, Henry...Corston, near Pembroke
Leake, Lieut.-Col. Robert Martin....Woodhurst,
Oxted, near Godstone, Surrey
Leamon, Robert... Whitwell, Reepham, Norfolk
Leche, John Hurleston,..Carden Park, Chester
Ledger, Reuben... Knotty Ash, near Liverpool
Lee, Charles...Coldrey House, Alton, Hants.
Lee, Charles ... Ellington Masham, Bedale, Yorksh.
Lee, Edward... .Stocksfield Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Lee, George B....Frampton, Dorchester, Dorset
Lee, Joseph... Dilston, Hexham, Northumberland
Lee, Joseph, jun...-Red Brook, Whitchurch, Salop
+Lee, J. L... Dillington House, Ilminster, Somerset.
Lee, Richard...Grove Hill, Ferrybridge
Leech, John... Wall Hill, Leek, Staffordshire
Leedham, William ...Westbury Hill, near Bristol
Leeds, Henry...Stibbington, near Wansford, Nor-
thamptonshire
Leeke, Ralph... Longford Hall, Newport, Salop
Lees, William...Bakewell, Derbyshire
Leese, Benjamin... Hastling, Faversham, Kent
Legard, George... Fangfoss, Pocklington, Yorkshire
Legard, Capt. J. A.... Lenton Hall, Nottingham
Legh, G.C., M.P....High Leigh, Warrington, Lanc.
Legh, Peter... Norbury Booth Hall, Knutsford
Legh, Richard... Fox Hall, Oswestry
+Leigh, Capel H...Pontypool Park, Montgomerysh.
Leigh, Rev. John...Egginton Rectory, near Derby
Leighton, Sir Baldwin, Bt... Loton, Shrewsbury
Leir, Rev. W. M....Ditcheet, Castle Carey, Somer-
setshire
+Leith, Sir Alexander...Freefield and Glentindie,
Aberdeenshire, N.B.
+Lempriere, Capt. G. O....Pelham Place, Alton,
Hampshire -
Leslie, Chas. Powell...Glasslough, Ireland
Lethbridge, A. G.. .Sandhill Park, Taunton, Somer-
setshire
Lethbridge, J. K...Tregeare, Launceston, Cornwall
Lett, Joseph... Rushock, Kidderminster
Leuw, Dr. de...Grafrath, Elberfeld
Leven and Melville, Earl of.,.Melville House,
Fife, N.B.
39
Levett, John... Wicknor Park, Lichfield, Staffs.
Levi, William... Woughton House, Fenny Stratford,
Bucks.
Levick, Henry... West Woodhay, Newbury
Lewellin, Daniel.,.Tremains, Bridgend
Lewes, Rev. Thos.. .Taynton, Burford, Oxon
Lewis, A. M.... Nether Wallop, Andover, Hants
Lewis, David,..Stradey, Llanelly, near Carmarthen
Lewis, Edward. .,Hertingfordbury, near Hertford
Lewis, Israel Harris...Gallants Court, East Far-
leigh, Maidstone
Lewis, Laurance... Northington, near Alresford
Lewis, Thos... . Norchard, near Pembroke
Lewis, W. H....Clynfiew, Newcastle Emlyn, Car-
marthenshire
Ley, Rev. Henry... Kenn, near Exeter
Ley, John Henry...Treehill, near Exeter
Ley, John H., jun....Treehill, near Exeter
Lichfield, Coventry H...,Golder Farm, Tetsworth,
Oxon
Lidbetter, Richard... Bramber, Steyning, Sussex
Liddell, Henry George...Eslington House, Whit-
tingham, Northumberland
Liddell, Hon. H. T., M.P....Ravensworth Castle,
Gateshead
Lilford, Lord...Lilford Hall, Oundle, Northampsh.
Limerick, Earl of... Ditcham Park, near Petersfield
Lincoln, Earl of, M.P....Ranby Hall, Retford, Not-
tinghamshire
Lindley, Urban .... Radmanthwaite House, near
Mansfield, Notts.
Lindsell, Robert... Biggleswade, Bedfordshire
Lindsell, Thos.... Hemingford, St. Ives, Hunts.
Ling, Henry...24, St. Giles’s Street, Norwich
Linnell, Rich...Stowe, Weedon, Northamptonshire
+Linton, Rev. Jas....Hemingford, St. Ives, Hunts.
Linzee, Robert G....Hampton Lodge, Farnham,
Surrey
Lishman, William.. Fenwick Shield, Stamfordham,
Northumberland
Lismore, Viscount...Shambally Castle, Clogheen
Ireland
Lister, William... Dunsa Bank, Richmond, Yorksh.
Lithgow, George...Stanway, Colchester
Little, R. D...Chippenham
Little, Wm. Hunter...Llanvair Grange, Aberga-
venny, Monmouthshire
Littledale, Harold... Liscard, near Liverpool
Littledale, Henry...Cardington, near Bedford
Littledale, Henry A....Bolton Hall, Clitheroe
+Livesey, Joseph .,Stourton Hall, near Horncastle,
Line.
+Llewellin, Richard...Tregwynt, Fishguard, Pem-
brokeshire
Llewellyn, Pearce... Merrian Court, near Pembroke
Llewellyn, Wm...Greentield, near Neath, S. W.
Llewellyn, Wm....Courtcolman, Bridgend, S. W.
Llewelyn, J. D....Pullengare, Swansea, S. W.
Lloyd, Edward H.. .. Aston Hall, Oswestry
Lloyd, Geo. P....Plasyndre, Bala, Merionethshire
Lloyd, J. A. ..Seaton Knolls, Shrewsbury, Shropsh.
Lloyd, Llewellyn,..Pontriffith Hall, Mold, Flint-
shire
40
Lloyd, L. F....Nannerch Hall, Mold, Flintshire
Lloyd, Rey. Thos., .. Rectory, Christleton, Chester
Lloyd, Thos....Langley, Ludlow, Shropshire
Loader, Caleb,. .Gomaldon, Salisbury, Wiltshire
Loat, Wm. John...Clapham Common, Surrey
Lock, George... Blandford, Dorsetshire
Lock, Thos.,..-Higher Kingston, Dorchester, Dorset
+Loft, William...Trusthorpe, Alford, Lincolnshire
Long, Rev. C. M....Settrington, Malton
Long, Henry Laws...Hampton Lodge, near Farn-
ham, Surrey
Long, John...Marwell Hall, Winchester
+Long, Kellett R....Dunstan Hall, Norwich
+Long, Richard P....Rood Ashton, Trowbridge
Long, Robert.. Overton, near Marlborough, Wilts.
Long, Walter... Preshaw House, Bishop’s Waltham,
Hampshire
Long, Walter Jervis....Preshaw House, Bishop’s
Waltham, Hampshire
Long, Wm....Hurt’s Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk
Longbourne, John..,.Bouville’s Court, Saunders-
foot, Tenby, Pembrokeshire
Longbourne, W. T....4, South Square, Gray’s Inn
Longcroft, C. R...Llanina, Abereyron, Cardigan-
shire
+Longe, John...Spixworth Park, Norwich, Norfolk
Longmore, George...Orleton Court Farm, Ludlow
Longridge, Wm. Smith,..Bedlington Iron Works,
Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Loomes, Edward... Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire
Lopes, Massey... Maristow, near Plymouth, Devon
Lopes, Sir Ralph, Bart., M.P....Maristow House,
near Plymouth, Devon.
Loraine, Edward...1, St. Thomas Street, Newcastle-
on-Tyne
Loraine, John L...Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Lord, John...Standish Hall, Wigan
Loscombe, Francis... .Goodworth, Chatford, Andover
Loud, George H.... Buckland, Dover, Kent
+Loud, H. F..,.Herne Bay, Kent
Love, Peter..s.Manor House, Naseby, Northamp-
tonshire
Love, Samuel...Castle Farm, Shoreham, Dartford,
Kent
Loveband, John.... Parsonage, Bishopsnympton,
South Molton
Loveday, John... Williamscote, Banbury, Oxon
Lovel, Rich....Edgecot Lodge, near Banbury
+ Lovell, Edwin...Dinder, Wells, Somersetshire
Lovell, Thomas, jun...,West Haddon, Daventry,
Northam ptonshire
Lovett, Joseph V.... Belmont, Oswestry, Salop
Lovick, James J....Thorpe, Norwich
Low, Joseph... Hill Hall, Gt. Bardfield, Braintree
Lowdell, George... Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead
Lowe, John... Ryhall, Stamford, Lincolnsh.
Lowe, John...Birmingham
Lowe, Peter... Marston, Stafford
Lowe, Richard. ..Park Street, Bristol
Lowe, Wm....The Lea, Cleobury Mortimer, Salop
Lowman, Robert...Crewkerne, Somerset.
Lowndes, Richard Chas..,.Rice House, Clubmore,
Liverpool
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
7 Lowndes, William Layton...Morville Hall, Bridg-
north, Salop
Lownds, Robert...Tatten Hall, near Chester
Lowrey, Stephen...Shieldfield House, Newcastle-
on-Tyne
Lowrey, Wm....Barmoor, near Wooller, Northumb.
Luard, Godfrey..Blyborough Hall, Spital, Lincolns.
+Lubbock, Sir J. Wm., Bart...23, St. James’s Place
Lucan, Earl of... Laleham, Staines, Middlesex
Lucas, George...Newport Pagnell, Bucks.
Lucas, Henry...Uplands, Swansea, Glamorganshire
Lucas, Joseph... Rowsham, Aylesbury, Bucks.
Lucas, Lieut. Richard....Edith Weston, Stamford,
Lincolnshire
Lucas, Rev. W....Burgh, near Acle, Norfolk
Luckham, Levi... Broadway, near Weymouth, Dorset
Lucy, Rev. J.... Hampton Lucy, Stratford-on-Avon,
Warwickshire
Lucy, William F....Charlecote Park, Stratford-on-
Avon
Ludgater, John.. .Stiffkey, Wells, Norfolk
Ludlow, H.G.G.. .Heywood House, Westbury, Wilts.
7 Lugar, Henry...Hengrave, Bury St. Edmund’s
Lumbert, R. C..,.Burghfield Hill, Reading, Berks.
Lumsden, John.,.Moussen, near Belford, Nor-
thumberland
Lungley, Brooke M...Peyton Hall, Boxford, Suffolk
Lunn, J. W....South Ferriby, Barton-on-Humber,
Lincolnshire
Lunn, Robt., jun....Norton, Evesham, Worcesters.
Lush, Joseph...Kilmington, Mere, Wilts.
Lushington, Sir H., Bart....32, Montague Square
Luttrell, Rev. Alexander H. F....Minehead Vicar-
age, near Bridgewater, Somersetshire
Luxmoore, Rev. C. T. C....Guilsfield, Welch Pool,
Montgomeryshire
Luxton, Robert George...Brushford, Crediton
Lyndhurst, Lord.... Turville Park, Henley-on-
Thames
Lyne, Wm...,Oddington, near Stow-on-the-Wold,
Gloucestershire
Lyon, C. W....Silver Hill, Lichfield
Lyon, Captain Jas....Dangstane, Petersfield, Hants
+Lyon, J. W...,Miserdine Park, near Cirencester,
Gloucestershire
Lysoght, Admiral Arthur... Bath
Lyttleton, Hon. and Rey. W. H...Kettering, North-
amptonshire
Mabbett, John...Stinchcombe, Dursley, Gloucest.
+Mabbott, William Courthorp...Southover Priory,
Lewes, Sussex
+MacDonald, Sir Arch, Bart....Woolmer Lodge,
Liphook, Hants
MacDonald, Rev. Douglas... West Alvington, Kings-
bridge, Devonshire
MacDonald, Wm. M....Rossie Castle, Montrose,
Forfarshire
+MacDougall, A. H.,...44, Parliament Street
+MacDowall, J. C. S....New Freugh, near Patrick’s
Plains, Upper Hunter, Sydney, N.S. W.
MacDuff, Capt. .. Blair Castle, Blair Athol, Perthsh.
+ MacEwen, James...Tregothnan, Truro
Machin, J. Vessey...Gateford Hill, Worksop, Notts.
Mackrell, William....Collingbourne Kingstone,
Marlborough, Wiltshire
Mackworth, Lieut.-Col. Sir Digby, Bart.. .Glanusk,
Caerleon, Monmouthshire
MacLagan, Peter....Invercauld by Ballater, Aber-
deenshire
Maclean, Allan, M.D....Colchester
+Macleod, Norman...
MaeNicoll, John Craig...Alyth, Forfarshire, N.B.
+-MacNiven, Charles... Perrysfield, Oxted, Surrey
MacTaggart, James... Foxlease, near Lyndhurst
+ Maddison, George W....Partney, Spilsby
Maddison, Thomas... Wandon, Wooller, Northumb.
Maddox, Alfred...Ringland Hall, Cossey, Norfolk
Maddy, Thomas Watkin...Sutton Court, Hereford
Maher, J. H.... Lynn, Norfolk
Maidens, Thomas Cousins... Brinkhill, Spilsby
Maine, Rev. J. T...Bighton Hall, Alresford, Hants.
+Mainwaring, C. K...Oteley Park, Ellesmere, Salop
+Mainwaring, Rev. James....Bromborough Hall,
Chester
+ Mainwaring, Townshend, M.P....Merchiviel Hall,
Wrexham, Denbighshire
Maitland, Capt. Fred, Thos.,..Hollywick, Hart-
field, East Grinstead, Sussex
Maitland, John G....Surrey Villa, Lambeth, Surrey
Maitland, William Whitaker... Chigwell, Essex
Majendie, Ashhurst...Hedingham Castle, Essex
Major, Stephen. .Stanhorn Green, near Hungerford,
Berkshire
+Malcolm, Lieut.-Col. George A..17, William Street,
Lowndes Square
Male, Henry...East Chinnock, Yeovil,Somerset _
Malins, George W.R....Thelsford, near Barford,
Warwickshire
Mallinson, John...Thick Hollins, Huddersfield .
Malloch, C. H.... Court-House, Cockington, Devon
Malmesbury, Earl of... Heron Court, Christchurch,
Hants
+Maltby, Edward Harvey...G 3, Albany
Mammath, John. ,.Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestersh.
+Manchester, Duke of....Kimbolton Castle, Kim-
bolton, Hunts
Manclarke, R. B. .. Warslow Hall, near Ashbourne,
Derbyshire
+Mangles, F., M.P.,.Down Farm, Compton, Guild-
ford, Surrey
Manley, John Shawe... Manley Hall, Lichfield
Mann, John...Thornage, Dereham, Norfolk
Mann, John... Fenstanton, Saint Ives, Hunts.
Manners, Lord Charles, M.P.... Belvoir Castle,
Leicestershire:
Manning, Fred....Byron House, Leamington
Manning, Henry...251, High Holborn
Manning, John...Harpole, Northamptonshire 2
Maunings, George.. .Downton, Salisbury, Wiltshire
Mansel, John Clavel...Whatcombe House, Bland-
ford; Dorset
Mansel, Lieut.-Col..,..Smedmore, Corfe Castle,
Dorset
Mansel, Raleigh A.,. Heathfield, Swansea, S.W.
Mansel, Thomas... Pembroke
List of Members.
41
+Mansell, Sir John, Bart....Llanstephan Cottage,
near Carmzerthen
Mansell, Thomas...Adcott Hall, near Shrewsbury
Mansfield, Earl of, ..Scone Palace, Perth, N.B.
+March, Earl of, M.P.... Chichester, Sussex
Marchant, George.,.Titsey Court, Godstone, Surrey
Marden, William. ..Gerpens, Rainham, Essex
tTMargetts, Charles... Huntingdon
Marindin, Rev. Sam....Shanks House, Wincanton,
Somersetshire
Marjoribanks, D. C....Bushey Hall Farm, Watford !
tT Marjoribanks, Edward, jun....
+Marjoribanks, Stewart, M.P....Bushy Grove, near
Watford, Hertfordshire
Markby, John R.... Middleton, Yoxford, Suffolk
+Markham, Charles, jun.,.. Northampton.
Markham, Rev. Rice... Morland, Penrith
Marks, Richard,..Quainton, Aylesbury
Marmont, James... Bristol
Marr, William... Yarm, Yorkshire
Marryatt, Frank... Langham Manor, Norfolk
+Marshall, Arthur... Headingley, Leeds
Marshall, Francis... Grimstone Cottage, Wolver-
hampton, Staffs.
+Marshall, James Garth...Headingley, near Leeds
Marshall, John... Eden Lodge, Beckenham, Kent
Marshall, John...Alnham, Whittingham, Alnwick
Marshall, John... Riseholme Lodge, near Lincoln
Marshall, Joseph...Ashgrove, Halifax, Yorksh.
Marshall, Jos... Waldersea House, Wisbeach, Camb.
Marshall, Rey. T...Eccleston, near Chorley, Lance.
Marshall, William... Bolney, Brighton, Sussex
Marsham, Charles W....Stratton Strawless, near
Norwich
Marsham, Rob. (D.C.L.)...Merton College, Oxford
Marsham, Rob...Stratton Strawless, near Norwich
Marsland, Major Thos.,.Henbury Hall, Maccles-
field
Marston, Francis...Wigley, near Ludlow, Shrop-
shire
Martin, Chas. Wykeham, M.P...Leeds Castle, Maid-
stone, Kent
Martin, David...Wainfleet, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
+Martin, Fran. P. B... Kingston House, Dorchester,
Dorset
Martin, Henry... Littleport, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Martin, H. B...Colston Basset, Bingham, Notts.
Martin, John... Evershot, Dorset:
Martin, John William...Shoborough, Tewkesbury
Martin, Peter... Chilham, Canterbury
Martin, Robert...Asterby, Horncastle, Lincolnshire
Martin, Capt. Thos., R.N....Montpellier Lodge,
Brighton
Martin, Thomas...Hextle House, East Peckham,
Tonbridge, Kent
Martin, Wm...Scamblesby, Horncastle, Linc.
Martin, Wm... Bixley Hall, Norwich
Martin, W. B... Westborough, Barnsley, Yorkshire
Martinson, Ed...Hedegfield, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Mason, C. A...Farrington, Ledbury, Herefordshire
Mason, Mathew... Baddow, Chelmsford, Essex
Mason, Richard... Pound, Leominster, Herefordsh.
Mason, Thos.. Pallinsburn Cottage,Coldstream, N.B.
G
42
Mason, Col. Wm...Necton Hall, Swaffham, Norfolk
Mason, Wright... Northolme, Boston, Lincolnshire
Massey, Alfred...Market Downham, Norfolk
Massey, Wm... Watton, Norfolk
Master, Chas. Legh Hoskius...
Master, Colonel Wm. Chester... Knole Park, near
Bristol
Master, Col. Thos. William Chester...The Abbey,
Cirencester
Masterman, Thos. J... Little Danby, Northallerton,
Yorkshire
Masterson, James... Collingbourn Ducis, Marlbo-
rough, Wiltshire
Matcham, Geo... New House, Downton, Wilts
Matchett, Wm... Norwich
+ Matheson, Jas., M.P...The Lewes Island, N.B.
Mathew, Nath...Wern, Tremadoc, Carnarvonshire-
+Mathews, Jeremiah...Park Hall, Kidderminster,
Worcestershire
Mathias, W...Llambed, near Fishguard, Pembroke-
shire
Maton, L. Pitt...Maddington, near Devizes, Wilts.
Matson, Edw., jun...Star Hill, Rochester
Matson, Henry...Wingham, Kent
Matson, John... Eastchurch, Queenborough, Kent
Matson, Robert... Wingham, Kent
Matson, Wm...St. Osyth, Colchester, Essex
Matthews, Frank...Glyn Moore, Isle of Man
Matthews, Rich. Wm...Beamish, Chester-le-Street
Maud, Charles T...Sydney Place, Bath, Somerset
Maughan, John... Durleigh House, Marlborough
Maughan, John...Dudley, Worcestershire
Mauleverer, Wm....Arncliffe Hall, Cleveland by
Thirsk, Yorkshire
Maunsell, Thos. P., M.P...Thorpe Malsor, Ketter-
ing, Northamptonshire
Maurice, R. M. Bonnor...Bodynfol, Oswestry
Maw, Hy. Lister...Tetley, near Crowle, Lincoln- |
shire
Maw, Mat....Cleatham, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Lincoln-
shire
Maxwell, M. C....Terregles, Kirkcudbrightshire,
NOB:
+Maxwell, Wm. C. .Everingham Park, Pocklington,
Yorkshire
May, Chas...Ipswich, Suffolk
Maybery, Walter... Brecon
Mayes, Charles Hoveton...Coltishall, Norwich
Mayhew, Joshua...Holly Cottage, Ridge Road,
Botany Bay, Enfield
Maynard, Anthony Lax...Marton-le-Moor, Ripon,
Yorkshire
Meade, Hon. Gen...48, Bryanston Square
Meadows, Rev. John Brewster...Witnesham, near
Ipswich
Mechi, John Joseph. .4, Leadenhall Street, London
+Medlycott, Sir Wm. Coles, Bart....Milborne Port, |
Wincanton, Somersetshire
Meire, J., jun.. .Uckington, Shrewsbury
Meire, Samuel... Berrington, Shrewsbury
Meire, T. L ..Cound Arbor, Shrewsbury
Mellor, James...Hunter Street, Liverpool
Mellows, William...Carburton, Worksop
Royal Agricultural Socrety of England.
Melville, Hon. A. L... Branston Hall, near Lincoln
+Mercer, James..-13, Monkgate, York
+Mercer, William...Newton, near Warrington
Mercer, William..Grove House, Hunton, Maidstone
Meredith, Lewis. ..Shrewsbury
Merest, Charles W...The Priory, Fornham, Bury St.
Edmunds
Merrifield, Thomas S... Wainfleet, Lincolnshire
+Merriman, Thomas B...Marlborough
+Merriman, Wm. Clark... Lockeridge, Marlborough
+Mertens, Baron Edw...Rue Ducale, Brussels
+Metcalfe, Chas. James, jun....Chawson House,
near St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire
Meux, Sir Henry, Bart... Theobald’s Park, Walt-
ham Cross, Essex
+ Meyer, James,..Forty Hall, Enfield, Middlesex
Meyer, Ph. Herman.. Forty Hall, Enfield, Middlesex
Meyrick, Edward... Windsor
Meyrick, Owen Fuller...Bodergan, Anglesey, N.W.
Michelmore, Thos., jun., .Berry House, Totnes
Mickleburgh, Charles... Montgomery
Micklethwait, Sir Peckham, Bart... .Iridge Place,
Hurst Green, Sussex :
Middleton, Jno...Sparham, near Reepham, Norfolk
Midgley, Thos... Buersill, Rochdale, Lancashire
Milburn, John.,.Crawerook, Ryton, Newcastle-on-
Tyne
Miles, John...Wexcomhe, Great Bedwin, Wilts.
+Miles, John William... Leigh Court, Bristol
+Miles, Grosvenor...Chessington Lodge, Kingston,
Surrey
+Miles, P. W.S., M.P... -Leigh Court, Bristol
Miles, Roger Dutton... Keyham, Leicester
Miles, Thos... Keyham, near Leicester
Miles, Wm. Marsh...Fragham, Wingham, Kent
Milford, Lord...Picton Castle, Haverfordwest
Milhouse, Wm....Barwell Hall, near Hinckley
Mill, Sir Jno. Barker, Bart... Mottisfont Abbey, near
Romsey, Hants
+Miller, Bartlett... Moulton, near Northampton
Miller, Giles...Goudhurst, near Lamberhurst, Kent
Miller, John, jun... Mora Maur, Aberystwith
Miller, Rev. M.H...Hopton, Lowestoft
Miller, Thos... Castle Farm, Sherborne, Dorsetshire
Miller, T. B.,. Thorpe Vila, Loughborough, Leices.
Millett, Charles,..19, Brunswick Terrace, Brighton
Mills, John...Castle Gate, Nottingham
Mills, John... Burford, Oxon
Mills, John...Bisterne, Ringwood, Hampshire
Mills, Wm...Saxham Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, Suff.
+7 Milne, Alex...1, Whitehall
Milne, David...120, Pall-Mall
Milne, E. W....Pit Farm, Cartmel, near Milnthorp
Milne, O., jun... Prestwich Wood, near Manchester
Milner, Sir Wm., Bart....Nunappleton, Tadcaster,
Yorkshire
Milner, Wm...Nunappleton, Tadcaster, Yorkshire
Milnes, Jas... Alton Manor, near Wirksworth, Der-
byshire
Milnes, R. Monckton, M.P....Fryston Hall, Ponte-
fract, Yorkshire
Milnes, William...Stubbinedge Hall, near Chester-
field, Derbyshire
List of Members.
Minett, Chas. Wm...41, West Smithfield
Minor, John Bishton...Astley House, Shrewsbury
Mitchell, John...Wymondham, Norfolk
Mitchell, John Hoffe..,Dean’s Leaze, Witchampton,
Wimborne
+Mitford, Wm. Townley...Pitshill, Petworth, Sussex
Mold, Chas. John... Makney, Duffield, near Derby
+Molesworth, Sir Wm., Bart.... Pencarrow, near
Bodmin, Cornwall
Molyneux, J. M...Loseley Park, Guildford, Surrey
Monck, J. Bligh... Coley Park, Reading, Berkshire
Monckton, Geo...Stretton, Wolverhampton, Stafis.
Monk, C. A... Wylam, Oakwood, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Monkhouse, John...The Stowe, near Hereford
Monins, John... Ringwould, near Dover, Kent
Monson, Rev. John... Rectory, Bedale
+Monteagle, Lord,.-Mount Trenchard, Limerick,
Treland
Montgomery, James... Lillington, Leamington
Montgomery, Rev. Robt....Holcot, Northampton
Moody, C. A., M.P... Kingsdon, Yeovil, Somerset
Moody, Capt. R. C...Junior United Service Club
+Moore, Rev. E...Frittenden, Staplehurst, Kent
Moore, Edw. Wells...Coleshill, Faringdon, Berks.
Moore, George... Appleby Hall, Ashby-de-la-Zouch,
Leicestershire
Moore, Rev. G. B... Tunstall, Sittingbourne, Kent
+Moore, H...Redbourn, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Lincsh.
Moore, James. ..Shrewsbury
Moore, John...Church Street, Warwick
Moore, John... Moor House, by Ackworth, Wake-
field, Yorkshire
Moore, John...Appleby, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leic.
Moore, John Kirby... Badley, Stowmarket, Suffolk
Moore, Robert C.,.Harmslow, near Lincoln
Moore, Thomas... Barkby, near Leicester
Moore, Thomas... Ruddington, near Nottingham -
Moore, Thomas, jun...Shelford, Braintree, Essex
Moore, Thos. Sewell...Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Moore, Wm.,. Elm, Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
Morant, George... Holme, Wareham
Morant, John... Brocklehurst, near Lymington, |
Hants
Mordaunt, Rev. C...Badgworth Rectory, near Cross, |
Somersetshire
Morewood, Col. W. P...Alfreton Park, Derbyshire
Morgan, Charles... Llanrhidian, Gower, S. W.
Morgan, Sir C. M. R., Bart., M.P... Rapona Castle,
Glamorganshire
Morgan, Francis...51, Bedford Square
Morgan, Henry... King Street, Norwich
Morgan, John B...King Street, Norwich
Morgan, Robert...41, West Smithfield
Morgan, Wm... Brampton Park, near Huntingdon
Morison, Alex. J., M.D... Portcleu, near Pembroke
Morland, George Bowes...Abingdon, Berkshire
Morland, Wm. C...Pickhurst, Bromley, Kent
Morle, Thomas B...Cannington Park, Bridgewater
Morley, Benjamin...Snenton, near Nottingham
Morley, Earl of...Saltram, Plympton, Devonshire
+Morley, John... a. ;
Morley, Richard...Snenton, near Nottingham
Morrell, Frederick J.. Oxford
Morris, Clarke...Oakham Grange, Rutlandshire
| Morris, George...Gosfield, Halstead, Essex
| Morris, George Byng...Sketty Park, Swansea
Morris, Henry... Gosberton, Spalding, Lincolnshire
Morris, Henry... Maidstone
Morris, Lewis... Mount Pleasant, near Carmarthen
Morris, Philip... The Hurst, Ludlow
Morris, Robert M....Seafield House, North Sunder-
land, Northumberland
Morris, Thomas... LJanvillo, Brecon
Morris, William... Carmarthen
Morriss, Charles C...Loddington Hall, Uppingham,
Rutlandshire
Morriss, Nicholas... Blue House, Washington, Gates-
head
Morton, James... Parham, Storrington, Sussex
Morton, J. C... Whitfield, near Berkeley, Glouces-
tershire
+Morton, John D...Lower Wick, near Worcester
Moseley, Chas... New Barns, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Mosley, A. N. E...Burnaston House, near Derby
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart... Rolleston Hall, Burton-
on-Trent, Staflordshire
Mosley, Tonman,,.East Lodge, Burton-on-Trent,
Staffs.
Moss, Francis.., Whiston Hall, near Rotherham,
Yorkshire
Moss, John... Liverpool
Moss, Joseph...Aughton, near Rotherham
Mossop, John... Moulton Marsh, Spalding, Linc.
Mostyn, Sir P., Bart...Talacre, Holywell, Flint
Mott, J. T...Barnivgham Hall, Aylsham, Norfolk
Mott, William...Wall, Lichfield, Staffordshire
Moult, Wm... Knowsley, Prescot, Lancashire
Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of...Mount Edgecumbe,
Devonport
Mount, Thomas...Saltwood, Hythe, Kent
Mount, Wm... Wasing Place, Newbury, Berks.
Mountford, Geo... Pentrehyling, Churchstoke, Salop
Mousley, Isaac...Sandwell, near Birmingham
Muggeridge, Henry...St. Andrew’s Hill, City
Mumford, Geo... Bricett Hall, Bildestone, Suffolk
Mumford, Geo... Cockfield, Stowmarket
Mumford, Geo... Little Cornard, Sudbury, Suffolk
| Mundy, William...Markeaton, near Derby
Munn, Fred....Temple Langham, St. John’s, near
Worcester
Munn, Wm. Angustus...Throwley House, near Fa-
versham, Kent
Murdoch, James Gordon...11, Haymarket
Murrell, Gibbs Howes...Lesingham House, Sur-
lingham, Norwich
Murrell, Thos. R.... Potter
Norwich
Murton, John...Cooling Castle, Rochester, Kent
Murtcn, Wm...Tunstali, Sittingbourne, Kent
Muscott, John..Westonbury, near Pembridge, Here-
fordshire
| +Musgrave, Sir G....Edenhall, Penrith, Cumberland
| Mnskett, Alfred... Raynham, Fakenham, Norfolk
| Muskett, Chas....Bressingham House, Diss, Norfolk
Muskett, John... Fornham, Bury St. Edmunds, Suff-
Heigham, Ludham,
Musters, Joha...Annesley Hall, Nottingham
»
=
G
44
Mytton, Rev. D. F. Glynn....Llandyssill, near
Montgomery
Mytton, Thos.,,Shipton Hall, Much Wenlock, Salop
Nainby, Richard... Barnolby-le-beck, near Grimsby,
Lincolnshire
Nairn, Philip... Waren, Belford, Northumberland
Naish, W. B... .Stoneaston, near Wells, Somerset
Nalder, J. H... .Alvescot, Lechlade
+Napier, Edw. B...Pennard House, Shepton Mallet
Napper, John...Ifold, Petworth, Sussex
Nash, Charles. ..Royston, Hertfordshire
Nash, Daniel...60, Strand
Nash, James.. «Chesham, Buckinghamshire
Nash, Joseph...Reigate, Surrey
Nash, Thomas F..,..Manor House, Great Chester-
ford, Essex
Nash, Wedd William...Denmark Hill, Surrey
Naylor, John... Liverpool
Neale, Charles... Mansfield Woodhouse, Notts
Neame, Charles... Faversham, Kent
Neame, Frederick. ..Preston, near Faversham, Kent
Neave, Richard Digby...Pitt House, Epsom
Neave, Sheffield...38, Old Bond Street
Neems, John...Frocester, Stroud, Gloucestershire
+Neild, William...Maytield, Manchester
Neilson; Robert... Halewood, Rotunda Club, Liver-
pool
Nelson, John... Highford, Sheffield
Nelson, Rev. John... Sparsholt House, Wantage,
Berks.
Nesbit, John C....38, Kennington Lane, Lambeth
Nethercoat, John... Moulton Grange, Northampton
Neve, John.,.Tenterden, Kent
Neve, Thomas... Benenden, Cranbrook, Kent
+Nevile, Rey. Christ....Thorney, Newark, Notts.
Nevill, R. J....Llangennech Park, near Swansea,
Carmarthenshire
Neville, Ralph, M.P....15, St. James’s Place
Newbatt, Ed....Old Place, Sleaford, Lincolnshire
Newbery, Charles, ..Godstone, Surrey
+Newbery, Richard P....Kimmeridge
Dorset
+Newburgh, Earl of....Hassop Hall,
Derbyshire
Newby, Henry...Hall Garth, near Darteon
Newdegate, C. N....Arbury, Coventry, Warwick-
shire
Newdigate, Francis... Blackheath, Kent
Newill, Joseph... Walcot, Bishop’s Castle, Salop
Newill, Thomas...Spring Bank, Welshpool, Mont-
gomeryshire
Newington, Dr. S....Knole Park, Frant, Tonbridge
Wells
Newman, Chas....Court Farm, Hayes, Uxbridge
Newman, Jacob...Eastcott, Devizes, Wiltshire
+Newman, John...Brands House, High Wycombe,
Buckinghamshire
Newman, Joshua...Bayford Hall, near Hertford
Newman, Matthew... Hayes Court, Hayes, Uxbridge
Newman, Thomas.. Teh near Exeter, Devon-
shire
Newman, Wm... .DarleyHall, Barnesley, Yorkshire
, Corfe Castle,
Bakewell,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Newstead, Thomas, jun....Dunham, Newton, near
Retford, Nottinghamshire
Newton, Rowley Bradley... Brunswick
Macclesfield, Cheshire
Newton, Marcellus...Warham, near Hereford
Newton, Thomas F....Dogdean, Wiltshire
Newton, William...The Close, Norwich
Niblett, D. J.... Haresfield Court, near Gloucester
Nice, Thomas...Great Bradley Hall, Newmarket
+Nicholl, The Right Hon. John...Merthyr Mawr,
Glamorganshire
Nicholls, George...17, Hyde Park Steet
Nicholls, John S....Melplash Court, Bridport
Nicholson, Calvert,..Bunny, near Nottingham
Nicholson, Charles...Staniwells, Brigg, Lines.
Nicholson, E. A....Burford St. Martin, Salisbury, —
Wiltshire
+Nicholson, Geo. T.... Waverley Abbey, Farnham,
Surrey
Nicholson, Henry... Broughton Vale, Brigg, Lincs.
Nicholson, Henry... Peterboreugh
Nicholson, John...Shotley Bridge, Durham
Street,
Nicholson, John...Kirkby hore, Bridgend,
Appleby
Nicholson, Samuel...Waverley Abbey, Farnham,
Surrey
Nicholson, Thomas...Grayingham Grange, Kirton-
in-Lindsey, Lincolnshire
Nicholson, William Nurzam..,Newark-upon-Trent
Nickisson, John.. .Stone, Staffordshire
Nicklin, Richard...Glen Ville, Douglas, Isle of
Man
Nicol, James Dyce...5, Hyde-Park Terrace
Nightingale, Peter... Worsley, near Manchester
fNightingale, W. E....Embley, near Romsey
Hants
Nixon, William... Kirkdale, near Liverpool
Nixon, William...Union Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Nock, John... Kinver, Stourbridge, Worcestershire
Nockolds, J. A....Stanstead, Essex
Nockolds, Martin...Saffron Walden, Essex
Nodder, Rev. Joseph...Ashover Rectory, Chester-
field, Derbyshire
Noel, Charles,..Peckleton Farm House, Hinckley
Noel, Chas.,..Bell Hall, Bromsgrove, Worcester-
shire
Norman, George...Goadby Marwood, near Melton
Mowbray
+Norman, George Warde...Bromley, Kent
Norman, J. M.,..Dencombe, Crawley, Sussex
Norreys, Robert Henry...Davy Hulme Hall, near
Manchester
Norris, Rev. Geo. Poole...Roscraddock House, St.
Cleare’s, Liskeard
+Norris, Wm,...Woodnorton, Fakenham, Norfolk
Norris, W. John...Clifton Wood House, Bristol
North, Chas....South Thoresby, Spilsby, Lincolnsh.
North, Frederick... Rougham, Swaffham, Norfolk
North, Lieut.-Col.... Wroxton Abbey, Banbury,
Oxon
North, Nicholas... Wiggenhall, St. Mary Magdalen,
near Lynn, Norfolk
Northcote, Henry Stafford... Pines, Exeter, Devon
List of Members.
Northeast, T. B....Tedworth, Marlborough, Wilt-
shire
Northey, Edward Richard...Epsom, Surrey
Norton. William Fletcher Norton..,Elton Manor,
Bingham, Notts
Noyes, J. W. F....Laverstock Hall, Salisbury
Noyes, Thomas H.....East Marscalls, Lindfield,
near Cuckfield, Sussex
Nunn, E. C....Diss, Norfolk
Nurse, W. M...Great Cell Barns, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Oakden, John.., Waresby, Caxton, Cambridgeshire
Oakes, T. H...Riddings House, Alfreton, Derbysh.
Oakley, John...Darland, Chatham, Kent
Oakley, John...182, Piccadilly
Oatley, W. H...Wroxeter, Shrewsbury, Shropshire
O’Brien, Stafford... Blatherwycke Park, near Wans-
ford
Odams, James... Bishop’s Stortford, Hertfordshire
Ogden, John Biss. ..Bury Hill, Coldstream, N. B.
Ogden; John Maude...Sunderland
Ogilvie, George S...Stapleton Court, Bristol
Ogilvy, Hon. Col. Donald...,Balnaboth
Kirriemuir, N. B.
Ogilvy, Sir John, Bart....Baldovan House, near
Dundee, N.B.
Ogle, Charles... Newcastle-on-Tyne
Okes, John... Cherry Hinton, Cambridge
Oliver, Francis... Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Oliver, James...Hanford, Blandford, Dorsetshire
7 Oliver, John. ..Abingdon, Berkshire
7 Oliverson, Richard...14, Portland Place
Onions, John... Broseley, Shropshire
Onslow, Rev. Chas...Church Knowle, Wareham,
Dorset
Onslow, Phipps V...Suckley, Worcester
Ord, William., M.P... Whitfield Hall, Hexham, Nor-
ihoniberiand
Orde, Charles W...Nunnykirk, Morpeth
Orde, Rev. John... Winslade Rectory, Basingstoke,
Hants
Orford, Earl of... Wolterton Park, Aylsham, Norf.
Orlebar, R. Lonquet...Hinwicke House, Welling-
borough, Northamptonshire
Ormerod, George... Fern Hill, near Rochdale, Lan-
'. eashire
Ormerod, George, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A..
Park, Chepstow
Ormerod, Archdeacon Thos. J... Ridenhall Rectory,
Harleston, Norfolk
Crmston, Solan. Curnborland Row, Néweastle at
Ryne se
Ormston, Robert... Newcastle-on-Tyne
Orton, Francis... Bottisford, near Nottingham
Osborn, Charles... Fareham, Hampshire
Osborn, Geo... Manor House, Pattishall, near Tow-
cester
Osborn, George. ..Waterloo Terrace, Northampton
Osborn, Thomas...Market Square, Northampton
Osborne, Geo...Court Farm, Elberton, near Thorn-
bury, Gloncestershire
Osborne, James... Maids Moreton, Buckingham
House,
.Sedbury
Osborne, William...Stockholt Farm, Akeley, Bucks. |
Oswald, Thomas,..Storrs, Windermere
+Otrante, Count Athanase...Nygard, Sdderképing,
Sweden
Overend, Wilson... Sheffield
Overman, C. E...4, Queen’s Road, Regent’s Park
Overman, Hen... Weasenham, Fakenham, Norfolk
Overman, Henry R... Weasenham, Fakenham
Overman, John R....Burnham Sutton, Burnham
Westgate, Norfolk
+Overman, Robert, Burnham Market, Norfolk
Overman, T. W...Fiamstead, near Redbourn, Herts
Owen, E. W. S...Condover, Shrewsbury, Salop
Owen, Henry... Worksop, Nottinghamshire
Owen, John...Lynn, near Shenstone, Staffordshire
Owen, John D...Broadway Hall, Shrewsbury
Owen, Rich... Baddiley Cottage, Nantwich, Cheshire
Owen, William.,..Blesington, Ireland
Owen, Wm.,. Woodhouse, Oswestry, Shropshire
Oxford, Bishop of.,.Cuddesden, Oxon
+Packe, Rev. Augustus,..Walton Rectory, Lough-
borough, Leicestershire
+Packe, G. H...Caythorpe Hall, Grantham, Linc.
Packe, Col. H...Twyford Hall, Guist, Norfolk
+Packe, Dr. James... Mildenhall, Suffolk
Padwick, Fred... West Thorney, Emsworth, Hants
Padwick, Wm...Manor House, Hayling, Havant
Padwick, Wm. Frederick... Manor House, Hayling,
Havant, Hants
Page, Robert...Sidmouth, Devon
Page, Rob. jun.,.Bawburgh Lodge, Norwich
Page, Thomas... Ely, Cambridgeshire
Paget, Charles... Ruddington Grange, near Notts.
Paget, E. Arthur...’Thorpe, near Leicester
Paget, G. B.,.Sutton Bonington, Kegworth, Leices-
tershire
Paget, Henry... Birstal, near Leicester
Pain, George. ..Salisbury
Pain, Joseph... Felmersham, near Bedford
Pain, Philip,.Boughton House, Kettering, North-
amptonshire
Paine, John Denton...Risby, Bury St. Edmunds
7Paine, John Manwaring... Farnham, Surrey
Palgrave, Charles Frederick. .. Bedford
Palin, John...Christleton, near Chester
+Palin, Wm...Stapleford Hall, near Chester
Palmer, Arth,..Briningham Lodge, East Dereham
+Palmer, Sir Geo. J., Bart... Wanlip Hall, Leicester
Palmer, John... .Stockton-on-Tees
Palmer, Sir John H. Bart...Carlton Park, Rocking-
ham, Northamptonshire
;Palmer, Rev. Philip H.... Wolsthorp Rectory,
Grantham, Lincolnshire
Palmer, Wm.. Green Lane, Feckenham, Worcester-
shire
Palmer, William James...The Close, Lichfield
+Palmerston, Viscount, M.P... Broadlands, Romsey,
Hants
Pank, John...Oxney, Peterborough, Northampton-
shire
Pantin, James Henry...Westeote Rectory, Stow-on-
the-Wold, Gloucestershire
Papendick, Bridget Ann,.,Glasbury Honse, Glas-
bury, Radnorshire
46
Papillon, Thos....15, Marlborough Buildings, Bath
Pardoe, Rev. George...Hopton Castle, Ludlow
Pardoe, James...Sion Hill, Kidderminster
Pares, Thomas...Hopwell Hall, near Derby
Park, Philip... Preston, Lancashire
+Parker, Chas. S...Annesley, Liverpool
Parker, George... Bexley, Norwich
Parker, Sir Hyde, Bart...Melford Hall, Long Mel-
ford, Suffolk
Parker, J. Oxley...Woodham Mortimer Place,
Maldon, Essex
Parker, K.S., Q.C...13, New Square, Lincoln’s Inn
Parker, Rev. R... Welton, near Spilsby, Lincolnsh.
Parker, Samuel... Neweastle-on-Tyne
Parker, Thos. H...Park Hall, near Longton, Staffs.
Parker, Thos. T...Sutton Grange, St. Helen’s, Lan-
cashire
Parker, Viscount....Sherburn Castle, Tetsworth,
Oxon
+Parker, William...Yanwath Hall, near Penrith,
Cumberland
Parker, Wm...Skirwith Abbey, Penrith, Cumberld.
Parker, Wm...The Park, Ware, Hertfordshire
Parker, Capt. W...Ciopton Hall, Woolpit, Suffolk
Parker, Rev. William...Rectory, Little Comberton,
Pershore, Worcestershire
Parker, Rev. W. H... Soham Rectory, Watton, Norf.
Parkins, Edw...Chesfield Lodge, Stevenage, Herts.
Parkinson, Capt. Chas. Aug...Sunny Bank, Crick-
howell, Brecknockshire
Parkinson, John... Leyfields, Newark, Notts.
Parkinson, John ..66, Lincoln’s Inn Fields
+Parkinson, John, jun....Hexgreave Park, South-
well, Notts.
+Parkinson, Thomas...Thurgarton Priory, South-
well, Notts.
+Parkyns, Thomas G. A....Ruddington, near Not-
tingham
Parmeter, Robert W...Aylsham, Norfolk
Parr, Thos... Grappenhall, Heyes, Warrington, Lanc.
Parr, Thos. Cart..Cossington, near Leicester
Parris, Jno... Farnham, near Bishop’s Stortford, Herts
Parrott, Jasper... Dundridge, Totnes, Devonshire
Parrott, Thos...Green Bank, Sutton, Macclesfield,
Cheshire
Parry, Nicholas... Little Haddam, Ware, Herts
Parson, George John... Haslemere, Surrey
Parson, Rey. W. H....Lynchmere, Lephook, Hants
+Parsons, George...West Lambrook, South Pether-
ton, Somersetshire
Parsons, John...Oxford
Parsons, Wm., jun...Wilnecot, Tamworth, Staffs.
Puirtridge, Henry Samuel...Hockham Hall, East
Harling, Norfolk
Partridge, John... Bishop’s Wood, near Ross, Here-
fordshire
Partridge, Rev. John Anthony...Baconsthorpe, near
Holt, Norfolk
Partridge, Thos... Dilbridge Farm, Colchester
Partridge, H. C....Hockham Hall, East Harling,
Noriolk
Partridge, Rev. William Edw....Horsenden House,
‘ring, Herts
Royal Agricultural Soctety of England.
Patchett, Rev. W. H...Dishforth, Thirsk
+Paterson, Geo...Poyle House, Colnbrook, Bueks.
Patrick, Jarman. ..Wiggenhall St. Germans, Lynn
Patterson, John... Holbeck, Ulverston, Lancashire
+Patterson, W. J...Durnford Lodge, Wimbledon,
Surrey
Pattisson, Jacob... Witham, Essex
Paul, Joseph . -Thorpe Abbots, Scole, Norfolk
Paul, Walter..High Groove, Tetbury, Gloucestersh.
Paver, William...Peckfield, Ferrvbridge, Yorks.
Pawlett, Thos. Edwd...Beeston, Biggleswade, Beds.
Paxton, Joseph...Chatsworth, Bakewell, Derbysh.
Paxton, Robert....Woolaston Farm, Hethe, near
Bicester, Oxon
Paxton, Thomas...Potsgrove, Woburn, Beds.
Paxton, Wm... Langford Farm, Bicester, Oxon
Payne, William... Willcott, Shrewsbury, Salop
Paynter, Thos... Boskenna, Cornwall
Peacey, Robert...Chedgelow, Tetbury
Peachey, Wm... Ebernoe, near Petworth, Sussex
Peacock, A...South Ranceby, Sleaford, Lincolnsh.
Peacock, Thos... Bishop’s Auckland, Durham
Peacock, Wilkinson..Thorpe Tilney, Sleaford, Lin-
colnshire
Peake, Samuel...Silverdale, Newcastle, Staffs.
Pearce, R. M...Hill Farm, Hook Norton, Banbury,
Oxon
Pearce, Samuel...Ruislip Manor Farm, Uxbridge,
Middlesex
Pearce, William...Poole, Dorset
Pearce, Col. Wm... Ffrwdgrech, near Brecon
Pearce, William..!0, Whitehall- Place
Pearman, Luke....Mercote Hall, Berkswell, Co-
ventry, Warwickshire
Pearse, George... Harlington, Dunstable, Beds.
+Pearse, Henry... Digswell House, Welwyn, Herts
Pearse, J. G...Southmolton
Pearse, Thomas...Launceston, Cornwall
Pearson, Wm...Husband’s Bosworth Grange, near
Welford, Northamptonshire
Pedder, Edw...Clifton Hall, Preston, Lancashire
Peel, Edmund,..Bonehill House, Tamworth, Staffs.
Peel, Henry...Aylesmore House, near Chepstow,
Monmouthshire
+Peel, Jonathan, M.P...Accrington House, Acering-
ton, Lancashire
Peel, Right Hon. W. Y... Bonehill, Fazeley, Staffs.
Peel, Wm... Taliaris Park, Llandillo, S.W.
Peele, R... Long Sutton, Lincolnshire
Peers, Chas...Chislehampton, Bensington, Oxon
Peers, Joseph... Ruthin, Denbighshire
Peirson, John... Thornton Fields, Guisborough
+Pell, Albert...5, Albert Row, Gloucester Gate,
Regent’s Park
Pell, Edwin...Sywell Hall, near Northampton
Pell, Jens... The College, Winchester, Hants
Pell, P. F... Tupholme Hall, near Wragby, Lincs.
+Pell, Sir W. O... Royal Hospital, Greenwich
Pellatt, Apsley... Knowle Green, Staines
Pellew, Hon. and Very Rev.George, D.D... Deanery,
Norwich
Pelly, Richard Wilson,..Upton, Essex
Pemberton, Chr., ,Trumpington Street, Cambridge
List of Members.
+Pemberton, Rev. R. N....Millichope Park, Church
Stretton, Salop
Pemberton, Walter Hamilton...Holt, Norfolk
Penfold, Chas....Croydon, Surrey
Penfold, James...Lancing, Shoreham, Sussex
Penn, Edw.. .Hewell, near Bromsgrove, Worcestersh.
+Penn, G. J....Stoke Park, Colnbrook, Bucks.
Pennell, H. B....Dawlish, Devon
Penrice, Rev. Chas.... Plumstead, Norwich
Penrice, Thos...,Kelvrough, Swansea
Penrose, R....Clyn-y-bout, nr. Neath, Glamorgansh.
Pentland, Gan Hy... Black Hall, Drogheda, Ireland
Penton, Thos.. .Middleton Farm, Long Parish, Whit-
church, Hampshire
+Peploe, Capt. Daniel Peploe...Garnston, Hereford
Peppercorne, Henry.. Bradburn Park, East Malling,
Maidstone, Kent
Perceval, Hon. and Rev. Chas, George...Calverton,
near Stony Stratford, Bucks.
+Perceval, Chas.. ,. West Haddon, Northamptonshire
Perkins, Abraham... Westfield House, Arnesby, Lut-
terworth, Leicestershire
Perkins, Edw., Monknash, Cowbridge,Glamorgansh.
Perkins, Fred... Chipstead Place, Seven Oaks, Kent
Perkins, Joseph.. Laughton, Market-Harbro’, Leices-
tershire
Perkins, Matthew... Bristol
Perkins, Thomas. a ectporough Court, Ashford,
Kent
Pern, Thos.,..Crawley, Winchester, Hampshire
Perry, J. W....Moor Hall, Harlow, Essex
Pester, Philip...Dole’s Ash, near Dorchester
Peters, Daniel...College Green, Bristol
Peterson, Jos... Mangotsfield, Bristol
Peterson, T. P...Mangotsfield House, Bristol
Petley, C.C....Riverhead, Seven Oaks, Kent
Pett, Henry...Shuart St. Nicholas, Thanet, Kent
Pettat, Rev. Charles Richard,,Ashe Rectory, Over-
ton, Hants
Pettman, Robt... Morehall Cottage, Folkstone, Kent
Phelips, Chas...Briggins Park, Ware, Herts.
Phelps, J. B... Monkton, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Phelps, Rey. H. Dampier...Snodland Rectory, West
Malling, Maidstone, Kent
Phelps, Thos...Sellack Vicarage, Ross, Herefordsh.
Philipps, John Walters. ,Aberglasney, Llandilo, Car-
marthenshire
Philips, Col. F. C.,.Rhual, near Mold, Flintshire
{Philips, Sir Geo., Bart... Weston House, Chipping
Norton, Oxon.
7Philips, G.R., M.P....12, Hill Street, Berkeley Sq.
Philips, Mark. ..Snitterfield, Stratford-on-Avon
Phillimore, W. B....Newberries, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Phillippo, Elisha. .Tacolnestone, Wymondham
Phillipps, James. .Bryngwyn, near Ross Herefordsh.
+Phillipps, R. Biddulph... Longworth, nr. Hereford
Phillipps, T. J... Landue, Launceston, Cornwall
Phillipps, Richard..Aldermaster, Newbury, Berks.
Phillips, Frederick...Downham Hall Farm, near
Thetford, Norfolk
Phillips, Henry, ..Coventry, Wativickwbite
Phillips, John...Culham, Abingdon, Berkshire
Phillips, John... Lordship Lane, Tottenham
47
Phillips, Rev. Jno....Ludlow, Salop
Phillips, John B.. Brockton Leasows, Newport, Salup
Phillips, J. F. P..,..Gitcumbe, near Totnes, Devon.
Phillips, Jos. Taylor... New Lodge, Newport, Salop
Phillips, Richard. ..Brocton Grange, Shifnal, Salop
Phillips, Richd., jun... Brocton, near Shifnal, Salop
Phillips, Sir T., Knt.... Newport, Monmouthshire
Phillips, Thos....Helmsley, near York
Phillips, Rev. Wm. J. G....Eling Vicarage, near
Southampton
Phillott, E. P...Thorn Falcon, Taunton
Phippen, Robert.,.Badyworth Court,
Somersetshire
+Phipps, C. P...Doe Park, Liverpool
Phipps, Christopher, .. River, near Dover, Kent
+Phipps, John Lewis...Doe Park, Liverpool
Pickard, Henry W....Hooton Roberts, Rotherham
Pickering, Leonard... Wilcot, Witney, Oxon
Pickering, William.. Beaumont Chase, Uppingham,
Rutlandshire
Pickford, Thos...May Fair, Manchester
Pickin, Wm. John...Whitemoor, Ollerton, Notts.
Pierpoint, Matthew...Crow’s Nest, near Worcester
+Piggott, Geo. G...Somerset House, Strand
Piggott, Simon Frazer... Fitzhall, Midhurst, Sussex
Pigott, Jchn,..Thropham, Rotherham
Pigott, Sir R., Bart...,Patshill, Wolverhampton,
Staffs.
Pike, Llewelly Adolphus....Chute Manor Farm,
Ludgershall, Wilts.
Pilcher, Chas....Winkfield, near Bracknell, Berks.
Pilcher, Jesse... Cheriton Court, Sandgate, Kent
Pilgrim, Charles H....Bear Place, near Maidenhead
Pillans, Wm....Alnwick Castle Gardens, Northum)).
Pillans, Wm....Pott, Swaffham
Pilley, Samuel. ..Sudbrooke, near Lincoln
Pinckard,J. T.., Handley, Towcester, Northamptonsh.
+Pinfold, Charles...77, Wimpole Street
Pink, Charles... Hambledon, Horndean, Hants
Pink, Richard.,. Hambledon, Horndean, Hants
Pinkerton, Thomas...Ancroft Steads, Berwick-on-
Tweed
Pinkney, Rey. Dr....East Sheen, Surrey
7Pinnegar, Christopher..Rockbourn, Fordingbridge,
Hants
Pinney, Wm., M.P...The Park, Somerton, Somerset.
Pipon, Major Thos.,.Langtons, nr. Alresford, Hants,
Pippet, William...Downside College, near Bath
Pitfield, John Eype.,.Symondsbury, near Bridport,
Dorsetshire
Pitman, James S...Dunchidcock House, Exeter
Pitt, Geo.. .Stork’s House, Wellington, Herefordsh.
Pix, Saml...Baron’s Grange, Peasmarsh, Sussex
Pix, Thos... Woodside, Peasmarsh, Sussex
Platt, G. EK, .Smith’s Cottage, ParkCrescent, Worthing
Platten, G...East Winch, near Lynn, Norfolk
Platten, John...King’s Lynn, Norfolk
Platten, Robert...East Winch, Lynn, Norfolk
Plaxton, Rich...Cam Hall, Wanstead, Essex
Plestow, C. B... Watlington Hall, Downham, Norfolk
Plummer, Matthew...Sheriff Hill, Newcastle-on-
Tyne
Plumptre, J. P., M.P....Fredville, Wingham, Kent
near Cross,
48
+Pocock, Chas...Sulham, Reading, Berkshire
Pocock, Geo... Beaumont Farm, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Pocock, Henry. .Curtle House, near Beaulieu, South-
ampton
Pocock, Richard... Hedge’s Farm, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Pocock, Saml.. Barnes Farm, King’s Langley, Herts.
Pocock, T. W...Green’s Farm, Chieveley, Newbury
Pole, Peter...6, Upper Harley Street, London
Pole, Rev. Reginald C....Radbourne, near Derby
Polhill, Wm....Broadwell, Moreton-in-Marsh
Pollard, Geo. A... Brockhurst, Coventry, Warwicksh.
Pollard, Pascho, jun....Berrys, Totnes
Pollen, Sir J.W., Bart... Redenham, Andover, Hants
Pollock, John O.G...Mountain’s Town, Navan, Co.
Meath, Ireland
Poltimore, Lord... Poltimore, near Exeter, Devon
Pomfret, Richard Curteis...Rye, Sussex
Pomfret, Earl of... Easton Hall, Towcester
+Pomfret, Virgil...Tenterden, Kent
Poole, Domville... Marbury, Whitchurch, Salop
Poole, Rev. John... Enmore Parsonage, near Bridge-
water, Somersetshire
Poole, Wm. H...Tenick Hall, Whitchurch, Salop
Pooly, Thomas... North Wold, Norfolk
Pope, Edw...Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset.
Pope John...Symondsbury, Bridport, Dorset.
Pope, John... Eastwood House, March, Cambs.
Pope, William...Toller Whelme, near Beaminster,
Dorsetshire
Porcher, Charles. .. Cliffe, Dorchester, Dorset.
Porcher, Henry ... Park Corner, Hartford Bridge,
Heck, Hampshire
Porquet, M. Fenwick de,..Iron Foundry, Horn-
church, Romford, Essex
Portal, Melville ... Freefolk Priors, Whitchurch,
Hampshire
Porter, Lieut.-Colonel.,..Mintern House, Dorches-
ter, Dorset. :
Porter, Wm...Hembury Fort, Honiton, Devon.
Porter, Wm...Frieston, near Boston, Lincolnshire
Portman, Wyndham B., R.N....Hare Park, New-
market, Cambridgeshire
Postle, Rev. Edw.... Yelverton Rectory, Norwich
Potter, Addison, jun....Heaton Hall, Newcastle-
on-Tyne
Potter, Edward...Chisbury, Gt. Bedwin, Wilts.
Potter, Joseph...Horsley Woodhouse, Derby
Potter, R...Lydden Court, Dover, Kent
Potter, Wm. H...28, Clapham Road Place, Ken-
nington, Surrey
Potterton, Nathaniel... Boughton Park, near North-
ampton
Potterton, T. B....Clipstone, Market Harborough,
Leicestershire
Potts, Forster C...Whorlton, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Potts, Timothy...Rising Sun, Long Benton, New-
castle-on-Tyne
Poulton, Wm....Head Master of the Norwich Dio-
cesan School, Aylsham
Povey, John...The Derwen, Oswestry
+Powell, Alex.. ,.Hurdcott House, Salisbury, Wilts.
Powell, Colonel... Hardwick, Hay, Herefordshire
Powell, George...8,Beaufort Buildings, Strand
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Powell, Harrison...Toft, near Cambridge
Powell, John... Watton Mount, Brecon, S. W.
Powell, John Folliot... Welwyn, Herts.
Powell, John Thos...Easton Pewsey, Wilts.
Powell, Phillips. ..South Lands, Denham, Uxbridge,
Middlesex
+Powell, Rev. S. H...Sharon Hail, Ripon, Yorksh.
Powell, Thomas... Muckleton, Shrewsbury
Powell, Rev. Thos. John...Cantriff, near Brecou
+Powell, Colonel W. E., M.P...Nanteos, near Abe-
rystwith, S. W.
Powell, Wm... Eglwys, Nunydd, Bridgend, Glamor-
ganshire
Powell, William ,... Tickford Abbey,
Pagnell, Bucks.
Powles, Thos. W...Barham Lodge, Elstree, Herts. _
Pownall, Rev. C. C. B....Milton Ernest, near Bed-
ford
+Powys, Capt. T... Westwood House, Leek, Staffs.
Poynder, Thomas...52, Wimpole Street
Pratt, Edw....Caldwell, Burton-on-Trent, Staffs.
Pratt, Edw. B....Sedlescombe, Battle, Sussex
+Prentice, Manning..-»High Easton, Chelmsford
Preston, Cooper... Flasby Hall, Skipton
Newport
‘Preston, Capt. R.N...Borde Hill, Cuckfield, Sussex
Price, Charles...Cannon Gate, Hythe, Kent
Price, Edw....Court House, Pembridge, Leominster,
Herefordshire
Price, Fowler Boyd... Huntington Court, Hereford
Price, Joseph... Monmonth
Price, Wm... Benhall, near Ross, Herefordshire
Price, Wm. P...Tiberton Court, near Gloucester
Prichard, Robt....Llwydiarth Esgob, near Bangor
Anglesey
Prickard, Thumas...Dderu House, Rhayader, Rad-
norshire
Prickett, Rev. Josiah J....Markington Parsonage,
Harrogate
Priday, Samuel... Linton, near Gloucester
Pride, Thos....Llanvihangel, near Chepstow, Mon-
mouthshire
Prideaux, Sir Edmund S., Bart....Netherton, near
Honiton, Devon.
Priestley, John...Kirdrefaig, Isle of Anglesey
Priestley, S. O...Treefan, Pwllheli, Carnarvonshire
+Pritchard, George... Broselev, Salop
+Pritchard, John...Broseley, Salop
Pritchett, Wm. D....Little Hallingbury, Bishop’s
Stortford, Herts
Proctor, Robt.. .Geys House, Maidenhead
Proctor, Thomas...Cothay, Bristol
Proctor, Thos. Beauchamp...Langley Park, Lod-
don, Norfolk
Proctor, Sir W. B.... Langley Hall, Norwich
Propert, John.,..Blaenpistill, Cardigan
Prower, Rev. John M...Purton, Swindon, Wilts.
Pryme, George... Westow, Huntingdon
Pryor, John Izard...Clay Hall, Stevenage, Herts.
Pryor, John...Baldock, Herts.
Pryor, Morris... Baldock, Herts.
Pryse, John B...Penylan, Meifod, Welshpool
Pryse, John P...Peithill, Aberystwith, S. W.
Pryse, Pryse, M.P....Gryerddan, Aberystwith, S.W.
List of Members.
Pugh, Major David... Llanerchydol, Welshpool, | Ratcliffe, Richard..,.Ingleby, near Derby
Montgomeryshire
Pugh, George...Coal Port, Iron Bridge, Salop
Pugh, Wm. Bb... Patrington, near Hull
7Pugh, Wm. ..Coal Port, lronbridge, Salop.
Pulini, Iario.. .39, Brewer Street, Golden Square
Pulleine, James...Crakehall, near Bedale, Yorksh.
TPuller, Christoph. W...Youngsbury, Ware, Herts.
Pulver, Rich.... Evenley, near Brackley, Northamp-
tonshire
Pulver, Thomas... Broughton, Kettering, Northamp-
tonshire
7Punnett, P. S...Chart Sutton, Maidstone, Kent
Punchard, Charles. ..Blunt’s Hall, Haverhill, Suff.
Purechas, R. W....Pilstone, near Monmouth
Purser, Edward...40, Bridge Street, Black(riars
Parton, Thos. P...Fairtree, Bridgenorth, Salop
Purves, Peter... Aleconbury, near Huntingdon
Putland, Henry...Hurst Green, Sussex
Pyatt, Abiaham... Wilford, near Nottingham
Pye, Henry A....Louth, Lincolnshire
Pyne, William..,..Cradley, near Great Malvern,
Worcestershire
Quartly, Jas....Molland House, South Molton, De-
vonshire
Quicke, Rev. Andrew. ., Winchester, Hampshire
Quicke, John J.... Newton House, Exeter
Quinn, Peter...,Newry, Ireland
Racster, William...Thingehill, near Hereford
Radcliffe, Rey. Walter... Warleigh, Plymouth, De-
vonshire
Radclyffe, Chas. James,..Hyde House, Bere Regis,
Blandford, Dorsetshire
Radford, John, ., Stanton House, Burton-upon-Trent,
Staffordshire
yRaincock, H. D....Croydon, Surrey
Raine, W. Surtees... Weston-super-Mare, Somerset.
Ralph, Rowland,..Westby, Halifax, Yorkshire
Rammell, E. Wootton.,.Chelshen, near Croydon
Rammell, Thomas, ..Sturry Court, Canterbury
Ramsay, Geo. Heppel... Derwent Villa, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, Northumberland
Ramsay, Sir James, Bart.... Banff House, Alyth,
_ Perthshire
Ramsay, Jolin...9, Endsleigh Street
Ramsbottom, John...Bilham Grange, Doncaster
Ramsden, Henry...Ledstone, Pontefract
Ramsden, Robert.. «Carlton Hall, Worksop, Notts.
Randall, John... Bridgend, Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Randall, Richard. ..Tunbridge Wells, Kent
Randell, Alexander...Maidstone
Randolph, Capt. C. G., R.N....St. Comp, Wrotham,
Kent
Ransome, James Allen...Ipswich, Suffolk
Ransome, Robert...Ipswich, Suffolk ;
Raper, Henry...5, Chapel St., Grosvenor Square
Raper, Robert...Chichester, Sussex
Raphael, Lewis... Bush Hili Park, Edmonton, Mid-
dlesex
Rasbotham, Dorning ,..
Staffordshire
Doddlespool, Newcastle, |
; | Reynolds, Dr, William,.,OCoeddi, near Mold, Flint
Rathbone, Theodore W...Allerton Priory, Liverpool
Ratleff, William... Newmarket, Cambridgeshire
Ravenshaw, Rev. Edward... West Kington Rectory,
Chippenham
Rawes, John... Duxbury Park, Chorley, Lancashire
Rawlence, G. C...Parsonage, Fordingbridge, Hants.
Rawlence, Jas., .Heale, Woodford, Salisbury, Wilts.
Rawlins, George... Lee House, Romsey, Hampshire
Rawnsley, Rey, Edward... Raithby Hall, Spilsby,
Lincolnshire
Rawson, Charles... Wardale Hall, Whitehaven
Rawson, Rich...Wheathill, near Liverpool
Rawson, Thos. Sam....Bridgen Place,
Kent
Rawsthorne, Thomas..,Heysham Hall, Lancaster
Ray, Henry... Bristol
Ray, John... Heanor Hall, near Derby
Ray, John...South Green, East Dereham, Norf.
+Raynbird, Hugh. .Laverstoke,Andover Road,Hants
Raynbird, Robert... Hengrave, Bury St. Edmunds,
Suffolk
Rayne, Chas...Carville Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Rayne, Robert...Flatt’s Farm, Bishop Auckland,
Durham
Rayner, Henry...Ely, Cambridgeshire
Rayner, W....Ely, Cambridgeshire
Raynes, Michael...Tent’s Hill, Frome, Somerset.
Rayson, Robert...Stockton-on-Tees, Durham
Rea, Geo.,.. North Middleton, -near Wooler, North-
umberland :
+Read, Clare Sewell... Kilpaison, Pembroke
Read, George...Easton Hall, near Norwich
Read, John... Derwent Hall, Sheffield
Read, J. O. C....Wern, Northop, Flint
Read, Richard,..35, Regent Circus, Piccadilly
Read, Robert...Crediton, Devonshire
Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., F.R.S..., Vicar
of Stone, Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire
Redhead, John... Walker Farm, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne
Reed, John... Hopton, near Thetford, Norfolk
Reed, Nicholas Ridley... Byrness, Newcastle upon-
Tyne
Reed, Thos....Warksworth Barns, Alnwick, North-
umberland
Reeks, James. ..Standen, near Hungerford, Berks
Rees, Barton Edmund...Carlisle
Rees, John... Flinston, near Pembroke
Rees, Rees Edward...Pantriwgoch, near Newport,
Monmouthshire
Rees, W. T... Holly House, Newport, Monmouthsh,
Reeve, James...Snetterton Hall, Larlingford, Norf,
Reeve, Major-Gen.... Leadenham, Grantham, Line.
Reeve, Richard, ,. Nassington, Wansford; Northam p-
tonshire
Reeves, John Fry.. .Fitzhead Court, Milverton, So-
mersetshire
Reeves, J. R....Huntsland, Crawley Down, Sussex
Relf, Samuel... Ryegate, Surrey
Relph, G. R. Greenhow.,.Turner’s Hall, Cheshire
Reynolds, Joseph...131, Piccadilly
Bexley,
H
a0
Rhodes, J. Armitage,..Roundbury, near Leeds,
Yorkshire
Ricardo, David.,. Gatcombe Park, near Minchin-
hampion, Gloucestershire
Rice, Edward Royd, M.P...Dane Court, near Wing-
ham, Kent
Rich, Edmund William...,Didmarton, Tetbury,
Gloucestershire
+Richards, Edward Priest... Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Richards, Jas... Dumbleton, Evesham, Worcestersh.
Richards, W. H.. .Lea Coombe, Axminster, Devon.
tichardson, Geo.... Bridlington Quay, Yorkshire
Richardson, John. ..Asgarby, Horncastle, Lincolnsh.
Richardson, Sir John Stewart, Bart... Petfour Castle,
Perth, N. B.
Richardson, Joseph... Woodside, Luton, Beds
Richardson, Percival.,.Horkston, Barton-on-Hum-
ber, Lincolnshire
Richardson, Capt. T...Suttonhurst, Lewes, Sussex
Richardson, Thomas... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Richardson,Thos,.,Brandenburgh House, Chatteris,
Cambridgeshire
Richardson, William,..Great Limber, near Brigg,
Lincolnshire
Riches, Thos. H. Currey...Uxbridge, Middlesex
Richmond, Francis...Salford, Manchester
Richmond, George... Heighington, Darlington
Riddell, Edward...Cheeseburn Grange, Newcastle-
on-Tyne
+Riddell, Sir Walter Buchanan, Bart....13,
Square, Lincoln’s Inn
Riddell, Thomas...Felton Park, Felton, Northumb.
Ridge, Thos. John... Hambledon, Horndean, Hants,
Ridgway, John... Fairlawn, Wrotham, Kent
+Ridgway, John...Cauldon Place, Shelton, Stoke-
on-Trent, Staffordshire
Ridgway, Thomas...Lymm, Warrington, Lancash.
Ridley, Rev. Chas. John...University Coll. Oxford
Ridley, John,.. Park End, Hexham, Northumberld.
Ridley, John M..,Humshaugh, Hexham, Northum-
berland
Ridley, William...¥Felstead, Chelmsford, Essex
Rigden, William...Hove Farm, near Brighton
Rigg, Robert, F.R.S.,..Greenford, Middlesex
DD?
Rigg, Sam...Abbey Holme, near Wigton, Cumberld.
oD)
Riley, W. F....Forest Hill, Windsor, Berks.
Ringer, John...West Harling, near East Harling,
Norfolk
Rippingall, Rev. Stephen Frost.,.Langham, Holt,
Norfolk
Rising, William...Somerton Hall, Great Yarmouth,
Norfolk
Risley, Rev. W. C....Deddington, Banbury, Oxon.
+River, John...
Rivers, Lord... Rushmore Lodge, Woodyates Inn,
Blandford, Dorsetshire
Rix, Benjamin.,.St. Matthews, Ipswich, Suffolk
Rix, Nathaniel... Bowman’s Green, Ridge, near St.
Albans, Uerts.
Roads, John...Ashmore Farm, Middle Claydon,
Bucks.
Roals, John. . BrendonFarm, Wiveliscombe,Somerset,
Robarts, Abraham George.,.15, Lombard Street,
Old
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
| Robbins, Maj.-Gen. Thos, Wm.,..Castle Malwood,
Stoney Cross, Hants
Roberts, Charles... The Quarry, near Stourbridge,
Worcestershire
| +Roberts, Charles...Barnstaple, Devonshire
Roberts, Edward...King’s Wood, Baldock, Heris.
Roberts, John...New Hall, Rhuabon, Denbighshire
Roberts, Owen...Dinas, near Carnarvon, N. W.
Roberts, Thomas...Ivington Bury, Leominster
Robinson, Dixon....Clitheroe Castle, Clitheroe,
Lancashire
Robinson, Francis... Frampton, near Boston, Lines.
Robinson, G. Carnaby... Bridlington, Yorkshire
Robinson, George... Wolverhampton, Staffordshire
Robinson, Rev. Sir Geo. S., Bart,..Cranford, Ketter-
ing, Northamptonshire ;
Robinson, Jas.,.. Huggart’s Farm, Brindle, Chorley,
Lancashire
Robinson, James S....Hunter’s Hall, Sunderland
Robinson, John... Royal Agricultural College, Ci-
rencester
Robinson, John...Harton, South Shields
Robinson, Rey. John.. Widmerpool, nr. Nottingham
Robinson, Joseph...Tanfield, Chester -le - Street,
Durham
Robinson, Richard... Eliza Street Works, Belfast
Robinson, Thomas...Castle Ashby, Northampton
Robinson, Thomas...Oxford. Bank, Oxford
Robinson, Thos.TempleLow, .. Newport, Sunderland
Robinson, William. ..Bonehill, Tamworth, Staffs.
Robson, Daniel..-Shipcote, Gateshead
Robson, Rev.James... Ponteland, Newcastle-on-T yne
Robson, John... West Cherton, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Robson, John,.,.Sunniside, Neweastle-on-Tyne
Robson, John,,..East Kielder, Bellingham, North-
umberland
Robson, John... Whitwell Grange, Durham
Robson, Joseph.,..Gateshead Park, Gateshead.
Robson, Richard...Howick, nr. Alnwick, Northumb,
Robson, William... Wilton, near Salisbury
+Roch, Nicholas...Paskiston, Pembroke
Rock, James John,..Glastonbury, Somersetshire
+Rodd, F. H...Trebartha Hall, Five Lanes, Cornwall
Roddam, Wm...Roddam, Wooler, Northumberland
Roddam, John J.... Newtown, Stanhope, Darlington
Rodwell, Joshua..Aiderton Hall, Woodbridge, Sniff.
Rodwell, William. . .Ipswich, Suffolk
Roe, Freeman,..70, Strand
Roe, Hen. R...Geaton Hall, Yealmpton, Plymouth,
Devonshire
toe, J. C.... Lynmouth, Minehead, North Devon
+Roebuck, J. A....Milton, Christchurch, Hants
+Rogers, Francis... Ramsey, Isle of Man
Rogers, Hen...Stagenhoe Park, near Welwyn, Herts
Rogers, Jasper W....Nottingham Street, Dublin
Rogers, Samuel S.... Douglas, Isle of Man
Rokeby, Lord...Hazlewood, King’s Langley, Herts
+Rolfe, Charles F. N...Sedgeford Hall, near Lynn,
Norfolk
Rolfe, John... Beaconsfield, Bucks.
Rolls, John E. W,..The Hendre, near Monmouth
Romilly, Edw...Porthkerry, Cardiff, Glamorgansh.
Romney, Earl of,., Maidstone, Kent
List of Members.
Ronalds, John... Brentford, Middlesex
Roods, Wm.,,. Litlington, near Lewes, Sussex
Rooke, Wm. W.... Woodside, Leamington
+Rooper, J. Bonfoy.. Abbotts Ripton, Hunts.
Roper, John... Keighly, Leeds
Roper, John... Foscott, near Buckingham
Roper, Roper S. D. R.... Sedbury Park, near Rich-
mond, Yorkshire
Roper, Samuel...Croxton, Thetford
Roper, William. ..Bayham, Lamberhurst, Sussex
Rosewarn, John... Nanpuska, Gwinnear, Hayle,
Cornwall
Roskruge, John, jun....Roskruge St. Anthony, Hel-
ston, Cornwall
Ross, James... Dibden, near Southam pton
Ross, William... Fobdown, near Alresford, Hants
Rossmore, Lord...The Dell, Windsor, Berkshire
+Rothwell, Rich. Rainshaw... Preston, Lancashire
Round, C. G....Birch Hall, Colchester, Essex
Round, John...15, St. James’s Square
+ Rous, Rev. George... Laverton, Bath
+Rous, T. B.... Newton St. Loe, Bath
Rous, Hon. Wm. Rufus... Worsted House, Norwich
Row, Wm. N....Cove, near Tiverton, Devonshire
Rowe, Samuel. ..Malpas, Cheshire
Rowe, Wm. W..Longbrook, Milton Abbots, Devon.
+Rowland, Richard. ,.Creslow, Aylesbury, Bucks.
Rowland, William... Water Eaton, near Oxford
Rowland, Wm... Ramsbury,near Hungerford, Berks.
Rowlandson, Thomas... Flint, North Wales
Rowley, John G,...
Rowley, John Jephson.. .Rowthorne, Chesterfield
Royce, John... Boxted Hall, Colchester, Essex
Ruck, Lawrence..... Pantlludw, Machynlleth,
Aberystwyth
Ruddle, George...Walton House, Tewkesbury,
Gloucestershire
+Rumbold, Charles E.... Preston Condover, Basing-
stoke, Hants
Rusbridger, Geo... .Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex
Rusbridger, John...Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex
Rusbridger, Rey. J...Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex
Ruscoe, Ralph... Newport, Monmouthshire
+Rushout,Capt., M.P. (1st Life Guards)... Atheneum
Club
+Russell, Lord Charles J. F...Drakeloe Lodge, Wo-
~ burn, Bedfordshire
Russell, David... York
Russeil, George G... Willington, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Russell, G. L.. .4, Mansfield St., Cavendish Square
Russell, Thos. A...Cheshunt Park, Waltham Cross,
Herts
+Russell, Sir William. ..Charlton Park, Cheltenham,
Gloucestershire
Russen, Joseph... Stoke Prior, Bromsgrove, Wor-
cestershire
Rust, James...Alconbury, near Huntingdon
Rutley, Samuel...Kemsing, Sevenoaks, Kent
Rutson, Wm...Newby Wisk, Northallerton, Yorksh.
Rutzen, Baron Fred. de...Siebeck Hall, Haverford
West, Pembrokeshire
Rycroft, Sir Richard H. C...Marydown Park, Basing-
stoke, Hants
‘
9)
l
Ryder, Hon, Granville Dudley.. Westbrook, Hemel
Hempstead, Herts
| Ryland, George... New Canal Street, Birmingham
| Rylatt, W...Branswell, Sleaford, Lincolnshire
| Sabin, John,..Harbury, Southam, Warwickshire
Sadler, Henry..,Mid-Lavant, Chichester, Sussex
Sadler, William J.,.Purton, Swindon, Wilts.
Sage, Edward... Furze House, Romford, Essex
Sainsbury, William,..Manor House, West Laving-
ton, Devizes, Wiltshire
St. Aubyn, Rey. Hender Molesworth. ..Clowance,
Camborne, Cornwall
St. John, Lord,,.Melehbourne, Higham Ferrers
St. Vincent, Viscount...Meaford, Stone, Stafls.
Salisbury, Edw. D...Middleton Tower, Lancaster
| Sallit, Matthew. ..Saxlingham, Norwich
| Sallows, Henry., .Semer Dairy, Hadleigh, Suffolk
Salmon,Perridge. , LuffieldAbbey,near Stowe, Bucks.
Salmon, Richard... Watton, Norfolk
Salmon, William... Park Fields, near Stowe, Bucks.
Salomons, Dayid..,Breom Hill, Tonbridge, Kent
Salter, Geo...Combe Farm, Crewkerne, Somerset.
Salter, W. P....Whinherg, East Dereham, Norfolk
Salter, W. P., jun....Cottessey Lodge, Norwich
Salusbury, Rev. Thelwell J. T....Offley,
Hitchin, Herts
near
| TSalvin, Marmaduke Chas... Burnhall, near Durham
Samman,Wm.. Middleton Park, near Bicester, Oxon
Sampson, Arthur.,.Drummond, Ballykelly, Derry,
Treland
Sampson, John... Brympton, near Yeovil, Somerset
Samson, Thomas ..Kingston Russell, Dorchester
Sancton, Philip...the Ley, Leghane, St. Stephens,
St. Albans, Herts
Sanday, Wm....Holme Pierrepont, Notts
7Sandbach, Hy. R....Hafodunos, Lanrwst, Den-
bighshire
7ySandbach, Saml., sen... Woodland, near Liverpool,
Lancashire
Sandbach, Saml., jun....Handley, near Chester
Sandby, Rey. George... Denton Lodge, Harlestone,
Norfolk.
Sanders, E. A....Stoke House, near Exeter, Deyon
Sanders, Henry...Harleston, near Northampton
Sanders, Joseph...Taplow House, Maidenhead
Sanders, Samuel,., Fernhill, Newport, Isle of Wight
Sanderson, George... Mansfield, Nottinghamshire
Sandford, Mark.,. Martin, Dover
Sandford, T. H...Sandford Hall, Whitchurch, Salop
Sandham, Major...Rowdell, Steyning, Sussex
Sandle, Wm....Withersfield Place, Braintree, Essex
Sandwich, Earl of...Hinchingbroke House, Hunts.
Sankey, Richard.. .Nant, Holywell, Flintshire
Sargeaunt, Rev. John...Stanwick, Higham Ferrers,
Northamptonshire
Sarney, Edw....Soundness, Nettlebed, Oxon.
+Satterfield, Joshua...Green Keys, Manchester
Saul, Wm....High Ferry, Sibsey, Boston, Lincolnsh.
Saunders, John E....Glanrhwdw, near Carmarthen
Saunders, RandleW.., Nunwick Hall, Penrith, Caim-
berland
Saunders, Thos.,..Brightwell, Watlington, Oxon,
7;Saunders, Thos. B..,.16, Brompton Square
3
o2
Savile, Albany B....Arthur’s Club
Savill, Robt. Maitland...Colchester, Essex
Savory, John...Rudham Grange, Rougham, Norf. ,
Savory, John...Burnbam Overy, Lynn
Sawbridge, Hy. Barne.,. East Haddon, near North-
ampton
Sawers, John (Hon, E. I. C.)...Oriental Club, Han-
over Square
Saxby, William., . Rottingdean, Brighton
Saxon, John..,Green’s Combe, Bruton, Somerset.
Saxon, Samuel... Green’s Combe, Bruton, Somerset.
Sayce, Morris... Kington, Herefordshire
Sayer, Daniel... 27, Pottergate Street, Norwich
Sayer, Robert... .Sibton Park, near Yoxford, Suffolk
Sayers, John ,. Field-Dalling, near Holt, Norfolk
Scales, John,,.Agricultural College, Cirencester,
Gloucestershire
Scarsdale, Lord... Kedleston Hall, near Derby
Scarth, Ed... Westside House, Darlington, Durham
Scarth, James...Ne weastle-upon-Tyne
Scarth, Jonathan...Shrewsbury, Salop
Searth, Thos. F....Keverstone, Darlington, Durham
Scarth, Wm. T....Keverstone, Darlington, Durham
Sclater, Wm. Lutley...Hoddington House, Odiham,
Hampshire
Scobell, J. Usticke...Chewton House, Chewton
Mendip, near Bath, Somersetshire
Scott Sir Edw. Bart.. .Great Barr Hall, Birmingham
Scott, G. D.. ,Lovel Hill, Winkfield, Windsor, Berks.
Scott, Geo. G....Edenham, Bourn, Lincolnshire
Scott, J. B....Bungay, Sussex
Scott, Joseph...Colney Hall, Norwich, Norfolk
Scott, Robert...Stourbridge
Scott, Thomas...Beal, near Belford
Scott, Thos. Edw....Carbrook, Watton, Norfolk
Scott, Wm. Stephenson,..Seal, nr. Farnham, Surrey
Scragg, Thomas...Ualveley, Tarporley, Cheshire
+Scratton, D.R...Prittlewell Priory, Rochford, Essex
Scriven, George...Castle Ashby, Northampton
Scruby, Wm....Broxted, Dunmow, Essex
Scudamore, J....Abinghall, Mitcheldever, Glouces-
tershire
Scudamore, Lieut.-Colonel.,..Kentchurch Court,
near Hereford
Scurr, Rev. Robt. William... Rector of Shenley, Stony
Stratford, Bucks.
Seagrave, Rev.S.¥...Barton Rectory, Woodstock
Seaman, B.C. P..,. Rotherby, Melton Mowbray,
Leicestershire
Seaman, Robert... Norwich
Seamark, Richd.., Mount St. Albans, near Caerleon,
Monmouthshire
Searle, Wm....Sarsden, Chipping Norton, Oxon
Searson, Robt. ...Cramnon Lodge, Deeping St.
James’s, Market Deeping, Lincolnshire
Sedgwick, Professor... Trinity College, Cambridge
Seels, Henry John... Wainfleet, Lincolnshire
Selby, James... Otford Castle, Seven Oaks
Selby, Charles...Earle, Wooller
Selby, Leopold ,.Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street
Selmes, Jas....Tufton Place, Northiam, Rye, Sussex
Selmes, James... Lea, Rye, Sussex
Senhouse, Captain Wm....Ashby St, Ledgers, Da-
ventry, Northamptonshire
|
fioyal Agricultural Society of England.
Seppings, Thos. Johnson...South Creake, Fakenham
Seppings, William...Lynn Regis
Severn, John Percy,,.Penybont Hall, Penybont,
Radnorshire.
Severne, Thomas... Newent, Gloucestershire
Seward, Samuel... Weston, Petersfield, Hampshire
Sewell, Joseph...Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Sewell, Robt. B.... Newport, Isle of Wight
Sewell, Professor Wm....Royal Veterinary College,
St. Pancras
Sewell, Russell, .. Little Oakley Hall, Harwich, Essex
Sewell, Rev. Thomas...Fingest House, Henley-on-
Thames
+Seymer, K. H....Hanford, Blandford, Dorset
Seymour, Admiral Sir Geo. Francis, K.C.B..,.The
Palace, Hampton Court
Seymour, Henry... Knoyle House, Hindon, Wilts.
Seymour, Henry, jun....Knoyle House, Hindon
Seys, William Aineas.,.Tutshill, near Chepstow,
Monmouthshire
Shackel, Geo....Maple-Durham, Reading, Berks.
Shafto, Rey. A. Duncombe...Buckworth Rectory,
Huntingdon
Shafto, Rev. J. Duncombe...Brancepeth Rectory,
Durham
Shafto,R. Duncombe... Hampworth Lodge, Salisbury
Shafto, R. E. Duncombe...Whitworth Park, Rushy-
ford, Durham
Shafto, T. Duncombe...Cheveney House, Hunton,
Maidstone
Shand, Alexander... Rupert House, near Liverpool
Shanks, Wm....Bishop Auckland
Sharman, Alexander... Bedford
Sharman, John W.... Wellingborough, Northampsh.
Sharman, Peter...Elsing, East Dereham, Norf.,
Sharman, PeterJohn..Scarning, East Dereham,Norf.
Sharp, Thomas,.. Northampton
Sharpe, James.,.Fawley-Court Farm, Henley-on-
Thames
Sharpe, Joel... Pinchbeck, Spalding, Lincolnshire
Shaw, Thomas,..Kilrie, Stonyford, Ireland
Shaw, William, jun....Far Coton, Northampton
+Shawe, R. F....Brantingham Hall, Hull, Yorkshire
Shawe, R. N....Kesgrave Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk
shawe, Samuel P.... Hints Hall, Tamworth, Stafis.
Shearer, Bettesworth Pitt...Swanmore House, bi-
shop’s Waltham, Hampshire
Shearm, Edward...Stratton, Cornwall
+Sheild, W. H... Landhawke, Langharne, S. W.
+Sheldon, Jonathan... Ensham, near Oxford
Sheldon, Wm....Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwicksh.
Sheffield, Earl of...Sheffield Park, Uckfield
Sheffield, Sir Robert, Bart.,.Normanby, Brigg, Linc.
Shelley, J. V....Maresfield Park, Uckfield, Sussex
Sheppard, John.,.High House, Campsey Ashe,
Woodbridge, Suffolk
Sheppard, Sir Thomas Cotton, Bart....Crakemarsh
Hall, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire
+Sherard, P. Castel...Glatton, Stilton, Hunts.
Sherborn, Francis...Bedfont, Middlesex
Sherborn, Mathew... Heston, Hounslow, Middlesex
Sherbroke, Henry Porter...Oxton, Southwell, Notts.
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley... Frampton House, Dor-
chester, Dorset
List of Members.
Sheriff, William... Treworgan, near Monmouth
Sheringham, Edward.. -Scrulthorpe, Fakenham
Sheringham, Edward, jun....Scrulthorpe, Fakenham
Sheringham, V. D....Thornage, Holt, Norfolk
Sherley, William...Catherine Wheel, Egham
Sherlock, Thomas...Kew, Surrey
Sherring, Ed.,.,Milborne, Sherborne, Dorsetshire
Sherring, John...Milborne Wick, near Sherborne
Sherwin, J. S.,..Brameote Hills, Nottingham
Sherwood, Richard., . Chaddleworth, near Wantage,
Berkshire
Shiffner, Sir Henry, Bart....Combe Place, Lewes
Shilcock, T. Beaumont.,.Hose Hall, near Melton
Mowbray, Leicestershire
Shipman, William.. -Sedgebrooke, Grantham, Linc.
Shittler, John... Bradford Farm, Wimborne, Dorset
Short, Francis..,Abbot’s Leigh, Bristol
Short, Thos...Martin, near Bawtry, Nottinghamshire
7Shubrick, Major-Gen....The Grove, Leatherhead,
Surrey .
7Shuter, James, ..Chilton House, Kintbury, Berks.
Shuter, T. A....Hooley House, Coulsdon, Croydon,
Surrey
Shuttleworth, John Spencer Ashton...Hathersage,
near Bakewell, Derbyshire
Shuttleworth, Joseph...Pelham Street, Lincoln
Sibley, Robt... Kingsborne Green, Harpenden, Herts
Sidgreaves, James...Fishergate, Preston
Sikes, John.. .Sndbury, Suffolk
Sillar, Z....Rainford Hall, near Prescot, Lancashire
tSillifant, John. ..Coombe, Crediton
Simcoe, Rev. H. A.,..Penheale, Launceston
7Simeon, Sir Rich., Bart... .Swainston, Isle of Wight
Simmonds, Henry...Hadlow, Tonbridge, Kent
Simmons, James...Sutton Wick, Abingdon, Berks.
Simmons, John Messer... Killinganson, Truro
Simon, James...Greenfield, Holywell, Flintshire |
Simonds, J. Charles... Fishtoft, near Boston, Linc.
Simonds, W. Barrow...St. Cross, near Winchester
Simpson, Henry B.,jun..., Eaton, Retford, Notts.
Simpson, John...Pyie Inn, Bridgend, Glamorgansh.
Simpson, John...Wyken Hall, Bardwell, Ixworth,
Suffolk
+Simpson, Hon. John B....Babworth Hall, Retford
Simpson, Rich....The Cliffe, Douglas, Isle of Man
Simpson, William...29, Saville Row
Simpson, Rey. W. B....Babworth, Retford, Notts.
Sinclair, Archib....2, Chapel Street, Liverpool
Sisson, John. .-Plascock, St. Asaph, Flintshire
Sitwell, Chas. John...Stainesby House, near Derby
Sitwell, Edward Degge...Stainesby, Derby
Sitwell, Rev. H. W....Dunchureh, Warwickshire
Sitwell, Robert Sacheverell...Merley, near Derby
Skelton, Spencer. .Sutton Bridge, Wisbeach, Cambs.
Skelton,Wm...Shrub House, Sutton Bridge, Wisbeach
Skingley, Henry....Wake’s Hall, Wake’s Colne,
Colchester, Essex :
Skipwith, Sir Gray, Bart... Newbold Hall, Brinklow,
Rugby, Warwickshire
Skipwith, Henry Green... Rothwell House, Caistor
Skirving, William...15, Queen Square, Liverpool
Skynner, Rev. William... Rushden Vicarage, near
Buntingford, Hertfordshire
d3
| Slack, Joseph A... .32, Weymouth St., Portland Pl,
Slade, A. F....Kemnal House, Chiselhurst. Kent
Slade, Lieut. Edgar, R.N., ..Belmont, Chiselhurst
Slaney, W. Hen., .. Hatton Grange, Shiffnall, Salop.
Slater, Martin....Weston Colville, Newmarket,
Cambridgeshire
Slatter, Wm....Stratton, near Cirencester
Sleight, Thomas, ..Rhyd, St. Asaphs, Flintshire
Small, Rey. Harry Alex. ...Rector of Haversham,
near Stony Stratford, Bucks.
Smallpiece, Job...Compton, Guildford, Surrey
Smallpiece, John... Leith Hill Place, near Dorking,
Surrey
Smallpiece, William Haydon... Guildford
Smallwood, E..,.. York
Smart, Major George John...Tumby, near Boston
Smart, William. ,,Rainham, Sittingbourne, Kent
Smart, William. ..2, Fig-tree Court, Temple
Smart, William Lynn.,.Linden, Woburn, Beds.
Smeddle, William...Ordnance Office, Tower
Smedley, Charles E. B....Swanton Morley, East
Dereham, Norfolk
Smith, Augustus...Ashlyns Hall, Berkhampstead
Smith, Benjamin... Hastings, Sussex
Smith, Benjamin...Great Lodge, Tonbridge
Smith, Charles Brent... Whaddon, near Gloucester
Smith, Charles H....Gwconllwynwyth, near Swan-
sea, S. W.
7Smith, Charles R..,.Southrop House, Fairford,
Gloucestershire
Smith, Chas. Robert...Collingbourne Ducis, Marl-
borough, Wiltshire
Smith, Edward...Charlbury, Oxon
Smith, E. W....Routh, Beverley, Yorkshire
Smith, Francis...Salthill, near Chichester, Sussex
7Smith, George...The Luham, near Penrith, Cum-
berland
Smith, George...Potton, Biggleswade, Beds.
Smith, G. Robert...Selsdon Park, near Croydon
Surrey
Smith, Sir Harry, Bart....The Cape of Good Hope
Smith, Henry ...Stamford, Lincolnshire
Smith, Henry... Maids Moreton Lodge, Buckingham
Smith, Henry...Drax Abbey, Selby, York
Smith, Hen. , Heywood Farm, Waltham, Maidenhead
Smith, Henry...The Grove, Cropwell Butler, Bing-
ham, Notts.
Smith, Henry Abel... Wilford, Nottingham
Smith, James...Stansted, near Chichester, Sussex
Smith, James ..Icklesham, Rye, Sussex
Smith, James... Wainfleet, Lincolnshire
Smith, James...G@wdwyr House, Whitehall
Smith, Jeremiah...Springfield, Rye, Sussex
+Smith, John... Welton Garth, Hull, Yorkshire
Smith, John.,.Spring Fields, Newcastle, Staffordsh,
Smith, John.,.Crownthorpe, Wymondham
Smith, John...Brancepeth, Durham
Smith, John... Lewes, Sussex
Smith, John... Weyhill, Andover, Hampshire
Smith, Col. John..Ellingham Hall, Bungay, Suffolk
Smith, John Geo.... Manor House, Crediton, Devon
+Smith, John J.... Down House, Blandford, Dorset
! Smith, John K. .,Radbrook Villa, near Shrewsbury
|
54
Smith, Rev. John Tetley...Repton, near Derby |
Smith, JohnThos...Thornby Grange, Northampton
Smith, John T.,..Goswick, near Berwick-on-Tweed |
Smith, Sir John Wyldbore, Bart....Down House, |
Blandford, Dorsetshire
Smith, Rich.,.. Marton Lodge, Bridlington, Yorksh.
Smith, Rich....Westacre, Droitwich, Worcestersh.
Smith, Richard... Kimberley, Norfolk
Smith, Richard B.....Huxley Farm, Mdmonton,
Middlesex
Smith, Robert...Heath Farm, St. Albans, Herts.
Smith, Robert...9, Stafford Street, Edinburgh
Smith, Robert... Emmett’s Grange, South Molton,
Devonshire
Smith, Right Hon. Rob. Vernon, M.P.,...Farming
Woods, near Thrapstone, Northamptonshire
Smith, Rev. Sam. Colvy...Denver Rectory, Down-
ham, Norfolk
Smith, Thos... .Blore Hall, Ashbourne, Derbyshire
Smith, Thomas...Madeley, Shiffnall, Salop.
Smith, Thomas,..Shareshill, Wolverhampton, Staffs.
Smith, Thomas...Reigate Lodge, Surrey
Smith, Thos. Deacon.,Cashie Bridge, Watford, Herts.
Smith, Thos. G....Togston, Acklington, Northumb.
Smith, T. Hogan... Forberry Grove, near Newbury,
Berkshire
Smith, Thomas, jun.... Chillingham
Wooler, Northumberland
Smith, T. W....Greenfield Lodge, Oswestry
Smith, Timothy...Hoyland Hall, Barnsley
Smith, Sir William, Bart....Eardiston House, near
Worcester
Smith, William... Easthope, Bottesford, near Not-
tingham
Smith, William,..Hemel Hempstead, Herts.
Smith, William... West Rasen, Spital, Lincolnshire
Smith, Wm...Barton Mere, Bury St. [Mdmunds,
Suffolk
Smith, William...Gaydon, Kineton, Warwickshire
Smith, William... Lilleshall, Shiffnal, Shropshire
Smith, William... Houghton Castle, Hexham
Smith, William...Sydenham
Smith, Wm. Burton, ..Belford, Northumberland
Smith, W. C....Shortgrove, near Saffron Walden,
Essex
Smith, W. T....Brereton Lodge, Rugeley, Staffs.
Smithers, Sidney...Churchdale, Bakewell, Derbysh.
Smyth, Rev. Christopher,..Little Houghton, near
Northampton
Smyth, James...Peasenhall, Yoxford, Suffolk
+Smyth, John G,..Heath Hall, Wakefield, Yorksh.
Smyth, Wm...Little Houghton, near Northampton
Smyth, Rev. Wm....South Elkinstone, Louth, Line.
Smythe, J. W....Acton Burnell, Shrewsbury
Smythies, Carleton...Oak Lawn, Eye, Suffolk
+Smythies, Geo... Bickerstaffe Hall,Ormskirk,Lanc.
Smythies, Rev. J. R....East Hill, Colchester, Essex
7Snell, John F....Hundon, near Clare, Suffolk
Snibson, Richard...Bakewell, Derbyshire
+Snoulton, Osborne...
Snow, Johnson, ..Ewerby, near Sleaford, Lincolnsh. |
Snowball, Joseph... Netherwitton, near Morpeth
Snuggs, Wm...Preston Condoyver, Alresford, Hants
Newtown
Royal Agricultural Socvety of England.
Solly, S. R....Serge Hill, St. Albans, Hertfordshire
Somerset, John... East Wick, Pewsey, Wilts
+Somerville, J. C...Dinder House, Wells, Somerset
Somes, Samuel... Wollaston, near Wellingborough,
Northamptonshire
Soulby, J. C....New Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire
Sonlsby, C. P..,. Hulme Walfield, Congleton
Souter, Geo.... Box Grove, near Chichester, Sussex
+Southampton, Lord..,Whittlebury Lodge, Tow-
cester, Northamptonshire
Southern, G. W....Kibblesworth, Gateshead
Sowerby, Francis... Aylesby, Great Grimsby
Sowerby, John..,.Shipcote House, Gateshead
Sowerby, Thomas... Saltwell Vale, Gateshead
Spanton, Robert, jun....Little Thoms Farm, Swatf-
ham, Norfolk
Sparham, James...Blakeney, Norfolk
Sparke, Alfred...Thorn Lane Foundry, Norwich
+Sparks, William...Crewkerne, Somersetshire
Spéaring, Jno. B.,.Chilton, near Hungerford, Berks
Spearman, H. J., M.P. ... Newton Hall, Durham
Speke, William...Jordans, Ilminster, Somersetshire
Spelman, William... Norwich
Spencer, Francis,..Claybrooke, Lutterworth, Leices-
tershire
+Spencer, Hon. F. G....9, King Street, St. James's
Spencer, John... Bishop’s Lodge, Wrotham, Kent
Spencer, Jno... Odstone Hall, Measham, near Ashby-
de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire
Spicer, John Wm....Esher Place, Esher, Surrey
Spilsbury, Samuel... Little Osbaston, Monmouth
Spinks, Abraham... West Bilney, Lynn
Spittal, Alexander... Douglas, Isle of Man
Spooner, Prof. Chas., . Royal Veterinary College
Spooner, Lucius H....Beauly, N. B.
Spooner, Richard, M.P....Brickfields, Worcester
Spooner, William C.,..Southampton, Hants
Spoor, Richard... Whitburn, near Sunderland
Spraggon, Mark...Nafferton, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Northumberland
Springett, Robt....Twysden, Goudhurst, Cranbrook,
Kent
Spurgin, Dr.,..Orplands, Bradwell, Essex
Spurling, John...Shotley, Ipswich, Suffolk
Spurling, Wm....Grange Farm, Worlingworth, Sufi.
Spurr, Jeremiah.,.Wigthorpe, near Worksop, Notts
Squire, William... Yarmouth, Isle of Wight
Stable, R. S....Willesley, Cranbrook, Kent
Stables, Walter...Crossland Hall, Huddersfield
+Stables, W. A. . .Cawdor Castle, Nairnshire, N. B.
Stace, William... Berwick, Lewes, Sussex
Stacy, Wm...Barton Farm, Abingdon, Berkshire
Staffurth, Samuel., .Ramsey, Huntingdonshire
Staffurth, William...Ramsey, Huntingdonshire
Stainsby, Mark, jun....30, Lady Pitt Lane, Leeds
Stainton, John... Dalby, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Stallard, Joseph...Redmarley, near Gloucester
Stallard, William...Blankets, near Worcester
Stamford and Warrington, Earlof.,.Enville House,
Stourbridge
tammers, J. B.... Holywell Cottage, St. Albans
Stanbrough, Chas. H.,..Isleworth, Middlesex
| Stanbrough, James...Isleworth, Middlesex
List of Members.
+Standish, W. S.... Duxbury Park, Chorley, Lance.
Stane, J. B.... Forest Hall, Ongar, [ssex
+Stanhope, J. B....Reresby Abbey, Horncastle,
Lincolnshire
Stanier, Chas....Uppington, Wellington, Shropshire
Stanier, Edw....Wroxeter, Shrewsbury, Shropshire
Stanier, Jno.. .. Leaton, near Wellington, Shropshire
Staniforth, Rev. Thos... , Bolton Rectory, Clitheroe
Stanley, Charles... Denhall, Neston, Cheshire
Stanley, Edward...14, Grosvenor Square
+Stanley, Hon. E. H.... Knowsley, Prescot
Stanley, Wm. Hans Sloane, jun...21, Curzon Street,
May Fair
Stanley, Wm. Proctor... Peterborough
Stanton, W. H....Stroud, Gloucestershire
Staples Browne, R. T...Launton, Bicester, Oxon
Stapleton, Valentine...Stow Gate, Market Deeping,
Lincolnshire
Stark, William... Norwich
Statham, Rev. R. J.... Rector of Tarporley, Cheshire
Statter, Thomas... Knowsley Hall, Bury, Lancashire
Staunton, Rev. Dr....Staunton Hall, Grantham,
Lincolnshire
Stedman, Dudney...Horsham, Sussex
Stedman, Robt....Pakenham, Ixworth, Suffolk
Stedman, Robt....Great Bookham, near Leather.
head, Surrey
Steedman, E. H..,.High Ercal, Wellington, Salop
Steel, Geo., jun... Depden Elms, Bury St. Edmunds
Steel, William...Abergavenny, Monmouthshire
Steele, John...Epsom, Surrey
Stenning, Edward. ..Godstone, Surrey
Stenning, William,..Godstone, Surrey
Stenning, Wm....Halsford, East Grinstead, Sussex
Stent, Bridger... Frittleworth, Petworth
Stephens, Charles... Reading
Stephens, Evan...Berton, St. Ishmaels, near Car-
marthen
Stephens, Rey. F. T....St. Mawgan, Cornwall
Stephens, Henry Lewis... Tregenna Castle, Hayne,
St. Ives, Cornwall
Stephens, John...The Abbynes, near Bridgnorth,
Salop
Stephens, John...23, Eastbourne Terrace, Hyde Park
Stephens, S. J....5, Charlotte Street, Portland Place
Stephens, Wm....Prospect Hill, Reading, Berks
Stephens, Wm. Vernon...186, Fleet Street
Stephenson, Marshall. , .Fourstones, Hexham, North-
umberland
Stephenson, Wm....Throckley, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Stevens, Alfred...Tongham Manor, Farnham
+Stevens, John...Holywell Street, Oxford
Stevens, J. C. M...Winscott, near Torrington,Devon
Stevens, J. T....Seaborough, Crewkerne, Somerset.
Stevens, Robert... Watton, Norfolk
+Stevens, Rev. Thos.... Bradfield Rectory, Reading,
Berks ~
Stevenson, J. A....Madeley Park Farm, Newcastle,
Staffordshire
Stevenson, S. W....Surrey Street, Norwich
Steward, A. B....Chapel House, near Whitehaven
-++Steward, Charles. ..Blundeston, Lowestoft, Suffolk
teward, R....The Armoury, Great Yarmouth
Stewart, Sir W. D.,..Murthly, Perth, N. B.
Stickney, William...Ridgmont, Hull, Yorkshire
Stiles, Thomas...Pinchbeck, Spalding, Lincolnsh.
Stilwell, James... Killinghurst, Haslemere, Surrey
Stirling, W. M....Abercairny, Perth
Stock, Sam....Blackley Hurst, St. Helens, Lanc.
Stockley, Joshua,. .Jvetsey Farm, Weston, Shifnal,
Salop
Stokes, Charles... Kingston, Kegworth, near Derby
Stokes, Jonathan...Stamford Rivers, Romford, Essex
Stokes, Thomas,..New Park, Leicester
Stone, Joseph... Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Stone, N.C....Rowley Fields, Leicester
Stone, T. P.... Barrow, Loughborough, Leicestersh.
Stone, W. F. Lowdues. . Brightwell, near Tetsworth,
Oxon
Stopford, W. Bruce...Drayton House, near Thrap-
stone
Storer, Charles... Lowdham Grange, Nottingham
Storer, Rev. John...Hawksworth, near Newark,
Notts
Storey, Ralph..Beamly, near Alnwick, Northumb.
Stott, Robert...Tanfield, Chester-le-Street, Durham
Stow, William... Farnborough Hall, Kent
Stowell, W.S....Faverdale House, Darlington
Stracey, Sir E....Rackheath Hall, Norwich
+Stracey, H. J....The Grange, Sprowston, near
Norwich
Stracey, John...Sprowston Lodge, Norwich
Strachan, J. M... . Teddington Grove, Middlesex
+Strahan, William...Asburst, Dorking
Strafford, Henry. ..3, Camden Villas, Camden Town
Straker, John... Jarrow Lodge, Durham
Strangways, H. B....Shapwick, Glastonbury, So-
merset
Strathallan, Viscount of.. Castle Strathallan, Auch-
terarder, N. B.
Stratton, Alfred...Rushall, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Stratton, B. T....Bristol
+Stratton, J. L...Turveston House, Brackley, North-
amptonshire
Stratton, James,..93, Castle Street, Reading
Stratton, William... Upavon, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Streatfield, R.S.... Rocks, Uckfield
Streeter, William...Sanderstead, Croydon, Surrey
Stretton, Alexander... Bunny, near Nottingham
+Strickland, C. W...Boynton, Bridlington, Yorksh.
Strickland, H. E....Tewkesbury Lodge, Tewkes-
bury, Gloucestershire
Strickland, Walter...Cokethorpe Park, Witney,
Oxon
Strode, George... Newnham Park, Plympton St.
Mary, Devon
Stronge, Thomas, ..Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Stroud, William...Swansea
Strouts, Edward. ,.St. Dunstan’s Place, Canterbury
Strutt, John... Bridge Hill, Belper, Derbyshire
Stuart, Henry, M.P...Kempston, near Bedford
Stubbs, Charles...Preston Hill, near Penkridge,
Staffordshire
Stubbs, Frederick... Wetmoor, near Ludlow
Stubbs, Walter... Beckbury, Shifnal, Salop
Stunt, Frederick...Higham, near Rochester
56
Stunt, John...Gillingham, near Chatham, Kent
Sturgeon, T. B.,..South Ockenden Hall, Romford,
Essex
+Sturt, H. C., M.P....16, Portman Square
Stutfield, William ..,Hildersham, Cambridge
Suggers, George... Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Sumner, Rev. C. V. H....Hatchlands, Guildford,
Surrey
Sumner, Col. Holme... Hatchlands Park, Guildford,
Surrey
Surtees, Robt. L....Redworth House, Darlington
Swaffield, Benjamin. ..Chatsworth, near Chesterfield,
Derbyshire
Swaffield, Samuel. ,.Ampthill Park, Bedfordshire
Swaine, Charles... Wrangle, Boston, Lincolnshire
Swaine, Thomas... Buckingham
Swan, J. W....Hockham, near Larlingford, Norfolk
Swan, W. R.... Walls’ End, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
Northumberland
Swann, George... York
Swann, James... High Onn, Stafford
+Swete, J. Beaumont,..Oxton House, Exeter
Swinborne, Robert...Great Oakley, near Colchester,
Hssex
Swinburne, Joseph... Knutsford, Cheshire
Swinburne, R. W....Cleadon Cottage, near South
Shields
Sydney, Viscount...3, Cleveland Square
Syer, Rev. Thomas...Little Wratting, Clare, Suffolk
Sykes, Edmund.,..Mansfield Woodhouse, Notts
+Sykes, Sir Tatton...Sledmere, Malton
Symonds,John...Symondsbeg, Bridport, Dorsetshire
Symonds, T. P....Pengethy, near Ross, Herefordsh.
Symonds, William..,Milborne St. Andrew, near
Blandford, Dorset
Symons, Thomas...Coryton, Launceston, Cornwall
Symons, Thomas George... Mynde Park, Hereford
+Synge, F.H....Weston-super-Mare,' Somersetshire
Taber, James. ..Lawford, Colchester, Essex
Tabley, Lord de.,.Tabley House, Northwich,
Cheshire
Tabrum, Litchfield... Boishall, near Ongar, Essex
Talbot, Karl...Ingestre, near Stafford
Talbot, C. R. M., M.P....Margam, Glamorganshire
Talvot, Sir George, Bart....21, Grosvenor Square
Talbot, Miss... Temple Guiting, Cheltenham, Glon-
cestershire
Talbot, R. R....Wickford, near Rochford, Essex
Talbot, Hon. and Rey. W. C....Ombersley, Stour-
port, Worcestershire
Talbot, W. Hawkshead.., pope brooke Hall, Orms-
kirk, Lance.
Talbot, Wm. Hollings..
Westmoreland
Tallant, John.. Little Houghton Lodge, Northamp.
Tancred, Sir Thomas, Bart...Stratton House,
Cirencester
Tanner, A. O....Brook House, Edmonton
Tanner, James... Kingsnympton, Chumleigh, Devon
+Tanner, William,,.Patcham, near Brighton
Tanner, William...Nethercott Farm, Rose Ash,
South Molton, Devon
.Preston Patrick, Burton,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Tarleton, Rev. J. E....Chelsfield St. Mary, Foot’s
Cray, Kent
Tasker, William.
Hants
Tatham, T. J....27, Bedford Place, Russell Square
Tattersall, Edmund...Grosvenor Place
Tattersall, Edward... . Newmarket
Tattersall, John. ..58, Ebury Street, Pimlico
Taunton, W. E....Freeland Lodge, Ensham, Oxon
Taunton, W. P.,..Ashley, near Stockbridge, Hanis
Tawke, Arthur... Norwich
Tawney, A. R.,..Banbury
+Tawney, Charles., .Oxford
Taylor, Sir Charles, Bart....Holly Combe Lodge,
Liphook, Hants
} Taylor, C. H....Bamburgh Friars, Belford, North-
umberland
Taylor, Frederick,.. Worcester Park, Ewell, Surrey
Taylor, F. Manley Shawe...Castle Taylor, Ar-
drahan, Galway, Ireland
Taylor, George... Wolverhampton, Staffordshire
Taylor, George... Brecon
Taylor, Henry...Dilham Hall, Norwich
Taylor, Henry...Bampton, Oxon
Taylor, Henry John...Hay Gate, Wellington, Salop
Taylor,Hugh, . Cramlington, Newcastle-upon-T yne
Taylor, Isaac...Shrewsbury, Salop
Taylor, John... Brewers Hall, Mereworth, Kent
Taylor, John.,.Morton Hall, Whalley, Lanc.
Taylor, John, jun...,Essex Standard Office, Col-
chester
Taylor, J. O....Hardingham, Norwich
Taylor, J. P....Treeton, Rotherham’
+Laylor, Joseph... Bishops Stortford, Herts
Taylor, Richard, ..Penmear, near Falmouth
Taylor, Robert...Treeton Mills, Rotherham
+Taylor, Sam....Eccleston Hall, Prescot, Lancashire
Taylor, Silas B....Foxhall, Upminster, Essex
Taylor, Thos.,..Burleigh Villa, Wellington, Salop
Taylor, T. L....Starston, Harleston, Norfolk
Taylor, Wm....Showle Court, Stoke Edith, Hereford
Tayton, William...,Syderstone, Fakenham
Tebbitt, Walter... Cottage House, Clapham Common
Tekell, John, ..Frimley Park, near Bagshot, Surrey
Tempest, Sir Charles...Broughton Hall, Skiptcn,
Yorkshire
Tempest, Henry... Newland Park, Wakefield
Templeman, John,,.Merriott, Crewkerne, Somer-
setshire
+Templemore, Lord
Ireland
Tench, John... Ludlow, Salop
Tench, Richard... Ludlow, Salop
Tennant, J.R....Kildwick Hall, Skipton, Yorkshire
Thackwell, J. C... Wilton Place, near Ledbury, Here-
fordshire
+Thew, Edward
umberland
Thexton, John Yeates...
Westmoreland
Thomas, David.. , Brecon
Thomas, I. D...Welfield House, Builth, near Brecon
Thomas, F. H.,..»Hereford
. 2» Waterloo Iron Works, Andover,
-..Dunnoby Park, “Wexford,
..Lesbury House, Alnwick, North-
-Ashton House, Milnthorpe,
List of Members.
Thomas, Georgé...18, Redcliff Street, Bristol
Thomas, Rev. George... Llandaff Court, near Cardiff,
Glamorganshire
Thomas, Ilted,. . Hill House, Swansea, Glamorgansh.
Thomas, J. Ayre...Ditchet, Rose Ash, Witheridge,
Devon
Thomas, John, jun... .Ynissiwnd, near Neath, N.W.
Thomas, Le Marchant... Billingbear Park, Woking-
ham, Berks
Thomas, R. G....Llysnewydd, near Carmarthen
Thomas, T. E....Glanmor, Swansea, S. W.
Thomas, William...Dadnor, near Ross, Herefordsh.
Thompson,Andrew... Keele, Newcastle-under-Lyme
Thompson, Rey. Cornelius...Kirton Rectory, Ol-
lerton, Notts
Thompson, Henry A.... Lewes
+Thompson, H.S....Moat Hall, near Boroughbridge
Thompson, James, ..Kirkhouse, Brampton, Cum-
berland
Thompson, John..,Paston, near Wooler, North-
umberland
Thompson, John... Woolvers Farm, Reigate, Surrey
Thompson, Leonard. ..Sherriff Hutton Park, York
Thompson, Robert... Norwich
Thompson, R. J... Kirby Hall, near York
Thompson, John S...Clements, Ilford, Essex
Thompson, Wm,..12, Dunsford Place, Bathwick,
Bath
+Thompson, Wm., M.P....Underby Hall, Kirby
Lonsdale
Thompson, William...Bishop Auckland, Durham
Thompson, W. C. F...Solway House, Carlisle,
Cumberland
Thomson, Guy...Old Bank, Oxford
Thomson, Henry...Primrose, Clitheroe, Lancashire
Thornewill, Edward...Dove Cliffe, Burton-on-Trent
Thornhill, George, M.P....Diddington, Buckden,
Hunts
Thornhill, George, jun... Harefield, Cheam, Surrey
+Thornhill, Thomas... Riddlesworth Hall, Thetford,
Norfolk
+Thornhill, W. Pole...Stanton, Bakewell, Derbys.
Thornthwaite, Joseph..,Arkleby House, Cocker-
mouth, Cumberland
Thornton, Claude G...Marden Hill, near Hertford
Thornton, Harry...Turvey, Newport Pagnell, Bucks
Thornton, Rev- John... Kimbolton
Thornton, Stephen...Moggerhanger House, Big-
gleswade, Beds
+Thorold, Richard... Weelsby Hall, near Grimsby
Thorold, William...Norwich
Thorp, Archdeacon Charles... Ryton Rectory, New-
castle-on-Tyne .
+Thorp, Archdeacon Thomas... Kemerton Rectory,
Tewkesbury
+Thorp, Thomas...Alnwick, Northumberland
Thorpe, James Cole... Otley, Walesby, Market |
Rasen, Lincolnshire
Thorpe, John... Pitt, near Hastings.
+Thorpe, John.. .Shenton, Hinckley
Thoume, James...Guernsey
Thoyts, Mortimer Geo...Sulhamstead House, near
Reading, Berkshire
t
57
Threlfall, Lazarus... Lancaster
‘Thresher, Frederick... Bentley, Farnham, Surrey
Thring, Rev. J. G..,Alford House, Castle Carey,
Somersetshire
Throckmorton, Sir R. G..,.Buckland, near Far-
ringdon, Berkshire
Thruston, Capt. C. T., R.N...Talgarth, Machynlleth,
Montgomeryshire
Thurlow, Rey. Thos....Baynards Park, Guildford
Thurnhall, Henry...Royston, Herts
Thursby, Rey.—...Abingdon Rectory, Northampton
Thursfield, Wm... .Barrow, near Broseley, Salo p
Tigar, Pennock..,Grove House, Beverley
Tighe, Rt. Hon. W. F.... Woodstock Park, Inis-
troge, Ireland
Tilden, John...Ifield Court, Gravesend, Kent
Tillett, Samuel...Hill House, Lexden, Colchester
Tilley, Joshua. ..Gurston, Redstone Hill, Reigate
Tilly, Tobias H....Tremough, Falmouth, Cornwall
yTillyard, Philip... Godmanchester, near Hun-
tingdon
Tillyer, George... Feltham, Middlesex
Tillyer, James, jun....Yeavenly Farm, Staines,
Middlesex
Timings, Richard... Wacton Court, near Bromyard
Timm, Dr. C...Scrooby Honse, Bawtry, Notts.
Timm, Joseph...Champion Hill, Camberwell
Timm, William... Ratcliff Grange, Worksop, Notts
Timms, William...Cadley Hill, Burton-on-Trent
Timson, Rev. Edward...Woodlands House, near
Southampton
Tindal, Thomas...Aylesbury, Bucks
Tindale, Benj... Mount Pleasant, Dawlish, Devon
Tindale, Wm.... Wheatley, Doncaster
Tingey, John...Scoulton, Hingham, Norfolk
Tinker, William...Conock House, Devizes
Tinkler, Richd... .Bolton, Westmoreland
Tinling, Capt. Charles.. 4, York Place, Worthing
Tinne, John A.., Briarley, near Aigburth, Liverpool
Tisdale, Thomas...Quarry Terrace, Shrewsbury
Todd, F. S...Picton House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Todd, Joseph...New Shipton, Sutton Coldfield,
Warwickshire :
Todd, W. R...Picton House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
+Tollemache, H. B....Junior United Service Club
+Tollemache, John...Tilston Lodge, Tarporley,
Cheshire ;
Toller, Samuel...Gedgrave, Orford, Suffolk
Tollet, Geo....Betley Hall, near Newcastle, Staffs.
Tombs, Edw....Maizey Hampton, Fairford, Glouc.
Tombs, John... Hanghill, near Cirencester, Glouc.
Tombs, Joseph. .. Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire
Tomkins, W. S....Broughton, near Stockbridge
Hants
Tomkinson, Wm.... Newcastle, Staifs.
Tomline, Col. Geo., M.P...1, Carlton House Terrace
Tomlinson, Capt. Frederick...Clitfe Ville, New-
castle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire
Tomlinson, Sam....Suttom Place, St. Helens, Lane.
Tomlinson, William...Biggins House, Kirkby Lons-
dale, Westmoreland
Tompsett, James,..Hextall Court, East Peckham,
Kent
I
58
Tompson, C. Kett...Witchingham Hall, Norwich
Tompson, H. Kett... Burgh Apton Cottage, Norwich
Tompson, Rob. Jas... Round Coppice, Iver, Bucks
Tomson, James... Barnt Green, Bromsgrove
Tonge, John, jun....Edenbridge, Kent
Tonge, Wm., sen.... Morante Court Farm, Cheven-
ing, Sevenoaks, Kent
Tonge, Charles... Branston, near Lincoln
Tongue, Edward...Aldridge, Walsall, Staffordshire
Tongue, Wm...Comberford, near Tamworth, Staffs.
Tooke, William..12, Russell Square
Topham, James... West Keal, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Topham, Robert... Mowthorpe, Malton, Yorkshire
+Torkington, James...Stukeley, Huntingdon
+Torr, Wm.,.Aylesby, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire
Toulson, John P..,.Skipwith Hall, Selby, Yorks.
Tower, Christ. T.., Weald Hall, Brentwood, Essex
Towers, John...Park Place, Fairfield, Croydon
Towneley, Chas...Towneley, Burnley, Blackburn,
Lancashire
Townley, Rev. Gale...Beaupré Hall, Wisbeach,
Cambridgeshire
Townsend, Rich. Edw....Springfield, Norwood
+Townsend, Thos...Hillmorton, Rugby, Warwicks.
Townsend, Wm. Hicks... 3, Montague Parade,
Bristol z
Townshead, Geo....Sapcote, Hinckley, Leicesters.
Trafford, Sir Thos. De, Bart... .Trafford Park, Man-
chester, Lancashire
Traherne, Rey. John M.,..Coedrigtan, near Cardiff,
Glamorganshire
Trebeck, Thomas. ..Southwell, Notts
Treby, H. H...Goodamoor, near Plympton, Devon
Tredwell, J. C.,.Oddington Grange, Bicester, Oxon}
Tremenheere, Seymour...105, Pall Mall
Trenchard, Rey. John A...Stanton House, Swindon,
Wiltshire
Trench, Richard... Freehill, Southampton, Hants
Trench, William...Cangort Park, Roscrea, King’s
County, Ireland
Tresawna, Sampson... Probus, near Truro, Cornwall
Tress, Wm...1, Princes Street, Wilson St., Finsbury
Trethewy, Henry,..Grampound, Cornwall
Trethewy, Henry, jun....Silsoe, Beds
Trevor, Hon. Gen....Glynde, near Lewes, Sussex
Trollope, Sir John, Bart., M.P....Casewick, Stam-
ford, Lincolnshire
Trollope, Capt. W. H...Landford House, Salisbury
Trood, Edward... Matford House, Exminster, Devon
Trotter, Geo. Dale... Bishop Middleham, Darlington
Trotter, John...Staindrop, near Darlington, Durham
Trotter, Robert...Twyford, East Grinstead, Sussex
Trotter, Thomas...Bywell, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Trower, Capt. E. S... Watton House, Ware, Herts
Trower, Henry S...Castle Thorpe, near Stony Strat-
ford, Bucks
Trudgen, H. H...Trevellev, Penzance, Cornwall
Trumper, Edward... Nuneham Park, near Oxford
Trumper, Robert, Wyke Farm, Isleworth, Middx.
Trumper, William...Iver, Colnbrook, Bucks
Trustram, John...Higham Gobion, Ampthill, Beds
+Tryon, Thos. ..Bulwick, Wansford,Northamptonsh.
Tuck, Rev. G. R... Rectory, Wallington, near Bal-
dock, Herts
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Tuck, Henry...Avon, Ringwood, Hampshire
Tuck, John Henry...Blofield, near Norwich
Tuck, John J.... Wortham, Eye, Suffolk
Tuck, T. G....Strumpshaw, Norwich
Tucker, Henry...Coleraine House, Stamford Hill,
Middlesex
Tuckett, Alfred... Moorend, Mangotsfield, near
Bristol
Tuckey, Thomas...Compton-Beauchamp, Faring-
don, Berkshire
Tuckwell, Humphrey...Signet, near Burford, Oxon
yTudway, R. C.... Wells, Somerset
7Tull, Edward..Peasemore, Newbury, Berks’
7Tull, Henry...Crookham, Newbury, Berks
7Tull, Richard. ,.Crookham, Newbury, Berks
Tullidge, William...Houghton Farm, Blandford
Tunnicliffe, Fred. W...Biana, Eccleshall, Staffs.
Tupholme, Thomas...Horncastle
+Turnbull, John Geo...2, Sussex Square, Bayswater
yTurnbull, Rev. T. 8....Blofield, Norfolk
Turner, Ellis...Caston Hall, Watton, Norfolk
Turner, George... Flitching, Uckfield, Sussex
Turner, George... Barton, near Exeter, Devon
Turner, Lieut.-Col. Henry...32, Argyll Street
Turner, Henry John...Richmond, Yorkshire
Turner, James §..,.Clinton Farm, Seaford, near
Lewes, Sussex
Turner, John... Trowse, Norwich
Turner, John...Gravetye Manor, West Hoathly,
near East Grinstead, Sussex
Turner, John Beresford... Worcester
Turner, John Henry,. .Little Horringer Hall, Bury
St. Edmunds
Turner, Sam... Branch Bank of England, Liverpool
Turner, Thos,..Castwood Farm, Rotherham, Yorks.
Turner, Wm. B....Feltham Hill, Hounslow, Mid.
Turner, W. H...8, Mount Place, Whitechapel Road
+Turnor, Christopher... .Stoke, Grantham, Lincolns.
Turnor, Michael...Brereton, Rugeley, Staffs.
Turnor, Thos....Abbotts Bromley, Rugeley, Staffs.
Twemlow, Thomas... Peatswood, Drayton, Salop
Twining, F...Parbold Hall, Standish, Wigan, Lane.
Twitchell, Thomas... Willington, near Bedford
Twort, Tyler...-Horsmonden, Kent
Tylden, Lieut.-Col. Sir J..,.Milsted, Sittingbourne,
Kent
Tyler, John...Layton, Essex
Tyler, Rev. R. T....Ulantrithyd, near Cardiff, Gla-
morganshire :
Tynte, Lieut.-Col. C. J. K...Cefn Mably, Newport,
Monmouthshire
Tyrconnel, Earl of,,. Kiplin, Catterick, Yorkshire
Tyrell, Sir John, Bart.. .Boreham House, Chelmsford
Tyssen, W. G. D..,Foulden Hall, Brandon, Norfolk
Ullock, Thomas... Quarry How, Bowness, near
Kendal, Westmoreland
Umbers, Abraham... Weston Hall, Leamington
+Umbers, Edward... Weston Hall, near Warwick
Umbers, Samuel...Cubbington Heath, near Lea-
mington
+Underwood, Joseph...Blackheath Park, Kent
Underwood, Capt. W.... Castle Hill, Bakewell
Derbyshire
List of Members. D9
Unett, J. W....Smethwick, Birmingham
+Upperton, Robert...35, Steyne, Brighton, Sussex
Uppleby, Leadbitter... Wootton House, Barton-on-
Humber, Lincolnshire
+Upton, Hon. Gen. G. F....G2, Albany
Upton, H. J....Aldwick, Bognor, Sussex
Urry, Barnabus..,Newport, Isle of Wight
Urwick, Edward,..Felton, Ludlow, Salop
Utting, John,..Stunning Hall, Norfolk
Vaisey, Thomas...Stratton, near Cirencester, Glouc.
Vaizey, Geo. De Horne...Halstead, Essex
Vallance, James... Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Vanderstegen, W. H....Cane End House, near
Henley, Oxon
Vandeleur, George.,.King’s Newton Hall, Derby
+Vane, Rey. John...Dulwich, Surrey
Vansittart, Geo. H....Besham Abbey, Great Marlow
Vardon, Thos. (Librarian of the House of Commons)
Vaughan, Hugh,..Redland House, near Bristol
Vaughan, John... Velin Newidd House, near Brecon
+Vaughan, Nash V. E....Rhesla, near Neath, Gla-
morganshire
Vaughan, Sir R. W....Hengurt, Dolgelle, Merio-
nethshire
Vaughan, Rey. Thomas... Llandwailog, Brecon
Vaughan, Col. Wright... Woodstone, Peterborough
Veal, John B...Ringmer, near Lewes, Sussex
Veale, J. H...Passaford, Hatherleigh, Devon
+Vere, John. ..Carlton-upon-Trent, Newark, Notts
Verelst, Rev. Wm....Grayingham, Kirton-in-Lind-
sey, Lincolnshire
Verity, Richard. ..Dean, Kimbolton, Hunts
+Verney, Sir Harry, Bart., M.P.....Claydon House,
Winslow, Bucks
Vernon, Geo. Croft... Mount Flanbury, Bromsgrove,
Worcestershire
Vernon, G. H., M.P.,..Grove Hall, East Retford,
Notts. ;
Vernon, Hon. and Rev. J. V...Nuttall Rectory, near
Nottingham
Viall, King. ..Stoke, Clare, Suffolk
Vibant, James, ..Chilliswood House, Taunton
Vickers, Samuel...Sprotborough, Doncaster
+Vickers, Valentine...Ellerton Grange, Newport,
Salop
Villiers, Viscount...Upton Park, Banbury
Vincent, Henry Wm....Queen’s Remembrancer’s
Office, Duke Street, Westminster
Vincent, James... Clifton Maubank, Sherborne
Vincent, Jolin Fras... Frostenden, Wangford, Suff.
Vines, Richard,..13, Great College Street, Camden
Town
Vivian, George...Claverton Manor, Bath, Somerset
Vivian, John Henry.. .Singleton, Swansea
Vivian, Lord...Plas Gwyn, Beaumaris, Anglesea
Vizard, Wm...16, New Street, Spring Gardens”
Vogan, Rey. Thomas S. L.,..Vicar of Walberton,
Arundel =
Voss, Wm... West Bucknowle, Corfe Castle, Dorset
+Vyner, Henry...Newby Hall, Ripon
Waddington, H. S,..Cavenham, Mildenhall, Suff.
Waddington, J. H,..Langrish, Petersfield, Hants
Waddington, John T.... Twyford Lodge, near Win-
chester, Hants
Wade, Rev. Albany,..Elton Rectory, Stockton-on-
Tees, Durham
Wade, Major H. C...Hanxwell Hall, Bedale
Wadham, Thomas...Frenchay, uear Bristol
Wagner, G. H. M.,. Hurstmonceaux, Battle, Sussex
Wagstaff, Edward...Gordon Castle, Fochabers, N. B.
Waite, W. S... Woodborough, Bath, Somersetshire
Wake, Bartholomew... North Barrow, Castle Carey,
Somersetshire
Wakefield, George ... Minworth,
Warwickshire
Wakefield, John... Sedgwick House,
Westmoreland
Wakeman, Thomas...Chalfont St. Giles, Gerard’s
Cross, Bueks
Wakley, James...111, Pilgrim Street, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Walbey, Henry... Wyddial, near Buntingford, Herts
Walbey, Thos. C.,..Barley, near Royston, Herts
Walkden, Thos... Rushall Down, near Pewsey, Wilts
Walker, David... Maidstone
Walker, Delabere...Netherwood, Tenbury, Worces-
tershire
+Walker, George... Eastwood, near Nottingham
Walker, Geo. J. Alexander... Norton, near Worcester
Walker, Geo. R... Heathfield House, near Oxford
Walker, Gibbon N.,,.Market Cell, Market Street,
Herts
Walker, James... Suttie, near Kintore, N. B.
Walker, James... Northleach, Gloucestershire
Walker, Capt. J. R....Gilgarran, Whitehaven
Walker, John... York
Walker, John ... Westfield House, Holmer, near:
Hereford
+ Walker, Ormerod Oliver...Bury, Lancashire
Walker, Dr. Thomas...10, Lower Seymour Street,
Portman Square
Walker, Thomas...Kendal, Westmoreland
Walker, Thomas...Cockermouth
Walker, Thomas...The Bank, Doncaster, Yorkshire
Walker, William... Wilsie, near Doncaster
Waller,H.S...Farmington, Northleach,Gloucestersh.
Waller, James... Digswell Hill, Welwyn, Herts
Wallington, James...Charlecote, Stratford-on-Avon
Wallis, Owen. .Overstone Grange, near Northampton
Wallis, Robert. ..South Shields
Wallis, Samuel... Barton Seagrave, Kettering
Wallis, W. 'F....New Shifford Farm, near Witney,
Oxon
Walmsley, Joln...Creamore, Wem, Salop
Walmsley, Thomas.,.Ribblesdale Place, Preston,
Lancashire
Walrond, Lloyd B...Flanley, Westbury-on-Severn,
Gloucestershire
Walsh, John...Oxford
Walter, John....Gore House, Upchurch, Sitting-
bourne, Kent
Walter, Stephen... West Farleigh, Maidstone
Walter, Wm..,Rainham, Upchurch, Sittingbourne,
Kent
+Walters, James W...Barnwood, near Gloucester
Walters, John.,.Derby
12
Birmingham,
Kendal,
60
Walters, Robert... Charlotte Square, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
+Walton, Thomas..,Albany House, Old Kent Road
Walton, Wm...Merdon Farm, Hursley, Winchester
Warburton, R. E. E...Harley Hall, near Northwich,
Cheshire
Ward, David...Iron Works, Melford, near Sudbury,
Suffolk
Ward, G. A.... Downham Bridge, Norfolk.
Ward, H. W....Uindurn Road, Lincoln
Ward, John...79, Bishopsgate Street Within
Ward, R. M....Watton, Norfolk
Ward, T. E....The Lodge, Chirk, Denbighshire
Ward, T. R....Upton, Slough, Bucks
Ward, W. S....Wellow Hall, Ollerton, Notts
Ward, W. T....26, Old Elvet, Durham
Warde, Charles...Squerries, Westerham, Kent
+Ware, Samuel...34, Portland Place
Waring, William...Chelsfield, Kent
Warman, Robert...Idstone, near Faringdon, Berks
Warner, Frederick...28, Cornhill, London
+ Warner, George... Priory, Hornsey, Middlesex
Warner, Henry...The Eims, Loughborough
Warner, H. J. L., jun....Tibberton Court, near
Hereford
Warner, James... Tixall Hall Farm, Great Haywood,
near Stafford
Warner, William... Botley, Southampton, Hants
Warre, Henry...15, Upper Wimpole Street
Warre, J. A.... West Cliff, Ramsgate, Kent
+ Warren, Rev. J. C. B... Horkesley Hall, Colchester,
Essex
Warren, Richard.. .Shillington, Blandford, Dorset
Warry, Elias T...., Wimborne, Dorset
‘Warry, George...Shapwick, Glastonbury, Somerset
Warsop, John. ..Alconbury Hill, near Huntingdon
Warter, Henry de Grey... Meole, Shrewsbury
Wartnaby, John...Clipston, Northamptonshire
tWasey, J. T... Prior’s Court, near Newbury,
Berks
Washbourne, T. E...Donnington, Newbury, Berks
Washbourne, W. E., jun.... Tillingdown, Tandridge,
Surrey
Wason, Rigby...Kildonan, Newton-Stewart, N. B.
Wass, Joseph...Lea, near Matlock, Derbyshire
Waterhouse, Daniel... Aigburth, near Liverpool
Waterhouse, Edward... Liverpool
Waterpark, Lord... Doveridge Hall, Uttoxeter, Staffs,
Waters, Edward... Arminghall, Norwich
Waters, Henry...Sutton, Seaford, Sussex
Waters, Robert...Boscombe, Amesbury, Wilts
Waters, R. S...St. Giles’s, Cranborne, Dorset
Waters, Thomas...Stratford Sub-Castle, Salisbury
Waters, Wm,..Wighton, near Walsingham, Norf.
+Watkins, John Gregory... Woodfield House, Om-
bersley, near Worcester
Watkins, Col. L. V., M.P....Pennoyre, near Brecon
Watkins, Samuel... Forest Hill, near Worksop, Notts
Watkins, Sober...Bodrhyddan, St. Asaph, N. W.
+Watkins, Wm.,..Ombersley, Worcester
Watson, B. F....16, Cambridge Terrace, Hyde Park
+Watson, C. W....Wratting Park, Linton, Cambs.
Watson, George... Willingham, Fakenham, Norfolk
Watson, H. G.. ..123, George Street, Edinburgh
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Watson, James....Thorney, near Peterborough,
Northamptonshire
Watson, James... Wouldby, near Hull, Yorkshire
Watson, John...Bolton Park, Wigton, Cumberland
Watson, John... Kendal
Watson, Capt. Wm....New Place, Acacia Road, St.
John’s Wood
Watson, W. C...14, Great Cumberland Place
Watts, James...Hythe, Kent
Watts, Robert... Battle, Sussex
Watts, William...Scaldwell, Northampton
Wavell, Wm....Rookley Farm, Blackwater, Isle of
Wight
‘ Wayne, T. M...Manor House, South Warnborough,
Odiham, Hampshire
Weall, Thos... Woodcote Lodge, Beddington, Surrey
Webb, Daniel C....Hethe, Bicester, Oxon
Webb, George...Beaumont Hall, near St. Albans,
Herts
Webb, Humphrey...Orslow, near Newport, Salop
Webb, John...Horseheath, Cambridgeshire
Webb, J. C...Hempnall, Stratton St. Mary, Norfolk
Webb, Jonas.. .Church Farm, Babraham, Cambridge
Webb, Samuel...Babraham, Cambridge
Webb, Thomas...Hildersham, Cambridge
Webb, Theodore V...Clare Hall, Cambridge
Webb, Rev. Wim... Master of Clare Hall, Cambridge
Webb, William... Haselor, Tamworth, Staffs.
Webb, William...Clownholme, Rocester, Staffs.
+Webber, Chas. H... Buckland, Barnstaple, Devon
Webber, Samuel,..Ipswich
Webber, Thos...,Halberton Court, Tiverton, Devon
Webber, Wm....Tonbridge, Kent
Webster, Baron Dickinson.. Penns, nr. Birmingham
Webster, Frederick... Marley Farm, Battle Abbey,
Sussex
Webster, James... Peakirk, Market Deeping, Lin-
colnshire
+Webster, J. Philip...Heath and Reach, Leighton
Buzzard, Bedfordshire
Webster, Thomas...Kendal, Westmoreland
Webster, W. B...-Houndsdown, near Southampton
Wedd, Octavius...Foulmire, near Royston, Cam-
bridgeshire
Wedge, Charles...Hornwood Farm, Meridan, near
Coventry
Wedge, Francis...Badminton, Tetbury, Gloucesters.
Wedlake, Mrs. Mary...Hornchurch, Essex
+ Weeding, Thomas...47, Mecklenburgh Square
Weeks, Frederick...8, London Road, Brighton
Weeks, R. M...Ryton Park, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Welbank, Captain...Tandridge Priory, Godstone
Welch, Alfred. ..Southall, Middlesex
Welch, Jno,.Bachymbyd Back, Ruthin, Denbighsh
Welchman, Robt. Frederick..Southam, Warwicksh.
Weld, Edw. J...Tavistock Court, Barnstaple, Devon
Weld, Joseph... Lulworth Castle, Dorset
Welfitt, Wm. T...Manby Hall, Louth, Lincolnshire
Welford, R. G...Northaw, near Barnet, Middlesex
Weller, Richard...Capel, Dorking, Surrey
Wellingham, E... Walton, Lynn
Wellings, Thomas...Muckleton, near Shrewsbury
Wells, Charles,.. Ware, Herts
+Wells, John,,,Armyn, Booth Ferry, Yorksh.
List of Members.
Wells, John,,. . Woodborough, near Nottingham
Wells, Thomas,..Hampnett, Northleach, Glouc.
Welman, C. Noel... Norton Manor, Taunton
Welsh, William...Leake, Boston, Lincolnshire
Welstead, Benjamin... Kimbolton, Hunts
Wemyss, Major-Gen.,.Cumberland Lodge, Windsor
Park
Wentworth, Godfrey...Woolley Park, Wakefield,
Yorkshire
West, Desaguliers... Water House, near Bath
West, Capt. Henry, R.N....Jesmond, near New-
castle-on-Tyne
West, John... Miningsby, near Spilsby, Lincolns.
West, J.... Melton Ross, Brigg, Lincolnshire
West, Wm. H....Gliffaes, Crickhowell, Brecknocks.
' Westbury, Giles...Andover, Hampshire
+Westcar, Henry...Burwood Cottage, Esher, Surrey
Westcote, John Baker...Coate, Martock, Somerset
+Western, Thomas B...Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex
Westminster, Marquis of .... Motcombe House,
Shaftesbury, Dorset
+Weston, James, jun.....Stoneleigh, Coventry,
Warwickshire
Weyland, John..,.W
Norfolk
Weyland, Richard... Woodeaton House, near Oxford
Whaley, J....Holly Hill, Enfield, Middlesex
Whalley, Charles Lawson...Lancaster
Whalley, Capt. G. B....Birdlip, near Painswick
Whalley, Robert... Brantham Hall, near Manning-
tree, Essex
+Wharncliffe, Lord... Wortley Hall, Sheffield
Wharton, Rev. Fitzwm. Wm...,Barningham Rec-
tory, Richmond, Yorkshire
Wharton, Francis... Dunscroft, Hatfield, near Don-
caster, Yorkshire
Wharton, Rev. James Charles...Gilling Vicarage,
near Richmond, Yorkshire
+Wharton, John Thomas...Skelton Castle, Guis-
borough, Yorkshire
Wheatley, Matthew..
Tyne
Wheble, Edmund...27, Upper Montague Street,
Montague Square
Wheble, J. J....Bulmarsh Court, Reading
Wheeler, John...Trippleton, Leintwardine, Lud-
low, Shropshire
Wheldon, Stephen... Pelton, near Chester-le-Street
Whetham, Major-Gen... SESE SEOe Hall, South-
well, Notts
Whieldon, Geo....Springfield House, near Coventry
Whincup, Francis... Ketten, near Stamford
Whistler, John... Brancaster, Norfolk
oodrising Hall, Hingham,
-Shieldfield, Newcastle-upon-
Whitaker, Rev. Geo. A....Knodishall, near Sax-
mundham, Snffolk
Whitaker, Joseph... Ramsdale House, Nottingham
Whitaker, Joshua...Bratton, Westbury, Wilts —
Whitbread, John... Hazlewood Farm, Edmonton
+Whitbread, Samuel Charles...22, Eaton Place
Whitby, Mrs. Mary A. T....Newlands, Lymington,
Hampshire
+White, Alg. Holt ...Sewald’s Hall, Harlow, Essex
~; White, Henry... Warrington, Lancashire
White, James... Yayerland Farm, Isle of Wight
| White, R. Edward..
61
White, John...
Hertfordshire
White, John B.... Little Bedwyn, near Marlborough
White, J. H....Chevening, near Sevenoaks, Kent
White, John Mould...Mickleover, Derby
White, Joseph...Ampfield House, Romsey, Hants
White, Richard, ..Prior Halton, Ludlow, Shropshire
White, Richard... Norwich
. Aspley Guise, Woburn, Beds
White, Thomas ...Elly Hill, Hougliton-le-Skerne,
Darlington
White, Thos....Kenward, Yalding, Kent
White, Wm....63, Beaumont Square, Mile End
Whitehead, John... Barnjet, West Barming, Maidstone
Whitehead, John...Preston
Whitehead, Richd... West Farleigh, Maidstene, Kent
Whitehouse, Wm....Exchange Buildings, Liverpool
Whitgreave, G. T. .. Moseley Court, Wolverhampton
Whiting, John.,.Heston, Hounslow, Middlesex
Whiting, T. S....Codford St. Peter’s, Wilts
Whitlock, Francis..,Lovingtons, Great Yeldham
Halstead, Essex
Whitmell, John. .Crick, Daventry, Northamptonsh.
+Whitmore, Thos....Apley Park, Bridgnorth, Salop
+Whitmore, Thos. C....Apley Park, Shiffnal
Whitmore, W. W....Dudmaston, Bridgnorth, Salop
Whittaker, Oldham...Hurst House, Ashton-under-
Lyne
Whittam, James Sibley...Cowndon, Coventry
Whitter, William.,. Worthing, Sussex
7Whitting, Wm...,..Thorney, near Peterborough
Northamptonshire
Whittle, Edward,,.Toller Fratrum, Dorchester
Whitton, Corbett. . Stafford
Whitworth, H. B....Northampton
Whitworth, Joseph....Chorlton Street, Portman
Street, Manchester
Whitworth, Wm.,..Earl’s Barton, Wellingborough
Whybro, Edward...Tottenham Green, Middlesex
+Wickens, James Stephens...35, Mortimer Street
Wickham, Edward...St. Margaret’s, Rochester
Wickham, James..,Sutton Scotney ERODES ACI
Road, Hampshire
Wickham, John...Butcombe, near Shepton Mallet,
Somersetshire
+ Wicksted, Charles..,Shakenhurst, Cleobury Mor-
timer, Salop
Widdicomhe, John... Ladbrook Cottage, Ugborough
Deyon
Widdrington, Capt. (R.N.).. Newton Hall, Alnwick
Northumberland
Wiffin, William..,Crabs Castle, Wells, Norfolk
Wigan, Edmd. ..Lapley Breewoed, Wolverhampton
Wigg, Wright...South Green, East Dereham, Nortk
Wiggins, John...Tyndale, near Danbury, Essex
7 Wight, James... Tedstone Court, Bromyard, Here-
fordshire
Wigney, Thomas Jennings... Huddersfield
Wilberfoss, Thomas... Wetwang, Driffield, Yorkshire
Wild, S. Bagnall....Costock, near Loughborough
Leicestershire
Wild, Thos. Martin,,.Branbridges, East Peckham
Tunbridge, Kent
Wilde, George,..1, Cambridge Square, London
.Parsonage Farm, Rickmansworth,
62
Wilding, Charles... Powis Castle, Welshpool
Wilding, James...High Ercal, Wellington, Salop
Wiley, Joseph...Sprowston, Norwich
Wiley, Samuel...Bransby, near York
Wilkin, Charles...Tolleshunt Knight, Kelvedon, |
Essex
Wilkin, Charles... Twerton, near Bath, Somerset
Wilkins, Henry... Westbury-on-Severn, near Glou-
cester
Wilkinson, Geo. H....Harperly Park, Durham
Wilkinson, H. J....Walsham-le-Willows, Ixworth
Wilkinson, J. Etridge,..Dunston Lodge, Gateshead
Wilkinson, O. R....Eaton Socon, St. Neots, Hunts
Wilkinson, Percival Spearman....Furze House,
Leamington
Wilkinson, Thomas,.Chawton, Cowes, Isle of Wight
Wilkinson, Thomas Aytown...Dringhouses, York
Wilkinson, Capt. T. H....Walsham, near Ixworth,
Suffolk
Willes, George... Hungerford Park, Hungerford
Willes, William...Fritwell, Brackley, Northamp-
tonshire
Williames, J. B,...Glan Hafren, Montgomeryshire
Williams, Alf. Edw.... West Mersia Hall, Colchester
Williams, Major Arthur Charles...Eaton-Mas-Caul,
Shrewsbury, Salop
Williams, Charles. ..Torquay, Devonshire
Williams, Rev. Charles...Gedling Rectory, near
Nottingham
Williams, C.C.,.Roath Court, Cardiff, Glamorgansh.
Williams, Cyril... Faleymeran, Pwllheli
Williams, Edward...Tre-beirrd, Mold, Flintshire
Williams, Edward...Lowes Court, near Hay, Here-
fordshire
Williams, Evan... Rhayader, Radnorshire
Williams, Evan...Aberyskir, near Brecon, S. W.
Williams, Fras. E....Doddenham, near Worcester
Williams, G. M....Brocklesby, Great Limber, Lin-
colnshire
Williams, Herbert...Stinsford House, Dorchester
Williams, H. Lloyd...Llanfillyn, Oswestry
Williams, Hugh...Kineton, Stratford-on-Avon
Williams, Rev. James. .Llanfair-yn-Nghornwy Rec-
tory, Anglesey
+Wiiliams, James,..Northcourt, near Abingdon
Williams, John...Bank, Chester
Williams, John...The Grove House, Denbigh
Williams, John...Buckland, Faringdon, Berkshire
Williams, J. A....Baydon, Hungerford, Berkshire
Williams, Leigh...Castle Hill, Farnham, Surrey
Williams, Martin... Bryngwyn, Oswestry
Williams, Matthew Davies....Cwmeynfelin, near
Aberystwith, S. W.
Williams, Peter...Siamberwen, Anglesey
Williams, Rees...Maesgwyn, Neath, Glamorgansh.
Williams, Rees... Manest Court, near Brecon
+Williams, Robert, jun....Bridehead, Dorchester
Williams, Rev. Thos....Fir-y-cewm, Ystrad, Swansea
Williams, Thomas...Bryn, Beaumaris, Anglesey
Williams, Thomas... Brecon, S. W.
Williams, William...Skethrog, near Brecon
Williams, Wm... -Tregulloa, near Truro, Cornwall
Williams, Wm..,.Aberpergwyn, Neath, Glamorgsh.
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Williams, Wm....High Street, Bedford
Williams, Wm. Adams....Llangibby Castle, Usk,
Monmouthshire
7 Williamson, Hugh Henshaw...Greenaway Bank,
Burslem, Stafis.
Williamson, Isaac...East Orielton, near Pembroke
+ Willich, Chas. M....24, Suffolk Street
Willis, Jos., jun... Bucknowle, Corfe Castle, Dorset
| Willoughby, Edward... Birkenhead
+Willoughby, W....
Wills, John.,.South Petherwyn, Launceston
Wilmer, Wilmer...4, Elm Court, Temple
Wilmot, Sir Hy. S., Bart....Chaddesdon Hall, near
Derby
| Wilmot, Rey. Rich. Coke... Neswick Hall, Baynton,
Beverley, Yorkshire
Wilson, Ashley Henry...The Abbey, Wigton
Wilson, Edward.,.Rigmaden Park, Kirby Lons-
dale, Westmoreland
Wilson, George. ..Dallam Tower, Milnthorpe
Wilson, Geo. Edwd....Ilmersham, Milnthorpe
Wilson, Geo. St. Vincent,..Redgrave Hall, Botes-
dale, Suffolk
Wilson, Henry Corbett...Southam, Warwickshire
7 Wilson, Hon. HenryW....Keythorpe Hall, Tugby,
Leicestershire
Wiison, Capt. John...The Howe, Kendal
+ Wilson, Joseph... Highbury Hill, Islington, Middx.
Wilson, Matthew, jun....Eshton Hall, Skipton,
Yorkshire
+ Wilson, Richard Bassett...Cliffe House, Darlington
7 Wilson, Hon. and Rey. Robert... Ashwell-Thorpe,
Wymondham, Norfolk
Wilson, Robert. ..South Shields
Wilson, Robert... Yarm, Yorkshire
+ Wilson, Thomas...Shotley Hall, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, Northumberland
Wilson, Thomas Francis,..123, Fenchurch Street
y Winchester, The Marquis of....Amport House
Andover
Winder, J. W. Lyon...Vaenor Park, Welshpool,
Montgomeryshire
Wing, Tycho...Thorney Abbey, Peterborough
Wingfield, John...Onslow, Salop
Wingfield, John M.,..Tickencote Hall, Stamford
Lincolnshire
Wingfield, Richard Baker...2, Lowndes Square
Wingfield, William...91, Katon Square ~
Winn, Rowland...Appleby Hall, Brigg, Lincolnsh.
Winnall, John... Newland, near Worcester
Winnall, Thomas...Eccleshall Court, Lea, Ross,
Herefordshire
Winnington, Sir Thomas, Bart...Stanford Court,
Worcester
Winns, Thomas... Lincoln
Winsor, George...Sarratt, Rickmansworth, Herts
+ Winterbottom, James Edwd..,.East Woodhay, near
Newbury, Berkshire
Winthrop, Rey. Benjamin...Clifton, Bristol
Wippell, John... Exminster, Devonshire
} Witney, William...26, Conduit Street
Witt, Edward... Fornham All Saints, Bury St.
Edmunds
List of Members. 63
Witt, Matthew... Waterbeach, near Cambridge | Woodward, Wm....Bredons Norton, Tewkesbury,
Witt, Samuel...Swaffham, Cambridge Gloucestershire
Wittingstall, E. F....Langley Bury, Watford, Herts | -Woodyeare, Rey. J. F. W....Crookhill, Doncaster
Wodehouse, Edmund,M.P....Thorpe, near Norwich | Wooldridge, Henry,..Meon Stoke, Bishops Walt-
+ Wodehouse, Lord... Kimberley, Wymondham ham, Hampshire
Wolfe, R. Birch... Wood Hall, near Newport, Essex | Wooldridge, J. W....Webb’s Land, Wickham, Hants
Wollaston, Major Fred...Sheepy Magna, Atherstone | Wooldridge, Rich... Titchfield Park, Fareham, Hants
Wollen, Joseph... Wedmore, near Wells, Somerset | Woolfe, Joseph...Haslington Hall, Crewe, Cheshire
Wood, Arthur W... . Littleton, Chertsey, Surrey Woolley, Te Smith, jun.. .» North Collingbam, New-
+Wood, Rt. Hon. Sir Charles, Bart., M.P....Ickledon ark, Notts
Hall, Doncaster, Yorkshire Woolrich, Abraham... little Ness, Shrewsbury
Wood, Charles... Langford Hall, Maldon, Essex Worledge, W....Creeting, near Stowmarket, Suffolk
Wood, Charles,..Siddington, Cirencester, Glouces- Worlledge, John., .Ingham, near Bury St. Edmunds,
tershire Suffolk
Wood, Edward A... fosmiaatoa. near Weymouth Worsley, Chas. Cavill,.. Platt, near Manchester
Wood, G...Denver, near Downham Market, Norfolk | Worsley, Rev. P. W... Little Ponton, near Grantham
Wood, George...South Dalton, Beverley, Yorkshire | Wortham, Biscoe Hill...Royston, Herts
Wood, George...Hanger Hill, Ealing, Middlesex Worthington, Archibald... Whitchurch, Salop
Wood, Geo. J.. Se Ndicton Hall, Blandford, Dorset | Worthington, Isaac Jackson... Whitefield Cottage,
Wood, Henry.. Wovingdean House, Brighton Lymm, Warrington
Wood, Henry.. Woolgarston, near Penkridge, Staffs. | Worthington, Jonathan.. -Moorhill House, Stour-
Wood, James....Ockley, Hurstperpoint, Sussex port, Worcestershire
Wood, Rev. John...Swanwick Hall, Alfreton, Der- | Worthington, Richard...Saddington, Market Har-
byshire borough
Wood, John...Croham Farm, Croydon, Surrey Worthy, Samuel....Temple Coombe, Wincanton,
Wood, John... Melton, near Woodbridge, Suffolk Somersetshire
7 Wood, John...Excise Office, London Wortley, N. W...Ridlington, Uppingham, Rutland
Wood, John... York | +Wratislaw, Wm. F....Rugby, Warwickshire
Wood, Sir J. P., Bart....Glazenwood House, near | Wray, John...6, Suffolk Place, Pall Mall East
Braintree, Essex Wren, Adderley Bacton... Lenwood, Bideford,
Wood, Nicholas. .. Killingworth, Newcastle-on-Tyne Devon
Wood, Rev. Richard,,.Woodhall Park, Leyburn, Wren, Wm. Weld...East Wood, Bury, Rochford,
Bedale, Yorkshire Essex
Wood, Richard. ..18, Temple Row, Birmingham Wren, Wm. Weld, jun....73, Gower Street
Wood, Thomas...Grendon, Atherstone, Warw icksh. Wrench, Samuel...Great Holland Hall, Colchester
Wood, Rev. W....Martock, Somerset Wrey, Sir Bouchier, Bart....The Chase, Ashburton,
Wood, Wm...Gopsall House, Twycross, Leicestersh. Devon
Wood, Capt. W. Mark...5, Audley Square +Wright, Charles...Bilham House, near Doncaster,
Wood, Willoughby...Campsall, Doncaster Yorkshire
Woodall, Henry... Beverle vy, Yorkshire Wright, Charles... Worsborongh, near Barnsley,
Woodcock, Hy. C....Buntingley, Melton Mowbray, Yorkshire
Leicestershire Wright, David... Hepworth, Ixworth
Woodcock, John G.,.,Breston, Dereham, Norfolk Wright, Edmund...Halston, Oswestry
Woodd, Basil Thomas.. -Thorpe Green, Borough- | Wright, Francis...Osmaston Manor, Derby
bridge, Yorkshire Wright, Henry...Kelvedon Hall, Brentwood
Woodham, Rey. Thos. F.... Winchester, Hampshire | Wright, James...Blyth, North Shields
+Woodham, William Nash...Shepreth, Melbourne, Wright, James...Ravenhill, near Rugely, Stalfis.
Cambridgeshire Wright, John... The Terrace, Chesterfield, Derbysh.
Woodhams, W. R.... Hammonds Udimore, Rye, | Wright, John, jun....Buxton, near Norwich
Sussex Wright, Robert ..The Close, Norwich
Woodhouse, John...Over Seale, Ashby-de-la-Zouch | +Wright, Thomas...North Runcton, Lynn
Woodley, Matthew.. Benfield Bury, Stanstead, Essex | Wright, Thos. Poyntz...Stuckeridge House, Bamp-
Woodman, Henry. .Stitchcombe, Marlborough, Wilts ton, Devon
Woodman, Richard, jun....Glynde, Lewes, Sussex | Wright, Wm.,,.Gresford Bank, near Wrexham
Woodrow, Wm. Robberds...Tombland, Norwich ~ Wright, Wm....Fring, Rougham, Norfolk
Woods, Henry...Merton, Thetford +Wrightson, W. Battie, M.P...Cusworth Park, Don-
Woods, Richard..,Osberton, near Worksop, Notts caster
Woods, W. Leyland...Chilgrove, near Chichester | Wroughton, Philip...Ibstone House, near Stoken-
Woodward, Francis... Little-Comberton, Pershore, church, Oxon
Worcestershire Wyatt, Osmond Arthur...Troy House, near Mon-
Woodward, Robert... Liverpool Wyatt, Harvey...Acton Hill, near Stafford
|
Woodward, Jos... Birlingham, Pershore, Worcestsh. | mouth
{
Woodward, Robert,.. Rise Hall; Akenham, Ipswich | v Wyatt, Hugh,.,Cissbury Findon, Shoreham, Sussex
64
Wyatt, Hugh Penfold.,.Cissbury Findon, Shore-
ham, Sussex
Wyatt, James... Limegrove, Bangor, Carnarvonshire
Wyatt, John...Nutbourne, Emsworth, Hampshire
Wyatt, T. H.... Heythrop, near Enstone, Oxon
Wyatt, William... yam, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Wyid, John Hopton... Bristol
Wyld, William Hopton.. . Bristol
Wyles, Thomas... Little Ponton, Grantham, Linc.
Wyley, James... High Onn, Stafford
+Wyley, James, jun....Longdon, Lichfield, Staffs.
+Wyley, Wm.... Vineyard, near Wellington, Salop
+Wyndham, J. E.... Fairburn House, Acton Green,
Middlesex
Wyndham, J. H.C....Carhampton House, Bishops
Waltham
+Wyndham, Wm..
Wynne, John Lloyd, jun...
Denbighshire
Wynne, Brownlow Wynne,..Garthewin, Abergele,
Denbighshire
Wynne, Rich. Lifton.,.Astrad, near Denbigh
..Dinton, Salisbury, Wiltshire
.Coed Coch, Abergele,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Wynne, Wm. W. E....Mount Sion, Oswestry
Wynniatt, Rev. R.,..Guiting Park, Winchcombe,
Gloucestershire
Wyvill, Rev. Edward... Fingal, Bedale, Yorkshire
Yeates, James... High House, Stainton, near Kendal»
Westmoreland
Yeates, John Yeates... Park-head, Levens, Miln-
thorpe, Westmoreland
Yeatman, Harry Farr,..Marston House, Blandford,
Dorset
Yeld, Thomas... The Broome, Leominster
Yeo, Wm. Arundell... Fremington House, Barn-
staple, Devonshire
Yorke, Hon. Eliot Thos., M.P. panminpole. Arring-
ton, Cambridge
Yorke, Joseph.. .Forthampton Court, ‘Tewkesbury,
Gloucestershire
Young, Allen A.,.Orlingbury, nr. Wellingborough
Young, George. ..Shrewsbury
Young, Wm... Yarlington, Castle Carey, Somerset
*
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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES
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