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THE

JOURNAL ^

OP THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

SECOND SEEIES.

VOLUME THE FOURTEENTH.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BeTANICAL
UAS^DEN

LONDON:

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

These experdients, it is troe, are not east; still tiiet aee in the power of evert

THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE. OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLT, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLT, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICUIyTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBT A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OP HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANT SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OP ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
l^^OULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF
THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS.

Van Tqaer, Principles of Agriculture.

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET
AND CHARING CROSS.

( iii )

A V

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIV.

Second Series.

Statistics : — paq®

Meteorology for the year 1877 i-ix

Imports of Com, &c., British Wheat sold, and Average Prices x-xiv
Number of Beasts exhibited, and Prices realised for them at

the Christmas Markets, 1843-77 xv

Average Prices of British Wheat, &c., per Quarter, in each

of the Sixteen Years, 1862-77 xv

Acreage under each description of Crop, Fallow, and Grass ;
with number of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs in Great Britain

and Ireland, 1875, 1876, and 1877 xvi, xvii

Importations and Average Prices of certain Foreign and

Colonial Productions xviii

Statistics of Dairy Produce, and Prices Current xix, xx

PAET I.

. ARTICLE

I. — Arterial Drainage and the Storage of Water. By W, H.

Wheeler, Mem. Inst. C.E., Boston, Lincolnshire 1

II. — On Bats’ Guano. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.ll.S., Con-

sulting Chemist to the Society 60

III. — Exmoor Reclamation. By Samuel Sidney 72

IV. — Report on the Farm-Prize Competition in the Isle of Man,

1877. By S. D. ShirrifF, of Saltcoats, Drem, N.B 97

V. — Report on the Implements at the Royal Agricultural Society’s

Show at Liverpool ; and on the Trials of Self-binding Reapers
at Aigburth. By J. Hannam, of Pocklington, Yorkshire 103

VI. — Early Fattening of Cattle, especially in the Counties of Sussex

and Surrey. By Henry Evershed 152

VII. — Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-Pneumonia.

By Gerald F. Yeo, Professor of Physiology in,^King’s College,

London 169

VIII. — Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. By Charles Gay

Roberts, of Haslemere, Surrey 206

IX. — Report on the Health of Animals of the Farm in 1877. By

W. Duguid, F.R.C.V.S., Veterinary Inspector to the' Society 233
VOL. XIV. — S. S.

CONTENTS.

X. — Report of the Field and Feeding Experiments conducted at
Woburn, on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, during the year 1877. (Presented to the Chemical

Committee, December 11, 1877) 238

XI. — Annual Report ,of the Consulting Chemist for 1877. By Dr.

Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S 246

XII. — Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee 255

XIII.— Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1877. By W.

Carruthers, F.R.S 262

Additions to the Library in 1877 264

PART II.

Memoir on the Agriculture of England and Wales, prepared
under the direction of the Council of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England for the International Agricultural Congress,

Paris, 1878 : —

Editor’s Preface 269= 3

I. — General View of British Agriculture. By James Caird,

C.B., F.R.S 271= 5

II. — English Land Law. By Frederick Clifford and J. Alderson

Foote 333= d7

III. — Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. By Captain

Craigie 385=liP

IV. — Farm Capital. By Elias P. Squarey 425=159

V. — Practical Agriculture. By John Algernon Clarke .. .. 445=179

VI. — Dairy Farming. By John Chalmers Morton. With a

Chapter on Pastoral Husbandry. By W. T. Carrington 643=577

VII. — The Cultivation of Hops, Fruit, and Vegetables. By

Charles Whitehead, F.L.S., F.G.S. 719=455

VIII. — The Agricultural Labourer. By H. J. Little 761=495

IX. — The Influence of Chemical Discoveries on the Progress of

English Agriculture. ByDr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S. 803=557

X. — The Royal Agricultural Society of England. By H. M.

Jenkins, F.G.S 855 = 559

Index 894 = 525

N.B. — This part of the Journal has received a double pagination. It is treated as a separate
Memoir by means of the italic numerals, which are those referred to in the Index; while the con-
tinuous pagination of the Journal, given in the usual Roman numerals, enables it to be bound up
with the preceding part as the Volume for the year.

CONTENTS.

APPENDIX.

PAGE

List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,

1878 i, xxxvii

Standing Committees for 1878 iii, xxxix

Report of the Council to the General Meeting, December 13, 1877,

and May 22, 1878 v, xli

Distribution of Members and Council xii

Half-yearly Cash Account from 1st July to 31st December, 1877,

and from 1st January to 30th June, 1878 xiv, xlvi

Yearly Cash Account from 1st January to 31st December, 1877 .. xvi

Country Meeting Account : Liverpool, 1877 xviii

Bristol Meeting, 1878 : Schedule of Prizes, &c xx

Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscriptions, &c xxxii, ciii

List of Stewards and Judges, and Award of Prizes at Bristol .. xlviii

Agricultural Education : Examination Papers xciii

Members’ Veterinary and Chemical Privileges xxxiii, civ

Members’ Botanical and Entomological Privileges xxxvi, evii

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

J^contispiecc— Diagram Map of England and Wales — to face Title-page of Memoir

The Binder is desired to coUect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folio
and place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics,
ke., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume; the lettering at the back
to include a statement of the year as well as the volume ; the first volume belonging to 1839-40,
the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body
of the Journal (which at the time bad become obsolete), were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios,
however (for convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the Appondlx matter
retained.

ERRATUM IN VOL. XIII.

The Plan of a Farm on p. 478 should have been printed on p. 469, to illustrate the description of
the First Prize Farm, viz. “ Xetherton, near Aintree, in the occupation of Mrs. Ellen Birch, ”
Instead of " Stand Park farm, in the occupation of Mr. Edward Musker."

_ _

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METEOROLOGY ; IMPORTATIONS OF GRAIN ; SALES OF
BRITISH WHEAT; PRICES OF CORN AND OTHER
PRODUCE; AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS; AND STA-
TISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCE.

[2%e facts are derived chiefly from the Meteorological Eejuorts of Mr.
GlaisheR, and the Beturns of the Board of Trade and of the Inspector-
General OF Imports and Exports.]

METEOROLOGY.— 1877.

First Quarter (January, February, March). — The meteorology of
the quarter was in many respects exceptional. The readings of the
barometer were unusually low and the weather stormy ; the tempe-
rature was high during January and February ; rain fell almost
continuously, and was especially excessive in January ; and the
amount of sunshine was remarkably small. Floods generally pre-
vailed in the early part of January ; and thunder-storms occurred
on 6 days in January, 3 days in February, and 6 days in March.
The high temperature which had prevailed with scarcely an excep-
tion from the middle of November until the end of the year, con-
tinued throughout January and xintil the 19th February. During
the 99 days commencing 13th November and ending 19th February
the average daily excess of temperature was equal to 5°‘l ; and the
excess during the last 50 of these days, commencing 1st January,
was 6°-l. Between the 20th February and 23rd March, short
periods of high and low temperature alternated, but the mean of
the 26 days showed a daily defect of 2^°. The last 8 days of the
quarter were uniformly warm, and the average daily excess 2°-9.
The winter of 1876-7 was most exceptionally mild; the mean
temperature of the three months, December, January, and Feb-
ruary averaging 43°*4 ; this mean exceeded by 5°*4 the average for
the corresponding period in 100 years ; and the lowest recorded
temperature fell below the freezing-point of water on only 12 days
during these three months. The mean temperature of the quarter
ending March last averaged 42°‘3, and exceeded by 3°*6 the average

VOL. XIV. — s. s. A

( II )

for the coiTesponding period in 106 years, during which there were
but six instances of so higli a mean temperature for this quarter.
In January the mean was 42°-7, and the excess 6°-2 ; in February
43°*5, and 4°-9 above the average, whereas the mean fell in March
to 40°‘7, and showed a slight defect.

The measured rainfall during the quarter at the Greenwich
Observatory was 8'3 inches, and exceeded b}" 3'3 inches the average
anioimt in the corresponding period of G2 years. In January
4 4 inches of rain were measured, showing an excess of 2'5 inches;
in February and March the amounts were 1‘7 and 2‘2 inches, and
the excess 0’2 and 0‘6 inch respective!}'. So far back as 1815 the
e.vcessive rainfall of last January was without precedent, although
more than 4 inches were measured in the January both of 1828 and
of 1868. The rainfall of the three months ending January last
Avas more than double the average amount in 62 years.

Second Quarter (April, May, June). — The most noticeable features
of the weather in the quarter were the low temperature during the
greater part of April and May, and the severe night-frosts early in
May; while the temperature of June was considerably above the
average. The readings of the barometer ruled low during April
and May, while they showed an excess in June. The mean tempe-
rature of the quarter at the Eoyal Greenwich Observatory was
ol°'9, and was 0°'4 below the average for the corresponding period
in 106 years. In April the mean temperature was 45°'4 and
0'^-7 below the average; in May it was but 48°'9, and the defi-
ciency 3°'6. In June, however, the mean was 61°*3, and showed
an excess of 3°T. May was but slightly colder than that of 1876,
while the mean temperature in June exceeded that of June 1876
by 2°'8, and was higher than the mean temperature of any June
since 1868, when it was 62°-0.

The measured rainfall of the quarter at the Greenwich Obser-
vatory was 5'3 inches, and was half an inch below the average
amount in the corresponding period of 62 j'ears. The rainfall of
the first six months was 13'6 inches, and exceeded the average
amount by 2'8 inches, owing to a marked excess in January and
April. In April 3'2 inches were measured, showing an excess of
1'5 inch; in May and June the amounts measured were 1'4 and
0-7 inches, and the deficiency 0-7 and 1-3 inches respectively.
I lain was measured at Greenwich on 37 of the 91 days of the
quarter; on 20 days of April, 10 of May, and 7 of June. During
the 62 years, 1815-76, there were only 7 instances of so small a
lainfall in June as that recorded this year; the smallest amount
during those years was 0'3 of an inch in June 1849.

( III )

The earliest.
Sj’camore in leaf, April 4th,
Horsechestnut
Field elm „

Hawthorn „

Tlie latest.

Lime ,,

Oak „

Hazel „

Walnut „

Common poplar
Oriental plane
Lilac in blossom,
Yellow broom
Hardy pear
Cherry
Laburnum
Hardy apple
Honeysuckle
Mountain ash
White broom
Wheat in ear.
Oats „
Wheat in flower.
Cuckoo arrived,
Swallow j,
Nightingale „

„ ( th

„ 8ih
„ bth
„ 18th
„ 21st
„ 22nd
„ 30th
May 10th
„ 13th
April 4th
„ 9th
„ 12th
,, 13th
„ 13th
„ 22nd
May 16 th
„ 17 th
„ ISth
June 3rd
„ 11th
„ 5th
April 13th
„ 12th
„ 4th

at Carlisle ;

„ Osborne ;

„ Carlisle ;

„ Helston ;

„ Carlisle ;

„ Strathfield;
„ Hull;

„ Carlisle ;

„ O.vford;

„ Oxford;

„ Helston ;

„ Oxford;

„ Helston;

„ Llandudno
„ Strathfield
„ Strathfield
„ Hull;

„ Helston;

„ Helston ;

„ Wey bridge
„ Guernsey;
„ Oxford ;

„ Oxford;

May 26th
„ 28th
June 3rd
May 25th
June 1st
„ 14th
May 30th
June 20th
„ 16th
„ 13th
„ 22nd
„ IGth
May 14th
„ 12th
June 6th
May 20 th
June 27th
„ 22nd
May 30th
June 17th
„ 24th
„ 25th
May 13 th
„ 6 th

April 9th

at Hull.

„ Hull.

„ Llandudno.
„ Torquay.

„ Hull.

„ Carlisle.

„ Hull.

„ Milltown.

„ Hull.

„ Milltown.

„ Osborne.

„ Cardington.
„ Llandudno.
„ Bermerside.
„ Kelstern.

„ Strathfield.

Third Quarter {July, August, September'). — Excepting a period of
genial weather from 13th to 21st August, the temperature through-
out the quarter was low, chilly, and unpleasant, especially from
the 15th to 25th September. The mean readings of the barometer
were below the average in July and August, but showed an excess
in September. The mean temperature of the quarter at the Eoyal
Observatory, Greenwich, was 58°-5, and 1°‘2 below the average for
the corresponding period in 106 years. The mean differed but
slightly from the average either in July or August, but the mean
in September was as low as 52°-9, and showed a deficiency of 3°'7.
The mean temperature of September was lower than that of any
September since 1803; between 1770 and 1804, however, there
were 4 instances of a mean temperature for September lower than
that which prevailed in the September of 1877.

The measured rainfall of the quarter at the Greenwich Obser-
vatory was 6-4 inches, and was an inch below the average amount
in the corresponding period of 62 years. The rainfall in the first
nine months of this year was 20 inches, and exceeded the average
by 1’8 inch, owing principally to the marked excess in January
and April. In July and August the rainfall was 2-4 and 2'9 inches
respectively, differing but slightly from the average amounts ; in
September the rainfall only measured IT inch, which was less

A 2

( IV )

than half the average amount. Rain was measured at Greenwich
on 41 days during the quarter, of which 15 were in July, 17 in
August, and 9 in September. Only nine times since 1815 has the
rainfall in September been so small as that in the present year.

Oats were in flower, on the 7th of July at Llandudno. Wheat
was in ear, on the 1st of July at Oxford. Barley was in ear, on
the 3rd of July at Strathfield Turgiss. Oats were in ear, on the
1st of July at Strathfield Turgiss. Rye was in ear, on the 1st of
July at Oxford.

Oats were cut, on the 25th of July at Oxford, on the 20th of
August at Llandudno, and on the 25th at Kelstern Grange.

Wheat was cut, on the 1st of August at Guernsey, on the 7th at
Oxford, on the 8th at Cardington, on the 13th at Torquay, on the
17th at Llandudno, and on the 21st at Kelstern Grange.

Barley was cut, on the 18th of August at Cardington, on the
20th at Oxford, on the 24th at Llandudno, and on the 30th at
Torquay.

Horse-chestnut was divested of leaves, on the 27 th of September
at Helston. Hawthorn was divested of leaves, on the 20th of Sep-
tember at Helston.

Woodcock arrived, on the 26th of September at Helston. Swallow
departed on the 20th of September from Stonyhurst.

Fourth Quarter (October, November, December'). — The month of
October opened fine and dry, with a low temperature. On the
14th there was a severe gale, causing great destruction of property
all over the country. The storm seems to have raged throughout
Devonshire and Cornwall with great fury, and caused there a great
deal of damage. After this day, to the end of the month, the
weather was generally fine. The month of November was for the
most part cloudy and wet, with very few bright days ; the changes
both of temperature and atmospheric pressure were rapid. On
the 11th there was a very heavy gale of wind, and the barometer
reading on this day was the lowest in the year. The month of
December was very dark, and almost sunless, with fog and damp
weather prevalent. Till the 9th of October the direction of the
wind was mostly from the N. or E., or a compound of those winds ;
and from the 10th of October to the end of the year the wind was
almost always from the W., S.W., or S.S.W., to a very unusual
degree.

The mean readings of the barometer, in the neighbourhood of
London, were in excess of the average in the months of October
and December, but below the average in November. The mean
temperature of the quarter at Greenwich was 45°'0, which was

( V )

1°’5 above tbe average of 106 years. The .mean differed but
slightly in Octobei-, but in November it was as much as 3°’2 in
•excess of the average', and in December it was 1°‘7 in excess.

The rainfall of the quarter at Greenwich was 6‘9 inches, or
0*2 inch below the average amount in the corresponding period of
<62 years. The fall of rain in October was 1<7 inch, being I’l inch
below the average ; in November it was 3<4 inches, being 1*1 inch
above the average; and in December was 1<8 inch, being 0'2 inch
below the average. Back to 1818 there were but 11 instances of
so large a fall of rain in November as in the year 1877.

Field elm was divested of leaves on the 2nd of November at
Hull ; on the 10th at Weybridge ; and on the 15th at Guernsey.

Wych elm was divested of leaves on the 22nd of October at
Oxford ; and on the 30th at Torquay ; on the 5th of November
at Oxford ; and on the 6th at Hull.

Oak was divested of leaves on the 3rd of November at Oxford ;
■on the 15th at Guernsey ; and on the 16th at Hull; on the 3rd of
December at Torquay.

Lime was divested of leaves on the 25th of October at Guernsey ;
on the 26th at Oxford ; and on the 30th at Weybridge and Hull.

Sycamore was divested of leaves on the 28th of October at Wey-
bridge; on the 1st of November at Hull; and on the 15th at
Guernsey.

Horse-chestnut was divested of leaves on the 14th of October at
Oxford; on the 26th at Hull ; on the 27th at Weybridge; and on
the 30th at Guernsey.

Common poplar was divested of leaves on the 26th of October
at Oxford ; on the 30th at Torquay ; and on the 6th of November
at Hull.

Occidental plane was divested of leaves on the 17 th of November
at Hull.

Oriental plane was divested of leaves on the 12th of November
at Hull.

Hawthorn was divested of leaves on the 2nd of November at
Weybridge; and on the 9th at Hull.

Hazel was divested of leaves on the 9th of November at Hull.

Walnut was divested of leaves on the 8th of November at
Hull.

Acacia was in blossom on the 25th of December at Helston.

Fieldfare arrived on the 30th of October at Oxford.

Swallow departed on the 7th of October from Hull ; on the
14th from Weybridge.

MetEOBOLOGICAL OfigERVATlONS REOOBEED AT THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, IN THE FlRST SlX MONTHS OP

THE Year 1877.

( VI )

Weight of Vapour in
a Cubic Foot of Air.

Diff. from
average o(
36 years.

r.*^ n n

2 b b O

^ + + 1

1 to b b b

) > 1

e I' 'f ?

& n

^ 00 i-f

& r«

Elastic Force
of Vapour.

Dlff. from
average of
36 years.

fN <s

fS M

p p o o

^ o b b

+ + 1

rj- O

M M

a* o o o

b b b

1 1 1

e O

sS n C4 r<

b b b

0*^0
e? O

r« <s

bob

(»

Temperature of

^ Water
of the
Thames.

^ »j>

° O r* re-v

0
bO

>»

1
<

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

O vO

o • • •

M , o O
+ 1 1

0 ^

1 1 +

<J> o
® M b V

M -< M

C7N NTi

o ^ ^

M M

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

o> O rj-

° -r^ U L
+ + 1

. mo

o . • • .

M v=J- O »
1 1 1

O 00 O

® CN

fV> rv>

rs.

m O C'

® 0\ o ON

s m '5*'

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

O' ^ O
° rA rA .H
+ + 1

KA 00

o • • •

^ rt O

1 1 +

0 ^ ri

o M o oo

^ rv-V

o m

® «S »f>

tJ* Tj- »A

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

H r--\ O

® V V w

+ + 1

»-A

® M m

1 1 +

Diff. from
average of i
106 years.

o r

\0 o

+ + 1

r«» o M

o • • •

O m m

1 1 +

o • • •

Tj- <jN m

® NA 00 H

^ O

1877.

Months.

January ..
February . .
March

April . . . . '

May . .

June ..

<D r

No^E. — In reading this Table it ^ill be borne in mln4 that the minus sign (-) signifies bfUnv tlie average, and that tbe plus sign (-|-) signifies above the average.

Meteorological Observations recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the Last Six Months of

THE Year 1877.

( VII )

Weight of Vapour in
a Cubic Foot of Air.

Diff. from
average of
3G years.

ts 0

2 0 0 0

“III

VO ^ 0

^ 0 0 b
u 1 4.

. ^ 0

^ ^

, M 0 so

Klastic Force
of Vapour. i

Pis

sb $
S

^ 0 r>*

rt n >£>

d P P P

""bob

1 1 1

VA •A 0

V - 0

d P p p

‘""000

1 +

Ti* r*«.

<T* a> 11

0 0 b

os 0 M

vO vO r»

d P P P

""000

Temperature of

Water
of the
Thames.

rj* os 00

® sO u^ oO
^ \0 vA

0 vO

0 *r^ M

VA ^

r-s.

DilT. from
average of
3B years.

0 0

0 • • • «

0 M 0

1 1 1

rt»

OS M \0

Q <s w b
+ + +

r-- ON 0

® 0 00 00

r« M

0 r>. 0

® b

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

vA 0

0 . • •

H M Ti-

1 1 1

0 r-. fs

0 V *H 0

> “h +

° -r. % ^

*A» »A

M r* M

® w

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

»A 0 0

0 • • •

^ 0 ^

: 1 1

r«

M VA

0 ^ ^ 0

1 + +

rv.

CA 00 »A

® 0 SO C'

*A ^

VA VA

® VA A <3S

tJ- Tj- rA

Diff. from
average of
36 yeais.

rf (S tJ*

0 • • •

M 0 ^

1 + 1

0 O' 0
0 M b b
1 + +

2 3
. '*»
its 1 50

qSS

00 00

° b b
1 + 1

VA rt
b i~i i-i

1 + +

00 r>. (5>

° b « b

^ vO VA

0 VA 00

* ® 00 VA 0

tJ- Tj- Tt

1877.

Months.

July ..
August
September

October . .
November . .
December ..

<©

■1q reading this Tabic it will be borne to mind that the minus sign (-) signibes below the average and that theplus sign (+) slgnilies eboie the average.

Meteorological Orservations recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the First Six Months of

THE Year 1877.

( VIII )

Reading of Thermometer on Grass.

Highest

Reading

Night.

o O O'
O so

^ ^

Highest
46 •©

00 O' «
® «*A sO

'f SA

s ^

1 Lowest
Reading
at

Night.

M O r»

O fvs o CO

M M

Lowest

i8*2

^ 0 SA

® *A sO

Lowest

23*0

Number of Nights It was

Above

40°.

Sum

SO SO 't’

Sum

Between

30°

and 40°.

O ^

M M M

Sum

M O' sO

B so

At or
beiow
30°.

S SO

0 rA
W

«A so 0

Sum

Daily
Horizontal
movement
of the Air.

Miles.

370

408

I 307

Mean

362

Miles.

308

279

284

0 0

<S O'
SA

1 °

CO 1

1 Rain.

Diff. from
average
of 6 2 years.

SA 0

c5 n 0 0
- + + +

I i

SA »A

M b M

“ + 1 1

Amount.

rT <s

5 V M

i ^

M °°

r* ^

£ M b

a r'

Weight of
a Cubic Foot of Air.

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

. VO ATN
03

^ 1 1 1

. 0 0 «

fe) 1

Mean.

. 00 CO

£ ^ ^

5> srs sA

"if

. fA •-< 0

« Ti- Ti- rA

SA SA SA

r«*

rs.

Reading
of Barometer.

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

sr\ fA n

d ? ? r

*“000
1 1 1

t- ^ 0

, 00 rA

0 M 0 0

b b b

1 1 +

Mean.

KA M

SO sA 0
jg SO SA

0> O'

M ^ rA

O' 0

g* SA 00

S' ^ M

Degree
of Humidity.

Diff. from
average of
36 years-

M SA M

1 1 1

<N rA

+ 1 1

00 sO

1877.

Months.

January . .
February ..
March

Means . .

April
May . .
June

Means . .

Note, — In reading this Table it will be borne in mind that the mimis sign ( — ) signifies betovu the average, and that the plus sign ( + ) signifies above the average.

Meteorological Observations recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the Last Six Months of

THE Year 1877.

( IX )

Reading of Thermometer on Grass.

Highest

Reading

Night.

<S M O
® oo

kx\

Highest

58*1

sa' O 00

® SO SO M

'J* ^ ^

g »A
J •
Ul SO

K ^

T..owftsf:

Reading

Night.

00 VA so

® VA O SA

Lowest

25-6

«A ^ O

° b V V

Lowest

20*3

Number of Nights it was

Above

40°.

r*. O' M

(S M M

Sum

SA »A

I in

Between

30°

and 40°.

^ r* sA

Sum

r>. rf ^

M M M

Sum

At or
below
30°.

O O ^A

Sum

■hi

CO rA

Dally

Horizontal

uiuveuieuii

of the Air.

^ so fA M

g ci cs r«

a «A

St ^

® M 00 M

a O O

g »A fA fA

§ P-
a

Rain.

Diff. from
average
of 62 years.

vA »A
a* O O M

^ 1 + 1

O.I —
rang

M M r«

J M M O

“ I + 1

i o

CO 1

AmonnL|

^ O' M
.S (S C4 M

Sum

6-4

Th OO

.9 H ^A W

Sum

6*9

Weight of
a Cubic Foot of Air.

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

^ + 1 +

VA M

^ + 1 +

Mean.

O' o

£ Tj-

S) »A *A VA

•A

, rf M
£ 'i' SA

5) *A SA SA

Beading

of Barometer.

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

00 *A M

AA O' O

a P p ^

“bob
1 1 +

r».

M lA

SA 'A 1-^

d « f* p

~ b b b

+ 1 +

Mean.

'4-0 0

O' O' O'
fs r« n

O' <A

M so
00 SA oo

O' O' O'
r4 r» r»

'I*

r»

Degree
of Humidity.

Diff. from
average of
36 years.

M fA fA

1 1 1

00 M

I 1 1

Mean.

fA OO

r>. r*«. t>.

t>.

O' so
t'* 00 00

1877.

Months.

July ..
August
September

Meaus ..

October . .

November

December

Means . .

A 3

.—In reading this Table it will be borne in mind that the plits sign (+) signifies above the average, and that the minus sign (-) signifies beUnu the average.

( X )

COEN : Importations, Sales, and Prices.

Quantities of Wheat, Wheatmeal and Flour, Barley, Oats, Peas and
Beans, Imported into the United Kingdom in the Year 1877.

1877.

Wheat.

Wheatmeal
and Flour,

Barley.

Oats.

Peas.

Beans.

January ..

February

March

April

May

June

cwts.

2,856,041

2,633,667

3,067,498

3.833,983

4.752,407

5,069,928

cwts.

567,970

397.305

561,235

584,115

1,078,777

625,173

cwts.

3,195,953

874,886

1,328,562

1,514,541

808,324

751,673

cwts.

768,825

398,848

852,281

599.330

1.097,334

1,609,389

cwts.

64.379

57,430

68,388

45.058

166,083

130,211

cwts.

236,098

349,900

601,165

434,978

342,485

333.875

In first Six!
Months /

22,213,524

3.814,575

6,473.938

5,335,897

531.549

2,296,501

July..
August . .
September
October . .
November
December

5,347,361

5,090,039

4,036,649

6,083,782

6,213,201

5,178,333

384,268

384,867

510,301

710,459

690,480

874,579

604,713

559,361

819,301

1,325.397

1.317,407

1,870,734

1,811,996

1,808,975

1,120,712

851,003

779,744

1,227,277

121,573

64,787

64,364

158.535

384,262

186,797

359,359

482,523

407.338

447.339
347.052
333.670

In last Six!
Months /

31,949.364

3,554,954

6,496,813

7,599*707

980,297

2,276,981

Year ..

54,162,888

7.369,539

13,970,751

13,935,604'

1,511,846

4,573.482

Note. — The average weights per quarter of com, as adopted in the ofiSce of the
Inspector-General of Imports and Exports, are as follow : — For wheat, 485J lbs.,
or cwts. ; for barley, 400 lbs., or 3^ cwts. ; for oats, 308 lbs., or 2f cwts. Com
has been entered by weight instead of measure since September, 1864. No duty
has been charged since 1st June, 1869.

Computed Keal Value of Corn Imported into the United Kingdom in each
of the Five Years, 1873-77.

1873.

1874.

1876.

1877.

Wheat

Barley

Oats

Maize

Other kinds ..
Wlieat Flour . .
Other kinds of Flour

£.

28,446,689

4,010,344

4,804,118

6,621,720

3,788,716

5.839,397

30,570

£.

25,201,062

5,266,096

5,318,785

7,484,378

3,959.237

5,709.820

34,405

£.

27,438,970

4,630,654

5,407,928

8,112,158

2,304,238

4,828,167

12,130

£.

23,340,766

3,745.420

4,619,427

12,744,432

2.555,397

4,729,206

35,474

£.

33,820,084

5.396.791

4,998,864

9,851,236

2,323,922

6,803,327

37,284

Total of Com ..

53,521,354

50.753,583

52,714,225

51,550,122

63,209,508

( XL )

Quantities of British Wheat Sold ih the Towns from which Returns are
received under the Act of the 27th & 28th Victoria, cap. 87, and their
Average Prices, in each of the Twelve Months of the Years 1872-77.

Quantities in Qcaetees.

1872.

1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

quarters.

qaarters.

quarters.

First month . .

194. 719

183,987

187,106

210,661

154,367

152,557

Second month

193,910

202,977

189,031

223,974

188,539

173.729

Third month 1
(five weeks) /

245,612

238,125

206,145

292,172

208,367

213,718

Fourth month

191,522

ii;q,268

150,725

233.970

160,868

150,012

Fifth month ..

231,780

225,595

175,715

234,683

174,153

132,231

Sixth month \
(five weeks) /

268,626

219,750

172,298

216,016

188,611

122,390

Seventh month

109,543

101,101

q6,q86

95.871

121,684

90,626

77,674

Eighth month

126,769

82,564

135,456

88,030

89,759

Ninth month i
(five weeks) /

295.774

266,856

323.153

199. 314

314.327

225,659

Tenth month

264,934

265,122

248,984

226,503

186,607

216,393

217, 046

Eleventh month

195,743

214,026

225 ,162

192,440

175,262

Twelfth month 1
(five weeks) )

263,152

285,648

335,339

234,035

225,254

212,627

Average Prices per Quarter.

1872.

1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

«. d.

s. d.

$. d.

s. d.

First month ..

55 4

55 10

62 4

44 4

44 II

51 7

Second month
Third month 1

55 8

56 5

63 4

61 I

42 3

43 4

51 8

(five weeks) j

55 I

55 6

41 2

43 I ^

51 I

Fourth month

54 2

54 10

60 0

43 0

44 II

53 4

Fifth month ..

56 3

55 8

62 2

42 5

45 0

65 10

Sixth month 1
(five weeks) /

58 II

58 4

61 2

42 2

47 0

64 6

Seventh month

58 7

59 6

60 8

45 3

48 6

62 9

Eighth month
Ninth month 1

59 9

60 I
63 10

58 4

52 4

46 4

46 8

64 II

(five weeks) /

58 7

48 II

49 3

59 I

Tenth month . .

58 7

60 10

44 8

46 1

46 7

53 7

Eleventh month
Twelfth month "I

56 II

60 9

61 6

43 II

47 4

48 0

52 3

(five weeks) J

58 7

44 6

46 4

49 9

51 6

( XII )

Avekage Pkices of British Corn per Quarter (Imperial measure) as received
from the Inspectors and Officers of Excise according to the Act of
27th & 28th Victoria, cap. 87, in each of the Fifty-two Weeks of the
Year 1877.

Week ending

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

Week ending

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

January

6..

July 7..

January

13..

July 14..

January

20..

July 21..

January

27..

July 28..

February

3--

August 4 . .

February

10,.

August II..

February 17..

August 18..

February 24 . .

August 25..

March

3--

September i

March

10..

September 8

March

17..

September 15

March

24..

September 22

March

31..

September 29

Average of )

Average of j

Winter >

Summer >

Quarter |

Quarter J

April

7”

October 6 . .

April

14..

October 13..

April

21 ..

October 20..

April

28..

October 27..

May

November 3

May

12 ..

November 10

May

19..

November 1 7

May

26 ..

November 24

June

2 ..

December i

June

9..

December 8

June

16 ..

December 15

June

23..

December 22

June

30..

December 29

A verage of j

Average of 1

Spring 1

Autumn [

Quarter )

( XIII )

Quantities of Wheat, Bablet, Oats, Peas, Beans, Indian Corn or Maize,
Wheatiieal and Floub, Imported in the Four Years 1874—77 ; also the Coun-
tries from which the Wheat, Wheatmeal, and Flour were obtained.

1874.

1876,

1876.

1877.

Wheat from —

cwte.

cwts.

Bussia

5.714,488

9.995,295

8,769,260

10,838,000

Denmark

167, 286

493.599

262,518

73,812

Germany

3,053,680

5,615,984

2,324,148

5.455,763

France

300,299

1,296,920

293.350

1.494.783

Turkey and Wallachia andl
Moldavia /

659,676

1,308,137

1,238,851

1,253,018

Egypt

293,880

2,093,853

2,218,227

2,447.709

United States

23,048,552

23,463.910

19,299,785

21,308,667

Chili

1,925,334

900,880

982,619

736,011

British India

1,076,876

1,334,943

3,279.887

6,104,940

British North America

3,807,174

3,604,610

2,417,151

Other countries

1,432,215

1,678,262

1,538,007

Total Wheat

41,479,460

51.786,393

44,394,152

54,162,888

Barley

11.335.396

11.049,476

9,770,075

12.970,751

Oats

11,387,768

12,435,888

11,204,588

12,925,604

Peas

1,808,980

1,603,033

1,609,997

1,511,846

Beans

2.363,151

3.453,371

4,601,206

4.573,482

Indian Corn, or Maize

17,693,625

20,438,480

39,958,226

30,455.681

Wheatmeal and Flour from —

Germany

751,366

796,301

930,469

1,239.437

France

659,568

1,752,079

1,083,447

1,900,213

United States

3,290,235

2,273,846

2,320,886

1,771.558

British North America . .

389,355

358,766

282,053

254,695

Other countries

1,139,084

867,697

1,325,685

2,203,626

Total Wheatmeal and\
Flour J

6,229,608

6,048,689

5,942,540

7,369,529

Indian Corn Meal

8,511

7,494

j 7,706

9,713

( XIV )

The Average Prices of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, and of Potatoes ; also the Averag
Number of Paupers relieved on the last day of each Week ; and the Mean Temperatur*
in each of the Twelve Quarters ending Decemher 31st, 1877.

•

Avesaoe Pb:ces.

Pacpekism.

(joarters

ending

Consols

(for

Money).

Minimum
Rate per
Cent, of
Discount
charged
by the
Bank of
England.

Wheat

per

Quarter

England

and

Meat per lb. at the Metro-
politan Meat Market
(by the Carcass).

Potatoes
(York Regents)
per Ton,
at Waterside
Market,
Southwark.

Quarterly Average of the
Number of Paupers re-
lieved OD the last day of
each week.

Meanj

Tempi]

ratur*]

Wales.

Beef.

Mutton.

In-door.

Out-door.

1875
Mar. 31

£.

92g

3*70

5</. — 8d.

4|d. — 8d.

( 8 IS. 3d. — 1
\ ms. 3d. )

146,708

622,652

39’S

Mean 6J</.

Mean 6Jd.

Mean 96s. 3d.

June 30

93i

3-50

S\d.-%\d.

( 80.C. 6d. — 1
\ 1208. 6d. /

132.727

592,362

53*4

Mean 6frf.

Mean -/Id.

Mean ioos.6d.

Sept. 30

94i

■2-43

— 8J</.

5W.—

( 70s. 6d. — 1
\ 938. 6d. /

125,614

555.409

60 ’7

Mean ^d.

Mean 7jrf.

Mean 82s.

Dec. 31

94i

3 '20

5 id.—%\d.

6d. — 9\d.

( 105s. 6d.— I
\ 1278. (d. /

136,124

546,251

43’2

Mean (>\d.

Mean 7|d.

Meanii68.6d.

1876
Mar. 31

94J

4‘ 18

5 Id. — 8(/.
Mean 6|d.

— gd.
Mean 7§d.

(■ 121S. 6d. — 1
\ 15 IS. f

Meani36s.6d.

145 ,088

558,026

39-3

June 30

95l

2-24

5d.-8K
Mean 6|d.

qd. — lod.
Mean 7|d.

1258. I7O8.

Meam47s.6c/.

134.357

535.429

52'7

Sept. 30

955

7*00

8|d.
Meau b\d.

jBd.— 9|d.
Mean 7g’d.

••

130.349

527.296

6i-3

Dec. 31

95 i

2-00

Aid. — 8d.
Mean 6|d.

5id.— od.
Meau 7jd.

••

141,907

524.739

47-0

1877
Mar. 31

95i

2*00

4|d.— 7b<^.
Mean i>\d.

5d. — 9|d.
Mean 7|d.

138s. — 172s.
Mean 155s.

152,778

532.697

42*5

June 30

945

2 ‘96

A\d.—^d.
Mean (i\d.

4gd. — 9|d.

Mean ■jd.

136s. — 174s.
5leani55s.

243,674

523.878

51-9

Sept. 30

955

2-45

4|d.-8id.
Mean 6Jd.

4gd.— 9|d.

Mean 7|d.

97s. — 1268.
Mean iii8.6d.

139,211

509,110

58-5

Dec. 31

96|

4-50

3|d. — 8d.
Mean ^\d.

4?d.— 8|d.
Mean 6|d.

152s. — 174s.
Mean 163s.

152.709

512,286

45-0

( XV )

The annexed Eeturn shows the number of Beasts exhibited and the
prices realised for them at the Christmas markets since 1843 : —

Year.

Beasts.

Year.

Beasts.

d. 8.

1843

4,510

0 — 4

1861

8,840

4 —

1844

5,713

0—4

1862

8,430

4—

1845

5.326

6-4

1863

10,372

6 —

1846

4,57°

0 — 5

1864

7,130

8 —

1847

4,282

4 — 4

1865

7,530

4 —

1848

5,942

4 — 4

1866

7,340

8 —

1849

5,765

4 — 4

1867

8,110

4 —

1850

6,341

0 — 3

1868

5,320

4 —

1851

6,103

8 — 4

1869

6,728

6 —

1852

6,271

8-4

1870

6,425

6 —

1853

7,037

2 — 4

. 1871

6,320

1854

6,181

6 — 5

1872

7,560

6 —

1855

7,000

8-4

1873

6,170

4 —

1856

6,748

4 — 5

1874

6,570

4 —

1857

6,856

4 — 4

1875

7,660

6 —

1858

6,424

4—5

1876

7,020

4 —

1859

7,560

6 — 5

1877

7.510

6 —

i860

7,860

4 — 5

' Average Prices of British Wheat, Barley, and Oats, per Imperial
Quarter, in each of the Sixteen Years 1862-77.

Year.

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

j Year.

meat.

Barley.

Outs.

1862

1870

1863

' 1871

1864

1872

1865

1873

1866

1874

1867

1875

1868

1876

1869

1877

( XVI )

ACEEAGE under each Description of Crop, Fallow, and

Great Britain and

Great Britain. [

Description of Crops and Live Stock.

1875.

1876.

1877.

Corn Crops : —

Acres.

Wheat

3,342,481

2,995,957

3,168,540

Bariev or Bere

2,509,701

2,533,109

2,417,588

Oats

2,664,009

2,798,430

2,754,179

R}'e

54.903

56,210

60,146

Beans

564,181

517,556

497,879

Peas

316.375

293,407

311,797

Total Corn Crops

9,451.650

9,194,669

9.210,129

Green Crops : —

Potatoes

523,653

502,719

511,471

Turnips and Swedes

2,142,698

2,145.573

2,073,455

Mangold

361,617

347,889

358,055

Carrots

14.936

16,129

15.953

Cabbage, Kohl-rabi, and Eape . .

189,733

179,475

182,710

Vetches, Lucerne, and any other cropl
(except clover or grass) /

432,470

380,089

442,202

Total Green Crops ..

3,664,107

3,571,874

3,584,846

Other Crops, Grass, &c. : —

Flax

6.751

7,641

7,481

Hops

69.171

69,999

71,239

Bare fallow or uncropped arable land

557,979

651,212

616,147

Clover and artificial and other grasses'!
under rotation /

4,354.071

4,540,273

4,493.216

Permanent pasture, meadow, or grass!
not broken up in rotation (exclusive)
of heath or mountain land) . . . . )

13,313,621

13.515,944

13,728,355

Live Stock : —

No.

Cattle

6,012,824

5,844,141

5.697.933

Sheep

29,167,438

28,182,951

28,161,164

Pigs

2,229,918

2,293,620

2,498,728

Total number of horses used for'
agriculture, unbroken horses, 1
and mares kept solely fori
breeding J

1,340,129

1,374,576

1,388,582

Acreage of orchard, or of arable or grass-]
land, used also for fruit-trees . . . . j

154,584

157,287

163,290

Acreage of woods, coppices, and plan-1
tations J

2,187,078*

1 2,187,078*

* As returned

( XVII )

Gbabs, and Numbeb of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs, in
Ireland, in 1875-76-77.

Irelaks.

United Kingdom,
including the Islands.

1875.

1876.

1877.

1875.

1876.

1877.

Acres.

Acres.'j

Acres.

161,321

JI9.597

143. 319

3,514,088

3,125,342

3,321,065

334,503

221,263

226,603

2,751.362

2,762,263

2,652,300

1,499.371

1,487,086

1,471.698

4.176,177

4,298,722

4.238,957

9.556

8,631

10,441

64,579

64,951

70.703.

9,970

10,672

8,584

574.414

528,556

506,701

r.677

1,238

1,202

318,410

295,012

313,470

1,916,398

1,848,487

1,861,847

11,399,030

11,074,846

11,103,196

900,277

880,693

871,522

1,431,879

1,391,885

1,392.784

332,783

344,721

336,201

2,485,256

2,500,425

2,419,296

43,172

48,544

48,753

405,527

397,217

407,518

3,303

3.217

3,503

18,833

19,845

19,943

41,896

47,006

231,717

220,439

229,786

48,655

45,162

47,868

483,817

427,986

492,364

1,370,086

1,363,224

1.354,853

5,057,029

4,957,797

4,961,691

101,248

132,878

123,362

107.999

140,519

130,846

••

• •

69,171

69.999

71.239

11,287

11,652

16,678

570,005

663,363

633,495

1.943,923

1,861,464

1,925 ,168

6,337.953

6,441,184

6,459,404

10,431,776

10,507,249

10,145,227

23.773,602

24,053,273

23.903,314

No.

4,111,990

4,113,693

3,996,027

10,162,787

9,995.028

9,731.537

4,248,158

4,007,518

3,989,178

33.491.948

32,262,579

32,220,067

1.249.235

1,424,143

1,467,999

3.495,167

3.734,429

3,984,447

470,442

479.502

496,165

1,875,851

1,863,410

1,894,128

325,173

324,152

328,413

••

in 1872.

( XVIII )

Certain Articles of Foreign and Colonial Production Imported in the Years
1874-77; and their Quantities.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

Animals, Living :

Oxen, Bulls, and Cows, number

157,821

224,969

227,478

174,023

Calves

> »

36,041

38,729

44,098

30,172

Sheep

Lambs

}

758,915

985,652

1,041,494

874,062

Swine andHogs..

115,389

71,928

43,558

20,037

Bones (burnt or not, or as
charcoal)

animal)
tons /

82,242

97,162

85.135

104,223

Cotton, Eaw

cwts.

13,989,861

13,324,564

13,346,739

12,112,819

Flax

J >

2,373,993

1,765,068

1,404,661

2,216,267

\iano

, ,

112,429

114,454

210,918

152,990

Hemp

J t

1,241,115

1,342,466

1,170,728

1,251,458

Hops

, ,

145,994

256,444

167,421

248,620

Hides untanned : Dry

) »

554,964

552,629

469,460

551.547

„ „ Wet

711,161

652,634

583,914

594,542

Petroleum

tuns

85,630

77,661

100,175

134,096

■< Hlseed Cakes

tons

157,718

180,379

190,225

163,349

Potatoes

cwts.

3,986,662

4,696,132

6,031,341

7,969,136

Butter

) ♦

1,619,808

1,467,870

1,659,357

1,637.939

Clieese

, ,

1,485,265

1,627,748

1,538,475

1,651,088

.. per great hundred

5,672,049

6,178,433

6,274,924

558,983

6,257,892

Lard

cwts.

374,328

540,244

2,638,875

592,944

Bacon and Hams

9 •

2,542,095

3.159,445

2,805,594

Salt Beef

231,532

181,504

243.342

208,364

Salt Pork

j y

287,238

232,782

350,151

295,524

Clover Seeds

256,025

306,551

387,099

358,056

Flax-seed and Linseed

qn.

1,682,048

1,961,987

1,998,130

1,712,298

Bape

, ,

289,046

501,350

499,218

539,263

Sheep and Lambs’ Wool ..

lbs.

338,800,481

361,133,165

385,987,842

405,949,161

The Quantity and Value of Meat Imported in the 6 Years, 1872-7.

QUANTITIES.

1872.

1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

Beef, Salted or Fresh . .
Meat, „ „

Cwts.
228,912
55 ,354

Cwts.

260,554

79,841

Cwts.

261,721

119,401

Cwts.

215,581

144.954

Cwts.

413,351

92.556

Cwts.

673,683

135,250

Total

284,266

340,395

381,124

360,535

505,907

808,933

Meat, Preserved other- 1
wise than by salting /

350,729

260,749

265,223

171,373

283,066

470,712

Total Meat

634,995

601 , 144

646,347

531,908

788,973

1,279.645

VALUES.

r.eef, Salted or Fresh . .

i^leatj yy •.

£.

420,258

138,272

519,815

216,681

523,326

335.846

£.

454,337

419,019

£. 1 £.
943.580 1,674,364
281 ,830 403,962

Total

558.530

736,496

859,172

873,356

1,225,410 12,078,326

Jleat, preserved other-)
wise than by salting /

945,819

733,331

757,001

592,196

887,035 ^1,438,909

Total Meat

1.504,349

1.469,827

1,616,173

1,465,552

2,112,445 ^3, 517, 235

( XIX )

The quantity of meat imported in 1876 was 788,973 cwts., show-
ins: an increase of 257,065 cwts. over that in 1875. In 1877, the
quantity was still greater, viz., 1,279,645 cwts., being 490,672
cwts. in excess of that imported in 1876. This largely increased
importation of dead meat will probably have the effect of reducing
the present high price of butcher’s meat. The average price of
beef by the carcass at the Metropolitan Meat Market was 6|d. in
1876; in 1877 it was 65^., or 5'7 per cent. less. The average price
of muttoji was l^d. in 1876 ; in 1877, it was Id., showing a decrease
of 6‘7 per cent.

The following remarks relating to Irish and Foreign Butter and
to Cheese are extracted from ‘ The Grocer ’ : —

Irish Butter. — The month of January began with prices un-
usually high, and continued so until nearly the end of March,
owing partly to the drought in the summer of 1876, which left
smaller quantities on hand than usual, and partly to a wet, cold,
and backward spring in 1877.

April commenced with prices for seconds (for firsts were not
•quoted after March, when they were 125s. to 155s.) at 115s. to
130s., and closed at 116s. to 118s. In May seconds were quoted at
114s. to 117s. Cork firsts in June were 125s., and fell at the close
of the month to 122s. In July firsts were 122s. during the first
two weeks, but fell to 120s. In August the prices for firsts ranged
from 119s. to 121s. In September prices varied from 129s. to
135s. October began at 130s., and finished at 126s. In November
the prices for firsts ranged from 123s. to I30s., and in December
very few firsts came to market, so prices began at 130s. to 132s.,
and in the third week rose to 134s. and 137s.

Foreign Butter. — The jn-ices of foreign butter were infiuenced
by the same causes that affected Irish butter. The best brands of
Normandy were offered the first week in January at 140s. to 150s.,
in the second week they were offered at 148s. to 156s., the next
seven weeks they were 159s. to 160s., and to the middle of March
156s. to 164s.; at the end of this month they were 140s. to 146s.,
with new supplies coming forward. In April the highest price for
best brands was 140s. In May prices began at 126s. to 136s., but
finished at 114s. to 118s. In June the prices for best fiuctuated
more, beginning at 118s. to I26s., and closing at 120s. to 128s.
The highest price in the first two weeks of July was 124s., then to
the middle of August 120s., and rose by the end of this month to
128s., which was the lowest price for best for the rest of the year.
F.arly in September prices for best ranged from 126s. to 132s., the
next week they were quoted at 134s. to 144s., then for four weeks
134s. to 140s.; the second and third weeks in October they were

( XX )

136s. to 144s., and in the last week prices for best were 134s. to
140s. In the month of November prices began at 126s. to 132s.,
the next two weeks they were 128s. to 136s. The top price then
to the third week in December was 140s.

Chekse. — American cheese continued to be a leading article in
the market, and the transactions during the year 1877 were large.

Early in January the opening prices for best were 64s. to 68s.,
lower qualities were 46s. to 60s. During the next five weeks
prices for best were quoted at 70s. to 74s., but with stocks gra-
dually reduced prices rose, and were quoted at 72s. to 76s., and
afterwards prices for best ruled at from 76s. to 78s. From the
middle of April to the end of May quotations for best ranged from
73s. to 76s. By this time some of the new make began to arrive,
and prices gave way somewhat rapidly. Thus in the beginning of
June prices for best were 68s. to 70s., whereas in the last week
of this month they fell to 56s. to 60s. From the beginning of July
to 1st September — with the exception of one week — prices were
chiefly for best at 55s. to 58s. In September prices for best began
at 60s. to 62s., and closed at 62s. to 64s. Early in October prices
for best were quoted at 64s. to 66s. ; at the close of this month
they rose to 66s. and 70s. The year closed with best quality .
quiet at the latter prices; lower qualities were quoted at 54s.
to 64s.

Cork Butter Market. — This market being now almost entirely
dependent on English consumption, has accordingly felt the effects
of the general depression of trade in the sister country, and a
range of prices lower than for many years past has prevailed.
The absence of any advance or fluctuation in price has also been
very marked, seconds having been as low in November and
December as they were in July and August. No value can be set
on the nominal quotation set out for firsts at the close of the year,
for, there being none of them making, it is in the power of any
interested party, owing to the peculiar constitution of the market,
to cause any price, however high, to be put forward as the official
quotation for them. A much more reasonable course would be, not
to quote a price for what is not making, nor any prospect of being
made at this season, and to leave holders of old butter to sell it on
its merits as best they may.

The dull and wet summer, though so unfavourable to the
harvest, has not acted prejudicially on butter-making, as the supplj'
for 1877 has not only exceeded that of 1876, which was a year of
drought, but has surpassed that of 1875, which was the largest on
record, as will appear by the following figures: — 1875, 433,000
firkins; 1876, 389,000 firkins ; 1877, 442,000 firkins.

( XXI )

STATISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCE.

{The following Quotations, &c., are extracted from ‘ The Grocer.’)

I Prices Current on 1st Saturday in January of each Year, from the latest actual
I Market Sales.

Average

Annual Price
in the 5 years.

1875.

1876.

1877.

1878.

1870-74.

Batter :

Per cwt.

Carlow, finest, F.O.B

126s. to

176s.

1 50s.

to 160S.

Ij8s. to 148*.

140s. to

I5OS.

ii6s. to

lj2^.

, , Landed

Cork, lets

124 ..

i;8

. ,

158 ,

I48

. .

158 ,,

14J

158

, , 160

146 ,

150

150 .>

162

154 ..

157

, , 2nds

129 ..

151

154

136 ,

142

140 , ,

148

122 ,,

125

j , , 3rds, new

in ,,

116

I3I

.5 132

no ,

112

119 ,,

120

lOO , ,

lOJ

, , 4ths

Limerick

115

> »

81 ,

. ,

90 ..

72 ,,

117

121

n8 ,

120

IJO ,,

158

Foreign ;

1^6

156 ,,

Friesland

nj .,

.. 144

155 ,

140

U2 ,,

140

Jersey, &c

79 ..

129

.. 144

80 ,

ij6

80 ,,

124

IJ5

Kiel

in ,,

145

155

. . 164

• .

•

Normandy

91 ..

150

, , 160

90 .

162

100 ,,

150

lOO , ,

148

American

82 ,,

115

112

IJ8

90 .

118

156

60 , ,

120

Iheese;

1 English Cheddar, fine, new . .

.. 94

74 .

60 ,,

78 ,.

' , , good, new

Red Somerset Loaf . . . .

74 ..

• •

. •

68 ,,

>. 88

76 ,

White or yellow Cheddar)
Loaf /

72 ..

,, 88

76 ,

Scotch Cheddar

67 >,

,, 82

64 .

70 ..

Cheshire, new

«7

76 ,

78 ..

78 ,,

, , good ditto . . . .

58 ,,

>. 76

50 .

46 ,,

60 ,,

Wiltshire, new

, , good ditto . . , .

North Wilts Loaf, new. . . .

>. 82

62 ,

74 ..

57 ..

,> 68

, ,

6( ,,

66 ,,

74 .

. .

76 ,,

Derby , ,

65 >.

,, 88

76 .

Bo , ,

••

74 ..

i'oreign:

American, fine

68 ,,

.. 76

62 ,

66 ,,

65 ,,

, , good

54 ..

.. 68

30 ,

46 ,,

54 ..

Gouda « .

Ranter

49 ..

»* 60

56 ,

50 ,,

56 ,,

Edam, new

60 ,

. 70

60 ,,

60 , ,

Quantity and Value of Butter Imported from Denmark, 1865-76.

Years.

Quantities.

Computed Real
Value. i

Years.

Quantities.

Computed Real
Value.

Cwts.

£.

Cwts.

£.

1865

65.555

362,440

1871

140,851

803,226

1866

67.305

319,528

1872

175.574

1,009,322

1867

80,589

422,479

1873

201,558

1.203,459

1868

79.437

471,262

1874

226,053

1.363.435

1869

103.613

574.981

1875

206,171

1.275.870

1870

127,013

767,190

1876

205,195

1,311,234

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

( XXII )

Statement of the Quantity and Value of Butter imported from the
United States, Belgium, France and Holland ; and of Cheese
imported from the United States and Holland, 1865-76,

UNITED states.

Years.

Botter.

Cheese.

Quantities.

Computed
Real Value.

Quantities.

Computed
Real Value.

Cwts.

£.

Cwts.

£.

1865 ..

83,216

437.703

442,913

1,296,204

1866 ..

16,059

77,754

415.726

1,386,447

1867 ..

39,035

II3 ,290

526,740

-.470,017

1868 ..

7.I17

37.279

489,117

1,439.380

1869 ..

17,203

84,603

487,870

1,612,325

1870 ..

16,915

80,928

555,385

1,861,263

1871 ..

83,775

394,359

731,326

2,014,805

1872

45,765

199,679

598,198

1.701.435

1875 ..

43,406

199,639

790,238

2,353. i8r

1874 ..

36,307

188, 769

849,933

2,589,776

1875 ..

40,331

205 , 900

958,978

2,786,027

1876 ..

118,131

593,122

936,203

2,564,977

Years.

BELGIUM.

FRANCE.

Butter.

Bdttee.

Cwts.

£.

Cwts.

£.

1865

70,619

433. >79

353,115

1,867,085

1866 ..

76,667

426,712

452,196

2,276,493

1867 ..

80,754

470,464

450,693

2,265,147

1868 ..

70,456

405,987

393,578

2,156,824

1869 ..

85,789

481,609

407,432

2,231,450

1870 ..

84,408

516,643

289,692

1,672,899

1871 ..

94,539

523,460

304,683

1,636,006

1872

74,191

409.555

355,089

1,916,795

1873 ..

76,610

439.501

446,550

2,409,861

1874 ..

76,723

465,517

713,251

3.944,233

1875 ••

79,950

499,028

567,560

3.387,219

1876

65,309

419,209

622,488

3,732,405

HOLLAND.

Butter.

Cheese.

Cwts.

£.

Cwts.

£.

1865 ..

345,026

1,886,486

386,962

1,100,037

1866 ..

383.225

1,979,070

426,559

1,317,231

1867 ..

326,217

1,733.459

332,628

961,245

1868 . ..

343,322

1,992,414

329,565

959.547

1869 ,.

415,176

2,253,420

426,913

1,262,101

1870 ..

''-06,795

2,388,459

422,553

1,204,830

1871 ..

390,616

1,986,708

348,148

954,236

1872 ..

269,091

1,358,579

329.535

942,537

1873 ..

279,004

1,453,875

336,654

1.013,233

1874 ..

351.605

1,877,755

398,888

1,164,921

1875 ..

357,106

1,917,910

370,123

1,078,594

1876

402,984

2,252,909

330,435

949,413

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

I. — Arterial Drainage and the Storage of Water. By W. H.

Wheeler, Mem. Inst. C.E., Boston, Lincolnshire.

The question of drainage is one of vital importance to the
modern farmer, and has therefore received a very full share of
attention in the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society.’
Nearly all the articles and discussions, however, have been
devoted to the drainage of small areas and to the removal of the
rain-water from the land ; and with the exception of an article
by Mr. J. A. Clark “On Trunk Drainage,” in the ‘Journal’ of
the Society for 1854,* which was principally devoted to a history
of some of the large works carried out in the Fen districts, the
subject of arterial drainage and the disposal of the water for
useful purposes has not been touched.

In a climate like that of England, where the fluctuations of
cold and damp seriously affect the health, the rapid removal
of the rainfall and consequent improvement of the temperature
are most important from a sanitary point of view ; and to the
proper cultivation of the soil they are an absolute necessity. The
manner of removal and the ultimate disposal of the water due
to the rainfall are the chief points for consideration. Water is
a most useful friend and servant, if kept under proper control.
Hitherto it has been too much the custom to treat the rainfall as
an enemy to be got rid of as rapidly as possible, instead of
endeavouring to control and regulate the supplies, and conserve
the superabundance of one season to supply the deficiency of
another. It is the stagnation of water in the land that is injurious,
and for the prevention of this, drainage is essential. Even in
floods, the mere overflowing of the water on the land seldom does
any great harm if it be kept moving ; but if allowed to become
stagnant, it soddens and injures the soil, spoils the herbage, sours

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

First Series, vol. xv. p. 1.

Arterial Drainage

the ground, and creates malaria in the neighbourhood. Ague,
which used to be the common disease of the Fen districts, has,
since the adoption of an improved system of drainage, almost
entirely disappeared : its occasional recurrence now only happens
during droughts in autumn, when the water is dried Up out of the
ditches, and the sun, acting on the decaying vegetable matter
thus exposed, creates a malarious atmosphere.

Avoiding any reference to ordinary under-drainage by pipes,
and to the improvement and management of tidal streams, and
other large works which, owing to their magnitude and the great
number of interests involved, can only be carried out by public
bodies under the guidance of a Civil Engineer, it is proposed in
this article to deal with the main drains, ditches, or “ sewers,
which collect the rainfall from the under-drains, and with the
brooks and smaller water-courses, which receive the outflow of
the ditches and convey it away to the tidal rivers and estuaries
— with such arterial drainage, in fact, as is to be found on
all large estates, the improvement and management of which
devolves on the landowner and his agent. It is also proposed
to give in general terms such information on the theory and
practice of drainage as may be of service to those who constitute
the various Drainage Boards of the country, in enabling them
the better to comprehend plans of improvement which may
from time to time be brought before them ; and to point out
the various uses which the rainfall may serve before it is-
allowed finally to leave the land for its ultimate destination, —
the ocean.

The question of dealing with water-courses is becoming one
of growing importance. The higher cultivation of the land on
the one hand, and the increase of flooding on the other, render
the enhanced loss from the latter cause so serious as to call for
interference from the Legislature.

As each proprietor under-drains his fields, and improves the
main water-courses through his estate by cutting off bends and
adapting the form of the channel to the state most conducive to
a rapid flow of the water, the rainfall is more quickly disposed of,
and reaches the outfall at a period very much sooner than it was
able to do previously. Less water therefore remains in the
soil, and there is no longer a supply to keep up the gradual
percolation which formerly fed our brooks and springs. Hence
the alternate floods and droughts which are now so constantly
occurring. To meet this difficulty it is necessary to adapt the
channels to receive the extra service required of them in flood-
time, and to store up the surplus flood-water for provision during
the time of drought.

The divided control and jurisdiction, however, over a main

and the Storage of Water.

water-course which passes through several estates belonging to
different owners, renders it difficult for the improvements to be
carried out universally ; and the total neglect on some parts of a
stream of all necessary works, such as cutting the weeds and the
removal of obstructions in the bed and sides, causes a diminu-
tion of the water-way and a consequent obstruction of the
channel. To such an extent in some districts has this been
allowed to go on, that in a case quoted before the Committee of
the House of Lords of last Session, a small tributary river had
for several miles diminished one-half in width and silted up
one-half in depth, and had become so fouled with weeds, that the
bed was being gradually raised above the level of the surrounding
country.

To quote the words of a correspondent of the ‘ Times,’ “ the
condition of the smaller streams of the country is indeed de-
plorable. Their channels are generally an alternation of weed-
choked swamps and nearly impassable rapids, with here and
there a rare oasis of deep steady stream, the consequence of the
needs of some millowner who does what is right in his own
eyes, restrained only by the common-law rights of the neighbours
above and below him.” Streams in such a condition are ill-
adapted to carry off the rapid flow of water due to modern
drainage ; and the damage by consequent flooding is increased
by the neglect to maintain the embankments protecting the
lower lands.

The increase in the value of all land, arising from the ever-
growing population of the country, has caused large tracts,
formerly meadows, which received little damage, or even benefit,
from occasional floods, to be converted into arable land, on which
a continuous flood means the loss of the present crop, and detri-
ment to the future one by the soddening of the soil. In con-
sidering any general scheme, it may become a matter for serious
consideration whether it may not be more profitable to throw
these low-lying arable lands into grass, and suffer them to be
occasionally flooded, than to carry out such an extensive plan of
improvement as will protect the lowest lands from winter floods
under such exceptional rainfalls as occur only at long intervals.

The almost unanimous testimony of the witnesses examined
before the Committee of the House of Lords appointed to inquire
into the constitution of existing Conservancy Boards, with
reference to the prevention of floods and the storage of water,
which sat last Session, was to the effect : “ That floods are more
frequent and of longer duration in recent times than formerly :
That the cause of this is due to the general adoption of subsoil
drainage and the improvements in arterial drainage by straighten-
ing rivers,” &c., whereby the water is brought more rapidly to

B 2

Arterial Drainage

the main carrier ; also to the condition of the rivers owing to
neglect and the want of any general power to raise funds and
carry out the necessary works whereby weeds are allowed to accu-
mulate, shoals to arise, and deterioration generally to take place,
whereby they are rendered inadequate to carry off the drainage.

The remedy suggested for this is, first, the appointment of a
Conservancy Board, fairly representing all interests concerned,
who shall have power to deal with the main stream or river from
its source to its outfall, leaving the several districts which dis-
charge their water into the river by the tributary streams under
the care of bodies already constituted, or to be formed at option
under the Land Drainage Act ; and, secondly, that the Con-
servancy Board shaH have power to rate the whole area of the
watershed, the assessment being made on its rateable value, lands
and houses below flood-level being rated at a higher amount
than those above.

The principal remedial works pointed out as necessary for
the prevention of injury by floods are the cleaning, scouring out
and improving of the channel, embanking the sides, and the
regulation of mill-dams and weirs, with provision for holding
up and storing the water for use in the dry season of summer.

Legislation.

Rights of Water-courses. — Brooks or streams are formed by
the union of springs and the contents of ditches. Rivers are
formed by the union of streams. The extent of country drained
by a stream or river is termed its basin. The line or ridge
bounding the top of the basin is the “ watershed,” the streamlets
shedding, or parting off as from the ridge of a house to their
respective areas ; the space within this line being the area
drained by the stream.* Large water-courses, in which the tide
regularly ebbs and flows, and through which a common right
of navigation is exercised, are generally public ; and the sub-
jacent soil is the property of the Crown and under the control of
the Board of Trade, or, in certain cases, in the lord of the manor,
or trusts formed under the authority of the Legislature. The
streams and water-courses which form the subject of this article
are, as a rule, private property, and the soil over which they
pass belongs to the person who owns the land on either side,
or the riparian proprietor, “ ad medium filum aquce" the centre
line of the stream being thus the boundary. The right to the
use of the water and to the fishery in a private stream belongs, as
a rule, to the riparian proprietor ; but tte possessor of such right

* ‘ Physical Geography (Advanced Text Book).’ By Page.

and the Storage of Water.

cannot use it to the detriment of his neighbours, nor can he be
molested in his right with impunity. Thus, a miller cannot
lawfully take too much water from the original channel, or pen
up and throw back too great a quantity upon the machinery of
another mill. The right to use water from a stream may be
acquired by grant or custom.* The right of a proprietor to
water only extends to that flowing on the surface. Water per-
colating under ground is not the subject of any prescriptive right,
but, like the air above, is free to all. Any owner of land may
sink a well and take as much as he likes from beneath his own
land, notwithstanding that by so doing he dries up his neigh-
bour’s wells or mill-streams. (Chasemore v. Richards, House of
Lords, 1859.)

The duty of keeping a stream or water-course in order and
maintaining the embankments, where they exist, is with the
riparian proprietor, under the common law of the land. The
remedy of the owner who is damaged by his neighbour’s neglect
is to bring an action, and, provided he can prove a prescriptive
liability of the person permitting damage to cleanse or maintain
the stream and banks, he can get damages. It has, however,
been lately settled in the case of Hudson v. Tabor, that a riparian
proprietor is not primarily liable to maintain the embankments
on his own land, notwithstanding that the result of his neglect
may be to flood the land of his neighbours.

Courts of Sewers. — The evil arising from the want of combined
control over rivers, water-courses, and embankments, has been
felt from very early times. The first attempt at legislative inter-
ference was by the issue, as far back as the reign of Richard II.,
of royal commissions appointed by the Crown to inquire into
any exceptional case of flooding and damage, with power to
order such works to be done as they deemed necessary. “ These
commissions being granted when the sea-walls were broken, or
when the sewers and gutters were in need of repair, so that the
fresh waters could have their courses ; and that the commissions
in question issued because the King was bound of right so to
keep his kingdom against the sea as that it were not drowned
or wasted, and also to provide that his subjects should pass
through the kingdom with safety.” — (Woolrych, ‘ Law of
Sewers.’) In Henry VIII.’s reign the Commissions, which up
to that time had only been issued as occasion required, were
permanently established, and the Act 23 Hen. VIII. cap. 5,
although amended in William IV.’s and in the present reign
(3 & 4 Will. IV. cap. 22 ; 4 & 5 Viet. cap. 45 ; 12 & 13 Viet,
cap. 50^), still continues the chief structure on which the powers

* ‘ Law of Waters and Sewers.’ By Woolrych.

Arterial Drainage

«and duties of Commissions of Sewers have been reared. The
Commissions of Sewers thus established only extend to certain
parts of the kingdom, and they have no general jurisdiction or
control over the water-courses of the country. The number of
commissions now in force, issued pursuant to the Act of Henry
VIII.’s reign, is thirty-one.

Modern Drainage Acts. — The next legislative interference was
by the Act 10 & 11 Viet. cap. 38, known as “Lord Lincoln’s
Act.” Under the powers of this Act, upon application to the
Inclosure Commissioners, depositing plans, giving notice, and
other forms, a landowner whose drainage is injured by want
of a proper outfall may, subject to paying compensation, enter
upon the lands of the adjoining proprietor to “ widen, straighten,
deepen, divert, scour or cleanse any river, stream, ditch or
drain, brook, pool or water-course, and to make, open, and cut
any new water-courses, side-cut, &c., and to alter or remove
any bank, sluice, floodgate, weir, &c., or other obstruction,
and to make or erect any bank, &c., or other works necessary
for drainage or warping.” (Sect, ix.) Also, by sect. xiv. pro-
vision is made that where there is neglect by any proprietor in
properly maintaining the banks of any stream, or cleaning and
scouring out the channel, the party aggrieved may apply to
two Justices for an order to do the work himself, the expenses
being recoverable before the Justices by summary process. If
the stream is a boundary adjacent to the lands of the aggrieved
person, the work can be done without the preliminary order, the
cost of the work being recoverable in the same manner.

This Act gave very valuable powers to individual pro-
prietors for perfecting schemes of improvement in drainage on
their own lands, by obtaining an outfall where required through
the land of others ; but it afforded no facilities for joint action
and the levying of equally distributed rates, or for dealing com-
pulsorily with that small minority who are always sure to rise up
to thwart any joint scheme of voluntary improvement.

The large works of drainage improv'ements and reclamation
of land which had been effected up to the year 1861, had all been
done under the authority of special Acts of Parliament, the costs
of which were so great as to offer an insuperable bar to works
that were not of great magnitude. To meet this difficulty, in the
year 1861, an Act was passed (25 & 26 Viet. cap. 33), to further
amend the law relating to drainage, by which facilities were
given for the formation of Drainage Trusts for carrying out
works of improvement. It has already been stated that in the
Fen districts and some other parts of the country Commis-
sioners of Sewers existed, under whose control the existing
water-courses were placed, and Avho under certain restrictions

and the Storage of Water.

could borrow money and carry out improvements. The new
Act gave the means for the extension of these Commissions to
other parts of the country, and also for the formation of elective
drainage districts, without the enormous cost attending a special
Act of Parliament. The Inclosure Commissioners have the
management of all proceedings under the Act, and its powers
cannot be used without their approval. They are empowered to
hold a local inquiry into the merits of schemes submitted to
them, and to see that all persons interested have due notice of
what is intended to be done. The provisional orders issued for
any approved scheme are embodied in a general Bill brought in
every Session, which gives all the power of a special Act of
Parliament. The costs of obtaining the order do not exceed
from 50Z. to lOOZ., except in the case of great opposition, and
then these are reduced to a minimum. The preliminary inquiry,
held by a Commissioner in the locality, is simple and inex-
pensive in the extreme as compared with a contest before the
Parliamentary Committees of the Houses of Parliament.

The Act is divided into three parts. The first relates to the
extension of Commissions of Sewers into all parts of England
upon application to the Inclosure Commissioners by the pro-
prietors of one-tenth part of the land within the boundaries of a
proposed district. These Commissioners, when duly constituted,
have power to borrow money and levy rates for carrying out
works for the improvement or maintenance of existing water-
courses or banks ; for removing weirs, mill-dams or other obstruc-
tions ; for making new water-courses, banks, outfalls, and other
works required for drainage, for the supply of water for cattle,
and for warping or irrigation. Any scheme can be stopped in
■embryo by the dissent of the proprietors of one-half of the land
proposed to be embraced by the Commission.

The second part of the Act creates a new body, termed an
Elective Drainage District. Under the first part of the Act the
Commissioners are appointed by the Crown, who hold office for
life. Under this division the Drainage Board consists of a
definite number of qualified persons who are elected by the
whole body of tax-payers in the newly formed district, and who
hold office only for one year, but are eligible for re-election.
The Drainage Board has the same power of raising money,
levying taxes, and carrying out works as a Commission of
Sewers, as already described.

The third part of the Act gives further powers for obtaining
outfalls for drainage. Any person interested in land who finds
it necessary to open new drains, or to improve existing drains,
through the lands of other owners, is to make application to such
owner, and send him a plan of the proposed improvement, with

irterial Drainage

a statement of the amount of compensation proposed to be paid.
If the owner assents, a deed is to be drawn up to that effect
and deposited with the Clerk of the Peace, and the agreement is
thence to be binding on all parties for ever after. If, however,
the proprietor dissents, the matter is referred to two Justices (or
by consent to arbitration), who are to determine whether the
proposed improvements will cause injury to the adjoining
owner, and whether such injury is of a nature to admit of a
money compensation ; and if they so find, they may make an
order giving the applicant power to proceed with the work and
may assess the amount of compensation.

Twenty-nine districts, containing a total of 74,912 acres, and
ranging from 246 acres in extent to 11,000, have availed them-
selves of the powers afforded, the average charge of the Inclosure
Office in granting the first sixteen orders, as given by Mr. Grant-
ham, having been 42Z. 05. 10c?. each. The cost of the works
executed has varied from 21. to 5?. an acre, and the annual
charge from 3s. to 8s.*

Having been professionally engaged in obtaining provisional
orders for two districts under this Act, and subsequently carrying
out the works, I can speak with confidence as to the extreme
facility and economy in obtaining the order, and the courtesy
and assistance rendered in the matter by the Inclosure Office
and their Assistant-Commissioner, Mr. Grantham, in whose
pamphlet on this subject will be found full particulars of the
working of the Act.

Under the Improvement of Land Act (27 «Sc 28 Viet. cap. 14),
passed in the year 1864, any landed owner having a limited
interest may, with the consent of the Inclosure Commissioners,
borrow money and charge his estates with its repayment over a
number of years, for any works of permanent improvement,
including all works of drainage, the improvement of water-
courses and their outfalls, embankments from rivers or the sea,
the irrigation or warping of land, building bridges, the erection
of weirs, water-engines for sawing or other purposes, the con-
struction of wells, ponds, or reservoirs, or any similar works
which will increase the value of the land for agricultural pur-
poses. By an Act of the last Session (40 & 41 Viet. cap. 31)
this power is still further extended to the construction of reser-
voirs and works necessary for the water-supply for domestic and
farm purposes on the landowner’s own estate, or for the supply
of villages, sanitary authorities or other persons, and gives
power to collect and receive rents or tolls for the same. It

* ‘ The Land Drainage Act, 18G1.’ By K. B. Grantham (Clowes and Sons),.
Appendices A and B. ‘ Beport and Minutes of Evidence of Committee House of
Lords on Conservancy Boards, 1877.’

and the Storage of Water.

must be clearly proved to the satisfaction of the Inclosure Com-
missioners that the works will effect a permanent yearly increase
in the value of the lands on which they are situate, or will
produce a revenue exceeding the yearly amount proposed to he
charged thereon.

The several Acts of Parliament above enumerated give all
the power that is required for the proper maintenance and
improvement of the tributary streams, water-courses and drains
of the country, which form the subject of this article. What is
now required is a general Act, constituting Boards for the con-
servancy of the rivers of the country, and a proper system of
uniform management and control from their source to their
outfall, so that the wants of the various conflicting interests
should be fairly represented and dealt with in such a manner
as shall tend to the general good.

Supply of Water to Rivers.

Rainfall. — As the rain produces the water which has to be
dealt with, it is a first essential in all drainage matters to
procure accurate data as to the amount which falls in the
district in question. This varies very considerably according to
the situation and physical surroundings. The average of all
England and Wales may be taken at about 32 inches. On the
west side of the island, owing to the prevalence of westerly winds
bringing the clouds across the Atlantic, and to the range of hills
which bar their progress, the rainfall amounts to about 40 inches
a year. In the Lake district, amongst the Cumberland hills, it
rises as high as 165 inches. On the east coast, owing to
opposite causes, the average fall is only about 25 inches, falling
as low as 20 inches in the Eastern Midland division.*

However interesting and necessary in procuring data average
calculations may be, they must be discarded in making provision
for drainage or water-supply, and the extremes of wet or drought
must be provided for. As a guide, however, it may be taken
almost as an invariable rule tbat if the average of any district
in England be taken for twenty years, and one-sixth deducted
or added, the result will give respectively the average of three
minimum or maximum years.

Flow. — The flow of water in English rivers in mountainous
districts varies ordinarily from extreme dry seasons to extreme
floods three-hundredfold, and even in exceptional cases as much

* ‘ The Distribution of Rain over the British Isles.’ By G. J. Symons ; published
annually (Stanford and Co.). ‘Rain; How, When, and Why it is Measured;
being a popular account of Rainfall investigation.’ By G. J. Symons (idem).

10 Arterial Drainage

as five-hundredfold. In the hills of Yorkshire, Lancashire,
and Derbyshire, which constitute the backbone of England, the
yield of the springs in dry weather varies from about 12 to 18^
cubic feet per minute for every square mile of contributing
ground, whilst the flood-drainage varies from 4915 to 9830
cubic feet per minute. In the more impervious granite districts
and other igneous and metamorphic regions there is almost a
total absence of springs, nearly the whole of the water flowing
off in floods ; the quantity discharged amounting to 19,200 cubic
feet per minute.*

On the Devortian formation, from observations made on the
small River Allen, which drains 1*76 square mile, it was found
that, whereas in February when the ground had attained its
maximum saturation, out of a rainfall of 5*13 inches, 96 per
cent, was discharged by the river, the maximum flow being 295
cubic feet per minute per square mile ; while in August, when
evaporation and absorption had the greatest effect, out of a rain-
fall of 4 ‘88 inches, 8 per cent, flowed off by the river, the maxi-
mum discharge then being 20*5 cubic feet per minute.f

In the Fen districts of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire,
where perhaps more attention has been devoted to the science of
drainage than in any other part of England, it is usuall}" calcu-
lated, in estimating the amount of horse-power required for
lifting the water into the main drains in winter, that provision
should be made for a quantity equal to a quarter of an inch
of rain falling over the whole district in twenty-four hours, or
403 * 3 cubic feet per minute per square mile. The soil consists
of a mixture of peat and alluvial matter resting on clay, the
greater proportion is arable, highly cultivated, and thoroughly
under-drained.

The average daily discharge from the basin of the Thames
above Teddington Weir, embracing an area of 3676 square
miles, is given as varying from 17 to 22 cubic feet per minute,
or, by different authorities, from 6*8 to 8*7 inches of rainfall
out of a total average for the year of 26 inches, f

Percolation, Absorption, and Evaporation. — The variation in
the discharge of different streams is accounted for by the varying
amount of percolation, absorption, and evaporation, which takes
place in their drainage-areas ; each depending respectively upon

* Bcardmore, ‘ Manual of Hydrology ’ ; “ Rise and Fall of the River Wandle,”
‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ 18G1 ; ‘‘ Discharge from Under Drains.” By B.
Denton, idem., vol. sxi. ; “ Fresh Water Floods of Rivers,” idem, vol. xxvii.

t ‘ The Rainfall of Cornwall, with observations on the Flow of Streams.’ B}'
H. M. Whitley. Truro : Late, 1876. •

t Grantham on “Arterial Drainage” (Hawkesly), ‘Trans. Instit. Civil Engi-
neers,’ vol. xix. ; Redman on ‘ the Thames ’ (Taunton and Symons), idem.,
vol. xiix.

and the Storage of Water.

the geological character of the district, the state of cultivation
of the soil, and the season of the year.

The geological structure and the physical outline of a dis-
trict affect very greatly the quantities of rainfall discharged
off the surface or absorbed by the land. If the district be of
an impermeable character with steep slopes, a large portion of
the rainfall will run off into the water-courses. If, on the other
hand, the soil be porous and the contour of the district flat, the
greater portion of the rainfall will be absorbed. The dip of
the strata also has an important bearing on the amount absorbed
or discharged off the surface. A permeable stratum may be so
thrown up as to dip in a direction opposed to the slope of the
drainage area, and carry the rain falling on its surface away
from the natural streams of the watershed to supply springs in
another district.

Fig. 1. — Geological Section of uncomformahle strata, showing Permeable
Beds dipping away from the Drainage Area of their outcrop.

In the accompanying diagram the limits of the watershed are
shown by the letters A C. Rain falling on the surface between
A and B would run down and pass away by the water-course
along the valley at H. That, however, falling between B and C
would, to a very great extent, be absorbed by the permeable
stratum which crops out at the surface, and, sinking down till it
met the impermeable stratum, run off in the direction B S, and
find escape at the spring S, contributing to *the supply of the
water-course of the adjoining watershed. Again, rain falling on
the permeable stratum between A and K, would be absorbed and
sink down in the direction K F, and be held there as in a reservoir
by the impermeable stratum below. When the space between
F and D became supersaturated or full, the water would flow over
D and pass down towards S, and there find its escape. The
supply from this source would be intermittent, the quantity
varying probably as the rainfall. A well sunk through the

Arterial Drainage

permeable stratum at E would yield a constant supply until the
natural reservoir F D was exhausted.

The rain which falls on most volcanic and unstratified rocks
flows so freely off the surface, and is carried so directly to the
stream, that nothing is stored for summer supply. In the more
recent formations the amount of percolation is so considerable,
except in the case of the clays, that there is scarcely any flow
off" the surface. The flow of the rivers is nearly constant, and
floods in these districts are rare, only occurring under ex-
ceptional circumstances.

A rainfall of an inch in ten or twelve hours will nearly all
run off a hill of unstratified rock or clay almost as quickly as it
falls, but on a steep chalk or limestone hill, even at elevations
of 800 or 900 feet above the level of the sea, although there
might be a rainfall of 2 inches in an hour, the whole would sink
into the ground. So also in the red sandstone the water is
absorbed almost as fast as the rain reaches the ground, and con-
sequently the supply of water from wells in this formation is
always abundant.* Sand, when dry, will absorb from 2 to 3
gallons in every cubic foot, and water will permeate as much as
18 inches in depth in one hour.f

The capacity of chalk soils to receive the rainfall by percola-
tion is easily accounted for when it is considered that a cubic
foot of chalk, when dry, will absorb from 2 to 2^ gallons of
water, or from 33 to 40 per cent, of its bulk, equal to 56,000,000
gallons for e\exy foot in depth per square mile, or about 4 inches
of rainfall. J (Ansted.)

So strong is this power of absorption in these soils, the
chalks especially, that they may always be traced on a map by
the absence of streams and rivers.

The difference between the amount of absorption of chalk
soils and those of an impervious nature is also shown by the
size of the openings of bridges and culverts across streams run-
ning through chalk and clay districts. From a comparison
made by Mr. Homersham of nine pairs of bridges over the
Thames or its tributaries, one bridge of each pair spanning
respectively a stream draining an area of chalk, and the other
crossing a stream draining a nearly equal area of the London
clay, or of London clay with a little chalk, the ratios of the
water-ways draining the chalk varied from one-tenth to three-
tenths of the area of those draining the clay, the latter being

* “ The Water Supply of Paisley,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxxi. ;
“ The Rise and Fall of the Wandle,” idem, 1861.

t ‘Water Supply of Cities and Towns.’ By W. Humber. Crosby Lockwood
and Co.

X “ The Chalk Water System,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlvii.

and the Storage oj^ Water.

often filled with flood-water, while the former were never full.*
The water-way of the arches in the clay districts varied from
8 to 17 superficial feet for each square mile of drainage area,
while in the chalk districts the water-way varied from one-third
of a foot to 2 superficial feet per mile of drainage area.

The water absorbed during the wet season of autumn and
winter in these underground reservoirs slowly gravitates to the
fissures. Through these natural channels it continues to flow
in the direction of the dip of the strata until stopped by some
impervious material, when, having risen high enough to sur-
mount the barrier or dam, it is discharged in the form of springs.
These springs feed and maintain the water-courses with a regu-
larity only to be found under such circumstances, rendering
them extremely valuable for purposes of water supply and for
driving machinery, some of the best mills in England being
found on streams fed from the chalk formation. When the
rainfall is so exceptionally heavy that the chalk becomes sur-
charged, and incapable of absorbing and holding water, it finds
fresh vents, and, bursting out, forms those remarkable streams
known as “ bournes,” the flow from which only occurs at inter-
vals separated by long periods.

Many of the deep-seated springs in the chalk and limestone
are not affected by the rain until several months after its fall,
the water taking some considerable time to saturate the rock
and travel along the underground channels to the point of dis-
charge. The heavy rainfall of a winter and autumn affords
a supply for the following summer. The maximum of these
springs is generally between May and July, and the minimum
between October and December. The state of the stream may
thus be predicted beforehand ; a wet winter may be expected
to afford plentiful supplies for the following summer, but a dry
autumn and winter must inevitably be followed by a deficiency
in the following summer and an unusual depression in the
water level.

The perennial character of the chalk springs is affected by
their altitude above the level of the sea ; those placed about
100 feet above the sea being scarcely or ever dry, while those at
a greater elevation are more liable to fail in a dry season.

The quantity of rain which finds its way to the water-courses,
is affected not only by the geological condition of the soil on
which it falls, but also by the vegetation with which that soil is
covered, and the meteorological condition of the atmosphere at
the time.

* “ Chalk Water Supply,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlvii. ; “ Fresh
Water Floods of Rivers,” idem, vol. xxvii.

Arterial Drainage

During summer months the percolation on most soils is little
or nothing, the whole of the rainfall being absorbed bj the
thirsty ground and the growing vegetation, or passing away
by evaporation. In the four winter months, beginning with
November, the tendency of percolation is to approach the amount
of rain fallen.

In the Thames basin it is calculated that at least 3 inches of
continuous rainfall is required in the autumn to replace the
evaporation of the summer months, and that no essential per-
colation contributes to the streams until the soil has become
thoroughly saturated. Mr. Rawlinson states that in a district in
South Wales, after two or three dry summers, unless 2^ inches in
depth of rain fell within six days, nothing came off to flow
down the stream in the valley.* Beardmore, as the result of his
observations, found that in September and October it takes
1 inch of rain, repeated twice in a week, materially to affect the
streams unless the country is hilly and precipitous.t In the Fen
districts a great portion of the water sent into the rivers from
the springs on the high lands in summer is absorbed by the
Fen soil. The Wifliam, in Lincolnshire, drains 1063 square
miles, less than half of which is fen land. The upper portion is
fed by several tributaries deriving their source from the oolites,
the supply being perennial. Yet in a very dry summer, so great
is the absorption in the Fen portion of the basin, that scarcely
any fresh water passes away to sea, the supply from the high
land streams being utilised for keeping up the water level in the
fen ditches and sewers. In the dry summers, of 1864 and 1868,
so great was the absorption that not a single drop of water
passed during the summer and autumn out of the river down
the haven to the sea ; and it was not until quite the end of the
year — in the year 1864 the end of December — before the water
in the river had risen sufficiently high to flow over the sediment
which had collected in the haven. The circumstances of this
river are no doubt peculiar, as the flow of the tidal water is
arrested in its progress about 5 miles from the mouth of the
river by a sluice placed across the channel ; and no benefit
is derived from the semi-diurnal ebb and flow of the tides in
maintaining the water level in the pores of the soil nor from
the scour in keeping the channel free from deposit ; but the
fact stated is sufficient to show the immense amount of absorp-
tion going on in free soils when under cultivation.

Evaporation is greatest off the surface of water, amounting in
the course of the year to a quantity nearly equal to that falling^

* “ Rainfall and Evaporation,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlv.
t ‘ Manual of Hydrology.’ By Beardmore. Waterlow and Sons, 1862.

and the Storage of Water.

on its surface.* * * § The mean daily evaporation from off the sur-
face of a reservoir or other body of water is considered to vary
from the 12th to the 16th of an inch.f Mr. Humber considers
that the loss to be allowed for in a reservoir from this cause
may be calculated at the rate of one inch of rainfall over the
whole of the gathering ground. |

Evaporation proceeds more rapidly off soils covered with
grass and similar vegetation than off those that are bare. From
experiments made at Vienna, it was found that the proportion
of percolation (two feet deep) through ground covered with turf,
as compared with that bare of vegetation at the same place,
varied as follows : —

In May
June .
July .
Aug. .
Sept. .

25 ’2 per cent, less through turf.

53*1

23-4

29-2

12-7

5»

And as the result of these experiments, the conclusion arrived
at was that in the summer half-year forest soil was the moistest ;
bare, open ground less moist ; turf the driest.§

Percolation is therefore diminished when there is vegetation,
and especially when the growth extends through the whole of
the year, as in grass. Dr. Gilbert computes that for every ton
of really dry substance grown, a depth of 3 inches of rain would
be evaporated through the vegetation.§ Trees, whether planted
singly, or in woodlands and forests, have a material effect in
checking evaporation ; their influence upon the disposal of the
rainfall being thus described by Mr. Steinmetz, in his popular
book on ‘ Meteorology H — “ Trees and forests contribute to the
formation of springs and water-courses, not only by means of
the humidity which they produce and the condensation of vapour
by refrigeration, but also by reason of the obstacles which they
present to the evaporation of the water in the soil itself, and by
means of the roots which, by dividing the soil like so many
perforations, render it more permeable and facilitate filtration.
Certain it is that the clearance of forests and the consequent
drying up or draining of marshes and bogs have caused a
material alteration, not only in the entire face of the country,
but in the supply of water to the rivers formerly derived from

* Beardmore, ‘ Manual of Hydrology.’

+ Burnell, ‘ Hydraulic Engineering.’

j ‘ Water Supply of Cities and Towns.’ By \V. Humber. Crosby Lockwood
and Co., 1876.

§ “ Bainftdl and Evaporation,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,' vol. xlv.

II ‘ Sunshine and Showers, their Influence throughout Creation.’ By A.
Steinmetz. Keeve and Co., 1867.

Arterial Drainage

those reservoirs, and in the periodical amount of rainfall and
the regularity of its distribution. Many streams throughout the
country, which formerly supplied large mills with unfailing
water-power, except in the. very driest of seasons, are now, with
vastly improved machinery requiring less power, frequently
unable to work ; and almost all are compelled to be supple-
mented by steam-power to make good the deficiency. Owing
partly to this cause, but principally to the modern system of
drainage, by which the land is cleared of water almost as soon
as it falls, having now none of the ancient reservoirs, in the
shape of bogs and marshes, to receive and retain it for future
use, all the old water millers complain that the rainfall, how-
ever heavy, does them no permanent good. It just occasions
a momentary flush, which is rather injurious than otherwise,
being in excess of the requisite power, instead of being held in
reserve by the marshes and, above all, by the subsoil of the
adjacent land. This was formerly, in the undrained state of
the country, perhaps the largest source of supply, because it
extended over the whole area, and yielded its reserve de-
liberately and in driblets.” The proportion of forest or wood-
land required for an agricultural country, in order to insure a
regular and sufficient rainfall without violent storms, is estimated
at 23 per cent, for the interior, and 20 per cent, near the coast.
This estimate relates to Germany ; but in England the proportion,
according to Sir Henry James, the late head of the Ordnance
Department, is only 2^ per cent. “ The Wolf Spring in the
Commune of Soubey, in France, furnishes a remarkable instance
of the influence of woods upon springs. A few years ago this
spring did not exist. At the place where it novy rises a small
thread of water was observed after very long rains, but the stream
disappeared with the rains. The spot is in the middle of a very
steep pasture, inclining to the south. Eighty years ago, the
owner of the land perceiving that some firs were shooting up in
the upper part of it, determined to let them grow, and they soon
formed a flourishing grove. As soon as they were well grown,
a fine spring appeared in place of the occasional rill, and fur-
nished abundant water in the longest drought. For forty or
fifty years this spring was considered the best in Clos-du-Doubs.
A few years since the grove was felled and the ground turned
again into a pasture. The spring disappeared with the wood,
and is now as dry as it was ninety years ago.” Numerous other
instances could be quoted to show that the felling or planting
of timber has a most material influence on the rainfall and
springs of a country, and also in ameliorating the conditions of
climate. Woods are almost always moist, for not only is eva-
poration checked by the shade of the foliage, but the trees them-

and the Storage of Water.

selves act as collectors of water, by condensing the vapour in the
atmosphere, which is caught by the leaves, whence it drops on
the soil below. The appearance of a tree on a foggy evening,
with drops depending from the end of every twig, and the ground
beneath saturated with water, must be familiar to all. The fact
must be equally well known that, in a drier condition of the
atmosphere, trees collect the water from the earth by the spong-
ioles of their roots, and return it to the atmosphere from the
leaves ; this process being most active in spring and summer.
Thus the winter-rains conduce to the humidity of the atmo-
sphere during the droughts of summer.

The capillary action which takes place in the soil materially
assists the process of evaporation. As the surface is dried up
in summer the water gradually rises from the soil beneath to
feed the roots of the vegetation and to form the dew which
so refreshes the plants after a hot summer’s day. A contrary
process takes place in the wet season of winter, when sur-
face-water is too plentiful, percolation being then assisted by
the opening of the pores of the soil by the thaw which follows
a sharp frost. A rapid thaAv after a fall of snow produces a
much greater flood than is due to the mere quantity of water
produced by the melted snow. The break-up of a frost is often
accompanied by a heavy fall of rain, which, added to the melted
snow and rapid percolation of the water, causes unusually high
floods in the rivers. It is stated that all the great floods on the
Thames valley during the past 120 years have been due to this
cause.

The depth to which the rain percolates through the soil
varies considerably at different periods of the year. Messrs.
Lawes and Gilbert, as the result of their experiments, found
that out of an average rainfall of 28 inches, 10;|^ inches perco-
lated through 20 inches of soil, 10 inches through 40 inches,
and 8 inches through 60 inches ; and that after the warm and
comparatively dry weather of the autumn there was less water
going through 40 inches than through 20 inches ; but that
when the winter-rains accumulated, the reverse happened, and
there was sometimes more passing through sixty inches than
twenty.*

Taking all circumstances into consideration, Mr. Hawkesley
gives it as his experience, which is confirmed by Mr. Glaisher,
that the evaporation and absorption of the rainfall vary through-
out England generally between 10 and 18 inches ; the former
applying to steep precipitous mountains of non-absorbent rock.

* “ Eainfall and Evaporation,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlv.
VOL. XIV. — S. S. C

18 Arterial Drainage

whilst the latter takes places in flat spongy moorland or culti-
vated ground.*

Professor Rankine gives the following figures as a guide to
the proportion borne by the available to the total rainfall in
different districts : —

Proportion of available
to total Rainfall.

Steep surfaces of granite, gneiss, and

slate nearly 1

Moorland and hilly pasture, from . . 0 • 8 to 0 • 6

Flat cultivated country, from , . , 0'5to0‘4

Chalk 0

Deep-seated springs and wells give from 0 • 3 to 0 • 4 of the total
rainfall.!

Mr. Bailey Denton puts the mean total discharge of the rivers
at their outfalls in floods and freshets, from rainfall which has
found its way over the surface of the ground without entering
it, in the north and west of England, at 20 inches ; and for the
midland, southern, and eastern districts at 6 inches ; or a mean
for the whole country of 15 inches ; while the proportion of
rain required to maintain the natural flow of our rivers during
the summer and dry weather periods of the year is about one-
eighth of the average mean rainfall, or 4 inches over the whole
of the river watersheds.!

In calculating the proportion of rainfall which any given
stream will discharge, there must be taken into consideration,
besides the disturbing causes already alluded to, the nature of
the soil over which the river passes. A very large proportion
of the water is in some cases abstracted from the stream by
permeable strata, which it encounters on its course. Thus,
the River Churn, a tributary of the Thames, which derives its
source from the flow of strong springs in the Cotswold Hills,
after running through the Lias clay for the first part of its course,
comes to the Oolitic strata, when the quantity flowing down
the channel, instead of increasing, suddenly decreases. From
gaugings taken by Mr. Simpson, C.E., in the dry period of
the autumn of 1859, the quantity was found to decrease from
320 cubic feet per minute at 5^ miles from the source to 10 cubic
feet at 14 miles. The water in the intervening space percolated
through the fissures and fractures of the rocky bed, and through
the porous strata of the fish- and mill-ponds. After this it
began again gradually to increase in volume until it attained

* “ Water Supply of Paisley,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxxi.

t Rankine’s ‘ Manual of Civil Engineering.’ GrifBn and Co., 1871.

j ‘ The Storage of Water.’ By J. Bailey Denton. Spon and Co., 1874.

and the Storage of Water.

100 cubic feet per minute at the junction with the Thames at
Cricklade, 22 miles from the source. Allowing for the in-
creased drainage area, this showed a loss of 340 cubic feet per
minute. To remedy this, Mr. Simpson advised the mill-owners
that the bottom of the stream and the fish-ponds through which
the river passed should be puddled, at an estimated cost of

3000Z.*

Subsequently, at a public meeting held to consider this subject,
arrangements were entered into by which the millers and others
interested agreed to contribute to a common fund for the pay-
ment of men to be regularly employed to inspect the stream,
and to puddle the bottom and sides wherever leaks were dis-
covered.f

In like manner streams may he abnormally increased in
volume by springs which are fed by rain falling outside the
watershed of the river in the manner shown in the illustra-
tion (Fig. l,p. 11). The River Frome, in the neighbourhood of
Chalford, when gauged in its ordinary condition by Mr. Taunton,
was found to yield, about 7 miles from its source, in a dry season,
321 cubic feet a minute. This quantity was increased, within
three-quarters of a mile, to 1605 cubic feet, by very strong
springs, one of which alone was found to yield 64 cubic feet a
minute. The ordinary summer flow of the river in dry weather
was 481 cubic feet per minute, equal to about 28 per cent, of
the total fall of rain on an area of about 25 square miles, but for
a few springs it represents only 17 per cent, of the total quantity.^

Owing to the various causes already described, it will be seen
how difficult, in fact impossible, it is to lay down any rule or
formula which can be applied generally to the proportion of
rainfall which is discharged by the river or stream draining the
district. It is only by carefully noting the statistics of rain for
each particular district — examining the geological condition of
the district in which the river has its source and through which
it flows, with the nature of the vegetation wdth which the surface
is covered — that even an approximate estimate can be formed
of the quantity of water for which proper provision should be
made.

Dischaege of Water by Natural Channels.

Having settled the quantity of rainfall to be drained off any
given district, the next point for consideration is the best form

* “ Tlie Perennial and Flood Waters of the Upper Thames,” ‘ Trans. Instit.
Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxii.

t House of Lords’ Committee on Conservancy Boards; Evidence of Mr. Taunton,
QQ. 2180, 2200, 2230.

J “ Rainfall and Evaporation,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlv.

c 2

Arterial Drainage

and direction for the carrier which shall convey away the water
as rapidly as possible in times of excess, and yet not suddenly
exhaust the country, but leave a supply for the droughts of summer
and early autumn.

The power which moves the rainfall from the pores of the
earth to the river, and thence to the ocean, is that due to gravity,
or the attraction which the earth exercises upon all bodies in a
direction perpendicular to the surface of the sea. Every particle
of a fluid being equally attracted in the same direction, the
surface always has a tendency to become level, and water, if left
free to act, continues in motion until all its particles attain the
same level. Hence the particles of water at the upper end of
a stream are always in motion towards the lower level, and the
whole mass moves downwards until the lowest level attainable is
reached. The vertical space through which the water moves in
its course is termed the “ fall,” and the length of the stream
divided by the fall, gives the rate of fall, inclination, or gradient.
This motion is checked by the retarding force due to the friction
which the particles of water meet with from the sides and bottom
of the channel, and from weeds, and other impediments. The net
result attained from the operation of the two forces is termed
the velocity of the stream, generally reckoned at so many feet per
minute or miles per hour. The greater the length, therefore, in
proportion to the fall, the greater the friction, the slower the
current, and the smaller the quantity moved in a given time.
Water rubbing against water meets with less friction than when
rubbing against earth, consequently the smaller the surface of
earth which the water touches in the channel the less the friction.
Water in a deep narrow channel will move more rapidly than
in a broad shallow one, because it encounters less friction. And
so also a straight stream will, coeteris 'paribus, discharge more
water than a crooked one, because the proportion of length to
fall is less, the friction is less, and the space travelled over is
less. Engineers use the term “ hydraulic mean depth ” to
represent the proportion of rubbing surface in a stream to the
volume of water passing along it. The figure representing
this is found by dividing the sectional area of the channel
by the length of the border touched by the water, and forms an
important element in all calculations for the discharge of water-
courses.

In order to find the size of a stream adequate to convey a
given quantity of water in a given time, it is necessary to fix its
area, contour, rate of fall, and mean frictional resistance. For
this there are several different formulm ; but that adopted in
Beardmore’s ‘ Manual of Hydrology,’ for finding the velocity ia
feet per minute (w) is to multiply the square root of the hydraulic

and the Storage of Water.

mean depth in feet (the product of the area (a) divided by the
wetted contour (c) ) by the fall in two miles in feet (y), and this
again by 55 ; the result being the velocity in feet per minute.

/y/ ~xf X = V.*

This again, multiplied by the sectional area in square feet
gives the discharge in cubic feet per minute. For example, a
channel which has a fall of 3 feet per mile, depth of 4 feet,
and a mean width of 30 feet, will have an area of 120 square
feet, the length of the bottom and sides touched by the water
being 24’0-j-7'21-|-7*21 = 38'42 feet. 120 divided by 38 ’42 is
equal to 3’12, the hydraulic mean depth, which, multiplied
by 6, the fall in 2 miles, is equal to 18'72 ; the square root
of which is 4’32, which, multiplied by 55, gives 237'6 as
the velocity in feet per minute ; and this, multiplied again by
120, the area, gives 28,112 cubic feet per minute as the
discharge.

As the retarding force or friction is as the length of the bottom
and sides of the stream, and the accelerating force is as the
cross-section, it follows that as the depth of the water increases
the velocity increases, and consequently the discharging power
of the channel.

A stream which has a hydraulic mean depth of 4 feet, and
a fall per mile of only 1 foot, will have the same discharge as a
channel which has a fall of 4 feet, and a hydraulic mean depth
of 1 foot. This shows the advantage of a deep channel in
districts where the fall is only slight, and that of a shallow
channel when the gradient is very steep, in moderating the
velocity and the consequent action of the water on the sides
and bottom of the channel.

Form and Capacity of Channel. — The form of channel which
gives the best results is that which has its mean width equal to
about double the depth Great care and thought are necessary
in setting out the section of any new channel, avoiding on the
one hand expense in moving soil, by having the slopes too
flat ; and on the other allowing sufficient capacity for maximum
floods, and sufficient slope to avoid the washing away of the
sides. Great attention was paid to this subject by the Board
of Works in the drainage operations in Ireland, and minute
instructions, with specimen sections, will be found in the Ap-

* Boardmore’s ‘ Manual of Hydrology. Tables 4 and 4a.
t ‘ Hydraulic Tables.’ By J. Neville. Lockwood and Co., 1875.

Arterial Drainage

pcndix to the ‘ Report on the Drainage of Lands,’ presented ta
the House of Lords in 1852.*

The slope will depend on the nature of the soil, and the angle
of repose at which it will remain without being washed away by
the current. The least slope may be given in solid rock and
chalk, where 6 inches horizontal to each foot in vertical height will
he found sufficient. In ordinary soils the sides will stand at an
angle of 1 to 1 ; in silt and sand, or 3 to 1 will be necessary.
The safest guide is to be derived from a careful observation of the-
banks of the water-courses in the neighbourhood, and the slope
and form to which they have adapted themselves where not inter-
fered with by vegetation or abnormal circumstances. The soil
thrown out, or “spoil,” if not carted away, should be moved a
sufficient distance from the cutting to prevent its weight forcing
the sides into the new channel. This distance, as in the slope,
will depend upon the soil, but should not he less than 4 feet. The
Irish regulations prescribed a minimum of 6 feet.

The size of a cutting must be determined by the quantity of
water it will have to discharge in maximum floods, the fall to be
obtained and the slopes which the soil will allow. The first has
already been dealt with. The fall will be regulated by the
difference in level between the new cut at its commencement and
its outfall. If the fall is too steep, the velocity will be so great
that the sides and bottom of the stream will be washed away ;
deep holes will be formed in one place and bars in another, and
the regularity of the current will be interfered with. Too
sluggish a flow, on the other hand, encourages the growth of
aquatic plants, which not only impede the discharge of the
water, but also collect the silt or warp which, together with the
vegetation and other matters brought down, form aits or islands
in the stream, a frequent cause of flooding in neglected rivers.

The wearing action of the current is dependent on the velocity
of the water and the nature of the materials through which the
channel passes. When the sides and bed of a river are composed
of materials of such a nature that the current is not sufficient to-
move them except when swollen b}' extraordinary floods, the
condition of the channel is considered “ stable and the adapta-
tion of the velocity to the tenacity of the banks is expressed by
the term “ regimen ” of the river.

The following table,! the result of experiments, gives the
greatest velocities close to the bed, which is consistent with the
stability of the soil, and at which the water has sufficient force
to carry the particles with it. When the velocity is greater

* Keport : Drainage of Lands (Ireland), House of Lords, 1852.
t ‘ Dictionary of Engineering Art. “ River.” Spon and Co., 1874.

and the Storage of Water.

than that given in the table, the banks require protection bj
osiers, fascines, stone, or other means.

Feet per
Minute.

Miles per
Hour.

Material.

017

Soft clay.

0-34

Fine sand.

1 40

0-45

Coarse sand, and gravel as largo as peas, and clay.

1 120

1-36

Gravel, 1 inch in diameter.

1 200

2-27

Pebbles, IJ inch in diameter.

240

2-72

Heavy shingle.

300

3-40

Soft rock.

400

4-54

Rock and shingle.

Under ordinary conditions the surface inclination of the water
follows that of the bottom of the cut ; but it is not necessary
for the motion of the water that any inclination should be given
to the bed of the channel. In low flat countries, such as the
Fens, it is not unusual to lay out the bed of the larger cuts or
elrains at a dead level. When floods come, the whole body of
water is set in motion, and there can be no dispute that water
running over water suffers less friction than when running over
soil ; the drain serves also as a reservoir for water when the
sluices are closed in summer. In the smaller drains a fall of
from 4 to 6 inches in the mile is deemed sufficient.

The ordinary velocity of streams passing through cultivated
lands, where it naturally follows that the fall is not very great,
is from xhree-quarters of a mile to 3 miles an hour. Mr. Beard-
more records a velocity of 9 miles an hour in the River Lea, one
of the tributaries of the Thames ;* but this was under very •
exceptional circumstances during the great flood of 1852, and
such a rate is rarely attained except in mountain torrents.
Where there is any considerable body and depth of water, a
stream will continue in motion with a mean inclination on the
surface as low as 2 inches per mile. The inclination of the
larger rivers varies from 4 to 12 inches in the mile. The
Thames varies from about 18 inches per mile from Lechlade to
Teddington, to 1^ inch from Teddington to London Bridge,
and rather more than half an inch from London to Yantlet
Creek. t Du Buat considered that one-eighth of an inch per
mile is the smallest possible rate of inclination that can be
given to a canal to produce sensible motion. J

In providing a system of arterial drainage, attention must be
directed to ;he fact that in making provision for the admission

* “ Fresh Water Floods,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxvii.
t Kenn :e’s ‘ Report on Hydraulics.’

X ‘ Canal and River Engineering.’ By Stevenson. Black, 1872.

Arterial Drainage

of tributary streams into the main channel, the sectional area of
the latter will not necessarily require an increase in dimensions
corresponding to the additional area of the tributary. The
union of the two streams makes the whole flow the swifter ;
water near the banks, before at rest, is put in motion, and in lieu
of the friction of four sides, that of only two have to be over-
come.* The hydraulic mean depth being increased, the rate of
discharge is also increased.

The size of an arterial drain or cut must be regulated by the
depth at which the bottom can be placed below the surface of
the land. In order to obviate too deep cuttings where the slope
of the ground is very irregular, it is often necessary to vary the
inclination of the bed along the course of the stream ; but what-
ever gradient may be adopted, the bottom must be so regulated
that the surface-level of the water in the main drain in times of
flood can be discharged at such a level as will admit of the tribu-
taries freely uttering their contents. This level will depend on
the depth adopted in particular localities for laying the under-
drains. Speaking generally, a minimum of 4 feet is advisable.
In other words, the flood level of the main stream should be
at least 4 feet below the surface of the land. This was the
minimum allowed by the Irish Drainage Board, for the circular
issued to the engineers contained the following instructions :
“ Your attention is directed to the necessity in all drainage
works of providing for the effectual discharge of the maximum
floods at as low a level as practicable (within reasonableTimits
of expense), so as to provide ample outfalls for the future deep
thorough drainage and improvement of such of the adjacent
lands as require it. For this purpose main drains should
seldom if ever be under 5 feet deep ; small streams and rivulets
from 6 to 7 ; and larger streams and rivers from 8 to 9 feet or
more, according to the size of the river.”t

Owing to the general neglect with which the smaller rivers,
brooks, and water-courses of the country are treated, few streams
provide this depth. Mr. Grantham, C.E., has stated that in his
opinion the average depth of the running water-courses of this
country does not exceed 3 feetj

In cutting drains through bog or peat, provision must be made
for the subsielence which takes place to a very considerable ex-
tent in the drained land, owing to the compression of the soil.
This arises from abstraction of the water, and decay of the
organic matter in the peat by working and exposure to the air.

* ‘Arterial Drainage.’ By G. A. Dean. Stratford: IMorris, 1861.

•f Report: Drainage of Lands (Ireland), House of Lords, 1852.
j Grantham on “ Arterial Drainage,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engiaeers,’ vol. xix.

and the Storage of Water.

In the Fen districts this subsidence has been found to amount
to as much as 2 and 3 feet, and even in extreme cases, as in
Whittlesea Mere, as much as 8 feet, involving the lowering ol
the drainage wheels and the cills of sluices.

Improvement of Natural Channels.

Regulating Weirs — Catchwater Drains— Bridges. — In cases
where the natural gradient of the country is very steep, and
it is desirable to hold up the water in the streams for the
use of the cattle and to prevent the drying up of the soil in
summer, or where the soil is so loose and friable as to be easily
washed away, it may become necessary to regulate the fall by
the use of steps or weirs. This process was adopted in the
drainage of Hainault Forest, as described by Mr. Grantham in
his paper on “ Arterial Drainage.”* The natural fall of the valley
at the surface of the land was so great, that the velocity of the
water would have destroyed the sides and bottom of the drain.
Overfalls built of brick were therefore put in, varying from
10 feet to 3 feet in width of opening, and rising from 3 to 5 feet.
These overfalls were so constructed that boards could be inserted
in grooves to hold up and store the water in summer for cattle
or other purposes, and for irrigating the land on both sides.

Where the district to be drained is flat and surrounded by
land rising at a steep inclination, especially where mechanical
power has to be resorted to for raising the water, it may be
advisable to adopt the system of catch-water drains used by
Mr. Rennie in the Fens. A drain was there cut skirting the
low land, for the purpose of collecting the water from the higher
level and carrying it off to an outfall above the point of dis-
charge of the lowland water. The Fen drains have thus only to
contend with the rain falling on the level. By the use of regu-
lating sluices at the end, and at intervals along the catch-water
drains, these serve as reservoirs for the storage of water which is
admitted to the drains on the low level during the summer, so as
to fill the ditches and supply water for the stock. Water supplied
in this way from the high-land streams bordering on the Fens
is highly prized, and considered of incalculable advantage.

The arrangement of these high-level drains is often such as to
involve the necessity of carrying the low-level drains across and
consequently underneath their bed. This is simply and easily
accomplished by syphons or “ sunken tunnels,” which consist
merely of cast- or wrought-iron pipes or a wooden tunnel. It
is hardly necessary to say that, if it is required, these may be

* ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. six., Grantham on “ Arterial Drainage.”

Arterial Drainage

placed at a level considerably below the drain, the water of
which they convey, and the end which utters the water being
placed so much lower than the receiving end as to compensate
for the friction of the water in passing through. If placed at a
dead level, there will be a slight head on the upper side.

In making new cuts or improving old water-courses, the
building of new bridges, or the altering of old ones, is a matter
requiring much attention. The increased rate at which the
rain-water is now sent to the brooks renders the openings of
many bridges and culverts, which formerly were large enough,
of insufficient capacity and therefore a great impediment to the
flow of the water. The use also of steam-cultivating machines
and traction-engines, weighing 10 or 12 tons, renders it im-
perative that bridges should be built both wider and stronger
than formerly. Wherever practicable, a single arch should
be used, as offering less obstruction to the flow, and being
less liable to be blocked by weeds and timber. If the subsoil
is sufficiently sound, inverts should be avoided, as rendering
difficult any future deepening of the bed. For the same cause
it is desirable that the bottom level under the bridges and for
some distance above and below them should be lower than the
general gradient of the river-bed. The size of the opening must
be such as to give a larger sectional area than the cut itself at
the highest flood-level.

Improving existing Water-courses. — By removing shoals and
straightening the stream by cutting off bends, the discharge of
the flood-waters will be increased in proportion to the increased
water-way, the diminished distance the water has to travel, and
the smaller amount of friction from the sides and bottom which
it has to encounter. Improvements of this nature should always
be commenced at the outfall, otherwise the water will be sent
into the lower reaches of the stream with such increased rapidity
that the unimproved portion will not be able to discharge the
water poured into it with sufficient velocity, and flooding of the
lands at the lower levels will ensue.

The removal of shoals is effected either by hand-labour, the
water being dammed up in sections by sheet-pile dams ; or, when
this is not practicable, by dredging with a small barge and spoon
and bag. The spoon is formed with a ring of iron, about 2 feet
in diameter, having a bag of strong leather attached to it by
leather thongs. The ring is attached to a pole which is lowered
from the end of the barge to the bottom of the stream. A chain
made fast to the ring is wound up by a windlass, fixed at the
other end of the barge, and the spoon is thus dragged along the
bottom, being guided in its progress by the man who holds the
pole. The chain passes over a pulley suspended on an upright

and the Storage of Water.

in the centre of the barge, and when the spoon reaches the spot
immediately under this pulley, the chain lifts it vertically until
it reaches the gunwale of the barge, when the bag is emptied on
to a shoot and then drawn back again and lowered for a fresh
supply. The bag is now generally superseded by an iron scoop
with perforated sides, the bottom being made of steel and hung
on hinges, and kept in its place by a catch and lever, which is
released by the man in attendance as soon as it reaches the
barge ; the bottom then falls, and the contents fall on the shoot
(Fig. 2). This operation requires four men to work it ; two at

the windlass, one with the pole, and one to shovel the dirt off
the shoot into the barge. Under ordinary circumstances, it
will raise from 25 to 30 tons a day.

In streams where the current is slow, weeds and aquatic plants
grow freely on the bottom, and by the friction which they offer
to the water materially retard its flow. In very irregular and
shallow channels, much impeded by weeds, the velocity will be
reduced from this cause as much as one-half from that which a
clear course would afford.* In the Spanish irrigation works it
has been found that the best velocity to keep the channel clear
of sediment and prevent the too rapid growth of weeds is about
120 feet per minute, or mile per hour.j

In canalised streams of low velocity, where there is no flow
in summer, or where the movement of the water is very sluggish,
the weeds require cutting twice and even three times in the year.
The ordinary method is by joining together several scythe-blades,
and attaching ropes to each end of the set of knives. Men walk
on either bank of the stream, and keep drawing the cutters
backwards and forwards as they move up the stream. The
weeds are then drawn to shore with rakes and placed above
flood-level. The cost of this work in the Fen districts, where
it is termed “ roding,” is about 20s. per mile for drains from
15 to 20 feet wide, and 30s. for larger drains.

* Neville’s Hydraulic Tables.

t ‘ Irrigation in Spain/ Koberts.

Arterial Drainage

If proper supervision is not exercised over this process, the
weeds float down the drains into the main river, and accumu-
late in the shallows. The silt and debris washed down with
the water settles among the weeds, and forms aits or islands,
which contract the area of the water-way and divert the course
of the stream. A scour is thus caused on the opposite bank,
and a permanent irregularity made in the channel of the river.

Embanking Streams. — One of the principal remedies insisted
on by the witnesses before the Committee of the House of
Lords of last Session, as a prev'ention of floods, was the proper
embanking of the sides of the stream, for the purpose of pre-
venting the lower lands from being drowned by the water
coming down from the higher level. Mr. Rawlinson, C.E., one
of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, in his evidence, stated
that “ speaking broadly, taking all the rivers he was acquainted
with, that if he put one remedy first as the prime remedy,
embanking would be the one.”*

The material required for the embankment can generally be
obtained by widening and deepening the water -course, thus
effecting two improvements at the same time. It is not essential
that the soil of which the bank is composed, or on which it
stands, should be impermeable to the water. A porous and
gravelly soil can be successfully embanked and the water kept
out with embankments as porous as silt and peat.* The latter
material, however, allows so much to pass through by filtration,
that it is almost invariably found necessary to have a puddle
trench in the middle of the bank, the clay being chopped very
small and well trodden in while dry. The material being above
the surface of the land would be liable to shrink in dry weather
if worked in the ordinary way, and the embankment is generally
found to be more water-tight if the clay is well punned in
a dry state. Miles of embankments around the coast, for the
exclusion of the tidal waters, are composed of the silt deposited
by the tide on the foreshore. The pressure of the tidal water
remains only for a short period, and not long enough to allow
the water to rise through the soil. The same is the case in
extraordinary land floods, which are so evanescent that the
water would be down again before there would be any appear-
ance of water on the surface behind the embankment.

To meet the case of water-courses draining mountainous or
hilly districts, where occasional floods exceed the average very
greatly, and but rarely occur, it would obviously be a waste of
money in the first cost of construction, and permanently in the

* House of Lords’ Committee on Consermney Boards, 1877 ; ‘ Minutes of
Evidence,’ QQ. 1G4, 169, 170, 207.

and the Storage of Water.

29-

quantity of land occupied by the stream, if it were made large
enough to receive the whole of the water sent down in these
floods within its proper bed. To meet this the banks may be
placed some distance apart, and the “ cess,” or intervening space
Ijetween the foot of the bank and the stream, be laid at a very
flat slope, and grassed over. In excessive floods the whole space
between the banks would thus afford water-way of sufficient
capacity to meet the most extreme rainfall. During the rest of
the year it would afford excellent pasturage for sheep and cattle.
The bridges and other works must be made of the full dimen-
sions to meet the largest floods, so that the water should have-
free course and meet with no impediment.

Flood-gates and Sluices. — While embanking shuts out the
flood-water from flowing over the adjacent lands, it also pre-
vents the drainage from these low lands finding access to the
main water-course. Provision can be made for this by cutting^
an interior drain, running parallel with the bank and dis-
charging lower down the stream. If, however, the floods only
occur at long intervals and last a short time, the low-land
drains which enter the main stream may be protected by
sluices with fixed or self-acting doors. The latter would close
by the action of the water as soon as the level outside became
greater than that inside, and open again for the emission of
the inland water as soon as the flood had passed off. By
a judicious management of these sluices the land behind the
banks can be kept well drained. If the sluices have fixed doors,
the person under whose care they are placed, as soon as a
heavy rain comes, ought, in anticipation of a flood, to open the
door and empty the drain, which would then become a reservoir
to receive and hold the water percolating from the rain on the
low land until the height of the flood had sufficiently subsided to-
allow of the doors being opened. The best form of sluice has
a double set of doors, the one self-acting, and the other so fixed
as to regulate at pleasure the height of the water in the drains.
The engraving (Fig. 3, p. 30) represents one of these sluices
with a four-feet opening and self-acting tankard-lid door, with
draw-door behind.

In tributary streams, self-acting doors, shutting against the
river into which they drain, are often very beneficial in prevent-
ing the backing-up of the water in heavy floods. By their use
many miles of embankment may be saved. Even where em-
bankments exist, the erection of doors saves great pressure and
the consequent risk of a breach, a contingency from which no
banks are free. Some settlement, or weak place in construction,
or burrow made by mole, rat, or rabbit, which may have been in
existence for years unknown, is finally discovered by a flood a

30 Arterial Drainage

few inches higher than usual. The water first trickles through,
the hole gradually enlarges, until, without warning or time lor

preparation, the bank
bursts and a whole
level is inundated,
and crops and pro-
perty destroyed to the
value of many thou-
sands of pounds.

In streams dis-
charging into tidal
rivers, or on the sea
shore, doors are ne-
cessary as a protect-
ion against the tides.
The situation of the
outfall in such cases
should be chosen
where the set of the
tide is on a concave
shore, and where, con-
sequently, the water
is always deepest and
the outlet the least
likely to be blocked
by shoals in dry
weather. The cill of
the sluice should be
placed below the
level of low-water of
spring tides, the ex-
act distance being a
matter of controversy,
but two feet may be
taken as a safe dis-
tance.

The simplest form of sluice consists of a wooden tunnel
made of four 3-inch planks nailed together, with a door or
clapper at the outer end hung at the top with crooks and
bands, and falling over the opening of the trunk of dis-
charge. The door is kept closed as the tidal water rises and
presses against it. Cast-iron flanged pipes, bedded in concrete,
bolted together, with a strip of vulcanised india-rubber between
the flanges, make a more durable sluice. The door ought to
be planed smooth, and have a strip of gun-metal inserted in the
face of the frame against which it shuts. The rod on which
the door hangs should also be of gun-metal, otherwise it is liable

Fig. 3. — Elevation and Section of Sluice with
Tankard-lid Door.

Elevation

and the Storage of Water.

to become fast with corrosion, caused by the salt water. Larger
sluices are built of brick. When the openings do not exceed
from 2 to 4 feet in diameter, a single door hung from the top
with crooks and bands, and inclined at a slight angle from the
vertical, technically called a “ tankard-lid door,” is used. For
larger openings the doors are hung vertically, and swing on pins
working in a socket at the bottom, and with a collar and strap
at the top. They vary in size from a single door for a four-feet
culvert to the large double doors used on tidal streams in the
Fens, with openings of 20 feet, and from 20 to 30 feet in height.
A further description of these large sluices, however interesting,
would be foreign to the purpose of this paper.

Drainage of Low-lying Land.

Raising Water from Low Levels. — When the land to be
drained lies below the ordinary flood-level of the outfall stream,
mechanical means must be adopted to ensure efficient drainage.
Originally this was accomplished by wind-engines and scoop-
wheels. Windmills have been extensively used in Holland for
drainage purposes, where the practice was to employ one mill
with sweeps from 80 to 90 feet in diameter for every 1250 acres
drained. These mills work about sixty days in the year on an
average.* But these engines, not being made on improved
scientific principles, do not yield the same amount of work as
those of modern construction. The Dutch engineers introduced
them into the Fens of Lincoln and Cambridge, and many
instances may yet be found in these counties of wind-engines
draining large tracts of land. The high state of cultivation
practised in the Fens has rendered efficient drainage of so much
importance that the uncertainty of the wind has caused it to
be almost entirely superseded by steam, and the scoop-wheel
also is gradually giving place to the centrifugal pump. It is
doubtful whether in thus entirely abandoning the power of the
wind a wise course has been pursued, and whether the better
and more economical plan would not have been to have supple-
mented the wind with steam, using the latter only when the wind
failed. There are many bogs and tracts of pasture land which
would not bear the expense of steam-power, but which could be
sufficiently drained by small wind-engines and scoop-wheels.

The scoop-wheel is the simplest form of pump, and well
adapted for the drainage of small areas, as it can be worked
either by wind, horse-power, an ordinary locomotive, or a fixed
engine. It consists of a wheel, not unlike the paddle-wheel of a

* Burnell’s ‘ Hydraulic Engineering.’ Weale’s Series, 1S58.

Arterial Drainage

steamer, revolving in a trough with a self-acting door at the end
towards the stream into which the water is lifted, which door closes
directly the wheel ceases working. The wheel beats or carries
the water on the ladles or floats from the lower to the upper side.
The lift, or height which the water is raised, and the quantity
lifted depend on the diameter of the wheel, the width of the
floats, and the number of revolutions in a given time. A series
of articles describing scoop-wheels, both theoretically and practi-
cally, will be found in ‘ Engineering ’ for the year 1870, vol. ix.
The illustration. Fig. 4, is a plan and elevation showing the

Fig. 4. — Elevation and Plan of Scoop-wheel, with Shuttle for regulating

Water to it.

wheel and the trough in which it works. These wheels vary in
capacity from the size sufficient to drain a small tract of 50 or
100 acres to the immense wheels used in the drainage of many
thousand acres of Fen land. The drainage of Deeping Fen, in
Lincolnshire, containing 25,000 acres, is effected by two of these
wheels worked by powerful steam-engines. The larger wheel is
80 feet in diameter and 28 feet wide, and the two are capable
of lifting 300 tons of water a minute, the lift or head of water
against which the wheels work being sometimes as much as
6 feet. The drainage of the East Fen, in the same county,
containing about 30,000 acres, on the other hand, is effected by
two Appold centrifugal pumps worked by high-pressure con-

and the Storage of Water.

densing-engines. The fans of the pump are 7 feet in diameter.
The lift is 5 feet, and with this head the two pumps can dis-
charge 700 tons of water a minute.*

The defect of the scoop-wheel is that it cannot adapt itself to
variations in the level of the water in flood times, either on the
delivery or inlet side. It cannot be driven beyond a certain
speed, and if deeply immersed in water it does very bad duty.
It is much more cumbrous than a centrifugal pump, and conse-
quently requires more expensive foundations. The relative pro-
portions of a scoop-wheel and a pump to deliver water, say with an
11-feet lift and engine of 14 horse-power, would be as follow:
diameter of scoop-wheel 40 feet, width 18 inches, number of
revolutions 4J. Diameter of pump 3 feet 4 inches, width 8£
inches, number of revolutions 180. Centrifugal pumps employ
advantageously the whole power of the engine ; as the lift de-
creases, so the quantity of water discharged increases, and that
in an automatic manner, without any sensible alteration in the
speed of the engine, and without any care on the part of the
attendant. It is found in practice that centrifugal pumps do keep
the land clear with less horse-power, and therefore less fuel per
acre, than scoop-wheels. In a comparative trial in six districts
drained by pumps and scoop-wheels respectively, the area drained
ranged in the case of pumps, from 1000 to 1228, and in the case
of scoop-wheels from 600 to 830 only per unit of power em-
ployed.! The illustration (Fig. 5,p. 34) shows a pump and engine
attached to an iron cylinder, as manufactured by Messrs. Eastons
and Anderson, and peculiarly well adapted for fixing in peat
soils, where it is difficult to secure a good foundation without
great expense.

At a rough calculation, it may be assumed that for the drainage
of fens or low-lying districts, from 1 to 1^ horse- power will
be required for every 100 acres where the lift does not exceed
10 feet.

Dumb Wells. — Where the nature of the subsoil is of a porous
and absorbent character, as chalk, limestone, or some sort of
sandstone, the quantity of water discharged in flood times may
be regulated by dumb wells sunk into the porous strata. By
means of these shafts the capacity and cost of new arterial
drains may be reduced, and flooding prevented without altering
existing water-courses. In the illustration. Fig. 1, p. 11, a shaft
sunk through the impermeable strata, between the letters B

* ‘ History of the Fens of South Lincolnshire.’ By W. H. Wheeler, C.E.
Simpkins and Co., 1868. ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxxiii. ; Engineer-
ing, Sept. 18 and 25, 1869.

t Paper by J, M. Heathcote, Esq., in the ‘ Cambridge Independent Press,’
Nov. 24, 1877.

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

34 Arterial Drainage

Fig.- 5. — Centrifugal Pump Engine and Iron Cylinder.

Scale : 8 feet to an inch.

and H, would let the water down to the porous strata below,
and lessen the quantity falling into the water-course at H.
An instance is given by Mr. Homersham, in which the chalk was
covered with clay 18 feet in thickness, and effective drainage
obtained by sinking dumb wells through the clay and filling
them with flint stones. The rain, instead of flowing off by
surface channels into the rivers and causing floods, was ab-
sorbed into the chalk, and escaped underground to the sea.* On
Lord Dillon’s estate in Oxfordshire, Mr. Bailey Denton brought
the drainage of several hundred acres to a shaft 3 feet in diameter,
sunk from 20 to 30 feet into the oolite, and thus disposed of the
whole of the water.f The basin of the Colne, a tributary of the
Thames, has no outlet for flood waters excepting by “ swallows, ’
the soil of the district being drift clay, gravels, sands, with chalk
beneath at considerable depths, the beds of which dip away from
the valley.J In the oolitic limestone the waters from ditches may
be frequently seen, when running a full stream from 18 inches
to 2 feet deep, to disappear from the surface and be absorbed by
swallow holes.

Outfalls. — The consideration of the improvement of main out-

* ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxii., “ On the Upper Thames.”

t Bailey Denton, ‘ Evidence, House of Lords’ Committee on Conservancy Boards,’
1877 ; QQ. 2461, 2471, 2473. J Beardmore’s ‘Manual of Hydrology.’

and the Storage of Water.

fall channels for brooks and water-courses, and without which
all other works must prove abortive, is beyond the scope of this
article, the works being of so comprehensive a character, as only
to be dealt with by a properly constituted Conservancy Board
under the guidance of a qualified engineer. There are, how-
ever, many small streams and outfall drainages which discharge
into estuaries or on the sea coast, the improvement of which
is essential for the proper maintenance of the system of drainage
to which they afford an outlet. These streams often have to
find their way to the main channel through a long foreshore
of alluvial deposit, and are diverted from their course and im-
peded in their flow by the action of the tides’ and by the de-
posits washed into them. They are generally so wide and
shallow that the outflowing water has not sufficient power to
maintain a free course. The remedy is to concentrate the whole
force of the outflowing stream in a narrow and deep channel.
This is sometimes done with stakes and boarding, or by stones
and clay. The Dutch and American engineers use faggots and
brushwood made into “ mattrasses,” secured in their places by
piles, and sunk by being weighted with stones ; and by this means
they train and regulate currents of very considerable velocity.*
A very effective yet simple and economical plan has been adopted
in training the Fen rivers discharging into the Wash, and is
equally applicable to creeks and small outfalls. The training
walls are constructed of faggots or fascines, made of thorns cut
from the hedges, bedded in clay. The fascines are about 6 feet
in length, including the long legs or projecting branches, and 3
feet in girth, the butt-ends of the thorns being all placed one
way and tied together with tarred string. They are placed
along the side of the intended channel in a single or any greater
number of rows, according to the depth and force of the current
to be dealt with, and covered with a layer of about 6 inches of
clay, the process being repeated, layer after layer, until the surface
of the foreshore is reached, the usual height in the large rivers
being half-tide level. If properly laid, training walls thus con-
structed may be placed in a channel with 20 feet in depth at
low-water, and will resist the force of both ebb and flood-tides,
and form a permanent and lasting barrier where stone would
be washed away. The cost of this work is about Is. %d. per
cubic yard. A full description of this process, in connection
with the training of the outfall of tidal rivers and the reclama-
tion of the foreshore, will be found in the ‘ Transactions of the
Institution of Civil Engineers.’!

* “ Use of Fascines in Holland,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers, vol. sli.
t Wheeler on ‘Fascine Work and Eeclamation.’ vol. xlvi.

D 2

36 Arterial Drainage

Flooding.

In providing for any new system of drainage, although the
primary motive may be to void the surplus rainfall from the
land as quickly as possible, yet other considerations should be
taken into account and the fact not lost sight of, that the modern
system of drainage has a tendency to bring about droughts in
summer, the effect of which may be as disastrous as floods in
winter. The point to be gained is the proper control and regu-
lation of the water arising from the rainfall, and so to devise
schemes of improvement as to have thorough mastery over both
diseharge and storage, verifying the old adage that “ water is a
good servant but a bad master.” There are districts where floods,
if not allowed to remain too long on the land, do absolute good
to grass, by depositing on it matter of a fertilising nature washed
from calcareous and marly soils. In the same watershed there
may be streams the water from which, having passed over fer-
ruginous and siliceous soils, does great damage ; the grit, in
the latter case, deposited on the leaf of the grass, purging and
otherwise injuriously affecting the cattle that feed on it.* An
instance of this occurs in the valley of the Hampshire Stour, as
described by Lord Malmesbury in his evidence before the House
of Lords’ Committee on Floods, where his Lordship is reported
as stating that on the Stour the farmers want five or six floods
in the year, a fine marly warp, which is very enriching, being
brought down by the water and deposited. The water flowing
from the New Forest by another stream in the same district is
impregnated with a great deal of chalybeate matter, which is very
pernicious, and does a great deal of harm to the meadows. If
floods were done away with on the Stour, the deterioration of the
land would be immense. The flooded meadows let at Zl. an
acre ; whereas those higher up the stream, which are not flooded,
let for only 15s. an acre.f

The Clerk to the Thames Valley Drainage Commissioners,
!Mr. Hawkins, in his evidence before the same Committee also
stated,! that there would be the greatest opposition in the
Thames Valley if the people thought that the floods on the grass-
lands were to be entirely stopped in winter. They are very
valuable as long as the water can go on and off, and not be left
lying on the land and spoiling the grass. In his opinion the
object of any legislation should be to regulate the floods, and to
pass them off instead of letting them lie on the land. Mr. Bailey

• ‘ Report and Evidence of Committee, House of Lords’ Conservancy Boards,’
Session i877; Evidence, Taunton, Q. 220G; Denton, QQ. 2418, 2421, 2422, 2425;
Lowndes, Q. 2537.
t Idem, Q. 2582 et seq.

Idem, Q. 2749.

and the Storage of Water.

Denton also gave evidence to the effect that, in his opinion, a
flood passing over the surface of meadow land quickly does
§ood (unless it be impregnated with injurious substances), but
if it is detained for days great injury results. On being ques-
tioned, however, as to whether, striking a balance of advantages
and disadvantages, he would rather have a flood on meadow
land or have it altogether excluded, he replied, “ Decidedly ex-
cluded, that tvhich a man cannot be master of is generally an evil.”

Regulation of Water. — Flood regulators may be either natural
or artificial. The former exist where the subsoil is of a porous
and absorbent character, and where the strata are so arranged that
the water received into and stored up in the pores of the soil
and the clefts and seams of the chalk or stone is given out again
gradually in the form of springs within its own watershed.
These reservoirs are the most valuable of all regulators for water
supply, as a perennial flow of wholesome water is kept up in the
stream even in the driest summers. The supply from this source
might be materially increased by the formation of the “ swallow
holes ” or dumb wells, already described, and the water thus pre-
served to its own proper district in the wet season instead of being
allowed to flow away to sea. In many districts there are lakes
which perform the part of flood regulators ; the outlet not being
of sufficient capacity to discharge the water poured into it during
heavy rains from the hill or mountain streams, it becomes stored
up for the supply of the rest of the year. In the drainage of
the Kilbeggan district, in Ireland, the flood waters of a large
portion of the catchment basin were taken to Loch Ennell, and
only delivered out by degrees, thus giving a command over the
floods of the district to facilitate the drainage and supply the
mill-power.* The Lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland act as
valuable regulators of the exceptionally heavy falls of rain which
occur in that district, and many other instances could be cited.
On the smaller brooks and water-courses valuable storage for the
water supply of farmsteads and villages could be provided by
the formation of large ponds or artificial lakes on the higher
part of the stream. These, while acting as valuable reservoirs
for the summer supply, might be made an ornamental feature
in a park ; but, where this is not practicable, they would pay an
ample fent for the ground occupied.

However valuable lakes and reservoirs may be as regulators of
small streams, it is an utterly fallacious idea to suppose that the
floods of such rivers as the Thames could be prevented by any
artificial system of storage : a remedy often proposed by those
who have not paid sufficient attention to this subject. It has

* Keport : Drainage of Lands (Ireland), House of Lords, 1852.

Arterial Drainage

been calculated that to provide storage for the water flowing off
the drainage ground of the Thames above Hampton from a fall of
three inches of rain, would require a reservoir capable of holding
more than one hundred and sixty thousand million gallons, and
that its construction would entail an expenditure of 15,000,000/.*
This plan of dealing with floods was tried by the Dutch en-
gineers. In the original scheme laid out by them for the drainage
of the Fens on the east coast, the banks which enclosed the rivers
were placed at great distances apart, in some instances as much
as a mile, the intervening spaces being left to receive the water
coming down from the high lands in great floods, and to store the
excess beyond what the river could take until the flood abated.
These spaces are called “ washes,” and form very valuable pas-
turage in summer. On the Nene, immediately below Peter-
borough, the wash-lands are 12 miles in length and half a mile
broad, the level of the land being about that of the ordinary-
winter flow. The space occupied represents about 1 per cent,
of the area which drains into it. In floods, these washes are
filled to a depth of from 5 to 7 feet, the latter quantity repre-
senting about 1 inch of rainfall from the drainage area ; and
yet, with this provision, the Nene is found utterly inadequate
to the discharge of the rainfall in wet seasons. The floods
along its valley are matters of notoriety, the water held in these
washes forming only a very small proportion of the quantity
which ought to flow down the river.t

The regulation of streams the fall of which is too rapid may
also be effected by canalising them, dividing the channel into
sections, embanking the sides and fixing weirs or floodgates.
This system is carried out wherever the water is made available
for mill-power, and may be made of great advantage where
irrigation is used, or where the practice prevails of keeping the
ditches dividing the fields full of water to within a certain dis-
tance of the surface. There can be no doubt that however
important thorough drainage of the soil is for the prevention of
evaporation from the surface during winter, in light porous soils
and pasture-fields an equal advantage may be gained by main-
taining the water-level in summer at such a distance below the
surface as not to be too deep to permit the water to rise up to
the roots by capillary action. This can be effected by keeping
the water in the ditches and streams during the summer, which
may then serve not only as water-regulators and reservoirs, but
also as fences. In the Fens this is universally the practice. In
the main drains, where not used for navigation, water from

* “ Eainfall and Evaporation,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlv.
t Shelford, ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlv.

and the Storage of Water.

5 to 6 feet in deptli is always maintained, the surface being from
4 to 5 feet below the ordinary level of the land. From these
main-drains and the high-land streams which discharge into
them the ditches are always kept filled ; in the peat soils to
within 2 feet of the surface, and in silty soils from 2^ feet to
3 feet. Thus, by the rapid removal of surplus rainfall in winter
and a due supply of water in summer, soils which once were only
a refuge for moorfowl are now made to grow splendid crops of
wheat and roots, and yield a rent of more than 3Z. an acre.

The large crops of grass obtained from irrigated meadows,
and the heavj'^ rents paid for such land, tend further to show
that water-supply is as valuable as drainage, and that it is the
regulation of the supply that should be the guide in all schemes
for the improvement of water-courses.

Domestic Water Supply.

Water for domestic and agricultural purposes is becoming a
paramount necessity, both as a matter of economy and as an
essential to health. The increasing vigilance of sanitary autho-
rities will eventually compel every landowner to provide a proper
supply for his cottages, and the high price and scarcity of labour
will make it more economical to pay the interest on the money
required to store or provide an adequate quantity of water, than
to have to fetch it with a cart and horse a considerable distance
from the nearest source of supply. The facility for carrying out
works of water-supply has been increased by the Act passed last
Session enabling land-owners to charge tbeir estates with the
cost of the necessary works for storage.

There is no difficulty as to the sufficiency of water — it is
simply the means of storing and preventing waste that are
wanted — sufficient rain falls even in the driest districts of this
country to supply all the wants of the inhabitants. The quantity
used in a house varies considerably, depending a great deal on
the facility with which it is obtained. In cottages where the water
has to be fetched from the village well, 2 gallons a day for each
inmate will be the most that is used. If an abundant supply is
provided close to the house, the quantity used will rise to 5 gal-
lons a head, or say 25 gallons per day on an average to each
cottage. A small farmhouse, where there are neither baths nor
water-closets, will require about the same quantity per inmate.
For the larger class of farmhouses, for vicarages, and for man-
sions, 20 gallons per day for each inmate should be provided.
In towns the quantity supplied varies from 10 gallons per head,
where good management prevails, to 50 gallons, where great
waste takes place. This includes all water required for watering

Arterial Drainage

streets and for manufacturing purposes. The minimum require-
ments of a farmstead of 100 acres would probably be as follows: —

The farmhouse containing on an average six inmates Gallons,
at 5 gallons each ...... 30

For the stack-yard and cattle-sheds ... 50

A labourer’s cottage containing five inhabitants . 10

To this must be added the water required for feeding the
steam threshing-engine, and for watering the stock in the yards
in winter, which would require about 20,000 gallons more.
The house would thus require 10,950 gallons, the farmstead
38,250 gallops, and the cottage 3650. A careful storing of all the
rain which falls on the roofs of the buildings, allowing the rain-
fall to be 22 inches in the year, and the farmhouse and out-
buildings to cover 1000 square feet of ground, would yield 11,419
gallons, or a little more than 31 gallons a day. The farm-
buildings and sheds would cover about 3500 square feet, and
collect 39,965 gallons, equal to a supply of 110 gallons per day;
and the cottage, with 500 square feet, would yield 5700 gallons,
equal to 15^ gallons per day. The tanks to hold this should be so
proportioned as to be large enough to hold the winter supply, and
allow for replenishment by thunderstorms and ordinary showers ;
a capacity equal to about 2 gallons for every square foot of roof
will, on an average, be found sufficient. In some villages the
water off the roof of the church and school-houses has been col-
lected in a large tank for the use of the inhabitants, and been
found of the greatest convenience, saving many a weary drag to
the village pond. An ordinary village church would cover about
7000 square feet, and the school 1000 more, and these together
would yield 91,356 gallons in the course of the year, equal to a
daily supply of 250 gallons.

Reservoirs, Storage, and Village Supply. — If the cottages and
farmsteads, instead of being isolated, lie compactly in a village
street, a more effective and probably more economical plan will
be to provide one large storage reservoir, with supply pipes to
the village, and “ stand-pipes ” or separate services to the houses.
Where there is a constant spring or stream of pure water above
the village, the process is extremely simple, but where these
means are not available, storage must be resorted to. As a
matter of economy, where there is a constant fall and no pressure
on the pipes, glazed stoneware pipes, having Stanford’s patent
sockets and joints, may be used ; but where there is any pres-
sure, or where the pipes are laid at any great depth below the
ground, iron is the only satisfactory material.

The supply from the gathering ground for feeding this reser-
voir must be calculated on the result of the driest years and the

and the Storage of Water.

storage room adapted for the same period. On the eastern side
of England, Mr. Hawkesley states that periods have occurred
where, in dry seasons, 250 days have elapsed from the first
lowering of the water in the reservoirs to the commencement of
its re-elevation.* Speaking generally, storage for 150 to 180
days will be found sufficient. The quantity of rain to be
depended on in dry seasons may be ascertained by finding the
average fall of the district and deducting one-sixth, the result
almost as an invariable rule giving the available rainfall of three
consecutive minimum years. Taking, as before, 22 inches as the
average rainfall, the quantity to be relied on would be 16 inches.
From this must be deducted the loss from evaporation and
absorption by vegetation, &c., which varies from 10 up to 18
inches in extreme cases. The mean may be taken at 14 inches,
leaving only 2 inches to be stored. This rainfall on an acre of
drained land will yield 45,229 gallons (7260 cubic feet). The
superficial dimensions of the reservoir will depend on the supply
required ; the depth, however, ought not to be less than from 6
to 7 feet, as with this depth there will be less loss from evapora-
tion and the water will keep better. In retentive clay soils, it
may be found sufficient merely to form the reservoir in the soil
by excavation ; but where the strata are porous, the sides and
bottom must be puddled, or lined with concrete or brickwork.
In the latter case the excavation will not require to be carried
the full depth of the reservoir, the walls being built partly above
the surface and being backed up with the excavated material.
A small village, with mansion, vicarage, gardens, stables, farm-
steads, and cottages, would require about 2,000,000 gallons of
water in the course of the year, and, allowing storage for 180
days, would require a reservoir 7 feet deep and about 150 feet
square, and a gathering ground of 50 acres. The cost of supply
from such reservoirs to villages may be taken roughly at from
20s. to 25s. a head of the population. Mr. Bailey Denton calcu-
lates that 1 inch of rainfall on an acre would supply two and
a-half persons with water for a year, at the rate of 25 gallons
each.f At this rate, 120 acres would be required instead of 50.

This outline of the requirements of village water-supply is
sufficient to give a general idea of what is necessary. The special
means to be adopted in any particular locality must depend upon
the circumstances of the district : no scheme generally applicable
can be laid down.

A typical case, showing how easy it is for a private indi-
vidual to carry out works of water-supply, will be found in the

* “Water Supply, Paisley,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol, xxxi.
t ‘ Storage of Water.’ By B. Denton. Spon and Co., 1874.

Arterial Drainage

evidence given before the Floods Committee by Mr. G. G.
Macturk.* This gentleman has executed works for the supply
of a village of 800 people, and has found them remunerative and
very acceptably received by the inhabitants. At a cost of
lOOOZ. he has laid down about 3 miles of iron pipes, con-
nected with a brick reservoir receiving its supply from a strong
land-spring. From this main the cottages in the village and
the farmhouses are supplied. There are altogether 120 tenants
using the water, the charge varing from 5s. a year for a cottage
to 20s. for a farmhouse ; the total rental at present being 70/.,
sufficient to pay 5 per cent, and provide for a sinking fund.
The pipes were laid along the roads, with the consent of the Sur-
veyor of Highways, and the supply is not confined to Mr. Mac-
turk’s own tenants.

Another illustration of the method of supplying large man-
sions and of affording a complete protection against fire will
be found in the description given by Mr. R. B. Grantham,
before the Institute of British Architects, of the works designed
by him at Somerley for the Earl of Normanton.| The supply
is obtained from a stream fed by strong springs from the
Bagshot sand and gravel. The water is collected in a service-
tank, whence it descends to a pumping well and is forced to a
high-level reservoir, 100 feet above, by a steam-engine, which
is also used for sawing timber and other purposes. The reser-
voir is upwards of 2 miles distant, is built of concrete, and is
capable of holding 150,000 gallons ; and the bottom is 7 feet
above the tops of the roofs of the mansion. The main pipes
from the reservoir are of iron, 6 inches in diameter. From the
main are laid service-pipes to the house, flower- and kitchen-
gardens, stables, laundry, and cottages. Hydrants are attached
to the house-service, and the whole forms a most elaborate and
complete system of domestic supply and fire-service for the
protection of every part of the house, which contains valuable
collections of statuary, paintings, &c. The total cost of the
whole service of pipes and reservoir, but exclusive of the engine,
which exerts about 4 horse-power when pumping, was 2000/.,
and the annual cost about 40/.

In this case the valuable nature of the property to be protected
rendered an effective fire-service necessary, which added very
materially to the cost. A simpler case, which will be repre-
sentative of the requirements of a much larger class of houses and
homesteads, will be found in the neighbourhood of Grantham.
The premises consist of a large farmhouse, farm-buildings, and

* ‘ Report on Conservancy Boards, House of Lords,’ 1877 ; Q- 2143 et seq.

t Grantham on the ‘Water Supply of Country Mansions.’ Stanford and
Co., 1874.

and the Storage of IVater.

stock-yards ; with stables for nag-horses and hunters ; cottages
for grooms, foremen, &c. The supply is derived from a well sunk
about 160 feet into the oolitic limestone, and the pumps are
worked by a small wind-engine, with self-regulating sails fixed
on a skeleton frame over the well. The water is forced into tw»
wrought-iron tanks ; one on the top of the house for the domestic
supply, and the other on the roof of one of the farm-buildings
for the cattle-yard, stables, and cottages. The tanks are large
enough to hold three or four days’ supply, to allow for times when
the wind is too still to work the engine. There is also provision
for working the pumps by hand-labour, in case of failure of the
motive power. The cost of the wind-engine, fixed complete, was
45Z. The cost of the pumps and tanks, being fixed at different
times, is not exactly known, but the cost of the whole supply,
complete, may be taken at about lOOZ.

These illustrations are sufficient to indicate the economy and
ease with which water may be supplied to villages and mansions.
Where the source of supply flows at an elevation above the
locality to be supplied, the force of gravity is sufficient to
move the water through the pipes. When, however, it has to
be lifted, it may be accomplished by one of the many machines
which exist, each being more or less efficient according to the
quantity of water at command and the fall to be obtained.

Engines for Raising Water. — The simplest form of machine
is the “ Shadoof,” which was used by the Ancient Egyptians
for lifting the water from shallow wells or from the river for
irrigation and water-supply, illustrations of which may be found
on many of the ancient monuments. The use of the pole and
bucket is still common, not only in Egypt but in many parts
of Europe, for raising water from wells. The water-wheel was
not unknown to the Egyptians, though it does not appear to
have been used very generally, this and the hydraulic screw
having been probably of later introduction.* The shadoof
consists simply of a pole working on an axis. The pole is
weighted at one end and a bucket is attached to the other. The
illustration (Fig. 6, p. 44) shows the method of raising the water
from the river by a series of steps.

The simple contrivances used for working saw-mills and other
machinery in hilly districts, where a wooden trough carried on
tressels brings the water from the neighbouring stream to the top
of a large wheel, with buckets formed on the periphery, shows
how ready the mechanic is to take advantage of all available
resources for working his business in preference to employing
that most expensive and troublesome of all motive power —

* ‘ The Ancient Egyptians.’ By Wilkinson. Murray, 1874.

44 Arterial Drainage

rig’. 6, — Modern Shadoof, or Pole and Bucket, used for raising loatcr.

human labour. Generally these water-wheels have been fitted
up more with regard to simplicity and economy of cost than
to an effective use of the motive power. Where water is
plentiful, this may not be a consideration. A turbine will,
however, be found a more compact and effective machine,
and it has been extensively adopted on the Continent, but much
less patronised in England than it deserves. The turbine is a
water-wheel, having generally a vertical axis, to which motion
is imparted by a column of water entering at the centre and
passing off at the circumference. It can be worked at either
high or low pressure. In the former case it is driven by a small
body of water having a high fall, and therefore suitable for erec-
tion in hilly districts where the supply of water is small and vari-
able, and facilities' exist for the construction of reservoirs ; the
latter kind of machine is adapted for a large body of water having
a low fall, in some cases not more than 9 inches.* Turbines
require very little masonry in fixing, and can be worked with a
useful effect of from 75 to 80 per cent. The illustration (Fig. 7)
shows one of Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne’s horizontal turbines,
fixed for working a set of pumps or other machinery.

* For a full description of these machines, see ‘ Spon’s Engineering Dictiouaiy,’
Art. “ Turbine.”

and the Storage of Water.

Fig. 7. — Schiele's Turbine.

The Ram is a simple and beautiful instrument in frequent
use for raising water from a stream for the supply of mansions
and gardens. It requires very little fixing and occupies only
a small space. It supplies at once the motive power and the
pump, without the aid of any other force than that produced
by the momentum or moving force of a part of the water to be
raised. So great is this effect, that a moving column of water
will overcome and move another column 30 times the height
of the waterfall by which it is raised, with a waste of only from
30 to 40 per cent, of the actual power of the water employed.
For example, with a fall of 5 feet, 7 gallons of water only will
be required in the best form of ram for every gallon raised 25
feet ; or, with a 10-feet fall, 14 gallons will be required to raise
1 gallon to a height of 100 feet above the ram ; and so in like
proportion as the fall or rise is increased or diminished. These
machines will go on working night and day without attention, are
simple in construction, and seldom get out of order. To estimate
the quantity of water that a ram will raise from a streain, it is
necessary to multiply the number of gallons of water available
from the stream per minute by the height in feet through which
the water falls before it acts on the machine, and by ‘70, to allow
for loss in working the ram ; then to divide the product by the
height in feet to which the water has to be raised, and the result
will be the number of gallons which the ram will raise per
minute. The illustration (Fig. 8, p. 46) gives a section of the ram,
showing the working parts. The water, escaping through the
supply-pipe with a velocity due to the height of the fall, forces

46 Arterial Drainage

the larger ball out of its muzzle, and raises it to the orifice, which

it immediately stops.

Fig. 8. The Hydraulic Ham, The momentum of

the water raises the
other valve, and the
force of the water,
compressing the air,
is driven up the sup-
ply-pipe. The ball
soon loses the ve-
locity imparted to it,
and descends by its
own weight, when
the same process is
again repeated. A
full description of
the different kinds of
ram will be found in
Tomlinson’s ‘ Cyclo-
paedia,’* under the ar-
ticle “ Hydrostatics.”
There are many cases, however, where the supply can only
be obtained from a reservoir or water-course situated at a lower
level than the locality to be supplied, and without sufficient
fall to work an hydraulic engine. In this case the most
effective power is steam ; but unless this can be used in conjunc-
tion with other works, as in the case quoted above, the cost is
too great for such supplies as are here treated of. Wind, how-
ever, supplies a cheap and, although at times intermittent, a
fairly effective motive power, costing nothing in the way of
fuel and little in the way of attention. Small wind-engines, fixed
either on the top of the highest farm-building or on skeleton
frames of wood, are coming to be very extensively used for
pumping, and for working chaff-cutting machines and mills for
grinding meal. In America they are much more extensively
used than in England, and a full description of the American
wind-engines, with illustrations, will be found in the last volume
of the ‘ Journal ’ at page 67.t In the Colonies, and in India
also, great numbers are in use for supplying water to the tanks
at the railway stations. In Australia, where drought prevails
for many months in the summer, and where manual labour is
exceedingly expensive, the water used for the vineyards, for
agricultural purposes, and for the large horse, sheep, and cattle

* Tomlinson’s ‘ Cyclopsedia of Arts and Manufacturers.’ Virtue and Co., I860,
t ‘Journal of the Koyal Agricultural Society,’ Second Series, toI. xxiii., 1877.

and the Storage of Water. 47

runs, is all raised by wind-mills from wells averaging about
38 feet deep.

Wind-engines with self-regulating circular sails, so, con-
structed as to be secure in a storm, are made of all sizes. One
with a sail 6 feet in diameter is capable of working a pump of
1^-inch bore. A sail 15 feet in diameter is equal to about
1 -horse-power, and costs 50Z. Gearing and a shaft for horse or
pony to supplement the wind may be worked in connection with
these engines, but this is unnecessary where a tank or reservoir
can be provided of sufficient capacity to hold three or four days’
supply. The illustration (Fig. 9) shows one of Warner and

Fig. 9. — Warner's Patent Windmill, with Annular Sails, Pumps and

Horse Gear.

Arterial Drainage

Co.’s patent windmills, with annular sails fixed for working
a set of pumps, and with horse-gear attached.

Wind-engines with four or five arms and cloth sails are very
inexpensive, and much more simple in construction than those
with annular sails, and will be found in frequent use in brick-
yards for working a pump for emptying the brick-pit in winter
time. If made with self-regulating wind-gear and patent wooden
sails, they are more costly, but very effective little machines,
applicable to a great variety of purposes. The next illustration
(Fig. 10) shows one of these engines, as supplied by Messrs.
Owen and Co., for working a pump from a deep well.

W’here the supply is not required at a great elevation, as, for
example, for a small railway station or farm-yard, the tanks are
frequently constructed of wrought iron, and placed on the top of
the framing or tower carrying the sails. Such a tank could be
made to hold about 1200 gallons.

The pressure of the wind acting on any surface, expressed in
pounds on one square foot, is equal to the square of the velocity
of the wind in miles per hour, multiplied by "OOID.

The following table gives approximately the velocity and
force of the wind, and the corresponding numbers of the Beaufort
Scale used to denote its force by sailors and in the daily weather
reports in the newspapers.

Miles per
Hour.

Force on one
Square Foot.

Corresponding
figure of
Beaufort Scale.

Calm.

2 oz.

Hardly perceptible.

i 11).

Light breeze.

2 lbs.

Good steady breeze.

H „

4 to 6

High wind.

8 „

Gale.

12 „

Storm.

18 „

Heavy storm.

24 „

Hurricane.

32 „

Hurricane.

100

50 „

Tearing up trees, &c.

It has been found practically that a wind moving with a force
of less than 10 miles an hour is not able to insure the working
of a corn-mill ; when the velocity exceeds 20 miles an hour it
is necessary to furl the sails,*

To find the power given off by a wind-engine, the area of the
sails in square feet must be multiplied by the cube of the velocity
of the wind in feet per second, and the product divided by

* Bumcll’s, ‘ Hydraulic Engineering : “ Pneumatics.” ’ Weale’s Series.

and the Storage of Water

Fig. 10. — Owen's Improved Patent Self -regulating Wind- Engine
and Pump.

Arterial Drainage

1,080,000, the result being the gross horse-power developed, from
which must be deducted an allowance for friction depending on

the construction of the engine (H-P =

Quality of Water. — The quality of the water supplied is a
matter of great importance. For all household purposes soft
water is more economical and infinitely preferable to hard water.
For drinking purposes, purity and freedom from animal con-
tamination are essential. The quality of hardness in water is
derived from the presence of mineral substances collected by the
rain in its course over or through the earth. Of the hardening
salts, carbonate of lime is the one most generally met with, and
on the proportion of this salt in solution the standard of hard-
ness is based. If 100,000 lbs. of water contain 1 lb. of carbonate
of lime, or its equivalent of other salts, it is said to possess one
degree of hardness. Each degree of hardness indicates the de-
struction and waste of 12 lbs. of the best hard soap by 10,000
gallorls of the water when used for washing.! Rain-water fresh
from the clouds is practically free from hardness. After it has
once touched the earth it becomes impregnated with hardening
salts, the number of degrees of hardness depending on the cha-
racter of the water-bearing stratum through or over which it
passes, and the length of time it is in contact with the soil.
Water collected from the Igneous rocks contains from 0'8 to 5’9
degrees of hardness ; next in order of softness come the waters
from the Metamorphic, Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian rocks,
the Millstone Grit, London Clay and Bagshot Beds, which range
from 0‘4 to 32’5 degrees ; the New Red Sandstone waters average
7’7 degrees; the Magnesian Limestones yield about 41°’2 ; the
Lias 29 degrees ; the Oolite and Chalk strata, which afford the
most abundant and reliable sources of supply, yield waters gene-
rally hard, but the hardness is principally of a temporary cha-
racter, which may be greatly reduced by boiling. The degrees
of hardness of water flowing through the Chalk formation vary
from 12°'4 to 38° and average 23'3 degrees.^ While there can
be no question that soft water is preferable for washing purposes,
yet opinions vary considerably as to its desirability for drinking.
It is alleged that the health and physique of populations in
hard-water districts is superior to that where soft water is
provided. Dr. Letheby gave it as his opinion, in his evidence
before the Committee on Water Supply, that the best water

* Moleswortli’s ‘ Pocket-Book Engineerinpr Formula.’ Spon and Co.
t ‘ Sixth Eeport of the Kivcrs Pollution Commission’ (Domestic Water
Supply), 1874.

J Ibid.

A V'

1,080,000

•r

and the Storage of Water. 51

for a town supply was that which contained from 10° to 15° of
hardness.*

Filtration. —Organic matters held in solution or suspension are
highly injurious to health ; no more effective source of disease
of the very worst type exists than water contaminated with
animal refuse and sewage. No system of mechanical filtration
will effectually remove this. The Rivers Pollution Commis-
sioners are even of opinion that the process of oxidation neces-
sary to destroy the soluble organic matter present in polluted water
is one of such extreme slowness, that the hitherto prevalent idea
as to the purifying effect of running water is untrustworthy ;
and that there is no river in this country long enough to purify
water thus contaminated sufficiently for drinking purposes.
Fortunately, in the pores of an open soil oxidation goes on verj
rapidly, especially when assisted by growing vegetation, and it
completely removes all noxious matter.

Mineral matters held in suspension, although of an innocuous
character, diminish the brightness of water and impart a repulsive
appearance to it. Filtration through sand is therefore requisite
where the supply is drawn from brooks and water-courses.
Slow filtration removes the suspended impurities and also assists
in the oxidation and removal of organic matter in solution.
The filter-beds generally in use are composed of sand and gravel,
the amount varying according to the quality of the sand and of
the water to be filtered, the average being about 2 feet of sand,
G inches of fine gravel, and 6 inches of coarse gravel. The
beds are made in duplicate, to allow of one being cleansed and
oxidised while the other is in use. The gravel is only intro-
duced to support the filtering medium, the sand, and to allow of
the filtered water being drawn off without disturbing it. Below
the filtering material the water drains off by means of perforated
tubular pipes stretching across the beds and communicating with
a central inclined channel. The head of water used to work the
beds is ’generally about 2 feet, and the same depth of water is
kept on the top of the sand. The filtration through sand should
not proceed at a higher rate than 6 inches of descent per hour,
and this will allow about square yard for every 1000 gallons
filtered in 24 hours. The sediment deposited on the surface of
the sand requires to be scraped off frequently in summer time,
and less often in winter. From a quarter to half an inch of
sand is taken off each time with the sediment, the sand being
replaced when the layer is reduced to 1 foot in thickness.f

* ‘ Water Supply of Cities and Towns.’ By W. Hmnber. Crosby Lockwood
and Co., 1876.

t ‘ Waterworks for the supply of Towns.’ By Hughes. Weale’s Series, 1859.
‘ Water Supply of Cities and Towns.’ By W. Humber.

E 2

Arterial Drainage
Water for Farm Purposes.

Irrigation. — In addition to the use of water for drinking and
cleansing purposes, it is exceedingly valuable for irrigating grass-
land, the water meadows of Devonshire, Gloucestershire, Somer-
setshire and other counties growing very large crops, and com-
manding rents sufficient to pay ample interest on the cost of the
works necessary for laying them out, storing the water, and
regulating the supply. An example of successful drainage com-
bined with embanking and irrigation is given in the Appendix
to the ‘ First Report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners.’ *
The Bampton and Shilton inclosure contains 3000 acres, two-
thirds of which were liable to be flooded, and nearly all were
without sufficient outfall for under-drainage. A great part of
the meadow, previous to the drainage operations, had been
under water for nine months, and the only vegetation to be seen
on hundreds of acres was an occasional blade of sedge peeping
through the brown scum left on the meadows by long-continued
floods. The land was embanked from the Thames ; a new out-
fall with the necessary tributary drains was cut ; the arable land
was under-drained from 4 to 8 feet deep ; and a portion of the
meadow irrigated by sluices from the Thames. The total cost
of the inclosure, including several miles of roads, was under
9000Z. About 5000/. of this was expended in water-courses
and embankments, and it was estimated by Mr. Bryan Wood,
the valuer, that the value of the crops in one rainy season since
the inclosure, were worth the whole of the 9000/. more than they
would have been if the land had not been improved. All the
land sold since the inclosure realised more than double what
it was worth before.

The water of most large riv'ers is very fertilising, containing
a great deal of rich alluvial warp and vegetable matter in sus-
pension. Water off chalk soils also holds valuable fertilising
salts in solution. From mountainous districts the particles held
in suspension are generally not of a fertilising character, and
often do more harm than good.

In India the magnificent works carried out by the previous
rulers of that country in the construction of canals, reservoirs,
embankments, and other irrigation works, stand as a reproach
to our own government.

The very existence of the population in some parts of our
Indian Empire seems to depend upon irrigation. With the
tropical sun and the dry climate of that country, lands, other-
wise highly fertile and capable of producing the most abundant

* ‘ First Report of Rivers Pollution Commissioners ’ (Thames).

and the Storage of Water.

crops, are said to remain in a barren state. It is asserted that
the districts where famine is constantly occurring are those where
irrigation has been neglected. It is stated on competent autho-
rity that if canals had been constructed in place of railways,
means of communication ample for the wants of an agricultural
population would have been provided ; and at the same time and
at less expense, the resources of the country would have been
developed to an enormous extent, and the calamities arising from
the starvation and misery of thousands probably averted.

In Italy and Spain the conservation of water for the purpose
of irrigation has long received its due attention, and instead of
treating it as an enemy to be got rid of as quickly as possible,
its force is subdued and made to become not only a valuable,
mercantile commodity, but one of the greatest blessings which
can be bestowed. So highly is water esteemed in Italy for the
purposes of irrigation, that 16Z. a year is not thought too much
to pay for a cubic foot per second.

The soil of parts of the south and east of Spain consists of a
rich alluvial deposit, from 3 to 10 feet in depth, and the climate
is such that crops of almost any description can be grown. Wheat,
barley, maize, olives, oranges, apples, rice, pepper, and numerous
similar crops flourish, well where the land is irrigated. Where
water is wanting the soil is barren. The average price of irri-
gated land in Murcia in 1859 was 500Z. The price of dry ground
in the same neighbourhood was from 25Z. to 30Z. Irrigated land
near Madrid lets for 5Z. an acre. The same class of land, but dry,
can be purchased in fee for the same sum. The average price
paid for the water is about 20s. a day for a cubic foot a minute,
this being the price charged by the Government along the
Henares Canal.*

Dew Ponds. — Sheep and cattle feeding on high table-lands and
chalk downs require a plentiful supply of water for drinking in
summer. This is provided by what are termed “ Dew Ponds.”
The source from which these ponds are replenished has long been
a matter of wonder. Situated on the very top of the highest land
of a watershed, it is impossible they can derive their supply from
springs, and the prevalent idea has hitherto been that, having
been filled by the rains of winter, they are fed in summer by the
condensation of the dew, rising from the surrounding land at night,
by the cool surface of the water in the pond — hence their name.
This popular idea has, however, lately been controverted by Mr.
H. P. Slade, who has made a thorough investigation into the
subject, and published the results of his observations in a very
interesting pamphlet.! A description of the pond Mr. Slade

* “ Irrigation in Spain,” ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxvii. ‘Irriga-
tion in Spain.’ By Eoberts. Spon and Co., 1867.

t ‘ Dew Ponds.’ By H. P. Slade. Spon and Co., 1877.

Arterial Drainage

experimented on will give a general idea of the method of con-
struction of these valuable reservoirs for water-supply. It is
situated on the highest ground of the Berkshire Hills, 450 feet
above mean sea-level, and is excavated in the chalk. A neigh-
bouring farm, 135 feet below the pond, has to obtain its water
from a well 108 feet deep. It cannot therefore, from its situa-
tion, be supplied by springs or surface-drainage. It is 69^ feet
in diameter and 6 feet 8 inches deep, and in shape it resembles
a shallow rain-gauge, the straight sides meeting nearly in a point
at the bottom. It is lined with a layer of clay, 12 inches thick,
mixed with lime to stay the worms, and covered over with first
a coating of straw to prevent the sun cracking the clay, and
finally with loose rubble. It was constructed in 1836 at a cost
of 40Z., and up to 1876 had been only once dry, owing to a leak
caused by the growth of rushes. Exposed to the sun and wind,
it is liable to great evaporation and loss ; and Mr. Slade contends
that, theoretically, it cannot derive its source from the con-
densation of the dew, as the surface of the water heated by the
sun during the day would be warmer than the surrounding
atmosphere at night ; and, practically, that it does not do so,
as his observations show that in no instance did a gain take
place after sunset, and in the early morning hours occasionally
a thick mist was observed to rise from the pond’s basin and roll
away over the downs, leaving a strong dew deposition in its
track. The only source of supply by which the water can be
maintained in the pond is the rainfall. The total fall for the four
summer months, June, July, August, and September, was 11*708
inches. There were in the pond on June 7th, 24,719 gallons of
water, and there remained on October 2, 18,218 gallons. A
rainfall of 11*708 inches falling on the area of the surface of the
pond would represent 23,043 gallons, which, added to the loss
between June and September of 6501 gallons, would make a
total to be accounted for of 29,544 gallons. Of this Mr. Slade
estimates that 6203 gallons were drunk by the sheep at the rate
of about half a gallon a day each, and the remainder passed
away by evaporation and absorption of the sides of the pond
above the water-level.

Water-power, Water-mills, Weirs, ^c. — Besides the uses already
referred to, water is made to serve another purpose as power for
driving mills and machinery ; and for this end the regulation of
the supply is all important. It seems an anomaly that such a
valuable force should be allowed to pass our doors and go away
to sea, while we are sinking shafts and fetching fuel from the
bowels of the earth, and transporting it at great expense hundreds
of miles to perform work, such as driving mills and engines, that
could as well be worked by water if a regular supply were insured.
The numerous water-wheels used in the mining-districts for

and the Storage of Water.

■crushing ore, pumping, and winding, illustrate of what service
water may be if properly applied. As an example of the power
to be utilised on our smaller rivers and water-courses, the case of
the Wandle, a small tributary of the Thames, with a watershed
of only 17,605 acres, may be cited — the water from this stream
driving no less than 38 mills of an aggregate of 781 horse-power.
Mr. Bailey Denton considers that the drainage off 20,000,000 of
acres of this country might be made available to deliver its sur-
plus water at a mean height of 150 feet, and that a power equal
to at least half that obtained from the use of coal might be
secured from this source alone.*

Mills have had to bear a great deal of undeserved blame for
causing floods ; but a proper consideration of the subject, and a
perusal of the evidence given before the Floods Committee of
the House of Lords, are sufficient to show that, under proper regu-
lations, there is no reason why mills, with their attendant weirs
and staunches, should in any way contribute to the flooding of the
districts above them. On the other hand, credit should be given
for the good they do by preserving the water and preventing
the land from being denuded of all its moisture by an over-
zeal for drainage. A properly constructed weir across a stream
only affects the land to such a distance as it prevents the side
drains emptying into the main stream. Parallel drains dis-
charging below the weir are a simple remedy for this. Mr.
Abernethy in his evidence, referring to the Thames, says that “ he
does not agree with the sweeping measure of removing all these
various dams and weirs which at present keep up the surface-
level ; and considers that their removal, with a deepening of the
bed of the channel, would allow the river to run in a depressed
bed considerably below the level of the adjoining lands, and
during the summer months would act as a great drain to the
subsoil.” In this opinion Mr. Coote and Mr. Grantham entirely
concurred.! The most perfect system of drainage in England is
to be found in the Fens. Here the water is always held up in
summer, the sluice-gates being opened by the sluice-keepers,
when necessary, to let off any surplus. In autumn, when from a
heavy fall of rain and the saturation of the ground a full flow of
water may be expected, the sluices are opened and the main drains
partially emptied, so as to be ready to receive the rainfall which
will reach them from the upper districts in the course of from 24
hours to two days. The water is then allowed to have free course
until the flood has passed off, when the “ slackers ” or draw-doors
are again closed, and the water is allowed to reach the summer

* ‘ The Storage of Water.’ By B. Denton. Spon and Co., 1874.

t ‘ House of Lords’ Committee on Conservancy Boards, Report and Evidence,’
1877 ; QQ. 202, 474, 475, 542, 553, 645, 812, 816, 907.

Arterial Drainage

level, at which height, by a proper regulation, it is maintained.
After the ground has become thoroughly saturated in winter, the
sluices often remain open for several weeks together, only to be
closed in time to keep up sufficient water for the summer supply.

Instead of sluices, falling weirs may be constructed, having doors
which can be prostrated in times of flood, when they no longer
operate as weirs, but allow the flood to have free course. As
soon as the flood is gone, the doors can be lifted again and form
a weir for mill purposes as before. Solid weirs, made of a greater
length than the cross-section of the stream, may also be so con-
structed as to facilitate the passing of the flood-waters while
holding up a sufficient quantity for mill purposes or fqivnavigation.
These weirs have been successfully adopted on the River Severn,
and are fully described by Mr. Leader Williams in his evidence
before the Committee of the House of Lords.* * * § The rule adopted
by Sir W. Cubitt for the length of these weirs is that the rect-
angle formed by the length of the weir and its depth below the
flood-line shall be equal to the rectangle of the river above the
weir within the same flood limits.t The length of the weir may
thus be four times the width of the stream, and is generally
placed obliquely. The top cill, instead of being flat, is curved,
and the curve is carried down to the back of the weir, by which
means the water is discharged with much greater facility. The
velocity being thus increased in one section of the weir, continues
throughout the whole channel. It is contended that these solid
weirs do not obstruct the action of the under-current, but rather
facilitate the passage of the flood-waters, the theory being that
a flood coming down into a channel comparatively empty is im-
peded very much in its course by shoals and the friction against
the sides and bottom ; whereas, if it be discharged into a deep
quiescent pool, the whole body of water is set in motion, and the
discharge brought about by a wave propagated through the water,
the effect of which is rapidly felt at the lower end of the pound,
and so the discharge takes place much more rapidly than if the
water had to travel bodily over the whole distance along a
shallow dry channel. J

The principle of a weir placed obliquely across the stream is
to be found in numerous works in Spain. All the old weirs
made for the irrigation works cross very obliquely, the angle
formed by the up-stream bank and the weir at the side from
which the canal takes its water being often less than 45 degrees. §

Gauging Streams. — For all purposes of water-supply, whether

* ‘House of Lords’ Committee on Conservancy Boards, 1877, Report and Evi-
dence Williams, QQ. 1647, 1648 ; Taunton, Q. 2217.

t ‘ Trans. Instit. Civil Engineers,’ vol. v.

X Ibid., “ Freshwater Floods," vol. xxvii. (Parkes, p. 45.)

§ ‘ Irrigation in Spain.’ By Roberts.

and the Storage of Water.

for domestic use, for irrigation, or for driving machinery, it is
necessary to ascertain the yield of the stream or spring, and to
measure the quantity of water available. For small springs the
simplest plan is to let the water run into a vessel of known capa-
city, and to note the time required to fill it. For streams an ap-
pro.\imate estimate may be formed by selecting a straight length
of the channel, free from obstruction, which will give a fair re-
presentation of the current generally; and, having measured the
distance, to ascertain the time taken by a float to pass from one
point to the other. The float should be so constructed as just to
move on the surface of the water, with the greater part of its
body below, so as not to be acted upon by the wind. A tuft of
grass with a portion of the earth adhering to the roots will answer
the purpose. This will give the surface-velocity in the centre
of the stream, which, being greater than that at the sides and
bottom, owing to the friction of the rubbing surface, must be
reduced by 16 per cent., or by multiplying the number of feet
per minute by '84, the product of which, multiplied by the
sectional area of the stream, will give the discharge in cubic
feet per minute ; multiplying this again by 6'23, will give
the equivalent number of gallons. Where greater accuracy
is required, a weir or dam should be made across the stream
with planks and clay, and the depth of water measured either-
passing over the top of the weir or through a notch. In
small streams a weir may he formed with a plank from half
an inch to an inch in thickness, having a V-notch cut in its
upper edge, the sides of the notch meeting at a right angle.
The edges should be chamfered off, so as to leave as little
thickness as possible in contact with the water, and the plank
should be set perfectly horizontal with a spirit-level. At a
distance above, sufficient to avoid the curvature of surface
which the water assumes as it approaches the weir, a peg with
a step cut in it requires to be driven into the stream, at a point
accessible from the side, the step being exactly level with the
bottom of the notch. This point may he ascertained either by a
spirit-level or by means of the water as it gradually rises to the
level of the notch. In small streams the distance of the peg from
the weir may be from 3 to 4 feet. (See illustration. Fig. 1 1, p. 58.)
After the water has settled down from the disturbance caused by
placing the dam, the height of the water on the step of the peg
must be measured in inches. The fifth power of the square-root
of the height or head (A) in inches, multiplied by 0'32, will
give the cubic feet (D) passing through the notch every minute
(D = 0'32 /d). For example, supposing the height of the
water on the step of the peg is 4 inches, the quantity would be
10| cubic feet, or 63f gallons. Care must be taken that the

Arterial Drainage

Fig. 11. — Weir, with Notch-board and Peg for measuring the Quantitij
of Water flowing down a Stream.

stream be dammed up by the weir sufficiently to reduce it nearly
to the condition of a still pond, and also that the water should
have a fall from surface to surface not less in height than double
the depth it runs over the notch.

The observations should be repeated several times on different
occasions, so as to obtain a fair average discharge. As a guide,
it may be taken that a notch, 5 inches deep, will discharge
about 100 gallons a minute. When the weir has no notch, the
height of the water passing over the top can be ascertained by
measuring the peg in the same manner, the step being placed
level with the top of the weir. The product of the depth of
water in inches (h) passing over the weir, as ascertained from
measurement on the step of the notch, multiplied by the square
root of the depth and by the length (1) in inches, and a constant
•43, gives the discharge (D) in cubic feet per minute ; or by
2’67 for gallons, the formula being D=hx\/h X I X ’43. For
example, a weir 72 inches long, with 2-inch overflow, will dis-
charge 543‘8 gallons or 87*3 cubic feet per minute.

An approximate calculation, sufficient for preliminary pur-
poses, may be made by holding a rule, marked in inches, on
the lower edge of the weir, with the flat side opposed to the
current. The difference in head to be allowed for and added to
the reading will be from one-tenth to a quarter, according to the
quantity of water passing over the weir.*

The power of water to drive mills or any other hydraulic
engines is derived from the weight of the water and the height

* Neville’s ‘ Hydraulic Tables.’ Beardmore, ‘ Manual of Hydrology.’ ‘ Practical
Hydraulics.’ By Box. Spon and Co. A very useful little book, witli Tables.

and the Storage of Water.

from which it falls. The product of these two during the space
of one minute, divided by 33,000, gives the horse-power. The
weight of a cubic foot of water is generally taken at 62 '5 lbs.,
and contains 6*23 gallons. For example, a stream yielding
60 cubic feet a minute, and falling 30 feet, would give 3‘4 horse-
power X 3.4 From this a deduction has

\ 33,000 /

to be made for friction and waste to obtain the actual power,
this being more or less according to the construction of the
engine. For a well-made turbine, 20 per cent, may be sufficient ;
whereas for an undershot wheel, 70 per cent, should be allowed.

Conclusion.

In all the works of Nature the means are most beautifully
adapted to the end to be accomplished, and everything follows a
regular law and order. Thus with the rainfall and water-supply:
the sun by its heat causes the vapour to rise from the surface
of the ocean ; the winds carry the vapour across the land ; the
clouds are caught in their progress by the mountain-tops, or they
come in contact with a cooler stratum of atmosphere, when con-
densation takes place and the vapour falls to the earth in the form
of rain, affording a supply of a requisite indispensably necessary
for all animal and vegetable life. By the force of gravity the water
not taken up by the vegetation sinks through the pores of the
soil and gradually percolates to channels formed in the hollows
of the surface of the earth. Along these it runs till it is hnally
discharged back into the ocean. The process of percolation
through the soil is so slow, that the abundance of one season is
sufficient to keep up a supply for the drought of another. The
increase of population and the growing wants of civilisation
compel the inhabitants of a thickly populated country to obtain
the greatest amount of food-supply that is possible from the soil,
and by artificial means to stimulate production. Of the several
processes conducive to this end, one of the most successful is the
drainage of the land by pipes. This, by removing the water more
rapidly than the slow operations of nature would accomplish it,
opens the pores of the soil and affords a supply of air to the roots
of the plants; and also, by checking surface-evaporation, increases
the temperature of the soil. So great has the benefit derived from
under-drainage been found, that it has been generally adopted
without reference to the effect that this interference with the
operations of nature would cause. The result has been floods at
oiie time and droughts at another. In the zeal for the removal of
water, no regard has been paid to the regulating process of nature
for the storing up the abundance of one season for the wants

On Bats Guano.

of another. The great aim to be kept steadily in view in all
drainage operations should therefore be not the withdrawal of
the water only, but the proper regulation of the surplus rainfall :
the so contriving the works that a thorough command can be
kept over the supply, letting it go when over-abundant, but
retaining all that is necessary for future wants. It is the more
essential that attention should be prominently called to this view
of the case, in the present feeling of the country with regard to
floods, and with the probability of large works being undertaken
to improve the rivers of the land. It is feared that the channels
may become so enlarged and improved by the removal of ob-
structions as to drain away too rapidly the whole winter supply,
and the water-level be so reduced in the soil that the latter evil
will be greater than the first ; that our pastures may become
ruined, and the land dried up for want of water. In all schemes
of improvement the means of holding up the water by weirs or
sluices are as important as those for enlarging and clearing the
water-way. Let water be regarded as a valuable servant, useful
for drinking, for cleansing our persons and our belongings, for
the growth of vegetation, for manufactures, for driving our ma-
chinery, for irrigating our lands, for facilitating inland locomo-
tion, and for refreshing and keeping bright and pleasant the face
of the country. There is nothing that adds so much to the beauty
of a landscape as water — whether in a quiescent state, as in a lake,
surrounded by verdure-clad hills, or moving as in a mountain-
stream or a waterfall : neither is there any music more pleasant
than that of water, whether it be the murmur of the mighty
ocean, the ripple of the stream over the pebbles in a trout-stream,
or the plash from a waterfall embosomed in ferns and mosses.

II. — On Bats Guano. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S.

The term guano, as is well known, is usually applied to the
dry and more or less decomposed excrement of sea-birds, exten-
sive deposits of which are found on the rocky promontories of
the coasts of South America and South Africa and on the islands
that skirt them. The same name is likewise given to a variety of
brown, yellow, or reddish-coloured powdery natural phosphatic
fertilisers, the chief supplies of which come from the high table-
land near the coast of Bolivia, between Peru and Chili, and
from a number of small uninhabited islands situated in the
Caribbean Sea and the South Pacific Ocean.

Guano is a name appropriately bestowed upon those natural
phosphatic fertilisers, which can readily be shown to be the direct

On Bats' Guano.

products of the action of water upon accumulations of the faecal
matter of sea-birds, and of the remains of marine animals. The
invariable presence of nitrogenous organic matters, yielding
from i to f per cent, of nitrogen on an average, and the fine
powdery condition of all true phosphatic guanos, plainly indicate
their origin and mode of production.

Nitrogenous and phosphatic guanos clearly have a common
origin and the latter being, comparatively speaking, quite recent
products of decomposition, may be appropriately described as
true guanos. But it appears to me objectionable to give the
name of “ Rock guano ” to Sombrero and Curasao Rock, or to
Alta Vela, Redonda, and similar phosphatic minerals, essen-
tially differing in physical characters from Mejillones, Malden
Island, Starbruck Island, or Lacepede and other phosphatic
guanos, and possessing still less in common with Peruvian,
Saldanha Bay, Ichaboe, and other kinds of birds’ dung which are
rich both in ammoniacal and phosphatic constituents.

Guanos from which nearly the whole of the nitrogenous and
saline constituents have been removed, by rain and other atmo-
spheric agencies, contain the phosphatie elements in a finely
divided condition ; and although their efficacy as manures is,
no doubt, much enhanced by treatment with acids, they may in
virtue of their fine condition be applied to the land with more
or less advantage in their natural state. On the other hand,
Alta Vela, Redonda, and other phosphatic minerals, the origin
of which is shrouded in mystery, and which are found in nature
in the shape of rocks or stones, frequently contain little or no
trace of organic matter, while the phosphatic constituents are in
a completely mineralised state. Materials of that kind, in my
judgment, cannot be applied to the land with advantage, unless
they have been subjected to chemical treatment, and thereby
converted into efficient manures.

If applied to ground phosphatic minerals, the name of guano
appears to me misleading ; for it conveys the impression to the
mind of practical men that such minerals, merely reduced to a
fine powder, may be employed for manuring purposes, in the same
manner as true guanos, without previous treatment with acids.

I allude to this matter, because instances have been brought
under my notice, by farmers who applied ground phosphatic
minerals, which had been sold to them as guano, as a top-
dressing for corn-crops, under the wrong impression that they
would produce effects similar to those which nitrogenous guanos
are well known to produce upon corn-crops. It is scarcely neces-
sary to observe that it is a sheer waste of time and money to
top-dress wheat or barley with ground minerals containing no
ammonia whatever.

On Bats' Guano.

The exhaustion of the Chincha Island guano deposits, the
limited supply of ammonia-salts and nitrogenous refuse-matter,
and the constantly increasing demand for high-class artificial
manures, have greatly stimulated of late years the search for
natural fertilisers in all parts of the globe ; and, in not a
few instances, enterprising explorers have been rewarded with
success.

Amongst the more recent discoveries of new sources of
fertilising matters, those of considerable accumulations of Bats’
guano deserve to be noticed. The object of the present Paper
is to give a brief account of the chemical composition and the
manurial properties of a number of samples of Bats’ guano,
which have been recently examined by me, and which I received
from different places, where more or less extensive deposits have
been found.

As far as I have been able to obtain information. Bats’ guano
is found in Arkansas and Texas, in the south of Spain, in
Jamaica, on several islands belonging to the group of the
Bahamas, and on several East Indian Islands.

Bats’ guano consists of the more or less decomposed dung of
bats, and of their dead bodies, mixed with variable proportions
of earthy matter. It varies in colour from light brown to dark
brown, and generally smells but faintly of ammonia. Some of
the samples examined by me were light, powdery, dry, and full
of fragments of the wings of insects ; others I found heavy, earthy
in appearance, and quite void of smell.

This fertiliser is found in caves, inhabited by innumerable
bats, attracted to the neighbourhood of the caves by swarms of
insects which infest certain swampy districts in semi-tropical
countries, and which afford abundant food to the winged
mammals.

The most extensive accumulations of Bats’ guano appear to
have been found in numerous rocky caves in Texas and Arkansas.
Some of the caves yield comparatively little guano, others many
hundreds of tons ; and from 15,000 to 20,000 tons are reported
to have been taken from a single cave in Texas. The number
of bats frequenting the caves amounts to millions, and when they
issue forth they darken the air as if a great volume of smoke were
pouring out from the opening.

Caves covering miles of ground, and inhabited by innumerable
bats, are also found in Arkansas ; and there can be no doubt
that the caves in Texas and Arkansas contain large stores of
bats’ dung of sufficiently good quality to be usefully employed
for agricultural purposes.

On Bats' Guano.

Bats’ Dung from Arkansas.

Some time ago I received two samples of bats’ dung taken
from caves in Arkansas. One of them was dry and earthy in
appearance, and marked “ Old deposit the second, labelled
“ Fresh deposit,” was very damp, lumpy, and dark coloured.

On analysis the two samples yielded the following results : —

Composition of Arkansas Bats’ Guano.

’

No. 1.

Old

Deposit.

No. 2.

Fresh

Deposit.

♦Moisture

6-74

33-53

Organic matter and salts of ammonia

21-92

44-63

t Phosphoric acid, soluble in water .. .. 1

6-64

/ 1-92

J „ , insoluble in water .. .. J

\ 1-84

Lime

6-11

1-87

§Nitric acid

1-80

8-40

Alkaline salts, oxide of iron, alumina, andl
other substances not determined . . . . /

15-09

3-12

Insoluble siliceous matter

42-30

4-69

100-00

* Containing nitrogen

2-48

6-62

Equal to ammonia

3-01

8-04

t Equal to tribasic phosphate of limel

4-19

rendered soluble by acid /

••

J Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime ..

14-49

4-02

§ Containing nitrogen

•46

2-18

Equal to ammonia

•56

2-65

Notwithstanding the wet condition of the fresh deposit, it
yielded 8'04 per cent, of ammonia and 8'4 per cent, of nitric
acid, corresponding to 13'22 per cent, of nitrate of soda, and
containing 2'18 per cent, of nitrogen, equal to 2’65 per cent, of
ammonia. Thus, altogether, the fresh bats’-dung contained
8'80 per cent, of nitrogen in the shape of nitrogenous organic
matters, ammonia-salts, and nitrates, corresponding to 10*69 per
cent, of ammonia. The fresh deposit was full of fragments of
the wings of insects, presenting a beautiful appearance under
the microscope. It had no offensive or pungent smell, and did
not contain any appreciable quantity of volatile carbonate of
ammonia. About one-half of the phosphoric acid found in the
analysis was soluble, the second half was insoluble in water,
and both together represented 8 per cent, of tribasic phosphate
of lime in round numbers. The presence of a considerable

On Bats' Guano.

(j4

quantity of nitrates together with much nitrogenous organic
matter is rather remarkable ; the material, however, was light
and porous, offering free access to air, and, under these cir-
cumstances, the nitrogen of the fresh excreta would give rise to
the formation of nitrates.

The old deposit, although much drier than the fresh, con-
tained scarcely half the amount of organic matter and salts of
ammonia, and very much less nitric acid. It was richer in
phosphates than the fresh deposit, and was unfortunately con-
taminated with so much sand and valueless earthy matter
that, unless the cost of transport be moderate, it would hardly
appear worth the expense of exploring the caves in which such
deposits occur. The fresh deposit, on the other hand, is a valu-
able manure that probably would realise about lOZ. a ton in the
market.

I have further siibniitted to more detailed analyses four other
samples of Bats’ guano, which I have reason to believe were
taken from caves in Arkansas or Texas, and have obtained the
following results : —

Detailed Composition of Bats’ Guano.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

Moisture

27-24

23-60

64 07

12-30

’Organic matter and salts of ammonia ..

5-83

8-26

21-57

30-41

Phosphoric acid

2-38

24-96

1-42

8-33

Lime

8-91

27-21

3-71

14-30

Magnesia

•39,

1-33

•09

•34

Oxide of iron

3-69

•40

•69

•45

Alumina

2-30

, ,

Sulphuric acid

•44

4-03

•99

5-87

Nitric acid

•80

6-75

3-20

9-75

Carbonic acid

4-51

, .

, Chloride of potassium

•37

Chloride of sodium

•80

•53

•47

1-07

Potash

•33

•20

, ,

•48

Soda

•19

-.58

Insoluble siliceous matter

42-19

2-15

3-31

16-70

100-00

100 00

100-00

’ Containing nitrogen

•49-

•48

2-91

5-37

Equal to ammonia

-50

•58

3-53

6-52

Combining together the acid and basic constituents, the
composition of these four samples may be represented as
follows : —

On Bats' Guano.

Chemical Composition of Bats’ Guano.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

Moisture

27-24

23-60

64-07

12-30

^Organic matter of salts of ammonia

5-84

8-26

21-57

30-41

Tribasic phosphate of lime

tPhosphoric acid

Lime

5-19

/ 24-96
\ 23-40

1-60

1-42

8-33

5-91

Carbonate of lime

10 -24

^ .

Nitrate of lime

•15

2-91

4-19

12-58

Sulphate of lime

•74

6-85

1-68

9-97

Nitrate of Magnesia

Magnesia

’•39

4-92

•33

1-26

Nitrate of potash

Chloride of potassium

•71

•43

"•37

i-02

Chloride of sodium

•80

•53

•47

i-07

Nitrate of soda

•52

1-59

•30

Oxide of iron

3-69

•40

•69

•45

Alumina

2-30

, ,

Insoluble siliceous matter

42 19

2-15

3-31

16-70

100-00

* Containing nitrogen

•49

•48

2-91

5-37

Equal to ammonia

•59

•58

3-53

6-52

t Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime

54-49

3-08

18-18

A glance at the preceding analytical results shows that
the composition of the four samples presents a wide range of
differences. The samples No. 1 and No. 2, it will be seen, were
fairly dry, but very poor in organic matter and ammonia. No. 1,
likewise, was poor in phosphate of lime and in nitrates, and
much contaminated with carbonate of lime, sand, and other
worthless mineral matters. Altogether it was not worth re-
moving, for it contained only 5 per cent, of phosphate of lime,
about ^ per cent, of ammonia, and not quite 1 per cent, of nitric
acid. The second sample contained about as much nitrogen in
the form of organic matter as the first ; per cent, of nitric
acid and an amount of phosphoric acid corresponding to 54 J per
cent, of tribasic phosphate of lime. At the present market-
value of manures, No. 2 would be worth about 11. a. ton.

The sample marked No. 3 was very wet, as it contained
64 per cent, of water. Notwithstanding this large amount of
water, it yielded on analysis per cent, of ammonia and 3 per
cent, of nitric acid, in round numbers ; and in a proper air-dry
condition would be a valuable mauure.

The fourth sample, it will be seen, was the driest of all, and
the richest in nitrogenous organic matter, salts of ammonia,
and nitric acid. It contained 5'37 per cent, of organic and am-
moniacal nitrogen, equal to 6^ per cent, of ammonia and 9f
per cent, of nitric acid, corresponding to 17T9 per cent, of

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

On Bats' Guano.

nitrate of soda, and containing 2 '52 per cent, of nitrogen,
equal to 3'06 of ammonia. The total nitrogen in No. 4 thus
amounted to 7'89 per cent., equal to 9'58 per cent, of ammonia;
and the phosphoric acid in this sample was equal to 18 per cent,
of tribasic phosphate of lime. A manure, equal to the Bats’
guano No. 4, would be worth about Hz', a ton.

Bats’ Guano fkom the South op Spain.

As early as 1870 a peculiar kind of guano was sent to me
for examination, which, having been found in caves in Spain,
was called Cave-guano. It was a wet, dark-coloured, porous
material, having but little smell, and was full of fragments of
insects. I readily recognised it as Bats’ guano.

On analysis it yielded the following results : —

Moisture 33 • 68

*Organic matter and salts of ammonia 25 '16

Phosphate of lime 7 '48

Sulphate of lime, &c 1 • 18

Insoluble siliceous matter 32 ' 50

100-00

* Containing nitrogen 3'36

Equal to ammonia 4-08

Two years afterwards, two more samples of bats’-dung found
in the south of Spain were examined by me. Both, it will be seen
by the subjoined analyses, were superior to the one the analysis
of which has just been quoted. Both were very porous, volu-
minous, and dark-coloured materials, without any particular smell,
and both contained innumerable fragments of insects’ wings.

The composition of these two samples was as follows : —

No. 1.

No. 2.

Moisture

15-82

18-81

♦Organic matter and salts of ammonia

65-08

42-09

Phosphate of lime

3-34

tPhosphoric acid

4-65

Lime . . ....

5-18

t Alkaline salts

13-37

Substances not determined

15-28

Insoluble siliceous matter

2-39

13-99

100-00

* Containing nitrogen

8-67

4-96

Equal to ammonia

10-52

6-02

t Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime . .

10-15

j Containing soluble phosphoric acid

3-76

Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime , .

8-20

••

On Bats Guano.

I did not test the preceding samples for nitrates, as I was
not acquainted, at the time when I made the examination,
with the fact that Bats’ guano always contains more or less
nitric acid. However, about eighteen months ago I received for
analysis another sample of Bats’ guano from the south of Spain,
the nitric acid in which I determined, and also separately the
proportions of soluble and insoluble phosphoric acid.

Like the preceding samples from Spain, it was a dark-coloured
voluminous manure, and full of fragments of insects, chiefly
insect-wings, which evidently had passed away with the bats’-
dung undigested.

It had the following composition : —

Moisture ..

.. 18-

*0rganic matter and salts of ammonia ..

.. 53-

'47

tPhosphoric acid, soluble in water

jPhosphoric acid, insoluble in water

Lime

§Nitric acid

.. 6-

Magnesia and alkalies (not determined)

■06

Insoluble siliceous matter

.. ll-

■15

100

•00

* Containing nitrogen

•34

Equal to ammonia

■91

+ Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime

•35

•45

§ Containing nitrogen

•57

Equal to ammonia

■90

Total nitrogen

•91

Equal to ammonia

.. 10

•81

It will be seen that this is a very valuable artificial manure,
as it contains an amount of nitrogen which is equal to nearly
11 per cent, of ammonia, in addition to which it contains
appreciable quantites of soluble and insoluble phosphates.

Bats’ Guano feom Jamaica.

Only one sample of Bats’ guano from Jamaica has been
brought under my notice. This was a brown-coloured rather
heavy powder, resembling in appearance Baker Island guano.

On analysis it yielded the following results : —

Moisture 23 ’07

*0rganic matter and salts of ammonia 23 ’65

Phosphate of lime 34 ‘49

Sulphate of lime 4 ‘95

Oxide of iron and alumina 5 • 64

Alkaline salts 2 ’22

Insoluble siliceous matter .. ... 5 '98

100-00

* Containing nitrogen ’ . . 1-26

Equal to ammonia 1-53

F 2

On Bats' Guano.

Like bats’ dung from other localities, that from Jamaica is
likely to vary very much in composition. The sample analysed
by me was poor in ammonia and not particularly rich in phos-
phate of lime.

Bats’ Guano from Penang.

In Penang Bats’ guano bears the name “ Typelawer.” When
pure it is held in high estimation as a manure by the planters ;
but often, I am informed, Typelawer is much adulterated by
the Chinese dealers.

The only sample hitherto analysed by me had the following

composition : —

Moisture 10 ' 54

*0rganic matter 9 ' 25

Phosphate of lime 38 • 08

Carbonate of lime 5*69

Sulphate of lime 13 '76

Magnesia "78

Alkaline salts, including 2 ’32 of potash ,. .. 6‘09

Insoluble siliceous matter 15 '81

100-00

• Containing nitrogen -33

Equal to ammonia -40

This specimen, it will be seen, contains 38 per cent, of phos-
phate of lime and 6 per cent, of alkaline salts, including 2^ per
cent, of potash, and no doubt is a useful fertiliser on account of
the phosphates and salts of potash which it contains. On the
other hand, it is poor in organic matter, and yields not quite
^ per cent, of ammonia on decomposition.

In Penang Typelawer is used chiefly as a manure for sugar-
canes. The sample analysed by me, being very poor in am-
monia, would not be a good manure for sugar-canes, but probably
other samples are richer in nitrogenous constituents.

Bats’ Guano from the Bahamas.

Most of the Bats’ guano which is actually imported into
England as an article of commerce is derived from numerous
caves frequented by bats on Guanahani Island (St. Salvator)
and on other islands belonging to the group of Bahamas, and
passes in commerce under the name of Bahama or Guanahani
guano.

It has a dark-brown colour, little or only a faint ammoniacal
smell, and generally contains fragments of coral or limestone.

On Bats’ Guano,

which appears to constitute the cavernous rocks in which the
accumulations of hats’ excrements are found.

Guanahani guano is often too damp and lumpy for direct
application to the land in its natural condition, and requires to
be dried, sifted, or otherwise manipulated before it can be used
with advantage for agricultural purposes.

The following analyses, made with average samples repre-
senting whole cargoes recently imported into England, will give
an idea of the general character of the Guanahani guano of
commerce : —

Composition of Guanahani or Bahamas Guano of Commekoe.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 5.

No. 6.

Moisture

27-05

23-46

27-73

20-61

31-12

31-49

"Organic matter

14-72

11-38

21-18

11-10

10-74

11-18

^Phosphoric acid

13-77

12-34

21-09

12-61

15-20

13-99

Lime

25-75

30-90

16-04

32-78

26-70

25-96

tNitric acid

1-26

1-05

4-08

1-24

•91

2-97

Magnesia, alkaline salts, &c.l
(not determined) . . . . /

12-66

17-83

6*89

20-02

14-19

13-37

Insoluble siliceous matter . .

4-79

3-04

2-99

1-64

1-14

1-04

100-00

100-0

" Containing nitrogen - .

-68

-53

1-93

•54

-84

•60

Equal to ammonia

-83

-64

2-34

•64

1-02

•72

■f Containing nitrogen . .

-33

-27

1-06

•32

•24

•77

Equal to ammonia

•40

•33

1-29

•39

•29

•93

Total nitrogen

1-01

•80

2-99

•86

1-08

1-37

Equal to ammonia

1-23

•97

3-63

1-03

1'31

1-64

J Equal to tribasic phos-1
phate of lime . . . . /

30-06

26-94

46-04

27-53

33-19

30-54

With the exception of No. 3, all the samples, it will be seen,
were comparatively poor in nitrogenous organic matters. All
contained some nitrates and phosphate of lime, the latter
averaging in the different cargoes from 27^ per cent, to 46 per
cent. Except No. 3, all contained considerable quantities of
carbonate of lime.

From these analyses it appears that Bahamas guano is not
suitable as a manure for corn-crops ; but, like other phosphatic
guanos, it may be usefully applied to root-crops or to worn-out
pasture-land.

It need hardly be mentioned that Guanahani guano of so
variable a composition should be bought on the strength of a
guaranteed analysis, at the market-rates at which ammonia and
phosphate of lime can be bought at present in similar manures.

On Bats’ Guano.

As a further proof of the variable composition of Bahamas
guanos, the following analyses of two samples of cargoes recently
imported into England may be quoted : —

Detailed Composition of Two Samples of Bahama Guano.

Ko. 1.

No. 2.

Moisture

9-45

21-27

*Organic matter

11-41

27-97

JPhosplioric acid, soluble in water

1-27

•25

§ ,, „ insoluble in water

13 05

4-34

Lime

20-13

17-53

Magnesia

-13

1-12

IlCarbonic acid

8-53

^Sulphuric acid

li-08

•66

tNitric acid

2-15

•91

Alkaline salts, including potash, not deter-1

/ 2-01

mined /

\ -60

Oxide of iron

7-29

Alumina

5-14

> 0 0/

Insoluble siliceous matter

17-44

9-84

100-00

* Containing nitrogen

-94

1-09

Equal to ammonia

1-14

1-32

t Containing nitrogen

-55

•23

Equal to ammonia . .

•67

•28

Total nitrogen

1-49

1-32

Equal to ammonia

1-81

1-60

t Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime

2-77

•55

§ )> »J

11 Equal to carbonate of lime

28-49

9-47

19-39

Equal to sulphate of lime

18-83

••

The most striking differences in the composition of these two
guanos will be noticed in the proportion of soluble and insoluble
phosphates. Whereas the first sample contained 2| per cent, of
soluble and 28J per cent, of insoluble phosphates, or, in round
numbers, 31 per cent, total phosphates, the second contained
only 10 per cent, of soluble and insoluble phosphates. Again,
it will be observed that No. 1 was much drier than No. 2, and
that it contained 19 per cent, of sulphate of lime, and no car-
bonate, whilst the second sample contained scarcely any sul-
phate ; but, instead of it, rather more than 19 per cent, of
carbonate of lime.

The last sample of Guanahani guano which has come under
my notice, and which I submitted to a complete analysis, fur-
nished the following results : —

On Bats' Guano.

Moisture 11 '39

*Organic matter and salts of ammonia 16 ‘45

Phosphoric acid, soluble in water ‘76

Phosphoric acid, insoluble in water 7 ’88

Lime 12 ‘32

Magnesia 3 • 83

Oxide of iron and almnina 4 • 33

Sulphuric acid 14 • 27

Nitric acid ‘35

Carbonic acid I* 04

Chloride of potassium 10 ‘16

Chloride of sodium 8 • 62

Insoluble siliceous matter 8 • 60

100 '00

* Containing nitrogen 2 • 64

Equal to ammonia 3*20

Combining these constituents together, the composition of
this guano may be represented as follows : —

Moisture 11 '39

•Sulphate of ammonia 8 '05

fOrganic matter 13 '28

Monobasic phosphate of lime 1 • 05

Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime rendered)

soluble .. .. .. pi 66)

Tribasic phosphate of lime 13 ' 84

Tribasic phosphate of magnesia 2 ' 84

Sulphate of magnesia 7 ' 59

Carbonate of lime 2 ' 36

JNitrate of lime '53

Sulphate of lime 7'36

Chloride of potassium, equal to 6 '39 of potash .. 10 '16

Chloride of sodium 8 ' 62

Oxide of iron and alumina 4 ' 33

Insoluble siliceous matter 8 • 60

100 -00

• Containing nitrogen 1 ' 70

Equal to ammonia 2 ‘06

t Containing nitrogen '94

Equal to ainmonia 1*14

X Containing nitrogen '09

Equal to ammonia 'll

Total nitrogen 2 ‘ 73

Equal to ammonia 3 ‘31

This guano, it will he noticed, has a very complex compo-
sition, and differs principally from the generality of samples
recently analysed by me in containing large proportions of
chloride of potassium and sodium, which somewhat depress the
average percentage of phosphate of lime, amounting in most
cargoes to about 30 per cent., and rising in some to upwards of

Exmoor Reclamation.

40 per cent. It is also richer in nitrogen than the majority of
samples that have come under my notice ; and, on the whole, is
a useful manure for general agricultural purposes, being well
suited for most crops usually grown on the farm.

This brief account of the chemical composition and properties
of Bats’ guano fully explains the variable statements which have
appeared in agricultural periodicals with regard to its fertilising
value. Bats’ guano, it has been shown, includes manures, some
of which contain as much as 10 per cent, of ammonia, and
others only 1 per cent, and even less, and which differ in value
from 3/. per ton, and even less, to 11/. a ton and upwards.

III. — Exmoor Reclamation. By Samuel Sidney.

Exmoor was afforested by William Rufus, some seven hundred
years ago, when Dartmoor was also made a Royal Forest.
The red-deer, the chosen game of the Norman kings, still
retain a doubtful hold upon the Exmoor hills, though they have
long been driven, by the advance of cultivation, from the rest
of England. In those old days they roamed in large herds
over this remote and thinly inhabited district, attracted by the
excellence of the summer pasture of the hills, and the solitary
wildness of the deep oak-clad valleys. These valleys formed
the purlieus of the Forest, over which the forest laws protected
the royal chase against the neighbouring landowners.

No doubt the deer often crossed the wide valley intervening
between Exmoor and Dartmoor forests, where within the reach
of tradition they still existed, and, when hunted, took refuge in
the English Channel, as the Exmoor deer still do in the Severn
sea.

Still farther back, the Exmoor district had been thought
by the Romans (the great strategists of old), to be of sufficient
consequence to take a place in their system of occupation ; and a
very large Roman camp, called Sholesborough Castle, stands on
the south-western heights, overlooking the counties of Devon and
Cornwall for many a mile ; while they had a smaller camp close
to Lynmouth, which was used by them as a landing-place. All
this shows that the Exmoor district had been held to be of some
importance long before the days of the Red King.

Be that, however, as it may, Exmoor remained in a state of nature,
wild and desolate as an American prairie, until it was disforested
by Act of Parliament in 1818. At that date the Exmoor Forest,
together with the unenclosed lands lying open to it, comprised
sixty thousand acres without a fence, and extended from the

Exmoor Reclamation.

Elworthy Turnpike, ten miles west of Taunton on the Dunster
Road, to Bratton Fleming, near Barnstaple, and to the sea at
Morte, near Ilfracombe.

Over these wastes there were no roads but the tracks of the
packhorses ; no enclosures, no cultivation, no dwellings, no
population except the shepherds who attended to the summer
feeding of live-stock from the valleys, and the smugglers who
made temporary depots in the moors on their way from the
many creeks of the coast, so convenient for their “ free-trade.”

The slow, long-eared, deep-voiced stag-hounds of that day,
often ran their quarry thirty miles without a check, before the
huntsman could sound the morte.

The only return obtained from these hill-wastes was an
almost nominal sum paid for the agistment of the live-stock of
valley farmers, fed on the Moors in the fine months of the year,
and- from herds of native ponies, as hardy, and nearly as wild,
as the red deer.

Exmoor proper, as distinguished from the heathy commons
that surround it, lies at an elevation of from 1000 to 1500 feet
above the level of the sea, so that the elevation is constantly
increasing as it is approached from Barnstaple, distant sixteen
miles, Ilfracombe, seventeen miles. South Molton, eleven miles,
Lynmouth, nine miles, and Minehead, nineteen miles, although
many narrow intermediate valleys are crossed. Exmoor consists
of long, green, undulating table-lands, intersected by steep
gorges, provincially called combes.

In one of these combes the River Exe has its source, not far
from that of its yet larger tributary the Barle. After forcing a
devious way for many miles, being joined at every mile by lesser
streams, and rolling over pebbly rocky bottoms, these two rivers
form a junction at Exebridge, a few miles below Dulverton.
The sides of these steep valleys, running for miles through the
forest, consist of a brown loam, covering a deep yellow subsoil,
the debris of the soft Devonian clay-slate rock that underlies it.

About half of Exmoor is naturally dry, and is covered with-
this brown loam, which becomes fertile on the application of
lime. Experience has proved that this brown soil is nothing
else than the unfertile yellow subsoil after it has been exposed
to the influence of light and air.

The other half is covered with shallow peat, which holds
water like a sponge after the showers, which are frequent in
every month in the year.

The unreclaimed peat-land produces a profusion of “ forest-
grass,” a coarse benty herbage, containing the stool-bent, flying-
bent, drew-moss, deer-hair, cotton-grass, bluepry, spratt, rush,
and other grasses of the kinds that form the winter and spring

Exmoor Reclamation.

keep of the many thousand sheep that dwell all the year round
on the Scotch hills, from the English border to Caithness.

The wet lands of Exmoor are wet, because, from some in-
scrutable cause, a thin clay-pan, of from three to six inches thick,
and quite impervious to water, has been spread by nature like
a sheet over large portions of these hills. Where the pan exists,
and the water cannot penetrate to the pervious subsoil, the peat
has grown, covering in the course of centuries hard stones of
no great size which seem to have been strewn over the surface of
the pan, and to ha,ve belonged to the formation that produced
it, having no affinity with the killas or clay-slate rocks of which
the hills are composed.

The barrows, or ancient burying-places often found on the
tops of the hills, are formed of heaps of these stones, which were
no doubt lying on the surface of the ground at the time the
barrows were made, and have since been covered over by the
growth of the peat. One may gallop for ten miles over the
green surface of Exmoor proper, and scarcely see a stone emerg-
ing from the sod.

For the greater part of the year these shallow peats are saturated
with water like a sponge, and form a strong contrast to the dry
Exmoor land, on which the effect of heavy rain is absorbed
almost as quickly as on a New Red Sandstone formation.

Exmoor, although for centuries a Royal Forest, has no trees
growing on it. Those which, at some remote period, clothed its
valleys have disappeared long ago. A drainer comes sometimes
upon a trunk or root ; quantities of hazel-nuts, some eaten by
squirrels, have been found in the bogs ; and several old charcoal
pits, in which lumps of charcoal were found as fresh, to all ap-
pearance, as the day they were burnt, have been cut across.
This charcoal, it is supposed, was used by the “ old men ” * to
smelt the Exmoor iron ores.

The valleys which lead up to Exmoor are fringed with oak
coppice — part doubtless of the primeval forests of the country.
Old men, of one generation back, could remember when a
squirrel could travel along the oak brushwood, which extended
up the Badgeworthy and Hoaroak valleys, as far as where the

* Neither aatiquaries, nor miners, nor tradition can tell us -whether these
“old men” were Phoenicians, or Eomans, or Germans who visited England in the
time of Henry VIII. The only fact certain is that they worked mines and smelted
iron ore in the whole of the Exmoor district, from near El worthy Turnpike to
near the sea at Ilfracombe. This was the spathic or spathose iron-ore, which
until the Great Exliibition of 1851 had not been used in England for centuries,
although without it the best class of steel cannot be manufactured. The mines
on Exmoor have since been partially explored, and -worked sufficiently to show
that they will be of considerable importance for making steel when the means
of conveyance to the sea have been completed.

Exmoor Reclamation.

Exmoor boundary fence now stands. Most hardwood trees,
oak, ash, sycamore, beech; lime, poplar, Spanish- and horse-
chestnut, alder, and wych-elm may be seen growing fairly well
at Simon’s Bath. Of the pine tribe the spruce-fir grows admir-
ably well on Exmoor, while neither the larch nor the Scotch fir
makes much progress. On somewhat similar hills on the Welsh
side of the Bristol Channel, the Scotch fir and the larch flourish,
but the spruce will hardly live. Whence this extreme difference ?
Spruce-fir is an inferior timber, but, when forty years old, it
will stand well in the open roofs of sheds and farm buildings.

The rhododendron flourishes magnificently in the Exmoor
peat.

It is said that there are to be found on Exmoor the sites of
several villages destroyed by William Rufus in his work of
afforesting ; but they are not to be distinguished by the untrained
eye of the ordinary traveller. There are certainly no traces of
the Saxon plough on Exmoor, although the adjacent commons,
now for the most part covered with heather, bear traces of having
been inclosed and cultivated. The under-coats of the thatch
of some of the oldest farmhouses, when pulled to pieces within
living memory, were found to be of rye-straw, a crop which has
not been grown in Somerset or North Devon in this or the
previous century.

It is conjectured that these commons encircling the Royal
Forest were part of the immense tracts of peasants’ lands which
were cleared on the breaking-up of the feudal system, under the
reigns of the Tudors and the Stuarts ; when the necessity for
fighting vassals ceased, and a demand arose for beef, mutton,
skins, and hides, and the cash they would bring ; and flocks and
herds were found more profitable than villages of armed retainers.

As long as Exmoor was a Royal Forest, and, with the adjacent
lands of the same quality, was only used as summer pasture,
the peat-tracts were never touched except to obtain fuel. Peat
is formed by the roots of growing plants, which can only be
destroyed by being made permanently dry, or by being cut off
at its roots. Below the peat on Exmoor comes, as already
described, a pan, which holds up the water, and causes the
growth of the peat from the surface of the wet land. Beneath the
pan lies the pervious subsoil, which, when accidentally or in-
tentionally denuded, is converted in a series of years, by the
action of sun, Avind, and rain, into a brown soil, which only
requires lime to produce fine pasture-grass.

In 1818 the Government, for some unknown reason, passed
an Act of Parliament disforesting Exmoor, and offered the royal
allotment, of more than 10,000 acres, for sale, by public tender.
There were several coippetitors. The purchaser was a Wor-

Exmoor Reclamation.

cestershire squire, Mr. John Knight (of the same family as
Payne Knight), who gave 5Z. an acre for the forest, and obtained
about 10,000 additional acres of adjoining land, of a similar
character, at about the same price — a compact estate of 21,000
acres, in a state of nature — producing nothing that was not self-
sown and self-sustained ; without fences, without roads across it,
or communication with the surrounding towns and ports, and
without dwellings, except a public-house at Simon’s Bath,
which often sheltered smugglers and poachers, and female
fugitives from the law of settlement. Except that the prices
of labour and live-stock were low, the year 1818 did not seem
favourable for a great reclamation scheme. The long wars
that sprang out of the French Revolution of 1798 had been
closed at W aterloo ; war prices for corn had only been tem-
porarily sustained by two bad harvests ; but the war taxes
remained, and threatened to be increased by an approaching
return to cash payments. Wheat brought hi. a quarter in 1814,
and only 40s. in 1822;. while beef in Newgate Market was
quoted from 2s. 4d. to 3s., and mutton at 2s. to 2s. lOd. per
stone.

Still, the retrospect of the reclamations of the past century
was tempting to an energetic man who was familiar with
the agricultural literature that Arthur Young had created, who
had been one of the guests at the Woburn sheep-shearings,
who had seen the result of the conversion of some 400,000
acres of heath and moor in Bedfordshire, Norfolk, Lincolnshire,
and his native Worcestershire, into rich, rent-paying farms.
He was familiar with the successive steps of claying and
marling, root-growing and sheep-feeding, and with the four-
course system then perfected in Norfolk by the invention of the
drill and the horse-hoe, and the use of crushed bones and rape-
cake, the earliest portable manures. He had studied the means
and the management by which Mr. Thomas Coke, afterwards
Earl of Leicester, had created a princely estate out of the
desert where he “ saw, when he took possession, two rabbits
fighting for one blade of grass.” In his character and his
acquirements, in his ample means and tenacity of purpose,
Mr. John Knight had every qualification for success except one
— the art of profiting by experience. He began grandly, and
the monuments of his early enterprise remain to this day.

It is difficult for the present generation to form the least idea of
the state of isolation in which many fertile districts of the
kingdom, and especially of the West, existed in the early years
of the present century, when they lay even a short distance from
the mail-coach roads, and the ports and creeks of the sea-coast.

A map of Northern Devon and Western Somerset will .show

Exmoor Reclamation.

the Exmoor * of the present day communicating with the
sea-coast at Barnstaple, Ilfracombe, Lynton, Minehead ; and
with South Molton, Dulverton, and Taunton, by good coach-
roads and well-provided bridges over the winter torrents. But
in 1818 the only means of communication was by the tracks
travelled over by the once celebrated, now extinct, Devonshire
pack-horse — that famous animal which disappeared before road
waggons and carriers’ carts, just as these have been superseded
by railway-trains.

Mr. Knight began by building, of the dry stone of the country,
a fence more than forty miles in length round the Exmoor
portion of his property. He next constructed excellent roads,
north, south, east, and west ; roads which remain examples to
the county for the skill with which they were laid out, and the
solidity with which they were executed. These, for the first
time, gave Exmoor access to the neighbouring market-towns
and ports, and, last, though not least, to limekilns.

He laid the foundations of a mansion, wich was never com-
pleted, and is at present a picturesque ruin ; he inclosed a num-
ber of fields of from 50 to 100 acres each, and established farms
east and west of Simon’s Bath. On these farms he set zealously
to work to carry out the system of cultivation that had been so
successful in his native county under a very different climate.

He had farmed largely all his life in the north of Worcestershire,
and had had a share in bringing into cultivation large tracts of
heathy common on the New Red Sandstone in that county, much
resembling in character the Cannock Chase of our own times.

The appearance of Exmoor in genial seasons was so superior
in apparent fertility to that of the Norfolk blowing-sand and
the Lincoln heaths and wolds, that he never doubted that the
famous four-course system would convert it, with the help of
turnips and sheep, into profitable barley-, if not wheat-land.

His efforts were vain, — defeated by a climate that made corn-
growing at any price unprofitable : for, even if the mechanical
means, which have so recently been perfected, had been in
existence for breaking up and mixing the soil at Exmoor, it
was impossible, at the elevation of 1000 to 1500 feet above the
sea-level, except in very exceptional years, to ripen the crops
of wheat and barley.

Had Mr. Knight met with a little work written by a Lam-
mermuir farmer, and printed in 1823, by the father of the pre-
sent Sir Hugh Hume Campbell, he would perhaps have learned
that the capital he sank, and the tenacious energy with which

* “ The Ordnance map of Exmoor is so curiously incorrect that it must have
been composed out of the inner consciousness of the surveyor — valleys are made
hills, and hills valleys.” — Letter to the Author,

Exmoor Reclamation.

he persisted year after year in arable cultivation, would have
laid down three times the area of well-limed permanent pasture.
Mr. Knight broke up the pan before described with heavy sub-
soil ploughs, drawn by teams of bullocks at a vast expense, and
Avith complete success, so far as making the land perfectly porous
and dry for all time ; for he converted the mixed peat, pan,
and yelloAV clay, when dressed with lime, into a dark fertile soil,
which to this day produces admirable pasture. The land which
was broken up forty or fifty years ago, and then injured by over-
tillage, in vain attempts to grow corn-crops, having then been
liberally dressed with lime, forms the staple of the best grass-
land on Exmoor ; and the subsoil-ploughs, which it would not
pay to Avork with bullocks, noAV form a useful addition to the
earth-stirring apparatus set in motion by the steam-cultiA'ator.

A large herd of West Highland cattle, introduced as better
calculated to brave inclement Avinters on the higher ranges of
Exmoor than the native Devons, throve at first amazingly ; but
the calves, running Avith their dams on the hills, grcAV up wild
as the red-deer, and proved unmanageable and unprofitable.
Mr. Knight also established in the inclosures at Simon’s Bath a
large breeding-stud of Yorkshire mares, for Avhich he provided
English thoroughbred sires, and even joined in the costly ex-
periment of importing from Dongola several stallions of the
breed from which the traveller Bruce chose his war-horse.*

But although Mr. Knight Avas an excellent judge of horses,
and spared no expense to obtain blood, bone, and quality, and
although he succeeded in producing many excellent horses, he
failed, as everyone who has attempted a great stud of half-bred
horses has failed, to make a profit by it.

The attempts to farm on Exmoor Avere persevered in Avith
lavish tenacity" long after everyone, except the OAvner, had become
convinced that wet tracts could not be broken up by ox-teams
Avith any prospect of profit ; and that to attempt to turn the dry
land, however fertile, into sheep and corn farms, on the four-
course-system, was simply impossible in that climate.

In 1842 Mr. Knight, then seventy-six years of age, feeling
himself unable to continue the exertions and exposure necessary
for carrying on his Exmoor farms, retired to Italy, where he
died at Rome in 1850. He placed the management of his
property in the hands of his eldest son, the present proprietor,

* “ After the publication of ‘ Bruce’s Travels,’ Mr. John Knight being at the
house of Sir Joseph Banks, Lords Moreton, Headley, and Dundas being also of
the party, the conversation turned on Bruce’s description of the big Nubian blood
horse, and ended in each writing a check for 250Z. and handing them over to
Sir Joseph on account of the expense of bringing over some specimens of the
Dongola. The best of these found their way to the Exmoor breeduig stud.” —
Sidney’s ‘ Book of the Horse.’

Exmoor Reclamation.

Mr. Frederick Winn Kniglit, then just elected to represent his
native county of Worcestershire in Parliament.

This gentleman’s first step was, with the help of his agent,
Mr. John Mogridge, of Molland (one of a family well known to
all admirers of pure North Devon cattle), to build a number of
farm-houses, which were completed with remarkable economy
and success, as may be seen at the present day. Mr. Knight
drew all the plans of the farm-steadings himself ; he built them
of stone delved on the moors, and with labour hired by the
piece from the neighbouring villages. In a word he succeeded,
without the costly assistance of an architect or surveyor, in
producing comfortable and convenient, but certainly not pic-
turesque, farm-steadings.

The idea in preparing these large farms Avas to follow the
system that had been so successfully carried out in the wolds
and heaths of Lincolnshire — to let the farms at A^ery low rents,
in their wild unimproved state, with a tenant-right like that of
Lincolnshire, to farmers of capital and enterprise.

Such tenants, hoAvever, Avere not at that date to be found
in the neighbourhood. The Devon and Somerset farmers, a
quarter of a century ago, considered that to attempt to farm
on Exmoor, or to use it for anything but summer grazing, was
sheer madness. They Avould not have it at any price, although
some of them occupied fields of the same soil, divided only
from Exmoor by a boundary fence.

When in 1850 Mr. John Knight died at Rome, Mr. Frederick
Knight found himself saddled Avith the farm devoted to the
horse-breeding stud and many thousand acres of Avild land in
hand, besides a number of new farms unoccupied. The only
income he obtained from over 10,000 acres of wild land was the
poll-rent paid for the summer feed of sheep and cattle, and the
produce of herds of Exmoor ponies, Avhich fetched less money as
three-year-olds than Mr. Frederick Knight’s six-months-old pony
foals have realised for the last half-dozen years at Bampton fair.

The first set of men then Avho signed agreements to occupy
tracts of land on Exmoor, and for Avhom Mr. Knight undertook
to erect fences and houses and to make roads, were strangers to
the country and climate.

If the prices of live-stock and dairy produce had kept up to
the scale of preceding years, on which these men had made
their calculations, some of them would probably have succeeded.
But the groundless panic and consequent fall in the price of
corn, meat, and live-stock, which took place after the passing
of Sir Robert Peel’s Free Trade measures, cleared Exmoor of
most of the strangers who had first settled down under Mr.
Frederick Knight’s low rents and liberal leases.

Exmoor Reclamation.

The following extracts from an article on the condition of
Exmoor, which I wrote after visiting the district in the autumn
of 1853, tempted bj an advertisement of the pony sales, give a
good idea of the character of the country, and of the changes
that have taken place within a quarter of a century. These
changes have made the North Devon and Somerset farmers
prosperous, while the arable farmers in the rest of England are
struggling with a succession of difficulties.

1853 was a year of low prices for every sort of farming-
produce, and particularly for live-stock. North Devon had not
tasted the benefits of railroad cattle-trucks. At that date a
recently opened spur-line from Exeter to Tiverton afforded the
nearest station to Exmoor, distant 30 miles of very hilly road.

Within the last six years, two lines starting from Taunton
have tapped the Hill district — one, the more important, running
through South Molton, 11 miles from Exmoor, terminating at
Barnstaple — the other along the base of the Brendon Hills to
Watchet and Minehead. Both communicate directly with all
the markets from Bristol to London. Instead of having to
travel to Exeter, and then change to a branch line to Tiverton,
the “ Flying Dutchman ” takes up at Paddington and deposits
at South Molton within six hours ; while the meat-van, packed
with carcasses in the evening at South Molton, is in the Metro-
politan Market the next morning. But the road from South
Molton to Exmoor has scarcely changed since 1853.

“ A gradual ascent over a succession of hills, of which every
descent, however steep, leads to a still longer ascent the first
6 miles, through real Devonshire lanes, with high banks on each
side, covered with ferns' and grass, and topped with trees and
hazels, bearing nuts with luxuriant abundance ; the road for
the most part excellent, without much road-makers’ care, for it
rests on natural rock. On the rich valley pasture of small
enclosures red Devon oxen were fattening ; and sheep, not of
any mountain or upland breed, but long-woolled.

“ At length the hedges began to grow thinner, beech-hedges
succeeded hazels ; the road, more rugged and bare, showed the
marks winter torrents had ploughed, deep channels ; and at
the turn of a steep hill we saw on the one hand the brown
and blue moor stretching before and above us, and below, the
fertile long cultivated vales lay like a map unrolled, various in
colour, according to the crops, divided by frequent enclosures
in every angle, from the most acute to the most obtuse. Below
was the result of the cultivation of centuries ; above, an example
of one of the most recent attempts at reclamation. As far as the
horizon extended, not a place of habitation was to be seen, until
j ust at a hollow bend out of the ascending road we came upon a

Exmoor Reclamation.

low white farm-house, flanked by a great turf stack, but with
no signs of corn or fold-yard for cattle. This was the one
hostelry and habitation on Lord Poltimore’s moorland estate —
‘The Poltimore Arms.’ Our conductor opened a gate, in a
high stone wall capped with turf ; we drove through, left Devon,
and entered Somerset and the Exmoor estate.”

*****

“ Very dreary was this part of the journey, although, contrary
to the custom of the county, the day was bright and clear, and a
hot sun defeated the fogs, and kept at a distance the drizzling
rain. We had left the smooth rock-floored road, and were travel-
ling along what more resembled the dry bed of a torrent ; turf
banks on each side defined rather than divided the property. As
far as the eye could reach, the rusty tufted moorland extended,
bounded in the distance by round-backed hills. For about two
miles we jolted along until we came in sight of the first farm-
house. Soon a magnificent crop of turnips came in view, close
adjoining a heavy crop of oats. The next three miles, through
the heart of Exmoor, was over one of the capital roads con-
structed by Mr. F. W. Knight’s father. Descending a steep hill,
we came in sight of a view, of which Exmoor and its hundred
districts in North Devon afford many — a deep gorge, at whose pre- >
cipitous base a trout-stream rolled along gurgling and plashing,
and winding round huge masses of white rock. The far bank in
places extended into natural water-meadows, where red cattle
and wild ponies grazed, and in others rose precipitously. At
one point, where both banks were equally steep and lofty, on
the far side was a young plantation with thick underwood ;
but no trees of sufficient magnitude to deserve the name of a
wood. Passing the small pool called Simon’s Bath, fences gave
signs of established cultivation and habitation ; a rude ancient
bridge, with two arches of different curves, without side battle-
ments or rails, led to the small lodge, adapted from a public-house,
for his temporary habitation, by Mr. John Knight, pending the
completion of a mansion never completed, the unfinished walls
of which rose like a dismantled castle from the midst of a grove
of trees. Crossing the stream, not by the bridge but by a
ford, and passing through the stone-built straggling village of
Simon’s Bath, we arrived in the field where the pony sale was
to be held, some 10 acres, forming a very steep slope from the
upper part, which is comparatively flat, the sloping side extend-
ing on the boundary stream broken by a stone quarry, and dotted
over by huge blocks of bleached stone.”

Amongst the few changes in the scenery wrought on Exmoor,
within a quarter of a century, one of the most noteworthy is the
construction of a church and parsonage on this picturesque spot ;

VOL. XIV. — S. S. G

Exmoor Reclamation.

while below, the thin plantations have grown into luxuriant
woods — home of woodcocks in hard weather, and of foxes all the
year round.

“ The breeding stud of ponies,” to see which was the prin-
cipal object of my visit, “ contained about 400 head. . Their
produce, which had been, as already mentioned, improved at vast
expense, averaged at auction as three-year-olds only about 11.
apiece, a miserable return from 10,000 acres.

“ The farms, which varied in extent from 500 to 1000 acres,
were principally occupied as store farms, with some dairies.
The tenants were from Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire,
Derbyshire, and Dorsetshire. Modifications of the system of
all those districts were tried by the tenants. The plan of
reclamation then in course of trial was to burn the turf, dress it
with 2^ tons of lime per acre, at a cost of IZ. a ton. Then,
without other manure, to have a crop of turnips sown on the
flat, eat the turnips off in winter with sheep, follow with seeds
— a mixture of Timothy grass, clover, and Italian rye-grass — to
be pastured for three years, then ploughed up and succeeded by
a crop of oats. The next rotation was to be roots, supported
by farmyard-manure of beasts fed during the winter.”

But very few tenants lived to see the end of this rotation.
It was pretty on paper, but it had a fatal defect — it did not, and
it could not, pay in a climate where growing wheat for sale was
out of the question. A few small farmers still grow wheat for
their own consumption, but it is generally very poor in colour
and in quality. Some years after the foreign farmers had dis-
appeared, the gradual rise of prices of stock and meat began to
fill the pockets of the North Devon cattle and sheep producers ;
at last a North Devon man took one of Mr. Knight’s large farms
near his house at Simon’s Bath. He was, perhaps fortunately,
not rich, and in the beginning held an auction every spring to
let the summer grazing of some of his grass-fields. People began
to get accustomed to the idea of an Exmoor farm ; and one by
one men from the neighbouring parishes took, on leases varying
in terms from 4 to 19 years, all the land that Mr. Knight had
to let. The rents at first were low. Since the general re-settle-
ment of the estate in the hands of the Devonshire farmers,
hardly a case of re-letting a farm or an allotment in Exmoor
has taken place without a considerable increase of rent.

This increase has been accompanied in almost every instance
by a fresh outlay of capital on the part of the landlord, to make
the farm worth the new rent. The farms have seldom changed
hands, and the outlay has been usually agreed upon, watched, and
executed for the landlord by tenants who have made money on the
farm, and who best know its capabilities and its deficiencies.

Exmoor Reclamation.

The enclosure of Exmoor and the surrounding commons, the
improvable nature of the slate-soil, and its great and easy
adaptability to the wants of the age — beef and mutton — have
been of unmitigated advantage to the inhabitants of the neigh-
bourhood, high and low.

Nothing could be poorer or more miserable than the “ en-
tourage ” of these wastes previous to the enclosures. The farms
were generally very small ; the farmers were hardly removed
from the class of agricultural labourers, to which their brothers
and sons often belonged. Wages were but Is. or 8s. a week, and
employment in the winter months almost nil.

In some parishes, a great part of the land belonged to these
small farmers, whose little holdings were generally mortgaged,
and often deeply. These little proprietors lived in such extreme
poverty as to be often actually worse off than the agricultural
labourers.

' In other parishes the farms had for centuries been let on
leases for three lives, the annual rent being very small, the chief
income arising from fines paid on putting a new life into the
lease.

The cultivation was miserable in the extreme. It consisted
in making good the fence round one field, and cropping it with
oats, year after year, until it would bear oats no longer ; then
throwing it out, and treating another field in the same way.
The best grass-field on the farm was generally chosen as the
next in succession for oats. T urnips were almost unknown ;
and a man who had been seen hoeing a field of them was pro-
nounced a madman for destroying his own produce.

It was a lawless country. The commons extended to the sea-
coast for many miles. The farmers were in league with the
smugglers ; and when a cargo was announced, all the farm men
and horses were put in requisition to land it and to convey it by
night over the moors to the little inland towns for sale. Some
of the farmhouses near the sea had large secret cellars, where the
kegs were stowed away.

Sheep and pony stealing was rife on the moors ; and herds of
stolen sheep and ponies were regularly driven to the chief fairs
in the South of England. '

Wrecking was not neglected, when opportunity offered, oh
the rocky and dangerous coast between Barnstaple Bar and
Minehead. Families are pointed out whose wealth, such as it is,^
is said to have been made by some such contraband and un- '
lawful practices.

The neighbourhood of Withypool, where a large undivided
common still affords secret ways of conveying stock by night,

G 2

Exmoor Reclamation.

without fear of detection, is still celebrated for lost sheep. The
old nursery rhyme —

“ Steal the sheep and sell the wool,

Say the bells of Withypool,”

shows that an evil tradition lurks around that locality.

Many of the farm-buildings, fifty years ago, were of the most
miserable description. A long building like a shed would
sometimes contain two or three farm-houses. The farms (small
as they were) were seldom united in a ring-fence. The fields
were disposed as if they had been chosen by lot instead of being
laid out for the convenience of the owners or tenants. Some
catch-water meadows they had, and these were the only pieces
of land that were well attended to and kept in good order. The
cottages in the hill villages were dirty and wretched, and the
pig, when driven, took refuge, as in Ireland, in the dwelling-
house.

The enclosure of the commons and the high price of live-stock
and dairy produce, have raised the value of the whole hill country.
Landlords, tenants, and labourers have alike benefited. Many
thousands of acres of inclosed common-land, which fifty years
ago counted for little or nothing in the valuation of a parish,
are now let for from 10«. to 20s. an acre.

The tenant-class have all money in their pockets ; and whereas
half a century ago it was difficult to find a good tenant for a
farm of lOOZ. a year, several eligible men are now found at once
as competitors for farms of three or four times that rental.

But the greatest change for the better has been among the
labouring classes. Their condition, thirty years since, partook
of the poverty of the agricultural labourers of the south-west of
England generally. Since that time their wages have nearly,
if not quite, doubled. In the parish of Exmoor there is but one
pauper.

The inclosure of the commons opened a wide field for the
labourer ; nearly 100 miles of new roads, and many hundred
miles of new fences (besides building, draining, paving, and
other cultivation on lands from which no labourer had ever
earned an honest shilling in their uninclosed state), have been
mainly done by piece-work during the time of which I am
speaking.

The gangers, or small contractors, for this work have developed
themselves in great numbers into thriving farmers. In no part
of England has the working-class had such an opportunity,
during the last thirty or forty years, as in the north of Devon
and the adjoining parts of Somerset. These remarks must be

Exmoor Reclamation.

strictly held to apply to the Devonian slate, or Old Red Sand-
stone, country only, and not to extend to the yellow clays which
bound that formation on the south, and reach across the whole
basin from the slopes of the Exmoor slates to the Dartmoor
granite.

There are few or no parishes here in which thriving farmers
are not to be found who sprang directly from the labouring class,
and this is nowhere more easily to be seen than on Exmoor.

William Carter, of Litton Farm, who has raised himself to
the position of one of the best breeders of North Devon stock,
was an ox-boy on Honeymead Farm, and afterwards a postilion
in the late Mr. Knight’s stables at Simon’s Bath. His farm is
in the wildest part of the Exmoor Hills, adjoining the parishes
of Molland and Anstey. He seldom sells a cow calf under 10
guineas, or a heifer under 35Z. to 50Z. Shorthorn breeders may
laugh at these prices, but on Exmoor they are thought very
remunerative ones. Having worked with the subsoil plough
and ox-teams in his boyhood, he was not afraid of breaking up
the black land, and shortly after taking his farm had some
capital fields of reclaimed peat.

William Carter still lives on Exmoor, though he has bought
at 50Z. an acre, out of his savings, a farm into which he has put
his daughter and son-in-law. He is one of the few Exmoor
tenants without a lease, but he well knows that his rent will not
be raised during his lifetime.

Excellent herds of North Devon cattle are also to be seen on
some of Mr. Knight’s South Forest farms. A visit to Emmett’s
Farm (Mrs. Tucker), and Wintershed Farm (Mr. Richards), will
well repay any fancy breeder of North Devon stock.

William Hayes, of the Warren Farm (recently dead), had
been one of the late Mr. Knight’s cattle-herds for many years
at 15s. a week. His rental was nearly 400/. a year on Exmoor
alone. His son still holds his lease of the Warren Farm.

William Fry, of Picked Stones Farm, came to Exmoor to work
in the nursery as a day-labourer.

His predecessor in Picked Stones Farm, Francis Comber, was
also, in his youth, a day-labourer in Mr. Knight’s employment.
He afterwards worked a lime rock, and had saved 1000 guineas
before he took Picked Stones at a rent of 180/. a year, which rent
is now, on reletting, largely increased. Comber has retired, with
a good competency, to his native village, after placing both his
sons in business.

Many other examples may be named on Exmoor alone of
labourers who have grown into farmers, but enough has been
said to show that the influx into the market of good land, let at

Exmoor Reclamation.

low rentals, which has been caused by the inclosure of the com-
mons, has been turned to good account by the hard-working and
intelligent labouring class of North Devon and West Somerset.

The patois of the inhabitants of the Exmoor Hill parishes,
fifty or sixty years ago, was wholly unintelligible to ordinary
Englishmen. A little book entitled ‘ An Exmoor Scolding, and
Exmoor Courtship, in all the propriety and decency of the Ex-
moor Language, with a Glossary,’ was compiled by a neigh-
bouring clergyman, aided by one Peter Lock, a blind itinerant
fiddler and native of North Molton. It was printed about the
year 1725, and passed through seven editions before 1771. It
has since been several times reprinted at Exeter, and was con-
sidered a text-book for young barristers on the Western Circuit.
Witnesses from the hill country were generally aware of the
advantage they possessed in having an unintelligible jargon
to fall back upon when teased with questions they did not like
to answer. An ordinary tourist can now make himself easily
understood in passing through the Exmoor neighbourhood.

During the last half-century the farmhouses and buildings
in some of these parishes have been entirely rebuilt, and in all
they have been much improved. The roads, from having been
execrable, are now almost universally in a fair condition, and
many new turnpike and leading roads have been made.

Changes have taken place in the ownership of property.
Many of the small freeholds have been sold to men of larger
means ; and in some cases the old proprietors are living com-
fortably as tenants on farms where they had starved as land-
owners. The leases for lives are almost extinguished. Turnips
have been encouraged. The old plan of exhausting one field
at a time has been exchanged for improved methods which
enable farmers to earn and pay a fair rent half-yearly.

The extension of railway communication to South Molton
and Barnstaple, as already mentioned, has opened the markets n
of England to the North Devon farmers. A further railway
extension through the hill country is now being planned, which
will, when carried out, by greatly cheapening and increasing
the supply of lime, increase the produce and the value of the
Exmoor district to an amount that no one living can at present
estimate.

The rents are paid to the day, and for the last dozen years
there has not been an arrear on any Exmoor farm. The new
principle in North Devon of breeding and feeding is at the
bottom of the success. Tlw old North Devon farmer sold his store-
stock to the dealer ; the new one sells his stock fat to the butcher.

In 1875 and 1876 West Country farmers were thriving on

Exmoor Reclamation.

Exmoor, paying for some dozen farms an average rent of 300/.
a year apiece. For several years previous no farm had become
vacant on Exmoor without it being an object of keen compe-
tition by men bred within twenty miles of the confines of the
Forest.

But it must be added that between 1853 and 1863 great im-
provements of a cheap and simple character had been made in
the treatment of the land of Exmoor. Mr. Knight had still to
face the inconvenience of holding in hand many thousand
acres. Attempts made, with great perseverance and more than
ordinary knowledge of the principles and practice of breeding,
to improve the size and quality of the breeding stud of ponies,
by using stallions of a superior character, did not pay. As
long as the ponies were treated as wild animals, finding their
living on the open moor, helped with a little forest hay in
the rare snow-storms, they cost next to nothing ; but as soon
as they were improved in breed it was found necessary to feed
them well in winter on hay and roots, if not with corn, grown
on reclaimed land, if they were to grow into animals of any
value. If crops were to be grown and gathered to feed ponies,
it would evidently pay better to feed flocks whose ewes give a
fleece and a lamb every year.

• After many inquiries conducted in Scotland, and some ex-
periments with a flock of four or five hundred ewes of the
Exmoor breed, Mr. Knight determined on stocking the still
unlet portions of the moor with Cheviot or black-faced ewe
flocks, to be tended by Scotch shepherds on the Scotch system
of selling off the lambs, made as fat as possible, every autumn.
This plan has recently been made more easy of execution by
the extension through the hill district of the railroads from
Taunton, that give access to markets as distant as Bristol,
Birmingham, and London.

This very bold, not to say revolutionary, experiment was en-
couraged by the successful operations of his agent, Mr. Frederick
Lovibond Smyth, in growing rape as artificial food for sheep on
waste land, not more than three or four miles from the Exmoor
boundary, without the great expenses that attend root-growing
and preparing land for that purpose.

Mr. Frederick Smyth was a tenant of a farm (Westland
Pound) under Earl Fortescue, when, in 1857, on the inclosure
of Challacombe Common, several hundred acres of waste
land, composed of peat from 12 to 30 inches deep, resting
on the before-mentioned impervious pan, were added to West-
land Pound.

Mr. Smyth tried the experiment of cultivating this wet peat-
land by paring, burning, and once ploughing it, then sowing

Exmoor Reclamation.

rape-seed with lime, at the rate of about 3 tons to an acre. The
experiment was a success. Rape thus sown in June will
produce a crop in six weeks, and it is the only crop that will
grow before the land is laid dry, while the tap-roots pierce
through the pan and help to disintegrate it. This crop of rape
he ate down with sheep. He repeated the same rape crop for
three or four successive years, each year having it eaten down
by sheep, whose treading, aided by the penetration of the tap-
roots of the rape, by that time decomposed the peat almost or
quite down to the pan, which was broken up by the subsoil
plough. The last year the reclaimed land was sown with rape
and seeds mixed, 5ind thus laid down to permanent pasture.

Without lime, peat-land will grow nothing. The system of
sowing rape with grass-seeds had been practised with success in
the district for several years ; but the system of reclaiming moor-
land by successive crops of rape, eaten down by sheep, is entirely
the invention of Mr. F. Smyth.

Many commons, partly composed of peat-lands, haA’e been
inclosed in this district during the past half-century. JNIucTi of
the dry brown lands of these have been broken up and cultivated.
So many crops of oats have usually been taken from this sort of
land as to leave it in a worse state than before it was inclosed.

Until Mr. Smydi introduced these lime-grown rape-crops,
every other known method of reclaiming black-peat lands failed
to produce the immediate return that would justify a farmer in
breaking them up, and they for the most part remained in their
wild state.

Nothing on these hills feeds sheep so surely and so rapidly as
this rape-crop. Sheep turned on it have been known to increase
in value from 3s. to 4s. a week, and on an average may be calcu-
lated to gain 2s. in that time. *

This rape-reclamation system was discovered at a time when
the demand for meat for the supply of distant markets was
encouraging the hill-farmers to grow mutton as well as wool.
In the good old times, wool was the principal object of the
farmers on the hills adjoining Exmoor; and mutton, as in Nor-
folk, when Mr. Coke commenced his agricultural revolution, was
only a secondary consideration. This was not extraordinary
when the only markets were local markets, which might on any
market-day be glutted by an extra flock of fat sheep. Under
these circumstances, ewes and wethers alike were frequently kept
on the commons until they died of old age. As each parish in
the hill-district was, and is, entitled to pasturage on the manorial
wastes in proportion to the number of stock kept during the
winter, it was every farmer’s interest to keep as many as possible,
however thin, so long as they were kept alive. This system, if

Exmoor Reclamation.

it can be called a system, perhaps accounts for the North Devon
men making such indifferent hill shepherds. They possess
little of the practical science that distinguishes the Scotch hill
flock-owners.

The steep hill-sides, below the limed reclaimed flats at the
top, get the benefit of the washings of the lime, and the feeding
and treading of the sheep which go on it to lie and chew the
cud after feasting off the rape.

The first experiment commenced on Exmoor in 1868 was
carried out with the above described success on one hundred
and forty acres of Duerdown. This pasture was eaten by sheep
for four years. F&r the last three years (1877) it has been mown
for hay ; and after a dressing of one cwt. and a quarter of nitrate
of soda and salt has yielded two tons an acre of hay of excellent
quality.

The great advantage of this system over the ordinary more
elaborate and more expensive plans is that the instrument of
reclamation, the rape-crop, feeds mutton that pays all the ex-
penses of liming in the first year.

Mr. Smyth finds that rape pays best when grown in May,
but is then very subject to fly. From June to August the crop
is more certain.

The sheep and lambs sold off the first rape-crops before
November pay for the lime bill, due, according to the custom of
the country, at Christmas.

The great object of the reclamation of these moors is to
produce permanent pasture, which can be maintained by applying
judicious lime dressings from time to time. With this object
in view, it is Mr. Smyth’s opinion that corn, that is oats, should
not be grown on reclaimed moor-land before it is laid down
to pasture, as the grass is never so good after a corn-crop.
Indeed, a hill-farmer will find it more profitable to grow oats
only for the use of his own horses. The ripening is always
uncertain, and on recently reclaimed peat-land oats are apt to
grow rank and flaggy. His returns must be from horses, meat,
wool, and dairy produce.

Some of the best permanent grasses to sow on the improved
peats are: Timothy grass (^Phleum pratense\ Yorkshire fog (^Holcus
lanatus), and Cock’s-foot {Dactylis ylomerata\ with rye-grass
and perennial clovers.

Mr. Knight established his Scotch shepherds either in some
of the farm-steadings built between 1843 and 1850, or in sub-
stantial cottages, with a garden and ^rass for a cow attached to
each. There they dwell, with their wives and children, in
solitude as complete as on their native hills.

The flocks consist of one hirsel of hardy black-faced High-

Exmoor Reclamation.

land sheep, placed on the Chains, as the highest and most
exposed part of Exmoor is called ; the others are Cheviots,
whose merit as producers of wool, mutton, and lamb, in districts
where Down sheep could not exist, have long been established.

The permanent flocks consist entirely of ewes, which are kept
until they are five years old, then fatted and sent to market
with half-bred lambs — generally got by a Shropshire Down or
Leicester ram. From 5000 ewes, including yearlings, about
4000 lambs are reared. Those intended to keep up the stock
are the produce of pure-bred Cheviot rams, some of which are
usually purchased every third year in Scotland. Shropshire
Down rams have not only the credit of being sure lamb-getters,
but are a favourite cross with the butcher.

With the Cheviot flocks and Scotch shepherds have been
introduced mowing and haymaking machines, which are of the
greatest possible value in a district.where the supply of grass is
almost unlimited, where labour is scarce, and the days and hours
when haymaking is possible are few and uncertain. With the aid
of this machinery, a large quantity of the wild natural forest grass
is turned into hay, not of a very fine or very nutritious quality,
but good enough to keep the ewes or any rough stock alive in
hard winters, for mountain sheep will eat and thrive where more
luxurious breeds would starve. This hay is stacked and carried
to what the Scotch shepherds call “ Stells,” for the use of the
flocks in hard winters.

All the forest grass not cut is, after the custom of all Scotch
sheep-farmers, periodically burned down.

In very hard winters, a few locust-beans are added to the forest
hay — this being the most convenient purchased food, because it
requires no preparation ; and the Hill sheep eat it without any
hesitation oti the first time of asking.

These Scotch sheep, being much more hardy than the native
breeds, find a living on the moor in all weathers except in
snow-storms, which are very rare on Exmoor as compared with
the North of England. About Midsummer, the rape crop
comes into use in time for the draft ewes and the lambs, which
fall late on Exmoor, and it lasts until killed off by frost about
November.

On this rape, alternated with grass, the sheep and lambs are
fattened without roots, corn, or cake, and are sent off to be sold,
alive or dead, according to the state of the market, between
August and November. In November the whole of the draft
stock is expected to be sold out.

The lambs, except those purchased on the spot by butchers or
jobbers, who travel to Simon’s Bath for the purpose, are driven
by road to South Molton ; there they are killed, cooled, and the

Exmoor Reclamation.

carcasses hung in meat-vans provided for the purpose by the
Great Western Railway ; and they are delivered in the Metropo-
litan Market quite as soon as carcasses killed within 50 miles of
London ; and the meat is in special demand from the flavour
imparted to it by the manner in which the lambs are fed.

It will be seen from the preceding description, drawn up on
Exmoor itself, that under this, the third and last experiment, the
feeding of sheep and lambs, with the help of rape-crops and lime-
dressing, actually converts wild moorland, if dry, into permanent
pasture without further expense ; and that this pasture can be
maintained in good condition by periodical dressings of lime
without any other manure. On my first visit to Exmoor
twenty-five years ago, some beautifully green water-meadows
existed near Simon’s Bath. Others have since been made, but
not in the proportion that might have been expected. Looking
at the numerous hill-side springs and brooks, each offering the
utmost natural facilities for successful irrigation, more might
easily have been done. The brilliant verdure of the existing
meadows shows that the water need only be distributed over the
hill-sides to produce a most profitable return for cost and labour.
It is a point worth noting that the Exmoor pastures never rot
sheep. Couch-grass does not exist on Exmoor, and so grassy
is the soil that a well limed fallow will find its way into good
permanent pasture without a grass-seed being sown on it.

Mr. Knight has lately been sowing some of “ the thousand-
headed kale,” the virtues of which have recently been made
known by Mr. Robert Russell, of Farningham, in Kent. Mr.
Russell, by careful selection of seed, has succeeded in vastly
improving a cattle-food which has been known in Yorkshire for
half a century.* If this kale succeeds on Exmoor, it will fill up
a gap between November and Midsummer, after rape has died
out and before it comes in again.

In 1873-4 the success of the new system of sheep-farming on
Exmoor, with its attendant green crops of rape, had made urgent
the necessity of breaking-up and subsoiling extensive tracts of
wet peat-land, and converting them into permanent pasture.

Already a great break had been made in North Devon agri-
cultural customs by the introduction on the hills of such advanced
implements as iron wheeled ploughs, mowing machines, and hay-
making machines. The time seemed to have arrived for trying
if steam could not do quickly, effectively, and economically, what
ox-teams had done slowly and expensively in 1824.

* Soyer, the celebrated cook, mentions, in his book published in 1863, seeing
the “ thousand heads ” grown in Yorkshire for feeding sheep ; but Messrs. Sutton,
the seedsmen, of Heading, tell me that the modern reputation of this “ kale ” as
sheep-food is due to the pains bestowed on it by Messrs. Kussell in selecting tho
best seed.

Exmoor Reclamation.

Steam Cultivation.

Having decided on trying steam, Mr. Knight had the difficult
task of selecting from the various rival makers and systems the
best machinery for his purpose. He found that Fowler’s double-
engine set had the advantage of going at once to work without
any preliminary fixing of machinery, as well as the immense
power of a straight and single action, so necessary in carrying
out the Duke of Sutherland’s bold determination to manufac-
ture arable land out of deep peats accumulated during centuries
over the rough debris of perished forests. But in order to use
double engines, nearly parallel roads or tracks, along which
the engines can travel, are necessary, and such did not exist
on Exmoor. To make such roads would have been very costly ;
and as Mr. Knight’s object was to cultivate for permanent and
improved pasture, and not to establish tracts of arable land,
they would become useless in a few years when the final object
of the reclamation had been achieved. On the other hand, the
number of men required for working all the old roundabout
systems rendered their employment too costly.

So stood matters until, at the Taunton Show of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society in 1875, Messrs. Barford and Perkins exhibited
a new system, invented by Mr. F. Savage, C.E., of King’s Lynn.

After a careful inspection of the ground to be ploughed, Mr.
Barford undertook to construct a 10-horse engine and set of
tackle to work Messrs. Fowler’s Sutherland or Marshland plough
on Exmoor. The trial took place, to Mr, Knight’s complete
satisfaction, in 1876. The principle of reducing the speed to
meet an extra heavy strain makes this 10-horse engine master
of all the power needed — and by passing the large subsoil-hook
along the bottom of an empty furrow, instead of ploughing and
subsoiling at one operation, the whole tackle is relieved from a
strain that might be detrimental to it. In some wet places this
hook has succeeded in grubbing the subsoil nearly three feet
below the original surface.

The ploughs, both the marshland and four-furrow plough,
used by Mr. Knight, were made by Messrs. Fowler of Leeds, and
so good are they, that no stone has yet been met with in the
process of steam-cultivation on Exmoor that has seriously
damaged either of them.

Mr. Savage’s system does away with the heavy detached
drums which formed an essential part of all the old single
engine sets, and he has arranged the road driving-wheels so
that they can be used, when ploughing, as most efficient wind-
ing-drums, the ropes working in boxes sunk in the Avheels,
and the end of the engine being blocked up as a platform while

Exmoor Reclamation.

at work. By this arrangement the entire machine is simplified,
the boiler is spared the strain it is subjected to when the wind-
ing-drum is attached to it, and the large driving-wheels do all
the work, whether on the road or in the field. The road-wheels
can be driven either together or one at a time, or one forward
and the other backward, so that the engine can actually be
turned by steam on the ground on which it stands. But the in-
vention that makes this engine more particularly suited to
Exmoor is, that it has a very slow speed-gear attached to it, by
which it can he lifted in a very few minutes out of any hole or
bog into which it may have sunk. The ploughing-tackle is
worked by Campain’s anchors, moved by chains and balls, on
Mr. Savage’s latest plan. If, then, water can be led along a
plough-track to the foot of the engine, which can frequently
be done on Exmoor, the engine and rope take only one man to
work it. The Campain’s anchors are pushed forward by the
balls at the discretion of the ploughman ; and although a spare
man usually attends the plough, to carry the signal flag, to
manage the rope-porters where needed, or to turn a stone out
of the way, the set can be worked under favourable circum-
stances for half-a-day with two men only — one with the engine
and the other with the implement. The men who now work
the apparatus successfully were agricultural labourers when Mr.
Barford came to Exmoor. Compared with the six or seven
hands usually employed with the old roundabout sets, the ad-
vantage is immense. The engine works with a very small
quantity of coal.

Passing over the details of what might make a very interest-
ing agricultural tale under the title of ‘ Adventures of a Steam-
Cultivator on its Journeys through Devonshire Lanes and over
Somersetshire Moors,’ it will be enough to state that, in the
autumn of 1877, the engine, working a Sutherland plough by a
roundabout apparatus, was in steady work in exterminating some
400 acres of natural forest grass growing on a skin of primeval
peat, nearly all moist, and in some parts with the water standing
for an acre or more ankle deep.

This Sutherland plough consisted of two huge shares, that is,
one at each end of the implement, and also at either end a sub-
soiler in the form of the fluke of an anchor without palms, the
whole resting on four barrel-like wooden rollers, which acted as
wheels as well as rollers. The engine having been by signal
set to work, the plough was slowly dragged forward between two
automatic anchors, cutting a huge slice of peat, and making a
furrow 12 inches deep and nearly 2 feet wide ; the sod, as it
was turned over by the plough, being rolled flat by the barrel
wheels. When a double journey had been performed forwards

Exmoor Reclamation.

and backwards, the machine was stopped, and one of the hooks
let down ; and this, in nine cases out of ten, reached, penetrated,
and broke up the before-described pan, and, with one effort,
thoroughly dried, and for ever, the peat which had already be^n
destroyed by being torn from its roots.

The result was equally wonderful and capital. When the
subsoiler was set in motion the water stood in pools several
inches deep. The moment the iron had penetrated the parT the
water passed away as through a cullender, and it remained
perfectly dry after rain for some part of every day for a week.
The work was done at the rate of nearly three acres a day, for
it is one of the peculiarities of Exmoor that “ rain does not stop
ploughing.”

Exmook.

Peat.

Yellow Subsoil.

Being the debris
of the clay- ‘
slate rock.

In the opinion of one of the most experienced land-agents in
North Devon, the one operation just described doubles the
value of the land.

The next steps would be to cross it with a plough or culti-
vator, then to break it up roughly with a strong harrow, to lime
it at the rate of 2^ to 3 tons an acre of lime drawn by Mr. Knight
from the kilns at Combmartin or Lynmouth, with his own
horses,* and finally to sow a crop of rape to be fed-off with sheep.
After two or three crops of rape, paid for in fat lambs, the land
will be ready to lay down for permanent pasture, requiring
no further expense for drainage and no manure beyond lime,
which is essential, because the natural soil, being almost devoid
of the calcareous element, will not grow the most nutritious
grasses until limed. ^

As to the proportionate extent of deep peat on the last re-

* Four of these in 1876 were gray French mares, drafts from the General
Omnibus Company’s stock ; bought by the author, lame from London stones,
and worked sound on Exmoor.

Exmoor Reclamation.

claimed tract, Titchcombe — an enclosure of 400 acres broken
up by steam power, — there were about 50 acres wbicb could only
be broken up and drained by tbe Sutherland plough and hook.
Six or seven acres are so deep that they will require tile or stone
drains. About 150 acres have been cultivated and the land
laid dry by a four-furrow plough, connected by a chain in
hauling the last furrow with a light subsoiler, formerly worked
by four horses. The rest of Titchcombe could have been
broken up by horse or ox labour ; but the steam-engine being at
work, it saved time to use it. '

The following is as nearly as possible the actual cost of
ploughing and subsoiling 19 acres of the above-mentioned land
“ on the west side of Titchcombe this being part of 400
acres that were effectually reclaimed up to Christmas, 1876 : —

Cost.

2 Men, 20 days at 3s. 2d. each per day

] Youth, 20 days at Is. 8c?. „

2 Boys, 20 days at Is. „

85 tons of coal at 20s

4 gallons of best oil at 5s

2 „ common oil at 3s. 3c?

Interest and depreciation on tackle, 14 days at 15s. per day ..

„ „ „ 6 days, when worked for

a few hours only each day at 5s

Total 31 17 8

The following is Dr. Voelcker’s analysis of the soils which
are being brought into cultivation by Mr. Knight’s steam
cultivator : —

£ s. d.
6 6 8

1 13 4

2 0 0
8 10 0
10 0

7 8
10 10 0

1 10 0

Exmoor Soils.

Dried at 212 degrees.

Combination of

No. 1.
Dry Land.

No. 3.
Wet Land.

No. 5.
Clay Pan.

Organic matter and water of com-l
bination /

14-11

28-40

9-90

Oxide of iron and alumina . .

1-43

•97

3-38

Lime

•19

•05

•08

Sulphuric acid

•04

•03

•02

Phosphoric acid

•29

•15

•14

Magnesia and alkalies

1-49

•90

•47

Insoluble siliceous matter . .

82-45

69-50

86-01

100-00

Exmoor Reclamation.

The results of the reclamation of Exmoor, since 1818, may be
summarised in a very few words ; —

In 1841, when handed over to the management of the present
owner, there were only two tenants, one of whom paid 40Z. and
the other 30Z. a year, and there were only two farm-houses
and seven cottages ; ten years later a score of good farmhouses
and homesteads had been constructed, which no Devonshire
man would rent on any terms, while the landlord derived a small
and precarious return from a stud of native ponies. When
twenty-five more years had elapsed there were twenty-eight
farm-houses and fifty cottages ; all the farms had for several
years been let to substantial thriving farmers, born and bred in
the immediate neighbourhood ; and the applications for farms,
when vacant, gave the landlord ample choice. The four hundred
ponies had been reduced to forty mares, whose foals were sold
annually. The summer and winter pastures in hand, with
additional rape-crops, were consumed by 9000 ewes and lambs.
Steam subsoiling and cultivation were rapidly preparing wild
land for crops which would enable the breeding flock to be in-
creased by at least one-half.

The substantial improvements have not been executed without
the “master’s eye.” For many years, Mr. F. W. Knight has
spent the greater part of the Parliamentary recess on Exmoor,
superintending the details of his pastoral and agricultural in-
novations in person. In three visits to Simon’s Bath Lodge in
1875, 1876, and 1877, I have traversed the district and realised
the progress of the works which I have attempted to describe.

Dairying. — The North Devon farmers have within the last
few years opened up a good market in London for the speciality
of the county, namely, clotted cream. But up to the present time
the operations of dairying, and particularly of butter-manufacture,
are conducted in as barbarous a manner as in any part of
England or Ireland. Mr. George Allender observed, in a paper
on Dairying, read before the Farmers’ London Club, in 1877,
that, “ Nothing commands a more certain sale than first-class
butter ; there is plenty of second-class. The difference is many
pence per pound, and the difference between first-class and second-
class in ninety cases out of a hundred is only a matter of better
management and attention to trifles. . • . ; three-fourths of the
butter is spoiled after it is churned, from not getting the butter-
milk thoroughly out of it and not making it up close, so as to
exclude the air.”

The North Devon Dairy farmers have everything in their
favour, an excellent breed of cows, soil, climate, and generally
unlimited supplies of soft running water ; but their operations
are conducted entirely by rule-of-thumb, entirely dependent on

Report on Farm Prize Competition in the Isle of Man, 1877. 07

the skill of the dairy-maid, without any assistance, modern
machinery, or modern experience.

To expect full-grown North Devon farmers or dairy-maids
to learn anything from reading is nearly as much out of the
question as in the days of Arthur Young; but, in my opinion,
the landlords might do much by introducing into the village
schools manuals on the work of the future lives of the boys and
girls. A short practical and interesting manual on Dairy Work
might easily be prepared from the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England,’ with woodcuts of the cooling appa-
ratus, churns, and butter-making machines, which are in familiar
use on the peasant-farms of Sweden, and are sold at a very low
price.

IV. — Report on the Farm Prize Competition in the Isle of Man,
1877. By S. D. Shirriff, of Saltcoats, Drem, N.B.

In connection with the country meeting of the Society for the
year 1877, the following prizes were offered by the Liverpool
Local Committee for the best managed farms in the Isle of Man ;
viz., in Class 7, for the best managed farm of 70 acres or upwards
in extent, 25Z. ; and in Class 8, for the best managed farm under
70 acres, but of not less than 25 acres in extent, loZ. In
Class 7 there were only two entries, and in Class 8 but a single
competitor. Before proceeding to describe the competing farms,
it may be of interest to give a few particulars regarding this
beautiful little island, dropped as it were into the sea, and al-
most equidistant from what were formerly three great kingdoms,
now made greater from being happily all blended into one. In
order to realise the singular situation of this island, I may
mention that on a clear day a distinct view of England and
Scotland and Ireland can be had from the top of one of its
mountains called Barrule — not a bad site, one would almost say,
for a royal palace.

The length of the island is about 33 miles. Its breadth
varies, being at its widest part about 8^ miles. It contains
about 130,000 statute acres, and its population is a little over
60,000.

The climate of the Isle of Man is wonderfully mild. The
annual mean temperature is higher than that of any other place
occupying the same parallel of latitude. The genial influence
of the Gulf Stream causes this. The mean winter temperature
of the Isle of Man is about 42° Fahr., whereas the temperature of
Newfoundland, which lies 7° further south, is 18° colder during
winter, owing to the influence of Arctic currents. Theref could

VOL. XIV.— 8. 8. H

Report on the Farm Prize Competition

be no better confirmation of the mildness of the climate than
the proof afforded by the beauty and luxuriance of some delicate
varieties of shrubs, and whole hedgerows of fuchsias of large
size may be seen in great perfection.

I pass over the very early history of the island. It is a spot
singularly rich in legendary lore. For 400 years it was the home
of the Druids, and many of their stone circles are still to be
seen. There are also numbers of stone crosses similar to those
in Ireland, bearing Runic inscriptions, which testify to the con-
quests of Christianity under the banner of St. Patrick. It was
successively the property of Norwegian, Scottish, and English
princes, forming a dependent sovereignty in the great feudal
system. For three centuries under the sway of the Earls of
Derby, it passed to the Dukes of Athol, and finally into the
hands of the Crown, who purchased all their rights and privi-
leges from the Athol family so lately as 1829 for 416,000/.
I mention this sum to show what changes a few years make,
the lead mines of Laxey alone having paid to the Crown in
thirteen years upwards of 80,000/. in royalty, or about one-sixth
•of the whole purchase money of the island.

Competing Fakms.

I now come to describe the competing farms in Class 7.
Both are near Castletown, where the Judges arrived on the
evening of the 25th of June, after rather a stormy passage from
Liverpool to Douglas, proceeding on per rail to Castletown.
We inspected both farms next day. Our instructions in regard
to awarding the prizes were similar to those for the Liverpool
district, viz., to consider ; —

1. General management with a view tb profit.

2. Productiveness of crops.

3. Goodness and suitability of live-stock.

4. Management of grass-land.

5. State of gates, fences, roads, and general neatness.

The farm described first, and which we considered, on the
whole, most deserving of the prize, is in the occupation of Mr.
Thomas Farghar. It is called Whitestone Farm, and lies about
a mile from Castletown. The proprietor is W. L. Drinkwater,
Esq., Kirby-by-Douglas. The soil may be described as light.
The subsoil Mr. Farghar, in his schedule, mentions as being
shingle — a light gravelly debris of the limestone formation.
The farm comprises about 122 acres imperial.

The rotation adopted by Mr. Farghar appeared to be most
suitable for the soil, viz., pasture which lies generally for three

in the Isle of Man, 1877.

years, and when ploughed, is sown either with wheat, barley, or
oats, whichever is most suitable for the fields. Then a green
crop follows in the shape of beans, potatoes, and turnips. A
white crop succeeds these, and the land is again sown down
with grass-seeds.

This farm is admirably adapted for grazing. A river, which
bounds one side of it, gives a fine supply of water to nearly
every field. When we inspected this farm it was under the fol-
lowing crops, viz. : —

Wheat, 23 acres, after tur-
nips.

Barley, 16 acres, roots and
grass.

Oats, 7 acres, roots and grass.
Potatoes, 2^ acres.

Swedes, 25 acres.
Yellow turnips, 1^ acre.
Beans, 8 acres.

Pasture, 26 acres.

Old grass, 5 acres.

Hay, 7 acres.

The grain crops gave promise of being good. The potatoes
looked particularly well, and we admired the capital plough-
manship which was shown by the straightness and regular
width of the drills. The beans were very good indeed, and we
were particularly well pleased with the pasture, the strong
healthy clover plants proving the soil to be in capital heart. The
hay was also a good crop.

I may here give the mixture of grass-seeds Mr. Farghar sows,
viz., 4 lbs. red clover, 4 lbs. white, 2 lbs. alsike, 3 lbs. trefoil,
with 1 bushel perennial rye-grass and \ bushel Italian.

Stock. — The stock kept on the farm may be described as
movable. We saw 30 good three-year-old bullocks which had
been kept during winter in the cattle-courts, and were being
grazed for a short time preparatory to being sold to the butcher.
The sheep stock were ewes — two score of the Shropshire breed ;
these are put to Shropshire rams. The lambs are sold fat, at an
average price of about 42s. The produce of the 40 ewes averages
about 60 lambs. The old ewes are sold in August at a profit of
10s. per head, exclusive of the wool.

Labour. — 2^ pairs of horses generally do the work of the farm ;
but three pairs were employed last season. Three ploughmen,
all married, are kept, and live on the farm, receiving 13s. per
week, with free house and garden, 1^ ton of coals, and 2 bushels
of potatoes. No extra wages are paid during harvest. Women
employed receive lOd. per day, and Is. 6c?. during harvest.

Manures. — Mr. Farghar uses about 8 tons of bone manure for
his turnip crop. From being near the coast he has a plentiful
supply of sea-weed, with which he manures the stubble as an
addition to as much farmyard-manure and lime-compost as he
can possibly manufacture. Mr. Farghar keeps one cow for the

H 2

100

Report 071 the Farm Prize Competition

house, and fattens two pigs. He breeds no cattle, finding it
more profitable to purchase those he requires for eating his tur-
nips and rotting down straw to supply manure for the farm.
The gates and fences were all in pretty good order. We con-
sidered Whitestone Farm to be in a creditable condition, the
pasture fields, which may be invariably taken as one of the
best tests, being particularly well laid down and showing capital
cultivation. Mr. Farghar holds his farm under a system of three
years’ tenure.

The other farm competing in this class is called Balladoole,
the property of William Baring Stevenson, Esq., of Balladoole,
Castletown. It is farmed by Mr. Thomas Fisher. It lies one mile
to the west of Castletown. The extent is 189 acres. The soil
varies from heavy clay to light gravelly land, all upon the
limestone formation. The tenancy is from year to year. When
we inspected this farm, we found it under crop as follows : —

Wheat, 39 acres, 10 after grass, 10 after potatoes, 8 after
beans, 5 after mangolds, 6 after turnips.

Barley, 32 acres, 19 acres after wheat, 13 after turnips.

Oats, 9 acres, after wheat. Beans, 6 acres.

Potatoes, 10 acres.
Swedes, 19 acres.
Greystone, 3 acres.
Mangolds, 4 acres.

Pasture under rotation, 34 acres.
Hay, 7 acres.

Pasture, 6 years old, 19 acres.
Pasture, 11 years old, 5 acres.

The wheat crop on this farm varied much in appearance.
Some portions were exceedingly good ; others, again, were not
very good. The variety of the soil was one of the causes of this
difi'erence, another being the effect of the preceding crops. The
barley crop promised, on the whole, to be a good average one.
Potatoes looked healthy and vigorous, and there was a fine pro-
mise of the turnip crop, the young plants being strong and
regular all over the breadth sown ; but both potatoes and turnips
were suffering from the hoeing and singling being behind,
which was not to be wondered at in consequence of the nature
of the season, a rapid vegetation of weeds, and a scarcity of
labour to overcome these difficulties.

Stock. — Mr. Fisher keeps 11 cows, 1 bull (Shorthorn), 10
calves, 6 yearlings, 5 two-year-olds, 6 three-year-olds. Four
had been sold at prices varying from 221. to 31Z. There were
42 ewes, — one-half Shropshire, the other half Leicester. The
lambs are all kept over the winter and fed off as shearlings.
Mr. Fisher finds he can get the highest price for the Shrop-
shires as mutton. He was very unfortunate with his lambs last
season, having lost forty by worms in the lungs.

in the Isle of Man, 1877.

101

Horses. — Ten horses are employed on the farm ; also a foal, a
yearling, and a two-year-old. Five pigs are bought in to fatten.

Mr. Fisher pays about 100/. a year for artificial manures,
and about 22/. for cake. In addition, he uses a considerable
quantity of beans, barley, and oats for feeding purposes.

Labour. — There are four cottages on this farm. Carters re-
ceive 13s. per week, free house and garden, and 1^ ton of coals.
The total cost of labour for the year is a little under 21. per acre.

Mr. Fisher lays down his pastures with 3 lbs. per acre of red
clover, 3 lbs. white, 3 lbs. alsike, 2 lbs. trefoil, 1 bushel mixed
ryegrass, one-third being Italian and the remainder perennial.

Mr. Fisher’s system of farming is quite different from Mr.
Farghar’s, both in regard to the management of the stock and the
cropping of the land. The former breeds all his cattle and keeps
on his lambs ; the latter purchases his cattle and sells his lambs
off the ewes. Mr. Fisher takes two consecutive white crops :
Mr. Farghar never more than one white crop. Our Isle of Man
experiences are too limited to enable us to give an opinion as to
which practice is most suited for the district, as so much depends
upon the capabilities of the soil and the situation in regard to
the supplies of manure to keep up the condition of the land.
We considered that the entire management of Balladoole reflected
credit on Mr. Fisher’s skill as an agriculturist, and that he
showed an evident desire to introduce and prove new systems
of farming.

The farm which competed for the prize in Class 8 lies on the
road between Peel and Ramsey. To reach this farm we drove
from Castletown to Peel — a most beautiful drive, giving us a
view of the south-west coast of the island. Our route took us
through Glen Meay, on to Peel, where we remained all night.

We drove to Ballaneddin. It is a freehold, the property of,
and farmed by Mr. John Teare. Its extent is 50 acres arable
and 10 acres pasture. The soil is medium ; and the sub-soil is
a mixture of gravel and clay. Mr. Teare had : —

7 acres wheat after three-
year-old grass.

10 „ barley after old grass

and roots.

3 ,, oats after old grass

and roots.

acres

hay.

pasture.

carrots.

mangolds.

potatoes.

turnips.

The stock kept consists of 3 working horses, 1 two-year-old
colt, 4 milch-cows, 4 calves, 3 yearlings, 1 two-year-old. The
cattle are all reared and sold fat at two years old in spring.
Mr. Teare keeps 18 ewes ; and had from these 23 lambs, cross-

102 Report on Farm Prize Competition in the Isle of Man, 1877.

bred between Shropshire and Leicester ; of these, 12 lambs had
been sold at 35s. He employed one man at 17Z. per annum,
with food in the house, and the field work was done by hired-in
workers at Is, per day. We considered this farm to be under
most careful and economical management.

Mr. Teare is an exceedingly earnest hard-working man, of an
old Isle of Man family, proud of his holding and most anxious
to improve it to the utmost of his power.

With this inspection our duties of judging were finished. W*e
drove on to Ramsay through a beautiful country, rich in its agri-
cultural aspect. We passed some fine farms and saw some
beautiful pastures stocked with both fine cattle and sheep. From
Ramsay we drove through Laxey, and saw its wondrous water-
wheel. It is 72 feet in diameter, and capable of pumping 250
gallons of water per minute from the lead-mine from a depth of
400 yards. From Laxey we went on to Douglas, where we got
a steamer for Liverpool.

We left the Isle of Man favourably impressed with much we had
seen. Its natural beauty is very great. A great portion of the soil
is rich, and with such a mild climate its agricultural resources
must be large. It is a matter of regret that the Prize Farm Com-
petition was so limited, as these contests tend much to improve
the agriculture of a district. No better illustration of this can be
given than the high state of cultivation of the farms in the
Lancashire districts where such competitions have been longest
in vogue. But it must be borne in mind that the farmers of the
Liverpool district possess many advantages which the Isle of Man
farmers do not enjoy. The rent of the land, judging from the
average of the farms we visited, is high in the Isle of Man.
Then in regard to the disposal of farm produce, the advantages
are entirely on the Liverpool side. The Isle of Man farmers,
must either rear or purchase cattle to consume straw and turnips
to supply manure for the farms, while the sums realised off the
farms near Liverpool, from the sales of hay and straw, are very
large, the price of straw now being far above its value for
manure. No district could possess greater facilities for the dis-
posal of, or command a better market for, every kind of farm
produce, and also for obtaining supplies of manure. The large
sums there realised for straw and hay are impossibilities to the
. farmer in the Isle of Man ; but he might possibly compete suc-
cessfully with the very earliest varieties of potatoes. With high
farming there is always a proportionate amount of extra risk, and
when a disastrous season like the present one ensues, there is a
much greater loss. A careful economy pervades the Isle of Man
system of farming, and what may be described as an agri-

Report on Implements at Liverpool.

103

cultural balance is well maintained. What I mean is, there is
not too much dependence or expense placed on the results of
any single crop, the failure of which may seriously affect the
balance for the year. As already stated, the rents are high,
about 3/. per acre, and rates are by no means low, the following
being paid on a property- valuation of 111., viz., tithe, 5/. ;
lunacy rates, which are singularly high all over the island, 21. ;
school rate, 2d. per 1. ; road rate, od. per 1. Labour is more
expensive, and farm burdens are greater, in Lancashire, but,
taken as a whole, we consider that the chances of agricul-
tural success are greater on the mainland than in the Isle of
Man. In our drive over the island we were struck with the
numbers of people who seemed to go there for pleasure. A
constant succession of carriages of every description were
passing along the thoroughfares, giving quite a holiday aspect
to ,the country. I am sorry to add that the results of their
present crop do not differ from our own, the cereal crops showing
a deficiency of nearly 50 per cent ; potatoes were nearly a total
failure ; and the turnip crop a very poor one. I conclude this
report with an expression of the pleasure that my colleagues and
I enjoyed from our visit to “ Elian vannin veg veen,” Anglice,
“ dear little Isle of Man,” and our thanks for all the information
and kindness we received during our stay in the island.

It would be ungrateful to leave finally the Farm-Prize Com-
petition of 1877 without expressing the thanks of the Judges to
Mr. Rigby, the Secretary of the Local Committee, who gave us
most valuable information as to routes, and was in every respect
most courteous and obliging.

S. D. Shieriff.

T. P. OUTHWAITE.

J. D. Ogilvie.

V. — Report on the Implements at the Royal Agricultural Society’s
Sho20 at Liverpool ; and on the Trials of Self-binding Reapers
at Aigburth. By J. Hannam, of Pocklington, Yorkshire.

Several circumstances combined to lighten the duty of the
Official Reporter. The Judges awarded only three of the
Society’s Silver Medals out of the ten at their disposal ; and out
of eight Self-binding Reapers entered for exhibition at Liver-
pool only five were shown, and of these only three came to
trial at Aigburth. These three machines were exhibited at the
recent Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition, and of two of them
Mr. Coleman has given a detailed description in the last volume

104

Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

of this Journal, in his exhaustive Report of the Agricultural
Implements at that Exhibition. A general view of the Liverpool
Meeting, as compared with previous Shows, has also been given
in the Report of the Senior Steward.

Despite these circumstances, the magnificent exhibition of
6900 implements and machines affords “ room and verge
enough ” for the Reporter’s observation and comment. There
were, in fact, a large number of exhibits which were noticed by
the Judges, and which were ineligible for a medal according to
the Society’s regulations on the score of not being entirely new,
of having been exhibited at a previous show, or of not being
agricultural.

Of such of these as they deemed most entitled to notice they
supplied a list to the Reporter.

There were also many inventions which, though not quite of
importance enough to be distinguished by the special notice of
the Judges under the conditions regulating the competition for
medals, were excluded from a “ commendation ” by the 6th regu-
lation, which specifies that “ no commendation of miscellaneous
articles shall be made by the Judges.”

The Judges of Self-binding Reapers were Mr. John Coleman,
Riccall Hall, and Mr. Henry Cantrell, Baylis Court, Slough ;
of Miscellaneous Articles, Mr. John Thompson, Badminton,
Chippenham ; Mr. J. W. Kimber, Fyfield Wick, Abingdon ;
and Mr. S. Rowlandson, Newton Morrel, Darlington ; with
Mr. W. Anderson, C.E. (of Messrs. Eastons and Anderson’s,
Erith Ironworks, Kent), as Consulting Engineer, and myself as
Official Reporter.

These gentlemen made their inspection of the whole of the
exhibits in the Showyard, on Monday, 9th of July, and the three
following days.

The following regulations, under which the Judges made their
awards, were laid down in the Prize Sheet : —

Gold Medal.

The Gold Medal of the Society will he awarded at Liverpool, or any future
Meeting, for an efficient Sheaf-binding Machine, either attached to the Reaper
or otherwise.

Silver Medals.

1. There are ten Silver Medals, the award of which the Judges appointed
by the Council have the power of recommending in cases of sufficient merit
in new implements exhibited at the Liverpool Meeting.

2. I'hese medals cannot in any case be awarded to any implement, unless
the principle on which the implement is constructed be entirely new, and the
implement has never before been exhibited at any of the Society’s Shows.

3. These Medals are specially intended as a mark of approval of any new
principles of construction which the Judges may consider as essential improve-
ments ; subject always to the restriction contained in Rule 2.

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

105

4. The Judges are also empowered to make special awards of medals for
efficient modes of guarding or shielding machinery, especially when worked by
steam, from contact with persons immediately engaged in attending to such
machinery while at work.

5. No medal shall, in any case, be awarded to any implement or miscella-
neous article, capable of trial, until it has been subjected to such trial as the
Stewards may direct.

6. No Medal shall be awarded by the Judges without the consent of the
Stewards, and no commendation of miscellaneous articles shall be made by the
Judges.

It being determined, owing to the backwardness of the har-
vest, not to test the competitors for the Gold Medal at that time,
the trial was postponed. A careful examination of the construc-
tion of each implement of the class in the yard was, however,
made.

The Judges of miscellaneous articles, after a tedious circuit of
the yard, and a careful inspection of the multitudinous ingenious
machines claiming their attention, decided only to award three
of the ten medals at their disposal, thereby leaving a considerable
number of novelties and improvements undistinguished, except
by the notice which the Reporter may be able to give them.

Eeport of the Judges of Miscellaneous Articles.

To the Stewards of Implements : —

We recommend that medals be awarded to the following articles: — Stand
243, No. 5304. W. N. Nicholson and Son, for their patent Grist Mill.

Stand 205, No. 4362. Hodgkin, Neuhaus and Co., for their new patent
Boiler-feeder.

Stand 262, No. 5838. Clayton and Shuttleworth, for their new patent
Drum-guard on Threshing-machine.

We have taken notes of several other novelties and improvements, a list of
which we handed to our Keporter, a copy of which you can have if desired.

John Thompson.

J. W. Kimber.

Samuel Kowlandson.

We sanction these recommendations.

J. Bowen Jones.

John Hemsley.

Geo. H. Sanday.

Gold Medal.

This medal was offered for “ an efficient Sheaf-binding Ma-
chine, either attached to a reaper or otherwise.”

There were eight entries in this class, viz., Messrs. Burgess
and Key, of Holborn Viaduct, London ; Messrs. James and
Frederick Howard, Bedford ; Melville Thomson Neal, of 22,
Buckingham Street, Adelphi, London ; H. J. H. King, of New-
market, Stroud, Gloucestershire ; Chyms H. McCormick, of
Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A. — agent, Rush F. Mason, of 142,
Queen Victoria Street, London ; Phillips and Co., of the

106

Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

“Enterprise” Reaper Works, Grantham, Lincolnshire; Walter
A. Wood, of 36, Worship Street, London ; and D. M. Osborne
and Co., 125, St. Ann Street, Liverpool.

Three of these entries were not represented in the Showyard.
The absentees were Messrs. Burgess and Key, Howard, and
Phillips. Their machines were new inventions, and consider-
ing the very limited period of time during which they can test
harvest machines, they no doubt acted wisely in making use
of that limited period for experimenting with their new ideas
instead of coming to a public trial in doubtful form, especially
as several of the competing machines that they would have met
had been in practical use for some time, and last year had been
tested at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. Mr. Neale and.
Mr. King were the only two English makers who faced the
American trio of McCormick, Wood, and Osborne.

Mr. Neale’s machine was the greatest novelty in principle,
and the prettiest piece of mechanism in the yard.. It is in
advance of the American machines, all of which tie with wire, in
the point that it ties with soft string or yarn. So far as the
tying-up goes, it certainly makes the knot, and binds the sheaf
experimented upon in the Showyard. Its adaptability for
general field-work is another thing, and is greatly to be doubted,
owing to the mechanism being somewhat complicated.

Mr. H. J. King’s machine is more simple in construction.
It is priced at only 35Z. This machine did not compete, be-
cause the band was too short for the straw. It ties with string
without a knot, the ends being twisted together and left perfectly
secure. The corn, after being cut, is carried to a table on the
side of the delivery board, and at the same level, by an in-
genious arrangement of fingers, where the string is passed round
the sheaf. The low level of the table is a disadvantage that in
practice might result in the clogging of the machinery. Neither
of these machines came into the trial field.

The three remaining machines in the yard were the “ Har-
vester and Sheaf-binder ” of Chyms Henry McCormick, of
Chicago, U. S. A. ; the “ Harvester and Binder ” manufactured
by Walter A. Wood, London ; “ Harvester and Automatic Self-
binders,” manufactured by D. M. Osborne and Co., Liverpool.
All these machines were tried at the Philadelphia Centennial
lilxhibition, and the two former are fully described in Mr. Cole-
man’s admirable Report in the last volume of the Society’s
Journal, to which I am indebted for the illustrations and me-
chanical description which are now appended.

McCormick’s machine has been in use in America six years,
and is a combination of upwards of twenty patents, and has been
produced at a cost of upwards of 10,000/. It is a strong, heavy

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

107

machine, and seems to require a powerful draught. The fol-
lowing figures, showing front and rear elevations of McCormick’s
Grain-binder, and the mechanical description, are from Mr.
Coleman’s Report : —

The chief peculiarity of the invention consists in the mounting of the
binding-apparatus upon a traversing carriage so that the hinding-arm moves
up to that part of the table which receives the grain from the elevating apron,
strikes into the inflowing grain, separating the portion to he bound, encircles
it with wire, which, owing to the application of a spring arrangement, is
endowed with the requisite degree of tension to secure a closely-bound sheaf,
twists the wire and cuts it off during the backward movement, and finally
discharges the sheaf.

The driver adjusts the binding mechanism so as always to hind the bundle
midway of the length of the grain, by means of a lever-handle, mounted on a
small lantern-wheel working in a rack and connected, by flexible links passing
over pulleys, with the binding mechanism, which moves freely backwards and
forwards in a direction parallel with the length of the grain. The subjoined illus-
trations (Figs. 1 and 2) show the front and rear elevation of the hinding-

Fig. 1. — Front Elevation of McCormick’ s Grain-hinder,

apparatus. C is the driving-shaft, on which is a double sproggle-wheel which
gears into corresponding wheels on which the driving-chain I passes, as well as
over corresponding wheels on the opposite end of the gear frame J. The arrow
shows the direction in which the chain-gear travels. This chain carries a
slotted link, I, connected with a shaft, L, and imparts the reciprocating motion
to the hinding-arm necessary for the various motions. I will endeavour to
describe the mechanism. N, are pitmen pivoted on the crank L* of the
shaft L, attached respectively to the cranks op of two rocking shafts, concentric
with each other and mounted in hearings in an overhanging support of the
binding-frame. The crank which operates the compressor is adjustable laterally
by the slotted rack and set screw, and its throw is thus regulated. The inner

108

Report on Implements at Liverpool^ and on

rocking-shaft consists of a steel rod carrying at its forward end a crank arm, 0‘,
working in a slot in a vibrating compressor, K, pivoted at r, so as to give the
compressor a movement eccentric to that of its driving-shaft. This shaft,
owing to this construction, allows the compressing arm and its crank to yield
under the strain of binding the sheaf. The binding-arm S is slotted length-
wise to receive the supplementary arm T, pivoted at t, and is vibrated at proper
intervals. Two wires are used in binding, and consequently two twists are
formed. The wire from the upper reel W passes through a tubular spindle, x,
with a tension spring, thence over a pulley, m, on the arm M^, thence over the

Fig. 2. — Rear Elevation of McCormick's Grain-hinder.

pulley s, where it is united to the lower wire. The lower wire passes from
the spool V, a positive feed being employed. This arrangement is very clever.
The wire is only fed when a bundle is bound. We will suppose that the two
wires are connected, then the binding-carriage is ready to move forward with
its binding-arm uplifted as is seen in the figure, in readiness to encircle a
bundle lying upon the platform. In the absence of any grain to be bound,
the binding mechanism would go through its 'motions and return to its starting-
point, but no wire would be fed from the lower sjx)ol.

Although heavy, the machine is under perfect management and
control, and the change from a heavy to a light cut can be effected
instantly. Wood’s machine, though of the same price as McCor-
mick’s, is much the lighter of the two. The tying apparatus is
most ingenious, and to the way in which it twists and cuts the
wire no justice can be done by description. The delivery of the
tied sheaf is a specialty that I shall have to notice when describing
the trials. This machine is said to have cut 8000 acres of wheat
this season. The following figures and descriptions are given
by Mr. Coleman : —

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

109

Fig. 3. — Plan of Walter A. Wood’s Harvester and Self-binder
combined.

A. Driving-wheel, with spur-gear.

B. Cross-!>haft, driven by A.

C. Crank-shaft, driven by bevel-gear from B.

D. Elevator driving-shaft, driven like C.

E. Large elevator-roller, driven by chain

and chain-wheel from D.

F. Apron driving-roller, driven same as E.

G. Reel, driven by chain.

H. Sickle-bar.

I. Apron with slots, carries grain towards

Ji, &c.

J. J>, &c. Elevator belts.

K. Oblique shaft, driven by bevel-gear

from D.

L. Binder-shaft, driven same as K.

JI. Binder-arm.

N. Compressing arm.

O. Reciprocating arm.

P. Standard supporting shafts and arms.

Q. Receptacle for the grain.

R. Stand for wire-spool.

S. Seat for driver.

T. Foot-lever for stopping action of binder.

U. Lever for altering position of binder.

V. Tilting lever.

W. Pole.

X. Inside divider.

Y. Outside do.

Z. Ground-wheel.

a. Seat standard to attach seat, when

binding by hand.

b. Tool-box.
cc'c" Fingers.

d. Pitman.

The driving-wheel of large size is indicated by the dotted lines at A. The
first motion shaft B is driven by spur-gearing ; a bevel-wheel on this shaft
drives from either side the crank-shaft C, and the elevator driving-shaft D.
The two pinions balance each other, and as the binding machinery is driven
from D, it will be seen that the arrangements for producing complicated effects
are remarkably simple. The rollers which drive the apron and elevator by
which the corn is carried from the knife to the tying-apparatus are both driven
from the end of the shaft D by chain-gearing. This, again, is well con-
trived. The ajiroD with wooden slots is shown at I, and the elevator-belts at
J J* J* J’ J® ; and this completes the whole of the machinery belonging to
the harvester proper. The tying-apparatus can be readily detached and the
machine worked by manual binders ; all that is required is to shift the driver’s
seat from S to a. Before I proceed to details, it may facilitate my explana-
tion if I briefly state the plan of working. The corn is delivered in a con-
tinuous stream on to the concave table Q. The revolving binder-arm, with

110

Repoi't on Implements at Liverpool, and on

the compressing and reciprocating arm, collect the corn into a sheaf, bind it
round with wire, twist the same, and cut it off ; all this taking place during
part of the revolution of the hinder-arm. The sheaf is made and thro^vn off
the platform by means of a couple of springs, not shown in the illustration.
The ingenious mechanism hy which the two wires are twisted and cut off is
more easily understood than described. It is effected hy the action of two
small toothed wheels working in opposite directions. The cutting off is
effected when these wheels cease to move forward, the wire coming in contact
with a sharp edge.

Fig. 4. — Front Elevation of Walter A. Wood's Harvester and
Self-hinder combined.

A. Driving-wheel, with spur-gear.

B. Cross-shaft.

C. Crank-shaft.

E. Large elevator roller.

G. Reel, driven by chain.

J. Elevator belts.

K. Oblique shaft.

M. Binder-arm.

N. Compressing arm.

O. Reciprocating arm.

P. Standard.

Q. Receptacle for the grain.

Y. Outside divider.

Z. Ground-wheel.

Fig. 4 enables me to proceed with my description. The motion for
securing the action is derived from the shaft D by bevel gearings driving the
shaft K, which again communicates motion to the binder-shaft L. By a
crank-gear the binder-arm M is made to revolve. The compressing arm N is
so contrived as to ensure the proper amount of pressure on the band. 11 is
the stand for the wire-spool, a variable tension being provided for. The
driver, by foot-leverage at T, can stop the binder at any point, find thereby
regulate the size of the sheaf if required ; for the action is automatic and con-
tinuous. The lever U, also within reach, is useful for .shifting the position of
the binder according to the length of the straw, so as to have the bands
in the proper place. V is a tilting-lever for altering the angle of the plat-
form. 'I'lie reel, which can be raised or lowered, placed forward or backward,
according to the nature of the crop, is driven by chain-gear from the hub of the
driving-wheel.

Osborne’s machine is called the “ Gordon Binder and Ameri-
can Harvester.” The inventor has been at work on it since
1863, and in 1866 eleven were used successfully through the
season. Its operation is simple. The grain is reeled to the
cutters with the ordinary reel. It is cut and dropped on an end-

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

Ill

less canvas apron, which elevates it over the wheel to the binding
table. The binder-arm with the needle, having the wire passed
through it, passes the wire around the sheaf and carries it down
to the twister which is below the binding table. There the two
ends of the wire are taken in the twister, which performs its
work as the sheaf is moved away from the next sheaf; thus-
while the sheaf is being removed from the table the wire is
twisted and cut off, and the sheaf, securely bound, drops gently to
the ground. The end of the wire is returned in the twister, and
the operation is repeated at the will of the driver : Mr. Coleman
speaks well of this machine in his Report. He says, “ 1 much
regret that I am not able to give a drawing and detailed descrip-
tion of the binder shown by D. M. Osborne and Co., inasmuch
as this machine made decidedly the best work at the trial, cutting
a considerable area without the wire breaking or a stop of any
kind. The apparatus consists of an ordinary harvester frame,
with linen travelling-belt and elevator, furnished with teeth.
The peculiarity consists in the binding-arm being placed on the
near side instead of the end of the binding platform, and having
a swan-neck motion, so that, drawing the wire from the spool,
it twists it round the grain and forces the straw together whilst
the tying takes place underneath. The sheaf is pushed off by
the needle as it rises to repeat the motion. The mechanism by
which this elegant movement is obtained is both simple and
ingenious.”

I have been fortunate enough to obtain the following sketches
of different elevations of the machine (Figs. 5 and 6, pp. 112
and 113).

The following is a general description of the working parts of
the machine, and the mode in which they act, taken from the
specification of the patent ; —

The invention has reference to a combination of devices for controlling the
gathering mechanism, devices for receiving the severed crop and carrying it
to the driving-wheel end of the cutting apparatus, and elevating it above the
same, and discharging it on a receiving platform outside the wheel. It also
has reference to an automatic binding mechanism for gathering the goods, and
passing the wire round the same and twisting the ends together to hold the
bundles, and discharging the completed bundle from the platform.

It has also reference to an arrangement of devices by which the driver can
in his seat adjust the binding mechanism, so that the band will surround the
bundle at the proper point, between the butts and heads of the grain.

It also relates to the mechanism for controlling the action of the binder to
adapt it to the formation of bundles of uniform size, in grain of varying stout-
ness. It also relates to the devices for tilting the cutting apparatus for cutting
higher or lower, and various details of construction in the several operative
parts of the binder, and the gear-shifting mechanism.

In the construction of the harvester a framework (B, C, D) is provided for
supporting the operative parts of the machine. This framework is supported
on a main driving-wiieel (A), on which the major part of the framework is
carried, the other end of the framework being supported by a wheel at the end.

Fig. 5. — Front Ylcw of Messrs. D. M. Osborne and Co.'s Sheaf-binder.

tD V

g «

-5 ja «

f a

•H ?

2 „

e3 ^ «

S <3 "S ^

^ ^ ^ «5o . -

§ 3 ? o £

^ ^ S

o o ^ -o V £

eS <3 rt ^ *3

> > 2 £ « *2

V ^

to o

? *

Ut '.s
S o

•s a

S "o

a> w

U c

O J-<

w fl £

i: S 5 a £2

d bb

3 s

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Fig. 6. — Side View of Messrs. D. M. Oshorne and Co.’s Sheaf-hinder.

114

Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

which is adjustable. The main wheel (A) is also adjustable by its axle being
supported in slotted brackets, the radial centre of which is the pinion-shaft,
with which the main gear-wheel (1) meshes. At the front edge of the frame-
work and at one side of the driving-wheel is the cutting apparatus, which
consists of the ordinary slotted fingers and scalloped cutters, to which a. reci-
procating motion is given by a sway-bar, connected to the centre of the cutter-
bar, and projecting rearward across the frame to which it is pivoted near its
centre, its rear projecting end being attached, by a connecting rod {yy), to a
crank (1) which derives its motion from the driving-wheel by a train of
gearing connected with it (see Fig. 6). A reel for gathering the crop is sup-
ported in front over the cutters, on the projecting arms of a rock shaft (X),
which has a lever (Z) and holding devices, by which the driver can elevate or
depress the reel at pleasure, and fasten and hold it in its adjusted position.
This wheel is driven by a sprocket-wheel (e) on its shaft, connected by a
chain (n) to a double sprocket-wheel (f) in a frame which is linked to reel-
bearer (s') coincident with the centre of the reel axis, and is also linked to the
axis of the main wheel axle, so that the chain connecting a sprocket-wheel (fc)
on the hub of the main wheel with double sprocket-wheel null impart motion
to it, and through it to the chain connected with the sprocket-wheel on the
reel-shaft, the axis of the links being the centre of the double sprocket-wheel ;
the relation of the chains and sprocket-wheels will not be changed in raising
and lowering the reel. To carry the severed crop to its receiving platform (A')
outside of the main wheel whilst the cutting apparatus is located on the inside,
an endless apron is provided, exceeding somewhat the length of the cutting
apparatus behind which it is arranged, and supported on rollers at each end,
the rollers being placed at right angles to the cutting apparatus, and sup-
ported in suitable bearings. The upper surface of the apron being slightly
above the plane of the cutters, motion is imparted to it by a band attached to
a pulley (1) on its shaft as will be hereafter described, the motion of the upper
surface of the apron being from the outer end of the cutting apparatus towards
the driving-wheel. To elevate and carry the crop over the driving-wheel (A),
two endless aprons (KK) are provided and arranged on the frame parallel
to each other and inclining outwards over the driving-wheel, sufficient space
being left for the passage of the crop upwards between them. These aprons
are supported on rollers, which have suitable bearings in an inclined frame-
work (G). The lower ends of these aprons are so placed as to receive the
crop from the first apron named, and long enough to carry the crop over the
driving-wheel and deliver the same on a platform outside of the wheel, the
platform being supported in nearly a horizontal position ; a break-board
attached to the framework under the elevator end of the apron serving to
protect the wheel and prevent the accumulating sheaf from being drawn down
by the lower apron. These elevating aprons have tight ribs or laths fastened
across their surfaces the better to enable them to hold and carry up the grain.
The continuous surfaces of the aprons have a motion upwards, which is im-
jiarted to them by the shafts (M, N) of the upper roller being geared together ;
and one of the shafts (M), having a band-wheel (L) around which a belt is
passed, also around a band-wheel on the shaft (H) of one of the rollers of the
apron behind the cutting apparatus, and also around a pulley on the crank-
shaft (I), gets its motion from a train of gearing connecting it with the main
driving-wheel. This train of gearing is the same that vibrates the cutters,
and consists of the crank-shaft and its pinion (see Fig. 6), a bevel wheel
gearing with it, on the shaft of which is a pinion which gears with a gear-
wheel (7) connected with the main-wheel ; this pinion (V) has a clutch face
(cZ'") and interlocks a pin put through the end of the bevel-wheel shaft (e'")
and can by sliding the same on the shaft be made to lock with, or be discon-
nected from the same for stopping or starting the connecting-gear or devices.
Foi; facility of doing this a shifting lever (S) is arranged in reach of the driver,

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

115

and connected by intermediate devices to a fork (e'") which embraces a groove
in the hub of the pinion.

To bind the crop into bundles a framework having ways is provided, and is
supported in guide-pieces (D') attached to the harvester-frame (B) outside of
the driving wheel. At one end of this frame, supported in bearings nearly in a
vertical position, is a shaft (H') to which is attached an arm ( W') which extends
from it at right angles, and carries at its outer end a gripping, cutting, holding,
and twisting mechanism for the wire of which the band is made. These
devices are constructed and arranged as follows : — A double hook with bevelled
edges is fastened to a shaft a short distance from its end, and on the end of the
same shaft is fastened a similar double hook. The shaft is inserted in a metal
frame or block ; this block has fastened to its upper face a plate with its edges
bevelled the reverse of the first hook, and close to which the first hook re-
volves, and with it makes a double shearing-hook for cutting off the wire.
A finger is pivoted to the block in frame by one of its ends, its other end
being bevelled off and of proper width to enter between the two hooks, and
rests on the shaft against which it is pressed by a spring, so that in the reverse
movement of the twister-shaft it will act as a clearer to remove any fibres or
straws that may accumulate around it in twisting the wires. A pinion is
fastened to the projecting end of the shaft on the opposite side of the frame or
block from the twister. To the side of this block is fastened a piece of steel
so as to form an open mortice. This block or frame is bolted to bracket on
the end of the arm (W') previously described, with the shaft nearly vertical
and the top of the upper hook far enough below the top of end of arm, which
is in form of an open box, to give space for length of wire enough to form a
twist. Above the twister is fastened a double plate with sufficient space
between the plates for a gripping- finger to move. These plates have a vertical
V-shaped opening; a finger is pivoted to the plate and twister-frame, so that
the projecting end of the finger will swing in between the plates and across the
V-shap^ opening, so as to clamp or grip the wire. This finger is operated by
a connecting-rod pivoted to it, and its other end to a short ai-m on the under
side of the arm (W') that carries the twisting devices. In the open mortice
at side of twister-block is inserted a flat slot-bolt, so as to play free. The
upper edge of the bolt, a short distance from its end, has a hook-shaped notch
cut in it, and this, together with the mortice in which it is inserted, serves to
grip and hold the end of the wire while the needle (Z'), hereafter to be de-
scribed, is conveying the wire round the bundle. The other end of this flat
bolt is rounded, and has a spring for forcing it into the mortice and holding
it there. To release it at the proper time the round end is connected to a
short lever which has a friction-roller on it and is worked by a cam hereafter
to be described. A sector-rack (X') is pivoted to the under side of the twister-
arm ( W') so as to gear with the twister-pinion, and has a friction-roller pivoted
to its under side, and projects into a cam-shaped groove in a frame'which is
fastened to the binder-frame, and below the twister-arm, and parallel to the
plane in which it oscillates. This groove is of such form that in the oscilla-
tions of the twister-arm it will give a swinging movement to the sector-rack
(X) at the proper time sufficient for each hook to seize at the proper time its
separate wire and separately sever and then twist them together for fastening
them after surrounding the bundle. To an ear on this cam-frame is twisted a
cam-piece, against which the roller on the lever that works the flat, holding
both, strikes at the proper time to open it and release the end of the wire, and
sever the wire brought down by the needle-arm. Another pivpted cam is so
arranged that the roller on the arm that works the connecting-rod of the
gripping-finger will strike it at the proper time to seize the two wires as they
surround the bundle, grip and hold them freely so that they may be severed
and twisted together : they open and release the twisted ends of the wire for the
discharge of the bundle, and hold it open until the proper time comes for again

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116 Report on Implements at Liveipool, and on

closing. To the top of the shaft from which the twister-arm (W') projects, is
hinged an arm (J') canning a pointed needle (Z') and a sliding shive to its
side (m') connected withaspring (e'), and to this sliding shive (?) are fastened
the ends of a cord or band (w') long enough to pass round a grooved shive at
the bottom (v'), and of the wire spool (/) which is placed on a spindle (/')
inserted in the hinged end of the needle-arm (I'). A connecting-rod (K) is
pivoted to this needle-arm and is extended downward, and attaches to a
lever which is hinged to the lower end of the same shaft to which the needle-
arm hinges. The other end of this lever is pivoted radially to a hub on a
gear-wheel (M') which is overhung and has a shaft, the axial centre of which
corresponds with the hinged point of the other end of the lever (L'). The
rotation of this. wheel by means of the lever (L') hinged to the shaft of iwister-
arm (W') gives to it an oscillating motion to and fro on that shaft, and at the
same time the needle-arm (J') receives an up and down movement by means of
the connecting-rod (K') which unites the two. This connecting-rod extends
above its point of connection with the needle-arm and has on its end a shive
(&). Motion is imparted to the wheel (M') to which the lever (L') is pivoted
by a feathered pinion on a grooved shalt (N') arranged ]>arallel to the shaft of
the gear-wheel, and driven by a sprocket-wheel and chain (O') connecting it
with another sprocket-wheel on the crank-shaft inside of the crank-head (I).
On the shaft (N') to which the first sprocket-wheel is connected is also a
clutch (P') having teeth, which will lock with teeth on the sprocket-wheel,
and this clutch is connected by levers and links to a treadle (Q') near the
driver’s seat (T), so that he can disconnect the clutch from the sprocket-
wheel at pleasure for stopping the binder, and by releasing his foot from the
treadle, a spring (K') on the shaft forces the clutch towards and locks it with
the sprocket-wheel, and its shaft revolves with it operating the binding mechan-
ism. In threading the wire to the needle it is passed first from the spool (/)
around the sliding shive (?), then around the shive (&) on the top of the
connecting-rod (K') of the needle-arm, then to the shive at the bend (c') of
needle-arm, and down the needle, and through between the shives near its
point, and then to the holding-jaw {y") below the twister. The operating of
the binder is as follows : — With the wire arranged as stated, and the needle-
arm (J') standing at the highest, and moving outwards from the delivery
end of the elevator aprons (KK), the harvesting and elevating mechanism
previously put in motion, and sufficient material having been cut and elevated
for a bundle, the driver releases his foot from the treadle (Q'), and the binder
is set in motion. The rotations of the wheel (M') to which the end of the
lever (L') is pivoted carries around with it the pivoted end of the lever ; its
hinged end being connected to the shaft (H') which supports the twister-arm
(W'), and its devices and the end of the wire that is in its holding-jaw. The
upper end of the wire, which is connected to the needle (Z') of the needle-arm
(J'), which is hinged to the same shaft, is also carried forward, pressing the
wire against the accumulated sheaf. As the needle (Z') and twister-arm (W')
advance towards the breast-board (XX) below the delivery end of the elevat-
ing apron (KK), the needle-arm (J') begins to descend, the point of the needle
passing down back of the sheaf, and between the falling straws, separating
them and surrounding the sheaf with the wire, the twister-hook rotating
partially, so as to seize the strand of wire in the holding-jaw ; and after the
other strand of the wire has been carried down below the twister, the gripping-
finger comes into action, and closes upon both wires between the twister and
the bundle. The second hook of the twister is rotated so as to sever the
second wire, and the first wire is released from the holding-jaw, and it secures
and holds the second wire, the first wire being severed by one of the cutting-
hooks, followed by the severing of the other wire by the other cutting-hook,
the ends of the wires being in the separate hooks as the arm moves outward,
the rotating of the hooks, by the action of the sector-rack (X), twists the ends

117

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth,

of the wire together above the hook. When the twist is completed the
clamping-finger is released, and as the arm starts on its return again the finger
is thrown entirely open and the bundle is free. This operation will now con-
tinue to be repeated once in 10 or 15 feet, according to the speed at which
the binder is geared. When from the thinness of the crop an insufficient
quantity has accumulated, by means of the treadle (Q) the driver disconnects
the binder from the harvester devices, and skirts it again when sufficient has
accumulated, repeating the operation as frequently as the condition of the
crop may require. He can also elevate and depress the reel at pleasure, as may
be required by the condition of the crop, and can move the binder laterally by
means of levers {pp) and shaft (oo), so as to place the band at the proper
point between the butt and head of the grain, and can also disconnect the
operative parts of the whole machine from the driving-wheel at pleasure.

To attempt to give a full and detailed description of the
mechanism, as laid down in the specification of the patent,
would occupy more space than I have at my disposal for the
whole Report. I trust, therefore, that the foregoing condensed
description will suffice to give a clear idea of the principle and
construction of this ingenious machine.

The Trials at Aigburth.

The proposed trial of sheaf-binders for the gold medal offered
by the Royal Agricultural Society excited general interest
throughout the country. The desirability of still further dimin-
ishing the cost of harvest-labour has been impressing itself
upon the agricultural mind for some time. To the exhibition
at Liverpool of reapers capable of sheafing and tying up the
grain as they cut it, a special interest was therefore attached.
The Royal Agricultural Society, anticipating popular sentiment,
fulfilled its truest functions when it offered these prizes, and
completed a great and useful work by carrying out a series of
trials to test the practical efficiency of the several implements
entered as capable of accomplishing the object desired. The
fact of an entry of eight machines at the Show, led to the
opinion that we were approaching the time when the sheafing
and tying of grain would be done by mechanical instead of
manual agency. The opinion has been fully justified by the
results of the trials.

The unripe condition of the cereal crops rendered it impos-
sible to carry out the programme at the time of the Show ; and the
Stewards, after inspecting the crops that were submitted to them
by the local committee, adjourned the trials to the 14th of August,
a fixture changed to the 16th of August. A week’s postponement
would have been a wiser step under the circumstances of the bad
ripening weather that characterised the season.

The locality fixed for the trials was Aigburth, a village three
miles distant from Liverpool. For nearly all the way by two

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Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

routes the frontages are occupied by modern villas, and the grand
plain of rich agricultural land in fields upwards of twenty acres
in size, does not come in view until a sudden turn of the road
is reached.

At this time the fields were full of grain-crop, a small portion
of which only was in stook, and the large flats of oats and wheat
caught the eye as the site of the trials. Grand green crops are
scattered over the plain, while but few meadows were to be seen,
arable culture with the Liverpool market at hand being the more
profitable agriculture. The selected trial-ground was on the
farm of Mr. W. Scotson, who occupies 450 acres, and who this
year received a Medal from the Local Committee for the third
best-managed farm, as described by Mr. Shirriff in the last
number of the ‘ Journal.’

The state of the weather at this time was a matter of con-
siderable anxiety, both to the Judges and the competitors.
Much rain had fallen during the night, and some showers during
the early morning, and at nine o’clock the sky was clouded and
the atmosphere soft and murky. At ten o’clock, however, a
breeze arose which to some extent dispelled the clouds, and the
possibility of the trials proceeding, should no further showers
intervene, became hopeful. At this time the straw of the crops
was quite wet, and the ground soft and sticky. At eleven o’clock
a great change had taken place, and the wheat, though not quite
dry, was considered capable of being operated upon, at least in
the preliminary trials which it was necessary to give in order to
enable the competitors to get their machines in perfect order for
the test-trials, by which time it was thought that the trial-plots
would be quite fit for cutting. The field of wheat was about
40 acres in extent, and in the shape of a parallelogram, alongside
of which was a narrow strip of 8 or 10 acres of permanent grass,
which formed a convenient entrance-ground for the competing
machines, and requisite space for the spectators. It also gave access
to the actual trial-ground at any point in the whole length of the
field during the whole progress of the trials. A portion from
each end of the field having been cut off from the allotted trial-
ground, the central or main part of the field was reserved for the
operations of the Society. Taking the ends of the parallelogram
to represent north and south, the trial-plot of wheat was divided
into three separate portions of equal size by parallel lines running
from east to west. The uppermost portion, or most northern
one of these three divisions, was next subdivided into exact half
acres by parallel roadways running from north to south, these
minor roadways being only one swathe in width. The sectional
roadways were made of sufficient width to allow the machines
to turn conveniently without being interfered with by the rank-
and-file of the spectators, who fringed the plots of corn in these

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth. 119

wide alleys, despite the exertions of the police, to whom I must
bear my most willing acknowledgment of the admirable manner
in which they kept order. In no single instance was there a
crush at particular points to get near the machines, or the
slightest obstacle offered to the comfortable performance of their
duties by the Judges. As the line of competitors advanced, it
was found that there were only three in the field, and that these
were the American machines belonging to McCormick, D. M.
Osborne, and Walter A. Wood, which I have already described.

The above is the order of entry in the Catalogue, but in all
the competitive trials they drew lots for their places. Having
waited for the weather so long, on the order being given to start
not a moment’s delay took place. No. 1, McCormick, drew No. 3
as his trial-plot ; No. 2, D. M. Osborne, drew plot No. 1 ; and
No. 3, Walter A. Wood, drew plot No. 2. The preliminary
trial just alluded to consisted in sending the whole of the
machines round another plot not required for the main trials.
The crop upon this was heavier than that of the numbered plots,
was considerably twisted, and was consequently exceptionally
damp. The crop here was of about 33 bushels per acre, while
that on the measured plots varied from 24 to 27 bushels per acre.
Of the preliminary work I may remark, that it exhibited the
incapacity of all the machines, as will be seen from further
details, to cut heavy corn when laid down, especially if the same
be unripe and wet ; but as heavy corn is never cut in practice
either unripe or wet, this incapacity of the machines to contend
with such circumstances did not diminish the interest in the
further trials, which the more favourable aspect of the weather
now rendered it likely would take place. McCormick first
commenced to go round the plot. The noticeable features in
this machine, when “ stripped for fight,” were the strength and
the weight of the implement ; the great number of shafts,
pinions, and wheels indicating a heavy draught, and the tact
with which the clever conductor had striven to reduce this
objection in practice, by providing a yoke of team-horses of the
most wonderful shape and size. He did not, however, get once
round the tract before he was in difficulties. Where the corn
was heavy the heads fell over the board, and the supply of cut
grain was not continuous ; and, when it was continuous, it stuck
in the sheaf-binder, the power to move it out of the way of the
succeeding sheaf being inadequate, and there being not only an
extra weight in each sheaf, but the straw-fibres had no elasticity.
Three or four bound sheaves consequently became entangled as
soon as ever the machine cut its full width and at its normal
pace. Although the strength of the horses appeared to be
inexhaustible, their tempers were unable to bear the strain put
upon them by the frequent stoppages of the machine. With a

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pair of fresh horses McCormick did better, especially when
supplied with an extra man to take off the sheaves and to
prevent them from becoming entangled with each other, and
when the laid portions were taken up by scythe-men.

Walter A. Wood’s representative next came forward and
speedily overtook his competitor, with a pair of the lightest
horses I have ever seen in harness, except in an Irish car in the
city of Cork, or in a London milk-cart. What the colossal
horses of McCormick could not accomplish, it seemed ridiculous
to expect from a pair of ponies, not even good thoroughbred
weeds. This idea so impressed me, that I could not resist asking
the polished conductor if he would not change his team in like
manner as McCormick had done. With that naivete which the
men of the Eastern States of America know how to assume, he
replied, “ I think. Sir, I had better do as he has done — give them
a trial.” The look accompanying this told me at once that my
pity was misplaced.

When I saw the machine begin work, I was at once satisfied
of my own incompetence to give advice to the driver on the
conduct of his machine. Light and elegant in construction,
W. A. Wood’s machine catches the eye immediately ; in this
case it startled public opinion by the superior manner in which
it cut and bound the heavy damp corn, when assisted by a man
to remove the sheaves and to take up the twisted portions. The
delivery power of this machine is considerable, and indeed the
question will have to be discussed as to whether it may not be
diminished with advantage. Still, in this case, it could not
throw off sheaves weighing 20 lbs., instead of 7 or 10 lbs.,
always in sufficient time to prevent the outside sheaf being
caught by the binding wire of the succeeding sheaf, and thus
forming a nucleus for a lump which speedily stopped the binding
gear.

D. M. Osborne’s machine, the last of the trio, came forward
with as many friends as either of its opponents. It is an original
invention, perfect in most of its points, and moderate in its size
and weight. It went round with comparatively few stoppages,
and excelled McCormick and equalled Wood in the quality of
its work. Its delivery power, acting with a crane-neck motion,
is not as powerful as Wood’s swan-neck motion, both of which
carried the wires round the bundles. The crane-neck obtains
its initiatory power from the machinery fixed on the left side of
the machine, while that of Mr. Wood’s derives its motion from
a central shaft. There is something taking to the eye of the
practical man in the new movement of D. M. Osborne, which
will excite discussion ; but this I deem futile. His own prac-
tical tests during the present year will show its capabilities fully.

Considering that no machines ever were constructed to cut

121

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

heavy wheat in a green state, much less to sheaf it and bind it,
I defer any remarks on the special features of each machine in
work, except in regard to the question of draught, in which
McCormick is so palpably deficient, until I come to treat sepa-
rately of the individual trials.

During the foregoing runs, the weather continued fine, and the
trial plots had become in a fair condition for cutting when
the first machine commenced operations on the allotted half-
acre. No. 1, McCormick, began in plot No. 2.

This plot was, if anything, the lightest crop, being not more
than 25 bushels per acre, and was in every respect, except a
slight dampness, favourable for cutting. The machine started at
20 minutes before 12, and finished the plot at 12.30 P.M. There
were two or three breakages of wire, and many stoppages.
These stoppages absorbed 28^ minutes of the whole time, and
were caused chiefly by the entanglement of the sheaf and the
imperfect manner in which the cut corn was carried on to the
platform. More than half the time, it thus appears, was con-
sumed by these stoppages. The horse-power consumed seemed
excessive, and the stubble was left longer than necessary, being
about 8 inches in length. The average cut of the machine was
4 feet 10 inches. This trial was most satisfactory, as showing
where the practical difficulty laid, and the necessity for further
improvement in the mechanical construction of the machine in
particular parts. Had there been no stoppages the half-acre
would have been cut, sheaved, and tied in a little over 20 minutes
— a pace quite satisfactory and capable of effecting a fair day’s
work. It must be noted, however, that, as in the preliminary
trial, it was found necessary to allow an extra hand to remove
the sheaves off the delivery-board as soon as they were tied.
This, however, did not prevent the clogging at the knife, owing
to the want of a proper dividing-rod and appliances to lift the
straw on to the platform, from which it has to be raised by the
canvas elevator to the tying apparatus. Owing to this circum-
stance the sheaves were not by any means even in size, or as
straight in the straw as they might have been. The sheaf-
delivery of this machine was evidently imperfect, even had the
straw been quite free from damp it would not have quitted the
sheaves. In this case, however, though the machine had the
advantage of doing its work upon a light crop of standing corn
at a period of the day as favourable as possible for the work,,
still it had a difficulty to contend with in the immature state of
the crop, a large proportion of the straw of which was full of
sap and contained many “ greens.”

No. 2, W. A. Wood’s machine, commenced work on plot 3,
at 12.30. This plot was an average standing crop of 26 bushels
per acre, and had become by this time in good condition for

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Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

cutting, except as regards a slight dampness at the bottom of the
corn. The machine worked at a brisk pace, and made good pro-
gress with its work for fully 15 minutes, when a slight stoppage
occurred, in consequence of “ greens ” getting wrapped round the
rollers which move the endless web. The whole work was com-
pleted with only four stoppages, which absorbed 8 J minutes, the
whole time taken being 33 minutes, leaving 24^ minutes as the
time actually employed in the process of cutting. The sheaves
made were particularly neat and uniform, while the tying in this,
as in the previous instance, was quite perfect, not a single loose
sheaf being made by either. The attendant to assist in the
delivery was again allowed ; but this, I believe, was only ren-
dered necessary by the heavy weight of the sheaves. The power
which this machine has of propelling and expelling the sheaves
from the delivery-board is so great, that had the sheaves been
of the ordinary weight and the straw dry and brittle, I believe
that no manual assistance would have been required. The
manner in which it shoots forth the sheaf, as from a catapult,
after it has been embraced by the “ swan-neck,” is so effective,
that it is only on the score of excessive power and of overdoing
the work that any objection can be made. The liability to
shake out corn arising from the propulsive power is a question
which I need not discuss in this place, under the existing cir-
cumstances, by which a loss of 8^ minutes was chiefly necessi-
tated, for I hold that the main cause of the delays on this occasion
are to be attributed to those existing circumstances rather than
to imperfect mechanical design or construction. But one break-
age of wire occurred, and caused a delay of two minutes, which
must not be debited to the machine itself. The stubble left was
an inch shorter than that left by McCormick’s machine, while
the absolute absence of ears in the tail of the machine and of
straggling straws on the ground was noticeable, and elicited
universal admiration. The horses moved at a good pace with
considerable ease, the draught evidently not being excessive ; but
this point was afterwards settled by the dynamometer.

D. M. Osborne’s “ Gordon Reaper ” next commenced on plot 1,
half an acre in extent, and of precisely the same length and
breadth as the two preceding lots. On this plot the wheat was
very fine, and one portion of it was considerably more bulky than
any on either of the other two, the remaining portion being three or
four bushels per acre higher. The crop stood well and the ground
now was nearly dry, while the straw was in better condition
than it had been at any previous time during the day. The land
being of a sticky character, the drier state of the surface had con-
siderable effect in lessening the apparent draught. The machine
began cutting at 1.17 P.M., and went on progressing well, with

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aiglurth.

123

two slight stoppages, till 1.30, when the clouds, which had been
gathering round for some time, burst forth with a sudden down-
pour of rain, which drove every one from the field under shelter.
No further time-work could therefore be done in this case, as,
when the clouds passed away and a brisk wind shook the straw
so as to make it comparatively dry, the soil was so wet and the
state of the straw so deteriorated for cutting, that the conditions
of the trial became changed. It was therefore considered ad-
visable to take as a test the portion cut during the short period
of time that the machine had worked upon the crop in a similar
condition to that in which the other machines had worked pre-
viously, rather than complete the cutting of the plot after the
rain, as such work would evidently afford no real measure of com-
parison of the time that the machine would have finished its work
in, had the weather remained fair and the crops equally favour-
able for the process. The portion cut before the rain came on
afforded ample space to show the excellent character of the work
completed by the machine, the stubble being uniformly short,
the sheaves even and straight in the straw, and the tying per-
fect. There was one breakage of wire in the thirteen minutes that
the machine was actually cutting. I have spoken previously of
the ingenious and clever crane-neck, cheaper as an original
mechanism, likely to become a most valuable motion in ma-
chines of this character, although it was unable- on this occasion
to quit the newly tied sheaf before the succeeding one came.
The usual manual assistance, as in the other two previous cases,
was rendered. I must, however, notice, as a condition common
to all, that the total absence of brittleness and buoyancy in the
straw, arising from its imperfect ripeness and moist condition,
rendered the movement of such a material through the machinery
a matter of considerable difficulty, the machinery having to work
against a dead weight — a thing certainly never contemplated by
the inventor of any of the machines.

On the stoppage of the test-trials by rain, the prospect of any
further work being done in the field looked hopeless. In a
short time, however, a breeze arose and the clouds were carried
away with great rapidity, leaving us in the presence of the sun,
none the less bright for the murky atmosphere in which he had
been recently enveloped, and later on in the afternoon we had
a few hours of real harvest weather. That the Judges had not
left the field was a matter of congratulation, and it was deter-
mined to commence the dynamometer test-trials, as soon as
the wet was shaken out of the straw, and as soon as Mr. W. E.
Rich, C.E., was ready to commence operations. The lowest
portion of the allotted plot of wheat was reserved for these
trials. The crop here was very fine and not broken down at

124 Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

all. The straw was long, too long certainly for the comfortable
working of the machines. The size of the plot, in shape of a
parallelogram, was about 6 acres, and all the machines were sent
round it as a “ preliminary canter,” in order that the exhibitors
might have their respective machines in suitable trim for the
test work. After this, McCormick was the first summoned to
action, and the dynamometer was attached to it. It made three
circuits, during which time Mr. W. E. Rich, standing on that
marvellous piece of mechanism which so infallibly records the
draught-power absorbed by any machine in completing a piece
of work, made the observations furnishing the data from which
the valuable table subjoined (p. 125) is collated. The stoppages
of McCormick were few and no breakages of wire occurred. It
cut well, though the stubble was left rather long, and I think
gained credit with observers for its work in comparison with its
performance in the morning.

W. A. Wood’s was treated in a precisely similar manner, and
it pleased the spectators by the ease with which it cut and placed
the straw in the sheaf. Its delivery was of course assisted as in
the previous case, though it required that assistance less than
either McCormick’s or Osborne s machine. The stubble it left
was much admired, being perfectly level, and considerably shorter
than that left by McCormick. The straw was too long for his
platform, a point in which McCormick was somewhat superior.

Third and last Osborne came smilingly to the front after his
ill-fortune in the previous trial ; but if unlucky in his time-test,
now he had every reason to congratulate himself on the cir-
cumstances under which he came to the dynamometer-test.
Under the influence of the breeze the straw had now become
in a better condition than it had been during any other period
of the day, while the bright sunshine gave it a crispness that
made it pass over the gathering-board and through the sheafing
apparatus with a degree of lightness not previously shown in
the other trials. In this case the stoppages and the breakages
were nil, which was the more remarkable, as the straw was
evidently longer than the machine was calculated to deal with,
and there was a tendency of the cut grain to hang over the
reception-board, and on the delivery platform to entangle the
ears in the wheels on the left side of the machine which
regulated the movement of the crane-neck reaper. Special care
prevented any mischief taking place from this cause, though
the extreme length of the wheat was a disadvantage to the
machine, which its able conductor had to guard against. The
stubble was left beautifully level, if not quite as short as Walter
A. Wood’s. The sheaves were well-made and uniform, though
considerably smaller than those made either by Wood or

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

125

McCormick. The allotted rounds having been completed,
several special trips were made to satisfy the inquiries of
Mr. Rich on particular points.

The measurements of the lengths of the stubble were taken
with the greatest care and accuracy by Mr. Rich, and the
sheaves were weighed and counted by Mr. Elphick, the Assistant
Steward. The average width of cut made by each machine was
ascertained in a most ingenious mode ; the activity and skill
shown by Mr. Robson, a pupil of Mr. Anderson’s, was most
noticeable, the work requiring both head, hands, and legs, and
entailing no slight tax on physical energies of a high order.
The following table of the dynamometer results has been
furnished by Messrs. Eastons and Anderson, the Society’s Con-
sulting Engineers.

Dynamometer Trials with Sheaf Binders at Aigburth, Liverpool,
August 17, 1877, on Wheat.

Name of Exhibitor iu Order of Trial.

c. h.

McCormick.

Walter A.
Wood.

D. M.

Osborne and
Co.

Averages.

Price

Inches.

Width of Cut — With lay

55-2

„ Against lay ..

„ Average

55-5

58-6

Height of Stubble

lbs.

Side draught — With lay

„ Against lay ..

37-5

Mean draught (in lbs.), With lay ..

464

468

486

„ „ Against lay

471

460

418

„ „ Average ..

467-5

464

452

461

Mean draught (in lbs.)l.^.,. ,
per inch-width of cut I ^ "

9-36

8-85

„ „ Against lay

9-06

7-54

6-75

„ „ Average ..

8-53

8-45

7-8

8-26

Mean speed in miles per hour

3-15

3-00

3-22

3-12

Inches.

Width of knife

5-6

4-0

5-6

Number of sheaves cut

{

lbs.

Total weight of sheaves

265

371

{

Mean weight of each sheaf . .
Foot-lbs. of work per lb. of comi

15-6

17-7

cut, or height to which corn!
must be raised to represent work |

423-5

420-7

468

done in cutting and binding it J

* Sheaves were kept separate in the up and down runs.

126 Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

After the dynamometer and other tests of machinery, the
Judges have usually summed up and tabulated the points of
merit of the respective competitors, the position in the scale
under each point having been estimated at a certain number,
perfection being represented by a fixed quantity. In this case
the several heads under which merit was defined were (1), weight
and draught ; (2), efficiency of operations and simplicity of
mechanism ; (3), quality of material and workmanship ; (4),
clearing horse-track ; (5), price. On this occasion, however, the
Judges, after mature deliberation, determined to issue no further
comparative estimates on the specific details of the distinctive
merits of each than are supplied by the table. A careful
analysis of the figures will show that in point of simplicity of
mechanism and efficiency of operation W. A. Wood stands
well in front of both his competitors, who seemed to be about
equal, although these deductions from facts I should certainly
modify by placing D. M. Osborne before C. H. McCormick
in both points. In weight and draught Osborne shows a
slight advantage over W. A. Wood, and a considerable one
over McCormick ; the advantage, however, is so small that it
is not appreciable during actual work by an observer. All
being American machines, it might be presumed that the quality
of material and workmanship in each would be pretty much the
same, but inspection shows that in this point W. A. Wood
has the advantage over both his opponents. In cutting close
up to the standing corn and in clearance of the stubble his
machine is perfect, not a single ear or straw being scattered in
an acre. McCormick and Osborne are but in the slightest
degree inferior in this particular, their work being, practically
speaking, if not perfection, as good as need be. I am convinced
that this point of merit which attaches to a good sheaf-binder
is one which is not at present at all estimated properly by
practical men. It will in the course of another year’s experience
be considered one of the greatest advantages which the present
system presents, and will put the sheaf-binding reaper in a
distinct category from even the best self- or manual-delivery
reaping-machine. The gain will be first in the saving of the
expenses of raking, which operation will be quite unnecessary
over so clean a stubble with sheaves so securely bound ; and,
secondly, in the gain of two bushels per acre in the sheaf-corn,
which otherwise in all the ordinary processes now employed,
whether by scythe or machines, is gathered into “ rakings,” and
very frequently entirely spoiled, but in all instances is of inferior
quality to the bulk of the crop. The cost of McCormick’s
machine and that of W. A. Wood’s is 60/. each, whilst the price
of Osborne’s is 50Z., a slight advantage which will disappear

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth. 127

when the maker brings forward a machine with the necessary
alterations for adapting it to our English cirops.

The completion of the first day’s work was much more satis-
factory than the commencement, when the clouds hung over us
with a threatening curtain. Several slight showers, also, in the
early part of the day were most teasing; but the Judges acted
judiciously in their arrangement of the proceedings under the
existing circumstances ; and the Stewards, with marvellous
patience and activity, devoted themselves to the necessary pre-
parations for a work which could not fail to be discouraging as
it appeared to be likely to be a futile one, viz., that of harvesting
in wet weather. The change to fine weather at the late period
of the day falsified our fears, and enabled the trials to be so far
completed that the Judges decided that no more cutting should
take place in the wheat-field, and that the machines should
commence operations upon oats the next morning.

The trials on the 18th took place on oats on another part of
the same farm. The field was about 30 acres in size, and, on
the whole, a magnificent crop, one-half of which was fully
9 quarters per acre ; of the remaining half there was a small
portion rather light, with rather shorter straw, which I estimated
at 5^ quarters per acre. The remainder of this moiety of the
field I estimated as likely to produce 7 quarters per acre. The
two sections of the field were divided by a broad space which
had been cleared of sheaves ; on the east side, and also on the
north and south sides. The whole of the grain on the west side,
between the portions spoken of and the fence, was already cut
and stocked. The whole of the piece prepared for the opera-
tion of the self-binding reaper by the open spaces surrounding
was next subdivided into plots of half an acre by a swathe
running from east to west. The top lot. No. 1, was of a much
heavier character than any of the other pieces, and contained a
good deal of entangled and twisted corn. The crop throughout
the field was uniformly ripe, with straw especially bright and
brittle, the conditions, therefore, being much more favourable
for the sheaf-binders than they were in the previous day. This
portion was selected for a preliminary operation of all the
machines, and McCormick went first. McCormick only suc-
ceeded in getting twice round, and this with several stoppages.
Where the crop was heavy he could not get it up, but where it
was laid he came to a dead-lock and retired.

Walter A. Wood came next, and made three circuits in the
heavy corn, with manual assistance at the delivery-board, as
well as at the point where the cut-corn has to be lifted on the
lower table, and to pass up the incline on the sheafing-platform.
The roller and sheet acted very well, and the speed of delivery

128 Report on Implements at Liverpool,, and on

was considerable, while the cutting process was accomplished
in a most successful manner. The amount of manual help
required, although it effected the work that was to be com-
pleted, and thus showed the value of the machine, even under
difficult circumstances with proper management, was not such
as could be taken into account of a trial where the object was to
produce an efficient reaper and sheaf-binder ; still it determined
the relative merits of the several machines under the circum-
stances, but required an excessive amount of attention and skill,
as well as two extra attendants to keep it going. At this
time McCormick had been cutting away at the next plot, which
the Judges had, permitted him to enter upon, owing to the bad
start which he had made in his previous attempt.

This crop was standing, and admirably adapted for cutting
by reaper, and upon it he certainly made very good work as
regards everything, except length of stubble. Once or twice
the wire broke, but the stoppages were few and unimportant.
Extra assistance, however, was not able to be done without.

For the test-trial it now fell to McCormick’s lot to have the
good fortune to be fixed on the very lightest piece of corn in the
field, with about 5^ quarters per acre, and, as I have previously
stated, with every straw as yellow as a guinea and as stiff as a
reed. In the half acre allotted to McCormick the work was
done in rather better style, as the corn was lighter, and the
machine managed to quit the sheaves, which were made very
small, without any assistance. Properly speaking, however, the
machine has no delivery, there being no motion given to the
sheaf after it is bound, except what it derives from the push of
the succeeding sheaf, when it simply drops off the platform,
two frequently falling together under the best of circumstances.
The time the work was done in was satisfactory, as the machine
cut at a rapid pace. Though a full width was not taken, this,
of course, lessened the bulk on the platform and on the sheafing-
board. The time of completing the half-acre was 34^ minutes.

W. A. Wood’s machine had also a very favourable plot for
cutting ; it was only very slightly larger in bulk of straw than
that done by McCormick. With this crop it required no extra
assistance at the delivery, the sheaf being impelled three or four
yards from the standing corn with great speed, exactly in the
same manner as a knur from a spell. Whether this powerful
action will shake out any grain when the corn is very ripe is a
moot point which I leave. Anyhow, Mr. Wood may afford to
reduce the power of the spring to some extent, and still leave
the machine quite efficient in ripe corn. There is no use in
retaining this excessive “ throw,” inasmuch as it was seen in the
wheat-trials to be incapable of dealing with corn in a very raw

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aiglurth.

129

condition. There were no stoppages to speak of beyond the
tying of a wire, and the work was completed in 35^ minutes.
The sheaves were more proportionate than those made by the
previous machine, inasmuch as the stubble was cut much shorter
and the straw left longer in the sheaf. This saving of straw at
the present time, when the price is so high, is an important
point in estimating the claims of a self-binding reaper to the
notice of a practical farmer. I need not enter into any calcula-
tions as to the quantity of straw gained per acre by the close
cut of W. A. Wood’s machine, the stubble being one inch
shorter than either of its two opponents, and two inches shorter
in many instances than that left by McCormick’s machine. The
binding process was quite perfect, and the sheaves when put
into stook would have shown to advantage against any work
done by the sickle, and those portions in the same field which
had been cut by the scythe looked very slovenly in comparison
with Wood’s work.

D. M. Osborne was less fortunate than his neighbours, and
was put to work in another portion of the field, in which the
crop was certainly heavier than those cut in the foregoing trials.
Nor was the straw all with one inclination : still the work was
completed in fair time, including a few stoppages due to the
clogging of the cutting-knife by twisted grain. Sheafing and
tying, as in all other instances with this machine, were perfectly
accomplished, and the stubble left was an average between that
of the other two. Thirty-seven minutes were absorbed in the
work, of which minutes were wasted in stoppages.

No further trials or dynamometer tests being made, I have
only to refer to the results patent in the trial-field to the ordinary
observer. The special points of merit and other individual
features in each were similar to those exhibited by the work on
the wheat crop on the previous day. All the machines failed in
showing themselves capable of dealing with a heavy crop without
extra manual assistance beyond that of the driver and conductor,
or indeed with a. crop of the ordinary length and bulk of straw
grown in this country. The delivery, which was defective in
Wood’s implement, was bad in Osborne’s, and worse in McCor-
mick’s. The cutting powers in the oats were precisely similar
to those exhibited in the wheat trials, and quite equal to those
possessed by an ordinary reaper.

The deficiency in collecting or gathering the heavy corn, as
soon as it was cut, upon the lower table, from whence it ascends
up the inclined plane to the sheafing platform, was very marked
in Osborne’s and McCormick’s machines. Both in wheat and
oats, the delivery of the sheaves from Wood’s machine was
superior to that of both his competitors. The swan-neck motion

VOL. XIV. — S. S. K

130 Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

and the tying mechanism in the same machine are not only
original in conception and ingenious in device, but the most
effective of the three competing implements. I see no more
reason why it should not be constructed to gather and bind a
4-quarters English wheat-crop than that it should cut one of
3 quarters, which it really can do now in a workmanlike manner.
Osborne’s binder ties equally well, and his crane-neck motion is
quite original ; thus while the tying is as good as possible, the
movement of the sheaf off the delivery-platform is the difficulty
now in force. McCormick’s tying is equally perfect, and the
result of perhaps the most ingenious combination of wheels,
cams, and pinions ever put together in a machine to be worked
on the rough land and under the guidance of a farmer’s man.
In the present trials the inventors lost nothing on this score,
but I am afraid that agriculture can scarcely claim the credit of
having produced any of those energetic, powerful, and clever
men who conducted the several machines in these trials. I
cannot, speaking from an observer’s point of view, do justice to
the manner in which this complicated machinery worked in
practice, the sheafing and tying being as good as need be, and
the failure being solely due to the contracted space in which
the retiring sheaf had to move, and to the absence of a propelling
power to start its motion.

To each of the machines attaches the special merit of being
able to cut a crop of corn, even now, if assisted by two extra men,
of heavy bulk, in a shorter time than any ordinary reaping-
machine, and in a better manner, — arising from the absolute
absence of waste from scattered ears in the horse-track. This,
of course, is a saving supplementary to that arising from the
the binding and the sheafing of the grain.

On three points, indeed, for the self-binding reaper, as even
now presented in the field, the specific merit of this economy
may be claimed, as well as the entire success of all the in-
ventions in the sheafing and tying processes. The invention
of the sewing-machine was deemed a marvellous instance of
mechanical genius, but it is nothing to compare with the inven-
tions which have just been tested. In the one case the material
to be operated upon is fixed, and the thread is always in the
same position ; whilst in the case of the self-binding reaper, the
material consists of distinct kinds of corn, of every variety of
bulk, to be operated upon under different circumstances of
weather. These various kinds of corn must be cut and conveyed
to a table, and thence, by revolving wheels, elevated 5 feet high,
and passed into the jaws of an iron piece of mechanism of the
most outr6 form, which grasps it, while elbows, fingers, knuckles,
and thumbs manipulate it so that, without a sensible delay, it
passes off the machine to the ground, and is found to be a perfect

131

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

sheaf with the straws as straight as the arrows in the quiver,
and with the heads uniformly at one end. The tying process
is so perfect, that in two days’ work I never discovered a knot
that had slipped, the wire, in fact, breaking on the application
of severe tension in any part but in the knot.

One feature common to all the machines is the tying with
wire ; and it is proper to note here, that when great interest had
been excited throughout the country at the announcement that
American manufacturers of agricultural implements, at their
Philadelphia Exhibition, had exhibited machines capable of
doing the cutting work of an ordinary reaper, and at the same
time completing the operation by sheafing and binding the straw,
— the competition for the Royal Agricultural Society of England’s
Gold Medal was looked forward to with great interest, owing to
the announcement of several entries of English machines which
were said to be much superior in this point of tying by using
other substances than wire for that purpose. I must confess to
having held the strongest opinion antagonistic to the use of wire
as a binding material, and I have every reason to believe that
the impressions of the Judges were somewhat in the same direc-
tion. A minute examination of the American wire- binders and
the two English machines which used ordinary string for that
purpose — and with it the models exhibited in the Yard certainly
could tie securely a sheaf — served to show me that my opinions
were to a considerable extent based on prejudice, and the public
trials fully converted me to the opinion that the practical objec-
tion to wire was groundless. Taking into account the small
cost of the wire. Is. per acre, the effectiveness of the mode, and
the saleability of the wire at half price, after use, I am induced
to think that it will be necessary to make very particular inves-
tigation into the capabilities of other substances as tying mate-
rials before assigning to wire any disadvantage for that purpose.
With ordinary care, which ought to be a thing natural to people
engaged in the working of complicated machinery, there is only
a very slight risk of bits of wire getting mixed with the straw
used as fodder or bedding. If the risk of this were great, con-
sidering the large number of animals that eat straw in the winter
in this country, the objection to it would be fatal ; but the risk,
which I have said is ordinarily trifling, has become reduced to
the minimum point by the introduction of a new patented clipper
or scissors, by which the wire is severed and retained in the
jaws of the machine until it is removed by the hand, for the pur-
pose of being put into a basket or box provided for that special
purpose. A piece of wire, therefore, cannot get amongst the
straw, except by design, or with the knowledge of the attendant,
and such a circumstance is an act of volition of that person as

K 2

132 Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

distinct as the taking of a lucifer match out of his pocket and
throwing it amongst the straw would be.

Fig. 7. — Sketch of W. A. Wood’s Wire-band Cutting Nippers.*

The following description a
11th

ppeared in the ‘ Farmer ’ of March

“ The straight hlade which enters in helow the hand is double, and on the
inner half there is a projection. On the outer side of the curved hlade there
is a corresponding projection. These two projections lay hold of one end of
the cut wire, whilst the other is set free and drawn from under the sheaf upon
the feeding bench of the threshing-machine. Now, the wire should be cut
close to the twist, and the twist end pulled out, as this is the easiest way of
doing the work. The instrument is hung from the neck of the operator by a
strap, so that the moment he cuts the band and pulls it out, he, with the help
of a spiral spring, opens the blades, when the wire band may be withdrawn
and placed in a box under the feeding bench, and when the threshing is over
the whole may he bundled away, not a single inch being left in the straw.”

A remarkable evidence of the universality of the feeling, be it
prejudice or not, against the use of wire for sheaf-binding is
shown by the fact that in every one of the English inventions
entered at the Liverpool Show a distinctive feature was stated to
be the employment of some vegetable fibre as a binding mate-
rial instead of wire, and in the Royal Agricultural Society’s trials
next year no doubt it will be made a great point of by our native

* In a letter dated March 4th, Mr. Scotson gives me the following account of
his experience of the use of this contrivance for cutting and holding the wire
band : — “ Last week I threshed the white oats, which were cut by the three Self-
Binding Eeapers, tried by the Eoyal Agricultural Society in my fields in August
last. We had one of W. A. Wood’s "WTre Band-cutting Nippers. If we had
two instead of one there would have practically been no difficulty in the two
people on the threshing-box supplying the sheaves as fast as the Clayton and
Shuttleworth 8-horse machine could thresh the corn. The sheaves need to be
cut where the twisted wire fastens, so that the sheaf is loose at once from the
wire band, which we dropped into a basket. If the wire band is not cut where
the twisted fastening is, the twisted portion of the band brings some stniws from
'the loose sheaf with it— which is objectionable; but, as I have indicated, with
two pairs of nippers the two persons on the machine-box would have time to turn
the sheaf to find the part of wire band where the twisted fastening is on the
sheaf. When the sheaves were all threshed, we sent the wire bands, with what
little unthreshed corn attached to them, altogether through the tbreshing-
machine, and would not have weighed 30 lbs. weight, wire, straw and all which
we burnt, so that practically I see little difficulty in the com being tied with
wire.” — Ed.

133

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

manufacturers. In spite of this, the American makers have
obtained the start, and they will take some collaring even should
this point be in favour, which I much doubt, of our native
invention : —

“ Dimidium facti, qui coepit, habet.”

The experience of these two days’ trials seemed clearly to
point to the superiority of Wood’s machine over the other two
in adaptability to the practical work of the farm. McCormick’s
is especially imperfect in the way in which it divides the cut
from the uncut corn. It has, however, many good points,
amongst which is the adjustment of the reel. Osborne’s machine
is the next in merit to Wood. It works with a cloth elevator,
like McCormick’s, and is an ingenious invention with an im-
perfect dividing and gathering as well as delivery arrangement.
At present, W. A. Wood’s machine is nearly perfect. When
some alteration and adaptation to English crops have been
made, viz., in the gathering and the delivery arrangement, it
will reach, I think, a point of efficiency that will with difficulty
be surpassed. One point, however, of mechanism will no doubt
have struck the skilled mechanic who is in charge of it, and
that is, that the mutilated segment is defective in want of
continuity of motion, from which arises an amount of jerkiness
that may with advantage be diminished. I scarcely dare sug-
gest that the spring propelling the sheaf is too strong ; but what-
ever be the cause, it is a point that my description of the trials
will have shown to be sufficiently prominent to demand and
obtain skilled attention.

As a general conclusion, it is quite clear that none of the three
machines is an efficient reaper and sheaf-binder combined, on
the general crops of this country. It has been shown also, that
in particularly light crops the work of cutting and sheafing and
binding can be done by two of the three fairly well, and by one
of them particularly well ; nor should I fail to note, as a corol-
lary, that the mere operation of sheafing and tying, unconnected
with the question of gathering and delivering, is undoubtedly
now an accomplished fact.

At the conclusion of the trials the Judges placed the following
Report in the hands of the Stewards : — ^

“ The Judges report that having made a careful and thorough examination
of the American Sheaf-binding Machines, which were tried on wheat and oats
on Mr. Scotson’s farm at Aigburth, they are of opinion that whilst great credit
is due to the three inventions, viz., those of Walter A. Wood, D. M. <.)sborne
and Co., and C. H. McCormick, for the considerable efficiency attained, none
of them have, as regards the requirements of English farmers, attained that
perfection which would justify them in awarding the Gold Medal of the

134 Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

Society. They, however, strongly recommended that a Silver Medal be
awarded to Walter A. Wood as a recognition of Progress, and that high com-
mendation be bestowed on the binding mechanism employed by D. M.
Osborne and Co.

“Believing in the great importance of this invention, when made practically
efficient, they are glad to know that the Society propose to continue their
offer of a Gold Medal for an efficient Self-binder.”

The recommendation of the Judges was adopted by the
Stewards.

On this occasion the management of the arrangements de-
volved upon Mr. Bowen Jones and Mr. George Henry Sanday,
Stewards of the Society, and Mr. H. M. Jenkins, the Secretary
of the Society, whose exertions were repaid by the entire success
of the proceedings, there being not a single hitch during either
day in any important matter to mar the progress of business,
if we except the showers on the first day. The exceptionally
fine weather on the second day, the total absence of mist and
the presence of sunshine, by no means common attributes of
the weather in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, were some com-
pensation to all engaged in the field for the inconvenience
sustained on the previous day.

The efforts of the Judges to complete the trials in the space
of two days were noticeable, and it was only through the favour-
able change in the weather that they were enabled to accomplish
this object.

The Silveb Medals.

Following the awards, the first implement to notice is W. N.
Nicholson’s Patent Grist Mill for power, price 121. 10s., and
called by them “ A New Vertical Grinding Mill and Kibbling
Mill, for beans, peas, oats, barley, maize, linseed, &c., witb
adjustable feed and concave safety appliances for passing stones
without injury to the grinding surfaces.” In this mill W. N.
Nicholson and Son claim to have invented what has long been
looked for, viz. a comparatively cheap mill with few and easily
replaced wearing parts, and one which, run at no excessive speed
and with no excessive power, will yet get quickly through a
large amount of work, and produce withal an excellent sample.

The following statistics were given by the exhibitor as evi-
dence of its practical success : — Run at a speed of 400 to 500
revolutions per minute, with an actual 3-horse power indicated,
the results were briefly, per hour, 60 bushels maize kibbled, or
10 bushels ditto finely ground from the whole corn ; 40 bushels
beans kibbled, or 14 bushels finely ground ; 12 bushels barley
finely ground, and a similar quantity of oats.

The mill may he shortly described as follows : — Qn the top of a vertical
spindle, A, supported in a tripod frame, and carrying the driviDg-pulley, is

135

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

loosely fitted a bell-shaped metal matrix, B, 6 in. in its smallest diameter and
10 in. in its greatest. This constitutes the driving part. Its surface is deeply
grooved at the top for kibbling purposes, and finely lined at the bottom for
grinding into flour. It revolves inside a concave, D, similarly grooved, but
cut the rever.se way. The position of the matrix with the concave is altered by
means of a hand-wheel and levers, which raise or depress it at will, and adjust
it for griuding fine or for kibbling, with the peculiarity of allowing the grind-
ing surfaces to remain idle when kibbling onl^ is required. A safety provision
is made for allowing the passage of any foreign hard substance, such as a nail
or stone introduced with the feed, without injury to the grinding part. The
feed is regulated by means of a ferule fixed at the bottom of the hopper, and
riding on the crown of the matrix. This can be readily set to a nicety by a
simple combination of lever, hand-wbeel, and screw.

The special advantages claimed for the mill are : —

1. That the matrix and the concave, the principal wearing parts, are small,
inexpensive, and require no fitting when it is necessary to replace them.

2. That the grinding being carried on over the whole surface of the concave,
it wears evenly and not in holes ; and the system of vertical adjustment ensures
its grinding thoroughly until worn quite smooth.

3. That owing to the safety arrangement the liability to breakage of the
concave is reduced to a minimum.

4. That the mill will grind all kinds of com and pulse equally well.

Fig. 8. — Section of Nicholson's Patent Grist Mill.

A. Vertical spindle, on which Is the
fly-wheel and driving-pulley.

B. Hard-metal bell or cone sus-
pended freely on spindle, hav-
ing coarse grooves in the
upper part, meeting grooves
in the concave for kibbling,
and finer grooves cut the
reverse way for grinding into
meal.

Feathers for causing a
current of air through the
mill, and carrying the grist to
the delivery spout C.

D. The fixed metal concave, grooved
the reverse way to the cone B.

E. Nozzle or ferule for regulating
the feed, screwed into the
dome (/) and held in any
required position by a jointed
lever (g), dropping into
notches in the upper flange
of the dome,

J. Hopper.

K. Oil-cup for lubricating the '
spindle where it passes
through the stuffing-box S.

This machine worked admirably under every test to which it
was submitted. The invention is remarkable for the sim-

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Report on Implements at Liverpool., and on

plicity as well as the novelty of its principle, and for the absence
of complicated mechanism in its construction. Its practical
merit must be measured by the durability of its grinding sur-
faces and the cost of their renewal. This latter is stated to be
30s. per set. The durability of its grinding surfaces depends on
the character of the metal, the special composition of which I
have no knowledge of. The wear of these, however, will be
lessened by the special feature that the grinding surfaces remain
idle when the mill is set for kibbling only ; in other words,
they are so wide apart that the grain kibbled in the upper por-
tion of the mill can pass between the surfaces ; hence the result
is clean kibbling, and not a mixture of kibbling and grinding
which is so common in many mills.

Whatever may be said of other descriptions of mills in use, it
is clear that this is an efficient and economical implement, and
a really new invention. As such the Society’s silver medal fell
to it by indisputable right. The award will have an indirect
beneficial result beyond that of distinguishing this particular
implement if it should direct fresh attention to the value and use
of this class of machinery on a farm. The necessity for such
becomes day by day more imperative. A large and increasing
proportion of home-grown grain is now consumed on the pre-
mises, and large importations of foreign beans, peas, lentils, and
Indian corn are used to still further increase the meat-making
capacity of the farm. The grain for horses, too, is generally
mealed for mixing with chopped hay and straw. To send these
several kinds of seed-corn to be ground at a public mill would
cost as much as would pay the rent of a small country mill.
Forty years ago all corn was ground at the mill and paid for by
“ moulter,” a system then legalised, by which the miller took a
fixed proportion of each sack of grain in payment for his work.
The proportion taken was certainly never less than the proper
one, but there was no obligation that a larger quantity should
not be taken, and tradition records that the “ moulter ” was often
well done by being twice done. But little grain was ground for
stock at that time, hence the continuance of the ancient practice.
At this day, however, the farmer could not bear to see his
waggon come from the mill with two or three sacks less than he
sent. In due course no doubt we shall see competitive trials,,
under the auspices of the Society, of the several grinding and
kibbling mills now in use throughout the country, when the rela-
tive standing of this machine will be positively established. At
present it comes before us with visible claims that entitle it to
the Society’s medal and to public notice.

The Hydrotrophe new boiler-feeder received a silver medal.
There has for some time been room for further improvement in
boiler-feeding, which should combine the advantages of the

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

137

injector and donkey feed-pumps without their disadvantages.
This desideratum Messrs. Hodgkin, Neuhaus and Co. profess to
have accomplished in their Hydrotrophe, a special adaptation of
their Pulsometer pump.

The accompanying sectional illustrations clearly show the
mechanical construction of the Hydrotrophe.

Fig. 9. — Transverse Section of the Hydrotrophe.

The Hydrotrophe consists of two chambers, A A, contained in one cast-
ing, connected at tlie top by a neck, J, containing the steam ball-valve B,
which, by its oscillation, admits the steam alternately to the chambers, and
at the bottom by a breeches-piece on which the junction seats D D and
suction valves C C are placed. On the side of the chambers is attached the
discharge-box 0, containing the delivery seats E E and the valves F F. Doors,
H H H, are fitted to permit inspection of the suction and delivery valves, and to

138

Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

enable their lift to be adjusted if at any time needful. K is the discharge
pipe leading downwards for connection with the boiler. L is the suction
pipe for watei supply, which can either be from a cistern on the ground-level
or from a height, as circumstances may make most convenient. G is the
suction air-vessel, through a plug in which the hydrotrophe is filled with
water at first starting. The small injection pipe M is bent upwards and
forms a connection between the two chambers ; its purpose is to hasten the
condensation of steam when the hydrotrophe is employed on a long suction.

Fig. 10. — Longitudinal Section of the Hydrotrophe.

The hydrotrophe may be fixed in any convenient position with respect to
the boiler, either upon it or at some distance from it ; the only necessary con-
dition being that the discharge fiange should not be less than eighteen inches
above the normal water-level. Steam could be supplied through a wheel-
valve screwed into the opening N by means of a pipe taken from any point
well above the water-line; the discharge pipe, to which is connected the
flange P, is to be taken into the boiler at any point well below the water-

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

139

level, and the suction-pipe is either to he taken down to a tank not more than
eight or nine feet below the level of the flange Q, or it may be connected
with a tank at any height above the apparatus. When flxed, the instrument
is to be filled with water by unscrewing the plug in the air-chamber G,
and is then ready to be started. On admitting steam through the steam-
neck J, by opening the wheel-valve above it, the steam will depress the
water in the chamber open to the steam, forcing it through the delivery-
valve, On reaching, however, the centre of the discharge-opening leading to
the discharge-box, owing to a particular configuration of the passage, the
steam is instantly condensed. The steam-hall, pulled on one side by the
partial vacuum, and also assisted by the vapour and water in the other
chamber, changes its position in its seat, sealing the opening in the neck
through which steam had been previously passing, and a tolerably perfect
vacuum is then formed, and the water then rushes up through the suction-
valves to fill the void. In the meantime the action in the other chamber
is exactly similar to that just described, these alternate changes going on
steadily as long as steam and water are supplied.

Beyond the foregoing descriptive remarks no further observa-
tions are necessary from me, as the Judges were favoured with
a special Report on this machine from Messrs. Eastons and
Anderson, the Society’s Consulting Engineers. They report as
follows : —

Article 4361, Stand 205. Hydrotrophe or apparatus for feeding boilers,
fi'his instrument is a variety of the pulsometer, which was first exhibited last
year and found on the trial not to be an economical method of raising water.
As applied to feeding boilers, however, the question of economy does not
arise, because the whole of the steam used is returned to the boiler ; there
cannot, therefore, be any considerable loss of heat. The instrument, now
exhibited for the first time, is said to be for 30 horse-power boilers. We
have found by experiment that it will pump as little as 1'89 gallons per
minute at ten pulsations, equivalent to 18 horse-power, and as much as
6'21 gallons per minute at 29 pulsations, which is equivalent to 60 horse-
power; the range of the apparatus is therefore considerable. We ascertained
further that it will work steadily with feed-water up to 140° temperature,
and that there is no difficulty in stopping and starting the instrument. It
has one defect in common with the Gifford injector, and that is, that it will
not suck water more than 8 feet high ; in the present instance it was not
more than 5 feet above the level of the water in the supply-tank. It must
be placed near the water-level of the boiler, and the higher it is above, the
more water it will deliver within the limits of the apparatus. The price is
16^., which is moderate, and there is no difficulty in fixing. We think the
hydrotrophe will prove a useful and durable pump applicable wherever
independent feed-pumps are required, and where water can be obtained
within 8 feet of the water-level of the boiler to be fed.

Eastons and Anderson.

The third and remaining silver medal was awarded to Messrs.
Clayton and Shuttleworth’s new patent Drum-guard on a
Threshing-Machine. This adaptation fills up a want long
felt. It is a machine purely agricultural, which is a distinctive
feature of merit to be duly considered when it comes before the
Judges of the Royal Agricultural Society. To the farmer and

140

Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

every member of the community the loss of life by accidents or
the maiming of limbs has long been regarded as a national loss.
Yet, strange to say, though safety-gearing has become a rule in
the higher branches of mechanical construction used in arts and
manufactures, it is only within five or six years that our
mechanics have turned their attention to this point, and made
efforts to accomplish the same object in the more powerful and
complicated machinery now used in advanced and scientific
agriculture. From what I saw at the Liverpool Meeting I shall
be enabled to give before my Report is concluded, not only
proof of the general interest manifested by engineers on this
particular point, but to show abundant testimony of the results
which they have attained already, and some of which will
produce a most appreciable saving of human life.

This machine does not, however, depend upon the important
work which it proposes to accomplish, but is fully entitled to
any honour that the Society can award it, not only as an effort
in the right direction, but also as a successful remedy and
prevention of a serious evil. A more thoroughly efficacious
automatic safeguard to a very dangerous part of a most destruc-
tive machine I have never before met with. Like all the most
important inventions round which hundreds of adaptations have
clustered, this discovery depends on one of the simplest mechan-
ical principles known and employed by every workman. The
whole thing is done by an automatic movement of two levers
attached to a crank-rod at each end, and moving simultaneously
whichever of the two levers chances to be pressed upon, in
which case the mouth of the drum is securely closed. A
noticeable feature in this invention is in the fact that a few
inches of open space are left when the safety-guard is down.
Through this aperture the loose corn accumulated on the stage,
chaffings full of short heads, rakings, and other refuse in which
there will be generally found an accumulation of gravel and
small stones which are in ordinary machines frequently injurious
to the workpeople, can be thrust by a rake into the concave of
the drum. It is remarkable to observe that safety appliances
judiciously applied to agricultural implements generally increase
their efficiency and value.

The following mechanical description will show how this
Drum-guard operates in practice, and will be clearly understood
at a glance by every one. Simplicity in construction and
effectiveness in action, as all mechanics know, are really true
cause and effect : —

In producing this guard two important points have been kept in view:
1st. To remove all danger to the persons engaged in feeding. 2nd. To place
as much of the necessary mechanism as possible below the scaffold boards.

141

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

I'ig, 11. Sectional View of Messrs. Clayton and Sliuttleworth's

Drum-guard when open.

Fig. 12. — Sectional View of 3Iessrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth’ s
Drum-guard when closed.

These objects have been satisfactorily accomplished in the following
manner : — A is the feed-board radiating on pivots B. F is the hood radi-
ating on pivots G. C and E are levers secured to the ends of pivots B
and G. These levers are connected through the medium of the rod D, conse-
quently any slight ])ressure or weight brought to bear on the hood F or feed-
board A instantly closes the mouth of the drum ; the hood then resting on
the top of the machine-frame, as shown in Fig. 2. The coupling-rod gives
simultaneous movement to the feed-board A and hood F. A convenient
opening is left below the bottom edge of the hood (whether up or down) for
sweeping loose corn into the drum, which, coupled with the compact method
of construction, renders it a valuable adjunct to threshing-machines.

142

Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

Miscellaneous Inventions.

Second only to the interest attached to the Sheaf-binders was
that which followed another class of labour-saving machinery
in farm field-work, viz., the Hay-loaders.

Two of these were exhibited: — The Harvesting-machine or
Elevator, invented by C. Loader, East Pennard, Shepton Mallpt,
Somerset ; and the American Hay-loader (Foust’s patent), exhi-
bited by Alfred Field and Co., Liverpool. The former is priced
at 45/., and the latter at 25/.

Neither of these was eligible for a medal according to the
strict conditions enforced in the regulations quoted at p. 104 :
nevertheless they are attempts at accomplishing important objects
difficult of attainment, and command consideration. This the
Judges gave them by practical tests thoroughly carried out. The
loaders were tried on the farm of Mr. Hugh Hayward Jones, at
Lark Hill, West Derby, about three miles from the Showyard.

Each was worked in succession on a heavy crop of hay, load-
ing from heavy close winnow from the swathe, and from open
winnow in which the hay was laid in a breadth of 4 yards. The
English machine in each case gathered the hay clean, and lifted
it up well ; but at an immense expense of power, the horses
labouring to keep it going. When going at full pace, the men
on the waggon were useless, the one nearest the machine being
buried under a continual avalanche of hay, and entirely occu-
pied by his efforts to disentangle himself from the shower of
hay falling upon him. His convulsive struggles were amusing.
Under these circumstances one-third of the bay slipped off the
waggon. A good deal also fell behind the waggon at the hind
corners. Acting against the wind the work was impracticable,
the hay blowing away at the highest point of elevation and
while falling. This machine is very heavy, and the process at
present can only be accomplished at a cost far exceeding that of
manual power.

The American machine is very light and elegant, and, except
in a wind, deposits the hay on a waggon which goes in front —
the opposite being the case with the Loader machine — in a
manner that allows two men to load it fairly well. In this case
also by far too much hay fell on the ground after passing the
top of the Elevator. A wider waggon or narrower gatherer
might be adopted. A foot in width could advantageously be
saved, as then it would gather as much as two men could load.
The gathering-rake moves in the opposite direction to that of
the Loader, which is a revolving cylinder with teeth like those
of the Hay-spreader, which draws the hay inwards. The
American drum goes round the opposite way, the teeth bringing

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

143

the hay outwards. Very pretty as the motion is, it must be said
that the American machine did not take up the hay, when
in heavy row, as clean as the English. Upon a very light win-
now it worked very well. Altogether, this machine, from its
cheapness, its light weight, its comparatively light draught, and
the general principles of its construction, promises well for the
future. The gathering power may, I think, be improved ma-
terially, after which we shall have a clever machine capable of
working its way into practice where large breadths of grass are
cut, and where the quantity of work done in a limited time is
of more importance than a small money economy. The ad-
vantage in price, which the American machine has, is a matter
of consequence, and it may be made yet more cheaply.*

The Judges placed both implements in the list of novelties
recommended to the notice of the Official Reporter. Both have
in them the elements of future success. The American machine
starts with the great advantage of comparative cheapness and
simplicity. I have not been able to obtain an illustration of
Loader’s machine, but it may be best described in the language
of the specification of patent as follows : —

“ The inventoi^s object has been the construction of a machine in such a
manner as to admit of its being adjusted to load a waggon either at the
front or the back of the same, as may be required.

“The -machine is arranged with gathering frames fixed in front of the
loading-rakes worked by an endless band or chain, which receives its motion
from a pinion on the axle of the chain-pulley gearing, with a wheel on the
axle of the running-wheel. The hay as it is gathered by the prongs is taken
up by the front loading-rakes and carried to the top of the inclined platform,
when it is allowed to fall into the waggon as it proceeds.

“ When the machine is required to load sheaves or loose corn at the back of
the waggon, the gathering prongs are fixed under and in the rear of the load-
ing-rakes, until on reaching the top it is allowed to fall into the waggon. The
chain or band of the loading-rakes is worked by a pinion on the axle of the
chain-pulley gearing with an internal wheel on the running- wheel.”

The American Foust’s Loader was described and figured by

* Loader’s machine was worked in the trials with the waggon attached behind
it. The elevating prongs (which act in a somewhat similar manner to the
corresponding parts in an ordinary elevator) work in front of, and in an
opposite direction to, the advance of the machine, and so meet the hay and gather
it up cleaner than the American loader can do. In fact, this machine will gather
up hay fairly clean which has been left spread on the ground by the haymaker.
The wind-rows of hay on which the loaders were tried were very large, and the
horses being driven at a great pace, the hay was delivered on to the waggon
much faster than two men could possibly place it. This caused the work to be
done in a very untidy manner.

Foust's loader works behind the waggon, and the hay is picked up at the tail
of the machine. This machine appears more particularly adapted for taking up
hav out of wind-row, which it does tolerably well, and with moderate draught. —
J. W. K.

144 Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

Mr. Coleman in his Report on the Agricultural Implements at
the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition.*

Considerable interest was excited by the two Sheep-shearing
Machines exhibited by Messrs. Newton Wilson and Co., and
by the Reading Iron Works for Captain Turquand.

The former invention comprises an iron standard, on
which the motive-power, a pulley-wheel turned by hand, is
fixed, and from the end of which a flexible arm with ball-and-
socket joint carries the shears. The operator holds the sheep
with one hand, whilst he guides the shears with the other.

Captain Turquand’s machine has some special features which
recommend it for favourable consideration.

It consists of a double-hinged frame capable of securely
holding two sheep, which are secured by the legs and by a
strap across the neck, so completely that the operators have
both hands at liberty to work the shears and manipulate the
wool. The motive-power is derived from the revolutions of a
large and easily rotated fly-wheel, which drives by means of
a crossed strap and two rollers, above the platform where the
sheep are secured. Catgut bands convey the required motion
to the cutters. This is a very simple and efficient arrangement.
It is necessary to begin one sheep first, and when shorn on one
side he is transferred to the opposite frame, which, owing to the
hinged apparatus, is readily accomplished. Thus two operators
can work, and with moderately expert hands a dozen sheep can
be shorn per hour, three men being employed. The price of
the machine complete is 35/. As professed labour-savers, the
Judges determined to put them to a competitive test. The ex-
perimental trials of these on living sheep took place, and were
watched with great interest by a large concourse of spectators,
not the least interested among whom were the shepherds in
charge of the sheep for exhibition, as the place in which the
trials were held was only a few yards distant from the sheds in
which the sheep were housed, the Leicester sheep being nearest.
There was, therefore, a gathering of the knowing ones round
the ring, whose remarks were truly of a practical character, but,
it must be admitted, more free than complimentary. Each
competitor was allowed a sheep to practise on before the testing
with animals took place.

Newton Wilson’s machine has no platform, the man who
guides the machine holding the sheep on the ground exactly as

* ‘Journal of the Koyal Agricultural Society,’ 2nd Series, vol. xiii., Parti.,

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

145

when ordinary shears are used. Captain Turquand’s machine
has a very ingenious platform on which the sheep is laid and
bound down, so as to allow the man to guide the machine
without obstruction and without the labour and the strength
required to control an unruly sheep. When half shorn, a re-
versal of the platform turns the sheep so as to bring the unshorn
side under the operation of the shears. This mode of securing
the sheep saves, I am convinced, half the power used in manipu-
lating the machine. At the trial, the man engaged in using
Newton Wilson’s machine consumed as much power in hold-
ing the struggling sheep as he did in guiding ^the shearer
and taking off the wool. In point of construction, Turquand’s
machine has a great advantage in its platform and in the clever
manner in which the power is applied. Having a heavy fly-
wheel, the power required after motion was produced was very
little, a man keeping the shears going with perfect ease. This
point I personally tested. In point of working capabilities,
Turquand’s machine has considerable advantage, cutting more
freely and with larger grasp. Newton Wilson’s shears seemed
to nibble at the wool to some extent, and to linger as they
passed over the sheep. They also left a quantity of waste
wool in short lengths. This opinion seemed justified by the
result, as Turquand finished his sheep in good style in 11 minutes,
the Newton machine taking 17 minutes to complete the de-
nuding of the other animal. In neither case was the sheep cut in
any part of the skin, and the workmanship of the operation was
first class, more wool being got off than by the ordinary mode
of “ clipping.” These excellences do not by any means counter-
balance the disadvantage of the cost of the operation by either
machine, as compared with hand-shearing. The same number
of hands are required by the new as well as the old mode ; but
a better man is required at the wheel, and to bring sheep to the
machine, than is required to bring the sheep to the ordinary
shearer, as he has no wheel to turn. Indeed, this help may be
dispensed with by penning the sheep close at hand. Assuming,
however, the manual power to be equal to both modes, we still
have the cost and the interest of the machine in excess, and
inferior results by the new mode. The sheep operated on were
lambs, and it required 11 minutes to remove the wool by the
fastest of the machines, a time more than double what a first-
rate clipper would require to clip a similar sheep in. Certainly,
in a trial on a single sheep, the fleece could be taken off by
hand-shears in less than half the time taken by the machine ;
while in ordinary practice, by ordinary shepherds, not more
than 7 minutes would be required to strip a small sheep. The
VOL. XIV. — S. S. L

146

Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

practical man will at once see that it will not pay to employ
two men and a machine to clip five sheep per hour, which is all
it can do, calculated even at trial-speed.

A practical test of a novelty of this kind is of great use ; it
points to the inventor the path before him, and the difficulties that
he has yet to overcome, while it tells the practical man that the
wool can be taken off by machinery even better than by hand.
The next step may be to cheapen the process by increasing the
pace of the machine.

While Turquand’s machine is clearly and distinctly superior
to Newton Wilson’s, both fail to show themselves “labour-
savers,” one pair of shears by the aid of machinery and extra
hands failing to do the work that one pair of shears in the
hands of a skilful workman can accomplish without help or
machinery.

As some discussion has arisen on this point, I am glad to be
able to contribute a precise fact which satisfactorily defines
what a good “ clipper ” can do. During last summer, a farmer’s
son on the East Riding Wolds of Yorkshire clipped 100
Leicester sheep in 11^ hours. He had no help except to
take away the wool and to bring him fresh sheep.

The Judges have directed my notice to no less than five
machines of one class — Chaff-cutters, more especially with re-
gard to the improved arrangement of safety guards.

The strong current of public feeling in favour of safety-appa-
ratus on dangerous machinery, and the success of mechanicians
in accomplishing the adaptation of such safeguards in many
instances, I have already mentioned. Chaff-cutters present the
most notable instances of mechanical success in this direction ;
■each of the machines referred to having, in addition to its own
special claims, whether of construction or principle, an un-
disputed title to the merit of having adopted gearing which
renders an accident to the feeder from the knives almost
impossible.

Sntety arrangement in Messrs. Richmond and Chandler’s Chaff-cutter
(Catalogue No. 931). The hopper is fitted with a self-actiug endless feeding
weh, or creeper, which carries the material to the toothed rollers, thus rendering
great assistance to the feeder, and moreover adding much to his safety, as no
thrusting forward of the material is required, and there is therefore no
necessity for him to put his hands near the toothed rollers. The machine is
sent out to cut any two lengths of chaff without change of wheels by simply
moving a handle, which also acts as an instantaneous stop motion, and which
can be worked either by hand or foot. The foot treadle is placed in a con-
venient position, and is so arranged that on being pressed ufx>n the rollers are at
once stopped. This would be a great advantage if the feeder carelessly got his
hand caught between the feed-rollers. In addition to this, a self-acting reverse
motion has just been introduced, the lever of which is so placed that if the

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aigburth.

147

feeder get his hand caught, and have not the presence of mind to throw the
machine out of gear with his foot, it appears certain that his arm must be
drawn against the lever, when the rollers would be at once reversed and the
hand liberated.

Allcock's new Pcrtent Portable Chaff-cutter, No. 130 in the Society’s cata-
logue, price 28?., was shown amongst machines in motion. Its special claim
to notice is its new patent lever for protecting the feeder from accidents. The
safety-guard renders it impossible for the feeder to be injured when at work,
as, in the event of his arm getting too far and brini;ing tlie fingers in contact
with the rollers, the arm itself lifts the lever without effort or impulse on the
part of the man himself, and compels the fingers to go back from the rollers
with the fodder in the box until quite away from all danger, whereas most
other guards are dependent on the presence of mind of the feeder, and his
quickness in using the lever to reverse the rollers.

The “ Starr ” Chaff-cutter of Lowcock and Barr, price 16?. 16s., has also
a special claim to notice on account of its new safety-bar, consisting of a
novel arrangement of the lever for stopping and reversing the rollers, so that if
the man feeding the machine should even get both his hands fast in the
rollers, he would instantly liberate himself by throwing his arms or body
against the safety-bar. The idea is new and admirably practical. It is possible
for a man to get his hands fast in the rollers without throwing his body against
the safety-bar, but it is unlikely so to happen. In ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred some part of his body would press against the bar, so that the safety-
action, if not quite automatic, is nearly so.

John Williams' Chaff-cutter ( W. P. 7), price 18?., is “ Whittaker’s Patent ”
Chaff-cutter, with a safety-gearing to stop or reverse the machine by hand or
foot. A special feature in the safety-gearing of this machine is that the lever,
which throws the clutches connected with bevelled pinions in and out of gear,
once pressed stops the action permanently, and the machine does not go on
after the pressure is taken from the lever, as is the case with some machines.

The last of this class of machinery on my list is the Safety Lever Chaff-
cutter (S. Edwards’s Patent), No. 10, price 19?., exhibited by Messrs. John
Crowley and Co., Sheffield. The levers, its maker says, are such that the
user is secured against any liability of accident when feeding. “ By the one
lever the feed is reversed ox driven forward, and the length of cut varied with-
out change wheels. One great improvement is the entire absence of any
retaining pins to keep the starting-lever in position, which enables the man
feeding it, even if both his hands were fast in the feed-rollers, to stop the ma-
chine with his body by bringing it in contact with the lever, which is placed
in a convenient position for that purpose.”

That the Judges should notice five implements of one class
I have attempted to explain by indicating the special feature of
merit which they all possess in common, of making the danger
to the attendants as small as possible ; and enough has been said
to show that marvellous perseverance and ingenuity have been
displayed by our agricultural mechanical engineers in applying
safety-gearing to a class of implements in such general use that
the saving of life and limb must be very considerable.

Of the numerous Field Implements, Denton’s Grass Harrow,
Hunter’s Turnip-Topper, and Barford and Perkins’ Steam Cul-
tivator, have sufficient novelty to render a brief notice of them
desirable.

L 2

148 Report on Implements at Liverpool, and on

The general show in this important department of agricultural
mechanics was never so large or so interesting. Every branch of
the manufacture was thoroughly represented, ploughs, harrows,
drags, cultivators, &c., from every maker, but each maker seemed
to have a pattern of every variety made by his firm. The
fact is, since the systematic trials by the Royal Agricultural
Society have been temporarily abandoned, the makers, resting
on their laurels, hJive discontinued straining after novelty, but
have directed their energies towards extending and increasing
their legitimate trade in the implements that in past years
they had perfected and the merits of which public trials had
tested. Hence while the general show of field implements was
magnificent, the list of novelties pointed out by the Judges was
meagre.

Denton’s New Grass Harrow is made entirely of wrought iron with
Bessemer steel teeth ; it has the merit of being only 21. 15s. in price. When
joined together the links form a diamond or lozenge longer than wide, and at
the apex of each angle a triangular piece of iron 4 inches long is attached
through its centre. Twisted links run across the bottom of the lozenge and
form a horizontal line, the triangular knives forming another horizontal line 43
inches distant from the line of the links. Thus there is a cutter or tearer and a
twisted link in each 9 inches ; beginning with 1 link and 1 tearer at the
corner, then 3, then 5, then 7, &c., &c., the line of blades runs slanting!}’, or
at angles of about 45°, both to the right and to the left. As a grass harrow
it clutches the ground, scratching up the moss with the knives, while the
chains harrow up the rubbish and free it from mould. For harrowing hide-
bound pastures, or meadows that have been dressed with bones, lime, or
compost, it has most properly not escaped notice on this occasion. As a seed
harrow on a cloddy surface it seems likely to be useful.

Hunter’s Turnip-Topper and Taller is one of the class of
labour-saving implements which agriculture now needs. In
saving the hay and corn crops much has been effected by
machinery of this character, and more has yet to be accomplished,
as the Liverpool exhibition and trials have shown ; and if similar
economy can be accomplished with our roots the gain of agri-
culture will not be insignificant. Ropt-crops cover more than
one-fifth of the area of the arable land, or, to be exact, there are
2,826,824 acres of mangolds and turnips in Great Britain, while
their weight is about ten times that of any other crop per acre.
The manipulation through all its stages, from the first hoeing
to the putting, topping, tailing, and storing, forms no incon-
siderable item in the labour account of the farm. For reducing
the manual labour employed in this work there is ample
margin. Our ridging ploughs, drills, horse-hoes, and scarifiers
have done much towards facilitating the cultivation of the crop ;
and two other machines are required to cheapen the costly
processes necessitated, viz., a turnip-thinner and a turnip-topper

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

149

and tailer. No improvement appears to have been made in the
former since the Bedford Meeting. The latter Mr. Hunter
exhibited in forms adapted for both heavy and light land. The
invention has been brought out and tested for some years, but
it is on its duplicate form for strong and light soils that it rests
its claim as a new implement in the catalogue, and competes for
the Society’s medal. Whether this claim be admitted or not,
its title to be considered a most useful novelty cannot be ignored,
if we take “ novelty ” to mean something that has not been
achieved elsewhere as a whole, rather than as something entirely
and absolutely new in all its parts as well as in its results.

The implement is constructed for cutting or sawing off leaves or tops, also
for cutting up the turnips from the roots, placing them in regular rows ready to
be carted away for storage, or put into heaps for cutting up and consuming on
the land on which they were grown. By a very simple arrangement of the
cutting or sawing frame connected with the main beam of the implement, and
adjustable by rods and chains, the leaves of the turnips are lifted up in front
of the cutting frame, the saw of which passing along cuts them all neatly
off nearly at the same level. The cutting frame is triangular, the narrow or
leaf-lifting end being towards the front of the machine, the saw or cutting
part forming one side of the triangle, and placed on the outer side of it.
There are two cutting frames, one on each side of the implement, so that as
it passes along it cuts off the leaves of two rows at the same time. The rods
and chains which adjust the position of the cutting frame are carried back-
wards, and are connected with two small levers jointed to the handles, so that
the attendant can work them as required. The main-framing is carried upon
three wheels, a small one being in front, and the two hind ones on a cranked
axle worked by a lever, so that the implement can be raised from or lowered
to the surface of the land as may be required.

Barford and Perkins’ Steam Cultivator is a novelty in its
self-acting appliance for lifting the tines out of the ground at the
headlands, or at any point. Similar in general construction to
ordinary cultivators for steam power, in this point of turning
without difficulty it is unique. Inside each wheel, and fitted to
the axles, are iron cams. By leverage from the operator’s foot a
bolt or bolts with small friction wheels at their extremities are
made to protrude from the side of the frame so as to come in
contact with the cam, and thus the frame is raised ; the said
frame not being rigidly attached to the axle when raised, the
frame is held up by strong supports which can be removed by a
second leverage. Without a diagram, it is difficult to convey
an idea of this ingenious device. So far as I could ascertain in
the limited space in the Show-ground there seems to be little
doubt of its being a novelty that will make its way in practice.

From an engineering point of view, no exhibit in the yard
excited equal interest with Otto’s Silent Gas-Engine. Its special
claims are “ no boiler, no coal or refuse, no extra attendance.

150

Report on Implements at Liverpool^ and on

safety and economy, suitability for most agricultural, and an
infinite variety of other purposes.” This is a startling pro-
gramme, and it may be useful to inquire how it is to be accom-
plished. The engine is constructed by Messrs. Crossley Brothers,
Manchester. The principle and action of this remarkable engine
are simple, but are not generally understood. The principal
peculiarity of the engine lies in igniting the charge of mixed gas
and air when this charge is compressed to a pressure of 30 lbs. or
so above the atmosphere. It has been found that when gas
and air are thus compressed, ignition is possible with a very
much weaker mixture than when they are at atmospheric pres-
sure only, the compression appearing to bring the particles
within the range of chemical affinity. A weak mixture of gas
and air thus ignited burns more slowly than one containing
a higher percentage of gas, while the heat resulting from the
combustion is imparted to the non-combustible portion of the
mixture, expanding it and giving that sustained pressure on the
piston, which has been an element so wanting in previous gas-
engines. The following diagram and explanatory remarks are
from the ‘ Engineer ’ : —

Fig. 13. — Diagram from Otto's Gas-Engine.

“ It must he premised that the gas is only exploded once in every two
revolutions when the engine is fully loaded, and the explosions may take
place much more rarely when the engine is running against a small resistance.
We have marked the ffiagram with letters and arrows to show the course of
the piston. The first horizontal line is just below the atmospheric line, and
marked A in the out stroke of the single-acting piston. The cylinder fills
during this stroke with a mixture of gas and air through a slide-valve at the
back. The inward stroke is shown by B, which gives the curve due to the
comfiression of the gas and air mixture. When the stroke is finished, the gas
is ignited by a small gas-flame, and the pressure rises, partly as a result of
the explosion, and partly because of the expansion of the nitrogen of the air
due to the heat of the explosion. The piston then goes out, and the curve

Trials of Self-binding Reapers at Aighurth.

151

of the expansion C is drawn. At the end of this stroke the exhaust opens,
and the piston returns, as shown by D, expelling the products of combustion.
The governor acts by preventing the admission of gas when the engine runs
too fast, so that more than two, or, indeed, more than a dozen revolutions
may be made without the admission of any gas whatever. The ‘ Otto and
Langen ’ gas-engine, of which Messrs. Crossley Brothers have made such
large numbers, and of which they have introduced so many improvements, has
been found eminently useful as a motor where small powers are required.
The ‘ Otto and Langen,’ however, is somewhat noisy, and in some cases this is
an objection. The new ‘ Otto ’ engine, therefore, working as it does as quietly
as an ordinary steam-engine, opens up a still further field for the employment
of gas motors, while apart from its silent action it possesses other advan-
tages. Numerous testimonials speak favourably of its action in daily practice,
and its makers claim for it the following special meritorious features : — First,
that the principle of combustion in this gas-engine is entirely new. In it an
explosion does not take place in the ordinary meaning of the term. A small
part only of the charge is combustible, which on ignition serves to expand
the remainder, thus avoiding shock and effecting vast economy. The engine
is also alone in the peculiarity of igniting its charge at the beginning of the
stroke, leaving the whole of the stroke for effective expansion of the gases,
instead of merely a fraction, as in other obsolete constructions. Secondly,
this engine unites the greatest simplicity of parts ever yet attained in a gas-
engine, or even in many steam-engines, with an economy and durability often
surpassing either. It is as silent as a steam-engine, and works with the same
smoothness and regularity, having, of course, the immense additional advan-
tages of starting at full power at once on the gas being lit, and, by dispensing
with the boiler, of avoiding the dangerous and pecuniary risks, annoyances, and
expensive attendance which a boiler entails.”

Riches and Watts showed a Porcelain Roller Mill (Wegman’s
patent). It has differential speed and self-acting pressure for
softening Fine Middlings, or breaking down wheat in prepara-
tion for the stones. It is manufactured by A. B. Childs and
Son, 70, Fenchurch Street, London. The price is fixed at 80?.
The machine is only 34 inches wide, by 42 inches long, and
comprises two sets of rollers supplied from either side of the
hopper. The surfaces are very smooth ; and their efficiency is
attributed to their peculiar porous nature. The principal use of
the mill is to prepare middlings for the sieves. This is ordi-
narily effected by the tearing action of the stones ; whereas the
rollers operate with a squeezing action on the particles of bran
which are thus prevented passing through the silk, and thus a
more perfect separation is effected. The. idea of using rollers is
not new ; cast-iron or steel rollers have been employed, but the
inventor states, not having an equal porous surface, the meal
coming from these rollers was caked, and could not be sifted
without a further disintegrating process, which tended to
destroy the beneficial effect of the rolling by rubbing the
flattened bran particles into the meal. The ijuality of the
flour rolled by this mill, after being sifted, was certainly ex-
tremely fine.

152

Early Fattening of Cattle,

An INTERMEDIATE HORIZONTAL MOTION which can distribute
power in any direction ” was mentioned by the Judges. This
is manufactured and exhibited by W. N. Nicholson and Son,
of Newark. It is an intermediate motion with a vertical as
well as a horizontal driving-shaft. The vertical shaft is fitted
with a horizontal flanged pulley, from which any number of
food-preparing and other machines arranged in a circle round
the gear can be driven, without moving them into position, by a
half-twist strap.

On moderate-sized farms, where expensive fixed machinery
cannot be adopted, this motion will be very useful, and, in any
case, will allow several operations to be carried out without the
expense of costly shafting.

VI. — Early Fattening of Cattle, especially in the Counties of
Surrey and Sussex. By Henry Evershed. ,

The counties of Surrey and Sussex are not naturally adapted
to the business of rearing cattle, and they are, in this respect,
less productive than in the last century. Fifty years ago the
live stock of a Wealden farm consisted, in winter, of some
bacon-hogs and Kentish lambs, with a few hardy Sussex cows
and their offspring. The cattle “ roughed it ” in the straw-yards
during winter, and lived on clover, grass, and stubbles, the rest
of the year. This was the system that stamped the Sussex
breed with their characteristic hardihood. But this old-fashioned
method is quite unsuited to modern farming. The straw-yards
are no longer supplied with choice handfuls straight from the
flail during six months of the year. All adventitious oppor-
tunities of satisfying bovine appetites have been diminished.
The wide margins of the lanes have been reduced, the commons
and wood-side pastures have been enclosed, and the stubbles,
under modern management, should contain the least possible
quantity of accidental forage.

It is the same in other parts of the two counties ; the supply
of food and fodder for. breeding-cattle has been reduced. Nor
are these counties naturally adapted to pasturage. Setting aside
the sheep-breeding district of the South Downs, neither of
them is a breeding county. They produce food for the winter
rather than the summer months, the Wealden clays being well
adapted to the growth of mangolds, and the loams and sands of
Surrey being equally favourable to the growth of other kinds
of root-crops. The amount of winter-food is increased by the
practice of mowing the “ seeds ” of the four-course rotation for

especially in the Counties of Surrey and Sussex. 153

hay instead of grazing them. There is no doubt that sheep and
cattle both do badly when summered on hot sandy soils. All
through Surrey, therefore, and in Sussex, more or less, the farms,
as a rule, are emptied of their stock in spring. At that time
the last of the fattening cattle are finished off on the last of the
roots ; and about Guildford Fair-day, on May 4th, the last of
the store tegs, which have been wintered on turnips and kept
some weeks further into the spring on rye and other forage, are
disposed of.

The farms are thus depopulated for the summer season. In
October they are again stocked. Store sheep for folding and
fattening in the turnip-fields are purchased in the breeding-
districts of the south and west, and the yards are filled with
cattle. In the main this management, as a general system, is
right ; but in recent years the high price of store-cattle has
induced the best stock-farmers to rear, at home, some at least of
the stock intended for fattening.

One of the best strains of red cattle was collected, a hundred
years ago, at Theal, a farm in the parish of Slinfold ; and
most of the best existing herds of Sussex cattle have derived
some of their excellence from this stock.

Mr. William Stanford, late of Charlton Court Farm, Steyning,
has been a successful promoter of the practice of rearing and
fattening young bullocks in his district. The calves required
for the process are brought from the dairy districts of Somerset-
shire and the West, to Chichester and other markets. Various
methods of feeding and treating calves from birth have been
recommended, and they’ are all a little difficult to describe
clearly in detail.

Mr. Stanford’s method does not differ materially from that of
other good managers. His calves are invariably weaned at birth.
New milk is by degrees replaced by skimmed milk, thickened
with boiled linseed or oatmeal. They are gradually induced to
feed on linseed-cake and hay. At three months old, and up to
six months old, their daily ration is 2 lbs. of linseed-cake, with
the same quantity of bean-meal, and with about half a bushel of
roots, hay, straw, and salt. The cake and meal are gradually
increased, till at twelve months old they get twice the quantities
above mentioned. In summer, some of the articles of diet just
named are replaced by trifolium (which is good food while it
lasts), by tares and grass, with second-cut clover. The whole of
the green food is cut and brought to the animals in their sheds
and houses, which they do not quit till they are sent to the
butcher, by which time their daily rations will have been in-
creased to 4 lbs. of cake and 6 lbs. of bean-meal, with roots and
a moderate allowance of hay. The principle of management is

154

Early Fattening of Cattle,

to let the animals continually outgrow their food, pushing them
on rapidly the last three months, and finishing at something
under two years old. I may here note that the calves get
daily, at six months old and until ten months old, lb. linseed-
cake, 1 lb. bean-meal, 2 gallons grains, 1 gallon mangold, and
5 lbs. hay. The cost of this, with labour and with a proper
deduction for the value of the manure, is about 3s. 6rf. a week.
Each cow rears five calves.

From the first, Mr. Stanford’s calves never quit their sheds
until removed by the butcher. The reasons for this treatment
will be given by and by ; meanwhile, although the knack of
rearing calves without loss can hardly be imparted by written
directions, the reader may like to hear, at this stage, what other
breeders have said on the subject.

Mr. William T. Carrington, of Croxton Abbey, Staffordshire,
a dairy farmer with 100 cows, who enjoys a well-deserved
reputation for successful stock management, has lately given
his experience in the management of dairy-cattle. He says : —

“ It is my practice to rear nearly 40 of my earliest heifer calves. They
are not allowed to suck their dams ; they have from 4 quarts to 8 quarts of
new milk per day, according to age, from three or four weeks. They are
then fed with skim-milk, thickened with boiled linseed or oatmeal, and are
taught as soon as possible to eat hay and a small quantity of linseed-cake.
They are allowed to run out on a grass-field in May and June, and are after
then generally left out altogether, with a shed to run into in very wet
weather, or to avoid the heat of the sun and the teasing of flies. The wet-
nursing is generally discontinued when they are about four months old. They
are, however, supplied with about 1 lb. each per day of linseed-cake all
through the year.

“ In order to have all the milk available for cheese-making we have
hitherto often fed the calves, when taken from new milk, with whey thick-
ened with meal.

“ Skim-milk is a much safer food, and now that cheese sells at a good
price, it will never answer to keep sufficient milk for the calves out of the
cheese-kettle. In the spring, calves are generally very plentiful in this dis-
trict, as dairying is the principal farming business, bull calves are therefore
generally sold at a low price.

“ Having a considerable local reputation for breeding good stock, I am
able to sell mine at a fair price — selected ones for being reared by neighbour-
ing dairy farmers for stock purposes, and the remainder .to be reared as
bullocks. 1 send many of them, at a week old, tied up in bags, packed
with straw, leaving the head at liberty, per passenger van, into districts where
calves are scarce. They travel quickly and safely, at a moderate cost. I am
now using only first-class pure-bred bulls of registered pedigree.

“ Those who rear bullocks cannot be too particular in getting the calves
of the best possible quality. A coarse ill-bred bullock is a very unprofitable
animal either to rear or feed.”

The same principle of management is elsewhere observed.
Mr. Thomas J. Scott, of Stretton Baskerville, Hinckley,
showed me a dairy of cows from whose milk was made some of

especially in the Counties of Surrey and Sussex. 155

the best cheese of a noted district. The dairy is under first-rate
management, and the treatment of calves may be briefly summed
up thus : — “ They are taken from their dams at birth, and put
on new milk for about three weeks, when the quantity of milk
is gradually reduced, and Henri’s food is given. Hay follows,
with 1 lb. of linseed-cake daily, or its equivalent.” Henri’s
food is largely used in Leicestershire in rearing calves, which
seem to derive benefit from the mixture of an aromatic stimu-
lating ingredient with the nutritious meal.

Here is the receipt of a dietary given in somewhat more
detail : — 6 quarts of new milk daily for fourteen days from birth,
and for the next six weeks 2 gallons of skimmed milk, warmed
and mixed with J lb. of linseed-cake, ^ lb. boiled linseed, and
^ lb. split beans. To these approved receipts I will add one
which Mr. Henry Ruck has laid before the Chamber of Agri-
culture at Cirencester. Calves are reared on Mr. Ruck’s principle
with little or no milk after the first fortnight. His plan may
be thus described : —

“ Seven lbs, of finely ground linseed-cake is dissolved in 2 gallons of hot
water, and to this is added 2 gallons of hay-tea ; 7 lbs. of mixed meal, con-
sisting of equal parts of wheat, barley, oat, and bean-meal, is also added with
2 gallons of water. This mixture, which may be described as 7 lbs. of
linseed-cake ground fine, 7 lbs. of mixed meal, 2 gallons of hay-tea, 4 gallons of
hot water, is given to the calves as follows : — 2 quarts in the morning, further
diluted with 2 quarts of water, and 2 quarts mixed with 2. quarts of water at
night. Upon this gruel the calves thrive well, and they are weaned from it
at twelve weeks old, having cost not more than from Is. 3ci. to Is. 6c?. per
head per week. Mr Ruck is fully convinced of the practical method of wean-
ing calves just described, but insists upon the importance of strict personal
supervision and attention to the wants and peculiaries of appetite of each calf.”

On this last point I agree with him entirely, and consider his
mixture valuable and worthy of attention ; but I should prefer
approximating his plan to Mr. Carrington’s, and suckling with
new milk for three or four weeks, with skimmed milk after-
wards, as “ a much safer food,” safe until three or four months old.

After the above, the reader will probably conclude that calves
are best weaned with new milk for several weeks. All changes
of diet should be effected gradually. Suppose new milk has
been used for two or three weeks, one-third of it may then be
omitted and replaced with skimmed milk which has been boiled
and allowed to cool to the natural temperature of new milk.
In another week the quantity of the new milk may be further
reduced, and boiled linseed added to the skimmed milk : 5 lbs.
of linseed will make 7 gallons of gruel, and when the whole of
the new milk has been omitted, this quantity of nutriment, or
its equivalent in some other form, will prove sufficient for five
calves, in addition to skimmed milk. The food should be given

156

Early Fattening of Cattle,

twice a day, and a good feeder, having taught the calves to suck,
will feed twenty in a convenient building. The stomachs of
calves are particularly delicate, and the food should be care-
fully prepared. It must not be burnt or sour. The hay must be
sweet. The calves must lie dry and warm, in a cool well-venti-
lated shed in summer, and in lots of not more than half a score,
so as to avoid the disease occasioned by their habit of lying in
a heap and inhaling each other’s breath. Moreover, if the
animals are to attain the earliest possible maturity, they must
remain at all times in their sheds, placid and undisturbed.
They must not be turned out for exercise either in summer or
in winter. The experiment was tried of keeping one lot in and
turning another on the best grass during the most favourable
period of the summer ; and there could be no doubt as to the
result. Whenever the two lots of animals were compared
together, those were found to be doing best which were shut up
in a shed. And, at the end of the summer, they were worth
about 30s. each more than the out-door cattle ; the feeding having
been the same, except the difference in the fodder.

Mr. Joseph Blundell, of Southampton, set an early example
in the production of “baby beef” in South Hants in 1857, and
read a Paper on the subject before the Royal Agricultural
Society, June 18, 1862. The following is his treatment : —

“ My calves are weaned at a few days old, fed with new milk at first, gradu-
ally introducing with the skim-milk, linseed-cake, meal, and barley-meal, with
a little sweet meadow hay for a time in the rack allowed them until they can
safely take to green fodder, which they get in succession — first rye, second tri-
folium, third clover, with a portion of old mangold, then early turnips. To com-
mence the winter they get hybrid turnips, carrots, or swedes ; and lastly
mangold, until the green fodder comes in again, being supplied with clean
fresh oat or barley straw always in the rack whilst feeding either on green
fodder or roots, the portion not eaten being removed for littering the boxes
daily. As soon as they begin to take green fodder they are allowed a small
portion, say 2 lbs. of cake-meal per day, mixed with the old mangolds, which
are cut with Gardner’s turniii-cutter. As soon as root-feeding commences they
get 4 lbs. of cake per day, and continue to receive this quantity until they are
sold at 18 to 20 months old ; having, however, during the last three months
1 lb. of bean or barley meal extra ; but at no time after they once take to their
green food are they allowed hay, as this would be found to absorb the profit and
injure the health of the animals also, for since I adopted the method of straw-
feeding 1 have never had an animal hoven or unhealthy. The quantity of
roots given the first winter is 5(3 lbs. per day ; the second autumn not more
than 64 lbs. per day, the meal being always mixed with the cut-roots : in this
way each kind of food is more beneficial to the animals, and when only fed
twice a day they have plenty of time to lie down and digest their food, and will
return to the troughs with a good appetite, and will eat a good portion of clean
straw.”

Mr. Blundell has frequently obtained prizes for young stock at
the Easter Cattle Show of the Botley and South Hants Farmers’

esj)ecially in the Counties of Surrey and Sussex. 157

Club, and has published one instance of a first-prize Shorthorn
heifer which he sold to Mr. William Lunn, of Southampton,
at 18 months 3 weeks old, weighing 98 stone G lbs., with a great
weight of fat inside.

In reporting on the fanning of Surrey, in 1870, for the Bath
and West of England Society (having previously reported upon
it in 1854 for the Royal Agricultural Society), I described the
example-farm of Mr. Cyrus Ellis, of Great House Farm, Ham-
bledon, who was then, and still is, a producer of young beef
on a Surrey sand farm. The soil generally is extremely thin.
High Down, on the east side of the Farm, is a sandy heath
which still defies the plough and can never be conquered but by
a powerful combination of tillage and manure. Mr. Ellis has
at the present time carried on his operations quite as far up the
High Down as he can do with profit. He can do nothing without
dung. The poor iron-sands of Surrey soon tell upon the pocket
when mismanaged, which they easily may be in regard to the
system of manuring. Artificial manures, for example, must be
sparingly used on the poor sand. Mr. Ellis finds that super-
phosphate of lime starts the young turnip-plants, but does not
enable them to hold their growth. Nitrate of soda must be used
moderately ; and, in short, after closely questioning his land on the
best method of manuring it, the response is favourable to bulky
rather than concentrated dressings. One-fourth of his land is in
roots fed off by fatting sheep, or consumed by young bullocks.
There are 6 cows ; and 30 calves are annually purchased for early
fattening. The usual number of sheep wintered and fattened on
the farm is 1^ per acre, besides almost half a store-lamb per
acre wintered on turnips and kept through the summer on forage-
crops. The effect of the cattle feeding is clearly seen in such
results on land so thin. And possibly Mr. Cyrus Ellis might
not have kept to the front as a distinguished member of a family
noted for good husbandry if he had paid high prices for store-
cattle instead of rearing calves at home. He and others in his
neighbourhood still continue the practice here described.

The following is extracted from the report referred to above ;
— “ By the plan of early fattening, Mr. Ellis avoids summering
the cattle a third season, and gets rid of a difficulty which is
always severely felt on the sand farms, of maintaining any con-
siderable head of stock in the summer. The calves are allowed
to run out in the arable fields as soon as the rye is ready for
them : afterwards they get cake in the pastures. The 30 fatting
bullocks are started on early turnips by the middle of Sep-
tember.” *

* ‘ Journal of the Bath and West of England Society and Southern Counties
Association,’ vol. iii. third series, p. 15.

158

Early Fattening of Cattle,

There seems to be no reason why, on purely arable farms,
cattle should not be continuously as well fed as, sheep. On
mixed arable and grass farms young cattle can be kept more
advantageously the first and second years on the pastures, to be
fattened in the third year at about years old.

A few examples may be quoted from farms which I recently
visited, and reported upon in 1870, and again more recently.
Mr. W. M. Stanford (who farms his own land), of Broadbridge
Farm, near Horsham, avails himself of his 105 acres of meadow
and pasture on the banks of the River Arun. He has increased
the breeding-stock since 1870, and has now a herd of 70 or 80
Sussex cattle of all ages, fatting his home-breds on the pastures
during the third summer, and finishing them in the stalls. At
the end of May I found the cows on two-year-old “ seeds,” with
calves by their sides, their own progeny, except in the case of the
heifers whose offspring, born in December, had been already
weaned. A heifer rears her own calf, dropped early, and three
months later she takes the calf of another cow. The first-born
calves were waiting in yards for their pastures and summer run.
They had been early taught the use of cake, hay, and mangold.
They get 1 lb. of cake daily till winter, and then 2 lbs., with half
a bushel of roots and a small quantity of hay and straw. In
their second year they are put on good grass in spring, when the
cake is taken off ; and the following winter they receive, at
nearly two years old, 2 lbs. of cake daily, 1 bushel of roots and
hay once a day, with uncut straw from the rack twice a day.
This brings them to the third season, when they are put on good
grass as before. In July they begin to get cake ; 3 lbs. daily, in-
creased to 6 lbs. at Michaelmas, when they are stalled. This
feeding is increased to 9 lbs. of cake and 3 lbs. of bean-meal for
the last six weeks. The average weight at Christmas, at the age
of 2 years and 10 months old, is 130 stone. On such a farm as
Broadbridge, with its feeding-pastures, that is no doubt the right
management, and the description may be regarded as an appro-
priate commentary.

Messrs. Drewitt and Son, of Piccard’s Farm, near Guildford,
furnished me with all possible details, and placed their sale-
books before me. The cows on their farm each rear two calves,
and feed them entirely from March or April till July or
August, when they are weaned on the rowans, and get 2J lbs. of
linseed-cake each daily. In October they are removed to the
yards, and wintered on the same allowance of cake, with one-
third of a bushel of swedes or mangolds daily, straw, and rough
hay. After their second summer — on pasture with the same
cake — they are -prepared for the butcher, with Ij bushel of roots
daily, 5 lbs. or 6 lbs. of linseed-cake for three months, and after-

especially in the Counties of Surrey and Sussex. 159

wards at the finish, 5 lbs. or 6 lbs. of pea- and barley-meal in
addition. The following figures show the weight at a little
more than two years old. In 1871, nine calves bought from the
West country, at a week old in March or April 1869, were sold
at 6s. per stone to Mr. Colebrook, butcher, Guildford. They
weighed : May 23, a steer, 108 stone, 5 lbs. ; a heifer, 100 stone ;
May 27, a steer, 117 stone, 1 lb. ; May 29, a steer, 106 stone ; a
steer, 101 stone, 7 lbs. ; June 5, a steer, 97 stone, 1 lb. ; June 7,
a steer, 122 stone, 2 lbs. ; June 26, a heifer, 79 stone, 9 lbs. ;
June 29, a steer, 115 stone, 4 lbs. The heaviest of these cattle
was just 105 weeks old.

In June 1872, the crop of 1870 was sold at the same period
of the year at 5s. Id. per stone, and an average weight of

94 stone. In 1873 the price was 6s. 8<7., and the average weight

95 stone. In 1874 the price was 6s., and the weight 100 stone ;
the bullocks in this case being the offspring of good-sized Short-
horn cows kept at Aldershot. The price of calves during six
years varied from 35s. to 50s. each. In using Devon bullocks,
Messrs. Drewitt have found them smaller consumers of roots
than Shorthorns, and their experience coincides with that of
their relative, whose system is next to be described.

Messrs. John Drewitt and Son farm largely at North Stoke,
in the gorge of the River Arun, where it passes through the
South Downs to the sea. The herd is a cross between the
Devon and Sussex, a comparatively small sort, which does not
tread through the turf of the river-side meadows. The manage-
ment is as novel as it is successful. The young cows on this
farm receive the bull at fifteen or sixteen months old, and during
three years in succession they take their calves on the meadows.
They are fattened after the third year. The system is suited to
the spot and to the breed, and has the advantage of involving
scarcely more labour than a dry herd. In summer the herd
numbered 8 cows over four years old ; 20 three years old ; 22 two
years old ; 27 steers two years old ; 18 yearlings gone to bull ; 41
yearling steers and 5 heifers, and 71 calves, with 3 bulls. These
were all on the grass on June 26, except the bulls and a few
young calves. Ten of the oldest heifers were to be finished in
the stalls at Christmas, and the remainder in the spring.

In addition to the 240 acres of flooded meadow and 20 acres
of dry pasture, there is an arable farm of 450 acres, and 220 acres
of down ; and other cattle, besides the home-breds, are fattened.
I am describing, however, the system, and not the farm. The
breeding-heifers and steers rising two years old are wintered on
straw, half a bushel of swedes or mangolds, and 3 lbs. or 4 lbs.
of rape-cake or cotton-cake. The period of calving is between
September and April. The system has borne the test of twenty

160

Early Fattening of Cattle,

years’ trial, and its principle appears to rest on the avoidance of
the risks and costs of purchase. The three calves produced by
each cow are the compensation for the wear and tear of mater-
nity. In all probability the drawback attaching to a breeding-
herd in this respect is less in the case of these cows than it
would be with deeper milkers ; and Messrs. Drewitt’s mixed
Devons and Sussex (a beautiful and meat-making herd) are, no
doubt, admirably adapted for his purpose. They are of mode-
rate size. Other sorts of cattle may produce mountains of beef,
while these yield only hills ; but the cost of production is the
main point.

Mr. J. B. Lawes has shown, by a series of experiments at
Rothamsted, that well-bred Shorthorns, Devons, or Herefords,
consume food and make meat in proportion to their size ; and
Messrs. Drewitt’s experience has led them to the same conclusion.

During an interesting correspondence in the ‘Agricultural
Gazette’ on the subject of “ Two-Year-Old Beef,” a number of
letters appeared from practical men describing their manage-
ment. Perhaps the following may be added to my other ex-
amples, as showing the varieties of management in the north of
England : —

“ Since such prices as 18?. and 20?. a head for lean oxen came into vogue,
there have been considerably more calves reared in Roxburgh and Berwick-
shire. The cows kept are generally selected more on account of their milking
capabilities than for their pure breeding, and are mostly Ayrshires and crosses
of that breed with the Shorthorn. On those farms where it is the custom to
rear calves, a good useful Shorthorn bull is kept, not always of high pedigree,
but that, too, is being more sought after than formerly ; the hinds’ cows and
those of the neighbours being served on the condition that the owner of the
bull shall have the first offer of the calf. The cows calve from February till
May, and the calves, with jdain diet, certainly without pampering, are fed off
at 22 to 24 months old, as the case may be, and oftener than not do not taste
oilcake the last season till three months before they are sold — 50 to 60 stones
(of 14 lbs.) are the usual weights. There are more calves reared in Northum-
berland than in both the before-mentioned counties put together ; the breed
of cattle — generally Shorthorns — is much superior; but here, in the southern
part of the county, the practice of feeding at two years old has only obtained
during the last 20 years. When that is the object in view, it is a great point
to have early spring calves, not later than April if possible. It was the prac-
tice on Tyneside to keep on an average-sized farm, say 200 to 300 acres, a
dozen or more fine heavy Shorthorn cows, and, rearing their calves, to feed
them off on firass the third summer. That was the plan when the bare-fallow
system was pursued, and fewer turnips grown than nowadays. Great attention
was paid to the breeding both of sire and dam. Latterly it was found that it
paid better to buy Irish cattle, which were to be had good of their sort at low
Tirices, and so it came to pass that on many farms the Shorthorns, the breed of
which had descended in the family from father to son, gave place to two or
three come-by-chance Irish cows, just kept to provide milk for the farmhouse
and the cottagers. However, since the great rise in the price of lean cattle,
the old system of rearing a part and buying in the remainder of the cattle fed
has been recommenced ; indeed, in many cases, it bad never been entirely

especially in Surrey and Sussex.

161

given over, and there are not many districts that could turn out the number of
fine and even high-pedigreed Shorthorns that Tyne can do yet. On this farm
— about 500 acres arable, and 60 of old grass — I feed annually about 80 cattle on
turnips ; one-half Shorthorns and crosses reared on the place, and the remainder
Irish heifers bought in during the summer, in July and August. Sometimes
a few of these turn out in-calf, of which more anon. Eight milch-cows arc
kept, and two sets of calves reared ; one dozen early ones, and another lot later
on, when the first can do with gruel and skimmed milk. They get new milk
for one month, then half new and half old, with linseed-gruel for another
month or more, if milk can be spared ; and then the later lot get all the
skimmed milk till harvest, which helps them up with the older ones to make
a more level lot. During the summer they graze in a small paddock, and
have a shed to go into. When still very young they are trained to eat a
handful of oilcake and crushed oats, and often, though not always, they get
a serving or two per diem of cut grass or tares. As autumn advances the
allowance of cake is gradually increased to 2 lbs. each, and when the nights
begin to get chilly a little meadow-hay is put into their racks at nightfall.
The first winter they are allowed two small feeds of white or yellow turnips
per diem (not nearly so many as they could eat), 3 lbs. of oilcake, which keeps
the blood healthy and prevents quarter-ill, and as much oat-straw or chaff as
they can consume, but none to waste. During summer they are grazed among
the sheep, and are brought into the yards and boxes in the latter part of
October in good holding condition. For the first fortnight a few turnips with
the leaves on are spread about the pastures, and, if at all conveniently near
the steading, the cattle are brought into the courts at night and get a fill of
oat-straw and a warm bed. The turnips are given sparingly at first, for fear
of scouring ; the bite of grass in the field by day and the oat-straw at night
in the fold both help to tide them early over the change of food. Before
Martinmas they are fairly housed for the winter ; the home-bred stirks being
acquainted and quiet with each other in the folds, and the strangers in the
boxes. Very often the bullies and simpletons have to be withdrawn from the
folds, and accommodated with single boxes also. As long as the white and
yellow turnips last, generally up to the new year, 4 lbs. of cotton-cake is
allowed, and after that 6 lbs. of a mixture of oilcake, crushed beans, light
barley, &c., with three moderate feeds of sw'edes, and two fodderings of oat-
straw or barley-chaff per diem. One great point is never to allow the stirks
to lose their calf-lyre, and keep them steadily growing and improving ; if this
be done, there is not the slightest difSculty in bringing them out on an average
60 stones weight (of 14 lbs.) at 22 to 24 months old in April and May. There
are always a few Irish heifers turn out in-calf. These suckle their own calves
for a month or five weeks, and can generally make them worth 3f. to Zl. 10s.,
which sum will procure a good Shorthorn calf, two to three weeks old. With
very little trouble the cow accepts her changeling, and if it has fortunately
happened that she has calved early, and this is all managed before May-day
in the house, then they are ready to go out when the grass comes, and the
handling tames and quiets the calf, so that it does not turn out the ‘ wild
runner ’ of former times. They are grazed on old grass, and get 4 lbs. of
cotton-cake each day. The calves suck till February, and last year were sold
in May, 13 months old, at 24h, and the dams at 211. Taking into conside-
ration the little keep required for the calf the first six months, it will be seen
that no system of feeding pays better than this ; but it can only be followed
out to a limited extent. A few years ago I turned out a half-bred Irish calf,
which sucked 12 months, at 19 months old, 72 stones (of 14 Ihs.) weight, and
the beef was most beautiful, not at all vealy, as some might suppose. This is
only plain ordinary management ; I could not pretend to calculate quantities
of food and value thereof.”

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

162

Early Fattening of Cattle,

This letter from an experienced farmer in the North completes
the subject of feeding. But a few words are required on shelter,
and the building of the necessary sheds. Cattle cannot bear
exposure. Sir John Sinclair, who introduced the Cheviot sheep
into the north of Scotland, says of sheep and cattle in mountain
districts, “ For every pound of beef that can be produced in a
hilly district, 3 lbs. of mutton can be obtained.” Elsewhere the
disparity is not so great ; still bullocks require an amount of
shelter, first and last, which the well-clothed sheep can dispense
with. The cost of shelter, probably, and the want of the necessary
buildings on most farms, have diverted attention from the early
feeding of young bullocks. The question of buildings, therefore,
is of prime importance. It may seem somewhat out of place to
recommend home-made and cheap buildings in the ‘ Journal ’
of a great and national Society, which must properly desire to
encourage the best agricultural methods ; and it may be that
the best built covered homesteads are the most economical in
the long run. Still, in the absence of such buildings, a tenant
may well consider whether he cannot erect sheds not unsuited
to his purpose, and of a less costly description — such sheds, in
fact, as a lease or covenants for the payment of their value at
quitting may enable him to erect.

I have known farms in Surrey and Sussex with seven, eight,
or even nine homesteads, and a barn or two at each. And some
of these barns are now filled with calves and young fatting
eattle, instead of corn, to the number of seven or eight in each
large bay. When there is a wall the cost of shedding is reduced.
If the entire shed has to be erected, the back and sides should
be of oaken slabs, or, in some districts, they may be formed of
the warmer materials, which will be presently referred to. The
roof may be of poles, large enough to be once cut, and it must
be securely thatched. Village carpenters are not much practised
in the art of erecting cattle-sheds at the cheap rate that a
21 years’ lease requires. Such a shed must be put up quickly,
and the materials must be such as the neighbourhood affords —
slabs, unplaned poles, and straw, heather, “ chips ” (in a hoop-
making district), branches, faggots, or furze-bushes.

A friend of mine became a practical carpenter when thrown
upon the world fifty years ago. Having risen in fortune
above his former level — his father was among the best farmers
in Sussex — he hired a farm for amusement near his native
place, on a seven years’ lease. Ten years since, I found him,
with one old contemporary carpenter, engaged in the erection
of some rough-and-ready farm-buildings. What he did for
the money was surprising. He built an ample cart-shed for
less than bl., and a fowl-house and several detached sheds at

especially in Surrey and Sussex.

163

the same cheap rate. These sheds all stand on strong posts,
they are all well tied, the sides well stuffed with warm furze
or heather, the roofs well thatched with straw. The skeleton
of the buildings consists partly of deal, cut to the required
scantlings at a metropolitan saw-mill, and generally of poles,
purchased at the wood sales in the neighbourhood. They
have stood out the recent gales on an exposed coast, and still
promise to stand for many years. But if a master-builder or
carpenter had been called in to put up these buildings, almost
every bit of their material would have been rejected. There
would have been sawing and planing and morticing on the spot ;
bricks, tiles, and lime, and artisans at 6d. an hour. This is all
very good when the work is well organised and on a sufficiently
large scale, and when the buildings are such as a landlord
requires on his own fee-simple. But a tenant must be his own
builder.

Mr. Stanford’s buildings were erected by his foreman, who
happened to be a clever self-taught carpenter. On every bit of
wall he has put up a home-made shed, converting several yards,
which were too cold for young stock or for fatting animals, into
snug and populous quarters, full of life, industry, and manure-
making, and completely sheltered from wind and wet. This
was done by means of sheds made of stout Scotch fir-poles, tied
with the bolts and irons of an old threshing-machine. The
sheds are 16 feet deep, and are topped by roofs of furze, thatched
by wheat-straw, at Ibd. per square. As they are not built into
j the brickwork, they remain the property of the tenant, and for
j thirty years to come the thatched sheds which the foreman and
I farm carpenter built seven years since, at the cost of a few
\ pounds, may still be filled with cattle at various stages, pro-
vided the buildings are occasionally, and in good time, retouched
and restored.

I now come to the question of profit.

At the recent sale at Charlton Court the following were the
prices and returns per week of the young bullocks, the top price
of beef at that time being 6s. 2d. per stone, according to the
quotations at the next metropolitan market : —

‘ Return per Week.

Guineas. s. d.

11 months old Shorthorn steer 16 7 0

13 „ „ steer 22 8 3

11 » » heifer 20 7 0

15 „ „ heifer 22 7 1

16 „ „ steer 27i 8 4

18 „ „ steer 25 6 9

I82 „ „ steer 28 7 4

There were several other beasts sold at prices nearly equal to
the above, and included in the following analysis of results :

M 2

164

Early Fattening of Cattle,

One at 11 months gave Is. per week from birth; one at 13
months, 8s. Zd. per week ; three at 14 months, 7s. ; three at
15 months, 7s. \d. ; six at 16 months, 6s. 10<7. ; and two at 18^
months, 7s. per week. A 2^-year-old Sussex steer returned
6s. 3d. per week, and a 2-year-old, 7s. per week. These were
both from a famous herd. Those Shorthorns which afforded
the least return were calves bought in the market ; and those
which gave the highest were by Mr. Stanford’s pedigree bull,
out of his own well-bred but not pedigree cows.

The above figures show that tolerably bred Shorthorns will
return 7s. a week from birth on this system, at from 13 months
to 18 months old.

The best feeders of common country-bred cattle in Sussex and
Surrey inform me that they consider a fair average weight for
animals well fed from birth is 100 Smithfield stone at 100
weeks, giving a return of one stone per week, or 6s. per week.
At the sales I have quoted, Mr. Stanford obtained 6d. or Is. a
week more for two-year-olds fattened from birth ; and a “ plum,”
killed by Mr. Page, of Partridge Green, gave 8s. per week, i.e.,
132 stone at 100 weeks. Mr. Glazebrook, of Shoreham,
slaughtered one of the bullocks fi'om Charlton Court, a 16 months
old steer, weighing 76 stone 2 lbs., and yielding 15 stone of
loose fat. There was very little offal.

These animals were not pure-bred heavy-fleshed Shorthorns,,
which are rarely seen in Sussex, but common cattle, such as the
Brighton dairy cows produce. The returns are 6s. 6d. per week ;•
and similar returns, which cannot but leave a profit, might be
obtained under this system with the same class of cattle ; and
^d. or Is. a head per week more with pure Shorthorns.

The following is an estimate of the cost of a young bullock at
seventy-one weeks old, or one year and nineteen weeks ; —

Purchase of a calf

Four weeks new milk, 6 quarts daily, at 2d. per)

quart S

Eight weeks skimmed milk, 6 quarts daily, at \d. per)

quart, and 2 lbs. meal, at l\d. per lb J

Seventeen weeks in June, July, August, and Sep-j
tember on a daily diet of 2 lbs. linseed-cake, 2 lbs. V

bean-meal, mangel, hay, grass, clover, &c j

Twenty-six weeks to end of March, 5 lbs. cake and)
meal daily, i bushel of roots, hay, and straw, for|

fodder

Sixteen weeks to harvest, 8 lbs. cake and meal daily,)
mangel, grass, clover; total Is. 2ld. a week .. J

Attendance, 71 weeks at %d

Insurance, Interest, and Bent of Shed

£ s. d.
2 0 0

18 0
15 8

3 19 4

6 16 6

5 15 8

1 15 6
15 0

24 5 8

1G5

especially in Surrey and Sussex.

On this estimate the young bullock, born in spring and sold at
harvest in the following year, costs a little more than 7s. a week,
and he should be worth, according to Mr. Stanford’s average
return of 7s. per week, 24Z. 11s. The value of the manure
may be fairly estimated at 20 per cent, on the cost of the food
{19Z. 5s. 2d.), or 31. 17s. Our balance-sheet therefore stands
thus : —

Dr. £ s. d.

A bullock 71 weeks old 24 5 8

Profit 4 2 4

28 8 0
Cr.

A bullock sold at 71 weeks old 24 11 0

Value of manure ^ 3 17 0

28 8 0

I have claimed 20 per cent, on the value of the dung of corn-fed
animals fattened under cover. The theoretic value of the manure
derived from the above different articles of food is : decorti-
cated cottonseed-cake, 6Z. 10s. per ton ; rape-cake, 4d. 18s. 6d. ;
linseed-cake, 4Z. 12s. 6d. ; beans, 31. 14s. My estimate of
20 per cent, on the cost of the food, as the value of shed-
made manure, will not be thought excessive by practical men.
Mr. Hudson, of Castle Acre, who paid from 2000/. to 3000/.
a year for cake and other “ feeding-stuffs,” and brought 1200
acres of poor thin soil into a state of great fertility, would not
have thought it excessive ; nor would the incoming tenants of
Lincolnshire, who pay half the value of the cake used the year
before ; nor would the late Mr. Glutton of Reigate, who raised
the value of his pastures from 20s. to 50s., by feeding them with
linseed-cake ; nor would any person who knew Charlton Court
Farm when Mr. Stanford hired it, and afterwards on his quit-
ting. He had doubled his flock, leaving about 600 ewes on a
farm of 700 acres ; and he had done this by means of the “ con-
dition ” put into the land by the use of oilcake, and the constant
succession of forage-crops and “ snatch ” crops. It is difficult to
see how this result could have been accomplished under any
other plan on a breeding-farm situated on the north front of the
South Downs, and ill suited for the folding of fatting sheep.
One of his feeding-places was an old-fashioned double barn,
an extemporised manure-factory, situated half-way up the hill,
where the dung was most required. Another of the advantages
of the site was the isolation of the animals in the event of con-
tagious diseases appearing on the farm.

Persons unacquainted with this system of rearing and feeding
cattle have imagined that the risk must be great. On the con-

166

Early Fattening of Cattle,

trary, those who understand the process have found that the risk
of loss is reduced to a minimum under the rapid system of treat-
ment. Mr. Stanford’s losses in some years have been nil ; and
he has found the risk of life less generally in proportion to the
shorter existence of the animal. As a rule, and mainly for want
of proper buildings, skill, and capital, cattle are not brought to
the same early maturity as sheep. It is not generally recognised
that cattle should weigh five times as much as sheep at from
twelve to twenty-four months old, when they have been fed as
well, and sheltered. Skilful feeders are aware that “ beef makes
beef,” and they never allow their cattle to become poor. The feeder
of young cattle has them always ready for the butcher from three
months old. It is true, no doubt, that animals which are cheaply
fed at little cost of food or labour may improve but slowly, and
yet prove remunerative ; but in artificial feeding the process
must be quick. The body must be built up rapidly by an
excess of food beyond that required to support the wear and
tear of life ; and the greater the supply beyond that quantity the
smaller the waste. In theory, therefore, an animal could not be
over-fed. Mr. Loudon remarked that the process of fattening
was analogous to the filling of a cask with a hole in the bottom,
since the faster you pour in the liquor the sooner will the tub
be full, and the business concluded. The feeder, however, must
exercise his skill in regard to the limited powers of assimila-
tion, the age, and the state of the animal. Young beasts, fat-
tened from birth, will grow and make flesh more rapidly before
than after two years old, and they yield the best profit when
slaughtered at eighteen or twenty months old. Cattle which are
not to be killed until after the age of two years would, perhaps,
be more profitably summered on pastures, provided that they
exist and are sufficiently good for fattening cattle, which is
rarely the case in Surrey and Sussex.

Another point which must be mentioned is the superiority of
old mutton and mature beef. The quality of all meat, however,
depends greatly upon management and the mode of feeding.
English bacon, fed chiefly on barley-meal, is superior to that
fed on beans or on maize. American bacon, fed entirely on
maize, shrinks in boiling, and the rasher is oily and indifferent.
Beef is also affected by the feeding, and it is not the fact that
young beef is always poor. Mr. Port, the butcher, of Ship
Street, Brighton, who supplies a superior class of customers,
writes of some bullocks from Charlton Court, purchased Jan.
12th, 1874, at 19^ months old, and weighing 100 stone 4 lbs.,
94 stone, 92 stone, and 90 stone : “ These bullocks when
slaughtered were most complete bodies of beef, and the meat
gave every satisfaction to the consumer, being very tender, and

especially in Surrey and Sussex.

167

of delicious flavour.” Mr. Port says of another lot : “ I bought of
Mr. W. Stanford, at Steyning market, on March 9, five very supe-
rior Shorthorn steers under 20 months old, with calves’ teeth.
Their meat is of most excellent quality. The heaviest weighed
111 stone 4 lbs. The flesh on the ribs, where quartered from
the loin, measured 5 inches thick.” As this part of my subject
is important, Mr. Port may be allowed to say further : “ I have,
during the last three years, killed a large number of the young
bullocks fed by Mr. Stanford ; ” and he then gives a favourable
opinion of their weight and quality. A young steer which I had
seen, and which was bought at the sale on June 7, is reported
as having been “ full of fat, with large, thick flesh, and finely
grained, and of very superior flavour.” Mr. Duke, of Steyning,
writes of some bullocks under 20 months old : “ They were all
remarkably ripe handsome carcasses of beef, giving me and my
customers great satisfaction, as they have always done. They
carried an average of 12^ stone of fat.” Mr. Glazebrook, of
Steyning, writes : “ Some of the buyers at the sale considered
I had given a guinea a bullock more than 6s. per stone, but,
from the experience I have had of Mr. Stanford’s young beasts,
I had confidence in them.”

These details are important. They show that young beef
need not be unripe, that it need not shrink unduly in cooking,
and need not be innutritions.

In concluding this short paper, I may point out that if
cattle can be reared and fattened with advantage on Surrey
sand-farms and bleak chalk hills, there must be many farms of
200 or 300 acres which do not at present raise cattle, and which
might easily maintain from 4 to 6 cows, and fatten 20 or 30
bullocks on the system I have described. Even on those farms
where sheep are the carriers of fertility, the straw must be con--
verted into manure, and cattle of some kind must be kept, I
would introduce a cow or two per 100 acres, and convert the
produce into young beef.

Most Surrey farms are provided with a few favoured paddocks,
where good turf has been carefully nursed ; and the same remark
applies to the compact clays of tbe Weald of Sussex, which are
equally unkind to grass. In both counties the extent of grass-
land does not often exceed 5 acres in the 100, and upon the
clays, at any rate, it might, in the present period of increased
expenses, be profitably increased. Laying down grass-land on
compact clay costs lO/. per acre. I have seen many attempts
to cover such land with good turf, and some of them proved
failures, while others were successful. The expense in all cases
would preclude the possibility of those sudden conversions of
arable to pasture which the dairy-farmers in Staffordshire have

168 Early Fattening of Cattle, especially in Surrey and Sussex.

effected on the loams and friable marls of the New Red Sand-
stone, where a yearly tenant of 300 acres has sometimes sown
40 acres or 50 acres with grass in a single year, and seen it
grow into good turf in five or six years, without special or
expensive farming. Young pasture in the Weald must be
carefully nursed till the ground is well covered with sod, and
the seeds should be sown on land well fallowed and heavily
manured. There are several methods, and the objects to be
attained in each of them are to have the land clean and
full of condition at the time of sowing, and to sow at the
end of summer on a stale surface. Foul land may be sown
with tares for folding, and then deeply ploughed, or smashed
up with the steam cultivator, to lie through the winter ; or it
may be sown with the most approved root-crop (early turnips,
perhaps), and folded before Michaelmas, and then laid up
with a deep furrow for the winter. Or a clean stubble may
be selected. But in any case deep cultivation in dry weather
should precede the winter previous to sowing the grass. The
land should then be heavily manured during hard frost with
well-prepared dung, which need not necessarily be ploughed
under in spring. A capital piece of turf was lately formed on
poor clay after very deep cultivation and winter manuring,
without subsequent ploughing. In the absence of deep-rooted
weeds, the land was kept clean by surface cultivation till July.
A great deal of raw yellow clay had shown itself at the surface,
but the manure, frost, and protracted weathering, from October
till July, corrected this ungenial earth, and the' seeds were sown
in this last-named month in a firm but not a hard-bound surface
of fine mould. The young plants grew vigorously. They were
manured in winter, and presented a most promising appearance
in spring, tillering well, and producing stout, strong stems, with
vigorous roots, which had laid well hold of the ground. The
grass was mown the first summer, lightly fed with cattle in
autumn, and again manured the following winter.

If a piece of turf is required for carrying out the plan of home-
grown beef, either as a run for the calves or cows, it can be
obtained quickly, at a cost of two years’ rent and plenty of
manure.

( 169 )

VII. — Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Fleur o-pneumonia.

By Gerald F. Yeo, Professor of Physiology in King’s

College, London.

Introduction.

The difficulties which present themselves in attempting to study
the pathological anatomy of the diseases of cattle are increased
in the case of pleuro-pneumonia by the legal restrictions which
compel the slaughter of beasts affected with it. In most instances
the animals are slaughtered suddenly, by order of the authori-
ties, allowing no time for notice to be sent so as to enable one
to reach the scene of action. It is therefore only by means of
the combined kindness of a number of disinterested persons
that a post-mortem examination can ever be witnessed, and then
only at the expense of much time and trouble spent in reaching
some remote locality. Moreover, the inspection of the autopsy
but poorly repays the personal inconvenience which must be
gone through in order to attend it, for the slaughter and evis-
ceration of the animal must always be conducted by some prac-
tised operator, whose dexterity depends upon his rigidly adhering
to a certain methodical system, which is not framed with a view
to pathological investigation. The necessary operations are
performed with such skill and rapidity, that no time is allowed
for the pathologist to contemplate the relative position of the
morbid parts, or to reflect on the possible pathogenic relation
which one may bear to another.

It is a well recognised fact that in order to make a description
of the pathological anatomy of any disease at all adequate, or
of scientific value, all the viscera should be examined in every
case, so that the most trivial abnormality may be noted. In the
lung disease of cattle this may be regarded as impossible. Be-
sides the difficulty of attending the slaughter of the beast, the
enormous hulk of the material — the diseased lungs alone often
weighing 30 lbs. — in the majority of cases renders the thorough
investigation of all the viscera quite out of the question.
Fortunately, in pleuro-pneumonia this does not seem at all
necessary, because the abdominal organs do not present any
changes which can be looked upon as either constant or
characteristic of the affection.

The nervous centres have never been examined, because it is
necessary, the instant the animal is knocked down, to destroy
the spinal cord and the brain, so as to prevent the energetic
reflex movements of the limbs which would otherwise accom-
pany the skinning, and prove dangerous to the operators.

170 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

There are, then, in studying the diseases of the lower animals,
many difficulties which balance the one advantage, of which
we often hear, namely, that of being able to kill the beast at any
time, and thus find out the steps in the morbid changes which
correspond to the various stages of the disease. Practically,
in the case with which I have to deal, this advantage is but
little felt, for there is really no control over the time of
slaughter, and there seems a clinical difficulty in ascertaining
how long the disease has lasted, so that the exact stage it has
reached cannot be known until the animal is killed.

These difficulties doubtless explain the great paucity of
scientific literature on this subject, and the complete want of any
adequate scientific explanation of the progress of the disease.
The following references may suffice to give some idea of the
present standpoint of our knowledge of the subject.

The first accurate description of the morbid anatomy of pleuro-
pneumonia that I have been able to find, is given by F. Weber,*
and, as far as the description of the appearances of the diseased
lungs is concerned, this paper has not been surpassed by any since
published, that I know of. He calls the disease interlobular
pneumonia, and attempts to explain its development as a form
of chronic inflammation of the tissues between the lobules.
Though he recognised that there were different kinds of conso-
lidation, he appears only to have submitted one of these varieties
to minute investigation, otherwise his clear reasoning would not
have led him to the conclusions which he announces in his paper.

He says that examination of the diseased lung gives two
negative results : —

1. There is no trace of croupous exudation in either the large
or small bronchi ; the mucous membrane in the larger ones is
perfectly healthy ; in the smaller tubes a mere trace of catarrhal
injection can be detected.

2. In the lung tissue itself the air cells are filled with fluid
as in oedema, and not with solid exudation.

From these results he concludes that the tissue of the lung is
in a state of oedema, not hepatisation.

With reference to the starting-point of the disease, he says,
“ I now pass to the beginning stages, which give the clearest
proof that the interlobular connective tissue, and the pleura, are
the real seat of the disease.” The other parts, he thinks, become
secondarily affected, the exudation causing a kind of strangu-
lation of the lobules, which gives rise to hyperaemia, pulmonary
apoplexy, serous infiltration, and (very rarely) hepatisation.

The connective tissue of the lung, then, he considers to be the

* Virchow’s Archiv., Bd. vi. p. 89.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 171

part affected by the disease, which generally begins under the
pleura but also occasionally in the deeper interlobular tissue.

He distinguishes two forms of this interlobular pneumonia.
One wide-spread and diffuse, extending over an entire lung.
The other, which attacks a small, sharply bounded part of the
lung, like lobular pneumonia. These occur with equal fre-
quency, and he expressly states that their difference merely
depends on extent and anatomical arrangement, their mode of
origin being identical.

Klebs * describes one case in which he found good examples
of vascular plugging. He thinks the disease resembles in most
respects ordinary pneumonia, but can be distinguished by the
coagulation in the vessels.

Rbllf considers that this disease corresponds with the inter-
stitial pneumonia of other animals. The first steps, he thinks,
occur in the connective tissue between the lobules, most com-
monly in the deeper parts of the lung. This tissue becomes
congested, and a serous exudation takes place into it, which
greatly swells the interlobular spaces. The congested pul-
monary parenchyma is thus pressed upon, and ultimately
becomes quite airless. The serous fluid more rarely fills the
air-cells themselves, and still more unusual is the occurrence
in them of the firm exudation of ordinary inflammation. He
describes the various secondary lesions which may arise in the
course of the disease, and amongst them he mentions bronchial
and pleural inflammation.

Bruckmiiller^ considers the pleuro-pneumonia of cattle to
correspond exactly with ordinary pneumonia of other animals,
the peculiar construction of the lung sufficiently accounting for
the peculiarities in the pathological anatomy of the pneumonia
of bovine animals.

“ There is only one form,” he says, “ of inflammation of the
lung in cows, and this is always associated with very striking
changes in the interstitial tissue.” He describes the disease under
the title “ croupous interstitial inflammation of the lung,” and
he says, “ If we compare the pathological products which arise
in the lungs of cows affected with pleuro-pneumonia {Lungen-
seuche') with the products of inflammation of the lungs in other
animals, we can find no real difference.” He denies its specific
nature and its contagiousness, but says it is a good example of
an infectious complaint.

The scientific pathology of this disease has not been studied
in England with great care or success. The morbid appearances

* Virchow’s Archiv., Bd. xxxviii. p. 326.”

t Lehrbucli d. Pathologic u. Therapie d. Ilausthiere. Wien, 1860. *

X Lehrbuch d. Path. Zootomie. Wien, 1862.

172 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

are very easily recognised, and no energy was required to master
the anatomical details, since any one can recognise the disease
post-mortem. Therefore the English school has neglected this
department of study, having preferred to go into the wider field
of theoretical speculation in order to determine the cause of the
disease.

Professor Brown,* in an admirable brochure on the subject,
gives a very clear sketch of the disease, and well describes the
most striking morbid appearances. As to the exact essence of
the disease, he says : —

“ Pleuro-pneumonia is essentially determination of blood to the lungs, and
exudation of liquor sanguinis, that is to say, blood deprived of its red particles,
into the connective tissue which is everywhere distributed throughout the
lung structure, existing abundantly between the lobules and on the surface of
the lungs under the pleural membrane. Exudation occurs also on the surface
of the pleura, but the chief deposit takes place under it, and causes its eleva-
tion from the lung tissue just as the exudation between the lobules causes
them to separate from each other.”

And again he says : —

“ Inspection of those organs of the animal body which are principally im-
plicated in the disease (the limgs), however minute and complete it may be,
only puts us in possession of a knowledge of effects. It is evident enough that
the lungs have received an excess of blood, and that a large quantity of the
circulating fluid has been exuded into the tissue of these organs ; but the
really important question is. What circumstances conduced to these results ?
And the only answer which the pathologist can offer is contained in a some-
what vague reference to ‘ blood poisoning.’ As in other contagious diseases
the blood of tbe animal affected with pleuro-pneumonia becomes charged
with some poisonous material, which is excreted by the vessels of the lungs :
for example, in small-pox, the virus is excreted by the skin, and the poison of
cattle-plague by the mucous membrane. In each case it is impossible to define
the determining causes. We can no more understand why some of the con-
stituents of the diseased blood are poured out in large quantity in the fibrous
tissues of the lungs in pleuro-pneumonia than we can comprehend the ultimate
cause of the distinctive eruptions in the various exanthematous diseases.”

Mr. Fleming f says, “ Pleuro-pneumonia is a specific and con-
tagious fever peculiar to bovine animals. In its essence it is a
malignant fever allied to the general eruptive diseases.”

Professor WalleyJ gives an elaborate account of the post-
mortem changes of zygomatic pleuro-pneumonia. He divides
the progress of the disease into three artificial and rather fanci-
ful chronological stages. The general characters of the first
being : —

“ Increase in weight, bulk, and friability ; diminution in resilient power,
and consequently increased resistance to inflation, and decrease in crepitation

* ‘Obs. on the Lung Disease of Cattle known as Pleuro-pneumonia.’
t ‘ A Manual of Vet. Sanitary Science and Police.’ London, 1875.
J ‘Vet. Journ.,’ May, 1876.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 173

on pressure; with deepening of colour, and the presence, occasionally, of
ecchymoses or hypertemic patches in the bronchial mucous membrane, and
vascular stellate spots in the parenchyma.”

He says : —

“ The general characters of the second stage are : — A mottled appearance on
section, increase of hulk, density, specific gravity, and friability ; absolute loss
of textural integrity, breaking up of the capillary vessels, and, as a conse-
sequence, parenchymal extravasation : obliteration of large vessels and small
bronchia, with destruction of the thoracic lymphatic glands.”

He thus sums up the characters of his third stage ; —

“ Absolute loss of integrity (death), with segregation of the injured lung ;
hyperplasy of contiguous interlobular tissue; and increased density of the
surrounding parenchyma. If the destructive process is arrested, the condi-
tions are : absorption of the red cells, consolidation of the parenchyma, hyper-
plasy of the interlobular connective tissue, restoration of the circulation, grey
or yellow hepatization. In either case the changes in the bronchia and trachea
are : ulceration of the mucous membrane, and consolidation of the submucous
and extratubular exudate.”

As an outline of its general pathology, he says : —

“ We are justified in concluding that Zy. p. p. is a distinct and specific infec-
tion, and that, although the structures which have been injured by the locali-
sation of its lesions, secondarily (unless dead) undergo inflammatory changes ;
primarily, the disease is a purely effusive one, i. e. in the initial shape, effusion
— simply and purely — is the characteristic lesion ; in the second and third
stage, passive are accompanied, and finally succeeded, by active processes ;
and, in the subsequent changes, inflammatory processes alone go on.”

The French definition of the disease is much the same. The
most recent authority says : * By this name (“ peripneumonie
contagieuse ”) is designated a virulent and contagious general
affection, confined to bovine beasts ; it is of epizootic character,
and is accompanied in ordinary cases by local manifestations
in the lungs and pleura, and by a fibrino-serous exudation into
the interlobular connective tissue and the pleural cavity ; an
exudation which has been erroneously regarded as inflammatory.

Noemal Anatomy.

In some points the structural arrangement in the lung of the
ox is sufficiently peculiar to demand a short notice, the more so
since the peculiarities have, I believe, a very direct bearing on
the mode of commencement and progress as well as the patho-
logical characteristics of the disease.

The regional anatomy appears to be interesting only from
a clinical point of view, showing, as it does, how difficult, if not
impossible, it must be to recognise pneumonic consolidation

* ‘ Dicfionnaire de Med. Veteriaaire,’ t. iii. p. 74. Paris, 1877.

174 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

when the disease is localised to the anterior lobes, which are
completely walled off from physical examination by the dense
mass of solid parts forming the shoulder of the beast.

The number of lobes and their complete separation one from
the other by means of deep fissures may tend to keep the disease
isolated, but otherwise the descriptive anatomy teaches us little.
In the larger air-passages the mode of subdivision is irregular,
being seldom fork-like, as in the human lung. The trachea
itself does not bifurcate until it has given off a large separate
branch to the right anterior lobe. The lobar bronchi give off
small lateral branches, as they run down sometimes beneath the
pleura of the long slender lobes, and do not divide dichoto-
mously. The mode of branching, however, is found to differ
materially in different lobes, and appears to depend on their
size and shape, those of the large posterior lobe dividing more
like the air-passages of the human lung.

The blood-vessels follow the course and mode of branching
of the air tubes ; the artery and the vein lying on either side
of their corresponding bronchus. In the healthy lung the
vessels and bronchi are surrounded by a quantity of very
delicate connective tissue, which forms around them a loose
sheath common to the three, so as to separate them from the
lung parenchyma. Any, or all, of the vessels may be pulled out
of this yielding case of soft cobweb-like tissue ; and the delicate
structures may be torn from their proper coats, with which they
are thus seen to be directly continuous. The bronchus, artery,
and vein contained in this sheath may be conveniently referred
to under the name broncho-vascular system, while the region of
lung-tissue supplied by any such system may be called broncho-
vascular territory (Fig. 1).

If a thin injection-mass be thrown, with gentle and steady
pressure, into the interstices of this peribronchial tissue, it
gradually runs along the outer surface of the bronchus and
vessels, and permeates into all parts of the connective tissue
sheath. Thus may be demonstrated the existence of a close
network made up of an immense number of delicate, irregularly
sinuous, or lacunar lymph-channels, which completely encom-
pass the artery and vein, and form around them a sheath of
lymphatic anastomoses.

In the very small bronchial tubes which belong to the single
lobules the mode of branching changes and becomes dichotomous,
and the branches lie at right angles to each other. Within the
lobules, the tubes and vessels have no longer the same sheath
of connective tissues, and I have failed to satisfy myself of the
existence of any lymphatic vessels around the bronchus in this
situation. If such exist, they must play a very insignificant

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pnenmonia. 175

Fig. 1. — Shoicing the Distribution of a Broncho-vascular System and the
corresponding Territory of part of a Lobe.

A. Artery. B. Bronchus. V. Vein. P. Pleura. I. Interlobular spaces. The dotted lines
indicate the course of the lymphatics. (Semi-diagiaphic. Reduced one-half.)

part in draining the tissue, compared with that taken by the
numerous channels in the sheath of the larger broncho-vascular
systems.

With regard to the construction of the parenchyma of the
lungy there are also some peculiarities which deserve special
note, as they distinguish the lung of the ox from that of
most other animals. In the bovine tribe a state of affairs
persists throughout adult life, which is found only in the
early stages of the development of the lung of man. The
lobules, or ultimate component parts, are distinct from each
other, and may he regarded as independent lung units, each
having its own proper air-tuhe and blood-vessels, and being
connected to its neighbours only by some very delicate con-
nective tissue. This connection can be stretched, by a little
gentle traction, so as to make the partition between the lobules
an eighth of an inch in width. A little more forcible traction,
aided by occasional touches of a scalpel, tears through this
delicate tissue, so that, with a little care, the lobules may he

176 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

completely separated from each other, without their tissue suffer-
ing the least injury. They are thus left hanging from the large
bronchus, by means of their own proper broncho-vascular
systems, just as raisins hang from the parent stalk. If they be
now partially inflated, each lobule is seen to be a soft, irregularly
shaped body, about the size of a filbert nut. On the pleural
surface the outlines of the lobules can be seen to be polygonal
areas with definite boundaries. The spaces between the lobules
are occasionally made more prominent by means of little chains
of air blebs, which lie in them. This seems a common patho-
logical condition in cattle, being a form of true interlobular
emphysema, which can also be easily produced after death by
means of forcible inflation.

When the delicate connective tissue, which forms at the same
time the partition and connection between the lobules, is broken
through, each lobule may be seen to be enveloped in a case of
this loose tissue. This can be traced to the point of entrance
of the vessels, where it is found to be continuous with the tissue
of the loose sheath already described as surrounding the broncho-
vascular system.

Careful investigation of the fine interlobular connective tissue
shows it to be the seat of a very rich plexus of lymph-channels.
Here and there vessels with an even outline and wall are seen,
but it is more common to find, lying throughout the tissue, wide,
sacculated, and irregular passages, freely intercommunicating
one with the other. This plexus of lymph-vessels lies midway
between two adjacent lobules, and evidently carries some of the
lymph overflow from each of them, their lymph-channels being
thus intimately related.

By blowing air into an interlobular space, a number of the
neighbouring spaces may be inflated, and thus artificial em-
physema produced. The relations of these parts can, however,
be much better seen by means of injection. A thin coloured
solution may readily he made to run through the lymph-channels,
and will be found to spread from one interlobular space to those
immediately adjacent ; and thence it will pass along the lym-
phatic channels of the corresponding broncho-vascular system
already mentioned. Thus, from a single point of insertion
under the pleura, not only can more than one interlobular space
be injected, but also the injection finds its way along the lymph
track, and reaches the main routes, leading towards the root of
the lung.

A rich set of lymph-channels may be seen beneath the pleura,
being best marked over the interlobular spaces. Though at
first it appears distinct, this lymph plexus is intimately con-
nected with those of the interlobular spaces, and may be re-

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 177

gardecl as a part of the same general system. That wonderfully
rich set of lymphatics, with which one is familiar in the sub-
pleural tissue of many animals, does not appear to be so well
developed in the ox. In comparison, at least, with those around
the bronchi and vessels, the sub-pleural lymphatics are small.
It seems probable that in the case of the ox the deep channels
which accompany the blood-vessels take the place of the
lymphatic high roads which exist under the pleura of many
animals.

The following points concerning the normal anatomy may be
thus briefly recapitulated.

1. The vascular and bronchial territories are distinctly defined
and independent of one another.

2. The lobules of the lung in the ox are quite distinct, and
may be separated without injuring their air-cells.

3. Each lobule is enveloped in a loose case of connective
tissue, which contains a rich plexus of lymphatics.

4. A sheath of delicate connective tissue also surrounds the
broncho-vascular systems, and forms the bed of large lymph-
channels.

5. The lymph from the interlobular spaces passes along the
peribronchial passages.

6. As the lymph-vessels follow the course of the broncho-
vascular systems, those around any given system must drain the
territory of the lung tissue supplied by that system.

7. The sub-pleural lymphatics seem to take a less important
share in draining the tissue than is the case in many other
animals.

Morbid Anatomy.

There are few diseases in which the post-mortem appearances
are more characteristic than in pleuro-pneumonia. So distinct
are the characters of the advanced stage of the disease, that the
most unscientific eye can recognise it after seeing a few cases.
The group of morbid changes is very constant ; and, moreover,
there is a general character which is so peculiar as to be easily
recognised in every stage of the disease, and which has therefore
been deemed specifically diagnostic of it. To the butcher, pleuro-
pneumonia presents a much more simple field for speculation than
it does to the pathologist, who recognises a number of different
morbid changes, which seem to depend on very different causes.

Morbid processes occur in the pleura, in the lung parenchyma,
and in the bronchial tubes and blood-vessels. It appears con-
venient to discuss the changes in each of these parts separately,
in the order named, this being also the order in which they are
met with in the post-mortem examination.

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

178 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

Pleural Lesion. — The changes in the pleura show the ordinary
signs of pleurisy of rather acute type, in some one or other of
its many phases. There is nothing definitively characteristic
in the anatomical changes in the pleural cavity to distinguish
this from the other forms of pleural inflammation, from what-
ever cause they may arise. The only point of peculiarity which
seems constant in this disease of the pleura is its tendency to
remain localised, although the inflammation is intense. In acute
pleuritis, the inflammation is usually diffused very evenly over
the entire organ, but here are found very different degrees of
pathological change in different parts of the same pleura, the
inflammatory action being always more intensely marked in
some one part than over the general surface of the lung. This
focus of greatest intensity is usually well seen even in old cases,
for at this point the pleura is found to be covered with dense
fibrinous exudation, the deeper layers of which are often stained
with blood. This is invariably found to cover the point where
the lung lesion is most advanced in its development. As the
disease spreads, the contiguous lobes become firmly cemented
together by the adhesion of their pleural surfaces. Adhesions
may also occur between the visceral and parietal layers of the
pleura, but it is more common to find them widely separated by
a quantity of fluid effusion. The amount of disease found on
the parietal pleura is, commonly, strikingly slight, when com-
pared to that of the pleura covering the lung.

Every variety of exudation may occur, and often a number of
different kinds are met with in the same pleural cavity. Most
commonly the surface of some one part is coated over with soft,
spongy, friable, or semi-gelatinous material, while in other parts
the pleura may only be thickened or opaque. Now and then
dense fibrinous masses may cause firm adhesions ; but the animals
are seldom allowed to live long enough for that to take place.

The effusion contained in the cavity of the pleura is generally
a thin yellowish, or greenish, whey-like fluid, containing floc-
culent masses or shreds of fibrinous material. It forms a soft
coagulum soon after removal. Sometimes it is quite clear, but
more commonly it is turbid or opalescent. I have not met with
a case where the pleural cavity contained pus. The amount of
the fluid is sometimes very great, filling the greater part of the
chest, compressing the lung and displacing the neighbouring
viscera. I have seen quarts escape when the breast-bone was
split, and on looking: into the chest it still appeared to be quite
full of fluid.

When the anterior lobes are the seat of the disease and the
pleura covering them is intensely affected, the neighbouring
pericardium is often inflamed, its fibrous layer thickened, and

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 179

the serous lining rough, and studded with small points of ec-
chymosis.

As the name pleuro-pneumonia implies, the inflammation of
the pleura is a very constant part of this disease. It occurs with
great regularity, and, on account of the striking characters of the
lesions it causes, it is never overlooked even by the most careless
observer. Cases do occur, however, where the pleura is not
affected at all. I met one such by accident when studying the
normal anatomy of the bovine lung.*

In this case there was not the least sign of even thickening
of the pleura, while the lung disease was well marked.

This is the only case I have met with in which there was nO'
trace whatever of pleurisy. I am informed, however, that it is
not uncommon to find nodules of disease in the lungs of fat
cattle, even where there has not been the least suspicion of
disease before death, and no sign of pleural disease at all.

In three cases, where there were several points of disease in
different parts of the lung, the pleura covering some of them
was found to be perfectly healthy. Thus in one case there was
extensive disease of the left lung and pleura, and in the right
lung there were three isolated nodules, the largest about the
size of a cricket-ball ; and yet there was not a trace of pleural
disease on that side, and nothing could be more definite than the
specific characters of the diseased points of lung tissue.

It would appear, then, that pleurisy does not invariably accom-
pany the disease of the lung tissue ; but when the diseased focus
is small and deep-seated, the serous membrane may escape. As
a general rule, however, the post-mortem examination of the
disease is not made in the earliest stage, for the lung lesion may
easily be overlooked, and it may remain latent for an indefinite
time, and therefore its duration does not at all correspond to the
clinical history of the disease, which generally dates from the
pleural complication.

With regard to the lesion of the pleura, I feel convinced of the
following points : —

1. It has the characters common to the ordinary forms of acute
pleurisy.

* I took from the slaughter-house a lobe of a luug as a sample of healthy
tissue. It was taken from a very fine weU-fattened young bullock which was
not suspected, before or after slaughter, to have had anything the matter with it.
The pleural surface of both lungs was perfectly healthy throughout, and retained
its transparency and natural shining surface. On examining the deeper parts of
this lobe, a small focus of well-marked pleuro-pneumonic consolidation was found,
surrounded by a considerable area of tissue which was the seat of clear exudation.
A piece cut off from the part of this lung I had removed was examined by
Prof. Brown, and he considered the microscopic characters of the disease to be well
marked.

N 2

180 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

2. It always varies in degree of severity in different parts of
the same pleura.

3. Its point of greatest intensity corresponds to the apparent
starting-point of the lung lesion.

4. It is not an invariable or essential part of the disease.

5. It usually appears to be of more acute type and more
recent development than the lung lesion.

6. Its occurrence often gives the first indication of the exist-
ence of disease.

Lung Lesion. — The situation of the disease in the lung is
generally obvious, on account of the pleural inflammation being
more intense over that point. When the pleurisy is absent, or
is too diffused to indicate the exact position of the affected part,
it can still be easily recognised as a hard, heavy, airless, and
discoloured mass, standing out boldly from the neighbouring
normally collapsed lung tissue, which is soft, light, and elastic.

The extent to which the organs may be affected varies greatly,
the size of the diseased area being, as a general rule, in direct
proportion to the length of time the disease has lasted. Some-
times the greater part of both lungs appears to be implicated,
while in others there may only be a nodule the size of a man’s
fist. When looking at the lungs after removal, one is apt to
think that a greater proportion of them is affected than is really
the case ; because the diseased part seems to have greater rela-
tive bulk, when compared with the healthy structure, than it
has in reality ; for this latter collapses into very insignificant
dimensions when the thorax is opened, while the size of the
diseased portion remains unaltered. The correct proportion of
healthy and morbid parts can only be seen when the organs
are inflated, by which means the healthy parts are distended to
their normal size. At first sight I have often felt inclined to
say that the whole of one lung was engaged, so enormous
was the hard mass and so general the pleurisy ; but inflation
brought out many considerable tracts of healthy lung tissue,
which would have escaped notice had they not been thus dis-
tended with air. In these cases, where the whole of a lung
seems diseased, much of the airless part presents on section none
of the distinctive characters of pleuro-pneumonia, but merely
those which are due to pressure, or such-like secondary changes.

Under the present system of slaughter the disease never seems
to reach the extreme stages which have been described by some
authors, where the lungs weigh over 100 lbs. As a general rule,
the morbid processes, which are characteristic of the disease,
are limited to a comparatively small area, seldom engaging
more than half the lung, and most commonly only one lobe.
Where many lobes are diseased, they are found to be affected in

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 181

different degrees, there being usually a central focus, in which
the pathological processes appear in a more advanced stage of
development.

When the lung is distended with air, so as to assume its
normal size and shape, and give an accurate cast of the cavity
of the chest, it becomes obvious that the diseased part is not
only densely solid, but that it is also considerably swollen ; the
increase in size being much more than could be brought about
by the forcible inflation of a similar part of healthy tissue. It is
also changed in shape, its flat surfaces having become convex, so
that the diseased mass projects above the surface-level of the
inflated lung as a rounded swelling, distorting the neighbouring
lobes and pushing them from their natural position.

If a section be made through the centre of the affected part,
by cutting from the surface towards the root of the lung, the
broadest side of the lesion is always at the pleural surface,
and the narrowest points towards the root of the lung. This
tapering off towards the entrance of the broncho-vascular system
is very well seen in the less advanced cases, where the disease is
localised to an area with a distinct conical outline. The base
of this cone looks towards the pleural surface, and its apex
inclines to the root of the lung, at which point it is found to
correspond to the broncho-vascular system supplying this region.
In some instances this wedge of disease is found accurately to
correspond to one of the broncho-vascular territories which have
already been mentioned. In the advanced stages of the disease
this conical outline is generally lost, owing to the swelling,
which rounds off the corners, and also to the irregular spread of
the lesion by means of the pleura.

The disease is often localised to one lung, the right appa-
rently a little more frequently than the left ; but it is also often
found in both, one generally being much more diseased than
the other. Sometimes two or more distinct foci of morbid
change may exist, apparently without any connection, there
being a broad piece of healthy lung tissue between them.

In the earlier stages of the disease, the boundary of the lesion
of the lung is definitely marked and accurately circumscribed.
The line of demarcation in these cases always corresponds to
the interlobular spaces, all the lobules supplied by a certain set
of vessels being engaged, while their immediate neighbours may
be perfectly free. The sharp lines of demarcation, not only
between the healthy and diseased structure, but also between
the different territories affected with the various degrees of
morbid change, are amongst the most striking and constant
characters of anatomical appearances.

Although the consolidation which is met with in this disease

182 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

has much in common with that which is brought about by other
causes, it differs materially from the hepatisation caused by
ordinary pneumonia in man, and these differences form its chief
diagnostic characters. The dense solidity is seldom accompanied
by any friability of the tissue, but is resisting and elastic, except
in those parts where the tissue is undergoing necrosis. Such
circumscribed localisation and boss-like swelling only occur, as
far as I know, in this disease and in malignant growths. The
manner in which the different changes in colour are distributed
forms another striking characteristic. There never is any
gradual shading of one colour into another, as seen in the acute
pneumonia of the human lung, but the different shades are placed
side by side, being separated by most abrupt lines. The greatest
possible varieties of shade may be seen irregularly distributed in
patches of various sizes ; here and there a dull buff colour, or a
bright crimson, mixed with deep brown or black. The normal
pale pink colour of the lung is always lost, being replaced by
some of the above shades, often arranged so as to produce a
variegated or mottled appearance of the cut surface ; or a large
black area may exist in the centre of the section through the
diseased lobe, and this is commonly surrounded by patches of
brown or buff.

Perhaps the most striking appearance seen on the cut surface
is the network of pale yellow lines which is distributed over it.
The lines forming this network are, on an average, about one-
eighth of an inch in diameter, always very pale, and sharply
defined. They intersect and cross one another, so as to map
out the surface into a number of polygonal areas, about half or
three-quarters of an inch in diameter. These areas are found to
correspond with the sections of the lobules, and the pale lines
are obviously the swollen interlobular spaces cut across, the
narrow lines which exist in the healthy lung between the
lobules being represented by masses of more or less solid
exudation, so as to give a cross-section of more than an eighth
of an inch. This set of pale streaks, crossing the surface in
mariy directions, reminds one of the whitish veins running
through variegated marble ; and hence the common name which
has been applied to the appearance of the section of the lung
lesion. This “ marbling ” is considered to be the great dia-
gnostic character of the disease.

When examined more closely, the increase in diameter of
the interlobular partitions is found to depend on extreme filling
of the tissue interstices and lymph channels with a material,
which may be a clear fluid, or a translucent jelly ; or, in the
very advanced stages, a dense fibrinous mass may occupy the
entire space.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 183

I In every case there are to be seen different shades of this
I marbling, which correspond to different stages in the disease, or
are quite distinct morbid processes. I think it will simplify the
description of the morbid anatomy of the lung, and render the
steps in the progress of the disease more easily understood,
if these various forms of pathological change be considered
separately.

Clear Exudation. — The first which I shall mention may he
called simply exudation, or the infiltration of the tissues with a
clear material. This condition is generally found in the peri-
phery of the diseased region, and forms a very complete case,

I enclosing the dense forms of consolidation to be described here-
after. This can be particularly well seen where but a small
I nodule exists. Thus, in one case, where only three lobules were

i in an advanced state of disease, all the lobules lying in imme-

diate apposition to them were in a condition of pale cedematous-
like thickening. When a great extent of the lung is engaged,
the boundary of this transparent exudation is irregular and badly
defined ; but when a limited area only is affected, its margin
is sharply marked, and corresponds to the lines separating the
lobules.

There seems to be no increase in the amount of blood in the
!i lung in this condition. On the contrary, the blood-vessels
j appear, for the most part, empty, and the tissue anaemic. The
pink colour is replaced by a pale yellow, or dull buff, and at the
same time the tissue gets a peculiar semi-translucent look. A
clear fluid escapes from the cut surface. This is often mixed
with a little frothy fluid, hut as a rule the tissue seems quite
airless, and does not crepitate. The interlobular spaces are filled
with a clear fluid, which widely distends the interstices of the
I delicate connective tissue. Except in the cases where the disease
is very limited, the part filled with clear exudation does not
appear to have any very definite shape, as it easily spreads beyond
; the limits of the broncho-vascular territories, passing from one
interlobular space to another. When the pleural inflammation is
very intense, some of the lung tissue situated immediately under
it is affected with this infiltration, but it seldom reaches to a
depth of more than an inch or so from the pleural surface.
This mode of extension of the exudation, under the inflamed
pleura, is of great importance, as it causes destruction of a large
part of the lung, and seems to spread the disease with great
rapidity over an extensive area of the organ, giving rise to
those cases where nearly the entire lung is implicated.

I A great variety of intensity of this exudation exists. The tissue
j appears at first to be soft and spongy ; the air is then gradually
I diminished, and the part becomes brawny and tough. Although

184 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

the line of demarcation is often very distinct between this clear
exudation and perfect consolidation, there are so many degrees
of the former, that it seems capable of passing into more dense
forms of induration, and it is difficult to find any characteristic
which would serve to distinguish all grades of this change from
that about to be described, but, as will be seen, the two must be
kept quite distinct. The more dense the affected parts the more
perfectly marked is the exudation into the interlobular spaces,
and therefore the more perfect is the development of the
marbling.

The microscopic examination of this translucent spongy kind
of condensation of the lung tissue shows that, in the earlier
stages, there is but little change in the characters of the
tissue-elements. The cavities of the air-cells are filled with a
material which is obviously recently clotted serous exudation.
It consists of delicate threads of fibrin and a few granular cor-
puscles. The fibrin threads are variously knotted and granular,
and appear to radiate from the corpuscles. The very same
kind of material is found to fill the lymph-passages of the
interlobular spaces, and the small bronchioles contain some
similar fibrinous fluid. The network of capillary vessels around
the air vesicles is quite empty of blood, and therefore cannot be
well seen in this stage of the disease. The number of cel!
elements differs very much in different cases. They are chiefly,
to all appearance, ordinary white blood corpuscles. In the
cases where the exudation is more abundant, however, there is
also a number of cells, which are much larger and more granular,
and in the midst of them a very distinct nucleus is obvious.
The more solid and brawny the tissue, the more numerous these
large coarsely granular cells are found to be, and the more
thick-set is the network formed of the granular threads of fibrin.
In the denser forms of disease the epithelium, lining the alveoli,
appears to be changed. The cells are granular and thick, and
their nucleus becomes prominent, so that the cells, which in the
normal lung are so very difficult to see, become so obvious as
to attract the attention of the most thoughtless observer.

Opaque Consolidation. — The kind of induration next to be
noticed may, as I have already said, closely resemble the result
of a long-continued state of the clear exudation just described,
which seems gradually to pass through a series of changes, each
being more dense than the preceding, until a condition is arrived
at which deserves the name of perfect consolidation. But this is
not to be confounded with what I call opaque consolidation,
from which it differs in its mode of origin, its development
not being preceded by the last-described infiltration. It is
invariably less resilient, and is more granular in appearance.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 185

In the earliest stages of the disease the two forms of lesion can
he easily distinguished one from the other.

This opaque condition is always more vascular than the clear
exudation, but cannot be said to be much engorged, although
here and there the blood-vessels are more or less distended with
blood, so as to give the tissue a bright reddish-brown colour.
This is the exception rather than the rule, for the usual colour of
the section-surface is a pale brownish-red. The parenchyma
is not at all translucent, the tissue being quite opaque as well
as solid. The spaces between the lobules are densely filled with
an opaque dry exudation, which in places can be turned out of
the lymph-vessels, as distinct casts of their internal conformation.
The air vesicles are filled with a somewhat similar material,
which, under the microscope, proves to be composed of great
numbers of cells, entangled in a dense felt-work of delicate
granular fibrin threads, united into a dense solid mass. The
swelling of the entire part is much greater than in the ^ translu-
cent form, and the spaces between the lobules are much more
distended ; at the same time they retain their pale straw-
colour, and form the striking system of markings seen in the
“ marbling.”

Every part of this true consolidation is hard, heavy, and
resisting, but not so elastic as the parts which are translucent
and soft. In a few instances the tissue has been found to be
friable, apparently from a tendency to necrosis, caused by want
of nutrition, the blood-vessels being pressed upon by the swell-
ing. This is an exceptional case, however, for, as a general rule,
the nutrition of the part is not at all interfered with, and the
tissue not only retains its firmness, but continues to become
more and more solid, until an almost cartilaginous consistence
is attained. The bronchial arteries supply the nutrition, and
are much enlarged. This induration is associated with a dis-
tinct increase of the tissue elements, of the connective tissue
septae between the lobules, and also of the tissue of the lobules
themselves. In some cases, where the animal has been allowed
to live a long time, the fibrous thickening of the interlobular
spaces increases to such a degree, that the lobules are greatly
encroached upon, and the vesicular tissue becomes so altered
that the lung parenchyma can hardly be recognised. In this
stage, which is now rarely met with, the animal being slaughtered
when first the disease is recognised, the lung is nearly as dense
as fibro-cartilage, creaking under the edge of the knife like
gristle. Most of the smaller bronchi are obliterated, and even
tubes which should normally admit the little finger have been
found closed and impervious, their existence only being re-
cognised by the cartilage of their wall remaining unaltered

186 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

amidst the dense, fibrous tissue in which they lie. The small
bronchi are all plugged in this condition, while in the trans-
lucent form they are all free and pervious.

This kind of indurated tissue is always pale and bloodless.
The pulmonary vessels are usually closed by pressure, but the
nutrition of the part seems amply provided for by the bronchial
vessels, which are more obvious than they become in the later
stages. In many parts thus indurated, the lobular tissue may
retain a certain amount of vascularity, its colour then con-
trasting most strikingly with the thick interlobular spaces,
which are white and glistening.

This fibroid change reminds one of the condition of the
human lung in the very advanced stage of interstitial-pneumonia
which has been called cirrhosis. It differs, however, from that
in a very essential point, namely that there appears no tendency
to contraction of the fibroid tissue, such as is found in cirrhosis,
causing shrinking of the lung and dilatation of the bronchi, «Scc.
On the other hand, in the fibroid consolidation of pleuro-
pneumonia, the infected part invariably seems to be increased
in size. It is certainly possible that, if life continued long
enough the shrinking might take place, for the contracted state
known as cirrhosis only occurs as the ultimate result of old
interstitial pneumonia.

Microscopic examination of the different stages of this con-
solidation shows various gradations in the exudation material.
From being a fibrinous mass packed with cells, it changes to a
kind of cicatricial tissue. The capillary vessels are frequently
found to be filled with blood corpuscles. The bronchioles and air
vesicles contain masses of different kinds of cells, some small,
round, and pale, but the majority large, and coarsely granular.

In a few cases, peculiar small bodies were found in the cavity
of the air vesicles. In certain parts they were so numerous that
two or three came into the same field of the low power (Hart-
nack, Obj. No. 4). They were most strikingly regular in size,
measuring about -5-^ of an inch in diameter. Their shape
was nearly spherical, or very slightly oval. In structure they
appeared to be made up of small rods very closely set together,
and radiating from the centre of the body. They resisted the
action of the strongest reagents, even such as completely de-
stroyed every trace of the lung tissue ; in fact everything seemed
to make them darker and more distinct. They are like crystals
of tyrosin, but they do not respond to the tests for that substance.

The exact nature of these bodies I have not been able to
determine, but, from the rarity of their occurrence, I have come
to the conclusion that they cannot be said to have any important
bearing on the pathology of the disease.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 187

Black Consolidation. — The third form of consolidation to
which I wish to call attention is generally found in well de-
veloped cases of pleuro-pneumonia, though it is more frequently
wanting than either of the preceding forms. Its appearance
contrasts most strikingly with the changes hitherto mentioned,
and it appears to differ from them also in its mode of produc-
tion. It is at once distinguished from all other kinds of morbid
change by its colour, which looks nearly black, so intensely
dark is the red of the lobular tissue. From its cut surface a
deep red fluid escapes, which stains all the paler structures dark
crimson.

The shape of this form of lesion is always that of a distinct
cone, the apex of which points to the root of the lung, and its
base to the pleura. Its boundary is invariably sharply marked
off from the neighbouring diseased tissue, in the midst of which
this dark part always lies. The lobular tissue is the only part
which has the dark colour, the interlobular spaces being as pale
as in the other forms of consolidation. The pale yellow of the
interlobular spaces is exceedingly striking in this black part,
and also forms a clear trenchant boundary to it. It is easy to
satisfy oneself that the extent of this lesion corresponds accu-
rately to that of a vascular territory. Sometimes an entire
district supplied by a good-sized vessel is in this condition.
In other cases several small territories are engorged, in which
case they commonly all belong to the one district which receives
its blood supply from the same main branch.

The extent of this lesion is seldom so great as that of either
of those already described, but its weight and density exceed
those of any other form. The amount of swelling which accom-
panies it is also very great, so that when a very prominent knob
projects over the surface of the lung, and is covered with very
intense pleurisy, one may safely predict that, on section, it will
prove to be the base of a cone of this black marbling. It is
invariably associated with very intense and acute pleurisy, which
often gives one the impression of having commenced at this
point, and spread thence over the serous membrane.

The microscope shows the minutest vessels of the tissue to be
intensely engorged. Even in those parts where the blackness
has not reached its height, all the blood-vessels are tightly
packed with blood discs, which are so pressed together as to
form a continuous line of facetted corpuscles looking like a
solid injection. The fluid part of the blood seems to have
escaped from the vessels and left the solid parts alone in the
swollen and tortuous capillaries. In the very black part, en-
gorgement does not adequately express the state of affairs. Here
the vessels have given way, and the blood-discs have escaped

188 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

and filled every available corner of the air vesicles. The larger
blood-vessels are also filled with plugs of clotted blood, which
adhere to their walls.

This form of black consolidation, which obviously is the con-
dition known as ha?morrhagic infarction, is never found alone ;
it is always associated with, and preceded by, the other lesions,
which seem to be of much longer standing.

Like the other morbid changes, this appears to pass through a
series of stages, which depend on the changes taking place in
the effused blood and in the nutrition of the tissue. The first
step must occur with great rapidity, for one never meets with
any initial state of hyperaemia. Where the lesion has lasted
for some time, the tissue is found to have lost its elastic tough-
ness, and become hard, dry, and friable, and at the same time
its colour has faded to a dull brown. The friability of the part
may increase, so as to form a dry crumbling mass, which ultimately
undergoes caseous degeneration. In other cases the death of the
tissue occurs more suddenly, and the part becomes gangrenous.
The dead tissue may be surrounded with a kind of fibrous case,
so as to remain shut off from the neighbouring parts. Some-
times this completely separates, and remains in the chest as a
cyst, containing a mass of cheesy degeneration. These cases only
occur where the cure of disease has been attempted instead of
the animal being slaughtered.

To sum up the more important of the foregoing facts.

1. The lung parenchyma is usually the seat of various forms
of irregularly arranged exudation, which give it a mottled look.

2. The interlobular spaces are always the seat of more or less
exudation, which gives their sections the appearance of pale
yellowish lines.

3. These pale lines subdivide the mottled surface into irre-
gular small fields, and thus give the effect which is deemed so
characteristic — marbling .

4. Three kinds of lesion must be distinguised in the lung.

(a) A more or less fluid exudation, making the paren-
chyma airless, though soft and translucent ; this is
diffused superficially, and wide-spread.

(i) A dense, opaque consolidation, which is generally
the central focus of disease, and is wedge-shaped
and defined.

5. (a) or (h) May pass into consolidation of a dense kind, and

ultimately may form tissue of cicatricial hardness :

6. (c) May produce gangrene, caseous degeneration, or fibri-

nous crumbling.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 189

Broncho-vascular Lesion. — The part taken bj the bronchial
tubes in the chain of pathological processes seems to me so
important, that I think it well to describe the changes found in
them quite independently of those occurring in the lung tissue.

I find it convenient to associate the description of the vascular
lesions with those of the air-passages, because, anatomically, they
are very intimately connected, and because the morbid processes
in the one help to explain the changes that take place in the
other.

The bronchial tubes and blood-vessels have not, as far as I
can ascertain, received very much attention. Those authors who
describe the change commonly found in them, consider it to be
secondary to, or sympathetic of, the affections of the lung and
pleura. Every examination I have made of diseased lungs
appears to me to contradict this view, and, in spite of a prejudice
in favour of the accepted views, the opinion has been gradually
forced upon me that the pathological processes in the bronchi
are of the greatest importance, and thro'w considerable light on
the initial stages of the disease.

I have never examined a lung affected with pleuro-pneumonia
in which there was not a well-marked and characteristic lesion
of the bronchial tubes of the part most severely affected. No
matter how small the focus of disease in the lung may be, or how
little advanced a stage these morbid changes may have reached,
there is always definite disease in the corresponding bronchus,
extending some distance along the tube, but more or less localised
to the diseased neighbourhood. In the small foci of consolida-
tion, where the disease may be regarded as just beginning, the
morbid process in the bronchus is generally more extended, and
shows evidence of longer duration than the change in the lung
parenchyma. This applies only to the part of the lung in a
state of real consolidation, and not to that part which is trans-
lucent and extended over a large sub-pleural area. In the latter
part the bronchial lesion is often wanting.

The cavity of the air-tubes of the opaque solid part is always
plugged with a dense adherent mass of tough granular material.
This completely occludes all the small bronchi, and extends into
the neighbouring larger ones, tapering to a fine point towards the
less diseased tubes, where it is commonly surrounded with a
quantity of tenacious frothy mucus, which occupies the bronchi
for some distance towards the root of the lung. In passing from
the larger healthy bronchi to those in the diseased focus, one
meets with every stage of transition, from the ordinary frothy
sputum of acute bronchitis to tenacious mucous or fibrinous
masses which stick to the wall of the bronchus. Often a long-

^ O

branching cast of the air-tubes may be drawn out from them.

190 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

here and there some of the branches breaking off and remaining
impacted in the tube.

After the removal of the plug, the mucous membrane lining
the bronchi is found to be rough and discoloured, and stripped
of its epithelial lining. In the neighbouring tubes there is gene-
rally intense congestion of the membrane, with patches and
streaks of ecchymosis scattered here and there over the surface.
The longitudinal folds of the membrane are always greatly
exaggerated, showing firm contraction of the wall of the tube.
Throughout the opaque part which shows the actual focus of
disease the mucous membrane is of a dull-grey, or muddy-yellow
colour, uneven and rugged on the surface.

Wherever the lining membrane of the bronchi is congested,
they are found to have suffered more deeply. Their proper
walls are thickened, their coats being separated one from the
other by a kind of tough exudation. The walls of those air-tubes
which contain the firm plugs are always enormously thick and
dense. Even the small tubes, which are normally very thin,
transparent, and yielding, become tough, opaque, and rigid
canals, the wall often exceeding in diameter the lumen of the
tube. Besides the thickening of the walls of the bronchi, their
delicate connective sheath is implicated throughout the diseased
part. This fine elastic substance becomes the seat of dense
exudation, which changes the thin, yielding, cobweb-like sheath
into a tough and rigid case (Fig. 2, A). This exudation

Fig. 2. — Transverse Section of Broncho-vascular System, contrasting
the Healthy with the Diseased State.

A. In a state of advanced disease. A. Artery, partially esclnded by a thrombus. B. Bronchus,
contracted and plugged. V. Vein. C. Common broncho-vascular sheath, thickened by exuda-
tion. I. Interlobular tissue. P. Lobular parenchyma.

B. A corresponding broncho-vascular system in health.

appears to be very similar in character to that which fills the
interlobular spaces, and it presents the same varieties and occupies
the same relation to the tissue in both these situations. By means
of the exudation, the peribronchial lymph-passages are rendered
strikingly obvious, as if they had been filled with some pale opaque

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 191

injection mass. The course and relations of the larger channels
may be thus easily followed with the naked eye. The clear
transparent fluid exudation which occurs between the lobules in
the more extended part of the lung lesion is not often met with
about the bronchi. I am led to suppose from this that the
exudation is more dense from the first in this region, or that it
becomes solid at an early date after its commencement.

The delicate fibrous tissue, which forms the bed of the lym-
phatics around the bronchus, seems to undergo a slow process of
thickening ; the elements of the tissue rapidly proliferating. In
the very advanced stages, where the fibroid change has had time
to occur in the lung, the tissue proliferation attains a maximum,
and, as already mentioned, may cause the occlusion of tubes of
considerable calibre.

The microscopic examination of the plug which fills the
bronchi of the diseased part shows that it is made up of amorphous
or finely granular material, and of a great variety of elements, in
varying quantities and different stages of destruction. Among
these are found quantities of columnar epithelium cells, all of
which are granular, and may be broken. On some of them cilia
may still be recognised. There are also great numbers of large
indefinite granular cells which contain a distinct nucleus. Blood-
cells and discs are also found, in some cases the quantity being
enormous. Besides these elements are numerous threads of
fibrin, and many foreign elements, such as fungi, bacteria, &c.

For some distance along all the tubes in the neighbourhood of
the disease the epithelium is greatly changed. Even in those
bronchi whose coats are hardly, if at all, altered, the epithelial
cells are granular and easily rubbed off the membrane, so that it
is almost impossible to make a preparation where they remain
in situ. In the part where the lung tissue is solid, there is never
any epithelial lining to the tubes. The elements of the tissue
forming the thickened bronchial wall are found to be pushed
asunder by exudation and numerous young cells. The fibril-
lation of the white fibrous tissue is clouded and obscured, and
thick bundles of strong elastic fibres stand out boldly, as if the
tissue had been treated with acetic acid. The muscular part of
the wall is very indistinct. The plates of cartilage are unaltered,
but are separated from each other, and seem very far removed
from the cavity of the tube, considerable exudation having been
poured into the submucous tissue.

By making a series of transverse sections, or a longitudinal
section, of the bronchial wall, in one of the least developed
foci of disease, one can see that the disease of the mucous
membrane extends to a greater distance from the diseased centre
than that of the bronchial wall or of the peribronchial tissue.

192 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

Occasionally, however, the lymphatics may be affected to an
enormous extent ; in one case the disease reached to the trachea,
and caused partial occlusion of it, by filling the numerous
lymph vessels which occupy the posterior part behind the
trachealis muscle (Fig. 3). In these cases the lymphatic glands
of the root of the lung are much enlarged, but as a general rule
do not become caseous.

Fig. 3. — Surface of Transverse Section of Trachea in which the
Lymphatics are intensely engorged.

M. Mucous membrane. C. Cartilage. T. Trachealis muscle. L. Connective tissue and engorged

lymph-channels.

In speaking of the normal structure of the lung of the ox, I
called attention to the very intimate relation between the
bronchial tubes and the blood-vessels. They pass along the
same grooves in the lung parenchyma, are surrounded by the
same sheath of thin connective tissue, and their lymphatics
communicate freely with those of each broncho-vascular system,
forming one large set of absorbents, which carries all the lymph
of the territory supplied by the bronchial tube and its accom-
panying vessels. It is not at all surprising, then, that as the
morbid changes just described are going on in the peribronchial
tissue, the sheath of the blood-vessels participates in the diseased
action. The exudation encloses the blood-vessels at the same
time that it thickens the tissue around the bronchus. So that
instead of the three vessels lying in a loose bed of soft tissue,
they are encased in a frame, which, enclosing them all, soon
becomes so tough and rigid, that they remain patent cylinders,

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Plenro-yneiimonia. 193

like tunnels punched out of a resisting substance, such as a piece
of turnip (see Fig. 2). The tissue about the blood-vessels is
changed in exactly the same way as that around the bronchus,
the elements becoming altered in a similar manner.

After a time the walls of the blood-vessels become engaged,
the external coat being first attacked, and the other coats in
turn becoming thickened and rigid. Often the vessel wall may
be increased to several times its normal thickness, and yet the
intima looks healthy on the surface. Here and there the intima
seems to be also affected. Small red roughened patches are seen
on the inner surface of the vessel. The colour seems to depend
on staining with the blood contained within the vessel itself.
When these rough patches are as large as two or three millimetres
across, they are always coated over with a thin pale coagulum.
These clots increase in thickness with the increase in size of the
damaged patch. Often the intima seems destroyed around the
entire calibre of the vessel, or for a considerable extent along one
side. In these cases, where the roughness of the intima is exten-
sive, the altered surface cannot be so well seen, as the clot which

Fig. 4. — Shoiving Thrombus of Artery.

A. Artery. P. Bronchus. T. Thrombus, tapering off to a flue point of fresh coagulum.
I. Interlobular tissue. ^

covers it is very thick (Fig. 4). The vessel is thus partially
occluded by a thrombus, which, in the case of small vessels, soon
VOL. XIV. — S. S. O

194 lieport on the Fatholof/ieol Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

completely fills them with a tight adherent plug. When any
vessel is quite occluded, all its branches are found filled with clots
of blood, which are often black and soft, evidently being of
recent formation. When an extensive plug lies in a large artery
without causing its occlusion, many of its minute branches are
usually quite stopped. This appears sometimes to depend on
small emboli, formed by fragments broken off the thrombus in
the parent trunk of the artery. In other cases a number of small
vessels throughout the diseased part may be choked up with
thrombi, which have evidently been formed primarily in them,
and which seem to be caused by several points of the intima
being damaged. Once a branch of a vessel has been filled, the
clot seems to grow with great rapidity into the larger branches,
so as to produce occlusion of the parent trunk and of the neigh-
bouring branches arising from it.

As may be inferred from what has already been said of the
hajmorrhagic consolidation, the parts of the lung parenchyma
to which the plugged vessels lead,. are those thus suddenly en-
gorged. The various appearances met with in the formation of
hzemorrhagic infarction are now well understood, so I need not
pause here to explain them.* Here the infarction is well marked,
but, owing to the many variations in the method in which the
coagulation in the vessels may be brought about, there is a much
greater variety in its form than is commonly met with in those
cases where it depends exclusively upon embolic plugging.
The constant conical shape of the black consolidation can now
be easily explained, as well as the suddenness with which the
engorgement occurs. The variegated appearance produced by
small dark-red patches, which is now and then seen on the cut
surface, obviously depends upon small scattered infarcts, which
result from numerous emboli, or from irregular and diffused
injury to the intima of the small vessels.

* This form of engorgement and liaemorrliagc, calh'd by Laennee pulmonary
apoplexy, is now universally admitted to depend on a local impediment to the
circulation, such as an embolus impacted in an artery. There being no arterial
anastomosis in the lung, such a i)lug has a very marked etfect. The embolus
cuts off the normal suj)ply of blood from the part, and the pressure in the arterial
branches beyond the stopjiage falls to zero. The blood, however, can still find
its way through the capillaries into the branches at the distal side of the plug. The
branches of the occluded artery are thus reduced to tlie condition of occluded
veins, and as they have none but capillary connections, they may be said to form
blind ends to the adjacent arteries. The blood tlien trickles into these arterial
branches and fills them, but no onward fiow can take ])laco, therefore they become
intensely engorged with stagnant blood. Under these circumstances the inner
coat of the vessels is deprived of its nutrition, for which the constant renewal of
the blood is required. This starvation of the minute vessels renders them unfit
for their function ; they lose their power of retaining the blood, which escapes
into the neighbouring textures, forming the dense black consolidation now known
as hxmorrliagic infarction.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 195

The chief points of importance concerning the bronchi and
vessels may be thus briefly summed up : —

1. The bronchial tubes are always diseased in the region
affected with the opaque conical form of consolidation and in its
immediate vicinity.

2. The mucous membrane is extensively diseased, the epi-
thelium destroyed, and the bronchus filled with a plug.

3. In this region also the walls of the bronchus are thickened,
and its calibre is diminished.

4. The sheath common to the broncho-vascular system is
throughout swollen, rigid, and densely infiltrated.

5. The lymphatics of the entire vascular territory are rendered
impervious by dense exudation.

6. In the early stages of the affection, the morbid process of
the lining of the bronchus is more extensive than that of its
wall and surrounding tissue.

7. The walls of the vessels may be implicated and their lining
membrane irritated and damaged.

8. Thrombosis may occur at one or several points of the
vessels, and cause the occlusion of some of them.

9. Small emboli may break off from a thrombus, and plug
several branches of the artery.

10. The disease seems always to make greater progress in
and around the bronchus than around the corresponding vessels.

Conclusion.

In the foregoing pages I have attempted to adhere to a plain
statement of facts, as supplied by the notes of the autopsies
taken on the spot, and by the examination of numerous specimens
which have been sent to my laboratory. I have tried to avoid
any expressions which involve theories, and have done little to
work out the course of the very interesting morbid changes
which form the essence of this disease. Without some effort,
however, to follow the order in which the various pathological
events occur, the description of the appearances would be barren
of interest or utility. I shall therefore now try to trace the
sequence of the morbid processes ; thus the order in which they
occur may be ascertained, and possibly the initial stages of the
affection arrived at.

As may be seen from the brief summary of the views held
on this subject, which was given in the beginning of this paper,
it seems generally agreed that the pleura, or the sub-pleural
and interlobular tissue, is the part first attacked. Although I
commenced work with this idea firmly fixed in my mind,
I cannot make my observations coincide with such a view,

o 2

19G Report on the Paihohejical Anatomy of Plcuro-jmeumonia.

and I think many of the facts enumerated show that this cannot
be the case.

In the attempt to trace each lesion to its exciting cause, I
have, in every instance, been obliged to pass from the pleural
surface towards the deeper parts.

If the pleura were the starting-point of the disease, we ought
to find the entire of the membrane, on one or other side of the
chest, affected evenly throughout. Such is the common course
of acute affections of the pleura, and the inflammation in this
disease is generally of such an acute type that twenty-four hours
would suffice for it to spread over the entire membrane. But 1
have invariably found that the pleural inflammation is either
localised to the place where the lung is diseased, or is much
more developed at that point.

With such acute pleurisy as is often found, a case ought surely
now and then to occur where intense fever and constitutional
disturbance would lead to the early recognition of the disease,
and call for the immediate slaughter of the beast ; and if the
pleural inflammation were really the initial step in the disease,
we might fairly expect occasionally to find a case in which
pleurisy was the only part of the affection as yet developed.
But this is not so. I have never seen, nor heard of a case in
which pleurisy alone existed. The lung tissue is always diseased
to some considerable depth. I have found, on the contrary, that
the typical changes may occur in the lung, without any trace
of pleural infl.ammation.

In the common run of cases, where pleurisy is associated with
extensive disease of the lung, the latter always gives the im-
pression that it is of much older standing than the pleural
affection. The pleurisy is commonly acute, while in the lung
we usually have evidence of such chronic changes as would
require a very long time for their development. From com-
paring the lung lesions with the clinical history, I have often
been forced to believe that the disease had existed for a very
much longer time than was believed during the life of the
animal. In one case, where the cow was described as having
been in perfect health three days before I saw the lungs, and was
said to have given nine quarts of good milk the day before, 1
found lesions in the lung, which, I think, must have taken at
least six weeks for their production, associated with the first
stage of intense pleuritis. Another cow, which was said to
have been well, and milking five days before death, had a con-
dition of lung which I cannot imagine could be developed under
four or five months. Here there was also recent acute and
extensive disease, engaging the entire of the left pleura.

The duration of the clinical history usually corresponds with

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. li)7

•the stage of development of the pleuritis, and never with the
disease of the lung. I am convinced that the lung disease usually
exists for months without being suspected, and invariably the
beast is first thought to be sick only when the affection has
spread to the pleura, and caused intense inflammation of that
membrane with its accompanying well-marked symptoms. And
I believe that if our diagnostic powers were improved, cases of
pleuro-pneumonia without pleurisy would more frequently be
met with.

In thus asserting that the pleural lesion is secondary to that of
the lung, I do not mean to imply that the lung parenchyma
cannot under any circumstances become secondarily affected
from the pleura covering it. It will 'presently be seen that
nothing is more common than this spreading of the disease
from the pleura to the subjacent tissue. It can be seen in every
case Avhere the inflammation of the pleura is severe, and has
lasted some little time. The infective process may be commu-
nicated from the primarily affected lobe to its neighbours, by
means of the intervention of the pleura, and in these cases the
pleura does seem to be the starting-point of the processes in the
lobes, which are thus secondarily engaged. But if the primarily
affected lobe be carefully examined, it will always be found to
contain a wedge of typical marbling, extending towards the root
of the lung, with the bronchi and vessels diseased in the manner
already described. In this deep-seated, conical, indurated region,
the morbid process is more developed than elsewhere. And it
is such a centre, I believe, that forms invariably the original
point of disease. One such focus, at least, can always be found
in some part or other of a diseased lung, no matter how exten-
sive the wide-spread shallow pleural infection may be. To me
it seems impossible to explain this chronic, old, indurated part
of the lung disease as a result of the acute, recent pleurisy.

On the other hand, there is no difficulty in explaining the
pleuritis as a result of the lung lesion. In many of the cases
slaughtered immediately after the development of the pleural
inflammation, this relationship is most obvious. Putting aside
the existence of any specific form of infective material, the
irritation and inflammation of the pleura may be explained by
the mere mechanical injuries done to the membrane by the
swelling of the subjacent lung during the disease. To this
exciting cause may be added defective lymph drainage and im-
paired blood supply.

In the cases where the pleural disease is associated with
haemorrhagic infarction — and these are remarkably common — of
course there can be no difficulty in explaining the pleuritis.
The pleura may be torn ; sOme blood may escape into its cavity

198 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

and set up general inflammation ; and the part of the membrane
corresponding to the infarction is always cut off from its supply
of normal nutrition.

There can be no doubt, however, that in the tissues affected
by this disease there must exist, or be produced, some material
with infective properties, and therefore there can be no diffi-
culty in finding a cause of the inflammation of the susceptible
serous membrane.

I am thus forced to believe that the pleurisy is invariably
secondary to the disease of the lung parenchyma. The next
question then must be, what is the immediate cause of the
pulmonary lesion ?

It has been said that different kinds of morbid changes are
found side by side in the lung, the immediate exciting causes of
which must be quite distinct. The most constant of these is the
opaque consolidation, which is comparatively deep-seated, and
localised to a conical territory, gradually increasing in extent
and induration. A second, the most wide-spread change, seems
to be an interstitial exudation or interlobular pneumonia starting
from the pleura, or from the last-mentioned lesion. A third,
perhaps the most distinct and striking, is the black hremorrhagic
infarction.

The immediate exciting cause of the last mentioned morbid
process seems clear enough. We know that, when the lining
membrane of a blood-vessel is injured, the blood coagulates at
that point, and this coagulation increases if the irritation con-
tinues to destroy the smoothness of the inner coat. Thus we have
thrombosis, leading to vascular plugging. The modus operandi
of vascular occlusion in causing ha?morrhagic infarction of the
lung is now well understood, and has already been referred to
(see p. 194). It only remains, then, to search for the origin of
the irritation of the vessel-wall in order to complete the patho-
geny of this lesion.

A ready cause of the disease of the wall of the vessels is
afforded by the engorged state of the peribronchial lymph-
vessels. The entire broncho-vascular system is surrounded by
one set of lymph-vessels, through which the irritative processes
can penetrate with great facility (see Fig. 2, p. 190). When the
lymph-channels around the vessels are thus engorged, one can
easily understand how the chronic inflammatory processes infect
their proper walls, and finally reach the intima.

There appears no reason to doubt that this chronic inflam-
mation, which takes place in the connective tissue sheath of the
broncho-vascular system, is the immediate cause of the great
thickening of the walls of the vessels, which always precedes,
and is more extensive than, the injury to the inner coat.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pnenmonia. 199

And there does not seem the least reason for supposing that
the disease of the vessel wall precedes that of the surrounding
tissue. On the contrary, such an idea is rendered most im-
probable by the fact that the neighbouring parts are always
more extensively diseased than the vascular wall, the inner coat
being the least affected, and often escaping altogether. These
points will appear more obvious when the course of the bronchial
lesion is discussed.

Both the other forms of consolidation obviously depend upon
causes quite distinct from that which induces infarction ; and,
moreover, a little consideration shows that the mode of com-
mencement of one of these is very unlike that of the other.

Fig. 5. — Scmi-diagrapMc Sketch to illustrate the mode of extension
of the Disease. {A portion of three neighbouring lobes is shown.')

The darkest part of the central lobe (A) is (he starting-point {opa(jue cmsolidutiim) : tlie lighter
part of same (B) shows extension of the clear exudation via bronchial lymphatics (C) by means
of the pleura (P). (E) Pleural exudation. Reduced to one-fourth.

The clear exudation is always more witle-spread and super-
ficial, less solid and less defined, than the opaque induration.
The tissue elements remain normal even after the exudation
has become intense. The vessels and air-passages are pervious
and little altered. It might be described as intense inflam-
matory oedema, while the other may be termed croupous con-
solidation. From the distribution and relations of this clear
exudation, it appears certain, as just stated, that it is the result

200 Report on the Pathological Anatomg of Pleuro-pneumonia.

of infective action spreading, by means of the lymph-vessels,
from the inflamed pleura, and along the broncho-vascular
system. But I have already stated that the pleura cannot be
said to take the initial step in the disease, so we must look for
some other cause of the dense opaque consolidation, which
certainly does not depend upon pleural infection.

The first thing that strikes one as remarkable about this form
of lung-lesion is its shape. This always is the same as that of the
territory supplied by the broncho-vascular system which enters
at its deepest part. In this lespect it bears some resemblance
to the infarction. In the case of the latter, however, its mode
of production and its cause explain its shape, but the blood
vessels in the young cone of opaque consolidation are, as a rule,
healthy and pervious, and therefore can throw no light on the
matter.

Let us examine what changes are constant in this cone. By
making a fair section directly through the centre of a small
isolated focus of the dense pale induration — and to such a stage
of the disease we must look to learn its initial steps — three im-
portant facts become obvious ; first, that the air-cells are filled
with croupous exudation ; secondly, that the bronchial tube and
its branches are plugged with a dense, adherent, fibrinous mass ;
and thirdly, that all the lymph-vessels around these air-tubes are
swollen and turgid, being the seat of a dense fibrinous exudation.
Looking at such a specimen, one cannot avoid being impressed
with the idea that the occlusion of the bronchus and the en-
gorgement of the lymphatics immediately surrounding it must
be the cause of the lobular consolidation and the interlobular
exudation. The more I have tested this view by careful scrutiny
of the diseased parts, the more firmly convinced I am of its
truth and importance in explaining the first steps in pleuro-
pneumonia. I am at a loss otherwise to understand the peculiar
localisation, the sharp demarcation, and the conical shape ; all
of which are such constant characters of the opaque consolida-
tion, particularly in the early primary nodules of the disease ;
but, if this view be correct, they are all easily accounted for.

A focus of opaque consolidation being once established, there
is no difficulty in accounting for the clear exudation which so
constantly surrounds it. When once the broncho-vascular set of
lymph plexuses have become the seat of this irritating exuda-
tion, it is easy to imagine how they will facilitate the spread of
the disease. Encompassing the bronchus, they lead the infective
material to irritate its coats, and cause them to undergo a kind
of chronic destructive inflammation. At the same time, travel-
ing along the lymphatics towards the root of the lung, the
inflammatory process comes upon the tributary broncho-vascular

Report, on the Pathological Anatomy of Fleur o-pneumonia. 201

systems, chokes their lymph-passages, and thus produces in-
terlobular exudation throughout the territory from which they
come. There is no difficulty in working out a great variety of
ways in which the disease may be spread through the lung by
means of the peribronchial lymph-vessels, on the one hand, and
those under the pleura on the other ; the former leading the
infective process to the root of the lung, the latter extending it
over the surface of the organ. Thus the soft translucent form
of exudation may be spread in two ways, viz. by the subpleural
and by the peribronchial lymphatics. This would sufficiently
account for its irregular outline and indefinite distribution.

But, even admitting that the irritative change in the peribron-
chial tissues is the cause of the thrombosis and consequent
infarction, and that it also takes a great share in the production
i of both forms of solidity of the lung parenchyma, we have made
but little way towards finding out the starting-point of the
disease. The occurrence of the peribronchial exudation remains
to be accounted for, and its exciting cause must be discovered
'l before we can speak of the first step in the morbid processes,
j without which the life-history of the disease is deficient in the
j most vital point.

There seems every reason to believe that this is a process
which goes through the same series of events as chronic in-
I flammation, such as would follow any form of persistent irrita-
j tion, and lead to intense induration. It is needless to go into
the much-vexed question whether this be an inflammatory disease
or not ; authors differ not only amongst themselves, but even
with themselves, upon this point. We only know inflam-
mation as a certain series of phenomen.a occurring in a certain
order. We meet these same phenomena in the same order in
I pleuro-pneumonia, and we must find a more satisfactory ex-
planation of its peculiarities and divergence from ordinary
inflammation than the simple statement that it “ is not inflam-
matory in any of its stages, and never presents any of the
phenomena which are associated with inflammation.”

In the parts where the peribronchial exudation is most firm,
and the tissue most densely infiltrated with new cells, the proper
walls of the air-tube are invariably much thickened, and show
signs of long-standing disease. The lining membrane of this

I part of the bronchus is also quite destroyed by a process of
ulceration, the epithelium cells being cast off, and forming part
of the plug which fills the calibre of the tube.

In those cases where there has been but little time for the
I disease to spread by the lymphatics, the destruction of the
1 mucous membrane is more extended than the thickening of
I the peribronchial lymphatics. In short, the mucous membrane

202 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia.

seems more extensively diseased than any other structure, in the
very early stages of the affection.

From this it would appear that the irritation of the peri-
bronchial lymph-channels is produced by a form of chronic
inflammation in the structure of the bronchial wall, which is
brought about by the disease of the mucous membrane.

So constantly have I met with this condition in the opaque
parts, that I have but little hesitation in affirming that the disease
commences in the air-passages as a chronic inflammation, asso-
ciated with destruction of the bronchial mucous membrane.
I cannot say what is the exact size of the tubes in which the
inflammation begins ; it seems likely that the lobular bronchi
are those most readily affected, and certainly the very small
tubes are invariably attacked, even when the disease is in its
most recent stage. The impression left on my mind is, that
,the delicate lobular bronchi are those first attacked in the
majority of cases, though often the morbid processes are more
striking in those tubes about the size of a quill.

As to the immediate exciting cause of this strange form of
bronchitis, little can be said. No light is thrown on the subject
by the morbid anatomy, no constant specific elements have
been found in the affected part. The cetiology of the disease
must be studied clinically and experimentally. The only
suggestion I should presume to make upon this subject is a plain
deduction from the reading of the pathological events as 1 have
traced them out ; it is this, that pleuro-pneumonia being a local
disease, starting in the bronchial mucous membrane, it can only
be produced by direct and immediate infection of that mem-
brane, and it is little to be wondered at that inoculation of the
tail, or other part, cannot produce the local disease in the lung,
though it may set up, in the part operated upon, a form of
progressively infective inflammation, which runs a coui'se not
unlike that of the lesion of the lung. I have had many oppor-
tunities of satisfying myself that when a tall is “ successfully ”
inoculated the subcutaneous connective tissue undergoes a
change exactly like that between the lobules of the lung, and the
infective process rapidly spreads by the lymphatics.

I can well understand how a beast, by sniffing the fodder of a
diseased neighbour, may draw into its air-passages some of the
dried discharge, and thus infect its bronchial mucous membrane
and get pleuro-pneumonia, while all the skill science can apply
will not induce the disease of the lung by mediate contagion, i.e.
the inoculation or injection under the skin or into the vessels
of infective material procured from a diseased lung.

Whether there be any special virus which acts as the specific
cause of this disease or not, must also be left to experimental

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumonia. 203

inquiry to determine positively. I have searched in vain for a
morphological element which could be regarded as the materia
peccans. However, the general aspect of the morbid processes
gives one the idea that some peculiar infective product is at
work. In very many cases foreign elements, so peculiar as to
provoke suspicion, have been found, but further investigation
failed to bring home to them the necessary pathogenic pro-
perties, as they have generally proved to be inconstant or
harmless substances, whose presence is either accidental or un-
important.

The fact that no morphological representative of an infective
material can be found, is no proof that it does not exist. How
long is the list of diseases which are acknowledged on all sides
to depend on the presence of a peculiar virus ? How very few
— if there be any — of these specific materials do we know in
any other way than by the effects they produce? Some, we
know, cause a general affection of the blood, some a peculiar
primary local lesion, and subsequent general infection, others
again give rise to a purely local inflammation with a specific
character. In the latter category I am inclined to place the
virus of pleuro-pneumonia. When applied to the bronchial
mucous membrane or introduced into any lymph-bearing tissue,
it sets up chronic inflammatory changes associated with ex-
cessive exudation. Ordinary inoculation illustrates this per-
fectly. The operation causes practically no inflammation ; but
after a definite period of incubation, varying from ten to fourteen
days, a local specific inflammation is produced in the connective
tissue ; but this is not accompanied by any constitutional dis-
turbance, except when it spreads extensively : timely amputa-
tion of the tail, however, usually prevents this unfortunate
accident, and the animal quickly recovers without having any
traces of a blood-disease.

I abstain from attempting, to discuss the many abstract
questions or theories which have from time to time been intro-
duced into the study of this peculiar affection. Whether it be
real inflammation, or some mysterious specific change differing
from all other diseases ; whether it be comparable with any
human disorder ; whether it be zymotic or not, &c. These are
very interesting speculations, but their consideration is not very
likely to lead to any immediate practical result ; and therefore
it appears to me more profitable to attempt to unravel the
intricate sequence of pathological events, and trace the succes-
sive steps of the morbid changes which occur in pleuro-pneu-
monia, for I am satisfied that it is along this track we must
travel, if we hope ever to arrive at the true pathogeny of the
disease.

204 Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneumoiiia.

To recapitulate, then, the various items in the pathological
sequence may be thus enumerated :

1. Irritation of the mucous membrane of the smaller bronchi,
probably by some infective material (specific virus ?).

2. Chronic ulcerative bronchitis, localised to a few minute
bronchi.

3. Occlusion of the affected air-tubes.

4. This produces such changes in the air-cells belonging to
the affected tubes that the lobular parenchyma becomes solid.

5. As the bronchial disease progresses, the walls of the air-
tubes become thickened and infiltrated with the products of
chronic inflammation.

6. The peribronchial lymphatics are implicated by the ex-
tension of the infective process from the bronchus, and are soon
filled with dense exudation.

7. The block in the lymphatics of the broncho-vascular system
impedes the flow of lymph from the corresponding territory.

8. The tributary lymph-channels are thus mechanically
engorged, and at the same time they are irritated by infective
materials.

9. The inflammation of all the coats of the air-tube gradually
spreads towards the root of the lung.

Thus we have a deep-seated cone of typical consolidation,
traversed by numerous wide whitish lines, corresponding to the
swollen interlobular connective tissue (marbling). In fact, the
essential features of the disease are all established.

The morbid process seldom stops here, however. It spreads
in two ways.

First, by the broncho-vascular lymph-passages : —

1. The irritating and infective materials find their way along
the lymphatics towards the root of the lung, following the
normal course of the lymph stream.

2. The wall of the bronchus becomes affected after a time by
the irritative matter in its surrounding lymphatics.

3. The lymphatics of tributary bronchial tubes, met with as
the disease thus advances, are choked, and the drainage of their
territory impeded.

4. The interlobular lymph spaces of the newly affected
territory soon become filled with exudation. Thus the clear
kind of consolidation is produced.

Secondly, by the pleura : —

1. The pleura becomes affected over the focus of consoli-
dation by means of the subjacent lymphatics.

2. The pleurisy soon extends far beyond this limited region,
or the serous membrane becomes generally inflamed.

Report on the Pathological Anatomy of Pleuro-pneinnonia. 205

3. From the inflamed pleura infective materials reach the
lymphatics beneath it, and also those lying between the neigh-
bouring superficial lobules,

4. Extending along the interlobular lymphatics, the irritation
and exudation may pass towards the deeper parts, so that an
immense tract of lung is converted into a semi-translucent mass
Avith swollen interlobular spaces.

The consolidation formed in any of these ways may become
intense induration, if the animal live long enough.

With regard to the origin of the disease of the vessel wall
we must also start from the peribronchial disease.

1. The lymphatics of the bronchus readily allow the morbid
products to pass to those immediately around the vessels.

2. The wall of the vessel becomes greatly thickened by
chronic inflammatory products.

3. The inner coat — which resists the disease for some time —
ultimately becomes diseased in small patches.

4. The blood coagulates over the diseased inner coat, and may
occlude a small branch at its origin, or even the entire vessel.

5. Particles of the clot may break off, and, passing into the
minute arteries, form there embolic plugs.

6. Thus numerous arteries of varying size may be stopped

rr.

7. The most varied forms of haemorrhagic infarction are thus
produced.

8. The infarction may become gangrenous, cheesy, or may dry
up into a crumbling mass.

9. A capsule may form around the most diseased part, and
shut it off from the rest of the lunsr.

If asked to give a pathological definition of pleuro-pneumonla,
1 should say that it Avas : — A chronic, specific, local disease,
starting in the bronchi, and insidiously implicating the paren-
chyma of the lung, by occlusion of the bronchi and inflamma-
tion extending along the lymphatics : the other organs and the
blood possess a singular immunity from the specific contamina-
tion. It is not accompanied by constitutional symptoms, and
only gives obscure physical signs. At any time during the
progress of the disease its existence may be manifested clinically,
by the occurrence of complications — acute pleurisy or haemor-
rhagic infarction with pleural inflammation — Avhich excite high
fever, Avith various functional derangements.

( 206 )

VIII. — Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. By
Charles Gay Roberts, of Haslemere, Surrey.

More than one-fifth of the area of Ireland consists of waste
land. Connaught, the smallest of its provinces, contains more
bog and waste land than any of the other three. Its total area
is 4,233,239 acres. Of these only 460,614 acres were returned
in 1877 as under tillage ; 2,279,636 acres being in grass, meadow,
and clover ; 54,903 acres woods and plantations, and 1491 fallow.
The remaining 1,436,595 acres of bog and waste land remains a
perpetual challenge to the energy and industry of man to bring it
into cultivation, and compel it to yield crops for his benefit. An
English agriculturist travelling through Ireland for the first time
will ask himself the question again and again. Is it necessary that
these vast areas of level land should remain unprofitable and
waste? Cannot these hill-sides and moorlands be made to
produce a better herbage, so that they may feed instead of starve
the cattle turned out upon them ? The question is one of such
great national importance that every practical attempt to answer
it is of great value. During the fifteen years that Mr. Mitchell
Henry has held the Kylemore estate, his attention has not been
confined to questions of general interest to the country and the
county which he represents in Parliament, but he has paid great
attention to the wants of the poor in his immediate neighbour-
hood, and has worked with increasing confidence at the reclama-
tion of a considerable portion of the moor- and peat-lands in
his possession. These experiments in cultivation are far from
being complete, and in many respects their success cannot yet
be spoken of with confidence ; but they have now been con-
tinued for a sufficient time, and extend over a sufficient area, to
make them well worthy of the attention of British agriculturists.
They have_ all been carried out under the superintendence of
Mr. Archibald D. MacAlister, the resident agent, who has com-
bined much prudence and caution with great intelligence in
their execution. Unless much discretion is used, the intro-
duction of innovations into many parts of Ireland is apt to be
attended with very serious drawbacks, but, by gradually feeling
his way, Mr. MacAlister has been able to ascertain the best
method of improving the condition both of the land and of the
peasantry. Thus experience has taught him that the drains
which he at first put in at 40-feet intervals are not sufficient for
moorland with such a rainfall as prevails at Kylemore, and
they are now being placed at half that interval. Hardly any of
the cottages upon the estate possessed the luxury (or, as an

Reclamation of Bof) and Moorland in Galway. 207

English labourer might term it, fhe necessary convenience) of a
window. Had Mr. Henry been ill-advised, he might rashly
have given orders that a window should at once be put into
every cabin, and thus have made all his tenants bitterly com-
plain that the comfort of their homes was ruthlessly destroyed.
Instead of this, he proceeded more cautiously, and Avas content
to put in a window for the single tenant who wished for sweet-
ness and light. After a while, the improvement was thought
to confer an air of greater gentility upon its possessor. When
the neighbours complained that one had received greater ad-
vantages than the rest, their wishes were gratified at once, and
now there is not a cottage on the property that has not
a glazed window that can be opened to let in air as well as
light.

The physical and the social peculiarities of the district must
be considered before we can discuss intelligently the Avork that
is being done. These Avill force themselves upon the attention
even of the casual visitor, Avhether he comes via G<ahvay or from
Westport. In the latter case the first 10 miles of his road Avill
lie over a dreary Avaste of bog and moor, Avith many small farms,
some of them still cultivated, but, in their marks of sloth and
poverty, eA^en more sad than are the heaps and lines of stones
that mark the site of hamlets, surrounded by a multitude of
small enclosures, once tilled by hand, but noAV grazed over by
rough cattle ; the next 5 miles of road along the v'alley of the
OAven Erive river passes through the finest mountain scenery
in the county of Mayo. In passing through the village of
Leenane, at the head of Killery Harbour, he will see several
small farms that receive a liberal application of sea-Aveed, and
produce excellent crops of potatoes and oats. The population
here have the great advantage of varying their diet Avith fish,
that can be caught at all times in the land-locked Avater of the
bay, an arm of the Atlantic half a mile in breadth, running up
like a NorAvegian fiord for 9 miles into the heart of the moun-
tains. From Leenane he Avill pass for a distance of 7 miles
through the Joyce’s Country, and Avill meet Avith no signs of
cultivation until he arriA'es at the Pass of Kylemore. If the
southern route is chosen, the railway must be left at Gahvay.

• Along the first 7 miles of the road, as far as Moycullen, there
are many Avell-cultivated fields and Avell-built steadings ; at
Ross the road enters upon the property of the late Mr. Martin,
of Ballynahinch ; a country so Avild that it Avas the boast of
Connaught that “ The King’s Avrit could not run in it.” It
extends for nearly 40 miles along the road for Clifden. The
Avhole of this property Avas purchased by the LaAV Life Insurance

208 Reclamation of Boe/ and Moorland in Galwai/.

Company for 180,000/., the greater part of it being of no agri-
cultural value. By them it has been divided and re-sold. About
17 miles from Galway, the post-town of Oughterarde is reached.
While changing horses, a walk down its single broad street will
show that it contains many substantial buildings, in addition to
its enormous Union House, and the visitor will carry away with
him the impression of its being a comfortable and thriving
town, unless he stops to look in at the doors of some of the
smaller houses. His English ideas of comfort may in that case
be disturbed by finding that the cattle share with the family
their single living-room. Such cabins are the rule and not the
exception in the rural districts of Connemara, but they present
an incongruous appearance when found amid the modern houses
and shops of a thriving little town. As reference will be made
to them further on, a sketch of an interior is given. A is the

Fig. 1. — Plan of a Connemara Cabin.

door opening into the living-room, 20 feet by 14 ; 8 feet of Its
length is occupied by cattle, their position being indicated b}-
the dotted lines at B, B ; C is the hearth ; the doorway beyond it
leads into the bedroom at D, 14 feet by 12, occupied commonly
by the young folk. At E there is a recess, 6 feet by 4, built out
from the living-room, and occupied by the bed of the heads of
the family. For 12 miles after leaving Oughterarde there is a
wide-spread tract of bleak moor, and numerous small lakes, with
no trees to relieve the eye from the monotonous colour of the
peat. The character of the country then changes, the hills in-
crease in height as the great group of the western highlands is

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. 209

approached, and for the remaining 15 miles it skirts the southern
and western sides of the Mamturk Mountains, passing between
them and the Twelve Pins, grand and rugged masses of quartzite
rock, rising singly, and yet in close proximity to heights of
from 2000 to 2300 feet. In the whole drive from Oughterarde
to Kylemore there is scarcely a tree to be seen except on the
islands of Lough Inagh, and there are hardly any signs of
cultivation except the small patches of potato garden by the
side of the cabins, few and far between. Amid so much that
is wild and desolate, it will be noticed that the road itself is in
excellent repair, and has been very well constructed. All the
main roads throughout the district are equally good, having
been made by Government during the time of the famines, to
give employment and relief to the starving peasants. The road
enters the Pass of Kylemore at its eastern extremity and runs for
some 4 or 5 miles along the side of the Kylemore Lough, and the
rapid Dawris river till it reaches the little village of Letterfrack
at the head of Ballynakill Harbour on the shore of the Atlantic.
Looking down the valley, it is seen that it is bounded on the
north and south by a rugged chain of hills, from 1500 to 2000 feet
high. Immediately below, the lake occupies the whole breadth
of the eastern end of the valley ; the eye is refreshed by a belt
of 400 acres of wood, clothing the hill on its northern side, and
at the foot of the wood are seen the grey granite walls of the
castle, built on three terraces hewn out of the rock on the edge
of the lake. South of the Castle at Addergoole and further west,
where the valley grows wider on each side of the Dawris river,
there are bogs of deep peat, but the greater part of the valley is
occupied by moorland, a thin covering of peat resting upon
metamorphic rocks of mica schist and hornblend. Banks of
■limestone occur on each side of the valley, and are worked on
the south at Mweelin, and near the pinetum on the north,
between the castle and garden. Lime is the first requisite for
the reclamation of peat land. It has been hitherto drawn
chiefly from the quarry at Mweelin, but the completion of the
building operations will now render the supply from the second
<juarry available for use on the land. On the southern side of
the valley, reclamations have been made at Addergoole and
Mweelen, on the level land opposite to the castle, but those of
most importance have been carried out on the hillside north of
the valley, opposite to the village of Letterfrack, at Toorena,
and at Mullaghglass, extending in a northerly direction over
the crest of the same hill, to the southern shore of an indentation
of the coast line. Some insight into the value of the land in its
unreclaimed state may be gained by referring to Griffiths’ ‘ Tene-
VOL. XIV. — S, S. P

210 Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Gahcay.

ment Valuation of Ireland,’ on which all county and poor
rates are levied. The valuation of Galway was made in 1854.
The Barony of Ballinahinch in the district of Connemara
contains 191,432 a. 2 r. 4p., and is valued at 17,756Z. 2s.,.
being an average of Is. lOjC?. per acre. The land at Kylemore,
however, is below the average rate of the barony, 9252 statute
acres being only valued at 639Z., that is, at the rate of Is. 4|^r7.
per acre. It originally formed a portion of the Blake estate.
In the time of the famine it suffered more than other parts of
Ireland, in consequence of its isolation. The relief works were
at a distance ; the poor people remained on their bits of land as
long as they could get anything to keep body and soul together ;
food was not brought to the starving families ; and when at length
they were forced to leave their homes, they were not strong
enough to travel, but dropped and died upon the hills before
they could reach the relief stations. Looking down upon a large
field recently ploughed at Mullaghglass, we asked Mr. Mac-
Alister the reason of its appearing cut up into numerous strips
and squares of varying quality. The explanation brought most
vividly before the mind the painful history of the periodical
famines that culminated in 1847. It was originally a township,,
with a cabin standing upon every land. The plots still give
some evidence of the varying industry with which the tenant
dug his peat and grew his potatoes. The township was de-
populated by famine, when many died and others left ; twice
afterwards it was repeopled, but the new comers were again
driven away by failure of their crops. Now all the cabins are
gone, the site of the township having been let as a beach-farm
to a grazier before it came into the possession of the present
owner. In a similar way a great part of the Kylemore property
had been converted into grazing land, and Mr. Henry Avas able
to secure 4000 acres of land almost without a tenant upon it.
This has been of the greatest importance, for no tenant has been
turned out to facilitate the reclamations, and care has been
taken to leave the hearth-stones undisturbed, in accordance Avith
local prejudices. Shortly after the famine. Archdeacon Wilber-
force purchased 8000 acres, through the Encumbered Estates
Lourt ; he let the greater part of the land as a grazing farm to
Mr. St. J. C. Clowes, Avorking himself as a Catholic priest
among the peasantry then remaining while building cottages for
them as their landlord. On a part of the site of the old village of
Mullaghglass he erected thirty cottages of stone and larch timber,
at an average cost of 17/. each. The remaining part of this
township was let to a grazier, shortly before the whole property
was purchased by the present OAvner.

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. 211

I will now give a brief summary of the improvement on each
township of the property, taking them in the order of passing
down the south side of the river and returning up the north side.
The first two townships were not purchased from the Wilberforce
family. The work of reclamation by Mr. Mitchell Henry was
first begun opposite to the castle at Mweelin. Previous to the
famine, this land was owned, as a fee farm under the Provost of
Trinity College Dublin, by two Miss Murphys who grazed
cattle, and lived in a small cottage, still standing. They died
at the time of the famine, leaving the farm to their nephew, a
clerk in a solicitor’s office in Dublin. Finding himself unable
to pay succession duty and the taxes upon the land, he was glad
to sell his white elephant to a Dublin tailor for lOZ. and a suit of
clothes. In 1854 it was owned by the Rev. J. Duncan, and subse-
quently sold by him to the present owner. On the mountain side
oOZ. were spent here twelve years ago on sheep-drains with ex-
cellent effect ; before this was done there was a great loss from rot
among the sheep, as many as thirty dying annually out of a
flock of 200. The benefit is not confined to sheep and cattle ;
in wet weather the grouse will always give the preference to the
drained land. The system of sheep-drainage was introduced
into the district by an Ayrshire man about 15 years ago ; it is
done with the Scotch spade, cutting a small open trench across
the face of the hill, the turf being laid on the lower side. The
trench is 20 inches deep, with a breadth of 20 inches at top and
0 inches at bottom ; and the cost is Id. per Irish rod of 7 yards
long. Every seventh year the trenches should be cleaned out, at a
cost of \d. per 7 yards. At the foot of'the hill there are the remains
of an old monastery, and at a short distance one of the burying-
places of the once powerful family of the Joyces, noted for their
size and strength. Lower down is situated a good limestone
quarry, with a kiln in which both coal and peat are used for the
lime burning. Immediately below the kiln is a bog of deep
peat. Here 20 acres were drained, nine years ago, by 4-foot
drains, 30 feet apart, leading into a main drain, which at its
lower extremity had been left as an open ditch. This has
proved very disadvantageous, as the sides have been trodden
down by sheep and cattle, and the outfall of the minor drains has.
been so much impeded that a new main drain is now being cut
to open the minor drains about 30 feet from their original outfall..
The land .received a dressing of 50 barrels, equal to 150 bushels,
of lime per acre, and was trenched into 4-foot ridges ; 10 acres
received a dressing of guano, and were sown with turnips ; the
other 10 acres received a half-dressing of farmyard-manure, and
were planted with potatoes. The roots were drawn for the cattle

P 2

212 Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

in the yard at Addergoole, and oats were sown over the 20 acres
and seeded. The crop was good after the potatoes, but not
worth cutting after the turnips. The next year the grass was
cut for hay ; since then it has been grazed by 300 sheep and
10 head of cattle, which have also the run of the townland, com-
prising 653 acres of moor, with a large proportion of barren
rock. The grass is now poor and mossy, and rushes mark the
places where the drains have failed to act. Before turning to
the next piece that has been broken up, it will be convenient to
give a general account of the system now adopted at Kylemore
in reclaiming the bog.

Draining. — The first step in the reclamation of peat-land is
the removal of the excess of water by draining. The facility
with which this can be done will depend upon the depth of the
peat, the nature of the subsoil, the contour of the land as affect-
ing the outfall and pitch of the drains, and, though last, not least,
the average rainfall of the district. As regards the first point, it
has already been stated that there is comparatively little deep
bog at Kylemore. The peat is frequently of such a depth that
drains can be cut through it, over a large area of land ; it will
obviously be useless to do this where the peat rests, as it does
over a large area, upon the solid rock, which is here some-
times primitive, but more usually of a metamorphic character.
On some of the hill-sides, however, and notably at Tooreena,
beneath the peat is found a thick deposit of drift, consisting of
gravel mixed with micaceous sand, and a little clay, affording
an excellent receptacle for the drains. The mountainous nature
of the district makes the pitch of the land amply sharp enough
to insure a sufficient draught for drainage ; but it also attracts
the clouds from the broad Atlantic, and draws down from them
an amount of moisture almost unprecedented in the British
Islands. A rain-gauge is kept by Mr. Maxwell near the eastern
end of the Lough, at a spot 105 feet above the sea. The fall
recorded by him, and reported in the tables drawn up by
Mr. G. J. Symons, was 56'02 inches in 1875, and 95'33 inches
in 1876. Nearly 2 inches fell on the day of my arrival in
May ; and in calling subsequently on Mr. Maxwell, I found
that he had no reason to expect the rainfall of 1877 would be
less than that of the two previous years. The following table
(p. 213) is an extract kindly furnished by him from his monthly
record.

A rainfall like this explains the good-natured remark of a
native, as he looked out of the window, that the rain was
“ Nothing to speak of, but quite enough to wet an Englishman
to the skin.” Rules that apply to the drainage of other districts
will not be sufficient for exceptional circumstances like these.

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. 213

Monthly Eainfall at Kylemore in 1877.

Ka:N-GACGE 1 FOOT ABOVE GeOEND and 105 FEET ABOVE SEA-LEVEL.

Month.

Total

Depth.

Greatest Fall In
Twenty-four Hours.

Number
of Days on
which *01 or
more fell.

Depth.

Date.

Januarv

18 -.S3

1-94

February

8-31

•94

March

6-72

1-03

April

5-77

1-21

May

8-70

1-95

June

7-12

1-75

July

7-40

1-26

August

7‘64

1-56

September

3*10

•88

October

11-68

1-73

November

18-25

1-88

December

13-01

2-23

Total

llG-03

-•

295

As the reclamations have been carried on, the drains have
been put closer and closer together, and some years must yet
elapse before it is certain that those last put in, at 20 feet apart,
will keep a peat soil sufficiently dry beneath such a weeping
sky.

One great lesson taught by past experience has been that
wherever peat is found, the work of reclamation must not be
hurried ; it is useless to attempt cultivation until the excess of
water has been got rid of ; and, since peat holds water like a
sponge, this cannot be done without allowing it time to become
partially dry.

The first operation must be to cut the main drain along the
lowest level ; if this can be cut through the peat, into gravel or
sand, the rest of the drains can be cut at once, but if the peat is
deep and soft, it may be some years before the work can be
carried further. At Addergoole there is a plot of 50 acres to
be drained : a big trench was dug in 1874 down the centre of
this land, 9 feet wide and 4 feet deep, at a cost of 2s. 6d. per
perch of 7 yards. The bog being soft, it partially filled in at
once, and at the end of a week it was only 6 feet wide and
2 feet deep. In 1875 it was deepened again to a depth of 6 feet.
In 1876 the sides were cut wider at the top, so as to give them
more batter. The trench now stands 5 feet deep and 9 feet wide
at the top ; the peat in its immediate vicinity has become more

214

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

consolidated, and the minor drains can now be cut. Where the
peat is less than 4 feet thick, the main drain can be cut at a cost
of 8c?., and the minor drains at %d. per Irish perch of 7 yards,
with dd. extra for going through or under each boulder-stone or
root of bog-oak ; the minor drains have lately been placed at
8 yards interval, wider intervals having proved insufficient.
Across the minor drains, sheep-drains are run at about the same
distance apart, to carry off the surface-water, at a cost of \d. per
perch. The bog should then be left untouched for from two to
four years, during which time the turf will become consolidated.
The drains should then be cleared out, and a wedge of turf, too
wide to reach the bottom, be driven down, so as to form a solid
covering, with a water-channel of| 6 inches deep below it. The
drain is then filled in and levelled. The sodding and level-
ling is usually done by day-work, at a cost of about Zd. per
perch. There is great advantage in leaving the drains open till
the peat has subsided, for if covered in at once the channels are apt
to be filled up ; the surface will in the meantime be better fitted
to benefit from tillage, and from the application of lime. Where
the peat is thin, the surface will be sufficiently dry to be ploughed
by oxen, or by horses working in pattens ; the former animals
are now exclusively used for all reclamation work ; they not
only travel better over soft ground, but are far less liable to
injure themselves when required to strain at a dead-pull, when
the plough strikes against a boulder or buried root. There was
at one time great difficulty in reducing the furrow of turf after
the plough ; ordinary harrows often failed to penetrate it, and
it had to be chopped up by hand-power. A great advantage has
been obtained from the use of Randall’s Pulverising Harrow, an
Americart invention, imported from Utica (Fig. 2).

Beneath the bar, to which the shafts are attached, there are two
frames, each carrying 6 sharp-edged revolving discs, so arranged
that they can be set obliquely at any angle to the line of draught.
The discs are not plain, but are slightly dished, the concave side
being inwards. Each disc cuts into the furrow, and pushes the
strip it has cut towards the centre of the machine. Whenever
the furrow is tough, the weight of the driver increases the cut-
ting-power of the harrow. The work done by this machine is
excellent, and it is of great service in comminuting turf and
peat. When the bog is not firm enough after draining for
ploughing, it must be dug by hand and thrown up in ridges or
lazy beds, 4 feet wide. The next operation should be the appli-
cation of lime, which materially assists in disintegrating the soil,
and at the same time neutralises the acids in it. The effects of
lime are well known to the peasantry, who expressively say that
it “boils the bog.” On soft ground the lime used to be carried

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

215

Fig. 2. — View of Randall’s Pulverising Harrow.

out by women in baskets upon their backs : where the ground
was somewhat firmer, it was done by an ox drawing a small
sledge. In either case it was a tedious process, as the sledge
only contained 3 or 4 bushels of lime, and yet was drawn with
difficulty over the rougher places and through the occasional
patches of soft bog. Within the last few months 400 yards of
Decauville’s Portable Tramway has been purchased, and has
proved so convenient for spreading lime and manures on the
bog, that Mr. MacAlister anticipates that it will reduce the cost
of reclamation 2Z. per acre. After the liming, as much as pos-
sible of the land is put into root-crops, with farmyard-manure
for potatoes and turnips ; and these have usually been followed
by oats laid down with clover and grass-seed. In some in-
stances grass-seeds have been sown at once without any inter-
vening crop ; but there is great difficulty in obtaining a tilth
fine enough for grass-seeds, and the best results have hitherto
been obtained by taking a root-crop first.

I will now return to the cultivation that has been carried
on at Mweelin. A second piece of deep peat, 11 acres in area,
was drained and brought into cultivation 8 years ago, at a total
cost of 113Z. As this plot is immediately in front of the castle,
on the opposite side of the lake, it was desirable to get a good
sward of grass as quickly as possible. The drains were put in,
30 feet apart, no turf was removed, 150 bushels of lime per
statute acre were applied, and a half-dressing of farmyard-
inanure. The land was trenched and planted with potatoes and

216 Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

turnips. . The potatoes were poor ; the turnips yielded 10 tons-
to the statute acre. The next crop, oats, not manured, yielded
10 cwt. to the acre : Italian and perennial ryegrass, with Timothy
and cocksfoot, were sown with the oats, and cut two years for
hay, yielding good crops without a top-dressing. The first year
there were 14, and the second year 11 tram-cocks to the acre,
each weighing 12 to 14 cwt. of hay when carried to the rick.
The grass was cut at the end of June, and carried to the rick-
yard in August. The grass then failed, yielding a miserable
crop the third year. It was ploughed up June 1876, and
received 150 bushels of lime and 6 to 8 tons of dung per acre.
At the end of July it was sown with rape and grass-seeds. In
June 1877 there was a fair crop, which was cut green for
horses, about 18 inches high and rather thin on the ground.

The next township of Addergoole had a considerable amount
of labour and capital expended upon it, before it passed into
Mr. Henry’s possession. It contains 958 acres, and was pur-
chased soon after the famine by Mr. Eastwood, an Englishman,
who built himself a house, a lodge, and some very substantial
farm-buildings. From the size of the buildings it must be con-
cluded that he contemplated the reclamation of a much larger
extent of land than what he brought under cultivation. A large
quadrangle is surrounded by stables, sheds, and other buildings,
fit for 500 acres of arable land. In the centre of the side opposite
to the entrance gate there is a large barn built in the shape of a
cross, 60 feet long in each direction. These buildings were
erected with some of the stones from the ruins of a deserted
village ; the rest of the stones were used to fill up the bed of a
small river which Mr. Eastwood diverted, and to form the bank
of the new cut. He reclaimed 60 acres of land in the old river-
bed, a gravel soil resting upon peat. After levelling the land,
he planted part of it and laid the rest down to grass. He also
reclaimed 30 acres of deep bog ; the work was done well but
expensively, although at that time wages were only 5s. per week.
At the present time wages are 9s. a week. We may well wonder
how the poor fellows could manage to live upon 5s. a week,
but, as one of them explained, with pathetic humour, “ When
all’s ate the dinner’s over.” Mr. Henry has already brought
20 additional acres into cultivation, and has commenced the
drainage of 100 acres more.

The chief accommodation for live-stock is at Addergoole. Of
horses there are 29 on the estate ; only 6 of these are kept for
farm work, but occasional help is g^ven by carriage-horses or
old pensioners. Three pairs of oxen have been kept for ploughing,
and the best workers have been found to be those crossed with
the Alderney — small, active, and very tractable. About 130 other

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. 217

cattle of all ages are usually kept. The following is a summary
of the horned stock, taken in March 1877 : — *

2 Pedigree Shorthorn hulls.

24 Cows. Milkers in byre.

5 Cows kept for the ploughmen and gardeners.

23 Yearlings.

29 Two- and three-year-olds.

9 Calves.

10 Stall-fed fat beasts, sold 7th April for 240Z.

2 Four-year-old ploughing oxen at Mullaghglass.

3 „ „ Tooreena.

7 Two-year-old heifers.

5 Three-year „

6 Kyloe cows.

3 „ calves.

6 ,, three-year-old heifers.

134

There are three breeding flocks of black-faced sheep. The
wethers are sold or killed at 3 years old. Ninety-six sheep,
killed between 9th August, 1876, and 12th March, 1877, for
home consumption, weighed 4399 lbs. The total head of sheep
kept is usually about 1000. About 20 pigs are kept.

By the diversion of the Addergoole stream a fall has beea
obtained of from 11 to 14 feet ; this is utilised by a turbine-
wheel, supplying from 8 to 14 horse-power for a circular saw,,
and for threshing and other farm-work. This power has als&
been applied to some experiments in compressing peat for fuel,
but hitherto without much success. The turf is dug by contract,
at 8s. per clamp, of 8 X 8 X 8 feet, measured in the clamps.

In digging the turf a series of large tanks are being formed ;
these will increase the head of water for the turbine. A building
has been prepared to receive one of Gibbs’ Corn and Hay- ,
Driers ; in no district would the advantages of such an apparatus
be more apparent.

The township of Bunnaboghee is almost all of it deep peat,
with a ridge of limestone running down the centre. It is
intended to reclaim 100 acres here. As a first step towards
this the lines of a few of the drains have been marked out, and
permission has been given to some of the neighbouring peasants
to dig the peat to a depth of 4 feet in these lines. If the drains
can be cut in this way for the value of the peat, it will, of
course, be a great saving of expense ; but the experiment has
only just been started, and the men have not yet given it a full
trial. The difficulty is that a drain often requires to be run
through peat of an inferior quality, or hard to cut.

Dowrosmore is occupied by thirteen tenants, who are re-
claiming portions of the waste by their own labour. Their

218 Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

exertions have received a great impetus from the example set
them by their landlord. Mr. Blake, the original owner of the
property, settled upon Dowrosmore the pauper-tenants from
other townships who remained after the famine. Creggaun,
Cross, Shanaveag, and five-sixths of the township of Curre-
wongaun, are in the hands of tenants, and improvements are
carried out by them chiefly by manual labour.

Recent legislation has done much to encourage reclamation
by tenants, by giving them security that they shall reap the full
benefit of their labour. They no longer fear to improve their
houses or their land, and the effect of this is already well marked
in most parts of Ireland.*

Mr. Henry is of opinion that the landlords are already bene-
fited by a rise in the market-value of their land. He thinks
that the small tenants (under 10/.) should have leases for twenty
years, renewable at their option, the rent to be adjusted by
valuation for each lease. This would virtually amount to fixity
of tenure. The spirit of improvement is of very gradual growth,
but may be encouraged : with this object lime has been given to
the most enterprising of the tenants. A few grass and turnip-
seeds given to one man excited jealousy among his neighbours,
and now several of them vary their cropping, instead of con-
fining themselves to growing potatoes, with an occasional crop
of oats. At present they are not ready to receive any benefit
that would involve an increase in their rent, however small.

A part of Currewangaun is kept in hand, and 25 acres have
been improved : comprising 8 acres of barley seeded, 5 acres
oats, 4 acres grass, and 8 acres drained, but not yet cropped.
The crop of barley proved a poor one in 1877 ; being short in
straw and light in grain, the whole will be cut into chaff and
steamed for the fatting beasts.

At Mullaghglass improvements have been made both by
tenants and landlord. The best land lies along the coast, from
100 to 200 feet above the sea; the eastern portion of it is let
with the houses upon it to twenty-seven tenants, paying a total

* In connection with this subject, the following returns of the number of persons
who emigrated from all Ireland during the years 1867 to 1876 wiU he of interest : —

1867 .. .

1872 .. .

. .. 78,102

1868 .. .

. .. 61,018

1873 .. .

. .. 90,149

1869 .. .

. .. 66,568

1874 ,. .

. .. 73,182

1870 .. .

. .. 74,855

1875 .. .

. .. 51,462

1871 ..

. .. 71,240

1876 .. .

. .. 38,315

During the first six months of 1877, 18,945 persons emigrated, while the number
for the corresponding period of 1876 was 20,604. This shows that, from whatever
cause, there is a very obvious turn in the tide of Irish emigration.

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. 219

rent of 94Z. IO5. The western portion comprises 214 acres
(Nos. 1 to 10 in the plan). It was depopulated during the

Fig. 3. — Slcetcli-majp of Mullaghglass and part of Tooreena.

famine, and was let as a beach-farm to Mr. Currie in 1860 for
120Z. A house and farm-building had been erected by the
Wilberforces at a cost of 800Z. The rent was subsequently

220 Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

reduced to 110/., but the tenant died in 1865, and the land is
now occupied hj the owner. Beach-farms are of great value to
a grazier for the summer-grazing of stock. For the privilege of
turning out a cow on such land cottagers pay Is. 6t/. per month.
During winter the cattle are kept alive on the black sedge that
grows in the valleys. Calves are reared and kept in the cot-
tages till they are one or two years old ; they are then sold either
to small graziers, or direct to the larger graziers, who drive their
herds of cattle to the fairs, or sell them to jobbers, either for the
English market or to go into Leinster, where they are fattened
on grass and turnips. The graziers in Connaught do not aspire
to fatten their cattle ; their object is to “ warm ” them upon the
beach-farms, so that they shall be strong enough to be driven to
the fairs. At the end of an average winter but few of the cot-
tagers’ cattle are in a condition to be driven any distance.

The average prices obtained by the cottagers are, for cattle at
twelve months old, 21. to 3/. ; at two years, 5/. to 6/.

Graziers with small herds will obtain for two-year-olds 6/. to
11., and for three-year-olds, 8/. to 9/. After they have been
warmed on the large grazing-farms, four-year-olds will fetch
from 13/. to 16/.

The best turnips upon the estate have this year been grown
at Mullaghglass, averaging more than 18 tons per acre.

As the land of this farm, however, was formerly under spade-
tillage, it is not a fair example of the reclamation of waste
land, and it will therefore not be worth while to enter fully into
the details of its cultivation.

The following is an abstract of the amount spent during the
last two years in farm-labour upon this farm, and upon the one
which will be taken next in order and with fuller details.

Absteact of Fakm Laboue.

Three Months ending

Mullaghglass,
Nos. 1 to 10.

Tooreena,
Nos. 20 to 28.

St.

1875 31st December ..

1870 1st April ..

,, 1st July

159

, , 30th September . .

118

171

, , 30th December . .

121

1877 31st March .. ..

,, 30 Oi June

101

174

, , 29th September . .

140

160

, , 29th December . .

132

Total 27 months . .

862

1117

222

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galwag.

At Tooreena there are nine cottages : these are let, with 105
acres of land, in fields numbered 11 to 19 on the plan (Fig. 3),
the tenants paying an aggregate rental of 27/. The remaining
633 acres of the township were let with no house upon them for
20/., subsequently reduced to 15/. per annum. As the tenant did
not succeed in paying even the reduced rent, Mr. Henry took
this land in hand in 1874, and has been gradually reclaiming a
great portion of it. There are 373 acres of it (No. 28, extending
beyond the limits of the plan. Fig. 4) deep bog, resting on Silurian
rock ; this part is not an inviting subject for cultivation, and as
yet it has been only sheep-drained. It is intended, however,
to reclaim about 40 acres of it near the road, where the peat is
not so deep as elsewhere. The remaining 260 acres are moor-
land, mostly having a southern aspect. A gravelly subsoil of
drift formation is covered with a thin growth of peat, averaging
20 inches in depth. About 150 acres of this land was bearing
crops in 1877, and the rest of it is now being reclaimed. The
land lies on a low hill, some 600 feet, high, in a conspicuous
part of the property, where the eye is refreshed by the broad
patch of verdure standing up amid the sombre majesty of darker
and more lofty hills.

With the exception of a very small patch of two or three acres,
close to the new buildings, no part of this land shows any marks
of previous cultivation ; it is therefore an excellent example of
the cultivation of waste land ; and it will be worth while to give
a somewhat detailed account of the work that has been done. On
entering the farm from the high road, one may notice that the
gate-posts are none of them of wood ; in the absence of timber of
local growth rough boulder-stones are used as posts, sometimes
a single stone being sufficient, while in other cases three large
stones have been piled one on the other and clamped with iron.
Boulder stones varying from a hundredweight to a ton had
occasionally to be removed from the land, and it was as easy to
make them into cyclopean gate-posts as to break them up and
obtain other posts from a distance. The fences are formed of
ditch and bank, planted with alders and fuchsia, with some
ozier and thorn. The fuchsia grows freely from cuttings, and
stands the winter well ; there are hedges of it in Letterfrack that
have stood for thirty years ; where they have not been kept
down, they are 10 to 12 feet high. As a fence on level ground,
it is very inferior in efficacy to thorn, but it is quick growing,
and soon forms a sufficient and ornamental protection, combined
with the ditch and bank. The formation of fences and the
draining of the land were the first operations undertaken in 1874.
In that year, and the first nine months of 1875, 446/. 8s. 4d. was
expended in wages. The sum of 55/. 7s. 4d. was expended in

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

223-

1874 in building a small cottage and a stable for one pair of
horses and one pair of oxen ; since that time the cottage has
been enlarged, and some more accommodation has been pro-
vided for cattle ; the cost of this labour is included in the return
already given on page 220 of the wages paid since September
1875, viz., 1117/. 14s. Id. The total amount, therefore, ex-
pended up to December 1877 in wages upon this farm has
been 1619/. 10s. 3c?.

I will now take the fields in numerical order as they are
given in the plan of the farm (Fig. 4) : —

No. 20. Knoclcnagowan contains 20a. Or. 34 p. ; has been fenced, and is
now being drained. The fencing is done by contract at Is. 4<f. per Irish perch
of 7 yards ; the ditch is dug 4 feet deep, with a breadth of 6 feet at top and
4 feet at bottom. The bank is planted with alders, costing 15s. per 1000.
The drains that have been cut in this field do not pass through the bottom of
the peat ; the contractors receive 8s. per clamp of 8 x 8 x 8 feet for the turf.

No. 21. Stone Park, 26 a. 2 r. 3 p. — The name of this park — or field, as it
would be called in England — indicates its character ; a thin covering of turf
rests upon a gravelly subsoil containing a great number of stones of all sizes.
The subsoil being very open and porous, cultivation was at first tried without
draining, but the result has not been satisfactory. In January 1876, 8 acres
north of the road were ploughed by oxen, at a cost of 30s. per acre ; in May it
was worked with the American disc-harrows, and seeded with rape and a
cheap lot of Timothy, cocksfoot, and clover. The seeds failed, and the land
was ploughed again in 1877, after having been stone-drained 3 feet deep and
40 feet apart. The drains cost Qd. per Irish perch for digging ; the rest of the-
work is done by the day. A channel is roughly built with large stones at
the bottom of the drain, and the gravel is filled in over this. Two bullocks
were occupied one week drawing stones. The expenditure on the 8 acres

has been —

£ s. d.

8 acres ploughing, at 30s. 12 0 0

8 „ harrowing by disc-harrow, at 5s 2 0 0

Rape and grass seeds 600

320 perches drains dug, at 6cZ 8 0 0

Wages for carting stones, and filling in .. .. 6 0 0

Two oxen, one week 100

8 acres ploughed by oxen, at 20s 8 0 0

£43 0 0

An additional 3 acres have been recently ploughed.

No. 22. Knochlegaun, 45 a. 2 r. — In this field, in 1877, there were 20 acres-
grass north of the road, and 10 acres in oats below the road. Of the 20 acres in
grass, 10 acres to the west were drained in 1874, and the 10 to“the east a
year later. The following is a summary of their cropping : —

10 acres west. Drained and ploughed in .. .. 1874

Oats 1875

Oats 1876

Grass cut for hay 1877

10 acres east. Drained 45, 50 and 60 feet apart . . 1875

Oats 1876

Grass cut for hay ' 1877

224

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

A careful inspection of this grass early in June showed that all the finer
grasses had failed ; the only grass then growing was the Yorkshire fog
(Holcus lanatus), an inferior natural grass commonly found on poor moorland.
Many rushes were growing between the drains, which were evidently too far
apart. The crop of hay was 1 ton per acre.

The 10 acres below the road were ploughed in 1874 ; turf-drained in 1875,
40 feet apart and 3 feet deep; sown with oats in 1876 and again in 1877,
grass-seeds being sown with the second crop.

It will be noticed that the ploughing in this field preceded the draining ;
this can only be done with advantage where the ground is firm. The ploughing
cost 35s. per acre and the drains 52s. per acre for digging, and 26s. for sodding
and covering. The oats in 1876 were a had crop. The crop growing in June
1877 looked very thin and poor, partly from want of lime and partly from
■the drains being too far apart. The crop was cut green and made into hay.

No. 23. Telegraph Hill, 29 a. 3r. 28 p. — At the south end of this field there
are 4 acres above the tower road, which have recently been turf-drained 4 feet
deep and 21 feet apart; the digging by contract cost 11?. 16s. Sodding and
filling by day-work cost 5?. 8s., a total cost of 47. 6s. per acre.

Between these 4 acres and the upper road there are two pieces of 6 acres
each, cropped respectively with oats and turnips.

The 6 acres on the west were, in 1875, ploughed, harrowed, and drained, hut
received no lime or dung. In 1876 the land was ridged by hand, at a cost of
137. 10s., and top-dressed with nearly 5 cwt. per acre of a mixture of guano
and Lawes’s turnip manure ; 28 cwt. was applied to the 6 acres, at a cost of
8s. 6c7. per cwt. ; turnips were then sown ; the first thinning cost 4s. and the
second 3s. per acre. The crop, about 20,tons per acre, was carted off the land.
In 1877 the land was ploughed by bullocks at 10s. per acre, and harrowed.
Oats were sown and top-dressed with i cwt. nitrate of soda, and 14 cwt. Lawes’s
manure, at a cost of 20s. per acre. The seed sown was 12 stone to the statute
acre, and is believed not to have been sufficient for newly reclaimed land.
The crop looked thin in June ; it yielded 8 cwt. oats and 16 cwt. of straw per
■acre.

The 6 acres on the east have been cropped thus : —

1875. Ploughed, drained, and limed.

1876. Oats, top-dressed with 1 cwt. guano and 24 cwt. superphosphate, jdelded
a fair crop. The land was then ploughed and harrowed. In the spring of 1877
it received a half-dressing of dung, and was then ridged by hand-labour ;
this occupied 11 men for three weeks, and cost 137. 8s. 7c7. The dung was
carted to the side of the field, and carried out by girls in baskets upon
their hacks in the way that is usual in the district. 22 cwt. of fertilizers,
costing 8s. 6(7. per cwt., were applied as a tojvdressing over the piece, and it
was then sown with turnips. The crop was estimated by Mr. MacAllister at
fully 1 2 cwt. per acre.

Immediately above the upper road, 3 a. Ir. were manured in 1874 with
sea-sand, except a small strip which received a dressing of lime instead of
sand. Sand was delivered by contract at Is. per load, and 10 loads were put
to the acre. The lime did not show so well as the sand for the first year, but
has had a greater effect since.

The cropping has been, 1875 and 1876, oats ; 1877, turnips. Above the
turnips there are 6 acres in grass, 3 acres of which were sown in 1875, and
the other 3 acres' in 1876. The cultivation of the first sown portion has been
in —

1874. Drained 40 feet apart and ploughed by pair of horses.

1875. In June, limed with 150 bushels per acre. Harrowed with Howard’s
harrows, and then chopped with spades, 10 men working two days, at a cost
of 30s. Sown with rape and grass seeds covered by a chain harrow.

1876. Cut green for bullocks, a good crop ; part cut a second time.

225

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

I 1877. Top-dressed with 2 cwt. superphosphate and 1 cwt. nitrate of soda
per acre, at a cost of 25s. An inspection of this grass early in June showed
that the herbage was chiefly fog-grass with a little Italian ryegrass and a
very little Timothy. The cocksfoot appeared to have died out. The other
3 acres were treated in the same way, but a year later. The ryegrass here
was vigorous, and gave a good promise for hay.

Mr. MacAllister reports the yield from these two plots as 25 cwt. got
together in very good condition, and that it will be worth 4Z. a tou to Mr. Henry
for consumption by the riding and carriage-horses. The remaining 5 acres at
the top of this field have been drained and ploughed, but not yet cropped.

No. 24. Green Mount, 29 a. 0 r. 31 p. In the name of this field we may

I find an indication of the fact that in its original state it was one of the best
fields in the neighbourhood for natural grasses. Cattle that had been wintered
upon the black sedge in the valleys, were driven to such fields as this to feed
I upon the white sedge in the spring, and by the month of June they would be

j sufiflciently “ warmed,” i. e. strong enough to be driven to the fairs, or sold for

England or Leinster. A part of this field has been left in its primitive con-
dition. A neighbouring grazier, of much experience, estimated the best grass
upon it as worth 2s. 6d. per acre in its natural state. The herbage consists
chiefly of white and black sedge, with small heath, and a little grass. 8 acres
at the top of this field have been recently drained. In November 1876, the
land was ploughed by 2 oxen, a man, and 2 boys, at a cost of 30s. per acre.
They did an acre in three days, finishing the piece in four weeks. One boy
led the oxen, and the other was employed in clearing the ploughshare of the
long fibres of the peat.

The drains have been dug by contract, 24 feet apart. The following has

been the cost on the 8 acres : —

£ s. d.

Wages of man and 2 boys ploughing 5 4 0

„ „ „ American haiTowing .. .. 0 15 3

2 oxen, reckoned at If. each per week, probably cost less 8 0 0

Draining, digging 483 perches, at 6cf 12 1 6

„ digging 109 „ 8d 3 12 8

Sodding and levelling by day work, about 8 0 0

Total

£4 14s. 2d. per acre £37 13' 5

The next piece is 12 acres in grass ; the cost of its cultivation will be given
in full detail as a good example of the cost of laying down to grass without
taking an intermediate crop.

Oct., 1874. — ^Ploughed by horses, 1 acre in 3 days
May, 1875.— Drained 40 feet apart, sodded and Ic
June, 1875. — Limed 150 bushels per acre, at 4tf. ..

Per acre

Carting lime, at Is. 4cf. per load of 12 bushels ., 16s. 8cf.l
Drawing out lime on sledge, 2 days’ work for^
ox, at 2s. ; and boy, at Is. per diem ..

Spreading lime

Harrowing with zigzag harrows, 2 oxen and 1 boy
Seeds : — 7 lbs. Rape, 7s. ; 1 bush. Perennial Ryegrass, 6s. ;

1 bush. Italian Eyegrass, 5s.; 6 lbs. Cocksfoot, 6s.;

6 lbs. Timothy, 6s. ; 6 lbs. Mixed Clover, 6s.

July 15th, 1875. — Sowing broadcast, chain-harrowing.

Superphosphate, 3 cwt. at 7s. ; Guano, 1 cwt. at 14s. . . 35s.

: 35s.

50s.

|24s.2cf.

5s.

36s,

5s.

Total

£11 5s. 2d. ,

136 2

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

226 Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

On November 12th, 1875, 180 lambs had the run of these 12 acres, with
other land, till 17th March, 1876.

The first crop was cut for hay in July 1876, and was estimated at 30 cwt.
per statute acre.

The cost of making and carrying the hay was not ascertained. On 15th
April, 1877, it was top-dressed with nitrate of soda, 1 cwt. at 15s. ; super-
phosphate, 2 cwt. at 14s. ; broad-casting and harrowing. Is. ; total, 30s. per
acre, 18Z. The artificials were sown on a windy day, and were not mixed with
ashes, hence the lines of sowing were very clearly marked in June. The grass
was then rank immediately over the drains, but the crop as a whole was rather
poor, especially so on the level land at the top, where the peat attains a depth
of 3 feet. On the slope of the hill the peat is about half that depth, and the
grass there is much better. The crop yielded 20 cwt. of hay. It is intended
to put intermediate drains between those already put in ; this will add nearly
20s. per acre, and make the total cost of draining about 55s. I must also
take IL per acre for the cost of the buildings and fences over the 260 acres
of moorland on the farm.

The total cost for building, fencing, draining, breaking up with the plough,
and liming, will thus be 81. 5s. per acre, a very moderate outlay for fitting the
laud for cultivation. The subsequent work is the usual routine of the farm,
but some economy might be effected in it by sowing only rape and ryegrass
seed : the 18s. spent on the finer grasses and on clover is evidently thrown
away. The land will not be fitted for these until it has been longer under
cultivation. The artificials would be more efiScient if mixed with ashes or
sand before sowing, and it will probably be better to substitute some ammoniacal
manure for the nitrate of soda, which in such an extremely wet climate must
be dissolved and washed into the drains before it can be taken up by the
crop.

The only part of the farm that has been previously cultivated is a corner
of this field close to the farm buildings. A well and the foundation of an old
cabin remain in the middle of 4 acres of lapsed land, cultivated sixty years
ago. These 4 acres were ploughed and drained in 1874, cropped in 1875 with
•oats, in 1876 with turnips, and in 1877 with oats, seeded down, the yield was
8 cwt. of oats and 16 cwt. of straw per acre.

No. 25. The Lawn, 19 a. 1 r. 38 p. — The most interesting plot in this field is a
portion of the 4 acres in grass after oats in 1876 and potatoes in 1875. This
plot of grass is generally well up to the average in condition, but a strip next to
the road is of marked superiority, being quite the best grass on the farm. It
received a dressing of sea-weed and coral-sand, and is strong in ryegrass, with
a little cocksfoot, the only cocksfoot to be found on the farm in June 1877.
Timothy grass could not be found ; being a very small seed, it was probably
buried too deep by the chain-harrow. There is very little fog-grass, and no
rushes are to be found on the strip. The grass adjoining is not nearly so good
where no sand was put. Coral-sand is of the utmost value for reclaiming
bog-land, and it is a pity that it cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity near
the farm. Even deep peat, when it is near the shore, may be profitably
reclaimed by sand and sea-weed. An excellent illustration of this may be
observed very near the Kylemore property at the head of Bamaderg Bay.
A tenant proprietor has there some splendid gardens of potatoes growing on
tlie deej) peat, and only manured by frequent applications of sea-weed and
coral-sand. 12 acres of oats were grown in the Lawn in 1877, half of them
after oats yielded 8 cwt. of oats, 35 lbs. to the bushel, and 16 cwt. of straw
' per acre ; the other 6 acres were after potatoes, a poor crop, yielding only 4 cwt.
of oats, 30 lbs. to the bushel, and 10 cwt. of straw.

1 acre of potatoes in this field yielded 2 tons of sound and 6_cwt. of diseased
tubers.

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

227

No. 26. Lime Park, 25 a. — A part of this field is occupied by a plantation
by the side of the road. 3 acres were sown with rape and grass seeds in 1876,
and yielded about 25 cwt, of hay; 8 acres of this field were in oats in
1877 ; where a full dressing of lime had been applied, the crop was 8 cwt. of
oats and 16 cwt. of straw ; but only 5 cwt. of oats and 12 cwt. of straw were
obtained where less lime had been spread.

3 acres of potatoes were grown, and yielded 5 tons 10 cwt. of tubers of all
descriptions.

A crop of 14 tons of turnips per acre was obtained over 8 acres ; one-third
of these were fed off by sheep, and the rest were carted to the buildings.

The roots are all grown in lazy beds. The land, having previously been
drained, ploughed, and disc-harrowed, was trenched by hand. The men work
in gangs under a gaffer or foreman. He commonly has 11 men under him,
never 12, lest it should bring bad luck. The gaft'er, with a Scotch spade
shaj«d like a hay-cutting knife, marks out the lines of a series of trenches
18 inches wide ; one man in each trench lays the spits he digs out alternately
right and left of him, and thus forms the ridges between the trenches. The
lime was drawn by ox-sledge to the corner of the piece that was being trenched
by the gaffer or contractor, 2 of his men carried it thence on a hand-barrow to
the ridge, and it was spread with the same long-handled spades that are used
for the digging.

No. 27. East Field, 60 a. 0 r. 22 p. — This field has been fenced in, and 6 acres
of it have been ploughed up, but no draining, except making surface sheep-
drains, has been done. 3 acres have been cropped with turnips, and yielded
5 tons per acre.

No. 28, Bog Pasture, 373 a. 2 r. — It is intended that 40 acres shall be re-
claimed here, but the work has not yet commenced.

The following table gives a summary of the cropping of Tooreeua Farm in
1877

No.

Oats.

Grass.

Turnips.

Potatoes.

Ploughed

and

Drained.

Ploughed

Drained.

Total.

Stone Field . .

Knocklegaun

• .

Telegraph Hill . .

Green Mount

* ,

. ,

The Lawn . .

Lime Park . .

, ,

East Field ..

••

137

It thus appears that at the 30th December, 1877, 109 acres had
been cropped, 21 acres ploughed and drained, 4 acres drained
and 3 acres ploughed. The total expended in wages upon the
260 acres of moorland at Tooreena was 1619Z. lOx. 3d. The
greater part of this was of course spent on the 137 acres entered
in the table ; but as all the land has been fenced, and the
buildings put up will serve for the whole area, it may fairly be

Q 2

228

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galwag.

estimated that an average of IIZ. per acre has been spent in
wages upon the 109 acres that have been cropped. Unfor-
tunately I cannot obtain an exact return of the total amount
that has been expended on lime and artificial manures, for Mr.
MacAllister is not able to separate the latter from the general
expenditure on the Kylemore property. 1 may, however, safely
take the expense of liming at 5Us. per acre. The cost of the
artificial manures will vary considerably with the different crops :
for the two hay crops grown on Green Mount (pp. 225, 226),
it was 35s. and 29s. per acre respectively. I shall probably be
not far wrong if I assume that the cost of the artificial manures,
the materials used in the buildings and the plants purchased
for the hedges will in the aggregate be equal to the value of the
crops which have been hitherto grown. The produce of the
farm will be chiefly consumed at home. 250 hoggets were
brought from the mountain farms to Toorena on the 1st of
December, and were wintered on the 25 cwt. per acre of the
small turnips left on the ground, Avith the run of the new grasses.
The value of this feed is reckoned at 4s. per head. Eight
beasts are being fattened on turnips, hay, and oats in the straw,
cut into chaff, with 4 stone of Indian corn and oilcake ; it is
estimated that they will leave a profit of 6Z. each to the credit
of farm produce. The three working oxen employed at perma-
nent improvements, not charged to the crop, are estimated to
return a value of 12Z. each per annum for the turnips, hay,
chopped oats and grass which they consume. Six young
beasts are wintered, and will yield 2Z. each. One acre of pota-
toes was consumed on the farm by the ploughmen, the refuse
goes to the cattle, and the rest Avill be required for seed. Seven
tons of straw have been sent, and there Avill be 5 more to spare
for the stables at the castle, at 2s. 6cZ. per cwt. Five tons ^of
oats Avill be sold to the castle at 8s. per cwt.

The total amount to be credited to the farm is thus made up
to the sum of 216Z. : —

12 tons straw, at 2s. 6cZ. per cwt, 30

5 „ oats „ 8s. „ 40

Wintering 250 hoggetts at 4s 50

Fattening 8 beasts on turnips, &c. at 6Z 48

Wintering 6 young beasts, at 2Z. 12

Keep of 3 working oxen 36

£216

Thirty Kyloes were grazed on the unreclaimed portion of the
farm for six summer months. The wool sold is credited to
the mountain farms. The expense incurred for implements
has been trifling. The whole of the implements and utensils

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. 229

upon this farm were valued at 46Z. 4s. on the 1st of February,
1878, the principal items being: —

£ s.

2 ploughs (Gray’s), at 3Z. 10s. each .. ..7 0

2 harrows 5 0

1 cart and harness 10 0

2 sets plough harness 3 0

4 sledges 2 0

American disc-harrow 4 0

Hay cutter, Richmond and Chandler’s ..2 0
Turnip pulper, Nicholson’s 2 10

A three-horse threshing-machine from the Reading Iron
Works is moved from farm to farm as wanted.

I have now finished with the township of Toorena, and shall
not have occasion to describe in any such detail the work that has
been done on other parts of the property. East and West Letter-
gash are occupied by fifty tenants ; the best land lies, as usual,
along the shore, inland it is mountainous, and not capable of
much improvement. There is a prospect, however, of a great
improvement in another direction ; excellent schools have been
recently built, and under a competent master and mistress the
children show great aptitude for learning, and have acquired
habits of cleanliness and neatness that contrast most favourably
with those surrounding them.

At Lemnaheltia and Pollacappul great changes have been made
by the planting of trees and gardens, but, with the exception of
21Z. spent on sheep-drains on the mountain side, ornament has
been studied rather than economy in these improvements.

In considering how far the reclamations have been successful,
one may look at the result as it severally affects the proprietor,
the labourer, and the country generally. I cannot yet say
that any of the land, as it now stands, would command such an
increased rent as to insure a good return for the capital ex-
pended upon it. In such a climate, few men would venture to
take an arable farm, and there is much yet to be done before the
land can be considered fairly laid down for grazing. Upon the
home-farm of an estate, however, much may be done with
advantage that would not be profitable to a mere tenant. Con-
siderable quantities of hay, straw, and oats, are required, and
there are many advantages in obtaining these on the spot with-
out incurring the cost of long carriage. There can be little
doubt that, as a general improvement to the property, these
reclamations have a very considerable value. This is not the
place to discuss a question of the residential value of property ;
but any one who has been long amongst dark peat-bogs and
barren mountains, will understand how great an ornament in
such a landscape is a patch of cultivated land.

230 Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway.

The experiment is not yet sufficiently advanced to say
whether or not the reclamation of Tooreena will be a direct
pecuniary success. One great point in favour of the undertaking
is, that comparatively little money has been sunk in building.
Land-improvers not unfrequently begin by putting up buildings
at such a cost, that the chance of a profit is almost thrown away
at the first step. The advice of Solomon is sound in agricultural
matters still. “ Prepare thy work without, and make it fit for
thyself in the field ; and afterwards build thine house.” There
is every reason to anticipate great advantage from the system
recently adopted of putting the drains much nearer together than
they were at first. The benefit is not confined to getting rid of
the excess of moisture ; the land is much improved by the soil
thrown out from the bottom of the drain and spread over the
surface. Over much of the 'moorland the drains are dug through
2 feet of soil underlying the peat ; even where this subsoil is
pure sand, it will mechanically improve the soil, but in many
places it contains an appreciable quantity of clay that adds
much to its value. The drains that are being cut in Green
Mount, field No. 24, pass through 2 feet of peat, then through
6 inches of “ mother earth,” a light-brown sandy soil, and then
into a bluish-grey subsoil, of which a sample was taken and
subsequently analysed by Dr. Voelcker with the following
result : —

Genercd Composition of sample of Subsoil dried at 212° FaJtr.

Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 3 '15

Oxide of iron and alumina 12 • 62

Lime ‘16

Magnesia and alkalies '42

Insoluble siliceous matter (fine sand .and clay) . . 83 • 65

100-00

Dr. Voelcker remarks that the subsoil “ contains merely traces
of lime and, as far as I can judge, is poor stuff. It contains
some clay, but its bulk is made up of fine micaceous sand.
Nevertheless, it may be put with advantage upon peaty land,
for even pure sand, and much more a mixture of sand and clay,
will consolidate spongy peat land, and add mineral matters so
much wanted in peaty soils.” The quantity of soil to be spread
over the surface will now be twice as great as it was before.
Turf drains that were formed at Letterfrack nearly thirty years
ago are still sound and unbroken ; they cost nothing for
materials, while the labour can be obtained at a very low rate in
almost unlimited quantity. No part of the outlay is likely to
give a better pecuniary return than that which is spent in
wages, while one cannot but feel that the real benefit of the out-

Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galway. 231

lay does not stop there. No one can enter into an agricultural
problem without being forced to pay some attention to the social
questions connected with it. One cannot look at the work
without inquiring about the labourers. In approaching one of
the numerous gangs, the first glance may give one the idea that
they are a party of somewhat ragged boys. A nearer view will
show that they are men, but most of them under-sized. The
whole race of the Connemara district has been affected by the
famines of the past and the meagre diet of the present time. In
the matter of clothing, however, things may look worse than
they really are, for while darning and patching seem almost
unknown, economy develops itself in another direction. In wet
weather it is customary to put on the most weather-tight gar-
ments first, while the most ragged ones only go on as a further
protection.

Most of these men occupy a bit of land, which they prepare
for potatoes early in the spring. As soon as their own work is
done, early in April, they come to work at the reclamations, and
it is a great boon to them to get work near home, although the
wages are much lower than they might earn in England. Boys
are taken on to work at 5s. and 6s., while ordinary labourers
earn 9s., and the gaffers or foremen 12s. to 15s. per week.
Girls earn 9rf. per diem, and are rapidly learning to hoe turnips,
a lighter work than the carrying of turf and manure which
usually falls to their lot. Saints’-days and fairs are kept as
holidays, and sadly interfere with work and wages. In spite of
these interruptions, the men are gradually acquiring habits of
steadier labour than they have been used to, and are learning to
appreciate the value of methodical work. Some of them have
already begun to drain their own land, and in other ways to
follow the example of improved tillage.

The number of men that apply for work is a sufficient proof
that the wages are not too low for the district. The labour-book
shows that in May 1877 the average number of day labourers
at Kylemore was 240, including many carpenters and brick-
layers, who, with the men and boys attending on them, average
125. per week, and gardeners averaging 9s. per week.

It may be asked. Would it not be better for the men to leave
the district altogether, and live where their labour can be more
profitably employed, either in cultivating for themselves a more
fruitful soil, or in earning higher wages ? No doubt it would
be best for all those who are unencumbered, but some have old
folks dependent on them, and with all, the love of home is very
strong. If it were obviously best, they cannot be forced away
against their will ; and the only question that remains for them
is, is it better to work for themselves or to earn wages from

232 Reclamation of Bog and Moorland in Galicay.

another? There is a vast amount of waste in the hand-tillage
of the Irish cotter ; the same labour applied methodically on a
farm where horses or oxen are employed will add much more to
the wealth of the country. The labourer will himself live much
better on 85. or 9s. a week, than on the produce of his bit of
hand-tilled land. The great and perhaps sole advantage of the
cotter-system is that something is laid by against old age. The
man who has reclaimed a bit of land, and is allowed by his
landlord to reap the full benefit of his labour, will, in his old
age, continue to pay a rent of 2s. ^d. or 5s. for land that he has
made worth 20s. or more an acre. The labourers at Kylemore
do not sacrifice their home advantages by working for hire
during a great part of the year. Home is home, be it ever so
homely, and the love of home is nowhere stronger than among
the pure Celts of Connemara : a gentle, honest, childlike race,
in a very low state of civilisation, from which they can only
be raised by cautious steps. An amusing illustration of this
occurred in the last cottage on the estate that was shared by man
and beast. For some years a cattle-shed, built close to the
cottage, remained unoccupied, because it would break the old
man’s heart to turn the cows out of the living-room. When the
old man died, the young people consented to put the cattle in
the shed and keep the room for human beings only.

The allotment of waste land among our labouring classes has
been advocated from time to time by well-meaning men, who
hope that by spade-husbandry the labourer will raise himself in
the social scale. No encouragement can be derived for such
a scheme from the experience of Kylemore. The lesson to be
learned here is that any such attempt can only result in the
waste of labour and the degradation of the man. The Irish
cotter has long occupied land at a low rent, with a tenure in
most cases virtually, though not legally, secure. His position is
much lower physically, morally, and socially, than that of any
class of men earning day-wages in the British Islands. From a
social point of view, the chief merit of these works of reclamation
is that they afford the poor cotter an opportunity to raise himself
gradually from that miserable state of living from hand to mouth
in which he has so long been sunk. A bad crop of potatoes
brings want and suffering always in its wake, and a single failure
would even now bring back famine to the district. Prevention
is far better than the cure of such calamities. While there is
no encouragement for those who would settle our now unculti-
vated land with peasant proprietors, there is much here that
may be suggestive to those who own similar tracts of land, and
wish to recognise the responsibilities as well as the privileges
which the ownership of property entails.

( 233 )

IX. — Report on the Health of Animals of the Farm in 1877.

By W. Duguid, F.R.C.V.S.

Gre.\T anxiety was caused among the stockowners of this
country during the earlier months of the past year by the
importation of cattle affected with Rinderpest, and the spread
of this plague not only within but beyond the metropolitan area,
where it first appeared. On the 16th of January, 39 animals
arrived from Hamburg on board ‘ The Castor,’ and were landed
at Deptford Foreign Cattle Market. Previous to shipment they
had been examined on the 12th by the Government Inspector at
Hamburg, who gave a certificate stating that they were in per-
fect health, when some of them must have been almost dying of
the disease. One actually died on the passage, and twenty-seven
more died before they could be slaughtered.

The Veterinary Department of the Privy Council were aware
of the existence of rinderpest in Germany, and had warned the
whole of the Inspectors at the ports previous to the arrival of
‘ The Castor ’ with her diseased cargo.

The Inspector at Deptford at once detected the condition of
the plague-stricken animals, and every precaution was taken to
prevent any spread of the virus, by isolation and the free use of
disinfectants, while the process of slaughter was being carried
out. No difficulty was experienced in dealing with the car-
casses of these animals at Deptford, where special facilities for
the purpose exist. After slaughter they were placed in iron
digesters and subjected to the action of steam at a temperature
of 400°, and there was every reason to believe that, as had been
the case in 1872, the disease would not extend beyond the con-
fines of the place where these cattle had been landed. It was
supposed that the slaughter of plague-stricken animals and the
destruction of their carcasses at the port of landing would be suf-
ficient to prevent the further spread of this bovine pest ; but it
now appears that no authority exists to prevent the virus being
carried by the passengers or crew of the vessel in which the
diseased animals have been carried ; and in the case of ‘ The
Castor,’ she landed a general cargo at the wharf belonging to
her owners before any means of disinfecting the vessel could be
adopted.

On the 29th of January a disease of a suspicious nature was
discovered in a dairy at Limehouse, and on the 31st, when
Professor Brown visited the premises, there was no doubt that
the animals were affected with cattle-plague. The whole were
at once destroyed, and an order was issued by the Government
prohibiting the removal of cattle and sheep from the metropolis.

234 Report on the Health of Animals of the Farm in 1877.

The expediency of this order was soon apparent, for even then
the contagion had obtained considerable hold, as was proved by
the fact that during the next six days, by the 6th of February,
no less than seven dairies in the Limehouse district had been
declared infected.

Orders were then issued to prohibit all sales in the lairs and
markets of the metropolis, unless by special licence, and it was
also enacted that all animals exposed for sale should be marked
for immediate slaughter, so that, in the case of any evasion of
the law, such animals could be readily recognised. Notwith-
standing these prompt measures, the disease still continued to
spread, and by the 20th of February several more outbreaks
were reported in the metropolis, and two had occurred about a
mile and a half beyond. While this extension in the East of
London was taking place, much fresh alarm was created by the
appearance of the plague in Hull, on the 18th of February.
This outbreak was not, as at first supposed, due to contagion
carried from London, and its source could not in the first in-
stance be traced. As the result of an inquiry made by the local
authority regarding the health of stock in Hull, it was found
that one dairyman had disposed of the whole of his stock, and
refused to assign any reason for so doing, merely stating that he
had sold them to a butcher. The inference to be drawn from this
is that they were diseased ; and it seems very probable that they
were affected with cattle-plague. Further inquiry elicited the
following facts ; — On the 12th and 14th of January two cargoes
of animals were landed at Hull from the same sheds in Ham-
burg where the Deptford cargo had been housed. Soon after the
arrival of one of these cargoes, one animal presented peculiar
symptoms, from the description of which, and the post-mortem
appearances reported by the Inspector, Professor Brown came to
the conclusion that the animal was suffering from cattle-plague ;
and we have thus evidence of the importation of the plague into
London and Hull from the same infected sheds in Hamburg, in
January. The disease spread from this original centre in Hull
to several other dairies, and on the 8th of March an outbreak
was discovered on a farm at Beelsby, near Grimsby, in Lincoln-
shire. The inquiry which was instituted did not result in the
source of the infection being traced ; but it can scarcely be
doubted that the poison was conveyed, in some indirect way,
by the agency of people or things that had been in contact with
diseased animals in Hull.

The continued extension of the disease in and around London
led to the Privy Council, at the suggestion of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society, taking charge of the Metropolitan Police-district.
The order under which the functions of the local authorities in

Report on the Health of Animals of the Farm in 1877. 235

regard to cattle-plague were assumed by the Privy Council came
in force on April 16th, and at that time fresh outbreaks were
almost of daily occurrence. Energetic measures were at once
adopted, and proved so successful that from May 1st to May 15th
no cases were reported. On the latter date a small outbreak
took place in Whitechapel, and this was considered for some
time the last that would be heard of cattle-plague in this country,
until we had some fresh importation. Such, however, was not
the case; and another outbreak occurred in the Bethnal Green
district on the 14th of July. In this, as in many of the other
cases, no direct communication with diseased animals could be
traced : but there can be no doubt that in some unexplained
way the poison had been preserved, for the most rigid inquiry
failed to elicit any evidence of the re-introduction of the virus
from abroad.

By the beginning of July the restrictions on the movement of
cattle and the holding of markets which had been made by
various local authorities had been removed. The re-appearance
of the disease in the metropolis, after two months’ cessation,
showed the necessity for continuing the regulations in London
for some time longer, and they were not entirely removed until
the beginning of December, although no further case of rinder-
pest occurred.

The different outbreaks may be stated as follows : — There
were altogether 47 outbreaks in England, among 2000 head of
cattle ; of which 835 were slaughtered healthy, the remainder
either died from the disease or were slaughtered, and their
carcasses were either destroyed or buried deeply and covered
with lime.

In the several counties the outbreaks were as follows : —

In Essex, 6. Among 23 cattle, of which 15 were slaughtered
healthy, 8 were attacked with the disease, of which 7 were
killed and 1 died.

In Lincolnshire one outbreak occurred. Among 24 cattle, of
which 18 were healthy and 6 diseased, all were at once
slaughtered.

In Middlesex (ex-metropolis) there were 5 outbreaks. Among
425 animals, of which 17 died from the disease, 86 diseased
and 322 healthy animals were killed.

In York (East Riding), there were 7 outbreaks. Among 65
cattle ; 2 died from the disease ; 17 diseased and 46 healthy
were killed.

In the metropolis the outbreaks, including the one on the
14th of July, were 28. Among 563 animals, of which 434 were
slaughtered healthy, 1 escaped, 128 were attacked, of which
113 were killed and 15 died.

236 Report on the Health of Animals of the Farm in 1877.

A Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed
to take evidence and inquire into the question of cattle-plague
and importation of live-stock. Their Report and recommenda-
tions on the subject were laid before Parliament by the end of
last Session, and legislation on the question is now in progress.

This visitation of rinderpest proves that even the slaughter
of plague-stricken animals at the port of landing is not sufficient
to prevent the spread of the virus ; so powerful is this poison in
infective properties, that the smallest quantity carried by people
or things that have been in contact with diseased animals is
capable of spreading the malady ; and therefore unless the vessel,
cargo, and crew are immediately taken charge of and dealt with
in such a manner as to insure our safety, we may, while im-
portation of live-stock is allowed under existing regulations,
at any time have another visitation of this dire scourge.

Blood-poisoning. — Only two outbreaks of this nature came
under my observation during the past year. The first of these
occurred in March on a farm near Chelmsford, where some
twenty animals were attacked with splenic apoplexy in a few
days. It was at first rumoured that the disease was cattle-
plague, which at that time existed in Essex, but the history of
the outbreak, the symptoms of the disease, its rapid course (some
animals dying in a few hours), and the post-mortem appearances,
clearly proved the nature of the disease. The high feeding of
the animals, producing a plethoric condition, had no doubt
much to do with the origin of the disease. A change in the
mode of feeding arrested the further progress of the malady,
which would certainly not have been the case had the virus of
cattle-plague been introduced on the premises.

In August an outbreak of splenic apoplexy took place among
a herd of dairy stock on a farm near Yeovil, in Somersetshire.
The pastures lay along the valley of the Yeo, and one meadow
where the disease first appeared was opposite the outflow of the
sewage of Yeovil into the river. The meadows had been more
or less flooded during the winter and spring, and no doubt this
excessive moisture, under the influence of the warm weather,
had produced a rapid vegetation, with a considerable quantity
of decaying vegetable matter on the surface of the soil.

Owing to a number of animals being suddenly taken ill, it
was at first supposed that they were poisoned by drinking the
sewage-contaminated water of the river. There was, however,
no evidence that any of them had done so, and, in addition,
they had access to the river above the sewage outfall. The con-
dition of the meadow and the herbage were such as have fre-
quently been described where cases of blood-poisoning have
occurred, and moreover one animal died from the disease in a

Report on the Health of Animals of the Farm in 1877. 237

meadow on the opposite side of the river above the point of
any sewage contamination.

The removal of the cows from these pastures, and the substi-
tution of a small quantity of good sound hay as part of their
food, arrested the further progress of the malady.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease. — Towards the close of 1876 fears
were entertained that after the decline of this disease to a few
centres it would again extend among young stock, which pos-
sessed no immunity by passing through it in the wide-spread
epizootic of 1874-5.

A few cases were detected in the Metropolitan Cattle Market,
which had for some time been free. The restrictions, however,
imposed on the movements of stock, and the closing for a time
of some of the markets in several counties owing to the existence
of cattle-plague in the country, limited very materially the
spread of this disease. Since the withdrawal of the cattle-
plague regulations, during the past three or four months, several
outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease have been reported, but in
most cases only a few animals have been affected, and the disease
has been of a mild type. Some counties that have formerly
suffered severely from this scourge are now free, and in others
the number of animals affected during the last quarter of the
past year has been very small.

In Newcastle, where the disease had not been seen since
March, an outbreak occurred in four salesmen’s lairs in the
week ending December 22nd, among Scotch and Irish beasts
kept over from the previous week’s market.

Fleur o-pneumonia. — The extension to Ireland of the regula-
tions relating to this disease, has, according to competent autho-
rities, produced a very marked effect in limiting its spread.
In Norfolk little more than half the number of cases have been
reported in 1877 as compared with the previous year, and this
has been attributed chiefly to the slaughter of and compensation
for diseased animals in Ireland.

In addition to this, we must not fail to recognise the restric-
tions placed on the movement of cattle and the closing of some
fairs for a time, while rinderpest existed, as a means of prevent-
ing the spread of pleuro-pneumonia, as well as other contagious
diseases. Among dairy-stock in the metropolis this malady
has been rather prevalent for the past three or four months. At
the time I wished to find infected sheds in which to place in-
oculated animals, as a test of the value of this measure as a pre-
ventive, more than twenty places, all within the metropolitan
area, were available for the purpose as infected premises. One
great difficulty in dealing with this disease is due to the pro-
longed period of incubation in which the poison remains in a

238 Report of the Field and Feeding Experiments

latent form, and animals that have cohabited with the diseased
are not suspected when they are even capable of spreading the
contagion.

In carrying out the regulations of the Contagious Diseases
(Animals) Act relating to pleuro-pneumonia, in many cases
the local authorities are satisfied with the slaughter of the
actually diseased animals, and the disinfection of the stalls
where they stood. The premises are declared an infected place,
but no further notice is taken of the apparently healthy animals
until another case is reported. A careful examination of the
whole of the stock would often lead to the detection of the dis-
ease in some animals at a very early stage, and their separa-
tion from the rest of the herd would in many cases prevent the
further spread of the virus.

Sheep-scab has prevailed to a considerable extent in many
parts of the country, more particularly in Wales and York-
shire ; during the last quarter of the year no less than 1060
cases were reported in the East and some 770 in the North
Riding.

In Somerset, also, there have been 640 cases recently ; while
in some other counties where sheep-farming is carried on
extensively this malady is almost if not quite extinct.

X. — Report of the Field and Feeding Experiments conducted at
Woburn, on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
during the year 1877. (Presented to the Chemical Committee,
December 11, 1877.)

The Experiments on the Continuous Growth op Wheat.

Stack-yard Field. — The wheat crop of 1876, grown by the late
tenant, yielded per acre —

25^ bushels dressed corn.

20J cwts. straw.

The seed of the first experimental crop was sown during the
first week of November (1876). The description selected was
Browick, being that usually grown in the neighbourhood. The
dung and the mineral manures were applied before the seed
was sown. The salts of ammonia and nitrate of soda were top-
dressed in the spring.

The produce obtained is given in the following table : —

conducted at Woburn during 1877.

239

Produce of Wheat; First Seasok, 1877.

Plots.

Masubks per Acre.

Produce pee Acre.

Dressed Corn.

Straw, &c.

Quantity.

Weight,

per

Bushel.

Bushels.

lbs.

Cwts.

22\

61-8

20|

i 34^

60-9

37i

60-6

341

20^

61-4

333

GO-9

. 32

60-3

36i

20i

61-1

19|

> 43i

G2-1

48i

39J

61-2

42|

60-0 '

18i

181

GO-4

. 20|

9 )

UnmaQured

200 lbs. Ammonia-salts, alone (applied in

the Spring) . !

275 lbs. Nitrate Soda (applied in the Spring)
200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, cwts. Super-
phosphate of Lime I

200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, SJewts. Super-
phosphate of Lime, and 200 lbs. Am-
monia-salts (in Spring) ,

200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, 3§ cwts. Super- 1
phosphate of Lime, and 275 lbs. Nitrate I

Soda (in Spring)

Unmanured

200 lbs. Stdph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, 3J cwts. Super-
phosphate of Lime, and 400 lbs. Am-
monia-salts (in Spring) ,

200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs, Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, 3J cwts. Super-
phosphate of Lime, and 550 lbs. Nitrate

Soda (in Spring)

Farmyard-manure ; estimated to contain
Nitrogen = 100 lbs. Ammonia (not spe-
cially made, as there was not time to
make it, 6 tons of well turned-over manure

taken from the yard)

Farmyard-manure; estimated to contain.

manure taken from tlie yard) .

The more noticeable features of the results are as follows : —
There was an entire absence of any beneficial effects from
the application of the farmyard-dung, or from that of mineral
manures without nitrogen. A given amount of nitrogen, applied
as ammonia salts, was more effective than the same amount
applied as nitrate of soda. This was the case whether they were
used alone, in the same quantity in conjunction with mineral
manures, or in double quantity with the same mineral manures.
The superiority of the ammonia-salts over the nitrate showed

240

Report of the Field and Feeding Experiments

itself, in each case, in the yield of grain per acre, in the weight
per bushel of the grain, and in the quantity of straw ; and it was
quite evident to the eye on inspection of the crop just before
harvest. The corn was riper, and the straw was of a better
colour, with the ammonia-salts than with the nitrate.

The absence of all effect from the farmyard-manure is very
remarkable. Owing to the long continuance of wet weather
during the winter (1876-7), there may have been a considerable
loss of the soluble nitrogen of the manure by drainage through
such a porous soil ; but this supposition does not seem to afford
a sufficient explanation of the entire want of action.

The absence of all effect from mineral manures, used alone,
must be taken to show that the previous wheat crop had gathered
up all the available nitrogen from the soil, excepting so much as
the unmanured crop could make use of. On the other hand, the
large increase of produce, amounting to from 10 to 13 bushels of
corn, and from 14 to 17 cwts. of straw, per acre, by the appli-
cation of ammonia-salts or nitrate of soda alone, shows that the
soil contained, in an available condition, sufficient of all the
necessary mineral constituents for the crop.

When, in conjunction with mineral manures, nitrogen = 50 lbs.
of ammonia per acre was applied, either as ammonia-salts or as
nitrate of soda, more increase of produce was obtained for a
given amount of nitrogen in the manure, than when nitrogen
= 100 lbs. of ammonia per acre was so applied. It thus appears
that the larger amount of soluble nitrogen was more than could
be turned to account by the growing crop in the particular soil
and season. Yet, nitrogen=100 lbs., and 200 lbs. ammonia
per acre, when applied as dung, was without effect.

The Expeeiments on the Continuous Growth
OF Barley.

Stack-yard Field. — The experimental barley, like the experi-
mental wheat, was grown after the wheat crop of 1876, taken by
the previous tenant, as already referred to. The manures
applied for the barley were the same as those for the wheat.
For the wheat the dung was taken from the yard ; for one plot
in quantity estimated to contain nitrogen corresponding to
lOO lbs., and for the other to 200 lbs. ammonia per acre. For
the barley, however, the dung was made in the experimental
boxes, at Crawley Mill Farm, and, both food and litter being
weighed, the composition of the dung applied could be estimated
with greater accuracy.

The following table shows the produce obtained : —

conducted at Woburn during 1877.

241

Produce of Barley. First Season, 1877.

riola.

SIaxuues pee Acre.

9 {

11 (

Unmanured

200 lbs. Ammonia-salts

275 lbs. Nitrate Soda

200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, 3^ cwts. Super-
phosphate of Lime

200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, 3} cwts. Super-
phosphate of Lime, and 200 lbs. Am-
monia-salts

200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,']
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, 3J cwts. Super-
phosphate of Lime, and 275 lbs. Nitrate

Soda

Un manured

200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, 31 cwts. Super-
phosphate of Lime, and lOO lbs. Am-
monia-salts

200 lbs. Sulph. Potass, 100 lbs. Sulph. Soda,
100 lbs. Sulph. Magnesia, 31 cwts. Super-
phosphate of Lime, and 550 lbs. Nitrate

Soda

Farmyard-manure ; estimated to contain.
Nitrogen = 100 lbs. Ammonia; made
from 376 lbs. Cotton-cake, 940 lbs. maize-
meal, 12,857 lbs. Mangolds, 3215 lbs.
Wheat-straw Chaff, as food ; and 31G4
lbs. Barley-straw, as litter. Weight,

5 tons, 101 j

Farmyard-manure ; estimated to contain
Nitrogen = 200 lbs. Ammonia ; made]
from 752 lbs. Cotton-cake, 1880 Ibs.^
Maize-meal, 25,714 lbs. Mangolds, G430
11)3. Wheat-straw Chaff, as food ; and
G328 lbs. Barley-straw, as litter. Weight,
11 tons 1 cwt

Produce per Acre.

Dressed Corn. *

Straw, &c.

Quantity.

Weight

per

Bushel.

Bushels.

lbs.

Cwts.

22J

54-4

18|

351

54-9

23^

^ 54-7

19J

■ 183

53-9

38J

55-3

331

54-7

223

54-6

52J

56-1

35i

493

55-0

323

, 181

55-6

111

26J

54-2

15J

There is a very close resemblance *bet\veen the effects of the
<lifferent manures on the barley and on the wheat. Mineral
manures alone gave no increase of crop ; whilst ammonia-salts
alone, or nitrate of soda alone, gave a very considerable increase.
xVs with the wheat, the ammonia-salts produced more effect than
the nitrate, whether used alone or in conjunction with mineral
manures ; and whether (with mineral manures) in quantity cor-
VOL. XIV. — S. S. B

242 Report of the Field and Feeding Experiments

responding to 50 lbs., or to 100 lbs. ammonia per acre. It is
especially remarkable that, when these nitrogenous manures
were used alone, that is without mineral manure, the ammonia-
salts gave bushels more barley than the nitrate of soda con-
taining the same amount of nitrogen. Nitrate of soda is more
subject to loss by drainage than are ammonia-salts ; and the
result may be partly due to more washing out in its case ; but
probably in a greater degree to the nitrate having been sown
later than the ammonia-salts, and possibly unfavourably late for
the soil and season, compared with the sowing of the ammonia-
salts.

The dung for the barley not having been applied until the
spring, it was not subject to the same risk of washing out, and
loss by the winter rains, as that for the wheat. Still, the dung
produced no effect on the barley when applied in quantity esti-
mated to contain nitrogen corresponding to 100 lbs. of ammonia
per acre ; the produce being only 18 bushels; whereas, ammonia-
salts (with minerals), in quantity equal to 100 lbs. of ammonia,
gave 52^ bushels ; or nearly three times as much. Lastly, dung
containing nitrogen corresponding to 200 lbs. of ammonia per
acre gave only 26^ bushels of barley.

Thus, the results of the first year’s experiments, on this light
and porous soil, have shown, with both wheat and barley, very
striking effects of nitrogen applied in the soluble condition of
ammonia-salts or nitrate of soda.

The Experiments on Rotation.

Stack-gard Rotation No. 1 ; four acres as under.

1877 Seeds.

1878 Wheat.

1879 Roots.

1880 Barley.

The four acres of clover and ryegrass have been fed-off by
sheep during the summer, and the land is now sown with wheat.
On one acre 728 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake have been con-
sumed ; on a second acre the same quantity of maize meal ; and
the third and fourth acres were separately eaten off without any
purchased food. On one of these, artificial manure, supplying
nitrogen and other constituents, equal to those estimated to be
contained in the manure from the 728 lbs. of consumed cotton-
cake, and on the other equal to those in the manure from the
728 lbs. of consumed maize-meal, will be applied for the wheat
in the spring. The crop of seeds being better on one side of
the land than on the other, the sheep having no purchased food

conducted at Woburn during 1877.

243

were put on that part. The periods during which the sheep
were kept upon the land were from May 10 until nearly the
end of July, and from the latter end of August until the middle
of October.

The following table shows the number of sheep fed on each
acre, the quantity of purchased food consumed (if any), the
number of weeks the animals were kept on the land, and the
total increase in live-weight yielded.

Seeds, 1877.

Increase

Plots.

Live-

weight.

lbs.

] f

Fed-oif by 10 Sheep, with 728 lbs. Cotton-cake ; on the laud i

303

15 weeks /

2 i

Fe<l-off bv 10 Sheep, with 728 lbs. Maize-meal; on the land)

275

15 weeks f

Fed-olf by 10 Sheep, without other food ; on the land ll^^l
weeks /

211

Fed-off by 10 Sheep, without other food ; on the laud 13J I
weeks /

209J

Deducting the amount of increase in live-weight obtained
without purchased food from that obtained with it, the amount
of increase so reckoned as due to the cotton-cake is 91;^ lbs., and
that to the maize-meal 63^ lbs. Both with the oxen in the
boxes and here with the sheep in the field a given weight of
cotton-cake has yielded more increase than an equal weight of
maize-meal. Owing, however, to the small number of oxen and
somewhat small number of sheep under experiment, the results
must not be taken as conclusive on the point. It is proposed
to carry out experiments with a much larger number of animals
next year.

Rotation No. 2 ; four acres as under.

1877 Roots.

1878 Barley.

1879 Seeds. ;

1880 Wheat.

Mangolds were sown on these four acres, which were respec-
tively manured as under : — one acre with dung made from a
given quantity of straw as litter, and of mangolds and wheat
straw-chaff as food, with 1000 lbs. cotton-cake consumed in
addition ; the second acre with dung from the same amount of
litter, and of mangolds and wheat-straw chaff as food, with

R 2

244

Report of the Field and Feeding Experiments

1000 lbs. maize-meal in addition ; the third and fourth acres
each with dung from the same amount of litter, and of mangolds
and wheat-straw chaff as food, without any purchased food in
addition ; but one of them received artificial manure, supplying
two-thirds as much nitrogen and as much of the other con-
stituents as were estimated to be contained in the manure from
the 1000 lbs. of cotton-cake ; and the other received artificial
manure supplying the whole of the nitrogen, and other con-
stituents, estimated to be contained in the manure from the
1000 lbs. maize-meal.

The amounts of produce obtained are recorded in the following
table : —

Mangolds, 1877.

Plots.

2 . !

3i !

PEODncE PEU Acre.

Roots. Leaves.

With Dung, made from 3230 lbs. Straw, as litter;
5000 lbs. Mangolds, 1250 lbs. Wheat-straw Chafif,

and 1000 lbs. Cotton-cake

With Dung, made from 3230 lbs. Straw, as litter ;
5000 lbs. Mangolds, 1250 lbs. Wheat-straw Chaff,

and 1000 lbs. Maize-meal

With Dung, made from 3230 lbs. Straw, as litter
5U00 lbs. Mangolds, 1250 lbs. Wheat-straw Chaff;
and Artificial Manure, containing two-thirds as
much Nitrogen, and the other constituents, of the!
Manure from 1000 lbs. Cotton-cake ; namely,
248 lbs. Nitrate Soda, 100 lbs. Bone-ash (made
into Superphosphate), 62J lbs. Sulphate Potass,

and 65 lbs. Sulphate Magnesia ^

With Dung, made from 3230 lbs. Straw, as litter ;]
5000 lbs. Mangolds, 1250 lbs. Wheat-straw Chaff;
and Artificial Manure, containing as much Nitro-
gen, and other constituents, as the Manure from)
1000 lbs. Maize-meal ; namely, 80 lbs. Nitrate
Soda, 16J lbs. Bone-ash (made into Superphos-
phate), 7 lbs. Sulphate Potass, and 11 lbs. Sulphate
Magnesia

tons. cwts.
3 17

2 li
7

3 16J

tons. cwts.
2 15

1 1C3

3 81

2 lU

As compared with ordinary agricultural crops, these weights
are but small. The quantity of dung applied was, however, only
from 3 to 4 tons per acre ; whereas in ordinary farming 20 or
even 30 tons are often applied for this crop. The following
considerations will show why this could not be done in these
experiments. The object of the Woburn Rotation experiments
is to measure the effects, throughout the course, of the manure
produced by the consumption of a given quantity of one cattle-
food, against those of the manure from an equal quantity of
another food ; and at the same time to compare these with

conducted at VVohurn daring 1877.

245

artificial manures estimated to supply the same amounts of the
most important constituents as the manure from those foods.
The arrangements adopted to attain this object involve the
application of the following quantities of manure during the
rotation of four years. On the cotton-cake acre, besides
the manure from the litter, mangolds, and wheat-straw chaff,
used in making the dung, that from 1728 lbs. of decorticated
cotton-cake will be applied ; 1000 lbs. of the cake having been
already consumed in the production of the dung for the man-
golds, 728 lbs. more will be consumed with the seed crop in
1879. And, as the mangolds will be consumed on the land
with the addition of straw-chaff, and the seeds also will be con-
sumed on the land, only the increase in live-weight, and the crops
of barley and wheat-grain will be carried off for all this manure
put on. Then the plot which is to receive, in artificial manure,
the same amount of nitrogen as that estimated to be contained
in the manure from the 1728 lbs. of cotton-cake, will have
applied to it (besides the manure from the litter, and from the
mangolds and wheat straw-chaff) 642 lbs. of nitrate of soda,
which will be distributed as follows : — 248 lbs. to the mangolds,
124 lbs. to the barley, and 270 lbs. to the wheat ; whilst, as in
the case of the cotton-cake manure, only the increase in live-
weight, and the barley, and the wheat, will be exported. It
will be obvious that if, with a view to get a heavy root-crop,
much more manure had been applied, it would have been at
the risk of having over-luxuriant and laid corn crops. Indeed,
from the experience already gained with the continuous barley
and wheat crops in the same field, the probability is that the
manures applied will prove sufficient for maximum corn crops.

Thus, eight of the sixteen acres allotted to rotation have
already been brought under experiment, and the remaining eight
will be so next year. Twelve of the sixteen will then be under
wheat, barley, and mangolds, growing under the influence of
cake-dung, or maize-dung, or dung made without purchased food,
but with equivalent artificial manure being applied instead.
The remaining four acres will be in seeds, commencing without
manure, but to be treated exactly as the four of Rotation No. 1.

For the second crop of the continous wheat experiments the
seed was sown at the beginning of November (1877). The
manure for the dunged plots was made in the boxes applied to
the land, and ploughed in. The mineral manures have also
already been applied ; but the ammonia-salts and the nitrate of
soda will, as before, be top-dressed in the spring.

Both the continuous wheat and the continuous barley plots
were kept thoroughly clean during the past season.

246 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1877.

On the four acres of Rotation No. 2, sown with mangolds last
spring, the growth of weeds was so great before the mangolds
were well up, that the plant was retarded in its early stages.
The season, too, was generally unfavourable for roots. But, if
sufficiently highly manured, the crop of mangolds in Stack-yard
field would, no doubt, have been equal to any in the neighbour-
hood in the same season. With the quantities of manure
actually applied, much larger crops than those grown could
hardly have been expected under the circumstances mentioned.

Crawley Hill Farm was given up by the late tenant in an
exceedingly foul condition, and great expense has been incurred
in endeavouring to clean it ; but, owing to the very unfavour-
able character of the past summer, the efforts made have been
only partially successful.

A. VOELCKER.

J. B. Lawes.

XI. — Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1877.

By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S.

In the Annual Report for 1876 I stated that, during the period
of December 1875 to December 1876, an unusually large number
of oilcakes were sent to the Laboratory for examination, no less
than 206 samples having been received during that period. In
my present Report, I have to mention that only 136 samples
of oilcakes were sent for analysis in the past season. This dimi-
nution in the number of cakes sent for examination finds a ready
explanation in the fact that spring food was abundant and the
hay crop good, and that there was less demand for purchased
food in the past season than in the preceding one.

Grossly adulterated cakes, at present, are not sold so frequently
as they were at one time, and little difficulty is experienced in
most localities in obtaining pure linseed- and unadulterated cotton-
cakes. Green German rape-cake has been very scarce, and only
a few samples of good quality were received for examination.
The superior feeding-value of green rape-cake appears to be
better appreciated than formerly by Continental farmers, and,
in consequence, but little German rape-cake is now imported
into England.

The practice of selling linseed-cake made from imperfectly
screened linseed as “ pure,” I regret to say, still continues, as
will be seen from the following Quarterly Reports of the
Chemical Committee (pp. 255 et seq.), in which reference is
made to a number of cases of this kind.

Purchasers of linseed-cake should insist upon being supplied

Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1877. 247

with cake which is made from properly screened linseed, when
they hav^e bought cakes as “ pure,” and in accordance with the
forms of guarantee previously recommended by the Chemical
Committee. The examination of oilcakes for their purity en-
tails no gre.at amount of analytical work ; and as members of
the Royal Agricultural Society have the privilege of obtaining
an opinion whether a cake is pure or not, in the course of a day
or two and at the trifling expense of 5s. per sample, it is to be
hoped that members of the Society will avail themselves of this
privilege more frequently than hitherto.

The quality of the samples of American decorticated cotton-
cake analysed by me in the past season was satisfactory ; but
some of the samples of ordinary or whole-seed cotton-cakes,
received for examination in 1877, were not so good as they
might have been, had the husks of the cotton-seeds been ground
finer.

Coarsely ground cotton-seed husks are rather indigestible, and
apt to cause constipation of the bowels, not unfrequently followed
by inflammation ; and hence it is desirable that all oil-crushers
in producing cotton-cake should imitate the example of some
makers, who reduce the cotton-seed husks to a finer condition
than the majority of makers of English cotton-cake.

In connection with feeding-stufls, I may mention that occa-
sionally a species of millet, or Sorghum seed, known in com-
merce as Dari grain, is imported from Egypt into England, and
sold at a more moderate price than that of feeding-barley.

Dari grain is a good food for poultry, and, ground into meal,
an excellent fattening meal for cattle. As will be seen by the
subjoined analysis of a sample lately analysed for a member of
the Society, Dari grain contains an appreciable amount of ready-
made fat and a large proportion of starch, which is with ease
transformed into fat in the animal economy; but it is rather
deficient in albuminoids, and for this reason Dari-meal should
be given to stock in conjunction with cake, beans, or peas ; or,
speaking generally, with food rich in albuminous compounds : —

Composition of Dari grain.

Moisture

Oil .. ..

*Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) .

Starch and digestible fibre

Woody fibre (cellulose)

Mineral matter (ash)

100-00

11-31

4-02

10-06

68-10

3-65

2-86

* Containing nitrogen

1-61

248 Annual Report of t'.x Consulting Chemist for 1877.

Malt-combs are used both for feeding and manuring purposes.
Unless malt-combs are very dirty, and, like some samples of
kiln-dust, contaminated with much soot or cinders, it appears to
me wasteful to apply malt-dust as a direct manure to the land.
Malt-combs, as will be seen by the following analyses of two
samples analysed by me for a member of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England, contain a large proportion of readily
digestible food, which in a great measure will be wasted if
they are applied to the land as a direct manure ; and which
may with advantage be utilised by passing the malt-combs
through the animal body.

Malt-dust is a very useful addition to other food, for, apart
from its intrinsic feeding-value, it promotes the digestibility of
other food ; and for this reason is particularly useful when
coarse and somewhat indigestible food is given to sheep or
cattle.

Malt-combs, likewise, may be given with great benefit to
dairy-cows, for, like most articles of food rich in albuminoids,
phosphate of lime and magnesia, and alkaline phosphates, con-
stituents in which milk abounds, they possess high milk-
producing qualities.

Composition of Two Samples of Malt-combs.

No. 1.

No. 2.

Moisture

10-83

5-74

*Albuminou8 compounds

23-81

21-94

Non-nitrogenous organic matters

58-70

66-12

Pliosphale of lime and magnesia (bone-l
phosphates) /

1-49

1-97

tAlkaline salts

4-06

2-40

Insoluble siliceous matter

1-11

1-83

100-00

* Containing nitrogen

3-81

3-51

Equal to ammonia

4-63

4-26

t Containing phosphoric acid

-81

•65

Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime . .

1-77

1-42

Total phosphoric acid

1-49

1-55

With regard to the waters analysed by me in 1877, I have to
report that a large proportion of them were found to be con-
taminated more or less with sewage or injurious drainage
products, and were therefore unfit for drinking and general
domestic purposes.

Potash-salts and sulphate of ammonia are generally sold

Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1877. 241)

guaranteed to contain a given percentage of potash or ammonia.
The samples examined by me were found to correspond with
the guaranteed analyses.

The price of nitrate of soda rose considerably last March and
April, which may probably account for the greater frequency of
cases of adulterated samples which have been brought under
my notice in the present year. In the Quarterly Report of the
Chemical Committee for December (p. 257), attention was
drawn to a flagrant case of the adulteration of nitrate of soda
with common salt. I allude to this case in the Annual Report
mainly for the purpose of directing once more attention to the
fact that a high-priced article of commerce, like nitrate of soda,
is particularly liable to be adulterated, and for this reason
ought never to be purchased without a written guarantee of the
quality of the nitrate, which should contain not less than 94
to 95 per cent, of pure nitrate of soda, or not more than 5 to
6 per cent, of impurities.

During the last twelve months a larger number of samples of
Peruvian guano than in any previous year were sent to me for
analysis by members of the Royal Agricultural Society. Peru-
vian guano is now shipped from the deposits in the south of
Peru, and the quality of these deposits, as is well known to
commercial men, varies greatly. Whilst some of the samples
sent to my laboratory yielded from 9 to 10 per cent, of ammonia,
others contained only from 3 to 4 per cent.

As a rule, the samples poor in ammonia I found richer in
phosphates than guanos containing a high percentage of am-
monia. It is scarcely necessary for me to state that the com-
mercial value of Peruvian guano is more largely affected by its
percentage of nitrogen than by that of the phosphates or any
other constituent.

Peruvian guanos comparatively poor in ammonia and rich in
phosphates may be used with advantage as manures for root-
crops, or for hops, provided such guanos are sold at a price cor-
responding with the market-value at which guano-phosphates
and ammonia can be bought. Under the present conditions of
the guano-trade, intending purchasers of Peruvian guano are
strongly advised not to be satisfied with the assurance readily
enough given by dealers that the guano is genuine as imported,
for a good deal of guano, though genuine, is of an inferior
quality, and, in some cases, not worth more than one-half or
two-thirds of the price at which the best qualities are sold. The
proper course for agriculturists to pursue with reference to
guano transactions is to buy guano only upon the strength of an
analysis representing the quality of the sample which is offered
lor sale. On delivery of the bulk, about 10 lbs. should be taken

250 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1877.

from a dozen bags, well mixed together, and the whole passed
through a sieve. Of this well-mixed average sample about
h lb., which is amply sufficient for analysis, should be sent to a
competent analytical chemist, whose certificate will show at once
whether the bulk on delivery agrees fairly with the quality as
represented by the analysis which every dealer in guano ought
to be able to produce.

Phosphatic, guanos seldom find their way into the hands of
agriculturists, as they are greatly in demand by manufacturers
of artificial manures, who find them peculiarly well adapted for
the production of concentrated superphosphates and similar
manures.

One of the most recent importations of an excellent phos-
phatic guano is that from Lacepede Island, a small guano island
in the South Pacific.

The following partial analyses represent the composition of
four cargoes of Lacepede guano : —

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

Moisture and organic matter

* Phosphoric acid

Lime

Magnesia, oxide of iron and alumina i

carbonic acid, &c /

Insoluble siliceous matter

• Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime

16-32

35-88

42-22

4-23

1-35

19-01

34-04

40-71

4-49

1-75

21-15

33-16

40-29

4-39

1-01

19-85

33-87

40-85

4-41

1-02

100-00

78-33

74-31

72-39

72-94

Lacepede guano, it will be seen, is rich in phosphate of lime,
and closely resembles in its general character Malden Island
guano.

It appears in the shape of a light-brown powder, which, on
exposure to a strong heat in a platinum capsule, leaves a
perfectly white ash.

The brown colour is due to organic matter, varying to some
extent in different samples. In virtue of the organic matter,
Lacepede guano contains a small proportion of nitrogen, but no
appreciable quantity of ready-formed ammonia.

The following analysis shows the detailed composition of
one of the best samples of Lacepede guano which has been
brought under my notice : — ,

Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1877. 251

Detailed Composition of Lacepede Guano.

Moisture 7 ’80

*Organic matter 11 '38

t Phosphoric acid 34 '62

Lime 40 '70

Oxide of iron *39

Alumina *74

Magnesia 1 • 26

Carbonic acid '79

Sulphuric acid ’88

Alkalies and loss in analysis ’50

Insoluble siliceous matter '94

100-00

* Containing nitrogen -63

Equal to ammonia '76

t Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime .. .. 75-58

During the last twelve months a good deal of fish-guano, or
dried fish, has been sent to England from America. Fish-guano,
if dry and powdery, is an excellent concentrated fertiliser, ap-
proaching Peruvian guano in character.

The following analyses illustrate the variation in the compo-
sition of dried fish, or fish-guano : —

Composition of Dried Fish (Fish-Guano).

•No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 5.

Moisture

8-68

25-98

6-88

22-15

13-64

^Organic matter

74-85

59-87

57-35

62-12

70-86

tPhosphoric acid

6 '63

5-22

14-42

6-76

6-58

Lime

6 63

5-29

17-67

6-82

6-96

Magnesia, carbonic acid, &c. . .

2-80

3-49

1-81

1-65

Sand

•41

•15

•19

•31

100-00

100 00

* Containing nitrogen

11-69

9-21

8-52

7-42

8-03

Equal to ammonia . .

14-19

11-18

10-34

9-01

9-75

t Equal to tribasic phos-1
phate of lime , . . . /

14-47

11-39

31-48

14-76

14-36

Dried fish, it will be seen by the preceding analyses, is a
valuable fertiliser, and a very different material from much of
the stuff which in England is sold to farmers under the name of
fish-manure, at a low price varying from 21. 2s. to 4Z. 4s. a ton.

252 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1877.

The analyses which I have made of samples of such fish-manures,
during the last twelve months, confirm my previous experience
that these and similar refuse-manures, which are sold at from 2Z. to
4Z. a ton, contain much water and valueless earthy matter, and are
seldom worth more than half the price at which they are sold to
small farmers, who, misled by the strong smell of rotten fish,
and tempted by the low price at which these manures are offered
for sale, are apt to pay far more for them than they are worth.

Wheat and other cereal grains, as is well known, are often
steeped in a solution of sulphate of copper, with a view to the
prevention of smut in the grain. Salt and lime sometimes are
used for the same purpose, and occasionally coal-tar and prepa-
rations containing crude carbolic acid are employed for dressing
seed-corn. If proper care be taken to guard against accidents,
which may occur when wheat steeped in a solution of blue
vitriol is left loose about the premises and accessible to fowls,
no objection can be taken to the use of this salt as an efficient
means of protecting wheat against smut ; still there is some risk
that the wheat impregnated with the poisonous copper-salt may
be picked up by birds, and do mischief ; and as coal-tar, or coal-
tar oil, appears to answer equally well the purpose for which sul-
phate of copper is used, and at the same time, by its peculiar smell,
deters rooks and other birds from eating the seed-corn, I would
recommend comparative trials to be made with wheat dressed with
blue vitriol and with coal-tar, or, better still, coal-tar oil. Occa-
sionally, seed-wheat is dressed with white arsenic, or compounds
containing arsenic. These poisonous preparations are highly
objectionable, and should not be allowed to be sold openly as
wheat-dressings, on account of the risk of accidents in mani-
pulating wheat with arsenical preparations, and the abuse which
may be made of poisoned wheat. A short time ago I had occasion
to analyse a sample of a preparation which is largely advertised
as a dressing for seed-wheat, and found it mainly a mixture of
powdered blue vitriol (sulphate of copper), green vitriol (sul-
phate of iron), and white arsenic coloured by Armenian bole.
The peculiar smell of the preparation was due to a little crude
carbolic acid or light tar-oil, which appears to have been added
to it. This preparation, I was informed, was employed for
dressing seed-corn by the tenant of a member of the Royal
Agricultural Society, who had the misfortune to find a number
of dead partridges on his estate, which were supposed to have
been poisoned by the arsenical compound. The examination
of some seed-wheat which was found in the field where the dead
partridges were picked up, however, revealed neither copper
nor arsenic ; and the analysis of grains of wheat taken from the
crop of a dead partridge likewise indicated neither copper nor

Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1877. 253

arsenic. It was thus evident that the partridges had not been
killed by the arsenical wheat-dressing, and, on further examina-
tion, I was able to show that both the wheat found in the field
and the contents of the crop of the dead partridge contained
appreciable quantities of bichloride of mercury, or corrosive
sublimate. I am not aware that corrosive sublimate or other
mercurial poisons have ever been employed for dressing wheat
for the purpose of preventing smut, and it appears to me
probable that the wheat poisoned by corrosive sublimate had
been laid about the field with the intention of destroying the
game.

My attention was directed last September to a curious sub-
stance which made its appearance on the grass in a field of
rough pasture, in the occupation of Mr. H. B. Riddell, White-
field House, Rothbury, Morpeth, who wrote to me on the 29th
of September, 1877 : —

“ SiK, — I send by this day’s post two boxes containing specimens of a
substance which has made its appearance in a field of rough pasture near this
house. I observed it at the same place last year, but have never seen any-
thing like it elsewhere ; and, though I have pointed it out to many persons, I
have not met any one who had seen it before. I have thought, therefore, that
it might be of interest to you. The substance first makes its appearance as a
viscous froth, not unlike a mass of ‘ cuckoo-spit it gradually solidifies, and
becomes what is sent in the card-box, and after a few days dries into the
crystalline powder, a considerable quantity of which is in the wooden box. I
have not analysed the crystals ; but it has struck me that, as the field was
two years ago somewhat heavily manured with nitrate of soda and superphos-
phate of lime, the crystals might be derived from the manure.

“ Yours truly.

“ H. B. Kiddell.

“ Dr. TodckerP

The examination of the white powder, to which reference is
made in Mr. Riddell’s letter, showed that, in addition to some
gum and sugar, the bulk of the substance consisted almost
entirely of carbonate of lime, with merely faint traces of phos-
phoric acid, and contained no nitrate of soda whatever.

On further inquiry, I learned from Mr. Riddell that the field
in which the white substance appeared is poor partially-drained
pasture on the north flank of the Simonside Hills. It rests on
the ironstone of the coal measures, not on limestone ; but
dykes of limestone cross the sandstone, and the springs are
strongly impregnated with lime, chiefly as carbonate.

The spot where the substance in question appeared is not
thoroughly drained, though the surface is dry. It first seemed
to grow on the grass as a glutinous foam, and gradually dried
to a crystalline powder. The field has not been lately dressed
with chalk or lime.

Eotherfibld Top-Dbk88ing Expkriment8 on Grass Land,

264

® i §

ss 2 S <
^ 5 E «

H w

to as w
D « £ «

p c5 ^ e>

“ 5 »
s|S®

Annual h

O ^

o> S

^ fis

leport of the Consulting Chemist for 1877.

... . , , Ig.,

(S © o ^

Increase
per Plot
over

Average of
Unma-
nured
PlO',8.

cwt.qrs.lbs.

3 3 22

2 3 16
1 2 19
1 1 24

1 1 17

0 0 26

0 0 1
0 16

0 0 26

0 1 12

4 0 6

1 Weight of
Grass
per Plot.

^cwtqrs. lbs.

11 2 24 1
' 10 2 18

9 1 21

1 9 0 26

7 3 17
9 0 19

8 0 0

7 3 3

8 0 9

! 7 2 16

7 10

8 0 0

7 0 14

8 0 14

11 3 7

Gbass cut July 2ist, 18Y6, '

Showing the unexhausted value op
Manures.

Cost of
Manure
per Acre.

cwt.qrs.lbs.
3 0 0

2 10 0

2 9 6

1 4 0

2 17 0
2 2 0

2 9 0

2 18 6

1 17 6

3 8 9

2 0 0

2 7 6

2 10 0

Decrease
per Plot.

cwt.lbs lbs.

0 0 13
0 0 20

Increase
per Plot
over

Average of
Unma-
nured
Plots.

cwt.qrs.lbs.
2 18

1 2 13
1 3 18
10 2

0 3 15
0 12

0 1 20

0 1 21
0 0 18

0 0 20

1 3 13

j Weight
I of Grass
1 per Plot.

a •otC'lOt rH •-( ft

£<0 « O OOCOC9COC4

Plots One-tenth of an Acre.

Manure Sown January 20th. Grass cut July SisT, 1875.

Decrease
per Plot.

£ 2

s ®

1 Increase
1 per Plot
over

Average of
Unma-
nured
Plots.

cs ci w .1

iHC0<-h*OO o o *ooco*co

t- <Owt«»-'W .-HCIs-tCO

Weight of
Grass
per Plot.

SSc^WWOOO^-wj. o O A- 00 O 00

i-IpH rl C4 rH C4 rH

C^i-tC^rHC«f-H N rH rHdrHOiH©

o lo wHc^eocoeio

SrHrHrHrHrHrHrH rH *H rHi-HpHrnrHrH

Quantity
of Manure
per Plot
of One-
tenth of
an Acre.

5 irt ift rj (M m •*~-c^c^c^e-ic<corHrH •otoeototoo

^^h3<C0C4'4> «<OCSC4CSC4C4C^rHrH •UdU30U3IO|^

Description of Manure.

Peruvian Guano

Soluble Guano

j Soluble Guano

^Superphosphate

Superphosphate

Nothing

Fine Bone Dust

^Superphosphate

iNitrate of Soda

[Superphosphate

xKainit

(Nitrate of Soda

[Soluble Guano

< Nitrate of Soda . . . .

(Superphosphate

Nothing

Dissolved Bones

^Dissolved Bones

'Soluble Guano

Prentice’s Grass Manure . . , .

i-ln. Bone

Farmyard Manure

No.

Plots.

The first Ten of these Experiments were condacted under the direction of Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S.

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee.

255

In conclusion, I have to report that for the last three years
Mr. Charles L. Curtis, Deanyers-Farringdon, Alton, Hants, has
kindly carried out, under my direction, some field-experiments
on permanent pasture, and has favoured me with the results of
the experiments, which perhaps may be of sufficient interest to
warrant their publication in full in the ‘ Journal ’ of the
Society (see table, p. 254).

Analyses made for Members of the Royal AyricuUural Society from
December 1876 to December 1877.

Superphosphates, dissolved bones, and compound) .q;-

artificial manures j

Bone-dust 48

Guanos 45

Nitrate of soda 45

Sulphate of ammonia 8

Potash-salts 7

Eefuse manures 22

Sewage manures 9

Limestones, marls, and other minerals 18

Soils 26

Waters 46

Oileakes 136

Feeding meals 19

Milk 1

Vegetable productions 12

Examinations for poison 5

642

XII. — Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee.
December, 1877.

1. A SAMPLE of linseed-cake of a lot of 10 tons bought in
October, by Mr. Wm. Holland, Market Deeping, at 107, 11s. 3rf.,
on analysis yielded the following results : —

Moisture 9‘75

Oil 11-15

* Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . . 23 • 94

Mucilage, starch, and digestible fibre 33 ‘22

Woody fibre (cellulose) 13-90

tMineral matter (ash) 8-04

100-00

* Containing nitrogen 3-83

t Including sand 3-35

This analysis shows that the cake was rather deficient in albu-
minous compounds, and contained 3-i- per cent, of sand. The

256 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee.

microscopical examination proved that the cake was made from
badly screened linseed, and contained an undue proportion of
sand, in addition to a number of small weed-seeds, which ought
to have been removed by screening from the seed before it was
pressed into pure linseed-cake.

The cake was bought and invoiced as pure linseed-cake (with
warranty).

The dealers when ordering it of its presumed makers (and
who had advertised it as pure linseed-cake of their own brand,
and presumably, therefore, as of their own make, with warranty),
expressly told the latter “ not to send it unless they were quite
sure it would bear the test of Dr. Voelcker’s analysis;” and, on
being informed by their customer of the result of that analysis,
immediately sent him cake of other make in exchange, which
■did stand that test.

The presumed makers, on complaint from the dealers, bound
as they were by their own warranty to the latter, could not do
otherwise than take back the cake, though they said they knew
it was pure and unadulterated, and should not have been likely
to have sent it in face of the dealer’s specific order had it been
otherwise. At the same time, however, as they admitted that it
was not made at their own mill, how they could possibly know
it was pure it is difficult to understand.

Dealers acting carefully and honestly by their customers, as
these did. Would not care to have their names mixed up in a
•case of this kind, and on this account the names of both dealers
and makers are purposely omitted.

The case, however, shows the necessity of buying with war-
ranty, and particularly testing by analysis (the warranty in this
case protected the innocent dealer as well as his customer), and
of getting supplies from the actual makers.

2. Another sample of cake bought as pure linseed-cake at
lOZ. 5s. (for a large lot in summer to be delivered in October),
was sent by Mr. Fred. Lister, Babworth, Retford, Notts, and on
analysis was found to have the following composition : —

Moisture 11 ’32

Oil 11-70

*Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) .. 28-63

Mucilage, starch, and digestible fibre 31-10

Woody fibre (cellulose) 8-40

■f Mineral matter (ash) 8-85

100-00

* Containing nitrogen _ 4 • 58

t Including sand 3 '55

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee.

257

Like the preceding cakes, it was made from unscreened linseed,
containing, besides sand, numerous small weed-seeds, and was
not a pure linseed-cake.

No further information was obtained in answer to the usual
inquiries.

3. A sample, bought as nitrate of soda by a Member of the
Royal Agricultural Society, was found on examination to con-
tain only '003 per cent, of nitric acid. It thus contained merely
faint traces of nitrate of soda, and on further analysis was found
to be a mixture of chloride of sodium (common salt) and sul-
phate of soda (Glauber salt).

This so-called nitrate of soda having been bought at a low
price without a guarantee, the purchaser did not feel justified in
furnishing the vendor’s name and address.

4. The following is an analysis of a s<ample of a manure, <a
cwt. of which *had been sent for trial to Mr. George Neve,
Sissinghurst, Staplehurst, Kent. The manure was sold at 12/.
a ton, but without any guaranteed analysis : —

Moisture 11 ’12

Organic matter 12 '74

Bone-phosphate oflime 37 '17

Sulphate of lime .. • 10 '05

Crystallised sulphate of iron (greeu vitriol) .. .. 2‘78

Basic sulphate of iron, containing 7 '28 of sul-
phuric acid .. 25 ‘49

Insoluble siliceous matter • 65

100-00

This m.anure, it will be seen, contained in round numbers
37 per cent, of phosphate of lime, some sulphate of lime, and a
considerable proportion of sulphate of iron. It contained no
appreciable quantity of ammonia, and appeared to be mainly
a mixture of animal charcoal and sulphate of iron. Such a
mixture can be produced at less than half the price at which
the sample of manure sent by Mr. Neve was sold.

Maecii, 1878.

1. A sample of cake, sold as the “ best Pure Linseed-cake
than can be made,” was sent to me for analysis and opinion on
the 15th of January, 1878, by Mr. Martin Pate, Ely, Cam-
bridgeshire, and was found to have the following composition : —
VOL. XIV. — S. S. S

258 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee.

Moisture 9 ‘94:

Oil 10-25

*Albuminous compounds 26 '56

Mucilage, starch, and digestible fibre 37-14

Woody fibre (cellulose) 9-70

Mineral matter (ash) .. 6-41

100-00

* Containing nitrogen 4-25

The cake was poor in oil, and had been made from anything
but clean linseed, for it was contaminated with buck-wheat,
broken corn, and small weed-seeds. In this and the two follow-
ing cases no further information could be obtained in answer to
the usual inquiries respecting the sellers of the cakes, «Scc.

2. Mr. E. C, Clarke, Manor Farm, Haddenham, Thame,
Oxon, sent a sample of linseed-cake for an opinion as to its
genuineness. The examination showed that it was not a genuine
linseed-cake, but an adulterated or inferior compound linseed-
cake, containing amongst other ingredients, in addition to
linseed, cotton-cake and locust bean-meal.

3. A sample of oil-cake was sent by Mr. Josh. Mackinder,
Peterborough, who specially requested me to test it for the pre-
sence of rape or other seeds.

The cake, which was branded Pure, had the following

composition : —

Moisture 8-01

Oil 11-15

*Albuminous coiiipoiiiuls 24-44

Mucilage, .starclt, and digestible fibre 37-52

Woody fibre (cellulose) 11-03

f Mineral matter (asb) 7-85

100-00

* Confavining nitrogen 3-91

t Including sand 2-80

This cake was made from dirty linseed, containing, in addition
to nearly 3 per cent, of sand, rape, wild mustard, polygonum,
and numerous other small weed-seeds, which usually occur in
badly screened linseed. Moreover, it was an old stale cake,
slightly mouldy at the edges, and had a disagreeable rancid
smell like old oil paint, and certainly was not a cake which
should have been sold as pure linseed-cake and branded <3^
Pure.

4. In the last Quarterly Report reference was made to a
sample of linseed-cake, sent by Mr. Lister, Upper Morton

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. 259

Grange, Retford, which was sold as pure, and found by me to
be an inferior linseed-cake, made from badly screened linseed.

A letter has since been received from Mr. Lister, who informs
me that the matter has been settled, he having obtained a
reduction in the price nearly to what I stated should be made by
the dealer — a reduction, Mr. Lister says, he should not have
received had it not been for my analysis and report.

5. 1 have also to direct attention to the occurrence of castor-
oil beans, which I detected by the microscope, in a sample of
a compound feeding-cake that proved injurious to cattle.

6. The following is an analysis showing the composition of
'a sample of a “ Meat and Bone Manure,” sent by Mr. Clement
Baguley, The Oldfields, Pulford, Wrexham : —

Moisture 2G'17

’Organic matter 23 ' 9G

Oxide of iron and alumina 8 '73

Phosphate oflime ’87

Carbonate of lime 5 • 68

Alkaline salts and magnesia 5 ’ 39

Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) 29*20

100-00

* Containing nitrogen 1-98

Equal to ammonia 2*41

The manuie was thus very wet, and contained 29 per cent, of
sand, and about 20 per cent, of other mineral matters of no
intrinsic fertilising value. It yielded only 2^ per cent, of
ammonia, and although sold as a “ Bone and Meat Manure,”
did not contain quite 1 per cent, of phosphate of lime. It was
scarcely worth 21. 2s. per ton. Mr. Baguley bought 10 tons, at
51. 10s. per ton, from the manufacturer. Not finding the bulk,
on delivery, equal to the sample by which it was bought, Mr.
Baguley went to the works, and wrote to me that he was satisfied
with the appearance of things, and finally arranged to pay-
according to my valuation. Mr. Baguley also put into my
hands the following letter, which he had received from the
vendors : —

“ Deah Sir, — Yours of the 8th instant is only to hand this morning. If
the sample was fairly taken, the manure is certainly not worth what I have
charged you for it.

“ There is no mistake in the article sent that I can find out, and I cannot
account for its inferiority, unless the fact of its being the face of the heap,
the first sent out, and the long exposure to the atmosphere of the doorway,
may account for it in some way.

“ Its not having been put through the disintegrator, and tlirough being

S 2

260 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee.

screened, possibly the richer part and pieces of bone may have been left out,
may also have something to do with it.

“ However, as the manure as supplied is not of the value charged — that is,
if sample sent to Dr. Voelcker fairly represents the bulk — and as Dr. V.’s
valuation is below what I can sell it at to manure-makers, I think the fair
course for both parties will be for you to return it to me, and to charge me
with all payments you have made, and I will rejdace it with some of what I
am now sending out.

“ I shall be glad if you will call upon me next time you are in Liverpool,
and I will let you see what manure-makers are paying for it, and also let you
see the article now we have got half-way through it.

“ Was sample taken from each or only from some of the bags ?

“ Yours truly, " .

“ C. Baguley, Esq., The Oldfields, Pulford, Wrexham.”

The preceding’ letter was accompanied by the- following note
addressed to me : —

The Oldfields, Pulford, Wre.\ham, 14/3/78.

“ Deau Sir, — In answer to jmur last, I beg to enclose filled-up form, like-
wise own explanation, which I am inclined to believe.

“ I had sown the manure before receiving this, on the agreement that he
returned the deficiency, if any, in value between price paid and your valua-
tion. He now writes to say that he has forwarded 2 tons blood-manure,
value flk per ton, which he thinks will amply repay the deficiency. It is
possible that I may ask your opinion of that same.

'• I remain, yours resiDectfully, '

“ Dr. Voelcker.” “ Clement Baguley.

7. A sample of “ Nitrophosphate Manure ” for grass, sent by
Mr. George Wigham, Laverick Hall, Cramlington, sold at 9/.
a ton, less 12s. for cash, on analysis was found to have the
following composition: —

Moisture 17 '20

^Organic matter 9 • 15

Phosphate of lime I'Gl

Oxide of iron and alumina 4 • 66

Carbonate and sulphate of lime 20 ' 49

Alkaline salts and magnesia 2 • 85

Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) 43 • 95

100-00

* Containing nitrogen -49

Equal to ammonia * 59

This manure contained only about 1^ per cent, of phosphate
of lime, and less ammonia than common farmyard-manure. It
contained 44 per cent, of sand, much carbonate of lime and
other earthy matters of no intrinsic fertilising value, and was
scarcely worth as a manure 16s. per ton.

261

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee.

Mr, Wigham bought 3 tons, at 9Z. a ton, from the Ceres
Nitrophosphate Company, Ceres Works, Stratford, London, E.,
payment to be made to the order of Mr. Otto Schleicher.

The Ceres Nitrophosphate Company’s circular embodies a
printed certificate of analysis by Mr. F. Sutton, analytical and
consulting chemist to the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture,
showing the following composition of the company’s grass-
manure : —

Moisture 13 •

Organic matter 35 • 10

Biphosphate oflime * .. .. 8 '70

Equal to tribasic of phosphate of lime 13 ’70

Insoluble phosi>hates 3 '91

Sulphate of lime and alkali 13 '57

Nitrogen .. 2 '52

Equal to ammonia 3 ‘ 00

Equal to sulphate of ammonia 12 ’24

(Signed) Francis Sutton.

The manure was obtained through Mr. Joseph Armstrong
Hordman, Fligh Horton, Cramlington, a farmer’s son, who, in
answer to an advertisement in one of the Newcastle papers, was
appointed agent to the Company a short time ago.

The invoice was sent to Mr. Wigham direct from the Ceres
Nitrophosphate Company’s Works, Warlow Road, Stratford, E.,
with the following notice.

“ Our forwarding clerk omitted to pay the carriage here, and we should
therefore take it as a favour if you would kindly do so at your cud, and
deduct it from invoice.

“ Yours truly,

“ Ceres Nitrophosphate Co., Otto Schleicher.”

Mr. Wigham had to pay 4Z. 2s. for carriage, that is, a great
deal more than the 3 tons of this so-called grass-manure ivas
worth.

8. Another sample of grass-manure, sold at 8/. 10s. a ton, by
the same Ceres Nitrophospate Company, was sent to me by
Mr. William Bannister, farmer, Westdean, Lewes.

It had the following composition ; —

262 Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1877.

Moisture 18 '10

*Organic matter 7 • 15

Phosphate of lime 1 • 04

Oxide of iron and alumina 4 '77

Carbonate and sulphate of lime 24-20

Alkaline salts and magnesia 2 -21

Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) 42 • 53

100-00

* Containing nitrogen -44

Equal to ammonia - 53

A comparison of the composition of the sample sent to me by
Mr. Wigham with that of the sample sent by Mr. Bannister
shows that both samples may be considered practically to be the
same. Like the sample sent by Mr. Wigham, that analysed
for Mr. Bannister is scarcely worth 15s. per ton.

Mr. Bannister obtained the manure through the Ceres Nitro-
phosphate Company’s agents, Messrs. J. and N. C. Bull, New-
haven, Sussex, who, Mr. Bannister informs me, were only ap-
pointed a few months ago, and who likewise state that they
have no liability, not being allowed to receive payment, and
whose commission, by their own confession, is IZ. per ton.

Having had previous transactions with Messrs. Bull, and being
much pressed for an order, Mr. Bannister at last consented, on
condition that the manure should be analysed.

The invoice was set to Mr. Bannister direct from the office
of the Ceres Nitrophosphate Company, Warlow Road, Stratford,
and, curiously enough, with the same intimation which Mr.
Wigham received, namely : —

“ Mr. W. Bannister,

“ Dear Sir, — Our forwarding clerk has omitted to pay the carriage here,
and we should therel'oro be glad if you would kindly do so at your own end,
aud deduct it from invoice.

“ Yours truly,

“ Ceres Nitrophosphate Co., Otto Schi.eiciier.”

XIII. — Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1877.
By W. Cakruthers, F.R.S.

The number of applications by Members of the Society has
considerably increased during the past year, having exceeded
sixty.

The samples of seed for crops which have passed through my
hands have been generally satisfactory, and no case has occurred

Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1877. 263

to me this year in which either killed or spurious seeds have
been foisted upon the purchaser. The samples that I have had
to condemn have been defective either through the presence of
worthless or injurious weeds, or through bad or careless harvest-
ing, so that too large a proportion of unripe grains were col-
lected, or the grains were injured in threshing or in other and
subsequent treatment.

It is satisfactory that, as far as my experience goes, the
Members of the Society have not been imposed upon by the
killed and coloured seeds which recent prosecutions have shown
to be again found in the market. The extent to which killed
or dead seeds are present in any sample may easily be deter-
mined by the purchaser, and no farmer should sow low-priced
seed, or seed in any way suspicious, without experimenting
himself in germinating a fair sample, or submitting it for exa-
mination. I believe no danger is to be feared from the trade
generally, but unprincipled dealers in large towns are now
known to systematically increase their profits through adulte-
ration. The worthless article is chiefly imposed on general
dealers who supply seed but have no practical knowledge of
this department of their business, and who retail in good faith
what they have purchased in the lowest market as good seed.

The reflection in the Annual Report of last year on the
inferior character of seed supplied to a Member of the Society by
a Farmers’ Association, led to a remonstrance from a firm sup-
plying seed to such an Association, which I placed before the
Committee, and which, in their opinion, fully justified the con-
demnation which was printed in the Report.

In the course of the year the Committee resolved to make
arrangements for supplying information as to the insect dangers
of the farm. This was intimated to the Members of the Society.
The great alarm caused by the threatened appearance of the
Colorado Beetle directed much attention to insects which ap-
peared among the crops ; and every strange or unknown insect
was too often supposed to be a stage of the life of the dreaded
Beetle. The Society, by the distribution of coloured illustra-
tions of the Beetle amongst all its Members, supplied them with
the means of recognising it in any of its forms. But, hajipily,
no authenticated case has yet been reported of its appearance in
Britain, except as specimens supplied to naturalists for scientific-
purposes. Eight applications have been made to me in the course
of 1877 in regard to insects, and the Members have received
satisfactory information from the experienced entomologist who
has undertaken to answer these inejuiries. The insects sent were
well known, and, with one exception, were innocent creatures.

264

Additions to the Library.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY IN 1877.

I.— rEPJODICALS PEESENTED TO THE SOCIETY’S

LIBRAKY.

Presented ly the respective Societies and Editors.

A. — Ejiglish, AmericajN', and Colonial Periodicals,

Agricultural Gazette. Nos. 157-209. 1877.

Students’ Gazette. Vol. II.

American Agriculturist. Yol. XXXVI. 1877.

Atlienajum (Journal). Nos. 2566-2618. 1877.

Bath and West of England Society, Journal of the. Yol. IX. 1877.

Bell’s Weekly Messenger. 1877.

Bristol Mercury. Yol. LXXXVIII. 1877.

Bussey Institution, Bulletin of the. Parts I. -II. 1877.

Chamber of Agriculture Journal. A^ol. XVII. 1877.

Coates’s Herd Book. Yol. XXIII. 1877.

Country. 1877.

Country Gentleman’s Magazine. Yol. XIV. 1877.

Economist. Yol. XXXV. 1877.

Essex Standard. Vol. XLVIl. 1877.

Farmer. Vols. XXVIII. and XXIX. 1877.

Farmer’s Herald. Vol. XXV. 1877.

Field. Vols. XLVHI. and XLIX. 1877.

Geological Society, Journal of the. Vol. XXXIII. 1877.

Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Transactions of the, Vol. IX.
1877.

Indian Agriculturist. Vol. II. Nos. 7-12. 1877.

Institution of Civil Engineers, Proceedings of the. Vols. XLVII.-L. Parts
I.-IV. 1876-77.

Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Proceedings of the. 1877.

of Surveyors, Transactions of the. Vol. IX. 1877.

Investor’s Monthly Manual. Vol. VII. 1877.

Irish Fanner’s Gazette. Vol. XXXVI. 1877.

Kansas, Fifth Annual Eeport of the Legislature of. 1876.

Live-stock Journal. Vols. V. and VI. 1877.

Madras Presidency. Annual Eeport of the Superintendent of Government
Farms. 1876.

Maine Board of Agriculture. Twenty-first Annual Eeport of the Secretary
1876.

Mark Lane Express and Agricultural Journal. Vol. XLVI. 1877.

Midland Counties’ Herald. Vol. XLI. 1877.

Nature. Vols. XV. and XVI. 1877.

Neilgherry District, Eeport on the Agricultural Condition of the. 1876.
Newcastle Courant. 1877.

New Haven. American Journal of Science and Arts. 1877.

New South Wales, Journal of the Agricultural Societj’' of. Part I. 1877.

Additions to the Library.

265

North British Agriculturist. Vol. XXIX. 1877.

Ohio. Thirtieth Annual Keport of the State Board of Agriculture for the
year 1875.

Ontario, Annual Keport of the Commissioner of Agriculture and Arts. 1876.
Quebec, province of. Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture and Public
Works. 1866-7.

Royal Asiatic Society, Journal of the Bombay Branch. Nos. 34-34 a. 1876-7.

, Journal of the. Vol. IX. 1877.

Royal Geographical Society, Journal of the. Vol. XLVI. 1877.

, Proceedings of the. Vol. XXI. 1877.

Royal United Service Institution, Journal of the. Vol. XX. 1877.
Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of the Board of Regents. 1875-6.

. Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. XXII. 1877.

Society of Arts, Journal of the. Vol. XXV. 1877.

Statistical Society, Journal of the. Vol. XL. Parts I.-IV. 1877.
Veterinarian, The. Vol. L. 1877.

Veterinary Obstetrics, A Text-book of. Parts 1-11.

Washington. Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture. 1875-6.

B. — Foreign Periodicals.

Berlin. Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbiicher. Band VI., Hefte 1-6 ; and two
Supplements. 1877.

Buenos Aires. Anales de la Sociedad rural Argentina. Vol. X. 1876.
Gorizia. Societk Agraria. Atti e Memorie. Anno XVI. Nuova Scrie .
Vol. II. Nos. 1-3. 1877.

Heidelberg. Naturhistorisch-medicinischen Verein. Verhandlungen. Ncuo
folge. 2" Band. Heft 1. 1877.

Lima. Revista de Agricultura. 1875-6.

Meaux. Soci4te d’Agriculture, Sciences, et Arts. Compte rendu de la
Stance ^ Rentilly. 1876.

Montevideo. Boletin Oficial de la Comision central dc Agricultura de la
Kdpublica oriental del Uruguay. 1877.

Munich. Landwirthschaftliche Verein in Bayern. Zeitschrift. 66'" Jabr-
gang. 1876.

Paris. Annales Agronomiques. Tome troisieme. Fasc. 1-4. 1877.

. Journal d’Agriculture pratique. Vols. I. and II. 1877.

. Journal de I’Agriculture. Vols. I.-IV. 1877.

. Soci4te des Agriculteurs de France. Bulletin mensuel. O”” aunee.

Vol. IX. 1877.

. Compte rendu des Travaux.

Annuaire de 1877.

Rio de Janeiro. Archives do Museo Nacional. Vol. I. 1876.

II.— BOOKS PRESENTED TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY.

Names of Donors in Italics.

A. English, American, and Colonial Books and Pamphlets.

Collins, Charles Edwin. Life of Henry Collins. 187 7.

Fleming, George. Veterinary Obstetrics. 1877.

Goodlet, William. Remarks on the Duke of Argyll’s Essay on the Com-
mercial Principles applicable to Contracts for the Hire of Land. 1877.
VOL. XIV. — S. S. T

266

Additions to the Library.

Lawes, J. B., F.R.S., and Gilbert, J. H., F.R.S. On the Formation of Fat
in the Animal Body.

Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus at South Kensington, Catalogue of.
1877. Presented by the Science and Art Department.

Reid, G. B. An Essay on New South AVales. 1877.

Iloyal College of Veterinary Surgeons, Charter and Bye Laws of the. 1877.
Presented by the Council of the College.

Science Conferences at South Kensington. 2 vols. 1876. Presented by the
Science and Art Department.

Wilson, Dr. Andrew. On the Colorado Potato Beetle. 1877.

Von Mueller, Baron. Select Plants eligible for Industrial Culture in Victoria.
1877.

B. Foreign Books and Pamphlets.

Anon. Aarsberetning angaaende de offentlige Foranstaltninger til Land-
brugets Fremme i Aaret, 1875. Christiania, 1876. Presented by the
University of Christiania.

. Abhandlungen zur Geologischen Specialkarte von Preussen. Berlin,

1877.

. Beretning den Hoiere Landbrugsskole i Aas, July 1874-5. Chris-
tiania, 1876. Presented by the University of Christiania.

. Censimento generate dei Cavalli e dei Muli. Two vols. Eoma,

1876. Presented by the Italian Minister of Agriculture.

. Compte rendu du Congres International Agricole 3, Bordeaux. 1876.

Presented by the Committee of the Congress.

Congresso Generate degli Agricoltori Italian!. May 1875. Milan,

1877. Presented by the Committee.

. Nederlandsch Rundvee-Stamboek, 1876. Editedby P. F. L. IFoZcfec/c.

Schiedam, 1877.

. Notizie e Studi sull’ Agricoltura, 1876. Roma, 1877. Presented by

the Italian Minister of Agriculture.

. Relazione intorno alle Condizioue dell’ Agricoltura nel quinquennio,

1870-4. Vol. III. Rome, 1877. Presented by the Italian Minister of
Agriculture.

Bchmer, R. Das Landwirthschaftliche Pramiirungswesen von Thieren und
Maschinen. Berlin, 1877.

Bortier, P. M4thode nouvelle pour la Culture de la Pomme de Terre.
Bruxelles, 1877.

. Papier d’Aubier de Tremble. Bruxelles, 1877.

Janice, Dr. H. Das Fruchtrecht des Besitzers. Berlin, 1862.

. Die Directe Besteurung des Spiritus. Berlin, 1869.

. Die Grundsatze der Schafzuchtung. Berlin, 1867.

. Die Moderne Fleischschafzucht. Prag, 1875.

^ . Ein Forstbesuch in Tetschen. Prag, 1877.

Kette, W. Die Lupine als Feldfrucht. Berlin, 1877.

Petersen, C. Anleitung zum Betriebe der Milchwirthschaft. Danzig, 1877.

Bonna, A. Eotbamsted. Trente ann^es d’exp4riences Agricoles de MM.
Lawes et Gilbert. Paris, 1877.

Schubelen, Dr. F. C. Die Pflanzenwelt Norwegens. Christiania, 187 7.

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ENCIAND AND WALE3.

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©©©© IBDSD

MEMOIB

ON THE

AGRICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND WALES,

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
THE COUNCIL OF THE

EOYAL AGKICULTUEAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND

THE INTEMATIONAL AGEICULTUML CONGMSS,
PAKIS, 18T8.

EDITED BY

H. M. JENKINS, F.G.S.,

SECBETARY OF THE SOCIETY ANT) EDITOR OF ITS ‘ JOURNAL.’

LONDON:

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET
AND CHARING CROSS.

1878.

APPEOXIMATE EQUIVALENTS OF FEENCH AND ENGLISH
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASUEES.

£1 (one pound sterling)

1 shilling (one-twentieth of a pound)
1 penny (one-twelfth of a shilling) ..

£I per acre

1 shilling j)er acre

1 acre

1 rood (one-fourth of an acre) . .

1 perch, or pole, or rod (one-fortieth

of a rood)

1 quarter

1 bushel (one-eighth of a quarter) ..
1 peck (one-fourth of a bushel)

1 quarter per acre

1 bushel per acre

1 lb. avoirdupois
1 cwt. avoirdupois
1 lb. per acre
1 imperial stone (14 lbs.)

1 Smithfield stone (8 lbs.), used only

for dead meat

1 tod (28 lbs.) of wool

= (about) 25 francs.

= (about) 1 franc 25 centimes.
= (about) 10 centimes.

=: (about) 62 fr. 50 c. per
hectare.

= (about) 3 fr. 12s c. per
hectare.

= (about) *4 hectare.

= (about) "I hectare.

= (about) "025 hectare.

= (about) 2 • 88 hectolitre.

= (about) ’36 hectolitre.

= (about) '09 hectolitre.

= (about) 7 '2 hectolitre per
hectare.

j = (about) • 9 hectolitre per
I hectare.

= (about) "45 kilo.

= (about) 51 kilos.

= (about) 1 • 12 kilo per hectare.
= (about) 6'3 kilos.

= (about) 3'6 kilos.

= (about) 12 ‘75 kilos.

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

The contents of this volume are confined as much as possible
to the Agriculture of England and Wales ; but the first article
gives a General View of the Agriculture of the three kingdoms
which constitute Great Britain and Ireland, and in the articles
upon Land Law and Taxation it has been impossible to separate
entirely the English from the Scotch and Irish branches of the
subject. It has also been difficult to draw rigid lines of demar-
cation between the subjects assigned to the different authors, but
care has been taken to prevent avoidable repetition.

Several causes have combined to give English Agriculture a
diversified character. The varied character of the soils of the
country, the inequalities in the climate of different districts,
and the situation of farms in relation to the large towns, are
all potent causes of differences in farm-management. Again,
under the influences of Free-trade, an insular position, and a
dense population chiefly engaged in manufactures and com-
merce, England has become a vast warehouse and mart for
the agricultural products of the civilised world. Further, social
and political considerations, and the natural love of a country
life, which is one of the characteristics of the English people,
have led capitalists to purchase land at a price which yields a
smaller immediate interest for money than any other form of
investment, while they induce the tenant-farmer to be satisfied
with a less, and more uncertain, rate of profit from his annual
operations, than is expected by the merchant, who turns his
capital over several times in the year, and thus has many chances
of neutralising an isolated loss.

It will be easily understood that the numerous phases of

270 = 4

editor’s preface.

English Agriculture, the causes of which have just been
indicated, may be differently regarded and interpreted by
different minds ; and it must therefore be distinctly stated that,
although this volume has been prepared under the direction of
the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the
authors of the several articles are alone responsible for the
statements of fact and opinion contained in their respective
contributions.

H. M. JENKINS.

(•273 = 7)

CONTENTS.

Introduction .. .. .. .. .. Page 1 1

Chapter I. — Home and Foreign Supply of Food.

Functions of Government in regard to the Supply of Food — Value of Cereal
and Animal Food imported from Abroad — Rapid Rise in the Value of Meat
— may be checked by Importations from America — Proportion of Home and
Foreign Supply of Food in this Country — England now chiefly dependent on
the latter for further Increase — Cost of Carriage equal to the Rent of Land
here — Agricultural Statistics sufficiently accurate for use — Their main
Features — Diminution of Corn in Ireland — Present Agricultural Prosperity
of that Country — Extent of the various Crops and numbers of Live-Stock—
Quantities and Value of Home and Foreign Produce, respectively, consumed
annually in this Country .. .. .. .. Pages 12-18

Chapter-II. — Changes and Progress in Agriculture in recent Years.

Reaping and Mowing Machines — Steam Plough — Double-Furrow Plough —
General use of Steam-power — Successive Com Crops — use to which this
might be put in time of War — capable of checking a permanent great Rise
in Price of Wheat — Autumn Culture and Steam-power, with imported
Manures, have given great command of Crops — Mr. Lawes’ Experiments :
their Value and some of their special Lessons — The Experiments at Woburn
— Extension of Land-drainage and Improvement of Farm Buildings and
Labourers’ Cottages — Change within 30 years, more in general dilfusion of
Improved Practice, and better Breeds of Stock, than in the introduction of
New Systems — Greatest change caused by the Prosperity of the Country
and the rise in the Value of Animal Food — vast consequent Increase in the
Capital Value of Live-Stock and Landed Property .. .. Pages 18-24

Chapter III. — Soil, Climate, and Crops.

Extent of Country and Proportion of various Crops — as influenced by Climate,
Situation, and Rainfall — Weight and relative Value of Corn Crops — Ex-
amples of Soils of greatest and least natural Fertility — and of an average
soil unmanured and specially man n red— Plants which 23redominate in
Uncultivated Land .. .. .. .. .. .. Pajics 24-27

X 2

274=5

Contents.

Chapter IV. — Distribution of Landed Property.

Tendency to Diminution in number of small Estates — Proportion of Land-
owners to whole Population as one in a hundred — These, being Heads of
Families, equivalent to one in twenty — Hence one-twentieth of Population
interested in Landed Property — Increased to one-fifth by the interests of
Tenant Fanners as Part Owners of Agricultural Property. — One-fifth of the
Land held by the Peerage — Not cultivated by Owners but by Farmers —
relative Extent of their Holdings in England and in Ireland — Trade and
Colonies enable us to dispense with checks on Increase of Population — That
checked in Ireland by Potato Famine — Decrease of smallest Holdings there
on return of Prosperity — Diminution of Agricultural Population — and of
Yeomen farming their own I.and — Experiment of Peasant Proprietors in
Ireland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Pages27-55

Chapter V. — Landowner, Farmer, and Labourer.

The Landowners, their position, duties, and influence — Their number, and the
immense Capital Value of their Property — The Tenant Farmers, the pro-
irortional extent of their Holdings, their Numbers and Capital — The
Labourers — condition now better than at any previous period, comparing
their Wages with the Price of Bread — Each of the three classes constantly
recruited by Changes of Property and Employment — Kesult of the System,
compared with that of other countries, shows larger Eeturns at less Cost —
Special Features of System in England — in Scotland — iu Ireland — Tenancy-
at-will in England — Leases in Scotland — Middlemen in Ireland, and the
Results^ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Fuges 33-41

Chapter VI. — Land Lmprovement.

Hindrances by Settlements and Incumbrances — Expedients adopted to overcome
the incapacity of Owners to provide Capital for Improvement — State Loans
for Land Improvement — Followed by Loans from Land Improvement
Companies — Total Amount so expended — Parliamentary Inquiry into the
mode of working these Loans, and their results — General Testimony to their
remunerative character — Land Drainage the most remunerative Improve-
ment— Greater Caution required in Expenditure on Buildings — Labourers’
Dwellings, judiciously executed and placed, as remunerative as any other
outlay of Landowner’s Capital — Better Cottages wanted rather than more of
them — Examples of remunerative Expenditure .. .. Pages 42-45

Chapter VII. — Decent Rise in the Value of Land.

Great Rise in the Value of Land since the Repeal of the Corn Laws — only
partly due to the outlay of Capital in Improvements — Greatest Rise has been
in the Grazing Counties, on Grass Lands, and in Scotland — The cause of
this — The Scotch Landowner better trained to his Business — Landowning
the only Business in which special Training is not deemed necessary —
Security for Tenant’s Capital required — Admirable Principle of Drainage
Loans — Extended Powers of Sale in the case of Settled Estates desirable —
Settlements should bo limited to Lives in bciim .. .. Paces 48-34

Contents.

275 = 0

Chapter VIII. — The Government in its Connection with Agriculture.

No Minister of Agriculture, and no Government Control exercised, or State
Schools for Agriculture, or Flocks or Herds maintained by Government —
The Inclosure Commission the only State Department connected with the
Land — Its various Functions — Main Drainage Commissions for Control of
Floods — These beneficial where not permitted to remain too long stagnant
— Great Engineering Works seldom required — Exchange of Intermixed
Lands inexpensive and simple in its operation — Extent to which the
Power of Exchange is used . . . . . . . . . . Pages 54-57

Chapter IX. — Waste Lands and Copijholds.

Inclosure of Waste Lands, its extent and results — Quality and occupation of
persons to whom Waste Lands passed — Extent of Public Eoads constructed
and Value of Lands devoted to Public Objects, at the cost of the Owners of
Common Rights, equal to one-eighth of value of the whole land inclosed —
Enfranchisement of Copyhold Lands and Buildings — Number completed —
Extinction of this objectionable kind of Tenure desirable — Mode of accom-
plishing this .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Pages 57-di

Chapter X. — Church, Crown, and Charity Estates.

Tithes commuted from payment in kind to Money — Unexpected effect of this
in preventing a rise in the Income of the Church, and increasing that of the
Landowners — Parish Clergy a body of resident Landowners equal in number
to more than one-fourth of those over 2001. a year, the removal of whom
might prove a change of great magnitude in its social effect — Her Majesty’s
Woods, Forests, and Land Revenues managed with great judgment — and
now yield a net Return to the Exchequer exceeding the Civil List paid
to the Queen — General Conditions on which the Farms of the Crown are let
— Charity Estates, their Extent and annual Value — now placed under the
general direction of Government — Their Magnitude compared with the Cost
of the Civil Administration of the Country .. „ .. Pages 62-66

>i V. ..: .,

^,4,^V»v.k 'i*'*rti »& <»i -.TXrY

*t«»fl^'^irr»jMi' btiMoil^iianaMWvpO oft f'®*’- .r/iiiilmhjl' Vv i 'ViW -

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OL.

(277=11)

BEITISH AGRICULTURE.

INTEODUCTION.

The object of this book is to describe the present state of General con-
agriculture in the British Islands, for the information of the
Agricultural Congress which will be held during the period of
the International Exhibition at Paris, and in which the agricul-
ture of the United Kingdom will be practically illustrated by
live-stock, machinery, implements, and agricultural products.

It begins with a description of the annual supplies required for
the food and woollen clothing of the population, and of the
sources whence these are derived, and the proportion in which
they are the produce of home and foreign growth. A nariative
is then given of any considerable changes which have occurred
in the objects and processes of agriculture in recent times, and
of the value of the improvements which have been made. The
vast increase in agricultural wealth arising from the demands of
a prosperous people will be noticed, and the influence which
has thus been exercised on the modes of husbandry. The great
business which has arisen in the importation and manufacture
of manures and of cattle-food will be referred to. A sketch
will be given of the extent and agricultural resources of the
country, of its climate and soil, and the peculiarities of manage-
ment arising therefrom, and of the different classes employed
in its agriculture and their influence upon, and relation to each
other. The leading features of the agricultural management of
the three nations Avhich compose the British people will be
described, and the general results of their system. Reference
will also be made to the public institutions connected with
agriculture, the revenues arising from land devoted to charitable,
educational, and religious objects, and their management, and
the slight direct connection of Government with the land, and
its general freedom from State control. Farm capital, with the
price and rent of land and the wages of labour, and the general
condition and educational arrangement of the agricultural popu-
lation, with the financial system and legislation as affecting

278=12

British Agriculture,

Value of cereal
and animal
food imported
from abroad.

Rapid rise in
value of meat,
the compara-
tively high
price of which
pays for long
transport.

agriculture, will be treated in greater detail. The practice of
agriculture, the characteristic crops and breeds of cattle and
their management, and the system of cultivation, will be de-
scribed, and the aids which chemistry and mechanics in recent
times have afforded to the cultivation of the soil and the rearing
and feeding of live-stock.

CHAPTER I.

Home and Foreign Supply of Food.

One of the most important functions of Government is to
take care that there shall be no hindrance to the people sup-
plying themselves with food and clothing, which are the first
necessaries of life. And as these are, in one form or another,
annual products of the earth, dependent for their abundance on
the skill, capital and labour employed in its cultivation, much of
the safety and welfare of a country arises from the condition of its
agriculture. That of England has attained an exceptionally high
productiveness. The best of our land has long been occupied,
and, though there is yet much of the inferior class that admits of
improvement, it has become our interest as a nation to look
also for further supplies from the broader and richer lands of
other countries, which, to their advantage and ours, the beneficent
principle of Free-trade has placed within our reach.

The progressive increase of foreign supplies during the past
twenty years is marvellous, the value of foreign cereal and
animal food imported having risen from 35,000,000Z. in 1857,
to 110,000,000/. in 1876. The greatest proportional increase
has been in the importation of animal food : living animals, fresh
and salted meat, fish, poultry, eggs, butter and cheese, which
in that period has risen from an annual value of seven to thirty-
six millions sterling. More than half the farinaceous articles
imported, other than wheat, are used in the production of beer
and spirits.

The imports of animal food during the first fourteen years of
free-trade were comparatively small, the difference of price here
and in foreign countries not then affording a margin sufficiently
encouraging to justify costly arrangements of transit. But as
the price of meat in this country moved steadily up, rising in a
few years from fivepence to sevenpence, ninepence, and even
a shilling a pound, enterprise with skill and capital were called
into rapid action to meet the growing demand. It became
clear that an article so valuable could cover the cost of carriage
for much longer distances than corn ; a pound-weight of meat

British Agriculture.

279 = 13

beings many times more valuable than a pound of corn. All
kinds of salted meat were expected, and came ; but fresh meat
(except as live animals), from its perishable nature, was not
anticipated in any considerable quantity. The cost of trans-
porting live animals from any great distance must obviously
present a very important difficulty. And a further and most
serious objection arose, in regard to those from nearer European
ports, in the risk of such live animals bringing with them across
the seas the contagion of cattle-plague, or other pests, dangerous
to the live-stock of this country. All this could be avoided by Fresh meat
the importation of fresh meat, and a plan with this object, re- America
cently adopted by an American company, has been attended
with a large measure of success. The steam-ships in which the price in
meat is carried have chambers fitted in such a manner that the E’lrope.
meat can be kept fresh during the voyage by currents of air cooled
by ice. During the last winter and spring large shipments
have thus been successfully made, and most of them have arrived
in good condition. Should this plan prove, on the whole, safe
and successful, we shall have the vast prairies of America added
to our own pastures as new sources of supply. This will be a
great benefit to the consumers of meat in this country, but
probably more by preventing a further rapid rise in the price
of meat than by effecting a reduction upon it. The American
people are themselves much greater consumers of meat, man for
man, than the English, and when prosperity returns to that
country their home consumption will increase, and the surplus
for exportation be diminished. Moreover, the English market
will take only the best quality. Under any circumstances the
English producer has the advantage of at least a penny a pound
in the cost and risk of transport, against his Transatlantic com-
petitor,— an advantage equal to 4Z. on an average ox. Of this
natural advantage nothing can deprive him ; and with this he
may rest content.

The proportion in which the people of this country are
I dependent for their principal articles of food on home and
foreign supply, was the subject of an inquiry by me in 1868, in
a paper read to the Statistical Society. At that time I found Proportion of
I the foreign supply to be in the proportion of one-fifth of the
I whole. In the ten years since that time the importation of of food in tL"
meat has more than doubled, butter and cheese have risen nearly United King-
one-third, wheat more than a third, and other grain has doubled.

More than one-fourth of our total consumption of agricultural
produce is now obtained from other countries.

But it is a question of interest, both to the home and foreign
I producer, to ascertain more closely the proportion of the two
I chief articles, bread and meat. In the past ten years there has

280=14

British Agriculture.

England now
chiefly de-
))endent on
foreign supply
for further
increase.

Cost of car-
riage equal to
the rent of
land in Eng-
land.

Agricultural
statistics of the
United King-
dom.

been a gradual reduction of the acreage and produce of wheat in
this country, and a more than corresponding increase in the
foreign supply ; the result of which is that we now receive our
bread in equal proportions from our own fields and those of the
stranger. In regard to meat, and other animal products, ten
years ago the proportion of foreign was one-tenth of the whole.
It has now risen to nearly one-fourth.

This country thus derives from foreign lands, not only one-
half of its bread and nearly one-fourth of its meat and dairy
produce, but must also depend on the foreigner for almost the
entire addition that may be further required by an increase of
its population. In the last ten years there has been no increase
in the acreage or production of corn, and little in that of meat.
The extent of green crops and grass has slightly increased, from
the double impulse of the rise in wages, and the increasing
demand for dairy produce and meat. But, excluding good
lands capable of 'being rendered fertile by drainage, we appear
to have approached a point in agricultural production beyond
which capital can be otherwise more profitably expended in
this country than in further attempting to force our poorer class
of soils. It is cheaper for us as a nation to get the surplus
from the richer lands of America and Southern Russia, where
the virgin soil is still unexhausted ; or from the more ancient
agriculture of India, which, with its cheap and abundant labour
more skilfully applied, and its means of transport extended and
better utilised, seems destined to become one of the principal
sources of our future supply of corn.

The cost of carriage depends very much on distance, and as
the chief supply of wheat comes from great distances, California,
the Black Sea, and India, the cost of transporting a quantity
equal to the produce of an acre in England is seldom less, and
often more, than 405. Hay and straw are so bulky that they
can only bear the cost of carriage from near continental ports.
Fresh meat from America, from the costly methods necessary to
preserve it, will, on the produce of an acre, cost equal to 405. for
transport to this country. This natural protection enjoyed by the
British farmer in his proximity to the home market, as com-
pared with the foreign farmer who seeks our market for his
produce, thus gives him an advantage equal to the present
average rent of his land, and forms some reasonable compensa-
tion for the higher taxes and wages which he has to pay as
compared with his competitors in most foreign countries.

The total home produce can now be very correctly calculated
from the annual agricultural returns. The collection of these
returns was instituted in Ireland at the time of the potato famine
in 1847, and they have been published continuously since that

British Agi'iculture.

281 = i5

time. The information is collected by the constabulary, a
semi-military force, stationed in all parts of the country, and
is arranged by the Registrar-General, and annually printed.

Not for twenty years afterwards were there any complete
returns from Great Britain. After long perseverance I suc-
ceeded in obtaining a Resolution of the House of Commons in
favour of the collection of agricultural statistics, which was in
consequence carried out for the first time in 1867, the collec-
tion of the returns being made by the officers of Inland Revenue,
and their arrangement for publication by the Statistical Depart-
ment of the Board of Trade. The experience gained by ten
years’ repetition of the various inquiries has created such a fund
of local knowledge among the officers of the Inland Revenue
that there can now be no doubt entertained of the substantial
accuracy of the returns. Minute accuracy is not expected or Their accmacj

required, but the comparisons from year to year show the relative sufficient for

X ' ^ A ^ j ^ ijVcictiCtil use

accuracy obtained to be sufficient for all practical purposes. ‘

It appears from these returns that though there was an excep- Their main
tional decrease in the acreage of wheat in 1876, arising from the features,
great floods in the autumn seed-time of 1875, which prevented a
considerable proportion of the land being sown, no great change
has occurred during the past ten years in the production of wheat
in Great Britain. It has somewhat diminished in England and
largely in Ireland, but the diminution is quite made up by a
corresponding increase in barley. Oats remain much the same,
and the total extent of arable is very slightly altered.

The permanent pasture during the same period has increase'/! Increase of
8 per cent., no doubt from the increased cost of labour and the
gradual rise in the value of live-stock and its produce. This
increase of 8 per cent., amounting to nearly one million acres,
not having diminished the extent of corn, must represent an
addition of that breadth gained by reclamation during the ten
years ; and, as some considerable extent of land is yearly taken
from cultivation by the increase of towns and the construction of
new railroads, this shows an important gain by agricultural
enterprise.

The general extent of green crops has very slightly altered in
the ten years, potatoes alone showing some diminution. A large
increase, however, in the proportion of mangold is shown by a Increase of the
rise of 100,000 acres more than in 1867. This is a root-crop “angold crop,
peculiarly well suited to the deep soils and dry and warm
climate of the south-east and southern counties ; and its keeping
properties, continuing well into the following summer, are a
great recommendation to the stock farmer. A rise of 40 per
cent, in the breadth cultivated, within so short a period as ten
years, is a convincing proof that the great value of this plant

2S2= 16

British Agriculture.

Diminution of
corn and
increase of
grass in Ire-
land.

Present great
agricultural
prosperity of
that country.

is at length beginning to be generally recognised, and there
seems a probability of its continued extension. In live-stock
there has been a moderate increase in Great Britain during the
past ten years.

In Ireland the change of crops has been greater than in
England or Scotland, the extent of land under corn having
diminished in ten years by 12 per cent. Wheat has fallen to
less than one-half, there is an increase of 28 per cent, in barley,
but a decrease of nearly 10 per cent, in oats. Potatoes have
fallen 12 per cent., while turnips have slightly increased. On
the whole there has been a diminution of 267,000 acres of land
under corn, and an addition of 203,000 acres to permanent
meadow and grass. The reduction of the acreage of wheat, for
which the climate of most parts of Ireland is too moist, and the
considerable decline in potatoes, the tempting but precarious crop
upon which that country has hitherto too much relied, are evident
signs of prudence and prosperity. In the same period, though
there has been a reduction in the number of sheep, that is much
more than compensated by an increase in cattle ; and as the
expenditure on drainage and land improvement, and in the
building of farm-houses and labourers’ cottages, has been greatly
increasing, year by year, the state of agriculture in Ireland,
chiefly owing to the high price of live stock, and the increasing
demand for store animals to be fattened in Great Britain, now
appears to have attained a position of general progress and
prosperity greater than has ever been previously experienced in
that portion of the United Kingdom.

The extent of land under the various crops in the United
Kingdom in 1877, was, in wheat, 3,321,000 acres ; barley,

2.652.000 acres; oats, 4,239,000 acres ; potatoes, 1,393,000 acres;
other green crops, 3,566,000 acres ; flax, 130,000 acres ; hops,

70.000 acres; bare fallow, 633,000 acres; grass under rotation,

6.441.000 acres ; permanent pasture, 24,000,000 acres (besides
mountain pastures and wastes) ; woods and plantations, 2,511,000
acres.

The number of live-stock of various kinds in 1877 was, of
horses, 2,834,000; cattle, 9,693,000; sheep, 32,157,000; pigs,
3,964,000.

By the aid of the agricultural returns, and those of the annual I
imports of foreign and colonial produce, I have constructed the
following Table, showing the comparative quantities of home
and foreign growth, and the value of agricultural produce at
present required for the annual consumption of the people, and
live-stock, of this country. The grass, green crops other than
potatoes, and straw used on the farm, are not included, nor the
value of the increase of liorses.

Tabi.e showing Cosipar.vtive Quantity and Value of Home and Foreign Agricultural Produce Consumed Annually.

British Agriculture. 28o= 17

284= IS

British Agriculture.

Quantity and
value of home
and foreign
agricultural
produce, re-
spectively, con-
sumed annu-
ally in the
British Islands.

The total value of the home crop is more than the double
of that which we import, but the proportion of vegetable and
animal food is singularly close, as will be seen by this farther
arrangement of the figures : —

Home Growth. Foreign.

Value of corn and vegetable produce £12.5,737,500 £52,537,500

Value of animal produce .. .. 135,000,000 58,170,000

The quantity of Indian corn imported in 1876 was nearly
40,000,000 cwt., an amount quite exceptional and unprece-
dented, and therefore not included in its full amount in the
preceding Table.

CHAPTER IT.

The most
striking fea-
tures of recent
agricultural
progress.

The reaping
and mowing
machines.

The steam-
plough.

Changes and Progress of Agriculture in recent Years.

Before entering on a more detailed description of the prin-
ciples which regulate the agriculture and general management of
landed property in this country, it may be useful shortly to
notice its more recent progress, and those changes of practice
which science or art, or the circumstances of his position in
regard to competition or labour, have forced on the British
farmer. With a few exceptions the change will be found rather
in the more general diffusion of a knowledge of good principles
and practice than in any considerable advance upon either.

The most striking feature of agricultural progress within the
last twenty years has been the general introduction of reaping-
machines, one of which can do the work of ten men. This
has multiplied the effect of human labour tenfold, and that at
the most critical season, the harvest, when the entire crop ripens
within a fortnight, and must with all possible expedition be
saved without loss of time. For haymaking, a similar machine
is in the same proportion available. It would be difficult to
reckon the vast saving which the introduction of this most
important invention has made at these most critical periods,
haytime and harvest.

Next to it is the steam-plough, which, on heavy land and in
large fields, especially where coal is moderate in cost and water
easily available, is both economical and expeditious. A steam-
plough capable of ploughing ten acres a day, will do the labour
of ten men and twenty horses, and will execute the work mucli
more effectively, and with no injurious trampling of the tender
soil. But it is as yet a costly implement, beyond the reach of
small farmers except when hired as an auxiliary, and not capable
of doing its work with economy within small enclosures. The

GENERAL VIEW

BEITISH AGEICULTUEE.

JAMES CAIRD, C.B., F.R.S.,

AUTHOn OF 'ENGLISH AGIUCULTUEE IN 1800 AND I8S1.’

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

• • i.

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British Agriculture.

285 = 19

saving of laboui' is great in suitable localities, but it is not so

uniformly applic.able, nor does it so certainly and quickly repay

its cost, as the reaping-machine. On light and friable soils the The douhle-

double-furrow plough, balancing itself with greatly less friction furrow plough.

in proportion than the single plough, is found to do the same

work with one man and three horses as two single ploughs with

two men and four horses. This is equal to a saving of 100 per

cent, in man-power, and 25 per cent, in horse-power, and it will

become more generally available on the lighter soils if any

serious pressure arises from scarcity of labour. In the threshing General use of

of corn, and cutting of straw and hay for fodder, and the grinding steam power in

and bruising of corn and cake for horse and cattle food, the aid o'f^crops.'^*^

of steam-power has long been used by the farmers of this

country.

Next to the economy of labour may be ranked the increase of Successive
produce by the expedient of taking two corn crops in succes- crops,
sion where the land is clean and in high condition, and can bear
the application of special manure, and where the agriculturist
is free to follow a rational system of farming. The four-course
system of alternate corn and green-crops — wheat, turnips, barley,
clover — had two great advantages, first by alternating restorative
and cleansing crops with corn ; and second, by regular distribu-
tion of labour throughout the year. The introduction of guano,
nitrate of soda, and other ammoniacal and phosphatic manures,
has now rendered the farmer comparatively independent of this
alternate system of cropping. As the supply of nitrate is believed
to be capable of lasting for a very long period, we may reckon
with considerable certainty on its continuance at a moderate price.

It might become an instrument of great national value if any Use to which
unforeseen occurrence should cut off one of our main
of wheat, that of Russia, for example. If only the twentieth part ^

of the corn land of the United Kingdom were called on to bear
an additional wheat crop, the loss would be at once made good,
and with no perceptible strain on our agricultural system, if
all Europe were shut against us, we should be quickly able to
meet the increased home demand by double-cropping to the
extent of one-tenth of our corn-land, and without any greater
change in the demand for nitrate of soda than has already been
met by the advancing supplies of recent years. It is unneces-
sary to consider the position of this country, were even a heavier
calamity to befall us, obtaining as we do from the foreigner so
large a proportion of our food, for it is not conceivable that the
producers of corn in any country would desire to see the best
market in the world long closed to them. But it is clear that

we possess in this power of taking a
a latent reserve force which might, on

second crop of wheat
very short notice, be

286 = 20

British Agriculture.

Likely to check
a permanent
rise in the
price of wheat.

Autumn cul-
ture and
steam-power,
with imported
manures, have
given great
command of
crops.

.^reat value to
British agri-
culture of Mr.
Lawes’ experi-
ments.

brought into action, and which should dispel all fear of oui
being starved into submission in case of war ; and this without
reckoning anything on the immense reserve power of cereal
production which is stored up in the pasture lands, ready in case
of need.

It is a power, moreover, that will check any considerable per-
manent rise in the price of wheat. A decline in the acreage
under wheat, when not caused by a bad seed-time, is the natural
result of low price ; but when the price rises, increased acreage j
quickly follows. Were the price to rise steadily, and show
signs of permanence, the second-crop system would extend, and
continue to do so until the increase of produce was found to
check the rise in price. Barley may be taken after barley I
with more success on many soils than wheat ; and where there
is reason to suppose that a second crop of wheat, however care- '
fully the ground may have been managed and manured, may be
likely to fail, barley may, with great probability, be expected
to succeed.

The use of nitrate of soda or other sources of ammonia, com-
bined with phosphatic manures, promises to be a more permanent
resource to British agriculture than Peruvian guano, which unites
the same properties in itself, but seems likely soon to become
exhausted. Autumn culture, aided by the command of time
which steam-power has given to the agriculturist, and that sup-
plemented by spring top-dressings of nitrates and phosphates, i
have made continuous corn-cropping possible and profitable,
without injury to the land, whenever soil and circumstances \
render such a practice necessary. The old plan of relying on
the resources of the farm by depending on the manure made
upon it, while the corn and meat were sold away, will not
always answer now. Commerce and mercantile enterprise have ;
provided other means for maintaining fertility at a cheaper
cost, and in a more commodious and portable form. One cwt.
of nitrate of soda will give a more certain return of corn than
fifty times its weight in farmyard-manure, and can be carried
to and spread upon the ground at one-fiftieth of the labour.
The proof of this, in Mr. Lawes’ experiments, has been before
the country for more than thirty years, and yet it is only
beginning to be generally recognised.

To Mr. J. B. Lawes tlie agriculture of this country is more
indebted than to any other living man. For 33 years he has
conducted, at his own cost, a scries of experiments on his
estate in Hertfordshire, the results of which have been annually
published, and the farm itself, with every detail of the work,
has been laid open to public inspection and criticism. Among
other valuable results, one most useful fact has been elicited.

British Agriculture.

287 = 21

that of that mass of dark, strongly smelling substance called
dung, its sole property as a manure depends upon the small
quantity of chemical salts and of organic nitrogen which it con-
tains, the bulky organic matter being only useful in making the
land work better, and rendering it more capable of absorbing
and retaining moisture. Beginning in 1844 with wheat, the staff
of life in this country, he for eight years concentrated his atten-
tion upon it, dividing his experimental field into 22 plots, upon
2 of which no manure has ever been applied, and upon the
other 20 a carefully considered variety of manures has been con-
tinuously used. In 1852 he commenced a similar series of ex-
periments with barley, and in 1869 on a smaller area with oats.
Experiments with leguminous crops had been for a series of
years continued, but this species of plant being found, when
grown too frequently on the same land, to be peculiarly subject
to disease, which no conditions of manuring appeared capable of
obviating, they were discontinued. With regard to red clover,
when the land becomes clover-sick, it was found that no manure
could be relied on to secure a crop, and continuous crops of it are
therefore impossible. Experiments on the various root-crops were
continued for series of years, and the result published ; also on
sugar-beet; and in 1876 a commencement was made with
potatoes. His experiments on the corn-crops go on without
cessation. In 1856 an important series of experiments was com-
! menced on grass-land, which, with very little change on each of
the 20 plots, has been continued to the present time. The
average of the past twenty years shows that the natural produce
may be doubled, and even trebled, by the continuous use of
special manures. Seeing that nearly two-thirds of the cultivated Some of their
area of this country, and all the uncultivated, are in grass, lessons,

this series of experiments is of very great interest and value.

After 33 successive wheat-crops it is not surprising that the
soil begins to exhibit symptoms of exhaustion. The rotation
experiments show that this may be corrected by interposing a
heavily dunged green-crop, such as mangold, while the intro-
duction of red clover between the corn-crops is also found to
add greatly to the corn-producing power of the soil. To attain
a maximum-paying produce, he finds that the land should be
dunged heavily for mangold, to be followed with wheat or barley
or oats, according to soil and climate, for several years in suc-
cession ; then interpose clover, and follow it with corn-crops,
keeping the land perfectly clean, and manuring all the corn-
crops with nitrate of soda and superphosphate. When the land
shows need of change, begin again with heavily-dunged green-
crops. Successive crops of barley he finds to pay better, and
are more certain than either wheat or oats, and give more corn in
VOL. XIV. — S. S. T

288 = 22

British Agriculture.

The Woburn
experiments.

Extension of
land drainage,
and improve-
ment of farm
labourers’ cot-
tages, and
housing for
live-stock.

Large annual
expenditure on
cattle food and
portable ma-
nure.

The change in
the last thirty
years more in
the general
diffusion of
improved prac-

proportion to straw. If a heavily-dunged green-crop is occasion-
ally introduced, it is not necessary to give any other manure to
the corn-crops than nitrate of soda and superphosphate. Potash
(which may be supplied by dung) is very necessary in a grass-
manure, especially for clover, which, unlike corn, is injured by
ammonia. The grass experiments show that by giving food to
the plants, the strongest and best varieties appropriate what
they most need, and, by the law of the strongest, put the weakest
down. In the best plots the weeds almost disappear, while
on one plot, to which no manure is applied, the weeds form
50 per cent, of the produce. — Besides these experiments on crops,
Mr. Lawes has carried out investigations on the feeding of live-
stock, and on the different values of their food, both as affecting
the processes of fattening and the quality and value of the
manure.*

The Royal Agricultural Society has commenced a series of
experiments on the growth of crops and the fattening of live
stock, with a special relation to the manures applied and the
food used, and to the effect of the manures resulting from specific
kinds of food. The Duke of Bedford, with great liberality and
public spirit, has undertaken the cost of these expeiiments, and
has placed suitable land and buildings at the disposal of the
Society, whose Council, under the guidance of Mr. Lawes, and
of Dr. Voelcker, their consulting chemist, regulate and super-
intend them. They are open to publi’c inspection, and under
such management the most useful results may be anticipated.

There has been a great extension of drainage in recent years,
and in the construction of improved farm-buildings, and in the
better lodging of farm-labourers in more commodious cottages.
And in regard to live-stock there has been a wider diffusion of
the best breeds, and generally an earlier maturity obtained in the
process of fattening. The use of improved implements and machi-
nery has greatly extended, as also has the general application of
locomotive steam-power to the threshing and other preparation
of crops for market or feeding purposes. Cheap descriptions of
corn are largely employed in the fattening of stock, and also
oil-cake, cotton-cake, and rape-cake. For these, and for bones,
guano, and nitrate of soda used as manure, the annual ex-
penditure cannot now be less than twelve millions sterling.

But, with the exception of the reaping-machine and steam-
plough, and the more general use of steam-power, and other
implements and machines, there is really little that is new
in the practice of the last quarter of a century. The present
system of drainage was previously well understood. Bones,

A more full description of tlie plan and results of Mr. Lawes’ operations is
given by Dr. Voelcker in his contribution to this Memoir.

British Agriculture.

289 = 25

guano, and nitrate of soda were fully appreciated by those tices, and
who then used them. Covered buildings and autumn .

ration had been introduced. Mr. Hudson of Castleacre, in the introduc-
Norfolk, then manured his land for every crop. In running tion of new
my eye over the account which I wrote of English agriculture
in 1850, I find descripti9ns of good farming in nearly every
part of the country, the details of which differ very little from the
practice of the present day. Mr. Pusey and Sir John Conroy
in Berkshire; Mr. Thomas in Bedfordshire; Mr. Beasley in
Northampton ; Mr. Paget in Notts ; Mr. Torr in Lincoln ; Mr.

Mechi, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, and Mr. Hutley, in Essex ; Mr.

Huxtable in Dorset; Jonas Webb in Cambridgeshire; Mr.

Morton in Gloucestershire ; the Messrs. Wells and Outhwaite
in Yorkshire ; Mr. Fleming of Barrochan, Mr. M‘Culloch of
Auchness, and Mr. George Hope, in Scotland ; Lord Lucan,

Mr. St. John Jeffryes, and Mr. Boyd of Castlewellan, in Ireland,
and many others, then carried out the business of farming in a
manner that would bear favourable comparison with the prize-
farms of the present year. And, as to breeds of cattle, the
brothers Ceiling’s and Messrs. Booth’s and Mr. Bates’s Short-
horns, George Turner’s and the Messrs. Quartley’s Devons, Mr.

Bakewell’s Leicesters, Jonas Webb’s Southdowns, are not sur-
passed by the best of the present day. The change has been
not in any considerable progress beyond what was then the
best, but in a general upheaval of the middling and the worst
towards the higher platform then occupied by the few.

Towards this end, but beyond all efforts of the agriculturists Influence upon
themselves, or of the engineers and chemists who have done agriculture of
so much to aid them in developing the capabilities of the land, prosperiTy of
has been the influence of the general prosperity and growing the country in
trade and wealth of the country. Thirty years ago, probably
not more than one-third of the people of this country con- and the ™nse’-
sumed animal food more than once a week. Now, nearly all quent increase
of them eat it, in meat or cheese or butter, once a day. This capital
has more than doubled the average consumption per head ;
and when the increase of population is considered, has pro-
bably trebled the total consumption of animal food in this
country. The increased supply has come partly from our own
fields, but chiefly from abroad. The leap which the con-
sumption of meat took in consequence of the general rise of
wages in all branches of trade and employment, could not have
been met without foreign supplies, and these could not
have been secured except by such a rise of price as fully paid
the risk and cost of transport. The additional price on the home-
produce was all profit to the landed interests of this country, and
is now being shared among them, partly in rise of rent, partly in

Y 2

290 = 24

British Agriculture,

and in that
of land.

Extent of the
country, and
proportions of
various crops.

as influeMed
by climate,

increase of profit, and chiefly in rise of wages and expenses, and
local rates. Within the last twenty-five years, the capital value
of the live-stock of the United Kingdom has risen from one
hundred and forty-six to two hundred and sixty millions sterling,
a gain of one hundred and fourteen millions.

It will be subsequently shown, when treating of the value of
land, that within a somewhat shorter period the increase of the
land-rent of this country, when capitalised at dO years’ purchase,
shows an increased value of three hundred and thirty-one millions
sterling. When we add to this the increase of farm-capital,
through the rise in the value of live-stock, one hundred and
fourteen millions, there is the amazing sum of four hundred and
forty-five millions sterling as the gain to the agriculturists, —
the landowners, and farmers — and, in higher wages, to the agri-
cultural labourers of the United Kingdom, from the improvement
of land and the general prosperity of the country. I may, perhaps,
be excused for quoting the concluding words of my volume,
written in 1851, at a time of great agricultural depression, when
I stated that I believed the landlords and tenants of England
possessed energy and capacity sufficient to meet and adapt them-
selves to the Free-trade policy, “ which, in its extraordinary
effect on the welfare of all other classes of the community, would,
sooner or later, bear good fruits also to them.”

CHAPTEE III.

Soil, Climate, and Crops.

The total extent of the United Kingdom is 76,300,000 acres,
of which 26,300,000 are in mountain pasture and waste,
and 50,000,000 in crops, meadows, permanent pasture, and
woods and forests. Of the crops, one-fourth is in various
kinds of corn, one-eighth in green crops, one-eighth in grass
under rotation, and one-half in meadows and permanent pasture.
About a thirtieth of the whole surface of the Kingdom is in
woods and forests. These proportions show the prevailing
system of husbandry, and reveal the cause of its increasing pro-
ductiveness. Three-fourths of the whole are green crops, which
feed and clean, or grass which rests and maintains, the remain-
ing fourth in corn. This preponderance of restorative over
exhaustive crops greatly exceeds that of any other country, and
is very much due to the climate.

The climate of the eastern side is drier than that of the west,
the fall of rain at equal altitudes being as 25 inches in the east
to 35 in the west. The drought and heat are greatest in the

British Agriculture. 291 = 25

east, centre, and south-east in spring and summer. The whole
western side of the country is comparatively mild and moist, and
specially adapted for green crops and pasture. The east, having
generally a deeper soil and greater heat in summer, is best suited
to wheat and barley. It produces 64 per cent, of all the wheat and
barley grown, and 74 per cent, of the pulse crops. The west, on
the other hand, contains more than twice the extent of permanent
pasture, and produces nearly double the number of cattle. The
waters of the Gulf Stream envelop the British Islands. Their
vapours, carried over every part of the Kingdom by prevailing
west winds, temper the cold of winter, and the heats of summer.

This favours the growth, on the west especially, of succulent
herbage and green crops, and we are free from the extremes
experienced on the Continent. Grass and green crops flourish
in all parts of the country, and both in the low lands and on the
mountain pastures of the west and north, sheep feed unsheltered
and unhoused during both winter and summer. Beasts of prey
are unknown.

The annual rainfall in the lower parts of the country varies and rainfall,
from 25 to 35 inches. In the mountainous districts these figures
may be doubled. But, limiting our consideration to the culti-
vated lands, it must be obvious that an annual rainfall upon an
acre of land, in the one case of 2500 tons and in the other of
3500 tons, accompanied by corresponding humidity of atmo-
sphere, will greatly modify the respective systems of husbandry
practised. Accordingly, the eastern half of the country may be
correctly described as the corn and fattening region, and the
western half as the dairy and breeding region of the Kingdom.

The winter temperature is more severe in the east than the
west, and that of the summer warmer and more sunny and
better suited to the ripening of wheat ; while that of the west,
being less scorching and more cloudy, is better adapted to
pasture and oats. The value of live-stock is so much greater
than corn, that it is not found profitable to push the limit of
cultivation to a greater height than 800 feet in the east and
500 in the west, and these limits are becoming more circum-
scribed by the increasing cost of labour and the continued rise
in the value of live-stock.

The soil varies greatly in fertility, and its cultivation is
regulated both by the amount it yields and the cost of cultivat-
ing it. The most profitable and productive soil is that which
is at once fertile and easy of cultivation. A rich loam which Weight and
yields a ton of wheat to the acre is less costly in labour than a lelative value
poor clay which yields little more than half that weight.

Between corn and straw an average crop of wheat, harley, and
oats, will weigh two tons an acre ; about two-fifths being corn

292 = 26

British Agriculture.

Examples of
soils of the
greatest and
least natural
fertility,

and of an
average soil
unmanured,
and specially
manured.

and three-fifths straw, though the proportion of straw to corn in
wheat and oats is greater than in barley. A ton of wheat, at
the average price of the last fifteen years, is worth IIZ. 14s. ; a
ton of barley, 91. 12s. ; and of oats, 91. But the wheat is more
costly to grow, as it is four months longer in the soil, and
therefore takes more out of it than either barley or oats, and
requires either a better soil or more enriching preparation. On
soils of equal quality the average weight of barley and oats
yielded by an acre exceeds that of wheat in about the same pro-
portion as it falls short of it in value per ton. Hence, where
the soil and climate are equally suited to the production of these
varieties of corn, the choice of one or the other is more a ques-
tion of convenience than profit, and depends much on the local
value of the different kinds of straw.

The fertility of a soil may be expressed by examples taken, 1st,
in the natural state of pasture, and 2nd, on similar soils after
treatment. The maximum of fertility in the natural state is
a rich pasture capable of fattening an ox and two sheep on an
acre. Such soils are exceptional, though in most counties they
are to be met with. The Pavvlet Hams in Somersetshire, for
example, is a tract of rich alluvial soil on the River Parrott,
stretching along the sea-board. It is in permanent pasture, and
is let for grazing at 5Z. to 6Z. of rent an acre. Some of the marsh
lands of Sussex and Kent are of equal fertility. And on certain
limestone lands, not alluvial, in various parts of the country,
both east and west, feeding pastures of great fertility are met
with. Such lands, as they require neither labour nor manure,
yield the largest rents to their owners. The profit to the stock
feeder beyond the rent paid to the landowner depends on the
skill with which he conducts his business. — The minimum of
fertility may be exemplified by a bleak mountain pasture, where
ten acres will barely maintain a small sheep.

The artificial maximum and minimum of fertility which
result from the treatment of soils of the same quality is more
instructive, and may be clearly exemplified by taking two of
the experiments which have been carried on by Mr. John B.
Lawes of Rothamsted, in Hertfordshire, for the last thirty years.
Confining the comparison to the avei'age of the last twelve years,
the following is the v/eight in pounds of an average crop : —

Corn.

Straw.

Total.

1st. Wheat grown continuously without ni.murcs
2nd. „ „ „ with special manure ..

Ib,-.

730

2342

Iba.

1120

4928

lbs.

1850

7270

British Agriculture.

293 = 27

The soils here are exactly similar and in the same field, strong
land on clay with a substratum of chalk ; the management is the
same, in so far as culture is concerned ; both crops are kept
equally clean and free from^weeds, the same seed is used, and
they are exposed to the same changes of weather. The only
diflerence is, that in the one case nature has for thirty years
been unassisted by manure, and in the other the soil receives
every year the various kinds of manure which have been found
most suitable to the crop. The result of this treatment is a
return of three times the weight of corn and four times the
weight of straw, for an expenditure in manure which leaves a
profit of 100 per cent, on its cost. In both cases the wheat is
grown continuously year after year.

The plants which predominate in uncultivated land depend
both on the nature of the soil and on the climate and situation.
On poor gravel, furze grows in abundance ; on peaty uplands,
short heath ; on cold, wet bottomed soils, rushes cover the ground.
Natural woods of birch and oak are found in sheltered Highland
glens, and self-sown Scotch firs spread themselves in the neigh-
bourhood of extensive pine forests.

CHAPTEE IV.

Distribution of Landed Property.

The distribution of landed property in England, so far as Tendenc7
ownership is concerned, is, by the growing wealth of the
country, constantly tending to a reduction in the number of diminution in
small estates. This tendency is further promoted by the law, the number
which permits entails and settlements, thus hindering the
natural sale of land so dealt with ; and also by rights of
primogeniture, which prevent subdivision of landed property
among the family in case of intestacy. Cultivation thus passes
out of the hands of small owners into those of tenant-farmers,
causing a gradual decrease of the agricultural population, and a
rapid increase of the towns. This has been much accelerated
by a policy of Free-trade, which has at once opened up the
markets of the world for our commerce, and for the produce of
our mines and manufactures. These are advantageously inter-
changed for the corn and other agricultural products of foreign
lands. This will go on while the commerce is found mutually
profitable. And it will be profitable so long as by superior skill
and enterprise, combined with exceptional mineral advantages, we
can undersell other countries in the produce of our manufactories

294 = 25

British Agriculture.

and mines, while they can supply us with corn at a cheaper rate
than we can grow it at home. Our present relation with foreign
countries is becoming like that of a crowded capital, which
draws its fresh supplies of vegetables, milk, and meat, from the
market-gardens, meadows, and rich grazings in its vicinity, but
looks to more distant lands for the corn and other commodities
which bear long transport from cheaper and more distant farms.
More than one-half of our corn is now of foreign growth, and
nearly one-fourth of our meat and dairy produce ; whilst year by
year our corn-land is giving place to the more profitable produce
afforded by the milk and grazing and market-garden farms, which
are gradually extending their circle. Such produce renders the
land more valuable, more tempting prices are offered for it to the
small landowners, and their numbers decrease. Wealthy men
from the mines and manufactories and shipping and colonial
interests, and the learned professions, desire to become pro-
prietors of land ; and some competition exists between them
and those landowners whose increasing wealth tempts them
on suitable opportunities to enlarge the boundaries of their
domains. Thus small proprietors are bought out, and agricultural
landowners diminish in number ; while, side by side with them,,
vast urban populations are growing up, having no other connec-
tion with the land than that of affording the best market for its
produce.

Proportion of The Domesday Book for the United Kingdom, lately pub-
landowners ^to lished, divides the landowners into two classes — those who
tion 320 000 to have less than one acre of land, and those who have one acre
33,000,000. and upwards. The former comprise 70 per cent, of the whole ;•
but as none of this class has so much as an acre, and they
hold altogether less than a two-hundredth part of the land,,
they may be regarded as householders only. Excluding these
as not properly agricultural landowners, it may then fairly be
said that one person in every hundred of the entire popula-
tion is a landowner. Subdividing that figure by the average
numbers of each family, it may be concluded that every twentieth
head of a family is an owner of land.

Increased by But the tenant farmers are entitled also to be reckoned as part
the interests owners of agricultural property, for in the crops and live and dead
of tenant stock they own equal to one-fifth of the whole capital value of the
part owners of land. Bart of this IS incorporated with the soil, ami it is all as
agricultural indispensable for the production of crops as the land itself. As
property. cultivators, they employ and possess individually a larger capital
than the peasant proprietors of other countries in their double
capacity as owners and cultivators. They are 1,160,000 in
number, and when added to 320,000 owners of one acre and
upwards, make 1,480,000 altogether, engaged in the owner-

British Agriculture.

295 = 29

ship and cultivation of the soil. When reckoned as heads of
families they comprise more than one-fifth of the total male
adult population ; and it is thence not unreasonable to infer
that, in that proportion, the people of this country are more or
less interested in the preservation of landed property.

When we come more closely to analyse the landowning class,
the aggregation of land amongst small numbers becomes very
conspicuous. One-fourth of the whole territory, excluding those
under one acre, is held by 1200 persons, at an average for each
of 16,200 acres ; another fourth by 6200 persons, at an average
for each of 3150 acres; another fourth by 50,770 persons, at
an average for each of 380 acres ; whilst the remaining fourth
is held by 261,830 persons, at an average for each of 70 acres.
An interesting compilation from the Domesday Books by the
‘Scotsman’ newspaper, shows that the Peerage of the United
Kingdom, about 600 in number, possess among them rather more
than a fifth of all the land, and between a tenth and an eleventh
of its annual income.

The great bulk of the land in the United Kingdom is not cul-
tivated by the owners, but by tenant-occupiers. Of these there
are 561,000 in Great Britain, and 600,000 in Ireland. Ex-
cluding the mountains, wastes, and water, the cultivated land
is held by these at an average of 56 acres each in Great Britain,
and 26 acres in Ireland. But the proportion of large and small
farms in the two countries is very different, nearly half the land
in Ireland being held in small farms under 15 acres each, while
less than a fifth of Great Britain is so occupied. 86 per cent,
of the farmers in Ireland hold nearly half the land, while 70 per
cent, in Great Britain hold less than a fifth. Agriculture is the
principal occupation of the people of Ireland, the revenue from
the land there forming twice as much as that from all other
sources, whilst in Great Britain it is but a seventh of the whole.
Hence in Ireland the possession and occupancy of land is the
great political question, while in Great Britain it has ceased to
have prominence.

This country, from its insular position and the great resources
it possesses in minerals of iron and coal, and the outlet it finds
in extensive colonies, has advantages which have hitherto
enabled it to disregard those prudential considerations which,
in some other countries, have checked the rapid increase of
population. Where full employment and the means of sub-
sistence are abundant, population increases in geometrical pro-
gression, and therefore in a far more rapid proportion than
the increased productiveness of the soil, which, after a certain
point, is stationary. The population of England increases more
rapidly than that of France, because our enormous foreign trade.

One-fifth of
the land held
by the Peerage.

Not cultivated
by owners but
by tenant-
farmers ;

relative extent
of their hold-
ings in England
and Ireland.

Trade and
Colonies enable
England to dis-
pense with
checks on in-
crease of
population.

296 = 30

British Agriculture.

Checked in
Ireland by
potato famine
in 1846. Its
results.

amounting in value to 20Z. per head of our population, enables us
to add the food resources of other countries to our own. Our
surplus population, not wedded to the soil by property, emigrate
to countries of the same language, at the rate of 100,000 a year ;
partly to the United States, and partly to our own colonies. Our
agriculture is no longer influenced by considerations of the means
of finding employment for surplus labour, but is now being
developed on the principle of obtaining the largest produce at
the least cost, the same principle by which the power-loom has
supplanted the hand-loom. In this process many ancient ties
are loosened, and among them that adhesiveness to the soil which
for generations has more bound the English labourer than the
owner of the land to the parish of his birth ; the man of most
ancient known descent being in very many cases the labourer.
The process is a wholesome one so long as the command to
multiply and replenish the earth has not been fulfilled. And
the general rise of wages among the labouring class both in
town and country, with the diminution of pauperism, in the
last five years, would seem to be a satisfactory proof that there
is still room in this country, and no need to check the growth
of population.

Such a check, however, took place in Ireland at the time of
the potato-famine in 1846. The population was then eight
millions and a half. Within five years it had fallen to six
millions and a half, nearly one-fourth of the people having
either emigrated or died. The deaths from fever and famine
had ceased in 1850, but the emigration continued, partly to
Great Britain and the colonies, but chiefly to the United States.
The population had fallen in 1871 to 5,412,000, and was then
almost the same as that of 1801, seventy years before. There is
no darker page than this in the history of our country in the
present or preceding century. Millions of money were lavishly
spent by the Government in direct relief, and in relief and im-
provement works to give employment, with a view to palliate the
collapse which befell a people who had no resources when the
potato failed them. The landowners in the more distressed dis-
tricts were nearly as much broken down as their tenants. They
had either encouraged or not discouraged the continued sub-
division of small farms, as well as the rapid increase of the people,
by which, so long as the potato could be relied on, their rents
were increased. The famine-stricken land was everywhere aban-
doned by the starving occupiers, and thrown tenantless upon the
owners’ hands, making many of them bankrupt. An ‘ Encum-
bered Estates Act’ was passed, to sell off the lands of those
proprietors whose incumbrances had overwhelmed them, and
substitute others more capable of fulfilling the duties of land-

British Agriculture.

2d7 = 31

' owners. In a few years land to the value of twenty-five millions
(Sterling was disposed of, twenty-four of which were distributed
j among creditors. In order to secure the landowners’ prompt
i attention in future to the condition of the people, the incidence
of the Poor-rates, which had previously been placed wholly on
the tenant-occupier, was divided equally between him and the
•landowner. In fifteen years, emigration and the sale of encum-
ibered estates had removed the most needy class of the population.

Prosperity then began again to dawn upon agriculture in Ire-
land, works of improvement followed the introduction of capital,
j supplied partly by Government loans and partly by the new
; landowners. Labour having become less plentiful, was better
lemployed and more liberally paid, and the more energetic of the
, small farmers were ready to enlarge their holdings on every
(favourable opportunity. As time went on, a great change was
Ifound to have taken place, the old eagerness for the occupancy
of land returned, but not for its subdivision. In less than Decrease of
thirty years, 270,000 of the smallest holdings were merged into smallest hold-
adjoining larger farms, one-half of the small holdings of 1845 [eturTof^^
having totally disappeared. The tide of emigration began prosperity in
to turn, extreme poverty ceased, the proportion of paupers to Ireland,
the population became much lower, and the cost of poor relief
nearly one-half less, than in either England or Scotland. This
jWas accompanied by better wages to the labourer, higher profits
to the farmer, and a rise in the value of land, all fostered by a
growing demand for the kind of produce which the soil and
(climate of Ireland are specially adapted to yield. But the lesson
j (left by the previous disaster has led to the gravest distrust in the
I system of very small holdings, in a country producing neither
I wine nor oil, and where the occupier is not the owner of the land.

It is worthy of note that the strictly rural parishes of Eng- Diminution of
land exhibit some decline of population. In one-fourth of the 'Agricultural
' registration-districts there has been a diminution of the agricul- proportion to
tural population in the ten years ending 1871, amounting alto- other classes in
gether to 108,000. And it is quite certain that this continues. England.

It arises from the natural draft to the better-paid labour of the
mining, manufacturing, and other industrial centres, which are
augmented both by this immigration and by natural increase.

Diminished population in the rural districts is followed by a
. rise of wages ; and this leads to greater economy of labour, both
by the introduction of labour-saving machinery and the conver-
sion of arable land to pasture, where the nature of the soil admits.

P The higher price of meat and dairy-produce also contributes to
H I this change. But the loss in numbers of the agricultural dis-
W tricts is amply made good by the gain in the rest of the country,

I the population now employed in agriculture being small com-

298 = 52

British Agriculture.

Class of yeo-
men, farming
their own land,
now in very
small propor-
tion to that of
tenant-
farmers.

Peasant pro-
prietors in
Ireland.

pared with that of the other industries. Fifty years ago a fifth
of the working population of England was engaged in agriculture.
At the present time there is less than a tenth.

The land of the United Kingdom may be said to be now
almost wholly cultivated by tenant-farmers. The class of yeo-
men, or small landowners farming their own land, is found here
and there in England, but scarcely at all in Scotland, and
now bears but small proportion to the whole. Many of the
larger landowners retain a farm under their own management
for home supplies, or for the breeding of selected stock ; very
few as a matter of business, or for profit. The general system
is, that the landowners make the permanent works on their
estates, their income being paid in rent by tenant-occupiers ; the
tenants in their turn direct the cultivation, provide the farm-
stock and implements and all the necessary capital and skill,
and employ and pay the agricultural labourers by whose work
the land is cultivated. The system is so general in the United
Kingdom, that we really cannot be said to know any other, and
yet, with reference to almost every country but our own, is so
exceptional in Europe, that some description of it may here be
useful.

The circumstances of Ireland eight years ago appeared favour-
able for the creation of a class of peasant proprietors, and
Parliament resolved to give the principle a trial. Two oppor-
tunities presented themselves ; first, in 1869, on the disestablish-
ment of the Church, which possessed upwards of 10,000 small
holdings of land, in the benefices situated all over the country.
The pre-emption of these was offered to the tenants on terms
most favourable to them, both as to price and payment, and
nearly two-thirds of the offers were promptly accepted. Again,
in l870, the Irish Land Act contained provisions expressly
favouring the system ; but, though great advantages in regard
to terms of payment were also offered by that Act, the results
hitherto have been comparatively small. The cause of the
difference is very plain. In the first case the disposal of the
lands was imperative, and did not occasion the subdivision of
property ; while the vendors, the Church Commissioners, having
no one to consult but themselves, offered these small holdings
at low fixed prices without competition. In the second case,
on the other hand, it is the duty of the Landed Estates Court to
get the best price they can for the landowner, who may very
naturally object to allow small portions to be sold here and
there out of his estate to suit the convenience of individual
tenants. The farmers, moreover, begin to find themselves very
secure in their possession as tenants, under the clauses of the
Act, and have thus less inducement to buy the fee-simple ; and

British Agriculture.

299 = 55

^ the landowners, participating in the general prosperity, are no
longer under pressure to sell at the low prices hitherto realised,
lit is thus not from any defects in the Land Act, but from the
improved condition of the country, and the increased security
given to farmers’ capital by the Act itself, that this branch of it
has become less operative than was anticipated.

CHAPTEE V.

Landowner, Farmer, and Labourer. '

The landowners are the capitalists to whom the land belongs. The land-
Their property comprises the soil and all that is beneath it, ; their
and the buildings and other permanent works upon it required duties aad
for the accommodation of the people, and of the working stock influence :
employed in its cultivation. Thus, where the land itself may
be worth 35/. an acre, the buildings, roads, fences, and drainage
may have cost the landowners 15/. an acre more. The landowner
has thus two capitals in the land, one of which is permanent and
growing rapidly in value with the prosperity of the country, the
other liable to decay and occasioning cost in repair. In nearly
all permanent improvements arising from the progress of agri-
culture he is also expected to share the cost. And he is necessarily
concerned in the general prosperity and good management of
his estate, and in the welfare of those who live upon it, with
which his own is so closely involved. He takes a lead in the
business of his parish, and from his class the magistrates who
administer the criminal affairs of the county, and superintend
its roads, its public buildings, and charitable institutions, are
selected. Nor do his duties end here, for the landowner, from
his position, is expected to be at the head of all objects of public
utility, to subscribe to, and, if so inclined, to ride with the
hounds, showing at once an example to the farmers and trades-
men, and meeting them on terms of neighbourly friendship and
acquaintance. The same example is carried out in his inter-
course with the clergy and schoolmaster, and his influence,
where wisely exercised, is felt in the church, the school, the farm,
and the cottage.

This class in the United Kingdom comprises a body of about their number,
180,000, who possess among them the whole of the agricultural the im-
land from 10 acres upwards. The owners of less than 10 acres ”Xe*oTtheir
each, hold not more than one-hundredth part of the land, and may property,
here be regarded as householders only. The property of the
landowners, independent of minerals, yields an annual rent of
sixty-seven millions sterling, and is worth a capital value of two

300 = 54

British Agriculture.

The tenant-
farmers ; the
proportionate
extent of their
holdings, and
the emulation
that exists
among them.

Their numbers,
and capital.

Land-agents.

thousand millions. There is no other body of men in the country
who administer so large a capital on their own account or
whose influence is so widely extended and universally present.
From them the learned professions, the church, the army, and the
public services are largely recruited.

The tenant-farmers are the second class, and a much more
numerous one. Their business is the cultivation of the land,
with a capital quite independent of that of the landowner.
They occupy farms of very various extent, 70 per cent, of them
under 50 acres each, 12 per cent, between 50 and 100 acres, and
18 per cent, farms of more than 100 acres each. 5000 occupy
farms of between 500 and 1000 acres, and 600 occupy farms
exceeding 1000 acres. Many of them are men of liberal educa-
tion, and some of these are found in most parishes and in every
county. A spirit of emulation exists among them, elicited by
county, provincial, and national exhibitions of agricultural stock,
and by a natural desire, in a country where everything is open
to comment, not to be behind their neighbours in the neatness,
style, and success of their cultivation, or in the symmetry and
condition of their live-stock. They are brought into the closest
relations with their labourers, and although, occasionally, feel-
ings of keen antagonism have arisen, there is generally a very
friendly understanding between them. The farmer knows that
it is for his interest that the labourers should find their position
made so comfortable as to value it.

To the farmer is committed the management of the details
of the parish, as those of the county to the landowner. His
intimate knowledge of the condition of the labourer, and con-
stant residence in the parish, fit him best for the duty of Over-
seer of the Poor, member of the Board of Guardians, Church-
warden, and Surveyor of the Roads. He is frank and hospitable
to strangers, as a rule ; in favour of the established political in-
stitutions of the country ; loyal as a subject ; generally available
in case of need as a mounted yeoman ; and constantly in requisi-
tion as a juryman in the Courts of Law.

The farmers are six times as numerous as the landowners,
there being 560,000 in Great Britain, and 600,000 in Ireland,
the holdings there being on a smaller scale. They employ a
vast capital in the aggregate, upwards of four hundred millions
sterling, and, unlike that of the landowners, much of it is in
daily use, circulating among tradesmen and labourers.

Between the landlords and farmers there is an intermediate
class, the land-agents, to whom on most large estates the details
of transacting business with the farmers, and looking after the
cultivation and buildings and general condition of the property,
are committed. These gentlemen, in most cases, are prepared by

British Agriculture,

301 = 35

a course of special training and education for the very important
and delicate duties thus intrusted to them. Where they possess
such an amount of general knowledge as enables them to carry
their employer with them in all equitable arrangements for
maintaining the property in a state of high agricultural effici-
ency, they perform a most useful function, and add very greatly
to the welfare and comfort of all connected with the estates
Avhich they administer. A very eminent living authority rests
the tenure of property on the fulfilment of duty ; and a most
important part of that duty is to see that no good land upon it
is suffered by neglect or mismanagement to remain unpro-
ductive.

The third class comprises the agricultural labourers, who The labourers :
are necessarily much more numerous than both landowners and
tenants. They cannot be said to have any other capital than
the furniture of their dwellings, their well-acquired experience
in all the details of husbandry, and the bodily strength to use
it. The English labourer, of the southern counties especially,
has hitherto had but little education, except in his business.

The Scotch have had their parish schools for three centuries,
and the Irish a national school system for the last forty years.

The legislation of 1876 has removed this blot on the English
system, by enacting that no child shall be employed at any kind
of labour until he is of the age of ten, nor above that age
unless he can show a certain degree of proficiency in education.

This excellent rule is a virtual compulsion of education, as
parents and employers alike are liable to penalties for its in-
fringement. And as it is now accompanied in all parts of the
kingdom by the establishment of duly regulated schools, no child
can avoid an elementary education.

The state of the agricultural labourer of the Southern their state in
counties has long been the subject of reproach, and, till a of the

recent period, not without good reason. In many parishes the
average rate of wages was below the means of maintaining a subject of
man’s bodily strength adequate to good work, and the result reproach, but
was that two men at low wages were kept to do the work of one mending,
well-paid labourer. The employer was a loser by this ; and
though he might be aware of it, he could not help it, for there
was a redundancy of labour seeking employment, and which
had to be maintained either by wages or poor-rates. The
labourer himself was uneducated, having little knowledge of any
district outside his own parish, no means of moving beyond it,
while he risked the loss of his legal right to the parish relief in
illness or old age, if he left it. In such circumstances it was
liardly possible for the agricultural labourer to attain any degree
of independence. There was no margin for saving, no surplus out

Condition now
better than at
any previous
period, com-
paring their
wages with the
price of bread.

30. = .. I

t)f which an enterprising man could make the venture of moving!
iis labour to places in which it would command a better return.!
And during the long period that this continued, his condition!
was low, and still shows itself in his small stature and slow gait.9
From the pressure of this system he was at last emancipated byl
the extension of his legal right of relief from the parish to the!
Union, a district much more extensive, and by the simultaneous!
increase in the demand for labour arising from the rapid de-1
velopment of the other industrial resources of the country. The
great extension of steam-communication with America, and the
enepuragement thereby afforded to emigration, drew off rapidly
the surplus agricultural population of Scotland and Ireland ;
wages in both countries quickly increased, and this soon ex-
tended its influence southwards. Agricultural labourers’ unions
were formed in the depressed districts just when this wholesome
feeling was spreading throughout the country, and to their efforts
much of the natural effect of other causes in producing a rise of
wages has been ascribed. This increase of wages was attended
by a most useful result, for it forced upon farmers the more exten-
sive use of machinery, and, in the end, brought about a higher
scale of wages to the labourer, while the additional cost .to the
farmer is met to some extent by superior skill, and greater
economy in the application of labour. It is worthy of note that
the increase of agricultural wages has been greatest in Scotland,
where labourers’ unions have not taken root. I

The general condition of the agricultural labourer was*
probably never better than it is at present. Compared with >
that of 300 years ago, in the time of Elizabeth, wages have risen .
sixfold, while the price of bread has only doubled. TwO'
centuries later, in 1770, the farm-labourer’s wages was Is. 2d. aJ
day, when the price of wheat was 46s. a quarter. In 1846,
immediately before the repeal of the Corn Laws, wages were ,
Is. 7d., when wheat was 53s. At the present time wages have
risen 60 per cent., while wheat has not increased in price. In,,
other words, the labourer’s earning power in procuring the staff
of life, cost him five days’ work to pay for a bushel of wheat in
1770, four days in 1840, and two-and-half days in 1870. HeJ
is better lodged than he ever was before ; though, in many parts f
of the country, there is still much room for improvement inj
that respect. Compared with the labourer in towns, his position-
is one of greater comfort ; he lives in a better atmosphere, he is f
more free from anxiety, and has a closer and more friendly*
relation with his employers, and with the schoolmaster and
clergyman of his parish. He is kind to animals, understands
how to manage them, and in his family shows a good example,
on the whole, of sobriety and industry.

British Agriculture.

303 = 37

To these three classes are committed the agricultural interest
and industry ot the kingdom. The two first have duties en-
trusted to them by the constitution, for the management of the
public and local interests of their counties and parishes, in
addition to their special business as landowners and agricul-
turists. Each of the three classes is constantly being altered
and recruited by changes and additions. Landed property of
the value of several millions sterling a year changes hands, and
as there is necessarily a larger body of persons capable of com-
peting for small properties, there is a natural tendency to sub-divi-
sion on sale. In every county many farms change their tenants
at Lady Day or Michaelmas, new men with new ideas being
substituted for the old, some of whom have died, some retired
from business, and some moved elsewhere. Labourers move
about more than they used to do, and learn something useful
in each change, and large drafts of them pass off to the other
industrial pursuits of the country, and to the colonies. The
feeling of being bound to the soil or the parish of his birth has
lost much of its strength, and every facility is now presented to
the unmarried agricultural labourer for improving his position
if he desires to alter it.

In short, our system is that of large capitalists owning the
land ; of smaller capitalists, each cultivating five times more
of it than they would have means to do if they owned their
farms ; and of labourers free to carry their labour to any market
which they consider most remunerative. It has been the gradual
growth of experience in a country of moderate extent, where
land is all occupied, where capital is abundant and constantly
seeking investment in land ; and where other industries than
agriculture are always demanding recruits from the children
of the agricultural labourer, who find, besides, a ready outlet
in those British colonies where the soil and climate are not
much different from that which they leave, and where their own
language is spoken. And doubtless this facility of language
has greatly helped the people of this country in encountering
the trials and difficulties of emigration. But the want of it
may be successfully overcome, as the example of Germany has
proved in the tens of thousands of her people who have gone to
the United States. There, and in the vast continent of Australia,
there is room enough to take, with advantage, the surplus
population of every country in Europe for many generations.
Instead of struggling at home as cultivators of small patches of
land, where nothing but the most sparing frugality enables
them to live, the working men of all countries are invited and
assisted by Australia to take a share on equal terms with our
own people in the great enterprise of colonising a new continent,

VOL. XIV. — S. S. Z

Each of the
three classes
constantly
recruited by
changes of
property and
employment.

304=55

British Agriculture.

The result of
the system
compared with
that of other
, countries
I shows larger
returns at less
I cost.

Special
features pre-
sented by it
in each of
the three
countries ; in
England,

in Scotland,

where liberty, order, and remunerative employment are offered
to all comers ; where the climate is pure and healthy for Euro-
peans, and where every industry, agricultural, manufacturing, or
mining, affords a field for enterprise.

A system is best tested by its fruits. Compared with all
other countries, our threefold plan of landlord, farmer, and
labourer, appears to yield larger returns, with fewer labourers,
and from an equal extent of land. Our average produce of
wheat is 28 bushels an acre, as against 16 in France, l6 in Ger-
many, and 13 in Russia and the United States. We show a
similar advantage in live-stock, both in quantity and quality.
We have far more horses, cattle, and sheep in proportion to
acreage than any other country, and in all these kinds there is
a general superiority. Our most famous breeders of live-stock
are the tenant-farmers. The best examples of farming are found
in the same class. The improved breeds of cattle, the Leicester
and Southdown sheep, and the extended use of machinery,
manures, and artificial foods are chiefly due to them. And
the neatness of the cultivation, the straight furrow, and the
beautiful lines of drilled corn, the well-built ricks and docile
horses, exhibit at once the strength and skill of the labourers.
If that mode of husbandry which lessens the exchangeable
value of bread and meat by an increase of production and
supply, is the best for the community, from whom a smaller
proportion of their labour is required for the purchase of their
food, then our system of subdivision of labour by landowner,
farmer, and labourer, the three interests engaged in its produc-
tion, will stand a favourable comparison with that of any other
country.

There are characteristic features in the business relation
between the landowner and farmer which deserve notice, in
its application to the three countries, England, Scotland, and
Ireland. In England the general system is tenancy at will,
by which the connection may be terminated on six months’
notice. The result is, that the notice is rarely given, changes of
tenancy are comparatively few, and systems of management are
slowly altered. In Scotland there has long been tenancy on a
nineteen years’ lease. The certainty of the tenure up to a fixed
time prompts immediate enterprise to make the most of that
definite period, and changes of tenant at its conclusion have
become frequent. There can be no doubt that this has been
attended with a more hearty and ready appreciation of improved
processes on the part of both landlord and tenant, and a higher
scale of wages to the labourer. It still needs, however, some equit-
able rules to secure continuance of the tenant’s interest in good
farming to the close of the lease. And the Scotch tenants are

British Agriculture.

305 = 39

also hampered by an unreasonable law which prohibits them
from transferring their leases even to a solvent and unobjection-
able successor, and, still worse, from bequeathing the lease to
their widows or any of their children except the heir-at-law.

Ireland has a system of its own. Till a very recent period the in Ireland,
tenant made all improvements, such as they were. He reclaimed
the waste, built his own poor habitation, and he and his family
occupied the land, and subdivided it amongst them. He thus
tacitly acquired a hold on the soil much greater than in the sister
countries, and which was generally acquiesced in by the land-
lords, many of whom were non-residents. These three systems
were the natural growth of circumstances, and have become
deeply intertwined with the habits and feelings of the agricul-
tural classes in the several countries.

Three-fourths of the land in England have long been held by Origin of
a comparatively small body of great landowners. From the ,

Revolution in 1688 till the Reform Bill of 1831, all political"^' *
power was in their hands. They were the patrons of agricul-
ture, and their tenants, being accustomed to continue undisturbed,
neither asked nor expected legal security of tenure. But habit
and custom gave such security in reality, though not in law ;
and to this day there are families of tenants-at-will who can
count back a longer period of unbroken succession in their
farms than the great landowner at whose will they hold them.

The first Reform Bill gave tenant-farmers, paying a rent of 50/.
and upwards, the right to vote in the election of members of Par-
liament, and thus strengthened their hold on the consideration
of their landlord, but at the same time gave him an unfortunate in-
terest in the continuance of a system which kept them dependent
on his will. This continued for one generation more, until
in 1867 the franchise was lowered to 12/., and in 1871 vote by
ballot introduced. By those measures the numbers and political
strength of the tenant-farmer class were largely increased. House-
hold suffrage in counties is believed to be not far off, and thus
the hitherto paramount political influence of the landowner in the
counties is gradually being replaced by the wider basis of the
representation of each of their varied interests. The first result
of the latest extension of the constituency, and their protection
by ballot, has been a strong agitation on the part of the farmers
to obtain a legal right to be compensated, on removal, for their
unexhausted manures and improvements. Simultaneously with
it, a labourers’ league has been formed in some districts to
concentrate the latent power of the dispersed but numerous body
of agricultural labourers. Both of these movements have been
attended with a moderate measure of success. The Agricultural
Holdings Act, passed two years ago, recognises for the first

306 = 40

British Agriculture.

Landowner’s
necessities
prompted
leases in
Scotland.

Non-residence
of landowners
produced <
system of
middle-men in

time a legal right in the English farmer to compensation for
unexhausted improvements, cumbered indeed with conditions
which have made it unsatisfactory to both parties. A consider-
able step has however been gained, as all parties are brought
to look carefully into their position, and thus the mutual connec-
tion, while losing something of sentiment, will in time gain
more of business and enterprise.

In Scotland the necessities of the landowners prompted them,
at a much earlier period, to seek relief from the embarrassments
of entail by obtaining legislative power to borrow money for
the improvement of their settled property. And, when the
means were thus provided for executing permanent works, the
energies of the tenant-farmers were wisely enlisted in carrying
these into remunerative effect by the now well-recognised form
of a lease of nineteen years, at a fixed rent, to assure the tenants
such a period of possession as should at once evoke their best
exertions. This system has now been in practice for three
generations, and its results are seen in a higher state of general
cultivation than that of the sister countries ; greater competition
for farms and a higher scale of rent ; more independence ; and at
least as keen an intelligence shown in adopting improvements.
For a long period the Scotch landowners have been compelled to
look into the management of their property in a different manner
from those of England. Upon them the liability was directly
placed of finding the money for the public establishments of
their counties, the churches, prisons, and police. They had
the determination of questions of road-making ; and having to
contribute directly a large proportion of the county expenditure,
they took an active interest in its administration. This brought
them into closer business contact with the farmers ; and recent
legislation has tended to increase this connection by the prin-
ciple of imposing all county rates in certain proportion directly
on landowners and farmers, and giving to both a representation
at the same county or parish board. There is thus a better'
fusion of the two interests than in England, and a readier appre-
ciation on the part of the landowner of the outlays requisite on
his part to enable his tenant to make the most of the land he
farms. The time seems rapidly approaching when the Scotch
system of equal valuation and rating, imposed directly upon both*
landowner and farmer, will be imitated in England, and lead to
the principle of local administration in each county by repre-|
sentatives of every interest at a county board.

In Ireland the relation between landlord and tenant is alto-
gether different from that of England and Scotland. Previous
to the famine of 1846, the great landowners were non-resident,
and the land was still in a sfrcat measure in the hands of middle-

British Agriculture.

307 = 41

i men on leases for lives, with leave to subdivide and sublet for Ireland, and its
i the same time. These men had no permanent interest in the
property ; their business was to make an income out of it at the
least cost, and their intermediate position severed the otherwise
1 natural connection between landlord and tenant. The famine of
1846 prostrated the class of middle-men entirely, and brought the
) landowner and the real tenants face to face. But the hold which
j the latter had been permitted to obtain, led them to consider
the landowner very much as only the holder of the first charge
I on the land ; and they were in the habit of selling and buying
i their farms among themselves subject to this charge, a course
i which, as a matter of practice, was tacitly accepted by the land-
I owner. He had security for his rent in the money paid by
i an incoming tenant, who, for his safety, required the landowner’s
' consent to the change of tenancy, and the landowner’s agent
I then received the “ price ” of the farm (for that was the term
used), and handed it over to the outgoing tenant, after de-
ducting all arrears of rent. This suited the convenience of

. O

landowners the most of whom had no money to spend on
improvements, many of them non-resident and taking little
interest in the country, and dealing with a numerous body of
small tenants with whom they seldom came into personal con-
tact. In the north of Ireland this custom of sale became legally
recognised as tenant right. The want of it in other parts of
Ireland produced an agitation which ultimately led to the Irish

I Land Act, under which legislative protection is given to cus-
' toms capable of proof. The custom of “ selling ” the farm, subject

I I to the approval of the landowner, by a tenant on yearly tenure,

I ! is rapidly gaining ground in Ireland ; and so firmly are the

people imbued with this idea of their rights, that the clauses of
the Irish Land Act, which enable the tenant, by the aid of a loan
of Government money, on very easy terms, to purchase the
proper ownership of his farm, are rarely acted upon, from
the belief that the farm is already his, under the burden of a
moderate rent-charge to his nominal landlord. Circumstances
have thus brought about a situation in which the landowner
cannot deal with the same freedom with his property as in
England or Scotland, either in the selection of his tenants or in
the fair readjustment of rent, and this has, in a great measure,
arisen naturally from the neglect of his proper duties as a land-
lord in not himself executing those indispensable permanent
improvements, which the tenant was thus obliged to undertake,

' and who in this way established for himself a claim to a co-
partnership in the soil itself.

308 = 42

British Agriculture.

Settlements
and incum-
brances hinder
the free action
of many land-
owners in the
management of
their property.

Expedients
adopted to
overcome this.

State loans for
drainage and
reclamation of
land, and in
Ireland for
buildings also,
issued on
favourable
terms :

CHAPTER VI.

Land Improvement.

Haying now endeavoured to explain the respective positions
of the three interests engaged in the cultivation of the soil in
each of the three countries forming the United Kingdom, I will
proceed to consider the circumstances which embarrass the free
action of a large proportion of the landowners, and the modes by
which these are more or less overcome. A very large proportion
of the land is held by tenants for life under strict settlement,
a condition which prevents the power of sale, and it is also fre-
quently burdened with payments to other members of the family,
and in many cases with debt. The nominal income is thus often
very much reduced, and the apparent owner of five thousand a
year may have little more than half of it to spend. In such cases
there is no capital available for the improvements which a
landowner is called upon to make, in order to keep his property
abreast of the advance in agricultural practice. This was press-
ingly felt at the time of the repeal of the Corn Laws, and the
withdrawal of protective duties from native produce. Parlia-
ment, therefore, when it enacted a free import of the necessaries
of life, provided State loans on favourable terms to the land-
owners for the drainage and reclamation of their estates.

The potato disease of 1846 and 1847 was a serious calamity
at the time, but it was the occasion from which arose the great
stride made in agricultural enterprise in this country during the
last thirty years. It led at once to the removal of all protective
duties on foreign agricultural produce, and obtained for the
people of this country access to supplies from foreign lands, where
wages were lower and good land more abundant. Landowners
and farmers bestirred themselves to meet the inevitable compe-
tition to which they became exposed ; and their efforts weie
promptly aided by the State with reproductive loans to tide them
over the early years of trial. As the sums voted by Parliament
for these loans became exhausted. Land Improvement Companies
were formed to carry on the good work on the principles which
had already proved successful, though the Companies necessarily
charged somewhat higher terms than those which the credit ol
the State had enabled it to afford without loss.

The State loans were limited, in Great Britain, to drainage
and reclamation, the landowners being left to their own re-
sources for buildings, roads, and fences. In Ireland these
were and still are included, that country having always been
favoured in matters of State assistance. The rate of payment
was by annual instalments of 6^ per cent., which in twenty-
two years redeemed the principal, and at the same time

British Agriculture.

309 = 43

paid the annual interest at per cent. In many cases the
tenant undertook the whole of this annual payment in addition
to his rent, and the landowner thus had his land permanently
improved, and returned to him free of all charge, at the end
of twenty-two years. Not unfrequently the landowner was
satisfied with 5 per cent, from his tenant, and paid out of
his own pocket for this permanent advantage. Especially was
this the case in regard to buildings, the return from which is
not so direct or immediate as from drainage or reclamation.

The same principle is followed by the Land Improvement followed by

Companies, whose loans, like those of the State, are secured by

. \ 11 1 1 1 • r r Companies,

priority over all other charges, but continue lor twenty-five or

thirty years, in inverse proportion to the rate annually paid.

It has been proposed to extend the term still farther, in order to

reduce the rate of annual repayment ; but this is a questionable

advantage, for each generation has improvements of its own to

carry out, and it is a good general rule that the cost of the past

should be paid off before new charges are placed on the land.

The total amount of money charged on the land of the United Total amount
Kingdom for agricultural improvements under the system of
periodical redemption, in the last thirty years, amounts to about
fifteen millions sterling — twelve in Great Britain and three
in Ireland. About eight millions of it was advanced by the
State, and seven millions by private companies. A large pro-
portion of the first has now been repaid, having been returned
to the public exchequer, principal and interest, and is no
longer a charge upon the land. Two-thirds of the whole have
been spent on drainage, the remainder on farm-buildings,
labourers’ cottages, embanking, water-courses, farm roads, re-
clamation, planting for shelter, and enclosing. The expenditure
through such loans goes on with great regularity at an average
of half a million sterling a year, and the loans are being re-
deemed and the charge extinguished at about the same rate.

The extent of work still to be done far exceeds what has been
accomplished, and so many new demands arise to meet the
changes in husbandry that the system is likely to be a per-
manent one. It may therefore be useful to consider its present
mode of working, the objections which have been made to it,
and whether any improvement can be introduced which might
facilitate its operation.

An inquiry into this subject was undertaken by the House Inquiry by
of Lords in 1873. The Committee comprised men of achnow- Parliament
ledged eminence on both sides of politics, great landowners of^worki™°^*
conversant with such subjects, and having more or less practical these loans,
knowledge of agricultural affairs. Twenty-three witnesses vvere
examined from various parts of the kingdom, all of whom had

310 = 44

British Agriculture.

General testi-
mony to their
remunerative
character.

Object of
continuing
Government
control aftei'
issue of public
money ceased.

experience of the system. Various instances were adduced to
show the unremunerative nature of certain improvements, the
explanation of which was either injudicious and imperfect exe-
cution of the works, or inadequacy of capital, or energy, or
knowledge, to follow them up by good culture, — want of know-
ledge and experience on the part of the landowner or his agent,
or the usual circumstances of a similar nature which are found
here and there to occur in all large operations, which must often
be unwittingly entrusted to weak or dishonest management. As
this inquiry embraced the execution of works in all parts of
Great Britain, spread over a period of twenty-six years, and
embracing an expenditure then exceeding ten millions sterling,
the comparatively few and exceptional instances of failure might
be taken as a strong proof of the general success of the system.
Except in such buildings as required restoration from the con-
tinued neglect of landowners to repair — a case very common
both north and south — some return seems always to be reckoned
upon, even for expenditure on new buildings. On all other
kinds of improvement there was a general testimony to their
remunerative character. And those of the witnesses most com-
petent to speak, the tenant-farmers who had themselves repaid
the cost of the works, declared that they had received from the
money spent on land-improvement much more than a return of
capital and interest.

The Committee very truly remark that it is an anomaly that
private transactions should be submitted to the control of a
Government office. This was perfectly legitimate, so long as
the money advanced was a public loan. When the supply of
public money ceased, and that of private persons or companies
was substituted, the existing Government machinery of inspec-
tion and control, which had been found on the whole to work
well, was continued by Parliament on the ground that the im-
provement of the land of this country was a matter of public
interest. But this was not with the view of protecting the
interests of the remainder-man and mortgagee, for that is no
part of the duty of Government ; but in order to give a first
charge on the inheritance, and so enable landowners, whether
under settlement or otherwise, to obtain money for improving
their estates, which is an object of public importance, at a
lower rate of interest than would otherwise have been possible.
This preferential charge could be given only with the tacit
assent of other parties already creditors of the estate ; and the
condition which hitherto has assured that assent, has been the
certificate, under statutory powers, of an acknowledged Govern-
ment authority, that their security had not been thereby in-
juriously affected. The continuance of the Government inspec-

British Agriculture.

'611 = 45

I tion has thus been wholly in the interest of the landowner,

! especially if he is under settlement or entail, where the tenant
I for life is otherwise unable to raise money for the improvement
of his property.

Besides the public and private loans spent on land improve-
i ment, a much larger sum has been laid out on the same object
by landowners from their own resources.

-I

j It may be useful to consider in their order the severa
i of land-improvement, and the return they are capable of
i under suitable economical management.

The first improvement, in all cases where it is required, is improvements.

! drainage, for until the land is freed from stagnant water and
1 thus rendered capable of yielding its fullest assistance to the
I further efforts of the agriculturist, all other outlay is vain.

; There is never any difficulty in deciding upon the expediency
I of drainage in these islands, because wherever it is required
I and is judiciously executed it at once becomes remunerative,
j The under drainage of arable and good grass-land, in a
climate where drainage is advantageous, renders the land so
much warmer and more wholesome for plants and animals,
everything upon it becomes so much more thrifty, and all
I operations so much more easy and certain in their results, that
it is sure to pay. No doubt the increasing cost of labour and
materials is seriously felt, but the value of land and of most
kinds of agricultural produce is likewise increasing.

I With regard to outlay on farm buildings, there is not the Greater
j same certainty of return. Farm buildings are of two kinds, caption re-
those for the accommodation of live-stock and the manipulation penditure on
of the crop, and those for the housing of the farmer and farm farm buildings,
labourers. In regard to the first, it is only necessary to refer
to the increasing prices of live-stock to show the advantage
of making adequate and comfortable provision for their food
' and shelter. But the time has gone by for great corn barns.

The corn is now much more economically treated by stacking
' it in the field where it grows, and threshing it out by loco-
motive engine-power when required. The partial conversion
of these large barns into feeding-sheds, or in the grazing
' counties into haysheds, is the best mode of turning them to
I account ; and where farm buildings have been kept by the
proprietor in good repair, their conversion to objects of modern
husbandry need not be very costly. It is only where they have
been completely neglected, and require entire renewal, that the
expense is greater than can be met by the immediate return.

' Even then it is capable of proof that the economy of labour and
t of food, the better quality of the manure, and the greater thrift

1 objects Land drainage

■yj^0|^2j^nr 0116 of tll6 EQOSt

® certainly re-
munerative

312 = 46

Labourers’
dwellings,
when judi-
ciously
placed, as re-
munerative as
any other out-
lay of land-
owners’ capital.

Better cottages
wanted rather
than more
of them.

British Agriculture.

of the stock, will, as a rule, be ample compensation for the
charge. Additions to existing buildings for a specific object,
planned and executed with judgment, Avill always be remunera-
tive. But the more common fault of putting up very costly
buildings, planned with little reference to the value and extent
of the farm, or little practical knowledge on the part of land-
agent or architect, too surely ends in disappointment to both
landowner and farmer.

Labourers’ cottages are reckoned the least remunerative of all.
New cottages, even though built in blocks of two or four together,
cannot at present be built by contract for less than 150/. each, if
planned with due regard to comfort and decency, and at a greater
cost if the expense of haulage of materials is included. To
repay this in twenty-five years, both principal and interest, a
weekly rent of 4s. is required. But labourers in the southern
counties have been unable to pay more than Is. or 2s. out of their
weekly wages, so that the landowner who lets good cottages
at that rent is really paying also 2s. or 3s. a week towards the
wages of his farmers’ labourers. By this, all the parties are
misled. The landowner’s duty to his estate is to provide it
with all permanent buildings required for its proper cultivation.
He must do so if he cultivates the land himself, and he ought
equally to do so if he lets it to be cultivated by another. The
farmer, whether landowner or tenant, must then furnish the
farm with the “ plant,” the live and dead stock necessary for its
cultivation. Both parties are entitled to look for a return for
their investment ; the landowner’s safe and improving capital
yielding him a smaller annual return than the farmer’s, which
is liable to the vicissitudes of seasons, and wear and tear, and
must also cover his personal industry and skill. The labourers’
dwellings are as indispensable as the stables and barns, and no
arable farm can be said to be complete which has not the com-
mand of an adequate number of cottages for the workpeople.
These, with the farm and all other necessary buildings, should be
let to the farmer at a rent which should include a fair return on
the landlord’s capital, and the farmer and the labourer should be
left to deal with each other on the basis of adequate remunera-
tion for useful service, regulated by the ultimate rule of demand
and supply. On this footing the return on labourers’ cottages
will become as remunerative as that of any other outlay of land-
owners’ capital, because it will be controlled by the real neces-
sity and retjuirements of the farm.

This will apply chiefly in cases where new cottages are at-
tached to farms, and fresh outlay for that object is to be made.
But, in the vast majority of cases, labourers’ cottages already
exist in sufficient numbers. Better cottages are required in many

British Agriculture.

313 = 47

I parts of the country, rather than more of them. It has been
well ascertained that during the last thirty years the agricultural
\ population has diminished. The circumstances which have
led to that continue in full strength. Increased facilities of
locomotion between different parts of the country, and for
I emigration across the seas, tend more and more to carry off the
' energetic portion of the agricultural population. This has raised
\ the rate of farm wages and the cost of cultivating arable land.

I The prosperity of the wage-earning class in other occupations
, has, at the same time, vastly increased the demand for butcher’s
I meat and dairy produce, and so greatly increased the returns
i from grass land. The natural result is a gradual conversion of
I suitable arable land to grass, and this diminution of extent is
I accompanied also by the introduction of labour-saving machines.

There is thus in both ways a tendency to a diminution of our
agricultural population, the one operating in carrying off the
ablest to more remunerative fields of industry, the other in
lessening the home demand for agricultural labour. It is a fact of
great importance in the consideration of this question that,
within the period between the census of 1861 and 1871, there
has been a decrease of the country population in every county
of England except five, and it is only in the suburban counties
and in the manufacturing and mining districts that an increase
has taken place. Future provision for agricultural labourers’
dwellings ought therefore to be in the direction of improvement

1 1 rather than increase.

I Abundant proof might easily be adduced from most parts of
the country that on the main heads of agricultural improvement
there should be no lack of good return. The fact that the outlay
goes on without diminution, notwithstanding the great increase
in the cost of labour and materials, would alone upset all
reasoning, and isolated instances, to the contrary. A very Examples of
instructive paper on this part of the subject was produced remunerative
by the managing director of the Lands Improvement Company.

' It showed a return of forty cases of outlays, not picked cases,
but taken as they happened to come, with the increased
rentals subsequent to the improvements. Upon an outlay in
the aggregate of 195,00UZ. there was an increased rental of

■ 31,000/. This increase had been obtained within seven to ten

■ years. In only five instances did the increase fall short of
repaying the annual charge which redeems the principal as well

I as the interest. In every other case it left a profit beyond this,
in many cases a large profit. On the whole, the increase is
equal to a return of 15 per cent, on the expenditure, and if this
is capitalised at the common estimate of thirty years’ purchase
of land rent, the sum expended will be found to have been in-

314 = 45

British Agriculture.

creased more than fourfold. If landowners generally could
reckon on anything like the average return of these forty cases,
they would have the means, under the Lands Improvement Acts,
of improving their estates, not only without present loss, but
with a large immediate profit. But no distinction was made or
could be made in this return between that increment which
arose from improvements and the general increase of rent due
to the prosperity of the country, the increased value of produce,
and the development of particular districts by the opening of
railways and roads. Still in one way or other the landowner in
these cases has been made entirely safe.

And in the nature of things in this country such must be the
case wherever reasonable judgment has been shown in expendi-
ture on land improvement. The improver is dealing with a
limited article, for the produce of which there is an ever-
increasing demand. Nature has given us a climate more
favourable to the production of meat and milk, vegetables and
grass, than that of any other European State. These, in pro-
portion to their value, are the least costly in labour, and therefore
the least affected by a rise of wages. The growing demand for
them, and their consequently increasing value, exercise a constant
pressure for increased production, which can still to some extent
be obtained by improving the land we have. A large proportion
of the improvable land under cultivation admits of this, and much
of that vast tract which has hitherto been left to nature might
also be profitably reclaimed for the rearing of sheep and cattle.

CHAPTEE VII.

Recent Rise in the Value of Land.

Ctreat rise in
the value of
land since the
repeal of the
Corn Laws,
only -partly
due to the
outlay of
capital in im-
provements.

There has been, within the last twenty years, a very consider-
able increase in the value of land in this country. The income-
tax returns are most instructive on this point, and, as they show
the rental of land in England, Scotland, and Ireland separately,
they afford the means of comparing the rate of improvement in
each country. That improvement does not seem to have begun
in England till 1858, the gross annual value of “ Lands ” in 1857
having been returned at 50,000Z. less in that year than in 1846.
From 1858 the rise has been progressive and continuous, and
with an average increase of 470,000/. a year. The rise seems
to have begun somewhat earlier in Scotland, and the average
yearly increase has been 82,000/. The returns from Ireland
cannot be distinguished prior to 1862, and show an average

British Agriculture..

315 = 49

yearly increase from that year of 39,000Z. The total rise within
a period of eighteen years has been a little over 20 per cent ;
but, as will be seen by tbe annexed Table, the proportion of
increase on the Scotch rental has been greater than on that of
^England. The small rise in Ireland presents a striking contrast
to England and Scotland. — The capital value of the total in-
crease at the present selling price of land in this country will
be reckoned something prodigious, especially by those of us
who are old enough to recall the dismal prophecies of the
agricultural ruin which would surely follow the free admission
of foreign corn.

Gross Annual Value of Land Assessed to the Income-Tax in
1857 and 1875.

1857.

1875.

Increase.

Increase

per

Cent.

Capital Value
of Increase
at 30 Years’
Purchase.

England

41,177,000

50,125,000

8,948,000

268,440,000

Scotland

5,932,000

7,493,000

1,561,000

46,830,000

Ireland, from'l
1862.. ../

8,747,000

9,293,000

546,000

16,380,000

55,856,000

66,911,000

11,055,000

••

331,650,000

This vast increase in the value of landed property within the
short period of twenty years is very remarkable. It has been
already shown that the improvement expenditure effected by
loans has been fifteen millions. If we assume that even three
times as much has been effected during the same period by
private capital without loans, we here see that the capital wealth
of the owners of landed property has been increased by three
hundred and thirty-one millions sterling in these twenty years,
at a cost to them which probably bas not exceeded sixty millions.

This increase, as elsewhere explained, has arisen chiefly from the
great advance in the consumption and value of meat and dairy
produce, and is thus only in part the result of land improvement.

But though in the aggregate the landowners of England have Greatest rise
become richer by more than one-fifth, and those of Scotland by has been in the
more than one- fourth, the progress has not been uniform. In the tjjs^'andTn”"
purely corn districts, and on the chalk and sands of the drier Scotland : the
counties where grass does not thrive, the increase has been small, cause of this.
On the poor clays there has been none. It has been greatest in
the grazing counties and in the west and north. The increase
shown in Scotland deserves special attention. In that country
the larger proportion of grazing land no doubt partly explains

The Scotch
landowner
better trained
to his business.

316 = 50 British Agriculture.

this, but, on the other hand, entails are more strict, and land is
understood to be more heavily mortgaged than in England, so
that in these respects Scotland has no advantage. It was this
greater disability of the entailed Scotch proprietor which drove
him earlier to seek a remedy. A little more than a century ago,
in 1770, the first Improv'ement of Land Act was passed, the
famous Montgomery Act, the preamble of which clearly explains
its origin. “ Whereas much mischief arises to the public, which
must daily increase so long as the law allowing such entails sub-
sists, if some remedy be not provided,” and then it provided a
remedy very similar in principle to the drainage Acts passed
for both countries eighty years later. But the power of raising
money would not alone have sufficed. It was necessary also to
take, care that that money should be wisely expended, and the
astute heads who devised the Montgomery Act enlisted the aid
of the tenant-farmers, by giving them the security of nineteen
years’ leases, and thus obtaining their co-operation in the exe-
cution of the works, and in the subsequent operations necessary to
make them remunerative. This co-operation between landlord
and tenant in Scotland had been in full action for more than two
generations before the Drainage Loans introduced by Sir Robert
Peel in 1848, when both landlord and tenant in Scotland at once
eagerly availed themselves of the very liberal terms on which
these were offered ; and that goes on to this day. The facilities
given by the Improvement of Land Act, 1864, which enables
limited landowners to operate with their own means without the
intervention of the Improvement Companies, were at once recog-
nised in Scotland, which has availed itself of them to an extent
six times greater, in proportion, than England. In Scotland, as
was stated by one of the witnesses, “ the tenants are practically
the applicants for improvement loans.” They readily meet their
landlords much more than halfway in contributing to the repay-
ment ; and instead of lagging behind, or waiting to be spurred
on to further enterprise, they compete even too much with each
other for the possession of farms on terms which have now become
more remunerative to the landowners than to themselves. There
is not in England, generally, a similar spirit of agricultural
enterprise.

To what is this difference between the two countries to be
attributed ? Chiefly to three causes, in w hich the Scotch land-
owner has the advantage : earlier education in, and appreciation
of, the benefits of land improvement ; a better knowledge of the
business of land owning ; and the general system of leases. To
the first, reference has already been made. The better know-
ledge of their business has naturally flowed from it to the Scotch
landowners. They are trained to it by fathers who have been

I British Agriculture. 317 = 51

• in their day likewise taught to look into the management of
; their property. Sir Walter Scott mentions the discussions with
which his youth was familiar when visiting his country rela-
tions, the comparative merits of “ long ” and “ short ” sheep,
the reclamation of waste, and the advantage in a bare country
of sheltering woods. “ Aye be sticking in a tree,” was the
I dying advice of an old Scotch laird to his son, “ it will be
1 growing when you’re sleeping.” The “ home ” farm was always
j found in the personal occupation of the Scotch landowner, and
ij the Edinburgh University has for many years had a Chair of
Agriculture. It is true that among the greater landowners of
Scotland the English schools and universities have long had a
I special attraction, but even their tone has failed to eradicate from
I the young Scotchman’s mind the inborn love of the farms and
fields, and the country employments of his fathers.

This knowledge of business is a matter of great moment to Landowning

those who employ so vast a capital as the English landowners, *”;***■

• ness in which

a capital lar beyond the entire value ol our railways, mines, special training
I ironworks, canals, and gasworks put together. Men of the highest is not deemed
I capacity, with special training and qualifications, are employed necessary.

I in the management of these. Constant watchfulness of the
I progress of invention, by which large results may be obtained
on a given expenditure, is absolutely necessary to procure a
f profit in the general competition. The landowners of large
I estates entrust the management of their property to agents, more
or less qualified, many very capable, but often hampered by the
j pressing need of their employer for the largest return of rental
i I at the least cost. The landowner himself too seldom takes such
I an active and intelligent interest in the details of management
I , as would convince him of the need to keep his farms in a
< similar state of high working order. It is not with him really
a question of business. Let us take, by way of comparison, a
manufacturer, merchant, or shipowner, employing each a capital
equal to that of a landowner who has a rental of 5000Z. a year.

What would be thought of the prospects of a woollen manu-
facturer who, without the slightest preparation or special know-
ledge, embarked 100,000/. in that business ? Or of a man who
took over a mercantile concern of the same extent, without
having ever before written or read a business letter? Or of a
1 young military officer giving up his commission to take the
' direction and responsibility of a great ship-owning house ? And
yet this is in effect what is done every day by the majority of
English landowners. They complain that the business so under-
i taken “ is not sufficiently lucrative to offer much attraction to
I capital.” And people are surprised that within the narrow limits
of the British Isles, with a teeming, wealthy, meat-consuming

318 = 52

British Agriculture.

Security
for tenant’s
capital,
whether by
leases or
otherwise,
should be
given.

Admirable
principle of
Drainage
Loans.

Extended
powers of sale
in the case of

people, so large a proportion of the cultivated land is still per-
mitted to remain only partially productive.

The third point of difference between the two countries is
the system of yearly tenancy in England, while leases of nineteen
and twenty-one years may be said to be the rule in Scotland
and the exception in England. It is in the nature of a yearly
tenancy that there should be insecurity. Agricultural investments
demand time to be fully remunerative. How can a man subject
at any time to a year’s notice to quit be expected to improve?
That he does so in very many cases is due to the confidence of a
long-standing connection between landlord and tenant. There
does not live a more upright honourable man in any class than
the average English landowner. But, with every acknowledg-
ment of his desire to be just and fair in his dealings with his
tenantry, it is vain to look for enterprise and progress where
there is no real security. Whether that may be best attained
under the Agricultural Holdings Act, or by special agreement
without a lease, or by giving such security with two years’ notice
in addition to a lease, in one way or other security must be given
to induce such an adequate flow of capital into the business of
farming as will render it effective.

Owners in fee simple, as well as tenants for life, very frequently
use the powers given by the Land Improvement Acts. The
principle of annual repayment of the loan, by which the estate is
at once put under improvement and the debt redeemed, com-
mends itself to every man who desires to retain and improve his
property. He borrows, at a fixed rate of interest, on a security
the augmenting value of which is all his own. Besides this,
there are few landowners who have not either inherited, or found
it necessary themselves to create, mortgages on their estates.
This is common to all countries, and no change in the laws
affecting land is likely to alter it. The limited owner and the full
owner are alike subject to it. If further expenditure is required,
the money in the ordinary way must be raised on less advan-
tageous terms than the previous loans. It probably cannot be
raised on any terms by the limited owner. But the admirable
principle of Sir Robert Peel’s Drainage Loans, the essence of
which is that no charge shall be sanctioned which does not
promise a return greater than the annual cost of a gradual repay-
ment of the debt, may, without injustice to the previous creditor,
permit them to be made a prior charge upon the land, and will
thus secure the most advantageous terms to the borrower, whether
he holds under settlements or in fee simple.

But there are many cases of land improvement which can be
only partially reached by these Acts, and which require to be
dealt with in a different manner. In the home counties, for

British Agriculture.

319 = 53

instance, and in the neighbourhood of some of our great centres settled estates
of population, there are large tracts of comparatively infertile
land, let at low rents as farms, and yielding little satisfactory ^

return to anybody connected with them. Cases may be met with
where the limited owner, who has inherited such a property from
a succession of men in a similar position of legal incapacity, finds
himself, in the midst of general progress, constrained to keep
perhaps half-a-dozen parishes in a state almost of stagnation.

The country itself is most likely well-timbered and very pic-
turesque, with easy railway access to the metropolis or town, and
highly suitable for residential occupation. He could sell it readily,
if he had the power, in small properties for that purpose, retain-
ing still an important family estate. It would not be difficult
to point out cases in which this might be done with immense
advantage to the landowner, the neighbourhood, and the public.

Take, for example, a limited owner of 10,000 acres of such land,
yielding a gross rent of 10,000/. If he were enabled to sell
2000 acres, which might fetch a residential price of 100/. an
acre, or 200,000/., retaining his family seat and 8000 acres :
his rental would then be 8000/., plus the interest at 4 per
cent, of 200,000/. = 8000/. These sums together would make an
income of 16,000/., or 60 per cent, more than he had before.

He would thus at once find himself in funds and in spirits to
go on with the improvement of the remainder of his estate,
while the neighbourhood would have the advantage of a circu-
lation of fresh capital and ideas, to brighten a scene formerly
rendered gloomy by dissatisfied indifference. Landowners who
are precluded by entail or settlement from using this natural
advantage of their position, are deprived of an incalculable
benefit to themselves and their families.

To a certain extent this has already been discovered, and there Settlements
are probably no settlements of land now made without consider-
able powers of sale. The principle is recognised, and may with
great benefit be extended and made general. Settlements of
land to a limited extent, like settlements of any other kind of
property, are likely to continue. I desire to avoid any dis-
cussion at present of their advantage, or otherwise, as a question
of polity, but am anxious to see them, at least, limited to lives in
being, with large powers of sale, so as not to hamper in the
smallest degree the most beneficial disposition of the land. This,
with an improved system of land transfer, long promised and
anxiously hoped for by men of all parties, will render the country
less dependent on palliative measures, such as the Land Improve-
ment Acts. But these have proved, and continue to be found, of
indispensable service, as, without them, the improvement of land
would still be impossible over a large portion of this kingdom.

VOL. xrv. — s. s. 2 a

320 = 54

British Agriculture.

The large But even increased freedom for the energies of the landowner

tenant-farmers adequately backed by an intelligent and enter-

entitled to prising tenantry. The rapid changes which have taken place in
legal security, years, both in the improvement of live-stock and in the
better cultivation of the land, are in the main due to them.
The vast business which has grown up in the importation and
manufacture of manures and feeding-stuffs, shows their willing-
ness to enter upon new lines of expenditure which promise
useful results. They have a large capital at stake, and they
justly desire freedom of action in regard to cultivation, and
security for that portion of their capital which, being neces-
sarily incorporated with the soil to produce a future return, may
be confiscated wherever it remains unprotected by contract or
by law.

CHAPTER VIII.

The Goveenment in its Connection with Ageichltuee.

No Minister of Theee is no Minister of Agriculture in Great Britain, and no
Agriculture, attempt is made by Government to interfere with the cultivation
ment control oi the soil, or between the landowners, the tenants, and the
exercised, or labourers. There are no State flocks, or herds, or horse-breed-
^*^*sLte^flocks establishments, nor any State schools of agriculture. In
or herds Ireland such schools, and several experimental farms, were esta-
maintained by blished at the cost of the Government, at the time of the potato
Government, famine. In the disorganised state in which that country then
was, some benefit ensued. But the general principle of our
political system is that every trade and business should be self-
supporting, subordinate only to the general laws, and controlled
by the rule of free competition. The political influence pos-
sessed by the landed interests insures for them adequate repre-
sentation in the Government, and their great wealth endows
them with the means of promoting all objects of general interest
to them as a class. The Royal Agricultural Societies in Eng-
land and Ireland, and the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland, are the self-supporting national institutions of each
Kingdom for the promotion of Agriculture. And, besides great
provincial societies in various parts of the country, there are in
every county one or more local Agricultural Societies for the same
object. These are all self-supporting, having neither stipend
from the State nor being subject to its control. The good
result of this principle is seen in the successful manner in which
they have evoked friendly competition amongst all classes con-
nected with the land, and disseminated in every part of the

British Agriculture.

321 = 55

country a knowledge of the best breeds of live-stock, and of
I the most improved instruments and processes of agricultural
1 development.

* The only department of the State which has a direct connec- The Inclosure

} tion with the land is the Inclosure Office, which combines several Commission
ii . , • • 111 1*1 otate

objects, more or less appertaining to landed property, but with department

no power to interfere except when applied to for the means of Jirectly con-
facilitating improvements. The costs of all proceedings effected
through this department are provided by those who make use of
it. Its original object was to promote the inclosure of waste
I lands, and thereby to increase the home produce of food, and
^ afford increased employment to the agricultural labourers,
j These objects, so far as they were necessary, have to a great
1 extent been otherwise accomplished, and the agricultural labourer
f has become happily independent of such aid. The duty of this
branch of the office now is not to promote inclosure with the
! object of dividing the land amongst severalty owners, except in
cases where by no other means could its improvement be effected,

I but to encourage the improvement of “ commons ” under a system
of regulation, by which the land may be drained, planted for
ornament and shelter, and the surface be improved for pasturage,
without excluding the public from its enjoyment by subdivision
I into severalty ownership. Advantage of the office has from Its various
1 time to time been taken by Parliament for objects of an *»nctions.

analogous character. The Drainage and Land Improvement
I Acts are administered by this Commission, the object of these
i Acts being, as already explained, to permit landowners to
borrow money for permanent improvements, and to charge their
lands with the cost of these on the principle of such annual
I payments as within a definite period will reimburse both prin-

II cipal and interest. The control exercised by the Government
department insures that the proposed improvement shall be both
j beneficial and well executed, and that the future possessor of the
) property may not find himself on his succession called on to
) pay for unprofitable outlays made by his predecessor. But any
f Government control in such circumstances is really the fruit of
I the artificial system of entail and settlement.

t The office is also entrusted with the formation of commissions Formation of
for the drainage of districts liable to floods, under which works Main Drainage
I embracing large areas of country are carried out under a general C°"’™’ssions.

I system, the cost being levied on the landowners in proportion
to the advantage they receive. In the execution of this duty it
has been found that the applicants in many cases have erred in
not including the whole of the area which should naturally fall
I under one control, and so failing to secure uniformity over the
' whole of the catchment basin affected.

2 A 2

322 = 55

British Agriculture.

Floods bene-
ficial, except
where permit-
ted to remain
too long
stagnant.

Oroftt
engineering
works seldom
required.

Power to
exchange
intermixed

Floods in river valleys in autumn, and winter, and spring,
provide rich irrigation for the land, the mud in which subsides
when the waters are for a time partially stagnant. They are
very beneficial if not permitted to remain too long. Land
subject to such floods should never be broken up from grass, as
in no other way can it in this country be more profitably
used. Before under-drainage became so general, the floods came
down much more loaded with sediment, and therefore much
more enriching than now, when the rains of the uplands pass
through and are filtered by the soil. Summer floods are in-
jurious but they are rare, and if once in twenty years they injure
or even carry off the hay, there is some compensation in the
heavy crops of aftermath that follow. If the natural beds of
the rivers were kept free from obstruction there would be far more
benefit than injury from floods.

But in earlier times, before steam-power was known, water-
power was found a valuable aid for both mills and navigation.
Weirs and dams were then constructed, and water rights have
grown up which greatly hamper arterial drainage. Towns on
the river banks, though generally built above flood-mark, are
injured by long-continued floods; and their interests, as well as
those of the land, are concerned in removing all artificial ob-
structions. There is no longer any necessity for these, as steam-
power can everywhere be substituted for water-mills, and the
tedious delays of barges be superseded by the quicker and more
certain conveyance by railways. The barge navigation was
attended by one benefit, as, in order to maintain adequate depth
of water, it was necessary to keep the bed of the river free
from the natural growth of weeds which otherwise impede the
current, and cause deposits of mud which gradually contract the
outfall. Questions of compensation, however, arise when rights
of any kind are touched, and hence the need of some authority
to control and reconcile opposing interests.

The Inclosure Commissioners have power, upon application
being made to them, to recommend the formation of drainage
districts, which may embrace either the whole or a part of a river
basin. So far as their experience has gone, it is in favour of
placing each river basin as a whole system under competent
authority, with power to that authority to form sub-districts
for the management of each, with representatives at the general
board which controls the whole. As the object is not to prevent
floods, but to limit the period of their stagnation, it is seldom
that any grand engineering operation is required.

Another most useful branch of the office is the very extensive
power entrusted to the Commissioners to carry out exchanges

British Agriculture.

^22> = 57

and partitions of lands. By their aid any two landowners can, lands, inex-
at very trifling expense, correct any irregularity in the boundary
of their respective estates, or even exchange entire farms or operation. ^
estates. This may be done without any risk or investiga-
tion of title, by the simple process of attaching to the lands
exchanged all the accidents of title, tenure, and incumbrance,
which formerly belonged to each other. The only questions
requiring the decision of the Commissioners are : Is the ex-
change beneficial to the two estates ? Are the parcels proposed
to be exchanged equal in value? or within one-eighth of an
equality in value? When satisfied of this, the Commission
authorises the exchange, and the one parcel immediately, for
all purposes, takes the place of the other. So that if the title
of either be thereafter found faulty, the person who may recover
will have, not the land with the faulty title, but that which the
Commissioners have put in its place, and clothed with all its
liabilities. Certain notices must be given; the order of exchange
is not confirmed until three months after the notice, and if
during that period any person dissents who is entitled to any
estate in, or charge upon, either of the lands proposed to be
exchanged, the Commissioners withhold their confirmation while
the dissent continues. From time to time the powers of the
Commission have been extended to comprise all cases omitted
from the original statute. All hereditaments, corporeal and
incorporeal, may now be exchanged with ease and at a very
moderate cost. Inequality in value to the extent of an eighth
may be compensated by a rent-charge annexed to the less valu-
able, and charged upon the more valuable property.

The extent to which this beneficial and inexpensive power is Extent to
used is very considerable. It is mostly in the rectification of
boundaries, or the exchange of intermixed lands, and in many
cases to facilitate building operations, and embraces annually
from 6000 to 10,000 acres, having a value of from 400,000/. to
500,000/.

CHAPTER IX.

Waste Lands and Copyholds.

The past result of the inclosure of waste lands under the control Inclosure of
of the Government may be learned from a return to an Order of •

the House of Commons, made in 1873, which showed the ex-
tent of commons and common field lands then in England and
Wales to be 2,632,000 acres, about one-fourteenth part of the
whole surface of that country. Probably one million acres of the

324 = 55

Bi’itish Agriculture.

its extent,

and results.

Quality and
occupation of
persons to
whom waste
lands passed.

whole are capable of improvement by reclamation, drainage, or
planting. Previous to the passing of the General Inclosure Act
of 1845, 2500 inclosures had been sanctioned by private Acts
of Parliament, under which 2,142,000 acres of waste land were
inclosed. The inclosures since 1845 have added 600,000 acres,
so that up to the present time 2,757,000 acres altogether have
been thus redeemed from waste.

The results of the inclosures since 1845 present some interest-
ing facts in regard to the subdivision of land, and the addition
made to the number of small landowners in the country, and the
public works of improvement carried out under the process of
inclosure, which are worthy of record. This is altogether in-
dependent of the individual and public advantages arising from
the reclamation and agricultural improvement of the land itself.
The 600,000 acres dealt with since 1845 have been divided
among 26,000 separate owners, in an average proportion of
44^ acres to each lord of the manor, 24 acres to each common-
right owner, and 10 acres to each purchaser of the lands sold to
defray part of the expenses. In many cases the expenses were
raised by rate among the persons interested, but this was optional,
since such persons had the alternative of selling a portion of the
land for that purpose. With that object 35,450 acres were sold,
chiefly in small lots, to 3500 purchasers. The lords of the
manors, 620 in number, received as compensation for their rights
in the soil, on an average, about one-fifteenth of the acreage of
the wastes. These wastes of manors were, under the Act of
1845, made subject to the setting out of allotments for public
purposes, and in this respect were distinct from the common-
able lands, which are undivided private property, and were not
made subject to public allotments.

As this is the largest and most general distribution of land
into small properties that has taken place in this country in
recent times, it was desirable to know the quality and occupation
of the persons into whose hands these lands have passed. To
discover this, the legal description both of allottees and of pur-
chasers of sale allotments, was taken from inclosures in which
that description is given, one in each of the following counties,
viz. Bucks, Cumberland, Chester, Devon, Essex, Hants, Herts,
Lancaster, Norfolk, Oxford, Stafford, Sussex, Worcester, and, in
Wales, Carnarvon and Carmarthen. Upon this basis, and so
far as such an average can be accepted, the proportionate num-
bers of the different classes of the 26,000 landowners amongst
whom the land has bdfen divided are as follows : — Yeomen and
farmers, 4836 ; shopkeepers and tradesmen, 3456 ; labourers and
miners, 3168 ; esquires, 2624 ; widows, 2016 ; gentlemen, 1984;
clergymen, 1280; artisans, 1067; spinsters, 800; charity trustees.

British Agriculture.

325 = 59

704; peers, baronets, and sons of peers, 576; professional men,

512 ; and about 3000 others in gradually diminishing pro-
portions, but comprising nearly every quality and calling, from
the Crown to the mechanic, quarryman, and domestic servant.

The influence of this change has not been confined to particular
counties, but has been more or less felt in all. It has made an
appreciable addition to the number of small landholders in
England, bringing upon hitherto comparatively unproductive
wastes the individual interest and intelligence of a numerous
and varied body of persons, by whose industry the best of these
lands have been made not only useful to their owners, but have
become available for sale and purchase, and, in their improved
condition, for bearing their just share of county and parish rates
and public taxes.

More than two thousand miles of public roads have been con- Extent of
structed in connection with these enclosures since 1845, at the
cost of the common-right owners, in addition to the numerous ’

accommodation roads set out for their special use in giving
convenient access to their several allotments. Other works of
a public nature, such as embanking and straightening the course
of rivers connected with inclosures, have been executed. The
value of lands devoted to public objects, at the cost of the
owners of common rights, is equal to one-eighth of the whole
value of the land inclosed.

The total estimated value of the wastes inclosed amounts to and value of
6,140,000/. The value of the land taken from the best of this
lor public purposes (comprising land for recreation, field-gardens, objects, at the
I public quarries, fuel, schools and churches, burial-grounds, cost of the
I public roads, and other purposes) has been estimated at 282,140/. com-

I 1 o this must be added the cash, raised by rate, or sale oi pro- equal te one-
perty, and expended on the construction of public roads and eighth of
other public works connected with inclosures, 473,500/., making
together, 755,640/. Comparing this with the fee-simple value inclosed,
above mentioned, it appears that nearly one-eighth of the whole
value of the wastes inclosed has, under the direction of the
Commissioners, and with the assent of the proprietary interests,
been devoted to objects of public utility and convenience.

Thus, in the course of one generation, an extent of land equal to
that of a county has been redeemed from a condition of waste,
and has been divided among a far larger and more varied body
of landowners than that of any county in England. Valuable
public roads of great extent have been constructed, opening up
for business and pleasure many otherwise inaccessible localities,
and at no cost to the public. The area of production and em-
ployment has been increased, and in the same proportion that of
public and local taxation has been extended. A great number

S2Q = 60

British Agriculture.

Enfranchise-
ment of copy-
hold lands or
buildings.

Number com
pleted.

of small landed properties have been created, and labourers’
field-gardens in the rural districts have been afforded in larger
proportion to the extent of the land than appears by the Agri-
cultural Returns to exist elsewhere in England.

Though the best of the land was probably first dealt with,
there can be little doubt that much of that which still remains
uninclosed may be advantageously brought under the operation
of the new law, which, in the altered state of the circumstances
since 1845, provides more fully for the public interests of the
neighbourhood, and especially of large populations ; and at the
same time may yet be found, in less populous quarters, the
useful instrument of adding some considerable extent of avail-
able land to the solid resources of the country.

Lands or houses held by copyhold tenure may be enfranchised
through the Copyhold department of this Commission. These
are held by record in the book of the lord of a manor, anciently
on certain terms of service, now commuted into a money pay-
ment. The tenants of a manor, which was held by the lord
from the Crown under ancient grant, gradually acquired the
right to be placed on the court roll of the lord on the same con-
ditions as their predecessors, and became entitled to demand
copies of these conditions, which, so long as they were fulfilled,
gave them a title to their estates. The conditions of the tenure
are governed by the customs of the manor as shown in the rolls
of the Manor Courts, and by constant and immemorial usage :
and the title is simply a copy of the court roll, authenticated by
the steward of the manor. Two conditions are essential : first,
that the lands are parcel of, and situated within, the manor ; and
secondly, that they have been demised, or are demisable by copy
of court roll immemorially. '

The ease with which a title can be given is the only ad-
vantage which this kind of tenure possesses, the uncertain
nature of its services, reliefs, escheats, fines and heriots, and
rights to timber, being a great obstacle to any kind of improve-
ment. In 1841, the Legislature, with a view of removing these
disadvantages, passed an Act for commuting manorial rights,
and facilitating the enfranchisement of copyhold property.
This was amended and extended by subsequent Acts of the
Legislature. Since 1841 upwards of twelve thousand enfran-
chisements have been completed under the Copyhold Acts, and
they are now proceeding, through the instrumentality of the
Copyhold Commission, at an average rate of 600 a year.
Besides these, a very large number have been effected through-
out the different parts of the country, without the intervention of
the office, owing to the stimulus to voluntary enfranchisement

British Agriculture. 327 = 61

"iven by the Copyhold Acts. But though the number seems
large, it represents probably but a moderate proportion of the
whole, as wherever there is a manor there are many copyhold
properties ; and much yet remains to be accomplished before
this injurious and obstructive kind of tenure shall altogether
cease to exist. The Copyhold Commission was formed with
the intention gradually to abolish copyhold tenure, beginning
by offering facilities for voluntary enfranchisement, after which
it should proceed to its object of extinction on the compulsory
principle. Accordingly, after ten years’ trial of facilities under
the voluntary system, compulsory powers were given to either
lord or tenant to demand enfranchisement, with further facilities
again in 1858, which led to a rapid increase in the number of
enfranchisements. Under the present Acts either lord or tenant
(except where the copyhold is held without a right of renewal)
may now apply to the Copyhold Commissioners to compel
enfranchisement upon terms to be fixed by two valuers, one
appointed by each, or by their umpire. And in small cases, not
exceeding 20/. of annual value, the amount may be assessed by
a single valuer, nominated by the Justices of the locality.

The complete extinction of copyhold tenure is still far from
accomplishment. And so long as any considerable extent of the
land of this country, embracing a vast number of the smaller
estates and houses, remains subject to manorial fines, whether
certain or arbitrary ; joint rights in timber, under which the
tenant cannot cut without leave of the lord, nor the lord enter
the land to cut without leave of the tenant ; vexatious demands for
heriots, and a species of control worse than double ownership ; a
very great bar is presented to the profitable use of such property,
an evil naturally most felt in the populous parts of the country.
The Copyhold Commission has now been in operation for
thirty-five years, so that full time has been given to prepare
and provide for the final extinction of this kind of tenure, as
originally contemplated by Parliament. The simplest mode of
doing so would be by enacting that within some definite number
of years, say thirty, all copyholds then existing should become
freehold. Till the termination of that period the right of either
party to compel enfranchisement should continue, and the
obvious interest of the lords to make the most of their oppor-
tunity would quickly bring about this transformation.

The Tithe department of this Commission also administers
questions connected with tithes for the support of religion.

Complete

extinction

desirable.

Mode of
accomplish ine;
this.

328 = 62

British Agriculture.

Tithes for sup-
port of religion
in England :

commuted
from payment
I in kind to a
I money pay-
' ment.

CHAPTEE X.

Church, Crown, and Charity Estates.

In the early period of Christianity in this country, among other
ecclesiastical laws introduced from the neighbouring continent,
the Scriptural principle of reserving for the support of religion
a tenth part of the produce of industry was enjoined. This
included not only a tenth part of the produce of the crops and
stock payable in gross, but also a tenth of the clear gains from
manual occupations and trades. This large proportion of the
total produce of those countries which had embraced Chris-
tianity was apportioned, more than a thousand years ago, into
four divisions ; one to maintain the edifice of the church, the
second to support the poor, the third the bishops, and the fourth
the parochial clergy. Originally all the land in the country
was titheable except such as belonged to the Crown and the
Church itself. At the time of the Reformation, much of the
Church lands in this country passed into the hands of laymen,
and continued exempt from tithe, and from various other causes
a considerable proportion of the lands of the country has become
exempted. As the country became more populous, and its
demands upon the produce of the soil more difficult to meet, the
payment of tithes in kind was found a great hindrance to im-
proved agriculture, as men were naturally unwilling to expend
capital for the purpose of increasing the produce, if another who
ran no risk, and bore no part of the toil, had a right to share
in that increase. Forty years ago it was determined that this
should cease, and it was enacted that, instead of payment in
kind, tithes should be commuted into a payment in money, cal-
culated on the average receipts of the preceding seven years, the
annual money value to vary according to the annual price of
corn on a septennial average, but the quantity of corn then
ascertained to remain for ever as the tithe of the parish.

A very important change of principle here took place. Up
to that time, the income of the Church increased with the
increased value yielded by the land, the original object that the
Church should progress in material resources in equal proportion
with the land being thus maintained. FToin 1836 that incre-
ment was stopped. Since that time the land rental of England
has risen 50 per cent., and all that portion of the increase
which previous to 1836 would have gone to the Church has gone
to the landowners. A tenth of that would not, however, by
any means adequately represent the loss to the Church and the
gain to the landowners ; for the tithe in kind was the tenth ol
the gross produce, which was equal to much more than a tenth

British Agriculture.

329 = C5

of the rent of arable land. In 1836 the money value of the
tithe, as compared with the land rental, was as four millions
sterling to thirty-three. In 1876 the tithe was still four millions,
but the land rental had risen to fifty. If the old principle of
participation had continued, the annual income of the Church
would now have been two millions greater than it is. Neither
party anticipated a result to such an extent when the Tithe
Commutation Act was passed, for not for twenty years after that
time had the rent of land in England recovered the heavy fall it
experienced at the close of the war in 1815. It was not until
the vast development of industry, under a policy of Free-trade,
had so increased the general prosperity, that the value and rent
of land began steadily to rise. It then became plain that
under the operation of a law intended simply to encourage
agricultural improvement, the community, represented by the
Church, are gradually losing a part of their natural inheritance.
The same change is in operation in the vicinity of the great
cities and towns, where population and wealth increase and
accumulate. An acre of land in such situations, which yielded
in its natural state a rent to the landowner of 3/., and to the
tithe-owner of 10s., when converted to building may produce
a ground rent of 3001., besides the reversion to the landowner
at the end of a long lease of the whole of the property erected
on it by his lessee. No doubt, since the Reformation, the
Church has been limited by law to the agricultural increased
produce, and was not entitled to demand a share of the building
value. But it was not contemplated that the landowners should
thus obtain the whole growing value of the land without leaving
any part of it for the support of religion. The operation of this
change has been chiefly in favour of the better class of lands,
those which from their quality and position have risen most in
value. On the poorest kinds of arable land — the cold clays,
and the thinnest chalk — the increased cost of labour has, in some
exceptional cases, brought about a lowering of rent, while the
tithe can undergo no diminution. The landowner in such case
has to bear the loss, just as in the other he gets the gain.

In a country like this, in which the inevitable tendency of
increasing wealth leads to the gradual diminution of small estates,
there would be some considerable loss to the ranks of small
resident proprietors by any change which should lead to the
absorption of Church property. In every parish of the kingdom
there is a resident landowner, who, as the clergyman of the parish,
receives in residence, glebe, and tithe, about a tenth part of its
rental, which he spends within it, and in return for which he is
the minister of rich and poor. The number may be about 12,000
in England alone, with an average annual value of 300/. As

Unexpected
effect of this,
in preventing
a rise in the
income of the
Church, and
increasing that
of the land-

Parish clergy
equivalent
in number to
more than one-
fourth of the
resident land-
owners, over
2001. a year.

330= <J4

British Agriculture.

Her Majesty’s
Woods, Forests,
and Land
revenue,

now yield a
net revenue
to the public
Exchequer
exceeding the
amount of the
Civil List.

their income is in no way affected by the question of rent, their
position is one of perfect impartiality between landowners and
their tenants, and they are the natural referees of the poorer
inhabitants. In proportion to the whole number of landowners
in England the removal of this numerous body would strike out
more than a fourth of those receiving above 200Z. a year, and
probably much more than one-fourth of the resident landowners.
This, irrespective of the question of religion, would be a change
of great magnitude in its social effect, which deserves careful
consideration.

Crown Estates.

Besides the domain and Great Park attached to the Royal
Castle of Windsor, 14,000 acres in extent, there are comprised
in the Royal patrimony upwards of 70,000 acres of land in the
Kingdom let in farms to agricultural tenants, and also house
property in London, and land let on building leases, and con-
siderably more than 100,000 acres of Royal forests. For the last
twenty years this great property has been managed by two
Commissioners, under the superintendence of Her Majesty’s
Treasury, with great judgment and care, and at the moderate
cost of less than 3 per cent, on the total receipts. The gross
revenue has for some years shown a steady annual increase, and
now amounts to 469,000/. A large expenditure is annually
made in maintaining and improving the property, but the sur-
plus now paid annually to the Exchequer has risen above, and
is likely to continue more and more to exceed the annual amount
of the Civil List. This is a sum assured by Parliament to the
Sovereign, at the beginning of each reign, to defray the expenses
of the Royal Household, by an arrangement continued from
Sovereign to Sovereign from the time of the Revolution in 1688.
The surplus income from the hereditary estates of the Crown,
which was then precarious and uncertain, is by this arrangement
during the reign of the Sovereign paid into the public Exchequer,
and a fixed sum of 385,000/. is, in lieu of it, annually paid to
the Queen for the maintenance of her State, and for the salaries
and expenses of Her Majesty’s Household. In the period of
forty years since the commencement of the present reign, all
expenses, both public and private, have largely increased, but no
new demand on that account has been made on the public for
an increase of the Civil List. And as the hereditary estates are,
now yielding to the public Exchequer more than it pays to the
Queen, the remarkable and probably unique example is presented
in this country of a great Sovereign whose household and Royal
dignity are thus maintained without any cost to her subjects.

British Agriculture.

331 = 65

I am indebted to the Earl of Fowls for the following inte-
resting particulars in the business relations of the Crown with
it| agricultural tenants : —

The average rental of the agricultural land of the Crown general
! Estates is at present rather more than 32s. 6rf. per acre. Nearly Crown

I the whole of it is let in farms of various sizes, on agricultural Farms are let.

I leases of 21 years’ duration, subject to the reservation of all
} trees and substrata. The tenants are to reside on the premises :

I to cultivate according to the best mode of husbandry in the

I district : within the last three years of the termination of the

i lease not to sow two white crops in succession, or to plant on

the same land more than one crop of potatoes. The tenants
j to be entitled to one-half of the money expended by them in
I the last year of the term in the purchase of linseed, cotton, and
rape-cake consumed on the premises, but not to an amount ex-
! ceeding one-half of the average expenditure for such articles

j during each of the three preceding years. The right of shooting

and sporting is not reserved from the tenants, except under very
special circumstances. New buildings are constructed, and
existing buildings improved, and under-drainage, roads, and
other permanent improvements executed at the cost of the
Crown. Terms of renewal are proposed to desirable tenants,
two yeai's before the expiration of lease.

Charity Estates.

The value and extent of land held in trust for charities in Charity
' England alone is very considerable. Inclusive of rent-charges •

I and fixed annual payments, the gross annual rental exceeds
I 1,558,000/., derived from 524,000 acres of land, and the houses
built thereon. Besides this, the Charity Trusts possess in
Government Stock and other personalty, nearly 20,000,000/.,
yielding an annual income of 640,000/. Their total income their value,
from real and personal property is thus close upon 2,200,000/.

This great property is held in separate endowments in all parts
of England, in number estimated at about 50,000, which are
administered by various bodies of trustees, such as Municipal
Trustees, Ministers, and Parish Officers, and in many cases by
persons who may be termed private trustees, or such as are not
trustees in virtue of holding any especial office. These have
been placed by Parliament under the general superintendence of
I a Government Department, the Charity Commission, which
reports annually to Parliament upon the administration of the
charities over which they possess necessary power of control.

The principal objects to which the funds were appropriated by
the founders of the charities are education, apprenticing, and

332 = 65

British Agriculture.

advancement of orphans ; endowment of clergy, lecturers, and
for sermons ; Church purposes and repairs ; maintenance of
Dissenting places of worship and their ministers ; public
parochial uses ; support of almshouses and pensioners ; distri-
bution of articles in kind and money ; medical hospitals and
dispensaries. The property which has thus in the past been
voluntarily devoted by benevolent persons as an endowment for
Their niagni- charitable objects in England, is equal to more than one-half of
that possessed by the Established Church. If we add the amount
of the civil ad- annually expended in the United Kingdom on the relief of the
ministration, poor and in aid of education, it appears that the annual expendi-
ture on objects of charity, exceeds the whole cost of the civil
administration of the country.

I have now brought to a close this general view of the present
state of British Agriculture, the preparation of which I was
invited to undertake by the Council of the Royal Agricultural
Society ; very inadequately executed, I fear, but with as much
care and accuracy as a wide experience enabled me to command.
I have sought to place in a clear light the leading characteristics
of our various systems as influenced by soil and climate, by the
progress of population and wealth and its increasing demands,
and by the distribution of landed property and the relations
subsisting between the classes engaged in its cultivation. I
have entered with some minuteness into those special features
which chiefly distinguish ours from Continental agriculture, in
order to facilitate comparison with that of other European
countries. The Papers which are to follow will fully dev'elop
the several branches of the subject, each being the work of an
accomplished writer specially acquainted with that part which
he has undertaken. The state of the law as affecting agriculture,
the pressure of public and local taxation, the requisite amount
of farm capital, and the general subject of practical agriculture,
will each be comprehensively treated. The cultivation of fruits,
vegetables, and hops, will be described. The condition of the
agricultural labourers will receive special notice. The influence
of chemical discoveries on modern agriculture will be the theme
of the distinguished Chemist of the Society, Dr. Voelcker ; and
a description of the position and widely extended usefulness of
the Royal Agricultural Society itself, by the Secretary, will
fitly complete the subject.

II.

ENGLISH LAND LAW.

FREDERICK CLIFFORD,

OF THE MIDDLE TEMPLE, BARRISTEn-AT-LAW,

AXD

J. ALDERSON FOOTE,

OP lincoln’s-inst, bareister-at-law.

( 335 = 69 )

CONTENTS.

Chapter I. — Succession and Ownership of Land.

Feudal Tenure — Right of Alienation of Laud — Manors — Military Tenures
abolished — Primogeniture — Gavelkind — Limited operation of Primogeni-
ture Law — “ Estates tail ” — The Statute De Donis — Fines and Recoveries
— Settlements — Entail — Settled Estates — Not prescribed by Law— Power
of Entail limited by Law — Examples of English Settlement — -Leaseholds
regarded as Personalty — Tenancy for Life — Leases by Life Tenants — Per-
manent Improvements, cost of, charged on Land — The Law of Mortmain —
General policy of English Law adverse to perpetual succession in Land

Pages 71-83

Chapter II. — Yearly Tenancies.

Agricultural Tenants — Tenancies at Will — Emblements — Yearly Tenancies —
Advantages and Disadvantages to Landowner — Their effect upon Tenants
— Local Customs — Effect of Customs — Continuing Tenancies Pages 83-90

Chapter III. — Forms of Agreement.

Written Agreements — Forms of Written Contract — Memorandum of Terms
of Tenancy — Agreement for Tenancy — Freedom of Contract — Exclusion of
Customs must be express .. .. .. .. .. Pages 90-94

Chapter IV. — Leases.

Leasing powers of Life Tenants — Legal effect of Lease — Tenant’s Covenants
— Covenants as to Husbandry — End of Tenancy — Payments to Outgoing
Tenant — Landlord’s Covenants — Arbitration — Forfeiture .. Pages 94-99

Chapter V. — The Agricultural Holdings Act.

Farmers — Legal doctrine as to Emblements — Founded upon Public Policy —
Growth of Tenant’s Claims — Legal presumption against — First recognition
of, by Statute — Its permissive character — Unexhausted Improvements
assumed to be the property of Tenant — Application of Act — Tenant’s title
to Compensation — First-class Improvements — Their presumed Duration —
If the Landlord is absolute Owner — Previous Consent of Landlord — If Land-
lord’s Ownership is limited— “ Letting Value” of Holding must be increased
by Tenant’s improvements — Questions as to Tenant’s Outlay — Improvements
of Second Class — -Duration of Tenant’s Claim for — Landlord’s prior consent
VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 B

336 = 70

Contents.

to, not necessary — Notice — Assessment in respect of — Third-class Improve-
ments— Period of Duration — Consent and Notice to Landlord not required —
Exceptions to Tenant’s Claim — Conditions of Compensation — General Con-
ditions affecting Landlord and Tenant — Deductions from Tenant’s claim —
As to Landlord’s Claim under Statute — Procedure in establishing Claim
— Eeferees — Umpire — Powers of Eeferees — Award — Facts to be set out in
— How to be disputed — Jurisdiction of County Courts — Appellate Court —
Creation of charge on Estate — Notice to Quit — Customary time of, ex-
tended by Act — To Yearly Tenancies — Landlord may resume Possession of
part of Holding for certain purposes — Fixtures — Farm Buildings — Steam-
engines — Machinery — Landlord’s Option of Purchase — Landlord’s consent
to erection of, unnecessary, excepting Steam-engines — Conditions of re-
moval by Tenant — Eesults of Act — Indirect Benefits to English Agriculture

Pages 99-118

( 337 = 7'! )

ENGLISH LAND LAW.

CHAPTEE I.

Succession and Ownership of Land.

The soil of England is divided at tlie present time, according to
a recent Parliamentary Return, among some 250,000 landholders,
in addition to a much larger class, numbering about 671,000,
who own less than one acre each of what may be called the most
valuable of all the subjects of possession. In this sense, at least,
it may be called the most valuable, that there is nothing else
which represents so large an amount of capital in proportion to
the yearly profits to be derived from it ; and it is obvious that
a means of investment, which attracts capital at a less rate of
interest than any other, must necessarily possess unique and
intrinsic advantages of its own. The nature and reality of
these advantages belong to a question of political economy,
the discussion of which would be out of place in the present
paper, in which it is proposed to consider very briefly the laws
by which the succession to and the ownership of this valuable
possession are at present regulated in England, and to trace
shortly the history of their past development.

It is the peculiarity of English law that any absolute owner- Femlal tenure,
ship of the soil is, theoretically, a thing unknown. All Sovereign
States are regarded as possessing over their own territory the
“ right of eminent domain ” (domaine eminent), which is the
name given by jurists to the paramount power possessed by the
head of every State of disposing, in case of necessity or for
the public safety, of all the land, private property or not, within
its limits. But in addition to this right, the introduction of the
feudal system into England vested the ultimate seignory or lord-
ship of all the soil in the Sovereign personally ; and all that a
landowner can even now possess is, in theory, some portion of
the Sovereign’s right, ceded either tacitly or expressly at the time

2 B 2

Right of alien-
ation of land.

Manors.

338 = 72 English Land Law.

when his tenure or holding commenced. This tenure, rendered
uniform in its character by a statute passed on the accession of
Charles II. after the Restoration (12 Car. 2, c. 24), has gradually
become of little importance in its present effect ; but, as the
foundation upon which the whole of the English land law has
been built, it can never be entirely disregarded. It is indeed
difficult to believe that two hundred years ago the burdens and
liabilities involved in it were grave in their character, and
general in their operation ; and to a generation which enjoys the
free possession of the soil, emancipated from the shackles which
so long impeded the development of its resources, the evils which
their ancestors were compelled to tolerate are scarcely known
except by tradition, or by the imprints they have left upon the
laws under which their substance has passed away.

The great bulk of the soil of England, comprised in the fiefs
or holdings thus created by the Sovereign’s pleasure, was
originally alienable under peculiar conditions. The right which
the original tenant possessed was not passed on in its entirety to
the alienee, in whose favour the transfer was made. He became
a sort of under-tenant of the first tenant or grantee of the Crown,
in whom a seignory or lordship remained to enable him to fulfil
the services which were imposed as the consideration for, and
as inseparable from, the royal bounty. The sub-holdings thus
created became the manors of the lords by whom they were
granted, and a variety of minor tenures, too complicated for
discussion here, thus came into existence. It will be sufficient
to say that the tenants of these manors, as of those older ones
which had a different origin, consisted mainly of two great
classes. First, the freeholders of the manor, who occupied what
the Saxons called the bokland, and held exactly the same relation
to the lord that the lord bore to the Sovereign, enjoying a de-
finite and secure tenure in return for ascertained services.
Secondly the copyholders, or occupiers of the folkland of the
manor, originally nothing more than the serfs of the lord, who
were permitted to hold certain portions of the demesne as a
matter of favour, and whose rights grew in the course of centuries
into a custom adopted and enforced by the common law of the
country. It was not until the reign of Edward I. that this pro-
cess of sub-infeudation was put an end to by a statute called,
from certain words with which it sets out, the Statute of Quia
fmptores. From that time the alienee of any portion of a fief
became the immediate tenant of the Sovereign, as if he had been
named in the original grant. The services which belonged to
such holdings were originally of almost endless variety, some
burdensome in the extreme and some almost nominal in their
nature ; but from this period the tenure ceased, at any rate, to be

339 = 75

English Land Laio.

complicated by the introduction of a number of intermediate
lords, and the way was prepared for the ultimate simplification
of the whole feudal system by the enactment in the seventeenth Military
century, which has been already mentioned. By that statute the tenures
* military tenures, which had by that time become almost unen-
^ durable to the independent agriculturists and yeomen of the
country, were swept away with all their burdens and liabilities ;
f and, except in the case of copyhold tenancies, the tenure known
II as free socage became the general law of the land. The term

Isocage, derived from the Saxon word “ Soc ” signifying a liberty
or privilege,* was used to denote any tenure of land in which
the services to be rendered were certain and definite in their
1 nature ; and although there was also a variety known as “ villein
, socage ” or “ privileged villeinage,” the services belonging to this
j tenure were, generally speaking, such as a freeman could render
without degradation. By the middle of the seventeenth century
these services had in most cases resolved themselves into the
payment of mere fealty and homage, which is the sole con-
I dition upon which, at the present day, the great bulk of English
I land is held of the Crown. When land is held in freehold from
; intermediate lords, there are still instances to be found where a
I customary rent is due ; but, practically speaking, there is at the
1 present time for the great bulk of the soil of England some
absolute owner, either in actual or potential existence, who owes
1 nothing in respect of his tenure but the fealty of a subject to his
I Sovereign. What is meant by saying that in some cases such an
owner has only a potential existence, will be better understood
when we have explained the manner in which the rights of land-
I owners are frequently limited to the duration of their own lives.

It is frequently asserted that the right of primogeniture, which Primogeaituie.
gave the lands of the father to his eldest son, was always an
I essential part of the English common law, but the statement is
an erroneous one. The ancient English common law of in- Gavelkind,
heritance was the law of gavelkind, by which the land of the
father descended in equal shares to his sons, who could alienate

♦ Socage is often said to be derived from the Saxon word for a plough, and to
denote an agricultural tenure, which imposed upon the tenant the duty of
cultivating his lord’s land. There is, no doubt, a Saxon word to which the term
might etymologically be traced, but the root which is in reality its origin is a
perfectly distinct one, and bears the meaning given to it in the text. Nothing is
more clear than that such agricultural services were base ” in their nature,
performed only by the serfs or villeins of the lord of the demesne ; and a little
consideration will show that a tenure depending on such conditions could never
have become, either by common law or by statute, the ordinary holding of English
I freemen, or indeed have been ever applicable, except in isolated oases, to those
I who held directly from the Crown. (See Kerr’s ‘ Blackstone,’ p. 67, ».) The
mistaken etymology referred to has been used by some writers to support a theory
that the groundwork of English tenure generally was based upon the needs of
agriculture.

340 = 74

English Land Law.

Limited opera-
tion of primo-
geniture law.

it at pleasure on attaining the age of fifteen. Bj “ gavelkind
land ” was meant originally land held on condition of the pay-
ment of gavel, a Saxon word signifying “ rent,” or “ a customary
performance of husbandry works.” It was thus clearly dis-
tinguishable from land held on the feudal system, by tenants
bound only to render certain military services in return, and a
different rule of inheritance was applied to it. Among other
incidents of gavelkind tenure may be mentioned the immunity
of the land affected by it from forfeiture or escheat for felony
or treason, expressed in the old maxim, “ The father to the
bough, the son to the plough,” and showing that the duty of
cultivating the soil was anciently considered paramount even
to the rights of the Sovereign or chief. The law of primo-
geniture was indeed unknown to the ancient English, as it was
to the Romans, the Germans, the Hindoos, and even to the
patriarchs. In all these communities the land of which a man
died possessed was divided among his children, generally in
equal shares ; and it was the requirements of the feudal system
that first firmly established in England the right of the eldest
son to his father’s possessions, as being the person in general
most able to discharge the military and other obligations which
were attached to them. The custom of primogeniture was in-
deed fostered and diffused by every successive conquest and
occupation of the soil. Though no part of the Roman law
originally, it became so in many of the conquered provinces
from the peculiar character of the military tenure by which
privileged veterans of the army obtained allotments of the soil.
Romans, Saxons, and Normans in turn granted to their followers,
and in some cases even to the native possessors of the conquered
territory, fiefs or holdings in return for certain definite services
in time of need ; and no other law but that of primogeniture
was found applicable to the tenures thus called into existence,
or adapted to ensure the fulfilment of the obligations which were
inseparable from their maintenance. It was not, indeed, until
the middle of the thirteenth century that the rule was generally
accepted in England, nor did its operation ever in fact become
universal. The law of gavelkind still lingers in the shape of a
recognised custom in Kent and some other parts of the country,
but its rarity has caused it to have now little more than an antiqua-
rian interest. With the exception, however, of these very limited
districts, the law of primogeniture, first introduced at the time
of the Conquest, has for six hundred years at least been esta-
blished as the common law of the country, and has given form
and colour to almost every phase of its history and dev'elopment.
The extent of its actual and direct operation at the present day
is, Ijowever, very trifling. An absolute owner of land may

341 = 75

English Land Laic.

' devise it, by will, equally among his children or to whomsoever
I else he pleases. His disposing power is wholly unfettered. All
' that the law says is that, in the event of his dying without a
I will, the land shall go to his eldest son to the exclusion of other
' children. It has been stated that two per cent, of the land that
! annually changes hands is affected by the law of primogeniture,
but this is probably largely in excess of the truth. It is obvious
that the proportion of persons dying without wills to the whole
I number of annual deaths, or even to the number of wills annually
I proved, will furnish no trustworthy guide ; since no persons are
j so unlikely to die intestate as those who have landed property to
bequeath, and a considerable number, even of those who do, no
doubt frequently adopt the natural course of the law in place of
making a will, who would have taken the trouble to devise their
I property specifically to their eldest sons, if the law had given it
a different destination. The object of this law has been mainly
secured in two other voluntary and indirect ways — by the opera-
tion of the law of entail, and the law of settlement. It will be
I necessary very briefly to consider the result of these influences.

With the object of insuring that the royal lands should always “Estates tail.”
; be in the hands of some one able to discharge the burdens in-
I separable from them, a large number of original grants were
i made conveying to the tenants of the Crown what was called
an estate tail. This estate or interest was created by a grant
' to the intended tenant and the heirs of his body, with a reversion
^ to the grantor in case no such heirs should come into existence.

Under such a grant the tenant took nothing, strictly speaking,
but an estate for life, nor did his son, upon whom that estate
I devolved, stand in a better position. But it was not long before
the law allowed such a tenant, upon the birth of an heir to
, satisfy the terms of the grant, to defeat both the interest of his
son and the reversion of the lord by alienating the whole estate,
and the practice, once sanctioned by legal authority, soon came

I into very general use. To remedy what was then regarded in
I the light of an evil, the Act known as the statute De Donis was The statute De
passed (13 Ed. 1, c. 1) towards the end of the thirteenth century, ^onis.

I by which the power of the tenant in tail to alienate his lands
j for a longer period than that of his own life was effectually
I checked. The result of this legislation was, that for nearly 200
I years a series of life estates in a large proportion of English
soil prevailed without interruption, and the evils inseparable
i from a system of limited ownership in land were never more
I graphically illustrated. To borrow the words of Blackstone,
ti children grew disobedient when they knew it was not in the
♦ power of their father to interfere with their right to succeed
^ him, farmers took leases at haphazard and were ousted to their

342 = 7^

English Land Law.

Fines and
recoveries.

Settlements.

ruin, and creditors were defrauded of their just expectation by
the discovery of an entail which had hitherto been kept a secret.
The progress of civilisation demanded a release from such a
bondage, and in course of time the desired remedy was found.

It was at the end of the fifteenth century, in the reign of
Edward III. (1472) that the device known as a common recovery.,
by which the state of things above described was practically put
an end to, was first employed. Of this process it is unnecessary
to say more than that it was a legal fiction, which, by a kind of
fraus pia, enabled the tenant in tail to whom issue had been
born to convert his limited interest in the land into its absolute
ownership, with the unfettered right of alienation and devise.
Nearly the same result was accomplished a few years later by
another legal fiction known as levying a fine, which received
parliamentary sanction by a statute passed in the reign of Henry
VIII. (32 Hen. 8, c. 36), and all the estates which had been
fettered by previous legislation for 200 years were from this
time practically emancipated. For two more centuries, speaking
in round numbers, land-owners enjoyed a freedom of alienation
hitherto unknown or confined to a privileged minority ; and the
rapid growth and independence of the order of yeomen and
landed gentry, in the days of the later Tudors and earlier
Stuarts, has been attributed in great measure by some writers ta
the liberty thus bestowed. By the seventeenth century a new
means of fettering the landowners’ hands was introduced, not
by the Legislature, but by private individuals and for private
ends. This was by the establishment of the system of family
settlements, which resulted in again throwing a large portion of
the soil into the possession of those whose rights were limited
by the duration of their own lives, and constituted indeed a
privileged kind of tenancy rather than an ownership in the
proper sense of the word. The practice of settling estates owes
its origin to the ingenuity of Sir Orlando Bridgman, and other
eminent lawyers of his time, and was adopted in the troubled
periods of the Commonwealth and Restoration, with the main
object of evading that forfeiture for felony or high treason which
was then unhappily so common a calamity. It would require a
volume to give anything like an adequate idea of its intricacies,
but the main principle in which it originated was to confer a
life estate upon the immediate tenant, and, by the interposition
of a trustee, to secure the devolution of the lands upon his eldest
or other son in any event. The son, in turn, stood in no better
position, and upon the attainment of his majority generally
resettled the estate in the same manner. The first tenant in
tail under such a settlement was able to “ bar the entail,” and
in that manner make his ownership of the land absolute, by the

Entail.

343 = 77

English Land Law.

process of fine or recovery already mentioned ; but to do this
effectually, the concurrence of the tenant in possession, though
only possessed of a life estate, was necessary. The restriction
has been preserved by the modern Act for abolishing fines and
recoveries (3 «Sc 4 Will. 4, c. 74), which allows any entail to be
put an end to by the simple process of enrolling a disentailing
deed in the Court of Chancery, the consent of the “ protector ”
of the settlement, who may be either the tenant who has the life
estate preceding the estate tail, or any person or persons nomi-
nated by the original settlor, being still a necessary preliminary
to the exercise of the powers conferred by the statute. Even
without the consent of the “ protector,” a tenant in tail may dis-
pose of his lands under the Act in such a way as to defeat any
subsequent claim by his own issue, as he might formerly have
done by levying a fine. He cannot, however, without such con-
sent, defeat the right of those entitled to the lands in the event
of the failure of the estate tail by there being no heirs of his
body to take it. The cumbrous and antiquated machinery
which tended to fetter the successive inheritors of the land, and
to stereotype a form of estate so ill-suited to modern requirements,
has by this beneficial enactment been entirely swept away.

Modified chiefly by the statute of William IV., the system of Settled estates,
settled estates is still in full operation in England ; and it has
been estimated that probably more English land is thus artifi-
cially tied up than remains at the free disposal of the nominal
owners. Although the Court of Chancery has certain statutory
powers of directing the sale of settled estates where it is thought
advisable, yet the habit which has grown up in most wealthy
families of resettling the land before any person becomes entitled
to the absolute ownership, results in making no inconsiderable
portion of English soil for all ordinary purposes practically
unsaleable. Much has been said and written on the merits and
demerits of such a system ; and the question is often raised
whether the assumed benefit to the particular family compen-
sates, by its indirect operation on the welfare of society, for the
injury to the State which is generally admitted to be the result
of restraining the alienation of the State’s most valuable pos-
session. The discussion of such a question is obviously beyond
the limits of the present paper ; but it has been necessary to refer
to it, in order to explain that it is chiefly in this form that the
rule of primogeniture manifests itself in England at the present
day.

The English law is sometimes criticised as though it encou- Not prescribed
raged, or even made compulsory, the continuance of large estates
in the hands of one family, and favoured the accumulation and
transmission of such estates by men who have acquired wealth

344=75

English Land Law.

in trade. Such criticisms, it will be seen, have no real foun-
dation. We have shown how small is the effect produced in
practice upon the succession to property by the law which pre-
scribes that upon intestacy land should devolve upon the eldest
son alone. We have also shown how large estates in England are
kept unbroken, and handed down in the male line, not by force
of law but at the wish and by the act of the persons chiefly
interested. What is done, therefore, is done voluntarily by
the individuals, the law merely giving effect to certain family
arrangements, under which it is desired that estates should pass
from father to son, or to the next heir, without essential change or
Power of entail diminished acreage. So far, indeed, is the law from encouraging
limited by law. g prevailing wish among English landowners, that it places
obstacles in its way, by facilitating, as we have seen, the release
of estates from entail, and, further, by limiting the period during
which a landowner, by deed or by will, may tie up either land
or money with a view to benefit remote descendants. This is
what is known in English law as the rule against perpetuities.
No attempt to restrain the alienation of land is effectual beyond
a period of 21 years after the expiration of a life or lives in
existence when the will or deed begins to operate. Thus, the
English law peremptorily forbids all attempts to perpetuate
families by an indefinite restraint upon the future alienation of
property. It allows to an absolute owner of land full liberty of
sale, and full liberty also as to the objects of his testamentary
bounty. He may divide his property, landed or personal, among
all his children, or leave it to one of them, or to strangers, at
his pleasure ; the only obstacle to his free dealing with his
property is that the law will not permit him to fetter in turn
the freedom of his successors in title beyond the period just
mentioned.

The reason for prescribing this period of 21 years after a life or
lives in being, is because then the first unborn heir in the direct
line of the entail must, at the end of that period, have attained his
majority and have acquired in his turn a legal power of dispo-
sition over the property to which, by force of the instrument, he
Examples of succeeds. The usual course of family settlement in England will
English settle- best be illustrated by examples. Thus, A. on his marriage settles
his property on himself for life, reserving a dower or jointure for
his widow, and a power to charge the inheritance by way of
mortgage with portions for daughters, and fixed sums or yearly
allowances for younger sons. The settlement further provides
that, on the death of A., the whole shall devolve in the form of
an estate tail upon his eldest son and the heirs of this son’s body ;
or, in the event of the eldest son’s death without issue, then
upon the next son ; and so on, providing for the probable con-

English Land Law.

345 = 79

tingency of death or failure of issue. Thus, A. becomes what
is called the life-tenant ; B., his eldest son, the heir of entail,
or next successor. When B. comes of age, A. and B. may join
to cut off the entail ; the law, as we have shown, lending itself to
this proceeding, so as to favour the free disposition of property.

If A., the father, be dead, B., on coming of age, acquires the
power of disposing of the property absolutely, and thus putting
an end to the entail altogether. Or again, M. has a son, N., who
wants to marry. M., being anxious to keep his estates unbroken,
settles them on himself for life, reserving a jointure for his
widow and charges in favour of his younger children as in the
case last supposed. Then the settlement provides that, upon
M.’s death, his eldest son, N., shall enjoy the estates for life,
with a similar jointure for the widow and charges for the younger
children of N. ; and upon N.’s death the estates are made to
devolve upon his eldest son, O. When O. comes of age, at 21,

M., N., and O., or such of them as are then alive, may join
together and destroy the entail ; and when O. succeeds, he may
by simple alienation put an end to the entail altogether. That
the policy of the law in favour of alienation is not without prac-
tical effect may be seen by reference to the constant advertisements
of sales of land in the ‘ Times ’ and other English newspapers,
which show that large quantities of land are disposed of annually.

While, if a person dies without a will, the English law gives Leaseholds re-
the land to his eldest son, it must be borne in mind that all his gaided as per-
personal property (excluding the widow’s share) is divided
equally among his children ; and that leaseholds, whether lands
or houses, are regarded as personal property for the purposes of
such distribution. As a very large proportion of house property
IS held upon lease, this fact is not immaterial in considering
the succession to real property in England ; and the leasehold
interests in agricultural land, of which we shall presently speak,
are similarly treated.

\\ e may now consider very briefly the nature of the disadvan- Tenancy for
tages under which a tenant for life only of an estate labours in
dealing with his possession, and the manner in which the rights
of tenants for farming purposes, constituting the large majority
of the agricultural class, are affected by their landlord’s limited
powers. By the common law no tenant for life only could make
a lease for a longer period than that for which his own interest
was to endure, and at his death any lease granted by him became
void against those entitled to the lands after him, or, in the case
of an estate tail, even against his own issue. Under certain
restrictions, a power of making a lease for not more than 21
years, by which their issue, though not the reversioner, should
be bound, was conferred upon tenants for life by a statute passed

Leases by life
tenants.

346 = 50 English Land Law.

in the sixteenth century (32 Hen. 8, c. 28), and the same pri-
vileges were at the same time given to a man possessed in right
of his wife, who had hitherto laboured under a similar dis-
ability. The Act remained in force until 1856, when the statute
19 & 20 Viet., c. 120, was passed for the amendment of the law
on the subject, and enabled all life tenants to lease by deed for
21 years, under certain terms and at the best reasonable rent.
The whole subject of leases will be considered in its proper
place.

The statute just referred to further authorised the Court of
Chancery to sanction, under certain circumstances, the sale of
settled estates, or of the timber growing upon them, and to direct
the investment of the proceeds upon similar trusts. From time
to time it has been felt that these enactments hardly touch the
real evil of a limited ownership by which the tenant-farmer
is chiefly affected. The possessor of a life-interest only, who
probably requires the greater part of the revenues of the land
for his personal wants, and has besides the duty of saving some-
thing for those of his children who take no provision under the
settlement, is seldom inclined, or even able, to employ capital
in effecting improvements of a permanent character on the pro-
perty of which he is the transient possessor. He may die before
the benefit from the increase in the yearly produce, which is due
to the improvement, has even begun to make itself felt ; it is
almost always improbable that he will live to be compensated
in full for the money which he has irretrievably sunk ; and while
the person entitled in remainder will reap much of the advantage
of his outlay, his own means of providing for those for whose
welfare he is most anxious are proportionately diminished. In
theory, no state of society more disadvantageous to agriculture
can be conceived than one in which most of the soil of the
country is under the control of life tenants, with limited powers
and interests, and let by them to yearly tenants, whose chief
interest it is to get as much as possible out of it before it
passes from their possession. Yet under this theoretical dis-
advantage, as regards both yearly tenancies and life estates,
English agriculture has attained whatever eminence it now
enjoys.

The tenant for life occupies the same position with regard to
the owner who is invested with the absolute ownership, that the
tenant from year to year bears with regard to the tenant for life ;
and inasmuch as it is unavoidable, in the present artificial state
of society, that the great bulk of the soil of the country should
be in the hands of those whose ownership is limited in the one
way or the other, it has been found imperatively necessary that
the Legislature should make some effort to counteract the evils

English Land Law.

347 = SI

which such a condition of things would of itself naturally and
inevitably create. In one direction this has been done by giving
the life-tenants those leasing powers of which mention has been
already made — a reform the necessity of which began to make
itself felt as early as the sixteenth century — hut the other main
step in this direction was not taken until a comparatively
recent date. In 1843 an Act was passed to enable tenants for Permanent
I life, or for terms determinable on lives, and mortsfagees in pos- improyements,
j session, to make certain improvements of a permanent nature, °

I such as drainage works, on the estate, and to charge the costs on
I the revenues of the land itself, by obtaining special leave from
i the Court of Chancery for that purpose. In the next Session the
Commissioners of the Treasury were empowered to grant loans
to landowners for similar purposes, and a sum of 2,000,000/. was
' set aside for this special object. The definition of an owner in
that enactment, the spirit of which has been adopted in its
essential parts by the later and more comprehensive statute to
be presently mentioned, included every person in possession or
in receipt of the rents and profits, but provided that a tenant for
1 life or years, at a rent not less than two-thirds of the clear
I yearly value, or holding for a term not exceeding fourteen years
I at any rent, should be deemed to be owner for the purposes of
the Act jointly with the reversioner. The limited amount of
money available for carrying out the objects of the statute
I rendered it necessary to pass the Private Money Drainage Act
in 1849, giving owners, as above defined, power to borrow from
private individuals for the same purposes, with the sanction and
I under the control of the Inclosure Commissioners. In the next
I year a further sum of public money was set aside for the same
object, with the same machinery for controlling its application ;
but the Improvement of Lands Act, 1864(27 & 28 Viet., c. 114),
has superseded all previous enactments on the subject. The
owners on whom the borrowing powers which it creates are con-
ferred are the persons in receipt of the rents and profits of the
land ; and where such persons are tenants for a remaining term
of less than twenty-five years, or for life or lives not renewable,
then the tenants jointly with the reversioners. The powers so
conferred have been still further supplemented by those sections
of the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1875 (ss. 42, 43, 44), hereafter
mentioned, which provide that a landlord, who pays his tenants
1 compensation for permanent improvements under that statute,

I may obtain a charge on the holding for the amount paid, on
j application to a county court judge, who may fix the rate of
interest and mode of repayment as he thinks fit. These charges
may be taken by the Commissioners for the Improvement of
Lands, who are authorised to advance money by the previous

348 = 52

English Land Law.

The law of
mortmain.

General policy
of English law
adverse to per-
petual succes-
sion in land.

statutes, and can be assigned over by them to any other person.
The cheapness and simplicity of the procedure thus prescribed
should recommend it for general adoption ; and whatever may
be the evils inseparable from a limited ownership of land, the
English Legislature cannot at any rate be charged with having
omitted the attempt to provide a remedy.

No sketch of the ownership and succession of land in England
would be complete which omitted reference to the laws affecting
gifts for charitable uses. What is called, though not quite
accurately, the Statute of Mortmain, was passed in the reign of
George II., taking effect in the year 1736, but was really
founded on principles long recognised by the English law.
It was entitled, “ An Act to restrain the Disposition of Lands,
whereby the same may become inalienable;” and its recital, or
preamble, sets forth the reasons which led the Legislature to
adopt it : — “ Whereas gifts or alienations of lands, tenements,
and hereditaments in mortmaih are prohibited or restrained by
Magna Charta, and divers other wholesome laws, as prejudicial
to and against the common safety: nevertheless, this public
mischief has of late greatly increased, by many large and im-
provident alienations or dispositions made by languishing or
dying persons, or by other persons, to uses called charitable
uses, to take place after their deaths, to the disherison of their
lawful heirs.”

This statute does not go on wholly to prohibit such gifts,
but enacts that no lands, nor money to be laid out in pur-
chasing lands, shall be given ’or in any way conveyed to any
persons in trust, or for the benefit of any charitable uses what-
soever, unless such gift is made by deed, duly witnessed, and
enrolled in the Court of Chancery within six months after execu-
tion, and unless also such gift is absolute, without power of revo-
cation, and is further made to take effect immediately after
execution. Moreover, all such gifts are declared void if the
donors die within twelve months after executing the deed.
Thus, in England, no gift of any estate in land for charitable
(including religious) uses can be made by will, which only takes
effect, of course, on the death of the testator.

Certain exceptions were introduced into the statute in favour of
the two Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, or any of the
colleges within those Universities, or the great schools of Eton,
Winchester, and Westminster.

Since the passing of the Mortmain Act, statutes have been
enacted to facilitate the grant of sites for schools, and for other
purposes of public utility. But the general law remains still
more strongly opposed to that perpetuity of title in the case of
Corporations, which is forbidden in the case of individuals ; and

English Land Law.

349 = 83

the Courts are strict in upholding both the letter and the spirit
of the Mortmain Act. No conveyance of land can be made to
any Corporation unless the Crown has granted it a licence to hold
land. The Charity Commissioners, a public body appointed by
the Crown, exercise large powers of control over incorporated
charities in respect of any land held by them. The Ecclesi-
astical Commissioners, a body similarly appointed, exercise a
like control over Church-lands, and themselves hold land for
Church purposes. A parish priest, or a Cathedral Chapter, or
a Bishop, cannot give a mining or building lease of his Church-
lands without the consent of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners ;
and the consent of the Charity Commissioners must in like
manner be obtained for such lease by the governors or managers
of a Charity. The Board of Trade also has jurisdiction over
the holding of land by companies. Every joint-stock company
registered under the Joint-Stock Companies Acts has power to
hold land, but no company, not being a trading company, can
hold more than two acres of land without the consent of the
Board of Trade.

CHAPTEE II.

Yeakly Tenancies.

It has already been mentioned as one of the leading features
of the English agricultural system, that a fractional part only of
the soil is ever in the hands of its absolute owners. The culti-
vator is for the most part merely the occupier of the land which
he tills, enjoying none of the rights of property, and in many
cases those of possession only in name. The causes to which
such a state of things is due are many and various, but the
obvious fact that the English landowner has not chosen to em-
barrass himself with the actual culture of the soil, in whose
yearly profits hij^ riches consist, has been prominent at all stages
of English history ; and the condition of modern society in
this country promises no material alteration. At no time, in-
deed, have the relations of English tenants or occupiers towards
the owners of the soil shown at any time much susceptibility to
sudden or important change. The common law of the realm,
upon which they rest, has always been slow and stubborn in ad-
mitting reform, and the attempts of the Legislature to modify
and control its operation are for the most part of comparatively
recent date.

Tenants of land for agricultural purposes may be broadly
divided into three main classes : (1) tenants by a parol demise

Agricultural

tenants.

‘650=84

English Land Law.

Tenancies at
will.

Emblements.

from year to year ; (2) yearly tenants under written agreements
intended to extend over a considerable but uncertain time ; and
(3) tenants under a lease or a binding agreement for a lease for
a fixed term, usually varying from 8 to 19 years. That descrip-
tion of tenancy which is created by a lease for a life or lives, or
for a term longer than 25 years at the outside, reserving a rent
less than the actual yearly value, and generally purchased by a
money payment or premium to the original lessor, constitutes in
reality a fourth kind of tenure by itself, which is not generally
agricultural in its character, and need not be considered here.
But it is almost essential to a proper comprehension of the
second and third classes of tenancy mentioned above to consider
in the first place the nature and origin of a simple tenancy from
year to year, and its adaptability to the interests of the owner of
the soil, as well as of its possessor.

It is generally conceded that the oldest and simplest form of
holding known to the law of this or any other country was a
tenancy at will ; and this tenure, as well as that from year to
year into which it grew, were necessarily familiar to the earliest
cultivators of the soil, long before the heritable tenures which
conferred an estate or property in the soil rested upon any legal
foundation. Yearly tenancy, however, in its modern form, is
practically the outcome and result of the superior or heritable
tenures already described, and must be considered as subservient
and ancillary to them. It was impossible for the lords of manors
or the proprietors of fiefs to occupy, either by themselves or
their serfs, the extensive tracts of land on which a plough might
be driven in no other name ; and after the passing of the statute
of Quia emptores in the thirteenth century, by which the system
of sub-infeudation that had previously existed was put an end to,
it was no longer possible for the landowner to alienate any part
of his estate without losing all the rights of seignory and lord-
ship which he had up to that time been always able to reserve.
Tenancies at will, in which the occupier paid a rent certain, but
was liable to be evicted at any time at the pleasure of the owner,
were of course known long before this enactment, but there can
be no doubt that from the date of the statute referred to they
came every year into more general adoption. Disadvantageous
as such a holding must necessarily have been, not only to the
occupier but to the true interests of the landowner himself, its
inconveniences were in some measure diminished by the common
law or custom of the country as to emblements, which gave to
the tenant at will the property in such crops as he had actually
sown, but which had not yet arrived at maturity when his hold-
ing was terminated by the will of the lessor. In most cases it
was in effect necessary for the due assertion of this right that

English Land Law.

351 = 85

the tenant, though nominally evicted, should practically retain
possession of the land on which his crops were growing until
the completion of the current year. By the time that the
sixteenth century arrived, in the reigns of Henry VII. and
Henry VIII., the courts of law had already begun to hold that
a tenant at will of land for agricultural purposes who had
entered and paid rent, was in reality a tenant for a year certain. Yearly
and so from year to year afterwards, entitled to six months’ tenancies
notice before the lands which he cultivated could be taken from
him. Thus, a species of qualified security in his holding was
given to the tenant who had hitherto been only indirectly pro-
tected, which has satisfied the necessities of a large portion of
the cultivators of the soil up to the present day. Controlled
only by the custom of the country, which is, when universal in
its operation, identical with the common law, and when only of
local extent, is within those limits equivalent to it, agricultural
tenants have in many parts of England occupied the soil from
year to year for generations, on no other terms than those
declared and formulated by the common law in the sixteenth
century ; and greater fixity of tenure, though, perhaps, never
altogether lost sight of, has at any rate been found not entirely
indispensable. According to a recent authority, tenancies from
year to year, depending for the most part on parol agreement
and local custom alone, are the rule and not the exception in at
least ten of the forty English counties,* including the largest ;
and a system which has so long prevailed over an area so con-
siderable must necessarily have certain advantages and recom-
mendations of its own. It is natural that the landowner should
in many cases prefer an arrangement by which he retains the
power of taking his property back into his own hands at his
option, by the simplest possible procedure, and with little risk
of an expensive and troublesome litigation ; and under no other
system would it be possible for him, while parting with the
actual possession of his material wealth, to preserve so com-
pletely the power of controlling it. Against these advantages Advantages
must be set the fact that the guarantee which is given to him disadvan
for the regular and continuous receipt of his rent is very imper- o^n*/**
feet, and that he is liable at any time to lose the profits of the
greater part of a year, by having his property suddenly thrown
on his hands when he has no tenant ready to take the place of
the defaulter. More worthy of consideration, perhaps, is the
danger which he incurs of meeting with a tenant who has not

♦ The counties referred to are Derbyshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire
Monmouthshire, Lancasljire, Clieshire, Oxfordsliire, Someisetshire, Shropsliire,
Worcestershire, and Yorkshire in the North and East Hidings (Dixon’s ‘Law of
the Farm,’ chap. 3).

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 0

352 = 86

English Land Law.

Their effect
upon tenants.

sufficient capital at his disposal, or not sufficient confidence in
the goodwill of his landlord, to cultivate the soil as a man
would do who contemplated a series of years during which his
livelihood was to be drawn from it ; or with one who might be
tempted by temporary embarrassments or greediness to take as
much as possible out of the land while it remained in his posses-
sion, with the intention of throwing it back upon the hands of its
owner in an impoverished condition as soon as it ceased to be
profitable to him to retain it. Against this peril the landlord
may of course protect himself by particular stipulations as to
the mode of culture, there being no reason in the nature of the
thing, as has been said in a court of law, why a parol agreement
for a yearly tenancy should not be as special and obligatory in
its provisions as a written contract or even a lease. But in many
cases, and probably in a large majority, a parol agreement for a
yearly tenancy is made in a less complicated manner, and merely
incorporates as its conditions the customs which prevail in the
particular district where it is entered into. In these customs the
landlord usually finds sufficient though not the best protection ;
but the uncertainty and variety by which they are characterised
renders it at once more difficult to ascertain their effect, and
more dangerous to rely on their validity, than his true interests
would require.

The advantages of a simple tenancy from year to year to the
occupier are even more problematical. In theory, the tenant has
no security that any year during which he is spending his labour
and his money on the land may not be the last of his occupa-
tion ; and though his right to six months’ notice to quit his
holding may save him from losing what he has sunk in the crops
of the year, he was, up to the year 1875, entirely dependent
upon the custom of the country for any further protection. But
although the value of this protection is impaired by the multi-
fariousness and uncertainty of local customs, yet in practice
throughout England tenants have suffered only in exceptional
cases. In many districts of England tenancies from year to year
are not unfrequently transmitted from father to son, and the land
remains in the hands of one family for generations. Between
landlord and tenant, at least in the majority of cases, a feeling of
mutual confidence prevails, and leases are never asked for or
wanted by the tenantry on a considerable number of the great
family estates in England. The tenant who holds from year to
year feels that he has not burdened himself and his family with
the responsibility of having permanently undertaken a holding
which may prove more onerous than profitable, and that he is at
all times able to avail himself of any opening for his capital
and industry that he may perceive elsewhere ; while he also leels

English Land Law.

853 = 87

safe in the hands of the landlord, with whose family he and his
have been so long connected. The law, however, as recently
settled, has not left these patriarchal relations intact.

The customs of the country, upon which the rights of both Local customs.
I landlord and tenant, in the case of yearly tenancies by parol, so
largely depend, are so varied and uncertain in their nature, that
i no attempt at stating their general effect with precision could be
I successful. Strictly speaking, they must be local in their opera-
i| tion — to distinguish them from the common law — they must
I have existed from time immemorial, and they must have been
1 voluntary in their origin. But this is all that can be universally
1 predicated of their essence ; and the number of manifold forms
in which they exist, to modify the rights of lessor and lessee, is
so great as to render their general discussion quite unmanage-
I able. The most striking example of the effective operation of
this unwritten law has been already alluded to, and when mere
; custom can of its own strength result in converting a precarious
' holding at the will of the landlord into a comparatively secure
and legal tenancy, that can only be determined at the end of
i each successive year, it would seem that scarcely any limit is
j to be assigned to the possible results of the same agency.

I Attempts, however, to extend the implied rights of the yearly
' tenant still further upon the same principle have proved in-
I effectual. It was decided in 1778, that a general demise for a
j term not specified could not be extended by an alleged custom
' to a three-yearly tenancy, or to any term longer than a year
Avhich Avas required by the course of husbandry usual in the dis-
I trict ; and in that case the Court said that to allow such an im-
i ; plication would be to repeal in many cases some of the most
t important provisions of the Statute of Frauds (29 Car. 2, c. 3),

1 which requires writing for the creation or transfer of any interest
I in land, except a demise for a term not exceeding three years at a
I rent amounting to at least two-thirds of the full improved value
' (jRoe V. Lees, 2 W. Bl. 1171). Even in that case, it was inti-
i mated that it was not impossible that a general tenancy might in

• some cases be regarded as a holding from tAvo years to two years,

I without a special provision to that effect, where that period was
» necessary to allow such a crop as was contemplated by the parties
I to come to maturity, as in the case of liquorice or madder. The
1 cases referred to must be so exceptional, that the dictum is of
I little practical importance, but when it is remembered that in

• 1550, a custom that a lessee for years should retain the land for
half a year beyond his term was held bad and invalid, the
change that 200 years had brought about in the spirit of the law

1 becomes abundantly manifest {White v. Sager, Palm. 213). It
may be mentioned here, as a further proof of the strength to

354=55

English Land Law.

Effect of
cnstoms.

which unwritten law had attained by the end of the eighteenth
century, that it was determined by Lord Mansfield, in 1781,
that a customary stipulation might be superadded even to the
express covenants of a lease, where they did not, in terms or
by necessary implication, exclude it [fVigglesworth v. Dallisonf
1 Sm., L. C. 598).

The main points to which those customs relate that have
received the sanction of the law may be very briefly summarised.

In most cases they refer either to the commencement of the
tenancy, the mode or course of cultivation, the right to the way-
going crops, or the compensation to which the outgoing tenant
is entitled for unexhausted improvements. According to the most
recent authorities, tenancies commencing at Michaelmas are the
rule in about fifteen of the forty English counties, in ten Lady-
day is the favourite period, and in six either Candlemas (Feb.
2nd) or May holdings are adopted ; whilst in the remainder
tenants appear to enter either at Michaelmas or Lady-day in-,
differently. It is stated that Lady-day tenancies are considered
preferable for arable farms, and the customs which regulate the
rights of the outgoing tenant must of course vary considerably,
according as he surrenders his holding just after seed-time and
tillage, or at the completion of his harvest. As to the mode of
cultivation, the most universal restriction is that which binds the
tenant to consume on the premises all the straw and manure
which is made there ; though even this stipulation is often re-
laxed, especially in the case of lands close to a large town,
where straw finds a ready and profitable market, and from which
artificial manures are readily to be procured. With regard to
the rotation of crops, though a course of three or four years is
frequently prescribed, yet the tenant is often simply prohibited
from taking two white crops in succession, and in some districts
the obligation to cultivate his farm according to the rules of
good husbandry is the only one that is laid upon him. It must
be remembered that such stipulations are far less necessary to
protect the landlord in the case of a yearly tenancy than in that
of one for a longer term, it being always in his power to put a
summary end to the mischief, by giving a six months’ notice to
the offender by whom his land is being impoverished ; but it may
be mentioned that in some of the principal counties where
yearly tenancies are generally adopted, a four-years’ course is
in most cases agreed to by implication of custom, and strictly
adhered to. Of this, the counties of Gloucestershire, Oxford-
shire, Worcestershire, and the North and East Ridings of^
Yorkshire, may be selected as examples. With regard to the
right of the outgoing tenant to the crops which are in the
ground at the termination of his tenancy, and to compensation

English Land Law.

355 = 59

for the unexhausted value of the improvements he has effected
during his holding, the subject is too large to be more than
mentioned here, and will be separately discussed in connection
with the Agricultural Holdings Act of 1875. Apart from the
operation of this statute, the customs applicable to yearly
tenancies differ in no way from those which prevail where the
outgoer has held under a lease or agreement for a term of years.

The tenant’s right to the way-going crops is, comparatively
speaking, general and uniform in its operation, being in itself
little more than an extension of the common law as to emble-
ments which has been already spoken of ; but, except in certain
districts, the customary right to compensation for unexhausted
tillage, drainage, and manure, is quite inadequate of itself to
meet the necessities of agricultural tenancy without statutory
aid, and varies not only in different counties, but even in
neighbouring parishes, in a manner at once perplexing and
unsatisfactory. Under such a system, the chief consolation of
an outgoing tenant is often that, although he leaves money of
his own in the soil, he found that of another man there when he
came in ; but the natural desire of each successive occupier not
to run the risk of losing more than he gained from his prede-
cessor, makes it quite certain that the land will have a tendency
to deteriorate under a tenure so precarious, unless the prudence
und liberality of the land-owner are sufficiently great to com-
pensate for the restrictions which impede the enterprise of the
tenant.

The description of yearly tenancy, which results from the Coutinuing
occupier continuing in possession and paying rent after the ex-
piration of his term, has not yet been mentioned, but that it can
be created in this manner has long been settled law, nor will an
increase in the yearly rent prevent the other terms of the former
tenancy from being adopted. It is obvious, however, that only
those stipulations can be incorporated into the new agreement
which the law implies, that are in themselves consistent with
and applicable to a yearly holding ; and the adaptability of par-
ticular conditions to such an altered state of things has often
been the subject of judicial decision. It has been held that a
covenant to enable the tenant to retain and sow a certain quantity
of the arable land with wheat at the seed-time next after the
expiration of his term, with liberty to leave it standing till the
next harvest and thresh it on the premises, is not incapable of
application to a yearly tenancy. So of covenants that the
tenant shall be paid for tillages at the expiration of his lease,
that he shall leave all the manure for the use of the incomer,
that he shall not take successive crops of corn, and that he shall
follow a specified course of husbandry throughout his occupa-

Written agree-
ments.

356 = 90 English Land Law.

tion. A tenancy from year to year, which is in this manner
begotten by the law on an expired lease or agreement, is in
reality not a tenancy by parol at all, and differs in no important
particular from an ordinary yearly holding under the condi-
tions of a written agreement, the consideration of which has
hitherto been necessarily postponed. In such a case the terms
of the holding are ascertainable with as much precision as in
those tenancies which are created by a lease or an agreement
extending over a term of years ; and the sole feature in which it
resembles the ordinary parol tenancy from year to year, consists
in its liability to determination at the end of any year by the
six months’ notice which the common law prescribes. The
operation of custom on such a tenancy is of course as frequently
excluded by the conventional terms adopted by implication, as
in all other cases where the parties rely for the determination of
their rights upon the certainty and precision of a written in-
strument.

CHAPTEE III.

Forms of Agreement.

It is obvious that however satisfactory may be the results of a
parol tenancy, defined only by the unwritten custom of the
country and the limits of loose verbal stipulation, in isolated
cases where landlord and tenant are alike anxious to preserve
the relation which has arisen between them, and willing to hold
themselves bound by a moral obligation though the legal defini-
tion of their rights may be insufficient, yet a tenure so primitive
must be imperfectly adapted to the requirements of the country
at large ; and it would be indeed a matter for surprise if a more
stringent and accurate mode of constituting a tenancy had not
long ago been firmly established. To no description of contract
is the old doctrine “ litera scripta manet” more applicable than
to that by which the relation of landlord and tenant is created,
and the very fact that its operation is intended to extend over a
period of time longer than that which most other agreements
contemplate, is sufficient to render it most essential that some
trustworthy record of its terms and provisions should be pre-
served. It was with this view that the Legislature enacted in
the Statute of Frauds (29 Car. 2, c. 3), that no demises should
be valid which were not put in writing and signed, except leases
for a period not exceeding three years at a rent amounting to
two-thirds at least of the full yearly value, and that demises
which affected to do more than this should result in creating

English Land Law.

357 = 91

estates at will only. Such a tenancy at will is converted, as has
been already stated, into a yearly holding by entry and payment
of rent, but to confirm the tenant’s right for a longer period a
written document is absolutely necessary. Until the year 1845,
this was all that was required to create an actual demise for a term
of any length ; but the Real Property Act (8 & 9 Viet. c. 106)
then further provided that leases which the law required to be in
writing should be void unless made by deed, that is, under seal, and
the difficulty which had long been felt, of distinguishing between
an actual demise and an agreement for a lease, was thus rendered
of comparatively small importance. But as an actual lease gives
the right to either party to sue on the covenants or terms con-
1 tained in it, and enables the landlord to recover rent from the
i| day of the demise without proof of entry or occupation, the
! distinction is still sometimes material. It is sufficient here to
! say that the test by which the Courts are guided in deciding the
I question is in all cases the intention of the parties deduced from
the contract itself ; and a clause providing that the instrument
shall operate only as an agreement for a future lease, and not as
a present demise, affords the simplest and most secure method
of avoiding any uncertainty on the subject. It should be added
that a lease void under the statute last mentioned, by reason of
’ not being under seal, may nevertheless be good as an agreement
for a future demise, the provisions of which may be enforced by
either of the parties to it.

The terms of a tenancy, however they may have been deter- Forms of
I mined, may be evidenced in any one of several different ways, written con-
They may be contained in a memorandum signed by the tenant **'®®*-
only, which amounts in general to mere evidence of a parol
contract ; or in an agreement signed by both parties, which con-
templates a future demise or lease ; or in a document purporting
to be a demise for a term, but valid only as a mere agreement
by reason of its assuming to extend over a longer period than
the three years allowed by the statute ; or lastly, in an actual
lease, which must be by deed if it falls within the condition just
mentioned.

(1.) Memorandum of Terms of Tenancy. — The first class of Memorandum
document generally takes the form either of a proposal to take, terms of
an acknowledgment by the proposed tenant of the terms of the
holding, or a declaration as to the custom of the country. Any
such instrument, if signed by the tenant alone, amounts, as has
just been stated, to evidence of the agreement only, and does

I not by itself constitute a contract. If signed by the lessor also,
it becomes a valid agreement, or — if for a short term and pur-
porting to create the relation of landlord and tenant at ori< e —
even an actual demise, and in such cases must be properly

358 = 92

English Land Law.

Agreement for
tenancy.

(

Freedom of
contract.

Stamped before it can be used in evidence. The convenience of
any such imperfect memorandum of the terms of the holding
appears very doubtful, since parol testimony is generally in
strictness admissible to vary or add to the conditions expressed,
and the certainty which is the chief object of employing a
written instrument at all is thus unattainable. If this result is
secured, the document at once becomes either an agreement or
an actual lease, and might just as well have taken that form in
the first instance.

(2) and (3.) Agreement for a future Demise. — The distinction
between this species of con'^ract and a lease has been already-
pointed out ; but the legal position of a tenant who enters either
designedly under such an agreement, or under an instrument
void as a present demise by reason of its exceeding the statutory
term, is peculiar. He may at any time compel specific perform-
ance of the landlord’s undertaking to let ; and on refusal to grant
or accept a lease, either party may bring an action against the
other to recover damages for the breach of the agreement. But
the mere fact that such an agreement has been entered into affords
in itself no defence to an action of ejectment ; and the tenant
who has entered and paid rent on the faith of it has no direct
defence except that provided by the common law, which consti-
tutes him, as already explained, a tenant from year to year,
whose holding can only be terminated by a six months’ notice
to quit. The conditions expressed in the agreement are in other
respects considered applicable to his occupation ; and in the
majority of cases, other than those of a parol demise from year
to year, both parties are content to acquiesce in the imperfect
relation thus constituted until the expiration of the contemplated
term.

It is hardly necessary to observe that the perfect freedom of
contract thus enjoyed by landlord and tenant, as by all other
parties to an agreement, is absolutely essential for the protection
of the rights of each, in a country where such varieties of soil,
of climate, and of custom exist. No attempt at stereotyping a
form of agreement, which should be applicable to all cases in-
discriminately, could be otherwise than pernicious to the interests
of agriculture in general. The very fact that the diversities of
custom already mentioned have grown up, not merely in ad-
joining counties, but in adjoining districts and even parishes,
is the strongest imaginable proof that compulsory uniformity,
which has proved itself impossible in the experience of previous
generations, would be found equally impracticable now. No
general agreement could be devised which would not in some
degree either exclude or adopt the customs which already exist ;
and as the customs so excluded or adopted were found to differ

English Land Law.

359 = 93

I in each successive district to which the system was applied, so
I the effect of its application would indefinitely and on no certain
I principle of variation be modified. It was the recognition of
this truth which caused the Legislature, in dealing with some of
the most important questions to which the usual stipulations
1 of agreements and the requirements of agricultural custom apply,
j to provide that the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1875, should be
I permissive only in its operation. Under this Act (which will be
more fully discussed hereafter) its provisions may be adopted or
excluded in whole or in part in any written contract of tenancy. -

i Practically, therefore, the same entire liberty of contract that
i was enjoyed before the passing of the Act remains still within
i the reach of both parties. It will probably be some time before
I the full effect of a statute which virtually amounts to the creation
I of a new and comprehensive agricultural custom, which may be
negatived by stipulation like any other, makes itself generally
felt. In one instance, which may be taken as a type of many,
where landowners, though honestly desirous of establishing fair
relations between their tenants and themselves, have shown a
repugnance to having their agreements drafted for them by Act
of Parliament, circulars were issued to the tenants explaining
the alteration in the law, and suggesting that the voluntary
system of agreements which had hitherto prevailed on the
estate (Sir T. D. Acland’s) should be adhered to. Most of the
holdings in this case were under an agreement running from
, year to year, with covenants for and schedules of compensation
on a definite scale, and with no clauses as to cultivation except
I such as reserved to the landlord a power to prohibit the sale of
exhausting crops, and to fix a minimum limit for the acreage
under green crops, and a maximum for corn. In cases where
agreements of this character are actually in use, and have shown
by results their sufficiency for the peculiar requirements of the
district, the provisions of the Act will probably be found super-
fluous.

The stipulations that are usually contained in written agree-
ments of tenancy need not here be discussed separately, since
they differ in no respect, except as to the technical nature of the
remedies by which they are enforced, from the covenants ordi-
narily inserted in a lease, and will be more conveniently con-
sidered under that heading. But it may be observed that just
as it has been rendered necessary by the Legislature to exclude
the Agricultural Holdings Act in express language, if it is not
I desired to incorporate it with the agreement, so the operation of

the recognised local customs can only be avoided by express Exclusion of
stipulation to that effect, custom being regarded by the common customs must
law as the substratum of all agreements which concern its

360 = 94

English Land Laio.

peculiar province. It would no doubt be more generally advan-
tageous to English agriculture if agricultural custom was an
element less various in its operation, and capable of being ascer-
tained with greater precision, but at present it is only impossible
to escape from the uncertainty which universally attends it, by
an agreement sufficiently full and precise to leave no room for
its intrusion. The most safe and satisfactory way of accom-
plishing this object, is without doubt to establish the relation
of the parties on a permanent and secure footing ah initio by
means of a lease, the nature of which instrument is the next
subject for consideration.

CHAPTEE IV.

Leases.

The right of the absolute owner of land to demise its posses-
sion for any term, however long, at such rent as he may choose
to accept, is one which affects his own interests alone, and has
never been impeached ; but the powers of those whose owner-
ship is limited to the duration of their own life, or depends for
its permanence upon any other contingency, have been from
time to time the subject of legislative enactment. It is unneces-
sary to recapitulate the statutes which have been passed on the
subject, from the earliest in the sixteenth century (32 Hen. 8
c. 28) until the present day, but the effect of the most recent legis-
Leasing powers lation may be briefly stated. By the statute 19 & 20 Viet,
of life tenants. ^20 (1856), tenants for life under settlements made since that
date may demise for any term not exceeding twenty-one years,
at the best rent that can reasonably be obtained, and under
certain other minor restrictions ; and whatever the date of the
settlement from which he derives his title, a tenant for life may
make an agricultural lease for the same period by the special
authority of the Court of Chancery (21 & 22 Viet. c. 77, s. 2).
A similar privilege of demising land without application to the
Court is given by the Act of 1856 to all persons entitled for
the time being to the rents and profits or the possession, whether
as tenant by the curtesy, tenant in dower, or holding in right of a
wife who is seised in fee. Tenants by curtesy and in dower are
simply widowers and widows, respectively, to whom the law
assigns certain life estates in the lands of which the deceased wife
or husband died possessed. Tenants in tail were formerly con-
trolled by the statute of Henry Vlll., which enabled them, under
considerable restrictions, to demise land which had been usually
let for agricultural purposes ; but such leases were binding only

English Land Law,

361 = 95

I upon the lessor’s issue, and not upon those entitled in remainder
! or reversion. This statute was, however, repealed hy the Act
; for abolishing Fines and Recoveries in 1833 (3 & 4 Will. 4,

' c. 74), which conferred upon tenants in tail general powers of
' making a valid lease for a term not exceeding twenty-one years,
provided that a rent was reserved amounting to two-thirds at
' least of the rack-rent at the time of the demise. The leasing
1 powers of ecclesiastical corporations and incumbents of benefices
I are similarly regulated by a series of enactments reaching from
i 1541 (32 Hen. 8, c. 27) until the present day, a recapitulation
of which would be of little interest.

A lease is simply a contract by which the right to the pos- Legal eflfect of
session of land is immediately transferred, and the relation of
j tenancy constituted, without the necessity of any further con-
I dition, such as entry and occupation, being fulfilled. No formal
words are essential to its validity, and although the phrase
I “ demise, grant and to farm let ” is usually employed, any terms
I sufficiently indicating an intention to transfer the possession at
once for a determinate time will be effectual. At common law,
indeed, not even writing was necessary, and except in the cases
mentioned below, a lease may still, strictly speaking, be effected
by parol. The Statute of Frauds (29 Car. 2, c. 3), as already men-
tioned, first enacted that all leases, except such as did not exceed
the term of three years from the date of making, with a rent
reserved amounting to at least two-thirds of the full annual value,
should create estates at will only unless made in writing ; and by
' a later enactment (8 & 9 Viet. c. 106) all leases required by law

• I to be in writing will be void unless made by deed. The operation
1 j of a lease, rendered void under this statute, as an agreement, and
I ; the general distinction between the two classes of instrument,

' has been also mentioned.

The legal characteristics and requirements of a valid lease
having thus been indicated, the nature of the contract of tenancy
arising from it must next be considered. It has been said that
the essence of such a contract is that the right to the possession
I of the land should be at once irrevocably transferred to the

• tenant, in consideration of a certain rent ; but the possessory
i right thus acquired is subject to a variety of conditions, which
I bind the lessee throughout his occupation. The covenants or
i formal stipulations which are most usual and most necessary in
i the instruments which constitute the relation of tenancy, there
i being little practical difference in this respect between leases

and mere agreements, may be divided into several leading
i classes.

I 1. Covenants hy the Tenant for the Fulfilment of those Ohliga- Tenant g
f tions to the Landlord which are the direct and necessary results ^<=ovenantg.

362 = 96

English Land Law.

CorenintB as
to husbandry.

the creation of the Tenancy. — Under this head come the tenant’s
undertaking to pay the agreed rent, to insure the farm-buildings,
to keep in repair, not to commit waste, not to assign or under-let,
and to give up possession when the term is by effluxion of
time or in any other way determined. Of these it is only
necessary to say that they are either implied by the law, and
inserted only as a matter of prudence, or else so usually required
that their omission from the instrument creating the tenancy
occurs only in exceptional cases. The common stipulation
against breaking up old grass-land, being intended to insure
that the land shall be given up in the same state as that in
which it was taken, may also perhaps be classed under this
heading ; though from another point of view it may be regarded
as belonging to that group of conditions which prescribe the
mode of cultivation. It is generally considered unsafe to omit
a clause to this effect, unless the tenant is thoroughly to be
relied upon ; but, like all restrictive covenants, it is no doubt
prejudicial to the interests of an honest and enterprising occu-
pier, though the landlord may have good reasons for insisting
on it. The covenant against assigning or under-letting the
subject of demise, though generally regarded as essential, is not
included in a provision for all usual covenants, and must be
specially stipulated for. The most general mode is to provide
that the term shall be forfeited, and the landlord acquire a right
of re-entry, upon any assignment or under-lease by the tenant
without his license in writing. It is obviously essential to the
protection of the landlord’s interests that his land shall not
be allowed to pass into the possession of a stranger, of whose
solvency and agricultural skill he is entirely ignorant.

2. Covenants which regard the Mode of Culture. — These refer,
first, to the rotation of crops and manner of tilling generally ;
and secondly, to the obligation which is very generally imposed
of consuming upon the farm all the hay, straw, and green crops
produced, so as to insure their return to the soil in the shape of
manure. Of those which come under the first head, the limits
of this paper will allow only a brief mention, but it may be said
that they vary in different parts of the country more than
perhaps any other of the usual terms of tenancy. Crops for
this purpose may be regarded as belonging to four main classes,
white or corn crops, fallow, seeds, and forage. A certain amount
of rotation is secured by agreeing that these shall follow each
other in a prescribed order, white crops and crops grown for seed
being regarded as exhausting to the land and the others as bene-
ficial. A four years’ course is the most regular, but a shorter rota-
tion is sometimes adopted, and in rarer cases, a five-yearly or even
a six-yearly course of crops is prescribed to the tenant. The

363 = 97

English Land Law,

simplest mode that is at all general is to stipulate merely against
taking two successive corn crops from the same land ; but with
a good tenant, who brings capital and experience to his holding,
it is doubtful whether any restrictions are really necessary ; and
recent experiments on the possibility of continuous corn crop-
ping indicate that the whole system of dictating any rotation at
all to the occupier may possibly prove an economic mistake.

Two modes have been suggested by which trustworthy tenants
may be left practically unfettered, without the interests of the
i landlord being appreciably imperilled. The first is by adopting
a form of lease or agreement given as peculiarly favourable to
the occupier in Cooke, “On Agricultural Tenancies” (p. 421),
in which general covenants for good husbandry and compensa-
tion to the land in the form of artificial manure for all natural
manure, hay, or straw taken off it, are added to a proviso for
re-entry by the landlord in case the tenant shall be adjudged by
arbitration to be persisting in an injurious system of culture.

The other mode is that indicated in a paper published in the
: Royal Agricultural Society’s ‘Journal’ (vol. viii. p. 256), according

to which the tenant merely covenants to fatten an agreed amount of
live-stock on his farm every year, and to consume on it all the
manure produced ; a suggestion which has not met with general
acceptation. The stipulation with regard to the materials of
! manure, as already mentioned, is most frequently relaxed when
I the holding is near a large town, which offers a ready market for
their sale, and from which artificial manures may be easily
obtained to compensate the land for the productive power thus
1 1 taken away from it.

3. Covenants which contemplate the Surrender or Termination Eud of tenancy.
of the Tenancy. — Since the interests of landlord and tenant
become directly opposed to each other as soon as the last year
of the term commences, or when the tenant receives notice to
quit, stipulations are commonly inserted in a lease to prevent
, the latter from leaving the land in an impoverished condition,
and to prescribe the acreage which must be left in corn or fallow
(usually at least one-half of the arable land to be left in green-
crops or fallow), for the incoming tenant. A general covenant
to cultivate according to the rules of good husbandry up to the
time of quitting, together with an arbitration clause, ought with
a good tenant to be found sufficient ; and the rights of pre-entry
I for purposes of tillage, which are to be given to the incoming

' I occupier, may either be left to the operation of the local custom,

■ I or provided for by special agreement. It may be added that
cultivation according to the rules of good husbandry is not an
I obligation which the common law implies, or which is included
i in the ordinary covenant against committing waste.

364=95

English Land Law.

Payments to

outgoing

tenant.

Landlord’s

covenants.

Arbitration.

The question of the payments to be made to an outgoing
tenant, either by the landlord or the incomer, is a most complex
one. The allowances for growing crops are of comparatively
small importance, their value being always readily ascertainable,
and the tenant having generally received, at the commencement
of his tenancy, the benefit of any imperfections which exist in
the customary or conventional terms of the holding. The really
important question refers to the unexhausted value of the
manure which has been expended on the land, and the capital
which has been sunk in drainage and other permanent improve-
ments ; but the discussion of this subject finds its proper place
under the heading of the Agricultural Holdings Act.

4. Covenants by the Landlord. — Certain of the landlord’s
usual covenants refer to the subject of tenants’ compensation
which has just been alluded to ; but in addition to these, the
tenant generally stipulates for quiet enjoyment, which protects
him from eviction or disturbance by the landlord or any one
claiming under him, and gives him a remedy by action in case
the lessor’s title should prove defective, where not expressly
limited so as to exclude this right. The mode and time of
entry on the lands demised are also very frequently the subjects
of special agreement, though it is often said that these are
matters more suitable than any others to be decided by the
custom of the country. The incoming rights of one tenant are
so closely connected with the outgoing rights of another, and
vary so widely according as the tenancy is to commence at Lady-
day or at Michaelmas, that it is impossible to treat of them ade-
quately in detail. Where the custom is not dispensed with
by the agreement, they will be controlled by it ; but where
the contract between the parties excludes the operation of cus-
tomary rules, as well as the provisions of the Agricultural
Holdings Act, the parties may of course regulate the conflicting
rights of the incomer and outgoer in the manner they deem
most suitable to the requirements of the holding.

From the foregoing brief summary of the usual conditions of
a tenancy depending upon a written instrument, it will be seen
that, however carefully the terms may be expressed, some differ-
ence between landlord and tenant is at least a possible contin-
gency. In contemplation of such an event, and also to provide
a method of valuing the compensation to be paid to the outgoer
on the termination of the tenancy, special clauses for the ap-
pointment of arbitrators or an umpire are frequently inserted.
The effect of such provisions at law has long been a subject of
litigation, but it appears to be now settled that where the agree-
ment is that either of the parties shall pay a certain sum only
after it has been ascertained in a particular manner, no legal

English Land Law.

365=99

proceedings can be brought until this condition has been com-
plied with. On the other hand, a bare agreement to refer does
not take away the common law right of either party to appeal
to the ordinary tribunals of the country ; though an action will
lie against one who adopts this course instead of submitting to
arbitration, for breach of his agreement.

These remedies are sufficient to meet the ordinary and legiti- Forfeiture,
mate differences which occur between landlord and tenant, but
cases will occasionally arise where the landlord’s ground of com-
plaint demands a more summary removal. The penalty of
forfeiture, which confers upon the landowner the right of re-
entry in specified cases, may be attached to any of the usual
covenants ; and the common form of proviso generally employed
has in fact this extensive operation. Essential as this provision
is for the security of the landlord against an insolvent or incom-
petent tenant, it is obvious that its strict enforcement would in
many cases result in extreme hardship to the occupier who had
inadvertently or carelessly incurred so grave a penalty ; and the
rules of equity, now adopted by the common law, have always
construed such a condition in a lease or agreement of tenancy
in a liberal spirit. If the breach of covenant alleged by the
lessor is not wilful or really detrimental to the property, and if
the damage occasioned by it is capable of fair assessment and
pecuniary compensation, the English courts will in general relieve
the occupier against the forfeiture he has incurred, 'taking care
that the landlord is not a pecuniary sufferer by his misdoing.

Even with this modification, the proviso for re-entry in case of
forfeiture is a serious weapon in the hands of the landlord ; and
it may be added, that the ordinary right of the outgoing tenant
to emblements or growing crops is forfeited with the rest of his
estate. The discussion of the cases in which the landlord’s right
of re-entry is absolute, as indeed of the other remedies by which
the stipulations contained in a lease may be enforced, would
alone be sufficient to occupy a treatise of no inconsiderable
extent.

CHAPTEK V.

The Agricultural Holdings Act.*

The year 1875 marks a new point of departure in English
agriculture. We have seen that by far the greater part of the

* The review of this Act is founded mainly upon a Paper by Frederick Clifford,
of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, published in ‘ The Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society ’ for March, 1876, and since reprinted (London ; Clowes and
Sons, Charing Cross).

Farmers.

Legal doctrine
as to emble-
ments.

Founded upon
public policy.

366=100

English Land Law.

soil in England is tilled by farmers. These were men who (as the
name imports) in the earlier history of agriculture were little
more than the bailiffs or agents of the landowner, holding his
land at will, and handing over to him its surplus produce in the
form of a money rent, or in kind. Money rents have long since
become in England the almost invariable return given to the
landlord by the farmers, who, under lease or by agreement,
become entitled to the usufruct. In a few districts there is a corn
rent, or the rent is paid half in money, half in corn, but these
are rare exceptions to the general rule. As was natural from
the origin of the laws which governed the relations between
landlord and tenant, the landlord’s rights from the first were
large, well-defined, and comparatively easy to enforce. On the
other hand, the rights of the farmers whom he allowed at his
mere will to cultivate the soil were indefinite and of slow
growth. Following the harsh maxim of the Roman law, they
could remove no buildings which they had once placed on the
land they hired : and the very tree, the plant, and the seed
which they placed in the soil became not theirs, but the property
of the landlord, as soon as it had taken root.

The first relaxation of this rule in favour of English tenants
at will is found in the Common Law doctrine as to emblements
(J'ructus industriales^. The word emblements means, in strictness,
growing crops of corn, but was gradually enlarged so as to
include roots planted, and other annual products of agriculture.
The English Courts of Law founded their decisions not on
statute, but mainly, on reasons of public policy, since it is foi
the common benefit that reasonable encouragement should be
given to agriculture. “ If, therefore,” says Sir W. Blackstone,
“ the tenant-at-will sows his land, and the landlord, before the
corn is ripe or before it is reaped, puts him out, yet the tenant
shall have the emblements, and free ingress, egress, and regress,
to cut and carry away the profits. And this for the same reason
upon which all the cases of emblements turn, viz. the point of
uncertainty ; since the tenant could not possibly know when
his landlord would determine his holding, and therefore could
make no provision against it ; and having sown the land, which
is for the good of the public, upon a reasonable presumption,
the law will not suffer him to be a loser by it.” And again :
“ The tenant . . . shall have the emblements to compensate for
the labour and expense of tilling, manuring, and sowing the
lands, and also for the encouragement of husbandry, which,
being a public benefit, tending to the increase and plenty of
provisions, ought to have the utmost security and privilege that
the law can give it. Wherefore, by feudal law, if the tenant for
life died between the beginning of September and the end of

English Land Law.

3Q7 = 101

February, the lord who was entitled to the reversion was also
entitled to the profits of the whole year ; but if he died between
the beginning of March and the end of August, the heirs of
the tenant received the whole. And from hence our law of em-
blements seems to have been derived.” The doctrine of emble-
ments, as Blackstone elsewhere explains, extended only to corn
sown, roots planted, or other annual artificial profit. It is
otherwise of fruit trees, grass, and the like, which are not planted
“ annually at the expense and labour of the tenant, but are either
a permanent or natural profit of the earth ; for when a man
plants a tree he cannot be presumed to plant it in contemplation
of any present profit, but merely with a prospect of its being
useful to himself in future, and to a future succession of tenants.”

Here, then, in the doctrine of emblements, we have a first legal
recognition in England of tenant-right ; and when husbandry
was rude, and could hardly be said to exist as an art, there was
no great hardship in a rule which secured to the husbandman,
with certain limitations, the crops of the year, but gave him no
farther rights in the soil. The year’s crops would represent
pretty accurately the return to which he was entitled for his
industry ; unexhausted improvements would be to him words
without meaning.

Gradually, as some amount of capital and skill came to be Growth of
imported into English agriculture, there arose a variety of local tenant’s claims,
customs already mentioned, recognising the tenant’s claims, on
the termination of the tenancy, to compensation for tillage and
manures, the benefit of which then remained in the land, wholly
or in part. This varying compensation was paid by the land-
' lord or, more generally, by the incoming tenants, and such
payments were recognised and enforced by the Courts of Law.

It was unequal, of course, but that the farmer became entitled to
any compensation at all is the main fact of interest in our present
retrospect.

Local custom was thus enforced by Courts of Law long before
it was embodied in statute, or was recognised by the English
Legislature. It therefore softened in practice the precariousness
of tenure, and the application of the rigorous rights of ownership
over the soil. In Lincolnshire local custom came to be espe-
j daily favourable to the tenant, and there, accordingly, farming
I attracted men of the greatest skill and with the largest capital,
and agriculture reached probably its highest perfection in Eng-
1 land. The result was seen to be of equal benefit to land-
1 lords and to tenants. Farmers knew that, if disturbed in
their occupations, they would receive a fair proportion of the
I capital they had invested in the soil, and therefore put their
I money into the land, in the shape of labour and manure, without

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2d

368=102

English Land Law.

Legal

presumption

against.

First recogni-
tion of, by
Statute.

Its permissive
character.

hesitation. On the other hand, rents were paid more punctually,
and were increased at intervals without much complaint ; while
the community benefited from the tenant’s enterprise, which
furnished more abundant crops, and filled the markets with fat
sheep and cattle.

Thus we have seen that the principles of English law were
against the right of a tenant to any. interest in the soil farmed
by him, even though created by his own capital, labour, and
skill. The presumption was that all things annexed to the soil,
or indistinguishable from it, belonged to the landlord. This
general presumption, it has been shown, was limited only by the
rule as to emblements, and by the prevalence of local custom, the
Legislature recognising no right on the part of the tenant to what
was termed the unexhausted improvements made by him at the
end of his tenancy. It was felt at length that the new interests
which had sprung up in the soil should not be left to the good
feeling and forbearance of any class, however well-disposed, as
a rule, they might be towards the persons dependent upon them.
After repeated discussion, therefore, and prolonged inquiry by
Select Committees, Parliament adopted, in 1875, the principle
so often insisted upon, that a tenant should be encouraged to
invest his capital in the soil by having statutory security for so
much of that capital as may be reasonably supposed to remain
in the soil at the end of his tenancy. This is what is known
in England as the tenant’s interest in unexhausted improvements
made by him. Such was the object of the Act we are now
considering* and its leading principle will be best understood
when we state that it is based upon freedom of contract. The
Act is permissive, not compulsory, and recognises throughout its
provisions the perfect competency of tenants as well as landlords
to manage their own affairs and make their own bargains. If they
think fit to exclude the operation of the Act altogether, they
are free to do so by written contract, and each may, as heretofore,
make the best terms he can for himself, or lay down the con-
ditions which in his opinion best meet his own case. If the
tenant chooses to forego all claims to compensation, he may do
so ; on the other hand, he may exact more liberal compensation
than any which the Act allows. If the landlord assents, both
may contract themselves entirely out of the Act in either case,
for nothing in the Act prevents a landlord and tenant, or persons
contemplating this relation, from making any agreement they
think fit, or will interfere with the operation of such agreement
(Section 54).

As the freedom of contract just described existed before the

* ‘ The Agricultm-al Holdings (England) Act, 1875’ (38 & 39 Viet. cap. 92).

English Land Law.

369 =«=l(?3

Act was passed, it may be asked, what new rights does the Unexhausted
Act secure to tenants ? The answer is, that whereas, in the a^u^ed'to'be
absence of contract or custom, the presumption of law used to the property of
be that unexhausted improvements belong to the landlord, the tenant.

Act now reverses this presumption, and assigns the property
in such improvements to the tenant, to the extent defined and
limited by the Act itself. This change in the principle of the
English law is of considerable importance in itself ; but there
is good reason for believing that its influence in guiding and
determining the practice of landlords and the conditions of
tenancy will be more considerable still. We pass, however, now
to the provisions of the statute, confining our attention to its
leading features.

Though it became law in the Session of 1875, the ‘ Agricul- Application of
tural Holdings Act ’ did not come into operation till February 14
in the following year. It does not apply to holdings which
are non-agricultural, or which are under two acres in extent.

All new tenancies of agricultural or pastoral lands, or of lands in
part agricultural and in part pastoral, comprising more than
this acreage, are subject to the provisions of the Act, unless there
is a written agreement to the contrary, signed by the tenant as
well as by the landlord or his agent. If no such agreement is
come to between the parties, the Act will govern the conditions
of the holding, whether it be a tenancy at will, or one from
year to year, or for a term of years, or for lives. Tenancies
existing before February 14, 1876, are not affected by the Act,
provided they are tenancies under lease, or for lives ; but all
tenancies from year to year, or at will, were brought under its
provisions, unless either the landlord or the tenant gave notice,
two months after the date mentioned, that he desired that the
< existing tenure should remain unaltered by the Act. Thus, if

Iboth parties were silent, the new law, as in the case of new
tenancies, immediately stepped in to regulate the relations of
landlord and tenant, and establish the tenant’s right to the
prescribed compensation.

Having thus shortly explained the cases to which the Act Tenant’s title
applies, we may now examine somewhat more fully the pro- to^compensa-
visions which govern a tenant’s title to compensation for the
improvements he has made in his holding. These are divided
into first, second, and third class improvements, each class being
subject to different conditions ; and all must have been executed
after February 14, 1876. Here, then, is fixed the new era in
English farming. Before this period all such improvements,
though made with the tenant’s capital, were the property of the
landlord, subject only to any contract entered into between
' the parties, or to the local customs already mentioned. Since

2 D 2- •

370=104

English Land Law.

First-class

improvements.

Their pre-
sumed dura-
tion.

then, the law pre.sumes them to be the property of the tenant,
for which he is entitled to certain money compensation at the
end of his tenancy, unless he has himself consented to waive
this right, or to vary it otherwise than as provided in the Act.
The subjects of compensation are thus specified : —

As to First-Class Improvements. — These are thirteen in num-
ber, and come under the head of permanent improvements, for
which the highest scale of compensation is awarded. They are
ranged in alphabetical order, thus ; —

1. Drainage of land.

2. Erection or enlargement of

buildings.

3. Laying down permanent pas-

ture.

4. Making and planting osier beds.

5. Making water - meadows, or

works of irrigation,

G. Making gardens.

7. Making or improving roads or
bridges.

8. Making or improving water-

courses, ponds, wells, or re-
servoirs, or works for supply
of water for agricultural at
domestic purposes.

9. Making fences.

10. Planting hops.

11. Planting orchards.

12. Keclaiming waste land.

13. Warping land.

The Act presumes that these thirteen Improvements continue
unexhausted for a maximum period of twenty years. But the
legal presumption may be rebutted. In all cases of dispute,
valuers afe to be appointed, and it is for them to make an
award in the case of each improvement and each class of
improvement, and to decide whether, at the time the tenancy
ends, the particular improvement is or is not exhausted. In no
case can the tenant claim compensation for an improvement
after the maximum period specified in the Act as applicable to
each class. Nor does a tenant acquire by virtue of the Act an
absolute vested interest extending over this maximum period.
His interest is conditional, depending upon what is decided to
be the unexhausted value of the improvement when the tenancy
determines. Of course it is open to the landlord and tenant by
special agreement to fix prospectively the period during which
the improvement shall be deemed unexhausted, instead of leaving
that matter to be dealt with retrospectively.

The tenant’s claim for compensation in respect of the thirteen
improvements of the first class may continue for twenty years,
dating from the end of the year of tenancy during which the
outlay has been made. Thus, assuming that the year of tenancy
upon a holding to which the Act applies expired at Michaelmas,
1876, and any one of these thirteen improvements were made
upon this holding, with the safeguards and conditions imposed
by the Act, between February 14 and Michaelmas, the twenty
years began to run with the next year of tenancy, 1876-7.

English Land Law.

311 = 105

In dealing with an absolute owner, the basis of the tenant’s If the landlord
compensation is the cost price of each improvement, with a

* ^ ^ A ± • owner*

proportionate deduction for each year subsequent to that in
I which the outlay is made, until either the term of twenty years
I expires, and the improvement thus becomes, in a legal sense,
exhausted ; or until the period of actual exhaustion fixed by the
valuers in the particular case. Thus, the longer the tenancy
continues, the smaller the compensation which falls to be paid
by the landlord. Assuming that the improvement is one
which, in the valuer’s opinion, remains unexhausted during
the full term limited by the Act, the tenant will be entitled
to receive back again, out of the land, in twenty equal
yearly instalments, the money which he put into or upon the
land ; and if he leaves his holding before the end of twenty
years, and is thus unable to recoup himself, the landlord will
become bound to pay the instalments which may remain
Wue. Obviously also, if the tenancy continues for twenty
years, dating from the end of the year of tenancy in which the
■outlay is made, no compensation can be claimed. It is as
though the tenant had lodged to his credit in a bank a capital
sum, to be drawn out in given proportions within a limited '

term by the occupier for the time being ; and by length of
occupation he himself may exhaust the credit. Of course care
is taken in the landlord’s interest that the improvements when
taken over by him are “ in tenantable repair or good con-
I dition and the sum found due to the tenant may therefore be
( reduced by “any sums reasonably necessary to be expended”

I in putting the improvements into this condition.

I There is an important limitation to the rule as to the Previous
I amount and duration of the tenant’s claim. He can demand no consent of
compensation for a first-class improvement, unless he has made
such improvement with the previous consent, in writing, of
either landlord or agent. Again, it must be noted that com-
pensation for a first-class improvement is given upon the fore-
going basis only if, at the time when such consent was given,
the landlord was the absolute owner of the premises. It is,
therefore, the business of the tenant, upon asking and receiving
the landlord’s consent to make any one of the thirteen per-
manent improvements, to ascertain also whether the landlord is
such “ absolute owner,” that is to say, whether he is “ capable
of disposing, by appointment or otherwise, of the fee simple or
whole interest of or in freehold, copyhold, or leasehold land.”

If he be freeholder, copyholder, or owner of leaseholds, then it '

is immaterial to what extent his land may be mortgaged,
encumbered, or charged ; he is “ absolute owner ” for the pur-
poses of the Act, and the tenant will have a lien tipon the

372 = 106

English Land Law.

If landlord’s
ownership is
limited.

“ Letting
value ” of
holding must
be increased by
tenant’s im-
provements.

Questions as
to tenant’s
outlay.

land for the repayment of so many of the twenty or other less
number of instalments as still remain due.

If the landlord has not this disposing power over the land —
if, for instance, as in the ordinary case of settled estates, he
holds them merely for life — then the tenant’s claim to compen-
sation is further limited by the principle of “ letting value.”
The compensation is then not to exceed “ a capital sum fairly
representing the addition which the improvement, as far as it
continues unexhausted at the determination of the tenancy, then
makes to the letting value of the holding” (§ 7). This new
principle introduces an additional element of uncertainty into
the measure of compensation. The cost price of an improve-
ment is easily ascertained, and the assignment of the number of
years for exhaustion may not be difficult. But there is more
room for difference of opinion and for dispute upon the question
whether the improvement has added to the letting value of the
farm, not when such improvement was originally made, but in
its state of greater or less exhaustion at the end of the tenancy.
In dealing with a limited owner, therefore, tenants have not the
same security for unexhausted improvements as they possess in
dealing with an absolute owner. In the latter case, the tenant
receives back the capital he spends, either in money or in
kind, — in kind so long as his holding lasts ; in money when
the holding is determined, if the improvement is found to be
unexhausted when the claim arises. In dealing with a limited
owner, he still receives back, during the tenancy, what the
land or occupation yields to him in kind for the improvements
he has made ; but at the end of the tenancy, instead of receiving
back the amount of his outlay, less a proportionate part for each
year up to the period of exhaustion, he must prove that the
letting value of the holding is increased by this particular
improvement : his compensation in money depends upon the
additional rental which the improvement will yield in the re-
maining years (within each maximum period fixed by the
Act) during which it will be deemed to continue unexhausted.
The extent to which the improvement adds to the letting
value of the holding is to be decided, in case of dispute be-
tween the parties, by the referees or umpire, for whose appoint-
ment provision is made in the part of the Act relating to
procedure.

As the tenant is entitled to payment from the absolute owner
of “ the sum laid out ” on the improvement, less a proportionate
part for each year during the period of exhaustion, it follows
that, when the claim arises, the landlord can raise no question
upon the economy or extravagance of the particular outlay. It
may be that a tenant has spent more money than he need have

English Land Law.

373=107

spent had he used the proper means, or set about the improve-
ment in the most economical method ; but the landlord cannot
dispute the amount ascertained and vouched for as having been
spent by the tenant. As, however, the landlord’s consent must
be asked before an improvement of the first class can be made,
he can always protect himself by limiting the sum to be spent
upon the improvement, or the period during which compensa-
tion can be claimed ; or he may require that the work shall be
executed under inspection. As will presently be seen, another
principle is applied to compensation for second- and third-class
improvements, and the landlord is protected by the words of
the Act against any undue expenditure upon them.

As to Improvements of the Second Class. — These improve- Improvements
ments, though not permanent, are durable, and, unless the
valuers think the improvements are exhausted when the tenancy
determines, or will be exhausted before the maximum period
mentioned in the Act, the tenant is entitled to compensation
for them for seven years following the year of tenancy in which
his outlay is made. Seco;id-class improvements are six in
number, specified as follows : —

1. Boning of land with undis-

solved bones.

2. Chalking of land.

3. Clay-burning.

4. Claying of land.

5. Liming of land.

6. Marling of land.

Thus, if one of these improvements be made at any time
during the year of tenancy ending Michaelmas, 1876, the seven
years begin to run with the next succeeding year, and the claim
to compensation will cease after Michaelmas, 1883. But, as
in the case of first-class improvements, the landlord’s liability
does not necessarily continue during the seven years. It depends
upon the period of exhaustion as found by the valuers. In the Duration of
Act the rule applicable to the tenant’s compensation for second- ®
class improvements (§ 8) follows, with the exception of one
important word, the rule laid down in the case of first-class
improvements made under an absolute owner. For the latter
class of improvements the tenant, as we have seen, is entitled
to “ the sum laid out ” by him, less a proportionate part of this
sum for each year after the improvement was made up to the
period of exhaustion. But a tenant’s claim for second-class
improvements can only be for “ the sum properly laid out ” by
him, with a proportionate deduction for each subsequent year
during which his occupancy continues and the improvement
remains unexhausted. The language of Section 8 does not
permit a landlord to dispute the propriety of this particular kind
of improvement. Proof that the tenant has spent his money is

374=105

English Land Law.

Landlord’s
prior consent
to, not neces-
sary.

Notice.

Assessment in
respect of.

Third-class

improvements.

proof of the necessity of such an improvement and of the title to
compensation for it. But the landlord may seek to reduce the
claim on the ground that too much has been done ; that the
work of boning, chalking, marling, «Scc., has been injudiciously
carried out, or has proved partially ineffectual through want of
proper skill or care.

The reason why it is competent for the landlord under § 8
to question whether the sum spent by the tenant has been “ pro-
perly laid out” is to be found in another distinction drawn in
the Act between the two classes of improvements. If the tenant
chooses to make a second-class improvement he need not obtain
the previous consent of the landlord, and may establish a con-
ditional claim even contrary to the landlord’s express wish.
All he is bound to do (§ 12) is to give the landlord notice,
not less than one week and not more than six weeks beforehand,
of his intention to make the improvement. This notice gives
the landlord the opportunity of inspecting the work done, and
of seeing that it is properly done, though the Act provides
no machinery for such supervision. The notice also gives the
landlord the opportunity of at once stopping the improvement
by giving the tenant notice to quit, because there is an express
provision that the tenant can no longer claim compensation for
second-class improvements executed after receipt of notice to
quit (§ 12). Moreover, if the tenant has either given or received
notice to quit, he is forbidden to make any of the six improve-
ments unless he receives the landlord’s written consent (§ 12).
Thus no tenant under notice can commit the landlord to an
expenditure which will mainly fall uppn the latter, and which
will certainly set up a troublesome claim, and perhaps end in
expensive litigation. A tenant under notice can have no right
to farm for his successor, and compel his landlord to con-
tribute possibly six-sevenths of the money.

Claims for improvements of the second class are to be assessed
upon one basis only — that laid down by the Act in the case of
absolute owners. They are not affected by the status of the
landlord. How much, therefore, or how little they have added
to the letting value of the holding is immaterial. If the referees
find that the improvement is good for the full term of seven
years, the claim for a second-class improvement abates every
year by one-seventh of the amount “ properly laid out ” upon
such improvement, beginning with the year of tenancy in which
the outlay is made. But the amount of compensation awarded
varies, of course, with what is found to be the “ life ” of the
particular improvement, as in the case of improvements of
the first class.

As to Third-Class Lmprai^ements. — These fall within the

375 = 109

English Land Law.

category of temporary improvements, and are placed under the
two following general heads : — •

1. Application to land of ptirchased artificial or other purchased manure.

2. Consumption on the holding by cattle, sheep or pigs, of cake or other
feeding-stuffs not produced on the holding (§ 5).

These improvements may continue unexhausted, and there- Period of
fore remain the subjects of compensation, till the end of two duration,
years following after the year of tenancy in which the outlay is
made (§ 6). The amount of compensation in respect of them
is “ such proportion of the sum properly laid out by the tenant
on the improvement as fairly represents ” its value to the
incoming tenant at the end of the tenancy (§ 9). Upon the
proper laying-out of the money upon manure and feeding-stuff
will depend the benefit to the new tenant, and therefore these
two questions practically resolve themselves into one for the
consideration of the valuer.*

Hitherto we have found the Act requiring as a condition Consent and
precedent to compensation for first-class improvements consent notice to land-
by the landlord, and in the case of second-class improvements
notice to the landlord. The tenant is relieved from both these
conditions in the third description of improvements, and it
would be obviously impossible to require either condition from
him as a preliminary to the manuring of his land or the
feeding of his stock. This would be to make the landlord the
farmer. Still there are important reservations to his power of Exceptions to
claiming compensation. No such claim, for example, can be
made if, after the manure has been applied or the stock has been
fed on the particular land so treated, he has taken from this
portion of his holding “ a crop of corn, potatoes, hay, or seed,
or any other exhausting crop ” (§ 13). Again, he is not entitled
to compensation for the consumption of cake or other feeding-
stuff where, under custom or agreement, he claims payment from

* The first question wliich the valuers will have to face is the proportion of the
I original cost which may “ fairly represent the value of the improvement, at the

I determination of tlie tenancy, to an incoming tenant.” An approximation to tliis

' value for cake, bones, &c., has long been made by clauses in agreements, and by

I custom in Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, and otlier counties. Mr. Lawes, in

his valuable contributions to the * Journal of the Koyal Agricultural Society,’ has
given a reliable testimony to the unexhausted value of manures applied imder
certain conditions ; and it would, undoubtedly, be a matter of congratulation to
valuers and to the agricultural public if investigations of a similar character
could be carried out under other and varying conditions of climate and of soil.
But even now, with the limited information we possess, I am inclined to think that
practical men, taking into consideration the customs of their own counties, and
‘ guided by the direction of the Act, will not find any insuperable difficulty in the

1 1 construction of this clause ; and 1 believe that in many cases, if difficulty should

■ be anticipated, agreements will be made between landlord and tenant which will

I define in terms the jiroportionate payments to be made. — Note by Mr, J. B. Bent,

of IHbston Hall, Weiherby, in Eoyal Agricultural Society’s ‘ Journal,’ March, 1876.

376 = 110

English Land Late.

the landlord or incoming tenant for “ the additional value given
by that consumption to the manure left on the holding at the
determination of the tenancy” (§ 14). Thus, where the Act
applies, a tenant may claim for artificial manures under the
Act, and for consumption of feeding-stuffs either under the Act,
or under agreement or custom, at his option.

Conditions of Two other important restrictions govern the claim. First, in
compensation, ascertaining the amount due to the tenant, he is not credited
with any larger outlay during the last year of his tenancy than
the average amount of his outlay for like purposes during the
three preceding years, or during any shorter .period if his
tenancy has not lasted so long (§ 15). Thus if he spends on
manure and cake or feeding-stuff 800Z. in 1876-7, 7001. in
1877-8, 654Z. in 1878-9, and 800Z. in 1879-80, when the tenancy
expires, the basis of compensation in respect of the last year’s
outlay will not be 800Z. but one-third of 800Z., 700Z. and 654Z.
added together, or 718Z. The object of this limitation is to
prevent a disproportionate expenditure upon artificial manure or
cake in the last year of the tenancy.

The second restriction is that if any hay, straw, roots, or green
crops have been sold off the holding within the last two years of
the tenancy, the estimated value of the manure that would have
been produced by the consumption of these growths on the
holding is to be deducted from the compensation claimed,
“ except as far as a proper return of manure to the holding has
been made in respect of such produce sold off” (§ 15). In other
words, the land rented has a first claim upon the crops here
specified, and provision is made for their return to the soil in
the shape of manure, or for an equivalent return from bought
manure or from purchased feeding-stuff. This equivalent must
be rendered before the bought manure, and the cake or feeding-
stuff used during the same period, can count to the credit of
the outgoing tenant.

Like the tenant who makes a second-class improvement, the
tenant making a third-class improvement is exempt from the
necessity of considering the nature of his landlord’s interest in
his property, and his compensation is the same under any
tenure. In estimating his compensation, it is for the valuers to
decide as best they can what proportion of his outlay “ fairly
represents ” to his successor the value of the manuring and stock-
feeding of the two previous years. The farmer must therefore
be careful to keep accounts and vouchers, which will serve as
the basis of valuation in case he quits the holding.

General condU Having examined the subjects of compensation under the Act,

tions affecting notice the general conditions affecting landlord and

English Land Law.

I ,

►

‘I

tenant. The claim of the latter to compensation for any class of landlord and
improvements is subject to deductions : tenant.

(1.) For taxes, rates, and tithe rentcharge to which the tenant is Deductions
liable as between himself and the landlord. (2.) For rent (§ 16). *^*'^^*^* *

(3.) The value of any benefit (such as surrender of rent, supply
of materials, &c.) which the landlord has given or allowed to
the tenant as a consideration for his making the improvement at
his own expense (§ 17). (4.) Compensation claimed by the

landlord at the end of the tenancy for waste committed or per-
mitted by the tenant (§ 19) ; and (5.) Compensation claimed by
the landlord for the breach by the tenant of any covenant in the
lease or agreement under which the tenant holds (§ 19).

The landlord’s statutory claim to compensation under the two -^sto land-
last heads can only be made if the tenant claims compensation st^atute

under the Act for an improvement. The landlord must allege
the waste or the breach by way of counter-claim, “ and not other-
wise ” (§ 19). Again, the landlord’s counter-claim cannot go back
more than four years before the tenancy ends : any waste or breach
of covenant alleged by him, if it relates to acts of commission or
omission in a matter of husbandry, must have occurred within
this period (sub-sect. 19). This proviso is a safeguard against
the revival of old defaults which the tenants, owing to the
remoteness of the acts or the neglect relied on, may find it
difficult to rebut. In the event of waste alleged in respect of
buildings, and matters not relating to husbandry, the four years’
limitation does not apply.

Procedure. — The tenant’s claim must be made in writing one Procedure in
month at least before the tenancy determines, and he must then
furnish “ as far as reasonably may be, the particulars of the
intended claim.” Upon bankruptcy this claim passes to the
tenant’s assignees, who may urge and realise it for the benefit
of the estate. The landlord’s counter-claim, if any, on account of
waste or breach of covenant, must be made within fourteen days
after receiving the tenant’s notice of claim. If the parties do
not agree upon the amount and time of payment of compen-
sation, the differences between them must be settled by refer- Referees,
ence to some person who may be jointly appointed by them ; or if
they cannot agree upon a single referee, each chooses one. These
referees are to estimate the unexhausted value of the tenant’s
improvements. Before doing so, they must appoint an umpire Umpire,
to decide between their respective awards. If they fail to make
such appointment, it may be made by the Judge, of the County
Court of the district ; or either party may call on the Inclosure
Commissioners, or the County Court Judge to make such
appointment, without leaving it to the referees. Having once
submitted to the reference, neither party can withdraw from it, or

378 = 112

English Land Law.

Powers of
referees.

Award.

Facts to be set
out in.

How to be dis-
puted.

if he does so, the referees, or the umpire, may proceed in his
absence. They can “ call for the production of any sample,
voucher or other document, or other evidence which is in the
possession or power of either party, or which either party can
produce.” They may also take evidence upon oath, and any
person/ giving false evidence may be indicted for perjury,
provided that such evidence is given “ wilfully and corruptly ”
(§ 26).

After taking such evidence as they deem necessary, the
referees make their award, which must be in writing, signed by
them, and produced within twenty-eight days after appoint-
ment, though this period may be prolonged. If they do not
agree, or if the specified period expires and their award is not
ready, their authority is transferred to the arbitrator or umpire,
who is clothed with the same power of taking evidence. His
award, or that of the referees, must specify “ as far as reasonably
may be” — (1.) The improvements, acts, or things for which
compensation is awarded (§ 32) ; (2.) The time at which each
such improvement, act, or thing, was executed, committed or
permitted {ib.) ; (3.) The time at which each improvement, for
which compensation is given, becomes, for the purposes of the
award, exhausted (§ 31) ; (4.) The sum laid out by the tenant
on each improvement (§ 32) ; (5.) If the landlord, at the time of
the consent given to a first-class improvement, was not an
absolute owner, the extent to which such improvement adds to
the letting value of the holding (ib.) ; (6.) The sum awarded in
respect of each improvement, act, or thing (ffi.) ; (7.) A day, not
sooner than one month after delivery of the award, for the pay-
ment of the money awarded for compensation, the costs of
reference, or otherwise (§ 34). The costs of the reference in-
clude the remuneration of the referee or referees, and of the
umpire, “ including other proper expenses ” (§ 33) ; and the
referees or umpire may order those costs to be paid by either
party, according to their opinion of the “ reasonableness or un-
reasonableness of the claim ; ” or they may decide that the costs
may be paid in unequal proportions ; or may leave each party
to bear his own costs.

Being furnished with the particulars of the award, either
landlord or tenant may dispute it by appealing under certain
conditions to the Judge of the County Court. Neither party
can appeal unless the sum claimed for compensation exceeds 50/.
Nor can the award be disputed except upon one of the grounds
following (§ 36): — 1. That the award is invalid (§ 36, sub-
sect. 1) ; 2. That compensation has been awarded for improve-
ments, acts, or things, breaches of covenants or agreements, or for
committing or permitting waste, in respect of which the party

English Land Law.

379 = 113

claiming was not entitled to compensation (§ 36, sub-sect. 2) ;
3. That the compensation has not been awarded for improvements,
acts, or things, breaches of covenants or agreements, or for com-
mitting or permitting waste, in respect of which the party
claiming was entitled to compensation (§ 36, sub-sect. 3). The
County Court Judge will then dispose of the case, or may at his
discretion remit it to be heard in whole or in part by the
referee, or referees, or umpire, with such directions as he may
think fit. The Judge’s decision is final upon the facts ; but if a
question of law arises, he is bound, at the request of either party,
to state a special case for decision by the High Court of Justice.
The money awarded as compensation, whether to landlord or
tenant, must be paid within fourteen days.

Charge of Tenant's Compensation. — Upon payment of a tenant’s
claim, a landlord may not desire to sink the whole of this
money in the land, for the benefit of his heir or of the person
entitled in remainder. In such cases the County Court at its
discretion may, on application by him, create a “ charge on the
holding,” in respect of the compensation so paid. The effect of
the charge is to provide for the repayment to the landlord, his
executors, administrators, and assignees, of the sum advanced by
him as compensation (§ 42, sub-sect. 3). In other words, this sum,
representing an addition to the value of the soil, does not become
absorbed in the realty, for the sole benefit of the heir-at-law,
but forms part of the personal estate, and is therefore available
in favour of younger children. It is left to the discretion of the
Court to order repayment of the whole or any part of the money,
“ with such interest, and by such instalments, and with such
directions for giving effect to the charge as the Court thinks fit ”
(§ 42, sub-sect. 1). And the Act contains restrictions, the effect
of which is to protect the interest of persons entitled in
remainder where the landlord creating the charge is only a
limited owner.

Notice to Quit. — One of the most important provisions in the
Act is that which extends the period of notice to quit in the
case of agricultural tenancies from year to year which are affected
by the Act (sections 51 & 58). As the law stood before Feb-
ruary 14th, 1876, supposing a tenant from year to year entered
on his holding at Michaelmas, 1875, and the landlord within a
few months found him to be an undesirable tenant, his tenancy
could be determined by notice given at Lady Day and ending at
the Michaelmas following. A half-year’s notice expiring with
a year of tenancy was necessary, but the Act has extended this
period by six months, and requires a year’s notice expiring with
a year of tenancy. The result is, in certain contingencies, to
give a tenant what may be practically equal to two years’ pos-

Jurisdiction of
CountyCourts.

Appellate

Court.

Creation of
charge on
estate.

Notice to quit.

Customary-
time of, ex-
tended by Act.

380=114

English Land Law.

To yearly
tenancies.

Landlord may
resume pos-
session of part
of holding for
certain pur-
poses.

Fixtures.

Farm

buildings.

Steam-engines.

session ; for if the tenancy begins to run from Michaelmas,

1876, notice cannot be given under the Act until Michaelmas,

1877, expiring at Michaelmas, 1878.

In 1874, before Lord Beaconsfield became Prime Minister, he
said that, in his opinion, much that was thought unsatisfactory
in the existing tenure of land would disappear if a tenant-farmer
could be sure of a two years’ notice to surrender his holding.
The suggestion was thrown out as an alternative to a plan of
compensation for unexhausted improvements ; and there is
therefore no inconsistency in the shorter term of notice fixed by
the Bill, supplementing, as it does, provisions allowing such
compensation. Of course landlords and tenants are free to
regulate as they please the length of this notice, like every other
part of the contract of tenancy. Unless, however, the landlord
and tenant mutually agree in writing to exclude the whole Act,
or this particular provision, every yearly tenancy beginning after
February 14th, 1876, is affected by it. It also applies to all
yearly tenancies existing at that date, unless within two months
afterwards one of the parties to the contract of tenancy notified
to the contrary.

Resumption for Improvements. — In the case of holdings let upon
yearly tenancies, landlords are empowered by the Act to serve a
tenant with notice to quit part only of the holding. This was a
power not before possessed by the landlord, but he can only exer-
cise it for certain objects recognised as being of general importance
and utility, that is to say : — 1. Erecting farm-labourers’ cottages
or other houses, with or without gardens. 2. Providing gardens
for existing farm-labourers’ cottages, or other houses. 3. Al-
lotment to labourers of land for gardens or other purposes.
4. Planting trees. 5. Opening or working any coal, ironstone,
limestone, or other mineral ; or a stone quarry, clay, sand, or
gravel-pit ; or constructing any works or buildings to be used
in connection therewith. 6. Obtaining brick-earth, gravel, or
sand. 7. Making a watercourse or reservoir. 8. Making any
road, tramroad, siding, canal, or basin, or any wharf, pier, or
other work connected therewith. The Act secures to the tenant
adequate compensation for being thus deprived of part of his
holding.

Fixtures. — We have traced in part the growth of a more liberal
system in English agriculture, mitigating the effect of the old
rule — Quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit. A statute passed in
1851 required the landlord’s written consent to give the tenant a
qualified property in farm buildings erected by him. This
consent is still necessary to create a valid claim to compensation
under the Agricultural Holdings Act. So, also, the tenant,
before erecting any steam-engine, must still give the landlord

English Land Law.

381=115

' I

written notice of his intention. If the landlord assents, or is
even silent, the tenant may go on, and his rights under the
Agricultural Holdings Act will then arise in respect of the
steam-engine. If, however, the landlord, on receiving notice of
the intention to erect a steam-engine, objects, in writing, to
such erection, the tenant will proceed at his own risk ; the new
Act will no longer protect him ; and his rights, whatever they
may be, will depend upon custom or otherwise (§ 53, concluding
sub-sect.). Engines and machinery, unlike buildings, are not Machinery,
named among any one of the three classes of improvements,
but are more properly treated as fixtures ; and the distinction in
the Act between the two kinds of interests created by the tenant,
and here recognised by the Legislature, is that the specified
improvements in classes one, two, and three, are treated as
inseparably annexed to the soil, as in fact they are — buildings,
to a modified extent, excepted — and as therefore properly the
subjects of compensation by the owner of the soil ; while
fixtures are removable, and need not necessarily therefore be the
subjects of compensation. The old maxim of law, however, still
applies to improvements as well as fixtures. Being annexed to Landlord s
the land, both become the property of the landlord upon pay-
ment of their fair value. The tenant cannot pull down the
buildings erected at his cost, and cart off the materials ; he cannot
say of the fixtures, “ I will not sell — I have a use for them else-
where.” The landlord may take them at his option.

The effect of the Act of 1851 was to give the tenant certain
rights of property in engines or machinery erected at his cost,
with the previous consent of the landlord. The Agricultural Landlord’s
Holdings Act dispenses with the necessity of procuring the
landlord’s previous consent for affixing to the holding this class unnecessary,
of fixtures, steam-engines excepted. In the absence, be it always excepting
understood, of express agreement, or of written exclusion of the steam-engines,
Act from the contract of tenancy, an agricultural tenant, whose
holding exceeds two acres, may now affix to his holding “ any
engine, machinery, or other fixture, for which he is not under
this Act or otherwise entitled to compensation.” These fixtures
may be put up not only without the assent, but contrary to the
express wishes of the landlord ; and, if they have not been so
put up pursuant to some obligation, or instead of some fixture
belonging to the landlord, they will become the property of the
tenant, and be removable by him, upon the following conditions

(§53):-

1. Before removing any fixtures, the tenant must pay all rent Conditions of
owing by him, and perform all other obligations to the landlord femoral by
in respect of the holding. The landlord, in fact, has a lien
upon the fixtures for the amount of rent or compensation.

3S2= 116

English Land Law.

2. In removing any fixture, no “ avoidable damage ” must
be done to any building, or other part of the holding.

3. Immediately after removing any fixture, the tenant must
make good all damage occasioned by such removal.

4. The tenant cannot remove any fixture unless he gives the
landlord one month’s previous notice, in writing, of the intended
removal.

5. At any time within the month of notice, the landlord (as
under the Act of 1851) has an option of purchasing any fixture
comprised in the notice of removal. He may thus select which
he thinks worth purchase, and leave the tenant to remove the
rest. This option must be signified to the tenant, in writing,
before the end of the month ; and the fixture selected by the
landlord becomes his property, and must be left by the tenant,
who will be paid for it according to its fair value to an in-
coming tenant. If the parties differ, the value is to be settled
by reference, but without power of appeal ; the decision of the
referee, or referees, and umpire, will be final.

Results of Act. This is the Statute which the English Legislature have passed,
recognising the just confidence reposed in most English land-
lords by their tenantry, but recognising, too, in the words of
the Prime Minister, that “ laws should be founded, not on
honour, but on justice.”

Such a statute, embodying a principle previously unknown
in English legislation, could hardly be expected to be at once
and completely incorporated into contracts of agricultural
tenancy. Hitherto, therefore, experience shows that both land-
lords and tenants have been timid in adopting the provisions
of the Act. With a view to ascertain what had really been its
beneficial results, circulars were sent, towards the end of the
year 1876, on the part of the Farmers’ Club, to the leading
farmers and land agents, as well as to the various Chambers of
Agriculture, throughout the country, and 258 answers were re-
ceived. The results of these answers are summed up in an able
paper * by the Secretary of the Club, Mr. Druce, as follows : —

Firstly, as a general rule, the Act is excluded by landlords in
respect of tenancies from year to year, or at will, which were
current when it came into operation.! Secondly, it is also to
a large extent excluded in respect of tenancies which began since

* ‘Journal of the Farmers’ Club,’ February, 1877, p. 13.
t To this general rule, however, important exceptions are noted in tho
Appendix. For example, Earl Brownlow, the Earl of Lonsdale, and Lord
Tredegar are among the landlords who at once boldly adopted the Act. On the
other hand, instances might he given in whicli, as upon Sir Edward Kendson’s
estate, the tenants, having the ehoice given to them, preferred on the whole to
remain under existing agreements.

English Land Law.

383 = 117

the Act came into operation. Thirdly, the provisions of the
Act relating to payment of compensation for unexhausted im-
provements, especially those of the second and third classes,
have been adopted by special agreement, and in many cases
the time fixed by the Act for notice to quit has been likewise
adopted in new agreements, and has thus been extended from
six to twelve months. Fourthly, the Act, and the debates upon
it in the Houses of Parliament and elsewhere, have caused
greater attention to be paid by landlords to the compensation
of tenants for unexhausted improvements, and have resulted in
more liberal leases and agreements than were formerly granted.

It may be fairly assumed, on the whole, that, permissive as
this and all other legislation on this subject is and should be,
the Act will work, directly and indirectly, unmixed good to
landlords not less than to tenants. Hitherto many landlords
have been deterred from adopting the Act, from no unwilling-
ness to secure equivalent advantages to their tenants, but from
apprehensions of disputes and of litigation under the compen-
sation clauses. As the provisions of the Act come to be better
understood, the examples of those landlords who have incor-
porated the Act into their agreements will be gradually followed.
Meanwhile the benefits indirectly resulting to agriculture from
the Act are already considerable, and must every year increase.
In the first place, the effect of this statute is to multiply written
agreements relating to the letting of land, if, indeed, it does
not make such agreements universal. The want of a strict
definition of engagements between landlord and farmer in this
country has often been pointed out, and it will be a consider-
able gain to English agriculture if this frequent cause of diffi-
culty and dispute can be removed. Then, in many districts in
England, the prevailing agricultural customs have become
inapplicable, and yet have the force of law unless they are ex-
pressly excluded by the agreement or are inconsistent with its
terms.* In the Agricultural Holdings Act a sound rule has
now been laid down upon broad lines ; and this rule, permanently
embodied in a legislative enactment, is sure in time to be gene-
rally followed as the basis of agreement wherever it is applic-
able.f Again, limited owners up to this time could hardly be
expected to give their tenants a certain guarantee of compensa-
tion for outlay ; but the powers they now possess under the statute
to charge their estates with the amount of compensation removes
one great hindrance to agricultural improvement. Lastly, there
is an evident desire on the part of landlords to recognise the

* Speech of Viscount Portman, House of Lords, May 13, 1875.
t Speech of Lord Henniker, House of Lords, March 12, 1875.

\ VOL. XIV. — S. 8. 2 E

Indirect
benefits to
English
agriculture.

384= ilS

English Land Law.

spirit of the Act ; and the example already set in granting
more liberal covenants, especially those relating to compensation
and a longer term of notice, will, there is good ground for
believing, spread every year. The Agricultural Holdings Act,
therefore, may reasonably be regarded as being, directly and
indirectly, a considerable boon to tenant farmers in England,
and the Legislature has certainly not passed it in vain.

III.

TAXATION

AS AFFECTING

THE AGRICULTURAL INTEREST.

CAPTAIN CRAIGIE,

SECRETARY OF THE LOCAL TAXATION COMMITTEE OF THE CENTRAL CHAMBER
OF AGEICCLTCRE.

2 E 2

(387 = 121)

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. — The Agricultural Interest.

Elements composing the Agricultural Interest — Number of Agriculturists
with independent Incomes — Dependent Members of the Agricultural Classes
— Property of the Agricultural Classes — Landowners’ Capital and Income
— Tenant’s Capital and Income — Earnings of the Labourer — Ratio of Per-
sons and Capital engaged in Agriculture to the Wealth and Inhabitants of
the Kingdom .. .. ,, .. Pages 123-127

CHAPTER II. — Distribution of Taxation.

Amount of Taxation — Analysis of Taxation — Distribution of Taxation —
Light and voluntary character of Working-class Taxation — Recent Fiscal
changes — ^Taxation of the Agricultural Classes — The Agricultural Labourers’
Taxes — Taxation of the Upper and Middle Classes of Agriculturists — Malt
Tax — Agricultural Share of Taxes on Expenditure — Agricultural Share of
Taxes on Property or Income .. .. .. .. Pages 128-137

CHAPTER III. — Imperial Direct Taxes.

Probate, Legacy, and Succession Duties — Stamps — Land Tax — Income Tax —
Pressure of Income Tax on Land Rental — Assessment of the Tenant to
Income Tax .. .. .. .. .. .. Pages 133-143

CHAPTER IV. — Local Direct Taxes.

Local Rates — Share of the Rates levied on Land — The Poor Rate — Its Origin —
Its Fluctuations — Its Purposes — Agricultural Share of the Poor Rate —
Local Distribution of the Poor Rate — Highway Rates — County Rates
— Sanitary Rates — Education Rates — Variations in the Systems of Local
Rating .. Pages 143-151

CHAPTER V. — Pressure of Taxation.

Relative Pressure of Local and Imperial Taxes on Agricultural Incomes —
Varied Origins of the Incomes here contrasted with those of Agriculturists
to be taken into account — Peculiarities of Rate-incidence — Relative total
Taxation of separate sorts of Incomes — The Landlord’s Taxation — The
Farmer’s Taxation — Conclusion .. ,. .. Pages 151-158

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(SS2 = 123)

TAXATION

AS AFFECTIKQ

THE AGRICULTURAL INTEREST.

CHAPTEE I.

The Agkicultural Interest.

In any attempt to trace the bearing of the general fiscal system
of the United Kingdom on what is distinctively termed the
agricultural interest, it is needful to define with some precision
who are the persons and what is the taxable property which that
interest may be held to embrace.

For the purposes of such an inquiry as this, that section of Elements com-
the British people may fairly be reckoned agricultural who posmg^the ^
either own or farm the soil, or furnish the labour indispensable interest.'””
to its cultivation, together with such members of their families
as may be considered wholly dependent on the profits of owner-
ship, occupation, or tillage for their livelihood. A concern in
all that affects agricultural prosperity extends, no doubt, also to
a fringe of auxiliary callings like those of the land agent, the
seedsman, and the maker or purveyor of agricultural requisites.

Still, it would be hardly accurate or convenient to include
these possessors of more remote and secondary interests in the
roll of agriculturists, whose taxation it is sought to determine.

It is not, however, so simple as it seems to reckon up the
members of the agricultural community. The attempt to draw a
sharp and rigid line of demarcation between classes, professions,
and incomes is always liable to be deemed arbitrary, and is
peculiarly difficult in a country such as this, with an increasingly
dense population and a growing inter-dependence in its social
relations. Plurality of calling is no infrequent occurrence.

The joint household purse of many a family is fed by revenues
drawn from the most diverse sources. Even within the agricul-
tural community itself, two or more of the usually separate

390= 124 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Number of
agriculturists
with indepen-
dent incomes.

Dependent
members of the
agricultural
classes.

functions of ownership, occupation, and personal labour, charac-
teristic of our system, may to a greater or less extent be merged
in one and the same individual. But even beyond an
element of the calculation so disturbing as the blending of
classes, the available statistical information we possess is far from
complete. The Census Commissioners themselves express some
doubt as to the correctness of their enumeration of farm-labourers';
the yearly Agricultural Returns give the total only of separate
holdings, not of separate farmers ; while the voluminous rolls
of the new ‘ Doomsday Book ’ make but little claim to precision,
and notably require considerable discount for repeated or dupli-
cate entries of nominal landowners.

Nevertheless, after guarding against such possible sources of
error, after passing over altogether as not distinctively agri-
cultural the holders of less than one acre of land, and after
duly allowing for double tenancies, a rough general survey of
the numerical strength of the agricultural classes throughout the
whole United Kingdom will reveal a total of 300,000 land-
owners, 1,000,000 occupiers of farms, big and little,* and
upwards of 1,500,000 farm-labourers. Thus somewhat over
2,800,000 individuals appear to be engaged in the ownership,
cultivation, and tillage of land.

Lest these figures should convey a wrong notion of the
numbers of the typical class to which the term of landlord is
popularly applied, it should be noted that not two-thirds of
those here enumerated possess so much as ten acres of land apiece ;
and only one-fifth of the whole, or some 60,000 individuals,
own an estate of over 100 acres of British soil. A more correct
appreciation of the standing of many of these occupiers is also
got, if it be borne in mind that the farms of at least 300,000 are
less than ten-acre plots ; that the Census Commissioners will not
allow even the name of farmer to more than 250,000 persons in
England and Wales ; while little more than 90,000 occupiers in
Great Britain, and 30,000 in Ireland, cultivate farms exceeding
100 acres in extent. These facts, and the consequent approxi-
mation in point of status between individual members of the
upper and lower agricultural classes, must be remembered when
their general taxation is being computed.

To the numbers thus arrived at, how many persons should be
added as being properly dependent members of the several
agricultural sections ? Bearing in mind the necessity of allow-
ing for families where income of a non-agricultural character
supplements the receipts from land-rental or farm-earnings.

* Of this million of occupiers, 530,000, or more than half, are to bo found in
Ireland alone.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 391 = 125

admitting that the workers here included are not all heads of
families, and recalling other qualifying considerations which
suggest themselves, there would appear to be good ground for
reckoning on an average of two dependent individuals for every
one more or less directly engaged in agriculture. This would
raise the numbers directly interested in all that concerns the
land and its cultivation to between eight and nine million
persons of all ages, a total that represents more than a fourth
of the inhabitants of the United Kingdom.

The next point to be determined is the capital possessed by Property of the
the agricultural classes, and the income derived by them from agricultural
its profitable use. In the widest sense of the term this capital
will include not only the value of the soil itself, the outlay in
landlord’s improvements, and the tenant-farmer’s investment for
the purpose of his business, but it will cover also the less pal-
pable but not less needful factors of the brain-power devoted to
the task of cultivation, and the energy of muscle and sinew pro-
vided for the manual labour of the farm. To the three former
elements alone a direct money-value may be given. From the
combined employment of all five constituents income is returned
and distributed to the several classes concerned, in the form of
rent, interest, profits, or wages.

The landlords’ share of this income, as measured by the gross Landowners’
rental yearly assessed for income-tax in the United Kingdom, is

67.000. 000/. Of this sum it is to be noted that about 5,000,000/.
represents the fixed and separate, but equally landed, revenues
of the lay and clerical titheowners. Some three-fourths of the
rest, or 46,000,000/., may be most properly regarded as land-
lords’ rent in its more primary sense, and 16,000,000/. as the
interest of sums laid out in fitting the soil for profitable culti-
vation, by means of enclosure, buildings, drainage, and so forth.

The extent of these investments goes some way to account for
the recent rise in the nominal rental of land, and it is too often
overlooked when proposals are made to subject land, as a source
of wholly unearned revenue, to exceptionally heavy taxes.

Taking the natural rent at 30 years’ purchase, and the landlords’
investments and titheowners’ property at 25, these figures would
appear to indicate the existence of a titheowners’ capital of

125.000. 000/., an ordinary landlords’ capital of 1,380,000,000/.
in the soil itself, and of 400,000,000/. in its improvements, or,
in the aggregate, 1,905,000,000/. Throughout this Paper the
tithe-rent charge is included in the term “ land,” and fully
shares its taxation. The payment of tithes by the occupier is
not properly a tax, but a simple rendering of rent to the tithe-
owner, who, since the days of King Ethelwolph, the first
hereditary monarch of the English Saxons, has, in one form or

392 = 126 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

another, owned a co-existing share of the produce of the soil with
the landlord proper. In England, it may be remarked, one-fifth
of these tithes are now vested not in ecclesiastical but in lay
proprietorship.

Tenant’s capi- The capital provided by the tenant for the ordinary work of

tal and income. farm bears also some variety of character. Differing greatly
in different districts, on different soils, and sorts of farms, there
does not appear to be much general agreement as to the average
value of the farmer’s plant in the stock, implements, and ma-
terial accessories of his business. Where a mean has to be struck
between the high-farming which finds, at the least, profitable
employment for 15Z. an acre, and the low level of the scale,
which a West of Ireland tenant would think ample, it is easy
widely to err ; but there is some ground to believe that an average
of (say) 8Z. per acre over the cultivated area of 47,000,000 acres
throughout the United Kingdom may fairly enough represent
the working capital of the British tenantry. This gives a sum
of 376,000,000/.

For purposes of taxation the income-tax Acts assume the
tenant’s earnings to be measured by one - half his rent in
England, and one-third in Scotland and Ireland — assumptions
to which practical effect is given in the reduced poundage-rate
imposed. It has been argued, on the one hand, that this is
too favourable to the farmer, and charges his profits too lightly ;
while, on the other, authority is not wanting for the very opposite
contention. Since, however, this estimate is in point of fact
that acted on in the adjustment of taxation, and since it coincides
very closely with an average return of 9 per cent, on the farming
capital employed, I am disposed to believe that it is not, on the
average, at all too low an estimate, and that no great error can
result from its adoption. Omitting for convenience the defer-
ential favour shown to other than English tenants, I therefore
take the aggregate taxable income of all the occupiers of the
United Kingdom at one-half the gross value of the land-rental
— which, it will be remembered, includes the tithes — or a total
sum of 33,000,000/. a year.

Earnings of the So far as the labouring section of the agricultural community
is concerned, no money capital has to be assumed, nor does any
direct tax, with its tell-tale assessment, reveal in official figures
the earnings which they enjoy in return for the labour they |
expend in the common business. As in all agricultural ques- j
tions, the wideness of the field impedes an easy computation of
what sort of revenue these earnings represent. Ten years ago,
a late eminent i^tatistician, Mr. Dudley Baxter, in his elaborate
work on national income, calculated their receipts as reaching
52,200,000/. A notable rise in wages, to which the larger labour

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 393= 127

►

t I

■ r

bills of farmers testify, makes it seem no exaggeration to assume
that 58,000,000/. of income, or something like an average of
24s. per cultivated acre, or 14s. a week for each worker, is now
annually received in the shape of wages or their direct equivalent
by the farm-labourers of the three kingdoms.

It may thus be assumed that the agricultural interest em- Ratio of
braces not less than eight and a-half million persons * possess- persons and
ing 2,300,000,000/. of aggregate capital, and enjoying among gaged in"agri-
them a yearly revenue of 158,000,000/. What ratio do these culture to the
figures bear to the population, wealth and income on which the
whole taxation of the United Kingdom is imposed? To the t^e^ingdoin.
first point an answer has already been given. The agriculturists
and their immediate dependants are one-fourth of the people.

Less easy of statistical demonstration is the proportion borne by
their capital to the general wealth of the nation. Whether the
calculation be made by the methods employed in 1845 by Mr.

Porter, in 1860 by an able writer in the ‘ Edinburgh Review,’
or in 1867 by Mr. Dudley Baxter, it would now be difficult to
reduce the estimate of British realised wealth much below

8.600.000. 000/., a figure which, I believe, it very probably ex-
ceeds.! Of this amount the agricultural classes may claim to
own rather more than one-fourth.

Ten years ago, Mr. Baxter’s widely accepted estimate of
national income placed the gross revenue of all classes of the
people at 814,000,000/. It seenxs impossible at the present
moment to reckon the aggregate gross income of all classes of
the population at a less figure than between 1,000,000,000/. and

1.100.000. 000/. Ten years ago 280,000,000/. of the whole in-
come of the country was held to arise from capital, and the rest
from earnings. Now there is some ground to believe that

370.000. 000/. springs from the former and the balance from the
latter source. The total income of the agricultural classes
(158,000,000/.) thus represents about one-seventh of that received
by the nation as a whole, while probably one-half of this agricul-
tural income springs from the invested property of owners or occu-
piers, and hall from the earnings of the tenant and the labourer.

If, therefore, the approximate accuracy of these estimates be
admitted, it would appear that the income returned by the com-
bined capitals of the landowner and the farmer (80,000,000/.) is
no more than 3^ per cent., in contrast with the average of 4^ per
cent, yielded by all descriptions of British capital.

* Namely, 2,800,000 persons engaged in agricultm-e, and two dependent
individuals upon each, see ante, “ Number of agriculturists with independent
incomes.”

t Mr. Giffen, Principal of the Statistical Department of the Board of Trade,
has, since this estimate was framed, submitted another to the Statistical Society
of London, whicli offers, as the most moderate computation of British capital, a
sum of 8,548,000,0001.

394= 128 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Amount of
taxation.

Analysis of
taxation.

CHAPTER II.

Distribution of Taxation.

Having thus obtained some notion of the numerical strength
and financial resources of the agricultural classes, it is, in the
next place, necessary to inquire what is the entire amount and
distribution of British taxation.

The public revenue accounted for by the Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer in 1877 was 78,600,000/. ; that received at the most
recent dates by local authorities throughout England, Scotland,
and Ireland (deducting of course all subventions from one source
of revenue to another) was 49,000,000/.

This sum of 127,600,000 is nevertheless not all raised by
taxes. From the imperial side of the account must be deducted

10.000. 000/. for rents of crown lands, miscellaneous receipts,
and the actual costs of postal or telegraphic business. From the
local revenue in like manner must be eliminated 16,600,000/.,
two-thirds of this being sums borrowed within the year and not
forming part of the annual levy, and the rest made up of income
from corporate property or miscellaneous sources.

This reduces the general taxation, properly so called, to

101.000. 000/., whereof two-thirds is raised by imperial and one-
third by local imposts.

The widest and most elementary division of the whole fabric
of imperial and local taxes is the rough-and-ready classification
adopted by Lord Halifax (then Sir C. Wood) in his Budget
Speech of 1851, and recognised as legitimate by so good an au-
thority as the present Chancellor of the Exchequer (Sir Stafford
Northcote). It was a division into “ taxes on property ” and
“ taxes not on property.” Adhering to the method thus em-
ployed, with only a slight correction for some local items, the fol-
lowing Table will not only give the ratio now existing, but will
at the same time show the tendency of recent financial changes.

Date.

Taxes *
on Property.

Taxes*

not on Property.

Total Taxation.

Percentage of
Taxes on
Property to
Total Taxes.

1840

19,000,000

45,000,000

64,000,000

1850

25,000,000

45,000,000

70,000,000

I860

30,000,000

53,000,000

83,000,000

1877

42,000,000

59,000,000

101,000,000

To determine how this taxation in detail specially affects the
agricultural classes a closer investigation, and a somewhat varied
• See note on facing page.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 395 = 129

apportionment of taxes is required. Following in some respects
the method of classification resorted to in 1867 by Mr, Dudley
Baxter, as giving a clear outline of national finance, I would
submit, as fairly representing the figures of the present day, the
subjoined

Analysis of Taxation.

Amount
of each Tax.

Amount
of each Group.

I. Taxes on Peopeety and Income.

(a) Taxes on capital or on income from
capital : —

(I) Imperial, viz. : —

Probate, legacy, and succession!

1 duties /

Stamps on deeds

Land tax

1 Eailway duty

; Income tax (Schedules A and)

1 C, and parts of B and D) . . /

6,000,000

2,100,000

1,100,000

700,000

3,600,000

13.500.000

16.950.000

1,700,000

(2) Local, viz. : —

1 Owners’ share of rates ..

(b) Taxes charged on income not arising
from capital ; —

Income tax (Schedule E, and)
parts of B and D) ;

1,700,000

32,150,000

1 II. Taxes on Expenditcee.

I (a) On articles of consumption, viz. : —

1 On Spirits, including licences . .

‘ Wine „ .. ..

Beer „ .. ..

„ Tobacco „ ....

„Tea .. ..

„ Cofiee, fruits, &c

21,500,000

1.900.000

9.300.000

7.900.000

3.700.000
900,000

45,200,000

(b) On business, traffic, or establishments : —
(1) Imperial, viz. : —

Post office and telegraph net)

revenues j

Stamps on bills and business!
transactions, law fees, and)
sundries 1

2,200,000

3,000,000

Inhabited house duty

, Licences for carriages, dogs,)

servants, game, plate, and so i
forth )

1.400.000

1.600.000

8,200,000

(2) Local, viz. : —

Occupiers’ share of rates
, Tolls, dues, fees, and duties ,,

10,350,000

5,100,000

15,450,000

68,850,000

Total

£101,000,000

Note. — The general classification attempted in the Table on the preceding page
recognises only the primary form of each tax. It is needful for my present

Distribution

taxation.

Light and vol-
untary cha-
racter of work-
ing class
taxation.

396 = 150 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Viewing the whole taxes of the country as thus grouped, the
first division will be found composed of a series of imposts, each
of special or particular incidence, and charged directly on
certain forms of capital or income, while the second and larger
division will embrace all less direct taxes, which usually take
the form of fiscal additions to the outlay of the people at large.
So marked, however, is the distinction between the way in
which these two branches of taxation affect the upper and middle
classes of the country on the one hand, and the lower classes on
the other, that no intelligent appreciation of the quotas borne by
the agricultural, or any other section of the community, is pos-
sible without a still further attempt to discriminate between the
incidence of taxation on one or the other of these great social
grades. There is not a little difficulty in fixing the proper line
between these classes. I have not, however, attempted to depart
from the system usually adopted, whereby the earnings of
manual labour are left in the lower, and all other incomes rele-
gated to the higher class. No doubt a closer analysis, distin-
guishing, if it were possible, the lower middle class — in which
direct taxes are added to a relatively heavy share of those on
consumption — would reveal a great divergence from an average
rate of burden distributed over the wide area of each class, as
above defined. For the finer calculations of financiers, it is also
true, note has to be taken not only of the nominal amount of
each tax imposed by the Legislature but also of the extra cost
to the payer of the impost, frequently inseparable from the
otherwise convenient form of its levy ; but this is too minute
and delicate a matter to be set forth in the broad lines of the
present inquiry.

In framing the following Table (p. 13l) I have combined the
estimates of financial authorities — such as Leone Levi and Dudley
Baxter — varying these only so far as good reason appears for so
doing in recent fiscal changes, or in the known consumption of
taxable commodities in later years.

The percentage of taxation borne by the upper and middle, or
propertied classes, thus appears to be half as great again as that
on the working classes. Bearing in mind the greater real
pressure of the same percentages on the lower range of incomes.

purpose to go a little farther than this. In the case of the Inhabited House Duty,
for instance, I believe it advisable to follow the usual opinion of ’economists that
this charge falls practically not upon the income of the house-owner but on the
expenditure of the house-oocupier. So too with local rates. These, though paid
by the occupier, are assumed above to fall upon the property taxed ; while here
again there are strong economic reasons for similarly allotting a share to the out-
lay of the occupier. This share has been taken to be one-fourth in the case of
land and one-half in the case of houses. Only the remainder of the rates on
these properties, with the whole of those on minor hereditaments, is hereafter
regarded as incident on the owners.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 397 = 131

Distribution op Taxation.

MrnDLE AND Uppeb
Classes.

Lower Classes.

Estimated Numbers

(Domestic servants included in
Middle and Upper Classes).
Estimated Gross Income

9,000,000

£580,000,000

24,000,000

£480,000,000

Tax.

Amount of Tax.

Tax.

Amount of Tax.

I. Taxes on Property and Income.

(a) On property or income from
property.

(1) Imperial *

(2) Local

All

13.500.000

16.950.000

••

(b) On Income not from Capital

(1) Imperial*

All

1,700,000

••

32,150,000

••

• •

II. Taxes on Expenditure.

(o) On the Consumption, viz ; —

Of Spirits

„ Wine

„ Beer

„ Tobacco

A^ll

6,100,000

1.900.000

3.100.000

3.200.000

1.200.000
600,000

2,000,000

1.400.000

1.600.000

15,400,000

6,200,000

4.700.000

2.500.000

300.000

200.000
1,000,000

(b) For Post-ofiBce net revenue ..

„ Sundry Stamps and Fees
„ Inhabited House duty
„ Establishment and otherl
Tiicence.^ J

All

share) /

„ Local Tolls, Dues, &c.

8.350.000

3.800.000

2,000,000

1,300,000

Total

67,400,000

••

33,600,000

Percentage of Taxation uponl
Gross income j

••

Average Taxes per head ..

••

£7 10s.

••

£1 8s.

* See previous Table (Analysis of Taxation) for details.

this (lifFerence may appear not unreasonable. There is, how-
ever, a further marked peculiarity in the form of their taxation.

Recent fiscal
changes.

398 = 152 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

which very greatly reduces, at all events, the inevitable share of
the taxes of the lower class.

This variety in the form of burden appears from the following
summary : —

Upper Class.

Taxes on income and property 5^ per cent.
Taxes on consumption . . 2| per cent.

Taxes on other outgoings . . per cent.

Lower Class.

Nil.

6 per cent.
1 per cent.

Total . .11^ per cent. 7 per cent.

These figures show that only indirect taxes practically reach
the manual labour classes ; while these taxes are, moreover, all
on accessories, not necessaries of life, nearly four-fifths of the
whole taking the form of imposts on spirits, beer, or tobacco.
This feature causes, of course, very great irregularity in the
amount paid by different individuals. Large sums of extra
taxation, poured freely into the coffers of the State by a minority
of intemperate individuals, greatly swell the apparent normal
taxes of the class. Could these be abstracted from the total
average contribution, as some writers on taxation have tried to
do, a working-man need not be a total abstainer to obtain for
himself a taxation far lighter than that here shown. He may,
by simply eschewing spirits and tobacco, enjoy a fair modicum
of other taxable luxuries without being called on from one year’s
end to another to pay for all the benefits and protection of
civilised Government much more than a single sum of sixpence
out of every pound of his wages.

A great fiscal change has of late years been effected in British
finance. Less than half a century ago we had tariffs wholly
or nearly prohibitory on articles even of the first necessity.
Customs duties, now all but restricted to certain stimulants and
luxuries, then ranged over some 500 different commodities.
Taxes on corn, taxes on sugar, taxes on windows, on bricks
and on glass, taxes on bacon and on butter, on cheese and
on soap, on candles and on paper, are all things of the past.
Tea pays but one-fourth of the duty it bore five-and-twenty
years ago. It may, indeed, be safely affirmed that, so far as
the consumer is concerned, the average burden of taxation can
occasion but little inconvenience. Large as its aggregate may
be, it is supported with an ease which to our forefathers was un-
known, and to most modern nations is even yet hardly imagined.
This change has brought a larger share of taxes on the property
of the country, and thrown a gradually increasing degree of
relative pressure on a less numerous section of the community —

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 399 = 133

a course, no doubt, requiring caution in itself. So far, however,
as this transfer has already proceeded, we have not yet, perhaps,
reached the anticipated, and of course possible, danger of disso-
ciating the responsibility of paying for the maintenance of poli-
tical institutions from the practical possession of political power.

But it may be questioned whether the same apportionment of Taxation of the
taxes to classes as is here shown holds good throughout the agricultural
specially agricultural as well as the other sections of the com-
munity. Since the number of the landowners has been already
shown to include 200,000 persons who do not possess 10 acres
apiece, since more than half of the English occupiers cultivate
less than 20 acres each, and since among the Irish farmers
the small cultivator still more largely predominates, it is clear
that with agriculturists many more than those in the nomi-
nal labouring class will really enjoy no more than working-
class incomes. Belonging, therefore, so far as taxes on ex-
penditure are concerned, to the lower order of incomes, such
persons will have to bear at the same time a further and ex-
ceptional liability in their share of some of the more direct
imposts which ordinarily fall on propertied classes of a higher
order.

If these petty cultivators be excepted from the class, the tax- The agricul-
ation falling: on the g:rade of ag:ricultural labourers is the very tural labour-

■ o o ^ o j gi’s tJlX6S«

lightest exacted anywhere. The labourer who neither smokes
I nor chews tobacco, who neither drinks his beer, nor rises to the
I higher taxed luxury of spirits, is practically an untaxed member
of the community. Even where he desires it, the narrower wage
of the average farm-workman leaves far less margin for that
I voluntary taxation by means of the gin-palace, to which, in too
I many cases, it may be feared, the more highly-paid artisan
j subjects himself.

It is not easy to fix the average payment the labourer will
make. The articles on which he pays are few in number and
very irregularly consumed in different districts. A not unfair
sample of the English farm-labourer’s present taxation may,
however, be gathered from the following Table, in which a
common average is struck of the consumption of taxed com-
modities by ten labourers’ families in Yorkshire, Essex, and
Hampshire. The figures are abstracted from Returns given in
Mr. Dudley Baxter’s book on taxation ; and I have selected (as
these Returns were furnished ten years ago) only those based
on the higher scale of earnings, as tallying more readily with
present circumstances. Each household, it should be said,
enjoyed 43/. 6s. 8J. of average yearly earnings, and consisted of
a mean number of persons.

VOL. XIV. — S. S. ‘ 2 F

400 = 154 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Taxed Articles
Consumed.

Average
Consumption
per Family
per Annum.

Rate of Tax.

Total Taxes.

s. d.

£ S. d.

Tea

14 lbs.

0 6

0 7 0

Beer

40 galls.

0 2

0 6 8 1

Tobacco ..

51 lbs.

3 3

0 17 0

Total family taxation

1 10 8

Spirits in no case appears as a sufficiently large item in these
returns materially to affect the calculation, and coffee has too
limited a consumption to be included in it. These figures show
an average burden of no more than 3 J per cent, expended by the
rural labourer in taxes on consumption, and practically these
taxes alone affect him. This payment is only one-half of that
attributed to the wage-earning classes generally, and no more
than bs. bd. per head per annum. It is here worthy of note, that
when Mr. Baxter wrote, the average charge upon these families
exceeded 27. each. A reduction of one-fourth of their total
taxation has thus apparently been effected in the last ten years
by the abolition of duties then existing, especially that on sugar.

It may be interesting to contrast with this estimate one show-
ing the ordinary taxes on consumption paid by urban workmen.
Based, like the above statement, on some of the data of Mr.
Baxter’s returns, the following figures represent an average of the
expenditure on taxed commodities by eleven families in York-
shire, and in the north, south, and east of London, the trades
pursued being those of carpenters, shoemakers, ironworkers, &c.,
the numbers in family about equal to those already given, and
the average family income 687. —

Taxed Articles
Consumed.

Average
Consumption
per Family.

Rate of Tax..

Total Taxes.

Tea

19 lbs.

Coffee

7 lbs.

Tobacco ..

lbs.

Beer

86 galls.

Spirits . .

IJ gall.

Total family taxation

Taxation as affecting the Agi'icultaral Interest. 401 = 135

The average of consumption is here, it will be seen, a strictly
temperate one, and does not reach anything like the level to
which intemperate outlay raises the whole class ; nevertheless
it illustrates the
taxes.

relative lightness of the agricultural labourers’

Turning: now to ag:riculturists of a

higher

jrade, it will be Taxation of tiie

asked. How does their taxation compare with that of their fellow-

? X lUiclulG ClJlSSGS

citizens who enjoy parallel ineomes? There is, I believe, no of agri-
good reason as regards taxes on individual outlay to draw any culturists.
marked distinction between the expenditure on taxed com-
modities defrayed out of the agricultural, tjie trading, or the pro-
fessional incomes of the upper and middle classes. The peer,
with a rent-roll of 10,000/. a year, and the commercial magnate
of equal wealth, may not on the average, in spite of special
divergences, contribute on their establishment- and household-
outlays very unequally to the Exchequer. The humbler trades-
man and the tenant-farmer, just earning 150/. a year, will pro-
bably find but little diversity in the extent of their yearly use of
tea or of coffee, of tobacco, of wine or of spirits. There would
thus appear little room to doubt that agricultural incomes share
equally with all others of the middle and upper class in the
imperial taxes on consumption.

This practical equality has, it is true, been challenged in one
particular by an asserted predominance in the agricultural con-
sumption of a beverage which is the subject of special taxation.

Before a Select Committee of the House of Lords in 1846, and
again in the ‘Reasons for a Repeal of the Malt-Tax,’ submitted
by a deputation from the Central Chamber of Agriculture in
1870, it was urged that the necessities of their business make
farmers much larger users of beer than other employers, and
therefore special sufferers by a tax which artificially augments
the cost of the beer used on the farm to the extent of 6f/. or
Id. per acre. The evidence on this point is, however, hardly
conclusive enough to necessitate a definite augmentation of
the agricultural share of taxes on consumption in excess of the
general ratio above determined.

Although the discussion of fiscal consequences more remote Malt tax.
than the special object of each tax lies usually beyond the scope
of this Memoir, it is impossible to overlook other controversies
— loud enough to have repeatedly secured the ear of Parliament
— which have arisen on this question of the malt tax. Although
aimed at the consumer of beer, the tax is levied by a duty of
2s. 8^t/. per bushel on the malt on which that beverage is
founded. Complaints have thus arisen that one of the chief of
English farm crops is taxed in the first stage of its manufacture,
that the price of lower-class barleys is artificially depreciated,

2 F 2

Agricultural
share of taxes
on expenditure.

Agricultural
share of taxes
on property or
income.

402 = 136 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

that certain courses of cropping are interfered with,, and that
fiscal restrictions impede the use of a valuable digestive addition
to the ordinary food of stock. In reply to such arguments,
it has been suggested that barley may possibly owe some-
thing of its high value and profitable character to the legislative
restraint which deters the brewer from employing ingredients
elsewhere successfully resorted to ; it is asserted that whatever
be the theoretical offence of a tax levied in this way, the pro-
ducer is not the real sufferer ; while to any change of incidence
is opposed the difficulty of giving isolated consideration to an
impost so intimately ^related to the whole system of alcoholic
taxes. Either a wider acceptance of some of these views, or,
still more probably, the high prices lately enjoyed by barley-
growers, and the well-founded dread of tampering with one of
the few remaining taxes which lay the powerful classes of con-
sumers under equitable tribute to the National Exchequer,
have of late years deprived of their former vigour the com-
plaints of agriculturists in this particular.

If, then, it be acknowledged that, as regards articles of
ordinary consumption, the agricultural classes are taxed on a
scale not greatly varying from that of other persons, much the
same answer must be returned as to the average incidence
of the other imperial taxes on personal expenditure. The
relatively small sum paid on farm-houses as inhabited house
duty, not exceeding 19,000/., is probably in part, at least, due to
their value so frequently falling below the limit of the tax, and
to their being charged as trade premises. Nominally occur-
ring, however, among taxes on outlay, the exceptionally large
share of local rates borne by farm occupiers demands attention.
Assuming, as has here been done, that one-fourth of the rates
levied on land rental is a payment coming out of the tenant’s
pocket, we are confronted with 2,000,000/. of special and
peculiar taxes, whose incidence has been frequently a subject of
complaint. Beyond contrasting the charge of 6 per cent, on his
income thus falling on the farmer, with the average of the less
than per cent, imposed on house occupiers of the upper and
middle classes generally, it may be well to defer a closer inquiry
into these local charges to a later stage of this Paper.*

The position of upper and middle class agricultural incomes
in reference to direct charges is the next point of inquiry. The
Table subjoined shows the shares of each of these imposts,
which a careful inquiry indicates as falling collectively on the
owners and occupiers of British farms.

* See p. 153.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 403 = 157

Taxes on Property or Income.

Amount falling
on Upper and
Middle Class
Incomes generally.

Share of Tax
specially affecting
Agricultural
Incomes.

Legacy, Succession, and Probate Duties, iii-'l
eluding court fees /

6,000,000

900,000

Stamps on Deeds

2,100,000

000,000

Land Tax

1,100,000

825,000

Income Tax (1) ou income from cai)ital

3,000,000

855,000)

Ditto (2) on earnings

1,700,000

135, 000 i

Eailway Duty

700,000

Total Imperial Taxes

1.7,200,000

3,315,000

Add Local Bates, owners’ share . .

10.950,000

0,000,000

Total

32,150,000

9,315,000

If these figures be accepted it would appear that, with the
' widest differences in details, the common average pressure of
, this section of taxes on the 580,000,000/. which make up the
I whole series of incomes enjoyed by the upper and middle classes
I is per cent. These incomes spring, however, from the most
varied and diverse sources. The ownership or the farming of
' land, the possession of house property, the interest of personal
! wealth or capital, the business of the merchant, tradesman, or
manufacturer, as well as the earnings of professional and salaried
persons, all help to swell the total, and between each sort of
I income great divergence of burden may on investigation be found
' to exist.

I Only the first two of these series of incomes can be reckoned
j “ agricultural,” and upon these exclusively falls the 9,315,000/.

shown in the right-hand column of the Table. Now, these
I agricultural incomes together make up just 100,000,000/. ; so
I that a burden of more than 9^ per cent., or nearly twice as
much as the collective average on all sorts of income belonging
to the middle and upper order of society, is charged on the
agricultural class in the shape of direct taxes on property or
income.

404= 13S Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Probate,
legacy, ami
succession
duties.

CHAPTEE III.

Imperial Direct Taxes,

A BETTER insight into the character of the special taxes last men-
tioned, and a truer appreciation of the chief burdens that affect
the British agriculturist will be gained by looking at each
impost in detail, when it will be noticed that every effort has
been made to avoid overstatement in the quotas credited to the
agricultural classes.

The group of duties falling on transmission of real and personal
estate at death make up the largest item of the imperial taxes
here enumerated. On the capital of owners of land there will fall
of these charges — the share of the succession duty borne by land
as distinguished from houses or other real property,, together with
a minor quota both of the prohate duty chargeable on leasehold
estates and of legacy duty on lands devised for sale. Assuming
that rather less than half of the succession duty (which is taken
at 830,000Z.) will fairly represent the ratio borne by land per se
to the other real property of the country, a sum of 400,000Z.
is allotted as agricultural under this head, to which must
be added at the most modest computation (as those familiar
with the question will admit) at least 100,000/. more on account
of the leaseholds and devises above referred to. But there is
yet to be added the share of these duties to which the capital
of the agricultural tenant is subject. Bearing in mind the
extra severity of the probate duty on the smaller personal estates
usually possessed by farmers, no estimate of the burden thus
entailed can take the average combined pressure of probate and
legacy duties on so much of the tenants’ income as represents
the interest on his invested capital at less than 3 per cent.
His share of this tax cannot therefore well be placed below
400,000/. When the very different magnitudes of landowners’
and farmers’ capital are remembered, these figures incidentally
illustrate the often-quoted excess of pressure exercised by what
are called “ Death duties ” on personal as distinguished from
real property — a statement truthful in itself, but one which,
owing to a remarkable narrowness of fiscal view, has been
occasionally supposed to prove the lighter general taxation of
real estates. As a matter of fact, however, whatever financial
favour is in this one aspect showed to realty is very much more
than counterbalanced by another series of exceptional and heavy
taxes.

In the case of the next tax dealt with, “ Stamps on Deeds,”
I have taken a somewhat smaller share than was allowed in

Stamps.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 405 = 139

1869, in statistics furnished by the Inland Revenue Depart-
ment, or in those adopted by Mr. Goschen in his recent Report.

In the former case the whole, and in the latter instance three-
fourths, of this item was reckoned to fall on real estate. Be-
lieving that not more than two-thirds so falls, I have taken
600,000Z., which is less than one-half of this reduced quota, as
fairly representing the share likely to be contributed to the
revenue in the form of stamps on such deeds as are connected
with the transfer and management of landed property.

The so-called Land Tax was, strange to say, by no means in LunJ Tax.
its origin or intent a special impost on the soil, as its present
name might appear to imply. The legitimate successor of one
of the oldest of our taxes — the “ subsidy” usually voted by our
Parliaments up to the middle of the seventeenth century — the land
tax, was meant to be what we now call a general income or pro-
perty tax. In its present shape it took its rise from the assess-
ments of the financiers of the Long Parliament, who, during
the altered social circumstances of the Commonwealth, dis-
covered the inadequacy of earlier methods of providing for the
cost of Government. When in the reign of Charles II. a variety
of excise duties increased the indirect fiscal liabilities of the
whole community, so-called “ aids,” or direct charges on realized
estates, accompanied them. After the Revolution of 1688, still
larger revenues were needed, and a more systematic organisation
of these direct charges being attempted, the present tax was
foi'mally established. It, however, referred not to land alone,
but to all known and notable sources of wealth, and, curiously
enough, the earlier statutes lay more stress on the taxation of
personal than real estate.* The first Land Tax Act, passed in
1692, set out by enacting, “ That every person, body politic
and corporate, having any estate in ready monies, or in any
debts owing to them, or having any estate in goods, wares,
merchandise, or other chattels, or personal estate whatsoever
within this realm or without, shall yield and pay unto their
Majesties four shillings in the pound according to the true
yearly value thereof; that is to say, for every hundred pounds
of such ready money and debts, and for every hundred pounds
worth of such goods, wares. Sec., or other personal estate, the sum
of four-and-twenty shillings.” | It then imposes a further duty
of 4s. in the pound on offices or employments of profit, and
only in closing stipulates for a supplementary charge on land
rental in these tprms : — “ And to the end a further aid and

* See 13tli Eeport of the Inland Revenue Commissioners, 1870.

t It sliould be explained that G per cent, being at tliis time the legal interest
of money, an annual charge of 24s. per lOOL of capital was equivalent to a tax
of 4s. on each poiuul of yearly interest.

406= 140 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

supply for their Majesties occasions may be raised by a charge
upon all lands, tenements, and hereditaments, 6cc., be it enacted
that all manors, messuages, lands and tenements, and all quar-
ries, mines, tithes, tolls, &c., and all hereditaments, of what-
soever nature they be, shall be charged with the sum of four
shillings for every twenty shillings of the full yearly value.”

Although minute rules were laid down for the “ better dis-
covery of personal estates,” and although these reappeared in the
Acts of 1697, fixing the quota to be levied, and even in 1797,
a century later, these efforts seem practically to have failed,
and while the share of the tax on land was retained, personal
estates were, in 1833, formally exempted. When, either acci-
dentally or through carelessness in the more difficult task of
local assessment, the produce of personal estate under the Land
Tax Act had been reduced to nearly nothing, Mr. Pitt, in 1798,
made the burden perpetual at the quotas for each district fixed
on the valuation of the previous century. He gave at the same
time a power of redemption, which was so largely acted upon,
that in that year and the next 436,000/., or more than one-
fourth of the tax, was finally redeemed. Since that date redemp-
tion has proceeded more slowly, the total thus wiped out being
now 826,000/.

The amount levied as land-tax in Great Britain (for Ireland
is exempt) is now 1,100,000/., and I have taken three-fourths of
this as actually falling on land rather than houses, that being
something like the ratio which held good between these sections
of real property, when the tax was stereotyped at the beginning of
this century.

The distribution of the tax is of the most curiously irregular
character. Not only is there great discrepancy between the
relative values of different districts now and in the seventeenth
century, but other strangely disturbing features attended the
earlier assessment when the local returns are said to have varied
in their magnitude according to the loyalty of particular areas
to the reigning Sovereign. This may partly explain the very
light quota paid by Scotland. By far the heavier weight falls
on the agricultural counties. A few years ago the rate of charge
in Bedford, Berkshire, or Wilts exceeded 3 per cent., while in
the populous areas of Lancashire, Durham, or Yorkshire it fell
below 1 per cent., and in individual instances the anomalies of
its incidence are very much more glaring. It must not be over-
looked that, although the 825,000/. I have allotted to land proper
may be the measure of the special payment exacted yearly, the
landowners might in fairness claim to have added to the burden
thus imposed a similar share (three-fourths) of the annual value
of the land-tax redeemed. To effect this redemption, capital has

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 407 = 141

been sunk, the interest of which thus yearly lost would be equi-
valent to another tax of 620,000/. per annum, for which I have
not here taken credit.

Greater interest centres in the code of imposts, collectively Income-tas.
known as the “ Property and Income-tax'' Introduced by Mr.

Pitt in 1803 and discontinued in 1816, the income-tax was
revived by Sir Robert Peel in 1843 to repair a chronic deficit
and provide the means of largely reducing indirect taxes. Since
that time it has formed a conspicuous element of our financial
system. Although, unlike the last impost, this tax now extends
to Ireland, it should be borne in mind that its pressure on that
division of the United Kingdom is not equally severe with that
elsewhere, since the land rental of Ireland is now assessed under
a somewhat inadequate valuation. Including this assessment,
however, the gross annual value of the land of the country is
placed at 67,000,000/. But from this figure must be deducted
all properties wholly exempted as being under 150/. a year, or
so far as by recent legislation they enjoy abatement to the
extent of 120/. a year where below 400/. A considerable
number of minor landed incomes, thus probably escape con-
tribution ; while a tax of 3(/. in the pound on the remainder
brings in 790,000/.

As regards all but the smallest owners, the income-tax is, of Pressure of
course, virtually a second and more uniform land-tax. Although °°

charged at the same poundage rate as other assessed incomes, it
has yet been shown by Mr. Gladstone, in his great Budget speech
of 1853, that this nominal equality of rate must not be as-
sumed too readily to mean an identity of burden. Thus, under
Schedule A of the tax, all the rent of every inch of land in the
country, less some very strictly limited deductions,* appears in the
gross assessment. Under Schedule D, however, through which
trades and professions pay, a very different practice holds good.

The return of profits is here self-assessed, and large amounts,
we are officially told, thus escape the proverbial vigilance of tax
surveyors. Mr. Gladstone, in the speech referred to, gave one
instance where twenty-eight persons, whose voluntary assessment
for income-tax under this schedule showed only 9000/. of annual
profits, at the same time claimed compensation for disturbance
of their business premises on the scale of an annual profit of
48,000/. a year, and were actually awarded compensation by a
competent jury at the rate of 27,000/. a year, or three times

* One, it should be noted, is the land-tax, on the amount of which an owner is
of course, not properly chargeable. Except north of the Tweed, probably not
more than one-half, however, of the landlords appear to take the trouble to claim
and secure this small allowance.

AOS =142 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Assessment of
the tenant to
income-tax.

their tax assessment. The Inland Revenue Commissioners, in
1868, formally estimated the gross amount of income thus fraud-
ulently withheld from assessment under Schedule D at no less
than 57,000,000Z. a year — a sum not far short of the whole land
rental of the kingdom. Although I have allowed, in estimating
the gross income of the middle and upper classes, for some mar-
gin of unreturned profits, as well as for incomes not reaching the
limit of the tax, I have not ventured to assume that quite so great
a fraud as this is still committed, since the lower duty of recent
years is known to have exercised a healthy and bracing effect on
the public conscience. Still it remains undoubted that nothing
like the same precision of assessment can be applied to trading
as to landed incomes. Instances of reckless overcharge may
exist, or special business considerations may occasionally induce
acquiescence in too highly-scaled assessments, but, on the whole,
there is little room for doubt that 3fZ. in the pound on easily
ascertained income from land is a much heavier tax than 2>d. in
the pound on the produce of voluntary trade assessments ; and, in
point of fact, this excess of pressure has been justihed as giving
indirect effect to the opinions of some economists that higher
rates should be charged on landed than on other incomes.

But the inequality does not end here. Trade incomes are
calculated with full deduction of the average repairs of all pre-
mises, implements, and utensils employed in business, for bad
and even doubtful debts, for parochial rates, for wages, clerks,
shopmen, or assistants, for stationery and the other petty outlays.
The landowner has no such allowances. Speaking collectively
of both house and land rentals, Mr. Gladstone, on the occasion
before referred to, lent his high authority for the statement that
quite 16 per cent, should be deducted from the nominal figures
of Schedule A to ascertain the net income which actually paid
the tax. Although treating now of land alone, it can therefore
be no extreme estimate to put at some 8 or 10 per cent, the margin
of outlay incurred for repairs, management, arrears, and so forth,
and yet taxed as if it were net income received.

The manner of assessing the tenant-farmer to income-tax
differs in another way from the ordinary practice. Schedule B,
which deals with him, takes the gross rent of land, including the
tithe-owner’s as well as the landowner’s share of rental, one-
eighth deduction being allowed from this figure, which is further
subject to the general exemptions and abatements that define
the limit of the tax. These very materially reduce its scope
and incidence. In England 38 per cent., in Scotland 44 per
cent., and in Ireland no less than 70 per cent, of the gross rental
thus escapes chargeability. The tenant is moreover charged
not the full rate of the tax borne under other schedules, but a

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 409 = 143

lower one, calculated on the theory that the farmer’s profits are
in England equal to one-half, and in Scotland and Ireland to
one-third only of his rent, an assumption not always realised in
late years, but apparently, as has been already shown, not very
far removed from a fairly accurate average. Should his profits
actually fall below this assumed proportion, a right of relief is
secured to the farmer where this can be shown by his books.
But either the too usual absence of methodical book-keeping, or,
as is sometimes said, the difficulties attending the date fixed for
this appeal, prevent much resort to this provision. The net
produce of this schedule is now 200,000/. a year, a tax which
must be viewed as borne solely by the larger grade of farm
occupiers.

CHAPTEE IV.

Local Taxes.

There now remains but the agriculturally incident share of Local rates,
the local rates to be considered. These, for a general review,
must first be regarded irrespective of the assumed division of
the ultimate incidence between the owners and occupiers of rated
property. So far as England by itself is concerned, we now
possess tolerably clear statistics of local finance which, though
not yet complete in all points, enable a fairly close estimate of
the distribution of the several local rates to be thus attempted :

Rate.

Levied iu

Total.

The

Metropolis.

The Urban
Districts.

The Dural
Districts.

Poor Rate (proper)

1,500,000

2,800,000

3,300,000

7,600,000

Highway Rate

400,000

1,. 500, 000

1,900,000

County Borough and Police'l
Rates /

800,000

1,400,000

3,600,000

Sanitary and other Im-'i
provemeut Rates . . . . /

1,900,000

0,400,000

400,000

8,700,000

Education Rates

400,000

300,000

200,000

900,000

4,000,000

11,300,000

6,800,000

22,700,000

Now it is not of course the whole sum levied even in strictly Share of the
rural districts which falls exclusively on agricultural land. A
still further analysis is required to get even approximately at this

410= 144 Taxation as affecting the Agi'iciiltural Interest.

Poor-rate.

share. After, however, taking sample cases from all parts of
the country, I am confident no great error will be committed
by assuming that 80 per cent, of the rateable value, and therefore
80 per cent, of the rates of these areas will be found to fall on
land apart from houses and other property. To these, however,
must be added a small though a certain share of the urban rates.
The large acreage of land included in many English urban
sanitary districts — and even in occasional boroughs — forbids me
to estimate this share at less than 5 per cent. If these data
be accepted, the rates falling on land alone appear to be in
England, —

£/

(1.) In the metropolis . . . practically 7iil.

(2.) In the urban districts, 5 per cent. 560,000
(3.) In the country 80 per cent. . 5,400,000

Total . £6,000,000

To this must be added for

The share of rates on land in Scotland 600,000
The share of rates on land in Ireland 1,400,000

Total on land in United Kingdom . £8,000,000 *

These local rates present a body of taxes important in their
amount and peculiar in their incidence. Assuming that the rate-
able value of land bears now the same percentage to its income-
tax assessment as in 1870, the net rental on which this quota of
the rates is levied is no more than 57,000,000/. a year, so that
were they uniform over the whole United Kingdom, they would
alone represent a tax of no less than 14 per cent, on this valuation.

These local rates are, however, very far from uniform in their
pressure. Although there may be a certain minimum every-
where levied, they are wholly local in their origin, adminis-
tration, and incidence. The agricultural incomes of one county
union, or parish, do not, therefore, necessarily bear the same
burden as those of another. The chief rates deserve notice in
greater detail, although the absence of full information from
other divisions of the United Kingdom restricts attention chiefly
to those levied in England alone.

The English Poor-rate, a special tax levied for the relief of
destitution, is the most important of all the local burdens which
affect agricultural districts. Although no formal enactment, as
in Prussia, Denmark, or Sweden, confers on English paupers

* Thrcc-foui fhs of this sum, being the assumed share of rates on land borne by
the owners, will be remembered to have been entered among the direct charges on
agricultural income at p. 137.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 411 = i 45

a right to relief which he can legally enforce, a more or less
qualified obligation on certain authorities to relieve the destitute
has so long existed, as to lead, in practice, to the usual assumption
that the pauper has to be maintained at the public cost.

Very early in our history, stringent laws against vagrancy and its origin,
begging were passed, and attempts were made to regulate the
charity of individuals. Social changes, and the dissolution of
the monasteries in the sixteenth century, led to more systematic
but unsuccessful efforts to stimulate and organise voluntary aid
to the poor by means of alms collected more or less directly under
ecclesiastical sanction. Finally, in statutes of the reigns of
Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Queen Elizabeth, we find the
germ of our modern Poor Law system ; while an Act passed in
1601, in the 43rd year of the latter reign, finally established the
parochial tax, now familiar as the Poor-rate. This rate was
imposed by law on every inhabitant, parson, and other and every
occupier of lands, houses, and certain named sorts of fixed pro-
perty. Although intended to sweep up what it termed the whole
“ ability of the parish,” the taxation of stock-in-trade and personal
property which the Act required, but which must always have
been attended with great difficulty, and which was in early times
of very secondary importance, was gradually dropped in practice,
and is now annually suspended by a special exemption Act. The
Poor-rate thus became — in spite of the apparent belief of its
framers that they could tax the occupiers of lands or houses with-
out affecting these properties themselves — a direct and heavy
impost on the several hereditaments which were incidentally
named in the statute, and which seem to have been specifically
indicated more as measures of ability than as the objects of a tax.

The dimensions of this rate were not, however, great until the its fluctua-
close of the eighteenth century, when a lavish distribution of out- tions.
door relief arose, and an extensive employment of the tax in
supplementing the scale of wages (necessitated by a period of war
and high prices throughout the country), quadrupled the tax in
the lifetime of a single generation, and involved the levy of a
Poor-rate of more than 9,000,000Z. in the year 1818. Although
lower totals subsequently prevailed, the pernicious consequences
of mal-administration entailed a very oppressive burden on the
ratepayers, both agricultural and urban ; and the Report of the
Poor Law Commissioners of 1833 revealed a state of matters in
which this tax, which in the previous century had showed an
average of but 2s. per head on the population, was then in some
districts 30s. and ev'en 40s. a head, and threatened to swallow
up the whole rental of property.

This Report secured the great Poor Law Reform of 1834,
which in three years reduced the rate by 36 per cent., and

412 = 146 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

supplied a better system. For Poor Law purposes the country
was then mapped out into 650 unions or gi’oups of the parishes
which formed the older area of this as of other functions of
local government. The districts so formed are usually unique
in their area, and non-coincident with either county, municipal,
or other boundaries ; their limits being generally determined by
the locality of the several workhouses, the use of which was a
prominent feature of the reformed system.

Its purposes. The primary object of this rate is the relief of destitution,
but to this obligation legislation has added duties more or
less closely kindred, among which are to be noticed the cost
of providing exceptional treatment for lunatic paupers ; the
cost of locally registering births, deaths, and marriages ; the
costs of public vaccination ; the costs of local assessment, and
those incident to the preparation of jury lists and the registra-
tion of Parliamentary electors.

A variety of other local rates are also now collected with and
under the general name of Poor-rate, but the above items are
the chief matters properly so regarded and administered by
Boards of Guardians — bodies partly elective from the rate-
payers on a scale of graded voting, and partly formed of
resident local magistrates.

Perhaps the best notion of the apportionment of the whole
7,600,000/. of the Poor-rate (proper), and especially of the share
of each of its objects borne by agricultural incomes, may be got
from the following statement, which is based on the actual figures
given for the metropolis, and on the ratios between urban and
rural areas already adopted in the calculations I have submitted.

Agricultural
share of the
poor-rate.

Number of Paupers.

Expenditure out of Poor Rate Proper.

In the
Work-
house.

Out-door.

Total.

Areas.

Mainte-
nance in
Workhouse.

Out-door

Relief.

Mainte-
nance of
Lunatics.

Other

Outlays.

Total.

40,000

59,000

99,000

(1) Metropolis

464,000

245,000

183,000

608,000

1,500,000

103,000

547,000

650,000

j(2) England (ex-1
< eluding the Me-J.
( tropolis) . . . . )

1,070,000

2,516,000

700,000

1,814,000

6,100,000

143,000

60C,000

749,000

(3) All England . .

1,534,000

2,761,000

883,000

2,422,000

7,600,000

47,000

252,000

299,000

1(4) Urban Districts,!
< being 46 per cent. >
( of(2) (

492,000

1,157,000

322,000

834,000

2,805,000

56,000

295,000

351,000

1(5) Rural Districts,!
< being 54 per cent.)
( of (2) )

578,000

1,359,000

378,000

980,000

3,295,000

47,000

249,000

296,000

f(6) “Land” only,!
1 being 80 per cent. I
1 of (5), and 5 perl
1 cent, of (4).. ..j

486,000

1,145,000

319,000

826,000

2,776,000

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 413= 147

Thus it will be seen that two-fifths of the agricultural share of
this particular rate is expended in out-door relief distributed
among upwards of a quarter of a million paupers. A little more
than a fourth goes to maintain in workhouses and asylums a
smaller contingent of the pauper army, while the remainder is
either absorbed in providing the necessary buildings, staff, and
accessories incident to a system of poor relief, or devoted to
other matters which, for the sake of convenience, are administered
by Poor Law authorities.

The average poundage rate throughout all England, is now
returned as Is. 2|c?. Though this is a lower point than has
sometimes prevailed, its value as an index of burden is but little,
owing to the shifting which has taken place in the standard of
assessment, which is now a closer approximation to the full
value than at any previous period. Thanks, however, to im-
proved administration and the recent prosperity of the working
classes, there is no question that a welcome reduction has of late ,

been effected in the numbers of English paupers, who now form
only 3 per cent, of the population against 5 per cent, thirteen
years ago ; while the total charge imposed by the system of
relief, which eight years ago equalled a poll tax of 7s. on each
head of the population, has now sunk to 6s. a head.

The pressure of the Poor-rate varies, however, greatly in dif- Local distri-
ferent localities, and is peculiarly amenable to reduction by careful bution of the
administration. A very marked contrast is presented between
the northern and north-western section of the country and the
eastern, south midland, and southern counties; On the one hand
we see the average outlay for relief in Durham or Lancashire
to be less than 4s. 3tZ. per head of the population ; while, on
the other hand, in Wiltshire 9s. Id. per head will be expended,
in Cambridgeshire 8s. lOt/., and in Sussex 8s. %d. The dis-
tinctively agricultural districts usually show more pauperism
than the dense, busy, and wealthy centres of industry. Yet the
more northerly of our distinctly agricultural counties show that
heavy pauperism is no necessary characteristic of a country
population. Dorset, in the south, by placing one sixteenth of
her population on the pauper roll, spends 8s. 4d. a head of her
people in relief, and thereby subjects her land to a tax of Is. 9c?.
in the pound. Hereford, in the west, and Suffolk, in the east,
spend 7s. 5c?. and 6s. 11c?. per head, and thereby incur a tax of
Is. and Is. 4c?. in the pound respectively. In the north, on the
contrary, Westmoreland resorts to the Poor-rate for assistance
in the case of only one thirty-seventh part of her inhabitants,
and, spending but 4s. lOtZ. per head in relief, her rental escapes
with a tax of 8J<?. in the pound.

Individual instances of separate unions, selected as distinctly

414 = i45 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Highway-rates.

agricultural, tell the same tale. I have taken seven of these in
the counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Shropshire, Warwickshire,
Nottinghamshire, Gloucestershire, and Kent, where land alone
forms 86 per cent, of the rated rental, and there I find an average
Poor-rate of only 9jrf. in the pound. Yet, turning to the
counties of Norfolk, Essex, Northampton, Buckingham, Denbigh,
Devon, and Wilts, in seven apparently similar unions of nearly
equal area, and with 80 per cent, of land in their assessment,
the average Poor-rate is more than twice as high, or Is. l^d. in
the pound. Although, therefore, like the Land-tax, the Poor-
rate has become what in its original intent it never was meant
to be, a heavy and exceptional charge on one form of property,
and as such weights agriculture heavily in the general scale of
British taxation, it should not be forgotten that in one sense a
great part of its burden, as regards districts if not individuals,
holds something of that voluntary character which I have noticed
in our indirect and avoidable taxes. Its average rate on land of
some 6 per cent, may, by discreet administration of relief, be
reduced as low as 3 per cent., a result which would not only
afford a very important relief from taxation, but would secure
the great attendant advantage of a less pauperised and more
independent population.

The Highway-rates, or local charge for road-repair, represent
the old common law liability of each parish, by which it was
held responsible for its own highways. The duty of repairing
these was, in early times, enforced by statute on all the inhabitants ;
and as in the case of other ancient local taxes, personal as well
as real estate was, three hundred years ago, directed to be taken
into account in measuring individual contributions.* Not till
the reign of George Ill.t was the maintenance of all roads
charged exclusively on the occupiers of lands and houses in the
definite shape of a Highway-rate. The total amount now levied
for this purpose is little more than one-fifth of that required for
poor relief, but the average charge in different areas varies very
greatly with local circumstances, the proximity of good material
for road repair, and the skill and carefulness of the adminis-
tration. So far as they are levied in rural districts. Highway-
rates are of two sorts: (1) those administered by Boards acting
for districts formed of groups of parishes, in which case the rates
are collected along with the general Poor-rate ; and (2) those
still levied parochially under an older system. Co-existent with
these systems, for the past 100 years, has been another mode of
repairing certain main roads by means of tolls levied by Turn-
pike Trusts. These trusts are now, however, being rapidly

* See 18 Eliz. c. 10.

t See 7 Geo. III. c. 42.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 415= 149

permitted to expire, and considerable dissatisfaction is at the
present time expressed at the additional burden thrown upon
comparatively limited areas for the maintenance of thoroughfares
more or less usually devoted to other than local traffic, but no
longer kept up by special tolls levied on those who use them.

Under these circumstances a large increase of Highway-rate has
been experienced in certain parts of the country, still further
varying the agricultural aggregate of taxation beyond the more
common average.

Probably the oldest of English local imposts are the County- County-rates.
rates, with which are now included Police-rates. The share of
these taken as falling upon land, though diminished as in the
case of the metropolis — where a large area of purely urban
property pays County-rates — must still include urban contri-
butions, since many towns within county bounds either do not
possess or do not exercise all usual municipal functions. But,
on the other hand, municipal charges are not infrequently found
to fall on land lying within borough limits. Collected along
with the Poor-rates, the County-rates are administered by the
Justices in Quarter Sessions. The dimensions of these rates are,
however, very largely determined by the control of central au-
thorities— their chief objects being to defray the cost of criminal
justice, local gaols, constabulary, and lunatic asylums. Recent
legislation has recognised the imperial rather than local character
of these charges, and by State subventions the local ratepayers
have been relieved from part of the outlay thus incurred for the
public service, while by an Act of last Session the county prisons
have been wholly transferred to the Central Government, to be
managed on a uniform system and at the cost of the general
taxpayers of the country. These alterations have been due to
the admission by the Legislature of the peculiar pressure of
local rates for properly national purposes on both agricultural
and urban ratepayers. Further important changes are believed
to be now pending as regards the administration of county rates,
which, along with other county matters, it is proposed to entrust
to mixed boards of a more or less elective character.

Among Sanitary and Improvement-rates I have classed the Sanitary rales,
general charge on rural districts for Officers of Health and
Inspectors of Nuisances required by recent legislation, and the
special charges for sewerage, water-supply, and other local works
in separate parishes. To these I have added the taxes raised by
se^v er, drainage, and embankment authorities, for the purposes of
land protection and reclamation in such districts as the Fens,
where various works of this nature exist. The last, and, in some
respects, the immediately preceding varieties of these burdens
are, it may be said, not essentially taxes. They correspond,

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 G

416= 150 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Education-

rates.

Variations in
the systems o
local rating.

Scotch and
Irish rates.

however, with similar but much larger town imposts for the
specific advantage of rateable property, and being, at all events,
statutable applications of individual contributions for a public
purpose by public bodies, they cannot be wholly excluded from
a general survey. The extent of these taxes is relatively small ;
while the new Sanitary-rates, the administration of which is
entrusted in each union to the rural portion of the Boards of
Guardians, have as yet only begun to be felt in country
districts.

The Education-rates are also modern imposts. Dating only
from 1870, they are levied where School Boards are voluntarily
formed, or where they are enforced by the Central Government in
consequence of the failure otherwise to provide the local facilities
now required for elementary education. At the date of the last
Report from the Privy Council, 2346 of the 14,000 non-
municipal parishes of England were placed under these new
Boards and subjected to this new rate. Several of these areas
possess so much of an urban character that I have credited their
rates to town districts. The School Board-rate is thus neces-
sarily varied in its pressure, and confined to particular districts,
since the funds which in one locality are thus raised by a tax on
all ratepayers, are in others provided by voluntary subscriptions.
The average incidence of this rate in those rural areas where it
is levied exceeds the present amount of the imperial income-tax ;
and being charged on their full rentals, it represents to farmers
a wholly new tax of twice this magnitude. In upwards of sixty
cases, indeed, a tax of Is. in the pound, or 5 per cent, and up-
wards, on rental, has thus occurred, and considerable irritation is
consequently felt in agricultural districts at the large additional
taxation involved in the Education-rate.

Not only do the local taxes generally exercise a very heavy
pressure on British agriculture, but the mode also of their
imposition practically tends, especially in England, to discourage
the application of fresh capital to the cultivation of the soil, by
exposing to immediate assessment funds which, till they were
thus applied, bore only the much lighter fetters of imperial taxes.

The English valuation for local taxes does not, as is the case
in Scotland and Ireland, recognise any claim on the part of new
agricultural improvements to a postponement of the special
liabilities of older landed property. The provisional exemption
of agricultural enterprise, by which a Scotch farmer is secured
from higher assessment during the currency of his usual 21 years’
lease, and by which Irish agricultural improvements are also
viewed with fiscal favour, does not hold good south of the
Tweed.

Nor is this point the only one in which material differences

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 417 = 151

mark the mode of levying local taxes in the three divisions of
the United Kingdom. In England all are charged on and
collected from the occupier. In Scotland certain rates such as
County-rates are levied directly on the landowner ; while others
such as Poor and Education-rates are charged in moieties on the
landlord and the tenant. The latter practice prevails also to
some extent in Ireland.

In Scotland, too, for a much longer period than elsewhere,
attempts were made to continue the older liability of personal
as well as real property to the Poor-rate by assessing “ means
and substance ” as well as land rental to the tax. This practice
there, as elsewhere, encountered many difficulties, but it only
legally ceased seventeen years ago, and over about one-third of
the rateable area of that country an endeavour is still made to
mitigate the rigid inequality of a rate which, as regards occupiers,
measures their ability to pay solely by their rental. This prac-
tice, which, so far as it goes, is favourable to agriculturists, con-
sists in the imposition of a graded rather than an equal rate,
charging the rentals of dwelling-houses, offices, shops, and farms
at varied scales ; occupiers of land frequently paying only one-
third or one-fourth of the poundage rate levied on residential
premises. To a minor extent the principle here acknowledged
1 is, in the case of special works of a sanitary character, acted on in
' England, where land pays one-fourth of the rate charged upon
houses.

, CHAPTER V.

j Kelative Peessuee of Taxation.

Such varieties of systems as those last alluded to are, however. Relative
no more than exceptions to the ordinary rule that local taxes for Pressure of
the most part fall with uniform directness on the rentals of peHaftaxeT on
certain fixed sorts of property. Among these, lana is necessarily agricultural
conspicuous, and it thus appears that agriculturists are in conse- ‘“comes,
quence, more largely affected by taxes levied in local areas than
by those received into the national exchequer. This is at once
apparent if the conclusions already reached in this inquiry be
; recalled to mind, and the several percentages of charge on purely
' j agricultural and on upper and middle-class incomes generally be
. I contrasted. Following the general classification of taxes before
> ' resorted to, the pressure of the several forms of taxation may be
thus grouped : —

2 G 2

418 = 152 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

Varied origins
of the incomes
here'contrasted
with those of
agriculturists
to be taken
into account.

On all Upper
and Middle
Class Incomes
collectively.

On purely
Agricultural
Incomes.

I. Taxes on Property or Income.

(1) Imperial taxes, average

2J per cent.

3J per cent.

(2) Local taxes (owner's share of rates), average

6 „

II. Taxes on Expenditure.

(1) Imperial taxes on consumption, average

2f „

(2) Imperial taxes on other outlays, average

n „

(3) Local indirect taxes, and occupier’s share oH

rates, average /

Total taxation

lu „

15f „

While therefore the incomes of the whole upper and middle
classes of society bear an average burden of per cent, of im-
perial, and 5 per cent, of local taxes, those of agriculturists pay
per cent, of the former, and as much as per cent, of the
latter imposts.

But though these are the general results of the calculated
share of each set of taxes, certain qualifying considerations still
demand attention. A knowledge of the average taxation of the
whole series of upper and middle-class incomes requires to be
supplemented by some acquaintance with the very varied inci-
dence, especially of local taxes, on the several distinctive forms of
income of which the collective total is made up. But for the
extent to which some of these participate in certain of the fiscal
liabilities of agricultural incomes, a much wider contrast than
that just given would be apparent. The incomes grouped
together in the first column of the Table come from separate
and distinct sources. One-third of the whole is derived from
salaries, or personal earnings ; one-fourth is furnished by the
interest of invested capital ; agriculture itself furnishes one-
sixth of the total ; a precisely similar quota springs from the
rental of house property ; while the remainder, or about one-
tenth part of the whole, represents the net revenue of railway,
canal, mining, and other rated properties. Out of all these
forms of income is paid so much of the local rates as is deemed
to fall upon the occupiers of dwelling-houses, while on one
fraction of the joint agricultural income must fall the share of
rates assigned to the occupiers of land. The remaining, or land-
owners’ section of the agricultural income, that of the house-
owner, of the holder of railway, canal, or other rated property,
form together about five-twelfths of the whole upper and middle-
class revenue, and this section bears exclusively the incidence of
the owners’ share of local rates.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 419 = 155

The mode in which this incidence affects these owners is, how- Peculiarities of
ever, exceptional. These rates are no payment by them out of late-inddence.
net income already received. They are deductions from revenue
which, but for the rates, would be receivable by the owners, so
that the accurate measure of their pressure is a slightly lower
percentage than would appear if it were calculated on the net
rental which reaches the landlord’s pocket.

From the total of the rates, officially returned as such, I believe
it is also necessary, when we come to discriminate thus closely
into the question of relative burden, to eliminate, as not posses-
sing a thoroughly fiscal character, such rates on land as those
required for drainage and embankment, and such rates on houses
as are mere payments for commodities, like gas or water, or
which are avowedly investments for the private or peculiar
benefit of rated properties.

Reducing, therefore, the gross percentage by both of the two
last considerations, a careful analysis of the items of what I have
called owner’s rates will show that the percentage by which they
reduce the landlord’s agricultural income is 8 per cent., that on
the house-owner’s income it is 6^ per cent., and that on the
average holders of railway and other specially-rated incomes it
is 3j per cent. Adopting, therefore, the ratios thus slightly Relative total
reduced, I will try roughly to present in a tabular form * a closer taxation of
analysis of the relative fiscal position of agricultural incomes
With those of each of the several sections into which upper- and
middle-class revenues may be divided.

Since, however, it is desired not only to show the probable
charges borne by both partners on the collective revenues of the
agricultural firm, but to discriminate between the apparent shares
of the land-owner and the land-occupier in all these burdens, I
attempt also to supply separate estimates of their relative taxes.

It is often argued that, whatever may be the case in regard to
houses, and the partial incidence of the town-rates on their
occupiers, political economy forbids us to regard a rate on land
as ultimately incident elsewhere than on the owner of the soil.

A regard, however, to the primary pressure inseparable from
the modern increment of rates, a remembrance of the friction
and frequent absence of exhaustively rigid bargaining between
landlord and tenant, as well as the undoubted difficulty which
the farmer, whose capital is attached ever so lightly to the soil,
must feel in removing it, with every 'change of local burden,
have all led me to follow in this matter the opinions which have
been repeatedly given on good authority, and which credit an
average of one-fourth of the rates on land to the occupier, and

** See p. 155.

The Landlord’s
taxation.

The farmer’s
taxation.

420= 154 Taxation as affectimj the Agricultural Interest.

three-fourths to the owner of the farm. These proportions have
been adopted in the preceding Tables, and are assumed in that
given on the opposite page, where I have selected as the uniform
income for typical comparison a yearly revenue of 399Z., a point
where, in consequence of the otherwise heavy pressure of middle-
class taxation, a special abatement of 120Z. has been lately
accorded in the case of income-tax.

Such a Table as this necessarily offers but a very rough and
general view of relative taxation. Were it extended to incomes
of other dimensions, many further varieties would appear ; and
with larger revenues the percentage of indirect taxation would
be materially lessened. If, however, the picture now presented
be even approximately correct, the British agriculturist must be
acknowledged to bear a very considerable share of the taxation
of his country.

The landowner, even when he takes into consideration both
the stamp-duties attending the transfer of his property during
life and the relatively lighter ratio of his duties on succession,
will still find himself paying in one respect on a lower scale
than the capitalist of equal income, whose investments are in
Bank Stock or in the Funds ; but he will place against this item
the extra, if somewhat irregular, liability of the land-tax charge-
able on his acres, and the large sum diverted from his rental to
the public service in the shape of local rates. By these the
balance is much more than redressed, his yearly taxes doubled,
and more than 16 in place of little over 8 per cent, of his income
is thus spent for him by the kindly intervention either of central
or of local government authority.

It may not be without interest in connection with the con-
trasts here drawn, to go one step further, and, in the case of the
second agricultural tax-payers in this Table, to point out in
detail in what form his several taxes may be actually contri-
buted. Such a tenant-farmer as that referred to in column 2
may farm 600 acres, for which he will pay in rent and tithes
798Z. a year, while he employs 5000Z. of capital in his business.

He may be supposed first to encounter the requirements of the
State when, on succeeding to this sum, he pi'oves his father’s
will, and pays down a probate duty of lOOZ., and a legacy duty
of 50Z. ; payments which, if regarded as spread over the probable
thirty years of his tenancy, gives the first item of 5Z. per annum.

His income-tax is a lighter burden. From his gross rent
one-eighth is first of all deducted for tithes elsewhere charge-
able, and his profits being assumed to be half his rent, he is
then charged at 14fZ. in place of 3rf. in the pound. Since, how-
ever, by this assumption he is allotted an income just under
400Z. a year, he has a further abatement allowed in the shape of

Eelative Taxes paid by separate Incomes of 39 9Z. a-year, from the undermentioned Sources.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 421 =

a -I s

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o c o •-

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mIm

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fa s*

vt i>

O fa

a I

X O

o o

O 00

all t;

^ §
5 =

CO 00
^ iTi

o o
o o

•S s

otQ

bJD tiC

a c

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o r:
o ?

pd ^

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d *^3

d Ph

^ c3

c/2

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tfl

155

* In each of these cases the gross income is assumed to be 399Z., from which the owner’s share of rates is deducted, leaving, as the
basis on which other taxes on income or expenditure are computed, only the reduced revenue thus disposable.

422 = ]56 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

a full Zd. tax on 120/. ; thus reducing his payment to 2/. 17s.
per annum.

Less easily noted are his taxes on articles of consumption. His
household supply of tea pays a duty of 6</. in the lb., of coffee
one of 2(/., and of currants and otlier fruits one of ^d. ; items on
which together a yearly taxation of 2/. 2s. is easily reached.

On every pound of tobacco he smokes he pays 3s. 3rf. to the
Exchequer ; and here he contributes 2/. per annum. If but
little wine — say four dozen a year — is used in his family, this
still means a tax of some 16s. a year. More frequent will be
the calls on his beer-barrel, through which, at 2d. per gallon, he
may pay 21. 10s. altogether. In an ordinary case he may at
home and at market use 3 or 4 gallons of spirits, in one form or i

another, throughout the year, and thus pay IZ. 10s. ; but since a
typical case must present in some degree all the usual features
of a common average, this hypothetical farmer must be assumed
to have occasional fits of greater and more irregular indulgence
in these to consume another 4 gallons of spirits, and thus to pay
1/. 16s. more. All these items would account for the 10/. 16s.
entered in my Table.

On every third letter that he posts (for the post-office can
carry three letters for the cost of two stamps) the farmer pays a
tax of one penny. A penny goes also to the Exchequer on j
every cheque he draws, and on every receipt-stamp he uses. A
larger stamp is required on his bills or promissory notes, and in
one or two other of the transactions of his business ; so that
30s. a year is soon totalled in such minor payments. He is
hardly likely never to go to law, and, when he does, he pays in
court fees. He cannot use the services of a solicitor, a banker,
an auctioneer, or even of a hawker, pedlar, or vendor of patent
medicines, without running some risk of having indirectly to con-
tribute to the charges falling on these particular callings. In all
these little matters half as much, or 15s. per annum, may be al-
most imperceptibly reached. On his house, just above the limit
of the tax, he may pay 13s. of inhabited house duty. He may-
have for business or pleasure three dogs on his farm, and here '

again a licence-duty of 15s. is exacted. His carriage, if it be *

but a two-wheeled dog-cart, costs the same annual sum, and his
groom or man-servant 15s. more. He has still one turnpike-
gate left on his way to market, and here he pays regularly a
local toll. This, with his share of market-dues and other local
imposts, soon reaches 26s. per annum, and thus his miscel-
laneous taxes of 11. 8s. are accounted for.

His local rates remain. Like a keen man of business, I will
assume that when he took his farm he was successful in throwing
on his landlord the rates then current ; which were a poor-rate i

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest. 423= 157

of Is. 2rZ., a county-rate of 5tZ., and a highway-rate of 5<Z. in
the pound ; thus reducing the rent he would have otherwise
given by, it may be supposed, 70Z. a year. Since that time,
however, his parish has had its highway-rate increased by 2d. in
the pound, from one of the neighbouring toll-bars having been
abolished, and the road handed over to the charge of the rate-
payers. The poor-rate of his union has risen also 2cZ. in the
pound. Half at least of this increase it is not unlikely the
farmer himself and his brother guardians might have saved by a
stricter administration of out-door relief ; but half may be due
to the inevitable rise of official salaries. The Sanitary Authority
also now levies a rate of Id. in the pound to provide modern
safeguards for the public health of the surrounding populations.

While, last of all, his parish has fallen under the rule of a
School-Board, who will levy for many years to come a rate of
3d. in the pound to repay the sums they have borrowed for the
somewhat pretentious school-house and scholastic appliances
destined to educate on the most recent pattern the children of
the neighbouring villagers. All these several additions to the
local charges of the farm will, no doubt, one day come to be
reckoned and allowed for as landlord’s charges in future let-
tings, but meantime they amount to the tax of just 23Z. a year
shown in the Table, and have to be paid by the tenant out of
the margin of his profits. This forms the last item of the taxa-
tion of 12^ per cent, which the income of the tenant-farmer
bears for the public service of his country at large, his county,
his union, or his parish.

Gathering up, therefore, finally, the conclusions brought out Conclusion,
by a general review of British taxation, the results arrived at
appear to be these : — The aggregate taxes collected in the United
Kingdom are upwards of one hundred millions annually. Two-
thirds of this large sum are paid into the national exchequer,
and accounted for by imperial authorities ; and one-third is raised
and administered by local authorities. Great changes have been
noted as occurring within recent date among the indirect imperial
taxes, leading to the practical restriction of those now levied on
articles of consumption, to the accessories or luxuries rather than
the necessaries of life. Viewed as distributed between the two
vast grades of society, those who win their bread by manual
labour and those who gain a livelihood in some other way
by means of already accumulated capital, or by active skill and
industry, I have attempted to show that of the whole taxation the
average share on the former class represents a pressure of 7 per
cent, on their income against llj per cent, on that of the latter.

A great divergence appeared, however, between the relative taxa-
tion of agricultural and of other incomes in each of these classes.

424= 158 Taxation as affecting the Agricultural Interest.

While the labouring section of the agricultural community has
been seen to bear a lighter taxation than other workmen, agri-
culturists of the middle or upper classes have appeared to be
taxed considerably in excess of the general average of their
class. This, it has been shown, may, in the case of several im-
posts, be traced in part to usage more or less prescriptive, and
in part to what has been deemed the eminently taxable character
of the chief form of agricultural capital — the land. A still
further discrimination has made it clear that, thanks to the
incidence of local taxes, the landlord’s average taxation — falling,
as this does, not only on what may be regarded as the natural
rent of the soil, but with equal pressure on the revenue he derives
from capital devoted to its improvement — exceeds 16 per cent. ;
while that of the tenant-farmer is upwards of 12 per cent.
Opinions may indeed vary as to some of the details which lead
to these results. Minute accuracy cannot be claimed for calcu-
lations into which hypothesis must occasionally enter. Still,
however, as the result of patient enquiry, I am disposed to
regard these conclusions as fairly enough representing, when
contrasted with the position of other incomes, the general
pressure of taxation on British agriculture.

IV.

FAKM CAPITAL.

ELIAS P. SQUAREY,

OP THE MOOT, DOWNTON, SALISBEKT.

( 427=161 )

CONTENTS.

Introductory — Landlord’s Capital — Tenant’s Capital — Proportions of Land-
lord’s and Tenant’s Capital — On a Uaiiy Farm — On an Arable Farm — On
a Mixed Farm — On a Grazing Farm — Tenant’s Capital less on Fertile
Land — Irrigation — Drainage — Labourers’ Cottages — Do not pay as an
Investment — Circumstances which affect Tenant’s Capital — Compensation
to Outgoing Tenant — Implements — Stock — Manures — Cost of Labour —
Circumstances which attract Capital to or repel Capital from Farming —
Capital often insufficient — Increased Expenses — Agricultural Holdings
Act — Profits of other Businesses — Farming an attractive Pursuit — Freedom
of Cropping — Causes of existing Depression — Banks — Value of Land and
Interest thereon — Bent — Companies for Improvement of Land — Their
Procedure — Action of Inclosure Commissioners — Repayment of Loans by
Landowners — Benefit to the Public — Schedules .. Pages — 178

* .

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( 429 = 163 )

FAKM CAPITAL.

Introductory. — The capital applied in agriculture in its widest Introductory,
sense may be regarded as “ fixed ” capital and “ movable ” capital.

The conclusion of political economists, that land, in its
natural unimproved condition, is not capital, and that the
value of the expenditure in labour and other forms of supposed
improvements, more or less permanent, and of certain or un-
certain benefit, is theoretically the only true expression of capital
in land, is fully recognised. Having regard, however, to the
past and present continual exchange of land for capital in the
form of money, by means of sales, mortgages, and charges,
it may be convenient for the purposes of this Memoir, in esti-
mating the respective contributions of capital by the landlord
and tenant, to treat land in its natural form as part of the land-
lord’s capital, inasmuch as landed property represents in the
market an amount of capital dependent upon its degree of natural
fertility, its situation and climate, and the sum prudently ex-
pended in the shape of buildings, drainage, irrigation, or other
specialities incident to its particular application.

In this view, therefore, it may be convenient to divide the
subject as follows : —

A. Landlords Capital. — The “fixed” or landlord’s capital is: Landlord’s

1. The land upon which agricultural operations are carried capital,
out.

2. The buildings, more or less extensive and complicated,
fitted for various farming-applications, roads, cottages for
labourers, fencing, water-supply, &c.

3. The expenditure in arterial and thorough drainage, warp-
ing, irrigation, marling, chalking, and other more or less perma-
nent methods of increasing the productive capacity of the soil.

B. Tenant's Capital. — The “ movable” or tenant’s capital is : Tenant’s

I. The live-stock, whether kept for the production of meat,

milk, wool, &c., or as power for cultivating and marketing
produce.

4:30=164

Farm Capital.

Proportions of
landlord’s and
tenant’s
capital.

On a dairy
farm.

II. The corn growing or in stock, the food stored for animals
in the shape of hay, straw, fodder, and roots, or growing in the ’t
shape of natural or artificial grass, clover, sainfoin-roots, or other
fodder-crops.

III. The implements adapted for special cultivation, preparing
for market, and marketing the produce.

IV. Capital in the form of money to meet the current ex-
penditure incident to the preparation of the land for the seed, the
manuring, seeding, cleansing, harvesting, and marketing the
corn-crops, to the consumption or sale of the root and fodder-
crops, to the purchase of artificial foods, to pay the Government
and parochial rates and taxes, tithe-rent charges, and, where the
land is let, the rent.

Under the existing conditions of English agriculture, it is
almost invariably the fact that the landowner does not cultivate
his land. He relieves himself of the responsibility of supervision,
the risks of business, and the provision of the movable capital, by
letting his land for a period, on terms, and subject to reservations
agreed on, to a tenant, who provides such movable capital more
or less completely, and undertakes its cultivation. So fixed
and invariable is this arrangement, that, even in cases where the
landowner, either by choice or necessity, undertakes the occu-
pation of his land, it is usual and desirable to place himself in
the position of tenant, by sejiarating the accounts, and charging
himself with the amount of rent which might be obtainable if

the land were let.

The capital provided by the landlord and tenant respectively is
of ever-varying proportions, dependent upon the quality of the
land and the nature of its application. In the following illustra-
tions an endeavour has been made to give an approximate ex-
pression of these proportions. It is obvious, however, that they t
must be accepted as merely approximate, inasmuch as, underr
the practice of one district, improvements which are ordinarily!
effected by the landlord are in another district carried out by the]
tenant, on the terms that he recoups his outlay under the “ custom]
of the country,” or by a “ tenant-right,” of which the nature isj
defined, or through the granting of a lease for a period during]
which, having regard to the rent reserved, he may reasonably]
expect to repay himself such outlay.

These illustrations are based on the assumption that the whole]
working-capital of a farm includes the cost or value of the land,]
the buildings, &c. (see secs. 2, 3), and the stock, crops, &c. (seej
secs. I. II. III. IV.), so that the analysed proportions may be
given in percentages.

Illustration A. — A dairy farm of 200 acres, comprising not more than
15 per cent, of arable land, and of the assumed annual value, excluding.

Farm Capital.

431 = 165

tithes, of 50s. per acre = 500f. The value of such a farm in the market may
be taken at 30 years’ purchase on the annual value (500Z.) = £15,000

The cost of buildings on such a farm, including farm-1
house, with dairy-accommodation, water-supply, andv £2550
two cottages for labourers, may be taken at )

Drainage assumed at 1000

Hoads and fencing assumed at 500

4,050

Leaving as cost of land in its natural condition .. £10,950

The tenant’s capital may he taken at 121. per acre = 2400?., and the total
capital applied to the farm stands as follows : —

Landlord’s Capital : —

Land in its natural condition

£10,950

= 63

per cent.

Buildings, improvements, &c.,
above

as set out|

= 23-

■2 „

Tenant's Capital

2,400

= 13'

■8 „

Total capital employed . .

£17,400

= 100'

0 „

Illustration B. — Mixed arable and pasture farm of 500 acres of assumed On an arable
annual value of 30s. per acre, excluding tithes = 750?. per annum. farm.

Assumed capital value x 30 years = 22,500?.

Landlord’s Capital : —

Land in its natural condition £17,500

House, farm-buildings, 6 cottages .. .. 4,000)

Roads, fencing l,000j

Tenant's Capital: —

12?. per acre 6,000

£28,500

61 "4 per cent.
17-5 „

21-1

100-0

Illustration C. — Mixed upland, arable, and pasture farm of 1000 acres. On a mixed
of assumed annual value of 20s. per acre, excluding tithes = 1000?. per annum farm.

X 30 years’ purchase = capital value of £30,000

Farmhouse £1400

Buildings, homestead, two field-barns, yards, sheds,) or\c\r\

water-supply j oUUD

13 cottages 1950

Roads and fencing 1000

7,350

Cost of land in its natural condition .

22,650

Tenant's Capital: —

10?. per acre on 1000 acres

10,000

Landlord's Capital : —

Land

22,650

= 56-6

per cent.

Buildings, &c., as above

7,350

= 18-4

Tenants Capital

10,000

= 25-0

40,000

= 100-0

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

432 = 166

Farm Capital.

On a grazing
farm.

Tenant’s capi-
tal less on
fertile land.

Irrigation.

Illustration D. — Grazing farm of 300 acres, not requiring drainage. Annual
value 63s. per acre, exclusive of tithe = 945?. per annum x 30 years = £28 , 350

House 800

Sheds, yards, granary, water-supply, &c 1000

Two cottages 300

Eoads, fencing 500

2,600

£25,750

£,4500

25,750 = 78 • 38 per cent.

2,600 = 7-9

28,350

Tenant's Capital 4,500 = 13 ’71 „

£32,850 = 100-0 „

The foregoing illustrations point to the general conclusion,
that the more naturally fertile lands, even if artificially improved
by drainage, require, relatively to the total value, a less propor-
tionate contribution of capital by the tenant. Doubtless there
are numberless deviations from this conclusion ; for instance, in
the costly and highly organised management of hop-lands and
fruit-gardens, the proportion of the tenant’s capital engaged
bears a much larger proportion to the fee-simple value of the
land with its buildings upon it, than occurs under the more
ordinary type of agriculture. Again, it must be borne in mind
that these illustrations have reference rather to the present cost
of construction, in a fair and reasonable form, of those buildings
which ordinarily are found on farms of average character in a
scarcely satisfactory condition : hence in the analysis of the
value of the bare area of land, and of the buildings on average
farms, the proportions may not be expected to conform accu-
rately to the illustrations set out above. But, assuming the land
to be without roads, farm buildings, residence, water supply, cot-
tages, roads, and fences, these obvious necessities for the letting
and management of a farm could scarcely be adequately sup-
plied at a cost less than the amounts estimated above. It may
be remarked, that whilst in certain directions the cubical contents
of barns are greatly diminished as compared with those required
before the introduction of steam threshing-machinery, yet the
very perfection and value of the implements now employed
necessitate storage for these and for the manipulation of the large
bulks of corn dealt with under the altered conditions ; and the
economy in one direction is balanced in degree in another.

Irrigation. — Irrigation is so exceptional an expenditure, con-

Value of land
Tenant's Capital: —

15?. per acre on 300 acres
Landlord's Capital: —

Land

House, buildings, &c.

Farm Capital.

A^3 = 167

[ fined to special districts of English agriculture, that no reference
) has been made to it in the estimates formed above ; but it maj be
) interesting to remark that the cost of irrigation, where applied
I on the large streams of the valleys of the south of England, when
* not associated with mills, may be taken at an average of 30/. per
acre. The natural value of the land before irrigation being
I taken at from 60Z. to 80/. per acre, this operation alone would
j represent a landlord’s improvement of more than 30 per cent.,
whilst with the streams of less volume the landlord’s expenditure
in hatch work, levelling, and other arrangements for fitting the land
I with irrigation works, would be not more than 10/. to 15/. per acre.

Certain recognised modes of more or less permanently im-
proving land by the application of chalk, marl, clay, or lime, and
in some cases of bones to pasture land, representing an expendi-
ture of from 3/. up to 10/. per acre, are occasionally undertaken
by the tenant, and are recouped to him by a scale of tenant-right,

I of which examples now in force are given in the annexed
I Schedule A (p. 177). Where, however, the expenditure ap-
I proaches 8/. to 10/. per acre, the usual course is for the landlord,

I either with his own means, or through the agency of the various
societies for the improvement of land referred to hereafter, to
effect these operations, charging the tenant a percentage on the
outlay, to be agreed upon.

Drainage. — Thorough drainage is so material and important Drainage;
an improvement, that it is desirable to say a few words specially
on it. It was formerly, and is still occasionally, undertaken
by the tenant. The average cost of drainage has been con-
siderably increased of late years through the greater value of
manual labour, and in some degree through a slightly enhanced
cost of manufacture of the pipes. Up to 1871 and 1872, the
■ average drainage of an estate requiring this operation might be
, calculated to be effectively carried out at about 6/. to 6/. 10s.

\ per acre. Since that time the cost has been increased by at
( least 15 per cent., and there is certainly a hesitation at the
present time on the part of tenant-farmers to agree to pay the
I lull interest of Is. or 8s. per acre on the cost of the work. This
conclusion is clearly indicated by the decreased expenditure
on drainage in the year 1875-6, as disclosed by the Inclosure
I Commissioners’ Returns. In the year 1873 the expendi-
1 ture on drainage was 96,297/. 16s. lid. ; in the year 1874,

, 95,185/. 11s. 11^/; in the year 1875, 79,448/. 11s. 8d. ; in the
i year 1876, 61,492/. 13s. Od. In Lincolnshire and some other
! districts in England a tenant-right for drainage-expenditure, ex-
I tending from 10 to 13 years, still exists, whilst occasionally the
j operation is carried out on the footing that the landlord pro-
I vides the drainage-tiles, and the tenant performs the labour.

2 H 2

434= i 55

Farm Capital.

Labourers’ cot-
tages.

Do not pay as
an investment.

Lahourers' Cottages. — Cottages for the residence of the labourers
and artisans engaged in various agricultural operations are inva-
riably provided by the landlord. They are usually erected at
points convenient to the homesteads, so that a supervision of the
cattle and premises can be secured. The cottages are ordinarily
built of brick or stone, and occasionally of loam, or other suitable
material for the purpose, and are covered with tile, slate, or thatch,
according to circumstances and locality. They usually contain
a living-room and scullery or washing-place, with a small pantry
for food on the ground-floor, and three bedrooms over. The
cubical contents of a cottage containing two rooms on the ground-
floor and three bedrooms, vary usually from 7500 to 9000 feet.
Where a large number of cottages are erected on an estate, a pro-
portion— say 2 in 7 — contains only two bedrooms. The present
cost of building cottages with five rooms in pairs or blocks of
three, with the necessary offices and water-supply, varies from
140Z. to 210Z. per cottage, dependent, of course, upon the size, the
character of materials, and the greater or less perfection of work-
manship. The gardens are generally laid out with an area of
15 to 20 poles to each cottage. The rent paid by a labourer
working on the farm to which these cottages are attached varies
from Is. to Is. 6cZ. per week, in the southern counties, to 2s. 6eZ.
or 3s. %d. in the midland or northern districts of England,
The income in the shape of rent which is obtainable from the
farm-labourer bears no reasonable proportion to the interest, as
an investment, of the money spent on the erection of cottages.
They clearly must be regarded as much a part of the working-
arrangements of the farm as the barn, stables, &c., and the loss
of income between the rent receivable and the reasonable interest
of money on their cost is balanced by their value to the tenant
as part of his holding. As a rule, one cottage per 75 acres of
mixed arable and pasture land may be considered to afford ample
labour for the cultivation of the land. The result of the un-
productive character of investments in the erection of cottages
has been that on estates of the largest and wealthiest pro-
prietors they are almost invariably of a sufficient and most com-
fortable character, whilst on the smaller properties this require-
ment has been less perfectly met. It may, however, be remarked
that the erection of superior cottages, with good gardens, let
at moderate rentals, from philanthropic rather than commercial
motives, if carried beyond the reasonable agricultural require-
ments of the district, has had the tendency, under certain con-
ditions, to reduce the wages of the agricultural labourers. They
have been unwilling to leave these pleasant homes, their numbers
have increased beyond the existing market for their labour, and
their wages have consequently been depreciated.

Farm Capital.

435 =

Tenant's Capital. — The capital employed by a tenant in
! the cultivation and management of a farm has been already
referred to under the head of “ Movable Capital,” It is of very
varying value, and depends for its amount very much upon the
' character and quality of the soil, the period of entry upon the farm,

I and the covenants or custom under which the tenant is bound
to enter. These may provide for his own preparations for the
I ensuing crops, or for his liability to take off, by valuation or other-
wise, the crops, hay, straw, fodder, root-crops, sainfoin-roots, and
tenant’s fixtures, or for his simply taking possession of the land
' on the termination of his predecessor’s tenancy, without payment
of any kind. Again, the amount of capital is regulated by the
value of tenant-right, or compensation for unexhausted manures
or feeding-stuffs, or for improvements, more or less permanent,
effected by the outgoing tenant, of which he has failed to derive
the full benefit, and for which he is entitled in some cases to be
paid by the incoming tenant. In the past, and up to a compara-
tively recent time, tenant-right has been of limited application in
England ; but an appreciation of their respective positions by the
landlords and tenants, incident to the passing and subsequent
(, operation of the “Agricultural Holdings Act, 1875,” and, still
I further, a sense of the justice and necessity to the tenant, and of
the advantage to the community generally of the application of
the principles of tenant-right, has led to the extension of the
I previously existing system, modified by a great variety of circum-
stances. This re-arrangement of their mutual relations cannot
fail to be of profit to the State, and satisfactory to the landlord
j and tenant. Under the co-operation of a well-considered and
; fairly adjusted tenant-right, the fertility and capacity to produce
I the maximum of crops are maintained in the soil, and the con-
I tinuous process of degradation of productive power in a tenancy
i near its termination is likely to be avoided.

I Implements. — The implements of the agriculture of 1877 are

^in remarkable contrast to those in use at the commencement of
!the century. The plough, of rude though serviceable construction,

I the wooden roller, and the harrows for cultivation ; the scythe
land the reap-hook for cutting the harvests of grass and corn; the
I wooden flail, and the primitive winno wing-machine of those
I days are now replaced, in greater or less degree, by the steam-
I plough and cultivator of enormous power and adaptation, and by
jthe draught-reducing turnfurrows of the horse-ploughs of Messrs,
j Howard, Ransome, and others; the reaping, mowing, and
bay-making machines, with the elevators for stacking the pro-
luce ; and, lastly, the steam threshing and winnowing machines
)f the present day. It may be confidently asserted that, even
n the most distant and least advanced districts of English

Circumstances
which afiect
tenant’s
capital.

Compensation
to outgoing
tenant.

Implements.

436=i70

Farm Capital.

Stock.

Manures.

Cost of labour.

farming, these wonderful adjuncts of labour are in use, in greater
or less degree, and that it is only through their aid that the
present farming-operations are possible with the decreased supply
of manual labour. The money absorbed in the adoption of the
least expensive of the implements enumerated above is very
greatly in excess of that invested in their older types, and bears
a large but scarcely definable proportion to the increased capital
referred to as the contribution by the tenant.

Stock. — Live stock, which includes the animals kept as
motive power as well as for the production of meat, milk, or
wool, form the largest proportion of the tenant’s capital under
ordinary mixed agriculture. Horses for draught or pleasure-
purposes have attained apparently a permanent value, dependent
on their character, at least 40 to 70 per cent, above that of 25
years since. Sheep have followed in the same ratio ; and not-
withstanding the enormous importations of wool and of meat,
whether alive or dead, from the Continent, America, or Australia,
the prices of mutton and wool are greatly in excess of their former
amount. Cattle, as well as dairy produce, have risen in value
in the same degree, whilst apparently equally modifying condi-
tions, in the shape of importation, have existed. This general
advance in price obviously forms an important item in the
amount of tenant’s capital, and may be taken to add at least
30 per cent, to that which was formerly considered sufficient.

Manures. — In this direction, also, a new element of expendi-
ture, and certainly of very largely increased production, has
arisen. Since the introduction of guano in 1840-41, of nitrate
of soda about 1845, and Liebig’s suggestion of the use of super-
phosphate of lime, the application of these various elements of
fertility have gone on in an ever-increasing proportion. No
statistics are available to give an expression of the total expendi-
ture on artificial manures in England at the present time, but it
undoubtedly may be estimated at some millions annually, and
their use, depending on the result of local experience, may yet
be advantageously extended.*

Cost of Labour. — The cost of labour per acre in English agri-
culture extends from almost a minimum, on the purely pastoral
lands, to 25Z. to 30/. per acre on the best cultivated hop-lands.
The cost per acre of manual labour in the cultivation of the two
illustrative farms B and C may be taken as follows : — On Farm
B, assuming that the improved machinery for the economy of
labour is employed, including the occasional use of steam-
ploughs, the amount expended in manual labour may be taken

* The increase in tlie importations of guano may be tlius illustrated ; — In 1840,
20 casks were imported; and in 1870, 280,311 tons.

Farm Capital.

AST = 171

at about 35s. per acre. On Farm C, under the same conditions,

! the manual labour should cost from 25s. to 28s. per acre. The
cost of piecework for various operations has scarcely followed
the advance which has taken place in daily wages in the last ten
years.

Circumstances which attract Capital to or repel Capital from Circumstances
Farming. — Combinations of circumstances occasionally operate, which attract
and may he expected to continue to operate, in stimulating at one ^-epei capital
period and reducing at others the amount of capital employed by from farming,
tenants in their occupations : — continuous depression of prices,

‘ either generally or of special classes of produce ; disorganisation
I of the supply and cost of manual labour, and in degree the profit
or otherwise to be obtained in other businesses, all contribute to
affect this question ; but, as a rule, it may be accepted that
\ tenant’s capital has not flowed liberally into farming investments
in England, and is more or less deficient in the amount which
might be profitably employed. Farms are too often taken with
a capital which is insufficient to meet those contingencies of Capital often
price and season to which farming is especially subject, — hence
a sequence of unproductive seasons or exceptionally low prices,

, disease or accidents to stock, may imperil the success of a farmer,

! however industrious and able, who has embarked in a business
for which his capital is inadequate. The amount of tenants’

I capital required is and has been constantly increasing. Imple-
♦ j ments, though more effective, are more expensive, more compli- Increased ex-
! cated, and more numerous. Live-stock of all descriptions seems
also to have reached a permanent platform of value at least from
I 30 to 40 per cent, in excess of that which existed fifteen to
I twenty years ago ; but probably the most material influence on
the farmer of late years has been the disturbed relations between
I himself and his servants. The actual increment of wages may
be estimated according to locality at from 15 to 25 per cent.,
and it is unsatisfactory to find it reported that with this increase
of wages there has been a concurrent depreciation in the value
' and quality of the labour given, and that consequently the prac-
tical cost of operations generally in farming has been enhanced
beyond the rate thus stated. This latter state of things may be
merely temporary, and may be succeeded by a conviction on the
part of the workmen that higher wages can only be paid so long
as improved results are arrived at.

I The “Agricultural Holdings Act, 1875,” to which reference Agricultural
I has been made, was the first legislative attempt to define the Holdings Act.

I rights which, in the absence of a written contract, ought to
belong to the tenant for improvements more or less permanent ;
and also for those conditions of feeding, stocking, and manage-
ment at the end of the tenancy, which, if neglected, as they too

438= 172

Farm Capital.

Profits of other
hnsinesses.

Farming an

attractive

pursuit.

often were, would reduce the current productiveness of the farm.
Although the application of the “ Agricultural Holdings Act ”
has been in most cases declined by the landowners, there has been
a loyal and willing disposition on their part to reconsider their
agreements and arrangements with their tenants, under which
the principles underlying the “ Agricultural Holdings Act ” have
been largely and beneficially operative, especially in the second
and third classes of improvements scheduled in that Act. Any
legislative attempt of a protective character, with a view to
enhance the value of agricultural produce, and to stimulate the
employment of capital in agriculture, even if it could be secured,
would certainly fail to lead to a larger application of tenants’
capital to farming, inasmuch as if any increased price could be
shown to result, or was likely to result, from its operation, it is
obvious that the value of the land upon which the operation was
to be carried out would be enhanced to the landlord, in the
shape of rent, in proportion to the value of the increased price
likely to be secured.

Reference has been made to the influence which the value of
money and the profits arising from commercial and other busi-
nesses and professions may exert in attracting or repelling the
investment of capital in farming. The disposition to manage land
and to rear and improve animals, is an instinct with the majority
of men, and is indicated in the flower-pot of the poorest cottage as
well as in the home farm of the wealthiest landowner : indeed, it
may be predicted that if a youth born and brought up on a farm
is to apply himself to commercial or professional pursuits, his
relations with land and its attractive belongings must be broken
at a reasonably early age. It is the dream of many a successful
business man to return to his native neighbourhood, and in some
form or other to be connected with land. This instinctive desire
undoubtedly operates, by enlarging the demand for farms, to
increase the rental of land, and in corresponding proportion to
diminish the profits attaching to farming as a business. It will
be conceded that the occupation of farming in a well-placed
district, without serious drawbacks from ground-game and other
local disabilities, affords to a man of average ability as pleasant a
life as he can find in any other business or profession ; and it is
doubtless this aspect of farming which leads to the acceptance by
farmers of a smaller interest on the capital engaged than is offered
in other commercial pursuits. Just in proportion, probably, as
farming is made a more purely commercial undertaking, as ma-
chinery enables the farmer to dispense with the services of a pro-
portionate number of workmen, and as the farmer himself secures
a more recognised position in the administration of the local con-
cerns of his district, so probably it may be expected that capital

Farm Capital.

AB2 = 173

from other channels will flow liberally and permanently into
farming. An element of attraction, also, is to be found in greater Freedom of
freedom on the part of the tenant in the cropping and general cropping,
application of his land. In the earlier and many lately existing
I agreements governing agricultural management, hay, straw, and
fodder were bound to be consumed on the land. No green
crops might be removed from it, and the efforts of the landlord
and land-agent were directed to maintain the fertility of the
I land by the most stringent restrictions. With the introduction
of artificial manures, and further through the construction of
railways delivering town-manure and refuse at various points
to which these matters might be cheaply transported, the necessity
for the restriction of covenants as to farm-management and the
sale of hay, straw, fodder, and green crops has been greatly
reduced and in some places removed. No good tenants can
now be obtained on farms where facilities for the sale of such
produce exist, if the stringent regulations of a lease of 1850 are
insisted upon. This modification of covenants has been greatly
induced by the increased value of hay and straw, and the
accessibility of markets through the vicinity of railways, during
the past few years.

At the present moment the agricultural interest in certain Causes of ex-
districts is suffering under an unusual depression consequent isting depres-
on seasons adverse to the profitable management of particular
soils, concurrently with a disorganised condition of the labour
market. That this condition is acute, is apparent by the large
I area of land and number of farms in the market to be let. It
may be observed, however, that commercial and manufacturing
< interests have been equally, if not more severely, depressed. It
» is possible that the present application of these lands may, under
new conditions, be modified, and their value temporarily affected,
whether for sale or letting, if such conditions are to be per-
' manent ; but it is not probable that any large area will revert
into an unproductive condition, except those soils which have
been stimulated into an abnormal fertility without regard to
economical results.

Banks. — The extension of the banking-system to almost Banks,
every agricultural district in England has contributed largely
to the convenience of farming-operations, whilst the banks
themselves have, undoubtedly, profited very considerably by
the moderate and safe advances which they are enabled to make
to their farmer customers.

Value of Land and Interest thereon. — The value of purely agri- Value of land
cultural land, as an investment, varies in a most remarkable and interest
degree, and appears to depend not so much upon the amount of
interest obtainable from the investment as from an inherent

440=174

Farm Capital.

Rent.

taste in some localities for its possession merely as land, which
appears to be wanting, or at all events very faintly present, in
other cases. At the present time the net income from land
applicable only to farming-purposes, varies from 2 up to 4^ per
cent. The causes operating to produce this wide divergence, in
value are usually the presence or absence of wealthy individuals
seeking to accumulate large estates for residential or domain
purposes. Some localities are specially accepted by land-buyers,
whilst estates in other districts can only be sold upon terms
equivalent to those which first-class Railway Debentures or
Mortgages afford to purchasers, viz. from 3^ to 4 per cent.
Doubtless there is an ever-accruing increment in the capital
value of land by the daily accumulation of wealth, and its
theoretical tendency is to increase the number of years’ purchase
of net income upon Avhich freehold or capital value is arrived
at, or, on the other hand, to reduce the net percentage as an
investment. An impression prevails among many thoughtful
minds, that future legislation under a possibly more democratic
representation may be influenced by the idea, whether well or
ill founded, that land does not bear its proportion of taxation ; *
and that, as it lies readily open to the tax-gatherer, so it is more
likely than personal property to be affected in this direction.

Rent. — The rent of land is that surplus of money which on
an average of years, may be expected to remain after paying
the fixed and fluctuating charges, such as tithe-rent charge, rates,
and taxes, the cost of labour, seeds, manure, replacement of live
and dead stock, tradesmen’s bills, interest on capital invested,
and such remuneration for his services as a farmer may think
himself entitled to, or be content to receive. Looking at the
elasticity of the greater proportion of the payments by a farmer,
and the varying capacity of men to administer and supervise,
the changing combinations occurring in farming, the sanguine
expectations of one tenant, and the doubts of another, it is
obvious that wide divergences may exist in the disposition to
pay more or less rent, and in the capacity to produce, after
satisfying the requirements enumerated above, what may be
accepted as an average amount available for rent. Such agree-
ment is, however, arrived at ; and, as a rule, the rent of land over
a district may be accepted as being almost uniform, except so
far as the natural quality of the land to yield more or less
produce is concerned. In England the tithe-rent charge, paro-
chial rates and taxes (except land-tax and landlord’s property-
tax), are usually paid, in addition to rent, by the tenant. This,
however, is scarcely material, as, if paid hy the landlord, the
value to the tenant and consequently the amount of rent is

Oil this point, see the preceding Artie le. — Edit.

Farm Capital.

441 = 175

proportionably increased. In adjusting the question of rent,
the acceptance hy the tenant of the liability, more or less quali-
fied, to repair, or exemption therefrom, obviously governs the
amount to be paid. Such amount is further influenced by the
reservation of game or other kindred rights by the landlord, and
generally by the character of the covenants under which the
land is to be managed. Rent is generally contracted to be
paid half-yearly, but occasionally quarterly, though rarely col-
lected more than twice a year. It is becoming usual to make the
rent due in the last quarter before the expiration of the tenancy,
payable in advance if demanded. The amount of rent varies
from 201. per acre on the best hop-lands and fruit-farms down to
2s. %d. per acre on the thin sandy heaths of Dorsetshire and the
Eastern Counties. No precise formula can be adopted in fixing
its amount, nor has any scheme, under which the landlord receives
: a proportion of the value of farm-produce, in lieu of a fixed

money-rent, ever yet worked permanently and satisfactorily.

The ordinary tenant seems to prefer to take his chance of bad

I' years as well as good ones, of low prices as well as high prices,
whilst to the landowner it is obviously all-important to know
as nearly as may be the actual average income which is likely
to accrue to him from his property.

Companies for Improvement of Land. — Reference has been Companies for
made above to the Companies incorporated by Act of Parlia- improvement
ment for advancing money for the purposes of agricultural ^
improvements. Their short history is as follows : — In the year
I 1847 the Government obtained a vote for the application of
4,000,000/. for drainage purposes in the United Kingdom, to
be repaid by annual instalments in twenty-one years, on the
basis of 3 per cent, simple interest. This amount was almost
immediately absorbed by various landowners, and, under private
enterprise, the following Companies were established by Act of
Parliament for carrying out improvements of a more varied and
’ extensive character, viz. : “ The General Land Drainage Com-
' pany,” “ The Lands Improvement Company,” “ The Land, Loan,

I and Enfranchisement Company and “The General Act.”

A landowner desirous of charging the inheritance of his Their pro-
I estate with the cost of any of the improvements enumerated in endure.

( the Schedule B, annexed (p. 178), applies to one of the Companies
t for an advance to enable him to carry out the necessary work.

I This application is submitted by the Company to the Inclosure
t Commissioners for England and Wales, accompanied in the case
of buildings with plans and specifications. These, after exami-
nation at the Inclosure Office, are referred by the Commissioners
to an inspector, who visits the site of the proposed works, and
reports to them upon the scheme, and how far the intended outlay
will be beneficial to the estate, and the probable increase of rental

442 = 176

Farm Capital.

Action of En-
closure Com-
missioners.

Eepayment of
loans by land-
owners.

Benefit to the
public.

which will arise from such outlay. The Commissioners being
satisfied upon these points, issue a sanctioning order provisionally
charging the estate with the cost of the work. The improvements
can then be proceeded with, the Commissioners requiring to be
informed by the landowner or the Company when any of the
buildings are in skeleton, i.e., before the timber-work and roof are
enclosed in order that their inspector may see them in that state,
if necessary. This rule, however, is relaxed under certain con-
ditions. Upon the Commissioners being apprised that the works
are finished, the inspector again visits, and reports whether they
have been properly carried out in accordance with the plans
and specifications, and if the work generally has been executed in
a satisfactory manner. In that event the Commissioners certify
the execution to the Company, and the amount expended is paid
over to the landowner, and an absolute or final order of charge
is executed by the Commissioners. This order may include all
expenses incident to the transaction, which are generally calcu-
lated to amount to about 7 or 7^ per cent., including the Com-
pany’s commission of 5 per cent, for the use of their Act, and for
carrying through the arrangements with the Inclosure Commis-
sioners. The Company undertakes to carry through these details
with the Commissioners, and to provide the necessary capital
sum expended on the works and in expenses, in return for an
annuity or charge for 25 or 31 years. The present terms are
from 6Z. 10s. 8cZ. to 6Z. 14s. \d. per cent, for 25 years, and from
5Z. 16s. %d. to 6Z. 7s. Id. per cent, per annum for 31 years, based
on a scale of simple interest, varying from 4^ to 4J per cent.,
the balance being a sinking-fund sufficient to replace the prin-
cipal sum, if re-invested half-yearly at the same rate of simple
interest, in 25 or 31 years.

The operations of the Companies are conducted upon purely
commercial principles, and their rates for loans depend upon the
market value of money. The total amount which has been
expended under the supervision of the Inclosure Commissioners
is 11,527,865Z. Os. M. up to 1876.

No special legislation during the present century has been pro-
ductive of more benefit to the public and individuals than these
Acts. Through this channel the above large amount of money has
been devoted to improvements which, as a rule, could not other-
wise have been undertaken, and has produced a return in value
of produce greatly in excess of the actual percentage charged by
the Companies, whilst the freeholds at the expiration of the term
will enjoy the full benefit of the improvements, unencumbered
by any charge. The Inclosure Commissioners, as guardians of
the freehold, have shown a wise and prudent yet liberal dis-
cretion in the exercise of the important and valuable power
entrusted to them.

Farm Capital.

443 = 177

Schedule A, above befereed to (p. 167).

Tenant's Allowance for Improvements.

For the encouragement of good farming, the landlord agrees to allow the
tenant for improvements made and for unexhausted artificial manures and
feeding-stuffs purchased by him, and used on the farm during the*last two
years of the term as follows (provided that the quantity so used shall not be
in excess of the average quantity used during the last four years), the amount
of such allowances to be determined by valuation, viz. —

1. For chalking with the written consent of the landlord, if done within

the last two years of the tenancy, the whole cost. If done the pre-
vious year, six-eighths of the cost ; and so on, diminishing the allow-
ance by one-eighth for each year which shall have elapsed since such
chalking.

2. For liming, where no crop has been taken, the whole cost (excepting

haulage) ; and where one crop only has been taken, half the cost
(excepting haulage).

3. For hones, used upon grass-land with the written consent of the land-

lord, if used within the last year of the tenancy, and where the crop
has not been mown, the whole cost (excepting haulage) ; if used in
the previous year, seven-eighths of the same cost ; and so on, dimin-
ishing the allowance by one-eighth for each year which shall have
elapsed since the boning ; but the same cost in no case to exceed Al.
per acre.

4. For purchased artificial manures of good and genuine quality, if used

during the last two years of the tenancy on lands from which no
corn, pulse, or other seed, hay, potato, or other exhausting crop, has
been taken, one-half of the cost, such cost not exceeding 21. per acre
for one year’s dressing, or 3Z. per acre for lands so manured in two
successive years ; for such as may be used in the last year of the
tenancy, and where the roots or green crops shall be left on such
lands unfed, the whole of such year’s dressing to be allowed.

5. For feeding-cakes (except such as may be consumed by horses and

working-oxen), one-third of the cost-price of so much thereof as
shall have been used on the farm during the last year of the
tenancy, and up to the 25th day of March following the expiration
of the same; and one-sixth of the cost-price of so much as shall
be used on the farm in the previous year.

Proper proof and evidence of use and application, and proper bills and vouchers
showing the description and cost of all manures and feeding-cakes claimed to
be allowed for under this clause, to be produced ; and the total of such allow-
ance to be subject to a deduction of the market-value of all straw, hay, roots,
green crops, and manures removed off the farm during the last two years of
the tenancy.

Allowance for Sainfoin-roots, Tillages, &c.

The landlord to pay the tenant for all sainfoin-roots under four years’
growth, and for all tillages and usual half-tillages, and other j>reparations done
for the benefit of the incoming tenant, during the last two years of the
tenancy (where no corn-crop has been taken) at their value to the incoming
tenant.

Temporary Sheds, &c., to he allowed for or removed.

The landlord to allow the tenant the value to the incoming tenant of
all or any temporary sheds and buildings erected by him on the'’farm, or to

444=175

Farm Capital.

permit him to remove the same at the expiration of the tenancy, provided he
gives notice in writing to the landlord, two months before the expiration of the
tenancy, of what buildings he claims. In the event of removal, the tenant
'-'i. to make good all damage to ground and premises caused by such erection

or removal.

Schedule B, above kefereed to (p. 175).

The improvements (Schedule B) are as follows :

1. The drainage of land, and the straightening, widening, deepening, or
otherwise improving the drains, streams, and watercourses of any land.

2. The irrigation and warping of land.

3. The embanking of land from the sea or tidal waters, or from lakes, rivers,
or streams, in a permanent manner.

4. The enclosing of land.

5. The reclamation of land and its chalking.

6. The making of permanent farm-roads and permanent tramways, and
railways for agricultural or farming purposes.

7. The clearing of land.

8. The erection of labourers’ cottages, farm-houses, and other buildings
required for farm purposes, and the improvement of and addition to labourers’
cottages, farm-houses, and other buildings for farm purposes already erected,
so far as such improvements or additions be of a permanent nature.

9. Planting for shelter or for periodical cuttings, which will increase the per-
manent value of the land.

10. The constructing or erecting of any engine-houses, water-wheels, saw
and other mills, kilns, shafts, wells, tanks, reservoirs, dams, leads, pipes, con-
duits, watercourses, bridges, weirs, sluices, flood-gates, or hatches, which will
increase the value of any land for farming or agricultural purposes.

11. The erecting of any engines or machinery of a permanent nature, so as
the same be erected in connection with and in the eflecting of any works of
or improvements in drainage or irrigation hereby authorised.

12. The construction or improvement of jetties or landing-places on the sea
coast or on the banks of navigable rivers or lakes, for the transport of cattle,
sheep, and other agricultural stock and produce ; and of lime, manure, and
other articles and things for agricultural and farming purposes ; provided that
the Commissioners shall be satisfied that such works will add to the penna-
nent value of the adjoining lands to an extent proportioned to the expenses
thereof.

13. “ For the contribution due from any landowner towards any public or
general works of drainage or other improvements, the cost whereof shall,
by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter, or Commission, be directed or
authorised to bo assessed or charged upon the inheritance of the lands im-
proved.”

14. “ For the purpose of effecting any improvement under this or the recited
Acts, it shall be lawful to get and work freestone, limestone, clay, sand, and
any other mineral or substance out of the land to be improved or charged ;
and to make tramroads and other ways, and to burn and make bricks, tiles,
and other things to be used in effecting such improvements ,” and also “ for
the same purpose, to cut down and use any timber or trees not planted or
serving for shelter or ornament.”

Together with ample powers for making roads and drains over and through
adjoining lands, and carrying out all other necessary works in connection with
and to give effect to such improvements.

PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.

JOHN ALGERNON CLARKE.

( U1 = 181 )

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. — Physical and Statistical.

Introduction— Outline of Subjects treated— Climate— Temperature— Rainfall
Atmospheric Moisture— Prevailing Winds— Mr. J. Bailey Denton on the
English Climate— Hydrography— Geology— Distribution of Soils— Agricul-
tural Statistics Diagram Map — Acreage of England and Wales Distri-

bution of Uncultivated Area— Distribution of Pasture— Distribution of
Wheat Areas— Average Yield of Wheat per Acre— Difference in Yield
according to Season — Yield as affected by Quality — Total Wheat Produc-
tion, according to different Authorities — Standard Average Yield of Wheat
—Principal Wheat-producing Counties— Yields of Whea°t and Barley com-
pared with those of Foreign Countries— The Live-stock Census gives only
the Summer Stocking of different Counties— Mr. C. S. Eead,°M.P., on
Summer and Winter Stock of Norfolk- Density of Summer Stockin’-^ in
proportion to Cultivated Area— Cattle— Sheep— Horses— Head of Live-stock
compared with that of Foreign Countries— Consumption of Oilcake Im-

ports of Com for Feeding— Imports of Artificial Manure Pages 185-202

CELAPTER II. — Prices of Agricultural Products.

Corn Retums-Average Prices of Grain— Estimation of the Home Production
of Wheat— Home Crop of Wheat in different Years— Total Home and
oreign Supply— Fluctuations in the Supply— Supplies and Prices— Home
Production of Barley— Barley Imports and Prices— Advance in the Price of
Meat— London Chrktmas Market for Thirty-seven Years-Summer Prices of
Meat for Twenty-six Years— Advance of Prices in the Metropolitan Market
—Mr. James Howard on the Advance in Price — Estimating the Home

Production of Meat Data for Calculating the Number of Cattle killed

Number of Calves and Cattle killed— Estimated Average Dead-weights of
Cattle Number and Weights of Sheep and Lambs killed— Number and
Weight of Pigs killed-Total Home Supply of Meat-Foreign Animals
imported- Importation of Dead Meat— Total Meat Supply— Mr J C
Morton’s Estimates-Cheese— Butter— Earl Cathcart on Wool-Home Pro-’
duction of Wool— Weight from different Counties— Imports and Exports—

Values of different Wools-Poultiy-Eggs .. .. V&ges 202-225

VOL. XIV.— S. S. , 2 I

448=152

Contents,

CHAPTEE III. — Management of Cattle.

Age when beginning to Breed — Seasons for Calving — Spring Calving — ^Autumn
Calving — Removing the Calf from its Dam — The Calf’s Diet — Feeding the
Calf — Milk Substitutes — Detailed Example of Rearing Calves — Weaning —
Ailments of Calves — Grazing Calves — Wintering Calves — Open Yards for
Cattle — Stall-feeding — Hammels — Boxes — Size of Yards, Stalls, and Boxes
— Arrangements and Fittings of Feeding-houses — Covered Yards — Roots
for Fattening Beasts — Mr. J. C. Morton on Money Value of Roots — Cooked
Cattle-food — Mr. Warnes’s Practice — Mr. Kennedy’s Practice — Mr. Russell’s
Practice — Another Example of Feeding — Mr. Lawrence’s Practice — Mr.
Horsfall’s Practice — Pulping Roots — Cattle Diet without Roots — Mr. Ran-
dell’s Practice — Straw for Feeding — Steaming Chaff — Mr. Evershed’s Practice
— Mr. Mechi’s Practice — Storing Straw-chaff — Mr. Jonas’s Practice — En-
hanced value of stored Chaff — Breaking Straw — Fattening Yearling Cattle

Pages 225-249

CHAPTEE IV. — Management of the Flock.

Ewes lambing twice in a Year — Selection and Age of Ewes for Breeding — Age
of Rams used — Forwarding Ewes for the Ram — Matching Ewes and Rams —
Time of putting Ewes to the Ram — Number of Ewes to a Ram — Marking
the Ram — Treatment of Lambing Ewes — Losses by Abortion — Mr. Woods
on Preventing Abortion — Early Lamb — Grazing Ewes and Lambs — Hamp-
shire and Wiltshire Management — Mr. Rawlence’s Practice — Shearing Ewes
and Dipping Lambs — Time for Weaning — Mode of Weaning — Grazing
Lambs — Preparing Lambs for Winter Food — Dipping — Bottling — Pouring
— Smearing — Dips — Smear — Ointment — Time for Shearing — Sheep-wash-
ing— Winter Folding — Hurdles and Nets — Storing, Cleaning, and Cutting
Roots — Changing the Keep — Dry Food — The Shepherd’s Hut— Medicine
and Dressing — Mountain Shelter — Wintering Sheep in Yards — Mr. Ruston’s
Practice — Mr. Randell’s Practice — Shed- feeding Sheep .. Pages 249-263

CHAPTEE V. — Management of Pigs.

Housing Pigs — Arrangements and Fittings of Sties — Age of Sows at com-
mencement of Breeding — Farrowing — Feeding Young Pigs — Management
of Store Pigs — Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., on Store Pigs — Fattening Pigs

Pages 263-266

CHAPTEE VI. — Breeds of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, and Morses.

Shorthorns — Prices made — Eminent Breeders — Mr. Strafford’s Description of
a Shorthorn — Weights — Hereford Cattle — Points — Mr. Duckham’s Descrij>
tion of a Hereford — Properties of the Breed — Fairs — Locality of the Breed
— Breeders — Devons — Points — Mr. Davy’s Description — Fairs — Breeders —
South Hams Cattle — Mr. A. Heasman on Sussex Cattle — Points and Merits
of the Breed — Longhorns — Bakewell’s Improvement — Points and Merits —

Contents.

449=i53

The Longhorns as Milkers — The ‘ Field ’ on this Breed — Channel Island
Cattle — The ‘Field’ on the History of the Breed — English Breeders —
Guernseys and Jerseys — Scale of Points — Norfolk and Suffolk Polls — Mr.
Fulcher on this Breed — Welsh Cattle — Pemhrokeshires — Anglesea Breed — ■
West Highland Cattle — Galloways — Aberdeenshire — Ayrshires — Leicesters
The old Breed — Points of modern Leicesters — Weight of Mutton and Wool
— Border Leicesters — Points — The old Lincolns — Improved Lincolns —
Great Weights and Fleeces — Locality — Fairs — Breeders — Teeswater Breed
— Romney Marsh Sheep — Weights — Devon Longwools — Points and
Weights — Points of Cotswold Sheep — Weight and Wool — Locality of the
Breed — Breeders — Ryeland Sheep — Southdown Breeders — Points of South-
down Sheep — Babraham and Merton Southdowns — Qualifications — Weights
of Mutton and Wool — Hampshire Down Sheep — Mr. E. P. Squarey on this
Breed — Hampshire Down Breeders — Sheep Fairs in Hants and Wilts —
Weight and Wool — Creation of the Oxfordshire Downs — Points — Weights
and Wool — Breeders — Origin of the Shropshires — Points of the Breed —
Weights and Wool — Locality — Dorset Horned — Early Lamb — Exmoor
Sheep — Welsh Mountain Sheep — Radnors — Cheviots — ’Points — Fairs —
Black-faces — Points — Pairs — Lonks — Herd wicks — Points — Local Breeds
not altogether superseded — Ancient Varieties of Pigs — Berkshires — Mr.
Coleman’s Description — Breeders — Tamworth Pigs — Improved Dorsets —
Essex Pigs — Suffolk Pigs — Large-breed Whites — Small-breed Whites
— Points — Middle - breed Whites — Horse - breeding — Suffolks — Points —
Breeders — Clydesdales — Points — Breeders — Old -English or Shire-bred —
Points — Breeders Pages 266-315

CHAPTEE VII.

Characteristic Crops which prevail in the B,ural Economy of the Country
— Different Courses of Cropping, as affected by Climate and Locality
— Succession of Crops.

Agricultural Itinerary — Soils of Kent — Rotation on Heavy Land in the North
— Canary-seed — Crops in the Isle of Sheppey — Crops of the Isle of Thanet —
Rotation on the Chalk — Market Gardens — Fruit and Hops — Romney Marsh
— Sheep Management — Soils of Middlesex — Rotation of Crops — Sale of Hay,
Straw, and Green Forage — Market Gardens — Soils and Crops of Surrey —
Soils and Crops of Sussex — Soils of Hampshire — Course of Cropping in the
Woodlands District — Crops in the Southern District — Rotations on the
Chalk — Mr. Wilkinson on Advantages of Barley after Wheat — Arguments
for two Turnip Crops in Succession— Sainfoin— Wiltshire— Dorsetshire—
Devonshire — Cornwall — Soils of Somersetshire — Rotations on New Red
Sandstone — Heavy-land Rotations — Gloucestershire — The Cotswold Hills
— Rotations — Raftering— Paring and Burning — Crops in the Yales — Here-
fordshire— The Five-course Husbandry — Details of the Tillage — Oxford-
shire— Crops in the Chiltern District — Mr. C. S. Read on Extra Crops —
Trifolium — Shropshire — Wheat-land District — Corve Dale — Light Land —
Clover alternating with Seeds — Warwickshire — Heavy-land Farming —

2 I 2

450=154

Contents.

Details of its Husliandry — Mr. Lane’s System of Extra Cropping on Loam
Soil — Beans and Turnips — Peas and Cabbage — The Eastern Counties —
Essex — Eotations — Mr. Mechi’s Wheat after Wheat — Suffolk — Stetcbes —
Rotations — Norfolk — Eotations — The Earl of Leicester’s Improvements —
The Four-course Shift improved — Autumn Tilling and Forking — Lincoln-
shire— Soils — Heath and Cliff — The Wolds — The Middle-Marsh — Eotations
on the Clays — The Warp-lands — Isle of Axholme small Farms — Yorkshire
— East Eiding — Soils — The Wolds — Vale of York — Holdemess — North
Eiding — Eotations — West Eiding — Semi-garden Eotations — Licorice —
Special Crops on the Warp — Cheshire — Potato Culture — Lancashire — Selling
Straw and Hay — Seeds — Bought Stable Dung — Liverpool Manure — Inten-
sive Culture on small Farms — Free Sale of Produce .. Pages' 516-554

CHAPTEE Nlll.— Manures.

Artificial Manures — Major Dashwood’s Practice — Mr. Treadwell’s Practice —
Mrs. Millington’s Practice — Mr. Forester’s Practice — Staffordshire Examples
— Mr. May’s Practice — Mr. Keeling’s Practice — Mr.|Clay’s Practice — Mr. M.
Walker’s Practice — Mr. G. Gibbon’s Practice — Mr. Hosegood’s Practice —
Mr. Charles Howard’s and Mr. Checkley’s Practice — ^An Example in
Norfolk — Artificials in Lincolnshire — Artificials in Cambridgeshire and
Suffolk — Superphosphate — Guanos and Nitrate — Quantities apiffied —
Manures of limited Application — Fish — Seaweed — Composts — Durable
Applications — ^Boning — Eape-cake — Marling — Chalking — Claying — Liming
— Farming without Manure — Liquid-Manure Irrigation — Mr. Mechi’s Prao
tice — Other Examples — Farmyard-Manure — Open and Covered Yards —
Greater Value of Covered-yard Manure — Saving in Straw — Dung-heaps —
Dung-pits Pages'554-562

CHAPTEE IX.

Motive Power — Implements and Machines — Steam Cultivation.

Ox-Teams — Farm-Horses — Number kept on different Soils — Management —
Breeding — Colts — Breaking — Feeding — Cost of (Horse-Power — Mules and
Asses — Water Power — Wind Power — Steam Power — Amoimt of Steam
Power used in Agriculture — Fixed and Portable Engines — Noted Home-
steads— Messrs. Tuxford’s Machinery on Lord Bateman’s Farm — Messrs.
Clayton and Shuttleworth’s Machinery — Covered Stackyard — Messrs. Ean-
somes, Sims, and Head’s Machinery — Simple Arrangement for Food-
preparing Machinery — Steam Ploughs and Cultivators — The Fisken System
— Wire-Rope System — Messrs. Barford and Perkins’ Machinery — Messrs.
John Fowler and Co.’s Machinery — Messrs. Howard’s Machinerj’ — The
Double-Engine System — Horses Displaced — Messrs. Howard’s Farms on
Boulder Clay — Mr. Ruck’s Practice on Calcareous Clay — Improvement of
Poor Clay Pasture — Messrs. Fowler’s Knifing — Mr. Smith of Woolston’s
Clay-land Husbandry — Non-inversion of the Soil — Autumn Eidging for
Mangolds — Labour-saving Implements of late introduction Pages 362-375

( 451 = 155 )

PEACTICAL AGEICULTUEE.

CHAPTEE I.

Physical and Statistical.

Agricultural England — from the warm hop and fruit grounds Introduction
of Kent and the dry chalk Downs of Sussex to the bleak
northern Cheviots and the stormy fells of Cumberland ; from
the rich wheat and root lands of East Yorkshire to the moors of
the West Riding and the mosses of Lancashire ; from the fat
marsh lands and high-cultured wold and heath farms of Lincoln-
shire to the mountain ranges of Carnarvon ; from the arid barley
lands of East Anglia and the corn-growing clays of Essex to
the moist uplands and lofty sheepwalks of South Wales; from
the hay meadows of Middlesex and the sands of Surrey to
the sheep-clad hills of Dorset, the rank pastures of Somerset,
and the corn and dairy farms, mild garden grounds, apple-
orchards, and granite wilds of Devon and Cornwall — who
shall adequately portray its arable and pastoral husbandry
in the pages of a brief memoir ? All that any writer can Outline of
hope to accomplish is inadequately to picture English farms subjects
and homesteads of hill and vale — whether occupations held by
capital or wrought by the labour of small cultivators, under the
dry climate of the east, the humid atmosphere of the west, the
chill north, or the more genial south — to describe very briefly
the varied systems of cultivation upon loams and sands and clays;
the adaptation of crops and management to different soils and
climates, and to the demand of great cities for special products ;
diversities of practice in tillage, manuring, harvesting, food-
preparing, as conducted by the most eminent managers ; and
the breeding, rearing, and fattening of live-stock upon the richly
cultivated plains, in the mid-regions between the lowlands and
uplands, and on the unsheltered heights of moorland and moun-
tain. He may relate only in short sketches how arable and
pasture are reclaimed from barren wilds, water-laden bogs, and
tidal estuaries ; how steam-power and mechanical inventions
have remodelled old methods of husbandrv ; how manufactured

Ab2 = lS6

Practical Agriculture.

manures and feeding-stufFs are employed to enhance the yield of
grain and augment the production of meat, milk, butter, cheese,
and wool ; how public spirit and emulation in the national,
county, and local exhibitions have promoted the improvement of
every breed of cattle, horses, sheep, and swine. And he mav
treat still more concisely of prices and of the methods of com-
mercial transactions by which the farmers’ raw materials, motive-
powers, tools, and plant, are purchased, and by which the pro-
ducts of his land and premises are disposed of and distributed
to consumers.

Climate. The diversified and fickle climate of England and Wales may

be described in brief by reference to Tables of temperature, rain-
fall, atmospheric moisture, and prevailing winds.

Temperatuie, It will be observed that the range of the thermometer is much
shorter in the western than in the eastern districts ; the difference
between the January and the July temperature being, for instance,
only 18 ‘3 degrees at Truro, in Cornwall, while it is 29'6 degrees
at Cobham, in Kent ; and, again, only 21 T degrees at Lancaster,
while it is SOT at York. The differences between day and night
temperatures are quite as marked.

Mean, Maximum, and Minimum Temperatures in Degrees Fahrenheit.

Spring.

Summer.

Autumn.

AVintcr.

Mean Maximum
Temperature.

Mean Minimum.

Mean Daily Range, j

Mean Maximum
Temperature.

Mean Minimum, j

Mean Dally Range.

Mean Maximum
Temperature.

Mean Minimum.

Mean Daily Range.

Mean Maximum
Temperature.

Mean Minimum.

\±

Helston (Cornwall) . .

58-2

44-0

14-0

68-6

53-6

15-0

59-6

48-3

11-0

48*5

39*8

Chiswick (Middlesex)

58-0

39-9

18-0

73-1

51-1

22-0

5S-8

42*0

17*6

44*1

33-2

Nottingham

6C-7

41-0

15-7

75'2

56*4

190

57'3

45-3

12-0

42*6

34*9

Thwaite (Suffolk)

54-0

40*4

14-0

70-6

52-9

18-0

56-8

44-5

12-0

42*0

33-7

Thus, while the mean temperatures of two counties, such as
Cornwall and Middlesex, vary only 1‘2 degrees in summer, there
are 7 degrees difference between their mean daily ranges ; for
at sunrise, in summer, the air in Cornwall is 2^ degrees warmer
than it is in Middlesex, but the extreme heat of the day in Corn-
wall falls degrees short of that in Middlesex.

As a general rule, the annual temperature of England decreases
one degree for every 111 miles from south to north, and one
degree for every 66 miles from west to east, while the mean
temperature of the middle of England is from 2 to 4 degrees

Practical Agriculture.

AbS=l87

colder than that of the east. Altitude exerts a considerable in-
fluence upon temperature ; and though considerable variations
occur, it may be stated in general that there is a diminution of
one degree of heat for about 300 feet perpendicular elevation.

Westerly gales, often saturated with moisture from the Atlantic, Fiainfall.
pour down upon the western parts of the kingdom much more
rain than falls on the eastern side. In the west, a greater quan-
tity also falls in autumn and winter than in summer, while in
the east this is reversed. The minimum average annual rainfall
on the western side of England is about 32 inches in the lower
districts, and the maximum 146 inches on the mountains. And
there are wet days in a year amounting to a minimum of 135
for the lower grounds, and a maximum of 250 on the hills. On
the eastern side of England, the minimum annual rainfall is
about 20 inches, and the maximum 33 inches ; the number of
wet days in a year being about 115 in the driest up to 185 in the
wettest localities. (See Table, page 11.)

The hygrometric condition of the atmosphere in the western Atmospheric
and eastern parts of England does not vary so much as might be moisture,
expected. Thus the evaporation from a sheet of water amounts
to 21’5 inches in a year on the western side, and 26'7 inches on
the eastern side of the kingdom. The quantity ranges from 0’4
inch in December, and a like amount in January, up to 4'2
inches in June — the evaporation in each month being somewhat
greater in the eastern than in the western counties. The dew-
point in January is in the north-west 31 degrees, in the south-
west 40 degrees, in the north-east 30 degrees, and in the north-
north-east 31 degrees. In August it is 52 degrees in the north-
west, 58 degrees in the south-west, 51 degrees in the north-east,
and 56 degrees in the south-east.

The prevailing winds blowing over England for two-thirds of Prevailing
the year, are from points varying between south and north-west, winds,
as appears from the following Table : —

General Direction of the Wind.

Place.

s.w.

N.W.

S.E.

N.E.

Number

Observations.

Liincastor (Lancashire)

365

London

112

365

Truro (Cornwall)

129

162

114

880

Summing up the general characteristics of the climate, it may Mr. J. Bnile}'
be stated in the words of Mr. J. Bailey Denton, that the western Denton on the

Mean Monthly Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit.

Western Side of England.

454= iSS

Practical Agriculture,

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AvEkAGE Monthly Rainfall in Inches.

Westehn Side op England.

Practical Agriculture.

455 «= 159

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456 = 190

Practical Agriculture.

English cli-
mate.

Hydrography.

side of England is much wetter than the eastern side ; that the
air on the western side is more constantly humid than that on
the eastern ; that cold increases in England with every degree of
north latitude, and that commonly, though not invariably, the
differences in the extremes of heat and cold are greater as the east
is approached ; that the high grounds of the western and northern
parts of England are more exposed to prevalent winds than the
eastern and southern parts ; and that the hygrometric state of the
atmosphere on the eastern side being nearly at all times such as
to absorb a great quantity of moisture, the evaporation is more
active than on the western side of England, — from a sheet of
water it actually exceeds the rainfall.

The principal watersheds and main outfalls for the drainage
of England and Wales require a few words of description.

The directions of the hill and mountain chains influence both
the lines of the rivers and the quantity and force of the water dis-
charged. The Cumbrian, Welsh, and other western mountains,
occasion a fall of rain in the western counties some 50 per cent,
greater than in the midland and eastern districts. Some im-
pervious rocks shed off the rains and melting snows in torrents ;
while fissured strata, cleaved slate, and absorbent chalk or sand-
stone, imbibe a large portion of the downfall, much of it to be
thrown out again upon porous declivities, or clay plains, or deep-
lying valleys. The great surplus of water, not lost by evapora-
tion, which escapes from the western or central watershed, runs
towards the sea in a generally eastern direction ; for the largest
English rivers, except the Severn, empty themselves upon the low
east coast. The principal points of discharge are the estuaries
of the Humber, the Wash, the Thames and the Severn; their
respective drainage areas being very large. Then the Yorkshire
Ouse, the Trent and other Humber rivers radiate into Westmore-
land, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Leicestershire, including all
Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire ; the sluggish Wash rivers,
the Ouse, Nene, Welland, with minor streams, embrace in their
system of flat valleys parts of Lincolnshire, Rutland, Leicester-
shire, Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Hun-
tingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk; the Thames
and its feeders extend inland into Buckinghamshire, Oxford-
shire, Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, Hampshire, besides
Surrey, Middlesex, Kent and Essex ; and the Severn stretches
back through the counties of Gloucester, Worcester and Salop,
into Warwickshire, Staffordshire, and Montgomeryshire; while
the Wye and other tributaries ramify through the counties of JMon-
mouth, Hereford, Radnor, and Brecknock. In addition to these
chief arteries of the central counties, there are innumerable streams
from the Lake district, the Welsh highlands, and the southern.

Practical Agriculture.

' 4:57=191

eastern, and northern provinces, aggregating into considerable
estuaries round the coast line — such as the Eden, Lune, Kibble,
Mersey, Dee, Conway, Towy, Taff, Usk, Avon, Parrett, Taw,
Tamar, Dart, Exe, Test, Arun, Rother, Stour, Medway, Crouch,
Blackwater, Colne, Orwell, Yar, Tees, Wear, Tyne and Tweed.
Now, although outfall improvements yet remain to be effected,
the principal outlets may be considered able to evacuate any
amount of water likely to flow to them, because in most instances
the drainage exigencies of the alluvial deltas, added to the
demands of deep-water navigation, have caused them to be opened,
embanked, and watehfully preserved. Thus, the great works
which have procured an unimpeded outflow for the Ouse, Nene,
Welland and Witham rivers, through the muddy shoals of the
Wash, are justly celebrated as triumphs of engineering. Similar
improvements of the Trent, Yorkshire Ouse, and associated
streams, have facilitated the confluence of their waters with the
Humber. In East Norfolk, not only the mouths of the streams
have been guarded, but the very existenee of the seaport of Yar-
mouth has been seeured by artifleial ramparts of sand and beach.
Below Chester the river Dee has been straightened, and a large
tract of its white sands reclaimed. In Somersetshire the flat land
has been embanked from the sea, and the mouth of the Parret
and its eonnected rivers confined from spreading into shallow
water ; while several harbours and estuaries along the south
coast have skilfully contended with the waves and shifting
shingle of the Channel. It is not so much the river mouths or
the inland eourses which are defective as drains for conveying
away the surplus water from land. The main streams, branches,
becks, and brooks have neither been left to follow their natural
levels, nor have their currents been directed by art ; but they have
been dammed into reservoirs, intercepted for canals, held back as
feeders for deep-water navigation, or lifted to gain a water-
power for myriads of mills, especially in the northern, western,
and central counties. Hence, in most of the low-lying districts
of England, the hroad meadows, coarse pasture, and wet arable
lands fringing the rivers, are permanently damaged by the pre-
vention of good husbandry and periodically visited with grievous
losses and inundation ; while frequent disasters, with great
destruction of property and even of human life, fall upon upland
valleys. Over vast breadths of the country, too, where main
drainage is not under systematic supervision as a first necessity
for agriculture, water-courses are commonly found wandering in
irregular channels, impeded in their flow, and too often choked
with a semi-aquatic, semi-sylvan growth of vegetation. Improve-
ments in the arterial drainage of England have heen prevalent
of late years, but, in spite of legislation on this subject, the

458=152

Practical Agriculture.

Geology.

absence of systematic supervision of the discharge of flood
waters, the regulation of irrigation works, and the storage of
water for the supply of villages and small towns, is one of the
blots on English local government. The extension of subsoil
drainage, too, though only a minor proportion of the drainable
land has been effectively relieved of wetness and rendered a
more porous and friable matrix for the rooting of plants, has
intensified the evil of insufficient main arteries, by pouring
into them a larger proportion of water and in quicker time than
formerly.

Unique among all the kingdoms of the world is England
in respect of its geological structure, comprising in its com-
paratively small area portions of nearly all the great strata
— primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary, which are to
be found over the whole globe. Hence the wondrous diversity
of soils, the sudden transitions from light to heavy land, or
the intermingling of breadths of clay, sand, and limestone upon
the area of a single farm, sometimes of a single field. Looking
at a geological map of England and Wales, one might think
it convenient for description of the husbandry to treat as
distinct districts the principal formations which, in coloured
strips, are seen ranging generally from south-west to north-
east ; the older rocks most westward, and the series super-
posed upon each other in succession until the most recent beds
appear in the east. One might treat in one division the granite,
trap, slates, shales, and schists of West Cornwall, Devon, South
and North Wales, the Lake region, and Northumberland ; in
another, the Silurian soils of Herefordshire, Carmarthen, Rad-
nor, and Shropshire ; in another, the marls and rich loams
of the Old Red Sandstone of Herefordshire, Monmouth, and
Brecon ; in another, the mountain limestones and grits of
Somerset, Derbyshire, West Yorkshire, Cumberland and West-
moreland ; in another, the coal-fields of Gloucestershire and
Glamorgan, of Shropshire and Flint, of Cheshire, Stafford-
shire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire, of Lancashire, the West
Riding, Cumberland, Durham and Northumberland ; in another,
the loams and marls of the New Red Sandstone, the most exten-
sive geological formation in England, stretching from Torbay
in Devonshire, through Somerset, Gloucestershire, Worcester-
shire, Warwick, Nottingham, York, to the mouth of the Tees
in Durham, and from Warwickshire, through Staffordshire and
Cheshire to Lancashire ; in another, the lias clays, running in a
narrow belt through the whole country from the Dorset coast to
Yorkshire ; in another, the oolite and brash lands, also occupying
an irregular strip of country from Dorset to Yorkshire ; in
another, the Oxford and Kimmeridge clays ; in another, the

Practical Agriculture.

159 = 193

Hastings sand and the Wealden clay of Kent, Sussex and
Surrey ; in another, the belts of greensand and gault soils in
Somerset, Wilts, Berks, Bucks, Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire,
and Kent ; in another, the chalk soils in Kent, Sussex, Surrey,

Wilts, Hants, Berks, Oxfordshire, Bucks, Herts, Cambridgeshire,

Suffolk, Norfolk, and Lincolnshire to the Yorkshire cliffs ; in
another, the plastic and London clays of the Isle of Wight, Kent,

Essex, Surrey and Middlesex, and the crag and Bagshot sands
of the Isle of Wight, Surrey, Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk ; in
another, the clays, loams, and gravels of the drift distributed
ov'er all parts of the kingdom ; in another, the scattered deposits
of peat, whether mountain bogs, or fen levels ; and in another,
the marsh-lands and valleys of marine or river-side alluvium.

But the very multiplication of varieties of different soils Distribution'of
derived from disintegration of the underlying rocks and the extent
to which the regular strata have been overspread by accumula-
tions of drift, forbids such lines of demarcation being drawn
between the different systems of farming. And the geology of
England is referred to here only for the purpose of indicating
the general distribution of the chief groups of clayey, calcareous,
and siliceous soils. Clays will be dealt with in a separate sec-
tion. Calcareous soils, of a compact, adhesive, tenacious charac-
ter, are found on the chalk-marl, oolite, and drift formations ;
calcareous gravelly soils occur upon the drift covering the
Oxford and blue lias clays ; calcareous soils also prevail on the
upper and lower chalk, and the shelly and great oolite forma-
I tions ; and calcareous soils of a porous, friable description

ij prevail on the coral-rag, lower oolite, magnesian limestone,

il and carboniferous limestone. Light, sandy, and gravelly soils

I rest upon the plastic clay, iron-sand, and Hastings sand, the

sand of the coal formation, and on the millstone grit and old
1 red sandstone ; flinty gravels are found on the drift covering

; the plastic clay and the weald clay ; clayey and sandy gravels

1 are upon the drift-beds of the new red sandstone and coal

' formations, and upon the Silurian and clay-slate formations ;

calcareous and ferruginous sands are upon the new red sand-
stone, and the trap or basaltic rocks ; and sandy loams form
the surface of the greensand beds, and most of the marine and
lacustrine alluvium.

This land of a tesselated subdivision and arrangement of A^icultural
j soils may be best treated of county by county, with regard to statistics.

I some features of its husbandry, while the characteristic crops

I and breeds of animals demand sub-sections for themselves. For

the purpose of presenting at one view some of the principal
points in the distribution of uncultivated area, of pasture, of
green crops, of corn-crops, of the areas and yields of wheat in

460= ■

Practical Agriculture.

Diagram-map.

i Acreage of
! England and
Wales.

Distribution

uncultivated

area.

particular, and of the relative density of the head of live-stock
in the different provinces, I have designed the Diagram-map
which accompanies this division of the Memoir (see Frontispiece).
Writing on agricultural statistics in the Royal Agricultural
Society’s ‘Journal’ in the year 1856, Mr. C. Wren Hoskyns intro-
duced the novelty of a statistical map of England, representing,
by stripes of differing character running across a square, the pro-
portional areas under the several descriptions of crop ; observing
that the reader who looked in the diagram for rivers and moun-
tains, cities and sea-ports, bays and promontories, and other
usual accessories of a map, would turn away with a smile
from such hydrography, in which parishes, hundreds, and even
county-boundaries, were ignored. The device was excellent,
expressing as it did to the eye, through the medium of geo-
metrical form, an idea of the comparative magnitude of areas
which had been previously stated in numbers of acres. But it
contained no intimation as to geographical distribution of the
several proportions of surface under each kind of produce ; and
the present Diagram-map has therefore been constructed so as
to present at a glance the general configuration of England and
Wales, the relative situation and size of each county, and an
epitome of its principal agricultural statistics exhibited upon
each. The scale upon which it is drawn is about one square
inch to every million acres.

I will here enumerate some of the chief facts to be drawn
from this statistical picture.

The total area of land of all descriptions and of water in
England and Wales is, according to the Agricultural Returns,
37,319,221 acres ; and of this, the area under all kinds of crops,
bare fallow, and pasture, in 1877, was 27,043,192 acres; the
area of orchards, market-gardens, nursery-grounds, or of arable
or grass-land used also for fruit-trees, was 206,952 acres ;
and the area under woods, coppices, and plantations, was
1,452,588 acres ; leaving 8,616,489 acres, or nearly one-fourth
of the entire surface, as uncultivated land, roads, railways, rivers,
lakes, estuaries, foreshores, towns, collieries, quarries, works,
gardens, and occupations under one-fourth of an acre.

Looking at the Diagram-map, it will be seen that the
counties having the largest proportions of uncultivated area
within their boundaries are — Northumberland, Cumberland,
Westmoreland, Durham, the North Riding of Yorkshire, Lanca-
shire, North Wales, South Wales, Middlesex, Surrey, and Corn-
wall. In these counties the cultivated area is from about 55 up
to more than 60 per cent. Counties having two-thirds up to
three-fourths of their area under cultivation are the West Riding
of Yorkshire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Kent, Sussex, Hampshire,

Practical Agriculture.

461 = i95

and Devonshire. In the remaining counties more than three-
fourths of the total area is under crops and grass. But it
should be remarked that the uncultivated area in some counties,
as, for example, Lincolnshire, cannot really be so large as the
statistics would indicate ; considerable errors having probably
arisen from including extensive foreshores, and even so-called
but actually cultivated “ marshes,” as “ water.” Permanent Distribution of
pasture occupies more than half the cultivated surface in North- pasture,
umberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lancashire, the West
Riding of Yorkshire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Shropshire, Stafford-
shire, Leicestershire, North Wales, South Wales, Herefordshire,
Monmouthshire, Middlesex, and Somersetshire. It is one-fourth
up to one-half in Durham, the North Riding of Yorkshire,
the East Riding of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire,

Rutland, Huntingdonshire, Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, North-
amptonshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Wor-
cestershire, Gloucestershire, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Wiltshire,

Dorsetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall. The permanent grass
forms less than one-fourth of the cultivated area in Norfolk,

Suffolk, Essex, Cambridgeshire, and Hampshire. Of the arable
land, the major portion is in root and green crops, and in
grasses under rotation, in Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lanca-
shire, Cheshire, North Wales, Cornwall, Devonshire, and
Hampshire. These crops occupy 40 to 50 per cent, of the
arable land in Northumberland, Durham, the North Riding of
Yorkshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk,
Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, Here-
fordshire, South Wales, Monmouthshire, Gloucestershire, Berk-
shire, Middlesex, Surrey, Sussex, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and
Somersetshire. In the remaining counties green and grass-
crops in rotation occupy below 40 per cent, of the arable land.

Of the land under corn, no county has quite half in wheat ; Distribution of
the greatest proportion in any county under wheat being in wheat areas.
Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, War-
wickshire, Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, Lin-
colnshire, Essex, Sussex, Wiltshire, Somersetshire, and Devon-
shire. Next in order for large area of wheat in proportion to the
total arable crops, are the East Riding of Yorkshire, Nottingham-
shire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Northamptonshire, Bucking-
hamshire, Herefordshire, Norfolk, Kent, Surrey, Berkshire, and
Hampshire.

It will he seen by the black patches on the Diagram-map
that the wheat-crop prevails most on the eastern side of England,
and in the midland and southern counties. The area of
wheat in England and Wales in 1875 was 3,240,344 acres;
in 1876 it fell to 2,916,765 acres; and in 1877 it was

462=

Practical Agriculture.

Average yield
of wheat per
acre.

Difference iu
yield accord-
ing to season.

Field as
aSected by
quality.

Total wheat
production,
according to
different au-
thorities.

3,087,355 acres. But for the nine years, 1866 to 1875, the
extent did not vary quite 5 per cent, from the average of
about 3 J million acres. As indicated by the green spots, shaded
in four different manners to represent four different rates of
produce, the average yield of wheat per acre is greatest in the
East Riding of Yorkshire, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, Hunting-
donshire, Northamptonshire, Cambridgeshire, and Kent ; in all
these counties exceeding 32 bushels, and in Kent reaching the
maximum of 33f bushels. It is under 32, but up to 30 bushels
in the West Riding of Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicester-
shire, Rutland, Norfolk, Bedfordshire, Middlesex, Worcester-
shire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire, and Sussex. The
average yield is 28 and under 30 bushels in Cumberland, West-
moreland, the North Riding of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Stafford-
shire, Suffolk, Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Gloucestershire,
Monmouthshire, Somersetshire, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, Hamp-
shire, and Surrey ; and in Northumberland, Durham, Shropshire,
North Wales, South Wales, Herefordshire, Devonshire, and
Cornwall, it is below 28 bushels per acre.

Wlule the total area under wheat in any year has, until lately,
scarcely varied 5 per cent, from the average, and the Returns of
the Board of Trade, indeed, may not be accurate within much
less than that — so that the difference between the greatest and
smallest area given may reach as much as 9 or 10 per cent. —
the most prolific total yield may be one-third more than the
worst. That is, from inquiries made (which are referred to
in the chapter on “ Prices ”), a harvest may give only 25, or it
may give up to 34 bushels per acre as an average for England
and Wales ; and a further difference may be superadded by the
difference in quality ; as in a year of fine quality the average
weight per bushel may be 62 lbs., and in a season of inferior
quality only 60 lbs., making a difference of about 3 per cent, in
the total weight of wheat grown. The standard average weight
of English wheat per bushel may be taken at 61 lbs. In the
Trade and Navigation Tables hundredweights are reduced into
imperial quarters, on the assumption that foreign and colonial
wheat imported averages a little under 61 lbs. per bushel.

The yield of our home crop has been estimated from an elabo-
rate collection of the opinions of growers given for their several
districts. In the year 1856 Mr. James Caird put the general
average of England and Wales at 26^ bushels. In 1868, the
same authority raised his estimate to 28 bushels, which is also
Mr. M‘Culloch’s estimate in 1853. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert,
in 1868, in a Paper in the Royal Agricultural Society’s
‘ Journal,’ quoted estimates of various authorities ranging from
28 up to 32 bushels, remarking that, “ perhaps the most gene-

Practical Agriculture.

AG^ = 197

rally assumed average is 30 bushels.” According to the
Rothamsted computation, the average of England and Wales,
extending over a period of sixteen years — 1852 to 1867 — is
28j bushels for England and Wales, 27f bushels for Scot-
land ; or for Great Britain 28|- bushels ; while for Ireland it is
23^ bushels, and for the United Kingdom 28j bushels. In
1851 the ‘Mark Lane Express’ collected the opinions of five
hundred correspondents in England for the ten years — 1852 to
1861 — in which the yields of the several counties range from
22^ up to 34^ bushels, making a general average for England of
29 bushels. In 1867 ‘ The Farmer’ published an estimate of the
produce per acre for that year on the different geological forma-
tions instead of for counties ; the average coming out 31 bushels
on the Drift, 27 bushels on the Tertiaries, 28 J on the Chalk and
Green Sand, 21^ on the Wealden, 29 on the Oolite and Lias,

19 on the New Red Sandstone, &c. ; the general average for
that defective year being 26 bushels. In 1870 the ‘ Chamber of
Agriculture Journal and Farmer’s Chronicle’ made an inquiry
into what constitutes a normal or average yield of wheat ; the
estimates collected being obtained from hundreds of leading
farmers, distributed through the Poor-law Unions, and each
stating his opinion from his own district or part of a Poor-law
Union. From this information the classification on the Diagram-
map has been made.

Multiplying the mean yield for each county by the average Standard
number of acres grown in that county, the total production of average ^yield
the kingdom was calculated ; and the total production divided °
by the total acreage gave the general average yield per acre.

The result brought out was, that the standard average wheat
production of England is 29-j5o bushels per acre ; of Wales,

27 bushels ; of Scotland, 29 bushels ; of Great Britain,
bushels ; of Ireland, 25 bushels ; of the Islands, 28 bushels ; and
of the United Kingdom 29-^ bushels per acre. At the average
area for the four years, 1868-71, the normal produce would be, '
for England, 12,484,000 qrs. ; for Wales, 473,000 qrs. ; for
Scotland, 470,000 qrs. ; for Great Britain, 13,427,000 qrs. ; for
Ireland, 840,000 qrs. ; for the Islands, 43,000 qrs. ; and for the
United Kingdom, 14,310,000 qrs. But this total production has
not been maintained ; for while the average area of wheat in the
United Kingdom for the years 1868-71 was 3,870,000 acres, it
had fallen off to 3,514,000 acres in 1875, and to 3,124,000 acres
in 1876. In Great Britain, the area sank in eight years from
3,688,000 acres in 1869 to only 2,995,000 acres in 1876, or a
decrease of nearly one-fifth ; and for 1877 it is 3,168,500 acres.

Half the total wheat-produce of the United Kingdom is grown in Principal
eleven English counties, namely, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Essex, wheat-pio-

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 K

ducing coun-
ties.

Yields of
wheat and
barley com-
pared with
those of foreign
countries.

The live-stock
census gives
enly the
summer
stocking of
different coun-
ties.

464= IPS] Practical Agriculture.

Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Kent, Hampshire, Sussex,
Wiltshire, and Gloucestershire. Nearly one-fourth of the whole
is grown in three counties, namely, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and
Essex. In fact, Lincolnshire, which heads the list with a
maximum crop of million quarters, reaps and thrashes above
a fifth more wheat than all Scotland and Ireland.

For the credit of English husbandry, it will be well to compare
its standard yields of wheat and of barley (the latter estimated
from the same elaborate collection of returns from growers upon
which the produce of wheat is founded) with the yields of those
cereals in foreign countries — this information being supplied in
the Board of Trade Agricultural Returns for 1876.

Estimated Yield per Acre of Wheat and Barley in Imperial
Bushels per Statute Acre in the undermentioned Countries.

Country.

Wheat.

Barley.*

England

29^0

Wales

Scotland

Great Britain .. ..

29^

Ireland

Islands

United Kingdom

291

Holland

28J

Belgium

20J

Wurtemberg

21i

Bavaria

161

Egypt

151

20i

France

131

18|

Greece

131

18f

Austria (Proper)

121

131

Portugal

Hungary

131

Bussia

The density of the stocking with cattle, sheep, and horses,
is shown in the Diagram-map by three colours, each with
four degrees of shading; the facts being calculated from the
Agricultural Returns. It must be understood that the figures
in the Census on the 25th of June, give the head of live-
stock in each county on that day in the middle of the summer,
and not the number which would be found in the county on
an average day ; or, in other words, on an average of the four
seasons. So that Norfolk, for instance, with its small propor-

In Contiucntul countries, barley includes bore.

Practical Agriculture.

465=199

tion of grass-land, appears in the return on the map in the class
of counties possessing the smallest head of horned stock in
proportion to cultivated area ; while Leicestershire, with its very
large proportion of grazing land, appears among the very highest
stocked with cattle. In a winter Census this would be exactly
reversed; Norfolk, with its large proportion of arable land, would
then have in its farmyards a heavy stock of cattle in proportion to
its arable and pasture together ; Leicestershire, with its small pro-
portion of arable, would necessarily have a much smaller number
of cattle, not in proportion to its arable, but in proportion to its
arable and pasture together. As to Norfolk, Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., Mr. C. S.Eead,
in giving evidence before the Select Committee of the House of
Commons on Cattle-Plague and Importation of Live Stock, in the v^inter stock of
present year, said that “ though the agricultural returns may be Norfolk,
satisfactory in the gross, they are misleading when you come to
localities. For instance, they are collected in June, when we in
Norfolk have no cattle. I wrote to three graziers, one in North
Norfolk, one in South Norfolk, and one in West Norfolk, just
at haphazard, to ask them to give me the number of cattle that
they had over two years old that they had returned to the Board
of Trade last June, and the number that they had in the previous
December. The total that they had last month was 98, and the
total that they had last December was 414. Those were over
two years old ; and when it has been so frequently said that
I exaggerate the import of cattle from Ireland to Norfolk, I can
only say that the Great Eastern Railway last year brought into
Norfolk no less than 86,000 stores, and at least two-thirds of
those came from Ireland.”

The figures on the map are given for every 100 acres cul- Density of
tivated ; but the stock are not precisely upon the cultivated
acres, seeing that districts of moorland and mountain graze t^on*to^cult°i-
many cattle as well as sheep upon their uninclosed area ; so that vated area.
Wales, for example, shows a high stocking of both cattle and
sheep in proportion to cultivated area, not because that area is
specially well stocked, but because the animals upon the hills
are included in the returns. But, remembering this unavoidable
disturbing element in the comparison between the stocking of
some, but not of all counties, the facts appear as follows : —

For every hundred acres cultivated there are in summer 25 cattle Cattle,
and above, in Westmoreland, Lancashire, North Wales, Cheshire,

Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Cornwall. There are 15 and
under 25 cattle per 100 acres cultivated in Cumberland, the
North and West Ridings of Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Shrop-
shire, Staffordshire, Herefordshire, South Wales, Monmouth-
shire, Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, Devonshire, Dorsetshire,
Warwickshire, Buckinghamshire, Middlesex, Northampton-

2 E 2

466 = 200

Practical Agriculture.

Sheep.

IIor.ses.

shire, and Rutland. There are 10 and under 15 cattle per 100
acres cultivated in Northumberland, Durham, the East Riding
of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Bedfordshire,
Surrey, Sussex, Wiltshire, Oxfordshire, and Worcestershire.

^ There are under 10 per 100 acres in Cambridgeshire, Norfolk,
Suffolk, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, and Hampshire. The highest
number of cattle is 30^ for every 100 acres in Cheshire and in
Lancashire ; and the lowest 8 to 8^ in Suffolk and Hampshire.
The sheep stocking is thus : flocks of 100 and more for every
100 acres cultivated, are an average in Northumberland, Lincoln-
shire, Cambridgeshire, Rutland, Kent, Dorsetshire, and North
and South W ales. There are between 75 and 100 sheep per 100
acres cultivated in Cumberland, the North Riding of Yorkshire,
Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Herefordshire,
Monmouthshire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire, Sussex, Hampshire,
Wiltshire, Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall. There are
between 50 and 75 sheep per 100 acres cultivated in the West and
East Ridings of Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Norfolk, Suffolk,
Huntingdonshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Gloucester-
shire, Worcestershire, and Shropshire. And there are fewer than
50 sheep per 100 acres cultivated in Lancashire, Cheshire, Derby-
shire, Staffordshire, Essex, Middlesex and Surrey. The highest
stocking of sheep in English counties is 138 per 100 acres in
Westmoreland (which some Welsh counties very much exceed),
and the lowest is 20^ in Cheshire.

Horses used in agriculture, unbroken horses, and mares used
solely for breeding, are in more uniform numbers. There
are 5 and more for every 100 acres cultivated, in the East
Riding of Yorkshire, Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex,
Middlesex, and Cornwall. There are 4 and less than 5 per 100
acres in Durham, Lancashire, North and West Ridings of
Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Cheshire,
Shropshire, North and South Wales, Herefordshire, Monmouth-
shire, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire,
Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Huntingdon-
shire, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hampshire, and Devonshire. There
are 3 J and less than 4 per 100 acres in Cumberland, Staffordshire,
Leicestershire, Rutland, Northamptonshire, Gloucestershire, and
Somersetshire. And there are fewer than 3^ per 100 acres in
Northumberland, Wiltshire, and Dorsetshire. The greatest
strength of teams, in proportion to arable and pasture together, is
5^ to 5| per 100 acres in Cumberland, Cambridgeshire, Norfolk,
Suffolk, and the East Riding of Yorkshire; being mainly due
to the excessive quantity of arable in proportion to the grass ;
and the lowest numbers of horses are 2| and 3 per 100 acres of
cultivated land in Northumberland and Wiltshire.

Practical Agriculture.

AG7 = 201

The comparative high stocking of the kingdom, appears from Head of live-
the following statistics of the number of animals per 100 acres
cultivated in different countries, as calculated from the facts foreign coim-
given in the Agricultural Returns of the Board of Trade. The tries,
second, third, and fourth columns show the number of cattle,
sheep, and horses (not only agricultural horses, but horses of all
kinds, as estimated) for every 100 acres of cultivated area. But
as the proportion of animals kept depends to a considerable
extent upon the amount of uninclosed country, waste, or forest,
which is available for stocking, I have given in the first column
the proportion which the cultivated area bears to the whole
extent of land, exclusive of lakes and rivers.

Number of Animals per 100 Acres Cultivated in different
Countries.

Country.

Percentage of
Total Area,
which is
Cultivated.

Cattle,

per 1 Oo Acres
Cultivated.

Sheep,

per 100 Acres
Cultivated.

Horses of aU
kinds,

per 100 Acres
Cultivated.

England

16-8

75-5

4-4

Wales

23-6

105-6

4-7

Scotland

24-4

150-7

4-1

Great Britain . .

18-5

89-3

4-4

Ireland

26-2

25-5

3-0

United Kingdom ..

211

68-0

4-0

Holland

29-4

18-7

5-0

Denmark

210

31-3

5-3

Belgium

25-5

12-0

5-8

Bavaria

26'9

11-8

3-1

Sweden

llj

18-1

13-5

3-8

Prussia

20-5

46-7

5-4

It will be seen that England has under cultivation a much
greater proportion of its whole superficies of land than any
country in Europe ; that while Wales has a large percentage of
area uninclosed, and Scotland far more, so that only 23 per cent,
of its area is cultivated, Ireland has 77 per cent., or a slightly
larger proportion than England has of area under cultivation ;
the result being that the United Kingdom has under arable and
pasture 62 per cent, of its total area of land, which is about
the same as in Holland and Bavaria (if the official figures for
those countries may be relied on), somewhat less than in
Belgium and Denmark, and much greater than in Prussia.
Thus, in proportion to the total area of land, as well as in pro-
portion to the area under crops and grass, we have in the United
Kingdom as many cattle as Denmark, and twice as many sheep ;
fewer cattle than Bavaria, but six times as many sheep ; and

4bB*= 202

Pftctical Agriculture.

Consumption
of oilcake.

Imports of corn
for feeding.

Imports of

artificial

manure.

fewer cattle than Holland, but nearly four times the number of
sheep. Belg-ium has more cattle than we have, but only one-fifth
of the sheep in proportion to cultivated area. The horse stock
in Holland and Denmark exceeds ours. But an excess of horses
used in agriculture detracts from the produce available as food ;
and, area for area, England raises more animals for the butcher
than any Continental country.

In connection with this high stocking of the farms of the
United Kingdom may be taken the fact, that in the year 1876
we imported 190,225 tons of oilcake, and 1,998,130 quarters of
linseed, all but a portion of it undoubtedly used for feeding
purposes, either as linseed or when made into cakes, and
equivalent, at about 14 tons of cake per 100 quarters of seed,
to about 280,000 tons of oilcake. The linseed and oilcakes
together were equivalent to a year’s consumption of about 470,000
tons, or one ton on every lOO acres of land under cultivation.

The imports of maize amounted to 39,958,000 cwts., valued at
12,744,000/. ; of barley, 9,770,000 cwts. ; of oats, 11,204,000
cwts. ; of peas, 1,609,900 cwts. ; and of beans, 4,601,000 cwts. ;
these grains mainly imported for feeding purposes, with the excep-
tion of a portion of the barley used for brewing and distilling,
being valued at 10,920,000/.

The manures imported in the same year included 211,000
tons of guano, less 53,000 tons exported ; 165,000 tons of nitrate
of soda ; a large proportion of the 4200 tons of bones, burnt or
not, or as animal charcoal and phosphates, and other materials
for the manure-makers not enumerated. But the artificial
manures applied are principally manufactured in this country.

CHAPTEE II.

Prices of Agricultur.\l Products.

Corn Returns. Corn. — A standing complaint of British farmers is brought

against the Corn Returns, or the system by which the average
prices per imperial quarter of British wheat, barley, and oats are
ascertained and declared for the purpose of computing the annual
amount of tithe rentcharge, which is based upon the average of
those prices for the year. The quantities of these different grains
sold, and the prices realised in 150 selected markets, according
to weekly returns received by the inspectors and officers of
Excise, under the Act of 27 and 28 Viet., cap. 87, are not
believed to constitute a fair test of the amount of produce grown,
or of the prices actually made by the growers. Probably a con-
siderable proportion of the corn sold in the samjde markets is
not entered in the returns by the millers and merchants ; many

Practical Agriculture.

469 = 205

of the sales returned are undoubtedly transactions between
factors and merchants or millers, representing therefore higher
figures than have been paid to growers ; and the total quantities
returned as sold in each year do not precisely correspond with
the known abundance or deficiency in the yield of that year.

Another disturbing element is the diversity of weights and mea-
sures in vogue ; and another, the difference between nominal and
actual quantity, which has been introduced by the weights at
which corn is carried on the railways — on both of which sub-
jects I shall have statements to make under the head “ Methods
of Commercial Transactions.” For comparison of one year’s
quotations with another, the corn returns are probably within
near limits of the truth ; they are, at any rate, officially collected,
calculated, and published by Government authority, and are
based upon recorded sales, approaching 2,600,000 quarters of
wheat per annum, or nearly one-fourth of the home-crop really
sent to market.

For sixteen years the prices have ranged as follows ; —

Average Prices of British Wheat, Barley, and Oats, per Imperial Average prices

Quarter, in 150 Towns, in each of the Sixteen Years 1861-76. of grain.

Y^ear.

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

Year.

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

1861

1869

1862

1870

1863

1871

1864

1872

1865

1873

1866

1874

1867

1875

1868

1876

One feature in the corn-trade seems to be the preponderating
influence of the supply and demand of the moment ; so that a
flush of imports at one particular season, or a hurry of home-
grown grain to market during a few exceptional weeks of farmers’
necessities, appears to govern the movement of prices more
powerfully than any great-scale consideration of the year’s
wants and the whole world’s probable supply. It is highly
important, therefore, in connection with the matter of prices, to
look at the annual consumption, and home and foreign supply of
bread-corn for the United Kingdom.

For convenience I have collected into tables the statistics Estimating the
which tell us what the United Kingdom wants in bread-corn and
flour, and what proportions of the total supply depend upon the
home harvest and upon imports respectively. In the first Table,
the first column names eleven harvest years (that is, periods of

410 = £04 Practical Agriculture.

twelve months from September 1st in one year to August 31st
in the next) in which the Board of Trade have obtained “Agri-
cultural Returns.” The second column states the number of
Ij acres under wheat in the United Kingdom, including the islands

I in each year. Whether absolutely correct or not (and we arc

sure that a portion must be guess-work, owing to the number of
occupiers who decline giving the Government any information),
these official figures may be taken as furnishing a tolerably
sound comparison between one year and another ; and from the
way in which enumerators go to work in filling up the blanks
made by defaulting occupiers, probably the statistics of acreage
under different kinds of crops are more exact than the figures
professing to give the numbers of different kinds of live-stock,
The “ assumed yield per acre ” in column three is deduced from
the inquiry made a few years ago, and already alluded to,
embracing estimates from practical farmers in the Poor-law
Unions, forty or fifty per county, as to what constitutes “ an
average crop ; ” and additions or subtractions are made upon
the standard average of 29J bushels per acre, according to the
“ character ” of each year’s crop. The estimates of excess or
deficiency were, of course, obtained from elaborate information
collected in each year. Multiplying the ascertained acreage by
the assumed yield per acre, we get the probable total home
production in each year; and making an allowance for seed of
! nearly bushels upon the next year’s acreage, we arrive at the

probable nett produce available for consumption or export.

J Home crop of ESTIMATED WHEAT PkODUCTION of the UNITED KINGDOM.

wheat in dif- ^

ferent years.

Available for

Year.

Acres.

Assumed Vield per Acre in Bushels.

Consumption, after
deducting ^ed.

In Quarters.

bush.

1866

3,661,000

Under average

11,440,000

1867

3,640,000

Much under

10,390,000

1868

3,951,000

Mucli over average . .

15,790,000

1869

3,982,000

Under average

12,490,000

1870

3,773,000

Over average

14,100,000

1871

3,831,000

Under average

11,970,000

1872

3,840,000

Much under average

10,110,000
10,. 550, 000

1873

3,670,000

Much under

1874

3,833,000

Over average

13,700,000

1875

3,514,000

Mucli under average

9,124,000

1876

3,124,000

Under average

9,665,000

Average of \
11 Years /

3,712,000

Mean of 11 Years

11,757,000

Standard 1
Produce /

3,712,000

29J bushels per Acre.

12,644,000

Practical Agriculture.

Aril = 205

From the Trade and Navigation Accounts we find what were Total home
the imports of wheat and wheat flour available for consumption foieiga
after deducting the exports. These, in round numbers, are
given in my second Table, in the third column. Then, adding
columns two and three together, we have the probable total
quantity of wheat and flour available for consumption in the
United Kingdom in each year. In the last column I have
stated the average price of British wheat in 150 market towns
in a period of twelve months, extending from July 1st to June
30th, that is, from just before harvest in one year to the same
time in the year following.

Estimated Consumption and Home and Foreign Supply of Wheat
for the United Kingdom.

Harvest Year.
September ] . to
August 31.

Home Produce
available for
Consumption in
Quarters.

Imports of Wheat
and Flour,
deducting Exports
in Quarters.

Total available
for Consumption
in Quarters.

Average Price
of British
Wheat for 12
Months, July 1
to June 30.

1866-7

11,440,000

7,600,000

19,040,000

s. d.
58 0

1867-8

10,390,000

9,010,000

19,400,000

69 3

1868-9

15,790,000

7,880,000

23,670,000

51 8

1869-70

12,490,000

9,580,000

22,070,000

45 11

1870-1

14,100,000

7,950,000

22,050,000

53 5

1871-2

11,970,000

9,320,000

21,290,000

55 3

1872-3

10,110,000

11,720,000

21,830,000

57 1

1873-4

10,550,000

11,230,000

21,780,000

61 3

1874-5

13,700,000

11,640,000

25,340,000

46 4

1875-6

9,124,000

13,940,000

23,064,000

46 3

1876-7

9,665,000

12,150,000

21,815,000

55 3

Mean of 1 1 1
Years .. )

11,757,000

10,183,000

21,940,000

54 6

It will be seen that on an average of eleven years, the annual
breadth of land under wheat has been 3,712,000 acres ; and the
yields “under average” have been more numerous than the
yields “ over average,” so that in the last eleven years the crop
has averaged 27^ instead of 29 J bushels per acre. Our standard
average wheat crop, after deduction made for seed, is 12,664,000
quarters ; but the average of the last ten years has not been more
than 11,757 ,000 quarters. The average importation (less exports)
ior the last ten years has been about 10,183,000 quarters ; but
for the last few years we have imported about 1^ to 2^ million
quarters a year more than the average, the maximum of
14,081,175 quarters of wheat and wheat-flour, not deducting
exports, having been attained in the harvest year ended August
31st, 1876.

The estimated total consumption averages 21,940,000 quarters ;

4,72 = 206

Practical Agriculture.

Fluctuations
in the supply.

Supplies ami
prices.

and allowing for increased population, and also for an advance
in the quantity of wheaten bread displacing lower qualities of
food, we may set down the prospective yearly consumption at

22.500.000 up to 23,500,000 quarters — varying according to the
high or low range of prices. For though the consumption of
bread is probably more uniform than that of any other article,
still it must vary to some extent, according to its cheapness or
dearness, and the money position of the industrial population
who eat most of it ; and besides, there is also a considerable use i
of wheat for feeding animals in years like the last, when wheat
happens to be exceptionally cheap.

Reproducing here what I have written elsewhere, I may point
to the circumstance that in the first two j-ears of the series the I
total supply ran rather short. The immense harvest of 1868,
being met by only a small importation, gave about 2,000,000
quarters more than the usual consumption required ; and as the
total supply in the next year just equalled that year’s consump-
tion, the balance of 2,O0O,OOO remained over towards feeding
the wants of the harvest year 1870-71. Again, the great home !
harvest of 1870, met by only a small importation, gave a total
supply equal to the consumption ; so that there was still a surplus '
of about 2,000,000 quarters left over toward the consumption of
the harvest year 1871-72. Now, in that year, a deficient har-
vest, with a moderately large importation, yielded a total supply
which fell short of the consumption ; a still worse home crop in
1872, amounting to only 10,110,000 quarters, was met by a very
large importation, namely, ll,72O,O0O quarters, but still fell
short of a full consumption ; and another home harvest nearly
as bad in 1873, though supplemented by an importation of

11.230.000 quarters, did not provide up to a full consumption.

So that the whole surplus supply of 2,000,000 quarters must
have been all swallowed up ; and, moreover, it is impossible
that there could have remained at the close of the harvest year
1873—74 a balance of any moment toward the supply of the
year 1874-75. What happened in that year? Providence
blessed us with a magnificent yield, amounting to 13,700,000
quarters ; but, what we have never experienced before, this
was accompanied by a large importation ; indeed, the then un-
precedented quantity of 11,640,000 quarters — making together
a total supply of 25,340,000 quarters — the biggest known up to
that time, and 2,000,000 or 3,000,000 quarters more than the
consumption required. The causes of this immense importation
Avere, the exceptionally good harvests in the principal corn-
exporting countries, and the extra groAvth of wheat and extra i
shipments of wheat stimulated and enticed by four year’s pro-
gressive rise in prices in this country. As will be seen on |

Practical Agriculture.

473 = 207

reference to the last column of the Table, the average price rose
from 45s. \\d. in 1869-70 to 53s. bd. in 1870-71, 55s. 3<7. in
1871-72, 57s. Id. in 1872-73, and 61s. 3d. in 1873-74, and this
in spite of a great importation both in 1872-73 and in 1873-74.

The surplus of that year’s enormous supply (stored up in our
granaries and mills under our free commercial system, which
imposes no customs duty on imported food) was not so much
as 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 quarters, because the drop in price
from 61s. 3d. down to 46s. 4d., which was the average for the
year 1874-75, induced not only an augmented consumption of
bread, but a very large appropriation of wheat for feeding
' animals. Taking these points into consideration, it does not
appear probable that more than 1,500,000 quarters remained over
from the supply of that year toward the consumption of 1875-76.

The home growth for 1875-76, I estimated at only 9,124,000
quarters available for consumption. Unfortunately, the harvest
yielded not only a wretched quantity per acre, but a quality so
generally inferior that we had a much larger proportion of tail
corn than usual ; intimating that, in the absence of a handsome
rise in price, an exceptionally great quantity of inferior wheat
was ground for feeding animals.

An importation far greater than even the immense arrivals
of 1874-75 was required ; and it came to the extent of about
13,940,000 quarters, when the exports were deducted, though
the price kept down at about 46s. per quarter. Nevertheless, in
spite of this, the total supply barely reached the average quantity ;
and little surplus can have remained over toward the supply of
the year 1876—77. Then, a harvest in 1876, somewhat below
an average, left another vast importation a necessity ; but it did
not follow that, because an average price of 46s. 3c?. had been
sufficient to attract to our shores the unprecedented imports
of 1875—76 which foreign countries spared out of their super-
abundance, would again be a sufficient inducement for shipments
of a like bulk. The average has risen to 55s. 3c?. per quarter
from September 1876, to June 1877 ; and yet the total arrivals
(less exports) have scarcely exceeded 12,000,000 quarters, leaving
the total supply for the year ending August 1877, a million
quarters below the average consumption. The prospects for the
next year are opening with a home crop of variable yield, late
harvested, and threatening to thrash out one-fifth below an
average, and necessitating an importation in 1877-78 approach-
ing 13,000,000 quarters. The price must be just what is
enough to draw the requisite cargoes from other countries ; this,
of course, depending upon many conditions beside the character
of the harvest in foreign lands.

Of barley, the standard average yield per acre, as estimated Home produc-
tion of barley.

Barley imports
and prices.

474 = 205 Practical Agriculture,

from the returns I collected a few years ago, is 37 bushels, the
total produce of the United Kingdom amounting to 11,668,000
quarters (without deducting for seed), grown upon an average
area of 2,523,000 acres. One-half of this quantity is produced
by fourteen English counties, as stated in the annexed Table,
while over one-fourth is grown by the four counties — Yorkshire,
Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and Essex.

Acres.

Average of Five
Years.

Yield per
Acre in an
Average
Season.

Average
Production in
Imperial
Quarters.

Yorkshire

187,000

Bushels.

911,000

Norfolk

188,000

36J

857,000

Lincolnshire

146,000

39^

717,000

Essex

101,000

39J

498,000

Total in the four Counties . .

622,000

2,983,000

Suffolk

132,000

594,000

Devonshire

82,000

307,000

Wiltshire

65,000

300,000

Hampshire

63 , 000

36i

287,000

Cambridgeshire

55,000

39^

271,000

Oxfordshire

51,000

39^

251,000

Northamptonshire

52,000

38J

250,000

Nottinghamshire

47,000

250,000

Cornwall

52,000

208,000

Kent

41,000

205,000

Total in the fourteen Counties

1,262,000

••

5,696,000

In the remaining twenty-six counties ..

624,000

••

3,001,000

England

1,886.000

8,697,000

Wales

162,000

749,000

Scotland

239,000

1,105,000

Ireland

219,000

1,012,000

United Kingdom and Islands

2,523,000

11,668,000

In estimating the probabje barley yield it is necessary to
determine what this grain will be required for ; as in some
seasons the proportion of good malting barley to tail will be,
perhaps, as low as 1 per cent, of the latter, in which case the
grain is usually first-rate ; or it may extend to as high as 15 per
cent., and then the crop is always indifferent.

The quantity of barley imported in 1875 was 3,094,000 quar-
ters, and in 1876 it was 2,736,000 quarters; so that we import
only about one-sixth to one-fifth of an average total supply ; and
the price therefore depends chiefly upon the quantity and quality
of the home crop ; — a condition of the market which does not

Practical Agriculture.

475 = 209

apply to wheat. The average price, as given in the Corn
Returns, was, for 1876, 35s. 2d. per quarter; for 1875, 38s. 5^f.,
and for 1874, 44s. Wd. per quarter.

Meat. — The statistics of the London Christmas market for Advance in the
thirty-six years indicates the advance which has taken place in meat,

the price of meat.

Year.

Beasts.

Price per Stone of
8 lbs.

Year.

Beasts.

Price per Stone of
8 lbs.

1841

4,. 500

1860

7,860

4 ,,

1842

4,541

1861

8,840

4 ,,

1843

4,510

1862

8,430

4 ,,

1844

5.713

1863

10,372

6 ,,

1845

5,326

1864

7,130

8 ,,

1846

4,570

1865

7,530

4 ,,

1847

4,282

1866

7,340

8 ,,

1848

5,942

1867

8,110

4 ,,

1849

5,765

1868

5,320

4 ,,

1850

6,341

1869

6,728

6 ,,

1851

6,103

1870

6,425

6 ,,

1852

6,271

1871

6,320

10 ,,

1853

7,037

1872

7,560

6 ,,

1854

6,181

1873

6,170

4 ,,

1855

7,000

1874

6,570

4 ,,

1856

6,748

0 !

1875

7,660

4 ,,

1857

6,856

8 j

1876

7,020

4 ,,

1858

6,424

1877

7,510

6 ,,

1859

7,560

4 1

London
Christmas
market for
thirty-seven
years.

But the advance in prices is greater than appears from this
statement of quotations for choice Christmas animals. In the Summer
principal British markets in summer for twenty-six years, the

* , , j j > twenty-si-v

current rates were : — years.

Year.

Beef.
Per lb.

Mutton.
Per lb.

Year.

Beef.
Per lb.

Mutton.
Per lb.

1849

1864

1851

1868

1855

1871

1859

1875

These are the estimated average prices paid to the feeder or
his representative for the live animal.

The wholesale price by the carcass of prime beef and mutton
in the Metropolitan Meat Market per stone of 8 lbs., has in-
creased, as in the following comparison made by Sir H. S.

Advance of
prices in the
Metropolitan
market.

Mr. James
Howard on the
advance in
price.

Estimating the
home produc-
tion of meat.

476 = 2 JO Practical Agriculture.

Thompson in 1864, and completed by j\Ir. James Howard
in 1876 : —

Wholesale Price of Prime Meat per Stone of 8 lbs. in the Metropolitan
Market in the Undermentioned Periods.

Kind of
Meat by the
Carcass.

Average
Price for
5 Years
ending
1853.

Average
Price for
5 Years
ending
]863.

Increase in
10 Years.

Average
Price lor
5 Years
ending
1873.

Increase in
20 Years.

Average
Price
for 1874
and 1875.

Increase in
22 Y’eurs.

s. d.

Price.

Per

cent.

s. d.

Price.

Per

cent.

s. d.

Price.

Per

cent.

Beef. . . .

4 2*

5 0^

5 tii

5 8i

35i

Mutton ..

4 S

5 9

6 4

6 5

In a Paper read before the London Farmers’ Club last year,
Mr Howard observed upon this statement, that between 1853
and 1863, an advance of 20 per cent, took place, in the Metro-
politan Market, in the price of prime beef in the carcass, and as
much as 30 per cent, in mutton. In the following ten years,
viz., to 1873, the total advance was 32 per cent, in beef, and
42 per cent, in mutton. The prices in 1875 were, again, higher
than in 1873 ; beef having advanced \d. and mutton ^d. per lb.
and he adduced the following in corroboration : — “ From the
examination of the books of a large country butcher, placed at
my disposal, I find that during the past twenty-five years the
retail price of meat has increased 4cf. to bd. per lb., and, sin-
gularly enough, it has risen by gradual steps. At the end of
each five years the advance has been just about Id. per lb. Of
course, during this long period there have been occasional checks
to this upward tendency, but these have invariably been of short
duration. I may say that, from inquiries I have made, the
advances in London butchers’ prices correspond closely to those
I have named.”

In evidence before the Select Committee of the House of
Commons on Contagious Diseases of Animals, in 1873, I gave
an estimate of the Annual Home Production of Meat ; and, by
inquiries subsequently made respecting the ages at which
animals are killed, and their average dead-weights, I have been
enabled to confirm, while to some extent correcting, that estimate
of what the United Kingdom annually raises in beef, mutton,
veal, lamb, and pork.

Taking the Board of Trade Census of cattle and sheep as a
basis for calculation (though it probably falls below the actual
numbers, owing to the large proportion of stockowners who
decline to fill up returns, and whose herds and flocks have
therefore to be guessed at by the enumerators), we have the
number of breeding cows and heifers described as “ in milk or

Practical Agriculture.

477 = 211

in calf,” the number of calves and young cattle “ under two
years of age,” and the number of other cattle “ two years of age
and above,” as found in the United Kingdom on June 25th.

How many veal calves, and how many fatted cattle, and drafted
cows and heifers, and bulls, does our great herd yield annually for
the butcher ? And what are average weights per carcass, by which
to estimate the total weight of beef and veal? Again, what
proportion of the total number of sheep and lambs enumerated
on June 25th is annually converted into mutton, what number
of lambs are killed, and what is the average weight per carcass
for mutton and for lamb? To answer these questions requires
information of an elaborate character upon which to build
, general estimates ; and it is a difficult problem, not an easy
computation, to deduce from the figures taken on one particular
date in the year what are the proportions of different classes of
animals annually killed.

In the Returns, there are 100 cows and heifers in calf or in
milk in every 251 of the total herd, but only 48 calves for each
100 dams ; and this is a puzzling feature of the Census until a
scheme is constructed in conformity with, and therefore verified
by the number of cattle of different ages found existing in June.

This can be done by allowing for the greater proportion of
heifers added to the breeding stock, the greater number of
calves dropped, and the greater number of dams drafted for
fattening, in some seasons of the year than in others. The
assumed hypothesis on the several points was confirmed by the
information and opinions obtained from a large number of
breeders in many different counties ; and the same was the case
with respect to the rates of mortality at different ages, and the
I proportion of cattle killed at different ages.

Among the probably sound data thus obtained, for calculating Data for calcu-
our home production of meat from the numbers of animals found
at the Census in June, are the following: — Of every 100 cows cattle killed.'
and heifers 38^ per cent, calve in the first quarter of the year ;

37^ per cent, calve in the second quarter ; 10^ per cent, in the
third quarter ; and 13^ per cent, in the fourth quarter of the
year ; 100 cows give 80 calvings in a year ; they are drafted
for the butcher after four calvings, or five years of breeding ;
and their mortality is 8 per cent, per year.

The average mortality of calves in their first year is 11 per
cent. ; 16 per cent, of the total drop of calves are killed for veal,
and the average age of veal calves when killed is two months.

Of cattle killed, not including drafted cows, 50 per cent, are two
to three years old, 42 per cent, are three to four years old, and
8 per cent., including bulls, are older.

The results of the whole calculation, which need not be given

A1% = 212

Practical Agriculture.

Number of
calves and
cattle killed.

Estimated
average dead-
weights of
cattle.

Number and
weights of
sheep and
lambs killed.

Number and
weight of pigs
killed.

Total home
supply of meat.

Foreign

animals

imported,

in detail here, appear in the subjoined Tables, which I quote
from numbers of the ‘ Chamber of Agriculture Journal and
Farmer’s Chronicle,’ for October, 1875.

This scheme accounts for the number of dams enumerated at
the Census in June, the number of young animals enumerated as
“ one year old and under two years ” (as in the Irish Census), the
number enumerated as “ under two years old,” and the number
of cattle enumerated as “ two years old and above and no
calculation very different from this will fit the facts as revealed
in the Board of Trade Returns. The result brought out is that,
of our home stock in the United Kingdom, we annually kill for
meat 436,400 veal calves, 528,300 draft cows and heifers, and
970,600 other cattle and bulls.

From the opinions collected from breeders and graziers of
many different varieties of cattle in England and Scotland, and
from other inquiries made by Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., I average
the dead-weight of veal calves at 8 imperial stones, of cattle
two to three years old at 40 imperial stones per head ; cattle three
to four years old, 54 imperial stones per head ; older cattle and
bulls, 64 stones ; and draft cows, 50 stones per head.

From the information collected with regard to sheep, I con-
clude that of the total fall of lambs 18 per cent, are killed for
“ lamb,” at the average age of fifteen weeks, with an average
dead-weight of 3 imperial stones ; that the average age of sheep
(excepting drafted ewes), when killed, is 21 months, and of
ewes 5^ years ; and that the average dead-weight of sheep, of all
breeds and ages (except lambs) is 5^ imperial stones per head.
Of the 18 per cent, of lambs killed, 13 are probably killed
before the census, leaving only 5 per cent, to be enumerated in
the June returns. Allowing for mortality, which in breeding
flocks is very heavy, and for the enumeration of ewes five times,
and of other sheep, including rams, twice, the result comes out
that, for 33,000,000 sheep and lambs, of which about one-third
are lambs, enumerated in June, there are annually killed about
2,000,000 lambs, and about 7,000,000 sheep.

The probable, though very uncertain, yearly produce from
pigs, I vary from a calculation of Sir H. S. Thompson and Mr.
James Howard ; — namely, 3,000,000 sucking pigs and porkers,
averaging 5 imperial stones dead-weight, at 5 months old, and
1,800,000 bacon pigs averaging 20 stones at 1;^ years old. The
estimated total home supply of meat appears, then, in the
Table on p. 39.

The foreign supply is known, as far so numbers of animals
and weights of dead meat are concerned, from the Trade and
Navigation Accounts. Of the imported live animals no record
is kept of the proportion killed soon after arrival, and the

of Cows and Hkifebs in the United Kingdom and the Numbee Annually Deafted for Meat.

Practical Agriculture,

479 = 215

[2;

VOL. XIV.

Total

Number of
Drafted Cows
for Meat.

::::::

528,300

Number of
Drafted Cows
enumerated
as “ Two Years
old and above.”
Mortality at the
Rate of 8 per Cent. :
per Year deducted.

64,303

'Th

Number of
Drafted Cows
killed for Meat
before the Census.

Mortality at the
Rate of 8 per Cent,
per Year deducted.

279,700

184,300

Dams

enumerated at
the Census on
June 25 tb.

807.000

740.500

683.500

631.000

579.000

259.000

3,700,000

Dams
Calving in
the Fourth
Quarter.

102,000

93,500

86,000

79.000

72.000

67.000

499,500

Dams
Calving in
the Third
Quarter.

90.000

83.000
77,500

72.000

66.000
None

388,500

Dams Calving
in the Second
Quarter.

325.000

299.000

276.000
254,500

233.000
None

Dams Calving
in the

First Quarter of
the Year.

290.000

265.000

244.000
225,500

208.000
192,000

1,424,500

a u

o p.

C !-■

■s. s.

2 L

of Calves Dbopped per Ybab, and Numbeb probably Killed for

Practical Agriculture.

iS0 = 214

Number of Young Cattle enumerated at the Census as “ Under Two Years Old.’

Practical Agriculture.

481 =

... S 2

pO tn

H2
5 1-0

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H -t)

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a“o1

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<0 •« e3 " g

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482 = 216

Practical Agriculture.

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A rTTGiiics ijAAii^s, uud iflO's, ftnuually killccf

for Meat in the United Kingdom.

)

Practical Agriculture. 483 = 217

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Practical Agriculture.

Importation
ot' dead meat.

Total meat
supply.

proportion kept as stores or dairy stock ; but, after deduction for
mortality of the few stores and of the cows, all are ultimately ,
turned into meat ; and I here adopt the average dead weights as i
valued by Mr. C. S. Read, and corrected by my own inquiries. I
And I have, too liberally, allowed as high a price per lb. for the |
foreign as for home-bred animals.

Of dead meat we imported in the year, 1876,

Cwts.

Beef, fresh or slightly salted 170,711

Fresh pork 26,539

Meat, principally fresh mutton 95,400

Meat preserved otherwise than hy salting .. .. 280,859

Total Fresh Meat 573,509

Beef, salted 243,342

Pork salted 350,151

Bacon 2,809,990

Hams 349,455

Total Salted Meat, &c 3,752, 398

Total Dead Meat, &c 4,326,447

The Estimated Total Meat Supply of the United Kingdom,
in an average of grazing seasons, and at the rate of importation
of the year 1876, is therefore, as follows : —

Estdiated Average Annual Meat Supply of the United Kingdom,
with the relative Proportions furnished by Home Animals,
Imported Live Animals, and Imported Dead Meat.

Weight in
Tons.

Per Cent.

Meat from Home Animals

1,147,063

Meat from Imported Live Animals

93,138

Imported Fresh Meat

28,675

Imported Salt Meat

187,646

Total Meat Supply

1,456,522

100

But the importation of Fresh Meat has been considerabl)
more than doubled in eleven months of the year 1877.

The population of the United Kingdom being now about
33,000,000, the average consumption of fresh and salt meat,
according to this estimate, is about 7 imperial stones per head.

Estimated Meat Supply furnished by Imported Foreign Live Animals.

Practical Agriculture.

485 = 2i9

Value of Meat.

• • •

4,559,380

2,192,316

123,825

6,875,521

Price per Ton.

: : :

(J^d. per lb.)
84

(9d. per lb.
65

(7d. per lb.)

Weight of
Meat in
Tons.

: : :

65,134

26,099

1,905

93,138

Weight of Meat in
Imperial Stones.

7,772,068

2,310,800

308,686

10,421,554

4,165,976

304,906

—

Average
Dead Weight
per Head
in Imperial
Stones.

. O

Number.

168,958

58,520

44,098

271,576

1,041,494

43,558

Animals Imported in 1876. “

Oxen and Bulla

Calves

Total Cattle

Sheep and Lambs

Pigs

Total Imported Foreign Animals

Mr. J. C. Mor-
ton’s estimates,

Cheese.

486 = 220 Practical Agriculture.

But undoubtedly a considerable proportion of the salted meat is
exported for consumption on board ship.

Dairy Products. — The total Dairy Produce of England can
be only roughly estimated. In the Society’s ‘Journal’ in 1875,
Mr. John Chalmers Morton approximately summed up the milk
industry of England alone, from a consideration of the probable
average yield of milk per cow. In 1874 the census found in
June in the English counties 1,614,477 cows or heifers in-milk
or in-calf. Assuming an average yield of 420 gallons of milk
annually drawn per cow, which is probably no more than is given
by the average cow beyond the requirements of her calf, and
considering the comparatively low production for dairy purposes
of Herefordshire, Devonshire, Sussex, and some other suckling
counties, the quantity of milk dealt with in English dairies is,
upon the whole, not more than 650,000,000 gallons annually.
Taking the average daily consumption of a mixed population
at one-6fth of a pint each, or nearly 9 gallons yearly, the

21.500.000 of people in England drink, or swallow in puddings
and other cookeries, nearly-one-third of this milk, leaving not
more than 450,000,000 gallons for the manufacture of butter
and cheese. Mr. Morton considers that the whole cheese-making
of the country is from the milk of about 450,000 cows, mainly
in Cheshire, Lancashire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Derby-
shire, Leicestershire, Shropshire, Gloucestershire, Berkshire,
Somersetshire, and Wiltshire ; and as these cows probably yield
more than an average quantity of milk, while in the cheese-
districts the calf is taken away from the mother earlier than
elsewhere, and that the breeds encouraged are such as give quan-
tity rather than extreme richness of milk, it may be fairly
assumed that the average yield per cow is as much as 480 gallons
per annum. Of course the average of well-kept cows is much
higher — some dairymen getting 600 or 700 gallons, while there
are instances of cows yielding 900 and 1000 gallons each in a
year, when fed purposely for giving large quantities of milk.
This makes the total quantity of milk employed in cheese-
making in England nearly 220,000,000 gallons ; equal to the
manufacture of nearly as many pounds of cheese. If the whole
of the United Kingdom may be taken to make 250,000,000 lbs.,
or 2,232,000 cwts., this is about one-half more than the

1.540.000 cwts. imported in 1876. At an average price of
37. 15s. per cwt., the value of the annual home product of cheese
will be 8,370,0007.

Cheshire, Cheddar, and Stilton cheeses, of a quality considered
close to perfection in texture, flavour, and aroma, are produced
by only a small proportion of the dairies of England ; and the
bulk of the cheese sold at the great periodical markets is classed as

Practical Afjriculture.

AST = 221

of medium or inferior quality. The prices current on the first
Saturday in January 1877 from the latest market sales were —
fine new Cheddar, 6O5. to 94s. per cwt. ; fine new Cheshire,

78s. to 90s. per cwt. ; fine new Wiltshire, 74s. to 82s. per cwt.

There are no data available for computing the total pro- Butter,
duction of butter. But it is considered by some authorities that
the average yearly produce per cow, when well kept, in milk
and butter, and the value of her calf, reaches from 16/. to 18/.

Milk is commonly retailed in towns at Is. Ad. per gallon, which
is nearly double the price obtained by the country dairyman
who supplies the town milk-vendors wholesale. The price of
fresh butter commonly varies from Is. to Is. Qd. per pound ; and
the prices of Irish butter in January 1877 were from 120s. to
160s. per cwt., according to quality.

fVool. — What is the annual production of wool in England Earl Cathoai t
and in the United Kingdom? Statisticians on the subject
believe that, within the last twenty years, a considerable change
has taken place in the average weights of fleeces, partly owing
to improved breeding, in all counties suitable for the heavier
classes of sheep, and partly from an extension of crossing with
larger breeds. And it is considered that the average varies from
' year to year as much as from a quarter to half a pound per
' fleece, according to season. Earl Cathcart, in his Paper on
“ Wool in Relation to Science with Practice,” in the Society’s
‘Journal’ for 1875, gave an estimate of home-grown wool,
taking the weights of fleece from Messrs. J. and J. Hubbard
of Bradford, and applying them to the average numbers of sheep
1 returned for each county in 1867, 1868, and 1869.

I have now calculated and give in tabular form the figures for
the average number of sheep in 1875 and 1876.

' From unwashed wool a deduction of one-third is made, to
arrive at the weight of clean wool ; and the average weights of
fleece allow for sheep being slaughtered at all times of the year —
so that, on an average, their fleeces do not attain a full or mature
weight.

According to this estimate, the 13,758,000 sheep in England Home produc-
and Wales, one-year old and upwards, produce on an average
78,976,000 lbs. of wool, the average weight of fleece being
about 5| lbs. ; and the 18,448,000 sheep in Great Britain pro-
duce 22,277,000 lbs. of wool, with a weight of fleece averaging
about 5^ lbs. While the 4,690,000 sheep of Scotland yield
I fleeces averaging 4| lbs., the 3,000,000 sheep of Ireland are
I considered to yield fleeces averaging 6 lbs. : and the totals
for the United Kingdom are 21,492,000 sheep, one-year old and
upwards, yielding 119,473,000 lbs. of wool, averaging about
5^ lbs. per fleece. At a ten years’ average price of English wool.

488 = 222 Practical Agriculture.

Estimated Aveeage Home Peoduotion of Wool,

Number of

ConKir.

Sheep
1 Year Old
and above,
Average of
1875 and

Average

Weight

Fleece.

Pounds of
Wool.

Hemabks.

1876.

Bedfordshire . .
Berkshire . . .

Buckinghamshire .

464,000

2,784,000

( Half-breds, 6 to 7 lbs.

Cambridgeshire .

211,000

1,266,000

4 Leicesters, 7 to 8 lbs.
(Downs, 4 to 44 lbs.

Cheshire . . .

68,000

272,000

Cornwall . . .

269,000

2,017,000

(Unwashed, and one-third allowed
( off for clean wool.

Cumberland . .

357,000

1,785,000

Derbyshire . .

160,000

'840i000

(Unwashed, one-third allowed off
( for clean wool.

Devonshire . .

611,000

4,582,000

Dorsetshire , ,

333,000

1,581,000

( Homs, 5i lbs.
\ Downs, 3i lbs.

Durham . . .

136,000

544,000

Essex ....

257,000

1,285,000

(Kents and half-breds, 5 to 6 lbs.
(Downs, 3 to 4 lbs.

Gloucestershire .

262,000

1,834,000

Hampshire . .

372,000

2,232,000

Herefordshire . .

210,000

1,155,000

Hertfordshire . .

118,000

590,000

{ Half-breds, 5 to 6 lbs.
( Downs, 4 to 44 lbs.

Huntingdonshire .

99,000

668,000

Kent ....

650,000

3,900,000

Lancashire . •

199,000

1,094,000

Leicestershire •

288,000

2,144,000

Lincolnshire . .

933,000

7,46t,000

Middlesex . . .

27,000

135,000

f Half-breds, 5^^ to 7 lbs.
( Downs, 4 to 4i^ lbs.

Moninouthshire •

137,000

21^

342,000

Norfolk . . .

402,000

1,608,000

fHalf-breds, 6 lbs.
(Downs, 3 to 4 lbs.

Northamptonshire

337,000

2,022,000

L W *

Northumberland .

573,000

3,438.000

Nottinghamshire .

163,000

1,018,000

Oxfordshire . .

199,000

1,094,000

Eutland . . .

66.000

462,000

Shropshire . . .

296.000

1,628,000

Somersetshire . .

488,000

3,4)6,000

Staffordshire . .

182,000

1,048,000

Suffolk ....

264,000

1,254,000

(Half-breds, 6 lbs.
(Downs, 4 to 54 lbs.

Surrey ....

67,000

268,000

Sussex ....

362,000

1,448,000

Warwickshire .

233,000

1,339,000

Westmoreland .

217,000

1,085,000

Wiltshire . . .

440,000

1,540,000

Worcestershire .

137,000

753,000

East Elding of Yorkshire

294,000

2,499,000

( Masbam, 5 lbs.

( bcotcb, 4 to 4^ lbs.

North Hiding of Yorkshire

436,000

2, 507, coo

West Hiding of Yorkshire

441,000

2,535,000

C General average as per Mr,
t Bottomley’s estimate in 1870.

Wales ....

•

2,000,000

9,5^0,000

Total, England
Wales . .

and)

13,758,000

78,976,000

Scotland

•

4,690,000

22,277,000

( General average, as per Mr.
( Bottomley's estimate in 1870.

Total, Great Britain

18,448,000

101,253.000

Ireland

3,000,000

18,000,000

Isle of Man and Chan- )
nel Islands . • • )

44,000

220,000

Total, United Kingdom

21,492,000

119,473,000

Practical Agriculture.

489 = 223

according to the Bradford Chamber of Commerce, of 19;^c?. per
lb., the value of the average annual product of wool of the United
Kingdom is 4,604, OOOZ.

The heaviest average fleeces are in the East Riding of Yorkshire, Weight from
8^ lbs. ; Lincolnshire, 8 lbs. ; Cornwall, 7^ lbs. ; Devonshire, different
lbs. ; Gloucester, 7 lbs. ; Rutland, 7 lbs. ; Somersetshire,

7 lbs. The lightest are in Monmouthshire, 2^ lbs. ; Wiltshire, '

Si lbs. ; Cheshire, 4 lbs. ; Durham, 4 lbs. ; Norfolk, 4 lbs. ; Sur-
rey, 4 lbs. ; Sussex, 4 lbs. The largest county flocks of sheep,
one-year old and above, are in Lincolnshire, 933,000 ; Kent,

650,000; Devonshire, 610,000; Northumberland, 573,000.

And the greatest produce of wool comes from counties in the
following order, namely, Lincolnshire, 7,464,000 lbs. ; Devon-
shire, 4,582,000 lbs. ; Kent, 3,900,000 lbs. ; Northumberland,

3.438.000 lbs. ; Somersetshire, 3,416,000 lbs. ; West Riding
of Yorkshire, 2,535,000 lbs., North Riding of Yorkshire,

2.507.000 lbs. ; East Riding of Yorkshire, 2,499,000 lbs.

Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, yielding 7,500,000 lbs. each,

with Devonshire 4,500,000 lbs., produce a fourth of all the wool
clipped in England and Wales ; and very nearly half the wool
of England and VYales is from ten counties, namely, Northum-
berland, Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Northampton-
shire, Kent, Hampshire, Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Corn-
wall. More wool is clipped in Lincolnshire and Leicestershire
than in all Wales; more wool in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and
Kent than in all Ireland ; and as much wool in Yorkshire,
Lincolnshire, Kent, and Somersetshire as in all Scotland.

While the average home production of wool is 119,473,000 lbs., imports and
the export of British and Irish wool is about 10,000,000 lbs. exports,
per year ; leaving available for home manufacture about

110.000. 000 lbs. In the year 1876 the imports were from Austra-
lia, 264,000,000 lbs. ; from South Africa, 42,000,000 lbs. ; from
Europe, 36,000,000 lbs. ; from India, 24,000,000 lbs. ; and from
other countries, 20,000,000 lbs., making a total of 386,000,000 lbs.

The exports of foreign and colonial wool amounted to

173.000. 000 lbs., making the imports available for manufacture,

213.000. 000 lbs. An average foreign supply during the last
three years is about 200,000,000 lbs. ; so that the total annual
supply of wool may be taken at about 310,000,000 lbs., of which

110.000. 000 lbs. are of home growth.

As to the comparative value of different wools, a Bradford Values of dif-
authority stated the price of different descriptions of wool for ferent wools,
the year 1872 as exhibited in the Table on p. 46. But in that
year there was less difference between the value of lighter
wool and that of other deep wools, as Irish and Warwick, than
is usually the case.

490 = 224 Practical Agriculture.

Comparative Prices of Wool in 1872, per Tod of 284 lbs.

Highest.

Lowest.

Average,

s. d.

Lincoln, Hop’g

65 0

64 0

„ Wether

60 0

59 0

Irish, Hogg

26 6

20 3

,, Wt^her

25 6

25 3

Stafford, Warwick, and Midland

Counties pasture-wool generally —

Hogg

63 0

61 6

Wether

59 0

58 0

Half-breds, Norfolk, &c. —

» Hogg

, .

59 0

„ Wether

55 0

Downs —

» Hogg

55 0

,, Wether

••

49 0

Poultry. — It would be futile to attempt any estimate of the
total production of eggs, of poultry for the table, and of feathers ;
though M. Leonce de Lavergne, in his ‘ Rural Economy of
England,’ ventured to state the annual produce of our birds (not
including game) at 8OO,000Z. ; and Dr, Wynter, in his ‘Curiosities
of Civilisation,’ enumerated 2,000,000 fowls, 350,000 ducks,
104,000 turkeys and 100,000 geese, as sold yearly in the London
markets. It is true, however, that poultry-keeping and even
bird-farming have very greatly extended of late years ; that
attention to this branch of the farmer’s business has substituted
good management for neglect throughout most parts of the
kingdom ; and that, as a result of the still increasing taste for
breeding and exhibiting the most perfect and highly developed
specimens of native and imported varieties, valuable and profit-
able birds of pure breed, or crosses from properly matched breeds,
have largely taken the place of inferior poultry which possessed
no merit either as egg-layers, mothers, or table-birds. The
demands of great cities for dainty diet have encouraged im-
provements in poultry production, till Surrey and Sussex no
longer enjoy a monopoly of high prices for early chickens ;
Buckinghamshire, which annually raises hundreds of thousands
of its milk-white Aylesbury ducks, is imitated by other counties
able to supply the large centres of population in the North ;
Christmas turkeys and geese are grazed in flocks and fattened
for the market in other parts of England besides the eastern
counties ; Dorking fowls, or crosses between Dorking and
Brahma, or between Dorking and Cochin, are sent to market from

Practical Agricalture.

491 = 225

all parts of the country, of perhaps double the average weight of
the birds killed a few years ago ; and the home egg-trade has very Eggs,
greatly increased, though there exist no figures by which it can
be compared with the enormous importation. In the year 1876
we imported from the Continent, chiefly from France, 6,274,924
“ great hundreds ” of eggs, at ten dozen per hundred, amounting
to no fewer than 752,990,880 eggs, or more than 2,000,000 eggs
per day. The Custom-house valuation of the year’s import was
2,610,231/., at 8s. 4(7. per ten dozen.

Ordinary prices are, for fowls, 5s. to 15s. per couple, according
to size and season ; ducks, 6s. to 10s. per couple ; geese, 8s. to
12s. each ; and turkeys, 10s. to 16s. each.

CHAPTER III.

Management of Cattle.

While under the first division of this paper I have briefly
sketched the characteristic features of English husbandry, its
soils, crops, and breeds of animals, I collect here the principal
points of information to be given with respect to the breeding,
rearing, and fattening of live-stock, — reserving, however, the
subjects of dairying and summer grazing for the separate section
on Pastoral and Dairy Farming.

At what age Cattle commence Breeding. — Practice varies much Age wheu
as to the precise age when heifers first begin to breed. Of beginning to
course by placing them in a breeding condition at too early an ‘ '

age, their growth is stunted, their constitution is weakened, and
the progeny are not well developed in size and stamina. The
greater injury is suffered by the female. As a general rule, a
bull is not used before he is a year and a half old, and a heifer
is not put to the bull till she is two years old. But this rule has
to be varied from. Thus, when the female is to be a milker,
she is commonly allowed another half-year ; that is, her calf
comes when she is between three and four years old. The
reason for this is that milking by hand exhausts the cow more
than suckling, a calf seldom milking its mother dry ; the maturer
cow can better stand the drain, and at the same time can better
nourish the foetus of her next calf. The other variation from the
rule is when the animals are not to be afterwards retained for
the herd. High-fed heifers may be put to the bull at under two
years old ; otherwise they may probably miss breeding at all.

The Season chosen for Calving. — The best season of the year Seasons for
for calving is a very important question to English breeders, calving.

(to whom the rearing of valuable calves is of greater importance

492 = 226

Practical Agriculture.

than is commonly understood in the milk and butter producing
countries of the Continent), although one might suppose it
to be easily settled by answering, “ The best time to drop
a calf is just when you happen to want it.” In dairy-farming,
say that you want milk in quantity almost the year through,
you can time your calves to fall any month, from say October
through the winter and spring up to midsummer. But, apart
from dairying, there are two great calving seasons, each
having its advocates. As a matter of fact (deduced by a
calculation referred to under another section of this Memoir),
the 3,700,000 cows and heifers of the United Kingdom
enumerated as in-calf on the 25th of June, represent about

807.000 heifers added to the herd in a year, drafted and fed-off
after about four calvings on an average. To account for the
number of calves enumerated at the Census, or killed for veal,
and for the number of young cattle under two years old found
at the Census, it has been found necessary to assume that these

3.700.000 dams calve in the different quarters of the year about
as follows : 38^ per cent, in the first quarter, 37^ per cent, in
the second quarter, 10^ per cent, in the third quarter, and
13J per cent in the fourth quarter of the year.

Spring calving. The point in the controversy between the advocates of spring
calving and calving later in the year cannot be put more
strongly than by Mr. Thomas Duckham in a paper read to the
London Farmers’ Club ; and I will therefore give the gist of his
arguments, showing what effect the extensive adoption of each
system is calculated to produce upon the breeding and milking
qualities of the dam, and upon the constitutional development
and generative powers of the offspring ; and setting forth also
the economical considerations which should decide the question.
If a heifer is to calve early in autumn, she must be put to the
bull in the middle of winter, when both heifer and bull are being
fed upon dry, and, to some extent, artificial food — just the sort
of food declared by authorities to be unfavourable to successful
impregnation — while rich, juicy, succulent vegetation is the most
favourable to breeding. In a few months time she is turned out
to the pastures, to graze the young and succulent grasses, which
are precisely calculated to develop her milk ; whereas, it being
yet too early for her milking properties to come into action, she
converts the said food into fat, to the injury of her lactic secre-
tions, and to the danger of her own life by puerperal fever, from
being too fresh when the time of parturition arrives ; to which
must be added the by no means trifling consideration that she
will be heavy in-calf through the hot season when flies are a
torment, and thus run considerable risk of abortion. “ The
puny offspring, ” says Mr. Duckham, “ shows that it is an animal

Practical Agriculture.

493 = 227

born out of due season, and, if reared, it must be treated as a hot-
house plant until the following spring ; and by the unnatural
season at which it was calved, the animal is to a great extent
deprived of the genial rays of the sun and the invigorating and
refreshing breezes, the fond caresses of its dam and the free
exercise of its body, all of which are essentially requisite for the
young calf’s healthy growth. The dam has to be kept through
the winter upon good and expensive food, or she will give no
milk.”

Suppose that a heifer is to calve late in autumn, the very same Autumu
objections are in force, except that there is less danger
puerperal fever at calving. The natural tendency of the cow is
to yield most milk directly after calving ; but the circumstances
under which she has been kept for many months check rather
than favour its production, and the lacteal organs have become
much less active before the cow obtains the spring succulent
food which is most conducive to the production of milk.

The calf, too, has to be raised like a hot-house plant, i.e. it is
house-fed, and subject to unnatural treatment at a period of its
life when the foundation of its constitution should be substantially
laid. When dairying is a consideration, the cow is compara-
tively unprofitable during the best season for milk. Suppose,
now, that a heifer is to calve in April or May, she must be with
the bull in July, or early in August, at a period when both
animals have been partaking of young and succulent vegetation.

While in-calf, she can be kept in the most inexpensive manner
during the winter ; and as spring advances, and the day of par-
turition draws near, her food should be improved, and she can
be allowed a few hours daily in the pastures. The young, rich,
juicy grasses will then purify her blood and develop her milking
properties. In a few days after calving the heifer finds in the
I pastures the food best calculated to meet her wants, at a time
1 when her natural tendency to produce milk is most active.

I The calf has free liberty in the open air, its vital organs, as
well as every muscle, being brought into healthy action by fresh
I air and exercise, and the foundation of a robust constitution early
, laid. Compare this with the winter “ hot-house ” treatment, to
which the words of Dr. Hitchman of Derby (a Shorthorn breeder)

1 are applicable ; — “ Exclude a young growing animal from light,

I keep him warm by means only of the carbonic acid gas which
he has breathed from his lungs, and by the decomposition of his
I wetted bedding and the ammoniacal gases which emanate from
j his secretions, and you plant the seeds of scurvy, black-leg, and
those other complaints which carry off calves suddenly and
I hopelessly.”

I There is no doubt that one reason why we hear so much of

494 = 225

Practical Agriculture.

Kcmoving the
calf from its
dam.

high-bred stock proving barren, and so much of their loss of
milking property, is due to the system of autumn calving.
Nevertheless, agriculture is by no means an art of rigid cer-
tainties and invariable formulae ; and though spring may be
theoretically the right time for calves to drop, calves are still
reared with advantage when coming at other seasons, particu-
larly where there exists no adequate proportion of natural
pasture. Calves must fall in September or October, because
the arable-land farmer has his greatest supply of food in the
winter ; and by house-feeding, with a milk diet largely supple-
mented and very speedily replaced by all sorts of good things,
the calves grow very rapidly, and a greater number can be
reared in this way than by simply letting one cow suckle one
calf.

Calves, again, intended for veal, are dropped in October and i
house-fed, turning out in spring nearly as big as yearlings under
the spring-calving and suckling system. j

Milk and butter are at their highest value in winter ; and |
hence dairy farmers in many districts, as in the best dairy
regions of the Continent, prefer that their cows shall calve in
November, December, and January.

Treatment of Calves. — When a calf is to be raised by hand, it :
is a question how long it should be allowed to remain at first ,
with its mother. Some dairymen take it away at once, not
suffering the cow even to see it ; unless, indeed, the dam be a ;
heifer, when a few days of suckling will make her easier to milk
afterwards. By escaping all “ worrit ” after her progeny, she is
supposed to give her milk more kindly to the pail ; but, if better
for the dairy, this is certainly worse for the little calf. A very
common practice is to leave the calf for three days with its dam.

In Devonshire, by a prevailing though not universal custom,
the calf is taken from the dam at eight or ten days old, and I
given, for the first week, about 5 pints of new milk twice a day ;
then some of the new milk is withdrawn, and an equal quantity
of skimmed milk added for two or three weeks ; when all the
new is taken away, and a few turnips and oatmeal are given
until the time for turning to grass. Commonly, except in the ■
severest weather, the calf never enters a shed until calving, .
working, or fattening. This shows the constitution and hardi- ■
hood of the Devon breed, also the mildness of the south-western
climate.

To what extent the practice of suckling prevails can hardly
be ascertained, but references are made to this point in my
notices of the different breeds. Hereford calves, for example,
are generally suckled on their dams for three to six months,
while the bull-calves often run with them for eight or nine

Practical Agriculture.

495 = 229

months. When breeders do not follow the simple but expen-
sive course of letting the calves run with their mothers, it is
common to make a cow suckle two calves. In rearing by hand,
many modes of management are in favour. In all cases the first The calfs diet
food is new milk, warmed to the temperature of the mother’s
milk. This continues for a fortnight at the least, and then
some stock-masters, with a view of gaining a little butter, and
rearing the greatest number of calves, begin to substitute skim-
milk for new milk. During the third week of the calf’s life,
they let one-third of his allowance consist of skim-milk, boiled
and allowed to cool to the natural temperature, and, during the
fourth week, fully half the allowance is skim milk, and half new
milk.

One of the most annoying things in calf-raising is the careless-
ness or wilful laziness of servants in scamping over this trouble-
some boiling and warming up (more troublesome still when
mixtures and porridges have to be prepared) ; and one chill
meal will injure, or may kill, a tender calf.

The quantities given at each meal vary according to the Feeding the
breed, size, and state of the calf. For a healthy Shorthorn are
commonly used — in the first week about 3 pints at once, given
three times, say 4 quarts per day ; gradually increased till, in
the fourth week, the quantity is 5 pints at once and three meals,
making up 8 quarts per day. At one month old, when the
calves eat hay, finely sliced roots and cake, two meals a day
may suffice ; the quantity at two months old being 4 quarts at a
meal, or 2 gallons daily. A minor detail, but of some import-
ance, consists in the mode of giving the meal. Good managers
not only induce calves at staiting to drink out of a bucket, by
causing them to suck up the milk through the herdsman’s (in
old-fashioned times it used to be the dairymaid’s) fingers ; but
they continue this practice, to prevent the little animals swal-
lowing too much at a gulp, and to allow of an admixture of
saliva while the food is passing through the mouth. A nose-
bag with small apertures is sometimes put on when giving the
bucket-food. A recent invention for properly giving the calf his
morning and evening meals is Tucker’s calf-feeding bucket ;
another is White’s artificial dam, and another Brooks and Co.’s
Lac Trephoer ; the first being well spoken of. A muzzle (of
wire or leather, cup-shaped, with a band sewn at each side to
buckle behind the ears) kept on, except at feeding time, will
prevent the calf taking up straws and swallowing them before
the power of digestion can cope with such food. Sometimes
a mass of undigested straws has been found in a dead calf’s
stomach. Of course, the time for wearing the muzzle is until
the calf has been observed to “ chew the cud.”

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 M

A9Q = 230

Practical Agriculture.

Milk

substitutes.

Octiiilcil
example of
i-eai'ing calves.

I have spoken of new milk and skim-milk, half and half.
But before the calf is a month old it is now usual to substitute
porridge for a portion of the milk, different managers making use
of different articles. I believe boiled linseed-gruel or jellj is as
good as anything. A pound of linseed makes a gallon and a
half of gruel. Some people prefer the gruel of linseed and
wheat-meal together, in the proportion of two of the linseed
to one of the wheat-meal, boiled and mixed with the milk.
Others use oilcake-porridge, the cake crushed fine, boiling
water poured on it (about four parts of water to one of cake),
letting it stand half a day, with occasional stirrings. Other
breeders use oatmeal, pea-meal, and bean-meal, and flour of the
carob or locust-beans, making the porridge by pouring hot water
upon the meal and mixing with the milk gradually so as not to
let the mixture get lumpy. Irish moss is used, also treacle-dip ;
but this in moderate proportion, seeing that cow’s milk is
not very sweet. Hay-tea, made of old hay, macerated in water
hot, but under the boiling-point, is an admirable thing to mix
with milk, as it contains a large amount of nutriment in a
soluble form. Wise managers make use of several of these
liquid compounds, so as not to let any one of them pall upon the
appetite of the calf. And by occasionally using them sepa-
rately in turn, judiciously plying the laxative or astringent
articles of diet according to the state of the calf’s bowels, there
is a likelihood of keeping the calves healthy ; — thus oilcake,
flax-seed, or oatmeal is used, when the body is bound, pea-meal
and bean-meal, &c., when the bowels are loose.

Innumerable examples might be adduced of the best English
management of calves. 1 must be content to describe the
details of one. Mr. Henry Ruck, of Eisey, near Cricklade,
in Wiltshire, rears calves thus — and in rearing fifty to sixty
animals has not lost one in two years. He takes the calves
from a dairy after they are ten days old, as up to that time they
require their mother’s milk, which is unfit for butter making.
The price is 30s. each. For the first three or four days they
have 2 or 3 quarts of milk at a meal ; then gradually some
food in the shape of gruel is added, and by degrees water is
substituted for milk. Mixing oilcake with the gruel is the
secret of success. Half oilcake is used, the best that can be
purchased. Take a bucket, capable of holding G gallons, put
into it 2 gallons of scalding water, then add 7 lbs. of very finely
ground linseed-cake, which is obtained by collecting the dust
that falls through the screen of the crusher, and passing it
through a roller-mill ; well stir the oilcake and water together,
and add 2 gallons of hay-tea. This hay-tea is made every
morning by filling a small tub with sweet hay, pouring on

Practical Agriculture.

497 = 251

scalding water ; this is used in the evening, and a sufficient
quantity of scalding water is added to the hay-leaves, which are
covered down for next morning. The hay-tea is very sweet,
dark in colour, and the extract of the different herbs probably
assists digestion. Again the mess is stirred, and 7 lbs. of mixed
flour well worked in. This mixture consists of one-third wheaten
flour, one-third barley, and one-third bean-flour. Sufficient cold
water is added to fill the 6-gallon bucket, and the whole is well
stirred. • Two quarts of this, with 2 quarts of cold water, are
sufficient for a calf at a meal, and the mixture has about the
right temperature. The food is given at regular hours — say
6 in the morning, and 6 at night. Each bucket of gruel is
a meal for from twelve to fifteen calves, and costs about Is. 6<7. ;
or 3</. a day for each calf. The food is always measured
with a two-quart cup, so as never to overload the stomach
of a young calf. After fifteen days, when the calf chews the
cud, some of the difficulty and danger are passed, and when the
calf eats well, the quantity of gruel is gradually diminished.

The calves are tied up while being served, and they suck
through the cow-man’s fingers, as this prevents bolting, and a
proper quantity of air is also taken in. As soon as they can
eat, crushed corn, sweet hay, and roots, are placed within their
reach ; vetches also when available, and mangolds when prac-
ticable. The calves live in a cool well-ventilated house, are
kept very clean and quiet, supplied with fresh water daily, and
the manure is frequently removed.

During the first winter Mr. Ruck uses the following mixture
of food for his calves : — 5 cwts. of straw-chaff, 10 cwts. of pulped
mangolds, 1 cwt. of oilcake, and 4 cwts. of mixed crushed corn ;
put together and allowed to heat moderately. This gives a ton
of food superior to hay at a cost of about 505.

M eaning from milk and bucket-food altogether comes at Weaning,
various ages, according to the customs of different managers ;
three to lour months being the most common age, though
many calves are reared without tasting any milk after they are
two months old.

The most prevalent ailments of young cattle are scour or Ailments of
diarrhoea, and hoose or catarrh, from which great losses often
occur ; and another special danger to which they are liable is
quarter-ill, or black-leg.

Weaned calves and yearlings are usually run thinly upon the Grnzing calv(
sheep pastures during the summer, changing them according to
circumstances, as they seem to require it ; sometimes from a
good to inferior pasture, or vice versa, or any salutary change
that the farm will afford. It is found a capital thing to have
meadows on soil quite different from that of the general grazings,

2 M 2

498 = 232

Practical Agriculture.

where the prevalent herbage of a lot of grass-land, perhaps
a few miles from the home farm, may prove a corrective to the
laxative or other qualities of the grass on the home farm. In
autumn an aftermath is often provided, to which the young
stock may he taken as the old pastures begin to lose their
freshness. When the aftermath, too, falls off, recourse is had
to more oil-cake and other artificial feeding stuffs.

Winteriug As autumn approaches, the young animals are housed at

calves. night, the shelter consisting of open yards, well beddpd, with

sheds into which the calves can retire at pleasure. Indeed,
this is the sort of accommodation that calves and yearlings
should enjoy through the winter, in preference to closed up
stalls or boxes. I am sorry to say that the essential requi-
sites of air and exercise are but little considered over wide
areas of this kingdom ; and farm buildings are, as a rule, con-
trived without due regard to the wants of the young animals.
A common error with architects being the notion that calves
and yearlings should be kept warm, without allowing for their
freely moving about and respiring uncontaminated air. As to
the winter food of yearlings, they are too often injured by an
injudicious use of straw-chaff ; though straw might be employed
much more largely than at present in the feeding of adult
cattle. One of the best managers of stock gives to each of his
yearling cattle 25 to 40 lbs. of roots, 6 to 8 lbs. of chaff, and 1 lb.
of linseed-meal or oil-cake, with 1 lb. of oats, barley, maize,
or other corn, according to the price ruling in the market at the
time. This is boiled or steamed with the pulped roots and
chaff.

The summer grazing of young and store cattle, is treated of
under the head of “ Pastoral and Dairy Farming.” I come now
to that fundamental branch of all arable husbandry, excepting
on some classes of small farms, meat-making and manure-
making at the homestead.

Open y.'irds for Winter Housing and Feeding of Cattle. — The old practice

cattle. feeding cattle loose in open yards, or tied by the neck in

semi-open sheds or hovels, prevails to a large extent in England,
notwithstanding all the experiences of late years with boxes and
covered yards. Of the non-nitrogenous food consumed by warm-
blooded animals, chemistry tells us that a considerable proportion
is expended in maintaining the natural heat of their bodies — it
is so much fuel dissipated by a process strictly analogous to
combustion — and that fat, accumulated under certain circum-
stances, may be regarded as a store of fuel laid up for future
emergencies. Of course it is apparent that if fatting cattle are
exposed to a low temperature, either their progress must be
retarded, or an additional expenditure of food be incurred.

Practical Agriculture.

499 = 233

Protect the animals by suitable shelter and covering, that is to
say, prevent radiation and conduction of heat from their bodies,
and they will eat less and yet lay on more flesh and fat. This
is what theory says.

In open yards, however, there are the greatest facilities for con-
verting whole straw into manure, and the cattle thus fed require
least attendance and look well when brought to market. Of
course, both stock and manure suffer from exposure to prolonged
wet and protracted cold weather.

Nearly all the Norfolk beasts are fed in open yards, holding
ten to twenty each ; and the Norfolk farmers, some of the best
managers in the kingdom, find the system well adapted to their
husbandry, which, being the four-course, furnishes them with
a large quantity of straw for litter. In Lincolnshire this
treatment of fatting cattle is not carried to the same extent.

The stores and half-fat animals intended for the next summers’
grazing are fed in open yards, with open shed-roofs or shelters,
for them to run under. Some managers fatten bullocks in yards ;
but the majority are finished off in stalls or boxes.

Where straw is not superabundant, the open-yard system of
fattening is wrong, on the ground of waste ; and housing is
requisite for the purpose of economising straw. It is argued
that as the open-air system is at fault, in failing to utilise to
the best advantage one of the main cattle-food products of the
farm, either there should be more cattle fed in boxes with the
abundance of straw, or else more white-straw cropping is grown
than can be dealt with most economically. But this opens
up the question of the best system of husbandry adapted to
each particular description of land — and that depends upon
many other considerations besides the consumption of straw.

The old-fashioned, but still prevalent open-yard feeding, with
its careless use of straw and its loss of caloric from the animals’
bodies, is not to be put right at a single stroke by just shutting
up the cattle in houses and cutting the straw for them.

Stall-feeding is about as old-fashioned as feeding in open
courts ; but it has not died out yet, and bids fair to last for gene-
rations to come.

The commonest arrangement is for the animals to stand in Stall-feedin
pairs, two in a stall, that is, between low boarded divisions,
each beast being chained by the neck to a ring that can slide
up and down a long staple in a post. A trough or manger, low
down, is in front of the animals ; and either a small water
trough, placed so that both beasts can drink out of it, or else
one long trough (higher up than the manger and further from
the animals) runs the entire length of the building and supplies
all the animals.

500 = 254

Practical Agriculture.

Hammels.

Boxes.

Size of yards,
stalls and
boxes.

In a well-made house, sufficiently closed-in to be warm,
without being dark or impeding ventilation, cattle do well in
stalls. The least amount of litter is required, because the
beast’s droppings are cleared out every day. The disadvantages
are that a great deal of labour in “ attendance” is required, and
the animals get no exercise whatever — supposed to be necessary
for their health. As to this latter objection, all depends upon
the length of time the animals are thus in durance.

Mature and fatting animals are thus stalled for half a year
together ; but milking cows that live in stalls should be turned
out daily for an hour or two loose in a yard.

The “ hammel” system combines the advantages of open yards
and of stalls. Each shed {i.e. a compartment of a long hovel,
partitioned off) should be of a size to contain easily from
two to four beasts, so that they can comfortably walk round it,
and the doorway opens into a small uncovered yard ; the best
arrangement being a long building, subdivided into boxes, with
a row of little yards outside. The troughs for the food and
also moveable racks are in the yards.

The animals have more freedom than when fed in close
houses — they have moderate exercise to keep them healthy
without hindering their fattening — they get sun and air, rain,
too, if they please, and shelter whenever they choose. They
can go to the food when they like, and this, being in the open
air, keeps fresh. In fact, nature is consulted so far as is com-
patible with convenience of administering food and bedding.
The cost of attendance is less than on the stall system, the
dung being covered over with fresh litter, instead of being
removed ; and the manure, too, being about one-third part
under cover, is little less powerful than that from covered
boxes.

“ Boxes” — compartments inside sheds completely under
cover — preserve the animals from cold and from disturbance.
The cattle have a moderate amount of exercise, require less
attendance than when in stalls, less straw is required for bedding
than in open yards, and the manure, screened from sun, wind,
and rain, and absorbing the urine, is superior to that produced
by other plans.

The space suitable for cattle in open yards, with shelter sheds,
may be taken at about 100 square feet per head, including the
sheds. In covered yards, where the animals have always a dry
bed, the area may be reduced to 80 square feet, including that
occupied by the feeding-troughs. In single boxes, which are
constructed of very varying sizes, Mr. J. Bailey Denton (in his
valuable work ‘ The Farm Homesteads of England ’) considers
90 square feet a fair standard area, including the space covered

Practical Agriculture.

501 = 235

by the troughs and the mean space in stalls may be taken at
40 square feet per ox. These dimensions apply to cattle of
mature age, in process of fattening, or yielding milk ; though
in many cases much larger areas are given ; and full-grown
Hereford and Shorthorn oxen of course require more room
than smaller varieties of dairy cows and young stock.

A convenient width of building for stalls is 18 J feet within
the walls ; which gives a feeding-passage at the head, 4^ feet ; a
feeding and drinking-trough, 2^ feet ; the stall or standing, 7^
feet; gutter, 1 foot; back-walk, 3 feet. Cows tied up in pairs
have commonly a stall oi feet width, and fattening bullocks
in pairs, a width of 8 feet.

For boxes, the most economical breadth of building is about
25 feet, allowing for two rows of boxes of 10 feet each, with a
5-feet feeding-passage between, and each box may measure 10
by 9 feet. The floors of the boxes lie 1 to 2 feet lower than the
ordinary floor-level of the farm buildings.

The cheapest form of house for a large number of cattle is Arrangements
probably one in which the animals are placed in two rows,
with a feeding-passage between. One of the best examples of “
such an arrangement, with central tramway and contrivance for
almost automatic distribution of the food, is that of Mr. Edmund
Ruck, at Braden, in Wiltshire.

Cattle require cleanliness and convenience, hut not artistic
beauty in the fittings of their buildings ; and hence some deco-
rative fancies of architects or amateurs in farm-buildings may
be considered an entirely misplaced outcome of extravagance in
designing. Feeding-troughs of rough brick or of coarsely tooled
stone will do ; and slate, or smoothly-moulded cement linings
are an improvement. Mr. Bailey Denton, however, prefers
earthenware lining for the purpose of keeping the trough in the
cleanest condition. Water-troughs are best furnished by a self-
supplying system ; and these troughs should be emptied once a
day by a i)lug or tap, to discharge the stale contents, which are
used to wash down the stall.

On the value of covered yards, of which a large number now Covered yards,
exist in many parts of England, I cannot do better than quote
the experience of Mr. Henry Howman, of Halloughton, Coleshill.

In a paper read to the Midland Farmers’ Club, Mr. Howman said,

“ One difficulty to be contended against in making manure under
cover is to get sufficient moisture to prevent it getting fine-fanged ;
and, when an abundance of long straw is put into the yards for
litter, this evil is apt to take place, and the manure becomes so
light and dry that it has to be carted out into a heap to allow
the rain to moisten it and make it tender enough to be ploughed
into the land, — by this very act, and the consequent washing

502 = 236

Practical Agriculture.

and draining that takes place, neutralising the good gained by
making the manure under cover. Now, I have met the difficulty
by not allowing one bit of straw to be placed in the yards for
litter without first being put through the litter cutter, and cut
into about 6 in. in length ; and this, I am convinced, is an abso-
lute necessity for the proper making of the manure. After two
years’ experience of the plan, against the cost of cutting up the
straw, which is done by hand, I gain these advantages — the
yards are littered more evenly and regularly, and not so much
straw is used ; while, in emptying the yards, a great saving of
labour is gained, because the manure is forked out so much
more easily, and it is ready to be carted on to the land direct
from the yards, and all the wasteful and laborious carting it
into a heap, to be rotted and washed by the rain, is saved. I
think there can be no doubt that the manure made under cover
must be more valuable than that made in the open yards ; how
much more valuable I am not prepared with any comparative
figures to show ; but the fact that all the valuable fertilising
matters are neither diluted by the rain nor drained away must
improve the quality.”

Mr. Howman’s covered-yard premises cost about 25001. ; and
taking the increased value of the 750 tons of manure made in
the year, as compared with open-yard manure, at 3s. per cubic
yard, this amounts to an improvement, or saving in the manure
of 112^., or nearly 5 per cent, on the cost of the buildings. He
considers this a sound basis on which to estimate the sum a
tenant can afford to pay to a landlord for erecting a covered
homestead. The comparison here is with open-yard manure
badly managed. But there is no doubt that at least a ton of
straw per head of cattle wintered is saved in covered homesteads :
and this is a gain of 21. 10s. to 3Z. per head, — say in one season,
125Z. to 150/. upon fifty beasts. For straw is a commodity of
high value in England, and it is permitted to be sold off most
farms within easy distance of towns.

Mr. Howman observes, truly enough, that “ it is not at all
necessary to pull down all the present buildings and to rebuild
on new lines, as has been done in his case ; but yards as they
exist at present might be covered over, and so arranged that
they could be worked in with the buildings with little or no
alteration ; this could be planned and carried out by the estate
carpenter or builder, and the cost would not be so great as to
frighten landlords, who would have to find the capital, or the
tenant, who would have to pay the interest.” In fact, the
tenant could afford to offer such a percentage to the landlord as
would be an inducement to him to invest in such an improve-
ment.

Practical Agriculture.

503 = 257

“ Assuming the form of the existing yards to be as follows : —
the barn and main buildings to occupy one side of a square,
from which at right angles should run the sheds, with the
open fold-yard between them — then to cover over the yards and
build up one end would be all that is necessary, and this
would cost about 20s. the square yard of ground to be covered.
Assume the size of the yard to be 300 square yards, and the
depth one yard, that would mean 100 cubic yards of manure,
this, at 2s. a cubic yard, the supposed increased value by cover-
ing the manure, would give 30/., or 10 per cent, for covering
the yards.

“ The estimate for roofing only would be 5/. a square of 100 ft. ;
and 9 in. walls would cost 5s. a square yard to build ; but, of course,
this depends upon the price of bricks, which varies considerably.

The corrugated-iron roofs seem to offer certain advantages for
the purpose, and can be erected at a cheaper rate than ordi-
nary slate or tile roofs ; they could be erected at about 15s. a
square yard of ground to be covered — and the difficulty of the
temperature being too hot in summer, and too cold in winter,
could be overcome with a little trouble and a very slight
expense.”

Food Fattening Beasts. — The old fashioned diet — of uncut Roots for
hay ad libitum, whole or sliced turnips, from a hundredweight per
day to much more for large oxen, and linseed-oilcake, beginning
with 7 lbs., increased up to 14 lbs. or more per day — has been
abandoned by scientific manufacturers of meat, though it has not
been altogether superseded on English farms. In a good turnip
season on turnip farms the feeders go far beyond the consideration
of merely putting flesh on a bullock, and make him, to a certain
extent, a waster of food, by passing large quantities of roots
through him for the purpose of converting them into manure.

And without a large allowance of roots, not cooked, but raw,
given during the last few weeks of the fattening process, bullocks
do not always give the butcher satisfaction in their internal fat,
while their flesh is not so firm as it should be. The credit which
the Norfolk cattle maintain in the London market from January
to late in spring is greatly owing to the abundance of roots with
which they are supplied. Thus, a rule which holds good in a
poor turnip country will be inapplicable in another part of the
kingdom where the roots possess a far more nutritious quality.

Hence, the experience of Scotch feeders is rarely realised in Eng-
land. Mr. William McCombie, of Tillyfour, in Aberdeenshire,
fatted from 300 to 400 beasts annually, selling them in London
at an average price of about 35/. per head. Yet he never gave
them more than 4 lbs. of oilcake and 2 lbs. of bruised oats
per head per day. They had what turnips they could con-

504: = 238

Practical Agriculture.

Mr. J. C.
Morton on
money value
of roots.

Cooked cattle-
food.

Mr. Warnes’
jjracticc.

sume, and ate straw ad libitum ; and Mr. McCombie stated his
average return from feeding on Aberdeen yellow and Swedish
turnips to be 12Z. per acre. In the south, the calculation in a
rough way would rather be as Mr. J. Chalmers Morton once j
put it : — I

Take the production of roots at 20 tons per acre, for a good j
crop, and a crop of trefoil or clover at 30 cwt. per acre, and see i
how long this will (with proper management) keep a fair-sized ox l
in a going-on state. Let the daily food be 6 stone roots, 6 lbs.
clover-chaff, 12 lbs. of straw-chaff. The artificial food 6 lbs.,
say, 4 lbs. linseed-cake and 2 lbs. of corn-meal. This gives from
the produce of 1 acre of turnips and 1 acre of clover, 76 weeks’
keep for a bullock ; or, putting it in a different way, 1 acre of
turnips and 1 acre of clover (with straw in addition) will keep
3 beasts through the winter. The artificial food, with cake at 10/.,
and bean, Indian-corn, or lentil-meal at 8/. per ton, will cost 3s. Od.
per week per head. It is but a moderate sort of bullock that will
not pay 6s. per week for this keep, which will leave 51. per acre
for the roots, and 3/. per ton for the clover consumed, besides the
manure. Those who do not give clover to their cattle may add
2 lbs. of artificial food per day, and use all straw ; but a portion
of each is to be preferred for profitable feeding. If a farmer
realises 5s. per ton for his roots, and 3/. per ton for his hay, by
feeding bullocks, he does very well, as ordinary good practice
goes.

Where unprepared dry food and roots are still retained as the
bulky portion of cattle provender, the very general practice now
is to replace a portion of the oilcake with corn or meal.

It would be convenient to classify the many different systems of
feeding, as the “ raw food,” the “ cooked food,” and the “ pulped
and fermented ;” but a mixture of one or more of these methods
is so often followed, that the simplest way will be to describe
the general management pursued in a number of representative
cases.

Cookery, by boiling or steaming, though of very old date in
preparing cattle-food, was revived in importance a few years ago
by Mr. Warnes, of Trimmingham, in Norfolk, who claimed to
have introduced the system of box-feeding. His fattening com-
pound was thus made : —

“ Upon every 6 pails of boiling water, 1 of finely crushed
linseed-meal is sprinkled by the hand of one person, while
another rapidly stirs it round. In five minutes, the mucilage
being formed, a half-hogshead is placed close to the boiler,
and a bushel of cut turnip-tops and straw put in ; two or three
hand-cupfuls of the mucilage are then poured upon it and stirred
in with a common muck-fork. Another bushel of the turnip-tops.

Practical Agriculture.

505 = 239

chaff, &c., is next added, and two or three cups of the jelly as
before ; all of which are then expeditiously stirred and worked
together with the fork and rammer. The mixture is after-
wards pressed down as firmly as its nature will allow, with the
latter instrument, which completes the first layer. Another bushel
of the pea-straw, chaff, &c., is thrown into the tub, the mucilage
poured upon it as before, and so on until the boiler is emptied.

The contents of the tub are lastly smoothed over with a trowel,
covered down ; and in two or three hours, the straw, having
absorbed the mucilage, will also, with the turnip-tops, have
become partially cooked. The compound is then usually given
to the cattle, but sometimes is allowed to remain until cold.

The bullocks, however, prefer it warm ; but, whether cold or
hot, they devour it with avidity.” Another modification is, —

To 9 or 10 pails of water is added a bushel of swedes, sliced
very small ; after having boiled a few minutes, about 2 pecks of
linseed-meal is actively stirred in ; then the process as before, a
proportion of barley-straw being used with pea-straw for the
chaff.

Mr. Kennedy, of Myremill, in Ayrshire, found his cattle to Mr. Keunedy’
thrive better on a small than on a large quantity of turnips, pro- priictice. •
vided he gave them bulk of other food ; that a bullock of 56 stones
imperial, requires only 4^ to 5 stone of cut swedes per day, and
from 16 to 20 lbs. of cooked food, consisting of 1 lb. linseed, or
2 lbs. of oilcake-meal, converted by boiling into a mucilage,
which is then poured over a mixture of 2 lbs. bean-meal, 2 lbs.
bruised barley or oats, 10 lbs. to 12 lbs. of hay, 14 lbs. of chaff,
and some salt, well mixed together, and allowed to lie for 2 or 3
hours that the dry ingredients may absorb the mucilage. But
the difference between quality in roots does much towards
making a short allowance in Scotland answer as well as a larger
feed of roots in a poor turnip country.

Mr. Russell, of Kilwhiss, Fifeshire, found that when cattle were Mr. Russell’s
first put to turnips in the autumn, and allowed to have as many piactice.
as they could eat, animals weighing about 50 stones imperial,
will consume daily 220 lbs. (say 2 cwts.) of cut swedes, with oat-
straw in racks, and 5 lbs. of cake besides. He followed a modi-
fication of Mr. Warnes’ system with advantage. At 6 A.M. each
beast received a feed, consisting of 1 lb. of cake, 1 lb. of ground
grain, well mixed with 5 lbs. of 1-inch chaff ; the latter having
been well-wetted with cold water before the cake and grain were
thrown in amongst it. By 8 o’clock they had an allowance of
50 lbs. cut turnips ; and at noon, and in the afternoon, were
again fed with the same quantities of food. By this mode of
feeding, 4 or 5 lbs. of oilcake and grain become a substitute for
100 lbs. of turnips. This plan is admirable for its simplicity,

50Q = 240

Practical Agriculture.

Another
example of
(eeding.

Mr. Lawrence’s
practice.

economy, and its good results, but, nevertheless, is materially
improved upon by more complicated preparation and cooking,
more particularly the pulping system, which I shall come to
presently.

A large cattle feeder in Northumberland adopted another modi-
fication of Mr.Warnes’ system, differing from Mr, Russell’s, in that
boiling water and a close vessel are used for incorporating the meal
and chopped straw, instead of wetting and turning upon a floor.
The cattle are fed with turnips, bean-meal, oilcake, and cut
straw. The first thing in the morning they get the mixture, then
turnips, and at 1 o’clock the mixture again ; afterwards turnips.
He found that a 3-year-old steer will consume (if fed on this
alone) from 16 to 18 stones of turnips daily. The mixture
given is 2 lbs. of oilcake, 2 lbs. of bean-meal, 4 lbs. of cut straw,
and 1^ oz. of salt daily. This can be purchased and prepared
for about \d. per lb., or 2s. per head per week. When cattle
have this mixture, they consume at least 1 cwt. less per day of
turnips. The mixture is prepared in the forenoon by the byre-
man, and keeps perfectly sweet for 36 hours. In preparing the
mixture to serve 24 cattle for 24 hours, 48 lbs. of oilcake, 48 lbs.
of bean-meal, 96 lbs. of cut straw, and 2 lbs. of salt, are, in the
first place, well mixed together in a trough ; 36 gallons of boiling
water are then added ; after which the whole mass is well turned
and incorporated together, and pressed down, and in an hour or
two is quite ready for the cattle. The troughs in which the
mixture is made are 6 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 2^ feet deep,
A trough of this size will contain mixture for 24 cattle, and
the time occupied by the man in preparing one full trough is
not more than half-an-hour ; the cut straw, meal, &c., being all
ready.

Mr. C. Lawrence, of Cirencester, recorded his experience in
the Society’s ‘ Journal ’ thus : — “ We find that, taking 24 bullocks
together fattening, they consume per head per diem 3 bushels of
chaff, mixed with just ^ cwt. of pulped roots, exclusive of cake
and corn ; that is to say, about 2^ bushels of chaff are mixed
with the roots and given at 2 feeds, morning and evening,
and the remainder is given with cake, &c., at the middle-day
feed. Thus : we use a steaming apparatus of Barford, of Peter-
borough, consisting of a boiler in the centre, in which the steam
is generated, and which is connected by a pipe on the left-hand
with a large galvanised-iron receptacle for steaming food for
pigs, and on the right-hand with a large copper, surrounded by a
steam-tight compartment, in which the cake, mixed with water,
is made into a thick soup. Adjoining, there is a slate tank of
sufficient size to contain one feed for the 24 bullocks feeding.
Into this tank is laid the chaff, about 1 foot deep, upon which a

J)'

Practical Agriculture. 507 = 241

few ladles of soup are thrown in a boiling state ; this is thoroughly
mixed with the chaff, with a three-pronged fork, and pressed
down with a rammer ; and this process is repeated until the
slate tank is full, when it is covered down for an hour or two
before feeding-time. The soup is then found entirely absorbed
bv the chaff, which has become softened, and prepared for ready
digestion.”

Mr. Lawrence used much rape-cake, as the most economical
food, notwithstanding all that has been said and written against
it. There is doubtless more or less mustard-seed often grown
with foreign rape-seed ; but this adulteration was found to be
rendered quite harmless, when the soup was exposed to a
temperature of 212°, and allowed to simmer a few minutes at
that heat before it was thrown over the chaff. His adoption of
rape-cake was based on the comparative analyses of linseed and
rape-cake, which show very little difference in the feeding value,
while the market price of one is usually double that of the
other. In his experience of this use of rape-cake, extending
over a period of 10 years, in feeding from 20 to 24 bullocks
annually, he had not a single death during that period, and the
animals had been remarkably free from any kind of ailment.

Rape-cake not being so palatable to animals as linseed-cake,
he did not exceed 4 lbs. per liead per diem, and added in the
trough of each beast, with the mid-day feed, 2 lbs. of mixed
meal. He rarely exceeded this allowance, excepting in the case
of very large oxen. He commenced with 1 lb. of cake per head,
and increased gradually up to 4 lbs., when he began mixing
the meal. The manufacture of a large quantity of the best
manure being a great object, it was not Mr. Lawrence’s plan to
hurry the progress of the cattle to maturity for the butcher.

The cost, on an average, including attendance and fuel, was
found to be 6s. per head per week, exclusive only of the expense
of chaff-cutting. One man and a lad, at 18s. per week for the
two, pulped the roots by hand-machine, fed, littered, and cleaned
the cattle, and cooked the food for the 24 bullocks, and also cut
and steamed the roots for feeding 24 pigs.

As an instance of the value of a judicious system of feeding, Mr. Horslall’s
and of the advantage of steamed food, take the experience of the practice,
late Mr. Horsfall of Otley. On winter food he fattened his cows
while they were giving milk. For four years he gave his dairy
cows green rape-cake, which imparted to the butter a finer flavour
, than any other cake did ; and in order to induce them to eat it,
he blended with it one-fourth the quantity of malt-dust, one-
fourth bran, and twice the quantity of a mixture in equal pro-
portions of bean-straw, oat-straw, and oat-shells, all well mixed
up together, moistened, and steamed for one hour. This compli-

508 = 242

Practical Agriculture.

cated mixture of steamed food had a very fragrant odour, and was
much relished by the cattle ; it was given warm three times a-day,
at the rate of about 7 lbs. to each cow (21 lbs. daily). Bean-
meal was also scattered dry over the steamed food, cows in full
milk getting 2 lbs. per day. When the animals had eaten up
this steamed food and bean-meal, they were supplied daily with
28 to 35 lbs. each of cabbages, from October to December, of
kohl-rabi, till February, or of mangolds, till grass time — each cow
having given to her, after each of the three feedings, 4 lbs. of
meadow-hay (or 12 lbs. daily). The roots were not cut, but given
whole. The animals were allowed, twice a-day, to drink as much
water as they desired. Afterwards, Mr. Horsfall discontinued
the use of bean-meal, owing to its comparative price, and gave
in its place an additional allowance of malt-coombs, with about
5 lbs. of rape-cake, and 2 or 3 lbs. of Indian corn-meal per cow.
On this food, in instances actually observed, his cows gave
14 quarts of milk per day, and yet gained flesh at the rate of
2 stones imperial per month.

This scientifically conducted feeding of itself forms quite a
study. Mr. Horsfall both regulated and explained his practice
by chemical analyses and physiological considerations, showing
what an elaborate business meat (or milk) production has become.
But everybody is now aware of the advantages to fattening
beasts of boiling linseed and bean-meal to the consistence of a
thickish soup, making it salt, and pouring it over a heap of
mixed straw and hay-chaff, and letting the whole lie until it is
thoroughly soaked before being given as food,
fulping root?. Of late years pulping has come in fashion. And whether or
not the advantage of pulping is derived from its inducing a
larger consumption of straw (cut and mixed with the pulp) than
cattle will care to eat uncut, it is decidedly a fine thing for the
arable farmer who may have been wastefully expending large
quantities of straw in litter — a large portion being now saved
for use as food. There is economy of food ; for the roots, being
pulped and mixed with the chaff, render the whole mass of cut
stuff very palatable to the animals — no part of the cut hay or
straw, or of the chaff from the threshing-machine, being rejected.
The animals are not able to separate the chaff from the pulped
roots, as is the case when the roots are merely sliced by the
common cutter ; neither do they waste the fodder as when given
without being cut. We can thus utilise mean and inferior hay
or straw. After being mixed with the pulp for about twelve
hours, a fermentation commences ; and this soon renders the
most mouldy hay palatable, and the animals eat with avidity
that which they would otherwise reject. This fermentation to
some extent, I believe, softens the straw, putting it in a state to

Practical Agriculture.

509=243

be assimilated more readily. The pulper is of great value,
particularly upon corn-farms, where large crops of straw are
grown, and where there is a limited acreage of pasture ; as by
its use a larger proportion of the pastures may be grazed, the
expensive process of haymaking reduced, and consequently an
increased number of cattle kept. The accident of choking
large pieces of root is avoided, and hoose is less frequent than
under the sliced-root system.

In a good system of feeding with the use of pulped roots,
the following routine is adopted : first thing in the morning
give an allowance of 2 to 4 lbs. of linseed-cake, followed by a
feed composed of cut chaff, pulped roots, and meal. This is
repeated, so as to make three feeds per day, and the racks are
supplied with hay at night. The corn-meal is mixed with the
cut hay and straw-chaff, and pulped roots, say twelve hours
before using, so as to allow a slight fermentation to commence.

Good feeders, however, always consult nature by occasional
changes of food ; and they believe in giving whole or sliced but
unpulped roots, in considerable quantity, during the latter part
of the fattening process.

As a contrast must be set the large amount of experience of
cattle fattening with little or no root food at all.

For instance, Mr. W. J. Edmonds, of Southrope, Lechlade, Cattle diet
has recorded the favourable result of fattening cattle, giving each without roots,
ox 5 bushels of mixed hay and straw-chaff, 4 or 5 lbs. of oilcake,
and ^ a peck of meal (barley, bean, pea or wheat-meal,) increased
to 1 peck per day about six weeks after the fattening has begun.

The oilcake and meal are boiled for J to f of an hour, and thrown
as a rich soup over the chaff, with a little salt, about 8 hours
before wanted, or not much longer, lest it should turn sour. And
Mr. Edmonds’ Christmas cattle with this feeding, and only one
peck of roots each in addition, handled remarkably firm, were
well fed, and made a good price.

The practice of Mr. Charles Randell, at Chadbury, near Eves- Mr. Randell’s
ham, may be here adduced as one of the best examples which practice.
English farming affords of cattle-feeding and manure-making
without roots. Mr. Randell’s statement, which appears in Mr.

Joseph Darby’s paper in the Royal Agricultural Society’s
‘ Journal ’ on “ Straw as Food for Stock,” is as follows : —

“ After having heard how readily and profitably straw, aided by roots, cake,
and corn, is converted into beef in Norfolk, and other root-growing counties,
and the manure, essential for the reproduction of the means of carrying on the
process, preserved, you may like to know how the occupier of a clayland farm
(where to attempt to grow turnips is in the opinion of some good practical
farmers in the neighbourhood a sufficient qualification for a lunatic asylum),

510 = 244 Practical Agriculture.

tries to convert his straw into manure which deserves the name without
serious loss.

“ I have 15 two-year-old steers feeding,
25 milking and in-calf cows,

2 bulls,

6 two-year-old heifers,

15 yearlings.

(These with their manure
are entirely under cover.

)In small yards, shedding
j spouted.

“ These 63 animals consume daily as follows; —

“ As much steamed chaff, one-fourth hay, three-fourths straw, as they will eat.

£ s. d.

4 bushels of Indian corn, costing 0 14 0

I3 cwt. decorticated cotton-cake 0 12 6

1 cwt. bran 0 5 6

1 cwt. malt-dust 0 5 6

■§ bushel Black Sea linseed (boiled) .. .. 0 4 6

£2 2 0 per day

for purchased food only. Now this cannot pay in the shape of a direct money
return, and can only be excused by estimating highly the value of the manure
— an estimate which will be fallacious or otherwise in proportion to the extent
to which the manure is protected from rain. If it he made in large open yards,
with the sun'ounding buildings unspouted, the loss is certain ; in small yards,
where the open space is not — and it should never be — more than as five to two
of the spouted shedding, it is questionable ; but in covered yards the cost of
food may be recovered, while only one-half of the litter is necessary, thus
economising straw and carting ; for it is obvious that a much smaller quantity
per acre of this concentrated and unwashed manure will be required for any
crop. The cattle, too, so protected, will give a greater interest for the food
consumed.

“ It will frequently happen that by rigid economy in the use of hay — the
most expensive food, looking at its selling value, that a farmer can give to his
cattle — he may be able to sell some to cover in part the cost of purchased
food.”

Droughts, with general failure of root crops, have effectually
taught farmers how to be for a season, at least, comparatively
independent of turnips in their winter beef-making ; and cattle
are found to do well upon cut hay and straw chaff, wetted
with linseed or other slop, thrown scalding hot upon the chaff,
or even with bean and pea-meal sprinkled upon damped chaff.

Of late years much greater attention has been paid to
utilising a larger proportion of straw for feeding rather than
mere manure making. The quality of straw varies much, of
course, according to the nature and condition of the soil on
which it is grown, and still more from the way in which it is
harvested. But when cut comparatively green, and carefully
managed, many kinds of straw are exceedingly nutritious. Oat-
straw, for instance, when cut green, has 19'0 per cent, of sugar,
gum, and mucilage ; when fairly ripe, 12'0 per cent. ; when
over ripe, only 4'0 per cent. Of digestible woody-fibre, it has
35'0 per cent, when fairly ripe. This is the proportion of

Practical Agriculture.

511 = 245

dry matter. Practically, we may consider that one-half to three-
quarters of the dry matter of oat-straw is available as food, that
is, easily digestible by the animal’s stomach. But the difficulty
with straw is, how to render its large percentage of carbonaceous
matter readily digestible ; how, in fact, to make a large mass
of hard dry material fit for an animal’s stomach ; for, prepare
as we may, there remains always a large percentage of indi-
gestible woody fibre.

Straw can be made palatable and savoury, so that animals will Steaming chaff,
eat it without being driven to such fodder by hunger. Mr.

Horsfall steamed beans and oat-straw, so that it became a

main article of his cows’ food. And the cost of steaming straw-

chaff, as ascertained by the experiments of Mr. Henry Evershed, Mr. Evershed’s

comes out thus. Employing a large apparatus capable of steam-

ing 250 bushels per day, representing at 6 lbs. per bushel, a

total weight of about two-thirds of a ton, enough for 75 head of

cattle eating 20 lbs. each, the expense was found to be 7s. 6fZ.

per ton, in addition to the ordinary cutting of the straw into

chaff. The steaming of 5 tons of chaff per week, for 75 beasts

would thus cost 6fZ. per head per week. Of course, with smaller

quantities cooked, the expense for fuel and labour would be

greater. Where the exhaust steam from a fixed engine can be

utilised, the expense will be very little indeed.

Mr. Mechi, at Tiptree Hall, Essex, cuts his green food, along Mr. Mechi’s
with straw, into short chaff, mixes this with meal, cake, pr“®tice.
and pulped roots, and heats all together in coppers by the
waste steam and condensed hot water from his engine. Bean-
straw, when passed through the chaff-cutter, and then moistened
with hot water, becomes soft and mucilaginous, and is highly
relished by the stock. Wheat-straw is treated in the same way,
but cut very fine, or an eighth of an inch long.

It is found, however, that cattle will eat straw-chaff, and do
well upon a large proportion of it, if the chaff has been simply
mixed with pulped roots and subjected to the partial fermen-
tation which takes place in the mass when allowed to lie for
several hours.

I do not know any men who deal so successfully with their Storing straw-
wheat-straw (as well as barley and pea-straw, which everybody
knows the value of ) than the best Cambridgeshire farmers.

It is a regular thing in that county (and now the practice is
rapidly extending) for a compact portable engine and threshing
machine to travel with one of Maynard’s powerful chaff-cutters.

They come into a farmyard, thresh a stack, and next day cut
up the straw stack into chaff. This chaff-machine, however,
will cut as fast as an ordinary threshing-machine can thresh,
and thoroughly sift the chaff from dust at the same time. The

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 N

bl2 = 246

Practical Agriculture.

>lr. Jonas’s
practice.

late Mr. Samuel Jonas, of Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden,
introduced, or gave notoriety to, the practice of cutting up along
with his straw, a small proportion of green fodder, such as rye
or tares, 1 cwt. to a ton of straw, while a bushel of salt is
sprinkled upon each ton of chaff, to cause a slight fermentation,
and to sweeten and preserve the whole. The chaff is trodden
down in a barn by a gang of boys, so as to fill the place as
solidly as possible, and it remains thus stored for several
months together, being stored in spring and not used till
October. A very marked superiority is found in the old stored
chaff, as compared with chaff fresh cut. It heats considerably,
and expands, so that he was obliged to strengthen the walls of
his barn and tie them together with iron rods ; this expansion
showing that some considerable change must take place in the
substance of the mixture.

Having a twelve-horse-power engine, Mr. Jonas was able to
cut the straw into chaff at once, as it comes from the threshing-
machine ; which he did with the same hands that would be
needed for carrying and stacking the straw. It took three men
to straighten the straw in bunches for the cutter, two men to
carry it away, and half-a-dozen boys to trample it down. In
this way, he chaffed the straw of 8 to 10 acres in one day, at a
cost of Is. Q>d. per acre.

The son, Mr. F. M. Jonas, succeeding his father on the same
farm, has improved upon the process, as thus described by
himself.

“ On this farm, which consists of 850 acres of arable land, I cut into chafif
every year 100 or more acres of mown wheat or oat-straw, just as described
in the ‘ Journal ’ ; but I use pulped mangold instead of tares, rye, &c., as I
can depend better upon the quantity of moisture contained in it ; and the
improved method costs me less than half what the work used to cost on the
same fann as described by nty father. In the first place, the three men for
moving the straw from the barnworks to the chafif-box are done away with by
putting the chaff-hox close up to the barnworks, only having a small boy with
a forked stick to push the straw to the man feeding the chaff-hox. Secondly,
I had Mr. Maynard to make a long elevator for the chaff-hox, so that it puts
the chafif into the bam instead of three men caiTying it there in bags. By
this means I cut straw into chafif and deliver it into the barn with less hands
than are usually employed to stack the straw.”

With the use of green crops only, the storage of cut straw
could be practised only in the summer months ; but with mangold-
pulp, the process can be followed all through the principal
winter threshing season. The addition of the green stuff or
pulped roots causes the straw-chaff mixture to heat. The
volatile and odoriferous principles evolved by the fermentation
are retained in the straw, which itself undergoes a kind of slow
cooking process, and the whole mixture is impregnated with

Practical Agriculture.

513 = 247

a very pleasant flavour, not unlike that of good meadow hay. Enhanced
Analyses of the chaff by Dr. Voelcker give this comparison : — ®

Fresh-cut Chaff.

Same after being
stored nearly
Four Months.

Moisture

16-12

12-01

Albuminous compounds

4-61

4-17

Mucilage, sugar and digestible fibre

38-29

45-19

Woody fibre

33-27

31-10

Mineral matter

7-71

7-53

100-00

Thus, a considerable proportion of the crude woody fibre had
been rendered digestible. Treated in boiling water the change
in the assimilable condition of the chaff was shown thus : —

■

Fresh-cut Chaff.

Same after being
stored nearly
Four Months.

Moisture

16-12

12-01

Matters soluble in water

12-84

22-89

Matters insoluble in water

71-04

65-10

100-00

Another method of preparing straw as food has been intro- Breaking
duced, namely, that of mechanical trituration. Messrs. Ran- straw,
somes, Sims, and Head, of Ipswich, and Messrs. R. Garrett and
Sons, of Leiston, manufacture machines which by a revolving
drum or abrading discs tear and rub harsh wheat-straw into
shreds until the mass is soft, and in an admirable condition for
imbibing the juices of pulped roots, or for absorbing linseed
soup, or for being damped and sprinkled with meal. At
present, however, the practice of breaking straw, while adapted
to Spain and other countries where the straw is of richer quality
than in this kingdom, has probably not been adopted in England
except by way of experiment.

Early Maturity in Beef. — One of the best illustrations of Fattening’
the extending practice of getting off calves to the butcher at cattle,

less than two years old, is afforded by the experience of Mr.

Howman, of Halloughton, Coleshill, who rears and fattens calves
in covered yards. His system is thus described by himself ; —

“ I keep 15 cows, fairly well-bred, nothing more ; and I use a pedigree
bull. My stock of calves is made up to 20 by buying my neighbours’. The

2 N 2

oU = 248

Practical Agriculture.

calves are reared, some on skim-milk, and some on new milk, and are enticed
to eat as early as possible. About every three months they get an increase of
1 lb. per day in the artificial food, so that at 12 months old the allowance is
4 lbs. per head per day : after that it is increased to 6 lbs. a day, and that is
only exceeded as my experience may point out to be beneficial.

“ In the summer, grass, clover, and vetches are mown and brought into the
yards to them, with long hay ; and in the winter, turnips and mangolds, pulped
and mixed with straw chaff, with long hay. The artificial food is mixed with
the chop, and consists of decorticated cotton-cake, Indian corn, barley-meal,
and other tail corn, palm-nut-meal, and locust-bcan-meal, all mixed together,
and costing between Ql. and 9f. a ton. You may notice that linseed-cake i&
not in the list of foods 1 use, and I may tell you that the only use I make of it
is for the youngest calves, and more from a matter of prejudice than because
I think it at all superior to the mixture of foods I have named ; for I do not
hesitate to say, from my experience in meat-making — mutton as well as beef —
that the continued use of linseed-cake by farmers, instead of a mixture of
cheaper foods, is as unwise as it is extravagant. I do not say that linseed-cake
is not a most valuable food in itself, but I say it is too dear ; and I go further
and say that an equally good result is to be obtained by a judicious mixture of
foods, of which decorticated cotton-cake and palm-nut-meal are the foundation,
and which shall not cost more than 9^. a ton. Now I do not give you this as
my opinion only, but I point to the results I have obtained from the two years’
experience of early-maturity beef-making under covered yards. In the one
year the calves averaged to the butcher, 20?. 6s. 8c?., at 18 months and 1 week
old, and last year 14 of them averaged 20?. 17s. 6c?., at 20 months and 1 week
old. Now if, instead of using the mixture I have named, I had used linseed-
cake, the increased price of food would have been from 25 to 30 per cent., that
is to say, the difference between 81. and 12?. per ton, and these beasts must
have made from 26?. to 28?. to have paid for the difference in the price of the
food. The question is, could I have made them so much better ? My decided
opinion is that I could not have done so. Well, perhaps you will say that the
manure would have been so much better from linseed-cake than from what I
used. That is a question that I think has not been yet decided ; but, if you
believe in Mr. Lawes’ Table of the manorial value of the different kinds of food,,
the decorticated cotton-cake is infinitely superior to linseed-cake. That there
is a difference in the quality of manure left from different foods, our^practical
experience certainly points out ; but whether that difference can be accurately
measured is not yet certain ; but no doubt the experiments that are now being
earned out by the Royal Agricultural Society of England on the subject, will
be very valuable and exhaustive, and the future generation of farmers will owe-
a debt of gratitude to that Society for undertaking them. I know that some
who have tried the decorticated cotton-cake have not found it to answer, and
the reason is not far to seek, for it requires to be used with care and judgment,
and never by itself. The stockman must not be allowed to run to the heap-
and take what he may consider a sufficient quantity ; if he does, the result
will be indigestion and derangement of the stomach in the beasts ; that is my
experience in the use of it for the last seven years. It must be mixed with
twice the quantity of either Indian corn or barley-meal ; and in sending a
sample of decorticated cotton-cake to be analysed by Dr. Voelcker, my expe-
rience was confirmed by his report, and the valuable advice he gave me in
reference to using it ; and it is interesting in showing how sound and practical
is the opinion of Dr. Voelcker, formed simply from the analysis. He writes :

‘ Decorticated cotton-cake, in fact, is too rich in nitrogenous comjwunds to suit,,
by itself, herbivorous animals; it should be broken up much finer than
ordinary oilcake, and then used with twice its weight of Indian corn-meal, or
feeding-barley, or any farinaceous meal which is comparatively jwor in albu-
minous matters. A mixture of 1 lb. of decorticated cotton-cake and 2 lbs. of

Practical Agriculture.

hlid = 249

Indian com-meal or barley-meal is about the best and cheapest cattle-food
•which you can buy.’ This he vvi'ote to me last February, and what better com-
mentary could you have as to the soundness of Dr. Voelcker’s advice than the
result of my previous year’s feeding of the 14 beasts I have referred to ?

“ There is one very interesting and important fact I wish to bring before you
as a result of the early feeding of these young beasts ; it is not an original
idea of my own, but one that is too much overlooked, and that is, that the
younger a beast is fed, say up to two years old, the greater the average weight
of beef j)er week it will make, and the less food it will take to do it, than is the
case with feeding older beasts ; and to illustrate this, I will give you the average
weight of the beasts exhibited at the last Bingley Hall Show, and compare
them with the weight of my 14. Now I do not make this comparison because
I think my beasts were as good or as well fed as those exhibited at the Show,
but because those weights were the only reliable ones I could get for com-
parison. In the youngest class of Shorthorn steers, not exceeding 3 years old,
there were 7 exhibited, and the average live-weight they made from the day of
birth to the date of the Show was 13‘76 lbs., per week ; the 10 in the class of
Shorthorn heifers, not exceeding 4 years old, averaged 11 lbs. per week of live-
weight — less than the steers, you see, though heifers are supposed to feed faster ;
the 7 in the class of Shorthorn steers exceeding 3 years, and not exceeding
4 years old, averaged 11’9 lbs. per week of live-weight. So you see the
youngest class averages the greatest live-weight per week, and that you will
find to be the rule ; the older the beast, the less the average weight made per
■week. Now, my 14 beasts at 18 months and 1 week old averaged 13'5 lbs.
per week, or only -J lb. of live-weight less than the average of the heaviest
class in the Show, and with how much less food consumed! And if with
moderate feeding these animals attained so satisfactory a result at such an
■early age, does it not show the loss of time, food, and money that must occur
in following the ordinary system of feeding, that is, keeping beasts till thej'’
■are 3 and 4 years old, and then cramming them with more food than they can
digest, to ‘ finish them off ’ as it is called ? ”

CHAPTEE IV.

j Management of the Flock.

Commencement of the Breeding Season. — It may be just worth Ewes lambing
a remark that, by attention and high keep, the ewe will breed
twice in a year, and that the practice of obtaining two crops of
lambs in a year for fattening was at one time known in Flanders,
was also followed by some farmers on the Mendip Hills in
Somersetshire, and even now occasionally happens among the
Dorset sheep. Instances are known of ewes lambing at Christmas,
fattening off’ their lambs by Lady-day, and producing lambs again
in June ; of a ewe having lambed four times within 21 months ;
and probably there are many examples of ewes dropping lambs
twice in a year for two years successively. But no such strain
upon the constitution of the ewe is either practically adopted
in any district, or openly advocated as an advisable method of
Increasing the supply of fat lambs or stock sheep.

The general practice of English flock-masters may be thus

516 = 250

Practical Agriculture.

Selection and
age of ewes
for breeding.

Age of rams
used.

Forwarding
ewes for the
ram.

Matching ew
and rams.

described : — Immediately upon weaning the lambs in summer,
(which is done at an early period for the purpose of getting the
ewes in good condition for breeding), the ewes undergo a
very careful inspection ; any animal indicating weakness, from
age or other incapacity, is removed from the flock and placed
on good keeping, to be fattened off for the butcher. No
animal of weak constitution, or showing signs of disease of
any kind, or possessing any malformation in form or feature, [
or tumour or ulcer, is retained for breeding purposes ; nor is I
any ewe (unless for some special object) put to the ram after |
the age of 5 years at furthest. The most common and profit- j
able course is to tup them when yearlings, and sell or feed |
them off at 3 or 4 years old ; as by this means the flock is ■ i
kept in great vigour, and a sound and strong constitution is
preserved. The practice of using ewe lambs for breeding is
sometimes adopted, but is reprehensible. A ewe should have
attained actual and healthy maturity, namely, about 18 months
old, before being put to the ram, so as to be nearly 2 years old ; j
when she brings forth her first lamb. By breeding from animals ,
when very young, the whole growth of frame is held back, and ! (
the vital powers are weakened.

The rule is to put every eligible shearling ewe to the ram. \
Rams are chiefly used as shearlings ; older rams being generally ! * i
such as have come up specially good sheep, or have acquired some 1 1
fame in prize-lists. ^ With the heavy breeds a disadvantage is ex-
perienced from the modern system of feeding up rams till they j
are too fat to work well. The practice of using ram lambs is less
in vogue than formerly, though still common among mountain
flocks, as in Wales.

As the time approaches for putting ewes to the ram, and when
all danger from drying their milk has subsided, they cannot
be put upon pasturage too rich for them, or they are supplied
with turnips or cabbages ; and the faster they thrive the more
security is there for their safety in breeding, for a larger proportion
of twins and threes, and the finer, stronger, and healthier single
lambs will they produce. At all hazard, and under any inconven-
ience, the ewes are kept on good pasturage while with the ram.

A bite of white-mustard is excellent for forwarding the ewes, and
disposing them to take the ram, and is also propitious towards
a prolific fall of lambs. The ewes ought to be thus flushed
for two or three weeks before the ram goes to them, and the high-
feeding should be continued for a few weeks after he has left them.

5 Some flock-masters put a number of rams indiscriminately
among the whole flock of ewes ; giving up all attempts at
selection and matching of the dams and the sires according to
the deficiencies or superior points of each. But, even when the

Practical Agriculture.

517 = 25i

produce is to be sold off as lambs for graziers, this is not good
management ; and the lambs will not possess the level character
that is specially prized in lots brought to market. Of course,
where the perpetuation of a good breeding flock is the object,
the greatest attention is paid to the matching of the ewes.

The time of putting ewes to the ram depends much upon the Time of
country and the system of husbandry pursued ; in other words, rai'r'
upon climate and upon the farmer’s means of provision for the
spring. When there is shelter, protection, and a good provision
of food for lambing ewes in February and the early part of
March, the tupping season begins in the middle of September ;
in an open or bleak country the end of September or beginning
of October is preferred. In the south and west of England, as
with the Southdown and Hampshire Down flocks, it is com-
monly August and September, but in the northern counties,

October, when the rams are turned in with the ewes. The
Dorset breed ordinarily lambing in December, their tupping
season is not later than July ; while for raising early house-
lambs which, in Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, and Hampshire, are
getting fat before Christmas — the bleating of lambs in October
and November being a strange sound to a North-country visitor
— the ewes are put to the ram in May and June. In hilly, moor-
land, and mountain districts, the tupping season varies from
the latter part of October to the latter part of November, and
into December upon the Welsh mountains and the Lake
District and Yorkshire fells.

A young active ram is generally put to about sixty ewes, an Number of
older ram to about forty. It is customary to ochre the ram
underneath, so that progress or want of activity may be watched Marking the
by the marks left upon the ewes ; and calculation as to the fall ram.
of lambs early or late in the season is sometimes assisted by
using upon the ram red ochre for one week, blue for the next,
and another colour for the next.

Treatment of Lambing-Ewes and preventing Abortion. — Good Treatment of
managers endeavour to avoid the two extremes of stinting and lambmg ewes.
Aveakening ewes, and of having them in too high a condition on
stimulating food. It is found wise to give turnips or cabbages
sparingly, and not to fold in-lamb ewes upon swedes in the
pens following hoggetts or other sheep. Swedes and mangolds
are best given after lambing. A suitable food for in-lamb ewes is
pulped roots mixed with straw-chaff, with hay accessible in cribs,
and a daily allowance of a mixture of foods, as crushed oats,
beans, malt-coombs, and oilcake. But almost every good farmer
has his own system and quantities of extra food for his lambing-
ewes.

A Avell-sheltered lambing paddock, fitted with small straw-

518 = 252

Practical Agriculture.

Losses by
abortion.

Mr. Woods on

preventing

abortion.

pens or sometimes with low sheds of deal roofed with felt, and a
field-house for the shepherd, are commonly provided. And the
shepherd has a supply of such medicines as laudanum and
linseed-oil, castor-oil, spirits of nitre, Epsom-salts, powdered-
ginger, and powdered-chalk ; as well as such restoratives and
supplementary food for both ewes and lambs, as whisky, gin,
gruels, cows’ milk, or flour and water sweetened with treacle. It
is becoming common, indeed, for owners of flocks and herds to
keep proper medicine-chests.

On arable farms, such as on the Cotswold Hills or other situa-
tions, Avhere, from altitude, the winter is severe, it is customary
to construct a fold-yard, with shelter sheds and abundance of
litter, in the turnip-field. Each ewe with her lamb is carefully
treated in a small covered pen for three or four days. In bitter
weather the lambs are sheltered at nights for a considerable
period ; and shelter hurdles are always placed about different
parts of the field.

Mr. Henry Woods, of Merton, Thetford, Norfolk, agent to
Lord Walsingham, has lately collected and published a mass
of most valuable information on the management of breeding-
flocks and the causes of the prevalent and excessive loss of ewes
from abortion — the facts having been gathered from four hundred
flock-masters in all parts of the kingdom. In fifty cases of sheep
management, where the feeding and results were satisfactory,
there were 25,281 ewes ; in that number the cases of abortion
amounted to 126, and the deaths from all causes during the
breeding season were 222. In fifty unsatisfactory cases, there
were 21,682 ewes ; and in these returns, 22 farmers owned to
very heavy losses, while 28 stated a total of abortions amounting
to 1884. In 40 of the reports there were totalled 1255 deaths.
Thus, 50 satisfactory cases showed one abortion and not quite
1 J deaths for every 200 ewes ; whereas the other cases showed
17^ abortions and llj deaths for every 200 ewes, though nearly
one-half the abortions and one-fifth of the deaths were not
recorded.

In a lecture at Watton, on jMay 28th, 1877, Mr. Woods
described the particulars of management of five representative
flocks in Norfolk, Warwickshire, Sussex, Kent, and Notting-
hamshire, comprising 5109 ewes, in which there occurred only
4 cases of abortion and 31 deaths. He contrasted these with
five other and smaller flocks in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk,
Warwickshire, and Wiltshire, comprising 2240 ewes, in which
occurred 576 cases of abortion and 234 deaths.

In his general conclusions, he said : — “ A most careful
analysis of the returns — in making which I have had some
able assistance — shows that sheep fed on turnips now are not

Practical Agriculture.

519 = 255

so healthy as sheep were when fed on turnips some years ago.

As you will have imagined, and as it needs no philosopher to
tell you, ewes fed on grass are much more healthy than when
fed on turnips.

“ It is very evident that sheep are not so healthy as they used
to be. One reason is, I think, the land being farmed more
highly for turnips ; and I have repeatedly remarked that we lose
more sheep after a heavy crop of turnips. I do not think the
artificial manure of itself is the cause, beyond forcing a turnip
into a bad quality, which frequently causes us great loss just at
lambing-time. I think it must be clear to any person who has
followed my remarks in giving details of cases, that swedes are
proved to be unhealthy food for breeding-ewes. I might have
adduced many other cases from my returns confirmatory of this.

In the few instances where the ewes have done well when
feeding on swedes, the daily supply has been limited, and there
has almost invariably been an allowance of other food — as hay-
chaff, with a liberal admixture of bran. I believe that the
verdict of a large majority of the thinking and practical farmers
and experienced shepherds throughout the country will be
this — that if we make it a rule to flush our ewes by stimulating
food during the tupping season, to avoid feeding on swedes as
much as possible, to limit the supply of other roots as far as
circumstances will permit, to give a fairly liberal allowance of
digestible, nutritious, and health-preserving dry food, and to
run the ewes out on grass as much as possible (taking care
never to over-fatigue them) before lambing, there will in future
be far fewer cases of abortion and death amongst ewes than we
have now to deplore, and many more strong and healthy lambs
will be reared than at present. One other point is this. The
ewes lost during lambing would appear from my returns to
be greatest where short-woolled ewes have been put to long-

Iwoolled rams. The evidence, I say, is unquestionable that
greater mortality attends lambing where short-woolled ewes
are put to large-boned, long-woolled rams, than where the
ewes breed after their own kind. Where cross-bred ewes are
I served by Oxford Down rams, the loss of ewes has been less
. than in the case of the short-woolled ewes served by long-
I woolled rams ; and I presume the reason is that the half-bred
1 ewes, having their parts more fully developed from the cross,

I are the better adapted to perform the functions required of them.”
f Raising and Fattening House Lambs, as practised in the Early lamb.
■ southern counties, from ewes of the Dorset horned breed,

. commonly using Down or cross-bred rams, is thus conducted.

I The ewes are brought to take the ram as early as May and June,
by feeding them upon trifolium and cut swedes, or mangold

520 = 254

Practical Agriculture.

placed in troughs, giving them also a change on dry pasture for
a few hours every day, sometimes half a pint of beans each per
day. After the ram is removed, the ewes are changed to a dry
pasture, with a fold of tares or other similar forage, and
managed as a store flock, without being too highly kept — the
object being to keep great numbers and eat the ground bare.
The travelling consequent upon daily removal to fresh food
is a very beneficial exercise, insuring a healthy offspring. The
lambs fall in November and December. Owing to the mildness
of the climate in that part of England, it is not generally
necessary to resort to the lambing-yard. A shifting fold is
used, removed to dry ground each day ; a shed being requisite
for weakly lambs, in case of very wet and stormy weather.

Italian rye-grass (sown on a portion of the wheat stubble)
receives the ewes and lamb ; but they also range over the
wheat stubble at night, and on young clover by day, to avoid
injuring the clover plant, and to have a good layer for the lambs.
The ewes are kept thus till the lambs are four or five weeks
old. At one month old the male lambs are castrated by cutting
and searing, which is found to be safer and to give a more
fleshy lamb when arrived at maturity, than the plan of drawing
when the lamb is a week or ten days old.

The lambs, being a month old, are taken with their dams to
root-feeding, for the sake of keeping up the condition of the
ewes, which are being simultaneously fattened. The roots are
cut and given in troughs, and the lambs feed in advance of and
separate from the ewes, — a lamb-gate being provided for the
purpose, having a space between the bars to allow lambs to pass,
without being wide enough for the ewes. As soon as it is light
in the morning, the shepherd gives hay to both lambs and
ewes, and then fills the troughs with cut roots, passing the lambs’
portion twice through the cutter, reducing the slices into bits the
size of dice. Next, he gives oilcake and peas in covered troughs,
the allowance being as much as they will eat. To prevent
waste, the oilcake is broken fine — the size of horse-beans — so
that the lambs do not take up large pieces and drop them beside
the troughs. To induce the young animals to eat cake and peas,
it is sometimes necessary to mix a portion of common salt.
The ewes next receive their portion of oilcake, without peas,
beginning with lb. per day — half in the morning, half before
the bait of roots at night. After two or three weeks of this
food, the cake is gradually increased up to 1 lb. each per day ;
and towards the end of the fattening process, half a pint of
beans is added. This renders the flesh more firm ; the great
objection to ewes being fattened while suckling being that they
are mostly deficient in firmness and quality of meat.

Practical Agriculture.

521 = 255

Haj or hay-chafF, also, is giv^en to the lambs twice-a-day ; but
after eight or nine weeks old, they have it three times a day —
the last feeding being not later than three o’clock, as the hay not
eaten will be spoiled in case of rain. The portions of hay, after
having been picked over by the lambs, go to their mothers. The
lambs are ready for the butcher at ten or eleven weeks old.

Summer treatment of Flocks. — Ewes, with their lambs, are thinly Grazing ewes
stocked upon the sweetest and best suckling (not the rankest lumts.
fattening) pastures which the farm will afford, or upon young
seeds where permanent grass land is not available. The lambs,
after having recovered from the sanguinary, but partly indis-
pensable and partly fashionable, operations of castration, tail-
cutting, and ear-marking, at about ten days to a fortnight old
(though castration is now becoming more usual at two months
old, by the process of searing and the use of blue ointment and
lard), and after having grown strong upon their mothers’ milk,
roam in search of such natural grasses as instinct appears to
direct them to for their better sustenance. At any rate, the
more spacious pasture room they have to range over the better
they prosper. The ewes, Avith all good managers, are well
fed with cake and corn in addition to roots and hay, or what
provender forms the bulk of their food in the early spring.

The management of the Hampshire and Wiltshire Down Hampshire ami
lambs offers one of the very best examples of judicious feeding Wiltshire
that can be found. The primary object being to get the lambs 'management,
to the market in the autumn, no expense is spared to provide
frequent changes of food. As soon as the lambs can eat, they
are allowed corn and cake in troughs in front. After the
turnips are eaten, the flock is placed on water meadows by day,
and on late swedes, if any remain, at night ; then on rye and
winter oats, Italian rye-grass, &c. If there are no water meadows,
a portion of the clover layer forms excellent food ; and this should
always be folded «ff, the lambs having the front pen. At this
time they will eat a considerable quantity of food. There are
two plans ; either to keep the ewes in close quarters, having a
lamb pen a-head, and shifting often twice a-day, or else to let
them hie back on the land they have already cleared. The first
plan, according to the Editor of “ The Sheep and Pigs of Great
Britain,” is, on the whole, preferable, and may be safely carried
out, when the sheep have a night change. If, however, the
farmer is necessitated to keep them entirely on the seeds (which
of course is very undesirable), more room is necessary ; but even
then he must not keep them on the ground long, otherwise
lambs eat the young shoots and scour. By going rapidly over the
surface (that is eating doAvn close), and then passing on, the plant
groAvs again evenly, and in due time another crop is secured.

522 = 256"

Practical Agriculture.

Mr. Rawlence’ii
practice.

Shearing ewes
and dipping
lambs.

Time for
weaning.

either for the ewes or for hay. It is at this time, when the
sheep are on clover, that sliced or pulped mangolds prove of great
value. They contain at this season much sugar, and correct the
laxative tendency of the clover. Mr. Rawlence’s practice, as
described by Mr. H. M. Jenkins in his Report of the Bulbridge
Farm (in the Society’s ‘ Journal ’), may be cited as an instance
of successful treatment. Mr. Rawlence being a breeder of rams,
a forcing system was adopted. “After lambing, the ewes get
mangolds with hay-chaff, for about ten days in the lambing-pens,
and, in addition to this food, the ewes with tup- lambs or with
couples, get either one pint of oats or one pound of cake ; but
unless roots are scarce, the remaining ewes are denied artificial
food. At the expiration of ten days or a fortnight, the ewes and
lambs go on turnips, and remain there till March 20th. About
this date the ewes and lambs go into the water meadows by day,
and are folded at night on swedes, for the first fortnight or so,
and afterwards on Italian rye-grass, or occasionally on rye and
winter oats, which have been sown where rye-grass has failed.
This treatment is continued until the middle of May, when the
lambs are weaned.” Vetches, however, are most valuable food
for sheep on arable land. By sowing successive crops in the
autumn and early spring, some flock-masters secure continuous
food from May to August ; and lambs thrive very well on such
food when taught to eat it. Cotswold lambs are frequently
weaned on vetches, the ewes being removed to a short pasture ;
or, as is the practice in Hampshire, leaving them to follow, only
doubling the line of separating hurdles.

Shearing the ewes early in June, or somewhat earlier or later
according to climate and locality, generally causes both mother
and offspring to improve rapidly in condition ; and it is a good
practice, not invariably followed, to dip the lambs immediately
after shearing time, to destroy parasites which, by causing a
high degree of continued irritation or perhaps torment, hinder
the growth of lambs more than is commonly imagined. Indeed,
the number of deaths occurring from lumps of wool in the stomach
resulting from lambs biting themselves, and again, the great
extent to which scour, and perhaps the development of intestinal
worms, arises from the misery inflicted upon the helpless young
animals by ticks and lice, appear to have determined the most
careful as well as most humane flock-masters to make use of
dipping more frequently than was usual a few years ago. This
subject of dipping, along with pouring and smearing, will be
referred to further on.

The beginning of July is perhaps the most general time for
weaning ; though in the sunny south it is June, and in some
districts often in May. Experiments made with Leicester lambs

Practical Agriculture.

b2?> = 257

by the late Mr. Pawlett, showed a gain of 4 lbs. weight per head
in one month from weaning on the 10th of June instead of the
10th of July ; and the two lots, fed together till the following
February, gave a weight of 5^ lbs. per head in favour of the
earlier weaned.

Where the state of the pasturage will allow, the ewes are Mode of
taken away from the lambs, leaving the young animals for a weaning,
time in the fields to which they have become accustomed. The
ewes are placed for some days upon a piece of bare grass, with a
view of quickly drying up their milk ; and it is common to
draw their udders once or twice. An old plan, still maintained in
Wales, is to mix a portion of ewe’s milk with cow’s milk, and
therewith produce an excellent ewe-milk cheese.

I The lambs thrive best when frequently shifted to fresh grass Graaing lambe.

or other herbage, as grass aftermath or clover, which must not be
rank, strong, and succulent ; and they should always be thinly
stocked. In August they are upon clover allowed to grow almost
up to its second flowering, or upon sainfoin, or trefoil, or rye-
j grass, with a bite of vetches or rape for only part of each day, lest
they should over-eat this succulent food. Sometimes a moderate
J allowance of cabbage is carted to them ; and they have access to

f water and to lumps of rock-salt, which are a health-requisite in

the sheep pasture or fold. In August and the early part of Preparing
' September, the young sheep are prepared for their winter food, for ^

j either by gradually breaking them to a fold of rape or white
turnips for a few hours daily, with hay, or cut-chaff, or cut
oat-straw, in cribs, or by carting turnips to them upon their
pasture before they are confined upon the field of roots altogether.

And it is at this period that linseed-cake, or, still better, the
I astringent decorticated cotton-cake, or a mixture of bran and

I cake, or of malt-coombs and cake, up to J lb. per head per

day, is found of greatest value.

For destroying parasitic insects, curing scab, and promoting Dipping.

I the growth and good quality of the wool, several processes are

1 adopted ; namely, “ dipping,” in which sheep or lambs are im-

l| mersed, all but their heads, in a liquid in a bath-box, and then

1 held upon a draining rack till the surplus of dripping liquid has

I run back to the bath ; “ bottling,” in which the liquid is applied Bottling.

y to the skins of long-woolled sheep by opening the fleece with a

i stick, and wetting the skin from a glass-bottle having a channel

cut in the cork ; “ pouring,” in which the fleece is divided by Pouring,
thumb and finger in “ sheds” in several parts of the body along
the whole length of the sheep, and pouring on a mixture out of
a can with a long spout ; and lastly, “ smearing,” in which oint- Smearing. ’
ment is rubbed on the skin by the finger along opened sheds in
' the wool. One period for the operation is early in summer.

524 = 255

Practical Agriculture.

Dips.

when the ewes have been shorn ; another in the fly season in
midsummer ; another in September, another in November ;
while dressing by the bottle is sometimes requisite in February.

Arsenical dips, being dangerous, are not so much employed
as formerly ; compounds of tobacco-juice, hellebore, and other
vegetable poisons, with sulphur, soap, soda, &c., are more largely
used ; but of late years dips prepared with carbolic acid, or
otherwise obtained from tar, have come into great favour ; some
of them, however, while effectually killing all skin parasites,
cleansing the skin, and by the after-smell warding off flies for a
considerable time, have the misfortune to discolour the wool.
The most widely-known dips are Bigg’s, McDougall’s, Long’s,
Reid’s, Cooper’s, and the Glycerine dip ; while Little’s Chemical
Fluid, the latest invention of this class, possesses all the qualifi-
cations required in a perfect dip. For both pouring and
dipping mixtures, oils are to some extent employed ; chiefly on
mountain farms. It is mainly in Scotland that smearing or
salving is still practised upon high mountain grazings as a
defence against the wet and cold of winter. The smear is a
compound of American or Archangel tar and grease-butter,
sometimes Avith a portion of Gallipoli oil. ^Mercurial ointment
is still believed by some farmers of the old school to be the
best remedy for scab ; but its use is now very limited.

The time for shearing has altered considerably of late years.
Before Mr. Coke, first Earl of Leicester, commenced his cele-
brated Holkham sheep-shearings, or the Duke of Bedford his
agricultural gatherings, under the same designation, at Woburn,
it was the usual custom to clip between the 1st of June and
the 1st of August. Since the establishment of the Royal Agri- ]
cultural Society, the time has gradually changed to the 1st ofi
May, for early clipping ; sheep for Show purposes are shorn still j
earlier ; and very few flocks are left unshorn after the 1st, orJ
at most the 2nd week in July. Mountain sheep, as the Cheviots
and Welsh, are shorn in July, and some as late as August. The
time depends, of course, very much upon the season and the
state of the flocks, as well as upon the breed and locality. If
the season be cold and the flock in poor condition, it is deemed
better to wait for sunny weather ; but if the weather be warm in
early summer, the sooner the sheep are out of the wool the faster \
they make mutton.

Sheer-washing. Sheep-washing before clip-day, though generally conducted inj
a primitive manner, has received greater attention of late years.
Except in hilly districts where running waters abound, the pro-J
cess is not now performed by men standing up to their middle"
in a running stream, and plunging, sousing, and rubbing the _
sheep one by one, as caught and passed to the bathers for that

Smear.

Ointment.

Time for
shearing.

Practical Agriculture.

o2o = 259

purpose. Washing is something more than merely dissolving
and rinsing out sand and dirt from the fleece ; the yellow greasy
secretion, or “ yolk,” forming a natural soap of oil and potash,
unites with the water in a proper washing reservoir, in which
soft water is dammed back or detained, and acts as a powerful
cleanser and whitener of the whole fleece ; and hence arrange-
I ments of the kind are becoming common. Sufficient time, say
four or five minutes for each sheep, is allowed for soaking ; and
it is found that the liquor in which a considerable number of
sheep have been washed acts almost like soapsuds in removing
impurities from the wool. In some places a proper wash-pit of
brick-work, with water-tight boxes for the workers to stand in,
and a long swim for the sheep, with gravel bottom and gradually
shallowing mouth or exit, is constructed. In districts where
brooks are not available, large ponds or pools are utilised, a
stage is made over the water for “ dyking ” the sheep, and a vat
and swim are arranged by fencing off" a portion of the area with
i posts and ropes along the water-line. The washer stands in a
suspended tub, and the sheep are guided in their swim and their
1 heads are held above water by a long handle carrying a cross-piece.

Many flock-masters, at least among breeders of Lincoln heavy-
woolled sheep, have now adopted the vat-system, in which the
sheep are thoroughly well washed in a large rectangular wooden
vat partly sunk in the ground, a portion of soft-soap dissolved
in boiling water being mixed with the water in the vat. As
much as 2s. per tod (28 lbs.) being the difference in value between
I well-cleansed and badly-washed wool, this extra carefulness in
the process is found to pay.

Ten days or a fortnight, according to weather, elapses between
I washing and shearing, so as to give the yolk time to rise again,

^1 and thus prevent serious loss both from diminished weight of
» fleece and increased harshness in its handling.

• ’ Clipping is usually done by the sheep being laid on clean
grass, or upon coarse cloth or canvas sheeting spread on the
' ground ; but, with the bigger breeds, a raised clipping-board or
stage is employed ; and some of the mountain sheep are laid, with
! their legs tied, upon a long stool, on which the shearer also sits.

1 Winter Management of Flocks. — I have spoken of breaking-in Winter
I sheep to their winter food. But, for a time after they have foW>»g-
I been nominally confined to turnips, it is considered good
I management to remove them to grass at nights. When finally
I folded upon the root-crop, it is common to remove sheep in wet
I weather, except upon very light dry soils, or upon heavy-land
farms in some counties where straw is used in considerable
quantity for bedding the folds ; and it is a practice largely
followed to allow a range over a stubble or other field in con-

526 = 260

Practical Agriculture.

Hurdles and
aets.

Storing, clean-
ing, and
cutting roots.

nection with the fold on turnips. The plan of inclosing a
portion of the turnip-field, sufficient for several days’ consump-
tion, and permitting the sheep free walk over the whole area, is
not often followed, except sometimes at the commencement of
the season, or for hoggets. The general practice is to inclose
a fresh portion of the crop sufficient for one day’s consumption,
not always of a uniform area or carrying a similar quantity of
roots, but regulated to some extent according to the dieting of
the animals as well as the state of the land and the weather.
The flock is permitted to roam over the cleared portions ; the
fold increasing in space, but being often limited by the length
of fencing available. Y oung or hogget sheep never follow after 1
ewes or fatting wethers, except under rare circumstances ; and
it is usual for tegs to occupy the most forward inclosures and
always to begin the new plots of roots, while the older sheep
follow in a second fold to clear up the hulls.

The fencing employed varies in different parts of the country.

In many parts of England, where copses prevail, the hurdles
are cheaply made on the farm, of wattled or woven hazel, and
are held upright by strong stakes or “ shaws,” to which the
hurdles are hung by “ shackles.” In other parts they consist
of wooden bar “ trays,” the ends or heads having long points
which are driven into the ground by a mallet or “ beetle,” the
holes in some soils being opened for them by a pointed iron bar.
On shallow soils, particularly in the north, a short-footed hurdle
is used, held in an inclined position by a stay or prop, with a'

“ stob ” or pin driven into the ground. And either alone, or in
conjunction with trays, dressed yarn netting, of large mesh, sup-
ported by stakes, is used in many localities, as being cheap
in first cost and removable with little labour. Iron hurdles
upon small wheels, expensive at first purchase, but economicalH
from their great durability, are becoming adopted by high-class J
farmers ; their use being especially in favour for hurdling offjj
clover and other grazings when the ground is baked hard and“
ordinary hurdles can be shifted only with difficulty. *

Cleaning the roots by topping and tailing, slicing, and feed-
ing in troughs are practices which prevail over most parts of I
England, more especially in the consumption of swedes. But
these practices are by no means universal. Thus, the Hamp-
shire and Wiltshire method is to let all sheep, even the ram tegs, ,
cut their own turnips, which, however, are pecked up loose out of I
the ground for them. The cost of getting into heaps and cutting
is avoided, and the sheep certainly do not injure themselves by
over-eating roots — a frequent cause of abortion in ewes ; but
then the custom is to supplement the root food by supplying '
large quantities of sainfoin and clover-hay in racks, in addition

Practical Agriculture.

527 = 261

to the cake and corn given in troughs. As a precaution against
frost, portions of the root-crop are commonly (though not in all
parts of the kingdom) pulled and stored in the field, either by
being thrown into heaps and then covered down with straw,
stubble, or earth, or a covering of earth over straw, or by laying
a few rows together and turning the soil up against them with a
plough. Care is not always taken to cut off the tops a day or
two before the sheep go on, as a precaution against frosted
tops ; and another point not attended to so generally as by the
best flockmasters, is easing the change from white-fleshed
turnips to yellow-fleshed hybrids, and, of still more importance,
to the later diet of swedes, by mingling a proportion of the
next food in the cutter during a few days before the replacement
of one by the other has to be made entirely.

In the latter part of the winter, when the swedes are coming Changing the
to an end and mangolds are resorted to, great care is taken to keep,
change the keep frequently^ — ^plots of winter barley and other
bites of green stuff being frequently provided ; and the supply
of dry food, of linseed or cotton-cake, or cake and meal, is more
liberal.

During the entire winter it is almost universal to keep the folds Dry food,
well supplied with hay and straw in racks or between hurdles,
or cut into chaff and given in troughs ; and a lump of salt in a
covered tub or trough is not neglected. On some heavy lands it
is customary to bed down portions of the fold with straw in a
rainy time. Shelter is generally provided by making low walls
or racks of straw between open-framed hurdles ; and often, in
exposed situations, light field sheds, of posts, hurdles, and straw,
are put up. In the case of large flocks, the shepherd frequently The shepherd’s
has a wooden hut or house on wheels ; and where lambing takes

I place in the fold, he has his bed there, and a fire. Where large
lots of fatting sheep are being folded, they are watched by night
as well as day, and the field-house serves as a butcher’s-shop
for instantly slaughtering and hanging-up any fat sheep which
may be found threatened with inflammatory or other dangerous

i disease.

Great attention is paid to the flock, especially to hoggets. Medicine and
throughout the winter, to forestall disease by administering
alterative or diuretic drinks, and to counteract over-feeding
with roots by occasional removals to pasture. Paring the hoof
and applying a caustic dressing for foot-rot is a part of the shep-
herd’s care, often laborious and almost incessant upon soft lands
and with heavy sheep. Long-woolled sheep are troubled with
clots or balls of hardened soil and dung, hanging to their wool
behind, which, at the close of winter, are removed by the shears.

I On hill or mountain farms, permanent stone-wall shelters are Mountain

II VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 0 shelter.

528 = 262

Practical Agriculture.

Wintering
sheep in yards

Mr. Ruston’s
practice.

Mr. Randell’s
practice.

provided as a protection from snow-blasts ; and both roots and
hay and corn are carried to the sheep in the least exposed
situations.

On clay-lands, the system of wintering sheep in yards having
sheds is extending in favour. The experience of Mr. Alfred S.
Ruston, at Chatteris, Cambridgeshire, may be quoted on this,
practice. He made very close observations with 600 to 700
sheep in yards, valued them in and out of the yards, kept a
strict diary, calculated the cost of artificial food, noticed what
quantity of straw they made into manure, and also the quality
of the manure. He says, “ I find 6 lamb-hoggs tread down as
much straw, and make it into as good manure, as a 12Z. or 14Z.
bullock. I put the sheep into my ordinary straw-yards, and
always reckon 6 sheep for a bullock ; so that where I should
have had 10 bullocks I put 60 sheep. I find it is very essential
to keep a thin layer of dry straw over the yard. In wet days,
we litter them twice a-day, and on fine days once, but only use
a very small quantity at a time ; this just keeps the heat of the
manure from rising to injure their feet, and prevents them from
treading on wet straw during the day. In one whole winter
I had not more than a dozen lame sheep in the yards, and there
were far fewer cases in the yards than there were before the
sheep came in. When they first come into the yard, and until
the end of February, we give them a larger quantity of dry
food. They pick the bedding-straw over, and, when practicable,
have a stack or good heap in the yard to run to. W'e also cut
them chaff, hay and straw together, feeding them with it several
times a day. We give them mangolds (turnips and swedes
not being produced extensively on the fen-lands) twice or thrice
a day, taking care that the quantity is not such as to make the
sheep scour. As the days lengthen, after the end of February,
we increase the quantity of roots and reduce the supply of
dry food. I find that an acre of mangolds of an average crop
will carry 25 lamb-hoggs, say from the beginning of Decem-
ber to the beginning or middle of April. Old sheep will
consume more ; there may be 20 sheep per acre.” Mr.
Ruston reckons the profit (or return for the natural food after
the artificial is paid for) on a bullock to be 30s. ; on 6 sheep,
no less than 81. 18s., leaving in each case the same value of
manure.

Mr. Charles Randell, of Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire,
has frequently wintered ewe-tegs in straw-yards, and avoided
lameness ; the only precaution necessary being to litter with
straw daily, but only just so much as is necessary. In this way
the manure is so consolidated by treading, that little fermenta-
tion goes on, and the cause of foot-rot in yards is avoided. But

Practical Agriculture.

529 = 263

a distinguishing feature in his excellent and, indeed, model prac-
tice is the wintering of tegs in yards having sheds, the floors
of which are covered with burnt soil. This is added as often
as needful, from October, when the sheep go into their winter
quarters, till the end of April. It accumulates till it is often
3 feet deep, and is turned over by degrees, as it becomes satu-
rated with urine and dung. This serves a double purpose — pre-
serving the feet of the sheep against foot-rot, and making a
valuable addition to the artificial manure-compost for the root-
crops. Burnt soil not being always available for bottoming the
yard outside the sheds, straw is used ; and when neither can be
spared, Mr. Randell has recourse to tan. The feet of the sheep
are pared every six weeks. Their food is pulped mangolds,
wheat-chaff, and malt-dust, as one mixture ; clover, chaff, Indian
corn, and cotton-cake, as another.

Fattening Sheep in Sheds is practised to some extent, though Shed-feeding '
not very generally, excepting for Show purposes. The most
common bed for sheep-houses is straw, freshly littered at frequent
intervals, and in small quantities — no more than sufficient for
keeping the sheep clean. But some few feeders employ a
flooring of boards or spars, having f-inch-wide openings between,
through which the droppings pass into an excavated pit below,
j the floor being in compartments readily lifted for the purpose of
occasionally strewing peat-earth, sawdust, or other dry absorbents
I upon the accumulating manure. The food is green stuff, as
clover or tares ; and, in winter, cut turnips or mangold, com-
monly from 14 lbs. up to 28 lbs. per sheep, with hay and chaff,

I and oilcake, beans, peas, or oats, in various mixtures, from ^ lb.

up to 1 lb. or 1 J lb,, per head per day. The sheep must have
I access to water.

I According to Mr. Mechi, a general practical rule is that
about 7 lbs. of rape-cake, linseed-cake, or beans, will make 1 lb.

iol mutton. Experiments made by Mr. Lawes, upon sheep of
I various breeds, brought out the conclusion that sheep well fed
i under cover increase weekly about 2 per cent, upon their live-
I weight ; and they will consume about 70 lbs. of roots, 4| lbs. of
I hay, and 4| lbs. of cake, per . head per week, for every 100 lbs.

\ of their live-weight.

CHAPTER V.

Management of Pigs.

< On almost every occupation in the kingdom, whether the
f cottager’s plot, the grass dairy-farm, the large corn-farm, or
f: even the hill sheep-farm, swine form a more or less important

I 2 o 2

530 = 264

Practical Agriculture.

Housing pigs.

Arrangements
•■iiut fittings
of sties.

Age of .sows at
commencement
of breeding.

Farrowing.

part of the live stock ; sometimes reared and sold as sucklings
and porkers, sometimes fattened on a large scale for bacon, and
sometimes bred and disposed of as stores, or kept merely as
manure-makers in the straw-yard.

The best practice in the housing of pigs is summed up by
Mr, J. Bailey Denton thus : “ Keeping the boar in a detached
building, separated from the other swine ; arranging the sties
with feeding-passages under cover for farrowing sows and
fattening hogs, and both with access to open yards ; and con-
structing the sties with an impervious floor, so that they may
be cleared of all filth.”

Boars housed singly, have room enough in a sty 6 feet square,
with a small side yard in addition. A sow requires a space of
10 feet by 6 feet, and a separate yard accessible to the young
pigs. When used for fattening hogs, such a sty accommodates
four or five.

For feeding-troughs iron is the best material ; and it is usual
to have a swinging flap from the top of the dwarf wall in which
the trough is set, so that the bottom edge can be closed by bolt
against either the front or back edge of the trough as desired. By
this simple device, the pigs are excluded from the trough while
their food is being placed in it. To prevent the smothering of
young pigs by being overlaid by the sow, an excellent contrivance
is a bar or rod, placed about 8 inches from the wall all round the
sty, and about 8 inches from the ground, thus providing a space
for the escape of the little pigs between the wall and their mother.

An impervious floor, cleaned by frequent washing, subdues
the objectionable effluvium from warmly housed swine ; but the
building must be thoroughly ventilated, either by raised ridge-
tiles or openings in the roof.

The sow is commonly taken to the boar when ten to twelve
months old, and as young as eight months in the case of a choice
early maturity breed ; and the general practice is to have two
litters in a year, namely, in spring and in autumn, avoiding the
hot summer weather for farrowing, and also the winter, except
when the object is to sell sucking pigs in that season. Sows are
seldom kept after they are three years old.

As to care and attention at the time of farrowing, it is the
practice of some of the best managers to allow only a very small
quantity of litter in the house or pen, to prevent perhaps an acci-
dental smothering of the pigs. A basket with straw and flannel
lining is provided, and fenced off from access by the sow ; as the
pigs come they are placed in the hamper and covered up warmly,
and they are all given to the sow when the farrowing is con-
cluded. Her first food is milk and bran or pollard, given
warm ; but in a few days she returns to her ordinary food.

Practical Agriculture.

531 = 2C5

One of the most eminent breeders of show-pigs commences Feeding young
the artificial feeding of the young pigs at five or six days old ; P'§®-
giving them warm milk mixed with fine sharps, and a small
quantity of whole maize. Castration is performed at about six
weeks old, and at two months old the animals are weaned. For
the first few weeks after weaning, they are fed very often, care
being taken that they clean out the troughs after each meal.

The food is warm in winter, but not in summer ; and consists of
Avheat-, maize-, barley-, oat-, and other meal, mixed and wetted
with a little cold water, then scalded with boiling water, and
sprinkled with salt. Between the feeds, the pigs have whole
maize, and mangolds or swedes cut small. Another breeder
gives his little pigs meal or whole oats, also ground lentils and
oats, and a small proportion of sharps, given wet ; and they
have barley and maize after they are three months old. On
dairy farms, whey and butter-milk, and on other farms, wash
and refuse kitchen-stuff, form an important part of the diet
of both young and older pigs.

Store pigs are kept in open yards, sometimes herded during Management
the day upon the fallows in spring and early summer, sometimes
grazed upon pasture (mischief from their rooting being prevented
by ringing), and generally driven for some weeks upon the
autumn stubbles. But wash and mangolds, supplemented on
many farms by cabbages, and by grasses and green crops cut and
carried to them in the yards, form the principal summer food of
store pigs, in addition to what they pick up of the farm refuse.

In winter they thrive upon what the cattle leave in the straw-
yards, with an addition of roots and corn.

Mr. C. S. Read, in his Report on the “ Farming of Oxford- Mr. C. S. Read,
shire,” described the very important part performed by pigs in ’
making farmyard-manure. On arable land where they are kept ^
as stores, they are generally bought in twice a year — January and
June. From twenty to forty pigs are kept in a straw-yard, and
are supplied with swedes and mangolds, and one pint each of
old beans daily. At first the beans as well as the roots are
scattered all over the yard, and the pigs, being thin and active,
root over the straw and thus improve the manure. But as
they become less active, the beans are thrown on a clear spot.

The pigs that are bought in January will be ready to go away
in May, and the summer ones will be cleared out by Christmas.

They pay better than sheep in proportion to the expenditure on
food ; for a teg will often not sell for more, after five or six
months’ feeding, than a store pig which cost half the money.

Feeding young porkers to be killed at four or five months old. Fattening pigs,
and fattening bacon-hogs at twelve up to twenty-four months old,
are conducted upon the same general principles as to warm

532 = 266

Practical Agriculture.

Shorthorns.

Prices made.

housing, regular feeding, and a diet of roots and meals, with
wash, skim-milk, butter-milk or whey — the roots much more
frequently boiled or steamed than pulped, while it is usual
where the meals, or a portion of them, are boiled, to finish off
the fattening with raw meal. The varieties of practice in feeding
pigs are innumerable. In some districts boiled potatoes and
barley-meal are the principal food ; in others, milk-whey or
butter-milk, with brewer’s grains, or a mixture of barley-meal,
oatmeal, and Indian corn meal ; in some cases the animals are
fed on peas, in other cases on buck-wheat. But it is generally
agreed that pig-feeding does not yield a profit except in the shape
of the resulting manure.

Note. — The management of Horses i.s described in the Chapter on “ Motive Power.”

CHAPTEK VI.

Breeds of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, and Horses.

CATTLE.

Shorthorns. — This breed, one of the chief glories of English
agriculture, is the product of a hundred years of improvement
(indeed, it is exactly a century since “ Hubback,” the famous sire
belonging to the Messrs. Collings, was calved), and originally
sprang from Yorkshire and Durham. It now distinguishes
no particular counties ; for while in the north, in the east, and
in the middle of England, it has displaced or amalgamated with
and improved other breeds, it has established itself in the south
and west ; and it may now almost be said that other varieties of
cattle hold their ground in excepted counties and districts where
Shorthorns do not prevail. There are some 700 or 800 pedigree
herds in the kingdom ; probably as much as 200,000Z. worth of
pedigree breeding stock is annually disposed of by public auction
and private contract ; and high prices are given for bulls and
dams by breeders from all the countries of Europe, from our
colonies, and from America.

Mr. John Thornton’s ‘Circular; a Record of Shorthorn
Transactions,’ gave a summary of sixty-four auction sales of
1876, in which 2802 head of bulls and females realised
145,655Z., an average of 51Z. 19s. 8fZ. per head. The list does
not include the Scotch or Irish draft sales of young bulls and
heifers. It was about 800 head more than in any year before
1875; and for prices the sale season of 1876 was looked upon
as one of depression, the foreign market being very flat, espe-

Practical Agriculture.

533 = 267

cially as the Australian Colonies were closed against British
Jive stock. The highest price of the year was 2000 guineas
for a dam at Mr. W. Angerstein’s sale : 1250 guineas were
given at Mr. E. J. Coleman’s ; 920 guineas at Mr. J, P.
Foster’s ; and 800 guineas at Mr. W. W. Slye’s sale. Mr.
Slye’s twenty-two animals averaged 199Z. 15s. 9d. each ; Mr.
Angerstein’s forty-three animals averaged 197Z. 11s. 5fZ. each ;
Mr. J. P. Foster’s forty-four lots, 165Z. Is. 9<Z. each ; Mr. E. J.
Coleman’s forty-three lots, 133Z. Os. 8fZ. each. Two animals were
previously sold for 3000 guineas each. In 1877, at fifty-seven
sales, 2455 head realised 134,372Z., being an average of
,54Z. 14s. 8<Z. per head. Some of the sensational figures given
may be here recorded. At the Bowness sale of Mr. J. D.
Cochrane’s Shorthorns from Canada, the Earl of Bective gave
4300 guineas for “ 5th Duchess of Hillhurst,” and Mr. Loder
gave 4100 guineas for “ 3rd Duchess of Hillhurst.” The Duke
of Manchester purchased “Duke of Underlej^ 3rd” for 3000
guineas. Mr. Allsopp has lately given the Earl of Bective
7500Z. for two females. At the Earl of Dunmore’s great sale,
Mr. Larking bought the bull “ 3rd Duke of Hillhurst ” for
3000 guineas. At the renowned New York Mills sale, “ 10th
Duchess of Geneva” was sold for nearly 7000 guineas; the
Earl of Bective there gave 3000 guineas for “ 8th Duchess of
Oneida ; ” and Lord Skelmersdale purchased “ Duchess of
Oneida” for 6000 guineas, afterwards selling her first produce,
a bull calf, to Mr. Foster for 2000 guineas, and refusing 5000
guineas each for her son, daughter, and granddaughter. Colonel
Gunter sold “ 5th Duke of Tregunter ” to the Earl of Feversham
for 2000 guineas ; and sent another dam to America for 2500
guineas. Prices like these have been frequently made and as
high offers declined by Mr. T. C. Booth, for such dams as
“ Lady Fragrant,” “ Bracelet,” and other Warlaby gems of equal
lustre. And Colonel Towneley’s “Butterfly” bulls and females
commanded similar sums.

At Mr. E. H. Cheney’s sale in September 1877, twenty cows
and heifers sold for 10,527Z., and five bulls for 7896Z. ; “13th
Duchess of Airdrie” making 2200 guineas; “13th Lady of
Oxford,” 1900 guineas ; “ 10th Maid of Oxford,” 1605 guineas ;
^‘llth Maid of Oxford,” 1400 guineas; and the bull, “7th
Duke of Gloucester,” 1850 guineas. At Messrs. R. E. Oliver
and R. Loder’s joint sale in the same week, “ Grand Duchess
29th ” was sold for 2450 guineas, “ Cherry Duchess 1st ” for
1800 guineas, and “Grand Duke 34th” for 1550 guineas.

So diffused are the Shorthorns throughout the kingdom, that
they appear at most English cattle fairs, though the grandest
displays are in the northern counties.

53A = 268

Practical Agriculture.

Eminent

breeders.

Mr. Strafford’s
description of
a Shorthorn.

Pre-eminent among Shorthorn breeders at the present time
are Mr. Thomas Christopher Booth of Warlaby, Colonel Gunter of
Wetherby, Captain Cheney, the Earl of Dunmore, the Rev. R. B.
Kennard, the Marquis of Exeter, Lady Pigot, Lord Fitzhardinge,
Mr. John B. Booth of Killerby, the Duke of Devonshire, Mr. G.
Drewry, Mr. G. Fox, Lord Skelmersdale, Lord Penrhyn, Mr. J. W.
Larking, Mr. Hugh Aylmer, Mr. S. E. Bolden, Mr. Allsopp,
Mr. Ashburner, Mr. J. N. Blundell, the Earl of Bective, Mr. R.
Loder, Mr. Graham, Colonel Kingscote, Mr. R. E. Oliver, Messrs.
Cruickshank, Mr. E. Bowly, Mr. D. McIntosh, Mr. J. P. Foster,
Mr. Slye, Mr. J. How, Mr. H. Salt, Mr. T. Lister, Mr. E. J. Cole-
man, Mr. J. Robinson, Mr. Angerstein, Messrs. Dudding, INIr.
J. Lynn, Mr. G. Game, the Earl of Zetland, Mr. J. Outhwaite,
Mr. T. H. Hutchinson, Mr. W. Linton, Mr. Richard Stratton,
Mr. F. J. S. Foljambe, M.P., Sir Walter C. Trevelyan, Bart.,
the Rev. John Storer, Colonel Towneley, Mr. Oriel Viveash,
Mr. Joseph Stratton, Lord Sudeley, Mr. B. St. John Ackers,
Mr. W. Foster, Mr. James Bruce, the Duke of Northumberland,
Mr. John Torr, M.P., Mr. Thomas Willis, the Earl of Fever-
sham, Mr. C. Leney, Mr. W. A. Mitchell, Mr. T. H. Bland,
Mr. T. H. Miller. But in naming these breeders from among
many other owners of excellent Shorthorn herds, I make no
attempt to arrange the list in any order of celebrity.

In describing the points of the breed, I cannot do better than
follow in the main the high authority of Mr. Henry Strafford,
the ex-editor of ‘ Coates’s Herd Book ’ which has now been
transferred to the Shorthorn Society.

The bull’s head is short, but, at the same time, fine, very broad
across the eyes, but gradually tapering to the nose, the nostril of
which is full and prominent ; the nose itself is of a rich flesh-
colour, neither too light nor dark ; eyes bright and placid, with
ears somewhat large and thin. The head, crowned with a
curved and rather flat horn, is well set on to a lengthy, broad,
muscular neck ; the chest wide, deep, and projecting ; shoulders
fine, oblique, and well-formed into the chine ; fore legs short,
with the upper arm large and powerful ; barrel round, deep, and
well-ribbed up towards the loins and hips, which should be
wide and level ; back straight from the withers to the setting-
on of the tail, but still short, that is, from the hip to the chine,
the opinion of many good judges being that a beast should have
a short back, with a long frame. As a consequence of this the
hind-quarter itself must be lengthy, but well filled-in. The
symmetry of frame of the Shorthorn is near perfection, while few
animals handle so well, with so fine and mellow a touch. The
hair is plentiful, soft, and mossy, with a hide not too thin, and
in fact, somewhat approaching the feeling of velvet. Colour

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bS5 = 269

varies, ranging from pure white to a bright or rich red. The
most fashionable of all is a mixture of the two, forming a deep
or light roan, sometimes called hazel, or strawberry.

The cow has much the same characteristics, with the excep-
I tion of her head being finer, longer, and more tapering; the neck
thinner and altogether lighter, and her shoulders more inclined
to narrow towards the chine.

Like most well-proportioned animals, the Shorthorn often Weights,
looks smaller than he really is. The rapidity with which the
j Shorthorn puts on flesh, and the weight he frequently makes,

I are such that it is not uncommon to see steers of four to five
years old weighing 140 imperial stones — many as high as 150
stones — dead weight.

I shall not be far wrong in saying that the Shorthorn is
generally acknowledged to be the best sort of bullock for stalls,
boxes, and yards. And though many practical men are of
1 opinion that the Shorthorns do consume rather more food than
the Herefords or Devons, yet it is considered that they make
more meat and pay better when liberal feeding is adopted.

The Herefords. — The Herefords are divided into four classes : — Hereford
The mottle-faces have red marks intermixed with the parts cattle.

1 1 usually white — as the face, feet, &c. The horn is long and
1 1 wavy, with a slight upward tendency, and tipped with black.

The skin is particularly mellow, of moderate thickness, and
well covered with plenty of soft glossy hair. They are usually
good upon the chine. Though considered not so docile as some
other classes of Herefords, they display great aptitude to fatten.

The dark-greys are so called from the broad white stripe
which extends the whole length of the back, and the parts usually
white being thickly interspersed with small red spots. Their
horns are rather shorter, with a more upward tendency ; they
; are also smaller in size and smoother in hair than the other
I classes ; better on the chine than the mottle-faces, and have flesh
I of excellent quality.

The light grey, or white Hereford is closely assimilated to
the now common red-with-w kite-face Hereford. This latter is
the commonly recognised race.

) The general characteristic of the breed as regards colour is a
I rich or dark red, with a white face, white throat and chest, and
white on the neck and along the back, and also inside the legs
and on the under-parts of the body.

The quality of hair in the best examples is only surpassed Points,
i by the Highland Scot, being wavy, soft, and moderately long,
j The best description of horn — wide, with an upward tendency ;

, of a clear yellow or white, and sometimes tipped with black. In
j the form of their shoulders they stand pre-eminent ; and there
I

Mr. Duck-
ham’s descrip-
of a Hereford.

Properties of
the breed.

53 6 = 270 Practical Agriculture.

is, when fatted, comparatively little coarse meat about that part.
The hips, loin, and rump are generally good ; the ribs often not
springing out so widely as with some other breeds ; but their
sides are very good, and their chests well expanded ; the outside
of the thigh is often too thin, occasioning some deficiency of
weight when fed ; but the twist is generally full.

Mr. Thomas Duckham, the ex-editor of the ‘ Hereford Herd
Book,’ gives the points as follows : “ The face, throat, chest,
and lower part of the body and legs, together with the crest or
mane, and the tip of the tail, a beautifully clear Avhite ; a
small red spot on the eye, and a round red spot on the throat in
the middle of the white, are distinctive marks which have many
admirers. The horns are of a yellow or white waxy appearance,
frequently darker at the ends. Those of the bull should spring
out straightly from a broad flat forehead ; whilst those of the cows
have a wave, and a slight upward tendency. "The countenance
is at once pleasant, cheerful, and open, presenting a placid
appearance, denoting good temper and that quietude of disposi-
tion which is so highly essential to the successful grazing of all
ruminating animals ; yet the eye is full and lively ; the head is
small in comparison with the substance of the body. The muzzle
is white, and moderately fine ; cheek thin. The chest is deep and
full ; the bosom sufficiently prominent. The shoulder-bone is
thin, flat, and sloping towards the chine, well covered on the
outside with mellow flesh ; the kernel is full up from shoulder-
point to throat ; and so beautifully do the shoulder-blades bend
into the body, that it is difficult to tell in a well-fed animal
where they are set on. The chine and loin are broad ; hips
long and moderately broad ; legs straight and small. The rump
forms a straight line with the back, and is at a right angle with
the thigh, which should be full of flesh down to the hocks,
without exuberances ; the twist should be good, well filled-up
with flesh, and even with the thigh. The ribs should spring
well and deep, level with the shoulder-point, the flank should
be full, and the whole carcass well and evenly covered with a
rich mellow flesh, distinguishable by its yielding with a pleasing
elasticity to the touch. The hide is thick, yet mellow, and well
covered with soft glossy hair, having a tendency to curl. Such
are the characteristic marks of a first-class Hereford.”

The Herefords are renowned for their feeding virtues at grass ;
and good stores are rather scarce, the best being fattened on their
native pastures.

The great demand for steers has led many breeders to push
them forward, from weaning time, with liberal keep, by which
they are brought to a good weight at two years old, the age
when they are generally sold.

Practical Agriculture.

b'61 = 271

The white-faces require time to ripen, though they have a
remarkable aptitude to fatten quickly ; for many are disposed to
get what the butchers call “ creamy,” putting too much of their
fat outside, and thus not “ proving ” as they ought ; and it is
with age that their meat attains its beautiful marbled appear-
ance, or intermixture of fat and lean. They attain to weights
equal to those of the Shorthorns, and carry a vast substance of
I flesh in proportion to bone ; but may be said to be more profit-
able to the breeder and grazier than to the butcher.

As the rearing system is generally followed in Herefordshire,
the milking properties are not so much attended to as in some
other counties. Cows, with moderate feeding, make from 32
to 40 stones, with extra keep to 64 imperial stones ; and Show
specimens go up to much higher weights.

The great majority of the calves are dropped in April, May,

June, and July. Yearling heifers are very seldom put to the
! bull ; and the calves are generally suckled for three to six months,
running with their dams, unless they come at the commence-
ment of winter. The young steers are fed upon grass, and get
turnips and cut straw, with cake in the winter. The rare
pastures in the Wye valley push the young animals along quickly ;

' and they come out in their third autumn to the fairs and markets F airs.

of Hereford, Leominster, Ross, and Ludlow ; many of the best,

I however, being bought direct off the farms. Hereford October
! fair, with seven or eight thousand steers of this one breed, is a
I sight for admirers of fine cattle.

i Herefords not only prevail almost exclusively in their own Locality of the
county, but the native cattle of Salop, Mongomery, Radnor, breed.

■ Brecon, Glamorgan, and Monmouth, are for the most part
i either changed by crossing with them, or are replaced by
I them ; and great numbers graze the pastures of Somerset, Wilts,

Gloucester, Worcester, and Warwick. In fact, few English
I counties south of Shropshire are without Hereford bullocks ;

' herds are found east as far as Surrey, and west in several
counties of Wales. They have been established in Dorset and
in Cornwall ; they have done well in Ireland ; and in Canada,
the United States, and the Australian Colonies, the breed has
attained great success.

The Herefords are not so well qualified for crossing as the
I Shorthorns ; but they have blended well with Shorthorns, and
I they have produced admirable crosses with Ayrshires and
I Alderneys, but not particularly well with Devons.

j ‘ The Hereford Herd Book,’ which Mr. Duckham has recently Breeders,
j disposed of to a Society, records in its 9th volume, the herds of
I 219 breeders, and has a list of 347 subscribers ; the number of
I bulls entered in the entire work has now reached 5176 ; of cows.

538 = 272

Practical Agriculture.

Devons.

Points.

Mr. Davy’s
scription.

with their produce, 4723 ; and of heifers, 4905. Among the
most eminent breeders and exhibitors at the present time are
Mr. William Taylor, of Showle Court, Ledbury ; Mr. William
Tudge, of Adforton, Leintwardine ; Mr, J. H. Arkwright,
of Hampton Court, Leominster ; Mr. Walter Evans, of Llan-
dowlais, Usk ; Mr. Thomas Thomas, of St. Hilary, Cowbridge ;
Mrs. Sarah Edwards, of Wintercott, Leominster ; Mr. Thomas
J. Carwardine, of Stockton Bury, Leominster ; Mr. Philip
Turner, of The Leen, Pembridge ; Mr. W. Burchall Peren, of
South Petherton, Somerset ; Mr. Richard Shirley, of Bancott
Munslow, Church Stretton ; and Her Majesty the Queen.

Devons or, as they were once named. North Devons are of
a bright red colour, varying a little, either darker or more
yellow ; they have seldom any white, except about the udder of
the cow and belly of the bull. They have long yellowish horns,
beautifully and gracefully curved ; noses or muzzles white, with
expanded nostrils ; eyes full and prominent, but calm ; ears of
moderate size, and yellowish inside ; neck rather long, with but
little dewlap, and the head well set on ; shoulders oblique, with
small points or marrow-bones ; legs small and straight, and feet
in proportion. The chest is of moderate width, and the ribs are
round and well expanded ; except in some instances, where too
great attention has been paid to the hindquarters at the expense
of the fore, and which has caused a falling off or flatness behind
the shoulders. The loins are first-rate, wide, long, and full of
flesh ; hips round, and of moderate width ; rumps level, and
well filled at the bed ; tail full near the rump, and tapering
much at the top. The thighs of the cow are occasionally light,
but in the bull and the ox are full of muscle, with a deep and rich
flank. They should have a rich and mellow touch, very silky
fine hair ; and they are extremely handsome in appearance. The
breed is remarkable, too, for the great proportion of weight of
the most valuable joints and the little coarse flesh.

According to Mr. J. Tanner Davy, the editor of the ‘Devon
Herd Book,’ the outline of a fat Devon very nearly approaches
a parallelogram — angular bony projections are rarely found
among the best bred ones, but their frame is level from the top
of the shoulders to the tail. The belly is longitudinally straight
and well filled out at the flanks, which should be easily found
by the unbent fingers ; the breast is wide, and comes out promi-
nently between the fore-legs, extending down to within two or
three inches of the knee joint and towards the udder in rolls of
fat. The neck is rather long and thin, increasing towards the
shoulder, which is tapered off to meet it where the neck-vein
forms a sort of collar in front of the shoulders, connecting the
fat of the shoulder with the fat of the breast.

Practical Agriculture.

539 = 273

In the forequarters the Devon probably excels all other breeds,
by the shoulders being placed so obliquely that there is no hollow
behind them, but the part is well filled out with good flesh and
fat, preserving an unbroken line, and promoting a uniform
covering of fat throughout every part ; commencing at the rump,
over the pin bone, edge of the loins, ribs, shoulders, and on to
the neck, without patch or excess of any kind. Devon breeders
think nothing can compensate for upright shoulders, which are
sure to produce hollowness behind them, and a consequent loss
of flesh and fat, besides diminishing the capacity of the chest
and width of breast. In breeding it is most important to get
animals with shoulders placed obliquely ; for it is found, in
practice, to be much more difficult and to require a longer time
to correct the fore than the hind quarters. It is a remarkable
fact in the form of the best Devons, that their shoulders are so
placed and packed that they can, like a similarly formed horse,
go up and down the steep and rugged Northern Devonshire hills
with much greater facility than what are called the “ large
Devons.”

The covering over the shoulder-blades is nearly as full as the
ribs, which should project at right angles to the back, preserve
the barrel shape, and be broad and deep. The loin is wide and
flat, projecting in a line with the pin-bone, and is well covered,
not only on the top but also on the edge of the bone. The pin-
bone must not project to break the even line. The rump is long
and well filled out, and the tail, set on level, falls perpendicu-
larly from the line of the back. The buttock is moderately full,
tapering towards the hock, with a sufficiency of lean flesh, but
not too much, for if the animals are too heavy here, they are apt
to be deficient on the sides, back, and rump.

The Devons are of a docile disposition, economical feeders,
and excellent milkers ; but are of considerably smaller size than
Shorthorns or Herefords. The practice of working the steers at
three-years old, and, after two years’ labour in the team, winter-
fattening them for the butcher — their keep up to that time
having been grass in summer, and hay, straw, and turnips in
winter — is not now so general as it was a few years ago.

Devon cattle have become too valuable for the old-fashioned Fairs,
treatment, and are now fed with oilcake, and made ripe at early
ages. The principal fairs for this beautiful breed are South
Molton, Crediton, and Exeter. These red cattle have not spread
very far out of their own quarter of England, that is the counties
of Devon, Somerset, and Cornwall ; but they are found as grazing
stores at some of the midland counties’ fairs, and considerable
numbers of high-class bulls and heifers have been exported by
the most eminent breeders. At the Smithfield Club and other

540 = 274

Practical Agriculture.

Breeders.

South Hams
cattle.

Mr. A. Heas-
man on Sussex
cattle.

fat-stock shows, as well as at the Royal and other breeding-
stock shows, the Devons always appear with superb classes ;
and some specimens have won the champion plates of the
Smithfield Club in competition with the more massive Short-
horns and Herefords.

The herds which have attained the greatest celebritry of late
years are those of Mr. James Quartly, Mr. Walter Farthing of
Stowey Court, Bridgewater, the late Mr. James Davy (succeeded
by Mrs. Langdon) of Flitton Barton, Viscount Falmouth, Mr.
John Azariah Smith of Bradford Peverell, Mr. William Smith of i
Whimple, Sir Alexander Hood, Mr. George Turner, Mr. Thomas
Pope, and Her Majesty the Queen. ^

The South Hams Cattle, grazing in the district of that name
on the South coast of Devonshire, are a red breed, supposed to
have originally sprung from the North Devons, but are of larger
frame and coarser build. They are good graziers’ beasts, and have
been materially improved during the last twenty years by selection
and better management.

Sussex Cattle. — This breed, of a deep red colour, is becoming
more closely assimilated in character to the Devon. Mr. A.
Heasman, one of the most eminent breeders and exhibitors, says :

“This useful class of stock was formerly bred principally for
draught purposes, being converted into food for the public after
they had cultivated the soil of the Weald of Sussex and Kent —
some of the heaviest tilled land in the kingdom — and at times
being required to start the heavy carriage of the county member
from the same muddy district, when it was necessary for him to
attend to his parliamentary duties, before locomotive power
came into operation or the Highway Act had been amended.
Even in those early days the Sussex cattle were fully appreciated,
and, always possessing the finest quality of flesh, were never
neglected by the grazier.

“ When they had been worked for several years, and age at
last rendered it necessary that they should be drafted from the *
team, the farmers of the western part of the county would pay a r
visit to their brothers in the east ; attend the fairs held at Battle,
Lewes, or on the borders of Kent, in order to buy up the aged i
oxen ; and, after grazing them a year, supply the markets with
animals weighing from one hundred and eighty to two hundred
stone.

“ Times have very much altered, and the Sussex beasts are no
longer what they were, neither are they reared to the same
extent or for the same purpose. They have given place to horse
and steam power, and now take up their position as one of the
useful and established breeds of the kingdom to meet the pressing
and increasing demand for beef. Their colour was formerly both

Practical Agriculture.

541 = 275

liffht and dark red — in some instances so dark that it almost
amounted to black ; but the intermediate or cherry colour is now
the favourite, denoting good flesh and better quality for fattening.”

The breed has been too well appreciated by the tenant farmer
to be allowed to die out, and great pains and attention have
been taken latterly in endeavouring to alter its style and type
by breeding from the smallest bone with the greatest amount of
flesh. This seems to have been successful, when we compare
j the present animals with what may be called the old-fashioned
sort, one of which, of enormous frame and weight, was fattened
many years ago at Burton Park, near Petworth, and called the
Burton ox. The Sussex cattle are equal to the best breeds Points and
I as regards early maturity and weight for age ; as is proved by the

j, weights of the animals shown at the Smithfield Club meet-

1 ings. The Sussex are great favourites with the butcher and
' consumer. At three years old, well-fed steers will weigh from
twelve to fourteen score pounds per quarter. But the Sussex
I men do not spoil their best animals by overfeeding. Their

I general features may be described as follows : Nose tolerably

! wide ; muzzle of a golden colour, thin between the nostril and
eye ; eye rather prominent ; the forehead rather wide ; horns of
I. moderate length, fine, and rather turning up at the points ; neck
I j not too long ; sides straight, and not coarse at the point of the
I shoulder ; wide and open in the breast, which should project

I forward ; girth deep ; legs not too long ; chine-bone straight, but

j the chine rather too narrow ; ribs not always sufficiently broad ;

I loin full of flesh and wide ; hip bones not too large, but well

I covered ; rump flat and long ; tail should drop perpendicular ;

I thigh flat outside and full in ; the coat soft and silky, with a
mellow touch.

The Sussex cross well with any breed by using the male
animal, imparting substance and firmness of flesh ; and the
colour of the offspring is generally red. They are of themselves
a hardy breed, and have been found to surpass all others in the
poorest pastures of their native county. The cows are not good
milkers ; those with the heaviest calves the worst, though pro-
i ducing sufficient milk to rear their calf. The most successful
way of breeding is for them to calve in October and November,

I letting them have their own calf through the winter, which is
weaned in the spring and another calf put to the cow. Managed
in this way, each cow rears two calves, and the number of
barrens is greatly diminished, which is one of the greatest evils
when cows are allowed to drop their calves all the year round.

The Public Herd Book of Sussex Stock has been established
about fifteen years, and promises to be of great assistance,
j Lovghorns. — The Longhorned breed is distinguished by the Longhorns.

54:2 = 276

Practical Agriculture.

Bakcwell’s im-
piovement.

Points and
merits.

length of its horns, the thickness and firm texture of its hide,
the length and closeness of its hair, and was, at one time, also
by the large size of its hoofs and its coarse, leathery, thick neck.
It is deeper in the fore-quarters, and lighter in the hind-quarters
than most other breeds ; narrower in shape, less in point of
weight than the Shorthorn, though an excellent weigher in
proportion to size. It is more varied in colour than most other
breeds ; but whatever the colour, there is generally a white
streak along the back and mostly a white spot on the inside
of the houghs. The Longhorns are good workers, and are cele-
brated for giving a milk very rich in cream.

As modelled by Bakewell, this is their description : “ Fore-end
long and light ; neck thin, head fine but long and tapering ;
eye large, bright, and prominent. The horns vary with the
sex ; those of bulls comparatively short, from 15 inches to 2
feet ; in some oxen extremely large, from 2^ feet to feet long.
Cows have horns nearly as long, but finer and more tapering.
Most of the horns hang downward by the side of the cheeks,
and then if well turned, as in many of the cows, shoot forward
at the points ; the shoulders are fine, thin, and well placed —
this was particularly noticeable in the Dishley herd — girth
small, as compared with Shorthorn and Middlehorn breeds ; the
chine remarkably full when fat, but hollow when low in con-
dition ; loin broad, and hips wide and protuberant ; the quarter
long and level ; fleshy thighs, with small, clean, but compara-
tively long legs ; carcass round, and ribs well sprung ; flesh
of good quality ; hide of medium thickness ; and colour various
— the brindle, the finch-back, and the pye most common. As
grazier’s stock, they undoubtedly rank high ; their bone and
offal are small, and the fore-end is light, while the chine, the loin,
the rump, and the ribs are heavily loaded, and with flesh of
the finest quality. In point of early maturity they have also
materially improved ; in general they have gained a year in
preparation for the butcher.” Such was the character of the
improved Longhorn as established by the leading breeders.
Now they have been so improved, that for uniformity of type
they can scarcely be excelled by the Shorthorns. They come to
hand mellow to the touch. The skin, though thick, is covered
with a profusion of rich, soft hair ; the rib is well sprung,
chine is broad, shoulders are well placed, barrel is round and
deep, and the general appearance is in unison, denoting a healthy
and vigorous constitution. They are good milkers, and, as a
rule, prolific breeders. Their weak point, in these days of high
feeding and quick returns, is that they are longer in arriving
at maturity than the improved Shorthorn ; consequently they
give a less return for the quantity of food they consume.

Practical Agriculture.

hi?> = 277

Their milk is considered richer than that of the Short- The Longhorns
horn. This experiment as to the quality of the milk of
the Longhorns was made some years ago. In June, six of the
best Shorthorn cows of Mr. S. Craven Pilgrim, of Burbage,
near Hinckley, Leicestershire, of Bates’ blood and bred for their
milking properties, were tested against six of Mr. Chapman’s
Longhorns. The Shorthorns produced 152 lbs. of milk, and
the Longhorns 135 lbs. The weight of curd from the Long-
horns was 19J lbs., but from the Shorthorns only 14J lbs.

In September, 36 of Mr. Pilgrim’s Shorthorn cows were tried
against 32 of Mr. Chapman’s Longhorns. The former pro-
duced 605 lbs. of milk, which made only 66J lbs. of curd ;
while the Longhorns gave 553 lbs. of milk, yielding 69 lbs. of
curd.

They have now a Herd-book, and are under the guardianship
of a newly formed Longhorn Society.

I may here quote what a writer in the ‘Field’ has lately The ‘ Field ’ on
said of this breed. “ The present position of the Longhorns
illustrates the old saying that ‘ every dog has its day.’ Confined
now to a few amateur farmers in the midland counties, it is
difficult to realise that a hundred years ago they were the most
valuable breed in this country ; yet such is the fact. Y orkshire
has the credit of giving rise to the Longhorn and their sup-
planters, the Shorthorn. The latter, however, originated in the
eastern division, whilst the district of Craven (the original
home of the Longhorns) is in the West Riding, bordering on
Lancashire, from whence they spread out into the latter county
and the south-eastern portions of Westmoreland. Like the
Durham cattle, they enjoyed a considerable local reputation,
those bred in the fertile vales of Craven being considered the
quickest feeders, as they were the handsomer beasts ; but it
required the genius of Bakewell to draw them from their com-
parative obscurity, and give a reputation which at that time
seemed unassailable.

“ Sixty years ago the Longhorn was the most important and
fashionable breed of cattle inhabiting the counties of Derby
and Stafford ; and there still linger in the district wondrous
tales of the quantity of milk yielded by some favourite cow, or
the more marvellous weights which the oxen and heifers
attained when grazed on the rich alluvial pastures of the Trent,
the Dove, or the Derwent.”

The Channel Island breeds of Cattle, popularly classed in- Channel
discriminately together as “ Alderneys,” and once known as Island cattle,
“the crumpled horned,” include the Jerseys and the Guernseys.

They are bred to some extent in England, but are largely imported
from their native islands. They have long been celebrated for

VOL. XIV. — s. S. 2 P

‘ The Field ’ on
the history of
the breed.

English

breeders.

544 = 275 Practical Agriculture.

their milking and creaming properties, but were originally ill-
formed and ungainly in appearance ; the redeeming points
having always been the fine head, crumpled horns, and capa-
cious well-formed udder. In proportion to their size, the
Alderney cows give more milk of richer quality than those of
any other breed ; the best having been found to yield 10 lbs.
to 14 lbs. of butter per week. And since the improvement of
the breed in symmetry and beauty, it has become highly sought
after for dairies in the vicinity of what may be called fashion-
able towns, and for ornament as well as profit in villa paddocks
and gentlemen’s parks. In the large city dairies the Alderneys
are not in such repute as Shorthorn and Dutch cows which
give large quantities of milk of lower quality, and which, when
drafted, fatten with greater rapidity.

A writer in ‘ The Field ’ says — ‘ At the present time there is
no doubt that in England, where the principles of selection
have so long been successfully applied to horned stock and
sheep, finer specimens of the Alderney have been produced than
in their native islands.

“ For many years the farmers of the Channel Islands, while
sternly prohibiting any importation of bulls, have made the
rearing of heifers for the English market a profitable part of
their business ; but it is only within a comparatively recent
period that they have learned from English breeders the advan-
tages to be derived from a careful selection in obtaining
symmetry as well as milk.

“ Amongst English breeders who have shown what could be
done towards obtaining the best points of a milking cow by
applying Bakewellian principles of selection, Mr. Philip
Dauncey, of Horwood, near Winslow, Bucks, occupies, or rather
occupied, the most distinguished position. For nearly half a
century he devoted his attention to obtaining great milking
qualities, symmetry, constitution, and a uniform fawn colour
without white. His success placed him at least half a century
in advance of the Channel Islanders.

“ Mr. Dauncey produced a breed much more hardy than the
original Channel Islanders ; his stock lying out on the pastures
throughout the year. The imported Alderneys are delicate,
and, on first introduction, require slight shelter in the cold
weather ; but they soon afterwards become acclimatised.”

One of the best herds maintained purely for profit was that
of one hundred Jersey cows belonging to the late Mr. James
Dumbrell, of Ditchling, near Brighton. Another breeder of
Alderneys, who bears a name almost classical in the history of
agriculture, is Mr. C. H. Bakewell, of Quorndon, near Derby,
who has a small but select herd which is managed in a profitable

Practical Agriculture.

545 = 279

manner. His average annual return has been from 220 lbs. to
240 lbs. of butter per cow.

Mr. George Simpson, of Wraj Park, Reigate, Surrey, and
Mr. Walter Gilbey, have been two of the greatest patrons and
improvers of the breed ; and the Messrs. Fowler, of Bushey
and Watford, Herts, and of Southampton, have been the im-
porters of this highly appreciated breed of cattle into this country
for nearly a century.

The Guernsey breed are of a self-colour, red, or dun, or Guernseys and
patched with white ; the Jerseys are smaller, and of a darker Jerseys,
olive or fawn-colour.

A marked course of improvement in both breeds has taken
place since the Jersey Agricultural Society, founded in 1833,
drew up a scale of points of merit, from an examination of the
best specimens then in the island. This scale originally fixed
a standard of twenty-six points for bulls, and twenty-eight for
cows and heifers, and it was amended and the points increased
in number in the year 1849. In 1866 the ‘ Jersey Herd Book ’
was started, and in 1868 the committee of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of Jersey called attention in a report to the
advantageous results of careful breeding as practised by Mr.

Dauncey and others in this country. In a subsequent report,
in December, 1871, the committee acknowledged a yearly
grant from the State of Jersey of 50Z., to be applied solely in
premiums for bulls, to check the exportation of good animals
from the island.

This remarkable scale of points, by which judges criticise the Scale of poiats
qualifications of Alderney cattle, is as follows : —

Article.

Scale of Points for Bulls.

Points. ■

1. Head, fine and tapering

2. Forehead, broad

3. Cheek, small

4. 'J'liroat, clean

5. Muzzle, fine, and encircled by a light colour

6. Nostrils, high and open

7. Horns, smooth, crumpled, not too thick at the base,

and tapering, tipped with black

8. Ears, small and thin

9. Ears, of a deep orange colour within

10. Eyes, full and lively

11. Neck, arched, powerful, but not too coarse and heavy

12. Chest, broad and deep

13. Barrel, hooped, broad, and deep

14. Well ribbed home, having but little space between the

last rib and the hip

15. Back, straight from the withers to the top of the hip

Carried forward .. .. 15

2 p 2

546 = 250

Practical Agriculture.

Article. Points

Brought forward 15

16. Back, straight from the top of the hip to the setting]

on of the tail, and the tail at right angles with the > 1

hack )

17. Tail, fine 1

18. Tail, hanging down to the hocks 1

19. Hide, mellow and movable, but not too loose .. .. 1

20. Hide, covered with fine soft hair 1

21. Hide, of good colour 1

22. Fore legs, short and straight 1

23. Fore-arm, large and powerful, swelling, and full above) ,

the knee, and fine below it j

24. Hindquarters, from the hock to the point of the nimp,j ^

long and well filled up j

25. Hind legs, short and straight (below the hocks), and[ ^

bones rather fine j

26. Hind legs, squarely placed, and not too near together) ,

when viewed from behind j

27. Hind legs, not to cross in walking 1

28. Hoofs, small ^ 1

29. Growth 1

30. General appearance 1

31. Condition 1

Perfection

No prize shall be awarded to bulls having less than 25 points.

Bulls having obtained 23 points shall be allowed to be branded, but cannot
take a prize.

Scale of Points for Cows and Heifers.

Article.

1. Head, small, fine and tapering

2. Cheek, small

3. Throat, clean

4. Muzzle, fine, and encircled by a light colour

5. Nostrils, high and open

6. Homs, smooth, crampled, not too thick at the base,)

and tapering j

7. Ears, small and thin

8. Ears, of a deep orange colour within

9. Eye, full and placid

10. Neck, straight, fine, and placed lightly on the shoulders

11. Chest, broad, and deep

12. Barrel, hooped, broad, and deep

13. Well ribbed home, having but little sirace between the)

last rib and the hip J

14. Back, straight from the withers to the top of the hip ..

15. Back, straight from the top of the hij) to the setting on)

of the tail, and the tail at right angles with the back )

16. Tail, fine

17. Tail, hanging down to the hocks

18. Hide, thin and moveable, but not too loose

19. Hide, covered with fine soft hair

20. Hide, of good colour

21. Fore legs, short, straight, and fine

Points.

Carried forward .. .. 21

Practical Agriculture.

h^l = 28l

Article.

Broiiglit forward

22. Fore-arm, swelling, and full above the knee

23. Hindquarters, from the hock to the point of the rump,

long and well filled up

24. Hind legs, short and straight (below the hocks), and

bones rather fine

25. Hind legs, squarely placed, not too close together when

viewed from behind

26. Hind legs, not to cross in walking

27. Hoofs, small

28. Udder, full in form — i. e., well in line with tlie belly

29. Udder, well up behind

30. Teats, large and squarely placed, behind wide apart ..

31. Milk-veins, very prominent

32. Growth

' 33. General appearance

34. Condition

Points.

Perfection 34

No prize shall be awarded to cows having less than 29 points.

No prize shall be awarded to heifers having less than 26 points.

Cows having obtained 27 points, and heifers 24 points, shall be allowed to
be branded, but cannot take a prize.

Three points — viz.. Nos. 28, 29, and 31 — shall be deducted from the number
required for perfection in heifers, as their udder and milk-veins cannot be
fully developed ; a heifer will therefore be considered perfect at 31 points.

By attention to the rules and by crossings, so as to remove
defects in the bull, a lighter head, a broad forehead, finer horns,
a more square form, a round barrel, a better chest, cleaner limbs,
and a better handling, have been obtained ; the rich orange
colour within the ear has been retained ; and as a fashion in
colour, either a rich brown edged with a mouse-coloured band
about an inch wide, or a cream colour either on a white or
grey ground, is preferred.

Bulls are allowed to serve as soon as they become yearlings ;
which is injurious to the constitution, but is said to preserve
the race small and fine-boned.

By similar attention the general form of the cow has wonder-
fully improved ; most cows reaching 21 points, with a fine head,
a lively eye, crumpled horns, a straight back, a round barrel, fine
limbs, and a brisk step. Many, from 14 to 20 quarts of milk
daily, will produce between 10 and 14 lbs. of rich yellow butter
per week. Some cows yield no less than 20 to 26 quarts daily.

Norfolk and Suffolk Polls. — The prevailing colour of this Kmfolk and
breed was a mouse-dun, changed latterly to pale red, red and Sufl’olk polls,
white, or yellowish and white.

Suffolk cattle, according to the earliest records on the subject,
were polled, and, originally, dun in colour ; later on they are
described as red, red and white, and brindled.

From a very early period large numbers of polled Galloway

548 = 252

Practical Agriculture.

>Ir. Fulcher on
this breed.

cattle were brought into the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk.
There can be little doubt that these were crossed with one or
other, (probably both) of the native races, and that thus the
present breed of Norfolk and Suffolk red polled cattle was
called into existence.

Mr. T. Fulcher, writing in the ‘ Field,’ said : “ We are by
no means disposed to accept the theory that our polls are simply
red Galloways. True enough, there is a resemblance between
the heads of the two sorts, each being furnished with a thick
tuft of hair, covering the forehead. In the Norfolk beast this
appendage will, however, be frequently composed of a mixture
of red and white hair. More rarely, a large spot of pure white
makes its appearance in the face. The deep, blood-red colour
of the Norfolk polls is, moreover, many shades darker than we
have seen in any specimens of the Galloway breed. These two
peculiarities go far to support the conclusion we have arrived
at — that the old native race had a due share in the concoction
of the present breed. As to when this cross was first resorted
to, we have no precise information. Marshall, indeed, mentions
that long before his time polled Suffolk, Galloway, and even
West Highland bulls were used for crossing with the Norfolk
home breeds ; but so highly did he appreciate the good qualities
of the latter, that he only refers to crossing in order to condemn
the practice.

“ In the absence of documentary evidence, we have it on the
authority of Mr. Money Griggs of Gately (now in his hundredth
year, and for upwards of eighty years a tenant on the Elmham
estate), that from his earliest recollection red polled cattle were
kept in the neighbourhood of this place.”

Amongst the good qualities that may be fairly claimed for
the red polls are hardiness of constitution, enabling them to
thrive on scanty pasturage and to withstand the severe winters
and piercingly cold springs usually experienced in the eastern
counties ; their milking properties are unquestionable, and they
have not that tendency to go dry which belongs to the Alderney,
Ayrshire, and most other breeds having a reputation as dairy
cattle. It not unfrequently happens that a cow will continue to
yield a good quantity of milk from one calving to another.

Cows and heifers for dairy purposes are frequently sold to
buyers in the counties of Beds, Berks, Bucks, Chester, Hants,
Northampton, and Sussex ; whilst exportations of breeding
stock have been made to Egypt, Germany (north and south),
and Austria, where, strange to say, on an estate of Prince
Leichtenstein, a breed of red polled cattle has been in existence
from time immemorial.

The native Dorset breed of cattle, long-horned, white-backed,
with short dark stripes over the body, are rarely seen now, though

Practical Agriculture.

549 = 253

Lord Portman, in a foot-note to Mr. Ruegg’s Report on the
county twenty years ago, remarked that some of the features of
the old Dorset cow might often be seen in the form of the
progeny, crossed as the breed had been by Devons, Herefords,
and Shorthorns.

Welsh Breeds. — According to Mr. Morgan Evans, the best Welsh cattle,
authority on the subject, the colour of the Pembrokeshire, or
“ Castlemartin,” cattle is black ; the horns are of great length,
yellowish-white tipped with black, wide-spreading and curving
upwards ; the head is of medium length, longer that the West
Highlands, and somewhat longer than the Devons, approaching
I the Herefords or the improved Sussex in form. The nose is
small and the neck fine, with little tendency to the “ throati-
^ ness” observable in some breeds. The eyes are prominent,

I but without the untameable gleam of the West Highland or
Chillingham cattle, domestication having removed any special
traits of wildness and of ferocity. The coat is long, not
straight like the Highland cattle, but wavy, or sometimes
! curly. The forehead is broad. The tail is of good length.

Several writers have remarked on the colour of the skin as
being of an orange yellow, and the coat on the barest parts of
the body as being of a brownish hue. Some of the best breeders
I in Pembrokeshire are careful to maintain this characteristic in
1 their herds. This, along with a yellow horn and a wavy coat,
almost invariably indicates a beast that will feed well either at
I grass or in the stall. A short, crisp, coal-black coat is not to

I be compared with one that is long and wavy. The outer cover-

ing of hair put on in the winter months should, with outlying
I cattle, at the end of spring and during the early summer months

be of a russet brown. One frequently sees cattle of this breed
whose coats are one mass of ringlets ; but experience shows that
I they are not the most easily fattened. The hair on the forehead

I of bulls is often very much curled, and it is rather to be admired

II than otherwise for the sake of its picturesqueness, as well as that

it indicates other important qualities.

The meat produced by these cattle is excellent, and not to be
I surpassed in texture and quality. The milking properties of

• the cows are certainly equal, if not superior, to those of most

t modern improved breeds. Mr. Evans says, “Welsh black cows

' are on the average equal to any class of cows in milk-producing

I capabilities. The only objection to them at dairy farms around

^ the metropolis is their colour. The admixture of black with

red and white and roan in the herd is not thought fashionable
• or pleasant to the eye.”

Taking into account the climate, soil, and average homestead
' I accommodation in the county, the Pembrokeshire cattle can be
‘ bred to feed cheaper than Shorthorns or Herefords. Attempts

550 = 254

Practical Agriculture.

Anglesea

breed.

' West Highland
. cattle.

to improve the breed by crossing have not been attended by
success, though the Devons amalgamated best.

Again following Mr. Morgan Evans, the Anglesea cattle
are very like the Pembrokes. The coat, as with the Castle-
martins, should be long and wavy. This generally denotes
good quality, and a growing beast easily fattened. In colour
they are generally darker than those of South Wales, being a
pure black. A little more white is allowed than in the Pem-
brokes, the scrotum of the bulls and the udders of the cows
being very frequently white. A white streak is sometimes found
along the chine, but this feature cannot be commended. The
horns, Avhich may be broadly described as white with black tips,
curving gracefully upwards in cows and oxen, are usually much
darker-coloured than in the Pembrokes, and the white portion
is not so mellow and creamy in appearance. They axe perhaps
a little larger than the Castlemartins — standing on short strong
legs ; but are not so good in the head or shoulder. The head
of the ox is very frequently heavy and bull-like. Davies in his
time attributed the “ bull-like features in the head and dewlap ”
of the Anglesea ox to the fact that the calves were not weaned
in Anglesea until “ double the time at which they are weaned
in other counties,” together with their not being “ gelt until
they be about a year old but this will hardly account for the
persistency of this feature in stock not thus treated. The
shoulder is often coarse, and falls in behind the bladebone. In
short, comparing them once more with their rivals, they are
altogether coarser in the foi'e pait than the Pembrokes, but have
better hind-quarters — wider, with bigger thighs and broader
loins. The Welsh “ runts ” as they are called, are not equal to
many other breeds for dairy purposes.

The Anglesea cattle are now cultivated to equal perfection in
Carnarvonshii'e and some parts of the adjoining counties as in
the “ mother ” isle ; and diminutives of this breed are the prin-
cipal stock of the mountainous districts of Carnarvon and
Merioneth. But they cannot be improved by crossing with
English breeds. They will not blend with foreign blood ; the
colour becomes destroyed and the type broken, and the produce
cannot be reduced to a uniform standard.

Of the distinctive Glamorgan breed of cattle only a few
herds remain.

Scotch Breeds. — My department of this Memoir does not em-
brace any outline of Scottish husbandry ; but, as many bullocks
from beyond the border are grazed, and Scottish cows kept for
dairying in English counties, I must allude to the characteristics
of the principal breeds in that division of the United Kingdom.

In the Highlands of Scotland, and in the Hebrides, the
Kyloes or West Highland cattle prevail. They are so fitted for

Practical Agriculture.

551 = 255

the peculiar climate and herbage, that nothing further is to be
desired than that, over that wide tract of country, the general
breed should be brought to the
I districts.

I The true West Highland ox has short, muscular limbs ; a
wide and deep chest, finely arched ribs, and straight back ; his
skin is thick but mellow, and closely covered with shaggy hair ;
j his head is broad, with the muzzle short but fine ; he has a
I bright, full eye ; long, upturned horns ; and a bold, erect
carriage ; so that when of mature size, and in good condition,

I he exhibits a symmetry of form and noble bearing not excelled
I by any breed in the kingdom.

Although somewhat slow in arriving at maturity, he is con-
•, tented with the coarsest herbage, and will ultimately fatten where
; the daintier Shorthorn could barely exist.

His compact carcass and choice quality of beef render him
an especial favourite with the butchers who have a select family
trade. The cows yield a very rich milk, but give little of it,
j and have a tendency to go soon dry.

The Galloway has a larger frame than the West Highland, Galloways,
adapting him to a longer range of pastures ; but his qualities and
general appearance are so similar to those of the West High-
lander, that he has been called a Kyloe without horns. He is,

; however, of much more docile and placid disposition, which,
with the want of offensive weapons, admits of a larger number
I than of other breeds being kept together in the same yard. His
j quietness, his aptitude to fatten when once his frame is matured,
and the excellent quality of his beef (which is largely developed
on those parts which are used for roasting and which fetch the
‘ best price), have long rendered the Galloway an especial
favourite with the graziers of midland and eastern England and
i the butchers of the metropolis.

1 The true Galloway bullock is straight and broad on the back,

1 and nearly level from the head to the rump ; broad at the loins —
not, however, with hooked bones or projecting knobs — so that,

I when viewed from above, the whole body appears beautifully
j rounded ; he is long in the quarters, but not broad in the twist ;

I he is deep in the chest, short in the leg, and moderately fine in
; the bone ; clean in the chop and in the neck ; his head is of a
moderate size, with large, rough ears, and full but not prominent
eyes or heavy eyebrows, so that he has a calm though determined
look ; his well-proportioned form is clothed with a loose and
mellow skin, adorned with long, soft, glossy hair. The prevail-
ing colour is black, or dark brindled.

The Angus and Aberdeenshire black polled cattle are of great Aberdeenshire,
i size ; on the authority of Mr. M‘Combie of Tilly four, they are
unrivalled as meat-making beasts in the north of Scotland, and

perfection it presents in certain

552 = 256

Practical Agriculture.

Ayrshires.

Leicester*.

also, when crossed with Shorthorn, give some of the most valuable
animals for feeding that we possess. Magnificent specimens are
shown in the metropolitan market and at the Christmas exhi-
bitions.

The Ayrshire breed is very celebrated for the dairy, very
hardy and active, and capable of withstanding the severities of
winter in a bleak and naked country, and yet easily brought into
condition with the return of warm weather and good pasture.

The colour is generally red-and-white, in spots — not marbled
like the Shorthorns — sometimes white and black, sometimes
altogether red or brown. The horns should be fine, twisting
upwards ; the face long, with a lively yet docile expression ;
the figure of the body enlarging from the fore to the hind-
quarters ; broad across the loins ; the back straight ; the tail fine,
long, and bushy at the extremity ; the udder white and capa-
cious, coming well forward on the belly ; the teats of middle
size, set equally, and wide apart from each other, and the milk-
veins prominent and fully developed. The whole appearance
of the animal should be sleek and thriving. In young queys
which have not had a calf, the udder should be loose and
wrinkled, showing capacity for expansion ; and the teats should
be perfect and set well apart.

The size and weight of the Ayrshire cow varies very much,
according to the quality of the soil on which she has been
reared. Compared with the Shorthorn, the Ayrshire is a small
breed, weighing from 25 to 45 stones imperial.

At three years old the dairy-cow bears her first calf. For the
first season she is considered to yield about a third less milk
than in future years. After this she may be kept in the stock
for five or six years, according to circumstances, producing a
calf each year. If a cow fails to be in-calf, she is fed fat and
disposed of, if an inferior animal ; if a good milker, and a young
cow, she is kept in the stock, though, for that year, reckoned to
produce one-third less than a full-milk cow. As the cows get
old, they are sent to Glasgow, or other large towns, when near
calving, and then sold to cow-feeders, who, after milking them
as long as they pay, sell them fat to the butcher. Those farmers
who have sufficient green-crop feed off the cast of their dairy-
stock at home.

Sheep.

Leicesters. — Leicestershire is one of the few counties which,
it is believed, never possessed a native breed of short-
woolled sheep ; and its ancient long-wools were the basis from
which the genius of Robert Bakewell, in the latter part of last
century, produced the Dishley or New Leicester, which through

Practical Agriculture.

553 = 287

nearly a century has displaced or changed, refined and increased
the early maturity and fattening property of many breeds in a
majority of English counties, in Scotland, and in Ireland, is
still the foundation of the most valuable crosses, and has been
found the most potent instrument in improving the native races
of sheep in very many of the pastoral countries of the world.

The old Leicester was a long, heavy, coarse-woolled animal,
with large frame, heavy bone, sharp chine, mean rump, and loose
skin ; seldom ready for the butcher before three years old, when
the wethers weighed 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter, and the coarse
fleece about 10 lbs. The Dishley or New Leicester was dis-
tinguished by a general squareness of outline, a uniformly broad
and straight firm back, terminating in a square rump, and full,
deep shoulder ; with rather too much tendency to the “ soda-
water bottle” — full middle and rounding-off ends — however, to
please a Lincolnshire man, who likes a thick scrag at one end,
and a wide rump and heavy leg of mutton at the other ; it had a
well-arched rib, full plait, deep wide chest, tapering neck, a
small head, covered with short white hair ; an open countenance
1 and clean muzzle, a full but quiet eye, and long, thin, well-
1 placed ears. Its offal was light, bone uniformly fine, twist well
turned, and its pelt was thin, soft, and elastic, with a mellow
I handling. Its principal deficiency consisted in a want of size,
I lightness of wool, and the comparative want of fertility and
i good milking qualities in the ewe.

Pure Leicesters of the present day vary much in type ac-
' cording to the objects which have governed the breeder in his
continual process of selection, and partly also according to the
influence of locality ; so that in some flocks the size is only
! about two-thirds what it is in others ; and yet the exquisitely
symmetrical and beautiful sheep of one flockmaster and the
j larger frame, coarser sheep of another, have alike descended
with a pure strain from the renowned early stocks. In general,
it is correct to say that the fore-quarter of the Leicester is
1 remarkably well developed ; the shoulders are wide and sloping,
j consequently there is no rigidness along the back ; the bosom is
I deep and wide, and the fore-flank very full. The animal stands
i close to the ground. The neck is short, so that the head is
raised but little above the line of the back. In Youatt’s
I language : “ the neck full and broad at the base, Avhere it pro-

I ceeds from the chest, but gradually tapering towards, and

! being particularly fine at the junction of the head and neck ;

I the neck seeming to project straight from the chest, so that
I there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued
1 horizontal line from the rump to poll.” The ribs are well

I sprung, and the carcass is very true ; the hips are well covered,

The old breed.

Points of

modern

Leicesters;,

554 = 255

Practical Agriculture.

Weight of
mutton and
wool.

Border

Leicesters.

Points.

but not wide, and tapering to the rump, which is small ; the
back is covered with fat. An authority in the ‘ Field ’ described
the head as well set on, the forehead flat and generally bare, or
covered with short hair. “ Formerly,” he says, “ a great point
was made of bare heads ; but now we believe breeders prefer to
have short close wool, which protects from the fly. The eye is
full and prominent, indicating docility of disposition, and the
head is tolerabl}’^ long and fine ; the ears are thin and rather long,
and the muscular development is moderate ; this is attributable
to rapidity of growth. The legs of mutton are not large, and
there is a deficiency of lean meat. The skin is thin and very
supple, and the wool is line and fairly long. With a wonderful
capacity for external and rapid development, there is little
inside fat; hence Leicesters are not favourites with the butchers.
Their great merit is their early development and accumulation
of weight on a given quantity of food.”

The Leicester wethers at 15 months old commonly weigh
20 lbs. a quarter ; but older animals, when well fatted, have
occasionally been exhibited of more than three times this
weight. The mutton is not so highly esteemed as some, owing
to the unusual superabundance of fat ; but the flesh of good
Leicester crosses has a delicious flavour, with a more agreeable
distribution of fat and lean. The average weight of the fleece
may be about 7 lbs. to 8 lbs., varying with the character of
Leicesters found in different districts.

Among the most noted Leicester breeders at the present time
are — Mr. George Turner, of Brampford- Speke, Exeter; Mr.
George Turner, junior, of Thorpelands, Northampton ; Mr. R. W.
Cresswell, of Ravenstone, Ashby-de-la-Zouch ; Mr. John Borton,
of Barton-le-Street, Malton ; Mr. William Brown, of Holme-on-
Spalding-Moor, Yorkshire ; Mr. T. H. Hutchinson, of Catterick ;
the Earl of Lonsdale, Mr. Benjamin Painter, of Oakham ; Mrs.
Perry Herrick, of Beau Manor Park, Loughborough ; Mr.
Thomas Marris, of Croxton, Ulceby, Lincolnshire.

Border Leicesters. — While a variety of the Leicester breed,
known as Mug Leicesters, rather long-legged, and of a hardy
constitution adapted to the moors, is found in Yorkshire, and
other descriptions of Leicester exist in other parts of the
kingdom, the most noted and valuable branch from the pure
Leicesters is the kind denominated “ Barmshire ” or “ Border
Leicester,” from its pertaining to the border counties of North-
umberland, Berwick, and Roxburgh. They are of large size,
high-standing, and long, with clean white faces and legs. Ac-
cording to Mr. John Usher, they possess, when well bred, the
following points : the head of fair size, with profile slightly
aquiline, tapering to the muzzle, but with strength of jaw and

Practical Agriculture.

555 = 289’

wide nostril ; the eyes full and bright, showing both docility
and courage ; the ears of fair size, and well set ; the neck thick
at the base, with good neck vein, and tapering gracefully to
where it joins the head, which should stand well up ; the chest
broad, deep, and well forward, descending from the neck in a
perpendicular line ; the shoulders broad and open, but showing
no coarse points ; from where the neck and shoulders join, to
the rump, should describe a straight line, the latter being fully
developed ; in both arms and thighs the flesh well let down to
the knees and hocks ; the ribs well sprung from the back-bone
in a fine circular arch, and more distinguished by width than
depth, showing a tendency to carry the mutton high ; and with
belly straight, significant of small offal ; the legs straight, with
a fair amount of bone, clean and fine, free from any tuftiness of
wool, and of a uniform whiteness with the face and ears. They
ought to be well clad all over, the belly not excepted, with a
wool of a medium texture, with an open purl, as it is called,
towards the end. In handling, the bones should be all covered ;
and particularly along the back and quarters (which should
be lengthy) there should be a uniform covering of flesh, not
pulpy, but firm and muscular. The wool, especially on the
ribs, should fill the hand well. A point is made of their
stepping with an active and elastic movement.

One of the main uses of the breed is for crossing with
Cheviots, Blackfaces, and Downs. The Leicester and Cheviot
cross is also the foundation for a very valuable second cross
with the Leicester.

The most distinguished flocks are those of Lord Polwarth, of
Mertoun ; Miss Stark, of Mollondean ; the Rev. R. W. Bosan-
quet, of Rock ; Mr. James Melvin, of Bonnington, Ratho ;
Mr. Richard Tweedie, of Catterick ; Sir George Dunbar, in
Caithness.

At the Kelso annual September auction sales, considerably
over 2000 Border Leicester rams are sold in four auction rings ;
and nearly as many are on show at Edinburgh.

Lincoln Longwools. — The established breed of sheep in Lin-
colnshire more than a century ago was of large size but ungainly
form ; of great length of carcass, but not proportionately wide ;
the legs long and with heavy bone ; the head coarse, with thick
ears ; face white, with small black spots ; the face of the ram fur-
rowed with deep wrinkles; the neck thick ; shoulders very forward ;
a flabby dewlap, and hanging brisket ; belly deep ; and the flesh
was laid on better on legs and rump than along the back and
ribs. Slow feeders, with a coarse grain of mutton, they attained
to great weights ; but their especial merit consisted in their
fleeces, which exceeded that of all other breeds in length of

The old
Lincolns,

55G = 290

Practical Agriculture.

Improved

Liacolns.

Great weights
and fleeces.

Locality.

Fairs.

staple, namely, 10 to 18 inches, and weighed 8 to 16 lbs. per
fleece. The wool was curly-stapled, and noted for its gloss or
lustre. The breed was adapted to the rich, moist marsh lands,
and capable of enduring the winter exposure on those wet layers.

Leicester blood having worked a vast change in the breed, the
improved Lincoln may now be said to possess a size, expansion
of frame, and nobility of appearance equal to that of the Cots-
wold, with the compactness of form, quality of flesh, propensity
to fatten, and fine countenance and light olfal of the Leicester ;
while surpassing both for the weight and value of its wool.

An experiment conducted by the Parlington Farmers’ Club, in
the years 1861—2, showed a larger profit from Lincolns fed upon
rape, turnips, and oilcake, than from Cots wolds, Teeswaters,
Border Leicesters, Leicesters, Shropshire Downs, or Southdowns.
Some of the heaviest dead-weights recorded are as follow : — a
three-shear Lincoln wether of Mr. Dawson, in 1827, is said to
have weighed 96^ lbs. per quarter ; a wether killed at Holbeach
in 1844 weighed 72J lbs. per quarter ; a ewe exhibited at the
Smithfield Club Show in 1846, by Mr. .John Clarke, of Long
Sutton, weighed 65^ lbs. per quarter ; and Mr. Clarke, of Can- i
wick, exhibited at Lincoln, in 1827, wether sheep each of which j
weighed 65 lbs. per quarter and yielded 24 lbs. of wool. Recently i
a fourteen-months-old shearling of Mr. Marshall, of Branston, }
gave a fleece of 26^ lbs. ; and whole clips of hogg wool of
Mr. Marshall and of Mr. J. J. Clarke, of Welton-le-Wold, have
averaged about 12 lbs. per fleece. The Lincolns are a fairly
prolific breed ; about one-third of the ewes dropping twins, while
triplets are not uncommon, and four lambs occasionally come at
a birth. They are excellent nurses.

The improved Lincolns are bred throughout their native
county, in Rutland, Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire,
and Cambridgeshire ; and also in parts of Norfolk, Hunting-
donshire, and Northamptonshire ; and some flocks have been
established in Scotland and in Ireland. Lincoln rams are
largely used for improving other longwool breeds and for
crossing ; and they are exported on a very considerable scale to
South America, the Cape, New Zealand, and the Australian
colonies. The cross with merino is found to produce a sur-
prising increase in the length and weight of the wool.

There are great shows of Lincoln sheep at Boston, Caistor,
and other fairs ; but the grandest sight is that of 40,000 to
50,000 hoggs at Lincoln April fair, when the best pens realise
from four to five guineas per head at fourteen months old.
Some of the most marvellous specimens of fat sheep ever pro-
duced, both for weight, form, and wool, won a recent Smithfield
Club champion plate for Mr. John Byron.

Practical Agriculture.

bhl = 291

Lar^e numbers of rams are sold at Lincoln, Boston, Partney,
and Peterborough autumn fairs ; but the principal trade is by
private sales and lettings. The average prices made are very
high ; and many rams of the most noted flocks command three
figures per head, as, for instance, a celebrated sheep of Mr.

Thomas Kirkham, of Biscathorpe, which was let five years in
succession for a total of nearly 600 guineas ; a ram of Mr. Charles
Clarke, of Scopwick, which was sold for 157Z. 10s. ; a ram of
1 Mr. W. F. Marshall, of Branston, of which the price was llOZ. ;
while 80/., 70/., and 50/. are not at all unusual top prices.

Among the most eminent breeders at the present time are Breeders.

Mr. T. Kirkham, of Biscathorpe ; Mr. W. F. Marshall, of
Branston ; Mr. C. Clarke, of Scopwick ; Mr. C. Clarke, of
Ashby ; Messrs. W. and H. Dudding, of Panton ; Mr. J. H.

Casswell, of Laughton ; Mr. T. Casswell, of Pointon ; Mr. E.

Paddison, of Ingilby ; Mr. John Pears, of Mere ; Mr. R. Wright,
of Nocton ; Mr. Davy, of Owersby ; Mr. Havercroft, of Wootton ;

Mr. F. W. lies ; Mr. J. J. Clarke, of Welton-le-Wold ; Mr. T.

Cartwright, of Dunston ; Mr. E. J. Howard, of Nocton ; Mr.

John Byron, of Kirkby Green, and Mr. T. Gunnell, of Milton,
Cambridgeshire.

The Teeswater Longwool breed, so named from its original Teeswater
locality, the banks of the River Tees in Yorkshire, was at an ^leed.
early period in the history of the New Leicester greatly altered
in character by admixture with Leicester blood. The Teeswater
sheep was a very high-standing, large-framed, clumsy animal,
i with broad back and round barrel, but a very sluggish feeder.

' The wool was remarkably long stapled, but thinly set and of
coarse quality ; but one valuable property of the breed was that

fit was very prolific, as not only were twins usual, but ewes very
frequently dropped three lambs, and there were cases of four and
even five lambs at a birth. By crossing with Leicesters the
size and constitution have become united to quick-feeding pro-
f perties ; and the present Teeswaters have valuable fleeces. There
is a great show of them at Market-Weighton Fair.

I Romney Marsh, — The Romney Marsh long-wool sheep are Romney Marsh
I specially adapted by their hardihood for bearing the extremes sheep.

I of heat and cold peculiar to their district ; and particularly
I are the ewes fitted by their constitution for subsisting upon the
I exposed grass-lands in winter, scraping away deep snow with
' I their feet to find the herbage, and enduring the bitter blasts
’ I which blow off the English Channel. The value of the breed
in this respect enables it to hold its ground against the intro-
I Auction of sheep possessing more fattening properties. Indeed,

' i these Kent sheep, improved in late years, partly by good
^ management and selection in breeding, and partly by admixture

558 = 292

Practical Agriculture.

Weights.

Devon

Longwools.

Points and
Weights.

of Leicester or other good blood, have extended their area ;
the Weald is stocked with them in winter, and they have spread
themselves over the greater portion of Kent, displacing the
Southdowns in many localities. Half a century back these
sheep were distinguished by thickness and length of head, a
broad forehead with a tuft of wool upon it, and a long thick
neck and carcass. They were flat-sided, had a sharp chine,
tolerably wide loin, the breast-end narrow and not deep, and
the fore-quarter neither heavy nor full ; the thigh was full
and broad ; the belly large and tabby ; the tail thick, long,
and coarse, and the bone large ; the wool was long and not fine,
coarsest on the thighs ; but they had much internal fat, and were
great favourites with the butcher.

The wethers seldom reached market until they were three
years old, and weighed from 10 to 15 stones, and the ewes from
9 to 11 stones (of 8 lbs.).

At the present day, tegs of the improved breed can be sent to
market from turnips at 17 lbs. to 20 lbs. per quarter; while
the two-shear wethers weigh 25 lbs. to 30 lbs. per quarter.
Possessing more symmetrical frames, and lighter bone and offal,
the best Romney Marsh sheep attain to considerable weights ;
the heaviest shearlings at a late Smithfield Club Show scaling
260 lbs. each, live weight.

The wool is specially valuable for the length of staple, fine-
ness of quality, and bright glossy character, which makes it in
demand for Flanders and France, being principally used in the
manufacture of a fabric known as “ cloth of gold.” The hogg and
ewe fleeces weigh on an average 6 or 7 lbs., and the wool of
two-shear wethers up to 10 lbs., individual fleeces considerably
exceeding these figures.

Devon Longwools. — While a limited number of Exmoor moun-
tain sheep are found on the northern border of Devonshire,
an ancient breed, the South Hams Notts, somewhat resem-
bling the Romney Marsh sheep, graze the pastures in the south,
and the hardy, delicate-fleshed Dartmoor, or Oakhampton sheep,
feed on the bleak and lofty forests, the most prevalent flocks
in central and eastern Devon, in West Somerset, and in parts
of Cornwall, are of the Devon Longwool breed. This is a pro-
duct from crossing, principally with Leicesters, but partly with
Cotswolds and also with Lincolns, the native Bampton breed, so
named from a village on the Somersetshire border. But most
breeders have now ceased to import Leicester or any other blood.
They are without horns, white-faced, and closely resemble the
Leicester ; and Mr. Joseph Darby describes the difference in
these terms : — “ A well-bred sheep of this variety differs from a
pure Leicester in having a longer and larger face, with greater

Practical Agriculture.

55d = 293

width at its forehead and nose, and the ears longer ; the frame
is more bulky and of far greater length, although not quite so
round or compact ; but will be found to girt to an equal extent
as, if not more than, the Leicester. The Devon Longvvool is also
higher than the Leicester. In good constitution and hardihood
the former surpasses the latter ; it will attain much greater
weight of carcass and more flesh in a given time, and is likewise
reputed to come earlier to maturity.” The same authority states
that the wether hoggs are fattened the first winter on turnips,
coming out in the months of March, April, and May, weighing
from 22 lbs. to 24 lbs., and in some cases 25 lbs. per quarter. They
cut from 9 lbs. to 11 lbs. of clean-washed wool each, although
shorn as lambs the preceding year. When high feeding is re-
sorted to, the hoggs ripen at earlier periods. The ewes are good
wool-bearers, the fleeces of the best flocks averaging 8 lbs. to
9 lbs. each. The lambs cut 2f lbs. to 3;^ lbs. of wool each.

The ewes are prolific ; the lambing season is early, namely,
in January and early in February, and the generality of flock-
masters wean in May.

The principal ram - breeders at the present time are Mr.
Richard Corner of Torweston, Williton ; Mr. R. Farthing, Mr.
Bird, Mr, John Wippell, and Mr. Drew of Exeter.

Cotswolds. — Native to the Cotswold Hills of East Gloucester-
shire, which are said to have been so named from the cotes
in which sheep were in very ancient times sheltered there,
is a breed of sheep remarkable for its combination of massive
proportions of frame with a constitution adapted to upland
grazing on short pasture. The old Cotswolds were coarse,
though colossal ; and now the improved breed are the largest
sheep in the world ; high standing, with fine countenances, hand-
some locks of wool on their foreheads, long broad backs, charac-
teristic overhanging rumps and full set fleeces, giving them a truly
majestic appearance. They have, for the most part, white faces
and legs, but some strains are mottled, and still fewer are grey or
coloured. The Cotswold points appear in a large, lengthy,
and wide frame ; ribs specially well sprung from back and chine ;
level back, full-cushioned rump, good leg of mutton ; chest and
plaits full and prominent, but a disproportion in depth both in
the forequarter and hindquarter as compared with some other
breeds. The neck is rather long and arched upward ; the head is
long and broad ; >a^'es are prominent ; the face has a tendency to
the Roman profile ; and the crown of the head is well woolled,
rams carrying locks which hang down in front of their eyes.
These sheep stand high and have a noble carriage. Their mutton
falls short of the best quality, and mainly from the want of a
due intermingling of fat and lean : and their open curly fleeces

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 Q

Points of
Cotswold
sheep.

560 = 294

Practical Agriculture.

Weight and
■wool.

Locality of
the breed.

Breeders.

Ryland sheep.

are not at the present day renowned for length of staple or for
weight. It is of less value per pound than either the lustre
Leicester or Lincoln wool. Sometimes the weight of a hogget
fleece exceeds 14 lbs. ; but a good average clip, of which half is
ewe wool, is about 9 lbs. per fleece.

Cotswold sheep are grazed thinly upon the land ; nevertheless,
in Mr. Lawes’ experiments, some years ago, they were found to
consume less food in producing a given amount of increase in
weight, and made greater progress in a given time, in comparison
with Downs. In the best flocks it is no unusual thing to see
12-month-old hoggets rveighing 24 to 26 lbs. per quarter, dead-
weight; and the average weight of wethers at 14 or 15 months
old is 28 to 30 lbs. The weights to which old sheep may be
brought is very great. Thus, Mr. Robert Game fed a ram up to
86 lbs. per quarter ; and in the year 1865, Mr. Barton showed
at Cirencester an 8-months-old wether hogget weighing 35 lbs.
per quarter.

The Cotswolds have not spread over many districts of England,
though they prevail in Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, parts of
Berkshire, Herefordshire, Wiltshire, Monmouthshire, and South
Wales ; and highly successful flocks have been established in
counties as far off as Norfolk. They are in large demand for
crossing, not only for producing graziers’ lambs from Down
ewes, but also to confer noble dimensions and vigorous consti-
tutions upon many breeds at home and abroad, and are exported
for this purpose to America, to our Australian colonies, and
to New Zealand, as well as to various European countries.
Probably as many as 4000 rams are sold by auction every year,
while a great number are disposed of by private contract. The
principal fairs for this breed are Burford, Stow-on- the- Wold,
Marshfield, and Cirencester.

Among the most eminent breeders at the present time may be
named Mr. William Lane, of Broadfield ; Mr. Robert Game, of
Aldworth ; Mr. G. Fletcher; Mr. J. Walker; Mr. S. Smith, of
Somerton ; Mr. C. Barton, of Fifield ; Mr. Russell Swanwick,
of the Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester ; Mr.
Thomas Brown, of Marham Hall, Downham Market, Norfolk.

The Ryland breed of sheep, now very limited in extent, is native
to the district of dry soil and sweet herbage around Ross, in Here-
fordshire ; but, with a few exceptional flocks in that locality,
it is now found only on the colder and stiffer soils of that county,
and in parts of Monmouthshire, Gloucestershire, Shropshire, and
Warwickshire. The Ryland is a small, well-formed sheep,
with white face and legs, and a tuft of wool on the forehead ;
short legs ; broad loin ; and is noted for the fineness of its
wool. With the exception of the nose and feet, the whole

Practical Agriculture.

561 = 295

animal is covered with very fine and close wool ; and is thus
defended from the fly, which is a great pest to the flocks in a
wooded country. The shearlings commonly weigh 18 lbs. per
quarter, and twenty-months old wethers weigh up to 30 or
36 lbs. per quarter. Their mutton is considered a delicacy, in
comparison with that of some other breeds.

Southdowns. — The small, short-woolled, hornless sheep, with Southdown
dark-brown faces and legs, which are native to the Sussex chalk- breeders,
hills, have been improved and moulded by many years of
selection and care in breeding, particularly by Mr. Thomas
Ellman of Glynde, Mr. William Rigden, the Duke of Richmond,

Mr. Jonas Webb, Lord Walsingham, Sir N. W. Throckmorton,

Lord Sondes, Mr. Heber Humfrey, the Prince of Wales, and
Messrs. Heasman, till their light fore-quarters, long legs, and
hanging bellies disappeared, and their points may now be thus
described : — The head is rather short and small ; the lips are Points of
thin, the chap or under-jaw is fine and thin ; the ears are Southdow)i
tolerably wide apart, not too thin and delicate, but well covered
with wool ; the forehead should be well covered with wool,
especially between the ears, as a protection against the fly, and
it should show no “slugs” or budding horns; the eye is full
and bright, but not prominent ; and the eye-cap or bone not
projecting so that it might form an obstacle in lambing.

The colour used to be speckled or grey ; but a uniform dark-
brown or snuff-colour now prevails ; faces level in tint, with an
absence of white hair, being preferred. Brown, varying to fawn,
or nearly grey, distinguishes different flocks ; and as a rule, the
Sussex sheep have a lighter shade than Southdowns bred in
other parts of the country or on richer soils. The Sussex sheep
have also more wool on their cheeks than is the case with some
large strains of Southdowns bred in other counties. The neck
is of proportionate length, thin next the head, and enlarging
1 towards the shoulders, where it should be broad and straight on
' the top, and not what is generally called ewe-necked. The breast
should be wide and deep, projecting well forward between the
[ fore-legs. This is considered an essential point with graziers, and
I in the prize pen, and gives the sheep a greater degree of weight,

1 while it indicates a good constitution and disposition to thrive.

The shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too
I wide above. If the shoulder-blades are very wide on the top, it
1 is generally found that the animal droops behind them. The
! back should be flat from the shoulders to the setting-on of the
1 tail. The yibs should project horizontally from the spine,

I extending far backward, and the last rib should project more
' than the others. The rump should be long and broad ; the tail
j set on high, and nearly on a level with the spine ; the hips

2 Q 2

5Q2 = 296

Practical Agriculture.

Babraham and
Merton South-
downs.

Qualifications.

Weights of
mutton and
wool.

Hamjishire
Down sheep.

wide ; and the space between them and the last rib on either
side as narrow as possible, thus preventing the dropping of the
belly. The legs should be of proportionate length ; the hind-
leg full in the inside at the point called the twist ; the hock
or hough turning rather out. The fore-legs should be straight
from the breast to the foot, and not what is generally termed
knock-kneed. The belly is well defended with wool, and the
fleece comes down well to the knee and the hock. The wool is
short, close, curled, and very fine, and free from projecting
fibres ; and a skin, not blue, but of a nice cherry hue, is in
favour. The Babraham and Merton Southdowns, developed
and brought to perfection in the highly farmed counties of
Cambridge and Norfolk, attain to larger size, with grander fore-
quarters and greater expansion of frame, with specially well-
formed shoulders, as well as broad loins, full rumps, and heavy
legs of mutton.

The ewes are prolific and are good nurses ; the breed is hardy,
while possessing great aptitude to fatten, and is adapted for tbe
active and working life of grazing the lofty Downs and travel-
ling to manure the fallow and wheat lands. The mutton is
proverbially delicious in grain and flavour, and fetches a higher
price in the market than any other. From 12 to 14 lbs. per
quarter was at one time considered a fair weight for a two-year-
old wether, and the finished sheep was often four or five years
old, when it weighed perhaps 18 lbs. or 20 lbs. per quarter.
Now, the Southdowns are generally fit for the butcher at 13 to
15 months old, and up to the weight just mentioned ; while the
dead-weight of two-shear wethers is 20 lbs. or 22 lbs., and up
to 30 lbs. per quarter ; some at the Christmas shows appearing
with still greater weights.

The fleece averages at least 3^ lbs. in the hill, and 4 lbs. to
6 lbs. in the lowland districts.

Southdown flocks have been established in several counties
beside the south ; and some are found both in Scotland and
Ireland. But the breed, like the Leicester, has proved of most
value for its improvement of inferior or coarser breeds : and there
are few, if any, short-woolled breeds in Britain which have not
derived advantage from crosses of Southdown blood.

The Hampshire or PVest Country Downs are a new breed created
by the crossing of Southdowns with the old Wiltshire Horned
and Berkshire Knot sheep early in the present century. The fine
symmetry, small bone, broad back and loins, and feeding pro-
pensity of the Sussex sheep were, with varying results according
to the different flocks crossed, and the judgment exercised in
selection and matching, united with the size, early maturity of
growth, and hardihood of constitution of the Hants and Wilts

Practical Agriculture.

oQ3 = 297

breed — which possessed great power of enduring long travelling
and severe folding, hard keeping and hard working, as manure
carriers for the light lands. Mr. Wilkinson (in his Report on
Hampshire) describes the original breed as “ worthy ol being
remembered. They were imposing-looking animals, long in
leg, high in withers, sharp in spine, large, bony, narrow, with
big heads, curling horns, and fine Roman noses.” Until about
forty years since, the new breed resulting from the combination
of these sheep with Southdowns had produced sheep of two
dissimilar characters. In North and East Hampshire, according Mr. E. P.
to Mr. E. P. Squarey, they were large, muscular, early matured Squarey on
animals, givinga fair quantity of wool of moderate fineness; the
head large and well set on, of dark brown colour verging towards
black, covered with coarsish hair, with Roman nose ; the ears
thick, of the same colour as the face, and an occasional tendency
to recur to the original type by producing “ snig ” horns ; the
neck with greatly developed muscles, the legs with large bones,
and sometimes the wool growing below the hocks and knees.

White spots on faces, ears, and legs were avoided, if possible, by

the ram breeders. But the Wiltshire breeders adopted a more

largely framed and probably less handsome sheep, were less

careful as to uniformity of colour, and did not discard ewes with

speckled faces or ears, provided they had size and other good

qualities. The Southdown flocks of Berkshire and Dorsetshire

became to a great extent merged into the improved Hampshire

or West Country Downs. Large areas of the Down pasture

lands had been broken up, artificial manures were introduced,

the growth of turnips, rape, vetches, trifoliuin, rye, and Italian

rye-grass lor sheep-feed, led the breeders generally to turn their

attention to the Hampshire system of selling wether lambs in

the late summer or early autumn, instead of keeping them till

they were sold as shearlings, or still older, for less money than

lambs now realise ; and for early maturity and greater size the

flockmasters crossed their Downs with the Hampshires. Latterly

the Berkshire, Wiltshire, and Dorset breeders have produced

sheep which for flesh and fleece are generally superior to those

of the Hampshire flocks. The late Mr. Humphrey, of Oak Ash, Hampshire

near Newbury, achieved for the Hampshire Downs an improve- breeders.

ment comparable to that which Mr. Jonas Webb accomplished

for the Southdowns ; and this work he commenced by using upon

the Hampshires some of the largest rams from the Babraham

flock. In Wiltshire, Mr. James Rawlence of Bulbridge, and

Mr. Alfred Morrison of Fonthill ; in Dorset, Mr. T. C. Saunders

of Watercombe ; in Hampshire, Mr. F. Budd of Hatchwarren,

Messrs. J. and M. Arnold of Petersfield, Mr. J. Rigg, and
Mr. J. N. Palmer of Cleddesden, are among the most cele-

564=255

Practical Agriculture.

Sheep fairs
in Hants and
Wilts.

Weight and
wool.

Creation of the

O.xfordshire

Downs.

Points.

brated breeders at the present time. The most famous fairs for
Hampshire Downs are at Overton and Weyhill in Hampshire,
and at Britford and Wilton in Wiltshire. At Overton lamb
fair, about 65,000 are penned ; at Weyhill, on an average, there
are 125,000 sheep and lambs, divided into two fairs, the Wilts
sheep keeping on their side of the turnpike, and the Hants on
the other. At Appleshaw fair, of 100,000 sheep penned, about
one-half are Dorset and one-fourth Somerset Horns, and the
remainder Wiltshires.

As an example of the great weight attainable by the breed,
it may be mentioned that Mr. Morrison’s three shearling-wethers,
which obtained the Smithfield Club cup as the best short-
woolled sheep in the show in 1872, were estimated to weigh
70 lbs. per quarter. Tegs at a year old readily weigh 20 to
25 lbs. per quarter. The Hampshire and West Country Down
wool is of fine quality but short staple, averaging about 4^ lbs.
the fleece ; but its value is probably a penny a pound lower
than Southdown, and the colour of much of the wool in Hamp-
shire is inferior, being stained by the red soil on which the
sheep lie.

A first cross with Cotswold and Lincoln long-wools produces
a very valuable graziers’ sheep ; indeed, Hampshire Downs are
being largely used for the purpose in counties far from their
native home. The Hampshire ewes are commonly disposed
of, after three years’ breeding, to breeders who put them early to
long-wool rams and then fatten the ewes and lambs together.

Oxfordshire Downs. — Barely half a century ago, Mr. Druce,
of Eynsham ; Mr. Gillett, of Southleigh ; Mr. Blake, of Stanton
Harcourt; and Mr. Twynham, in Hampshire, began the forma-
tion of a new breed, which should combine in perpetuity what
crosses gave for one generation, — the weight of a Longwool sheep
with the quality of a Down. Some Sussex blood may have been
used : but the cross mainly employed as the foundation was that
of grey-faced Cotswold rams upon Hampshire Down ewes.
Putting the crosses together, by constant attention and weeding
out of all unlikely animals and such as were at intervals “ thrown
back,” a most successful result was ultimately attained ; the type
is now well fixed, and improvement goes on by selection with-
out any admixture of strains from other breeds. This new breed
is the latest as well as most remarkable product of the skill of
modern breeders ; and it certainly possesses, along with uni-
formity of character and hardiness of constitution, a large frame,
aptitude to fatten, mutton of superior quality, and a heavy fleece
of thickly set wool.

According to Messrs. M. Druce and Charles Hobbs, the
characteristics of an Oxfordshire Down are seen in a nice dark

Practical Agriculture.

565 = 299

colour ; the poll well covered with wool and adorned with a
top-knot on the forehead ; a good fleece of wool, thick on the
skin and not too curly ; a well-formed barrel on short dark legs
(not grey or spotted), with good firm mutton. The ewes are
good mothers, and drop a large proportion of twins.

The hoggs or tegs are commonly sold fat, at twelve or thirteen
months old, at a dead-weight of 20 to 24 lbs. per quarter. The
weight of some of the exhibition wethers and rams, as those of
Mr. A. F. M. Druce ; Mr. Dale, of Marlborough ; Mr. John
Treadwell, and Mr. Charles Howard, have almost equalled that
of the Lincolns and Cotswold Longwools. The average weight of Weights and
fleece for a whole flock is about 7 lbs. ; but shearling rams have
clipped up to 20 lbs. per fleece. In 1872, Oxfordshire Downs
won the champion plate of the Smithfield Club, as best in the
Show.

The breed is particularly adapted for close stocking, and for
confinement entirely in folds. It prevails in the home and mid-
land counties ; the rams are largely employed for crossing with
Hampshire ewes for early lamb ; they are sold in considerable
numbers to Scotland, Ireland, and various countries of Europe ;
and both at Oxford and other fairs, and at the auctions and
private sales, the rams fetch high prices. Among the chief Breeders,
flocks at the present time are those of the Duke of Marlborough ;

Sir Henry W. Dashwood, Bart., of Kirtlington Park ; Mr. A. F.

Milton Druce, of Eynsham ; Mr. George Wallis, of Bampton ;

Mr. John Treadwell, of Upper Winchendon ; Mr. Charles Howard,
of Biddenham ; Mr. Rogers, Mr. Stilgoe, Mr. Charles Hobbs,

Mr. Gillett, Mr. Gale, and Mr. George Street.

Shropshires, — The original heath breeds of the Longmynd Origin of the
range, in Shropshire, and Cannock Chase, in Staffordshire, Shropshires.
having horns and black faces, were improved first by South-
down blood and afterwards by selection, until the present
Shropshire breed was established. Thus, two of the most cele-
brated founders of the breed were Mr. Samuel Meire, who made
use of both Southdown and Leicester blood, and Mr. George
Adney, who, beginning with sheep descended from a Southdown
cross, brought his flock to extraordinary perfection by selection
in breeding. It is only of late years that a real uniformity of
type has been attained and adhered to ; and all admixture of
Down blood has for a long time been discontinued, as detri-
mental to the size and character of the breed.

A Shropshire sheep resembles a Southdown, but is consider- Points of the
ably larger and of greater substance ; the face is longer and the
ears are larger ; the eye is prominent ; the forehead is broad, flat,
and well covered with wool ; the colour of the face is uniformly
: dark, described as a softened black or very dark grey, inclining

566 = 500

Practical Agriculture.

Weights and
Wool.

Locality.

Dorset Horned.

to grey on the jaw ; and the legs are darker than the face. A
light neck, unlevel back, spine not straight, upright shoulders,
flat ribs, and light rump, are defects in the original stock which
have been replaced by the very converse of each ; and the Shrop-
shires are now noted for their symmetry, their grand backs, and
their heavy legs of mutton. They carry fleeces of closer-set fine
wool, longer in staple than that of the Southdowns. In good
flocks the wool averages 6 to 8 lbs. per fleece ; hoggs clip-
ping up to 12 or 14 lbs. Shropshire shearlings commonly weigh
20 lbs. or more per quarter ; and two-shears are fed up to
40 lbs. or more per quarter.

They are more prolific than perhaps any other breed, except
the Dorsets, the ewes dropping at least one-half twins ; and they
suckle better than any sheep of larger breed. They are hardy,
and particularly adapted for enduring a wet climate. Though
not specially meritorious on the ground of early maturity, they
yield flesh of close texture and fine flavour ; their mutton, for the
intermixture of fat and rich dark colour, being equal to that of
the Southdowns. The breed has extended very rapidly of late
years in Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcester-
shire, Herefordshire, and the midland counties ; has been esta-
blished in Leicestershire and Yorkshire, and very successfully in
Ireland ; while rams are sent into many counties for improving;
inferior breeds and for crossing, to raise lambs for the butcher.
Shropshires are the principal sheep at Shrewsbury and other
fairs and markets in Shropshire and Staffordshire, and at the
auctions of Mr. W. G. Preece, of Shrewsbury, and Messrs.
Lythall and Clarke, of Birmingham. Rams at the private sales
fetch exceedingly high prices. Among the principal breeders
now may be named. Lord Chesham ; Mr. T. Mansell, of Ercall
Park ; Mr. John Evans, of Uflington ; Mr. J. Coxon, of Freeford ;
Mr. E. Crane, of Shrawardine ; Mr. T. Nock, of Sutton Mad-
dock ; Mr. R. H. Masfen, of Pendeford ; Mrs. Beach, of
Brewood ; Lord Wenlock ; Mr. J. Pulley, of Lower Eaton ;
Mr. T. Fenn, of Ludlow ; Mr. H. Townshend, of Caldicote ;
Mr. C. Byrd, of Littywood ; Mrs. Smith, of Sutton Maddock ;
Mr. W. Orme Foster, of Apley Park ; Mr. H. J. Sheldon, of
Shipston-on-Stour ; and Mr. S. C. Pilgrim, of Hinckley.

Dorset Horned. — The native breed having been driven out of
the chalk-region of Dorsetshire by the more thrifty Southdown
and West Country Down, is found, for the most part, at the
western end of the county on the fertile oolite and sand-loam soils
with their good upland pastures, also on the rich sheep-pastures
of southern Somerset, and scattered along the Dorsetshire vales
which are ever green with water-meadows. The modern or im-
proved Dorset sheep has descended from the original breed — neat.

Practical Agriculture.

5G1 = 301

well-shaped, thick-woolled, white-faced, with a tuft of wool on
the forehead, and thin horns, rather bending backward — crossed
with the larger Somerset horned sheep ; and the most marked
improvement in early maturity and grazing qualities have been
made by skilful selection during the last twenty years, notably by
Mr. H. Mayo. Dorsets are unrivalled for producing the earliest
fat lambs for the London and other markets, as the ewes when
highly fed will take the ram in April, or at almost any period.

They drop a greater proportion of twins and triplets than any
other breed, and are most excellent nurses. The lambs yeaned Early Lamb,
in October or November are, with good feeding, generally ready
for the butcher in about ten or eleven weeks, and the ewes
i quickly fattened afterwards attain to 20 or 25 lbs. per quarter.

' Southdown rams are generally used when the object is to pro-
i duce lambs for winter killing. Dorset sheep are usually shorn
1 in the middle of June, when the ewes yield 5 to 6 lbs. of wool,
j and the lambs 2h to 3 lbs. The value is about the same as that
' of Devon wool ; and, according to Mr. Pauli, the Dorset lamb’s
i wool is sought after for its peculiar whiteness and the fine point
: it has. Graziers from the metropolitan counties, from Hamp-
shire, and from the Isle of Wight, purchase large numbers of
i| Dorset ewes at the Wilts and Hants fairs, for the production of
' early or house-fed lamb.

L Exmoors. — Native to the lofty hill region of West Somer- Exmoor sheep.
I set is the Exmoor or Porlock breed of sheep — with white faces
j and legs ; taper horns, curving downward and outward ; close-
; set, long-stapled fleeces, with wool well up to their cheeks ;

' peculiarly rounded instead of square-formed carcass ; broad
I loins, though with slack girth behind the shoulder ; high necks ;
and famed for their fine-flavoured mutton, and for their very
strong constitution, which enables them to endure great cold
1 and privations during protracted falls of snow.

(1 The ewes are prolific, and excellent nurses ; but the breed are
l| sluggish feeders. The common sorts, fat at three or four years
I old, weigh 12 lbs. to 15 lbs. per quarter ; and the fleece weighs
I 5 lbs. or (i lbs. But great improvement has been effected during
jlate years by careful and judicious in-and-in-breeding, by Sir
Thomas Dyke Acland, Lord Poltimore, Mr. James Quartly, Mr.

I R. Stranger, JMr. Robert Paramour, and Messrs. Tapp ; and
eighteen-months old wethers from the flocks of these breeders
now weigh 20 lbs. per quarter ; while older sheep attain 28 lbs.
per quarter.

Welsh Mountain Sheep. — Attempts to supersede the native Welsh moun-
sheep of the Welsh mountains, which vary, but are not materially sheep.
Idifferent, in the northern and southern counties of the Prin-
icipality, have not been successful. Mr. Morgan Evans de-

568=302

Practical Agriculture.

Radnors.

Cheviots,

scribes tbeir characteristics thus ; — They are principally white-
faced, but some have rusty-brown faces, some speckled, and
others grey. The males are horned, and the ewes generally
hornless, though they sometimes have very short horns, and are
occasionally found with horns equal in size to those of the
rams. The poll is generally clean ; but sometimes a tuft is
found on the forehead of the ram. The head is small and
carried well up ; the neck is long, and the poll high. The
shoulders are low, the chest is narrow, the girth small, and the
ribs are flat. The rump is high, and the tail long. The average
weight of ewes is about 7 lbs. per quarter ; the wethers weigh,
at three years old, 9 lbs. to 10 lbs. per quarter, dead-weight.
The mutton is famous for its delicacy. The average clip of
wool is about 5 lbs. per fleece ; the quality, as a rule, is fine, but
in some districts coarse and mixed with long hairs about the
neck and back. The ewes generally produce only a single lamb,
but are excellent nurses. Crosses of Welsh sheep with Leicesters
or Downs are found valuable on the lowlands, and many Welsh
sheep are sent to English counties to breed fat lambs.

Radnor Sheep. — In the county of Radnor, on the hills of Brecon,
and in the western part of Montgomery and parts of Merioneth,
remains a breed of the native dark-faced sheep of Wales, — a
hardy active race, developed by good management and selection
into animals of larger size than the ordinary mountain sheep,
and carrying heavier fleeces. They have been improved by
the introduction of a cross of Shropshire and of Leicester
blood. The old breed, says Mr. Morgan Evans, was very
small ; and a great point with breeders was a very large tail,
heavily woolled, and a quantity of coarse wool or hair about the
breech. The best kinds of Radnors have black faces ; but many
are of a tan, grimy, or grey colour, and some, of questionable
purity of strain, have faces partly white. The rams are horned ;
the ewes should be hornless. They are short-legged, light in
forequarter, and, though slow feeders, yield mutton of excellent
flavour. At three or four years old the wethers weigh 14 lbs. or
15 lbs. per quarter, dead-weight. The wool, of fine. quality,
weighs 4 lbs. or 5 lbs. per fleece. The ewes are prolific, and
very good nurses.

The principal fairs for Radnor sheep are, Kington, Knighton,
and Builth ; and large numbers of ewes are sold to adjoining
English counties to breed fat lambs, by crossing with Shropshire,
Leicester, or Cotswold rams.

Cheviots. — W hether this breed were native to the range of hills
of that name situated partly in Northumberland and partly in
border counties of Scotland, or whether they sprang from a few
sheep which were cast ashore on the Western Isles from the ship-

Practical Agriculture.

569 = 303

wrecked Spanish Armada, — it is known that they occupied most
part of the mountain pastures in the south of Scotland, as well
as on the hills which gave them their name, for a long time
I before the commencement of the great improvement of the breed
i in the latter half of last centurv. The old Cheviots — small,
light, ill-formed animals, with brownish-white heads and legs —

I of very hardy constitution, were completely remodelled by Mr.

Robson, of Belford, who crossed them with rams obtained from
1 Lincolnshire ; some authorities considering that these were Bake-
well Leicesters, others maintaining that they were some of the
; lighter kind of Lincolns. The modern Cheviot somewhat re-
; sembles the Border Leicester, with a thinner neck and lighter
i forequarter. The faces and legs are white ; though individuals Points.

occur in the purest flocks in which the colour is mottled grey
I or a light dun, considered to indicate superior hardiness. Both
sexes are destitute of horns, though a “ snig ” is sometimes
found upon the ram. The head is erect, long and clean ; and
I while the neck and throat should be well covered with wool, none
' must appear on the head. The eye is lively and prominent ;

! the ears are long, open, and well covered with hair. With these
different features combined must be exhibited a fine, open, and
sprightly countenance, with every indication of hardiness. The
legs are moderately long, clean, and fine ; the hindquarters are

I full and well proportioned ; the rump is full ; the tail is neatly set,

, I long, and well covered with wool, which reaches to the hocks.

I I The body is lengthy ; and there is a tendency to lightness in the
f I forequarters, though this is a defect which careful breeding has
I done much to obviate. The neck and chest should be full ; the

] ribs rounded, and well filled up behind the shoulder. The pelt
|{ is thin, and covered with uniformly fine wool, free from dead
I' hairs, coming well down on the quarters, forward on the neck,
and completely covering the belly. The fleece, of soft wool of
' I medium length, used for the manufacture of tweeds, weighs,

1 on an average of a good flock, about 4^ lbs., the weight and
fineness depending greatly upon the nature of the herbage on
I which the sheep are grazed — dry sweet pasture giving a finer
I texture than coarse grass. Ewes, when fat, generally weigh
j from 14 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter, dead-weight; wethers 18 lbs.

' to 20 lbs. per quarter, or more, at three years old, fed on arti-
I ficial food. The mutton is esteemed a delicacy.

They are prolific breeders and good nurses ; and are excelled
I in hardiness at great altitudes, and in power to endure mountain
j storms, only by the Black-faced breed. They now occupy most of
I the mountains in the south of Scotland, and in the north prevail
! in Sutherland, Caithness, and Ross-shire. The great fairs and

1 sales for them are Falkirk, Melrose, Lockerbie, Moffat, Inver- Fairs.

hlO = 304

Practical Agriculture.

Black-faces.

Points.

ness, Beattock, Hawick, St. Boswell’s, Kelso, and Brough Hill.
High figures are made for Cheviot rams, which are largely used
for crossing with the Border Leicester, the breeds being mixed
in different proportions according to the altitude and tempera-
ture of the district. Among the principal breeders may be
named Mr. Aitchison, of Lynhope ; Mr. Bryden, of Kennelhead ;
Messrs. Carruthers, of Kirkhill ; Mr. Elliot, of Hindhope ; Mr.
Johnstone, of Cappelgill; Mr. John Robson, of Otterburn.

Black-faced, Heath, or Scotch Mouritain Sheep. — It is not
certain whether this breed was imported from some foreign
country to Ettrick Forest by a Scottish king (as tradition relates),
or whether it is due to an improvement of the ancient “ dun-
faces,” with brown or tawny hair on their faces and legs, with
light forequarters and long tails, which were at one time the
most prevalent sheep in Scotland. The Black-faces attained to
their present character and high degree of improvement in
Lanarkshire and the south-west of Scotland. They prevail also
on the higher grounds in the West Highlands and in the midland
districts of Scotland ; and, though Cheviots have displaced them
to a considerable extent, they are still best adapted, by their
constitution and peculiar instincts and habits, to the loftiest and
bleakest sheep-walks, being found by the mountain tarns and
peat-bogs at great altitudes, where the herbage is of the coarsest
description, where the storms are furious, the snows deep, and
the cold severe. Both sexes have horns. The horns of the
ram are of large size, arched, and springing well out from the
head, each making two spiral twists, inclining outward, down-
ward, and forward ; the horns of the ewe are not spirally twisted,
but flat, and are turned clear of the side of the head. The face
and legs are black, or black and white, one or other colour pre-
dominating, instead of equal patches of both. The face is long
and clean, the muzzle is free liom wool, and a Roman profile is
preferred ; the eyes are full of life and fire ; the ears are mode-
rately long ; the shoulders being high, the neck is sometimes
too low as well as long ; the back is rather short, and the
breadth is not great nor are the ribs particularly well sprung ;
the frame is deep, and the hindquarter is well-shaped and full.

The character of the fleece is the reverse of that of other
mountain breeds ; for instead of being short, close-set, and fine
in staple, the wool is long, soft, open, and waved ; coming low
down on the thighs and forelegs, so that a ram’s wool hangs
within two or three inches of the ground. It is free from black
spots and “ kemps,” or hard, wiry, white hairs, which are
destitute of the felting property of wool. The quality is
coarse, and it is used principally in the manufacture ol carpets.
The fleece commonly weighs lbs. or 4 lbs. The wethers at

Practical Agriculture.

071 = 305

three years old are fattened on turnips to about 18 lbs. per quarter,
dead-weight ; but they can be brought to much greater weight.

The quality of the mutton is very fine.

Black-faces are in great demand for crossing with Leicesters.

The principal fairs for them are at Lanark, Falkirk, Inverness, Fairs.
Kirriemuir, Stagshaw, and Brough Hill. Among the most
eminent breeders are Mr. Archibald, of Overshiels, Stow ; Mr.

Aitken, of Listonshiels, Mid-Lothian ; Mr. Malcolm, M.P., of
Poltalloch, Argyllshire ; Mr. Moffat, of Gateside, Dumfriesshire ;

Mr. Murray, of Eastside, Pennicuik ; Mr. Craig, of Polquheys,

Ayrshire ; Mr. Greenshields, of Westown ; Mr. Christopher
Armstrong, of Alston, Cumberland.

The Lonk Breed. — Less hardy than the Black-faces, but Lonks.
similar in some respects, are the Lonk sheep pertaining to the fells
of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and parts of Derbyshire. The
face and legs are streaked with black and white ; the yellow horns
are strong and curled, but finer than those of the Black-face.

The carcass is long, the deficiencies in form being in the light
forequarter and narrow loin. The wool is very superior to that
of the Black-face, and weighs 4^ lbs. or 5 lbs. per fleece on an
average ; artificially-fed Lonk wethers clipping 7 lbs. to 8 lbs.

I Three-year-old wethers are commonly killed at 18 lbs. per
; quarter, dead-weight ; Show sheep, of course, make double the
weight, or more.

Among the principal breeders are Mr. Jonathan Peel, of
I Knowlmere Manor, Clitheroe ; Mr. George Dewhurst, of Raw-
I tenstall, Lancashire ; Messrs. John Green and Son, of Tilsden,

I Leeds.

I Herdwicks. — Tradition attributes the introduction of this breed Heidwicks.

fi into Cumberland by the shipwreck of a Spanish vessel on the
t coast, near Duddon Sands, and it existed in the neighbourhood for
I a long time before it spread and displaced the native Fell sheep in
i! Cumberland, Westmoreland, and parts of Lancashire. On the
I authority of Mr. H. A. Spedding, of Mirehouse, Keswick, the legs
and faces of the lambs are black, or black with a few white flecks ; Points.

I but by the time they are two years old all the black has become
I frosty or silver-grey, darkening slightly toward the forehead,

I except a blue-black mark or patch at the back of the neck, any
brown tinge being a defect, as indicating a lesser degree of hardi-
I ness in the animal. In every flock there are darker coloured sheep,

I but a black tinge is not objected to. The eye is bright ; the
I forehead has a tuft on it ; the ears are white and sharp, and the
i wool should come well up to them — in the case of rams forming
! a kind of wave of a dark colour. The fore legs are wide apart ;

the breast is well forward, and the body is well ribbed up, the
I commonest defect being a slackness behind the shoulder. The

672 = 306 Practical Agriculture. |

hind legs are straight, and well muttoned down to the hocks ;
the knees and feet should be large, the feet white, and the bone
fine. A Herdwick should stand square and walk well. The
ewes are not horned ; but the rams generally are, though not
always ; the horns should be waxy and white, and, rising well
out of the head, curl once or twice. The mutton is very fine in.
texture and flavour; but the wool, of short staple, is coarse and
open, and only somewhat better than that of the Black-faces.
Of late years it has been so improved as to be nearly free from
“ kemps ” or grey hairs, but it is still greyish in colour.

The average dead-weight of four-year-old wethers, grazed on the
fells, varies from about 12 lbs. to 15 lbs. per quarter; on better
pasturage they make 20 lbs. per quarter, and Show specimens
up to 25 lbs. per quarter. A common average weight of fleece is
3^ lbs., though when there has been no overstocking, the average
of 4 lbs. is obtained ; and this has been exceeded in some cases.

These sheep climb and leap upon steep rocks, picking the
shortest possible bites of herbage ; in which respect they sur-
pass the Black-faces. And it is to their credit that their natural
feeding grounds are very inferior to those of the Lonks.

Among the chief breeders are Mr. Edward Nelson, of Gates-
garth, Buttermere ; Mr. C. W. Wilson, of High Park, Kendal ;
Mr. George Browne, of Troutbeck, Windermere ; Mr. William
Leathes, of Lamplugh Hall, Cockermouth.

Local breeds In the foregoing brief sketches I have included what I believe

not altogether are all the distinctive breeds of sheep in England and Wales;

superseded.

Ancient
varieties of
pigs.

but over large portions of many counties the breeding flocks
consist of old local races, improved by generations of crossing,

— as, for example, in Norfolk and Suffolk, where Southdowns
prevail in some districts, while in others the ewes are of a
strain improved by Southdown blood, but retaining some of
the characteristics of the native sheep with black faces which '
are now rarely seen. ,

Pigs.

The prevailing English hog in very ancient times was v
undoubtedly a big, long-limbed, coarse-boned, low-shouldered, I
narrow-backed animal, with huge flop ears and a covering of
strong bristles ; and the colour was mostly white, or blue-and-
white, or hlack-and-white. Whether the smaller pointed or prick-
eared varieties have existed quite as long, though less extensively
distributed, or were subsequently introduced, is an open ques-
tion. But it is certain that great improvement in native English
breeds was effected by crossing with foreign pigs, more especially
Chinese and Neapolitan.

Practical Agriculture.

blo = 307

Until late years many counties had their distinctive varieties
of pigs. The most gigantic breed was that of Cheshire — of
which there is a record of a specimen, just a hundred years ago,
which weighed, when dead and dressed, 86 stones and 11 lbs.,
imperial. Next, for colossal proportions, came the Lancashire,

Yorkshire, and Lincolnshire sort ; and the Rudgwick breed in
Sussex and Surrey. Large breeds, also with characteristic
peculiarities of form or colour, were peculiar to Kent, Hampshire,

Wiltshire, Berkshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, and Shrop-
shire. Breeds of smaller size pertained to Essex, to Norfolk, and
to Suffolk ; and it is considered that Robert Bakewell wrought
a great improvement by refining the large Leicestershire pigs
of his day.

During the last quarter of a century, and mainly owing to
the stimulus given by the Royal Agricultural and other great
shows, the breeding of pigs has been brought to such perfection,
and the best and most profitable kinds have been so rapidly
multiplied, that most of the old breeds have been displaced or
completely remodelled by crossing ; and at the present time it
is difficult to find any really distinctive breeds, except the Berk-
shires, the improved Dorsets, the Tamworth variety, and the
I Suffolk and Essex blacks ; and the remainder are classified

I together as large-breed, middle-breed, and small-breed, prin-
ji cipally Yorkshire.

i Berkshires. — Neither for small porkers nor large bacon hogs, Berkshires.

li nor for marvellous development at a very early age, can the
j! Berkshires be pronounced equal to some other breeds ; but as
j a middle sort, adapted both for young pork and older bacon,

I I arriving early at maturity, hardy, and thrifty in the farmyard or
|l the field, and with a specially large proportion of lean meat in

relation to live weight, this breed during the last twenty years
.“I has attained a distinction above all others, and has been more
•! extensively bred for show purposes, as well as more widely
adopted or employed for crossing, than any other breed.

The points are described by a most excellent authority, Mr. Mr. Coleman’s
j John Coleman, of Riccall Hall, York, thus : — “ Head moderately description.

• short ; forehead wide ; nose slightly dished, straight at the end,

1 not retrouss6 as in the small breeds ; chaps full ; ears slightly
projecting, occasionally pendant and covering the eyes. Pre-
vailing colour black, white blaze down the nose or white star
on the forehead ; sometimes uniformly dark ; but this is the
exception, and never the dead black of the Suffolk or Essex
I breeds. The pink tinge should be always apparent. The eye
I is not sunk and closed, as in the breeds remarkable for feeding
: properties, but large, intelligent, and denoting activity. General
I effect pleasing. The head is well set ; the neck, of moderate

574 = 505

Practical Agriculture.

Breeders.

Tamworth

pigs.

Improved

Dorsets.

length, is full and muscular ; the shoulder well set — so that we
have a perfectly regular outline. There is not the extra-
ordinary wealth of chine which is seen in the Suffolk, but the
forequarters are well proportioned. Occasionally we find a
slight deficiency in the girth, caused by the flatness of the fore
ribs. The back is fairly level, and the ribs, as a rule, tolerably
sprung ; a less perfect barrel, however, than is to be found
in the Essex and Suffolk blacks. Loins wide and well covered ; '

quarters often rather short and drooping, this being probably
the weakest point in the breed. The tail is usually set lower
than the hips, which gives a somewhat common character.
The gammon is full and deep ; underlines somewhat irregular ;
the flank is often light. The carcass stands on short legs ; and
the bone, whilst stronger than in the small sorts, is well pro-
portioned. The strength and character of the coat vary ac-
cording to sex and management. The effect of confinement
and close breeding is to reduce the hair. Bristles indicate a
thick skin, coarse offal, and slow feeding ; on the other hand,
thin, weak, soft hair is a sure evidence of delicacy, especially in
the boar. The boar should have plenty of hair ; though in
the sow, fine long hair is desirable. If the pig is to work for
its living, and to officiate as the scavenger of the farm, there
must be constitution ; and we cannot have this without hair.
The great merit of the Berkshires over most other breeds con-
sists in the large proportion of lean meat, and the distribution
of fat and lean when properly fed ; consequently a given live-
weight realises a larger proportion of available meat than in any
other breed.”

The average dead-weight at a year old may be about 320 lbs. ;
but specimens have exceeded 500 lbs. at that age.

Among the most noted breeders of Berkshire pigs are Mr.
Joseph Smith, of Henley-in-Arden, Warwickshire; Mr. Heber
Humfrey, of Shrivenham, Berkshire ; Mr. Arthur Stewart, of
Gloucester ; Mr. Richard Fowler, of Broughton Farm, Ayles-
bury ; Mr. John Pittman King, of Wallingford, Berkshire;
Messrs. Harris and Biggs, of Cublington, Bedfordshire ; Lord i
Chesham ; Mr. Nathaniel Benjafield, of Motcombe, Dorset ; (

Mr. William Hewer, of Sevenhampton, Wiltshire ; Mr. Russell I
Swanwick, of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

The Tamworth breed are a valuable kind, mainly differing t
from the Berkshire in their tawny or ruddy colour. Among t
the chief breeders of this sort are Mr. Edward Lowe, of Comber- (
ford, Tamworth ; Mr. Henry Sharp, of Packington, Coventry ; I
Mr. Peyton, of Four Oaks, Sutton Coldfield ; and Mr. R. H.
Masfen, of Pendeford, Wolverhampton.

Improved Dorset Pigs. — This black breed is remarkably com-

Practical Agriculture.

575 = 309

pact in form, wide across the shoulders and loins, with short
neck, small head, short nose, heavy chop or cheek, short legs
and thin skin, which, however, is deficient in hair. These pigs
give very productive litters, will thrive on very moderate fare,
and have a wonderful tendency to fatten. At five months old
the dead weight is sometimes 10 imperial stones ; at nine months
old 20 stones and more have been attained ; at twelve months
old an average dead weight is 25 stones ; and more than
40 stones has been reached at 18 months old.

The origin of the breed is remarkable. Mr. John Coate, of
Hammoon, about thirty years ago began to breed from two
black sows imported from Turkey, put to a Chinese boar; and
their offspring were crossed with a Neapolitan. About the
same period Mr. J. Azariah Smith, of Bradford Peverell, began
a herd with a black sow of Chinese blood, crossing with an
Essex black from the stock of the late Mr. Fisher Hobbs. The
improved Dorset pigs take a very high position at the Smith-
field Club and other shows.

Improved Essex. — These are a black small breed, obtained in Essex pigs,
the first instance by crossing the native pigs of the country with
black Neapolitan and black Chinese. They have small, fine,
upright ears, rather long and pointed heads, are not so full
and thick in cheek and throat as some other breeds, are not
particularly short on the leg, and have little hair. But they are
; perhaps the earliest and quickest feeders yet produced. They
I were brought to great perfection by Lord Western and the late
li Mr. W. Fisher Hobbs.

Black Suffolk. — Both Norfolk and Suffolk had native varieties Suffolk pigs.
I of small, short, low-standing, prick-eared pigs, generally white
I in colour ; but within about twenty-five years the black Suffolks
have attained great celebrity, principally from the breeding of
1 Mr. Thomas Crisp, of Chillesford Lodge ; the late Mr. J. Crisp,

1 of Butley Abbey ; Mr. G. M. Sexton, of Wherstead Hall,

1 Ipswich ; and Mr. S. G. Steam, of Wickham Market. The
black Suffolks have a broad forehead, short and slightly upturned
I nose ; rather short ears, drooping a little forward ; jowl very
I full ; grand shoulders ; a long body ; the tail set on level with
j the hips ; hams wide and deep ; a remarkably symmetrical
carcass standing on short legs, and with an abundance of long
fine hair, indicating strong constitution along with their great
aptitude for fattening quickly. They are fairly prolific. Great
prices have been realised for both boars and sows for establish-
ing the breed in many parts of the United Kingdom, for
improving ordinary stock, and also for exportation.

Large White Pigs. — Yorkshire, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, and Earge-breed
j Leicestershire are the principal, though by no means only,

I VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 R

576 = 310

Practical Agriculture.

Small-brecd

Whites.

Points.

districts in which prevail the large variety of pigs, descended,
probably without cross, from the ancient British breed. It may
be, however, that the Yorkshire pigs received their first im-
portant improvement from Leicestershire animals which had
been selected and refined by Bakewell. They were a wonder-
fully prolific breed, yielding litters of sixteen to eighteen, but
were very slow feeders. However, as bacon hogs at two or
two and a half years old, they attained a dead-weight of 40
imperial stones, and have frequently exceeded 50 stones. The
sort is more symmetrical in form, though flatter-sided, than the
Berkshires or Suffblks ; the carcass is lengthy, the back level,
shoulders are full, but hindquarters drooping ; the head is long
and large, the ears are big and overhanging ; the hair is not
so plentiful as in the smaller breeds. Among the most noted
breeders of the Large-breed pigs are Mr. W, B. Wainman, of
Carrheads ; Mr. R. E. Duckering, of Kirton Lindsey, Lincoln-
shire ; Mr. Peter Eden, of Salford ; the Earl of Ellesmere ; Mr.
Jacob Dove, of Hambrook, Bristol ; Messrs. J. and F, Howard,
of Bedford.

The Small White breed are now found in many counties
beside Yorkshire, as, for instance, in Berkshire and in Suffolk.
They were moulded into their present perfection, as small
porkers, by the late Mr. Samuel Wiley, of Brandsby, Yorkshire ;
by Lord Wenlock, Earl Ducie, Sir George Wombwell, and by
Mr. Crisp, in Suffolk ; and have perpetuated their fame in the
hands of such successful breeders and exhibitors as Mr. Peter
Eden, the Earl of Ellesmere, the Earl of Radnor, the Queen,
and Mr. W. Wheeler, of Long Compton, Warwickshire. They
are not very prolific, are somewhat delicate, and do not
attain to great weights ; but, when fully grown, they maintain
their condition upon a minimum of food, their flesh is of
the choicest quality, and they are largely used for improving
the large breeds by crossing. The points of the breed are
admirably described by Mr. John Coleman, who says : “ The
snout should be dished, and so small that when the animal
is fat all we see are the upturned nostrils ; these should be
small ; the forehead flat and broad. In fat animals the eyes
are invisible, their position being indicated by creases of fat ;
but in store animals the eyes should be large and lively.
Great importance attaches to the size and form of the ears, as
by no other mark can we so accurately determine the purity
of the breeding ; they must be small, and not drooping, but
slightly inclined forwards, set widely apart, and covered with
short soft hair. In order to complete the short handsome head,
the chops must be full and large. The neck is remarkably full,
and the head set well on, at a somewhat lower level than the

Practical Agriculture.

577 = 311

line of the back. The shoulders are wide and well covered,
sloping back into the carcass. The ribs are full, and the loins
wide ; the tail set on high. The hams are deep and square,
meat down to the hocks, bone fine, and offal light. They are
remarkably heavy according to size, and very complete for their
age ; the coat varies as to length and character, from the thick
short staple to the long curly sort which is not so closely set.”

Imposing specimens of early maturity and fatness are exhibited
under six months old.

The Middle-breed Whites, not yet established into a fixed Middle-breod
type between the large and small breeds, are being extensively
adopted as specially valuable for all the purposes of profitable
farm-stock, combining early maturity,- hardiness of constitution,
prolific breeding and good nursing, aptitude to feed, size
and weight, and excellent quality of flesh, with fat and lean well
intermixed for both young pork and matured bacon. They are
more nearly allied to the small than to the large-breed pigs in the
shape of the head, though the nose is not so upturned ; the ears
are larger, and the cheeks are not so full. They are very long
and level, with great depth of carcass ; their legs are of moderate
length, and the bone is moderately fine. They have generally
a covering of soft and thinly set hair.

The Earl of Ellesmere, Mr. Peter Eden, Messrs. Duckering,
and Messrs. J. and F. Howard, of Bedford, are among the most
eminent breeders and exhibitors at the present time.

Witnessing the magnificent classes of hunters, hackneys, and Horse-

ti harness-horses, thoroughbred sires, brood mares, cobs, and ponies,
i at the Shows of the Royal Agricultural Society, of the York-
1 shire and Lincolnshire Agricultural Societies, and of the Bath
il and West of England Society, visitors might naturally suppose
, that the breeding of such horses forms one of the most prevalent,

1 popular, and profitable features in English farming. And it is
I true that tenant-farmers as well as gentlemen and squires breed
■ a considerable proportion of the hunting, nag, and army horses
' and trotters of the kingdom ; and that while limited to no par-
ticular localities, provided there be a suitable country of mixed
arable and pasture, this branch of the farmer’s business is of
special importance in certain counties, — as in Yorkshire (cele-
brated for its Cleveland bays), in Lincolnshire, in Norfolk and
Suffolk, in the midland counties, and in many other parts of
England, where almost every farmer of medium-sized or large
occupation keeps at least one brood mare, sometimes several,

1 and hunts with the packs of hounds in his neighbourhood.

2 R 2

578 = 312

Practical Agriculture.

Suffolks.

Points.

Somersetshire, again, boasts of a valuable breed of ponies,
the “ Exmoors and the Welsh ponies, too, are bred in large
numbers on their native mountains. Some of the greatest
fairs for riding and carriage-horses are at Horncastle ; Lincoln ;
Howden and Northallerton, in Yorkshire; Brough Hill, in
Westmoreland ; Newcastle-on-Tyne ; and Rugeley, in Stafford-
shire. ;

But, in spite of the growing demand and increasing prices
for first-class, handsome, and stylish horses, there has been a
decline in their production, and the importance of the subject
lately commanded an inquiry by Parliament. Apart from the
scarcity of valuable and sound stud-stallions, a difficulty is
that the tedious and risky character of nag-horse-breeding render
it a special or fancy rather than profit-making department of
agricultural business.

More attention, however, is given by farmers to the improve-
ment of draught-horses for light and heavy work, not only for
the tillage and hauling of the farm but for labour on the road,^

— including the hundreds of thousands of horses, from strong
coachers to massive drays, which are purchased for slow and
fast draught-work in vans, drays, waggons, and vehicles of all
kinds, both in town and country.

Suffolk Cart-horses. — One of the few really distinctive breeds
of agricultural horses is the Suffolk Punch, now almost invari-
ably of a chestnut colour, though occasionally sorrel or bay ;
of medium size, standing 15 to 16 hands high ; distinguished
for compactness of form, roundness of barrel, with legs short,
clean, and peculiarly free from hair. They are active steppers,
and steady in pulling heavy loads ; their strength of constitution
enables them to labour in the collar for longer periods without
food than can probably be endured by other breeds ; and they
have a special aptitude for getting quickly into condition. But
they are said to be more liable to strains of the sinews and the
joints than most other breeds. Mr. Manfred Biddell, of Play-
ford, Ipswich, is the authority for the following details as to the
points for a good Suffolk. Colour : chestnut golden, or red hue i|
preferred ; free from white on the legs, but a white star or shim I
on the face rather approved than objected to. A few white or I
silver hairs, well blended with chestnut on the back and hind- <
quarters, belong to a certain strain of the breed, and have not ‘
been objected to ; but these must be in too small quantities to t
be confounded with a roan colour. Height : varying from 15 i
hands 3 inches to 16 hands 2 inches, on short’ flat legs, with I
short strong pasterns, free from much long hair ; hard clean ^
legs, with bone of compact quality, being desired rather than fj
large, soft legs. The shoulders very long, laying rather forward

Practical Agriculture.

579 = 313

to suit draught purposes. The hindquarters long, heavy, well
and close-coupled with loin and back, having the legs well
under the horse. The girth should be large, and the flanks
well drooped. If the forehead is a little low, this is not objected
to, provided the neck is strong and the head well forward and
carried with spirit. In all other respects a Suffolk should be
long, low and wide.

The Suffolks have, for many years, been great winners of Breeders,
prizes at the Royal and other important Shows, and have lately
attained to the distinction of a “ Suffolk Stud Book.” High
figures are paid for horses from the most eminent breeders —

I among whom are Mr. Richard Garrett, of Carleton Hall, Sax-
i mundham, Suffolk ; Sir Edmund C. Kerrison, Bart., of Brome
Hall, Scole ; Mr. Manfred Biddell, of Playford, Ipswich ;

Mr. Herman Biddell, of the same place ; Mr. Horace Wolton, of
Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge: Sir Richard Wallace, Bart, M.P.,
of Sudbourne Hall, Wickham Market ; Mr. Alfred Cracknell,
of Thornham, Eye ; Mr. William Byford, of Glemsford. The
I principal fairs for Suffolk horses are at Ipswich, Woodbridge,
Stowmarket, Bury St. Edmunds, and Colchester.

Clydesdales. — Native to Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, Dum- Clydesdales,
bartonshire, and Ayrshire, or perhaps developed many years
I ago from a crossing of imported Dutch with the old British

I pack-horse, is the Clydesdale breed of horses, which has
(i attained to great fame, and is eagerly sought after for im-

I I proving the cart-horses in many parts of England ; while stallions
; ' are purchased at exceedingly high prices, both for home use and

I for exportation to America, other foreign countries, and our own

I ' colonies. Of greater size than the Suffolks, standing sixteen Points.

I I hands high, or somewhat more, the powerful Clydesdales are
1 remarkable for their activity and for their peculiarly long stride

in stepping ; so that their natural pace is brisk, rendering them
specially adapted alike for service at the plough and in the
farm-cart. For such a heavy and strong horse, the Clydesdale
has a fine head, grand arched and muscular neck, oblique
shoulders, strong fore-arms, legs moderately clear from hair,
deep chest, straight broad back, well-sprung ribs, with a less
girth and lighter barrel than the Suffolk, but with better quarters,

I and tail well set out — this being commonly docked short in
Scotland. The prevailing colour is bay or brown, though both
black and grey are common. The characteristic defects of the
Clydesdales are long legs and light bodies ; but these have been
to a great extent eliminated by the breeders during late years.

They are good-tempered, occasionally found to be hot workers,
but are probably able to plough a greater breadth of light and
1 medium soil than any other breed ; though they may require

580 = 314

Practical Agriculture.

Breeders.

Old-English

Shire-bred.

Points.

better keep than the SufFolks. A society, with a “ Clydesdale
Stud Book,” has been established under the leadership of the
Earl of Dunmore, Lord Rosebery, the Duke of Richmond and
Gordon, and other eminent breeders.

Among the most noted studs are those of the late Sir W.
Stirling-Maxwell, at Keir, Dunblane ; Mr. Lawrence Drew, of
Merryton, Hamilton, Lanarkshire ; Lord Polwarth, of Mertoun
House, St. Boswell’s : Mr. R. Tweedie, of Catterick, York-
shire ; Mr. Muir, of Loch Fergus, Kirkcudbright ; Her Majesty
the Queen.

The principal fairs for Clydesdales are at Glasgow, Ruther-
glen, Dumfries, Edinburgh, and Ayr.

Old-English or Shire-hred Horses. — Under this inexplicable,
or, at least, indefinite and inadequate designation, are classed
the modern representatives of the old English heavy cart- and
dray-horses, once distinguished as the black horses of the Lin-
colnshire and Cambridgeshire fens, and of Leicestershire and
the midlands. They embrace a variety of types — from the pon-
derous and slow moving dray-horse, standing 16^ or 17 hands
high, of immense weight and with an excessive quantity of
long hair over his fetlocks, to the still heavy and powerful but
more compact agricultural draught-horse, and a lighter and more
active style of hoi'se for the farmer’s plough-team ; and in the
exhibitions of the Royal Agricultural Society these are grouped
indiscriminately together as “ Agricultural Horses not qualified
to compete as Clydesdale or Suffolk.” Black used to be the
prevailing colour ; but brown and bay are now more frequent,
while there are many greys and roans, and some chestnuts.

Mr. Frederick Street, of Somersham, Huntingdonshire, thus
described to the Farmers’ Club the points desirable : — “ A stal-
lion should not stand more than 17 hands high ; he should
girth from 7 feet 9 inches to 8 feet 3 inches, and should not
measure less than 11 inches below the knee. He should have a
wide chest, shoulders well thrown back ; a big and masculine
head, with full flowing mane ; a short back ; large muscular
development of the loin ; long quarters, with tail well set on ;
good second thighs ; large flat clean hocks ; flat bone ; short
between fetlock and knee ; not too long or straight in pastern,
the feet firm and wide at the heel ; and plenty of long silky
hair on the legs. A horse should be long, low, and wide ; and
a main point being action, he should be a good mover in
the cart-horse pace, walking, and if required to trot should
have an action like a Norfolk cob.”

The heavy Old-English horses, surpassing all others for power
(no clean-legged breed possessing such bone), are not only valu-
able for the most difficult farm-work, but command high prices

Practical Ayriculture.

581 = 3i5

for heavy draught purposes in towns. They are said to be more
predisposed than some other breeds to weak feet and side-bones,
and they are not so thrifty of food as the SufFolks.

I No grander draught-animals exist than are bred in the Great
Level of the Fens, and in some of the bordering and midland
' counties ; the largest and most massive horses in the world

\ being supplied by them to the London market and to other

great cities of the kingdom. Of late years they have been more
carefully bred with reference to pedigree and the avoidance
of hereditary disease; and it has just been determined by the
breeders to establish a Stud Book, an association for the pur-
pose having been formed, with the Earl of Ellesmere as President.

As these agricultural horses are by no means confined to Breeders,
eastern and central England, it is not possible to enumerate
I the breeders who have attained to celebrity in the prize-rings of
the great Societies ; but I may name a few — as the Earl of
Ellesmere, Earl Spencer, the Earl of Macclesfield ; Mr. F. Street,
of Somersham, Huntingdonshire ; Mr. Nix, of the same place ;

Messrs. Vawser, of March, Cambridgeshire ; Mr. William
1 Welcher, of Thetford, Norfolk ; Mr. George Street, of Maulden,
Bedfordshire ; Mr. J. E. Parsons, of Charwellton, Northamp-
tonshire ; Mr. Henry Smith, of Cropwell Butler, Nottingham-
' shire ; Mr. Thomas Statter, of Stand Hall, Manchester ; Mr.

I Thomas Rigby, of Carleton Grange, Blackpool, Lancashire ;

1 Mr. Stokes, of Caldecot, Northamptonshire ; Mr. C. Beart, of
Stow, Norfolk ; Mr. E. Lister, of Coleby, Lincolnshire.

Among the principal fairs for Shire-horses are Horncastle,

Boston, Northampton, Peterborough, Leicester, Rugby, Ayles-
bury.

I At the Earl of Ellesmere’s sale at Worsley, near Manchester, in

! February 1878, twenty-nine mares and fillies averaged lOlZ. 3s.

I each ; sixteen stallions averaged 203Z. 3s. Qd. each ; and the
I highest price for a stallion was 388/. But 100/. to 200/. are not
uncommon prices for sires or dams.

Suffolks, Clydesdales, and Shire-breds embrace the few dis-
tinctive strains of cart-horses in England ; but the majority of
the farm-horses in the kingdom are crosses or improvements
of old local varieties, ranging in character from the heavy horse
' of the midlands to the active Welsh, and the descendants of the
1 pack-horse of Devonshire and the south-west.

582 = 316

Practical Agriculture.

Agricultural

itinerary.

Soils of Kent.

Rotation on
heavy land in
the north.

Canary-seed.

Crops in the
Isle of
Sheppey.

CHAPTER VII.

Characteristic Crops which prevail m the Rural
Economy of the Country. — Different Courses of
Cropping, as affected by Climate and Locality. —
Succession of Crops.

These three heads of the syllabus, comprehensive as they are,
may be conveniently grouped together and treated of side by
side in their relation to different districts of the kingdom ; and
I propose to sketch the principal features of the husbandry, in a
brief but discursive agricultural itinerary of some of the counties
of England. I commence in the south-east ; thence travelling
westward, and in succession traversing some of the selected
midland and eastern counties, and terminating the survey in the
north.

Kent. — From the suburbs of the metropolis to the white cliffs
which gave Albion her name, stretches Kent, with its central
“ garden of England having three great divisions of soil, — the
chalk, with detached portions of London clay, and a narrow
belt of the tenacious gault, running through almost the entire
length of the county along its northern or Thames boundary ; the
greensand, or Kentish rag, forming a parallel band also through
the whole length of the county ; and the Wealden district, com-
prising the valley of the Weald clay and the iron or Hastings
sand : to which are to be added the alluvial plain of Romney
Marsh, and the rich marsh lands bordering the Thames, the
Medway, the Rother, the Stour, and the Swale rivers. On the
heavy lands of the first district the farms range from 100 to
600 acres, with farm-buildings more of the old-fashioned than
convenient type. A common rotation of crops is tares, barley
or canary-seed, beans, wheat, clover, wheat. The tares are not
usually fed off by sheep, but made into hay or cut green for soiling
horses or cattle. Canary-seed (grown for feeding cage-birds,
large quantities being exported) is drilled in March or April, with
6 gallons of seed per acre. This plant likes a rather tenacious
soil, as on rich light land it is liable to become root-fallen. It
grows nearly as high as wheat ; and coming late to harvest, in
September or October, the straw is frequently injured by ex-
posure to rain, and so is used chiefly for litter, though the chaff and
husk are good food for horses. The yield may be 3 to 4 qrs. per
acre, and the price varies much, from 50s. up to 100s. per quarter.
In the Isle of Sheppey, famed for its exquisite mutton, tile-
drainage has worked wonders for the clay. The old six-course
was summer fallow, with dung, chalk, or lime, followed by

Practical Agriculture.

583 = 317

beans, wheat, beans and clover, wheat, oats. Now, oats have
to a large extent given way to modifications in which tares,
mangolds, carrots, rape, and potatoes are cultivated ; but turnips
are not general, as the soil is injured by folding, and many
sheep-breeders are still compelled at weaning-time to send
, their sheep away perhaps 30 or 40 miles to turnip-farms for the
autumn and winter. The distinguishing implement in field-
culture is the antique Kentish turnwrest plough, worked by 4
and sometimes 5 horses ; but the tillage is deep and thorough.

In the Isle of Thanet, and on the chalk soils of East Kent, Crops of the
commonly bare of timber and with scant hedges, exposing the Isle of Thanet.
whole county to the fury of winds off the Channel, the four-field
course of cropping prevails, — half turnips, half peas ; barley ;

1 half clover, half beans ; wheat ; varying the half-tilths in the
I next course. Small farmers, however, frequently take a more
exhausting rotation, as, wheat, barley, clover, wheat, barley,
beans ; which is sustained only by quickly repeated manuring.

I Here the modern light iron ploughs have but partially displaced
I the turnwrest, which, though costly in horse-flesh, cuts the roots
of weeds asunder and turns the furrow-slices completely over.

, The light lands are cleaned after harvest by broad-sharing.

The Isle of Thanet grows peas well, and a fine quality of
Chevalier malting barley. Barley may average about 5 qrs. per
: acre ; and wheat, of which a favourite variety is Golden Drop,

1 which has a stiff straw and is smoother in the bran than when
' first introduced, yields about 4 qrs. per acre.

I On the deep rich loam, of free texture, often a rich mould 1^ to
2 feet deep, which is found inland from Deal to Sandwich and
I around Canterbury to Faversham, large breadths of turnips are
I folded with sheep ; but on considerable tracts the usual rotation
is, wheat ; barley ; clover ; wheat ; barley or oats ; beans : such
being the natural fertility of the land, that, with clean culture
^ and good manuring, this course can be sown ad libitum.

On the top of the chalk range is a poor stiff soil, in some Rotation on
places literally covered with flints and stones ; and this land is chalk.

I difficult and expensive to manage, sometimes requiring six or
I eight horses to plough it. The common rotation is, turnips ;

; barley ; half clover, half peas with rape ; half wheat, half oats.

In the fertile and beautiful Holmesdale Valley, “lying on the
i sunny side of the chalk hill ” (says Mr. George Buckland in his
I Report on the county in the ‘ Journal,’ vol. vi.), “ like a forward
; border under the lee of a garden wall,” lies a tract of dry rich
I soil, and a belt of gault, most troublesome, from its adhesiveness,

I to work. Hops are grown partially through the valley.

In the north-western corner of the county the prevailing soil Market
; is a strong loam, from 5 inches to 2 feet in thickness, and tern- gardens.

584=515

Practical Agriculture.

Kniit and hops.

llonincy

Jlarsh."

Sheep

management.

pered by repeated dressings of London stable-manure. Con-
tiguous to the Thames lies the market-garden ground, resting on
a dry subsoil of gravel, sand, or chalk. It is cultivated partly
by the plough, partly by the spade. It is no uncommon thing
for the market-gardeners to lay on 100 to 120 tons per acre of the
very best London dung, brought in two to three-ton loads at about
lOs. or 12s. per load, or 7s. for a cartload. Farmers within ten
or fifteen miles of the metropolis sell the larger part of their wheat-
straw, and a considerable proportion of hay, purchasing from
carmen and cowkeepers stable-manure in return.

It is more on the greensand formation of Mid-Kent, “ the
garden of England,” that hop-grounds extend, and filberts are
cultivated, and pear and cherry-orchards abound, and goose-
berries, raspberries, and currants are crops ; that quickset hedges
are trained amid hops and fruit to 12 or 16 feet in height,
with a close-cut breadth of 2 or 3 feet, and every available
nook not cultivated is thickly-planted woodland, with ash, larch,
chestnut, and red willow for hop-poles. In particular is the
slope of the rag-stone hills, looking over the Weald, astonishingly
productive in hops, fruit, and grain.

The farms range from 20 to 100 acres in extent, and the
management of the large holdings, apart from fruit and hop
culture, is chiefly on a five or six-course system, with turnips
and swedes fed off by Down sheep. Mid-Kent is noted for its
deep and cleanly tillage, the ploughing being carried 7 to 9 inches
in depth.

On the Weald clay, referred to under another section of this
paper, and mostly upon the ironsand portion, hops abound.

East of the Weald, and bounded by the English Channel,
from which it is defended in some places by shingle beach and
sand, and in others by costly embankments or sea-walls, lies
Romney Marsh, with its neighbouring flats of Walland and
Denge Marshes. On the strong land, of which a minor propor-
tion is in arable, drainage has worked great improvement ;
wheat and peas or beans are alternated year after year, with
occasionally oats and turnips ; large breadths of turnip-seed are
grown, yielding from 2 to 6 qrs. per acre ; and mangold and
radish-seed also raised by contract for the wholesale seedsmen.
But Romney Marsh is celebrated for its flocks of sheep, which
are bred and fattened on its spacious plain.

It boasts of breeding and fattening pastures ; the former
able to keep two to three ewes per acre during the winter, and
about double that number in summer ; while the feeding lands of
average quality carry and fatten four or five sheep per acre, and
on some exceptional pieces much higher numbers are grazed.
The great disadvantage from which the flockmasters of Romney

Practical Agriculture.

585 = 319

Marsh suffer is the necessity for sending away their lambs long
distances up the country in winter, the period extending to thirty
weeks, from September to the beginning of April ; the price paid
being commonly 51. or 6/. per score. As the young animals are
then under other care than that of the owner, great numbers
of tegs return to the Marsh in spring in a very low condition,
and therefore not well fitted for the rich grass.

When the turniped lambs return into the Marsh, they are put
on the poorest land or on such fields as the grazier thinks wants
improvement by hard stocking. Here they remain until
August, distributed, or rather concentrated, at the rate of from
five to twelve sheep per acre, according to the powers of the
different fields. The wether-tegs are removed in the autumn
to the fatting, and the ewe-tegs to the breeding-grounds,
among the two and three-year-old ewes. The wethers remain
until July or August following, when, as they become fat, they
are drawn out and sold to the butchers at the Marsh markets,
or are sent to Smithfield. The old ewes, called “ barrens,”
are put to fattening as soon as their milk is dried after their
third lambing, on some of the best land, where they run from
three to five per acre for the winter. In favourable seasons
these are sometimes made fat and sold in the spi’ing soon enough
for the same field to take in a lot of wethers and fatten them
by the autumn ; but this can only be done by light stocking.

In very growing summers, it is sometimes necessary to put
I young beasts on the grass to prevent its “ running away ” from
the sheep.

Middlesex, with about two-thirds of its area in meadow, Soils of

mainly in the north, on the London clay, and its arable and Middlesex.

I market-garden lands chiefly on loam or brick-earth, is to a

large extent a county of meadow-farming, — not only farms, but

parks and meadows supplying the London market with hay. The

I productive powers of the soil are maintained with applications

1 of dung from the London stables and dairies. The live stock are

limited to horses, and to a few cattle and sheep grazing the

I second or after-crop. A usual rotation is wheat (generally Rotation of

Chiddam white, varied with Golden Drop red, and other sorts) ;

on one-third of the arable, one-third under barley and oats, and

one-third in beans and peas, clover and roots ; while on the

inferior and gravelly soils, a fallow crop is followed by one or

two corn-crops. A portion of the straw is sold to jobbers with

a return of manure. Within a few miles of the London suburbs

not only the hay but a considerable proportion of the straw is

sent to market, the teams bringing hack two loads of dung for

one of produce taken in. Wheat, from the value of its straw. Sale of hay,

1 is grown as often as may be in proportion to other white corn- s"'!

I ° y 1 X green forage.

bSQ = 320

Practical Agriculture.

Market

gardens.

Soils and crops
of Surrey.

crops. Tares, rye, winter barley, and clover are sold green to
those who fetch them and return manure in their place. Potatoes,
mangolds, and white turnips form the chief root-crops, and are
drawn from the farm by purchasers in London and its suburbs,
supplying food for man and beast ; this being the governing
feature in the management of a suburban farm. Live stock are
necessarily few, and on some farms are entirely limited to dairy
cows and the horses necessary for working the land.

Market-gardening and fruit-growing are being established
upon the high-rented land of this county. Frequently the
landlord plants apple, pear, cherry, and other fruit-trees at wide
intervals, and then lets the ground. The tenant deep-ploughs,
with a heavy dressing of manure, and plants potatoes, cabbages,
or other coarse vegetables. French beans or peas, with Brussels
sprouts in the intervals, winter or spring onions, lettuces, wall-
flowers for decoration, and all sorts of garden produce fit for the
London market, are gradually introduced, and the farm becomes
a market garden.

Surrey is not remarkable as an agricultural county. Market-
gardening prevails to a considerable extent in the environs of
the metropolis, tracts of hay meadow and pasture land occupy
the alluvial flats bordering the Thames and other rivers, and the
soils are exceedingly various, — from the thin flinty soils of the
chalk downs which divide the county east and west, to the
mixed soils of the Lower Greensand, the ragstone and clay of
the Weald towards the southern boundary of the county, and the
heavy lands of the London clay and the loams and poor heaths
of the Bagshot sands on the north. On the easily cultivated
lands of the latter extensive formation, the four-course system of
cropping prevails on the lighter soils ; while on sand loams
of better quality, rye, vetches, trifolium, or stubble turnips are
grown upon broken-up wheat stubbles, and peas and beans
replace clover in the rotation. On strong loams barley is sown
after stubble turnips ; or frequently the wheat stubble is ploughed
immediately after harvest for a crop of tares, followed by rape,
and both consumed in the autumn and winter before late-sowing
another crop of wheat. On warm lands Trifolium incarnatum
is invariably sown upon wheat stubble, prepared as a seed-bed
either by ploughing and rolling or by the cultivator. Carrots,
peas, and vegetables are grown to a considerable extent for the
London market. Devon and Welsh cattle, Berkshire pigs, and
Hampshire Down or Somerset and Dorset horned sheep are the
most prevalent breeds of live stock. The cattle are mostly
bought in for grazing or winter feeding in commonly inadequate
farm-buildings, while a prominent feature in the sheep man-
agement is the raising of fat lambs.

Practical Agriculture.

5S7 = 321

Upon the heavy lands of the London clay, fallow for wheat is
the foundation of the course of cropping ; bare fallow having
been to some extent amended by growing tares to be cut for
horses and cattle, though but a small proportion of the fallow
is occupied by swedes or mangolds. On the more friable soils,
sand-loams and gravels, a five-course rotation, namely, turnips,
barley, clover or seeds, wheat and then barley, is general ; chalk
is applied to the fallows or the turnip-fields up to 10 tons or
more per acre, and large quantities of artificial manures are
applied for green and root crops.

The Chalk and Greensand district, including a large extent
of unbroken Down, with lofty ridges covered by fine sheep-
pasturage, is distinguished for its Southdown sheep-farming, its
extensive growth of sainfoin — partly for grazing, partly for hay
for the London market, — and for the hop-grounds of Farnham.

The wheat grown, notably the white Chiddam and Talavera
varieties, are celebrated for their high quality. Lime is a
manure of extensive application on farms lying within con-
venient distance of the chalk ; and there is a general use of
super-phosphate, nitrate of soda, nitro-phosphate, and other
manufactured manures.

On the Weald, with its farms of small or very moderate size
and its small inclosures (the land being sacrificed to oak-timber),
the old course of bare fallow, wheat, seeds, oats, nas been im-
proved by the effect of drainage and the consequent extension of
the growth not only of tares, hut of mangolds, cabbages, turnips
and swedes ; the green and root-crops being very commonly
carried to sheep in yards.

Sussex is distinguished mainly for the Weald clays and sands. Soils and crops
with an extensive area of hop-grounds in the north and east of Sussex,
the county, and for the Chalk Downs in the south and west,
with belts of the good Greensand soils and the loams and heavy
lands of the London and plastic clays. On the small or medium-
sized occupations of the Weald, with their small inclosures and
overrunning hedgerows and timber, the stiff wet clays, only
partially under-drained, are cultivated on a system of summer-
fallowing, with dunging and sometimes liming, for wheat,
followed by three or four corn crops, with intervening seeds or
tares, and a small proportion of mangolds, turnips, or cabbage.

Ox-teams are still used in the county, though to a less extent
than formerly. On the Downs, the rotations vary according to
soil, from the four-course to a five-course or a six-course, with
two years’ seeds ; and oats are grown much more extensively
than barley. Sheep are the principal stock of the Down farms,
being used to range the open sheep-walks by day, and to be
folded on the arable fields at night. And great numbers of

588 = 522

Practical Agriculture.

Soils of
Hampshire.

Course of
cropping in the
Woodlands
district.

lambs bred on the Downs are sold in autumn to be grazed on
richer soils, especially in West Sussex. The characteristic
breeds of live stock are Southdown sheep and the native Sussex
cattle and Sussex pigs.

Hampshire, geologically consisting of the Cretaceous, Tertiary,
and Post-tertiary formations — including, indeed, beds of every
description of rock, from the Wealden upwards, — presents three
great natural divisions, namely, the middle chalk plateau, with
its lofty ridges and beacons and watered valleys ; the district
of lower and middle Eocene, north and east of the North Downs,
and another tract of the same formations stretching from the
chalk hills to the sea ; while extensive deposits of flint-gravel
and sand overspread portions of all the geological formations,
and alluvial soils border the streams, as on the banks of the
Stour and the Avon, the Test, the Anton, and the Itchen.

The northern Eocene district, with its prevalent retentive
clays and clay-loams, interspersed with sands and gravels, on a
base of plastic clay like birdlime, is a land of small or moderate-
sized farms, heavily timbered, often with double rows of timber
trees with brushwood between, growing in enormous hedgerows
round the small fields, which are chiefly arable. It is called “ the
woodlands.” Here the time-honoured husbandry of the clays has
been to bare-fallow once in seven years, and then take alternate
crops of wheat and beans. The introduction of drainage enabled
vetches to be grown on a considerable breadth of the fallow, with
swedes and mangolds on the lighter spots, while clover is some-
times sown at intervals of eight years, the lea, if clean, being
ploughed up for wheat, but more commonly fallowed, or a crop
of oats or beans is taken before the fallow. On the more easily
worked soils other courses are adopted, though without any
uniform or general system ; such as fallow, wheat, beans,
wheat, oats or barley, and clover ; or on more sandy or gravelly
land, roots, barley or oats, clover or peas, wheat, rye, oats, or
barley. Live-stock play a subordinate part in the woodland
farmer’s business, excepting that he makes a trade of breeding
and selling farm-horses. Indeed, the prevailing farm-buildings,
with the open yard in which cattle tread straw into manure,
with the boarded and thatched barn, rough boarded sheds, with
somewhat stronger and sounder stables, are not promising for
profitable meat-manufacture with costly purchased foods. The
greatest improvements have been made by draining, and the
application of chalk ; and larger occupations, more spacious
inclosures, with less encumbering timber, and better farmsteads,
with improved management, distinguish the parts of this dis-
trict flanking the chalk hills. On the drained, subsoiled, and
chalked clay lands, one of the best rotations of cropping adopted

Practical Agriculture.

589 = 525

is as follows : — (1) roots, including mangolds, a smaller portion
of swedes, white-fleshed turnips, and a few white carrots and
cabbages ; (2) oats or barley ; (3) clover ; (4) wheat ; (5) green
crops, part tares, part trefoil and white clover, with a portion
of turnips or rape fed-olF by sheep, after the winter tares, or
after the trefoil ; (6) wheat ; (7) beans ; (8) wheat ; with a few
acres of Italian ryegrass (sown at the last boeing of the wheat),
and a few acres of trifolium (sown immediately after harvest),
and both consumed in time for the turnips, which begin the
series over again.

In the southern Eocene district, skirting the chalk, is a belt of Crops in the
country, described (in the full and admirable Report of the Rev.

John Wilkinson, in the Royal Agricultural Society’s ‘Journal,’
vol. xxii), as “ a land of coppice, of game, of small farms, of
high enclosures, and of the London clay.” No settled rotation
of crops is followed, the cultivators doing the best they can
according to season ; but fewer beans and more turnips and
barley are grown than in the woodlands of the north ; particu-
I larly where the ground has received that improvement which
! lasts for a generation, a dressing of 25 to 30 tons per acre of
chalk. In a broad bend stretching from Portsmouth to Romsey,
is a better class of loamy soils, with larger holdings, about one-
fourth in pasture. Here a four-course system prevails, with a
six-course on some of the best-managed farms, — as mangolds,

I swedes, or common turnips ; barley or oats ; seeds ; wheat ;

; beans and peas ; wheat. The agriculture is of a high character,

: greatly advanced of late years in liberal manuring, cleanly

management and feeding of live-stock ; and much hay and straw

I I are allowed to be marketed at the seaports, on condition that
1 1 artificial manure of equal value is brought back, or three tons
I . of stable dung in return for one of straw. In the valley of the
, Avon and the Stour, there is a mixture of vale and down farm-

1 ing, including four-course farming, on some of the finest turnip
' and barley soils of Hampshire ; there are also water-meadows
I and flood-meadows, which are a feature in the husbandry of the
I county, the most famous being those on the river Avon, which
I from the depth of the alluvial soil, and their gravelly subsoil,

I surpass the meadows on the Test, the Anton and the Itchen,

I which rest on clay or peat. Here dairying is much practised
I for both butter and cheese.

I In the middle or Cretaceous district, where the farms are Rotations on
; larger, the buildings more adequate, the residences superior, chalk.

; the tenures fixed, and everything on a more liberal scale than
[ prevails elsewhere in the county, there is little uninclosed
I Down land left — the chalk hills having been, for the most part,
converted into arable by the usual practice of paring and burn-

590 = 324

Practical Agriculture.

in^, for roots, followed by wheat, barley, or oats, and then seeds.
With the exception of a small proportion of permanent grass
around the homestead, and the water-meadow which may be
attached, the chalk farms are all arable.

The old rotation on the poorer soils was summer fallow or
turnips ; wheat ; barley or oats ; grass ; clover-lea. On the
better soils it was wheat ; barley or oats ; grass, remaining a
second year as “ old field,” or bare fallowed, or fallowed for
turnips. The change to the new four-field course, swedes ;
barley or oats ; grass ; wheat ; was a great improvement, but
was not found sufficient and satisfactory everywhere. Mr.
Wilkinson says, “ Without water-meadows there was not enough
sheep-food, and the swedes could not be fed off in time for
the succeeding barley ; much farmyard dung, too, was required
for the wheat. To meet the first objection, a catch-crop of
rye, vetches, or winter oats, was inserted between the wheat
and the swedes. But the second and chief objection brought
about a new course, introduced from the Wiltshire Downs, and
now extensively prevalent among the best farmers in Hants
lor a portion, say one-third of their arable — namely (1) swedes,

(2) turnips, (3) wheat, (4) barley. When, however, there are no
water-meadows to provide hay, this system is not applicable,
and a combination of three four-courses (namely, the old better-
soil course, the new, and the Wiltshire) is found very advan-
tageous ; or the Wiltshire is made a five-course by the addition
of grass. On the poorer soils another five-course is followed
by liberal farmers — (1) turnips, (2) wheat, (3) swedes, (4) barley,
(5) grass. Where there is good strong land, and no restriction
by landlords, there is a three-years course — (1) wheat, (2) swedes,

(3) turnips, or turnips and rape. This liberal system, which,
of course, is available for only a portion of the farm, gives much
wheat without the dung-cart, and also provides food for many
sheep. But the changes which have been rung on rotations
in the chalk district of Hampshire are infinite. All, however,
have in view the same result — many sheep and much corn, —
and proceed on the same general principle of not having more
than half the arable in corn at any one time. The succession
of barley after wheat, with many, would be a fatal objection to
the Wiltshire system. The answer given by the most suc-
cessful farmers in Hampshire attributes many advantages to
this rotation ; no other, they say, provides better-distributed
sheep-food, kinder barley, stronger wheat, more economical

Mr. Wilkinson manuring, and more convenient cultivation. If barley follows
swedes, the latter are in the way of the former ; the consump-
wheat.*^ ^ tion of roots must be quickened, or the barley-sowing season
will be past. But time waits for no man : so the fold is hurried,

Practical Agriculture.

591 = 325

and the more haste the less speed. The farmer may be too late
after all his exertions. Besides, if the roots be gone early, and
the spring be a little backward, what is to carry the flock on ?

On the other hand, if a green crop follow the swedes, these
may be fed off" at leisure up to the middle of May, when, indeed,
it is too late for barley, but in good time for turnips, and when,
also, the grass will be surely ready for the sheep. Then there
will be an abundance of green food, a regular succession of it,
and facility for its leisurely consumption. I have heard the
opinion too often expressed to doubt its accuracy, that barley
taken after wheat is a more even crop, and of a kinder quality
for malting, than after turnips, the folding on which makes the
ground too rank for barley ; but what is the barley’s bane is
the wheat’s blessing. This wants manure, and that of the fold
is the most economical. The treading of the sheep, too, on
the soft turnip-ground (if it rain, so much the better) is highly
beneficial, and consolidates the land more than folding on clover-
lea would. There is no pressure like their thin, sharp, cloven
feet. Wheat thrives in Hampshire as well on turnip-break as
on clover-lea or better (though this is not the case elsewhere
on chalk soils) ; and, besides, there is no danger of wire-worm.

The labour also is better distributed for men and horses, who,
as well as the shepherd, are hurried at a busy time to get in
barley after swedes. There is still an opportunity for slipping Argument
in a crop of stubble-turnips, of rye, or of vetches, between the turnij
wheat and the barley, if wanted, and circumstances are favour- succLsiou
able. When two turnip crops are taken in succession, as in the
Wiltshire and three-course systems, a large supply of sheep-
food is provided, and consequently a larger stock of sheep kept
— the great desideratum. The second crop of turnips, after
folding on the swedes, is more certain, and increased depth of
soil can be gained. Deep-ploughing is the universal remedy for
a thin staple ; subsoil must be turned up from time to time,
exposed to the air, and added to the surface soil. But for wheat,
deep-ploughing will not do ; the ground is not sufficiently
consolidated, and the plant will heave in the winter frosts :
moreover, there will be brought up charlock and the red poppy,
which cannot be kept down by any amount of hoeing which
wheat can receive, and which will occasionally grow up with
and stifle the good seed. Now, for both of the turnip crops, you
can plough as often and as deeply, and hoe as much as you like ;
while in the second turnip crop there is a certainty of effectually
subduing the weeds which escaped in the first year, and of
leaving the land perfectly clean for wheat.”

As in some other counties, sainfoin is a necessity for the Sainfoin,
chalk farmer who has no water-meadow ; and a seventh or
VOL. XIV.— S. S. 2 S

s for

592 = 526

Practical Agriculture.

Wiltshire.

Chalk district.

Rotations.

eighth part of the arable is under this crop, sown with the
barley crop like clover, and left standing for two, three, or
more years, adapting the period to the rotation of crops
followed.

Wiltshire. — This county is in two great agricultural divi-
sions : the north-western or oolite district, and the south-
eastern or chalk district.

The latter is distinguished for its large farms ; for its spacious
inclosures of arable and its uninclosed chalk downs ; for its
flocks of West County Down and Southdown sheep, extensively
used for maintaining the fertility of the thin soils by folding ; for
its courses of cropping which raise abundance of sheep-feed,
with artificial manures ; for its universal growth of sainfoin, and
for its water-meadows, luxuriant beside every brook and rivulet.
On the flinty and chalky loams the old rotation of vetches and
turnips, barley, clover, wheat, has been largely replaced by —
1st, wheat ; 2nd, barley, half sown with clover ; 3rd, half clover
mown for hay, half vetches and swedes, with winter turnips and
rye sown after the vetches are fed ; 4th, half clover, fed-off, or
sometimes broken up and sown with green food such as summer
vetches ; half rye, early turnips, rape, &c. ; and after the rye
the land is sown with turnips. On the light flinty soils, the
down or “ beak ” land, the course is generally wheat, swedes or
turnips, oats or barley, and the grass seeds for two years, some-
times broken up after one year for rape and vetches. Sainfoin
is on almost every farm, varying in extent according to the
extent of Down allotted to the holding, and also according to the
presence or absence of a water-meadow. It is usual to sow a
piece each year and let it stand five or six years ; about a tenth
or rather more of the arable being under this crop.

On the chalk marl, a heavy white land, three-field courses,
with subdivisions of each, universally prevail. A general rota-
tion is — 1st, wheat ; 2nd, half oats, sown with clover, half
swedes, vetches, or beans, &c. ; 3rd, half clover, mown for hay,
half turnips, rape, &c. Another is — 1st, wheat, half sown with
clover ; 2nd, half clover, mown for hay, half swedes, vetches,
oats, &c. ; 3rd, half clover, fed or summer tilled, half rape,
turnips, summer vetches, &c. The best farmers adopt — 1st,
wheat, one-third sown with clover ; 2nd, one third clover mown
for hay, and one-third beans, oats, peas, and vetches, one-third
swedes, with rye or winter barley or vetches, usually sown on a
portion of the swede-field ; 3rd, one-third clover, fed, summer
tilled, or sown with a green-crop, one- third early turnips or
rape, one-third rape or summer vetches ; some preferring a clean
fallow after the swedes.

On the Greensand soils, varying from poor gravelly land to

Practical Agriculture.

593 = 527

rich sand loams, with veins of the gault clay in places, very
excessive systems of cropping are pursued ; as Mr. Edward Little
observed in his Report on the county thirty years ago, the object
of those who occupy sand land is to keep it manured as highly
as possible and shaded with a crop of either corn or green food.

Barley is grown to some extent ; on the deep .soils wheat is taken
every alternate year, and mangold has taken the place of a
portion of the turnip break.

Sheep are folded all the year round, alike on the downs, the Sheep folding.

I green crops, the artificial grasses, the roots, and the irrigation-
meadows. When grazed upon the open sheep-walk or scantily-
pastured downs, the ewes are driven to the folds on the arable

! fields at night, where they are crowded, often two thousand

II sheep upon an acre, in daily shifted folds, in winter and spring
j enriching the ground for barley and turnips, and in summer
1 and autumn manuring it in this way for wheat. Sometimes
I it is a portion of the ploughed wheat-stubble which is under
j this treatment ; sometimes the folding is upon straw carted
I to spread upon the land early in winter, and then ploughed

in to lie till spring as a preparation for the turnip crop. The

I same process is also adopted by some farmers for wheat. The
I sheep are not only employed as manure carriers and dressers of
the land, but are also worked for the purpose of firming the
; seed-bed directly after the wheat is put in, either drilled or
I hand-sown upon the seam-pressed furrows. A flock of several
j hundreds are driven in close order to and fro over the ground,

I solidifying it by their treading ; this being done in early morning
for about three hours each day, and plots of eight or ten acres
j daily treated in turn, until the whole has been gone over.

I The north-west or oolite district is distinguished by smaller Oolite district,
i farms, lesser inclosures often over-stocked with hedge-row timber;

and noted for its grazing and dairying, as well as for its stone-
I brash turnips and sheep-farming and its clay-land corn farming.

I ! On the oolite or stone-brash lands the four-course rotation is
ii generally followed upon the thin, and a five-field course by
holding on the clover for a second year on the deeper soils ; but
I many farmers take two green crops in succession, and some two
corn crops together.

1 On the dairy farms potatoes are much grown ; and a belt of
sand-loam near Caine supplies carrots, turnips, green-peas, and
other vegetables for town consumption. It is on the adhesive
I calcareous clays and on the strong loams, growing vetches, rye,

I and other sheep-keep, followed by wheat, the clover or seeds
I broken up for beans, and wheat again, that steam cultivation
has achieved some of its most remarkable transformations both
j of the soil and management.

I 2 s 2

594 = 325

Practical Agriculture.

Dorsetshire.

Rotations.

Devonshire.

Dorsetshire has been divided by an old author into Felix,
Petrcea, and Deserta ; representing its strong fertile soils in the
vales, its chalk and oolite hill-ranges, and its barren Ireaths.

On the many-soiled but generally thin-stapled chalk-district,
the most extensive in the county, excellent farm-management
prevails ; and great breadths of the bleak Downs have been
converted into arable. The four-course rotation — fl) turnips,
swedes, and mangolds ; (2) barley or oats, sown with seeds ;
(3) seeds ; (4) wheat ; is usual on the better lands, while on the
thinner and poorer soils the grass is left for two years. Sheep-
breeding and sheep-folding are universal; and for providing
plentiful supplies of food in succession for the flock has led to
the adoption of the same systems of multiple green and root-
cropping which have been stated with respect to Hampshire and
Wiltshire. Sainfoin, however, is less extensively cultivated
than in those counties.

On the clays, including the rich grazing county of the Vale
of Blackmore and the genial soils on the marlstones, no uniform
or general rotations of crops are found. Wheat is frequently
grown in alternate years, the intermediate crops being roots for
stall-fed beasts. Another rotation is roots, wheat, barley, clover.
Another : wheat, beans, half clover, half vetches, followed by
swedes drawn off. Another is wheat, barley, grass, wheat,
vetches, or stubble-turnips. Another is wheat, rape, wheat,
clover ; and another is mangolds, or turnips and swedes, oats or
barley, wheat, oats, stubble-turnips or vetches.

Devonshire. — Famed for its cattle, its cream, its cider, and its
climate, Devonshire is pre-eminently a grass-land and green-
crop county, though, from the great extent of its boundaries, the
acreage of corn grown is also large. Lofty and barren wastes,
like the ranges of Dartmoor, locally modify the otherwise mild
as well as moist climate. There are tracts of poor sands and
gravels, like the wastes of Haldon and Woodbury Common, and
the soils on Black Down hills ; and the Carboniferous formations
occupying a great portion of the county are for the most part i
covered by a poor clay. But rich sandy loams, and loams on a |
clayey subsoil, prevail in the fertile vale of Exeter and Honiton, ,
in the valley of the Exe ; the calcareous clays and light loams <
of the South Hams district on the south coast surpass all the i
county in fertility ; and in North Devon are the luxuriant
pastures on the hills, which are the home of the native red r
cattle.

Orchards are in profusion, and woods abound in many locali-
ties ; but a feature which enriches almost every landscape in an •
artistic point of view is the enormous number of hedgerows i
thickly stocked with timber, cutting up the land into diminutive i

Practical Agriculture.

595 = 329

inclosures, making tillage operations costly, robbing the crops
of nutriment by their roots, by their shade hindering the drying
of corn at harvest time, and damaging all husbandry by their
harbouring of weeds and game and vermin. Improvements
have been made by some enlightened proprietors of late years,
notably by Sir Thomas Dyke Acland ; yet, with the exception
of particular districts which are bleak and exposed, the inclosed
farms are too generally in fields of a few acres each, with fences
occupying, or rendering unproductive perhaps, a tenth part of
the arable land.

The old Devon rotation of cropping is (1) turnips; (2) wheat; Rotations.

(3) barley ; (4) oats ; (5) seeds ; remaining for two to six or more
years. But in the red sandstone district, and everywhere where
improved agriculture has been most extended of late years, this,
old course has been replaced by the four- or five-course of turnips
barley or oats, clover or grass seeds for one or two years, wheat.

Interpolated crops of rye, winter vetches, stubble-turnips and
rape are not so much taken as they probably would be if water-
meadows were not so prevalent — where warm valleys and the
abundant hill-side springs are so favourable to irrigation. On
the clay-lands bare fallowing is still very extensively practised.

Cornwall, with its growan or gravel soils lying upon the granite, Cornwall,
its fertile lands upon the schist or clay-slate, its comparatively
unfruitful surface on the serpentine and other igneous rocks, and
its varied soils ranging from sands to yellow clays upon trap.
Carboniferous and other deposits, and washed on both sides of
its narrow area by the Atlantic, bringing moisture and mildness
to the atmosphere, is distinguished, apart from its mining in-
dustry and its fisheries, for its small farms, its dairying, pork-
feeding, culture of potatoes, reclamation of waste land, and a
style of agriculture now at a stage of general advancement.

In Cornwall, the prevailing courses of cropping include laying Rotations,
down grass-seeds for three years. The old management was
(and to a considerable extent still is) to mow the grass once for
hay, to break it up by burning the surface, take on most parts of
it two white-corn crops in succession ; and then lay down again,
and on a portion of the broken-up lea sow turnips and potatoes,
to be followed by barley or oats. More general now is the
practice of skim-ploughing the sward in summer, giving it a late
summer fallow, heavily manuring with lime or with dung, ashes,
and the sea-sand, which on parts of the Cornish coast is richly
calcareous, and ploughing again and sowing wheat in October ;
turnips or other green-crops follow the wheat, and are succeeded
by barley or oats, sown down with seeds for the next two or
three years of pasture.

Potato culture forms a very considerable part of the business Potato culture.

596 = 350

Practical Agriculture.

Soils of
Somersetshire.

Rotations on
New Red
sandstone.

of farmers in some districts, particularly near Penzance, the
Lizard, and on the banks of the Rivers Looe and Tamar, Great
quantities of early potatoes grown upon the dry friable soils in
the sheltered Penzance district, with its mild moist climate, are
forwarded to the London and other markets in the spring. The
early kidneys are full grown by the middle of May, while tubers
are extracted by hand from the growing crops as early as the
second week in April in some seasons.

Reclamation of the wastes, strewed over with granite blocks,
some of immense size, with heath and furze shooting up in the
interstices, and sometimes at an elevation of many hundreds of
feet above the sea-level, is a costly and difficult enterprise, often
involving an outlay of lOZ. or 12Z. per acre for inclosing,
breaking-up, and procuring the first crop. Manuring with bones
or guano for turnips, followed by oats and then grass-seeds for
pasture, is the general practice in making such improvements.
Considerable breadths of rocky wastes have been reclaimed by
miners and other cottagers allowed to hold plots of a few acres
on leases of three lives.

Somersetshire physically consists of a central basin between
two hilly districts, one on the west, the other on the north-
east. The former hill district, lying west of the Quantock and
Brendon Hills, comprises stony soils on the grauwacke and
mica-schist formations, with deposits of peat. It is well watered
by hill streams in that moist climate, and breeding and rearing
of stock characterise the husbandry. An old-fashioned and
not altogether abandoned course of cropping is to break up
lea which has been grass for several years, taking (1) a
crop of oats “ to clean the land (2) oats or wheat (limed) ;
(3) turnips ; (4) oats or wheat ; and then laying down again to
(5) grass. An improved rotation, described by Sir Thomas
Dyke Acland, Bart., M.P., in his full and admirable “ Report on
the Farming of the County of Somerset,” in the ‘ Royal Agri-
cultural Society’s Journal’ for 1850, is (1) turnips or rape; (2)
oats or wheat ; (3) swedes ; (4) grass, for two or three years.
On the clay-slate soil, retentive of moisture, and on a hill-side
not too exposed, the lea lasts three years ; but under other con-
ditions, not more than two years. This system of laying down
grass after roots has greatly extended during the last twenty
years, and is held to be a mainstay of that part of Somerset-
shire which is devoted to the breeding and rearing of stock.

The north-eastern hill district presents a remarkable variety of
geological formations ; and is largely under permanent pasture,
with dairy farming.

In the central basin of the county, on the New Red sandstone
and red marls of the Vale of the Tone, embracing many qualities

Practical Agriculture.

527 = 331

of soil, from rich red loams to heavy soil, and again to stony
and sandy lands, the old system of (1) wheat ; (2) barley ;

(3) grass for several years, with only small breadths of turnips on
the drier soils, has been replaced by the four-course. On the
heavy lands a good rotation is (1) swedes, turnips, mangolds,
with a small breadth of potatoes ; (2) barley ; (3) clover and
seeds, mown once, and then fed with sheep for two years ; (4)
beans ; (5) white tares, fed with sheep, followed by rape, also
fed with sheep; (6) wheat. One course on strong red land is
(1) beans ; (2) wheat ; (3) vetches ; (4) barley ; (5) clover or
seeds — the farmyard-manure being applied on the clover before
beans.

On the high lias formation south-east of the Bridgwater Level Heavy-laml
stone-brash and clay prevail. A common rotation on the stone- rotations,
brash is, (1) vetches ; (2) wheat ; (3) barley or oats ; (4) clover ;
j (5) wheat ; (6) winter beans. But of late years, turnips and
[ other roots have been more extensively cultivated. One rotation
is (1) roots ; (2) barley ; (3) clover ; (4) winter beans ; (5) wheat,
the winter beans being interpolated between the clover and the
’ wheat, in order to destroy the slugs and give the clover roots time
to rot. Another is, (1) turnips ; (2) spring wheat ; (3) sainfoin
, for four years ; (4) wheat ; (5) winter beans. Another is,

(1) turnips ; (2) oats ; (3) clover or vetches ; (4) wheat ;

(5) winter beans. And another, (1) mangolds; (2) wheat;

(3) clover, fed-off ; (4) wheat ; (5) vetches, fed-off, followed by
I mustard, partly fed and partly ploughed in as green manure ;

I (6) wheat. On the heaviest lias clays, the old course of (1) bare
I fallow ; (2) wheat ; (3) beans, is still in favour ; though since Sir

I Thomas Acland wrote his RejTort there has been a very extensive

I I introduction of vetches and clover between wheat and barley
crops ; and small breadths of mangolds also are grown upon

' these clays.

I Gloucestershire is distinguished in physical conformation by Gloucester-
1 the Cotswold Hills, which traverse the whole county from south-
west to north-east, and by its vales, including the Vale of Eves-
I ham, the Vale of Gloucester, and the Vale of Berkeley ; sub-
sidiary districts being a small portion of the valley of the
Thames, the Bristol district with its coal-fields, and the Forest
of Dean, while extensive alluvial flats border the Severn, the
Wye, the Avon, the Isis, the Churn, and smaller streams. The
Great Oolite, Fullers’ Earth, and Inferior Oolite rocks rise into the
I Cotswold Hills ; Lias clay and limestone, and New Red sand-
stone, are the foundations of the vales ; Lias, Old Red sandstone.

New Red marl. Mountain Limestone, and Pennant sandstone,
underlie the coal districts ; and Old and New Red sandstone and
I Magnesian Limestone formations appear in the Forest.

The Cotswokl
Hills.

Rotations.

Raftering.

Paring and
burning.

598 = 552 Practical Agriculture.

The Cotsvvold district of elevated plains with intersecting
valleys, the summits rising to an altitude of 600 or 700 feet
above the sea-level, has, for the most part, a soil overlying Great
Oolite or Bath freestone rock, and known as “ stone-brash.” It
is of a ruddy brown colour, and varies from deep loam to
light thin, weak land. The soil on the inferior oolite is very
similar, but possesses a greater proportion of sand and Lias
clay. These calcareous soils are of a hollow, porous character,
requiring consolidation in tillage management ; and a peculiarity
is that, deep ploughing, so beneficial in many descriptions of
soil, is here injurious, by enabling the rains to wash and waste
the manure out of the thin stratum of light soil into the porous
rubble which lies beneath. Another kind of land, of a lighter
colour and containing but few stones, and sometimes of con-
siderable depth, is not so fertile in quality as its appearance
indicates.

In this district of large farms, varying from 200 to 1000 acres
and upwards, the six-course rotation of crops, formerly the most
prevalent, has given way to a more general adoption of a four-
field or five-field course, with sainfoin layer on the lightest parts
of the farm for four or more years. Wheat stubbles and old
sainfoin lea are scarified immediately after harvest, worked,
and the rubbish burned ; farmyard-manure is carted into heaps,
to be in readiness for application in the spring, though on the
stronger lands it is put on in the autumn ; the land is ploughed
4 to 6 or 7 inches in depth, according to the staple of the soil,
and so remains until the spring. In March or April the culti-
vator, drag, and harrow work out what remains of root-weeds,
which are burned ; and mangolds and swedes are planted,
sometimes on the ridge, sometimes on the flat, with farmyard-
dung and artificial manures. Part of the stubble land is
frequently left unploughed till the spring ; being then “ raftered,”

“ rist-baulk ” ploughed, or half-ploughed (each thin furrow-slice
being turned upon an unmoved strip), cultivated across, and the
rubbish burned and the ashes ploughed in. It is common to rafter
or half-plough sainfoin layers in January and February, follow-
ing in about a month either with the breast-plough, worked by
hand, which reverses what was done before, or by a scarifier
drawn across the baulks, to cut the slices into sods for burning ; ,

then a light ploughing turns in the ashes, and a second light
ploughing is sometimes given as a preparation for turnip-
sowing.

This Cotswold practice of paring and burning old sainfoin
and other leas for turnips is not superseded by the use of
artificial manures, though pursued to a less extent than it was
twenty years ago. Burning dissipates a quantity of vegetable ■

Practical Agriculture.

599 = 555

matter which might enrich the soil ; but the advantage more
than counterbalances this loss, and the following arguments of
Mr. Bravender in his “ Report on the Farming of Gloucester ” (in
the Royal Agricultural Society’s ‘ Journal,’ vol. xi.) still hold
good : — “ Very little of the soil is burnt ; but the roots of sainfoin,
grass and weeds are converted into ashes ; and the surface couch-
grass, which so much infests the district, is got rid of and not
buried by the plough to spread and flourish all summer among
a scanty crop of oats. That which is driven off is principally
carbonic acid. But, admitting that we suffer some loss, how
much do we gain by raising an excellent crop of turnips or
swedes by the ashes and an admixture of artificial manure,
without trespassing on the fold-yard ! And how much do we
gain by having acres of broad leaves stretched out, absorbing
the carbonic acid from the atmosphere, which is appropriated
by the bulb, and which, after passing through the stomachs of
the sheep, becomes deposited on the land ! After burning, we
consume a crop of turnips on the land ; and white-straw crops
should never immediately follow breast-ploughing and burning.

I know hundreds of farmers who practise paring and burning,
but not one who discontinued it unless compelled. I know
some landowners have objected to it as injurious, but not of a
single positive injury sustained or loss in letting a farm on
which burning has been practised.” It must be remembered
that the system is not recommended, excepting for the peculiar
description of thin soil upon calcareous rubble and rock on
which it is found to answer.

The second crop in the rotation is generally barley, some-
times oats, and occasionally spring wheat. Seeds, consisting of
ryegrass and red and white clover or trefoil, are sown on the
growing crop ; the seeds are mown for hay, the aftermath is
grazed, and the layer is ploughed up for the fourth crop in the
course, wheat ; the ploughing and sowing being early, namely in
August and beginning of September on the lighter lands. Heavy
rolling follows the plough, and cultivating and harrowing clean
the seed-bed. On the lightest soils it is general to keep the
seeds down for two years, thus making a five-field course, — the
treading of the sheep giving the requisite solidity to the land,
while their droppings enrich it for the wheat. The six-course
rotation is still practised to some extent ; oats being taken after
the wheat.

On the strong lands in the Vales, where dairy-farming is the Crops in the
distinguishing husbandry, bare fallow is not so common as it
was a few years since ; vetches or trefoil being grown, fed off
by sheep, and the land then bastard-fallowed ; and on the strong
loams mangolds, swedes, and carrots have been largely in-

600 = 554

Practical Agriculture.

troduced. Thus, the rotations are, (1) summer fallow, (2) barley,

(3) clover, (4) wheat ; or (1) fallow with vetches or roots, (2)
barley, (3) beans, (4) wheat.

In the Bristol district the rotations most common are, on clay
land, (1) vetches, (2) wheat, (3) beans ; or (1) turnips and
potatoes, (2) wheat, (3) beans, (4) wheat, (5) clover, (6) wheat.

On loams, (1) green crops or peas, (2) barley, (3) clover,

(4) wheat ; and on the light sandy lands, the ordinary four-
course rotation.

In the vale of the Thames with its varied soils, one rotation
on the clay is, (1) bare fallows, (2) vetches, (3) oats, (4) clover,

(5) wheat, (6) vetches, (7) wheat ; and the gravelly soils produce
roots, vetches, clover, barley, and wheat, — a good course being
(1) swedes, (2) barley, (3) clover, (4) wheat, (5) rye and vetches,
followed by swedes and turnips, (6) barley, (7) ryegrass, hop-
clover, or rape, (8) wheat.

Irrigated meadows are a valuable feature in the vales, the '
waters issuing from the calcareous rocks of the Cotswolds being
especially excellent for the purpose. Indeed, the water-meadows i
at South Cerney are said to be the earliest found in England.
Herefordshire. Herefordshire, geologically on the old red sandstone, with |
portions of the Silurian and Mountain Limestone formations,
embraces three principal divisions of soil ; the light marly loam
of the Rylands district, gravelly loam in the neighbourhood of
Hereford and in the valley of the Wye, and a more or less
tenacious marly clay, which occupies a major part of the county
— the whole being intersected by rich grass lands on alluvium
fringing the rivers. The holdings are for the most part of
medium size, 100 to 300-acre farms being most common. ,

Upon the light Ryland soil, and also upon the driest of the '
The five-course gravelly loams, the four-course system prevails ; but some ►
husbandry. managers have introduced the five-course with advantage. ;

The reasons for the change and the method of culture are thus '
described by Mr. Thomas Duckham : — “ I was induced to dis- ■ •
continue the four-course rotation, partly owing to failures with
the clover plant and an increasing tendency to disease in the
turnip and swede crops, and partly because of the inferior
quality of barley which followed the use of cake and corn with '
the sheep when folded to eat off the turnips ; the land having f
been thereby rendered too high in condition for that crop, |
produced a large bulk of straw which was early laid, and thus <
the yield of corn was small and of secondary quality. Under i
these circumstances, I resolved to try the following five-course 't
rotation, namely, roots, wheat or other corn, barley, clover, ♦

wheat. And although I was told at the commencement by I

somJ experienced friends, whose judgment I think highly of, <

Practical Agriculture.

601 = 335

that I ‘ should not be enabled to keep the land clean,’ my ex-
perience is not in accordance with that opinion ; and as I keep
as many sheep as I formerly did, and have actually more cattle,

I see no reason for discontinuing the practice.

“ My method of cultivation is to clear the wheat-stubbles in Details of the
the autumn as far as practicable and to cart the stubbles to the
fold-yard, as I never burn anything that can be in any way
judiciously converted into manure. As soon as this operation
is ended, I manure the fallow from the fold-yard, ploughing it
in a fair furrow deep with a pair of horses. In the month of
October or early in November I plant a portion of this land
with Wheeler’s improved early cabbage, or some other good sort ;
one-fourth is set apart for vetches, rye, or winter oats, which are
drilled to secure a succession of crops in the spring ; the other
portion of the fallow is cross-ploughed as early as possible in
the winter with four horses, working two abreast, the surface
soil being thereby inverted and about four inches of subsoil is
brought up, the layer of manure being between the two ; this
has the effect of keeping the subsoil light, and exposing it to
the beneficial influence of atmospheric changes. After breaking
down the fallow and thoroughly cleansing it, I give it, where
requisite, another light ploughing at such times as I require to
plant. About the middle of May an eighth part of the area is
planted with mangold-wurzel ; in the middle of June one-half is
planted with swedes (less liable to mildew than if sown earlier) ;
and as soon as the ground under cabbage, rye and vetches
is cleared it is well harrowed, cleansed, and once ploughed for
common turnips. I drill all my roots upon the flat, using from
1^ cwt. to 3 cwt. of superphosphate of lime, or dissolved bones
mixed with ashes ; not that I attach much importance to ashes as
a fertiliser, but because they facilitate an equal distribution of
the manure employed. The mangold-wurzels, together with one-
third of the earliest of the turnips and one-third of the swedes,
are carted off for the cattle ; the remaining roots are cut and
eaten in troughs by the sheep, which are regularly folded ; and
the wethers and other fatting sheep have a liberal allowance of
linseed-cake and corn reduced to meal, mixed with cut hay.

The store sheep follow in the folds used by the fatting sheep,
and thus the whole of the land derives an equal benefit from the
enriched food given to the fatting animals. As the land is
cleared, it is ploughed lightly for wheat or other corn ; imme-
diately after harvest it is scarified, cleansed, and sown with
mustard for autumn, or rape for spring feed ; and after it has
again been cleared, it is lightly ploughed for barley, and seeded
down for the next year’s clover, which is manured as early as
possible in the following year from the fold-yard. As I fatten

602 = 336

Practical Agriculture.

Oxfordshire.

Crops in the

Chiltern

district.

Mr. C. S. Read
on extra crops.

all the sheep anti cattle I rear, a large quantity of good manure
is made ; this I use twice in the rotation exclusively for green
crops. Acting on the principle that a more equal distribution
in smaller quantities is preferable to the application of an ex-
cessive dressing once in four years only, I use lime, usually
mixed with soil, once in the rotation ; 1 have also used it, mixed
Avith salt, as a top-dressing for growing wheat. My pastures
are manured from a compost heap made Avith road-scrapings,
sidings, foldyard-manure, lime, and salt ; and so marked has
been the effect of this application, that the whole nature of the
herbage appears to have changed.”

Upon all lieaA^y soils the common rotation is, (1) falloAV,

(2) Avheat, (3) beans or peas, (4) wheat, (5) roots, (6) barley or
oats, (7) cloA^er, (8) Avheat ; vetches, however, being now largely
substituted for the bare fallow.

Oxfordshire, with its basin of Oxford clay, of gravelly and
sandy loam, its extensive stone-brash district on the great oolite,
its small area of red soils on the inferior oolite in the north of
the county, and its chalk or Avhite land on the Chiltern Hills in
the south, exhibits great variety and little regularity in its
systems of cultivation.

The four-course rotation prevails on the chalk and poor clay
of the Chiltern district ; oats or barley, however, being taken
after Avheat on the better soils. On the heavy land the ancient
course of (1) bare fallow), (2) Avheat, (3) beans, has not entirely
disappeared ; but common courses now are, (1) fallow, (2) oats,

(3) clover, (4) wheat; or (1) fallow, (2) Avheat, (3) beans, (4) oats ;
and to a great extent the falloAV is soAvn with vetches or
other green crop. Sainfoin occupies a considerable breadth of
the stone-brash land, on Avhich CotsAvold husbandry prevails ;
and on the red soils it is customary to take barley after wheat.

Providing an abundant succession of green food is still managed
in the Avay described by Mr. C. S. Read more than twenty years
ago. Directly the Avheat is cut the land between the rows of
shocks is ploughed, and the sheaves are sometimes removed by
hand to the ploughed ground, so that all the surface may be
turned over and ready for sowing stubble-turnips the moment the i
Avheat has been carted. Should the field have been manured for i
the wheat-crop, no further dressing is applied ; but, if not, guano 1
or superphosphate is sown with the turnip-seed. These turnips j
require horse-hoeing, and are set out Avith narrow hoes, as there t
is no time for them to grow to any great size. The little crops f
produced are either fed off, to be followed by barley or oats, or
they remain till late in spring for CAves and lambs, and are i
generally followed by swedes. To procure a constant and i
A'arying supply of green crops for the stock in summer, farmers

Practical Agriculture.

QOS = 337

select a clean piece of wheat-stubble, on which they sow Trifo- Trifollum.
Hum incarnatum for feeding off. This is best done in August,
certainly not later than September ; the seed, about 20 lbs.
per acre, being drilled in the stubble without ploughing, but
twice harrowed. Some farmers simply sow the seed broad-
cast, and drive the sheep over it to trample it in. If trifolium
is sown late, it is very liable to be partially if not entirely
devoured by slugs. When the crop is saved for seed, it may
produce from 5 to 10 cwts. per acre, and is generally cleared
off in time for late turnips. Trefoil is sometimes sown in April Trefoil,
on the wheat-crop, and is fed off the following spring, after the
trifolium is done ; and on most soils turnips are taken after both,
the land being ploughed, once, twice, or thrice, and manured
according as time, the weather, and the foulness or poverty of
the land may dictate. Rye is not very extensively cultivated ; %«•
but it is sometimes sown after the stubble-turnips and trifolium
have been put in, and affords a useful ten-days’ feeding as the
first green-meat in the spring. Next come vetches, sown in Vetches,
different plots and at certain intervals from September to
December; and then again a few from February to April.

The quantity of seed is or 3 bushels per acre. The first
sowing is mixed with a little rye, the next with refuse-wheat
or winter oats ; but beans are considered best of all, as the old
sheep eat them, they hold the vetches up well, and both ripen
together if saved for seed. The land for the vetches is gene-
rally ploughed but once ; but for the later sowings in the
autumn, and also in the spring, the ground, if foul, is skim-
ploughed or scarified, harrowed, cleaned, and sometimes ma-
nured before receiving the seed-furrow.

The vetches are eaten by sheep, confined in hurdles from May
to August. At first they consume the tares on the ground ; but
when the food becomes long and old it is cut and placed in
little wicker-cages, which are used for hay in the winter. Fat
sheep and lambs, in addition to the green forage, have an allow-
ance of corn, pollard, malt-dust, or cake ; or, more commonly
still, are supplied with beans. As soon as the vetches are off, the
land receives from one to three ploughings for turnips, sometimes
dressed with manure or artificials. But the droppings of the
sheep are commonly sufficient to produce a good crop of roots.

The early vetches are fed off in time for swedes, while turnips
follow the later feedings. The late or spring-sown tares are
generally grown on land in a state unfit for turnips, and to be
afterwards prepared for a corn-crop.

There is not a very large extent of country in which the
land will bear with any certainty a green-crop and a root-crop
in the same year. The land is often too retentive to be kind for

604 = 555

PractiGal Agriculture.

Shropshire.

Wheat-land

district.

Oorre Dale.

Light land.

turnips after vetches fed off. But on the gravels of the Oxford
clay formation and on the sandy soils or gravelly loams of some
parts of Oxfordshire, double-cropping is carried on in a perfect
manner.

Mr. C. S. Read mentions an instance of three good crops in
a year — vetches fed off; then a crop of mustard which, when
folded, was as high as the hurdles ; and then turnips consumed
by sheep. The next year this was followed by oats.

Shropshire affords examples of rotations of cropping on very
various soils in a moist western climate ; the southern and
western portions of the county being visited by heavy rainfall,
from the influence of their lofty hill ranges and of the still
higher mountains of Wales, while the eastern side enjoys a drier
and warmer atmosphere.

To the south-east lies the wheat-land district of strong loam
and clay of inferior character, with some tracts of more fertile
soil. Here the most general course of cropping is, (1) fallow,
(2) wheat, (3)clover, (4) spring corn, (5) fallow,.(6) wheat,(7) peas
or beans. A considerable proportion of the fallow is without
a crop ; farmyard-manure being commonly applied to the fallow,
and often a heavy dressing of lime, though this has been prac-
tised less of late years than formerly. Roots are taken upon a
portion, and vetches or rape upon another portion of the fallow
break. In that wet climate and on that soil, easily injured by
trampling, it is customary, after the summer working of the land,
to autumn-plough for wheat in narrow ridges of the same breadth
as the harrows used upon them ; so that when the wheat has been
sown broadcast, the horses in harrowing a seed-bed tread only in
the water-furrows.

In the fertile Corve Dale, and a limited district in the south
of the county, the rotations vary from (1) roots ; (2) oats, barley,
or wheat ; (3) seeds for one or two years, alternated with beans
in the next course ; (4) wheat, on the drier soils ; to (1) fallow,
principally sown with vetches ; (2) wheat ; (3) seeds or beans ;
(4) wheat, on the heavy lands.

The largest proportion of the area of Shropshire, however,
consists of hills and valleys of prevailing light soil, upon sand-
stones, limestones, shales, and gravels, with some smaller tracts
of stony loam upon a 'marly clay subsoil, some rich red loams
and belts of peat, and the deep alluvial beds of the Severn
valley. Sheep farming is the rule, and the courses of cropping are
commonly the four-field or five-field system, namely, roots,
spring corn, seeds for one or two years, and wheat. On the best
and warmest land, green crops, chiefly vetches, sometimes rye,
precede the swede crop ; and this is followed by spring corn, the
next year’s crop being peas or beans, and then wheat.

Practical Agriculture.

605 = 339

As an example of the way in which the four-course rotation is Clover alter-
accommodated to the exigency of not repeating red clover at too natiag with
frequent intervals, may be cited the practice of Mr. G. T.

Forester, of High Ercall, near Wellington.

The “ shift,” or proportion of land under seeds, is divided
into three equal parts, and different mixtures sown on each.

Thus, on one-third is sown for mowing a mixture of 12 lbs. of
red clover, 2 to 3 lbs. of white clover, and 1 peck of Pacey’s rye-
grass, per acre ; on another third is sown, for depasturage, 6 lbs. of
alsike clover and 2 bushels of Italian ryegrass per acre ; and on
the remaining third, also for depasturage, 14 lbs. of white clover,
trefoil, rib-grass, and parsley mixed, and 2 pecks of cock’s-foot,
timothy, and ryegrass per acre.

In Warwickshire, with its fertile soils on the New Red Sand- Warwickshire,
stone, varying from sand-loam to red marl, and its smaller
tracts of lias clay, presents us with examples of well-adapted
rotations. As described by Mr. Herbert J. Little (in the Royal
Agricultural Society’s “Journal” for 1876), the following hus-
bandry is pursued by Mr. Henry Stilgoe, of Lower Clapton,
near Stratford-on-Avon, upon a heavy red marl, with stones,
upon a subsoil of blue marl.

The cropping is generally upon the six-course rotation com- Heavy land
mon to this county, viz. ; (1) swedes, mangolds, or (very rarely) failing,
turnips ; (2) barley, (3) seeds, (4) wheat, (5) beans or peas,

(6) wheat or barley.

This course, however, is occasionally varied, about 20 acres
of seeds on the poorest land being allowed to remain two years
down, and being mowed the first and grazed the second year.

Besides the above crops, about 8 acres of land are always kept
under Lucerne.

Commencing with the fallow land, the usual practice is as Details of its
follows : — The wheat stubbles having been carefully forked husbandry,
over, the land is manured as early as possible with 15 loads an
acre of good farmyard-dung, and ploughed immediately. In
the case of mangolds, they are drilled, if possible, the first week
in April, at a distance of 22 inches apart, 8 lbs. of seed being
put on per acre. They receive an extra dressing of 2 cwt. of
I nitrate of soda per acre directly after chopping out, and the
1 horse-hoe is immediately afterwards passed through them. Half
I the crop is fed on the land, and half carted away for cattle in
I the yards.

' The land for swedes is treated in a similar manner to that for
mangolds ; but these roots get no top-dressing. They are
I drilled as early as the second week in April upon the flat, at a
distance of 22 inches, with the dry drill and without artificial
manure. The quality of the roots is excellent, but there is very

606 = 340

Practical Agriculture.

Mr. Lane’s
system of
extra cropping
on loam soil.

Beans and
turnips.

often some difficulty in feeding them off. Two-thirds of this
crop is fed on the land, and the remainder carted off. It must
be understood that under no circumstances are two ploughings
given to the land for this or other crops.

The barley crop follows the swedes and mangolds ; about
to 3 bushels is the quantity usually sown.

Seeds are sown upon the barley ; a proportion varying with
the necessities of the farm, but averaging, nearly one-half the
acreage of seeds is mown, the remainder grazed by sheep ;
and about one-third allowed to remain down a second year,
partly for the purpose of improving the poorer portions of the
farm, and partly to enable the ewe flock to be kept entirely at
home, as keeping is never taken off the farm. The grazed seeds
have a good quantity of cake or corn consumed upon them by
the sheep, and the second year’s seeds are broken up by the
steam-plough in either July or August for wheat. Wheat is
sown as early as oircumstances will permit, generally at the
middle or end of October, or the beginning of November.
About 7 pecks (or occasionally 2 bushels per acre) is the quan-
tity of seed used. The wheat is always harrowed and carefully
hand-hoed.

Beans or peas follow the wheat, the land being again manured
for these crops at the rate of 12 or 14 loads an acre. The beans
are drilled at a distance of 14 inches apart, and at the rate of
2^ bushels an acre. They are hoed with hoes 11 inches wide.
Peas are sown at the rate of 5 bushels, some early variety of the
white kind being chosen. Wheat (or occasionally barley) follows
the pulse crop, and concludes the rotation.

On a brown gravelly loam, Mr. Lane of Broom Court, near
Alcester, interpolates extra crops after beans and peas in a six-
course rotation, as follows : (1) fallow, nearly all mangolds ;
(2) barley, or occasionally spring wheat ; (3) clover or seeds ;
(4) wheat ; (5) beans or peas, with extra crops ; (6) wheat or oats.
A small portion of the fallow is appropriated to spring feed,
consisting of one acre sown with 1 bushel of rye and 2 bushels
of vetches ; one acre sown with 1 bushel of winter oats and
2 bushels of vetches ; and two are sown each with 3 bushels of
vetches. The four acres are afterwards broken up and sown
with green-globe turnips.

Mr. Lane’s peculiar practice in extra cropping is thus de-
scribed by Mr. Little : — “ On the portion of the pulse course
allotted to beans (generally about 35 acres) the winter variety
is invariably sown, the land having previously received a dress-
ing of 12 one-horse loads per acre of farmyard-manure. The
beans are planted early in November after one ploughing,
2 bushels an acre being drilled in double rows 9 inches apart ;

♦i

i-j

Practical Agriculture.

GOT = 341

and the distance between the double rows is 27 inches. Thirty-
one inches was formerly the width adopted, but some difficulty
was experienced in cutting them properly with the machine
at this width. This method leaves ample room for hand and
horse-hoeing, which is vigorously prosecuted throughout the
spring. In the third week in May, and just previous to the
final horse-hoeing, a seed-harrow, cleverly prepared for the pur-
pose, is run over the land, and drops in the centre of each wide
row the very small quantity of half a pound per acre of white
turnip seed. The result of this scanty seeding, evenly dis-
tributed, is a plant so thinly scattered that no hoeing or chopping-
out in any way is required. The horse-hoe follows and com-
pletes the operation, at one stroke giving a finishing-touch
to the bean crop and at the same time covering the turnip seed.”
The reaping-machine cuts the beans without injury to the
turnip crop, the driving-wheel running upon the stubble. As
soon as the bean-crop has been harvested the broadshare is run
between the rows of turnips, in order to cut the stubble and
destroy any weeds w’hich may remain.

On the pea portion of the break a different course is pursued.
“ About four or five acres are generally drilled 14 inches apart,
and at the rate of 3 bushels per acre, some early varieties being
I selected which may be suitable for pulling green for the market,
j Between every third row and at a distance of 42 inches apart
jl every way, drumhead cabbages are planted about the beginning
|‘i of May. The peas are sold to pick for the Birmingham market ;

and last year the satisfactory price of lOZ. 10s. per acre was
h realised, the haulm being left, and the purchaser paying all
expense of labour in picking. It will be readily understood
j with what facility the subsequent cultivation of the cabbage
I crop is attended. The horse-hoe is enabled to work without
i hindrance between the rows in each direction, and very little
hard labour is therefore required.” The cabbage crop is stocked
' with sheep in winter, with an allowance of half a pound of
' rape-cake and half a pint of maize, per head. On the portion
of land not treated in this way peas are grown for a crop ; and

I immediately after they are harvested, rape, mustard, or turnips
' are quickly put in. All the extra crops, as described, are suc-
t ceeded by wheat.

I I The result of these second crops in each year is a large
^ addition to the produce of the farm. In 1876 the year’s crops
i> on 196J acres of arable were thus apportioned ; wheat, barley,
1 1 and oats, 96^ acres ; beans and peas, 42f acres ; seeds, 27 acres ;
< mangolds, swedes, and vetches, 30|^ acres ; and there were added

by interpolation 62 acres of roots and green food, as follows : —
i ; bean-turnips, 28 acres ; oat-turnips, 10 acres ; vetch-turnips,
1 1 VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 T

I '

t I

Peas and
cabbage.

608 = 342

Practical Agriculture.

The Eastern
counties.

Esses.

Rotations.

Mr. Mechi’s
wheat after
wheat.

Sufl'olk.

4 acres ; clover-swedes, 5 acres ; pea-rape or cabbage, 9 acres,
and bean-rape, 6 acres. The land is kept in a cleanly con-
dition by diligent forking out of couch and by turning under
the surface, by the plough with skim-coulter, the seedlings of
weeds introduced by the hay ; and the repetition of crops is kept
up without an excessive bill for manual labour.

In the drier climate of the Eastern counties the courses of
husbandry prevalent upon different descriptions of soil have
been considerably altered during the last quarter of a century.

Essex is a county of predominating strong lands and loams,
on the London and plastic clay formations, and on the chalk
marl ; there are heavy clays in the northern and central districts ;
gravelly and mixed soils, with some light loams, in the east ; and
heavy clay again in the south.

In the adhesive chalky-clay district the old rotation of bare
fallow, wheat, and barley, has been replaced by the improved
one of (1) fallow, (2) barley, (3) beans and clover, (4) wheat ;
and on a considerable proportion of the fallow, mangolds and
tares are universally grown. The difficulty of harvesting the
mangold crop on such land is very great ; but deep steam tillage
is effecting a change in the texture of the sticky soil, while the
facility it provides for prompt cleaning tends to extend the
practice of growing green and root-crops upon larger portions
of the fallow-break. On the loams and lighter lands the four-
course rotation is superseded in great measure by the five-course,
that is, introducing two white-straw crops in succession ; a six-
course being preferred on the stronger soils. Mr. Mechi, by his
celebrated system of high farming, has so enriched his Tiptree
Farm, that he is obliged to take barley after wheat, and the
heavy-cropping red rivett wheat after white wheat.

In the Romford district, and bordering upon Middlesex, the
farming partakes to a large extent of the nature of market-
gardening,— potatoes, cabbages, and onions, being grown for
the metropolis ; early white peas, followed by late turnips or
rape, have taken the place of swedes in the fallow year, and
mangold and kohl rabi are much more largely cultivated of late
years.

Suffolk has five characteristic divisions of soil, namely, strong
loams, sometimes on chalk marl, sometimes on drift clay,
occupying the major portion of the county and known as the
“ Woodlands the eastern sand and heath district known as
the “ Sandlings,” extending along nearly the whole coast line ;
the western soil or “ Fieldings,” consisting of light soil on chalk
and gravel, with some good lands ; a small tract of rich loam in
the south ; and a smaller portion of peaty or Fen land in the
south-west.

Practical Agriculture.

609 = 543

As in Essex, the custom is to plough heavy lands in stetches Stetches.
of ten or twelve furrows each, the harrows, rollers, drills, and
horse-hoes being constructed to fit these arched strips, so that the
horses walk in single file along the divisional or water-furrows.

Variable as are the courses of cropping, the most general is. Rotations.
(1) fallow, part bare, part mangolds or tares, with a small pro-
portion of turnips, (2) barley, (3) half clover, half beans or peas,

(4) wheat. On the lighter soils the four-course husbandry
prevails ; (1) fallow, growing swedes, turnips, carrots and man-
golds, with a part rye fed olF, followed by late turnips, (2) barley,

(3) seeds, clover, trefoil, and rye-grass, or sainfoin, (4) wheat.

On the rich loams, extra cropping is the practice, stubble-
turnips being largely grown on rye, white barley, or vetches,
to be followed by white turnips in the same year ; and colewort
or kohl rabi is often sown on broken up clover layers.

Norfolk, one of England’s most celebrated counties, for the Norfolk,
perfection of its light-land husbandry, for its high-quality bar-
leys, for its sheep-farming and bullock-feeding, as well as for
its four-course system and for the lead given to agricultural
! improvements by its memorable proprietor, the late Earl of
1 Leicester, does not enjoy natural advantages either of soil or
1 climate. Too arid for the growth of deep, luxuriant, early-and-
late-season pasturage and for the production of turnips nutri-
tious as those of the Lothians or parts of Scotland farther north,

I subject to biting north-east winds which sweep over its unwooded
i plains in spring, and to fervid skies which parch up its seeds

and green forage in summer, Norfolk does not encourage by
! atmospheric influences either the grazier or the arable cultivator.

Neither is the surface — for the most part gently undulating, pre-
f senting successions of large-field farms, especially in the west,

I I and smaller, but still neatly-hedged inclosures of smaller farms,

1 1 with more sheltering woodland in the east — that of a country of
1 1 kindly soil, rich in native fertility. A main portion of West
1 Norfolk possesses only a weak soil of thin, sandy, and flinty
) I loams, resting upon the upper chalk ; in the south-west is a

> tract of poor, light sand, reclaimed from rabbit-warren and sheep-

> walk ; in parts of central Norfolk and in the south-east lie
tracts of strong loam and mixed soils ; to the north-east extend
the fine productive sand loams, including the Blofield Hundred,
spoken of as “ the garden ” of the county ; and there are tracts
of artificially-drained peat fens and of flat alluvial marshes in
the extreme west and bordering the Wash, and also upon the
coast and bordering the rivers in the south-east.

On the good lands the four-course rotation is largely replaced Rotations,
by the five-course, oats or barley following the wheat after seeds ;
and on the fallow-break mangolds to a great extent take the

2 T 2

The Earl of

Leicester’s

improvements.

The four-
course shift'
improved.

610 = 544 Practical Agriculture.

place of turnips. The quantities of oilcake and corn consumed
in cattle and sheep-feeding are very great. The strong lands,
generally in medium or small-sized holdings, are mainly under
four-course husbandry.

On light land in the north-east, a five-course shift, taking
two-years’ seeds, was formerly universal. Of these Mr. C. S.
Read, M.P., says, “ In the second year the seeds were broken up
in July, and made a ‘bastard summer till,’ or fallow for wheat.
One could imagine no worse preparation for wheat on such
lands. The ground could not be consolidated, and every facility
Avas given for the swarms of winter annuals which infest such
soils to spring up and smother the plant. The farm manure
was wanted for turnips ; and a one-year ley, left to its own
resources, grew but little wheat.” The improved system is to use
artificial manures for the root-crop, and to apply the farmyard-
dung on the one-year ley, ploughing it once for wheat.

The agricultural regeneration of West Norfolk, the ameliora-
tion of its weak soils by the process of claying and marling, the
purchasing of crops by heavy outlay in feeding-stuffs and
manures, the maintenance of productive power in the soil from
year to year by the compensating four-course shift and the
development of sheep-breeding and winter cattle-fattening on an
intensive scale, form a unique history ; and it was only after Mr.
Coke, created Earl of Leicester, had expended 400,000Z. in the
erection of good farm-buildings on his estate, and after his
tenantry had simultaneously laid out 500,000Z. in permanent
improvements in manures and oilcake, that the spirited and
liberal improver could boast of having converted West Norfolk
from a rye-growing into a wheat-growing district. The four-
course shift still prevails ; but in place of the stereotyped
(1) turnips, (2) barley, (3) seeds, (4) wheat — mangolds and a
portion of kohl rabi occupy a considerable proportion of the
root-shift ; and wheat is taken after the mangolds, and also
replaces a portion of the barley after turnips — seeing that wheat
stands high management better than barley, and the seeds soAvn
upon the wheat grow better, having a firmer seed-bed, and are
left unsmothered by a laid crop. Instead of sowing red cloA'er
once in eight years, with Avhite clover, trefoil, and ryegrass in the
alternate seed year of the course, sainfoin is extensively groAvn in
place of trefoil or white clover, thus resting the soil from any
sort of clover . for eight years. Giant sainfoin is drilled at the
rate of 3 or 4 bushels per acre, and is ploughed up at Michaelmas
for wheat. But an innovation upon the almost sacred four-
course has been introduced, and is spreading, namely, the
growth of a second white corn-crop, generally oats after the ley

Practical Agriculture.

611 = 345

wheat, but sometimes barley, which gives a finer yield than
when taken in the usual order after turnips.

The practice of autumn-tilling stubbles by the grubber, so as Autumn-
to cleanse the fallow land before Christmas, prevails upon some
soils ; but the light lands of thin weak staple upon a porous subsoil
are not commonly so treated ; the hand-fork is used to clean
I out tufts of couch, and one winter ploughing, followed in spring
[ by pulverising by the tines of the cultivator, prepares a fine
[ seed-bed, from which the manure and condition have not been
I worked out by rains, and in which the moisture, so invaluable
in that dry climate, is retained.

Lincolnshire has obtained a proud distinction above all other Lincolnshire,
counties for the rapidity and completeness of the improvements
which transformed its barren heaths and flinty wolds into great
I districts of highly-farmed arable ; for the excellence of farm-
I management, extending in almost unbroken succession for forty
or fifty miles together ; for its vast reclamations of salt-marshes,
by embankment, from the sea ; for the unrivalled richness of its
fine alluvial grazing-lands ; and for its system of tenant-right,
which grew up simultaneously with the early amelioration of
j its surface. This latter, however, the county ought to share
with Nottinghamshire, which possesses a sin^ilar system of com-
pensation for occupiers’ improvements. Lincolnshire is also
celebrated, in common with Cambridgeshire and some neigh-

ibouring counties, for its various works of arterial and steam-
power drainage, and the conversion of its region of peat and
clay fens into some of the most productive corn-lands in the
kingdom. It has, in common with Yorkshire, the peculiar
practice of “ warping,” or covering poor low-lying peats and
sands with a thick stratum of unctuous loam, deposited as a
sediment from the muddy waters of the Trent and Ouse by
artificially flooding the lands for the purpose ; and it has recently
won a name, in favourable comparison with other counties, for
the extensive adoption of good drainage and steam-cultivation
Hpon its heavy clays. Lincolnshire is also remarkable for the
distribution of its holdings ; large farms prevailing on the hills,
while in other parts, more particularly in the south-eastern fen
and marsh flat, and in a still more marked degree in the extreme
north-west, known as the “ Isle of Axholme,” there are among
1 medium-sized occupations very numerous small farms often little
i larger than allotments.

I Two principal watersheds divide the county, namely, the
I oolite hills, running through the entire length from north to
\ south, known southward of Lincoln as the “ Heath,” and north-

i ward of the city as the “ Cliff ;” and the loftier chalk range.

Soils.

Heath ami
Cliff.

612 = 346 Practical Agriculture.

called the “Wolds,” stretching at an angle with the oolite range
from the Humber in the south-eastern direction, almost to the
shore of the Wash. The Heath and Cliff uplands are chiefly
upon the great oolite rock, and partly on the cornbrash, with
inferior oolite skirting the western or steepest declivity. The
soil varies from thin sandy loam to deep red loam, while there
are tracts of rich red land and more extensive areas of clayey
loam with fragments of stone, locally termed “ creech ” land.
West of the hills lies the Trent valley, principally of strong
lias clay, with some sands and gravels ; the New Red Sandstone
appears at the north-western extremity of the county, with re-
markably fertile sand-loam soils, and some barren sands ; while
a peat district known as the “ Carrs,” and natural and artificial
warp or alluvial lands border the Trent and other rivers.

The central valley consists of Oxford Clay largely covered with
drift deposits, sinking southward into the Fen level of peat
and alluvium, and having on its eastern side, bordering the
Wolds, siliceous, calcareous soils, red land, and soils upon white
drift-marl. The Wolds, consisting of the upper and lower
chalk, are covered for the most part with a sandy loam, con-
taining flints and fragments of chalk ; in some places a thin
staple of light sand, in others a deep, fertile, flinty loam. On the
eastern slope of the Wolds lie thick deposits of drift-clay and
gravel, constituting a district of low undulations named the
“ Middle Marsh,” between which and the coast is a broad belt of
alluvial marsh land.

The Heath and Cliff less than a hundred years ago was, for
the most part, a region of waste and of rabbit-warrens, covered
with heaths, fern, and gorse, the only fences being the furze-capped
walls of sand which inclosed the warrens ; and in the centre of
the wild tract south of Lincoln a tall column named “ Dunston
Pillar,” erected in 1751, was nightly illuminated as a beacon to
travellers. A large portion was reclaimed during the last twenty
years of last century ; Mr. Chaplin’s large estate, however, being i
inclosed as late as the year 1823. It is now a district of large »
farms, large flocks, fine farmsteads, and stately rickyards. Nearly
the whole of the surface is under the plough, and very highly
farmed, yielding an average of fully 30 bushels of wheat and 40
bushels of barley per acre ; the fertility being maintained by the
oilcake-feeding of large flocks of sheep upon turnips and seeds,
by making great quantities of rich bullock-manure in yards and i
stalls, and by the application of artificial manures for the root-
crops. The four-course rotation prevails, but the five-course i
is also in favour. The turnips are sown chiefly on the flat, l

though on ridges or drills where there is depth enough of soil •

for the purpose ; the Lincolnshire red round, white stone, grey

Practical Agriculture,

G13 = 347

stone, various hybrids and tankards being the sorts occupying a
major portion of the root area, with a smaller proportion of swedes;
while, of late years, the growth of mangolds and of kohl-rabi has
extended. The yard-manure is applied both to the root-crops
and to the barley-stubble for the benefit of the growing seeds.

Some farmers dress the seed layers in preparation for wheat.

Liming and claying are of less value on the limestone than on
the chalk soils ; but deep ploughing or subsoil ploughing have
been practised, where the staple is not too light and porous, to
deepen the soil by disintegrating the subjacent rock.

The chalk Wolds, formerly in open field or rabbit-warren. The Wolds,
were inclosed chiefly during the early part of the present cen-
tury ; the gorse was grubbed, the rough thin sward burned, and,
with the exception of a trifling amount of grass-land, nearly the
whole tract is in large farms, with spacious fields bounded by
neat whitethorn hedges. Chalking, the application of white or
blue marl, boning, and manuring with sheep, made of the thin
soil, often only a few inches in depth, a soil of proper texture
and capacity for growing turnips and corn. The chalking and
marling are still repeated at intervals of a few years ; but fer-
tility is constantly maintained by the consumption of great
quantities of cake and other feeding-stuff’s in the fold and yard,
and by heavy applications of artificial manures. Nominally,
the four-course rotation of cropping prevails ; but as no farmer
can impoverish land which must be enriched year by year or it
will yield no rent-paying and labour-paying crop, great latitude
is commonly permitted to the tenant in departing from the pre-
scribed system. Barley being too strong after turnips, a five-
course is frequently taken, namely, (1) turnips, (2) oats, (3) wheat,

(4) seeds, (5) wheat ; and sometimes the course is four and five-
field alternately, the seeds being grazed for a second year. The
main portion of the farmyard-manure is used for the root-crops,
part on the seeds ; though some farmers employ all their farmyard-
dung on the seeds in preparation for wheat. Extra or catch-
crops of green forage and late roots have been adopted to a
small extent, and seed-layers are sometimes broken up and sown
with white mustard, which, being grazed by sheep, are thus
firmed by the treading. Mangolds and kohl-rabi and swedes
displace a proportion of the white-fleshed and hybrid turnips
which formerly constituted the chief part of the root-crop.

On the strong loams and clays of the middle-marsh and the The middle-
marsh between the Wolds and the coast, are many small occu- marsh.

]) itions, on which the rotations of cropping are very irregular.

1 hue fallowing is practised to a considerable extent ; but, with
sieam-cultivation, roots, tares, cabbages, and other green crops,
have been increased in area. In the central valley, on the limited

614 = 545

Practical Agriculture.

notations on
the clays.

The warp-
lands.

Isle of Ax-
holme small
farms.

Yorkshire.

Kast Kiding.

tract of red clay belonging to the green-sand formation, the
courses are (1) turnips, (2) wheat, (3) barley, (4) turnips)
(5) oats, (6) wheat, (7) clover, (8) oats or wheat ; and (1) turnips,
(2) wheat, (3) barley, (4) turnips, (5) barley, (6) seeds, mown
one year and manured, or grazed two years and manured, then
broken up for (7) oats or wheat. On the sands, with very porous
subsoil, some farmers apply two light dressings of farmyard-
manure to the seeds in two successive years, choosing moist
weather for the operation. White marl or chalky clay and lime
are largely used upon these lands. On the strong clays bare
fallow, followed by (2) wheat, (3) seeds, (4) beans, peas, or oats,
and sometimes (5) wheat, is a common course ; but tares grazed,
and swedes drawn off the land, and a proportion of mangolds and
cabbages, are grown.

In the north-western district, on the alluvial or warp-soils,
potatoes are largely cultivated. The richest qualities of land
yield potatoes and wheat alternately for many years ; on the
second-class lands crops of beans, barley, oats, clover, flax,
turnip-seed, or onions, intervene between the wheat and pota-
toes ; and a lower quality of warp is managed on a four-course
shift. Potatoes are often grown after seeds as well as after a
fallow-crop, and commonly after beans or flax rather than after
a white corn-crop.

Two varieties of soil prevail upon the New Red Sandstone,
namely, clay-loam and sand-loam. Here the holdings range
under 50 acres, very few farms having an extent of 100 to
300 acres ; while acre, half-acre, and rood-pieces are general on
the open field-land. On the clay-loam the most usual hus-
bandry is (1) fallow, (2) wheat or oats, (3) clover, seeds, or
beans, (4) wheat or oats. The sand-loam or rich barley-soil is
cultivated to a great extent in semi-garden style, the crops being
potatoes, onions, carrots, flax, turnip-seed, turnips pulled ofl’,
clover mown, wheat, oats, peas, and beans ; the vegetables being
grown for the supply of Sheffield, Doncaster, and other urban
markets.

The rotations of cropping upon the peat, clay, and loam soils
of the Fen and marsh districts are referred to in the chapter on
the ‘ Cultivation of Marsh or Fen Land.’

Yorkshire, England’s largest province, embraces, as it were,
three counties, named the East, West, and North Ridings, pre-
senting great diversities in their agriculture.

The East Riding, stretching between York city and the sea,
enjoys a drier and warmer climate than the other two divisions
with their rain-arresting moors and fells, though it suffers like
the North Riding from the keen winds which, in spring, blow
off" the German Ocean.

Practical Agriculture.

G15 = 349

The chalk Wolds, rising to altitudes of 500 up to 800 feet Soils,
above the sea-level, sever the Riding in a curving direction
from the Humber estuary on the south, through the centre and
round to the north-east, terminating in the cliffs of Flam-
borough Head. On the high Wolds, or elevated table-land,
diluvial deposits form a generally deep and dark-coloured
loamy soil, occasionally with an admixture of clay ; while the
soil of the lower Wolds is like that of the same formation in
Lincolnshire, a light, friable, calcareous loam, varying from
three to ten inches in depth. To the west lies the Vale of
York, a district of drift-gravels, sands, and clays, with narrow
bands of good turnip and barley soil on the upper and lower
oolite, and a broader belt of extremely tenacious lias clay
skirting the western escarpments of the chalk hills. East-
ward the chalk range slopes down into the Holderness district
of boulder clay, with some sands and gravels, having alluvial
deposits on the Humber and the low flats in the interior of the
district. Gravel beds are found in some of the valleys of
the Wold district ; and sand, gravel, and peat cover most part
of the Kimmeridge clay which underlies the Vale of Pickering
along the northern border of the Riding.

On the Wolds, a district of large farms and great flocks of The Wold
sheep, the fundamental rotation of crops is the Norfolk four-
course ; but this is departed from according to soil and circum-
stances. On the deeper soils wheat, instead of barley, is sown
after turnips, instead of after seeds ; but on the thin lands, oats
or barley follow the root-crop ; and the oat-crops are more
frequent than barley in a series of rotations, as too close a
repetition of barley is considered conducive to night-ripening in
the wheat. Turnips drilled invariably on the flat, with a small
proportion of swedes and a lesser extent of mangolds sown in
ridges, yield a heavy tonnage per acre by the aid of liberal
dressings of artificial manure; and the farmyard-manure is chiefly
applied to the clover-leas — by some farmers in the autumn, a
few weeks before ploughing for wheat, but by others on the
young seeds just after the grain-crop has been harvested.
Marling and liming are extensively practised ; bones are still
much used, although concentrated manures have largely replaced
them ; and it is the universal practice to consume great quantities
of oilcake and other feeding-stuff’s in rearing the fattening cattle
in the yards and buildings. Two great difficulties of the Wold
farmers, as in many parts of England, are the disease called
“ finger-and-toe ” in turnips, and the failure or “ sickness” of
the clover-crop. A five-year, six-year, or seven-year course of
cropping is resorted to by way of remedy ; by introducing peas
and beans, or leaving the seeds down for two years ; and mangolds

Vale of York.

Holderness.

I North Riding.

Rotations.

West Riding.

Semi-garden

rotations.

61Q = 350 Practical Agriculture.

are, on many farms, grown in considerable proportion in place
of turnips in alternate rotations.

In the Vale of York, on the tenacious clays, the old course of

(1) fallow, (2) wheat, (3) beans, is modified by sometimes taking
oats instead of beans ; and, to a considerable extent, a four-
course system is adopted by sowing clover and ryegrass on the
wheat. On the sands the four-course is adhered to. In the
Holderness district of strong land, the course of (1) bare fallow,

(2) wheat, (3) seeds, (4) wheat, (5) oats, (6) beans, has been
exchanged to a great extent for (1) turnips and mangolds, (2)
wheat, oats, or barley, (3) one-half seeds, one-half rape, (4)
wheat, (5) beans, peas, or tares. On the strong warp or alluvial
soils, beans, wheat and oats, with rape on the fallow, are the
principal crops ; while on the lighter lands a four or five-course
rotation is common.

The North Riding has, on the west, mountain limestone fells,
with rich grass-lands in the intersecting vales ; also extensive
coal measures. Centrally dividing the Riding are the red sand-
stone of the Vale of York and the lias clay of the Cleveland
district ; lofty oolitic moorlands, rising to altitudes of 1200 feet
and 1500 feet, stretch eastward to the coast, and in a basin
south-east of this range lie the varied soils of the Vale of
Pickering and the Ryedale Valley. The four-course husbandry
distinguishes the turnip and barley-lands of the New Red Sand-
stone, a sand and gravel district ; and the dead fallow and
two corn-crop system is common on the lias of the Vale of
Cleveland. Rut the most advanced husbandry on the strong
lands follows a six-course, thus : — (1) roots, (2) wheat, (3) oats,

(4) seeds, (5) wheat, (6) beans ; or, less exhausting, (1) roots,
(2) wheat, (3) beans, (4) oats, (5) seeds, (6) wheat. The
roots, the seeds, and the beans are manured with farmyard-dung
as well as artificials ; and the other crops with purchased manures
— rape-cake being largely applied for wheat.

In the West Riding the most prominent geological feature is
the coal formation, with magnesian limestone and new red
sandstone to the east, millstone-grit to the west and north, and
mountain limestone in the Craven district on the north-west — '
a district in which the scenery is diversified by moorlands and
mountains. The eastern extremity of the Riding consists of a
flat of rich warp.

On the coal formation in the vicinity of the great manufac-
turing cities, the proportion of grass exceeds that of the arable,
and there exists no particular system of cropping. A common
rotation is, (1) potatoes, (2) wheat, (3) clover, (4) potatoes,

(5) wheat or cabbages. White crops in succession, with a
green crop every third or fourth year, are not unusual. The

Practical Agriculture.

0,11 = 351

green crops consist of potatoes, swedes, red clover, tares, carrots,
cabbage, and cauliflower-broccoli. Successive wheat-crops are
sometimes grown ; and there are instances of wheat taken suc-
cessively for ten years together. The ready markets account for
the prevalence of green or market-garden produce ; and the
supply of town-made manure enables the small and even larger
occupiers to crop their good soil with the most exhausting
courses ; while liming, and the application of artificial manures
assist in sustaining fertility.

On the magnesian limestone soils the four-course turnip-
I husbandry is most common, some farmers ploughing up their
wheat-stubble for tares, which are followed by turnips — swedes
being grown the next year. In the deep soil of the vales in the Licorice,
neighbourhood of Pontefract is cultivated licorice, grown for
its officinal roots which are two to three feet in length. The
plants are set in trenches, and subsequently earthed up like
celery, to a height of 18 or 24 inches in the last year of their
growth. It is the practice to plant cabbages in the intervals.

On the alluvial or warp lands flax, carrots and cabbage, mustard. Special crops
and, until lately, considerable breadths of teazles for use in the warp,
the cloth manufacture, and also woad, are grown in addition
to the usual farm crops ; and the neighbourhood of Goole and
Selby is noted as a great potato-growing district.

On the red loams and sand-loams of the New Red Sandstone
formation the ordinary four-course system is practised on the
lighter soils, and a longer rotation on the stronger lands. Bare
fallow, wheat, beans, and oats prevail upon the poor and wet
soils of the millstone-grit ; and as well here as in the cultivated
valleys of the Craven district, with its mountain grazings on the
carboniferous limestone, the moist atmosphere tells against the
ripening of wheat, and the springs which rise from the hills
subject many of the lowlands to floods. Systematic under-
1 drainage, however, has been executed throughout the North
I Riding quite as fully in proportion to the needs of the country
as in any other part of the kingdom.

1 Cheshire affords examples of peculiarities of management Cheshire.

• dependent upon the existence of neighbouring markets for

vegetable produce. In the vicinity of VVarrington, Altrincham, Potato culture.

Wallasey, and westward of Birkenhead, double crops of potatoes

are grown upon small plots — oak-leaf kidneys, sprouted for two

or three inches, being dibbled in upon well-dunged land in

January, and covered thinly with soil. The ground is then

covered with straw a foot-and-a-half in depth, which is taken off

on fine days and replaced at night. This warm treatment brings

early potatoes in the middle of April. On a larger scale, a first

crop of potatoes is taken up in June, and a second crop planted.

618 = 552

Practical Agriculture.

Lancioshii'e.

Selling straw
and hay.

Seeds.

Sometimes cabbages are set in November after the second
crop, the land being manured for them ; and after the cabbages
are removed trenching follows, with another crop of potatoes.
Manchester and Liverpool take the produce, and return manure
for forcing more. Cheshire is celebrated for its dairy-farming
and its boning of pastures, which are referred to in other por-
tions of this Memoir.

In Lancashire are found some of the most striking instances of
the productiveness of husbandry, where large consuming centres
of population are within easy reach — or rather, where the
occupiers enjoy freedom of cropping, with liberty to sell off
straw and hay in consideration of manure being purchased in
return ; for railways, intersecting all parts of England, do now
practically place more distant farms in the same favourable
position as those suburban holdings, while they have somewhat
easier rents. I cannot do better than refer to some of the
particulars given in Mr. Samuel D. Shirriff’s Report on Prize
Farms near Liverpool (in the Royal Agricultural Society’s
‘ Journal,’ Part I., of the present year). Mr. Shirriff well observes
that “ there is no more expensive system of making manure
than by compelling a farmer to utilise all his straw at home.
The expense of making the straw fit for application to the land
is enormous. In outlying districts, far away from railways, a
primitive system of agriculture may profitably exist, but only
under a correspondingly low rent. The success of the farmers
around Liverpool cannot be attributed to low rents. The land
is rented at its full value.” Their principal revenue in that
rainy and growing locality depends upon sales of hay and
straw ; they apply enormous quantities of purchased manure ;
they spend over 31. per acre in manual labour, a man’s wages
(where board is not found) being about 21s. per week ; the
tenant himself is accustomed to work much harder than his
labourers, and these work well for long days and fairly earn their
money. On Mrs. Birch’s first-prize farm of 242 acres of black
soil on sand and peaty loam, the rotation is, (1) roots, (2) wheat
or barley, (3) barley or oats, (4) seeds, which lie two years
and sometimes three. The usual practice is to take oats after
the grass, and then beans ; but this has been reversed with great
success. The mixture of seeds sown consists of 7 lbs. red
clover, 4 lbs. alsike, 1 lb. rib-grass, 2 lbs. white clover, or
15 lbs. in all, per acre; with half a bushel of perennial and
half a bushel of Italian ryegrass. Mr. Shirriff names as the
mixture of the district, red, white, alsike and cowgrass clover,
with a small percentage of rib-grass, dogstail, Timothy, cocks-
foot, and trefoil, at the rate of about 18 lbs. per acre ; with half
a bushel of Italian and half a bushel of perennial ryegrass. He

Practical Agriculture,

. 619 = 555

recommends an autumn sowing of Trifolium incarnatum. On Bought stable
Mrs. Birch’s 242 acres, the labour bill amounts to between 800/.
and 1000/. yearly. The quantity of stable manure used is
estimated at 1000 tons annually, with the addition of 8 tons of
nitrate of soda, and 1 ton of phospho-guano ; nearly all the
nitrate being applied to the grass-land for hay.

On Stand Farm, six miles from Liverpool, the soil clay on a
subsoil of clay and rock, Mr. John Wright cuts 155 acres of
hay, and grows 103 acres of oats, 22 acres of barley, 24 acres of
potatoes, and 4 acres of turnips, 16 acres being pasture. He
keeps 11 working horses, and grazes 400 half-bred wethers in
autumn to eat up the foggage on the hay aftermath, clearing
them off as they fatten, the whole generally being sold off by the
beginning of December. This has a great effect upon the
succeeding hay crop. “ He uses 4 waggons for the delivery of
his produce. They go to Liverpool in the morning with either
' hay or straw (about 2^ tons per load) and return at night with

a load of manure of between 50 and 60 cwts. He drives over Liverpool
1200 tons of manure from Liverpool annually.” manure.

This is placed on a large midden-stead (only requiring a roof
j to make it perfect) cut out of the solid rock, which retains all
the liquid manure, the surplus of this being carted on the land
for irrigation. He attaches so much value to his hay-crop that
he manures his old grass for the grain-crop, and re-sows it with
seeds. In addition to the 1200 tons of Liverpool manure,

Mr. Wright also uses 13 tons of nitrate of soda, 3 tons of Peru-
vian guano, and 10 tons of hide salt ; this, applied to certain
soils, stiffening the wheat-straw and increasing the yield. He
has built two sheds on 9-inch pitch-pine posts, with corrugated
galvanised-iron roofs ; one shed 100 feet long by 30 feet wide,
and 18 feet height to the eaves ; the other 40 feet, of the same
dimensions as to breadth and height. The larger cost 185/.,

I the smaller, 91/. And Mr. Shirriff says, “ The advantage and
j convenience of these are immense. What a deal of labour is

I I saved in regard to temporary covering of unfinished ricks ! But
' if you consider the present price of straw (thatch), about 6/. per

ton (and this is no fictitious price, because straw is steadily and
' surely becoming more largely used for paper-making), how very
soon these sheds will repay the outlay ! ”

As an illustration of the wonderful results obtained by inten- Intensive cul-
sive culture on small farms, take the prize farm of 37 acres
arable and 8 acres pasture occupied by Mr. Hugh Ainscough at
Banks, 5 miles from Southport. The soil is black, with a moss
subsoil. A three-course shift is followed ; namely, (1) potatoes
and other roots, the potatoes being three to one in proportion to
j mangolds and swedes, (2) wheat, (3) seeds, generally 10 lbs. of

620 = 354 •

Practical Agriculture.

Free sale of
produce.

Artificial ma-
nures.

red clover and 1 bushel of Italian ryegrass per acre. All the
hay, often a magnificent crop of quite 4 tons per acre, is con-
sumed at home, all being chopped up so as to avoid waste.
Mr. Ainscough purchases every year 400 tons of stable and
byre manures ; this, with the home-made dung, being applied
in enormous doses for the green-crops. Of artificial manures
he used last year tons of Liverpool patent manure, 16 cwts.
of Vicker’s special manure, 16 cwts. of ground bones, J ton of
nitrate of soda, and 14 cwts. of salt ; the artificials being applied
principally on the grass in spring. Sixteen milch cows are
kept, and have, in addition to their hay and roots and summer
pasturage, grains (draff), and Indian meal. The calves are sold
as they drop and the cows as they fatten, the selling price being i
generally IZ. above the in-purchase money. Mr. Ainscough sells
close upon 600Z. worth of sweet milk annually, and feeds about
14 pigs. The labour is nearly all supplied by the family, with
the exception of one hired man.

Mr. Shirriff notes the two facts, that, where the straw is sold
ofij the money realised is more than double its value if con-
sumed at home, and that the quantity of rich horse and cow-
manure brought on to the farms to replace the hay and straw
removed is far greater than all the home-grown material could
produce. Nearly all the occupiers are yearly tenants, mostly
subject to two years’ notice to quit ; and their success is owing
principally to the freedom they enjoy in regard to rotation of
cropping, and their liberty to send to market whatever descrip-
tion of produce is most remunerative.

CHAPTEE VIIL

Manures.

While the enormous waste of manorial matter poured away in
the unutilised volumes of our town-sewage reflects little credit
on the science and engineering of the age, English agriculture
has earned a name for its costly and constant enriching of the
soil with imported and manufactured fertilisers. But statistics
of the total quantities of guano, of nitrates, of phosphatic and
other minerals imported, and an enumeration of the works and
manufactories in the metropolis and in many parts of the
kingdom which do an immense trade in concentrated manures,
would convey a very inadequate idea of the scale on which fer-
tilisers are employed in high-class farm-management. The

Practical Agriculture.

621 = 355

expenditure of English farmers in restoring or stimulating the
productiveness of their land and forcing the growth of their
crops, will be best understood from a few examples ; and, in
these, the consumption of oilcake, corn, and other foods by
animals, is taken in conjunction with the outlay for purchased
manures.

At Kirtlington, near Oxford, on 927 acres arable and 145 Major Dash-
acres meadow and pasture, of thin loam resting on the stone- wood’s prac-
brash or cornbrash (oolite). Major Dashwood applies for the
root-crop, in addition to farmyard-manure, 2^ cwts. per acre of
the best Peruvian guano and 2 cwts. of superphosphate of lime ;
barley and oats grown after wheat he top-dresses with nitrate of
soday and wheat after seeds he top-dresses with 1^ cwt. per
acre of nitrate of soda. Corn and cake are given to sheep
feeding-off swedes, and cattle are fattened on roots and cakes in
foldyards and boxes.

At Upper VVinchendon, near Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, on Mr. Tread-
180 acres arable and 240 acres pasture, on a strong clay-loam, well’s practice.
Mr. John Treadwell buys annually 600/. worth of linseed- and
cotton-cakes, and 200/. worth of corn, besides consuming 600/.
worth of beans and peas grown upon the farm. This heavy
expenditure in feeding-stuffs, amounting to 1400/., averages
3/. 6s. 8rf. per acre over the whole occupation.

At Ardley, near Bicester, Oxfordshire, on 820 acres arable Mrs. Milling-
and 70 acres pasture, of thin brown loam on the cornbrash, ® practice.
Mrs. Millington applies 4 cwts. of superphosphate per acre for
swedes, and 3 cwts. for common turnips ; and her cake-bill
amounts to 1200/. a year.

At High Ercall, near Wellington, Shropshire, on 300 acres Mr. Forester’s
arable and 400 grass, of sandy loam and part clay, Mr. G. T. practice.
Forester uses 220/. worth of artihcial manures, and about 300/.
worth of cake and corn.

At Alrewas-Hayes, near Lichheld, Staffordshire, on 408 acres Staffordshire
arable and 145 acres grass, of gravelly loam, strong mixed soil, examples,
and peaty soil on stonebrash, Mr. Winterton buys 274/. worth
of artihcial manures and 960/. worth of cake and corn.

In the same neighbourhood, on 230 acres arable and 131 grass,
of mixed soil and sandy loam, Mrs. Sankey annually applies to
her crops 230/. worth of purchased manures, and enriches the
farmyard-manure and the grass-land with 790/. worth of cake
and corn. These average nearly 3/. per acre.

At Elford Park, near Tamworth, Staffordshire, on 335 acres Mr. May’s
arable and 88 acres pasture, of strong loam upon red clay, with practice,
a portion of light land, Mr. G. A. May uses 450/. worth of cake
and corn, and applies 150/. worth of artificial manure.

Near Penkridge, Staffordshire, Mr. C. R. Keeling expends Mr. Keeling’s

practice.

622 = 336 Practical Agriculture.

,r:l|

lit

If ■

Mr. Clay’s
practice.

Mr. M.

Walker’s

practice.

Mr. G.

Gibbons’s

practice.

Mr. Hosegood’s
practice.

Mr. Charles
Howard’s and
Mr. Checkley’s
practice.

An example in
Norfolk.

Artificials in
Lincolnshire.

Artificials in
Cambridge-
shire and Suf-
folk.

nearly 800Z. a year in artificial foods and manures upon a farm
of 360 acres.

Near Oswestry, Shropshire, on 128 acres arable and 200 acres
grass, Mr. John Clay applies 234Z. worth of bones, lime, and
superphosphate, and consumes 234Z. worth of cake, corn, grains,
malt-combs, and bran.

At Stockley Park, near Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire, on
117 acres arable and 143 acres grass, Mr. Matthew Walker’s
artificial-manure bill comes to 106Z., and his artificial-food bill
to 63 7Z. a year, or an average of close upon 31. per acre.

Mr. George Gibbons, upon only 43 acres arable and 155 acres
pasture, near Bath, buys 600Z. worth of corn, grains, linseed- and
cotton-cake, irrespective of the corn consumed by horses ; and
superphosphate costs him 22Z. This amounts to nearly 31. 3s.
per acre.

Mr. Obed Hosegood, on a farm of 142 acres arable and 275
pasture, near Ilminster, in Somersetshire, buys annually 168Z.
worth of nitrate of soda, superphosphate, salt, soot, and lime ; and
700Z. worth of corn and cake.

Mr. Charles Howard, at Biddenham, near Bedford, consumes
1720Z. worth of cake and corn ; which averages over 2Z. per acre
on his occupation, in addition to his expenditure of about lOOZ.
in artificial fertilisers.

Near Woburn, Mr. Checkley consumes about 1400Z. worth of
foods, and uses above 30Z. worth of manures, or about 21. 6s. per
acre.

On one light-land farm of 1100 acres in Norfolk, the artificial-
manure bill is lOOOZ., and over 300 tons of oilcake are consumed
in a year.

In Lincolnshire Heath and Wold farming, an outlay of 5Z.
per acre in manures for the root-crop, or more than IZ. per acre
averaged over the whole farm, is not at all uncommon ; while, on
the good loams, half-a-ton weight of superphosphate, nitro-phos-
phate, or special manure, is often applied for a crop either of
potatoes or mangolds, and much more liberal doses in growing
prize-crops.

As examples of the scale on which foods and manures are
purchased on farms in Cambridgeshire and Suffolk, take the
following cases from Mr. Frederick Clifford’s exhaustive and
valuable little book on ‘ The Agricultural Lock-out of 1874.’
On 800 acres, manures cost 340Z. ; cake and corn, 660Z. On a
farm of 300 acres arable and 70 pasture, cake costs 500Z. ; corn,
550Z. ; and artificial manures, 220Z. ; or a total of 1270Z. a year.

On 864 acres arable and 50 acres pasture, the total yearly
payments for cake, corn, and artificial fertilisers, amount to
2414Z.

Practical Agriculture.

623 = 557

The most largely used artificial manure is superphosphate of Superphos-
lime, owing to its cheapness, the manufacture from mineral
' phosphates having enabled makers to supply it at something like
^ three-fifths the price formerly charged for the article prepared
I from bones ; while Farmers’ Associations in some parts of the
country supply their members at half the old price for the
I manure made from bones and acid. But bone-dust is still used
to a considerable extent ; and in Yorkshire and elsewhere many
farmers buy bones and acid and prepare their turnip manure
themselves.

Peruvian and other guanos may be placed next in the favour Guanos and
of English farmers, — a sounder feature having been lately given “'*^rate.
to the trade by the introduction of the fair and reasonable system
I of valuing according to analysis an article which varies so
[; extremely in quality in different cargoes. Nitrate of soda is
I also very largely used ; but complaints are universal as to the
I high rates at wbich both nitrate and guano are alone procurable.

Biphosphated and dissolved guanos, Odams’s nitrophosphate,

I blood-manure, and a great number of special or compounded
I manures for every species of crop, are also sold by agents in
every agricultural market-town, and largely applied in the farm
. management of every district with the exception of a few back-
; ward and benighted localities.

It would be a long list if I were to enumerate all the artificial Quantities ap-
I fertilisers offered for sale on English corn-exchanges ; for, as
I noted by Mr. J. Dent Dent in his very instructive paper on the
Census of 1871 (in the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural

1* Society,’ vol. x. N.S.), there were 581 manure-manufacturers in
I England and Wales in the year 1861, and 1210 in the year 1871.
jj The various guanos are applied at rates per acre from 2 up
I ! to 4 cwts. ; nitrate of soda, 1 to 2 cwts. ; superphosphate of lime,

4 1 4 to 8 cwts. ; sulphate of ammonia, 1 to 2 cwts. ; nitro-phosphate
) , or blood-manure, 3 to 6 cwts. ; common salt, 4 to 8 cwts. ; Kainit
t or potash salt, 3 to 5 cwts., but this generally in connection with
' other manures. Among the manures of limited application are Manures of
I woollen rags, horn-dust, gas-lime, gypsum, charcoal, soot, and appli-

the waste products from many manufactures. And it being im-
possible to adduce any particular manure or mixture as com-
monly preferred for roots, for corn, or for pasture, I have been
content to give a few instances of actual practice in the chapter
on Rotations of Cropping, and to state the amounts of money
expended by good managers in the purchase of artificials.

Thanks to the efforts of the Royal Agricultural Society and other
agricultural bodies, the practice of buying subject to analysis
is being greatly extended.

VOL. XIV.— S.S. 2 U

62A = 358

Practical Agriculture.

Fish.

Seaweed.

Composts.

Durable ajipli-
cations.

Boning.

Bape-cake.

Marling.

In parts of some counties lying close to the sea, sprats,
mussels, and star-fish are put into mixens with earthy and vege-
table matters, and form an exceedingly rich and fertilising com-
post. The cost of sprats is usually about lOrZ. a bushel ; 50
or 60 bushels per acre being applied when used alone as a
dressing for wheat. Star-fish, or “ five fingers,” are about bd. a
bushel, and are applied at the rate of about 120 bushels per acre.
Mussels are generally bought by the waggon-load for about
20s., and 150 bushels are put on per acre.

Seaweed, on some coasts, is collected in considerable quan-
tities, and either applied to the land in its wet or green state,
or, which is the better method, made into a compost in the
manure-heap.

Composts made on the farm are of many kinds ; one of the
commonest being night-soil with ashes or earth, sometimes in
combination with poultry or pigeon manure, dried and prepared
for the drill by admixture with the ashes of earth, root-weeds,
ditch-paiings, &c., burned in the cleansing fires of the fallow
season.

Bone-dust, between layers of farmyard-dung, is also a very
valuable compost. But road-scrapings, pond-mud, and all the
products from scouring outfalls and tidying up corners and col-
lecting rubbish are made available in conjunction with liquid
drainings of the straw-yard.

Among applications of a durable character are* bones on
pastures, rape-cake, lime, chalk, marls of various kinds, shell-
sand, and clay. From 1 to 2 tons of crushed bones per acre are
applied to the clay pastures of dairy-farms in Cheshire, also in
Staffordshire, and some other counties, at a cost of 11. to 10/.
per acre. The results in improvement of the herbage and greater
richness of the milk are remarkable, and the effect is more
immediate from boiled bones (from glue and size factories) than
from fresh ones. Rape-cake or rape-dust, either worked into
the soil for roots, or applied in moist weather as a top-dressing
on wheat, acts beneficially for several years, — besides being found
to be, partially at any rate, an antidote to wire-worm.

In olden times great trust was placed in the manurial value of
those unctuous earths, the various kinds of marl, as testified by
the old disused marl-pits in many counties. The practice is very
limited in the present day ; being resorted to in some light-land
districts for improving the texture and quality of the soil, and
repeated at intervals of many years. Thus, red land and clay
soils in Lincolnshire are dressed with 40 cart-loads per acre
of white or blue marl, the effect lasting for a long series of years.
And in Norfolk, the marling or claying of friable and light

Practical Agriculture.

625 = 359

lands, which was one fundamental process of improvement half a
century back, is now rarely repeated ; being principally reserved
for the consolidation of peats and sands.

Chalking is still a necessary improvement at long intervals on Chalking
many lands either lying upon or within easy carting distance of
the chalk hills. Thus chalk is extensively used on the heavy
soils in Kent, particularly upon the pastures. From 12 to
18 tons per acre are commonly applied ; no repetition is needed
for twenty years, and then only a light dressing. The chalk
moulders down under the influence of frost and rain, and is soon
worked into the soil. On the Lincolnshire Wolds the light
flinty loams are durably improved by applications of 80 to 100
cubic yards of chalk per acre.

Claying the peaty soils of the Fen country is accomplished on Claying,
the shallow peats by very deep trench-ploughing ; but on the
deep black soils, by digging wide parallel trenches at intervals
several feet in depth, and throwing out by spade some feet in
thickness of the blue buttery material (an alluvial deposit), which
is afterwards spread upon the whole surface of the field.

Liming with heavy doses, once a fundamental feature of farm- Liming,
management over a considerable proportion of England, and im-
posed upon tenants by binding restrictions in covenants and
leases, has given way before the introduction of artificial manures.

It is chiefly on heavy clays and on newly broken-up land that
dressings of 200 to 300 bushels per acre are now applied ; and such
strong treatment is not repeated for perhaps twenty years. On the
limited number of farms where it is still the custom to lime once
in every rotation, the quantity is now more commonly 100 bushels,
or about 4 tons per acre. On light soils, small doses may be
repeated, to compensate for the gradual sinking of the lime into
the subsoil. Where lime is employed merely to give to the land a
constituent which is short in quantity, mild or old-slaked lime is
employed. But, for the most part, the purpose is to promote the
decomposition of vegetable matter and to sweeten the soil ; and
hence it is the more general practice to apply the lime in a
caustic state, that is, newly-slacked, sometimes, indeed, as hot
as the carts can contain it without injury. When on the fallow
for roots, and farmyard-manure is to be used for the same crop,
the lime is ploughed in and well incorporated with the ' soil
for some time before the manure is led on.

Of late years, the practice has extended of applying moderate
dressings of lime to old pastures, the increase and improvement
in herbage being very marked. There are, however, certain
descriptions of land — as for example, on some of the oolite
formations — which receive no benefit from liming, but, on the

2 u 2

626 = 360

Practical Agriculture.

Farming with-
out manure.

Liquid-manure

irrigation.

Mr. Mechi’s
practice.

Other ex-
amples.

Farmyard -
manure.

contrary, are said to be deteriorated by the process, no matter
in what condition the lime is applied.

Corn- and hay-farming without farmyard-manure, by aid of
deep and thorough steam-cultivation and plentiful applications
of artificial fertilisers to compensate for straw sold off, is prac-
tised with success by enterprising farmers, such as Mr. John
Prout, of Blount’s Farm, Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire. But
very few farms exist on which the ordinary system of converting
straw into manure and carting this on to the land is supple-
mented or altogether supplanted by the system of liquid manuring
and irrigation.

At Tiptree Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex, Mr. J. J. Mechi has
made celebrated his method of cutting straw for food instead of
using it for bedding ; of keeping cattle, sheep, and pigs, upon
sparred floors, catching the solid and liquid droppings, and con-
ducting them into a cistern or tank, and by steam-power pumping
the liquid-manure through pipes laid underground to hydrants,
whence, by means of hose, it is distributed over the surface of
the fields.

Selling the solid-manure from cow-byres, pumping the liquid-
manure to a head on the highest part of the farm, thence
conveying it by underground-pipes to the fields, and distri-
buting it by half-inch iron-pipes in movable 6-feet lengths,
has been adopted only in some other scarce instances. Many
good managers, however, economise the liquid-drainings from
their farmyards by tanks, and either cart the liquid upon the
land or absorb it in compost-heaps. In some situations, where
it can flow in channels by natural gravitation, the liquid is used
for irrigating ryegrass, other green forage, or permanent grass.

With regard to farmyard-dung, which, in spite of the vast
extension of the trade in “ bag ” manures, and in spite of the
increasing sale of straw and other manorial produce, remains
yet the English farmers’ “ sheet-anchor,” it cannot be denied
that much imperfect and wasteful management prevails in many
parts of the kingdom. But there is often this excuse for the
occupiers : — the exposure of farmyard-manure to all the drenching
rains of winter (with these made cumulative by discharging into
the open courts the water from the unspouted roofs of barns,
byres, stables, granaries, and cart-sheds), and the draining away of
the soluble constituents with which the dung has been enriched
at a heavy outlay for roots and fodder and feeding-stuffs, are
unavoidable until the proprietors erect farm-premises planned
with a view to the economical manufacture and preservation of
manure. Nevertheless, all the best-farmed districts abound with
examples of well-constructed buildings ; while there are numbers

Practical Agriculture.

627 = 561

I of large estates — such as those of the Duke of Bedford, the Earl
I of Leicester, and many other proprietors — on which no occupa-
tion has been left without a farmstead rebuilt, or remodelled
I and improved.

I The prevailing type of homestead provides for the manu- Open and
facture of manure in rectangular yards- or courts, separated by covered yards,
fences or by low buildings, sheltered from winds by high
buildings on the north, open towards the south, and with a small
proportion of the area covered by shelter-roofs resting partly on
the yard-walls and partly upon pillars. The bottoms of the yards
are dished ; the liquid draining into a tank, whence it can be
1 pumped out and either distributed over the straw when too dry,
or used for forming moist compost, or, in fewer instances, for
i water-cart irrigation. Owing, however, to the increasing com-
i mercial value of straw, as well as the better appreciation of its
I feeding and manorial value, and the higher quality of dung
made under coverj the modern tendency is in favour of yards
, completely roofed-in. The exceptions are in the great straw-

I producing districts of the dry-climate eastern counties, where
saving of straw for bedding is not a very important object, also
on some strong lands, where bulky straw-manure is desired for

: opening the texture of the soil, and on farms where close and
dry housing is not considered conducive to the hardihood and
n stamina of young cattle.

^ The analyses of Dr. Voelcker, Professor Church, and other Greater value
j masters of agricultural chemistry, showing that, weight for

I I weight, a ton of manure made under cover is worth about one-
. half more than a ton made in an open yard, are confirmed by a
I large amount of experience. This difference arises principally

i I from the smaller proportion of straw and water to the same quan-
I tity of animal excrement existing in the covered manure ; at Saving in
. least 50 per cent, less straw being required for litter as com- straw.

' pared with the open-yard manure ; but it is also to a considerable
extent due to the preservation of the fertilising salts from waste.

, There is also economy in the covered-manure system, from the
j dung cutting out in a richer mass ready for immediate applica-
I tion to the land, without the labour of turning over and mixing
I to promote fermentation or carting out to lie for a time in
wasteful field-heaps.

: Thoroughly rotted manure being desired for certain crops, as. Dung-heaps.

I for example, mangolds, the practice of forming large dung-heaps
j during the winter in convenient places about the farm is still .

I very general ; and greater attention is paid to due consolidation
I for the retarding of fermentation and to covering down the heap
with a thick layer of earth for arresting the escape of volatile

Q2S = 362

Practical Agriculture.

Diing-pits.

Ox-teams.

ammonia. It is far more common to relieve the yards of an
excessive quantity of manure from time to time by carting out
portions to such field-heaps, than to store the dung in pits,
excavated, brick-lined, and protected by a shed-roof for the
purpose ; though these exist on some farm-lands, forming an
admirable means of preserving the manure in the best condition.
Pits under sheds, provided on different parts of the farm con-
venient for application to the land, have been introduced, but
very scantily adopted. The major part of the farmyard-manure,
however, is carried direct from the yards in which the manure
from stalls and stables has been regularly added to that made by
cattle, and also from sheep-yards, and is applied in its fresh
condition to the land. Care is taken to plough in the manure
promptly in warm and dry weather; but, in cold and moist
weather, exposure after spreading is not found detrimental ;
and the top-dressing of young seeds is done at that season
when spring rains wash the short manure, to the benefit of the
absorbent soil below.

CHAPTER IX.

Motive Powet?. Implements and Machines.

Steam Cultivation.

Ox-Teams. — Slow oxen urging the unwilling plough, or with
tedious steps hauling the ponderous-toothed drag through the
huge clods of a fallow, are to be seen only in a small number
of the English counties ; though many a farmer is accustomed
to train a bull to work in carting field produce — a labour for
which, owing to their great strength, these animals are well
adapted.

Ox-teams are employed to a small extent in Wiltshire,
Devonshire, Cornwall, Sussex, and some other counties ; chiefly
as an adjunct to horse-teams, and not to perform the whole
draught labour of the farm. It is calculated that, in harrowing
or rolling, a pair of horses will do 8 acres a day, when four oxen
will scarcely do more than 6 acres a day ; and in ploughing, a
pair of horses will turn over an acre a day, when four oxen will
scarcely accomplish three-fourths. In carting on hilly farms,
four good oxen are considered equal to a pair of horses. The
custom is to keep double the number required to work at any
one time, one-half being yoked out in the morning and the
other half in the afternoon.

Practical Agriculture.

{)2d = 363

The usual method of feeding working-oxen is to give them
straw and roots in winter, and grass in summer, with an occa-
sional allowance of corn during the busy season. When oxen are
bought-in as two-year-olds, employed in doing summer tillage
only, used to tread down straw into manure in winter, and
finally sold out as four-year-olds, the common calculation is
that they improve in value, and that their labour, though tedious
and generally limited to a part of the year, is not expensive as
compared with that of horses ; the keep of a team-bullock costing
probably about half that of a farm-horse.

The exigencies of the meat supply, and the ability of modern
feeding processes to mature cattle of refined breeds into two-
year-old beef, are pressing to banish such animals altogether
from draught labour even in the few localities where ox-teams
have longest held sway in the mechanical economy of the farm ;
the problem now occupying attention being that of superseding
the greatest possible proportion of costly animal power by yoking
the steam-engine to one after another of the heavy and light
draught-operations of agriculture.

Farm- Horses. For every hundred acres cultivated in England Farm-horses,
and Wales about 4^ horses are enumerated as “ horses used in
agriculture, unbroken horses, and mares used solely for breeding.”

The 830,000 horses “ used solely for agriculture ” average about
3 for every hundred acres cultivated ; and as 15,000,000 acres
out of the total cultivated area of 27,000,000 acres are arable,
the number of farm-horses averages about for every hundred
acres arable.

The number of horses kept on various kinds of soil and under
different systems of husbandry, where high-class management
prevails, appears in the following examples.

On a light-land farm under the five-course shift, having Number kept
two-fifths in corn, two-fifths in seeds, and one-fifth in roots, a
pair of horses is required for every seventy or ninety acres,
according to the level or steep contour of the fields and whether
two or more ploughings are given for the root-crops.

On a clay-loam farm in Buckinghamshire under a six-course
rotation, with roots and catch crops, the proportion of horses
kept is three to every sixty acres arable, three horses being used
in a plough.

On a Shropshire farm of sand-loam, with part stronger soil,
under the four-course system, there is a pair of horses for every
sixty-six acres. On selected medium-soil and light-land farms
comprising 6000 acres arable in various counties from Berkshire
to Yorkshire, the teams average one horse to every twenty-seven
acres. On selected heavy-land farms, embracing 15,000 acres

630 = 364

Practical Agriculture.

Management.

Breeding.

Colts.

Breaking.

Feeding.

arable in many counties from Wiltshire to Northumberland, the
average is one working-horse to every twenty-three acres.

There is no distinctive English system of managing farm-
horses. They are stabled in various ways, — either kept singly
in stalls, or in pairs in stalls, or placed together in a long stable ;
sometimes separated from each other by a swinging bar, a
partitioned-ofF box being reserved for a kicking or restive horse.
On some farms the horses are kept in loose boxes ; in other
cases the old plan is still retained, namely, of feeding in the
stable and turning the horses into an open straw-yard, partly
under a shelter-roof, for the night ; while in many newly built
premises the horses lie in covered yards.

On the great majority of large and medium-sized farms it is
the custom to breed a sufficient number of cart-colts to keep
up the working stud ; many managers dispose of the most
saleable of their horses after about a couple of years labour in
the field. Larger numbers of colts are bred for sale on hold-
ings which comprise a good proportion of old pasture of
ordinary quality, tolerably free from stones, with well-fenced
moderate-sized enclosures, in a not very steep country, but with
a moist climate, and where no excessive demands upon the
teams in summer are made by the necessities of clay-land
culture. The system of travelling-stallions is almost universal ;
but in spite of the vast improvement accomplished of late years
by competitive Shows of the Royal and the County Societies, and
by the introduction of good sires by very many large landowners,
many districts still complain of the difficulty of obtaining good
sound horses for service on cart-mares.

Foals are generally dropped in May, weaned in the autumn,
and wintered for two successive jears in sheltered paddocks
furnished with shelter-hovels ; though in some counties, par-
ticularly in the rainy and cold north and west, this treatment
is deemed too severe, and the young horses are wintered in
yards.

They are not always broken in to work as four-year olds ; as
three-year-olds are commonly trained in some of the midland
counties and elsewhere by putting them to part-day hauling in
the single-file three- or four-horse teams, often on land which
two stout horses could plough without difficulty.

Very varied are the practices of different localities with regard
to hours of labour, including single short bouts in winter, and
two bouts per day in summer, with a bating time between ; the
number of men, or men and boys to work and groom the pair-
horse, three-horse, or four-horse teams ; and the summer and
winter feeding. As a rule, the old wasteful system of giving the

Practical Agriculture.

(331 = 365

horses hay in racks, as well as the Lincolnshire practice of feeding
on oat-sheaves cut into chaff, has gone out of favour ; and the
best managers cut up hay and straw, and give their horses ground
corn, or crushed oats, sometimes bran or pollard, with a portion
of pulped roots or green tares added to the dry food. In some
districts the farm-horses are grazed on the pastures in summer ;
but the practice of keeping them in stables or yards the whole
year round prevails in most tillage districts, and is extending.

The cost of horse-power, depending upon the assumed value Cost of horsc-
of the fodder and forage which, commonly, are not allowed to power,
be sold off, is a matter of varying estimates. Some years ago
Mr. John Chalmers Morton deduced averages from statistics of
a considerable number of cases, — making the annual outlay per
head 23Z. for food, and hi. 10s. for blacksmith’s, saddler’s, and
farrier’s bills, and for depreciation (or replacing and maintain-
ing the value of the horse unimpaired), or 28Z. 10s. per horse.

Adding 3Z. 2s. for wear and replacement of implements, and
14Z. 8s. for part wages of the team-men necessary to drive and
groom the horse, the total yearly cost came out 46Z. A deduc-
tion should be made from this sum for the value of the horse’s
manure. But, on the other hand, the great rise in the price
of horses, in the value of hay and straw, in the price of all
articles concerned in the application of horse-power, and in
the cost of manual labour, has certainly increased the estimate.

In fact, authorities at the present time would not be inclined to
value the day’s work of a horse, without the share of manual
labour connected with it, at less than 3s., considering the
number of days in a year on which horses are at rest. Hence,
the ploughing of three roods of stiff land per day by a team of
four horses, attended by a man and boy, may easily reach 21s.
or more per acre ; and turning over a full acre of light land per
day by a pair of horses and one man, may cost the farmer as
I much as 9s. per acre : the average cost of ploughing in England
I lying between these amounts.

Mules and Asses. — Recently there have been some successful Mules and
attempts to introduce into farm-labour mules and asses, which
1 are economical from their endurance and thriftiness of feeding ;

I and for this purpose high-standing active French and Spanish
I asses, and mules from Poitou, have been imported.

Water Power. — On some few estates in England water-wheels Water power.
t are employed for driving fixed threshing-machinery ; and there
' are many cases — some of them on holdings of moderate or small

• extent — in which a small wheel, sometimes urged by an artificial
I stream consisting of the collected waters of the farm under-

• drains, is made to drive the farmer’s mill, crusher, chaff-

632 = 366

Practical Agriculture.

'1.

Wind power.

Steam power.

Amount of
steam power
used in
agriculture.

machine, and other machinery of the feeding-house. Where a
regular flow of water of sufficient volume can be depended on,
no other motive-power is found to equal in economy an over-
shot or a breast water-wheel. Indeed, for the comparatively
light operations of the farmstead, a very small stream, or even
the drainage of the land itself, is found amply sufficient, when
stored during the periods of rest in a reservoir of small area
dammed for the purpose. Turbines also are used in some
situations, where an adequate head of water is available, for the
farm grinding and cutting, these motors having been greatly
improved in efficiency during late years by the application of
scientific principles to their design and manufacture.

Wind Pmocr. — Wind-engines, equally economical in operation
and more cheaply erected, are adopted in some places where
their fickle, intermittent, and irregular action does not altogether
forbid their services in grinding and pumping. One element
in their economy is that, being self-regulating, they will work
night and day without attention. Windmills actuating scoop-
wheels for district drainage at one time distinguished the Great
Level of the Fens and some other lowland tracts ; and in a few
localities they are still retained for baling out the water of
ditches on very low-lying farms, and discharging it into em-
banked main drains or rivers.

Steam Poiccr. — No statistics have been collected on an ade-
quate scale as to the average amount of steam-power for every
hundred acres now engaged in tilling, threshing, hauling, and
other operations of agriculture. Looking, however, to the fact
that all except a fractional proportion of the corn - crops of
England are threshed by steam ; that a majority of the large
farms have steam-engines of their own ; that on great numbers
of medium-sized as well as large occupations are also found
engines of small power for chaff-cutting, steaming, «Scc. ; and
that farms on which steam - cultivation is practised may be
enumerated by hundreds in some, and by tens in almost all
counties, — it is evident that the nominal horse-power of the
engines used in agriculture bears a very considerable proportion,
— it may probably approach one-fourth — in relation to the total
force of horse-teams. Where the threshing is not done by itine-
rary steam-threshing machines, as it is on probably a majority
of farms, the nominal power of the steam-engine is fully one-
half, and sometimes considerably exceeds one-half, that of the
farm-horses ; and where the steam-plough is adopted and horses
have been displaced, the nominal steam-power frequently equals
and in many cases exceeds that of the whole force of horses
employed.

Practical Agriculture.

633 = 567

Fixed engines and fixed threshing-machines are less numerous Fixed and
i in England than in Scotland, where they are common ; indeed,

' ® ^ ^ ©UfflUGS.

. in England, only a minor proportion of the occupations are
provided with barns of sufficient magnitude for storing straw as
well as holding the sheaf-corn for a day’s threshing. The more
prevalent arrangement is to thresh out-of-doors by a portable
engine and machine ; while in some districts it is customary
to save time and labour in harvest, and to minimise the risk of
loss by fire, by stacking and threshing a portion of the wheat
and barley in the fields or at an “ off” yard. Except in cases
where horse-power or a semi-fixed steam-engine of low power
is employed for the purpose, the portable engine, when not en-
gaged in threshing, is placed so as to drive the food-preparing
machinery in the farm-buildings. Steam-ploughing engines
. are also used in the same way.

Among the most extensive as well as admirably designed and Noted home-
I completely furnished farmsteads of which English husbandry can
\ boast are those of Mrs. J. Gerard Leigh, at Luton Hoo, in

I Bedfordshire (this being by far the largest in the kingdom) ;

; Lord Bateman’s Uphampton Farm, at Shobdon, in Herefordshire ;
f Sir Henry Dashwood’s Northbrook Farm, at Kirtlington, in
[ Oxfordshire; Mr. J. C. Garth’s Haines Hill Farm, near Twy-
r ford, in Berkshire ; the Marquis of Bath’s Longleat Farm, in
Wiltshire ; Netherhampton Farm, on the estate of the Earl of
’ Pembroke and Montgomery ; Sir Edward C. Kerrison’s Brome
j Hall Farm, Eye, in Suffolk ; Mr. Goodman’s farm at Thorney,

J Cambridgeshire, on the Duke of Bedford’s estate ; Mr. J. Hegan’s
f farm at Dawpool, in Cheshire ; Mr. John Wells’s Sancton Hill
Farm, near Booth Ferry, Yorkshire ; Walls Court Homestead,

J. near Bristol; Colonel Dunn’s premises and machinery near
ij Hungerford, in Berkshire; Lord Portman’s, at West Lambrook,
in Somersetshire ; those of the Earl of Radnor, at Coleshill, in
' I Berkshire ; of the late Sir John Shelley, at Maresfield, in Sussex :
y Mr. Brassey’s farmstead near Malpas, in Cheshire ; that of the
j late Mr. E. Holland, at Dumbleton, near Evesham, in Worcester-
I .shire ; Captain Cust’s Kenwick Park Farm, near Ellesmere, in
Shropshire ; Mr. Reginald Corbet’s, at Adderley Park, in
Shropshire ; Mr. Richard Oakley’s premises at Laurance End,
in Herefordshire ; Kenwick Farm on Earl Brownlow’s estate in
Shropshire ; the Honourable Mark Rolle’s Bagmore Farm, in
Devonshire ; Mr. Robert Overman’s farmstead at Egmere, in
Norfolk, on the Earl of Leicester’s estate ; Mr. W. Byrch’s, at
VVretham Hall, in Norfolk ; Sir W. Jones’s, at Cranmer Hall,
in Norfolk. And numerous examples are to be found also on
the estates of the Earl of Yarborough and Mr. Chaplin, M.P.,

, I

Messrs.

Tux ford’s
machinery on
Lord Bate-
man’s farm.

634=36'5 Practical Agriculture.

in Lincolnshire ; the Duke of Cleveland, the Duke of Northum-
berland, the Earl of Tankerville, Lord Vernon, Earl Cathcart,
Colonel Kingscote, M.P., the Marquis of Exeter, Earl Spencer,
Earl Powis, the Duke of Portland, and a great number of other
landowners.

The arrangement of apparatus adapted for threshing, dressing,
grinding or crushing corn ; for raising straw into stacks or
chambers ; for the conversion of straw into fodder or litter ; for ;
cutting and pulping roots, and mixing and steaming food ; for
crushing oilcake, pumping water, sawing timber, churning,
crushing apples for cider, and other mechanical operations in
which steam-power has taken the place of horse and manual
labour, may be exemplified by reference to two or three of these
farm-steadings.

On Lord Bateman’s Uphampton Farm (as described in
Mr. J. Bailey Denton’s ‘ Farm Homesteads of England ’) the
corn is stacked upon low iron trucks, which can be moved on
tramways having a slight inclination towards a covered shed
adjoining the threshing-machine ; and the stack to be threshed
is moved bodily under this shed, where the sheaves are pitched
on to the machine. A 12 -horse-power fixed engine drives two
ranges of shafting at different heights ; the lower range being
driven by a belt from the 8-feet diameter fly-wheel, and the upper
shaft by a rigger of 3 feet diameter on the engine crank-shaft.
The straw for the machine is elevated by a “ straw climber ” into
the roof over the machine chamber, there to be cut into litter and
afterwards carried forward for a distance of about 70 feet over
the straw-barn by means of a ‘ litter-creeper ; ’ openings at in-
tervals along the bottom of the trough allowing the cut litter to
be deposited at any part of the length of the barn for being con-
veniently thrown out to the stock. A straw-carrier above the
litter-carrier bears the straw forward, to be similarly dropped
through the floor when it is not required to be cut into litter.
The grain, cavings, and chaff are separated by a series of
riddles and a fan under the box straw-shakers and drum, the
chaff is deposited on one side of the machine, the cavings on |
the other ; the grain is elevated, passed through a white-coater 4
and barley-awner, and then through a dressing-machine and f
blower. It is delivered into a self-acting sacking apparatus, which |
weighs each sackful and rings a call-bell for an attendant to i
remove the full bag and place an empty one in its place ; or the *
finished corn is carried by a worm elevator to the granary.

In the root-house on the ground floor, a root-washer, a turnip- i
cutter, a pulper, and a grindstone are driven like the threshing-
machine, from the lower shaft. In the mixing-house is a

Practical Agriculture.

635 = 369

cooking-apparatus, with steaming-pans and a boiling-pan, this
being heated sometimes by exhaust steam from the engine, and
when this is not at work, by a separate fire connected with the
I engine chimney. An apple-mill and cider-press are fixed in the
I mixing-house, and on the chamber-floor a pair of 3-feet peak-
; stones, a roller-mill, a cake-breaker, a chaff-cutter, and a sack-
I hoisting tackle are driven by the upper shafting. The machinery
1 was erected by Messrs. Tuxford and Sons, of Boston, Lincolnshire.

At Dawpool, in Cheshire, Mr. Joseph Hegan’s farm, an 8-horse- Messrs.

' power fixed engine drives by belts two lines of shafting, — the ,

j, upper one actuating the threshing and dressing machinery, and machinery,
j! the lower one imparting motion to the mills and smaller machines.

■ The threshing-machine is one of the complete and perfectly
I acting machines of Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth of Lincoln,
j who constructed the whole of the machinery ; and it will thresh
I 7 to 8 quarters per hour. The same line of shafting which
; drives the threshing and dressing machinery, also drives a chaff-
[ cutter on the floor of the straw-barn ; the cut straw falls into
I a mixing-bin in the forage-barn beneath, which is conveniently
I situated for receiving the produce from the steaming-pans placed
in the same compartment, and the pulped roots from one
j adjoining. In a large chamber next the boiler-house are fixed an
I oilcake breaker ; a roller-mill for crushing linseed, oats, or beans ;
i and a grinding-mill with French burr bed-stone and Derbyshire
grey running-stone, 3 feet in diameter, — this mill grinding about
4 bushels per hour of fine flour, or bruising or kibbling a very
much larger quantity. In an adjoining compartment is a single-
roller bone-mill, capable of crushing and riddling 10 to 15 tons
I of bone per day of ten hours. At the end of the boiler-house
I is the pulping-house and forage-barn, with machinery for
) pulping and steaming roots — the steam being supplied direct
( j from the engine-boiler. A lift- and force-pump supplies the
, water required.

The stackyard is covered ; it is 150 feet long by 78 feet wide. Covered
' and 20 feet deep from the floor-line to the underside of the tie- stackyard,
beams of the principal trusses. It is divided by a paved roadway
into two main compartments, which are again subdivided by
the trusses into 30 bays, each 30 feet deep by 19 feet wide. It
will hold on an average 120 acres of corn in the sheaf.

Mr. J. C. Garth’s machinery at Haines Hill, Berkshire, Messrs,
constructed by Messrs. Ransomes, Sims, and Head, of Ipswich, Ransomes,
has an 8-horse fixed engine^ driving one main shaft by a belt H™d’s^'*'^
from the fly-wheel, while bevel-wheel gearing gives motion to a machinery
second line of shaft on the same level and placed at right-angles
to the first. A cooking-apparatus is arranged near the boiler.

63G = 57<^

Practical Agriculture.

Simple
arrangement
for food-
preparing
machinery.

Steam ploughs
and cultiva-
tors.

The Fisken
system.

The dressed grain from the threshing-machine is delivered into
scales and weighed ready for market ; the straw is delivered by
the rotary shakers on to the floor above, and the chaff into a
separate compartment under the straw-shakers. In an apart-
ment adjoining the threshing-machine is a small roller metal mill,
for bruising oats and linseed, united with a triangular-toothed
bean-cutter ; also a pair of 3-feet French mill-stones, fitted with
dressing apparatus, a pair of 4-feet Derby stones, a blower, and
an elevator for raising the meal to the floor above. In the root
chamber are an oilcake breaker and a double-action Gardner’s
turnip-cutter ; while a chaff-cutter is fixed on the floor over this.
The second line of shafting drives a saw-bench, fitted with
boring augers, and also a double-acting pump. Adjoining
the boiler-house is a kiln for drying grain ; the fire-door being
arranged opposite that of the boiler, so that one engine-driver
can attend to both. i

A simple and convenient plan for food-preparing machinery i
is to erect a floor or staging at one end of a barn, placing the i
chaff-cutter and corn- and cake-crushers on this floor, with the (
pulping and slicing-machines on the ground-floor ; and all
the machines may be driven simultaneously by setting down i
a portable engine outside the barn, or one or two together by a i
small semi-fixed engine, or, one at a time, by a pair of horses '
working a horse-gear out-of-doors with a spindle passing through i
the barn wall. All three methods are to be found extensively
adopted ; horse-gears for chaff-cutting, pulping, and cake- '
breaking being the most common.

Steam Ploughs and Cultivators. — Of that t}'pe of steam-tilling
machine foreshadowed by the genius of the late Mr. C. Wren i
Hoskyns, in his ‘Chronicles of a Clay Farm,’ and embodied in 1
experimental apparatus by Mr. Romaine and other inventors, in i j
which a digging cylinder is driven in connection with a slowl}'- »
travelling locomotive engine, no practical example remains at «
the present time ; though Mr. Darby, in the neighbourhood of
Chelmsford, has just introduced an engine which, with its hori-
zontal boiler, slowly advances in a broadside direction, and by ■ I .
spades or forks digs a stripe of many feet breadth as it proceeds, f
Neither is there anything but experimental use made of traction- |
engines for hauling ploughs or other implements similar to those |
drawn by horses.

The system of working tillage implements by wire rope in
connection with a rapidly driven Manilla rope mounted upon j
high porters with friction-wheels, as introduced by Mr. Fisken, i
has been adopted by a considerable number of farmers, and t
also by persons who execute ploughing and cultivating by con- {

Practical Agriculture.

Q37 = 3T1

tract, in various counties. The plan is specially adapted for
hilly land, enabling a portable steam-engine of small or moderate
power, stationed beside a pond or brook, to communicate
motion to hauling-windlasses at a great distance or upon steep
surfaces ; the area of deep or heavy work done per day is greater
than might have been expected from the comparative lightness
of the tackle, and, under good management, the wear of the
hemp or Manilla rope is not found excessive.

Direct hauling by steel-wire rope, as brought before the
world about a quarter of a century back by Mr. John Fowler,
Mr. David Greig, Mr. William Smith of Woolston, and Messrs.
Howard, is the system distinguishing the many hundreds of sets
of apparatus which perform the great bulk of the steam hus-
bandry of the kingdom.

Three distinct modes of application are followed : namely,
one in which the engine and windlass are stationary ; another
in which the engine is shifted along one headland opposite to
an anchor with pulley traversing the other ; and a third in
which two self-shifting engines, with winding drums, are em-
ployed on the two headlands, hauling the implement to and fro
between them.

The first plan has several modifications. In some cases the
old method is retained of laying out the rope round all four
I sides of the field by means of a pulley at each corner hung to
: j a claw-anchor ; the anchors at the ends of the furrow or course
I traversed by the implement being removed and shifted forward
I along the headland at every bout by labourers employed for
the purpose. To save this manual labour, the self-moving
anchor is adopted, the frame carrying the rope-pulley being
, mounted upon four or more small travelling-wheels fitted with
sharp discs which cut through the soil and present a sideway
resistance to the strain of tbe plough-rope. In the anchor of
I Messrs. Barford and Perkins, of Peterborough, the plough-rope,
j laid out along the headland, pulls the anchor forward at intervals
when the strain is on ; the movement is arrested at the required
I point by rotary tines or claws clutching into the ground in the
I rear, and the distance passed over is self-regulated by means
of a releasing and stopping lever-motion operated upon by a
I ball set in any given position upon the rope. In the anchor of
Messrs. Howard, of Bedford, the rope -pulley gives motion to a
small barrel which very slowly winds along a rope fixed on the
headland, and also carries the disc-anchor forward until the action
is stopped by self-acting mechanism set according to the breadth
of the work which is being done. Messrs. John Fowler and Co.,
of Leeds, construct their self-moving disc-anchor so as to wind

Wire-rope

systems.

Messrs.
Barford and
Perkins’
machinery.

Messrs. John
Fowler and
Co.’s

machinery.

638 = 572

Practical Agriculture.

Messrs.

Howard’s

machinery.

The double-
engine system.

Horses dis-
placed.

Messrs.
Howard’s
farms on
boulder ebay.

itself forward along a fixed headland rope, but in a direction ,
opposite to that of the headland ply of the ploughing-rope — the
arrangement giving special security to the position of the anchor. !

Messrs. Fowler place their windlass, with its two self-coiling I
rope-drums, on vertical axes, enabling the ropes to be led off in
any angular direction alongside the engine, and they drive by a i
spindle with universal joints. Messrs. Howard place their [
windlass — having drums on horizontal axes — at the rear of a
portable engine, temporarily connecting the two in the simplest ,
possible manner by a single belt, and the ropes are diverted in !
direction by guide-sheaves attached to the front of the engine.
Messrs. Barford and Perkins place their windlass — also having ;
drums on horizontal axes — in line with the engine, and drive it i
by an endless pitch-chain. In each case the result is that
anchor-men are dispensed with, the engine-driver reverses the
action of the windlass at the end of each journey of the imple-
ment ; and thus only two men, namely, the engine-driver and ■
the ploughman, are required to work the present “ roundabout ”
apparatus, with the addition of a boy to shift rope-porters. |
The self-moving engine, with travelling anchor on the opposite i |
headland is not so extensively used as the stationary-engine i
plan upon medium-sized and small farms ; and for large farms, 1 1
the double-engine system is being very widely adopted. The J
double-engine method is almost the only one employed in
executing tillage-work for hire ; many contractors owning their t
three, four, or up to more than a dozen sets of machinery. The »
power of the engines varies from the so-called “ six-horse ” up I
to fourteen-horse power, in reality being equal to the work of |
double or triple that number of horses.

On steam-cultivated farms the number of horses displaced t
is frequently one-third to two-fifths, while those retained are i
relieved of their most laborious work.

It may be remarked that early estimates of the probable cost
of wear and tear and depreciation have been proved by long
experience to be excessive ; and that, with such powerfully and
admirably constructed machinery as that of Messrs. Fowler,
Messrs. Howard, and other makers, the total cost of tillage by
steam-power, when under fair management, is probably not more
than one-half to two-thirds that by horses.

The Britannia farms of Messrs. James and Frederick Howard,
of Bedford, afford a fine example of improvement by steam-
husbandry on the boulder clay. Clearing of forest timber and
underwood, abolition of old boundaries, throwing field to field
and planting new fences, the formation of direct hard-metal
roads in place of winding clay lanes or across newly opened

Practical Agriculture.

639 = 575

country, deep under-drainage, the laying down of new grass and
the cleansing of old and foul tillage land, completely remodelled
the estate. Ten miles’ length of straggling hedge-rows were
stubbed ; their removal adding just ten acres to the area avail-
able for cultivation. Sound hard roads enable the steam-engine
to traverse all parts of the farms in any weather ; the fields are
so laid out as to be most convenient alike for the single stationary
engine or the double moving-engine systems of steam cultivation.
The stationary engine can grapple with 10, 20, 30, and up to 55
acres at one “ setting down and the drainage has been designed
so that it replenishes a tank or open pond at every site occupied
by the engine during the tillage of the whole estate ; these tanks
retaining supplies at all seasons, and letting only the overflow
pass away by the mains which ultimately conduct it to the River
Ouse. At the principal farmstead, a reservoir, cheaply excavated
in the clay, holds half a million gallons of water. A consider-
able proportion of the estate now has a deep brown staple soil,
10 to 14 inches in thickness, lying upon a homogeneous clay.
\et before steam-culture was practised there were but a few
inches of the soil above the raw tenacious “ gaulty ” clay which
has now, to so great a depth, been changed by deep stirring and
aeration into a dark unctuous earth. It is to be remarked that
the gradual levelling of the old high-backed “ lands ” over a
4-feet deep drainage, has caused no difficulty in the downward
filtration of the rain ; but the whole of the fields drain well
in the wettest of seasons.

The steam tackle is not employed merely as an auxiliary to
the ordinary farm teams, to do little more than break up stubbles
in autumn and perhaps cross-cultivate in spring ; but steam-
power executes all the heavy tillage, leaving only the lighter
processes and the haulage of manure and of produce to be per-
formed by horses. Thus, in preparing for a mangold crop, the
wheat-stubble, instead of being “ smashed up ” after harvest and
left for horse-implements to reduce and ridge in the spring, is at
once ridged by a powerful double-breasted plough, the open
trenches between the 27-inch wide ridges being simultaneously
rooted up by a subsoil tine on the same implement. Frosts and
other wintry influences moulder the exposed surface of these
ddges into a fine tilth ; and, in spring, farmyard-manure is
applied, the ridges are torn down by the steam cultivator driven
across, and the seed-bed is ready for artificial manure and the
mangold seed to be put in by the drill.

Messrs. Howard, like many occupiers of clay land who use
their form of machinery, cultivate, plough, ridge-plough, subsoil,
drag, harrow, and also drill by the power of their “ Farmer’s
Engine.”

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 X

640 = 574

Practical Agriculture.

Mr. Ruck’s
practice on
calcareous
clay.

ii,

Improvement
of poor clay
pasture.

Messrs.

Fowler’s

kniHng.

Mr. Smith of
Woolston’s
clay-land
husbandry.

On Castle Hill Farm, near Cricklade, Wiltshire, Mr. Edmund
Ruck manages a calcareous clay and strong loam on a five-course
system ; vetches, rye, and other sheep-feed, being followed by
wheat, this by clover, the lea broken up for beans (manured),
and then wheat again. The results of nearly twenty years’ |
experience with Messrs. Fowler’s steam plough (apart from the
economy as compared with horse and ox-teams) are that the
staple soil has been deepened from 5 down to 8 inches ; the land ;
drains better and dries more quickly after steam than after horse |
operations ; artificial manures act more effectually, owing to the |
finer tilth produced ; by autumn cultivation vetches and rye can •
be grown and fed off in spring, in time for a root crop to follow, 1
enabling a much larger flock of sheep to be kept ; the seeds are ;
very much better, and clover can be repeated at shorter intervals ;
the harvest comes a week earlier, the samples of both wheat and |
barley are better and heavier, the yield of grain has been aug-
mented at least eight bushels per acre ; and, by the use of arti-
ficial manures with intercultural tillage or horse-hoeing between j
widely-drilled double rows of barley, Mr. Ruck has been able to ■
grow fine barley crops in succession.

One of the most remarkable specimens of improvement of '
poor clay pasture-land is on Mr. Ruck’s Manor Farm at Bray-
don in Wiltshire, lying in a low tract of poor clay, having pas- *■
tures of weak watery grasses — of “ hard-head, rest-harrow, and i
devil’s-scabious,” with tufts of rush and furze — and a water-table -i
only a few inches below the surface. Mole-draining, by Fowler’s i
steam draining-implement, 3 feet deep at every two yards’
breadth, with cross-drains at intervals of four chains, and no i
pipes laid except at the outlets, was the fundamental operation ; p
and this, followed by lime-composting, liberal artificial manuring,
and heavy folding with cake- and corn-fed sheep on the grass, <ti
altered the nature of the herbage, and doubled the rental value H
of the land in four years.

On some very strong clay soils, deeply drained, a great change ji
of texture has been produced by a novel operation termed ) i
“ knifing,” that is, cutting gashes some 3 feet deep in parallel 1 1
lines some yards apart, and thus opening and shaking the sub-
soil and letting down water and air. The powerful implement '
employed is Messrs. Fowler & Co.’s knifer, fitted with an
immensely strong blade or coulter, this being hauled at slow
pace by wire-rope, pulley, and steam-engine stationed ahead.

The first farm wholly under steam-culture was that of Mr.
William Smith, of Woolston, near Bletchley, in Buckingham-
shire, containing 112 acres arable, partly of gravelly clay, but
principally a stiff, cold, calcareous clay. Mr. Smith has lately i

Practical Agriculture.

641 = 375

enlarged his occupation ; but on the original farm he has now
pursued his own peculiar system, with implements of his own
invention, for twenty-five years. The old bare fallow is
abolished ; the land is as clean as a garden ; and remarkably fine
crops of roots, wheat, barley, beans, and clover are grown. Yet
very little artificial manure is applied, while the farmyard-dung
applied for mangolds is of a weak description ; the productive-
ness being maintained chiefly by mechanical treatment, which
both unlocks and perpetually prepares the inexhaustible stores
of mineral nutriment for plants existing in the soil, and at the
same time continually introduces new stores of organic con-
stituents from the atmosphere.

Mr. Smith does not find it necessary on that land to invert Non-inversiou
furrow-slices for the purpose of burying and so destroying the
seedlings of weeds. On the contrary, he denounces the plough
I as a planter of root-weeds, and he uses it only for turning
over and tightly-tucking the furrows of a clover-lea for wheat-
I sowing. For several years together his fields are deeply tilled
. by the tines of his steam cultivator, and by the ridge or double
I ; mould-board plough and subsoiler. A single process in autumn
t prepares a manured wheat-stubble for mangold-sowing in the
!', following spring. The steam-trencher, that is, a ridge-plough Autumn-
, 1 with tines which break up the ground in advance, throws the

I i land into drills or ridges, covering up the manure with them ; » ‘ •

I I and the intervals are then bottomed by a subsoiler. Nothing
( I more is required ; and in spring mangold-seed is drilled or
rl dibbled on the powdery crests of the ridges. Bean-stubble is

I smashed up by the cultivator, and harrowed and drilled with
wheat ; and a combined cultivator and drill cross-cultivates and
I drills beans, or breaks up and drills barley on the land after
I the root crop. There is an extraordinary economy in this
steam tillage as compared with horse-work ; and the increase in
produce is so great, that the wonder is why a larger number of
i farmers have not literally copied the Woolston management.

' The gain in root-crops and clover is very considerable ; the
increase in yield of corn is valued at fully 8 bushels per acre ;
and the value of the fee-simple of the land has been raised
probably 20Z. per acre, from the depth and porosity given to the
staple, and the proofs of acquired or developed fertility mani-
fested in the regularity with which the land continues to give
heavy and high-quality crops.

Among the greatest labour-saving inventions lately intro- Labour-
duced, or so improved as to be widely adopted, are the double-
furrow and three-furrow ploughs, dispensing with one out of four introduction

2x2

G4:2 = 376 Practical Agriculture.

horses, and with one ploughman out of two in turning over the
same extent of land.

Mowing-machines now cut a major portion of the clover and
meadow hay on all but the area under small occupations ; and
it may be estimated that fully three-fourths of the white corn
in England is reaped by machines, pre-eminent among which
are the reapers of Messrs. R. Hornsby and Sons, of Grantham,
Messrs. Samuelson and Co., of Banbury, Messrs. Burgess and
Key, of Brentwood, Messrs. Howard, of Bedford, and Mr.
Walter A. Wood.

Harvest work is now greatly facilitated by stacking-machines,
and hay and sheaf-elevators working by horse-power ; while
sheaf-binders and loading-machines are all but sufficiently
perfected to prove a boon to all farmers in that most laborious
season.

VI.

DAIRY FARMING.

JOHN CHALMERS MORTON.

WITH

A CHAPTER ON

PASTOEAL HUSBANDEY.

W. T. CARRINGTON.

( U5 = 379 )

CONTENTS.

Chapi’ER I. — Dairy Cotes and their Manayemeni. ’

Oeneral Statistics — The Live-Stock of the Country — Dairy and Grazing
Breeds of Cattle — Management of Land and Live-Stock — The Shorthorn
Breed — A Staffordshire Dairy Farm — A Cheshire Dairy Farm — Cattle
Feeding for the Dairy — The Longhorn Breed — The Hereford Breed — A
Hereford Farm — The Ayrshire Breed — The Devon Breed — The Sussex
Breed — The Norfolk Polled Breed — The Guernsey and Jersey Breeds — Tlie
Kerry Breed .. .. .. .. .. .. Pages 381-400

Chapter II. — The Bearing of Calves.

Calf-Rearing — Calf-Rearing on Wliole Milk — Calf-Rearing on Skim-Milk

Pages 401-403

Chapter III. — The Sale of Mill-.

Sale of Milk— County Supply of Milk — On Feeding Cows for Milk —
Suburban Milk Dairies .. .. .. .. .. Yages 404—407

Chapter IV. — The Manufacture of Cheese,

The Cheese Manufacture — Cheddar Cheese— Mr. Harding’s Practice — Cheshire
Cheese — Gloucester Cheese — Derbyshire Cheese — Lancashire Cheese —
Dairy Factories — ^Factory Management — Factory Statistics — Stilton Cheese
— Bath Cheese — Cream Cheese — Size and Forms of Cheeses Pages 407-423

Chapter V. — The Manufacture of Butter.

The Butter Manufacture — A Buckinghamshire Dairy Farm — A Dorsetshire
Dairy Farm — Devonshire Butter^ — ^Irish Dairy Husbandry — -Dairy Imple-
ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pages 423-435

Chapter on Pastoral Husbandry.

Variations in Climate and Soil of England — The Shorthorn Breed of Cattle
— Management of a Pedigree Herd — Rearing of Cattle for Sale as Beef—

646 = 350

Contents.

Summer aud Winter Feeding — Other Systems of Bearing Calves — Diseases
of Calves — Grazing of Upland Pastures — Method of Keeping Young Cattle
without Housing in Winter — Summer Grazing of Cattle — Advantages of
using Cake — Profit of Grazing — Import of Irish Store Cattle — Bullock
Feeding — The Hereford Breed of Cattle — Management of a Hereford
Breeding Herd — Devon Breed of Cattle — Influence of Climate upon Sheei>
— The Production of Wool and Mutton — The, Lincoln Breed of Sheep —
The Cotswolds — The Leicesters — The Down Sheep — The Shropshires —
Management of Sheep on a Light-land Arable Farm — The Lambing Season —
Weaning and Dipping — Advantages of the Folding System — Consumption
of Boots by Sheep — General Management of the Flocks — Sheep on Strong-
land Arable Farms — On Low-lying Grass — On Hill Farms — Liability to
Foot-rot — Sheep on Cold Uplands — Great Increase in the Use of Imix)rted
Foods for Stock, and in the Demand for Fresh Meat .. Pages 435-452

( 647 = 55/ ')

DAIEY FAKMING.

CHAPTER I.

Dairy Cows and their Management.

The milk-produce of Great Britain, which is the subject of this General
Paper, amounts to about 1,000,000,000 gallons annually. We statistics,
have about 2,250,000 “ cows and heifers in-milk or in-calf”
in the month of June each year, and we may suppose that
they yield rather more than 440 gallons apiece within twelve
months. Of this quantity, considering the large number of
cows which do little more than rear their calf — which runs with
its dam throughout the summer — probably one-sixth is taken by
the calf. From the remainder, putting the average daily consump-
tion of man, woman, and child, at fully one-quarter of a pint
apiece, we must deduct 1,000,000 gallons a day for direct con-
sumption. These two deductions (167,000,000 and 365,000,000
gallons respectively) leave 468,000,000 of gallons, not one-half
of the milk-produce of the country, for the manufacture of cheese
and butter in the dairy. And probably two-thirds of this quan-
tity yield cheese, one-third butter. Now, 312,000,000 gallons
of milk will produce close on 2,800,000 cwt. of cheese,* and
156,000,000 gallons of milk will produce 530,000 cwt. of
butter.j To these numbers add 1,651,088 cwt. and 1,637,937
• cwt. respectively, the quantities of cheese and butter imported
1 last year; and the consumption of the country will thus be found
' to amount to close on 4,500,000 cwt. of cheese, and 2,250,000
, cwt. of butter (English made and foreign J) annually. These
quantities, then, represent the amount of the demand by which
our dairy industry has been created and is maintained.

* Rather less tlian I lb. of cheese per gallon of milk,
t One lb. of butter for every 21 pints of milk.

I There is in addition to this supply a large consumption of Irish butter, to
|Wliich some reference will be made in the sequel.

648 = 5S2

Dairy Farmimj.

The] live-stock Before describing our methods connected with calf-rearing,
of the country, milk-selling, and cheese- and butter-making — the four principal
divisions of dairy practice — it may be well to direct attention to
the several breeds of cattle from which our milk supply is
derived. Within the 2,250,000 of “ cows and heifers in-milk or
in-calf,” which our annual agricultural returns report in June
each year as the tale of dairy-cattle in Great Britain, there are ;
included more than a dozen distinct breeds. And there is
nothing which more strikingly illustrates the moulding agri-
cultural influence of varying circumstances — based partly on
differences of latitude, but still more on those differences of soil
and elevation which are due to our remarkably various geology —
than the fact that, within the limits of our little island, and more
or less confined to separate localities within it, there are
found such long-established and enormous differences as exist
between the massive meat-carrying Shorthorns, Herefords, and
Polled Angus breeds of cattle — the almost equally large but
less massive Longhorns, Black W elsh, Red Sussex, and Red or
Black Glamorganshire cattle — the smaller North Devons and i
West Highlanders — the Norfolk and Galloway breeds of Polled i
cattle — and the still smaller Ayrshire breed. To these, indeed, I
may be added, as outlying examples, the two Channel Island
breeds, the diminutive piebald Shetlander (not unlike the
Breton), the little red or black Kerry, and some others of still
more local character — as the Gloucestershire, a dark-red, some-
times brindled cow, with black points, and the Polled Somerset.
The surprising permanence of these different types and styles J
of dairy-stock, crowded as they are within such narrow limits,
is, no doubt, largely due to the isolation and seclusion in
which our agriculturists have been content to dwell. And the
counter-influence of freer and more constant intercourse, conse-
quent on our extended and completed railroad system, on the
continually widening field whence the meat and milk for many
of our dense centres of population are supplied, and on the fre-
quency and popularity of our agricultural exhibitions, will, no
doubt, more and more be felt. It is already seen in the gra-
dually extending supremacy of the Shorthorn over all other sorts
of cattle — the larger kinds especially — which are, with some
exceptions, losing their distinctive character over whole counties
through repeated Shorthorn crosses.

Dairy and Of those which have been named, the Shorthorns and the

'^*'^*^* Longhorns among the larger breeds, and the Norfolk, the Ayr-
" * shire, and the two Channel Island breeds among the smaller

— are distinctly and especially dairy cattle. The Herefords,
on the other hand, the Sussex and the Devons, the Polled
Angus, the Galloway, the black cattle of Wales and the rough -

Dairy Farming.

649 = ,555

cattle of the Highlands, are especially meat-producing breeds.
But, it is the great merit of the Shorthorn that it holds the
very foremost place in both of these classes. The exceptional
aptitude of the Shorthorn cow to lay on flesh whenever, whether
by accident or age, she has become no longer adapted for the
dairy, is a very great addition in the eyes of the dairy farmer
to her merit as a mere milk producer. And the unusual power
of the Shorthorn bull to confer this character upon his offspring
of other breeds is rapidly giving a Shorthorn character to the
dairy cattle of those counties where Welsh, Glamorganshire,
Longhorn, and other less important local breeds, now almost
lost in their purity, once prevailed. It has thus come to pass
that while the number of so-called pure-bred, or Herdbook
Shorthorn cows in the country is still perhaps smaller than the
number which would be pronounced pure of some other breeds,
— the Ayrshire, for example — yet the great bulk of the cattle
in our English dairy districts are year by year exhibiting a
constantly increasing Shorthorn character.

There were in ten of the western counties of Scotland, in
June 1877, 185,000 “cows or heifers in-calf or in-milk,” and
perhaps 120,000 of these, taking into account also the number
of Ayrshire herds in other parts of the island, may fairly be
taken to represent the whole number of the Ayrshire breed of
dairy cattle. In Hereford and Shropshire there were together
77,548, and perhaps 60,000 may be the total number of cows in
the whole country of this large meat-carrying kind. It is not so
easy to judge of the number of the less noteworthy local sorts, or
of breeds like that of Galloway or Norfolk, which can only be
held to occupy parts of counties ; but of the Polled Angus there
may not be more than 25,000 cows ; of Sussex cattle not more
than 6000 or 7000 ; of Devons, large and small — for there are
two styles, the former of which may rather be designated
Dorsets — there are probably as many as 60,000. No doubt the
number of cows of the Shorthorn breed, as pure bred as many of
those already named, is largely in excess of any number I have
quoted, for all the northern and midland counties of England
are full of them ; but, judging from the entries in recent volumes
of the Shorthorn Herdbook, and from the numbers disposed of
at the annual sales of Shorthorn auctioneers, I am advised that
the entire number of females of this breed which could claim
registry in the Herdbook is probably not more than 20,000.
In addition to these there are the Highland cattle and the
Channel Islanders, the Welsh and Longhorn breeds, and some
other sorts of less importance ; but, including them all, I do not
think that the number of pure-bred “ cows and heifers in-milk
or in-calf” each June, of the breeds that I have named, can

650 = 554

Dairy Farminy.

much exceed half-a-million. In addition to these there are more
than three times as many large-framed dairy cows in this country,
all of which have received more or less strongly the impress of
the Shorthorn cross. The dairy districts of Lancashire, Derby-
shire, Staffordshire, and Warwickshire, where Longhorns once
prevailed, have thus all more or less a Shorthorn character : the
dairy districts of Cheshire, where Welsh and Irish cattle once
prevailed, are now almost wholly Shorthorn ; and the same
may be said of the dairy counties of Gloucestershire, Leicester-
shire, Somersetshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, Bucks, &c., where
cattle of local breeds formerly were prevalent. On the other
hand, in the grazing districts of Yorkshire, Leicestershire,
Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire and Buckinghamshire, &c.,
excepting imported Hereford, Welsh, and Irish cattle (which,
however, are now also mostly Shorthorns) one will hardly
see any other.

In drawing up a report of the dairy husbandry of this country,
which includes the maintenance of all these cattle, as well as
the various uses to which their milk is devoted, I propose first
to describe the breeds and the farm management of our prin-
cipal dairy districts, and then to describe the four principal
dairy industries, viz. : (1) Calf-rearing ; (2) Milk-selling ; (3)
the Cheese Manufacture, and (4) Butter Dairying.

Management The proprietors of the ‘ Agricultural Gazette ’ have lent me a
of land and number of illustrations of the several breeds which I have
live-stock. named, and, in referring to them, I shall at the same time be
able to describe the general management of the several dairy
districts from which the portraits have been obtained.

I propose in the first place to describe the ordinary dairy
Shorthorn and the farm management which obtains in the dis-
tricts where this is the common dairy cow.

The Shorthorn The portrait (Fig. 1) represents one of three cows which
breed. received the first prize as the best dairy cattle in the first Show

of the British Dairy Farmers’ Association at Islington in 1876.
It may be taken as fairly representative of the best class of the
ordinary dairy cattle now to be found in most English dairy
districts — large-framed cattle of a distinct Shorthorn character,
capable of carrying a great weight of good beef with compara-
tively little offal, as soon as they have finished at the dairy.
I saw these three cows milked one morning in May 1877, when
their calves were about 12 weeks old. They gave 10, 10, 11 quarts
apiece at that milking, and had given nearly as much the even-
ing before. The three cows, with their aggregate of 15 gallons
of milk daily, were at that time making at least seven stone of
cheese a week, worth more than 3/. They were thus yielding

Dairy Farming.

<obl = 385

20s. worth of cheese apiece weekly, besides a contribution to
the food of the pigsties. The management of Mr. Carrington’s
farm, where cheese and, to some extent, butter are made in
summer, milk being sold in winter, is described by himself in

J-

rts

■a*

iii

ill

the following sentences, taken from the ‘ Agricultural Gazette ’
of 1877 : — “ Until the last six or eight years,” he says,
“ almost the whole of the milk from my cows (upwards of
100) had been made into cheese, and fine cheese commanding

652 = 386

Dairy Farming.

A Staffordshire
dairy farm.

as high a price as any in the district has been almost always
produced. At the smallest of the homesteads, in a village, new
milk is now sold throughout the year, and a considerable
quantity of milk-butter is made, and the skim-milk is used in
rearing heifer calves and feeding pigs. At the other two larger
homesteads, though a large quantity of cheese is still made in
the summer months, the practice is supplemented by the sale
of milk to London, and the making of a large quantity of milk-
butter, in the winter months, when both milk and butter are
scarce and dear.”

Here, then, we have the whole four departments of dairy
management under one tenancy. The adaptation of the farm-
cropping in this case may be taken as a sample of the best
style of English dairy management ; and a short account of these
farms may therefore fairly claim a place in a Report on English
Dairy Husbandry.

The Croxden Abbey Farms. — There are three farms, Croxden,
Hollington, and Nothill, near Uttoxeter, forming together an
unbroken holding, along with 60 acres of grass-land at some
distance, in Mr. Carrington’s hands ; and altogether they in-
clude 640 acres, of which some 80 are now arable, nearly 100 j
acres of the land most unsuited for tillage having been per-
manently seeded. The soil is generally a strong loam. The
lower fields, receiving water from gravel-beds higher up the
valley, are used for irrigation ; and about 50 acres of early grass, I
obtained in this way, form a useful addition to the early spring |
keep of the farm. The liquid manure is flushed at intervals
into the stream, and turned on to one and another of the fields |
next the several homesteads. ,

Of the 80 acres of arable land there are in general 2 in !
potatoes, 10 in mangold-wurzel, 10 in cabbages, 6 in turnips, \

8 in clover, 20 in wheat, 20 in oats, and 4 in barley. The
cabbage crop (Drumheads) is sown in August, and the plants
are before winter transplanted into a plot, 2 or 3 inches apart, i
in rows a foot apart; and a capital bed of strong, stocky plants
is thus ready in May for transplantation, the land being all I
manured and ploughed and prepared for the plants, which are
put in about 3 feet apart all over the ground. These cabbages i
are used on the pastures for the cows and young stock during : i
the autumn months. i

The manure of the farm goes on the mangold and cabbage
land, as well as to some extent on the meadows and young grass.

Mr. Carrington depends wholly on his dressing of superphos- j
phate and nitrate of soda for his swede crop. The former is jj
applied at the time of sowing, at the rate of 6 cwt. per acre,
the latter, 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. per acre, when the turnips are hoed out. li

Dairy Farminy.

653 = 387

During autumn the cows at grass receive some cabbages and
3 lbs. of decorticated cottonseed-cake daily, and this keeps them
in full milk to the end of their time, or within two months of
their calving again. The use of decorticated cotton-cake is one •
of the chief features of the farm management here ; and it results
not only in the profitable maintenance of both the milking and
the fatting process, but in the gradual improvement of the pasture.

I saw it given to ewes, young stock, and cattle both in the house
and in the field. The cattle at grass have it put down to them
in small heaps, in the same way as they are foddered with hay,
in a new place every day on the bare ground, from which they
pick it up as clean as if it had never been put down. Cows are
brought to pail at 2 to years old, when they are already well-
grown heifers, and with some extra keep they make ultimately
as big cows, with less immediate liability to barrenness when
brought in thus young than if kept a year longer. The heifer
calves, first fed on new milk, are weaned on whey and meal, or,
when butter commands a good price, on skim-milk and meal ;
they are taught to eat linseed-cake and are turned out to grass
in June, and left out altogether until brought in to calve two
years afterwards. They thus remain out, with an open field-
shed for shelter, for a couple of winters, receiving daily at
first from ^ lb. to 1 lb. of linseed-cake, and afterwards more of
it with the cotton-cake ; getting perhaps 1 lb. of each, along with
cabbage or grass, during the first autumn or winter, and 2 lbs.
or 3 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake, with a little hay, during the
second winter.

Mr. Carrington feeds a considerable number of cows during
winter for the production of milk for sale, some being bought
in autumn and fed liberally through the winter, and afterwards
dried off and grazed on some of the better pastures, cake being
given at the same time. From 80 to 90 Shropshire ewes are
kept, and their produce (except part of the ewe lambs kept for
the flock) are sold fat at from 13 to 15 months old. The ewes
are wintered on the old pastures receiving a few roots, and ^ lb.
of decorticated cotton-cake per head when near lambing.

The pastures as well as the meadows feel the benefit of the
constant extra feeding of both sheep and cattle, which improves
the grass, benefits the sheep and cattle, and permanently im-
proves the condition of the land.

The land has been drained where necessary 4 feet deep, with
pipes. More than 100 acres have thus been regularly drained
at the sole cost of the tenant. Unnecessary fences are removed,
portions being left for shelter in the midst of the larger fields
thus thrown together ; and wet places are drained when neces-
sary by occasional drains.

054 = 355

Dairy Farming.

A Cheshire
dairy farm.

A great deal of grass-land improvement is annually done
sowing 1 or 1;|: cwt. of nitrate of soda, with 2 to 3 cwt. of
mineral superphosphate per acre in early spring, and thereafter
feeding off the flush of growth which is produced by sheep and
cattle, receiving cotton-cake. Some 9 tons of nitrate of soda
and 10 to 12 tons of superphosphate are used annually, chiefly
in this way, and partly on the arable lands.

On the labour question it may suffice to say that Mr. Car-
rington keeps several men and boys in his house, Avho receive
8Z. to 20/. or 25/. yearly, with their board and lodging. A
cowman, who feeds and cleans 70 cattle in houses all winter,
receives 12s. a week and his keep all the year round, with
cottage-rent and potato-ground, and coals hauled.

There are 50 acres of water-meadow for early spring green
food, 10 acres of mangold-wurzel, 10 acres of cabbage, 6 of
turnips, and 8 of clover, with about 45 acres in straw crops,
one-sixth of the whole land being arable, and five-sixths per-
manent pasture : and this, with a large purchase of cake and
India corn for auxiliary food, and of niti'ate of soda and super-
phosphate of lime for auxiliary manuring, suffices for the
maintenance of over 100 dairy cattle of the large stamp here
illustrated, the fattening of a considerable number of dry cows,
the rearing of a large number of calves and yearlings, the
feeding of a large number of pigs, and the maintenance of a
small flock of sheep.

If farm examples were selected from other counties, as Glou-
cestershire and Cheshire, it is probable that a much smaller
proportion in the former, a much larger in the latter, would be
arable. In an ordinary Gloucestershire dairy-farm the dairy-
cattle, about one cow to every three acres, receive nothing but
pasturage in summer, and very little but straw, with a few turnips
and a little hay, in winter ; being thus foddered either in yards
provided with shelter-sheds or in the nearest pasture-fields.
In Cheshire the cows are brought in to shippens, and tied up in
stalls, receiving straw and turnips with a little hay, and are let
out daily to watering. The following abridged account of the
Cheshire Dairy farm, which received the Prize of the Royal
Agricultural Society at their last meeting (Liverpool, 1877), is
extracted from the Society’s ‘ Journal ; ’ and may be taken as
another example of the best English dairy-farm management.

Stapleford Hall, near Tarvin, in the occupation of 3Ir. John
Lea, is 250 acres in extent, of which about one-half is arable,
only 70 acres, or thereabouts, however, being annually under the
plough, the remainder being either permanent grass or grass laid
down by the tenant, and from two to ten years old. It lies on
the marl of the New Red Sandstone formation, or on the gravel

a,a,a. Cows. Fig. 2. — Plan of Mr. Lca’s Homestead, Stapleford Hall, Chester.

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G5Q = 390

Dairy Farming.

beds by which that formation is in many places covered, and the
soil is heavy and cool, or light and occasionally “burning,”
accordingly. Mr. Lea takes an oat crop after his grass, which is
ploughed up at from two to ten years old, according to its
condition. This is followed by a fallow crop, as mangolds,
swedes, turnips, or beans ; and this by wheat and oats, in which
clover and grass seeds are sown. The farm-manure, with a
dressing of artificial manure, is applied to the green and fallow
crops. An occasional dressing of bone-dust, 10 cwt. per acre,
is put on the clover. The clovers and grass-seeds very soon
form an admirable pasture, hardly distinguishable from good
old grass, and they remain down as long as the tenant thinks
proper. Of the whole 250 acres, about 120 acres are in per-
manent grass, much of this being low-lying meadow-land, which
Mr. Lea has drained, and which he mows every year. The
premises, of which a plan and index are given (Fig. 2, p. 13),
provide ample accommodation for the stock of all kinds, and
for their winter fodder.

The live-stock of the farm — confined to cows,* young stock
and pigs — include 70 to 80 dairy cows, of a useful Shorthorn
type. Twenty young heifer-calves are reared each year, and as
many drafts of the poorest milkers and the older cows are sold
off each year. The heifers are put to the bull at 16 months old,
and are brought into the herd early in their third year. They
are a useful lot of common Shorthorns, and are improving in
Mr. Lea’s hands. For his latest purchased bull, bred by Mr.
George Phillips of Shropshire, he gave 52 guineas at the Bingley
Hall Sale, Birmingham. It had taken the first prize in its class
there. The produce of the cows is about 4 cwt. of cheese
annually, besides about 20 lbs. of butter apiece ; a considerable
quantity of the milk also being sold from them in December
and January. Both the latest and the earliest milkings thus
go into Liverpool, at prices varying from lOr/. to llfZ. a gallon
on the farm. All the earliest bull-calves are fed, and there
are generally 20 to 30 fat calves sold early every spring, at
prices varying from 3Z. to 5Z. apiece. Besides these, upwards
of 400Z. is received annually from the sale of draft-cows ; and

* When sheep are kept with cows upon a dairy farm the quantity and even the
quality of the cheese are sure to suffer. The latter may indeed be preserved by
good management, but the former is inevitably injured. Depasturage by sheep
is certain so to reduce the quantity of the finer clovers and grasses in the midst
of the pasture, that the cow's nourishment and, by con.scquence, her jiroductive-
ness also are injuriously affected. On tlie Prize Farm at Stapleford Hall, where
no sheep are kept, the cheese usually made amounts to 4 cwt. annually jier cow.
At Waterside farm in Lancaster, another prize dairy farm, on laud equally good,
there is a large flock of sheep maintained with the dairy stock, and the cheese
from cows of even superior quality is less by at least i cwt. each annually.

Dairy Farming.

657 = 391

there are 50 fat hogs of a good middle-sized white breed, which
average 11. apiece, half being bred on the farm (2 sows are
kept), and half bought as young stores, at about 1/. apiece. The
other receipts from the farm come from 20 to 25 acres of wheat,

30 to 40 acres of oats, and 6 acres of potatoes ; also from the
sale of 30 tons, or more, of hay and straw every year, and from
the poultry-yard and garden, both of which are most profitably
productive.

These two examples may suffice as illustrative of the best
style of ordinary English farm management when cheese is the
product of the dairy. The treatment of the cattle on such
farms is thus described by Mr. Carrington

“ The cows are wintered on straw or hay and roots ; those Cattle feeding
which have not calved are turned out for a few hours in a dairy,
sheltered sound field of turf, near the homestead, every day,
except when the weather is very bad. I consider the fresh air
and exercise beneficial. To those of my cows which are in
high condition, I give 1 lb. of Epsom salts and 1 oz. of ginger
just before calving, and in some cases I give this dose twice
before calving. This I consider a safeguard against milk-fever.

“A few days after calving I commence to give the cows from
4 lb. to 6 lb. of cake or meal, with plenty of mangolds and hay,
or cut straw. A cow in full milk, kept on hay and roots alone,
rapidly loses flesh, and her milk will neither be so abundant
nor so rich in butter or curd as when extra stimulating food is
supplied. Decorticated cotton-cake is a valuable food for milch-
cows, either alone or in conjunction with maize meal, which is
very largely used for all kinds of stock in Lancashire and
Cheshire, within easy reach of the Liverpool market. Palm-nut
meal (a food very rich in oil) is a valuable food where it can
be mixed with chop and pulped roots ; it is not, however, palat-
able to stock unless mixed with other food.

“ It was formerly my practice to make cheese from the middle
of February to Christmas. I now find it more profitable to
make cheese only from about Lady Day to October, and to dis-
pose of the milk in the winter, either by sale to London or by
making milk-butter. Cheese made in the winter months is
always inferior to grass cheese ; and in winter both milk and
milk-butter are dearer than in summer.

“ Dairy cows should have as early a bite of grass as can be
saved for them ; and a good water-meadow, therefore, is a valuable
adjunct to a dairy farm. But it is better to turn milch-cows
out for an hour or two every fine sunny day in April, even if
there is no grass for them. They should not generally lie out of
floors at night until the first or second week in May.

“ An abundant supply of grass should be provided for the cows

2 Y 2

658 = 592

Dairy Farming.

The Longhorn
breed.

in the summer, and, if the supply falls short, they should be fed
with green fodder, cake, or meal. No animal better repays
liberal treatment than a good dairy cow. It is my practice to
grow a large amount of green crop for the cows in autumn and
winter. I generally commence with rape and vetches sown
together on a small extent of land, and on the headlands of the
other root-crops. Ox cabbage is generally given to the cows —
spread on the pastures — from Michaelmas to Christmas ; and at
that period of the year there is no green food to equal it.
For winter consumption in the stalls, white turnips, swedes,
and mangolds are given, reserving the latter until the last. By
a liberal supply of cabbage, and 3 lb. per day of decorticated
cotton-cake to each milking cow, I have generally an abundant
supply of milk in the autumn months, and the dairy cows are
kept in blooming condition. They are generally dry about two
months. The heifers are brought into the dairy at from 2 years
to 2^ years old. I get them big enough at that age, and they
are more likely to breed and milk than if they were left a year
longer without a calf. Nearly all my young stock lie out of
doors the first two winters, until they are about producing the
first calf. My land is generally fairly well sheltered, and I find
that young stock with 2 lb. to 3 lb. of cake per day, and a little
hay given them on the pastures, thrive well in the winter.

“ I have heifers calving down now at 2 years old, which have
never lain up since they were small calves, and they are worth
more than 20 guineas each. Cattle will not, however, do well
in exposed or damp situations Avhere there is no shelter. It is
very undesirable by keeping young stock too warm to make
them tender and delicate.”

The above will suffice for a general account of the ordinary
dairy Shorthorn, and of the farm management commonly
adopted where this breed prevails.

The Longhorn breed, represented by Fig. 3, page 393, is
essentially a dairy breed. The portrait represents the cow
belonging to Mr. W. G. Farmer, of Hinckley, Leicestershire,
which took the first prize in her class at the Liverpool Show of
the Royal Agricultural Society last year. Rather more leggy,
and fully as long bodied, perhaps hardly so high, as the Short-
horn— of dark red colour, with black points and white lines
along back and bosom, and with long horns — the breed is per-
fectly well represented by this portrait, taken from a photograph.

The cow does not generally give so much milk as an ordinary
Shorthorn cow ; but in such experiments as are recorded the
milk has proved richer, with a larger percentage of curd rather
than of cream, in the case of cows which have been compared
at the same age and season of the year. The breed stood at

659 = 595

sheep. And he made it at length earlier of maturity, with a
greater aptitude to fatten and more readiness to put on beef
over rib and sirloin, where the carcass is most valuable. In
proportion, however, as it improved in these respects, it became
less valuable as a dairy breed. Its merits have always been

Dairy Farming.

one time higher in public reputation than it has latterly main-
tained. Bakewell of Dishley had selected it as the sort on
which to try with cattle the same principles of breeding as had
proved fruitful of such wonderful results Avith the Leicester

660 = 594

Dairy Farming.

maintained by a number of breeders in the midland counties ;
and an attempt is now being organised to bring it more
prominently into notice at our annual Shows.*

The farm management where Longhorns are retained as
stock in dairy occupations, does not differ from that of Cheshire,

Gloucestershire, or Staffordshire, which has been already
described.

• See J. Ncvill Fitt, on “ Longliorn Cattle,” ‘ Journal of the Eoyal Agricul-
tural Society,’ vol. xii., New Series.

Dairy Farming.

661 = 355

The Hereford breed is not noteworthy for its dairy merits, The Hereford
although herds almost wholly Hereford are in some cases, espe- breed,
cially in Dorsetshire, maintained on some dairy farms. The
portrait (Fig. 4) is that of “ Helena,” a Hereford heifer, bred by
Mr. T. J. Carwardine of Leominster, which has taken several
prizes at our leading cattle shows, and may be taken as a fair
representative of the breed. The engraving is copied from a
photograph, and one gathers from it a perfectly accurate im-
pression of the breed, so far as it goes. The red colour, of
course, cannot be given, but the white face is characteristic ;
and all the rest, it will be understood, is of a red colour.

The Hereford, though in general hardly so large as the
ordinary Shorthorn, attains as great a weight at an early age,
when fed for beef. It is pre-eminently a beef-producing and
beef-carrying breed. The live weights of the fat Shorthorn
and Hereford cattle at the annual Smithfield exhibition are
almost identical at corresponding ages. Although, however,
this breed is rarely cultivated for its dairy qualities, yet there is
sufficient testimony to the fact that when bred especially for dairy
purposes it satisfies its breeder. Thus, in a lecture before the
Brecon Chamber of Agriculture, Mr. Duckham, well known as
editor of the ‘ Hereford Herdbook,’ says of the milking pro-
perties of the Herefords : — “The Hereford herd of Mr. James,
of Mappowder, Blandford, Dorset, has been established thirty
years. He tells me that Hereford dairies are becoming very
general in that county, and adds, ‘ In proof that they are good
for milk with us, I let 100 cows to dairy people, and if I buy
one of any other breed to fill up a deficiency, the dairymen
always grumble, and would rather have one of my own bred
heifers.’ Mr. Olver^Penhallow, Cornwall, says, ‘Hereford cows
I are generally said to be bad milkers. That is contrary to my
experience, and I feel persuaded that when such is the case it
does not arise from any constitutional defect, but rather from
mismanagement in rearing, or a deficiency of the constituents
essential to the production of milk in their food.’ He adds, ‘ My
cow, “ Patience,” bred by Mr. J. G. Cooke, Moreton House,

' Hereford, has yielded 14 lbs. of butter per week ; and “ Blossom,”

! bred by Mr. Longmore, Buckton, Salop, gave 22 quarts of milk,

! yielding 2^ lbs. of butter per day.’ ”

In Herefordshire the cows are wintered on turnips and straw, A Hereford
with a little hay in yards or on dry fields. They calve from
February to May, and the calf runs with its dam all through the
summer. It is wintered on hay and roots with a little cake in
yards, grazed the following summer, and either wintered again
I and sold in the autumn of the third year, or sold at the Here-
ford autumn fairs at some twenty months old, for prices which

QQ2 = 396

Dairy Farming.

The Ayrshire
breed.

reach 16/. to 20/., for two-year-olds. The cows rarely yield
anything after the first four weeks beyond suckling their calves
on the pastures.

A Herefordshire farm of 200 acres may have 150 acres of
permanent grass, of which from 10 to 20 will be orchard. It
will be stocked with, perhaps, 12 to 14 cows, of which, taking
the account in spring, 2 or 3 old cows have been fattened, and are
ready for the butcher. There are 12 or 14 calves running with
their dams, and as many yearlings, of which 10 or 11 maybe for
sale in the autumn, or they may be kept over another year and
then sold — large fresh well-made young beasts, worth some-
times nearly 20/. apiece — and 2 or 3 are yearling heifers, to be
put to the bull next summer, to take the place in the herd of
the oldest cows in the following year. Of the arable land, one-
fifth may be in turnips and mangolds for winter food for the
cattle. These roots with the straw of the corn crops, and the
hay from a certain extent, perhaps 60 acres, of old grass will
keep the cattle, young and old, together with the small flock
of sheep which are also kept on the farm, until it is time to
turn them out to grass again next May.

The Ayrshire is the characteristic dairy breed of Scotland, and
one of the most numerous pure breeds in the island. It is fairly
represented by the engraving (Fig. 5), which is a portrait of
“ Jeanie,” a 5-year-old Ayrshire cow, which took the first prize
in her class at Liverpool, 1877, and was exhibited by Mr. A.
Cassell, of Gayton, Keston, Cheshire. Of this breed I will only
say that the dairy produce of Scotland is almost wholly derived
from it ; that the area on which it is cultivated is almost wholly
arable land, its grasses being sown for not more than three years’
duration ; and that it is very largely the practice in these dis-
tricts for the farmer to let his cow stock to a dairyman, called
a “ Bower,” on whom the whole work rests of attendance on
the cow, and of the dairy work connected with her — a certain
area of (clover and ryegrass) grass-land, a certain allowance of
hay and straw, and a certain weight of turnips, being allotted
for each cow. A fair average price for cows thus let in
Ayrshire is 13/. a year. The usual allowance is 5 tons of
turnips, 280 lbs. of bean-meal, straw fodder and litter ad lib.,
and a little hay for a month before being turned out to grass ;
and about acre of grass is the usual allowance for grazing.
The farmer is at no expense, except in providing a horse for the
“ bower,” who generally carts his own turnips from the field. A
fair estimate of yearly yield from these small cows is 390 lbs.
of cheese, besides a little butter. To this is added, of course,
a certain quantity of pork derived from the consumption of
whey.

Dairy Farming.

(563 = 597

The Ayrshire is a “ model ” breed in both senses of the word —
for it gives you the ideal form of a cow, and it is the cow rather
too much in miniature to be satisfactory to an outsider. It is
hardly so large as the Devon. Seen in profile, the body lies
between two straight lines, the upper one horizontal, the lower
sloping downwards, from the bosom towards the udder, which
does not fall below it. It is curious to watch judges scanning
a lot of Ayrshire cows as compared with judges looking at
Shorthorn stock. The former look down a great deal more
than they look up. It is the belly line and the form and cha-
racter of the udder which, after all, are the main points which
determine the award. The Ayrshire cow stands on short legs,
and is long in proportion to its height, i.e., on a comparison

Fig. 5. — Mr. Cassell's Ayrshire Cow, Jeanie.”

with other breeds. A somewhat slender neck carries a head
of beautifully feminine character, with horns of middle length,
which face you, i.e., stand upwards. The colours are white, with
little brown or red — or light or dark brown and red, with little
white — or brown or red or even black with white, about half and
half. The nose is flesh-coloured or black, and the horns are as
often with black points as not.

The Devon breed is represented by the portrait of Mr. Webber’s The Devon
heifer, “Lydia” (Fig. 6, p. 398), first in her class, all of which
were commended at the Bath and West of England Society’s
Meeting at Croydon in 1875. Of small size and red colour,
without any patches of white, the Devons are not a dairy breed

664 = 3P5

Dairy Farming.

par excellence, but they leave their comparatively bleak home in
the districts of North Devon, and are sold as stores at three
years old, either to be grazed in the richer valleys of the southern
division of the county, or possibly for use in the butter dairies
of the same county and of Dorsetshire, where, however, a larger
red breed of similar type is preferred.

Fig. 6. — Mr. Wehher's Devon Heifer, “ Lydia.”

The Sussex The Sussex breed must be merely named. It is even less a 5
breed. dairy breed than the Devon, which it much resembles, being of

the same dark-red colour with middle-sized spreading horns, but !
rather thicker in its build and of a larger size. It is now well
represented at all our annual cattle shows : and is becoming ^
generally known as a good grazier’s beast, capable of carrying
a great weight of good beef at an early age.

The Norfolk The Norfolk Polled breed is distinctly a dairy breed of cattle, i

Polled breed. J^rgely cultivated in the two eastern counties — Norfolk and «

Suffolk. The portrait (Fig. 7) represents “Gloss,” a cow of »
the breed belonging to R. E. Lofft, Esq., of Troston, Bury {}

St. Edmunds ; and it will be seen that in form it represents the 1 1

very ideal of a heavy milker. With somewhat slender head f
and neck, and great development towards the hindquarter, and f'
with a large full udder, she leaves nothing to be desired. The “j

butter dairying of Suffolk is gradually disappearing ; but the £

Dairy Farming.

QQ5 = 399

breed is maintained in its purity by a considerable number
of farmers ; and it well deserves that it should not be lost.
In records kept by Mr. Herman Biddell of Playford, near
Ipswich, who has a large and admirable herd of these cattle, I
have seen that the milk produced in particular instances has
averaged 2 • 4 to 2 • 7 gallons daily per cow for 8 J months
together — to which, in order to learn the full annual yield, must
be added a certain quantity consumed by the calf till it was 4 or
[i 5 weeks old, and some of the later milkings also which were not
recorded. The total produce of the 8^ months amounted to
' from 620 to 700 gallons, quite equal to the produce of a good
Shorthorn cow, which would be at least one half heavier and

Fig. 7. — Mr. It. E. Lo ft's Norfolk Cow, “ Gloss."

larger than the Norfolk. The cattle are grazed on the compara-
tively poor pastures of the county during summer, and receive
j 1 straw and turnips during winter, with a little hay before and
I after calving, until they can be turned out to grass.

1 The two Channel Island breeds — the Guernsey, with its yellow The Guernsey
I and white larger frame, and the Jersey, fawn or dun, with black Jersey
, points and deer-like beauty — are noteworthy dairy breeds, of
; which the shortest mention must suffice, for they occupy but an
I insignificant place in the list of breeds furnishing the general
1 1 dairy stock of our cheese and butter districts. They are found
j I occasionally, one or two, in any large herd of dairy cattle, for
> the sake of the added richness thus imparted to the milk ; but it

(]0G = 400

Dairy Farming.

The Kerrr
breed.

is chiefly as the family cow that they are known and prized.
All round London, where a single cow or perhaps a couple
suffices to provide the milk and, in part, the butter of the house-
hold, the Channel Island cow, generally the Jersey, is seen. Of
course in England, as well as in the islands, there are also con-
siderable herds from which the demand for these single cows is
supplied ; but they do not, except in the islands themselves, con-
stitute the dairy stock of any considerable agricultural district.

Some reference to the dairy farm management of Ireland may
be made in the sequel. The dairy stock of Ireland has become
of late increasingly of a Shorthorn character, and large numbers
of capital stock are annually imported from it into England for
fattening purposes. The only characteristic Irish breed is the
diminutive Kerry, red or black, of which the subjoined portrait

Fig. 8. — Mr. J. Bohertson's Kerry Heifer.

represents a heifer bred by Mr. Robertson of Santry, near
Dublin. They are a hardy diminutive race, yielding a rich
milk in, for their size, remarkable quantity.

I now turn to the four uses of milk, to which reference has
already been made, as covering the whole dairy industry of the
island, with its 1,000,000,000 gallons of milk per annum.

Dairy Farming.

667 = 40i

CHAPTEK II.

The Eearing of Calves.

There is, in the first place, the practice of letting the calf Calf-rearing,
run with its dam at grass all through the summer, which one
sees adopted in Herefordshire, for example. There are also farms
where heifers are put to the bull at 18 months old, and allowed
; to suckle their calves for 8 to 10 weeks, thereafter being put dry
and grazed and fattened ; becoming at 3 years old, after a winter’s
feeding, nearly as heavy as if they had been fed right through,

I with the advantage of having reared a calf worth 4?. or 5Z. into
I the bargain. There are also farms where 6 or 7, and even more,

I calves are reared each year upon a single cow ; the calf being
brought from its dam at 2 or 3 days old to suck its nurse, with
which it keeps till gradually weaned off at 8 or 9 weeks, a second
young one gradually taking its place — the cow, in fact, always
having two calves with her — the one being gradually helped more
than the other with gruel and other food, and getting less of the
milk. Here, too, the labour of hand-milking is avoided, which
is the growing difficulty everywhere, even in distinctly dairy
districts. The practice in most dairy districts is to get rid of
calves at a few days old, selling them as soon as possible,
in order to devote the whole milk of the cow to cheese- or
butter-making. In some parts, however, especially when it is

f' the object of the farmer by the use of a good bull to improve his
|l stock, a considerable proportion of the heifer calves are reared.

On this I again quote Mr. W. T. Carrington, of Uttoxeter, who

“It is my practice to rear nearly 40 of my earliest heifer Calf-reavin<' on
calves (the herd includes over 100 cows). They are not allowed whole milk,
to suck their dams ; they have from 4 quarts to 8 quarts of new
milk per diem, according to age, for 3 or 4 weeks. They are
then fed with skim-milk, thickened with boiled linseed or
oatmeal, and are taught as soon as possible to eat hay and a
small quantity of linseed-cake. They are allowed to run out on
I a grass-field in May and June, and are after then generally left
I out altogether, with a shed to run into in very wet weather, or
i to avoid the heat of the sun and the teasing of flies. The milk
feeding is altogether discontinued when they are about 4 months
• old. They are supplied with about 1 lb. each per day of linseed-
; cake all through the year.”

Elsewhere in dairy districts, in order to have all the milk

I I available for cheese-making, the calves, when taken from new
• ' milk, are fed Avith whey thickened with meal. Skim-milk is a
‘ much safer food ; and now that butter sells at a good price, it

Calf-rearin:

ckim-milk.

QQS = 402 Dairy Fanning.

will answer to keep sufficient milk for the calves out of the
cheese-tub.

Where cottagers and farm-labourers keep cows, as in some dis-
tricts in both England and Scotland they do, it is a common
practice for the master’s bull to be used over all, free of charge,
with the understanding that the calf becomes the property of the
farmer, at a fair price. The effect of using a well-bred Shorthorn
bull is seen in the greater precocity and aptitude of its produce
to fatten ; and a well-bred stock of calves are made to come out
well fattened oxen or heifers, worth 25Z. and upwards at two years
old. The calf is in these cases taken from her dam at once,
rubbed dry with wisps of straw, and thereafter fed with its own
mother’s milk, being, with patience, induced to suck at the fingers
in the pail where the milk is placed, and ultimately to drink.*
Whole milk, warm from the cow, may be given three times a day
for the first fortnight, and it is allowed to have as much as it
will take. It may then be tempted to suck (and at length to eat)
small bits of oilcake and sweet hay, and the midday meal of
milk may be gradually reduced, and ultimately discontinued ;
and when the calf at length takes slices of turnips and man-
golds freely the milk may be brought down to 5 or 6 quarts a
day, water being added to make up the necessary quantity : and
at 7 or 8 weeks this may be gradually reduced, and ultimately
altogether discontinued. This is the plan described by Mr. J.
Wilson, of Edington Mains, Berwickshire, and it is a common
practice where whole milk is given. Mr. T. Bowick, in his
paper on “ Calf-rearing,” f says that he has found 4 quarts of
whole milk suffice, given at only two meals in this way for the
first two weeks— 5 or 6 quarts up till the calf is 4 or 5 weeks old
— and 6 or 7 quarts daily afterwards ; the quantity at length
being rapidly diminished, as green hay, cake, and roots are
gradually introduced, and at length taken freely,
on In dairy districts, however, calves are generally reared on
skim-milk, and even on whey after the first few days. Mr. Ruck,
of Cirencester, describes a plan in which, excepting during the
first few days, none but skim-milk, and very little of that, was
used. A six-gallon bucket receives first 7 lbs. of linseed-cake
ground fine and 2 gallons of scalding water ; then 2 gallons of
“ hay tea,” made by pouring scalding water on good hay in a

* We have various contrivances, not yet in common use however, for facili-
tating this work — buckets covered with a plate over the milk, from which there
stands up an artificial india-rubber teat connected by tube with the milk below.
Also long wooden vessels standing high enough i'or pigs, or lambs, or calves,
with several such teats along the sides, by which the milk in the vessels may be
sucked out.

t ‘ Jom'nal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society,’ vol. xxii. p. 136.

Dairy Farming.

669 = 403

tub ; then again 7 lbs. of mixed flour of wheat, oats, barley, and
beans ; the whole to be filled up with 2 gallons of cold water.
This 6 gallons is enough for 12 or 15 calves a day, and it costs
about 3c?. a day apiece. Two quarts of this gruel are added
to 2 quarts of cold water, and, with the addition of what sweet
skim-milk can be had, this is the daily supply of a calf.

I have known a case in which 5 cows reared 50 calves, their
milk having been also to some extent skimmed for butter for
the household. The cows were brought to the pail, one after
another, from February until May ; and the calves, bought as they
could be got, received each a share of the partly-skimmed milk,
more and better milk being given to the very youngest, until
they began to suck at and nibble shred swedes and hay ; the
sole addition to this food was oatmeal gruel, half-a-pint of finely
ground best oatmeal for each calf being put morning and evening
into about 2 quarts of scalding water, which was cool enough
and cooked enough by staying there all day or night for use at
the evening and morning meal respectively, after having thus
stood twelve hours. This, with care always to give food which
is perfectly sweet and not too cold, with attention also to the
warmth and dryness of the accommodation that is given the calf,
has reared them in health, without a single loss, during the season.
It will be seen, however, in Mr. Carrington’s practice, as already
described — and it is more and more coming to be generallv
acknowledged — that for the production of the best and most
profitable animals, whether for the dairy or the feeding-stall,
the more liberal management of the calf is in the end the better
way. To stint the young beast is to diminish its quality as a
“ good doer ” from the very beginning. Whether for beef or for
milk it is well that good calf-flesh should be established at the
outset, and that by no stinginess or severity of after-treatment
should it be lost.

When veal is the object, and the desire is to fatten the calf
as quickly as possible, new milk must be given, as much as
will be taken, and efforts must also be made to induce the con-
sumption of oilcake and linseed-meal as early as possible.

In one or other of these ways, then, the calf is reared ; and
considering the large districts over which the most liberal treat-
ment yet prevails, I believe it is not too large an estimate which
puts the utilisation of milk in this way at one-sixth of the whole
milk produce of the country.

670 = 404

Dairy Farmivy.

CHAPTEK III.

The Sale of Milk.

Sale of Milk. I NOW come to tbe disposal of milk for direct consumption
as the second principal use of the dairy produce of the country.
Some years ago I investigated the London milk supply (see
‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ vol. iv., 2nd Series,
p. 69), and that of some smaller English and Scottish towns.
The quantity consumed in London at that time amounted
to about l-5th of a pint a-head. In Stirling, again, a Scottish
town of 12,500 inhabitants, the consumption was 2-7ths of a
pint daily. In the case of many thousands of people in work-
houses, orphanages, and asylums, where the food is under
medical direction, the milk consumption was ascertained to
be 2-5ths of a pint for each individual daily — being nearly
twice the actual ordinary consumption of the ordinary popu-
lation in England. There were at that time 24,000 cows
in London cow-houses ; but the country supply was rapidly
growing, and the cattle-plague had greatly diminished the
number of milch-cows in town. Since then the country supply
brought in by railway has enormously developed, and the esti-
mate of Mr. G. M. Allender, manager of one of the largest of
the London Dairy Companies, indicates an increased individual
consumption. I believe, therefore, it may be assumed that the
direct milk consumption in this country of over 30,000,000
people, is now not far short of 1,000,000 gallons daily throughout
the year, or more than one-third of the whole milk produce of
the country. The market for milk in London now affects farms
100 and 150 miles away ; and the business of milk production
and transmission is conducted on an enormous scale. When
the farm is not more distant, whether by train or carriage, than
two hours from the breakfast or tea table where its milk is to be
consumed, the milking is done in early morning and afternoon
accordingly, and the milk is put direct from the pail into the
large vessels — about 3 feet high, in shape like the frustrum of a
slender cone, and capable of holding 15 or 16 gallons — in which
it is carried in spring-carts either to the station or to the dealer’s
premises in the neighbouring town. In this case the only pre-
caution taken is to have these vessels absolutely clean. No cooling
of the milk is considered necessary ; it is poured into the can,
which is filled to the lid, locked and despatched.

Country supply When the farm is in a distant county, and the milk cannot be

of milk. delivered in less than ten or twelve hours, great care is taken to
cool and aerate it before placing it in the can for transmission.
It is either placed in shallow tin vessels in cold water, and thus

Dairy Farming.

671 = 405

at once exposed in a thin layer for the evaporation of its animal
odour, and cooled to as low a temperature as the water at com-
mand permits, or it is passed over Lawrence’s refrigerator, the
milk trickling over vertical surfaces kept cold by cold water
passing between them and carrying the heat away. The milk
is thus aerated at the same time that it is cooled ; and in both
ways it is rendered less susceptible of change. When thus
cooled, the milk may be despatched with safety, although the
distance be some hours by railway, in fact, 100 or 150 miles
away. In some cases additional precaution is taken by sur-
rounding the cans with wet jackets, the evaporation from which
tends to keep their contents cool.

Of the precautions taken by the leading London milk dairies,
by means of sampling and analysis, to hinder fraudulent dilution
before the milk comes to them or passes from them — also by means
of occasional medical inspection of the farms whence it comes,
to avoid the real danger of distributing milk which has been
infected with the germ of scarlet or typhus, or other infectious
fever — I need say nothing here. That there is a danger of this
latter kind has been proved by many disastrous instances of late
years, and the authorities are now quite alive to its existence.

Of the mode of feeding the cows which supply town milk On feeding
something ought to be said. Mr. Carrington’s method of cow-
feeding for milk supply during winter, when milk is dearest,
and risk of spoiling en route to town is least, has been already
stated. The following are modes of feeding in town dairies.

Brewers’ or distillers’ “ grains ” are the characteristic food.

These are the spent malt which has yielded the saccharine
extract from which beer or spirit is obtained. They cost from
bd. to 8c?. per bushel ; and a bushel or more, sometimes two
bushels, are given daily to each cow, besides which she has
mangolds, hay, and meal. In fact, the object is, having pur-
chased a good Shorthorn cow, not only to stimulate her milk-
produce to the utmost, which grains are especially supposed to
do, but to feed her so well that she may begin to lay on flesh
as soon as the season of greatest milk-produce begins to decline.

A cow which will fatten as well as yield milk abundantly, is the
agent by which the cowman realises his profit. She is milked
at 4 A.M., receives perhaps 2 or 3 pecks of “ grains ” imme-
diately after milking is over ; then 4 or 5 lbs. of hay are given,
and, after being cleaned out, she gets at 9 A.M. from 20 to
25 lbs. of chopped mangolds, and another 3 or 4 lbs. of hay. At
1 P.M. the cows are milked again, and again fed much as before,
being well watered once in the course of the afternoon. Or,
when they have meal and oilcake, this is given, 3 or 4 lbs. a
day, either with the mangolds, or in a gruel over the grains.

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 2 Z

Q72 = 406

Dairy Farming.

Suburban milk
dairies.

In the country, where grains cannot easily be had in quantity,
dependence is placed on hay and mangolds, with meal of barley
and bean or Indian corn, or decorticated cotton-cake ; and in
summer and autumn, of course, both in town and country, the
dependence is largely on clover and vetches and cabbages, in
addition to grains and meal. I had charge for two years of a
farm near Barking, where upwards of 200 cows were fed ; the
main resource here, in addition to the grains, was Italian rye-
grass in summer (grown by means of town sewage), and mangolds
in winter. The average Shorthorn cow, fed thus, will probably
yield 600 to 700 gallons of milk during its first 8 months after
calving ; and 10 stalls, the cows being sold at the end of 8
months, will thus, from year to year, give accommodation to 15
cows per annum, from which it may be expected that 1000
gallons of milk per stall, 10,000 gallons in all, per annum may
be obtained for sale ; the quantity of food consumed during
that time being 10 X 365 X (1^ bushel of grains, 12 lbs. of hay,
40 to 50 lbs. of mangolds, and 3 lbs. of meal). This is the winter
ration ; but the hay and the mangolds are equivalent to 1 cwt. of
green food, of probably equal value, given during summer. This
daily ration, according to the prices of food delivered at the cow-
house, corresponds to more than 2s. a day, or 365/. a year for
10 stalls, being fully 9c/. a gallon of the milk produced. And
besides this, there is risk of disease (a very considerable item)
incurred, and the loss between the purchase and sale of the cow
(also a considerable sum) and interest of money and cost of
labour to be borne. It is thus not to be wondered at that town
milk costs 4c/. and 5c/. a quart, delivered from house to house.

At Colonel Talbot’s farm, at Sudbury, Middlesex, 89,236
gallons were obtained from 80 stalls in the year, or more than
1100 gallons per stall ; but 153 cows had been bought and sold
to keep them full, so that their milking did not average much
more than 6 months apiece. At Golders Green, Lord Gran-
ville’s farm, in the same neighbourhood, 851, 869, and 891
gallons were obtained per stall in 3 successive years, when about
150 cows were bought and sold each year to keep 100 stalls full.
The cows were kept on an average 8 months each, and a loss of
3/. to 4/. apiece was sustained between purchase and sale. At
Barking, between October 5th, 1866, and December 29th,
1867, there were 57,354 days’ milking of a cow ; the average
number kept having been 125 cows during that time — varying,
however, between 20 and 220, for the cattle-plague swept away a
large number during the time — and the milk sold amounted to
139,746 gallons, or 2’44 gallons per cow daily, equal to 890
gallons per annum. The food here was chiefly sewaged grass and
mangolds, with hay and distillery grains.

Dairy Farming.

<o12> = 407

On ordinary dairy farms in the country, when the sale of
milk has been resolved upon, very little change is made from
the common practice of the country dairy. The cows graze in
the cow-pastures during summer, and, as a general rule, get
nothing else, except, perhaps, a help with cabbages or clover
or vetches, brought to them when the grass is short. In
winter they get mangolds and hay, and perhaps some grains,
as in the instance of Mr. Lea, of Stapleford Hall, Cheshire ;
or where they are treated better, they may receive decorticated
cotton-cake and meal, in addition to hay and roots, according
to the practice of Mr. W. T. Carrington, of Croxden Abbey,
Staffordshire.

CHAPTER IV.

The Manufacture of Cheese.

To the consideration of this, which is generally understood The cheese ma-
to be the main industry of any so-called dairy district, I “ufacture.
have at length to direct attention. I propose, however, to do
little more here than epitomise a report, which has already
appeared in the English Agricultural Society’s ‘Journal,’* “On
Cheese-making in Home Dairies and in Factories ; ” for the
main facts remain very much as they were three years ago,
when that report appeared. The several modes and styles of
cheese manufacture in this country may be comprised in the
following list : Cheddar, Gloucestershire, Cheshire, Derbyshire
and Leicestershire, and Lancashire. The factory system of
dealing with these several methods must also be referred to.

The Stilton cheese, a speciality of which there is a considerable
local manufacture, and the Bath and cream cheese — little more
than household delicacies — may also be named.

(a.) The Cheddar Cheese shall be described as it was carried Cheddar
on upon the farm of the late Mr. Harding, of Marksbury, cheese.
Somersetshire, who was one of the best makers in England, and
who did good work for cheese-making in Ayrshire and other
counties and districts which he and Mrs. Harding visited on
the invitation of Agricultural Societies and others, for the
purpose of giving instruction in the manufacture of this kind of
cheese.

The morning’s and evening’s milk are together brought to a
temperature of about 80° Fahr. If the night has been warm,
a temperature of 78° will give as great effectiveness to a given

* Vol. xi., Second Series, p. 261.

2 z 2

674=408

Dairy Farming.

Mr. Hardin!
practice.

quantity of rennet as one of 82° or 84° would give if the milk had
been at a lower temperature for some hours of a cold night. The
evening’s milk, having been placed in shallow vessels during
the night to cool, and having been stirred at intervals during the
evening, is skimmed in the morning, and the cream, with a portion
of the milk, is heated up to 100° by floating it in tin vessels on
the boiler. The whole of it is then poured through a proper sieve
into the tub — into which the morning’s milk is being also strained
as it arrives — so as to raise the whole, as I have said, to from
78° to 82° Fahr. This tub may be a large tin vessel, capable of
holding 150 gallons, and provided with a false bottom and sides,
enabling hot or cold water to be passed under and around its
contents. The rennet, made from two or three dozen veils, in
as many quarts of salt water, and allowed to stand three weeks,
is added — half a pint to 100 gallons — and the curd sets in about
an hour. The small veils of Irish calves, which are killed at a
week old, are preferred, and they should be 18 months old before
use. The curd is slowly cut with a single long blade to and fro
throughout its depth, in lines forming a 4-inch mesh upon the
surface, and the whole mass is gently turned over from the
bottom with a skimming-dish and the hand. The whole is then
again worked throughout with a “ shovel-breaker ” — a four-
fingered paddle, with wires across the fingers — great care being
taken to do it gently, so that the whey shall not become too
;’s white. The curd is thus broken up into pieces not much larger
than peas, and at least half an hour is taken in the process.
Hot water is then let into the space around and below the
cheese-tub, and the whole is raised to 100° Fahr. ; and this, too,
is done gradually, so as to raise the whole by degrees, not heat-
ing any portion to excess. This also takes half an hour. The hot
water is then drawn off, and the curd is stirred by the hand and
a skimming-dish for another half an hour in the midst of its hot
whey, being at length reduced to a mass of separate bits the size
of small peas. The whey, after settling for half an hour, is then
removed — ladled, syphoned, or drawn — to its vat, where it stands
about 6 inches deep, and is skimmed next day, yielding a butter,
which should not exceed in quantity 6 to 8 ounces per cow per
week. The curd stands half an hour after the whey is drawn
off, and it is then cut in four or five pieces and turned over and
left for half an hour, after which it is again cut and left for
a quarter of an hour. After this, according to Mr. Harding, it
should be in the slightest degree acid to the taste. If allowed to
become too acid, it will not press into a solid, well-shaped cheese,
but will be apt to sink abroad misshapen. It is now torn into
pieces by hand, and left to cool ; and thereafter it is packed in
successive thin layers in the vat — a cylindrical or wooden vessel

Dairy Farming.

%lb = 409

12 inches or more wide and 12 inches deep, — whence, after being
pressed for half an hour, it is taken out (it is then probably mid-
day), and broken up by hand, and allowed again to cool. Then —
when cool, and sour, and dry, and tough enough (all this of course
being left to the judgment of the maker) — it is ground up in the
curd-mill : 2 lbs. of salt are added to the cwt. of curd, and the
! whole is allowed to cool, and, as soon as cold, it is put in the
vat and taken to the press. It is then probably 3 P.M. The
pressure on the cheese may be 18 cwt. The cloth is changed next
i morning. A calico coating is laced on it the second day, and
on the third day the cheese may be taken from the press, placed
in the cheese-room, bandaged, and turned daily, and afterwards
less frequently. The cheese-room should be kept at nearly
65° Fahr. The cheese will not be ready for sale for three
months.

The process lasts nearly all the day, but it is believed to
produce the best cheese in the world ;* and its use is every-
where extending. Taking its name from a single parish, it
now prevails all over North Somersetshire, and is gradually
extending into Wiltshire. Many dairies in Gloucestershire

I adopt the system ; some of its characteristic details are followed
j in Cheshire ; and it is well known in Lancashire, Ayrshire,

and Galloway.

The Cheddar cheese is made of various sizes, generally
12 inches wide and a foot high, but sometimes larger in both
) dimensions, and from 70 to 120 lbs. in weight ; the object being
I to make all the milk of one day on a farm of 30 or 40 cows
into a single cheese.

, (5.) Cheshire Cheese, like the Cheddar, is made only once a Cheshire

I day. The evening’s milk is placed, not more than 6 or 7 inches cheese,
deep, in tin vessels, to cool during the night, on the floor of the
i dairy ; it is skimmed in the morning, and a certain portion is

I I kept for butter — in early summer only enough perhaps for the
use of the house, but in autumn more, and in some dairies at

f length nearly all the morning’s cream is thus taken for churning.

' i The skimmed cream, with a portion of milk, is heated up to

* The pleasantness of cheese as food is of course a matter of accustomedness
and taste. On descending the Pic de Sancy above Mont d’Or, during a holiday
in Central France, I turned aside to visit one of the liillside dairy farms on the
unenclosed moorland. The manager very courteously welcomed me, and we
chatted about cheese. He gave me some young cheese and bread and milk,
and I offered him a portion of a very good double Gloucester cheese, some of
which I had with me in my satchel. I asked him which he preferred, and he
was perfectly confident of the superiority of his own, which to me, in its then
stage, was young and tasteless stuff, shortly, however, to become the hot strong
cheese of the country, of which I had had some experience ; whereas mine was a
' well-matured Gloucester cheese of admirable quality. I laughed at him, and no
doubt he laughed at me. — J. C. M.

Ql<o = 4lO

Dairy Farming.

130° of Fahr. by floating the tins which hold it on the boiler :
sufficient quantity being taken to raise the whole of the
evening’s and morning’s milk together to 90°, or thereabouts.
The rennet is made the day before it is used ; 12 or 14 square
inches of veil, standing in a pint of salt water, kept in a
warm place, making rennet enough for 100 gallons of milk.
The Irish veil is used, as it is obtained from very young and
Avholly milk-fed calves.

The curd is set in about 50 minutes : it is then cut with the
usual curd-breaker, a sieve-shaped cutter, very slowly. The
whey is syphoned, pumped, or lifted out as soon as possible ;
but before it is all removed a portion is (on some farms where
the Cheddar system is followed) heated and returned to the tub,
and the curd is left in this hot whey for half an hour. The
whey is then drained away and the curd is left to get firm.
When firm enough to stand on the hand in cubes of about a
pound weight — this is an intelligible indication — without break-
ing asunder, it is lifted out on the drainer (a false bottom of
rods), in a long tub with a stop-cock to it, and there left covered
up for 45 minutes, after which it is broken up and well mixed by
hand with 3^ to 4^ lbs. of salt per cwt. It is then allowed to
stand with a light weight upon it for about three-quarters of an
hour longer, and is turned over once or twice during the time,
being cut for the purpose into squares with a knife. It is then
twice passed through the curd-mill, and at length put into the
vat, a cloth being pressed first into the place by a tin hoop, and
the salted curd being packed gently by hand within it. The
vats Avill hold a cheese of 70 or 80, up to 100 lbs. ; and tin
hoops, placed within them, are used to eke them out and give
capacity for a larger quantity of curd, if necessary. After
standing in the vat, with a weight upon it, from one to two
hours, according to the state of the weather, it is turned over
and put, still in its vat, into an oven — a warm chamber in or
near the brickwork of the dairy-chimney — where it remains at a
temperature of 90° to 100° during the night. Both when in the
press and here the cheese is skewered, skewers being thrust into
it through holes in the vat, and every now and then withdrawn,
so as to facilitate the drainage of the whey. The cheese is taken
out of the vat next morning and turned upside down in a fresh
cloth. It is in the press three days, and it is turned in the press
twice a day, being dry-clothed each time. It is then taken out,
bandaged, and removed to the cheese-room, where it is turned
daily, or at length only occasionally, until it is ready for sale.
In some dairies all skewering is dispensed with, and no pressure
is used at the time of making, nor for two days afterwards ; but
the whey is allowed to run out of its own accord. Cheese manu-

Dairy Farming.

Q77 = 411

factured in this way requires frpm 5 to 7 days in drying, but
afterwards matures more quickly for market.

The cheese varies considerably in quality throughout the year,
the earlier make of March and April being considerably less
valuable than that of summer and early autumn. Some of this
varying quality is owing to the quality of the milk, the cows
being house-fed, but more of it is, in all probability, owing to
the necessity of holding a portion of curd over from day to day,
when the quantity is insufficient to make either one, or it may
be two, full-sized cheeses daily. In such cases it is common to
make one full-sized cheese and hold the remainder of the curd
over till the next day, keeping it wrapped up on the drainer
or pan, and grinding it up in the curd-mill along with the curd
of the next morning.

The quantity of cheese made varies from 3f to 4 cwt. per cow
per annum on good farms. The quantity of butter made weekly
in a good dairy is hardly half a pound per cow in the early
summer from both whey and milk ; in the autumn, the milk
being richer, considerably more may be made without diminish-
ing the quality of the cheese.

(c.) Gloucestershire Cheese is made generally only once a day. Gloucester
The evening’s milk is placed in the cheese-tub and in other cheese,
vessels, standing not more than 3 inches deep during the night,
so as to lose its natural heat as quickly and completely as pos-
sible. It is there stirred occasionally during the evening and
the last thing at night to check the rising of the cream. Any
cream that has risen in the morning is skimmed, and so much as
it is desired to keep for butter is set apart. The remainder, with
enough of the milk, is floated in tin vessels on a boiler until as
hot as the hand can easily bear — probably about 110° Fahr. —
and is poured with all the evening’s milk, and the morning’s as
it arrives from the yard, into the cheese-tub ; enough being
heated to raise the whole to about 84° Fahr.

The cheese-tub may be a tin vessel capable of holding about
150 gallons, and provided with a stop-cock, by which its contents
can be drawn off. When all the milk is collected the rennet is
added, about a pint to 100 gallons. This rennet is made four or
five times during the season, a dozen veils and half-a-dozen lemons
being added to 5 or 6 gallons of brine for the purpose, and placed
in a covered stone jar for use. The curd is set in an hour. The
process of breaking is performed by a sieve-like set of wires, with
about an inch mesh, which is fixed at right angles to its handle
and pushed down through the mass very gently in successive
places all over the surface of the curd. The curd is then gently
lifted and moved from the bottom and corners of the tub with the
hand and a skimming-dish, and the cutter is afterwards used

618 = 412

Dairy Farming.

Derbyshire

cheese.

again. This process takes in all about half an hour, and the
curd is then allowed to settle, and half the whey is baled out.
A portion of this whey is then heated to 120° Fahr. and returned
to the tub, again raising the temperature there to 84° Fahr. ; and
then it lies for a quarter of an hour, after which the whey is drawn
off by opening the stop-cock. After settling into a firm mass,
the curd is cut and turned in pieces over one another on the
floor of the tub and allowed to drain. It is thereafter placed
in cloths in vats of the size corresponding to about eight cheeses
to the cwt., and there it is pressed for a quarter of an hour. It
is then taken out and put through the curd-mill and immediately
vatted again. It may be then about 9 o’clock or half-past 9 A.M.
The cheese is taken out in one hour afterwards, the vat is
wiped, and the cheese is replaced in a dry cloth. About three
hours later it is again taken out, and this time rubbed with salt,
which salting process is repeated at night.

In large dairies this work may be done twice a day. The
labours of the dairy, beginning at 5 in the morning, are then not
over till 8 or 9 at night. In some dairies cheeses of a double
thickness are made, about a quarter of a cwt. each, and they
are called “ double Gloucesters.”

On two or three successive days the cheeses are taken out of
their vats, again rubbed with salt and returned to the press. In
three days they are taken to the cheese-loft and there turned, at
first daily, afterwards at longer intervals. They are ready for
sale in six or eight weeks. In a dairy of 40 to 48 cows about
25 lbs. of milk-butter may be taken a week, and the whey yields
10 or 12 lbs. of butter in addition.

The annual make of cheese varies, of course, from year to year,
rarely amounting to 4 cwt. per cow, while 3^ cwt. would be con-
sidered a fair yield.

(d.) Derbyshire Cheese making does not differ materially from
the process adopted in Gloucestershire, where the thick (double
Gloucester) cheese is made. It is usual to make but once a day,
unless in very hot weather, when it may be doubtful if the milk
can be got cool and kept sweet during the night, in which case
cheese is made in the evening as well as the morning. In general,
however, the evening’s milk is put in thin layers in the cheese-
tub and other vessels to cool during the night, tin vessels of cold
water being put to stand in it in order to subject it to as large a
cooling surface as possible. In the morning, if much cream has
risen, it is partly skimmed, and, if necessary, warmed up with
some milk and added to the morning’s milk; so as to bring the
whole to about 80°. In the summer time, however, the rennet
has often to be added when the milk is naturally warmer than
this. Enough fresh-made rennet is added to set the whole in

Dairy Farming^

<ol% = 413

an hour or less. After the curd has been broken with the common
sieve curd-breaker, used gently for a sufficient time, a presser
is used — a sort of heavy metallic sieve follower — which sinks
gradually through the whey and ultimately lies upon the curd,
enabling the baling out of the whey. After this has been for
the most part taken out, this follower is forced hard down on
the curd, so as to squeeze and still further separate the whey
from it. The curd may then be slightly salted, though this is
not always done at that time. It is broken by hand into a vat
and pressed ; taken out and broken up again, re-vatted and
again pressed ; and this may be done more than once — as often,
indeed, as seems to be required. It is at length vatted, in sizes
of about 4 to the cwt. ; its whole surface is made to take in as
much salt as it will hold by rubbing and pressing. This gets
liquefied by the exuding moisture and is partly absorbed. It is
dry-clothed and changed in the press daily, and is in the press
4 or 5 days before it is finally removed to the cheese-room,
where it is turned at gradually increasing intervals until ready
for the market, at 10 or 12 weeks old.

(e.) In Lancashire, cheeses about four to the cwt. are made very Lancashire?
much as those of Derbyshire, except that the salting is sometimes cheese,
done neither by mixing salt with the ground curd, as must be
done in Cheshire or Somersetshire, where large cheeses are
made, nor by rubbing the surface with salt, as is done in
Gloucestershire and partly in Derbyshire ; but by floating the
cheese in a vat of brine for three or four days after it has
acquired form and substance. The curd, when once it has been
fairly drained free of whey, is placed in a cloth under pressure
for half an hour, and then opened up and rebroken, and again
subjected to pressure. It is ultimately put through a curd-mill,
and ground as fine as grains of corn. The ground curd is put
in vats holding a quarter of a cwt. each, and placed under full
pressure for some hours ; after which it is taken out and replaced
in a dry cloth, and subjected to a day’s pressure. After this it is
placed for a period of four to six days, either each in an earthen-
ware vessel of proper shape and size, or Several together in a long
wooden trough, in a brine in which it floats, and from which it
absorbs sufficient salt, and becomes hard and firm in the process.

In a few days this process is completed, and the cheese is taken
out, wiped dry, and placed on the floor of the cheese-room, and
turned occasionally, until it is ready for sale.

Both in Gloucestershire* and Cheshire, not universally how-
ever— also in other districts less generally — it is a not uncom-
mon practice to use artificial means in order to give to cheese a
yellow and sometimes even an orange colour. A small quantity
— about half-a-gill per 100 gallons — of liquid annatto is for

680 = 414

Dairy Farming.

Dairy fac-
tories.

this purpose mixed with the milk before the rennet is added :
giving it a richer, more creamy colour than it naturally possesses
— a colour which is almost wholly carried down by the curd, so
that the tint becomes much stronger in the cheese. This is not
now, however, so commonly done as it used to be. A cheese
of natural colour is now generally preferred, and a nasty and
to some extent expensive practice is dying out.

Mention should here be made of the great importance, which
is everywhere acknowledged, of a good cheese-room — one which
can be kept at a uniformly warm temperature, especially during
the early months of the cheese manufacture. On this a great
deal depends for the proper ripening and maturing of the cheese :
a process which is materially shortened as well as brought to a
more successful issue, where sufficient warmth can be maintained
without any liability to changes of temperature.

All the processes of cheese-making are or may be copied in
a factory, which, in most of the instances of it which have been
established in England, is a co-operative institution — the tenants
of 10, 15, or 20 neighbouring farms, including, perhaps, 400
to 600 cows, agreeing to despatch all their milk, morning
and evening, to a central building, where the weight of milk
sent by each is carefully recorded, as a guide to the subse-
quent division of the profits, and where all the processes are
conducted on a large scale, with the best aids of machinery,
under the most skilful direction that can be hired or secured.
Made thus in large quantity from the beginning of the season,
there ought not to be that variation of quality which prevails
in small dairies, owing to the necessity, sometimes, of keeping
the curd of two days together for one large cheese, or of
keeping over portions of unused curd from one day to another.
And there must be considerable economy of labour. The
cost of a dairymaid for every 40 or 60 cows is avoided ; the
very imperfect equipment of many home dairies is no longer
a difficulty ; the conversion of milk, often through want of skill
or care or apparatus, into inferior cheese is also avoided.
The whole of the milk is dealt with by a skilful maker, with
every help that command of hot and cold water, and machinery
of the best kind can secure. Of course none of these reasons
apply where a skilful mistress, proud of the reputation of her
dairy, conducts everything on her own well-ordered premises.
And it is not to be wondered at that* many landowners, careful
of the due equipment of their estates, and jealous also for the
agricultural reputation of their tenants, strongly object to these
factories. There is a certain saving of labour effected by them,
no doubt, but on the other hand there is the additional cost of

Dairy Farming.

681 = 415

j carrying milk daily to the factory, and the cost of either carrying
the whey back or of losing it altogether, and thus losing the
extensive pig-feeding based upon it, from which, on all dairy
j farms, a certain profit and a considerable manufacture of manure
1 are obtained.

Dairy factories were established in considerable numbers in
Derbyshire and Staffordshire a few years ago. They have not
increased in number of late. The sale of milk has, in some
degree, hindered their extension ; and perhaps diminished care-
fulness, followed by a less marked superiority in the quality of
their cheese, has reduced their profits.

The following is the system of management at one of these Factory
factories : — The evening’s supply of milk is received into, and management,
pretty equally divided amongst the large milk-vats, which are
I capable of holding 500 gallons each, being 14 feet long by
I 48 inches wide, and 20 inches deep. These vats are made of the
best tin, and are supported by a stout framing of deal or pine,

I between which and the tin is a space under the bottom and
I along the sides. During the night a stream of cold water is
I kept constantly running under the vats, in at one end and out at
! the other, filling the space between the tin and the wood, and thus
I cooling the milk which the vats contain. This stream, as it
i issues from the lower end of the vats, is conducted by india-rubber-
t tubing to a small water-wheel sunk in the floor. Gradually
i filling the floats of this wheel, it at length causes half a revolution,
j which, by crank and lever overhead, actuates floating wooden
I rakes, sinking two or three inches in the milk, which are thus
driven a foot or two to and fro upon the surface of the milk in
I the vat, at intervals of a few seconds, all night long — thus
i: hindering the rising of the cream.

i The evening’s milk is in this way cooled before morning, even
ti I to 60° or 65° ; and a supply of cool water for this purpose, either
' I from a spring, or pumped from a tolerably deep well, is one of
. the most important requirements in order to ensure the success
' of a factory. The object in using the agitating contrivance is
1 j to prevent any cream rising on the milk during the night ; but
I it also performs the further important office of doing something
I towards aerating and deodorising the milk — an office which
' might most beneficially, during the hot weather, be performed
on the milk before it leaves the farmstead — thus enabling it in
some measure to get rid of the animal heat and odour which
tend to the too early and rapid decomposition of the milk in hot
I weather, and are distinctly inimical to the production of the finest-
j flavoured cheese. The morning’s milk, on arriving at the dairy,

I is at once mixed with the evening’s, which has been cooled and
I agitated all night in the milk-vats in the factory. When

682 =416

Dairy Farming.

sufficient fresh milk has run into that vat which is farthest away ^
from the weighing-machine, the pipe conducting the milk from j
the tin on the weighing-machine, where it is received and ,
weighed as it arrives morning and evening from the several j
contributors, is shortened, to adapt it to the next vat, and so on ,
to the last. Steam is now turned under Vat No. 1, and the whole
mass of milk in it is raised to a temperature of 80° Fahr., after |
which the rennet is mixed with it. In hot weather the tern- j
perature should not exceed 80°, but in cold it may be as high as ,
82°. The rennet is then mixed with the milk, half a pint to 100 |
gallons of milk, enough to perceptibly thicken the milk with ,
which it is mixed in fifteen minutes, and to effect coagulation
in an hour ; the vats meanwhile being covered, to preserve uni- ,
formity of temperature. ^

When the curd will break cleanly over the finger, coagulation ,
is perfected, and now the curd-knife — a many-bladed cutter, the
edges being about half an inch apart — is passed slowly lengthwise
through the mass, from one end of the vat to the other, and back
again, until all is cut. The edges of this knife are sharp and
fine, so as not to bruise the tender curd. The curd is allowed ,
to rest a few minutes, until the whey begins to float over it, when .
the curd-knife is again passed through the mass, crossing the
direction taken before, and leaving the curd in pillars of half an ^
inch square. In this stage the whey rapidly escapes, while the j
curd gradually subsides towards the bottom of the vat. After j
remaining in this condition for a short time, the curd is very ,
slowly and tenderly turned over by the hands, after which the .
curd-knife is freely though very carefully used, cutting the curd
into pieces about the size of hazel-nuts. A little steam is then ,
turned into the space between the tin and the woodwork, which ;
was occupied by cold water during the night ; and soon after-
wards the curd will bear turning about a little faster. During this
time the whey continues to rapidly exude, and the pieces of curd i t
to shrink correspondingly in bulk. Up to this stage the curd, *
which is very tender, demands the most delicate handling, in
order that it may not be bruised, and that none of its liquid fats
may pass off into the whey. More steam is now turned on, and , ■

the curd is stirred much quicker, in order to prevent it being i

scorched at the bottom of the vat. As the whey has by this Ti

time almost completely left the curd, the latter has lost its t

tenderness, and becomes comparatively hard and tough. A ::

curd-rake may now be vigorously used to keep the curd-particles S

continually in motion. When the temperature of the mass has k

reached 90° Fahr., the steam is turned off, and the curd is kept i

stirred for a time until the vat-bottom has cooled, so as not to »

injure the curd. It is now left at rest for about ten minutes.

Dairy Farming.

G83 = 417

At the end of this interval the steam may be again turned on at
full pressure, and it is imperative that the curd now be kept in
constant motion. The manager will now, as before, use his
thermometer occasionally until it denotes 100°, when the steam
is turned finally off, and the curd, as before, is kept stirred a few
minutes beyond this, until the vat-bottom has cooled down.

The entire mass is now allowed to rest for an indefinite time,
during which the manager is careful to watch the development of
the souring process. A sure plan is to take a piece of curd in
the hand, squeeze the whey well out of it, and touch hot (not red-
hot) iron with it. If sufficiently acid, the curd will stick to the
hot iron, and draw out in fine threads an inch or more long. The
whey is now all run off by a syphon, and the curd is gathered to
either side of the vat, so that the whey can run down the middle.

There is yet some little whey left in the curd, and this continues
to drain slowly away as the curd lies packed at the bottom of
the vat. Presently the curd, which now adheres together in a
mass, is cut into pieces, and turned over time after time until
little or no whey runs from it. It is then ground in a curd-mill,
and when ground, has salt mixed with it at the rate of 2 lbs. of salt
per 1000 lbs. of the milk from which it has been made ; in
autumn a little more salt is used, or 2^ lbs. of salt per 1000 lbs.
of milk. The curd, being ground to about the size of raisins,
and salted, is now vatted in sizes corresponding to about
four to the cwt., and put under the lever-presses for an hour,
during which time the little whey still in it is pressed out.

It is then taken out of the press, dry-clothed, and put in again.

Here it remains, with a good pressure upon it, until morning,
when it is finally taken out of the press, conveyed to the lower
curing-room and weighed, has some tissue-paper ironed on to the
flat sides of it to prevent cracks, and is put on the cheese-shelves.

Here it is turned daily for a few days until it goes to the upper
curing-room, where it will be turned every other day. This
cheese is ready for sale in six weeks or two months after it is
made.

At this factory they dealt during the season of 1872 with the Factory
milk of 230 cows, the property of 17 contributors : 79,722 gallons
of milk had been received, and 81,288 lbs. of green cheese made.

The quantity sold (at an average price of 80s. 9<f. per cwt.)
indicated a shrinkage of 9 per cent. The cost of labour had been
121/. ; of fuel, 15/. 7s. Id.; of salt, rennet, annatto, and bandages,

28/. 9s. ; of rent and interest on plant, 18/. 16s. The balance
for distribution, supposing there were no charge for marketing,
would be close on Q^d. per gallon for cheese alone, exclusive of
whey and butter.

At another factory, where a considerable quantity of the milk

GS4: = 418

Dairy Farming.

received had been sent to London, the cost of labour — manager,
Ibl., assistant, 29Z. 14s., and extra-assistant, 11/. 13s., — amounted
to 116/. 7s., or 2s. per cwt., for the 58 tons 17 cwt. 3 qrs. and
3 lbs. of green cheese which had been made. The cost of mate-
rials— coal, 15/. 16s. 4c/., coke, 21. 19s. 2c/., bandages and cloths,
4/. 14s. Ic/., salt, 5/. 8s., rennet, 22/. 17s. 8c/., and annatto 1/. 12s.
— amounted to 53/. 7s. 3(/., or 11c/. per cwt. of the cheese. The
petty expenses, amounting to 11. 9s. 5c/., reached IJc/. per cwt. ;
the account-keeping — 10/. — came to about 2c/., and the rent of
the building and plant — 40/. — to 8c/. per cwt. The cost upon
the whole thus reached 3s. 10c/. per cwt. of the green cheese
manufactured, or, assuming a shrinkage of 10 per cent., to rather
more than 4s. 3c/. per cwt. over the quantity sold. Deducting
the charges for rent and accountant, it would amount to 4s.
exactly. And, let it be remembered, that at this rate, the cost of
a dairy of 30, 40, 50, or 70 cows, yielding 4 cwt. of cheese
apiece, would amount to only 24/., 32/., 40/., or 48/. respec-
tively for the sum of the items of labour, fuel, and materials
employed in cheese-making. Of course the milk has to be
carried under this system, and the milking of the cows and the
scalding of the vessels have still to be done and paid for under
any system ; but it is not to be doubted that there is here an
immense saving of labour and expenditure.

It is believed that when the best quality of cheese is made in
home dairies, at least 8c/. per gallon is made of the milk alto-
gether— including the cheese, any butter that is sold, and the pork
that is made by the conversion of the whey into meat. And
few farmers will admit that they do not make more than Id. :
but of the actual facts exact knowledge hardly anywhere exists.
The dairy factory has this advantage, that the exact accounts
are teaching dairy farmers knowledge. The following are the
returns from some of the factories in Derbyshire : —

At Mickleover 107,852 gallons of milk, received in 1873 from
250 cows in April and afterwards till November, produced
102,882 lbs. of green cheese. And assuming a shrinkage of 10
per cent., there must have been a sale of upwards of 38 tons.
The cheese made at this factory had realised an average price
of 85s. per cwt. of 120 lbs. The labour in this case cost 140/.,
fuel 18/., materials 12/. — 170/. in all, or rather more than
4s. 4c/. per cwt. The labour employed and paid for here could
have dealt with * double the quantity of milk ; the materials
employed were, of course, in proportion to the milk on which
they were employed. At 85/. per ton, the cheese made at least
3230/., or rather less than l\d. per gallon of the milk. At
Longford 246,553 gallons of milk had been made into 250,133
lbs. of green cheese ; 84^ tons had been sold, at an average

Dairy Farming.

685 = 41P

I., ' I

a ' ’

h {
:t' !

“!

g i
* I
il

price of 82s. per 120 lbs. ; or rather less than Id. per gallon
of the milk that had been used. In both of these cases of
course the value of the whey has to be added.

It is one advantage of the factory system that it at once
awakens all who contribute to it to the questions of quality and
quantity. The weight of the milk received from each con-
tributor is recorded daily, the quantity of green cheese made is
every day ascertained, the shrinkage before sale is known ; and,
under co-operative management, every one is on the look-out for
deficient results of any kind. The “ patrons ” of a factory know
perfectly how much milk it takes to make a pound of cheese ;
but, though they had been making cheese for years and genera-
tions previously, not one in a hundred of them knew for certain
anything about it before.

Adding the figures together of several of these factories, I
find that from 9,682,245 lbs. of milk used in them, 958,945 lbs.
of green cheese were made in 1873, being at the rate of 1 lb. of
cheese from every 10 lbs. 1^ oz. of milk.

The value of the whey from the cheese-dairy, the utilisation
of which is one of the difficulties of the factory system, is
variously estimated at 30s. to 40s. per cow per annum. It is
received from the cheese-tub into a tank, where it stands for
twenty-four hours, and throws up a cream varying in quantity
with the skill and gentleness with which the curd has been
removed from it ; and this cream furnishes an inferior butter
to the amount perhaps of half a lb. per cow weekly. The whey
thus creamed is consumed by fatting-pigs, which are one of
the most characteristic and important features of all English
dairy-farms ; for upon their maintenance and feeding, on
barley and maize or other meal along with this whey, the supply
of manure for the farm is very considerably dependent. Where
butter-dairies prevail, there is a corresponding use of the skim-
milk. Young store-pigs are bought at perhaps four months
old, or they are bred on the farm and put up to fatten, generally
about one pig for every two cows, and three such lots perhaps
are fed during the milking season. They are fed up to a
value of bl. to 71. each, receiving meal with the whey, and
making 3s. to 5s. a head per week.

Stilton Cheese — manufactured chiefly in Leicestershire — is Stilton cheese,
made from milk enriched by the addition of cream, and the
curd hardens into cheese without pressure. The cream of the
night’s milk is added to the new milk of the morning, and the
rennet is mixed with it when the whole is at the temperature of
84° Fahr., enough being used to make it coagulate in an hour
and a half. If it comes sooner it will be too tough. The curd is
not drained of its whey in the ordinary manner, but is removed

686 = 420

Dairy Farming.

Bath cheese.

Cream cheese.

in slices with a skimming-dish, and placed upon a canvas
strainer ; the ends of which, when it is full, are tied up and the
whey gently pressed out. It is then allowed to drain until next
morning, when it is removed and placed in a cool dish, whence,
cut in thin slices, it is put in a hoop made of tin, about 10
inches high and 8 inches across, and pierced with holes. A
clean cloth is placed within the hoop, and as the slices are laid in
a small quantity of salt is sprinkled between the alternate layers.
It remains in the hoop, covered up, but without pressure. Next
day the cheese is taken out of the hoop and clean cloths are
applied ; after which it is inverted and replaced, and pricked
with skewers through the holes of the tin hoop, to facilitate the
extraction of the whey. In four or five days the curd becomes
firm. During this consolidating process the cheeses are kept in
a place where the temperature can be maintained at about 100°.
When the cheese has become firm enough, it is pared smooth
and firmly bound up in a strong fillet of canvas, wrapping it
round several times. The binders and cloths are removed every
morning ; cracks are filled up with curd ; and ultimately the
coat becomes hardened, and the cheese is removed to the drying-
room.

Bath Cheese may be named, although it is little else than a
household delicacy. To one gallon of new milk two quarts of
water are added, and two tablespoonfuls of rennet. When it
is coagulated, the curd is taken gently out of the vessel with the
skimming-dish, and laid in a small vat of suitable size — perhaps
9 inches across and 3 inches deep — a canvas cloth being pre-
viously placed in it. Dry cloths should be applied every twelve
hours for two days, when the cheese should be turned out on a
plate, with another over it, and being turned occasionally it will
be fit for use in a fortnight.

Cream Cheese may be made from a quart of cream, to which,
perhaps, a pint of new milk may be added. It is warmed in
hot water to about 90° Fahr., and a tablespoonful of ordinary
rennet is added. It is let stand till it thickens, then broken
slightly with a spoon and placed it in a frame 8 inches square
and 4 inches deep, in which a fine canvas cloth has been
placed ; and then it should be pressed slightly with a weight.
It stands for twelve hours, after which it may be lifted out and
re-placed in a finer cloth over which a little salt has been
powdered. It is fit for use in a day or two ; but is a mere
household delicacy.

I conclude this section of my Report by a reference to the
cheese-trade of the metropolis, and to the kinds, sizes, and
qualities of cheese which are most in demand in London. At
my request, Mr. H. F. Moore, who is Hon. Sec. of the British

Dairy Farming.

m=42i

Dairy Farmers’ Association, spent a day lately for this pur-
pose among the cheese-warerooms of Tooley Street and the
neighbourhood, and the following are some of his notes : —

“ Generally speaking, it seems pretty certain that most of the Size and forms
local ‘ makes ’ of cheese are fast disappearing, so far as the London of cheeses,
trade is concerned, and that the Cheddar system is gradually
extending itself. Even for Cheshire cheese, excepting a few of
the very finest dairies, the London demand, compared with what
it was before the year 1868 — the cattle-plague year — is very
small. The bulk of the trade in Cheshire cheese is now done
at Manchester and Liverpool. The American and Canadian
cheese — especially the former — is very similar in character to
Cheshire cheese, and the quality is so good that only the very
finest makes of Cheshire can stand against them.

“ But, more important than this competition between American
and Cheshire cheese, the way in which the Cheddar shape and
make have thrust other local makes out of the London market is
worth noting. At none of the warehouses visited could a single
Derbyshire, Leicester, Blue Dorset, Ayrshire, or Dunlop cheese
be seen. ‘ There is no demand for these sorts here — trade in
them quite dead,’ was the invariable remark. The London
cheese-eater has now acquired an almost exclusive taste for the
Cheddar sort — the preference being given to one with a clean
skin, of white colour, solid and firm in texture, mellow to the
palate and with a slightly nutty flavour. At the warehouse of
Messrs. John Corderoy and Son, in Mill Lane, Tooley Street, there
were only Cheddars and Cheshires in stock of English make —
the rest being Canadian and American. Three lots of Cheddars
from different dairies were examined ; the first consisting of a
very even parcel of 20 cheeses. One of these measured across the
top 1 foot 2^ inches, and was 10 inches in depth. It weighed
64 lbs. The weight of the 20 cheeses was 11^ cwt., or 1260 lbs.

— the average of the whole being 63 lbs. The next dairy
I consisted of 76 cheeses : the one measured was 1 foot ^ inch
I across, and 11^ inches in depth, and weighed 79 lbs. The

[weight of the whole was 53 cwt., or 5936 lbs ; the average
[being 78^ lbs. per cheese. The third dairy consisted of 23
[cheeses, and weighed 17 cwt., or 1904 lbs., on an average
I82J lbs. per cheese. The one measured was 1 foot 2^ inches

■ across the top, and 13 inches in depth. These cheeses were

■ made at Langport in Somerset. They were selling at from 70s.

■to 90s. per cwt. of 112 lbs.

I “ Of the Cheshire cheese examined, the first lot was a dairy
l:)f 18 full-sized cheeses, weighing 14J cwt., or 1624 lbs., or an
liverage of 90|^ lbs. per cheese. The one measured was 1 foot

II inches across the top and 1 foot 1 inch in depth.

I VOL. XTV. — S. S. 3 A

QSS = 422

Dairy Farming.

“ Of the secondary or medium size, three dairies were inspected.
The first consisted of 50 cheeses, weighing 27^ cwt., or 3080 lbs.,
or an average of 61^ lbs. per cheese. The one measured was
1 foot 2 inches across, and 11 inches in depth. The next dairy
consisted of 18 cheeses, weighing 8f cwt., or 980 lbs. ; the
average weight per cheese being 54J lbs. The one measured
was 13 inches across the top and 11 inches in depth.

“ There is another size of which examples were examined —
small or lump cheeses, as they are called. Thus, a dairy of
20 cheeses of this sort weighed 7 cwt., or 38 j lbs. apiece, measur-
ing 11^ inches across the top and 10 inches in height. These
Cheshire cheeses sell at from 60s. to 84s. per cwt.

“ At the warehouse of Messrs. Whitehead and Mullens, double
Gloucester cheese ranged from 16 lbs. to 32 lbs. each. Single
Gloucesters, 8 or 9 to the cwt., are almost unknown in the London
market.

“ Wiltshire loaf-cheeses ranged from 5 lbs. to 10 lbs. each, and
Cheddar loaves from 7 lbs. to 20 lbs., and sometimes 22 lbs.
each.

“ At the warehouse of Mr. W. J. Hutchinson, in Tooley Street,
the trade is principally conbned to the loaf-cheeses. North
Wilts loaf-cheese, weighing 9 lbs., measured 7J inches across
the top and 5f inches in depth ; another, weighing 8 lbs., was
6f inches across the top and 5f inches in depth. A number of
Double Gloucesters, ranging from 4 to 5 to the cwt., measured
about 1 foot 2^ inches across the top and 4J inches in depth.

“ At the warehouses of Messrs. J. H. Crump «Sc Sons, in White-
cross Street, Union Street, Borough, there was a greater variety
of cheese than at any of the other places visited. Messrs.
Crump appeared at the last Dairy Show in London as the
agents for Mr. Nuttall’s excellent display of Stiltons, in which
variety of cheese this firm do an immense business. One ex-
pected, therefore, to have found here a large quantity of Stiltons,
but it appears that there is little regular trade in this variety
of cheese; nearly all the best selling sizes (about 12 lbs. from
the dairy, or 11 lbs. shrunk from the warehouse) being sold off
at Christmas time, when nearly the whole of the business in
Stilton cheese is done. A good Stilton is of a soft creamy
texture that will mature quickly and evenly, and it must be
mild in flavour. When thoroughly ripe and shrunk it should
weigh from 11 lbs. to 14 lbs. One of Mr. Nuttall’s measured
7 inches across the top and 9 inches in depth, and weighed 13 lbs.
It had matured remarkably well, the blue lines being very
evenly distributed through the cheese. Another of Mr. Nuttall’s
measured 7J inches across the top and was 8J inches in height ;
it weighed l3 lbs.

Dairy Farming.

689 = 423

“ A dairy of Dorset cheese — not blue (skim-milk) Dorset —
made at Barford was of excellent quality. Of a pure white
colour, and mild flavour, and perfect shape, they measured 1 foot
3 inches in depth and 1 foot 1 ^ inch across the top.” Some
reference to the skim-milk cheese manufactured in Dorsetshire
and other butter dairies will be found in the following chapter.

CHAPTEE V.

The M.|nufacture op Butter.

The Butter Manufacture is, of course, more or less common The butter
all over the country. In households where a single cow is manufactures,
kept, and on farms where the milk of a large herd is devoted to
the manufacture of cheese, as well as in the so-called butter-
dairy districts, the churn is in weekly use ; and butter-making,
more or less skilful, results in butter of various quality. There
are, however, some districts where butter is as much the exclu-
sive produce of the dairy as cheese is elsewhere. From the
port of Cork, in Ireland, as many as 500,000 firkins of Irish
butter — weighing 70 lbs. apiece — are annually exported to
England. And from Waterford, and other Irish ports also, large
quantities are sent to the English market. The principal
English butter districts occur in Dorsetshire and Buckingham-
shire, and till lately in Suffolk, where farms, generally below
the average size of the county, with herds of 20 to 30 cows
apiece, are devoted to this industry. In Ireland the cattle are
acquiring more and more of a Shorthorn character, and this is
also true of the Buckinghamshire district, whence large-framed
Shorthorn cows, used for two or three years for butter-dairy-
ing, are afterwards sold for milk-produce to the London cow-
houses. In Dorsetshire the cattle are more mixed — red and
white Herefords, large red Devons or Dorsets, and half-bred
Shorthorns. In Suffolk the characteristic polled breed of the
county is prevalent. I propose now to describe the Bucking-
hamshire, Dorsetshire, and Irish practice, with shorter reference
to other districts ; and this will sufficiently illustrate the butter
manufacture of the country.

In Buckinghamshire a farm of perhaps 150 acres is probably A Bucking-
almost wholly permanent grass-land. The cattle are grazed in hamshire dairy
summer, and fed on hay during winter, still in the field, provided
perhaps with an open shelter-shed. When a small proportion of
arable land belongs to the farm, the cows may receive a few turnips
or mangold-wurzels, with straw for fodder, and thus economise

3 A 2

690 = 424

Dairy Farming,

the hay. On such a farm the cows are brought in some num-
bers to the pail during almost every month of the year, except
July, August, and September. Although the early months of
the year are the most common calving time, there are a few
coming in to calve from the late autumn onwards, for a winter-
butter produce is more profitable than any other. Large-framed
Shorthorn heifers are bought — one-third or one-fourth of the
whole number milked — to calve at 3 years or 3^ years old. They
are kept two or it may be three years, and are then sold, just
after calving their third or fourth calf, for the London milk
market. During their stay on the farm their milk is thus at its
richest, and afterwards, though poorer, it is more plentiful, and
thus the buyer in each case gets what he wants. Bought at
22Z. to 26Z. each, they may sell for 30/. and upwards when
parted with. They will yield when in full milk, after the first
and second calf, about 1 lb. of butter daily apiece, on an ave-
rage ; indeed, as newly-calved cows are almost constantly coming
to the pail, the herd should average through the year 5 or 6 lbs.
a week apiece. The calves are sold either at once, for whatever
they will fetch, or, if kept till ten days old, for 30s. to 50s. apiece
for bull and heifer calves respectively. Of course there are
many farms where the stock is home-reared, some of the heifer
calves being brought up to take their place in the herd. Milked
morning and evening, the pails are brought in from the yard or the
field, and poured through a sieve into shallow leaden vessels, in
which the milk stands 3 or 4 inches deep. It is there skimmed
morning and evening, as long as it is sweet; sometimes only twice
in summer-time, but in winter three or four times. The cream is
kept in a deep leaden vessel, where it is stirred every now and
then, and churned twice a week. The churn of the district is a
large barrel-churn, capable of turning out from 40 to 60 lbs. of
butter at a time ; and it is driven by horse-power. It may revolve
on friction-wheel bearings, but is simply a well-made oaken
barrel, with a side opening which can be safely closed ; and there
are four or five flanges, extending inwards from the inner surface,
rather more than one-third of the radius, which carry the con-
tents round with them as the cask revolves, dashing and breaking
the cream in the course of the revolution. Raised to some 60°
Fahr. in winter, by heating a portion of the cream in a tin vessel
floating on a boiler, and cooled to that temperature, if possible,
during summer, the cream yields its butter in forty or fifty
minutes. It is collected ultimately in lumps by the beaters, the
churn revolving more slowly as it is felt to be coming. The
butter-milk is let out and cold water is put in, and the revolution
is continued until the water comes away almost clear. Taken
out in lumps into a shallow tub, it is there kneaded with the hands.

Dairy Farming.

691 = 425

first in successive waters and afterwards on a dry slab, until the
whole of the butter-milk is removed ; after which, beaten with
so-called butter-boards, it is weighed in 2-lb. rolls and is ready
for sale. A little salt is well kneaded in with the butter before
the weighing, but not so much as to give it a salt taste.

The skim-milk is used for fattening pigs. It is sometimes
given alone, but generally along with from 3 to 7 lbs. of meal
(barley and Indian corn) daily, according to the size of the hog.
The profits of the pigstye are said to pay for the labour. The
difference between the buying and selling of the cow yields a
profit which covers the risk of loss from abortion and drop
after calving, as well as general disease ; and the annual produce
in butter and in calf together may amount to 18Z. a cow. Of
late it has become more generally the practice to give to milking
cows 2 or 3 lbs. daily of linseed-cake apiece, especially to those
which come to the pail in winter or before the grass is ready.
The quality of the milk derived from young cows fed on hay and
good grass is as good as it can be, and the quality of the butter
of the district depends solely on good dairy management. Great
care is taken — by industry in keeping all vessels clean, scouring
the leaden vessels with sand and ashes, after their successive
uses, and scrubbing and scalding all wooden vessels, also by
laborious manipulation of the butter, adding the requisite pro-
portion of salt — to insure the first quality ; and Aylesbury butter
commands the highest price in the market.

Dorsetshire practice differs from that of Aylesbury mainly in
the somewhat different feeding of the cattle, but also in the manu-
facture of a skim-milk cheese. The farms are generally to some
extent arable as well as pasture. The dairy is sometimes let,
as in Ayrshire, to a dairyman or “ bower,” who pays an annual
rent of from 12/. to 13/. per cow, receiving certain allotted quan-
tities of grass and other materials, together with the use of the
dairy and its appliances. Sometimes, however, a farmer agrees
with a dairyman to manage for him. This manager is paid Id.
per cow weekly, besides having dwelling accommodation, fuel,
milk, and a certain allowance of butter free. The year is sup-
posed to commence on February 14, when a certain quantity of
land is apportioned to the dairy — about an acre of pasture and
an acre of “ hay grass,” i. e. feed after the hay has been grown
and saved, to each cow. Calving is arranged to commence
about Christmas ; and, as they calve, the cows are tied up in
stalls and are fed entirely upon hay, and when thus tied up the
average weekly produce of butter has been as much as 5 lbs. from
each cow. The bull-calves are generally sold fat to the butcher
when from four to six weeks old. When three or four days
old they go into a shed or barn, where they soon learn to drink

A Dorsetshire
dairy farm.

Qd2 = 426

Dairy Farming.

from the pail the warm skim-milk, and after a short time they
begin to eat a little hay and meal. They are kept well bedded
with straw, though their house is not cleaned out ; and in the early
part of May they go forth either for sale, or to be put on green
food and become a portion of the stock of the farm. When the
dairies are let, a quarter’s rent of a cow was formerly frequently
allowed the dairyman for each calf brought up by him ; so that,
to state something like an average sum, if the cows are taken at
12 guineas each, the price of the calf would be 3 guineas ; but
now calves are worth more.

In April there should be some feed ready in the water-meadow
to save the hay and to improve the quality and increase the
quantity of the butter ; and on or about May 12 the cows take
possession of the cowlease, and are entirely on grass until the
frosty mornings of November make the first and comparatively
slight claims upon the haystacks. Some five or six weeks before
due to calve, the cows are allowed to go dry, and are then
removed to the yards to feed upon straw, with a small allowance
of cake. Formerly it was the rule to give nothing but straw,
which probably in the days of the flail may have been fresher
and better, but dairy farmers now more generally recognise the
utility of cake for the in-calf cow, as well as for the improvement
of the land.

Heifers are seldom permitted to bring their first calves before
they are three years old, and then not earlier than March or
April. Those rising two years are wintered on straw only, or
on inferior hay, with a run out if it is to be had. Calves are fed
upon hay, roots, and some supplementary meal or cake.

The butter average of the year may be from 16 to 18 dozen of
pounds. The importance of exact punctuality is fully recognised.
Regularity, method, and cleanliness are the rule. The cream is
taken after the milk has stood twenty-four or thirty-six hours
in earthenware pans holding about 2J gallons each, and it is
churned three or four times a week in the old-fashioned barrel-
churn. Care is taken to squeeze and knead, and beat and
press, and wash the butter-milk out. The butter, duly salted,
is either rolled into lumps or fashioned in fancy pats, or tubbed
as desired ; and despatched either to the country factor or to
some large London firm or hotel.

As for the cheese made from the skim-milk, the skim-milk is
treated very much as ordinary whole milk is treated in the
manufacture of a cheese from it. And though more people now
know that Dorset cheese is made from skim-milk, yet more
people like it ; and instead of being got rid of at 3rf. per lb., it
now readily fetches twice as much, and the supply is barely
equal to the demand.

Dairy Farming.

693 = 427

In the neighbouring county of Devon, butter is made, without Devonshire
churning, from clotted cream. The pans in which the milk has butter,
stood for twenty-four hours are placed upon a hot plate, until
the milk is raised nearly to the boiling temperature, indicated
by the formation of blisters under the coat of cream, which
becomes thickened and tough, and may be lifted bodily off.

The butter comes from it readily by stirring for a few minutes
in a dish, either with the hand or with a wooden spoon.

For the following notes on Irish Dairy Husbandry I am in- Insh d.iiry
debted to W. Bence Jones, Esq., of Lisselan, Clonakilty, county busbandrv.
Cork. The soil and climate of Ireland are favourable for the
growth of grass ; there is a constant fresh spring of grass and
very few hot days, than which nothing can be better for cows
and butter. Probably nowhere can better butter, in all respects,
be produced, and the reason why so much inferior butter is
made in Ireland is wholly from the habits of the people. Care-
lessness and slovenliness are the root of the evil.

In some districts the whole milk is churned. In Munster only
the cream is used ; and on large farms, feeding 20 to 50 cows,
excellent butter is often made, which brings the best price in
the markets, to which it is sent in firkins of 65 lbs. to 70 lbs.

Facilities of communication and the high price of good and
even bad butter in England have greatly affected the trade.
Formerly the chief market for Cork butter was in foreign coun-
tries and the colonies. Now very little of the foreign trade
remains, and none of the colonial. England is the market for
nearly all the Irish butter. It was necessary that butter to be
exported should be heavily salted, using 5 to 7 lbs. of salt to
the cwt., else it would not keep. The trade in this heavily
salted butter is a profitable one to the Cork dealer, but bad for
the producer, because the heavy salting of butter makes it
necessarily an inferior and lower-priced article.

The great body of Irish farmers, too, keeping six or eight
or ten cows apiece, can never get the best price, even of Cork
market, for their butter. They cannot usually fill a firkin of
65 lbs. at one churning ; and if a firkin is filled at two churnings
with equally good butter, that still reduces its quality. Another
mode of business accordingly has sprung up in the past twenty-
five years. Dealers in all the smaller towns buy butter every
market-day, fresh in lumps from the farmers, &c. These men go
by the name of “ slashers,” because they attend the market with
a large square tub on a cart, into which they “ slash” the lumps
of butter bought. It is taken home, washed in cold water to
remove butter-milk, &c., and at last washed in warm water, and
mixed together into a mass of one texture and colour, and, in a
semifluid state, after being salted, it is poured into firkins, and

694 = 425

Dairij Farming.

hardens on cooling. It is said that clever rogues can manage
to keep so much of the warm water in the butter as to add much
to its weight. On the other hand, as the ingredients that cause
rancidity in butter are undoubtedly volatile, washing in warm
water removes these taints and sweetens inferior butter. The
effect of the warm water is to “ break the fibre,” as it is called,
i.e. to do away with the granular appearance which the best
butter has. Such butter is very seldom better than third quality
in Cork market. It is, however, good wholesome butter, fit for
all kitchen purposes ; and the breaking of the fibre makes it
spread better and go further in making pastry, for which purpose
it is bought by large confectioners in towns, who make pastry
on a wholesale scale.

In spite, however, of defects — the bad influence of market
defects, as well as those from neglect in butter-making — it is
certain that in the South of Ireland dairying is much the most
profitable way of dealing with land, and accordingly the number
of cows kept constantly increases. There is no difficulty even
with land in poor order, that is worth 20s. an acre to let to a
tenant, in making a return of 40s. an acre from it by a dairy.
Since the famine, the practice of letting cows to a dairyman
has greatly increased. The owner provides cows, utensils and
house, and land for potatoes, to be manured by the dung of the
cows. The dairyman is allowed to keep two or three sheep,
and a horse or donkey, according to the size of the dairy.
About 4 acres of ordinary land are allowed for each cow. The
rent is from 10/. to 11/. per cow.

Winter feeding is little thought of. The climate gives a
constant spring of grass through winter, and there is a little
straw from the oats grown after the previous year’s potatoes, and
perhaps a cock of hay ; and if there is any rough land or waste
on the farm, there is some winter picking from it. There is no
doubt the cows thus let are more profitable ; for few tenants
make so much as 10/. a cow from those they do not let.

But great changes and many improvements are needed in the
butter-arrangements of the South of Ireland. An open market,
where all can buy and sell at free prices, is the first want ; and
much smaller packages should be the rule, like those in which
Normandy butter comes over — packages of various sizes, so as
to suit small farmers.

The practice of churning whole milk has been adverted to
above. This plan exists also to some extent in Scottish dairy
districts. The whole milk, after cooling in shallow vessels, is
poured into larger vats, where it lies undisturbed for three or
four days, during which it may sour and thicken. The churning
is done by horse-power in large upright churns, with two or three

Dairy Farming.

695 = 42.9

plunging boards on a common axis. The butter is longer in com-
ing, and is said to be hardly of such good keeping quality, owing
to the larger proportion of casein which it is believed to contain.

There are some points affecting butter-making generally, and
1 not belonging to any particular district, to which reference
I should be made. Any offensive taste of butter, owing to faulty
feeding of the cows — as when they are getting turnips, and in a
' less degree when they are getting cabbages, or mangold-wurzel —

' is tried to be corrected in the milk. A drachm of chloride of
I lime in the milk for every infected pound of butter — a dessert-
spoonful of a strong solution of saltpetre to every two gallons of
milk — are among the remedies employed. The heating of the
; milk before setting it for cream in order to dissipate the faulty
I aroma — or the steaming of the turnips, and giving them in a hot

I mash to the cows, so as in some measure to drive off the aroma
before they are taken as food — is recommended as likely to have
the same result. Anyhow, care should be taken to give the cow
! only perfectly fresh and wholesome food of these doubtful kinds —
especially avoiding any decayed turnip or cabbage leaves,
i Another point of first-rate importance, whether in butter- or
cheese-dairies, is the need of setting the milk — whether for cream
or curd — in a perfectly sweet atmosphere. The neighbourhood of
I foul smells, and even of a larder, is mischievous. Milk easily
I acquires a taint. This is universally known, but acted on with
various degrees of intelligence. Dairies are almost universally
in a washed and wet and often sloppy plight, and it is not at all
generally acknowledged that the air should be not only sweet but
as dry as possible, in order to diminish its power for mischief.

I The apparatus of the butter dairy, besides the milk pail (a Dairy
I wooden one-handled vessel holding 4 gallons or thereabouts), ‘"iplemenls.
! includes the vessels in which the milk is set for cream, glazed
earthenware or glass, or tinned or enamelled iron (the first the
most common) holding 2 or 3 gallons each, or large shallow
leaden vats of the kind already named ; the skimming-dish — a
shallow tin saucer perforated to allow the passage of milk ; the
churn, either a barrel-churn or an upright cylinder in which
an axis carrying several plungers works up and down, or a
fixed horizontal cylinder with revolving dashers inside. Some-
times this cylinder is of tinned iron, and provided with a dupli-
cate coat, leaving an interval into which hot or cold water may
be introduced, according to the season of the year. There are
also fancy churns, in one of which two revolving dashers on
upright axes are worked alongside, and partly inside one
{ another. In another, a long wooden tub is divided by a longi-
I tudinal partition, open, however, at either end, and dashers

696 =430

Dairy Farming.

placed in one of these divisions, beat and, so to speak, grind
the milk, as it continually passes along one side of the partition
from one end to the other, and thence through a screen placed
on the other side, which catches the butter as it forms. In yet
another form of churn, beaters are provided of cellular structure,
so that air is taken down and mingled with the cream. The
common barrel-churn was proved to be the most efficient form
of all by the latest official trials — those instituted by the Royal
Agricultural Society at their annual Show at Oxford in 1870.

In addition to pails and vats and churns there are shallow
tubs or slabs and butter-boards, by which the making up of the
butter is accomplished, also scales to determine the weight of
the roll or pat.

The implements of the cheese dairy include large vessels of
tin or wood, in which the milk is set for curd ; knives and
curd-breakers for reducing the curd after it is formed ; tank
for receiving the whey ; curd-mill — a single pair of toothed
cylinders — for grinding the curd as soon as it is dry enough to
mix with the salt ; cheese vats of sizes corresponding to the
kind and size of cheese that is being made ; presses in which
the vats are subjected to a sufficient weight for the consolidation
of the cheese and the further removal of its whey ; and shelves
or floors on which, at a uniform temperature, the cheese is daily
turned and gradually ripens for market. Iron presses are in
common use now, in which by compound leverage a small
weight is multiplied into the pressure that is required.*

I have not spoken in this Report of anything but the ordinary
dairy practice of this country. The admirable methods and

* It may illustrate the attention which is now being paid to dairy implements
and to their improvement if I here extract the instructions given to the Judges of
dairy implements at the Bristol Show of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, with
reference to the improvements of which they may be susceptible. Attention is to
be directed to the following particulars in each Class.

“Class 1. — Cans for carriage of Milk: Facility of cleaning, facility of filling,
ventilation, freedom from spilling, means of preventing motion in milk when
travelling, and strength, are points which will be specially noted.

“ Classes 2 and 3. — Churns: The relative merits of the churns will be decided
with reference to the following considerations : — The condition in which the butter
leaves the chum, its quality and quantity, the facility with which the churns can
be cleaned, and the time which the churning occupies. The butter wilt be weighed
and judged after the process has been completed by the exhibitors, and, if
necessary, analysed by the Society’s Chemist.

“ Classes 4 and 5. — Butter-workers : The points of merit will be : — completeness
of extraction of moisture, absence of hand contact with the butter, freedom of
machine from fouling, facility of cleaning, and power required.

“ Class 6. — Cheese Tub : Facility of tilling and cleaning, mode and cost of
heating, method of drawing off whey, economy of labour generally in putting in
milk and getting out the curd.

“ Classes 7 and 8. — Curd-knife and Mill : Adaptability to their purpose, facility
of cleaning.

Dairy Farming.

697 = 431

contrivances which have been introduced from America and
Denmark for the manipulation of butter are known : — tables
revolving under corrugated cylinders, by means of which the
due kneading of the butter for the extraction of milk is more
perfectly accomplished than by a careless hand — accomplished
too without the danger of losing the finer flavour which runs
some risk of loss when large quantities of water are employed
in making up the butter ; the plan, also, of taking the cream
from milk set in deep cans for the purpose. Neither of these
plans, though known as being to some extent recommended by
American practice, is as yet to any extent adopted on English
dairy farms. To set milk for cream in deep vessels and to
hasten the process by surrounding them with cold water in both
ways diminishes the liability which the cream and therefore the
butter from it incurs of acquiring the seeds of decay by exposure
to the air. It diminishes both the area and the time of the
exposure suffered by a given quantity of cream. Neither of
these practices is, however, as yet known in English dairy
management ; and it has been my duty simply to report English
practice as it at present exists. I will, however, so far depart
from this rule before concluding this Report, as once more
to bring under the notice of English as well as foreign readers
the instructive method of recording the experience of a dairy
which was adopted nearly twenty years ago by Mr. J. Thornhill
Harrison, Mem. Inst. C. E., then of Frocester Court Farm,
Gloucestershire — reproducing the diagrams employed for this
purpose, which were published in the ‘Agricultural Gazette’ so
long ago as 1862. The quantity of milk from each cow taken
once a week is depicted in the upper diagram (page 432) whose
lines thus represent the daily produce in quarts of three sepa-
rate cows for each week from the twelfth to the forty-third week
of 1862. It is evident that by a pictorial diagram of this kind
not only is the behaviour, value — profit or loss indeed — of each
cow kept constantly and strikingly under the notice of the farmer,
but a comparison of it with other records, as those of weather
and health, for example, is full of useful instruction for his future
guidance. And even more is this true of the lower diagram,
which represents the milk produce of the whole herd in gallons
for each week of the year to which each curve belongs. This
diagram has been cut off at either end to admit it into the page.

“ Glasses 9 and 10. — Cheese Turning and Cleaning apparatus ; General adapta-
bility to its purpose.

“ Class 11. — Automatic Machine for preventing the rising of Cream : Adapta-
bility to its purpose.

“ Class 12. — Milh Cooler ; Time occupied in reducing the temperature a given
number of degrees, and the cost of doing it.”

10th week of yoar. 20lh. 3 th. 4Cth.

Dairy Farming.

699 = 435

otherwise the curve would have been seen to be continuous
from one year’s end to the other ; for some cows were at the pail
throughout. The herd numbered 55 cows in 1857, 52 in 1858,
60 in 1859, 66 in 1800, and 71 in 1861 and 1862. It will be
understood that the curves represent the varying quantity of
milk for weekly disposal in the dairy. Where the herd is well
managed on an ordinary dairy farm, unaccustomed to forcing by
purchased foods, an annual curve of this kind ought to corre-
spond pretty nearly to the natural produce of food upon the
farm. If grass fail the curve will drop, and if it be particularly
abundant in any month the curve in that month will rise ; but
there are also other circumstances on which it is contingent.
Thus the remarkable drop in the curve for 1862 between the
thirty-third and the thirty-fifth week of that year was not owing
to any sudden failure of food ; it was owing to a sudden failure
of health. The foot-and-mouth disease attacked the herd at
that time and produced the result thus strikingly represented.*
Again, the very late ascent of the curve in the case of the year
1858 — not till the thirteenth week of the year — was not owing
to lack of food ; it was owing to the cows not coming to the
pail early enough. And this points to a fault, whether unavoid-
able or the result of mismanagement, which was no doubt of
very serious consequence. The cows ought to be in milk before
the time when grass is plentiful. And curves which, like that of
1862, rise continuously and almost abruptly during the fifteenth
and sixteenth weeks of the year, show that the cows were then
in the condition in which they are able to make the full use of
their opportunities. Even the details of this diagram are worth
studying. Thus a sudden drop between the eighth and tenth
weeks of 1862 tallied exactly with Mr. Glaisher’s meteorological
report : “ From the 20th of February to the 13th of March there
was a daily deficiency of temperature to the extent of 5° 2" Fahr.”

These lines are obviously useful to any farmer who seeks
guidance from experience ; and I am sure that Mr. J. T. Har-
rison, now of Ealing, Middlesex, did a good thing by the
method which he thus pointed out and practised, of pictorially
representing the proceedings of a dairy ; and I think that it well
deserves mention in a Report of English Dairy Management.

I conclude with the following general summary of English
dairy experience.

The profits of Dairy Husbandry in England, as elsewhere,
depend, (1) upon the health of the cattle ; (2) npon the selection
and the maintenance of a suitable breed of cows ; (3) upon the
proper treatment and feeding of the live-stock ; and (4) on the
details of dairy management.

* Each of the cows represented in the upper diagram suffered from this disease
between the 33rd and the 37th weeks of 1862.

700 = 434

Dairy Farming.

One more paragraph on each of these four points : —

1. Trusting to our insular position, and resolute in an instinc-
tive personal independence which finds expression in the adage
that “ every Englishman’s house is his castle,” we have not, till
lately, given our Government the power to deal with cattle
disease as it is dealt with in Continental countries. The
measure, however, which is now on the point of enactment
will both protect us from the importation of foreign diseases, as
cattle-plague, pleuro-pneumonia, and foot-and-mouth disease,
which have been (the first occasionally, and the two last more
constantly), since their first importation, the very bane of English
dairy farming ; and it will give the equally necessary power to
restrict or altogether forbid that movement of cattle to and from
an infected district, on which the spreading of disease depends.
The cultivation of breeding cattle, and with it the extension
of our dairy husbandry, which has been checked of late years by
the risks of these diseases, may, it is hoped, now be more
actively resumed.

2. Excepting only the Shorthorns which are spreading every-
where, the selection of the breeds of cattle to be cultivated has
been already accomplished in the several counties to which they
belong. The Ayrshire, Devon, Hereford, Norfolk, Polled Angus,
Galloway, and other breeds are localised, and are fitted by adap-
tation during many generations to the circumstances of their
several localities. I should have mentioned under this head
that large numbers of the Dutch black-and-white cows are now
seen in every dairy for the milk-supply around London. They
are good milch-cqws, but inferior to the Shorthorns in that
aptitude to lay on flesh when milking is over, on which the
profits of a London dairy very largely depend. Although, how-
ever, the breed of any locality is pretty generally fixed, there is
a continual improvement of each breed in progress. Continual
effort is made by the selection of bulls of known families within
each breed to maintain the qualities that are most desired in the
offspring. Especially is this true of Shorthorns, of which there
are specific strains and families known respectively for their
milking qualities and for their meat-producing aptitude. Our
ordinary dairy farmers are more and more in the habit of
attending the great spring sales of Shorthorn bulls at Dublin
and at Birmingham, and elsewhere, to choose their purchases,
often at high prices, with especial reference to the known history
of the families to which they belong.

3. The ordinary management of the herd in our dairy dis-
tricts— excepting for the milk supply, where quantity is the
only consideration, and where much more liberal feeding is
resorted to — consists in letting cows graze in the summer, and

Pastoral Husbandry.

701 = 435

feed either in fields or yards on hay or straw, with a little cake
and turnips, during winter. It is now, however, becoming more
the fashion to provide a certain proportion of arable land on the
farm, and to grow cabbages and vetches with which to eke out
the grass in the later summer months and mangold-wurzels for
use in early spring ; also to give cake in considerable quantities
to young stock in the field and to cows in heavy milk. The
kindly treatment of dairy cattle, and the provision of good
food and clean water, are of course everywhere well understood
to be essential to successful dairy farming.

4. The details of dairy management have been described.
Given sufficient knowledge of the arts of butter-making and of
cheese-making, it may be said that cleanliness, and earnestness
in the known rules of ordinary practice are the true foundations
of success. There is one point, however, not yet named, on
which, more than on anything else whatever, the farmer knows
his success to hinge — the one of all others Avhich needs the
attention of the master, and in which accordingly, in order to
insure due superintendence, the master himself in many a large
dairy district invariably takes a share of the work — and that
condition is that the cows be always thoroughly milked out.
This one particular will make all the difference between profit
and loss upon a dairy farm, more certainly than any other that
can be named. The operation of milking is indeed becoming
more and more the difficulty in the way of dairy farming. And
he who shall invent a good milking-machine will well deserve
the wealth which it is certain to confer upon him.

CHAPTER ON PASTORAL HUSBANDRY.

By W. T. Cakkington.

PastOEAL husbandry varies very greatly in different parts of Variations in
England, in consequence of the great variations of climate and England
soil which exist, and which have an influence upon the kind of = ‘

stock kept, whether cattle or sheep, and upon the mode of
management pursued. Thus we find cattle kept most largely in
the north and west of England, and in those districts where
there is the largest proportion of permanent grass, owing to a
damp climate and heavy land.

The eastern, southern, and south midland counties, where
the rainfall is much less and where much of the land is light,
are more especially devoted to sheep farming.

In describing the present practice of grazing cattle in the

702 = 456

Pastoral Husbandry.

The Shorthorn
breed of cattle.

Management
of a pedigree
herd.

various districts of England, some reference to the special
characteristics of the most important breeds of English cattle
is unavoidable. Each of them has its special merits, and its
advocates maintain its superiority.

Much care and attention have been bestowed upon the breed-
ing of cattle in the last fifty years, and the result has been a
great improvement, not only in special breeding herds, but in
the general character of the stock of the country.

The Shorthorn breed of cattle stands before all others, both in
point of numbers and general usefulness and profit. Cultivated
with judgment, they possess large level frames well covered with
flesh, great aptitude to fatten, early maturity, and excellent
quality of beef, combined with great robustness of constitution,
and, under proper care and management, excellent dairy
properties. Even where dairy produce is not sold, the posses-
sion of dairy properties is of great value in enabling cows to
rear satisfactorily their own offspring.

Shorthorns are also admirably adapted for crossing with
animals of other breeds, or of no particular breed. Very fine
beef-animals are every year produced by crossing the Scotch
breeds with the pure Shorthorn ; and a good well-bred Short-
horn, if put to common cows of no particular breed or special
merit, will generally get stock far superior to their dams in size,
form, and quality. Shorthorns are the prevailing breed in the
north of England ; but pure-bred herds exist in every county in
England.

I will only cursorily describe the management of a pedigree
herd, where the object is the production of a first-rate animal
regardless of cost. Ample box and yard accommodation is pro-
vided. The cows are not often expected to do much more than
rear their own offspring, even if they do this without help.

The calves, which are dropped at all times of the year, usually
run with their dams, being allowed to go on the pastures, when
fine, except in winter, and being brought into boxes at night.
They are early taught to eat linseed-cake, and bean-meal with
hay and cut roots.

The bull-calves, except those decidedly inferior, are deemed
too valuable to be reared as bullocks, and are kept for stock
purposes and sold at from 9 months to 18 months old, either at
home or at one of the auction-sales now held every spring at
Birmingham and other central places.

The Birmingham Show and Sale held in March every year,
at which more than 250/. is given in prizes, has, with excellent
management, proved a great success. From 200 to 300 young
bulls of pure pedigree, and many of them of great merit, have
been sold each year, at an average price of from 35/. to 40/.

Pastoral Husbandry.

703 = 457

This sale has already exerted a marked influence on the cattle-
breeding of the midland counties, many bulls having been pur-
chased there for the large dairy and breeding herds of common
Shorthorns. There has also been a demand for exportation.

I will now describe a system of rearing cattle for sale at from Rearing of
2 years to 2^ years old, recording, as an example of many others,
the actual practice on a mixed arable and pasture farm. Fifteen ‘
very good non-pedigree Shorthorn cows are kept as a regular
breeding herd, and about fifteen heifers calve each year, at the
age of from 2 to 2^ years. A Shorthorn bull, of good frame and
flesh, and of pure pedigree, is always kept, for which the owner
does not scruple to pay from 40 to 80 guineas. The cows
mostly calve about Christmas, or in the early months of the
year ; their calves are all reared, and a number of young calves
of the best quality that can readily be obtained are also
purchased. The cows are not milked by hand ; but the calves,
which are kept in pens near the cattle-shed, are suckled twice
a day, two on each cow.

The calves are early taught to eat linseed-cake and bean-meal
or rice-flour, with hay or grass and cut roots ; if strong ones,
when six weeks old, they are only allowed to suck once a day,
and extra calves are purchased and put on the cows. At three
months old they are weaned entirely from milk, and other calves
take their places. The cows are well kept to increase and pro-
long the supply of milk. The owner, an active and intelligent
man, with the help of one or two boys, makes a point of
attending to the suckling himself, as it requires watchful atten-
tion. The calves from the two-year-old heifers are generally
dropped in May, and these run with their dams in the pastures.

The more promising of the heifers, after suckling their calves
four or five months, are kept on in-calf to] supply the place in
the regular breeding herd of cows drafted on account of age,
imperfection, or barrenness. The remainder of the heifers, with
the draft cows, are dried off and fattened.

From 60 to 70 calves are thus reared annually ; they are kept Summer and
in yards partially covered, and are supplied in the summer with "‘“ter feedm
fresh-mown grass or clover, and 2 lbs. daily of linseed-cake and
bean-meal ; in the winter the allowance of cake and meal is
increased to 3 lbs. each, and hay and cut straw, with whole roots,
supplied liberally, until the latter end of April, when they are
turned out into a luxuriant pasture of second-year clover or old
grass, the cake being discontinued.

In the autumn they are brought up into stalls or boxes, and
fed with roots and straw ; and 5 or 6 lbs. daily of a mixture of
ground corn, equal parts of beans, maize, and oats.

In February or March from 4 to 6 lbs. daily is given of mixed

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 B

704 = 455

Pastoral Husbandry.

Other sj'stems
of rearing
calves.

Diseases of
calves.

linseed- and undecorticated cotton-cake, in addition to the meal,
making a total daily allowance of 10 to 12 lbs. each of cake and
meal for the last two or three months’ feeding. Some clover-
hay is also given, and mangolds are substituted for swedes.

The beasts are all sold by auction on the farm in May or
June, and for some years have realised an average of 29Z. each,
a sum which would bave been exceeded if the purchased calves
had been anything like equal to those bred at home. The
system has been found profitable on this farm. The very liberal
consumption of cake and corn has produced a very valuable
manure-heap, and has resulted in first-rate crops of corn, roots,
and clover, in the improvement of permanent grass, as well as
in a very large production of meat.

On some farms, where a small herd of cows is kept to rear
calves, a different plan is pursued.

The calves are not allowed to suck, but are fed with milk, at
first pure, and after a week or so with an admixture of linseed
or oatmeal gruel. By this means, three or four calves may be
brought up in succession by one cow, and, though they will not
grow as fast as a calf having the whole of its dam’s milk, they
may, if carefully managed, thrive very well and be reared with
economy and profit.

Sweet skim-milk, with the addition of scalded or boiled lin-
seed, is an excellent food for calves, nearly equal to new milk,
the oil of the linseed supplying to some extent the place of
cream.

On some farms, well-bred Shorthorns are reared for beef
purposes, sucking their dams, and being supplied with extra
food as soon as they will take it. They are kept in boxes, and
the process of fattening is continued from birth. They are
supplied with good hay or chopped straw and roots ; or, in the
summer, with green fodder ; and the allowance of cake and meal
is gradually increased. They are sold to the butcher at from 20
to 24 months old.

Calves reared entirely under cover never suffer from the hoose,
and rarely from the black-leg or quarter-ill, which two diseases
frequently cause serious losses in the autumn and winter to those
who rear many calves. The hoose is due to the presence in the
windpipe or bronchial tubes of small thread-like worms, the
germs of which are imbibed with the herbage. Lambs frequently
suffer from the same cause. Great irritation is caused, and not
unfrequently death results from exhaustion.

Quarter-ill is a peculiar form of blood-disease, which attacks
young cattle quite suddenly : the blood stagnates, and gangrene
seizes upon some portion of the body, generally a limb, hence
the name of the disease, which spreads until it reaches a vital

Pastoral Husbandry.

705 = 459

part, when death ensues. Regular good keep, avoiding any
sudden changes, or exposure to cold winds, is a safeguard
against this disease. The plan of putting a seton in the dewlap,
keeping up a constant slight discharge during the first autumn
and winter, is commonly adopted as a preventive measure.

Large numbers of heifer- and bullock-calves are reared in the Grazing of
cold hilly districts of Derbyshire and the north of England, where upland
the climate being quite unsuited to the growth of any corn,
except oats, the greater portion of the land is in permanent grass.

The young cattle are grazed with a flock of hardy Longwoolled
sheep on the upland pastures, which in the summer and autumn
are productive ; but as the winters are long, and it is often
late in May before there is a good bite of grass, the cost of
maintaining the cattle in the winter is considerable.

A well-bred Shorthorn bull is turned out with the heifers
when about 2^ years old, and the latter are sold in-calf the
following November. The steers are also usually sold at the
same age, and are taken into the midland and eastern counties.

The custom of using cake or other feeding-stuffs to supple-
ment the home-grown fodder is increasing, and results in the
cattle attaining better growth, instead of, as was previously
often the case, losing in winter the condition gained during the
previous summer.

On some grass-farms, where there is little winter provision,
the young cattle are purchased each year in April or May, and
sold again the following October, leaving, in a fairly good season,
from 2Z. to 4Z. each for their grass-keep. Suitable young cattle
are, however, often difficult to find in the spring ; and when the
prospect of winter-keep is bad, they are sometimes sold for little
more than they cost.

Where a farmer breeds his own stock and brings them to Method of
maturity, he is able to watch their development, and is far more °^y,^hout
likely to bestow pains upon their breeding than when he sells housing' in
them young. On grazing farms, where there is little arable winter,
land, and therefore little straw available for litter, and in the
many cases where there is not adequate building to shelter all
the cattle through the winter months, young cattle are kept out
on the pastures with advantage wherever the land is sound and
well sheltered, either from good ox-fences of thorn or holly, or
from the natural undulation of the land ; 3 lbs. daily of decorti-
cated cotton-cake with a little fodder, in addition to the old grass
to be picked off the land, will cause them to thrive much better
than in a badly littered yard or shed.

Well-bred young Shorthorns, thus fed, will do thoroughly
well, and just as in the turnip-fold the land is manured, so the
pastures are greatly improved by the consumption upon them of

3 B 2

10Q = 440

Pastoral Husbandry.

Summer
grazing of
cattle.

Advantages of
using cake.

cake. Grass-farms are known to me, where, from the larger
number of cattle now required to consume the greatly increased
summer production of grass, due to improvement of and increase
in the acreage of permanent pasture, the present buildings will
not shelter the whole of the cattle.

The young cattle are brought through their first two winters
without being housed, and by the aid of a moderate allowance of
cake are kept quite healthy and growing, and are wintered at a
less cost than if they were housed, if the interest on the outlay
required to erect buildings and the cost of straw for litter be
estimated.

Some agricultural writers have pointed to this system as one
of the blots on English agriculture ; but this is by no means, in
all cases, the fact.

The plan of allowing store or feeding animals to lose con-
dition for want of some extra food is indefensible on economical
grounds. Practical owners of cattle appraise the value of their
cattle from time to time ; and if, allowing for variations in
market-prices, an increase of value in animals, not giving milk,
is not apparent, they know that their keep has been utterly
wasted.

There is in England much rich grass-land, especially in some
of our river valleys, which has not been ploughed for gene-
rations, and is very well adapted for fattening cattle in the
summer and autumn ; and on such land this is more profitable
than rearing young cattle. If suitable cattle can be bought in
the spring, and made fat and sold before the grass season is over,
there is no necessity for providing a supply of dry fodder, and
there is little labour involved in the system.

In the dairy districts a large number of cows no longer de-
sirable for dairy purposes — from being bad milkers, or proving
barren, or having aborted — are sold in the spring and autumn,
and their place supplied by others. The greater number of
them have a cross of the Shorthorns ; and when well selected,
of good flesh and young, having had only one or two calves,
they are very desirable animals to feed.

Of late years, some of the best managers have given cake
to their cattle when feeding on the grass, and, if given with
judgment to well-selected animals, it is never more profitably
used.

A mixture of equal parts of linseed- and decorticated cotton-
cake is found a most suitable food with grass, the cotton-cake
checking the purgative nature of the grass. A daily allowance
of this mixture, commencing with 4 lbs., increasing to 6 lbs.,
as the beasts approach ripeness, and costing from 2j?. 6d. to
3s. 6d. per head per week, generally pays well. The beasts eat

Pastoral Husbandry.

707 = 441

less grass ; they rest better, generally lying down for an hour or
two after receiving their cake in the morning : they fatten more
quickly, and, when slaughtered, prove better, being thus more
prized by butchers.

Beef is always higher in price in the summer and early
autumn than it is later ; thus, beasts having cake whilst at
grass command a better market. On farms where this plan
has been in operation for a number of years, a marvellous change
has occurred in the productiveness of the pastures.

According to the estimates of our leading agricultural chemists.

Dr. Voelcker and Mr. Lawes, the theoretical value of the manurial
residue of these cakes, after consumption by stock, amounts to
nearly bl. per acre in linseed-cake, and still more in decorticated
cotton-cake. Although in practice these values are probably
liable to considerable deduction, there is very evident proof of
the high value of cake-manure. It produces grass, not only
luxuriant but of good quality, much more relished by stock
than grass forced by common dung. It is applied to the grass
in summer, whilst vegetation is in full progress ; in showery
weather, it is at once assimilated by the plants, and there is
little risk of its being washed off the surface or too deep into
the subsoil before being taken up by the plants.

Well-selected cows, with this extra keep, will pay from 7s. to Profit of
10s. per week for their summer feeding, and in some cases much §‘'''zing.
more than that. Old cows will sometimes fatten well ; but in
hot sultry weather they are liable to gargel, which sometimes
quite spoils them, and their beef is always worth less per lb.
than that of younger cows. They are also larger consumers
of food.

Grazing farmers who have winter provision, generally buy in
November or December lean young barren cows or heifers, and
keep them through the winter on hay or chopped straw with
roots, and a little cake or meal, so as to have them half-fat by
the time the grass is ready for them in April or May ; the cake
is given at grass, and the beasts are sold fat in June or early in
July, paying 10/. or 12/. each for their six or seven months’
keep. Beasts not becoming fat by October are tied up in stalls
and finished. There is an extra demand for fat beef of specially
fine quality at Christmas, and many farmers keep their finest
cattle for this market.

There is a very large import of store cattle from Ireland, Import of
principally heifers and bullocks two and three years old. We
have no accurate statistics on the point ; but the value of this
store stock has been estimated at ten millions sterling.

Owing to the large introduction of Shorthorn bulls into Ireland,
the quality of Irish cattle has much improved. There are still,

70S = 442

Pastoral Husbandry.

Bullock

feeding.

The Hereford
breed of cattle.

however, many which, from want of breeding, from being half-
starved in their youth, or from hardships incidental to travel by
rail and steamboat, and transit from one market to another, are
a long time after reaching the English feeder before they start
to grow, and are unsatisfactory animals to feed.

In past years they have also been a fruitful vehicle of infectious
disease, becoming contaminated on the journey ; and the vessel,
railway-truck, or cattle-pen, when once infected, will taint each
successive consignment of cattle. The Irish cattle are reared at
a small cost as compared with our home-bred cattle ; the land
is lower rented, and the winters are damp and mild, so that
many of them are kept through the winter with little, if any, dry-
fodder. They are generally to be bought bigger for money than
home-bred beasts ; and without a great change in our system,
and a much larger breeding stock, they could not well be
dispensed with.

If a well-bred lot, not too low in condition, can be picked up
they often do very well ; hut rough coarse bullocks are difficult
to feed. Some of these beasts are bought in the autumn, and
wintered on straw and roots, with a little cake, or in grass-land
districts on the grass, with a little fodder, and are fattened in
the early summer. Many more are brought over the Channel
in the spring : being generally small beasts, a larger number of
them may be kept on the land.

Shorthorn bullocks, many of them reared further north, are
grazed largely on the feeding pastures of Leicestershire, North-
amptonshire, and the adjoining counties. Bought at years
old, they run in strawyards, having a few roots and a little cake
during the winter ; they are pastured on the grass, generally
without cake, through the summer and autumn, and are then
put in boxes under cover, receiving roots and chopped straw,
and 10 lbs. to 15 lbs. daily of cake or meal.

The great object of this winter box-feeding is to convert the
straw into good manure, and for the winter feeding not much
more money is often realised than the cost of the cake and meal
consumed. Bullocks, very well bred and well kept from birth,
will fatten at an early age; but, generally speaking, bullocks
require a deal of time, and bullock grazing cannot compare in
point of profit with the grazing of good cows or heifers, drafts
from the dairy. Black Longhorned Welsh cattle are brought in
considerable numbers at three and four years old into England
to fatten : reared on the Welsh hills, they are somewhat slow*
feeders ; but, when fully ripe, the best of them are prime beef,
much prized in the London and other markets.

The Herefords are a very fine breed of cattle for beef
purposes, their meat being particularly tender, juicy, and fine

Pastoral Husbandry.

709 = 443

grained. They form the prevailing breed in their own county,
and there are a number of herds kept in the neighbouring
counties. There is also a brisk demand for all the best bullocks
and draft cows for feeding in all parts of England, except,
perhaps, the north.

Hereford October Fair has for the last 100 years been perhaps
the best display of cattle for sale in England ; the uniformity in
colour, “ the red line tipped with white,” extending through the
market and town, the general excellence of the cattle, and the
great numbers exhibited for sale have combined to make this
fair most interesting to the lover of good cattle. Of late years the
numbers, which once reached as high as 8000, have diminished,
a greater number of the most promising beasts being sought for
and purchased at home.

The Herefords are very seldom kept for dairy purposes, and
the calf is always allowed to run with its dam. The excellent
start which the calves thus get accounts for the fact that one
seldom sees pure-bred Herefords which are not well grown and
fleshy.

There is, however, a breed called Welsh Herefords, which are
probably hardly reared, and are much inferior.

I will now describe the mode of rearing, as practised on a
farm where first-class Herefords are bred. The cows are, as
much as possible, timed to calve in the autumn or early winter
months. The calves suek their dams from four to six months.

The cows are kept in yards with shelter-sheds to go into,
and the calves are kept in pens opening into these yards, being
let out twice a day, and remaining with their dams quite an
hour.

The calves, which are kept four or five together, are supplied
in their box with a little hay, pulped roots and meal, as soon
as they will eat it. Their dams are fed on roots and straw, or
hay until they are turned out in the pastures in May. The
older calves are then weaned and turned out to grass away from
their dams. Any of the cows having much milk are milked for
a time, and a little butter or cheese is made. The cows lie out
on the grass, night and day, through the summer and autumn,
no extra food being given them, as they are apt to get too fat for
breeding purposes.

The young heifers calve about May, and their calves follow
them in the pastures until November. The calves are all then
housed for the winter, the younger ones being kept separate and
receiving a little better food. Sliced or pulped roots, with hay
or oat-straw, and a little cake and meal form their diet. In
May they are all again sent to grass ; the steers and the less
shapely of the heifers being stall-fed the following winter, some

Mnnagcment of
a Hereford
breeding herd.

710 = 444

Pastoral Husbandry.

of them often realising as much as 40Z. each, thus showing very
early maturity. The breeding heifers are put to the bull in
July or August, at 20 to 26 months old, and are kept quite
plainly, or they would become too fat.

A Hereford cow and calf are sometimes allowed to run
together from 12 to 15 months, both being highly fed, and sold
together for beef at as much as 30/. each.

Devon breed of The Devon breed of cattle has been cultivated for a very long
cattle. period in the county from which it takes its name, and upon

the somewhat poor and hilly land of that county it thrives
better, probably, than larger breeds would do.

Devons are kept to some extent for dairy purposes, but their
special merit is for the production of somewhat small carcasses
of very prime beef. They are always red in colour, though of
varying shades ; when fat, they handle particularly firm. An
extraordinary ox of this breed, exhibited by Mr. Kidner at the
great Christmas Fat Cattle Show in 1876, won the champion
prize, as the best animal of any breed in the exhibition.

Influence of Sheep are very much affected by the influence of climate,
chmate upon beautiful South Down, which thrives so well on the

closely cropped herbage in the mild and dry climate of the
south-east of England, if transferred to the north midland
counties, becomes in the course of one or two generations, quite
a different type of sheep. The same principle holds good to
some extent w’ith all the breeds of sheep, a change of locality
somewhat altering their type. Generally speaking, the native
sheep of a district have special qualities, the results of climatic
influence, which render them, when improved by careful selec-
tion, or by crossing w ith some other breed, more profitable to
keep than any totally different race.

The breeding and feeding of sheep have received great and
special attention in England. The high price of wool which
ruled in past years, partly in consequence of the scarcity of cotton
resulting from the American Civil War, gave a great stimulus
to the manufacture of fabrics wholly or partially of wool ; and
the increased demand for the best qualities of mutton, an article
which is less influenced than beef by foreign importations, has
combined with the greater consumption of wool to give a great
stimulus to sheep-farming.

The production The greatly increased importations of wool from Australia
mutton New Zealand have, however, now considerably reduced the

price of home-grown wool. It was formerly thought that we had
a monopoly of the production of the best long wool, and that it
could not be grown elsewhere ; but a large number of rams of
our best long-woolled breeds have been exported to the Anti-
podes, and the wool from their progeny is coming back equal.

Pastoral Husbandry.

111 = 445

if not superior, to any of our own growth. As wool, when
pressed for exportation, is a very portable article in proportion
to its value, the importation may be expected to increase as our
colonies are further developed ; it is therefore improbable that
the price of wool will rule very high in the future.

The demand for mutton of the best quality is, on the contrary,
likely to be at least as great in the future as in the past, and
as the production of long wool and of fine quality of mutton
are, in some degree, antagonistic, and rarely combined in the
same animal, it appears likely that in the future the production
of mutton will receive the larger amount of attention.

Some notice of the qualities of some of the principal breeds The Lincoln
of sheep will here not be out of place. The Lincoln takes the sheep,

first place amongst the long-woolled breeds, on account both of
the weight of its carcass and of the quality of its fleece. Almost
the whole of the sheep in its native county are of this breed,
and many flocks are kept in adjoining counties. A great
number of fine sheep in the wool, one year old, are annually sold
in April at Lincoln Fair, and other fairs in the county. On
the shallow soils of the large district, formerly uncultivated,
commonly called Lincoln Heath, these sheep seem to thrive
admirably upon the somewhat scanty fare yielded by the clovers
and stubbles during the summer and autumn.

Great attention has been paid to the cultivation of the
Lincoln breed, and whilst the weight and quality of the wool
have been improved, size, weight of flesh, and aptitude to fatten
have also been increased. Large prices are paid for rams at
the auctions held yearly ; thus, last year, Mr. Dudding’s 70 rams
averaged 21/. each, one making 100/. ; Mr. Casswell’s 50 rams
averaged 25/. each.

The Cotswold sheep are common on their native soil, the The Cotswolds.
Cotswold Hills and the neighbouring counties. They are also
kept in Norfolk. They have large handsome frames, and a heavy
fleece of coarse wool ; they attain a great weight of mutton,
somewhat coarse grained, with a large proportion of fat. They
are well adapted for fattening at an early age, but handle soft
and flabby. Mr. R. Game’s 50 rams last year made an average
price of 20/. 5s., and many other breeders made fair average
prices.

The Leicester breed of sheep is of ancient date, and was in The Leicesters
very high repute nearly 100 years ago, great prices having then
been given for the purchase and hire of rams. The Leicester
sheep is of moderate size, with neat frame, a good fleece of wool,
very firm mutton, and great aptitude to fatten.

The mutton has, however, often too great a proportion of fat,
and is therefore not so saleable as that of some other breeds.

712 = 446

Pastoral Husbandry.

The Down
sheep.

The Shrop-
shires.

The pure Leicester sheep is not so generally kept as formerly in
the midland counties, but is largely kept in Yorkshire and in
the lowlands of Scotland. A coarser, more hardy variety of
this breed is also kept largely in the hilly districts of Derbyshire
and the north of England, under the name of the Teeswater, the
Border Leicester, or the Limestone Leicester.

The Southdown is a small gray-faced sheep, with very close
fine wool, and mutton of very superior quality. It is specially
adapted for warm situations and short dry pasturage. On
ordinary farms it is not so profitable as larger-framed sheep.

The Hampshire Down is larger framed and coarser in bone,
with a black face and short fine wool. It is only kept in the
south of England. The wether sheep are generally fattened
at an early age.

The Oxford Down is a handsome breed of sheep, originally
due to a cross of Cotswold with Hampshire Down. It has long
been a distinct breed, and has been cultivated to great perfec-
tion. With generally a dark-gray face, rather long wool and
somewhat soft-handling mutton, it partakes most of the character
of long-wool sheep. It is kept largely in Bedford, Bucks, and
Oxfordshire. Mr. Treadwell’s 69 Oxford Down rams at his
sale averaged more than 20/. each.

The Shropshire breed of sheep is the one Avhich probably,
more than any other, is being kept in increasing numbers. 'i

Originally, doubtless, a cross-bred sheep, it has been culti-
vated with great care, and has become a most valuable breed,
thriving, like the Shorthorn cattle, almost anywhere. This
breed occupies, to the exclusion of other breeds, a continually I
widening district in the midland counties. With a good fleece
of close thick-set fine wool, and a carcass long, wide, and deep,
it has plenty of lean flesh, aptitude to fatten and robustness of
constitution. The ewes are more prolific than those of any
other breed, and are good sucklers. The colour of the face is
black or gray, and the head is well covered with wool. The
mutton is of excellent quality, and in all the towns in the
midlands, where it is easily to be obtained, the coarser white-
faced mutton is only saleable at a reduced price.

A very large number of rams of this breed are kept for stock
purposes. At the annual sale held last year, Mr. R. H. Masfen
sold 58, at an average price of 22/. %s., and Mr. Evans sold 39,
at an average of 23/. 4s. ; whilst at the sale of the noted entire
flock of Mrs. Beach, 34 rams made an average of 33/. 12s. each, j
and the whole flock of 452, nearly half of which were lambs |
under seven months old, made an average price of 13/. 4s. 6d. i
each. I

The Dorset-horned sheep have a special faculty of producing ||

Pastoral Husbandry.

713 = 447

lambs in the autumn, and many are kept in the south of
England to produce lambs to be fattened under cover, and sold
about Christmas in London and other markets.

Having remarked upon the qualities of some of the principal Management
breeds of sheep, I will proceed to describe the management ^

sheep on a light-land farm, consisting wholly or principally of
arable land.

A large breeding flock is here usually kept, and, in addition
to the keep furnished by the clover or sainfoin and artificial
grasses in rotation, various fodder crops, such as winter and
spring vetches, rye, rape, cabbages, mustard, as well as an
abundant supply of roots for winter consumption, are provided
for the maintenance of the flocks. The rotation adopted is
either four, five, or six course, the former being the most com-
mon, thus : wheat, roots or green crop, barley, seeds. Where
it is specially desired to increase the supply of green food, the
seeds are kept down the second year until the beginning of
June, and then broken up for rape, or some other green crop, to
be eaten off by sheep folded on the land, in time to sow wheat.

If more corn be desired, barley may succeed the wheat crop,
making it a six-course rotation.

The ewe flock is kept young, all those ewes above three or
four years old being drawn out every year, and either sold to
produce another crop of lambs elsewhere, or fattened. In a ram-
breeding flock, ewes of special excellence are kept as long as
they will breed.

The time of putting the ram with the ewes varies with the
locality and the prospect of early spring food. In the south of
England, August and September are usual months. In the
midlands, October ; and in the north, November. On those
farms where rams are bred for annual sale, they are usually
dropped early, so as to give them a good start. It is better that
ewes going to the ram should be, though not fat, in an improving
condition, a supply of succulent food at this period having also
a favourable influence on the number of lambs yeaned, therefore
many farmers put their ewes on rape. Great care is taken to
obtain rams of good form, substance, and wool, as one ram is
serviceable for fifty or more ewes. A good price for a suitable
one is not grudged, as the sale averages just quoted plainly show.

In a regular breeding flock the practice of using a ram of another
distinct breed is rarely adopted, as the progeny of such a ram,
though valuable for fattening, would be undesirable for breeding
purposes. In the autumn and early winter the ewes are run on
the clover or stubbles, receiving an occasional fold of rape, or
early turnips, or mangold tops with chaff and a little cotton-cake.

They often follow the feeding sheep, clearing up all their

1U = 448

Pastoral Husbandry.

The lambing
season.

Weaning and
dipping.

leavings on the fold. The practice formerly pursued of giving
in-lamb ewes a full allowance of turnips is generally discon-
tinued, it being found that they are much better without such
watery food before lambing.

When about lambing, the ewes are brought at nights into a
covered shed or yard ; or a movable lambing-shed is taken into
the open field, and protection against wind and rain is provided
by means of hurdles wattled with sti'aw, or one or two old wag-
gons part loaded with stravv, the shepherds giving them unre-
mitting attention both by day and night.

The ewes, after lambing, are well fed, having straw, chaff,
or hay, and ^ lb. to 1 lb. of cake or meal, with roots.

Whatever be the destination of the lamb, the ewe should at
this time be liberally fed.

When the lambs are two or three weeks old they begin to eat
food with their dams, and lamb-hurdles are often provided,
allowing them to run before the fold, and eat a little dust linseed-
cake or bruised oats. A change of food for the ewes is desirable
as soon as it can be well given. Early rye, or Italian ryegrass,
or the second year’s clover, with a few mangolds and ^ lb. each
daily of cotton-cake, proves an excellent diet. Castration of
all male lambs not required for stock purposes is often done by
drawing, at ten days to twenty days old, or is done by searing at
three months old. Weaning takes place at from three to four
months old ; where the lambs are early taught to eat artificial
food it is not desirable to delay it too long.

On those farms where fat lambs are sold to the butcher at an
early age they remain with the ewes until sold.

The lambs, when weaned, are either taken a distance away
out of the sound of their dams bleating, or a double row of?
hurdles at a little distance keeps them apart, when they before *j
long become pacified. The lambs are provided with a succes- e
sion of green food, much importance being attached to a frequent 'J
change of diet. l|

It is not well for them to graze on land which has been folded 1
with older sheep, the rank luxuriant herbage of clover or grass |
produced by the sheep-manure being unhealthy food for lambs, ju
and causing scour. j|

The lambs, after weaning, are all dipped in some preparation ij
to destroy parasites, and to prevent for a time the attacks of the*
maggot-fly, which in some districts, especially where much a
timber exists, is very troublesome, blowing upon the wool, and,[i
unless quickly eradicated, spoiling the wool, and even sometimesj
killing the lamb. The ewes are also commonly, after being
shorn in May, dipped or smeared with some similar preparation.
The ewes which, either on account of age or imperfection, are '

Pastoral Husbandry.

715 = 449

not desired to be kept for the ensuing year are drawn out soon
after weaning, and supplied with better keep than the store flock,
which it is not desirable to force at this period. The seeds are
heavily stocked with store sheep, the lambs and fatting sheep
being folded on the vetches, rape, or cabbage, with a little cake.

Where rams are reared for sale, a special effort is made to
force their growth, and cake or peas are given more freely.

There is some difference of opinion about the advantages of Advantages of
the close-folding of sheep over the open-field system. Most of
the best managers of light-land arable farms, however, adopt the
plan of small folds frequently changed. It involves more labour
and attention, but there is less waste of food, and the land is
more equally manured, and the sheep are more under the control
of the shepherd when attention is required from any cause. It
is not, however, commonly adopted for store sheep when on the
clover, grass, or stubbles, or so generally in heavy land and
grazing districts.

Cabbages are much grown by some large sheep-farmers, some
of an early ripening kind being planted in the autumn for con-
sumption in the following May or June, and drumhead cabbages
being planted in May for autumn consumption.

The hundredfold cabbage has been much lauded as suitable for Consumption
sheep, but, with its long stalk and wide open-branching leaves,
it is not equal in quality, nor can it produce as much weight ’ ‘
per acre as a good crop of solid-hearted drumhead cabbage.

The feeding hoggs (unshorn sheep) are folded on cabbage, or
white turnips, in the autumn, followed by swedes, either all or
part of the roots being often cut into fingers or slices, and a
little clover-hay or chopped straw, and ^ lb. to 1 lb. of cake or
corn daily being given, the quantity being increased as the
fattening process approaches completion.

The heavier woolled breeds of sheep are often shorn just before
going to the butcher, having been tub-washed 10 or 14 days
previously. The general weight of fat tegs of the larger im-
proved .breeds, from 12 to 14 months old, which have been well
kept from birth, is from 8 to 12 stone of 8 lbs. dead weight.

From lOd. to Is. per lb. in the wool, or 8d. to lOd, bare shorn,
have been common prices in the early spring for some years ;
including the value of the wool, such sheep therefore realise
from 31. to 41. 10s. each.

On many of the best managed farms all roots not required
for consumption early in the winter are pulled, thrown in heaps,
and covered with soil in November and December, and are then
given out daily in the folds as required. There is a special
advantage in this system in frosty weather, when sheep cannot
well eat frozen roots. Swedes, though capable of standing hard

71Q = 450

Pastoral Husbandry.

fehe flock.

Sheep on
strong-land
ctrable farms.

frost without much apparent injury, do not gain in weight after
December, and exhaust the land to some extent whilst growing ;
they also suffer less from the attacks of pigeons, crows, and
ground game. Mangolds being very susceptible of frost, and
keeping well if properly stored, for 12 months if desired, are
always pitted, and kept for the last eating.

General The increase in the number, the improvements of the quality,

management of and the skilful and economical management of the flock, have
been deemed the chief marks of good light-land arable farming.
The system of sheep-folding just described results in the return
to the land, without expense of cartage, of a large quantity of
manure ; and the consumption of cake and other purchased
feeding stuffs leaves the land in high condition for the succeeding
crops of corn and clover. The treading of the sheep is also
found highly advantageous to all light sandy or gravelly soils,
consolidating it and improving its staple.

The adoption of this system many years ago in Lincolnshire,
Norfolk, and parts of many other counties, caused an immense
improvement in the agriculture of those districts.

On strong-land arable farms a different system is generally
pursued. Except in specially dry districts, or in exceptional
seasons, the roots cannot be consumed on the land where they
are grown, without injury to the land by puddling, and to the
sheep from their muddy and uncomfortable lair. The greater
part of the roots is therefore generally carted off the land for
consumption in the sheds or yards by cattle or sheep, or upon
the clovers or grass-land.

Fatting sheep in covered sheds, standing on slots of wood,
through which the manure falls into a pit below, or bedded with
straw, thrive and fatten well for a time. In the absence of per-
manent grass the ewe flock are kept on the seeds, some of which
are kept down two or more years. They are supplied with extra
food sparingly before lambing, afterwards liberally.

There is not so much difficulty in summer folding green crops
on strong arable land, which is then generally drier than in
winter.

On many of the low-lying grass-land farms, full-mouthed
ewes are purchased every autumn from light-land farms. They
are kept through the winter on the grass-land, often receiving
nothing (except in snowy weather) until nearly lambing. They
are then fed with corn and roots until the grass is abundant,
when they are kept, not too thickly, upon the pastures where
cattle are grazed. The lambs, which are often cross-bred, a
ram of another breed having been used to give size and con-
stitution, are sold fat in the summer and autumn.

In large towns and summer watering-places there is a brisk

On low-lying
arrass.

Pastoral Husbandry.

717 = 451

demand for lamb, its small joints of tender meat being highly
esteemed. Good fat lambs make from 30s. to 45s. each. The
ewes are fattened after the lamb is sold, and go off at a few
shillings over their cost price the previous autumn.

The plan of changing the ewes every year is most necessary
on lands naturally wet or liable to flood, and where sheep are
apt to contract the rot, due to the presence of flukes in the liver.

Many farmers in the north of England get Cheviot ewes every
year from Scotland, and cross them with a Leicester ram. They
are excellent sucklers and produce capital fat lambs, fattening
well themselves afterwards.

On the hills in the north of England and borders of Wales, Oq hill farms,
hill-sheep are kept, one shepherd, with his dog, looking after
500 or 600, which graze on the heather and rough mountain
grass, getting no extra food, except in severe weather. The
Herdwicks are a very useful mountain race, and are sold, at
mature age, to better districts, where they make good-sized
sheep, and their mutton is excellent.

Wethers were formerly kept till four years old, and their
mutton was specially esteemed on that account, but they are now
fattened earlier.

The Welsh mountain breeds are very hardy, and the mutton,
when well fed, is a delicacy, but they are small, and much less
profitable than the north of England or Scotch mountain breeds.

On large feeding pastures of permanent grass, principally grazed
by feeding or dairy cattle, few sheep are kept, as with their
narrow noses they pick out the finest of the clovers and grasses,
and, where many are kept, cattle will neither feed nor milk so
well. A few are, however, usefully kept, as they keep down
some weeds which cattle will not eat if they can avoid them,
such as the common buttercup, the hard-head, and other weeds.

Having such choice of food, they also thrive very well. The
great drawback to keeping sheep on rich moist land is their Liability to
liability to foot-rot. The natural home of sheep is on dry foot-rot.
uplands, and, kept there, this disease is unknown.

Frequent parings of the hoof, and caustic applications to the
diseased feet, such as powdered burnt vitriol, alum, or carbolic
acid, are the best remedies, but with every care on some land it
is impossible to avoid this complaint, which greatly checks
the growth of the sheep. On mixed grazing and arable farms,
lambs are kept through the autumn and winter on the grass-
land, being supplied with cake and corn, and a few roots being
carted to them. When kept and thus well fed on sound mow-
ing land, they do well, and the field is put in condition to grow
a crop of excellent hay. The hoggets are sold fat to the butcher
in April or May.

718 = 452

Pastoral Husbandry.

Sheep on cold
uplands.

Great increase
in the use of
imported foods
for stock, and
in the demand
for fresh meat.

On the cold uplands of North Derbyshire, and other counties
where no corn (except oats) can be grown, and the land is there-
fore nearly all grass, white-faced long-woolled sheep, of a coarse
Leicester type, are kept, and suit the climate much better than
other breeds.

They are wintered on the pastures, a little fodder being given
them whenever required before lambing. They are afterwards
fed with cotton-cake, and oats with chaff ; and in some districts
brewers’ grains, obtained and pitted the previous autumn, are
freely given until, in those late districts, there is sufficient
pasturage.

The sheep, when shorn, yield from 7 to 10 lbs. weight of
strong wool, rams often cutting a much greater weight. The
lambs are weaned in July or August, and are either wintered at
home or put out to ley for the winter on grass-farms, in a
dairy district within 10 or 20 miles, where the climate is milder
and no summer stock of sheep is kept. Ten shillings is paid
for the keep of the lamb from the 6th of October to the 6th of
April, hay being given only when the ground is covered with
snow. The lambs generally do better than they would at home,
where the cold winter is apt to stunt their growth ; they go
back to the farm for another summer’s grazing, and are sold
with the draft ewes in October, to be fattened in the turnip-
feeding districts.

In past years the high price of strong wool has made this
farming very profitable.

Great changes have taken place in the last thirty years in the
pastoral husbandry of this country. The population and the rate
of wages have both increased rapidly. Our labouring population
are much greater meat consumers than those of any other nation.
More of the land of this country has been laid to grass ; and,
by the purchase of imported foods for stock, a larger amount of
meat has been produced. But, in spite of this increased import
and production, the price of meat has ruled higher. The greatest
obstacle to successful cattle or sheep breeding and feeding has
been the great losses sustained from infectious disease, although
it has been proved by experience that these diseases may be
suppressed and kept under control, if not altogether stamped out.

The recent improvements in the mode of conveying dead
meat, in artificially cooled compartments of the steamboat or
railway-truck, promise eventually to supersede the conveyance
of live animals, being not only less costly and avoiding much
cruelty and suffering to the animals, but preventing the trans-
mission of those diseases which have been so disastrous to the
stock farmers of this and other countries.

VII.

THE CULTIVATION OF HOPS,

FRUIT, AND VEGETABLES.

CHARLES WHITEHEAD, F.L.S., F.G.S.,

OF BARSnXG HOUSE, MAIDSTONE, MEMBER OP THE COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

d C

( 721 = 455 )

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.— Hops.

The Hop first brought into England in 1524— Acreage of Hop-land since
1750 : its fluctuation since that date — The Counties in which Hops are chiefly
cultivated — Kent has the largest Acreage — The Geological Formation upon
which the Hop-plant thrives in Kent — Great age of Hop-grounds in Kent —
Hops grown upon the Gault and Greensand in Surrey and Hants — Extent
of Hop-farms — Mode of Cultivation — Hop Digging-machine — Dressing and
Poling — Woodlands in Kent and Sussex produce Hop-poles — Creosoting
Hop-poles — Cost of Poles per acre — The Vinery method of poling — System
of training upon wires— Tying Hop-hines performed by women — Ladder
tying — Lar^e quantities of Manure necessary — Kinds and Cost of Manure —
Implement for working Hop-land — White frosts injurious to the tender
Plants — Aphis-hlight : remedy for it — Insect Foes — Mould or White Blight
checked by Sulphur — Sulphuring Machines — Hop-harvest — Immigrants pick
the Hops in Kent — Prices paid for Picking Hops — Sulphur used to bleach
the Hops — Drying Process — Hops dried too quickly on account of insufScient
Kiln accommodation — Modes of Sale — Price varies according to Sorts — No
Home nor Foreign Duty now — Quantity used in Great Britain — Exportation
small — Rental of Hop-land — Lucky Farms .. .. Pages 457-475

CHAPTER 11.— Fruit.

Fruit extensively grown for over 300 Years — The Apple indigenous to
Britain — Acreage of Fruit-land in Great Britain in 1877 — Large increase
in the Acreage during the last four Years — Two distinct Systems of Cul-
tivation— First system, or growing Fruit upon Grass-land, and Acreage of
Counties where adopted — Apple and Pear-orchards of Herefordshire — Sorts
of Apples and Pears usually cultivated in Great Britain — Cost of Planting,
Rents of Land, Returns — Cider and Perry — Apple-orchards form the chief
part of the Fruit-land of Devonshire and Somersetshire — Fruit-land in
Worcestershire and Gloucestershire — Not enough care bestowed upon the
System of Fruit-growing — The Spring season frequently most destructive
to Fruit-trees — Cost of raising Orchards — The Second System, or growing
Fruit upon Cultivated Land — Fruit-hushes set under Standard Trees —
Cherry-culture in Kent — Greengages — Gooseberries ; Red, White, and Black
Currants — Filberts and Cob-nuts grown in Kent — Their peculiar Cultiva-
tion— Fruit Culture in Cornwall — Cornish Raspberries — Plums largely
grown near Evesham — Strawberry cultivation — Acreage of Fruit-land in
Wales very small — Climate of Scotland unfavourable for Fruit-growing —
Large Demand for Fruit — Immense Quantities of Fruit taken for Jam-
making— Amount of Fruit grown impossible to be ascertained — Large
Importation from France and other countries .. Pages 470-482

3 c 2

722 = 456

Contents.

^CHAPTEE III. — Vegetables.

First Introduction of Market-gardening into England in the 17tb Century —
Extent of Acreage of Land devoted to the Growth of Vegetables in 1877 —
Area round Metropolis, or Inner Circle — Area beyond Metropolis, or Outer
Circle — Vegetables Cultivated in Special Districts — Essex Area — Middlesex
Area — Kent Area — Acreages of chief Counties producing Vegetables — No
regular Eotation of Crops — Typical Rotation of Crops — Farm-yard Manure
the Mainstay of Market-gardens — Salad and Sweet Herbs specially grown at
klitcham — Asparagus Culture — Sea-kale — Cabbages and Coleworts — Onions
a profitable Crop — Large Demand for certain Vegetables for Pickle Manu-
facturers— Rent and Expenses connected with Vegetable Culture — Profits
affected by Foreign Importation — Cornwall — Its mild Climate — Brocoli the
chief Vegetables produced in Cornwall — Potato-sprouting process — Two
crops of Potatoes taken in a Year — Potatoes grown in large Quantities upon
Farms — Average — Decrease in Acreage planted with Potatoes on account
of Potato Disease and large Importations — Acreage of chief Potato-growing
Counties in England in 1877 — Acreage in Wales — Acreage ^n Scotland — ■
Importation of French Potatoes large — Rotation of Farm Crops where
Potatoes are grown, and Systems of Cultivation — Sorts usually planted —
Cost of Cultivation — Average Price of Potatoes for last ten Years — Potato
Disease — Its life-history only recently traced by De Bary and Worthington
Smith — Supposed Blight-proof Potatoes — Town-sewage as applied to Vege-
table Cultivation — Wales and Scotland — Conclusion — General resume.

Pages 483-494

( 723 = 457 )

THE CULTIVATION OF HOPS,

FRUIT, AND VEGETABLES.

CHAPTEE I.

Hops.

The hop-plant was Introduced into England from Artois in the
early part of the sixteenth century. Its cultivation was not,
however, very extensive until the commencement of the
eighteenth century, at which period it appears that there were
about 12,000 acres planted with hops.

The acreage was increased to about 25,000 acres between the
years 1750 and 1780; and it is computed, from a calculation
made from the returns of the hop duty, that there were about

32.000 acres planted with hops at the end of the last century.
Since that time the extent of the acreage has been very much
extended, and it is estimated that there are at this time over

70.000 acres of hop-land in England.* The agricultural returns
of Great Britain for 1877 show that there were 71,239 acres
in that year as against 69,999 acres in 1876. Before the duty
was taken off, in 1862, there were great fluctuations in the hop
acreage. After successive heavy crops, when prices were low,
and the payment of the duty pressed heavily upon the hop-
growers, important reductions were made in the number of acres.
After short crops, when prices were remunerative, many acres
were planted. For example, between 1820 and 1823, nearly

10.000 acres of hop-land were grubbed, as there had been five
heavy crops in succession. In 1837 there were 56,000 acres,
and in 1840 only 44,000 acres of hop-land in England. In
1855 the acreage had been increased to 57,000 acres ; but it
was reduced again to 45,000 acres in 1859, in consequence of a
series of very large crops. Since the duty has been repealed

The hop first
brought into
England in
1524.

Acreage of hop-
landsincel750:
its fluctuation
since that date.

There are uo hops cultivated in Wales nor in Scotland.

724 = 455

The Cultivation of Hojys.

the acreage has been gradually added to year by year, with
comparatively few exceptions.

The counties in The counties of England in which hops are principally grown
h*' ^ are Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Hampshire, Worcestershire, and
vated^ ' Herefordshire. There are a few acres in Nottinghamshire, Shrop-
shire, Essex, Suffolk, and Gloucestershire ; but the great part
of the hop plantation is in the first-named six counties. Of
Kent has the these, Kent, in which county hops were first grown in England,
largest acreage. largest acreage. According to the ‘ Agricultural

Returns,’ there were 45,984 acres of hop-land in Kent in 1877, as
against 44,755 acres in the previous year. The county of Sussex
ranks next to Kent, having 11,057 acres in 1877, showing a slight
decrease of 118 acres from the returns of 1876. In Herefordshire,
Hampshire, Worcestershire, and Surrey, there were, respectively,
5839, 3156, 2329, and 2536 acres in 1877. Kent hops — more
especially Kent Goldings, whose strobiles are small, of a delicate
colour, and abounding in lupulin — are considered the best, and
command the highest prices, being most highly esteemed by the
brewers for pale ales, as well as for ales for exportation ; and
Goldings grown in East Kent are preferred to those produced
in the middle part of Kent, which, in their turn, rank higher
than those grown in other districts ; though Farnham Goldings
are particularly choice, and have a reputation among the brewers
in the western part of England somewhat similar to that of the
famous hops grown within the limits of the Bavarian town of
Spjilt, or of tliose produced near Saatz in Bohemia.

The geological Hops are grown in Kent chiefly upon the loams and clay
formation upon loams of the Hythe Beds and the Sandgate Beds of the Lower
piant^t^rh^s'^ Greensand formation, which soils are especially suited to their
in Kent. growth ; as well as upon the Thanet Beds and Woolwich Beds,
and the deeper soils superimposed upon the chalk in the eastern
part of the county. Upon the beds of the Lower Greensand
Great age of formation, many of the hop-grounds are over 100 years old, and
hop-grounds in jn a few instances much older than this. In these old grounds
there is a certain percentage of dead plants, which are renewed
each year. In the Weald of Kent, the various soils of the heavy
Wealden Clay, of the Wadhurst Clay, and of the Tunbridge
Wells Sand, are well suited to the growth of the coarser kinds
of hops, and yield much larger crops than the other soils of this
county, though the value of the produce is 20 per cent, under
that of the East and Mid Kent hops. Grapes, Jones’, and Cole-
gates are the sorts of hops usually grown here. The two first
named are coarse hardy sorts with large strobiles. Colegates
are very prolific and hardy and less liable to blight and mould
than other sorts, having strobiles smaller than Goldings, with a
somewhat rank flavour not unlike that of some American hops.

725 = 459

The Cultivation of Hops.

The quantity of hops grown per acre in the plantations of
Sussex is also very large in favourable seasons. The soil upon
which they are grown is a tenacious clay on the Wadhurst Clay,

Weald Clay, and Ashdown Sand strata, of the Lower Cretaceous
formation, which prevails in the eastern part of the county, where
the hops are chiefly cultivated. From 15 to 20 years is the
average duration of hop-grounds in Sussex and the Weald of
Kent ; the plants do not last so long upon the heavy clays of
these districts as on the “ rock ” of the Greensand formation.

In the counties of Worcestershire and Herefordshire hops are
cultivated principally upon the deep rich alluvium in the
valleys of the rivers Severn, Teme, Wye, Lugg, and Froome ; and
upon the marls, loams, and clays of the Old and New Red
Sandstone formation. The sorts that are principally cultivated
are White Mathons, Cooper’s Whites, Goldings, and Mayfield
Grapes, all of which, when well grown and well managed, are
much approved by the brewers in the larger towns of the Mid-
land Counties, who buy the greater part of the hops produced
in this district.

Upon the eastern side of Surrey, and upon the western side of Hops grown
the bordering: county of Hampshire, the hop-plantations are Gault

C7 J X ' X A 3.nn I TT*PPT\^Jl.Tin

situated mainly upon the clay and loamy soils of the Gault and in Surrey and
Upp er Greensand which crop up there. There is a peculiar Hants,
productive clay soil of the latter formation which is found in
this district, and is locally termed “ malm,” upon which, as
at Farnham, for instance, hops of rare quality are grown.

The hop-plant lasts a long while in this locality, and there are
hop-grounds near Farnham almost as old as the oldest in Kent.

Williams’ Whitebines, Goldings, Greenbines, and Golding
Clusters, are the sorts usually cultivated in Surrey and Hamp-
shire. Besides those enumerated above, there are various sorts
of early hops which are ready for picking from a fortnight to a
week before those that constitute the ordinary crop. Many
of these have been obtained by a process of selection, from
cuttings taken from certain plants that have been observed to
differ from their congeners in certain characteristics. The
Bramblings, and White’s Early Goldings, are choice early
hops, which have been much grown in Kent during the last ten
years, and which are ready to pick about ten days before Gold-
ings and Grapes. There are other kinds, as Prolifics, which
are ready a few days earlier still.

In the chief hop-producing localities each farm has a certain Extent of hop-
proportion of hop-land upon it, which, in most cases, tenants
are bound by covenants in their leases or agreements to main-
tain in “ full plant.” In a few instances farms consist entirely
of hop-land ; for example, near Maidstone, in Mid Kent, there

Mode of culti-
vation.

72() = 460 The Cultivation of Hops.

is a farm of over 300 acres almost “ in a ring fence,” the whole
of which, with the exception of four or five acres of lucerne for
the horses, is planted with hops. A few planters in Mid and
East Kent, where the average number of acres of hop-land held
by single individuals is greater than in any other part of Eng-
land, hold from 180 to 350 acres of hop-land. Many hold from
80 to 120 acres, and many more from 40 to 80 acres, and the
average extent of the holdings in these districts may be put at
50 acres per planter. These holdings are smaller in the Weald
of Kent and in Sussex than in other places. Here and there
leviathans may be found who have 80 or 90 acres, but the
average can hardly be put higher than 20 acres. Hop-land in
Hampshire, Surrey, Worcester, and Hereford, is also distributed
among many individuals. In the former counties 100 acres, and
in the latter 80 acres, form the maximum holdings of planters.

With regard to the cultivation and management of hops, the
details are practically the same in principle throughout the king-
dom, and it will be convenient to describe the usual methods,
alluding only to important differences where these occur.

The land, before it is planted with hops, either is ploughed
as deeply as possible, with a subsoiling machine following the
plough to break up and disintegrate the hard bottom ; or it is
trenched — that is, it is dug by hand “ two spits ” deep, or to
the depth of two spades, which is a more costly operation. The
plants are generally set at a distance of 6 feet 6 inches between
each “ hill ” or plant centre, which would give 1030 hills to the
acre. In some cases there are 1200, and even as many as 1400
hills to an acre ; but experience has shown that quite as many
hops can be grown with a plant of 1030 hills to the acre as with
a larger number of hills. With the lesser number of hills the
expenses of poling, dressing, tying, and hand-hoeing are also
less. More room is obtained to cultivate between the rows, and
the air and heat of the sun permeate more thoroughly among the
plants. The hop-plants are invariably raised from “sets” — cut-
tings taken from the hills when they are dressed or cut in the
early spring-time.* These are put into a nursery until the fol-
lowing autumn, by which time, if they have been carefully
attended to, they have good roots and are fit for planting. T wo f
good sets are considered enough to form a hill or plant centre.
Sets sell at from ?>s. to 15s. per 100 ; the average price bring
about 5s. A small stake is put to each hill the first year to pro-

* Hop-plants raised from seed cannot be depended upon, on account of the
strong tendency to reversion to the wild type. Being dioecious, fertilisation is
probably efl'ected frequently by the pollen from wild plants, which is prepotent
over that of the cultivated varieties.

t One good well-rooted set, in good soil, will make as good a stock as two or
more, but it is safer to put two in for fear of wirew'orms.

727 = 461

The Cultivation of Hops.

tect the joung plants. Occasionally hops are produced iri the first
year if the plants are stimulated by large applications of manure,
or if the land is in high condition ; but it is better that they
should not bear until the second year. Most of the hop-land in
England is dug in the autumn and winter by men who use
a “ spud,” which is a three-pronged fork with broad points, and
is peculiar to the hop districts, at a cost of from 18s. to 24s. per
acre.

Fig. 1. — The Spud.

Ploughing

is adopted
by some growers, and is
done with a small plough
drawn by horses in the
alleys, between the rows
of plants that are clear of
the lines of poles stacked
for the winter, which look
like wigwams ; the spaces between these stacks, as well as between
the hills at right angles with the plough-line, are dug by hand.

This costs as much as digging, and is only resorted to when the
work is behindhand, or when labourers are scarce. A machine Hop-digging
expressly suited for digging hop-land has been recently invented
by Mr. Knight, of Farnham. This machine consists of a frame
upon four wheels ; those in the front, which are smaller than the
wheels behind, taking a portion of the weight, but being chiefly
used for steerage purposes. The wheels behind carry the greater
share of the weight and propel the machine, being driven by an
upright shaft set in motion by a grooved, horizontal driving-
wheel, connected with a 6-horse portable engine by a high-speed
cord running on pulleys. The digging is performed by a series
of forks like “ spuds,” fixed to vertical rods that are fastened
upon a crank-shaft of three throws, in connection with the
driving-shaft. By the action of these forks, the movement of
the human arm using a spade is admirably imitated, and the
soil is well moved and disintegrated by them. About 4 acres
a day can be dug by this machine, at a cost of from 12s. to 15s.
per acre, according to the estimate of the inventor. At their
Show at Wolverhampton in 1871, the Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England offered a prize for the best hop-
digging machine to supersede manual labour on hop-land, but
this prize was not awarded as there was no implement in the
competition that possessed sufficient merit.

In the early spring season the hop-plants are dressed directly Dressing and
the soil is dry enough to work. All the old bines and fibrous
growth* of the previous year are cut away, and the hills are

* “Sets” from which plants are raised are taken from this fibrous growth,
which is encouraged by those who wish to have good “ cut ” sets, by earthing the
hills in the autumn, or covering: them with earth.

Woodlands in
Kent and Sus-
sex produce
hop-poles.

12% = 462 The Cultivation of Hops.

covered over with a little fine earth. Poling is done directly
after this, and is usually finished by the beginning of the last
week in April. When the poles have been set up, the ground
between the rows is cultivated deeply with harrows (drawn by
one or two horses), called nidgetts, with one wheel and handles,
and with broad duck-footed tines ; and the space round the hills
is dug by hand and hoed with plate and pronged hoes to destroy
the weeds and to break the surface. Poling is performed by
men who make the holes with a short iron pitcher, and thrust
the well-sharpened poles firmly to the end of the holes by one
strenuous, well-directed effort. Two, three, and even four poles
are put to each hill, varying in size from 10 feet to 18 feet in
length according to the sorts of hops and the quality of the soil.
The poles are set up so that each one may overshadow the others
as little as possible. In the best hop-grounds of Kent two
or three poles, 16 feet long, are usually put to Goldings and
Colegates. Grape hops are generally poled with three poles
12 feet in length ; and Jones’ have three or four poles from 10
to 12 feet in length. Hop-growers in Hants and Surrey use
poles 16 feet long for Goldings, and even 18 feet long in the
famous “ malm ” district. They use poles 14, 12, and 10 feet in
length for Whitebines, Greenbines, and Jones’.

Poles from 14 to 16 feet long are put to Goldings in Hereford-
shire and Worcestershire, and from 10 to 14 feet to the other
sorts of hops grown there. Most of the hop-land upon the heavy
clays of Sussex and the Weald of Kent is poled with short poles
varying from 10 to 12 feet in length. A great proportion of
the woodlands of Kent and Sussex is devoted to the growth of
poles for hops, and great attention is paid to their management.
In the best of the woodlands, which are called plantations, where
the stocks or stubs — chiefly of oak and chestnut — are set in equi-
distant rows, the fall occurs every eighth or ninth year and is
worth from 40Z. to 65Z. per acre.* There are also some very
good woodlands in Hampshire, whose fall occurs every ten or
eleven years and is worth from 40Z. to 501. per acre. Fir poles
are also largely grown upon land in Hampshire which was
formerly waste and desolate heath. Herefordshire and W'orces-
tershire hop-growers get poles from Wales and from the border-
ing counties. Very useful poles are grown in the large woods
of Sussex. These are of slow growth and are therefore more
durable than quickly grown poles. Extensive fir plantations
have been made in Sussex upon reclaimed moor and wild forest
land, which are ready to cut in about twelve or fourteen years,
and bring from 50/. to 751. per acre. Ash and chestnut are by

* An acre of really good plantation yields about 1000 IG-feet poles ; 1500
14-fect poles; 1000 12-feet poles; 500 10 or 11-feet poles; and 200 poles too
stout for hops.

729 = 465

The Cultivation of Hops.

far the most durable poles, and are chiefly grown in the planta-
tions. Ash, chestnut, maple, hazel, beech, alder, birch, willow,
and oak poles are yielded indiscriminately by the old woods.

Many fir poles are imported from Belgium and Norway and
make high prices. The practice of dipping about 2 feet of the Creosoting
ends of hop-poles in creosote is now almost universal. This
makes them last very much longer, especially the common sorts,
such as alder, beech, birch, willow, and hazel. They are put
into iron tanks filled with creosote heated to about 170° Fahr.
and allowed to remain for twenty-four hours.* From 50Z. to 80Z.
is the first cost of supplying an acre of land planted with Gold-
ing hops, and from 35Z. to 65Z. per acre in the case of other
sorts of hops. About 6 per cent, of the large poles that have
been duly creosoted require renewal each year, and 9 per cent. Cost of poles
of the smaller poles, taking an average of the various sorts and
seasons.f The system of putting upright poles to hop-plants
commonly prevails in this country. Several other methods, how-
ever, are adopted to a small extent in various districts. Among The Vinery
these, the “ Vinery ” system is perhaps the best, which consists
of placing two permanent, creosoted, upright poles to each hill,
to which movable poles are fastened in the manner shown in
the illustration appended. Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. — Mr. Coley's Vinery System of Poling Hops.

Mr. Farmar, of Tenbury, and Mr. Bomford, of Evesham, Wor- System of
cester, have patented systems of training hop-plants upon vertical training upon

* See account of process of creosoting hop-poles in the ‘ Journal of the Eoyal
Agricultural Society,’ vol. vi., 2nd series, p. 345, by which it is shown that the
saving in poles effected by creosoting them is from 40 to 45 per cent.

t In very fruitful seasons when there is a great quantity of bine and leaves
many poles break with the weight, and in windy seasons the loss is also great.

730 = 464

Tying hop-
bines per-
formed by
women.

Ladder tying.

Large quanti-
ties of manure
necessary.

Kinds and cost
of manure.

Implement for
working hop-
land.

The Cultivation of Hops.

wires stretched horizontally between stout posts, like telegraph
posts. There are other arrangements of vertical and horizontal
wires like those that are so much used in all parts of Germany,*
but they have not as yet been largely adopted by the hop-planters
of England. All these patent systems have great advantages in
windy weather over the old-fashioned plan of using upright poles.
Their first cost is greater, but the cost of yearly maintenance is
not nearly so great. Mr. Coley’s method costs from 701. to 90Z.
per acre, and about 21. per acre per annum for maintaining it.

Tying the hop-bines to the poles is almost invariably done
by women, who fasten two or three of the best to each pole with
rushes or strips of matting, taking care not to tie the knots too
tightly. Many planters send men to pull out the coarser and
ranker or “ pipy ” bines before the women begin to tie, as these
are held to be less productive than the finer shoots. After the
bines get too high for the women to reach, they are provided
with light folding-ladders to enable them to fasten in their
places recalcitrant leading shoots, which the wind has prevented
from getting to the poles in their ordinary manner by means of
their “ normal axial twistings,” and the independent revolu-
tions of each internode.t

Hop-plants require an immense amount of manure, as has
been proved by practical experiments and demonstrated by the
scientific investigations of Messrs. Payen, Voelcker, Nesbit, and
Way. They are usually manured with from 15 to 20 tons of farm-
yard-manure made with animals fed on oilcake and corn, at a
cost of from 01. 10^. to 9Z. per acre. Waste from furriers’ shops,
shoddy from cloth manufactories, woollen rags, and other bulky
manures, are applied in the winter season. Lighter manures of
quicker action, such as rape-cake finely ground, guano, well-made
highly concentrated farmyard-manure, nitrate of soda, and super-
phosphate of lime, are dug in with the spud, or chopped in with
the pronged hoe round the hills in the spring and early summer,
at a cost of from 31. to 5Z. per acre ; and it frequently happens that
the manure put upon an acre of hops, in one year, has cost 13/.

The land is deeply cultivated with nidgetts (Fig. 3) until July,
so that there is a depth of 7 or 8 inches of finely triturated earth
throughout. Experienced planters think it unadvisable to move
the land deeply when the innumerable fibres sent out from the
roots are traversing the soil, just under the surface, in search of

* In a pamphlet styled ‘ Der Hopfenbau,’ written by F. Wirtb, a large hop-
planter at Kaltenberg, in Wurtemberg, six different methods of using wbe
instead of poles are elaborately explained and illustrated.

t A description of this curious habit of the hop-plant is given in a work by
Mr. Darwin, ‘ On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants,’ who says,
“ The purpose of this spontaneous revolving movement, successively directed to
all parts of the compass, is obviously to favour the shoot finding a support.”

The Cultivation of Hops. 731 = 465

food, which they assimilate and convey to the plants.* At this
time the earth is lightly skimmed with the nidgetts to kill the
seedling weeds, and the hills are hoed round with plate-hoes.

Fig. 3. — The neio Iron Nidgett.

i Late white frosts in the spring are frequently as inj urious to the White frosts
young hop-bines, as they are to the tender vine-shoots in the "*'*^ei°'^lants*'*
French vineyards. Early dressing or cutting is not, therefore, ^
generally practised, as hop-shoots injured by frost are not only
stunted in their growth, but are more liable to be attacked by
aphides, which are nearly as much dreaded by English planters
as the destructive phylloxerae by the French and German wine-
growers. Enormous losses have been caused by these aphides,
which have in some years reduced in a few weeks a crop, esti-
mated at 8 or 10 cwts. per acre, to a miserable return of 1 cwt.
per acre. This occurred in 1854, in 1860, and in 1869, generally ;
in Herefordshire and Worcestershire in 1876, and in 1877 in parts Aphis-blight :
of Kent. Syringing the leaves and branches carefully with soft- 't.

h soap and water and a little tobacco-juice is the only remedy
oi against these insects, dislodging the winged aphides, the first pro-
genitors, destroying the lice that are reproduced by gemmation
er in countless generations, and cleansing the leaves of their excreta,
itli known as “ honey-dew.” j" This is a costly and troublesome
ler, process ; but it has well repaid planters in some seasons, who
y have had it carried out thoroughly.^ Many other insects do much Insect foes.

1/, mischief to hop-plants, especially wireworms (^Elater lineatus),
ilv, fleas (^Haltica), jumpers {Tettigonid)\ and in hot seasons red
xtii spiders (Acarus Telarius') are infinitely destructive. Pieces of
(,ve mangold or potato are put round the hills as traps for the wire-

♦ There are planters, however, who maintain that it is right to cultivate deeply
' when the fibres are running, and think it is beneficial to tear them up wholesale,

' so that bushels of these rootlets may be seen where the nidgetts are cleared.
toP' t Syringing proved comparatively ineflScacious in this last season, when
wx aphis-blight ravaged the plantations of East and Mid Kent.

t This is done with garden engines with double hose, worked between the
kll rows of hops by three men, two of whom direct the hose to the plants, while one
sajt pumps. 28 lbs. of soap and J lb. of tobacco are used with 100 gallons of_ water,
edt and the expense of one washing is about 2Z. 2s. per acre.

732 = 466

Hop-harvest.

The hop-harvest commences in the latter part of August and
lasts about three weeks. Hops are ready for picking when the stro- '
biles are quite closed up, and the seeds are firm and dark-coloured.
Pickers come in great numbers from London to the hop-growing
districts of Kent and Sussex.* A Return made by the Chief

The Cultivation of Hops.

by sulphur.

worms. Fleas and jumpers are caught by shaking the hop-poles
violently, and holding boards covered with tar so that the insects
jump into it. Nothing has as yet been devised to check the
ravages of the red spider ; but nature frequently does this by
Mould or white heavy showers of rain. Mould, occasioned by the fungus Spcero-
blight checked tJieca Castagnei, allied to the fungus that causes the vine-disease
known commonly as oidium, was formerly terribly injurious to
hop-plants, but, like its ally, has been checked to a great extent
by the application of sulphur put on usually before the hops are
in “ burr” or bloom, with a machine called a sulphurator, drawn
by a horse between the rows of plants, an illustration of which
is given below (Fig. 4). Two separate applications of sulphur
are usually made ; the first when the bine is just over the poles,
the second just before the “ burr ” or bloom appears. About
50 lbs. per acre is put on at each application, at a cost of about
15s. per acre each time.

Sulphuring

machines.

Fig. 4. — The Sulphurator,

* There are permanent sheds erected on nearly all hop-farms for the hop-
pickers to sleep in. Some are extemporised with thatched hurdles. The sanitary

S S ^ ^ B- a

733 = 46/

Tlie Cultivation of Hops.

Constable of Kent shows that 99,670 immigrants were employed
in picking hops in Kent alone, in 1876. In Herefordshire and Immigrants
Worcestershire, many pickers come from the neighbouring large
towns, and from Manchester, Wolverhampton, and the mining
districts. A planter in Kent having 50 acres of hop-land
requires from 140 to 150 pickers, besides those living under
him. One who has 100 acres requires 300 “ strangers,” and
so on. In some instances, individual planters employ over
1000 immigrants, who require as much marshalling and manage-
ment as a small army. The pickers are distributed in gangs
or “ companies ” of ten. Each company is under a ganger or
“ binman,” who pulls down the poles, helps to measure the hops
picked, and takes them to the waggons. The various grounds
or “ gardens ” are divided into small portions called “ sets ” at
picking-time, and each company takes one of these sets.
Hop-picking is very popular with the denizens of smoky
towns, as the aroma of hops is supposed to be conducive
to health, and good wages can be gained. From l^c?. to 2 Jd. Prices paid for
per bushel, weighing about 7 lbs., is paid for picking hops, picking hops.
Good pickers will earn from 3s. 3d. to 4s. 3d. per day. Hops
are picked into long wooden frames with sacking bottoms ;
and in some places, as in East Kent, into baskets. They
are taken in “pokes,” or long bags of thin sacking, holding
10 bushels, to the oast-houses, where they are dried in kilns,
upon horsehair-cloth stretched upon a flooring of stout laths,
about 13 feet from the ground. In the circular or square
chambers below this floor there are either open or enclosed
stoves, in which anthracite coal, coke, and charcoal are burned.

When hops are drying it is usual to burn a little sulphur — the
best yellow' sulphur in rolls being used for this — upon the fire,
so that its fumes may pass through them when evaporation
is at its highest point. The sulphurous acid evolved by the Sulphur used
sulphur bleaches the leaves of the reeking hops, and imparts to bleach the
them a golden colour. About 10 lbs. of sulphur are burned for
300 bushels of green hops. If hops are much discoloured, sul-
phur fumes are passed through them twice while they are drying.

Hops are dried in 11 or 12 hours, and are subjected to a heat of Drying pro-
about 130° Fahr. An oast-house is built generally with several
kilns, either square or circular, in a group ; and upon the same
level as that of the drying-room — the “ hair-level ” — as shown in
the accompanying illustration of a kiln (Fig. 5) ; a cooling-room
of suitable size is attached. The hops are left in these rooms for
a short time, and are packed by a machine into pockets, or long
bags of canvas of stout texture, holding from 1^ to If cwts., or

authorities are now insisting that the accommodation for these immigrants shall
be decent,* and proper in a sanitary point of view.

734 = 465

The Cultivation of Hops.

Hops dried too
quickly on ac-
count of insuf-
ficient kiln ac-
commodation.

Modes of sale.

Fig. 5. — Section of a Kiln with
an inner Chamber.

by men treading them in with their feet, though this laborious
process is being fast superseded by the pressing-machine.* In
the Farnham district of Hampshire, and in some other locali-
ties, the dried hops are allowed
to accumulate, and remain piled
up several days before they are
packed. This practice entails a
large amount of cooling room,
and could not for this reason
be adopted by large growers,
though it is far better for the
hops, which do not crumble nor
lose their farina. It would also
be far better to dry hops more
slowly at a considerably lower
temperature, say 100° Fahr. ; but
this would entail a much larger
amount of kiln accommodation,
and a consequent increased out-
lay of capital, which but few
landlords would consent to make,
and which it would not pay ordi-
nary tenants to take upon them-
selves. For 50 acres of hop-land
the requisite and proper build-
ings for drying and packing,
according to the present system,
would cost at least 1500/., putting
at once an increased rental of 1/.
10s. per acre upon the tenant at
a low computation of 5 per cent,
per annum upon the landlord’s
outlay.

After the hops are packed they are in most cases sent at once
to the warehouses of the factors or commission agents in London,
as but few planters have store-rooms fit to keep hops in, which
require storing in dry well-ventilated places. A sample of
about half a pound is taken from the centre of each pocket, and
the factor sells the bulk by these samples to the hop-merchants,
who forthwith move the hops to their own warehouses, and sell
them to the brewers as they require them. It is quite excep-

* Pressing-machines, which are worked easily by one man, cost about 111. By
these the hops are packed quickly, aud iu au unbroken state, and workmen are
relieved from work that is most laborious and injurious to health. Hops are
packed while hot by these machines. If they are to be trodden by men they must
be cooled for twelve hours, or they would be trodden into powder.

The Cultivation of Hops.

lZb = 469

tional for brewers to buy directly of the planters or of the factors.

A time-honoured custom still prevails among the Hampshire
and Surrey planters of sending many pockets of hops, piled up
upon waggons, to a large fair at Weyhill, in Hampshire, to repre-
sent their growths. About 10 per cent, of a growth is sent in this
way, and the pockets are pitched in barns upon the fair ground.

The price of hops fluctuates very much, and the values of Price varies ac-
various sorts differ considerably. East Kent, Farnham, and
Mid Kent Goldings, as a rule, make from 10 to 20 per cent,
more than any other kinds. Weald of Kent and Sussex hops,
in most seasons, make the lowest figures.

Until 1860 a duty of nearly 18s. per cwt. was levied upon all
hops grown in the United Kingdom. The duty on foreign hops,
which was 8Z. 8s. per cwt. until 1842, then 4/. 5s., 2/. 5s., and
finally 15s., was abolished in 1862 ; and since that date the im- No home'nor
portations have largely increased, and have injuriously affected foreign duty
the value of British hops. Taking the seven years from 1855 to
1861 immediately preceding the abolition of the foreign duty,
the average price of hops was 11. per cwt., and the average
annual yield was 470,000 cwts. In the septennial period im-
mediately following, the average price of hops was only
about 8Z. per cwt., though the average annual production was
under 400,000 cwts., and the consumption of beer had steadily
increased. The highest price of hops upon record is 27/. in 1817.

The lowest is 2/. 15s. in 1848, after a long series of large crops.

It is calculated that the quantity of hops used for brewing in Quantity used
the United Kingdom is from 600,000 to 650,000 cwts., and that m Gieat-
the average quantity grown in this country for the last 15 years ^
has been about 450,000 cwts., while the imports of hops from
all countries into the Kingdom have averaged about 170,000 cwts.
per annum in the same period, of which amount only 2021 cwts.
came from France in 1876, and 3862 cwts. in 1875. The quan-
tity of hops exported from England is of comparatively trifling Exportation
amount, having averaged only about 18,000 cwts. per annum small,
during the last ten years. An average annual quantity of about
6000 cwts. of foreign hops has been re-exported from England in
the last decade. It is computed that the annual average yield
from each acre of hop-land in England, during the last LOO years,
has been very nearly 6^ cwts. per acre, and that the price of
English hops has averaged about 11. per cwt., taking the past
30 years. For each acre of hop-land, 45/. of working capital is
essential, taking the average of all the various districts. Actual
expenses connected with hop-growing, inclusive of rent, tithes,*

* Hop-land, like fruit and market-garden land, is chargeable with an extra-
ordinary tithe besides the ordinary charge.

VOL. XIV. — s. s. 3d

73Q = 470

Tlie Cultivation of Hops.

taxes, interest on capital, cultivation, amount to at least 22/. per
acre, exclusive of the cost of packing, drying, and other inci-
dental expenses, which varies according to the amount of the
crop grown, whose average may, however, be put at 13/. per
acre per annum ; making the total annual average cost of hop-
Rental of hop- land amount to 35/. per acre. Rents range from 2/. to 10/. per
land. acre, and 4/. is about the average rental of English hop-land.

For land in East Kent, Mid Kent, and Farnham, the highest
rentals are paid, and the lowest in Sussex. Profits are occasionally
veiy large, amounting to 100/. per acre per annum upon land
that is especially suited for hop-growing.* As has been shown,
the risks are very great, and the expenses are enormous and are
increasing year by year ; and it will be seen, from an examination
of the figures given above, that the average profit upon each acre
of hop-land in England, in the last 30 yeai's, has not amounted
to much over 10/. per acre per annum. This profit has not by
any means been equally distributed among the planters. In some
instances very much more profit has been made ; in others very
much less. In some districts the hop-plants are more liable to be
Lucky farms, blighted than in others, and in most districts there are “ lucky ”
farms, upon which the aphis-blight, or mould, rarely affects the
plants. A hedge or a stream frequently forms a line of demarca-
tion between hop-land that is liable to blight and that which
escapes blight. It seems probable that the profits of hop-
growing will be diminished in this country in the future, by
reason of the large importations from America, Belgium and
Holland, France and Germany, and the ever-increasing expendi-
ture in connection with their cultivation.

CHAPTER II.

Fruit.

Fruit e.xten- FruIT has been extensively grown in Great Britain, at least in
sivcly grown England and Wales, for more than 300 years. Although such
years^*^* fruit as apples, cherries, and pears had been cultivated long

before the sixteenth century in many parts of the kingdom, a
great stimulus was given to fruit-growing by one Richard
Harris, the gardener of King Henry VIII., who encouraged the
planting of rare kinds of fruit-trees and bushes, which he had

* A north-west or north-east aspect is generally held to be the best situation
for hop-growing, as the sun does not in that case shine directly upon the plants
wet with hoar-frost or dew.

Fruit Cultivation.

lol = 471

obtained from foreign countries. For example, he introduced
several sorts of cherries into Kent from Flanders, and it is
n popular notion that these were the first cherries grown in
England ; whereas this fruit was introduced many centuries
before by the Romans. It is believed that the apple is indigenous The apple in-
to Britain, as mention is made of it in the very earliest records ;
and charters and grants of land in the twelfth century, in which
orchards are specially mentioned, prove that apples were culti-
vated in many parts of the country at that date.

The cultivation of fruit has made rapid strides during the Aciyage of
last quarter of a century, both as regards extent of acreage
and improvements in management. According to the Agricul- ia 1877.
tural Returns of Great Britain for the year 1877, the total
number of acres of fruit-land, including orchards with grass
under the fruit-trees, and cultivated fruit-land, was 163,290,
apportioned as follows ; —

England .. 159,095

Wales 2,619

Scotland 1,576

In 1876 there were 157,287 acres of fruit-land in Great Britain,
apportioned as follows : —

Acres.

England 153,277

Wales 2,600

Scotland 1,410

These Returns show an increase of 6003 acres in one year. Large increase
chiefly in England ; and those of the four preceding years show acreage
a correspondingly large addition to the acreage in this country,
which has been made principally in the counties near London,
whose soil is suited to the growth of fruit, on account of the
propinquity to the London markets ; as well as in those counties
where apples and pears are grown upon grass-land, in Devon-
shire, Somersetshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, and Glou-
cestershire.

On account of the increased cost of labour, horses, and all
other items of expense connected with arable land, much of this
has been lately laid down to grass, and fruit-trees have been
planted where the soil and climate are suitable. The profits of
corn-farming, pure and simple, are very small ; at the same time
the average value of land is gradually increasing, because its quan-
tity is out of all proportion to the population of the country, and
to the desire and ability to possess it. From this it has followed
that already, to a certain extent, land has been laid down with
grass, planted with fruit-trees or bushes, cultivated as market-
garden land, and in other exceptional ways. British agi’iculture

3 D 2

738 = 472

Fruit Cultivation.

Two distinct
systems of cul-
tivation.

First system,
or growing
fruit upon
grass-land, and
acreage of
counties where
adopted.

Apple and pear
orchards in
Herefordshire,

is in a transitional state, passing from the production of necessa-
ries, such as wheat, which other counties can supply more cheaply,
to the production of meat, milk, fruit, vegetables, and luxuries
which a dense, well-to-do population can afford to pay for. It is
a natural consequence that the cultivation of fruit should have
largely increased of late ; and it is certain that there will be a
still greater development of this industry in the immediate future.

Fruit is grown principally upon two systems : — First. Upon
grass-land planted with standard fruit-trees, such as apples,
pears, cherries, plums, and damsons. Second. Upon land that is
regularly cultivated between the rows of various kinds of fruit-
trees or fruit-bushes.

The first method is chiefly adopted in the English counties
of Herefordshire, Devonshire, Somersetshire, Worcestershire,
and Gloucestershire ; where apples and pears are very largely
cultivated for the manufacture of cider and perry, as well as for
culinary purposes, and for eating.

The acreage of fruit-land in each of these counties in 1877

was —

J^CI*6S

Herefordshire 2-i,885

Devonshire 24,776

Somersetshire 20,921

Worcestershire 14,621

Gloucestershire 11,965

In the two last-named counties, a part of the acreage of fruit-laml
is cultivated upon the second system, to be noticed in due order.

In Herefordshire the apple and pear orchards are mainly
situated upon the rich alluvial deposits in the valleys of the
many rivers that run through the county, as the Severn, the
Lugg, and the Froome, and upon the loam and clay soils of the
Olci Red Sandstone formation. A large part of this orchard-
land has been planted for very many years, the trees having
been renewed as they died away, in some cases with tolerable
regularity, in many cases with much irregularity. Many of the
orchards that have been planted lately have been formed by
putting the trees in hop-gardens between the rows of hop-
plants. When the trees get large and bear fruit, the hop-
plants are taken away and the land is laid down with grass.
Land that is suitable for hops is also suitable for apples in most
cases,* and a southern aspect is considered the best situation for
orchards and hop-land in Herefordshire. Grass under fruit-
trees is usually fed off by sheep and cattle in that county. In
a few instances it is mown ; but this practice is much to be

* Chemically there is great similarity between the ashes of hops and apples,
in the constituents of potash, silicic acid, and magnesia especially.

Fruit Cultivation.

739 = 475

deprecated. Manure, either farm-jard or artificial, containing
potash, soda, and phosphatic elements, is applied by the best
managers every fourth or fifth year.

Apple-trees are usually raised in Herefordshire, as in all other
parts of Great Britain, either from crab, or wild-apple, stocks,
which are preferred generally, or from stocks raised from apple-
pips. The stocks are put in a nursery and are grafted with the
sort desired in about three years, and are ready for planting out
when they are four or five years old, and 6 feet high.* The
plants are carefully planted at distances varying from 30 to
36 feet apart, giving from 48 to 33 trees per acre, and are well
fenced round to protect them from cattle. They are, or should
be, lightly pruned each autumn. Apple-trees which grow fruit
for cider-making do not require so much pruning as those which
grow table-fruit. It may be said here that not nearly enough
attention is paid to the pruning of apple-trees generally through-
out the country, and that they have been systematically neglected
in this respect, as their appearance indicates. The chief sorts
of apples grown for cider are the Foxwhelp, Red Cowarne,

Hagloe Crab, Codlin, Brandy Apple, Cockagee, Styre, French
Upright. For eating, — the Ribston, Golden, and King Pippins,

Cox’s Orange Pippin, Margel, Court-Pendu-Plat, Court of Wick,

Blenheim Orange. For cooking, — Joanetting, Keswick Codlin,
Wellington, Lord Suffield, Tower of Glamis, Alfreston, Collins.

Pears are raised upon grafted wild stocks or from grafted S"i ts of apples
stocks raised from pips, and occasionally from grafted quince
stocks ; and are cultivated like apple-trees. Pear-trees do not y^ted in Great
require so much pruning as apple-trees. The principal pears Britain,
grown for making perry are the Barland, Huffcap, Taynton
Squash, and Oldfield ; and for eating, — the Doyenne d’Ete,

Beurre de Capiaumont, Chaumontel, Cattilac, Williams’ Bon
Chretien, Beurre Bose, Beurre Diel, Bergamot, Duchess
d’Angouleme, and Marie Louise.

From 9Z. to 14Z. is the cost of planting an acre of land with Cost of plant-
apple-trees and pear-trees, and the annual cost afterwards for 1“=’, *'®“‘**

* ^ ^ lUQQ FCtUl'IlS

maintenance, manure, and pruning amounts to from 2Z. to 5Z. per ’
acre per annum. Rents of orchard-land in Herefordshire vary
from 21. to 6Z. per acre, according to its quality ; the average
annual return from the fruit-trees, exclusive of the grass under-
neath, may be set at lOZ. per acre. As much as 50Z. per acre is
occasionally made in exceptional seasons upon the very best land.

Before railway communication was opened up between Here- Cider nnl
fordshire and the large towns of the Northern and Midland -

* Raising sorts of apples directly from pips, or seeds, is a most liaphazard

process; the plants in most cases revert back to their wild t)'pe, wholly or in
degree.

140 = 474

Fmit Cultivation.

Counties, apples and pears were principally grown for cider
and perry, for local consumption. Each farm had orchard-land
enough to supply its own labourers with cider, which they drank,
and still drink, in enormous quantities. Since then more atten-
tion has been paid to the management of the orchards, large addi-
tions have been made to the acreage, and more care has been
taken in the selection of good sorts of apples and pears that are
handsome, and well flavoured for eating and cooking, to supply
the large demand for fruit in the manufacturing towns. Much
improvement has also taken place in the manufacture of cider and
perry, which has now an extensive sale in many parts of England.

Apples for cider are laid in heaps for some days to make
them quite ripe or “mellow,” and to cause chemical changes
necessary to ensure good cider, especially the decrease of vege-
table gluten, the presence of which causes undue fermentation.
When mellow, the apples are crushed by stone rollers, the pulp
is put into a press in horsehair bags, and the juice is squeezed
out and put into casks, where it is fermented and racked off the
lees into other casks in due time. For making sweet cider or
cider for bottling, the pulp is not squeezed until several hours
after it has been ground, fermentation is carefully watched, and
racking frequently done. Coarse brown sugar is sometimes
added, and the colour is heightened, according to fancy, by
the addition of extract of logwood. The average price of cider
is about 21. bs. per hogshead, and the average return of cider per
acre may be put at 8 hogsheads. Perry is made in the same
manner as cider, only that the fruit is pressed as soon as it comes
from the trees.

Apple-orchanls Coming next to Devonshire and Somersetshire, with their
form the chief large acreages of fruit-land, it will be found that apple-orchards
fndt-*land*of ^^rm the chief part of it, and that the remarks that have been
Devonshire and made with regard to Herefordshire apply generally to these
Somersetshire, counties. Cider is largely made, and is sent to all parts of the
kingdom.* Eating-apples are grown in the best orchards, and a
great improvement has recently taken place in the management
of the land. Orchards in Devonshire are situated for the most
part in the southern division of the county, upon the Old Red
Sandstone formation, in the South Hams district, and in the
fertile valleys by the rivers Dart and Erme. In Somersetshire
the principal fruit-area is in the northern part of the county,
under the Mendip range of hills, and in the centre, in the rich
vale of the Tone. The rent of land varies from 3Z. 10s. to 01.
per acre, and 9 hogsheads of cider per acre represents the average

* Devonshire cider is considered tlie best tlmt is made in England. It is
bottled to n large extent and sent to all j)arts of the country.

Fruit Cultivation.

1^1-475

produce of orchards in full bearing. Cider is worth nearly 3/.
per hogshead on an average.

A considerable part of the fruit-land in Worcestershire and Fruit-land in
Gloucestershire consists of apple-orchards and pear-orchards, laid Worcestershire

1 . , rr<i 1 • 1 • ^ • 1 1 Glouces-

down with grass. 1 he produce is made into cider and perry ; tershire.
and the best sorts of fruit, which have lately been more cultivated
both for dessert and culinary purposes, are sent to market.* In
the former county the fruit is grmvn for the most part on the New
Red Sandstone in the neighbourhood of Worcester, Droitwich,
Upton-upon-Severn, and Redditch. In Gloucestershire in the
Vale of the Severn, from Tewkesbury to Newnham, and in the
more southern part of the county. Three other counties have
a comparatively small acreage of fruit-land of this description.

viz. : —

Acres.

Dorsetshire 3,814

Shropshire 2,944

Wiltshire 2,393

in which counties many of the farms have a small plot of apple-
orchard land which supplies fruit for domestic purposes and
yields somewhat second-rate cider for home-consumption.

With regard to the cultivation of fruit upon this system, as NoDenough
adopted upon more than two-thirds of the fruit-growing: area of bestowed
the country, it must be said that not nearly enough thought, system of
care, nor capital has yet been bestowed upon it. The trees are fruit-growing,
thrust into the ground and left to take their chance in too many
cases. Pruning is neglected, manuring is by no means general,
and the selection of sorts is not much considered. The enormous
demand for good table and cooking-fruit, and the competition
of such fine fruit as Newtown Pippins, which come from
America in first-rate condition to London and Liverpool in
almost incredible quantities, will, it is hoped, soon bring about
improvements much to be desired.

Owing to the uncertain nature of the English spring season and The spring

its frequent climatic vagaries during the blooming-time of apple- f*"®'

r, ° _ VI quently most

trees and pear-trees, the crop is somewhat precarious. Late white destructive to

frosts are occasionally most destructive, and after these and other fruit-trees,
unfavourable influences the juices of the trees are changed and
rendered grateful to caterpillars — the larvcE of a tiger-moth of the
genus Arctia, which clear the branches of every vestige of
foliage. Daubing the trunks of the trees with thick limewash

* Tlie annual average yield of apple-orchards laid down with grass is about
200 bushels per acre. The price of apples ranges from 7s. to 2s. per sieve in
London. Taking the past ten years, the average return to the grower per sieve,
from fruit sent to market, after all expenses of picking, packing, carriage, and
commission have been deducted, is about 2s.

U2 = 476

Fruit Cultivation.

Cost of raising
Orchards.

The second
system, or
growing fruit
upon culti-
vated land.

Fruit-bushes
set under
standard trees.

is adopted as a remedy against the caterpillars ; and finely
powdered caustic lime is thrown up into the trees, in the winter
in damp weather, to clear away the lichenous growths that infest
them in some situations.

The expense of raising orchards, which amounts to from lOZ.
to 14Z. per acre, exclusive of annual interest upon the first outlay,
and the fact that there is a general absence of any definitive right
with regard to compensation to tenants, have much checked the
increase of fruit-plantations. This applies nqt only to apple-trees
and pear-trees, but also to all kinds of fruit ; in a less degree,
however, in the case of bush fruit-trees, in which the first cost
is not so great, and a return is obtained in two or three years.
When a tenant wishes to plant fruit-trees some landlords arrange
to repay the whole cost with interest thereon, in the event of
the tenants leaving the land before the fruit-trees are large
enough to bear ; and other landlords agree to find trees, leaving
the planting and future charges to the tenants. In the majority
of instances, however, the tenant plants fruit-trees without agree-
ment, having confidence in his landlord.

Planting of orchards in the “Agricultural Holdings Act,” passed
by the British Parliament in 1875, is placed in the Schedule
of Improvements of the first class, for which a tenant may
receive proportionate compensation for his outlay up to a period
of twenty years after the execution of such improvements. If
this payment were in all cases obligatory, large additions would
be made to the acreage of fruit-land in this country, and great
improvements in the cultivation and management of the exist-
ing acreage would also result.

Coming now to a description of the second system, the chief
centres of fruit-growing upon cultivated land are the counties
whose names and respective acreages are given below, viz. : —

Acres.

Kent 13,097

Cornwall 4,497

Surrey 1,726

Lancasluiu 1,974

Each of these counties has a proportion of orchard-land proper
included in this acreage, but the greater part is planted with
various kinds of fruit, and is cultivated by manual labour.
Fruit-growers here prefer not to have all their eggs in one basket,
and think it better to plant various kinds of fruit-bushes under
the standard trees,* that if one fail there may be a chance of
another being fruitful, and that to some extent there may be

* In some places “lialf-standanl” apple-trees are planted. Tliese are bush-
shaped, upon stems of fi-om 3 to 4 feet in lieijjht, aud are very closely pruned to
keep them from overshadowing the under trees.

Fruit Cultivation.

HZ = 477

a succession of fruits. Thus, for example, green gooseberries,
for which there is a large demand for bottling and for cooking,
would come first for picking ; then raspberries, red and white
currants, ripe gooseberries, black currants, plums, damsons, and
apples would follow in regular order. A very large proportion
of the fruit-land in Kent is planted in this way with different
kinds of fruit-trees. It is regularly cultivated, being dug and
hoed by hand every year. Apple-orchards with grass under the
trees have for the most part been grubbed and planted with hops.

Cherries form a specialty of fruit-cultivation in Kent, being Chen-
grown to a great extent in the eastern part of the county upon ‘
grass-land which is fed off by sheep eating corn or oilcake,
and is well manured frequently with farmyard-manure. This
cherry-orchard land is situated principally upon the clay and
loamy clay soils of the Thanet beds, the plastic clays of the
Woolwich and Reading beds, and of the Oldhaven beds, which
crop up curiously in the district between Chatham and Canter-
bury. Large returns are sometimes made, but the fickle climate
of the English spring season makes this a rather uncertain crop.

As much as 12Z. per acre is paid as rent for exceptionally good
cherry-orchards. An average of the rents paid is about 8/. per
acre. As much as 80Z. per acre has been cleared by this kind
of fruit-land ; but the profit of land where the trees are in full
vigour may be said to be about 20Z. per acre per annum, upon
an average of seasons. The annual expense of a cherry-orchard
is from IIZ. to 14Z. per acre, exclusive of all charges connected
with picking, packing, and marketing, which of course vary
with the amount of the crop. All the cherries are sent direct
to London,* from whence they are sent to other large towns
when the Metropolitan demand has been satisfied. Most of this
fruit is used for eating. Red or Kentish, and Flemish cherries,
which are late sorts having a subacid flavour, are bottled or
preserved, and Morellos, grown chiefly on walls, are used for
making cherry-brandy. In many cases the growers sell the
fruit upon the trees by auction or private contract to middlemen,
who take all further expense and risks upon themselves.

Cherry-trees are raised from grafting the wild cherry-stocks
found in the woods, with scions of the sort required. When the
grafted stocks have been two or three years in a nursery, they
are planted at first upon cultivated ground at a distance of from
27 to 33 feet apart, giving from 40 to 60 trees per acre. These
trees are carefully and tenderly pruned during the first two or
three years ; after that time but little cutting is required. Hops

* The average price in London for Kent cherries for the last twenty-six years
has been 8«. per sieve of -18 lbs. The net return to the grower would be 5«. 4d.

I>er sieve.

cul-

Kent.

744 = 475

Fruit Cultivation.

Greengages.

Gooseberries ;
red, white, and
black currants.

and fruit-bushes, or plum-trees, are set between them. After
a few years, when the cherry-trees have come into bearing, the
bushes and plum-trees are taken away, and grass-seeds are
sown. The chief sorts of cherries grown are the Adam’s Crown
Heart, the Black Heart, May Duke, Turkey Heart, Bigarreau,
Purple Jean, Waterloo, Kentish, Flemish, and Frogmore.

Greengages are grown extensively in the eastern part of Kent,
near Sittingbourne, where the soil is especially suited for their
production. The gages grown here are finely flavoured and
well coloured, and as much as lOOZ. in one year has been made
from an acre planted with them. Plums and damsons, especially
a species of the latter known as the “ Crittenden,” are largely
grown in Kent, and are very profitable in most seasons. In the
last season a sharp white frost, late in the spring, so cut up the
bloom that the crop was an utter failure, and in some cases the
trees themselves were killed.

Fruit-bushes, as gooseberries, red, white, and black currants,
and raspberries, are planted under apple, plum, or damson-trees,
or frequently by themselves. In the former case they are set
6 feet apart, or 1210 trees to the acre ; in the latter, 5^ feet, or
1420 trees to the acre. Land thus planted is Avell manured in
the autumn with woollen rags, shoddy, or fish manures, and dug
by hand with the three-tined spud, which is also used for digging
the hop-plantations. The bush-trees are.closely pruned in Novem-
ber, as in the accompanying Illustration (Fig. 6), and the land is
kept carefully hoed during the summer. Immense quantities of
gooseberries and red currants * are grown in Kent, Worcester-
shire, and Gloucestershire, and are sold for eating, bottling,
and jam-making. Black currants are grown upon the heavier
soils in Kent, upon the Atherfield clay and the more retentive
clays of the Greensand formation, and are a very profitable

crop. There are also large

Fig. 6. — Primed Gooseherry-tree.

plantations of black currants
on the stiff land near Cam-
bridge which are remarkably
productive. As the fruit is
grown upon young wood, the
old wood is cut away closely in
each autumn season. In the
case of red currants, the fruit is
mainly grown upon old spurs,
and the young shoots therefore
are cut away. All these fruit-

* The averagre price of gooseberries in London is 2d. per lb. ; of red currants,
2Jd. per lb.; of black currants, 3d. per lb.; raspberries, 2^d. per lb.; straw-
berries, 5Jd. per lb.

Fruit Cultivation.

745 = 479

bushes are easily propagated by cuttings, which remain two years
in a nursery, and bear fruit the year after they have been planted
out. The cost of cultivating an acre of land planted with fruit-
bushes is from 12/. to 14/. The average return per acre may
be set at 36/., from which must be deducted at least 21/. for
expenses of all kinds, including cultivation. All fruits of this
description, called “ soft ” fruits, are picked by women and
children, and are packed in baskets,* except raspberries, which
are sent in tubs direct to London.

Before passing from Kent, the cultivation of filberts and cob-

Fig. 7. — Pruned Filbert-tree.

nuts, peculiar to this county, must be noticed. This occurs
mainly in the part of Kent near Maidstone, on the Greensand
formation, and involves much skill, care, and capital. In most
cases the trees are planted under standard fruit-trees at a dis-
tance of 13 feet apart, which gives 257 trees to an acre. The
land is well manured every other year with rags, shoddy, fish, or
fur waste, and is always cultivated by hand, and kept scrupu-
lously clean. Filbert-trees are pruned most closely, and trained
to grow in the shape illustrated by the woodcut. Fig. 7,
having stems about 2 feet in height, from which the branches
spread out laterally, forming a centre of a cup-like shape, with
a diameter of 7 or 8 feet and a height of 6 or 7 feet.f An
average yield from a filbert-tree in full bearing is 3 lbs., and
the price of the nuts in Covent Garden Market may be averaged
at 9(/. per lb. Cob-nuts are larger than filberts, and are in a

* Bound baskets, or whole, half, and quarter-sieves, containing 48, 24, and
14 lbs. respectively.

t See a Paper on “ Fruit-growing in Kent,” in vol. xiii., second series, Eoyal
Agricultural Society’s ‘Journal,’ page 113, in which filbert^cultivation is described
in detail. '

Filberts and
cob-nuts grown
in Kent.

Their peculiar
cultivation.

7AC) = 480

Fruit Ctiltivation.

Fruit culture
in Cornwall.

Cornish rasp-
berries.

Plums largely
grown near
Evesham.

Strawberry

cultivation.

degree superseding them. The trees are very similar, and are
pruned and cultivated in the same way.

Cornwall has been famous for its fruit-production for cen-
turies. Its apples are finely flavoured and abundant, owing to
its mild climate and rich soil. A peculiar sort of apple known
as the Gilliflower is justly celebrated. Bush-fruits of all kinds
are grown here in the same way as in Kent, and strawberries
and raspberries, which are indigenous, are very largely and suc-
cessfully-cultivated. The latter fruit is grown upon canes, set
3 feet by 5 feet apart. These canes are arched, and tied loosely
with strips of matting, so as not to fracture them. A^o stakes are
required and the fruit grows all round the arched cane. Cornish
raspberries are remarkably fine, and are sent to market in casks ;
the average price obtained for them is 28s. per cwt., and an
average crop is about 1;| ton per acre. Fruit is sent from Corn-
wall to London by rail, and to Liverpool by sea. In Surrey and
Lancashire, fruit is mainly grown upon bushes, and in connec-
tion with market gardens. Gooseberries and currants are grown
in the same way as in Kent, and strawberries are extensively
grown in the former county. Market gardeners in Middlesex
also cultivate fruit-trees and plant vegetables between them in
quick succession ; but they do not grow fruit upon any system.
Fruit-growers in Worcestershire and Gloucestershire, especially
near Evesham in the former county, grow soft fruit of all kinds
with great success. The trees and bushes are not planted all
over the ground with mathematical regularity as in Kent, but are
set in rows here and there, with large spaces left for the growth
of vegetables. Plum-trees are cultivated to a great extent,
and thrive exceedingly well, as do all other fruit-trees, upon the
blue Lias clay. A small white egg-plum, known as the Pershore
plum, is much grown and with great success. As much as 100/.
per acre per annum has been made from these plums. About
18/. per acre per annum is the average profit from cultivated
fruit-land in these counties. Rents range from 4/. to 12/. per
acre, and the expenses average 13/., exclusive of picking and
selling the fruit. But little of the fruit grown here is sent to
London. The bulk of it goes to Birmingham, Manchester,
Dudley, Wolverhampton, Liverpool, Leeds, and other large Mid-
land and Northern towns where there is a large and growing
demand for the artisan population.

The cultivation of strawberries has been largely extended of
late. This fruit is grown in Cornwall ; in the neighbourhoods
of Devonport, Tavistock, and Plymouth in Devonshire ; in
the Vale of Evesham, in Worcestershire; and in the counties
bordering upon London, notably in the western part of Kent
on the clays of the Thanet beds. Clay-land suits strawberries

Fruit Cultivation.

74:7 = 481

best, and under favourable circumstances they come into full
bearing in three years and continue to bear for six years.

The plants are propagated by the long runners, and are set in
rows 2 feet 6 inches wide, and about 1 foot G inches from plant
to plant in the rows, giving about 10,500 plants to an acre.

The rows are put thus far apart to diminish labour expenses, by
hoeing between the rows with horses ; and some growers have
lately put the plants 2 feet 6 inches apart each way, so that the
horse-hoe may be worked in all directions. Just before the fruit
begins to change colour, rough farmyard-manure is laid under
the plants to keep the fruit from dirt. Strawberries are picked
very early in the morning before the sun is up, and gangs of
men and boys go forth at 3 A.M., and leave off picking at 7 A.M.

Fruit thus picked realises as much as Is. 6d. per lb. in the
earlier part of the season. The best fruit is sold for eating, and
the second-rate is sold for jam. It is not unusual for as much
as lOOZ. to be made of an acre of strawberries, but an average
profit is about 20Z. per acre. The strawberries that are chiefly
grown are, the British Queen, Keen’s Seedling, Elton Pine,

Princess Alice, Comte de Paris, Goliath, Alice Maud, and
President.

The small acreage of fruit-land in Wales is distributed prin- Acreage of
cipally among the following counties, viz. : — w'ale's^vw”

Acres. s„,all.

Brecon 859

Radnor 499

Montgomery 337

Glamorgan 258

which border upon England. This, for the most part, consists
of apple-orchards planted in the valleys, whose produce is
generally made into cider for the work-people.

In Scotland, the counties of Lanark and Perth alone have an Climate of

acreage worth mention : there being: in the former 493 acres, Scotland un-
o O' T<ivour<iDl6 tor

and in the latter county 378. Soft fruits only are grown, as the fruit-growing.

climate is too cold for apples and pears to ripen. Strawberries
are very successfully cultivated in Perth and Edinburgh. In
1876, a grower in the former county was offered 100/. per acre
for 28 acres planted with strawberries. Enormous quantities
of currants and damsons are sent to Scotland from England to
be made into jam.

Fruit is grown in the United Kingdom, as a rule, only upon
the two systems that have been described above, at least upon
a large scale and for market purposes. There are some few
growers here and there, who grow fine apples, pears, and plums,
upon pyramidal trees, and low bush-trees obtained by grafting
upon Paradise stocks, which are easily pruned, and in some cases

748 = 452

Fruit Cultivation.

Large demand
for fruit.

Immense quan-
tities of fruit
taken for jam-
making. ,

mount of
fruit grown
impossible to
be ascertained.

Large importa-
tion from
France and
other
countries.

are root-pruned. Fruit is also grown in private gardens upon
pyramids and low bush-trees, as well as upon cordons and
espaliers. Peaches, nectarines, and apricots are but seldom
cultivated for market in the open air, on account of the variable
character of the spring season. Even in the most sheltered
situations, in the best managed gardens, upon the warmest walls
facing south and south-east, these fruits do not come to perfec-
tion more than once in three years. They are grown under
glass in “ orchard houses ” near London and other towns, and
make long prices at Covent Garden and other markets.

There is a large and increasing demand for fruit of all kinds
throughout the year in this country, especially for fine, handsome
table-fruit, of which, in some seasons, there is a great scarcity.
Fruit of second and third-rate quality is eagerly bought for
retailing in the large towns, and to supply the preserve manu-
factories in London, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, and
Glasgow, which take astonishing quantities in the season. Some
of these manufactories make 15 tons of preserve per day, and it
is calculated that at least 400 tons are made daily throughout
the fruit season in all parts of Great Britain.

It is impossible to give any statistics as to the quantity of
fruit grown in England, or to convey even an approximate idea
of how much is taken into London. No octroi duties are levied
upon produce as in France ; and although tolls are charged upon
fruit brought into the large London markets either by corporate
bodies or by private proprietors, much of the fruit does not
actually go into the market, but is sold in warehouses adjoining,
so that tolls are not levied upon it. The preserve manufacturers
make contracts with fruit-growers or with middlemen, who buy
the growing crops ; and the fruit in these instances does not go
to any market, but is sent directly to the manufactories. Besides
the large quantities of fruit grown in this country, the amount
imported is truly enormous, and is increasing year by year.
For example, in 1876, according to the Return of the Board of
Trade, 2,372,779 bushels of raw fruit, valued at 1,218,625Z.,
were imported into this Kingdom, as against 2,220,412 bushels
in 1875, valued at 986,248Z. Of this, 440,760 bushels, valued
at 266,276/., came from France aloneTn* 1876, against 581,170
bushels, valued at 271,878/., in 1875.

Vegetables.

749 = 455

CHAPTER III.

Vegetables.

The cultivation of vegetables for market was first adopted in
this country about the middle of the seventeenth century.
Gardening for profit, according to Fuller, the old historian,
“ crept out of Holland,” from whence vegetables had been long
imported into England, “to Sandwich in Kent,” and it has
gradually developed into a most important branch of national
industry. Vegetables are grown to an enormous extent now in
Great Britain, both by market gardeners, who cultivate from
5 to 50 acres of land, in the vicinity of London, and many other
large towns ; as well as by farmers Avho grow all kinds of this
produce upon a large scale in localities where the soil is suitable
and the facilities of transport are good. As the profits of
ordinary farming are small in these days, farmers of land in
convenient situations naturally turn their attention to the culture
of vegetables, which pays fairly well, as a rule.

According to the Agricultural Returns for 1877, there were
37,859 acres in Great Britain used as market gardens or for the
growth of vegetables in that year, viz : —

England 34,464

Wales .. 446

Scotland 2039

First introduc-
tion of market-
gardening into
England in the
17tli century.

Extent of acre-
age of land
devoted to the
growth of
vegetables in
1877.

Fifty years or so ago, vegetables were produced chiefly in
market gardens where spade-husbandry alone was practised, in
the suburbs of London and in the bordering counties of Kent,

Essex, Middlesex, Surrey, and Hertfordshire. There is still a
certain area, within a radius of a few miles of the Metropolis,
where the old system prevails; but as the land is being gradually
absorbed for building purposes, this is decreasing year by year.

Beyond this area of market gardening proper, which may be Area round
styled the inner circle, defined by small holdings, spade culture, Metropolis, or
and the easy distance from London markets, so that the produce
may be sent in upon waggons and carts early and fresh ; there is Area beyond
an outer circle extending far into Kent, Essex, and Surrey, where Metropolis, or
vegetable-growing is carried on upon a large scale, in a spirited «icle.
manner, with the appliances of implements and machinery that
are used in ordinary farming. In some cases the produce is sent
by rail from this outer circle, but a large portion of it is con-
veyed by horses direct to the London markets, and manure is
carted home. Great cart and waggon loads of vegetables, piled
up in the most artistic manner, may be seen coming into all the

750 = 484

Vegetables.

Vegetables
cultivated in
special
districts.

Esses area.

Middlesex area.

Kent area.

Acreages of
chief counties
producing
vegetables.

London markets from 4 to 5 o’clock A.M., being sent thus early
in order that they may be fresh and crisp.

Within the charmed circle appropriated to spade husbandry
the more delicate vegetables are grown, such as asparagus, sea-
kale, brocoli, cauliflowers, French beans, celery, radishes, lettuces,
mustard, and cress. Many of these require careful management,
and to be forced in frames in the early part of the season.

Without the circle, cabbages, collards, or young cabbages cut
before the heart is formed, peas, beans, onions, Brussels sprouts,
cauliflowers, and purple sprouting brocoli — a most valuable
vegetable either cut as greens, or later as brocoli heads, — and
turnips, are principally grown.

Besides all this, the produce of what may be called the legitimate
market-garden and vegetable-farm, peas, early potatoes, cabbages,
turnips, carrots, and onions are grown in all parts of the country,
by fits and starts, according to the probable demand ; and in
certain places special vegetables only are produced, as, for
example, onions at Biggleswade and Sandy, in Bedfordshire ;
cauliflowers at Mount Sorrel, in Leicestershire ; brocoli in Corn-
wall ; carrots in parts of Surrey and Wiltshire. Many farmers
also grow early potatoes, especially in Cheshire, Lancashire,
Yorkshire, and Lincolnshire. Potatoes are also universally
cultivated as a farm crop, being stored to supply the markets.

The business of market-gardening and vegetable-farming for
the supply of London is carried on in Essex, on the north-eastern
side of London, in the district from West Ham and Stratford,
along the left bank of the Thames to Grays, on alluvial soil which,
from its light texture and gravelly subsoil, is peculiarly suited
for the growth of vegetables. Also in Essex, upon the better
soils of the London clay, in the neighbourhood of Romford, and
as far from London as Colchester. It is confined in Middlesex
to the south-western quarter of the county, as at Brentford and
Twickenham, where the soil is a sandy loam with a subsoil of
gravel resting upon the London clay; and in Surrey to the London
clay and the alluvial deposits upon the banks of the River Thames
and Mole. The market-gardens in Kent are situated on the
right bank of the Thames, and extend, longis intervallis, to
Gravesend. The soil is alluvium, of the same kind as that on
the left or Essex bank of the river, and the clays of the Old-
haven beds and Thanet beds, which crop up here, are well
adapted for vegetables as well as for fruit-growing.

Besides the market-gardens near the metropolis, whose modes
of cropping and of general management are fully explained herein,
many other counties have a small extent of land devoted to the
production of vegetables for market, situated for the most part
near their chief towns. As their systems are the same as those

Vegetables.

751 = 485

s, ,

h 1
»

n- '

•e,

rii

let

,nJ

ses

ind

loj

nes

the

l«

lid

re!

ide

eij

pji

bo)

described, it will not be necessary, except in a few instances of
special culture, to do more than give the following Table of the
largest acreages in 1877, viz : —

Acres.

Middlesex 5119

Essex 4183

Kent 3950

Surrey ] 082

Yorkshire, West Hiding 1745

Worcester 1350

Hampshire 905

Gloucester 1002

Chester 896

Cornwall 977

There is no regular rotation of crops in the management of No regular
market-gardens and farms. The rotations depend upon the
soil and its condition, and in a great degree upon the probable
demand for particular vegetables, as well as upon the season,
and the times by which certain crops are cleared off the land, to
which no rest is given. Fallows are unknown. A continuous
succession of crops is the great object, entailing the application
of incredible quantities of manure, which is chiefly obtained
from the stables and cowsheds in London.

For this also a great amount of labour is necessary, which is
supplied in the summer, at least in the fields beyond the inner
circle, by a migratory population, who are for the most part
housed in out-houses, barns, and temporary erections, and begin
the season in March or April in the market-gardens, and finish
it in September in the Kentish hop-gardens.

A typical instance of a rotation of crops that is extensively Typical rota-
adopted may be cited. 1st. Cabbages are taken ; these are planted of crops,
in June and cleared by January, being followed by — 2nd. Early
potatoes, dug in June or the early part of July. 3rd. Winter
greens or hardy greens are then planted, to be succeeded by —

4th. Peas which are picked by June. 5th. Winter onions are got
in at once, and another green crop immediately follows them.

It will be readily understood that this quick succession requires
most liberal supplies of manure, and that the difficulties of
growing such moisture-loving vegetables as those of the Brassica
genus in summers of drought are sometimes insuperable. Large Farmyard-
supplies of water are given to plants of this kind, and irriga-
tion is practised near the Thames where circumstances allow, market-^
From 40 to 50 tons of farmyard-manure are applied every year, gardens,
and nitrate of soda, guano, and bone-dust are frequently used ;
but the mainstay of market-gardens is well-made farmyard-
manure.

In some districts, cauliflowers cut in the spring are fol-

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 E

752 = 486

Vegetables.

Salad and
sweet herbs
specially
grown at
Mitcham.

Asparagus

culture.

Sea-kale.

lowed by celery, with radishes thickly sown between the rows.
This goes on for years ; the position of the rows of celery
being changed every other year. Nearly 100 tons of farm-
yard-manure per acre are required for this exhaustive system
of cropping.

Upon larger gardens, or market-farms, a usual course of
cropping is : potatoes followed by greens ; then parsnips, or
carrots, or mangolds are put in, followed by winter onions, with
cabbages taken after these. Brocoli, French beans, broad beans,
and cabbages are taken instead of some of the crops of this
rotation.

Lettuces, radishes, endive, and salad herbs of all kinds are
chiefly grown in the market-gardens nearest London and other
towns. At Mitcham, in Surrey, there is a large extent of garden-
ground devoted to the growth of sweet herbs, as peppermint,
thyme, basil, and lavender. Liquorice is also largely cultivated
at this place, whose summer-air is fraught with “ odours of
Araby.”

It is convenient to give in this place a short description of
the details of cultivation of some of the vegetables most com-
monly grown : beginning with —

Asparagus, which is extensively produced near Isleworth, .
Fulham, and Mortlake, in the valley of the Thames, and in
other places near London, as well as at Colchester in Essex
and near Gravesend in Kent. This vegetable is now grown for
the most part in rows, from 5 to 6 feet apart ; the system of
planting in beds being relinquished by those who cultivate it
upon a large scale. 30 or 40 loads of farmyard-manure are put
on the land, which is deeply trenched. A crop of radishes is
taken before the plants are put in. Beets, or onions, or lettuces
are grown between the rows. Asparagus plants come to full
bearing in the fourth year. When the plants are well established,
they are earthed over in March : the heads are tied neatly in
bundles containing 105, and make from 3^. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per
bundle in the early part, and about 2s. 4d. in the latter part of
the season.

Sea-kale is one of the most profitable vegetables, and is culti-
vated mainly by market-gardeners within the metropolitan area,
particularly near Deptford in Kent, and in the Thames Valley
in Surrey. It is generally propagated from short lengths of old
roots, sometimes from seed, planted in rows about 14 inches
apart. Every third row is taken up early in November, and the
plants are put into pits heated to a temperature of 70° Fahr.,
being fit for cutting about 20 days after planting. The plants
left in the garden are covered with earth, and come to cut in
March.

753 = 4Sr

Vegetables.

Cabbages form a great source of profit, from 60Z. to 70Z. being Cabbages and
, frequently made per acre. They are planted out 15 inches
apart each way, after potatoes or onions ; or later, after celery and
French beans. The smallest plants are thinned out and sent
to market early in March, being called “ collards,” or coleworts.

Cabbages thrive remarkably well upon sewage farms.

Onions are extensively grown near London and in Bedford- Onions a pro-
^ shire, and do well upon friable sandy loams. An average crop
is about 14 tons per acre. As much as 180Z. per acre has been
, made for onions, but 35Z. is an average return. Cucumbers are
produced in enormous quantities under glass, and in the open
air. Many individual growers cut as many as 200 dozens
a week. They are much grown in Huntingdonshire, at St.
i Neot’s, and at Sandy in Bedfordshire, and are sent to market in
i flat baskets containing two bushels. 45Z. represents an average

return per acre.

Lettuces, radishes, mustard, and cress * also pay remarkably L-'irge demand
well, as do tomatoes, whose cultivation is increasing at a rapid vJcretaWes for
rate, as this vegetable within the last five or six years has been pickle maim-
much appreciated by the English people. Very large quantities tacturers.
of vegetables are used in the manufacture of pickles and sauces ;
and the demand for suitable onions, French beans, cauliflowers,
and gherkins — ^young cucumbers — for these purposes occasion-
ally far exceeds the supply. The best firms of pickle and
sauce manufacturers, some of whom employ 300 or 400 hands
in the busy season, take only first-class vegetables for pick-
ling ; but the smaller firms do not object to buy those of in-
ferior quality, which they convert literally into “ mixed ”
pickles, and impart to them a brilliant green colour with sul-
phate of copper. One large firm in London takes from 12,000
to 14,000 bushels of onions in one season, and other vegetables
in proportion.

Rents of market-garden land, and of market-farms, within 20
miles of London, range from 4Z. to 9Z. per acre. Labour expenses nect°d witfT'
come to from 6Z. to 9Z. per acre, and the whole annual average vegetable
expenses per acre are at least 22Z. In spite of this large outlay, culture,
fair profits are usually realised, and occasionally, in favourable
seasons, or by lucky hits, they are very handsome.

The profits of market-gardening and of vegetable cultivation Profits affected
generally have been much interfered with lately, by the impor-
tation of foreign vegetable produce, which has steadily increased
during the last few years, and the more so as many of the
vegetables, especially asparagus, peas, and cauliflowers arrive in

* Some individual growers use as much as 600 bushels of mustard-seed per
annum.

3 E 2

754 = 455

Vegetables.

London before those vegetables are ready in England. The
value of vegetables imported into this country in 1876, was
199,413/., as against 132,124/. in 1875, of which those sent
from France were valued at 92,627/., as against 77,265/. in
1875.

Cornwall.

Its mild
climate.

Brocoli the
chief

vegetables
produced in
Cornwall.

Potato-sprout-
ing process.

Next in importance to the above-described districts is that in
Cornwall. Though the extent of this is only 977 acres of actual
market-garden ground, vegetables of all kinds, and potatoes
especially, are grown upon the farms in the western part of the
county. Brocoli is the chief vegetable grown here, coming to
cut very early in December in some seasons, and never later
than January, on account of the mild climate of the winter.
In some winter seasons, as, for example, in 1875, at the Land’s
End, the thermometer has been at 50° Fahr. in the shade at
Christmas time. Asparagus has been cuj in the open air, and
primroses have bloomed in these months. In 1875, brocoli from
Penzance were sent to London at the rate of 25,000 dozens per
week, and sold in the streets at very low prices, and the Cornwall
brocoli season was over by the end of January, 1876. Brocoli
rarely fails in Cornwall; but in Surrey, Kent, and other places,
it fails once in four or five years through the spring frosts. The
soil in the west of Cornwall is well suited for the production of
vegetables, being a rich easily-worked loam upon the greenstone
and felstone series of Trappean rocks, composed of hornblende
and felspar. Brocoli are grown in alternation with potatoes,
the plants being dibbled in by women and children in June or
July, and the land is thoroughly well manured. They are sent
to London, Manchester, and Liverpool in wicker-work baskets,
holding 100 heads. About 6500 heads are grown upon an acre
upon an average. Though rents are high and expenses of all
kinds are heavy, brocoli-growing pays the Cornish people well.
They can send these vegetables to London a month earlier than
the market-gardeners in the Channel Islands and those who send
cauliflowers from Cherbourg, and they have the command of the
best market in the world at a season when fresh vegetables are
luxuries indeed.

Early potatoes are grown in considerable quantities in the
part of Cornwall lying between Penzance and Truro. Generally
the potato sets are planted directly after the brocoli comes off,
having been first sprouted* about an inch before they are planted,
which is held to give a month’s start to the sets. These, usually
of a sort called Lemon Kidneys, are dug in April, and are sent

* Potato sets are put in shallow boxes or baskets in lofts, above stables or
cowsheds, or any place where the temperature is high, to make them sprout
prematurely. Care is taken not to break ofif or bruise the sprouts.

Vegetables.

755 = 489

to the large northern and midland towns. Before the potato
disease had become virulent, and the French and Channel Islands
growers were in competition with the growers of Cornwall, two Two crops of
crops of potatoes were taken in a year from the same land, potatoes taken
This is done now occasionally. One crop is planted in No- ^
vember and dug in April. Another is planted with sprouted
sets directly the first comes off, whose produce is ready to dig
in September. The mild character of the climate renders this
possible in most years. Two crops of potatoes in one year are
also obtained at Morecambe Bay, upon the west coast of Lanca-
shire, Avhere the sprouting system is also adopted, and on the
“warp”* land in Yorkshire, near Selby and Hull, and other
places. In parts of Lancashire, as at Ormskirk, small farmers
grow early potatoes for the Blackburn, Bolton, and Manchester
markets. The potatoes are planted upon made soil which is
very rich, light, and friable, late in January or early in February,
and are protected by frames covered with straw, or reeds, or mats,
during the night, which are taken away during the day. The
young potatoes are packed in hampers, containing about 20 lbs.,
and realise I5. per lb. in most seasons.

Besides the potatoes that are grown on market-farms, very Potatoes grown
large quantities are grown upon ordinary farms in all the counties 'I' quan-
of Great Britain, forming part of the ordinary rotation of farm
crops in most districts.

The annual average number of acres planted with potatoes Average,
during the eight years ending 1877, was 544,345, or —

Acres.

In England 330,713

„ Wales 46,151

„ Scotland 167,481

In 1871 the acreage was 627,691 for Great Britain, while in Decrease in
1877 it was only 512,471 acres, and the returns show that be-
tween these years there has been a gradual decrease in the potatLs'on
acreage, owing to the fear of the potato disease, and to the im- account of
portation of potatoes from foreign countries, which has increased disease
in an astounding degree since 1871. For example, the quantity importation. •'
of potatoes imported into this country was only 847,835 cwts.
in 1871, whose value was 225,068Z., as against 3,986,662 cwts. in
1874, 4,696,132 cwts. in 1875, and 6,023,936 cwts. in 1876,
whose value respectively amounted to 1,034,835/., 1,070,976/.,
and 1,740,749/.

* “ Warp ’’ is a peculiar soil of mud and fine .=and, which is left by the tide at tho
mouths of rivers or estuaries, as in the great Wash in Lincolnshire. In some cases
successive rows of faggots are laid down, which soon become solid from the absorp-
tion of mud, and gradually dam back the tide, making terra Jirma.

756 = 490

Vegetables.

Acreage of
chief potato-

growing coun-
ties in England
in 1877.

Acreage in
Wales,

Acreage in
Scotland.

The following are the chief potato-growing
with their respective acreages in 1877 : —

Yorkshire

Lincolnshire

Lancashire

Cheshire

Devonshire

Kent

Cambridgeshire

Somersetshire

Staffordshire

In Wales there were in 1877 —

Cardigan

Carnarvon

Carmarthen

Denbigh

In Scotland the largest acreages in 1877
as follows : —

counties in England,

Acres.

43,246

36,552

33,783

20,360

15,002

13,576

8,874

8,163

7,276

Acres.

. 7710

, 5465

. 4533

. 4090

in the counties were

Acres.

Fife- ..
Perth ..
Forfar ..
Haddington
Boss

Lanark . .
Inverness
Ayr ..
Aberdeen
Edinburgh
Argyle -

17,488

17,648

15,365

9,847

9,195

7,996

8,091

7,775

7,644

7,063

6,566

Importation Assuming that an average yield of 6 tons per acre was obtained
of French on the acreage of potato land in Great Britain in 1877, vir.,
potatoes large- 512,471 acres, this would give the large amount of 3,074,826
tons of potatoes grown in that year. In addition to this, there
is the quantity imported, which amounted to 301,187 tons in
1876, of which more than half came from France.

Eotation of Upon the best soils, such as the “ warp ” land, and other rich
farm crops soils in Y orkshire and Lincolnshire, potatoes are taken every
are^^rowi^!*nd year in rotation, sometimes every second year, and not

systemTof unfrequently in succession. An ordinary course is for potatoes
cultivation. to follow clover, seeds, or beans — after wheat. From 20 to 30
tons of farmyard-manure are ploughed in, in the late autumn,
or in the winter. The land is ploughed across in the early
spring, and the potatoes are planted on the ridge, from Feb-
ruary to April, and 3 or 4 cwts. of guano are applied. From
10 to 14 cwts. of sets are put in per acre, being placed from
10 to 15 inches apart, in rows 27 to 30 inches wide. Some
growers prefer to put in small potatoes as seed, others cut large
potatoes into several pieces, or merely in halves, which appears

Vegetables,

757 = 491

to be the best practice. In the counties of Essex, Cheshire, and
Lancashire, potatoes generally follow clover leys, after barley or
oats. Sometimes the ley is left for two years before potatoes are
taken. Potatoes are usually planted after white-straw crops in
the south and the east of England, as well as in the Lothians
and other parts of Scotland.

York or Dunbar Regents, Rocks, Paterson’s Victorias, Dal-
mahoys. Redskins, Flour Balls, and Lapstones are chiefly planted
for the ordinary crop. Myatt’s Early Kidneys, Ashleaf Kidneys,
Lemon Kidneys, are the sorts usually grown for early digging.

The total cost of cultivating an acre of potatoes, including
manure, seed, cultivation, digging and delivery, may be put at
from 171. to 251. per acre. An average yield upon the best
potato land is from 5^ to 10 tons per acre. Upon land of second
quality, from 4^ to 8 tons are grown per acre. The average
price made of potatoes in London during the last ten years
is 51. IO5. per ton, the highest prices during that time having
been lOZ. 12s. 6tZ. in June 1873, caused by the virulence of the
potato disease in the preceding year ; and the lowest 31. 10s. in
December 1870.

Since 1845, when the potato disease, caused by the fungus,
Phytopthora infestans, first appeared, it has periodically de-
vastated the fields of Great Britain, and has much checked the
cultivation of potatoes, and reduced the profits of the growers.
There is at present no remedy known against the attack of this
insidious fungus, nor any cure for plants when attacked by it.
Its life-history has only recently been completed by the researches
of Professor De Bary * and Mr. Worthington Smith, the former
of whom identified the sexual organs in the mycelium of the
fungus, and described them as oogonia and antheridia. The
latter witnessed the act of fertilisation by the antheridia, and
traced the progress of the oogonium — called by Mr. Carruthers, an
oospore t — through its various stages until its separation from
the mycelium. This oospore, or rest spore, or, more plainly, the
germ of the fungus, rests in the tubers, on the haulm, and on
the leaves of the potato-plant. When all these have decayed the
germ remains, able to withstand winter frosts or rains, and to
develope the dreaded fungus when suitable conditions arrive.

The practical value of these discoveries is to point out to
potato-growers the necessity of planting undiseased seed, and of

Sorts usually
planted.

Cost of culti-
vation.

Average price
of potatoes for
last 10 years.

Potato disease.

Its life-history
only recently
traced by De
Bary and
Worthington
Smith.

* ‘ Researches into the Nature of the Potato Fungus,’ by Professor A. De Bary,
of the University of Strasbourg, ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’
vol. xii., 2nd series, 1876.

t ‘ Note on Mr. W. J. Smith’s discovery of the Rest Spores of the Potato
Fnngus,’ by W. Carruthers, F.R.S., Consulting Botanist to the Royal Agricultural
Society, ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ vol, xi., 2nd series.

758 = 492

Vegetables.

Supposed

blight-proof

potatoes.

Town-sewage
as applied to
vegetable cul-
tivation.

Wales and
Scotland.

carefully destroying the leaves, haulm, and tuhers of diseased
plants, and not to plant potatoes again for some time on ground
where plants have been blighted.

All sorts of potatoes are liable to be attacked, though early
sorts frequently escape, because the disease rarely appears until
late in July, and then after heavy rain in most cases. It was
asserted that there were kinds of potatoes proof against disease ;
but the result of a competition for handsome prizes, offered
in 1874 by the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England for any kind of potato that resisted the disease for three
years, was that all the varieties of potato supposed to have been
disease-proof were found to be diseased in the first year of the
trials.

This account of vegetable culture would not be complete
without an allusion to the application of town-sewage by irriga-
tion to the growth of vegetables. The sewage of towns, which
must be disposed of in some way, is, under certain circumstances
and upon certain soils, profitably distributed upon land, either by
flowing naturally in carriers or in drains by gravitation, or by
being pumped up to levels from which there is a fall. Not only is
the organic and offensive matter retained by the land thus treated,
so that the effluent water is rendered practically inoffensive, but in
some cases good profits are realised by the crops grown upon it.
All the ordinary kinds of farm crops are grown, but these are
not so profitable as vegetables, such as onions, cabbage, brocoli,
celery, cauliflowers, and many others, which give enormous
yields under this treatment. The sewage farms at Romford and
Barking, in Essex, afford typical instances of successful market
gardening. In some seasons an acre of cabbages treated with
sewage, in quantities varying from 1500 to 2000 tons, whose
value may be from 127. to 167., has realised as much as 707. ;
and greens have brought 737. per acre. Quantities of liquid, as
afforded by the system of sewage irrigation, are essential to the
cultivation of vegetables which are taken in rapid succession,
and most of which are transplanted. This is particularly the
case in seasons of drought, when the sewage-farmer has great
advantages and realises high profits. Vegetables are grown
very largely upon the sewage farms above mentioned, as well
as upon those of Croydon, Leamington, Aldershot, Wrexham,
Cheltenham, Edinburgh, and others ; not only are they abundant,
but excellent in quality.

Upon the comparatively small acreage of Wales and Scotland
devoted to market gardening, it is not necessary to comment at
any length. The systems of cultivation adopted in both countries
are practically the same as those followed in England. In
Scotland the more delicate vegetables are not extensively grown,

Vegetables.

752 = 493

on account of the climate ; and the cultivation of early vegetables
is only attempted under glass.

It will be seen from this sketch of vegetable growing in Great Conclusion.
Britain, that it is a most important industry, giving employ-
ment to numbers of persons, and providing small luxuries and
wholesome food for a mighty population, and at the same
time giving a fair profit to those engaged in it. The cultivation
of special vegetables pays as a rule so much better than corn
growing or meat producing, that it will without doubt be largely
extended in the future. As the population increases and the
wages of the labouring classes advance, the demand for luxuries
of this kind will also increase.

A brief history of the production of hops, fruit, and vege- General
tables has been given in the foregoing chapters, illustrating the
rise and progress of each of these specialities of British agri-
culture ; from which it will be seen that their cultivation has
been largely extended during the past 24 years.

Not only has their cultivation been increased, but the systems
of management have been much improved lately, especially with
regard to fruit. The keen competition of fruit-producers in
France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Spain, Portugal, and the
Channel Islands, from which countries no less than 1,806,346
bushels of raw fruit were sent to England in 1876, has caused
the English growers to make improvements, and will necessi-
tate their adoption of the best and most economical modes of
cultivation in the future. The same may be said of vegetables,
especially the early and more delicate sorts, in respect of which
there is great competition from various countries. The demand
for fruit and vegetables is, however, increasing, and will without
doubt continue to increase while the trade of England flourishes
and her large population of mechanics, artisans, and labourers
1 of all kinds receive good wages ; and in spite of foreign com-
petition, which, on account of the perishable nature of these
commodities, is limited to countries within easy reach of the
English markets, their cultivation will further increase and con-
tinue to be fairly remunerative. With regard to hops, the pro-
spects of the growers are not so bright. Hops are now grown
in all parts of the world, and can be sent in good condition from
Tasmania, the extreme southern limit, and from the fertile valleys
of California, the Ultima Thule of hop-production. Large quan-
tities were sent to England from all parts of America in the past
season, which depreciated the value of English hops in a ruinous
degree. There is no duty payable upon hops imported into
England, but a duty is levied upon English hops that are ex-
ported to America, the Australian colonies, and various other

760=494

Vegetables.

countries ; so that, in point of fact, the English hop-grower has
to compete with the whole world, and is heavily handicapped by
the non-reciprocation of free trade.

It may be pointed out, in conclusion, that more than a quarter
of a million acres of land in Great Britain are devoted to the
growth of hops, fruit, and vegetables, the rent of which may be
put at nearly a million and a half pounds sterling ; while the
amount of capital employed can hardly be less than six millions
sterling.

vm.

THE AGKICULTURAL LABOUEEE.

H. J. LITTLE,

OF COLDHAM HALL, WISBECH.

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( 1Q3 = 497 )

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEK I. — Historical.

Labourers present different Characteristics in different Districts — Scotch Shep-
herds compared with Labovrrers in Southern Tillage Districts — Northern
Labourer superior to Southern — Irish Peasant Farmers — Term “ Labourer ”
applied more generally to the Cultivator in Tillage Districts — A Retrospect
— Poor Law Allowances : Pauperised Labourers — Scotland exempt from
such Customs — Process of absorption of surplus Labour gradual — Com-
parison of Wages in 1796 and in 1850 ; and 1850 and 1870 — Reasons for
slow Advance — Farmers had command of Labour-market up to a recent
Date — Labour Unions had worked in other Trades — Agricultural Labourers’
Union of 1871 — Its effect in transferring surplus Labour, and on the vela-
! tions of Farmers and their Men .. .. .. Pages 765-507

CHAPTER II. — Wages and Expenses.

Weekly Wages of Labourer — Condition as tested by consumption of Meat —
Harvest Wages — Reduction of Number of Hands required rather than that
of Wages brought about by use of Reaping Machines — Earnings of Labourers
still very large in Harvest — Illustration of the large Wages often earned by
able Men — Nominal weekly Wages misleading as to cost of Work per Acre
— Allowances to Labourers virtually mean increased Wages — Weekly
Expenditure of a “Hard-up” Family, and that of young unmarried
Labourers Pages 507-512

CHAPTER III. — Domestic Life.

Improvement of Cottages of the Poor — Benefit to Community of Union
Chargeability Act — Tendency to scattering of the Agricultural Population —
Prize Cottages — Modern Labourers’ Cottages generally provided with Gar-
dens— Woman’s Labour much in request in the North — Cows kept by
Master for Labourers in the North — Ancient Village Cottages not generally
comparable in accommodation to modern ones — Early Career of Youths in
Y^orkshire and in Scotland .. .. .. .. .. ' Pages 512-524

764 = 495

Contents.

CHAPTEE IV. — Provident and other Societies.

Benefit Societies frequently failures — Weakness of Poor-Law administration —
Scale of Fees of good Benefit Clubs — Old Public-house Clubs the favourites
of the Labourers — Other means of saving compared with Benefit Clubs —
Useful Country Clubs — County Shows and Ploughing Matches beneficial

Pages 524-528

CHAPTEE V. — Education.

Education until recently optional — Now virtually compulsory — Subjects of
Education — School Fees — Vastness of the change .. Pages 528-530

CHAPTER VI. — Early Life, Daily Wo^-k and Recreation, dtc.

Daily Life of the Labourer — Evening Eest — Sundays and other Holidays —
Gradual diminution of Household — Celibacy very uncommon in the Class —
Thrift little understood or practised, as a rule — Advantages enjoyed by the
Labourer in the present Day compared with the past .. Pages 530-536

( 7Q5 = 499 )

THE AGEICULTUKAL LABOUKEE.

Introduction.

It would be impossible to present a faithful picture of British
Agriculture without some detailed notice of the labourer ; and
it must be my endeavour to delineate briefly the general condi-
tions under which the actual tiller of the soil exists in Great
Britain, and to give some idea of his home, his education, and
his general worldly circumstances.

It is almost impossible, and perhaps unnecessary, to com-
pare his lot with the peasant of the Continent (accepting that
term in the ordinary sense as representing the small proprietor
and cultivator combined), neither do I think he can justly
be compared with the labourer of European countries. He
is in fact a part and parcel of the system of English agri-
culture— a system, be it remembered, which has exalted this
country to the very highest rank among the nations of the
world in productive capacity.

The English laws, by encouraging the hereditary transmission
of large estates, are mainly responsible for this system, whatever
may be its virtues or its defects. Under the threefold character of
our agriculture, the landlord finding the land, the tenant-farmer
the capital and the scientific and practical knowledge, and the
labourer the thews and sinews for the actual manual work, the
latter is a necessity ; and I will endeavour in this sketch to
describe the circumstances of this very important section of our
body politic.

CHAPTEK I.

Historical.

I AM met at the outset of my task by the difficulty that, owing Labourers pre-
to sundry causes — and not least to the variety of races in these
islands — the characteristics of the farm-labourer in different different
parts of the kingdom are often distinct and dissimilar. It districts,
would, for instance, be unjust to the educated and thoughtful

766 = 500

The Agricultural Labourer.

Scotch
shepherds
compared with
labourers in
southern till-
age districts.

Northern
labourer
superior to
southern.

shepherd of northern England or of the Highlands of Scotland to
compare him, mentally or physically, with the illiterate and less
capable labourer of the southern English counties. The distinc-
tion between these two, which is very plain to well-informed
Englishmen, may be less obvious at first sight to a foreigner,
since they both undoubtedly live to some extent under similar
agricultural conditions. The training of the two men is, how-
ever, of such a different charactei', that a much higher degree of
intelligence is engendered in the one case than the other ; a fact
which compels me to allude in a very few words to the physical
features of Great Britain.

A considerable portion of northern England and the greater
part of Scotland is, as is well known, occupied by a rugged and
mountainous district, Avhich, from its hilly nature and its large
rainfall, is more adapted to grazing and stock-rearing than to
cultivation. In such regions the “ labourer ” is almost entirely
represented by the shepherd class — men engaged almost entirely
in the charge of flocks and herds. The isolation of the lives of
these men and the difficulties of their calling have so contri-
buted to thoughtfulness and reflection upon the matters which
concern their everyday life and the welfare of their charges, that
it would perhaps be difficult in any country to find a class pos-
sessed of greater natural intelligence and sagacity. Trained
from the cradle to the intelligent use of every bodily faculty,
and enjoying the advantages of education which have long been
highly prized by their fathers, the hill shepherds of the north
form a somewhat remarkable race, but one which, I fear, can
hardly be said to typify in general characteristics the class I am
about to describe.

In the more southern districts of our island, tillage, favoured
by a more genial climate and a more level surface, reigns
supreme. Here the land is laid out in large holdings occupied
by tenant-farmers, each one employing a considerable staff of
labourers, engaged without cessation in the regular cultivation
of the soil ; ploughing, sowing, reaping, stacking, threshing,
from day to day and year to year. Receiving from the farmer
or his steward the most minute directions concerning every
detail of their work, it is perhaps no wonder that habits of
mental forecast should in some cases have been unformed or
neglected, and that therefore these men should compare some-
what unfavourably with those whose training has been of a more
instructive character.

The superiority of the northern shepherd over the southern farm
servant extends also in a great degree to the northern labourer,
engaged in almost identical pursuits with the other. The
Northumbrian “ hind ” is markedly different to the Hampshire

The Agricultural Labourer.

7Q7=501

or Dorsetshire ploughman. In the wages which he receives, in
his mode of life, in his diet (which consists to a large extent of
oatmeal and milk), in his education, and even in his physical
powers, there are differences which are entirely to his advantage.

In a word, the general superiority of the man is manifest at once
to those who come in contact with him.

Again, in Ireland another class predominates. A very large Irish peasant
proportion of that country is occupied by very small peasant- farmers,
holders, many of whom are accustomed to leave their homes for
a season in the summer months and to seek work in England
or Scotland. These can scarcely be correctly ranked with the
labourers of Great Britain, although they are scarcely ever
superior to the general run of the latter in their circumstances
or surroundings, and, indeed, often submit to greater hardships
in housing and greater privations in living than the very poorest
English workman. Inasmuch, however, as they are themselves
the occupiers of the land they cultivate, they cannot be included
in the class of which I am writing, and I shall content myself
with this very brief allusion to them.

It is necessary, therefore, at the outset to draw a line of
demarcation between these different sections of the labouring
community. It would be impossible, indeed, by a hard-and-fast
rule, to indicate exact limits between the labourer of the tillage
districts of England and the herdsman or shepherd of the
pastoral tracts. Nor is this needed ; but in speaking in general Term
terms of the agricultural labourer, I must be understood ordi-
narily to refer to that large class habitually engaged, in tillage generally to
districts under supervision, in the actual cultivation of the the cultivator
soil. In the south this is by no means an unimportant section
of the population, and it is one on which, from the nature of
our system, the welfare of British agriculture largely rests.

The real prosperity of a country may to some extent be
judged by the condition of its lower classes. In endeavouring
to describe the circumstances of our labouring population, I
cannot be insensible to the uneasiness and concern which their
non-progress in the past has sometimes occasioned to statesmen
and philanthropists. I shall show that their present state is of
a far more satisfactory character, and that their immediate out-
look is most encouraging and promising. But whatever short-
comings there may be — and some of these I shall point out —
are so much due to evil legislation in the past, and to its results
on the present generation, that I do not think I should be out
of place to glance back at some of the causes which have con-
tributed to retard the progress of the agricultural population in
the greater part of England.

Something of the superiority of the northern over the southern
VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 F

7GS = 502

The Agricultural Labourer,

A retrospect.

Poor Law
allowances —
pauperised
labourers.

labourer, as already indicated, may be due to race, but far more
is attributable, I believe, to the operation of certain laws and
the existence of certain circumstances which I now proceed
very briefly to allude to.

At about the end of the last and the beginning of the present
centuries, stimulated by the high price of corn and of pro-
visions generally, consequent upon the wars in which our
country was engaged, British agriculture made some very im-
portant strides. In some counties large tracts of land had, by
the skilful application of capital, been reclaimed from their
native state of desert heath, and been rendered fertile and pro-
ductive. Every inducement would seem to have been afforded
by the high prices of agricultural produce for a continuation of
such improvements, and for the larger employment of the agri-
cultural population. The materials for wealth and prosperity
were thus apparently available to all engaged in such works.
Yet seldom had the condition of the farm-labourer of England
been less satisfactory than at the period of which I speak.
The supply of agricultural labour was far in excess of the
demand. Wages were consequently ver^' low, and, with the
high price of provisions, quite inadequate to afford a reasonable
supply of the necessaries of life to the labouring population.
The fact was that, as is usual in such circumstances, the general
industry of the country was entirely paralysed, and almost its
entire population thrown upon the agricultural interest.

In this time of distress a custom therefore sprang up of
making every labourer in the rural districts an allowance from
the poor-rate, in proportion to the number of his family and
without reference to his employment or non-employment.
Direct encouragement was therefore afforded to the multipli-
cation of an already superabundant population. It would be
difficult to overrate the injurious consequences of this system.
Under it every labouring man became in effect a pauper,
deriving a portion of his subsistence, not from the wage-fund
earned by his exertions, but from the rate assessed upon the
owners and occupiers of property. His spirit of independence
was thus sapped at its foundations. Such an evil once permitted
to take root was extremely difficult to eradicate. As a matter
of fact it became so gigantic a curse, that whole parishes in
England were abandoned to the relief of their poor, the owners
of property deriving no income from their possessions. It was
not until long after the close of our Continental struggles, and
until this serious danger threatened to engulf the whole rural
community, that Parliament took steps to abolish this pernicious
arrangement, and to establish the relief of the poor upon a
sounder footing.

The Agricultural Labourer.

769 = 505

During this dark period the virtues of prudence and of thrift
seem almost to have died out among the labouring classes. The
noxious weed of pauperism had indeed supplanted the natural
growth of self-reliance and self-respect. Accustomed in every
trifling emergency to depend upon the rate, farm-labourers
naturally found it more and more irksome to assert their man-
hood, and more difficult to establish their claim to a sufficient
standard of wages, whilst they still clung to their hold upon the
parish allowances. I have felt compelled to allude to this period
of their history, because I believe it affords a clue to whatever
has been defective in the condition of the English labourers from
that time until the present. But I wish to point out, with Scotland
reference to what has been before said, that in Scotland no such e^cempt from
custom as this ever established itself. There, collections at the
church doors were, as a rule, found adequate for the relief of the
sick and indigent ; but in seasons of special difficulty the farmers
met and voluntarily assessed themselves for this purpose. In
the Lothians — then, as now, one of the most highly cultivated
districts of the kingdom — the most needy were unwilling to
accept the necessary alms to ward off starvation. This remark-
able independence of character made itself felt not only over
Scotland, but extended over her southern border, and gave
to the labourers of the most northern English counties a dis-
tinctive freedom which is still noticeable, and which widely
separates them from those of the south.

But other causes have also been at work which have extended
the advantages of the northern over the southern labourer. The
vast development of manufacturing and of mining industry which
has distinguished the last fifty years has been almost confined
to the north of the kingdom. Before the days of railways it was
no easy matter for the low-paid southerner to transfer his labour
to districts where he could command increased wages. Moreover,
with every inducement to early marriage, the tendency was
continually to overstock the labour market. The result has
been a scale of wages in southern England which compares but
badly with that ruling in the north, and which has no doubt
given a lower tone to the work and the character of those who
received it.

These preliminary observations will, I hope, make it plain
that the farm-llabourers of Great Britain differ to a considerable
extent, even at the present day, in their general characteristics
and in the amount of wages which they receive. The southern Process of
labourer is not yet equal to the northerner in wage-earning
capacity. Nevertheless, the process of assimilation between gradual,
these two distinct types is every day proceeding. Railways
are constantly transferring unproductive labour from one district

3 F 2

770 = 5^-#

TKe AjricmhMral Lftbcnarr.

•^m^sxTstM. id
■ra^ ix 17j^

xas s 1'^
arj leTti

S«ase«x £vr
f]«v xAraaee.

to another ; edocadoa spreads and tends to equalise the rate of
vaffes ; and althoogfa I cannot paint a general picture, and sar
^ Ex mmo disee omates^ I can at least point to some generU
features (A identity, vhilst I ask that the differences which I hare
thus endeavoured to indicate mar be borne in mind.

Owing, then, to these causes — to the rapid increase of popu-
lation, to the lack of education in the rural districts, and to the
subordinate position forced upon the labourer br the unwise
administraticHi of the Poor Laws — the growth of the labourer
in the south, in intelligence, in industry, and in working^
capacity, has hitherto been painfully slow. By consequence,
the growth his wages h^ been slow also. In 17&6 the
commcm weekly wages of a Dorsetshire labourer were quoted
by an eminent authority * at 8#. Fifty years later, Mr. Caird,
in an inquiry undertaken by him for t^ ‘ Times ’ newspaper,
in consequence of the distress in agricultural districts, found |
exactly the same rate prevailing. So also in Devonshire, where /
7s. were paid in 1796, only 8s. were paid in 1850. In Wilt-
shire the wages paid in 1796 had evm declined, and the rate
cff 8s. paid in the former year was reduced to 6s. in 1850. In
the north, on the other hand, in the same period, wages had
advanced about 60 per cent. ; and even with this increase the
northern fanner was holding his own against his competitor in
the south.

To advance a step farther : — The twenty years which followed
Mr. CainTs inquiry, in 1850, were distinguished beyond any I
cimilar period in the history of the country by the growth of
wealth and of manniactures. The railway system, which now
covers the whole kingdom as with a network, was, at the
end of that period, all but complete. The principles of Free-
trade had been asserted and established. It will therefore be
interesting to see how far the labourer had benefited in actual
wages bv this vast extension of conimerce. In Dorsetshire he
had now got 10*. a week ; in Devonshire about the same.
What, however, bad been the efiect in -Soxland ? Here be wax
in receipt o( about double this amount, 18*. being a common
rate, and 20*. being paid in very many districts !

It is impossible to account for the slowness of the increase in
the south, except on the ground of superabundance and infie-'
rioritv of labour. It is certain that in t^ same time agriculture
had not stood stilL On the contrary, it was a period of great
growth and development. The slr/w advance in the wages of.

• sir FrancM Mortoo Dfce, ia bk ‘ Stott of the Poor,’ 3 vok. 4to^ Lop&a|
17:^7. I 3»T oiwerre Dowetdiirtr eat be token u a trpieal ecwntj &r tbal
ov'vazed KQtbem dktrieto of tbe kingdom. ^

The Agricultural Labourer.

111=505

agricultural labour was, therefore, anomalous ; but it was easily
accounted for, A superabundance of an inferior article always
makes it unnaturally cheap. In this case, the labourer had not
yet learned to move ; he had not yet learned to work ; he had
scarcely yet learned to think. Emigration had indeed removed
a few of the most spirited of his companions, but even this had
scarcely been felt as a means of thinning the redundant ranks
of the rural population.

Until this time, the farmer, in all but the most northern Farmers had
counties, had virtually been master of the labour-market. Any coyimand of

* •' l3.DOUl’“TI13.rkGfc

augmentation of wages which had so far accrued had been granted ^ recent

by him more from a sense of justice and from a knowledge of the date.

increasing requirements of the labourer than exacted from him

by the necessities of the situation. In certain districts it was

not uncommon for him to fix on the price of a peck of wheat or

a stone of flour (as the case might be) as the ordinary price of a

man’s daily labour, and without much reference to the rate of

the other necessaries of life. But the price of wheat had been

lowered by the operation of Free-trade, and it is obvious that

such a principle or expedient could, under the circumstances of

the case, be no longer possible or desirable.

The relations of the two classes had often been denounced up
to this period as of an unsatisfactory character, and from an
economical point of view such was undoubtedly the case.
Nevertheless an almost paternal authority was wielded by em-
ployers, and a sympathetic trust was engendered in the men,
which, however little they might suit the rigid rules and cut-
and-dried axioms of political economists, were not, perhaps,
wholly disadvantageous to either party. The simplicity of
country life in secluded districts often demands somewhat more
than the ordinary rules dictated by purely economic considera-
tions, The farmers and labourers were therefore drawn together
more by the mutual ties of humanity and esteem for each other,
than actuated by the more selfish motives of mercenary contracts.

Such was the state of things until a recent period. The great Labour Unions
increase in the wealth of the country had not, in the meantime, worked in

J ' ' Otn61* tpr'lCl6S

been unaccompanied in the manufacturing districts by those
disturbances between labour and capital which seem inseparable
from such conditions ; but hitherto the harmonious but one-
sided relations of farmers and labourers had been interrupted by
no such disputes. A great change in this respect was, however,
impending ; and British agriculture, at the close of the period I
have been describing (1870), was on the eve of an important
movement which entirely altered the current of affairs, and
gave a sudden impetus to the upward movement of agricultural
wages.

112 = 506

The Agricultural Labourer.

Agricultural
Labourers’
Union of 1871.

Its effect in
transferring
surplus labour

and on the
relations of
farmers and
their men.

In 1871 an Agricultural Labourers’ Union was formed for the
avowed purpose of increasing wages. In a short time it had
extended its organisation over the whole of the country. Founded
on the principle of trades’-unionism, the object was fair in itself,
but a very aggressive and dictatorial tone was unfortunately
adopted by the leaders of the movement, which naturally had
the effect of incensing the farmers, who (whatever the rate of ;
wages) had hitherto lived on the best of terms with their men,
and in many cases had done them a thousand kindnesses which
could scarcely be replaced by an extra shilling or two a week. By
degrees it became clear that the old relations between these two
classes were no longer practicable. The labourers were exhorted
to strike, and to take the opportunity of the most critical seasons
— hay-time or harvest — for so doing. Seldom had the rural
population of southern England been more agitated than in
1872 and 1873, when meetings were continually held, and the
principles of the new Union were propagated.

Advantage was taken of the movement by the agents of British
and other colonies ; and the legitimate plan of emigration to
other countries, or to the manufacturing districts of England,
was so successfully urged upon the men, that in a short time the
scarcity created by these withdrawals had sent the price of •
labour up by 30 per cent. The immediate effect of this was the
extensive substitution of machinery for inferior hand-labour.
The farmer was thus enabled to recoup himself in some degree
for his increased outlay ; but it may easily be conceived that
to a class accustomed hitherto, without much difficulty, to make
their own bargains the new state of affairs was somewhat dis-
tasteful.

The relations of master and man, which up to this time had '
certainly been of a far more cordial and sympathetic character !
than those engendered by the manufacturing system, have thus, 1
lately, received a rude shock, and one from which it may be ‘
doubted whether they will ever recover. The effect in the ,
long run will, probably, be advantageous to both classes ; but in (
the meantime a certain soreness has manifested itself on the
part of the farmer, and a certain dogged intractability and surly
independence of control on the part of the labourer, which do
not augur well for the return of the old friendliness in their
future relations. It is not, however, unlikely that these diffi- '
culties may initiate a new career of independence on the part of
the labourer, in which case they need not be regretted.

Thus stands the question of British agricultural labour at
the moment at which I write. The determined resistance of the
East Anglian farmers in the spring and summer of 1874 to the
demands of the Union led to a protracted lock-out, which told

The Agricultural Labourer. 11^ = 507

heavily upon the funds of that institution, and displayed such
unexpected resources upon the part of the masters that it arrested
for the time the progress of the movement, and had the effect of
showing the real strength of the combatants. Once tried, how-
ever, it can scarcely be expected that the principle of Unionism
will be relinquished by the labourer ; and though he may find
it powerless to accomplish all the objects of his ambition, it is a
weapon in his hands of which he may any day make fresh use,
and of which it would be foolish on the part of the farmer to
ignore the force.

CHAPTER II.

Wages and Expenses.

The present ordinary wages in England for a common day- Weeklj wages
labourer vary from about 13s. a week in the south to 18s. in the labourer,
north-east, and up to 20s. or 21s. in the extreme north.* These
sums, however, in the case of the lower-paid districts, do not
represent the real earnings of an able-bodied and willing worker.

In hay-time and harvest much higher wages are given ; and
piecework being at other seasons of the year very generally
adopted for such work as hedging, ditching, and draining, a
good midland or southern labourer is enabled to supplement
these nominal wages to a large extent. In addition to these
wages a house and garden are almost always given rent free to
the shepherd, the herdsman, the waggoner, and, indeed, to any
man to whom the charge of the live-stock of the farm causes
Sunday — or any extra — work beyond the regular hours of labour.

It is significant of the real value of the labourer at present
that, notwithstanding the discrepancy I have pointed out in the
rate of wages, about the same sum is paid for the various
piecework operations of the farm in districts where the lower
wage prevails as in the higher-priced localities.

Perhaps no better test of the prosperity of the working classes Condition as
of the greater part of this country can be found than in the con- tested by
sumption of butchers’ meat. In this matter a wonderful increase
has taken place of late years ; and although the consumption of
farm-labourers does not yet equal that of the higher-paid artisans,
it is much greater with that class than formerly. The best proof

* The price of ordinary day-labour fluctuates, of course, to some extent with
the supply and demand, the price of provisions, &c. Not so with yearly men.
They are hired for a term, and for that period their wages are invariable. Never-
theless the day-labourer gets greater advantages in shorter hours of work, piece-
work, &o.

1U = 50S

The Agricultural Labourer.

Harvest wages.

Eeduction of
number of
hands required
rather than
that of wages
brought about
by use of reap-
■ ing-machines.

Earnings of
labourers still
very large in
harvest.

ofithis is the largely increased number of butchers’ shops in the
rural districts. Quantities of beef and mutton are now sold
weekly in many small country villages, where formerly (and
within the memory of men below the middle age) the butchers’
stock was represented by a very meagre supply of pork alone.

In harvest the full energies of the labourer are directed towards
making up arrears of rent, and getting together a little money
for the bills of the past year. In the eastern counties, where
high harvest wages are paid, the labourer is accustomed to de-
pend entirely upon this season for all his extra payments ; at
other times living up to the full amount of his wages, whatever
they may be, and taking no thought for the morrow.

It is true that the reaping-machine is now an almost inva-
riable accompaniment upon all farms in Great Britain, but its
use has rather had the effect of reducing the number of hands
required by the farmer for the gathering in of his corn than of
curtailing the earnings of those employed. Indeed, at no time
have higher wages been earned by the regular labourers of the
farm than since the introduction of this implement. In the
great corn-growing districts of Great Britain the period of har-
vest is always one of considerable anxiety, owing to the uncer-
tainties of our climate ; and the exigencies of the farmer often
lead to immense wages being paid at this time of the year. In
the Fen districts of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire a strong
man will consider himself very ill-paid in harvest if he cannot
earn 9s. or 10s. a day in following the reaper, and 7s. or 8s.
when housing the corn.

Lest, however, I should be accused of exaggeration on this
point, I give the actual harvest earnings of a labourer in that
locality in the autumn of the present year (1877), merely pre-
mising that the family consisted of a man ; his wife ; a girl, aged
16 ; a boy, aged 14'; another, aged 11 ; and a small child
about 9. I suppress the real name, but I guarantee the accuracy
of the figures, which are taken from my own books : —

£ 8. d.

John Jones’ reaping and tying bill .. .. 15 16 2

Do. carting account II8II3

Thatching do 4 16 1

Paid boys driving carts 2 6 8

£24 17 101

To this must be added 16 bushels of gleaning corn, picked up
by the wife and two girls, and reckoned at 5s. a bushel, and we
have a sum approaching 30Z. earned by this family in the five
weeks over which the harvest extended. In this case the man’s
wages could not be put at a less sum than 10s. per diem for the

The Agricultural Labourer.

775 = 509

whole period of harvest. I think some statement of this kind is
necessary, in order to show that any argument derived from the
current weekly wages common in the district, and which are
15s., would give a very false idea of this man’s real position.

The man in question, if asked, would probably assert that his
wages were 15s. a week ; and inasmuch as that is the standard
of wages for ordinary work upon the farm in question, he would
be so far justified in his statement. An examination of the Illustration of

books of the master, however, would show that they frequently

, wages often

amounted, even in winter, to as much as 5Jls. a week, and that earned by able

(independent of harvest) the average earnings of himself and men.
family during the summer months were about 11. 10s. per week.

There are doubtless plenty of cases where, owing to circum-
stances, to inability on the one hand or indolence on the other,
the standard of weekly pay is seldom exceeded at the ordinary
seasons of the year, but the case I have quoted is probably by no
means a rare one, and I think it is valuable as throwing some
light upon the question of the real wages of a working man in
a medium-paid district. Here are the actual sums paid by the
farmer to this man and his family in the past year : —

Earnings of John Jones and Family from Michaelmas, 1876-7.

£ 8. d.

Man, 47 weeks (average earnings 17s.) .. 39 17 0

'Wife, occasional earnings 4 16 10

Girl, occasional summer work 5 9 5

Elder boy, constant work 12 8 4

Younger boy, summer and occasional .. 5 11 4

Harvest account 24 17 lOj

Gleanings 4 0 0

£97 0 9i

The average earnings of this family were, therefore, 1/. 17s. ^\d.
per week. It is somewhat difficult, of course, to separate from
this account the actual earnings of the man himself, since in
harvest he laboured with his family ; but putting his average
earnings during that period at the sum I named above, viz. 10s.
a day, we have about 21s. per week as the nett produce of his
own bodily labour. I think these figures render it no longer
doubtful that a good working man at the present day, even in
the lower-wage districts, takes his fair share of the produce of
the soil ; and I can scarcely imagine that, without capital, he
could in any other capacity turn his labour to more profitable
account in the tillage of the land. I should, perhaps, add that
this man pays a rent of 51. a year for an excellent cottage .and a
rood of garden land adjoining, and that in addition he generally
sets a few sacks of potatoes upon the farm, the land being

77Q = 510

The Agricultural Labourer.

ploughed and manured for him, and the master and himself
sharing the crop equally.

Nominal Without, then, entering into a more minute account of the

weekly wages wage-question, which, unless very carefully examined, is apt to
to'cott'^of work mislead the inquirer, I shall content myself with the assertion
per acre. that, as a rule, the average amount of weekly wages paid in
different parts of the country may be taken as no very unfair
index of the actual amount of work performed by the average
labourer of such districts. Whether the nominal weekly wages
are 13s. or 18s., the amount of actual labour performed bears
something like a relative proportion to these sums.

A remarkable fact may be cited in proof of such an asser-
tion. The cultivation of arable land in Northumberland and
in the south costs at the present time about the same sum per
acre, cropped in the same manner ; yet the nominal wages in
Northumberland exceed those in th^ south by 50 per cent. The
inference seems to be plain. The higher-priced workman per-
forms a much larger amount of work. But it would be a fallacy
to suggest, therefore, that it would be good policy on the part of
the southern farmer at once to raise his wages to the northern
rate. The habits of a race cannot thus suddenly be changed ;
a high-priced wage will, it is true, be probably followed by a
higher standard of work in the long run, because no farmer
could afford for long to pay high wages for inferior labour ; but
in the meantime the ordinary laws of supply and demand must
take their course, and until these conditions are more equalised,
it would be impossible, without injury to both parties, to
endeavour to force the rate of increase.

Allowances to Before leaving the question of wages, I ought to point out
labourers ^^^^t in many parts of the country considerable perquisites or
increased privileges,” as they are called, are allowed the labourer which

wages. supplement his weekly wages to a large extent. For instance,

in Dorsetshire, he generally gets his cottage rent free or pays a
mere nominal sum of Is. a week, or so, for it. Besides this he
not unfrequently gets firewood free ; a large piece of potato
ground upon the farm, ploughed and manured ready for planting,
and nearly always an allowance of cider (the southern beverage)
every day during the year. In nearly every county in England
some allowances of this kind are made, which renders it ex-
tremely difficult, without diligent inquiry, to get at the actual
earnings of an average labourer ; but it is to the advantage of
all concerned that the custom, once universal, of giving part of
the wages (at any rate during hay and harvest times) in beer or
cider is gradually declining, and that money wages, which
enable a man to spend what he likes on such indulgences, are
taking their place. But in cases where the labourer is unable

The Agricultural Labourer.

111=511

from any cause to earn more than the ordinary weekly rate of
wages, it may be interesting to ascertain how he spends them.

I will take the case of a married man at the period of the worst
pinch in his career, when two or three young children are
entirely dependent on him, being themselves unable, from their
tender age, to become bread-winners. A larger family than this
generally enjoys a larger income (as I have shown by the in-
stance given above), from the labour of some of the children,
and I have not thought it necessary to consider the case of
the man without family, since he is manifestly in a better
position.

I will suppose my specimen to be in regular receipt of 14s. a Weekly
week ; then the following is, I believe, a fair example of his ^

weekly expenditure. femily,

2 stone bread, at 2s. 4ii. ..

8. d.

i stone flour, at 2s. 6(1.

. ..13

4 lbs. meat, at 8ci

i lb. butter, at Is. 6d.

. ..0 9

1 lb. lard

2 3 lbs. sugar, at 31tZ.
j lb. tea, at 2s. 6d

• . •* •

. .. 0 8J

. .. 0 7i

1 lb. soap

1 lb. .soda

. ..0 1

Is cwt. coals

. ..16

ParaflBn oil for lights ..

13 9i

I have selected a very unfavourable case for exemplification,
but inasmuch as such instances are not unknown, I have taken
some pains to ascertain the mode in which under such circum-
stances the money is usually spent. With the help of gleaning
corn and garden produce (and it is very rarely indeed that the
labourer has not this advantage) the figures for flour and bread
would be considerably decreased. And again, if able to kill a
pig of his own feeding the cost of meat might be deducted,
though in that case something must be added for the expense of
fattening the animal. It will be observed that it takes the
whole income of this man (under these most unfavourable cir-
cumstances) to maintain him, and that he is compelled to depend
for all his extra payments upon his greater earnings during
harvest, &c. The thriftless character of English cottage house-
keeping will be deduced from this table. The English labourer’s
wife has seldom an idea of the preparation of those savoury
pottages and messes which form so prominent a feature in the
cookery of Continental households, and which are of such
economical value.

I will now give another weekly budget, viz., the average and that of

youngs

ns=5i2

The Agricultural Labourer.

B unmarried
labourers.

Improvement
of cottages
of the poor.

disbursements of the young single men upon a large farm in
Eastern England. The young men in question lodge with the
steward of the farm and pay to him the sum of 2s. per week for
the necessary accommodation, and for flour for puddings, pepper,
salt, mustard, and the cooking of their food. They are hired
by the year and draw weekly wages of about 12s. each, a con-
siderable sum being retained until the end of their term.

«. d.

Lodging, cooking, salt, &c 2 0

4-lb. loaves, at Id 1 5s

2 lbs. sugjir, at 0 7

2 ozs. tea, at 2c? 0 4

1 lb. butter, at Is. 6cZ 0 9

6 lbs. meat, at 8c? 4 0

Herrings, &c 0 6

2 ozs. tobacco 0 6

10 U

It will be seen at once that these men live not only well but
even somewhat extravagantly, allowing themselves nearly 1 lb.
of butcher’s meat a day, and also the extra indulgence of a con-
siderable allowance of tobacco.

CHAPTEE III.

Domestic Life. ' ’

I MUST now turn to the domestic life of the labourer, and first |
to the important subject of cottage accommodation. Many re- j
proaches have been levelled at English farmers on the subject of
the dwellings of the poor ; and, indeed, there was until recently too
much to grieve the mind of a philanthropist in the condition of I
many of our cottages. But in nothing has a greater improvement
been evident than in this within the past thirty years. It is per-
fectly true that on some estates may still be seen squalid, dirty,
and dilapidated dwellings, sometimes even unfit for the decent
accommodation of human beings, or affording a poor protection ‘
against a fickle climate. But happily these have now become (
most rare exceptions. A great awaking has recently taken j
place as to the duties and responsibilities of the ownership of |
property. Moreover, the transfer of many large and encumbered i

estates to the wealthy members of the mercantile community ij

has greatly assisted the movement. Land in England is held |
by the wealthy classes for the power and influence and import-
ance which it confers, rather than for the revenue which it

The Agricultural Labourer.

779 = 513

yields, which is in almost all cases a very poor return upon the
capital invested. But no people have been more ready than the
nouveaux riches, when purchasers of land, to accept the respon-
sibility connected with its possession, and to improve the con-
dition of the cottages of the poor. On such estates, and on many
of those held by the older members of the aristocracy, vast
sums have lately been spent in this manner. The low mud-and-
stud thatched tenement, with its two rooms on the ground-floor,
has almost entirely disappeared. Such dwellings have been
replaced by commodious and comfortable buildings of brick
and slate, which contain every needful accommodation ; and in
some cases by really ornamental buildings, which add much to
the pleasant aspect of the country.

But even in those cases where the landlord was unwilling to
give the requisite accommodation for the labourers required
upon his estate, but trusted rather to his tenants supplying
themselves from the villages outside his property, and evaded
the responsibility of erecting cottages, which, as far as the rent
they pay, are always a very unremunerative investment — the
question has been forced upon him within the last few years in a
very practical manner. An Act of Parliament, passed some fifteen Benefit to
years ago, threw upon the Union, instead of the parish indi- °
vidually, the maintenance of the poor; the necessary funds for c hargeabilit}'
which are now, owing to this arrangement, collected from a-A^ct.
vastly larger area. The consequence of the parochial plan had
been that the owner of large estates had in some cases, as a
matter of selfish policy, allowed his tenants to draw their sup-
plies of labour from parishes outside his domain, which parishes
thus became responsible for the relief of the poor whose daily
work lay upon his property but outside their limits. It is easy
to see how great an evil was encouraged by this plan. The
villages outside the estate became burdened with the support of
these men in sickness and in old age. The landlord had, in
fact, often been obtaining a portion of his rental at the expense
of his neighbours. The abolition of this injustice at last forced
upon him the necessity of cottage building, since, now that he
was made to bear his fair share of the relief of the poor, it was
his interest to adopt the best means for the amelioration of their
condition.

The present state, then, of the cottage accommodation for Tendency to
labourers is daily becoming a subject of greater satisfaction.

The lover of the picturesque finds rapidly swept away those frail agricultural
abodes which, however they might gratify his artistic taste, population,
were yet sometimes a scandal to the country in which they
abounded ; and their places are supplied with buildings more

f' 780 = 514 The Agricultural Labourer.

I: substantial, more commodious, and more fitted in every way for

modern ideas.

[I That aggregation of dwellings which we call a village has

T thus, under these circumstances, a tendency (so far as the

|ji agricultural labourer is concerned) to give way to the cluster

!| of cottages placed in some suitable position for the needs of the

farm. In central and southern England, where the holdings
are of a moderate size, cottages are more frequently erected in
pairs than otherwise ; but in the north, where the farms are
very extensive, long rows of cottages are the concomitant of each
isolated farm.

Prize cottages. I attach an elevation and plans of a pair of cottages which
were designed by Mr. James Martin of Wainfleet (Figs. 1, 2, 3),
P and which gained a prize of the Royal Agricultural Society

I at Manchester in 1869, for general utility of design combined

pj with economy. This will give an idea of the kind of accom-
modation which is now considered almost indispensable in the

cottages of the labouring poor.

Fig. 1. — Front Elevation.

The Agricultural Labourer.

781=515

Fig. 2. — Ground Plan.

782=516

The Agricultural Labourer.

Fig. 3. — Chamber Plan.

The Agricultural Labourer.

7SS = 5 17

I also annex some plans by Mr. Hine, which were commended
and improved upon by the Judges at the Cardiff Meeting of the
Society in 1872 (Figs. 4, 5, 6).

Fig. 4. — Front Elevation.

in each there are three bedrooms and two sitting-rooms, and
that they contain all needful and proper accommodation for the
decencies of life, as well as the comfort of their inmates.

I In Mr. Hine’s plan the cottages are ingeniously dovetailed
together, and are thus in the form of an oblong, roofed by a
single span. Thousands of such cottages as these may now
' be found scattered over every part of England ; but it must be
) confessed that Scotland has not yet followed suit in this respect.

From a dislike on the part of the labourer to live on more than
I one floor, most of the cottages are in that country built on that
I plan, and they are too often devoid not only of structural beauty
I but of decent accommodation. In many parts they present the
I appearance of long rows of barracks, and are entirely wanting
f in that neatness and trimness which is generally the accompani-
l| ment of English homes, however poor the inmates.

! The plan and elevation (Fig. 7, p. 519) oi a, pair of the better

! class of Scotch agricultural cottages, taken from the ‘ Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society’ for 1871, will give a good idea
VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 G

Fig. 6. — Chamber Plan.

The Agricultural Labourer. 785 = 519

of the prevailing features of these dwellings in that part of the
United Kingdom.

Fig. 7. — Plan and Elevation of a pair of Cottages built by Alexander
° M'Neel Caird, Esq., at Genoch, Wigtonshire.

Plan.

The arrows show the slope of the roofs of the outhouses.

Besides the comfort afforded by the English modern cot- Modern
tages, the labouring men who are their occupants are, in almost labourers’
every case, provided with a piece of garden-ground adjoining,
or with an allotment in close proximity to their dwellings. By ^yith wardens!
this means they are not only enabled to grow a sufficiency of
garden-stuff for the use of their families, but also to sell some
portion of the produce. This garden, moreover, affords them
the means of keeping a pig (the almost invariable accompani-
ment of a well-to-do labourer’s occupation), and there are few
cottagers at the present day who have not the satisfaction of

3 G 2

786=520

The Agricultural Labourer.

Woman’s
labour much
in request in
the north.

occasionally killing a porker of their own feeding for the use
of their household. The necessary straw for this purpose is
generally given by the master, and it afterwards provides a useful
supply of manure for the garden. The quantity of land so
occupied varies considerably ; but it is seldom less than about a
fourth of an acre, and is sometimes (though rarely) as much as half
an acre in extent. The rent paid for a cottage of this kind varies
very much. It is sometimes not more than Is. a week, and
occasionally as much, when occupied with a rood of land, as 5?.
per annum. Now, as it would be impossible to build such a
pair of cottages at the present day for less than from 280Z. to
300/., it is obvious that so small a rental leaves the owner with
a loss ; and that he has to recoup himself for his outlay from
the rent paid by the farmer. This positive advantage to the
labourer must not be lost sight of in considering his position.
It is indeed equivalent to the addition of extra wages, and must
so be considered. It is an anomalous state of things ; but the
farmer finds a certain advantage in having his men upon the
farm, and handy for their work.

In Northumberland and some adjoining counties it is the
custom to provide the “ hind,” or hired ploughman, in every
case with a cottage, rent free. He has also a rood of land pro-
vided him on the farm for the growth of potatoes, for which the
master finds the necessary horse-labour. He has, moreover, a
good garden ; his coals are carted free for him, and at the
present time he is in receipt of 1/. a week in cash, wet weather
or dry, and, even in cases of sickness, up to the end of his term,
which is always for a year.* There are very few districts where
such large wages as these are prevalent, but I have before pointed
out that a free cottage and garden are the ordinary privileges of
carters and stockmen in very many parts of the country.

In Northumberland, again, a man who can stack or sow gets
the same wages and privileges as I have mentioned, and an
addition of either 6 bushels of wheat, or 2/. in cash. In that
county a sufficient number of cottages is invariably included
with the farm, and charged for in the rent thereof; and the
tenant finds it to his interest to bind his men to the land by
giving them their homes rent free. In return for such accom-
modation, the labourer is required to provide an unmarried
woman worker whenever needed. These young women, Avho
belong to a particularly fine and strong race, are used to all

* I am informed by a friend, who is engaged largely in agriculture in
Northumberland, that the rise in labour there has been 221. per annum in the
case of “ hinds, ’ and 50 per cent, in the case of women-workers, within the j)ast
ten years. Almost tlie whole of this remarkable increase has taken place in the
last six years.

The Agricultural Labourer.

787=521

the work of the farm, and frequently perform tasks which it
would severely tax a weakly southern man to execute. They
get Is. Qd. per diem when employed in ordinary work, and
3s. per diem for twenty days in harvest.*

The fact that oatmeal is largely consumed by the farm-labourer
in the north has been already alluded to, and I wish now to
supplement that remark by the observation that he almost
always keep a cow. About 8/. a year is the present rate paid
to the master for this accommodation and for a supply of proper
and sufficient food for the animal the whole year round. As far
as the children of his household are concerned, he is therefore
almost independent of supplies of animal food ; and I cannot
but attribute some of the fine physical powers of the northern
race to the use of this nourishing and strengthening diet.
Nothing would probably tend more to improve the breed of
men in southern England than a general adoption of this prac-
tice ; but at present it has been very little tried, and it is rarely
that the peasant of those districts can procure a supply of milk
for his children.

My observations with regard to cottages have principally
related to those situated upon the farm, and under the direct
charge and control of the landlord or his tenant. These, it will
be gathered, are generally now sufficient for all ordinary require-
ments, and on many large properties they are models of neatness

• For the purpose of comparison, I here give an actual agreement for the
current year between a Dorsetshire farmer and his carters or horsemen, taken
from the ‘ Agricultural Gazette ’ of October 22, 1877 ; — “ This agreement between
A. B. on the one part and C. D. on the other part, that the said C. D. is to serve

the said A. B. as carter at the Farm from April 6, 1877, to April 6, 1878,

and is to receive for said service, house, garden, and 20 poles potato land,
manured free ; 400 faggots of furze and half a ton of coals, free, and 12s. per
week ; also 15s. extra in lieu of beer at hay-time, 21. extra in lieu of beer for
harvest time ; Is. extra for each ‘ journey 6d. extra per day at threshing with
steam machine ; 9d. extra per day when employed sowing corn or manure broad-
cast, and 6d. per day extra when sowing or drilling turnips. That the journeys
be taken in turns by each carter. That carters will in all cases be required to
be at their horses by 4 o’clock in the morning, so as to have them fed, groomed,
and harnessed, and ready for work by 6 o’clock. The ordinary working hours
will be from 6 o’clock in the morning till 2 o’clock in the afternoon, with half an
hour for lunch at 10. The bailiff may at his discretion add to the ordinary
working hours in seed time, for which the carters will receive 3d. per hour extra.
Carters will be required to groom their horses, and keep the harness in a work-
manlike manner. No carter will be allowed to work in his garden before 6 o’clock
in the afternoon. That if it be known or proven to the bailiff that any carter
has been guilty of neglecting his horses by not feeding them at the proper time,
or by abusing them in any way, or by making himself incapable of managing
them in a proper manner, such offence shall be considered a sufficient reason for
the immediate discharge of such carter, and will forfeit his right to all cottage
and garden privileges, and the amount of wages that may be due to him at the
time of such discharge. No regular hours will be kept in hay or harvest time.
Absence from work will in all cases be considered a sufficient reason for stopping
the day’s or days’ wages.”

Cows kept by
master for
labourers in
the north.

788 = 522

The Agricultural Labourer.

Ancient village
cottages not
generally
comparable
in accommoda-
tion to modern

Early career of
youths in
Yorkshire,

and of comfort. It cannot be expected, in villages where every
kind of property exists — from the hut of the squatter, filched
in days gone by from the road-side common, to the cheaply run-
up tenements of the speculator — that such a satisfactory state of
things should exist ; but powers have been lately conferred
upon the local authorities by certain Sanitary Acts of Parlia-
ment, which give them considerable control even over such
dwellings as these ; and in cases where cottages become, from
decay or any similar cause, unfit for habitation, they can be
closed. It is also the duty of such authorities to provide safe-
guards against contagion and disease, and against the nuisances
by which such disorders are propagated. Not only, therefore,
has the sanitary state of such villages become improved, but
habits of cleanliness have been enforced ; and if the condition
of their inhabitants will not compare with those I have above
described, it is at least improving and hopeful.

But, in order to make thoroughly plain the social condition of
the labourer, it is necessary to turn to him at a somewhat earlier
period than that when he becomes the occupier of a cottage, and
assumes the responsibility of a householder. In England, the
young farm-servant usually begins his career as a horseman, and
for this purpose he generally leaves home and lodges upon the
farm where he is employed. In some northern counties it is
the custom for the farm foreman, or bailiff, and his wife to take
charge of a number of these young men, and to cook and other-
wise provide for them, for which charge they are paid a certain
sum per head. At a typical Yorkshire farm described by Mr.
Jenkins, in the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society ’ for
1869, page 414, some particulars are given of the boarding, «Scc.,
of these lads, which may be interesting. It is there stated that
“ these lads, of whom there are seven at each farmstead, are
hired at Martinmas (Nov. 12), and are paid from 9/. to 18Z. each
per annum, according to their ability, length of service, &c., the
average payment being about 13Z. They live with the hind,
who is paid by the occupier of the farm 8s. 8d. per week each
for their board. The hinds’ cottages are designed specially
with a view to prevent the hind and his family suffering in-
convenience by so many young men living in the house ; and the
annexed plans” — which are reproduced in this report (Fig. 8)
— “ will show how admirably this has been arranged, the
portion devoted to the hind and his family being almost entirely
isolated from the living and sleeping rooms appropriated to
the lads. The ‘ men’s kitchen,’ it will be seen, contains a
staircase leading to the men’s bedroom, which is not accessible
from the main staircase ; it also contains a copper, and is in
direct connection with the washhouse and pantry.” In some

The Agricultural Labourer.

789 = 525

Fig. 8. — Plans of a Hind’s Cottage at Easlhurn, illustrating the
arrangement for Boarding Lads.

Ground B'loor.

790 = 524

The Agricultural Labourer.

and in Scot-
land.

parts of the same county it is not uncommon for these lads to
become inmates of the farmer’s own house, where they are
generally properly cared for. In other parts of the country,
where the villages are thickly scattered, they procure lodgings
wherever they are able. But in Scotland, a custom has for
some time been prevalent of providing separate accommodatior.
for all the unmarried workers upon the farm. This plan is
known as the “ Bothy system,” and has been a distinguishing
characteristic of Scotch agriculture. A kind of kitchen is pro-
vided in a convenient position for the work, and an old woman
is placed in charge, upon whom devolves the cookery, &c.
The beds are over the stables and cattle-sheds, and the ac-
commodation is altogether of a far inferior kind to that usual
in England. Mr. Jenkins has pointed out (in vol. vii., new
series, of the Royal Agricultural Society’s ‘ Journal,’ “ Report
on some Features of Scottish Agriculture ”) that needless blame
has been attached to this institution, which is really in itself
only a humble form of club ; but it is certain that the ill-repute
in which the system is held has induced many Scotch farmers
to change its name whilst retaining its general character. The
quarters, accordingly, where the young people congregate now-
a-days are generally designated as “ barracks ” and “ kitchens,”
a distinction, it must be confessed, without a great difference.
It is, however, not necessary to dwell upon these features of the
young ploughman’s life, and I pass on to other considerations
affecting his after-career.

CHAPTER IV.

Provident and other Societies.

From my remarks at the beginning of this Paper, I think it
will be understood that the English labourer has not yet learned
to save ; and, on the contrary, that the Scotch labourer is usually
a thrifty and frugal man.

I have entered somewhat fully into the causes which have
worked against the Englishman. A lax administration of the
Poor Law, and a habit on the part of the authorities of giving
out-door relief in cases where there was no justification for such
indulgence, have tended to weaken his self-reliance and his self-
respect. But other causes have also been at work to the same
effect, to some of which I must briefly allude.

Among the various efforts which have at different times been
made to improve the condition of the poor, a foremost place
must be assigned to “ Benefit Societies,” intended to afford relief

The Agricultural Labourer.

791=525

in sickness and a pittance sufficient to keep the subscriber from Benefit

the parish in old aare. These societies were established in g-reat Societies frc-
I ^ ^ o Qucntlv

numbers a generation or two ago ; but unfortunately, in too failures.

many cases, they were based upon a false foundation. A short
period of fictitious prosperity has been too often followed by a
sharp strain upon their resources (as the older members became
simultaneously entitled to some relief from their funds), which
has proved too much for their stability. It is little wonder if the
numerous examples which have occurred of the failure of these
Benefit Clubs should have damped the new-born desire of the
peasant to render himself independent.

It would far exceed the limits imposed on me to notice the
various difficulties which have arisen in the working of many of
these Benefit Societies. These are matters which the wisest
heads in English country affairs have long occupied themselves
upon, and with some success ; but it may be very briefly stated
that the administration of the Poor Law, which to a great extent
devolves upon the guardians of each Union separately, has been
unfavourable to the development of such societies.

It is extremely difficult to teach a man provident habits when Weakness of
he sees the careless and thriftless equally considered with
himself by the authorities deputed to administer the public
funds. In too many cases the small sum which the scraped-
together savings of youth or middle life have provided, by con-
tributions to the Benefit Club, for the support of old age, are
equalled or exceeded in amount by the sum which the guardians
unreflectingly allot for the out-door relief of some imprudent
fellow who has never made the effort to save, though his means
and circumstances may have been identical with those of his
more careful neighbour.

But notwithstanding the fate of too many of these societies
and the difficulties against which they have struggled, it is
pleasing to know that many of them have been instrumental of
much good in rural districts. In one case the temptation of a
garden allotment of half an acre at a very moderate rent, made
by the owner of the parish, has attached the entire labouring
population of the village to the Club, which gives in addition
all the ordinary advantages of such institutions. But the Paro-
chial Clubs have rarely been so successful as this. The larger
County Societies, managed upon a sufficient scale by competent
directors, and with an influential list of patrons and subscribers,
have been found upon the whole far superior to the smaller
clubs. I do not think it necessary to instance any societies in
particular, because most of them are to a great extent supported
by classes other than the farm-labourers, but I give about the
usual rate of contribution which is sufficient in some of the best

Id2=526

The Agricultural Labourer.

of these larger clubs to secure a decent sum in sickness and in
Scale ef fees of old age. A payment of about Is. 8c?. a month, in the case of a
man joining at twenty-five years of age, will generally secure
a sum of 10s. a week in case of sickness or bodily injury, and
8Z. paid at death for burial expenses. For the additional
sum of lOcZ. a month (making 2s. 6<Z. in all) he could, in addi-
tion to this, obtain old-age pay of 5s. a Aveek, commencing at
seventy.

It is, however, useless to deny that the great benefits, afforded
by such societies as these, are, as a rule, neglected by farm-
labourers, who too frequently prefer (in view of the monthly
meetings and carousals connected with such places) either to
loin the badly-organised Public-house Clubs, which have

the favourites i i • V • ... , r i

of the la- brought such discredit on these institutions, or have refused to

bourers. attach themselves to any Benefit Society or to make any similar
effort to free themselves in sickness and old age from the refuge
of the poor-rate ; and I am afraid I must add that much of the
blame for this state of things rests upon the local mismanage-
ment of the public funds which makes possible such anomalies
as I have described. The rising generation, then, is for the
most part growing up without much attempt to provide for its
future ; but the large support accorded by agricultural labourers,
in days when their earnings were very much less than at present,
to hundreds of the more worthless of these societies, proves
that this is due more to want of will and lack of encourage-
ment to provide for their own future, than to absolute deficiency
of resources ; and it has now become necessary to devise some
more secure means whereby habits of economy and independence
may be encouraged.

Savings-banks seem to afford some hope of success in this
direction, and this means of providing against a rainy day is
fast growing in favour with the working classes at large, as
is proved by the vast increase in the amount invested at the
present time compared with that of a few years since ;* but
practically it is found that with the majority of farm-workers,
unless a thing of this kind is brought home to their doors
and its benefits thrust upon them by some zealous friend,
it remains, so far as they are concerned, a dead letter. It
is true that the clergy of various parishes and other friendly
workers among the poor have, in some cases, succeeded in
inculcating in early childhood habits of providence and fore-
thought ; but these are rare exceptions. Some excuse may have
been afforded by the past low rates of wages ; but if (as is the

* lu 1863 the Post-Office Savings-bank had 3,131,535?. invested. In 1875
this sum had risen to 23,740,389?. ; and the other Englisli Savings-banks had at
the latter date 42,400,000?.

good Benefit
Clubs.

Old Public-
house Clubs

The Agricultural Labourer.

l^h = 527

case) the unmarried ploughman of eastern or central England
can now take at the end of his yearly term as much as 16f.,
having drawn weekly wages sufficient for his maintenance
during the whole year, surely such a man can and ought to save
something out of these ample earnings.

The advantage of the Savings-bank over the Benefit Society
is obvious. Not only can the labourer choose with the former
his own time for the investment of his spare funds, but also,
under the Post-office system, he can draw his balance, when
required, in any part of the United Kingdom. On the other
hand, the Benefit Society, by the regularity of its levies, offers a
greater incentive to continued carefulness.

But here, again, the hateful Poor Law steps between the man
and his duty. With money in the Savings-bank he cannot, of
course, claim relief from the rate. Therefore so long as, owing
to an unwise and unjust administration of that law, he sees
others around him who, notwithstanding their improvidence,
are allowed to obtain out-door relief at their own homes on easy
terms, I am afraid it is hopeless to endeavour to inculcate the
doctrines of economy and providence.

I will just allude very briefly to some of the other attempts
which have successfully been made to improve the labourers’
condition. Clothing Clubs, Allotment Clubs, Village Clubs,
with reading-rooms and other means of social entertainment, and
Burial Clubs have all been more or less tried, and have all been
found in some degree useful. The object of Clothing Clubs is, by
the collection of small sums of money from the labourer’s wife, and
the addition thereto of subscriptions from charitable neighbours,
to form a small fund for the supply of warm clothing on the
approach of winter. This is generally provided at wholesale
prices from the tradesman who furnishes it. An odd shilling or
two, scraped together here and there, and sent by the children
to the Sunday-school, or collected by some good Samaritan of
the district in her rounds among the poor, secures the advantages
of this useful but unpretending institution.

The Village Club is generally promoted partly with a social
and partly an educational object. It is intended to wean the
labourer from the temptations of the public-house, and also to
afford him rational amusement and opportunities of reading.
A night-school, for those whose education has been neglected,
is often held in connection with this institution during the long
winter evenings.

The Burial Club affords the labourer the opportunity of
securing for himself and the other members of his family
the performance of the last ceremonies with decency and
decorum.

Other means
of saving com-
jmred with
Benefit Clubs.

Useful Country
Clubs.

bounty Shows
and Ploughing
Matches bene-
ficial.

Education
until recently
optional.

794 = 525 The Agricultural Labourer.

Moreover, I must not omit to notice that, in the actual daily
work of the labourer, he is not left without some incentives to
excel. Ploughing-matches are common in most counties, and
are generally held under the direction of the local Agricultural
Societies, which abound. For draining, for hedging, for ditch-
ing, for stacking and thatching ricks of corn, appropriate prizes
are also commonly offered ; and these trials of skill are looked
forward to with anxious interest by the competitors. It is no
uncommon thing on these occasions for one man to take prizes
in two or three different classes of work, and the same individual
is sometimes declared the winner of the ploughing, the stacking,
the thatching, and the hedging prizes. Shows of cottage-garden
produce are also frequently held at the same time, and the emu-
lation and interest which they excite are the surest signs of the
attraction and pleasure which a good garden offers to its pos-
sessor. Perhaps, also, I should not neglect to remark that
prizes are frequently offered by these Agricultural Societies for
length of service under one master.

CHAPTEE V.

Education.

If I now turn from these considerations, which all affect more
or less the material welfare of the labourer, to the subject of his
education, which is equally important, I am glad that in this
matter also there is a progress to report which bids fair, at the
present time, to keep pace with his worldly prosperity. It is true
that hitherto the latter has been outgrowing his mental culture ;
but the education movement in England has lately been so rapid,
that there is every hope of his children growing up with a satis-
factory amount of elementary teaching. The better paid northern
labourer has long recognised the value of education for his chil-
dren ; but the poorer southerner, who could ill afford to spare the
addition which their labour brought to his own scanty earnings,
was content, perhaps, to let them “ shift for themselves ” as he
had done, and take their chance of picking up a little learning at
the Sunday or the night-school, instead of undergoing a regular
course of instruction. If the national system of education in
England has hitherto been voluntary, so also has it been optional
with the poor man whether his children should be taught or
not.

All this, however, is altered now. Among domestic subjects.

Tlie Agricultural Labourer.

795 = 529

few of recent years have engaged the attention of our statesmen
more than that of Education ; and the recent Acts of Parliament
having provided school accommodation in every part of the
country, an indirect system of compulsion has been set on foot,
which virtually compels every labouring man’s child to become
for the greater part of the year a regular attendant at the Board
or National School. By obliging children under a certain age Now virtually
to exhibit a certificate showing either a definite standard of compulsory,
efficiency or a certain number of attendances before they can
obtain employment, direct compulsion is avoided, but a pressure
is put upon parents, which they can scarcely resist, of obtaining
for their children a sufficient degree of education to enable
them, at an early age, to contribute their mite to “ keep the pot
boiling.” The necessary subjects taught in Board Schools at
the present day comprise reading from standard lesson books,
writing, including dictation, and arithmetic ; but a large number
of extra subjects are also included usually in the course of
instruction. History, geography, English grammar, vocal Subjects of
music, drill, and drawing, are all subjects which are more or education,
less taught, according to the efficiency of the teachers and the
aptness of the pupils. It is scarcely necessary to observe, how-
ever, that few farm-labourers’ children (whose labour is gene-
rally absolutely necessary for as much of the year as possible
for their own bodily well-being) attain to any great efficiency
in these higher branches of instruction ; but the day has gone
by when the stigma of ignorance in the fundamental principles
of elementary instruction need rest on any labouring man’s
child.

The school fees payable at Board or National schools for the School fees,
full course of instruction are generally about 2d. a week in
the case of the elder children, and Id. each for the younger
ones ; and even these can be remitted, in cases of absolute
necessity, by the School Board or the Guardians of the Poor.

The usual hours of schooling are from 9 A.M. to 12 noon, and
from 2 to 4.30 P.M. on every day of the week except Saturday
and Sunday. There are holidays of a fortnight at Christmas,
and of a month or more at harvest. The number of attend-
ances necessary to qualify a child for agricultural employment
is 250, which are generally filled up in the autumn or winter
months, so as to enable him to assist his parents by his labour
in the spring and summer. As two attendances can be made in
each day, about half the year must necessarily be occupied with
school work, except in the somewhat rare event of the child
becoming entitled by previous examination to a dispensation of
this rule. After the present year (1877) no child can go to

Vastness of
the change.

Daily life of
the labourer.

796 = 550 The Agricultural Labourer.

work under ten years of age under any circumstances, and
somewhat stricter rules as to proficiency and attendance will be
enforced.

Fenced in by such regulations as these, it is certain that a new
era has commenced in the education of the farm-labourers’
children. The step has been a prodigious one, and the sudden-
ness of its operation has entailed considerable hardship on
parent and employer ; but there can be no question of the ulti-
mate benefit to all classes from the movement, nor of the import-
ance of its issues to the nation at large.

The system of working children in “ gangs,” or large parties
superintended by an overlooker, was some time ago put under
close and stringent regulations, and (as far as children employed
in agriculture are concerned) the Education Acts just mentioned
seem to complete the legislation necessary for their protection
and instruction.

CHAPTER VI.

Early Life, Daily Work and Recreation, etc.

Let us now see what the daily life of a midland or southern
labourer is like in England, and I will begin with him at a very
early age. My “type” was born before the date of universal
schooling. At eight or nine years old he was presented to his
master by his father, as an eligible candidate for office of “ bird
tender,” or scarer, and in this interesting pursuit he passed a
considerable portion of his time, until he became old enough
and big enough to drive, and subsequently to hold a plough.
Not altogether unprofitable were these lonely periods to our
young acquaintance. The schoolmaster, indeed, in vain asked
after his recent charge ; but Tom, who was not deficient in
natural wit, was learning lessons out of a larger volume than the
spelling-book — the book of nature. He examined the seed in
the land, to see if it had properly germinated. He found his
way frequently and surreptitiously to “ Bill ” on the next farm,
and compared notes (and knuckle-bones) with that young gen-
tleman. He learned the name of every horse upon the farm,
and their ages and capabilities for work were matters of mys-
terious knowledge and criticism to him. The other animals
also claimed a share in his attentions, and the wild creatures of
the air and field had their habits noted in his memory. He
knew where the great carrion-crow built her nest, and where the
haunts of the owl and jackdaw were. The hare did not make

The Agricultural Labourer.

797 = 531

her form without his remark, and his cunning eye could detect
her as she lay therein at a distance which would baffle far more
practised persons. In these early years his sole chance of book-
lore lay in the influence of the night and Sunday schools ;
but he was not much pressed on this matter, and he became
decidedly more qualified for the post of ploughman than of
clerk.

Promotion came in time, and the first great object of his
ambition was gratified when he held the plough and obtained
command over the much-enduring horses. At twenty years of
age, being a decent ploughman and a strong lad, he got a
situation as horse-keeper or carter, and was now in receipt of
ample wages, and with a fair prospect before him. But one
fine day he found himself wending his way to church, dressed in
his best, and with a somewhat smart-looking damsel, a little
younger than himself, by his side. A home has been promptly
taken ; a table, a bed, and a couple of chairs thrust therein ; and
now behold him in his new capacity as a married man ! From
this time his daily life is somewhat as follows : — He rises early,
makes the fire, and prepares his simple breakfast, consisting
of a cup or two of hot tea, and some hot toast or bread with
butter or dripping. Shortly after 6 A.M. he sallies forth, being
generally expected to be at his work at 6.30. The basket
which he carries with him, and which contains his provision
for the day, includes a loaf of white bread ; a piece of bacon
or beef, more or less substantial, according to his means ; a bit
of cheese or butter ; and a bottle containing cold tea or coffee.
(I have previously remarked that in the cider counties of Eng-
land an allowance of about two quarts a day of that beverage is
generally made to each man the year through. The custom,
however, is gradually diminishing, and a money payment taking
the place of the allowance.) The garden, also, always furnishes
him with some relish. In winter two or three onions and some
potatoes, in summer a lettuce or two, or some broad beans or
peas, are placed beside his other provisions, and the whole is
neatly covered with a white cloth. The bread in question is, of
course, the staple food with him, and a word or two must be
said about it. It is always wheaten bread, and of the whitest
colour and the finest quality which it is possible to procure from
the baker. In nothing is an English labourer’s wife more par-
ticular than the colour and quality of the bread which she buys.
No admixture of meal is tolerated, and it is generally eaten
when one or two days old. “ The better the bread ” (f. e. in
whiteness and fineness) “the further it goes,” is with her a
maxim of daily life. An experience so extensive as that which

798 = 552

The Agricultural Labourer.

Evening rest.

she possesses on this point might command some attention, were
it not stamped as fallacious by the example of many other nations,
and by the researches of the medical profession. As he marches
to his work, let us look at him personally and see what he is
like. He is of middle size ; perhaps between 5 feet 6 inches
and 5 feet 10 inches in height ; somewhat spare in figure, but
compact in build, and bearing the healthy appearance common
in the country. He walks with a slow gait, as if it were against
his principles and contrary to his life-long practice to hurry.
In person he is clean, and at the beginning of the week
presents a smooth-shaven chin and upper lip, which towards the
end of the week gives way to a somewhat rough and grizzly
aspect. His trousers are of corduroy or fustian, and his coat
of the same material, or he wears knee-breeches and gaiters of
stout leather ; a loose cotton handkerchief tied lightly round his
neck ; a slouch hat protecting his head and face from the sun
and air, and a pair of very thick boots, the soles studded with
nails, complete his attire.

Having received the necessary orders for his work from the
farmer or bailiff, he soon makes his way to the scene of action.
His first stoppage is at 9 o’clock, when he begins the attack upon
the contents of his basket. At noon he has no difficulty in
finishing these ; and an hour’s rest now allows him time for the
extra indulgence of a pipe of strong tobacco. If no smoker, in
summer a short nap under a shady tree, or on some soft straw,
fills up his mid-day rest, and at 5.30, with many a preliminary
glance at his watch, he leaves his work for the day.

The necessary attention to the pig, and a short period ot
more congenial labour in his own garden, for which he has
naturally reserved some of his forces, fill up the interval till
supper is ready, when he is called in by his wife to partake
of the one real family meal of the day. His children are now
gathered round the board after their day’s schooling or work,
and supper consists of an ample supply of pudding for these
younger members of the family, a piece of bacon, or a savoury
pudding of chopped meat flavoured with sage and onions, a
large dish of potatoes, and such other vegetables as the garden
affords. The children get some sugar, or treacle, or dripping
with their pudding, but not a very large supply of meat can be
afforded them.

The fare is simple, but the healthy exercise and pure air en-
joyed during the day enable him to bring to it an appetite which
the rich man, with his dainty cates, might often envy. After
supper he takes, if it be summer, another spell of work in his
garden, or has a gossip with a neighbour. In winter he perhaps

The Agricultural Labourer.

799 = 533

gets one of his children to spell out for him some portion of the
well-thumbed local newspaper, which now enters almost every
cottage ; and then retires to such slumbers as only one with few
cares and a healthily exercised frame is able to enjoy.

But occasionally (and no wonder) the monotony of this simple
existence palls upon him, and he joins a neighbour and walks
down to the public-house. In winter the bright fire there, the
more ample space and the presence of company, are especially
j apt to attract him, and the extra indulgence of a glass or two
of somewhat “ heady ” beer is not unlikely to produce an ex-
I citement followed by absolute intoxication. But this is a rare
event. The Licensing Acts close the doors of his resort upon
him at an early hour, and the evening saturnalia, of which the
village public-houses were formerly the scene, have given way
to more moderate expressions of good fellowship and more sober
enjoyment.

So the year runs its course. In winter his hours of work are
shortened, but his wages remain the same. In hay-time he is
later at night, rarely reaching home before 8 o’clock ; and in
, harvest he husbands all his powers for the important task of
I making up his arrears of rent and paying his tradesmen’s bills.

His hours of work are of course now considerably lengthened ;
the quality and kind of his food are improved, and he allows
1 himself, or is allowed by the farmer, from 6 to 8 pints of
tolerably strong beer a day. Shortly after harvest he pays his
landlord, his baker, his shoemaker, and any other tradesmen
: who may happen to be his creditors, and starts afresh upon

i another year with a clean pocket, but a light heart, if his
I earnings have but enabled him to settle these accounts and to
get a few necessary articles of clothing besides.

His holidays are not numerous. The village feast or fair, or Sundays and
the Harvest-home entertainment, are the occasions of almost the holidays,
sole break in the routine of work. In comparing his lot, how-
ever, with the Continental peasant, it must not be forgotten that
every seventh day in the year is with him a day of entire rest,
il and that only the absolutely necessary work in connection with
||( the live-stock of the farm is ever performed on that day, and that
( by men specially hired and paid for the purpose. On Sundays
t he appears at church or chapel dressed in broadcloth, and with
a very gorgeous waistcoat faced with crimson plush and orna-
mented with countless buttons ; or he makes his holiday the
opportunity of a visit to a child in service or a far-distant
relative or friend ; or, more often still, he “ takes it out ” in
thorough rest, in summer lounging or lying under a shady tree,
and in winter stirring a very short distance beyond his cottage
VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 H

800 = 55-/

The Agricultural Labourer.

Gradual dimi-
nution of
household.

Celibacy very
uncommon in
the class.

door, and either reading his Bible, or gathering from the news-
papers, as well as his education will allow him, the news of the
neighbourhood.

At the age of thirteen or fourteen (or even younger) his girls-
procure situations as domestic servants, for which the demand
in England far exceeds the supply. He is thus early relieved
of all charges as regards them. His boys remain with him
somewhat longer, but at about seventeen or eighteen they also-
leave the parent nest and seek their own livelihood. When
once his family has flown, being still in the prime of middle
life, a period of comparative comfort ensues, and, beyond the
ordinary aches and pains of humanity, he has few cares to-
trouble him. His health (unless for a touch of rheumatism) is
generally excellent. The guardians are somewhat indulgent to
him as a steady fellow who has brought up a family and, so far,,
done his duty to his country ; and when old age creeps upon
him it finds him still a hale and hearty man, and able, even at
seventy summers, to earn a living equal to his few and simple
wants. Frequent visits are now paid him by the clergyman
of his parish, and the squire and his lady are not unmindful of
the dispensation of those creature comforts Avhich mitigate the
ills of old age. If he can possibly manage it, he now contrives
to put a trifle by for the decent performance of the last offices
connected with his earthly career ; but if this is impracticable,
it does not give him much concern that the parish will be
called upon to pay a portion of these expenses. His wages
have not been excessive, and if his old employers have once
more to put their hands in their pockets on his account, it is
only a just fulfilment of his final dues, so, not without a touch
of sardonic philosophy, he passes away.

If this is not an entirely enviable lot, it is at least wholesome in
its simplicity, and free from the many temptations of the large
town. The opportunity for saving to any extent, however,
offered by the larger wages of the artisan of the town does not
occur to him. The time for that passed with him when he com-
mitted himself to the matrimonial state. The English labourer
nearly always lacks the self-restraint of celibacy. At a very
precocious age his thoughts begin to hover upon the subject of
marriage, and he seldom allows more than three- or four-and-
twenty summers to pass over his head before he takes the step of
matrimony. Such improvidence is often dearly paid for in after-
life, but the idea that, come what may, “ the land has got to
support him” is so deeply engrained in his nature, that pru-
dential considerations such as influence other classes scarcely
raise even a flutter in his breast.

The Agricultural Labourer.

801=535

I have selected a very ordinary type for my specimen. I
have only sketched the daily life of a fairly industrious, honest,
sober, and steady fellow. I could instead have depicted the
careful and saving man, who did not marry until he and his
partner had a good round sum in the savings-bank, and who by
middle age had succeeded in making himself the farmer and
master instead of the servant ; or, on the other hand, I could have
drawn the idle, obstinate, disobedient, and drunken scamp,
whose certain end, when not the gaol, is the workhouse, where
he becomes by his frequent visits the hete noire of the guardians
and a constant burden on the funds of the ratepayer. However,
it is not worth while to trace the downward career of such a
one, which may be easily imagined.

I have attempted in these pages to give a fair and unbiassed
account of the English labourer, a class with whom I have been
largely engaged, and of whom I can therefore lay claim to some
knowledge. I have not concealed the defects in his character,
nor the causes which have conduced to foster those defects. The
lax administration of the Poor Law is, I believe, at the root of
half the ills suffered by the poor man ; and until the labourers
of England, now in receipt of ample wages, learn the virtues of
prudence and economy, of self-restraint and self-reliance — until,
in a word, they copy (in these matters) the example of other Thrift little
nations than our own, and until they feel that it is a shameful pracTised°*as a
thing that people, in many cases more needy than themselves, iule. ’
should be taxed for their improvidence and recklessness — it is,

I fear, hopeless to look for their further advance.

Among social problems of the present day, few are of greater
importance perhaps to Englishmen than those which concern the
well-being of the working classes of their country. Much may be
done to open their eyes to the advantage of prudence and fore-
thought, and to help them to exercise these too much neglected
qualities ; but the day has now come when the labourer, if he^ is
to rise in the social scale, must look mainly to himself. If in
the dark days of the past the laws seemed against him, it is
no longer so. He is a free man, free from conscription, or com- Advantages
pulsory service in the army, and the equal of those about him. la^ourl-^in th^e
Legislation has done its best for him and his children. He is present day
at liberty to move wherever he can get the best return for his compared with
labour. He is practically the only untaxed man in the com-
munity, since (except in the article of tea, on which a small
duty is still paid) he can if he chooses, by abstinence from those
articles, avoid the imposts on beer, spirits, and tobacco. An
admirable and, practically, free education is granted to his

3 H 2

802 = 556’

The Agricultural Labourer.

children. It only needs the inculcation and exercise of those
ordinary virtues which seem the attributes of other races more
than of the English people, and which I have insisted upon, I
fear with some iteration, to insure his continued growth in
weight and influence, and to procure him in the future a position
not inferior in all the material accompaniments of civilisation
to that of the tillers of the ground in any country upon the face
of the earth.

IX.

THE INFLUENCE OF

CHEMICAL DISCOVERIES

ox THE

PEOGKESS OF ENGLISH AGRICULTUKE.

DR. AUaUSTUS YOELCKER, F.R.S.,

CONSULTING CHEMIST TO THE SOCIETY.

( 805 = 535 )

CONTENTS.

INTKODUCTION.

Influence of Scientific Researches — Discrimination between Theoretical Specu-
lations and Scientific Facts — Value of Rothamsted Field Experiments

Pages 541-542

CHAPTEE I.— ne Soil

Use of a knowledge of the Chemical Composition of the Soil — Analyses do not
always show its Agricultural capabilities — Absorbent Power of Soils —
Variableness of their retentive Powers — Absorption of Ammonia — Effect of
Rain on Top-dressings of Ammoniacal Manures — Best time to apply Arti-
ficials— Use of Lime and Marl — Value of Lime in poor sandy Soils —
Influence of Lime upon Manures containing Soluble Phosphates — Beneficial
results of Bone-dust to Root Crops on Light Land — Closer approach of
Practice and Science, in consequence of wider diffusion of Chemical
Knowledge — Questions often answered by the Analyses of Soils — Influence
of Experiments on Modern Cultivation — Permanent fertility raised by
■constant Manurings .. .. .. .. Pages 542-550

CHAPTEE II. — Continuous Cropping.

Experiments on Continuous'Cropping — Tabular Statement of Results — Effect
of different Manures — Modifications in Cropping by using Artificials — Con-
tinuous Corn-growing by Mr. Prout — Composition of the Soils of his Farm
— Cost of his Farm — Steam Cultivation — Annual Expenditure — How Arti-
ficial Manures are applied — Results of sales of Crops — Corn Crops grown —
Return per Acre — Land improved in Value Pages 550-556

CHAPTEE 111.— Manures.

Improvements in Land Cultivation — Powers of Nitrogen — Sources of Nitrogen
in Vegetation from the Atmosphere — Non-ability of Plants to assimilate
free Nitrogen from the Air — Proportion of Nitrogen unrecoverable— Carried
away by Drainage — Results of investigation into composition of Waters of
Land-drainage — -Farmyard Manure when best applied — Artificials— Nitrate
of Soda only retained in Land one Season — Increase in the use of Artificials
— Magnitude of the English Manufacture — Raw Materials used — Phosphatic
Materials — Nitrogenous Manures — Saline Alkaline Materials — Uses of |
Manures for Corn — For Roots — Disposal of Town Sewage — Effect of Soil

806 = 540

Contents.

and Air — Soluble Manuring constituents of dilute Sewage not concentrated
in the Land by IiTigation — Proved by Analysis — Failure to purify by
Chemical Agents— Means of purifying Sewage— Clay Soils unfit for Irri-
gation— Crude Sulphate of Alumina best precipitating agent — Disposal of
Town Sewage Pages 556-568

CHAPTER IV. — Improvement of Permanent Pastures.

Recent attention to the subject— Experiments at Eothamsted— Effects on the
Herbage — Results of the Experiments — Farmyard Dung best

Pages 568-570

CHAPTER V. — Feeding and Rearing of Stock.

Early Maturity — Value of Chemistry — Linseed-cake — Earth-nut-cake —
Cotton-cake — Cocoanut-cake — Locust-beans — Rice Meal — Durra Grain —
Cereals — Rearing and Fattening Stock — Experiments — Proportion of Nitro-
gen in the Food recovered in Manure — Estimated Manure-value of Foods
— Money-value — Mr. Lawes’s Table — Probable losses in Practice

Pages 570-577

CHAPTER VI. — Industries Attacked to the Farm.

English Farmers strictly Agricultural — Beet-root Sugar — Distillation of Spirits
— Influence of Manure — Climate favourable to growth of Beet-root — Selling
Beet-roots unprofitable to English Farmers — Cheese Factories — Cheddar
Plan — Aylesbury Dairy Comimny — Condensed Milk Manufacture

Pages 577-580

CHAPTER VII. — Experimental Stations.

English Experimental Stations — Scotch — Mr, Lawes’s^ Experimental Station
— Experiments on Vegetation — Rainfall — Drain-gauges — Experiments on
Animals — Application of Town Sewage — Woburn Experiments — Particulars
of Experimental Lands — Plan of the Field Experiments — Subdivision of
Plots — Rotation Experiments — Feeding-experiments — Rotation adopted

Pages 581-588

( SOI = 541 )

THE INFLUENCE OF CHEMICAL DISCO YEIHES

ON THE

PROGRESS OF ENGLISH AGRICULTURE.

INTEODUCTION.

In reviewing the progress of English Agriculture since 1860, one Influence of
must be struck with the powerful influence Avhich the dissemi- scientific ve-
nation of sound scientific principles, the results of numerous
chemico-agricultural researches, has exerted upon the various
branches of practical agriculture.

The improvements connected with cultivation and farm
management are both numerous and important, but they chiefly
spring from one source, which in itself is the most characteristic
feature of the last thirty or thirty-flA^e years, and which, in the
language of the late Sir Harry Stephen Thompson, may be
described as the substitution of sound reasoning and arithmetical
calculation for the empirical knowledge relied upon by our
ancestors.

Englishmen enjoy the reputation of possessing a keen appre- Discrimination
ciation of those discoveries in science and art, the application of between theo-
which is likely to be useful in practice. It is not surprising, i^tlons
therefore, that Chemistry, a branch of science which has rendered scientific facts .
many valuable services to almost all industrial pursuits, should
in England have exerted a more direct and powerful influence on
the cultivation of the soil, the rearing and fattening of stock, and
upon farm management generally, than in most other countries.

It cannot be said that British agriculturists, as a class, are more
highly educated, or more intimately acquainted with the results
and teachings of those scientific investigations which have a
more or less direct connection with agricultural practice, than
Continental agriculturists occupying an analogous position in
social life. The reverse, probably, is the case ; and this is
generally felt to be so by English farmers themselves, who, if at
all inclined to take credit to themselves, boast of their practical
skill and experience, and certainly not of their scientific know-
ledge. Nevertheless, British agriculturists, as a rule, are keen

SOS = 542

Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

Value of Roth-
amsted field
experiments.

to discriminate between purely theoretical speculations and
carefully ascertained scientific facts ; quick to appreciate the
value of scientific inquiries, the results of which are likely to
find application in agriculture ; and ready at once to carry
into practice those suggestions of the man of science which
promise to lead to practically useful results.

The applications of chemistry to the cultivation of the soil,
cropping, rearing and fattening of stock, and general farm
practice, are so numerous, that, without exceeding the limits of
a necessarily concise report, it is impossible to give anything
like a full account, even in outline only, of the labours of
English agricultural chemists in connection with the progress
of agriculture since 1860.

The reader has only to refer to the volumes of the Royal
Agricultural Society’s ‘Journal’ published since 1860, in order
to perceive how utterly impossible it is to condense with utility
into a brief report the most prominent results embodied in the
contributions to its pages by agricultural chemists. Messrs.
Lawes and Gilbert’s papers in the Society’s ‘ Journal ’ from
1860 to 1876, giving accounts of their laborious scientific
labours, and long-continued highly important field experiments,
alone occupy the space of several goodly volumes, and there is
not one of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert’s invaluable contributions
to scientific agriculture which has not had a more or less direct
influence upon the progress of British agriculture. For the
information of French agriculturists who may not have seen
M. Ronna’s work, it may be stated, in passing, that this gentle-
man has lately published in French, in one large volume,
an admirable account of the Rothamsted chemico-agricultural
researches.

Instead of a dry and systematic account of the progress of
chemistry in its application to agricultural practice since 1860,
I will endeavour to illustrate by some examples in what way
the application of chemical knowledge to the cultivation of
the land, systems of cropping, the fattening of stock, and the
industries connected with some farms, has borne good fruits in
England since 1860.

CHAPTER I.

The Soil.

Beginning with the soil, it may be observed that although our
knowledge of the inherent agricultural capabilities of different
classes of soils is still very far from being perfect, the researches
of chemists since 1860 have brought to light important facts,
which have led to improvements in the cultivation of the land.

the Progress of English Agriculture. 809 = 543

A knowledge of the chemical composition of the soil upon Use of a k-now-
Avhich it is desired to raise certain crops, and of those soil- l^dge ot^thc
constituents which are essential to their very existence and position of the
perfect development, is obviously useful to the farmer, for it will soil,
show him, for instance, in a direct and ready manner, whether
the land is deficient in lime, and would be improved by marling
or liming.

At one time both farmers and chemists thought analyses
would solve all the difficulties which practical men meet in
cultivating soils of low fertility, the occupier of which ex-
periences much disappointment by his frequent failure to raise
remunerative crops upon them.

Further experience, however, has proved that in many cases Analyses do not
mere numerical analytical results are not calculated to assist the always show its
farmer in improving his land, or to inform him of the cause capabilities,
of non-success in growing certain crops — why, for instance, he
cannot grow clover on some soils. There are many apparently
similar soils — that is to say, soils in which analysis shows like
quantities of the same constituents — such as potash, soda, lime,
magnesia, phosphoric, sulphuric, and silicic acids — and in which,
notwithstanding, the same kind of manure produces a good result
in one case and an unfavourable one in another. This plainly
shows that the analysis of soils, as usually performed by chemists,
does not afford in all cases a sufficient guide to an estimate of
their agricultural capabilities, nor to point out the kind of
manure which is particularly well adapted for the special crops
intended to be grown. Even the detailed analysis of a soil
usually gives only the proportions of its different constituents,
and generally without reference to the states of combination in
which they exist in the soil ; and it is altogether silent on the
property possessed by all soils in a higher or lower degree, of
effecting striking and important changes in the manures which
are incorporated with the land. Analyses of soils, therefore,
it must be confessed, are often disappointing in their practical
bearings. However, the obvious insufficiency of bare analytical
figures to afford satisfactory answers to the questions which
agriculturists put to agricultural chemists have had the effect
of stimulating further scientific inquiries into the mysteries of
soils, and these inquiries have not been without success. Just
in proportion as our scientific knowledge of the properties of
soils has been increased, the practical utility of these investi-
gations has been enlarged.

The discovery by the late Sir H. S. Thompson of the Absorbent
absorbent power of soils (or the power possessed by a soil to
decompose and retain for the sustenance of plants the am-
moniacal and other salts which form the most valuable con-

810 = 544 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

stltuents of manure), and the highly important investigations
of Professor Way on this subject, have had a direct and bene-
ficial influence on practical agriculture, more especially in rela-
tion to the rational treatment and the application of farm-yard
manure, and the economical application of artificial manures.

Professor Way’s painstaking and highly valuable investigations
have shown that manuring matters in contact with soils undergo
remarkable changes, and fully justify the statement that plants
do not take up mineral food in the simple state of solution in
which we add it to the soil in the shape of manure, but in totally
different states of combination. The publication of Professor
Way’s researches on the absorbing properties of soils has given a
new direction to the chemical investigations of soils, and this field
of inquiry has been successfully cultivated on the Continent,
especially in Germany, by Liebig, Knop, Henneberg, Stohman,
Brustlein, Peters, and other chemists. In England, investi-
gations on the same subject have been made by Mr. Warington
and by myself. The results of my investigations are recorded in
the pages of the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society ’ in
a series of papers “ On the Chemical Properties of Soils “ On
the Absorption of Potash and its Salts by soils of known com-
position “ On the functions of Soda-salts in Agriculture
and “ On the absorption of Soluble Phosphate of Lime ; and
Phosphatic Manures for Root Crops.”

Variableness of These several investigations have shown that the property of
their retentive absorbing, retaining, and modifying: the composition of manures

DOWOl’S. ^ ^

belongs to every soil, and that some soils possess this power in
a much higher degree than others. They have much increased
our knowledge of the inherent capacity of soils to work up, so
to speak, the crude fertilising matters into new combinations ; to
allow the free percolation of other — it may be less needful —
substances ; and to provide for a constant supply of food which
is neither so soluble as to injure the growing plant, nor so
insoluble as to remain inactive. It is therefore reasonable to
connect in a great measure tbe agricultural capabilities of soils
with their power of retaining certain fertilising matters with
avidity, and of modifying others in a most interesting and, until
recently, unexpected manner.

Absorption of Respecting the absorption of ammonia and its salts by various
ammonia. soils, the following points taken from the summary appended to
my paper “ On the Chemical Properties of Soils,” published in
June 1860, in the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’
well show the bearing of these researches on the application of
manures.

1. All soils experimented upon had the power of absorbing
ammonia from its solution in water.

the Progress of English Agriculture. 811 = 545

2. Ammonia is never completely removed from its solution,
however weak it may be. On passing a solution of ammonia,
whether weak or strong, through any kind of soil, a certain
quantity of ammonia invariably passes through. No soil has the
power of fixing completely the ammonia with which it is brought
into contact.

3. The absolute quantity of ammonia which is absorbed by a
soil is larger when a stronger solution of ammonia is passed
through it, but, relatively, weaker solutions are more thoroughly
exhausted than stronger ones.

4. A soil which has absorbed as much ammonia as it will from
a weak solution, takes up a fresh quantity of ammonia when it
is brought into contact with a stronger solution.

5. In passing solutions of salts of ammonia through soils, the
ammonia alone is absorbed, and the acids pass through, generally
in combination with lime, or, when lime is deficient in the soil,
in combination with magnesia or other mineral bases.

6. Soils absorb more ammonia from stronger than from weaker
solutions of sulphate of ammonia, as of other ammonia-salts.

7. In no instance is the ammonia absorbed by soils from
solutions of free ammonia, or from salts of ammonia, so com-
pletely or permanently fixed as to prevent water from washing
out appreciable quantities of ammonia.

8. The proportion of ammonia which is removed in the several
washings is small in proportion to that retained by the soil.

9. The power of soils to absorb ammonia from solutions of
free or combined ammonia is thus greater than the power of
water to redissolve it.

It follows, from these observations, that in ordinary seasons no
fear need be entertained that heavy showers of rain will remove
much ammonia from ammoniacal top-dressings, such as sulphate
of ammonia, soot, Peruvian guano, and similar manures, which
are much used in England for top-dressing wheat, barley, and
oats ; but in very rainy seasons, in districts which have a large
rainfall, considerable quantities of ammonia may be removed
from land top-dressed with ammoniacal manures, even in the
case of stiff clay soils. Similar investigations have shown that
nitrate of soda is not absorbed by soils, but readily passes in
solution into the subsoil, and when it is applied in autumn
or winter will be lost to a great extent by passing into land
drainage.

The usual practice in England is to apply guano, or sulphate
of ammonia, or compound artificial manures containing salts of
ammonia, as top-dressings for wheat, in autumn or during the
winter months ; whilst nitrate of soda, when used for top-dressing
wheat or other cereal crops or pasture land, is almost invariably

Effect of rain
on top-dress-
ings of ammo-
niacal manures.

Best time to
apply arti-
ficials.

812 = 546’ hrflucnce of Chemical Discoveries on

Use of lime and
marl.

Value of lime
in poor sandy
soils.

applied in spring, in accordance with sound scientific principles,
which teach that nitrate of soda in solution is not retained by
soils.

The investigations on the absorption of potash by A'arious
soils have also thrown a new light on the special use of
lime and marl on poor sandy soils. Every farmer knows how
essential lime is for the healthy growth of every kind of
agricultural produce. On soils destitute of lime, most crops,
especially green crops, are subject to disease, and conse-
quently roots fail altogether on such land, even if it has been
liberally manured with good farmyard manure or guano. Up to
a certain stage, corn and roots grown under ‘such conditions
appear to thrive well, but as the season advances they sustain
a check, and at harvest-time yield a miserable return. The
remedy for such failures, which are not at all uncommon in
localities where poor sandy soils prevail, is a good dose of lime
or marl, and then, and only then, farmyard manure or guano
may be applied to the greatest advantage. Marl or lime alone
does not suffice for meeting all the requirements of our culti-
vated crops on such poor soils ; and though calcareous minerals
supply a most necessary element of plant food, and, by acting
on the latent stores of food in the soil, produce at first a most
strikingly favourable effect upon vegetation, they soon fail to
do this if repeated too often, to the exclusion of other fertilising
matters. On the other hand, the most liberal application of
farmyard manure of the best quality never produces so bene-
ficial and lasting an effect on poor sandy soils as when they
have been previously well marled or limed. There are some
soils which swallow up manure with, so to speak, an insatiable
appetite, without ever feeling the better for the manure — they
are appropriately called very hungry. On all such' soils much
manure is wasted, or the most is not made of it, if previously to
the application of farmyard manure, guano, &c., the land has not
received a good dose of lime.

My filtration experiments point out the reason why marl or
lime is peculiarly valuable on poor sands.

In passing a solution of sulphate of potash through a poor
sandy soil, I found a weighable quantity of sulphate of ammonia
in the filtrate, which was not the case when the same solution
was passed through a marly soil.

The power of soils to retain ammonia is generally assumed to
be greater than their power of retaining potash. Here, how-
ever, an instance is presented to us in which a salt of potash, by
acting on the ammoniacal combination in a soil, overcomes the
supposed superior affinity of ammonia. Contrary to all expecta-
tion, ammonia, in combination with sulphuric acid evidently

the Progress of English Agriculture. 813 = 547

supplied by the sulphate of potash, passed into the solution,
whilst potash took its place and was retained in the soil.

The sterile sand used in this experiment hardly contained any
lime, whilst the marly soil, it need hardly be said, contained it
in a large proportion. Lime not merely acts beneficially on
sandy soils in a direct manner, by supplying a deficient element
of nutrition, but also because it preserves in the soil the more
valuable fertilising matters, which, like salts of potash or am-
monia, rapidly filter through sandy soils, unless a sufficient
quantity of marl or lime has been previously applied to the
land. By these means the bases of the more valuable saline
constituents of rotten dung or of guano are retained in the land,
whilst the acids filter through it in combination with lime — a
constituent which is, comparatively speaking, inexpensive.

The presence of much or little lime in a soil has also a influence of
powerful influence on the changes which soluble phosphates, or
manures containing soluble phosphates, undergo in contact with tainiu^ ^soluble
the soil. It is a curious, and apparently anomalous, circum- phosphates,
stance, that on sandy soils, and on all soils deficient in lime,
concentrated superphosphates, rich in soluble phosphate, do not
produce nearly so beneficial an effect upon root-crops as upon
calcareous soils, or upon soils containing even a moderate pro-
portion of lime. «

When applied to root-crops upon sandy soils greatly deficient
in lime, a concentrated superphosphate produces a smaller crop
than a manure containing only one-fourth the percentage of
soluble phosphate. When this fact was first brought under my
notice I ascribed it to prejudice, or accidental and unobserved
circumstances, but direct experiments and an extended personal
experience have shown me that there is no mistake about this
matter. The true explanation no doubt is, that the excess of
acid soluble phosphate in a concentrated superphosphate is not
precipitated as efficiently in a soil deficient in lime, as it is
in land containing a good deal of lime.

Acid compounds are extremely injurious to vegetation, even in Beneficial re-
dilute solutions; and hence concentrated superphosphates used
in large quantities, say at the rate of 5 to 6 cwts. per acre, do c^ops on
positive injury to root-crops, and more moderate applications of laud.

2 or 3 cwts. per acre produce a less favourable result on sandy
soils, and on all land poor in lime, than the same amount of super-
phosphate poor in soluble phosphate. Indeed, the experience
of light-land farmers in districts in England where the land
is deficient in lime, goes to prove that on land of that descrip-
tion it is better to apply bone-dust or precipitated phosphate, or
phosphatic manures containing no soluble phosphate, to root-
crops than to use superphosphate, or similar artificial manures

I Closer ap-
proach of prac-
tice and
•science,

in consequence
of wider dif-
fusion of
chemical
knowledge.

I Questions often
••inswered by
the analyses of
soils.

814 = 5-#S Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

containing a large proportion of acid soluble phosphate of
lime.

A characteristic feature of the last ten or fifteen years in
relation to scientific agriculture is the closer approach of the
practical agriculturist and the man of science. Both appear to
understand each other better. The mutual interchange of ideas,
and the better acquaintance of the former with the leading
principles of chemistry, and that of the latter with the rudi-
ments of practical agriculture, have materially promoted agri-
cultural progress, and given a more decided and more widely
extended direction to a rational plan of farming, success in
which so much depends upon the economical and correct use
of a great variety of artificial manures and purchased feeding-
stuffs.

In consequence of the wider diffusion of the elements of
chemistry amongst the rising English farmer, and the closer
contact of the agricultural chemist with the work and wants
of the practical agriculturist, the investigations of the chemist
have taken a more decidedly practical direction than in former
years, and there is, perhaps, no country in which, at the present
time, the assistance of the chemist is so frequently called in
requisition by farmers as it is in England. My Annual Reports,
in my capacity of Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural
Society, show that, previous to 1860, but few soils were sent
to me for examination, and that of late years the chemical
inquiries respecting the rational cultivation of various soils have
become very numerous ; no doubt because practical men are
becoming more and more conscious that, rightly interpreted,
the results of soil-analyses supply reliable and useful informa-
tion on many points of interest. Thus they give frequently
decided and satisfactory answers to the following questions : —

1. Whether or not barrenness is caused by the presence of an
injurious substance, such as sulphate of iron or sulphide of iron,
occasionally occurring in peaty and clayey soils ?

2. Whether soils contain common salt (land flooded by sea-
water), nitrates, or other soluble salts, that are useful to vegeta-
tion in a highly diluted state, but injurious when they occur in
land too abundantly ?

3. Whether barrenness is caused by the absence or deficiency
of lime, phosphoric acid, or other important elements of plant-
food ?

4. Whether clays are absolutely barren, and not likely to be
materially improved by cultivation, or whether they contain the
necessary elements of fertility in an unavailable state, and are
capable of being rendered fertile by subsoiling, deep cultivation,
steam-ploughing, and similar mechanical means ?

the Progress of English Agriculture. 815 = 549

5. Whether or not clays are usefully burnt, and used in that
state as manure?

6. Whether or not land will be improved by liming?

7. Whether it is better to apply lime, or marl, or clay, on a
particular soil ?

8. Whether special manures, such as superphosphate or am-
moniacal salts, can be used (of course discreetly) without per-
manently injuring the land ; or whether the farmer should rather
depend upon the liberal application of farmyard manure, that
he may restore to the land all the elements of fertility removed
in the crops?

9. What kinds of artificial manures are best suited to soils of
various composition ?

The investigations of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert in rela- Influence of ex-
tion to the exhaustion of land by continuously grown corn-
crops, their inquiries into the distribution of nitrogen in the vation.
land, and the examination of land-drainage by these gentlemen,
by myself, and by Dr. Frankland, as well as other investigations
on the unexhausted elements of manure left in the land by the
consumption of purchased food, or the use of various artificial
manures, have all had a powerful influence on improved systems
of modern cultivation.

Leaving out of consideration all questions of tidy or slovenly Permanent for-
management — such as those connected with draining, fencing, *^‘*'*y
weeding, &c. — whereby the standard of productiveness may be
lowered, and making allowance for variations in the average
produce of the land, due to the character of the seasons,

Mr. Lawes was the first man to point out that all land, left
unmanured for a longer or shorter number of years, has a certain
standard of natural produce, practically speaking, varying within
certain limits according to the character of the season, and bad
or good management, which standard of natural produce on a
large scale could practically be neither permanently increased,
nor materially reduced by cultivation.

He further explained what is the real meaning of land “ out
of condition ” and land “ in good condition,” by showing that
the latter is an acquired fertility, due to the application of
manure ; and that the former is the result of exhaustion of the
manures, which temporarily raised the fertility of the land, in
the production of two or more crops, or in loss by drainage
and other causes, and the return of the land to its natural
standard of productiveness. It is well, however, to bear in
mind that Mr. Lawes’ observations respecting permanent and
temporary fertility apply to actual English farm-practice, and
that the term permanent fertility must not be pushed to an
extreme signification.

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 I

raised by con-
stant nia-
nurings.

Experiments
on continuous
cropping.

816 = 550 Injiuence of Chemical Discoveries on 7

There are soils which, like pure sands, may be called per-
manently barren ; that is to say, they naturally contain barely
any mineral or organic elements of plant-food to produce in
their natural or normal conditions a paying crop. Such soils,
by dint of manures of the proper kind, may be made to acquire
a certain amount of fertility, which, however, is rapidly ex- ,
pended on the crops grown ; and they require constant manuring j
in order to yield any kind of agricultural produce in paying 1
quantities.

But the term permanent fertility is hardly applicable in its
full sense to any kind of land ; for however rich land may be
naturally, its productive power or standard of natural produce
will be impaired, it may be very slowly in some cases, but
surely in all, if such land is cropped from year to year, and no
provision is made to restore to it the elements of fertility which j
have been removed by a long succession of crops. Whilst fully
admitting this, it is nevertheless a fact that, in the case of the
majority of soils under cultivation in England, nothing short of
the most wilful and long-continued cropping, without any return
whatever, can materially injure the staple of the land ; and, on
the other hand, however much the acquired fertility of naturally '
poor soils may have been raised by the liberal application of
dung and artificial manures, or the consumption of cake upon
the land, such soils will soon return to their natural state of [
sterility, or fall to the level of their standard natural produce, ,
if they be left unmanured for a few years.

CHAPTER II.

Continuous CRorpiNG.

Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert’s experiments on the continuous !;
growth of corn-crops show, that on moderately stiff soils of
considerable depth, containing naturally an abundance of all
the mineral elements of fertility, corn-crops may be grown 1;
without manure of any kind for more than twenty-five years in ;;
succession, without material injury to the natural or standard h
fertility of the land. :

Mineral manures alone have given very little increase of 0
produce when they have been applied to wheat, but rather |.
better results when applied to barley in an adjoining field J
similar in character to the experimental wheat-field. On the ;
other hand, nitrogenous manures alone in the form of ammonia- IjS
salts, or nitrate of soda, have given considerably more produce ^

than mineral manures alone ; and a mixture , of mineral and ;

nitrogenous manures has yielded much more still, and more, of ;

the Progress of English Agriculture.

^11 = 551

Z I 2

818 = 552 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

Effect of dif-
ferent ma-
nures.

Modifications
in cropping by
using arti-
ficials.

both corn and straw, than the annual application of 14 tons of
farmyard-manure per acre.

The Table on page 551 embraces some of the most instructiv'e
results of experiments on the continuous growth of wheat and
barley.

It will be seen from the preceding Table that mineral manures,
and notably superphosphate, had a better effect upon barley than
upon wheat ; further, that in combination with minerals nitrate
of soda produced a larger increase, both in corn and straw, than
minerals combined with salts of ammonia. This agrees well
with the general experience of the British farmer, who derives
much advantage from the use of a mixture of nitrate of soda and
superphosphate as a manure for barley ; whilst for wheat, grown
on good clay-soils, a top-dressing of nitrate of soda alone pro-
duces as large an increase as a mixture of nitrate with super-
phosphate. On light soils, comparatively poor in available
potash and phosphoric acid, it would not be safe to rely upon the
exclusive use of nitrate of soda or of salts of ammonia for pro-
ducing a succession of remunerative corn-crops. Even on heavy
land it is desirable to add phosphates to the nitrogenous
manures, for although the phosphoric acid in most soils is not
nearly so rapidly removed in the growing crops or by drainage
as available nitrogen is, yet as a rule, phosphoric acid is ton
sparingly distributed in the soil to withstand without injury the
continuous removal of these important fertilising elements in a
succession of corn-crops, top-dressed solely with nitrate of soda
and salts of ammonia.

Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert’s experiments clearly prove the
advantage of combining mineral with nitrogenous manures ; and
they show that by the use of such mixed manures the fertility of
the land may be preserved, and better crops often be grown than
with farmyard-manure.

One of the most important advantages of such a system of
manuring consists in the freedom of action which it gives to the
occupier of land, enabling him to dispense with any recognised
system of rotation of crops, and under favourable circumstances to
grow a succession of corn-crops with greater advantage than
by slavishly following the ordinary course of cropping of the
district.

These experiments have also had a marked influence upon the
extended use of nitrate of soda as a top-dressing for corn-crops.
They further have induced farmers to grow barley more frequently
than formerly on heavy land, and in some instances they have
led to the adoption of the system of selling, year by year, the
whole or nearly the whole of the growing crops, and of restoring
an equivalent of plant-food in the form of portable fertilisers.

}

the Progress of English Agriculture.

819 = 555

Like every other plan of farming, the system of continuous Continuous
corn-growing and selling off the whole of the produce depends
for success upon practical tact and experience. It requires the ^
judicious spending of money on steam-cultivation, drainage, and
other permanent improvements, and a full appreciation of the
advantages or disadvantages which such a system may present
in a particular locality. As an instance of marked success, the
experience of Mr. Prout, of Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire, may
be mentioned.

Mr. Prout purchased Blount’s and Sweetdew’s farms in 1861,
comprising 450 acres, and situated in the parish of Sawbridge-
worth, about 4 miles from Harlow. The soil, a clay and strong
loam, readily poaching and running together if worked wet —
lies upon a subsoil of drift-clay and cretaceous gravel, bordering
on the chalk and chalk-marl.

The following are the results of my analyses of three samples
of soil taken from three separate fields.

Composition of Soils at Blount’s Farm.

Broad Field.

Black Acre.

White Moor.

/Organic matter

4-75

446

549

Oxide of iron

4-80

4^29

791

Alumina

5-39

4^90

206

Carbonate of lime

2-45

4-74

1^80

Soluble ,
in Acid.

Magnesia

1-84

159

■80

Po^h

■54

■72

■51

Soda

•08

traces.

•16

Sulphuric acid

■08

■01

■09

Phosphoric acid

■16

•12

■27

'^Insoluble silicates and sand

79 91

79^17

80-91

100 ■ 00

100^00

100-00

Composition of
the soils of his^
farm.

These analyses show that the three soils are fairly good, but
by no means particularly rich in phosphoric acid or in potash.

Mr. Prout bought the estate for 33Z. per acre — a very moderate Cost of his
cost for a compact estate in a metropolitan county and only
20 miles from London. By bad management the farm had been
brought into so low an agricultural condition, that the former
owner had difficulty in getting a tenant to offer 20s. rent per acre.

As might be anticipated, a heavy outlay was required before a
good return could be expected from such a property. About
16Z. per acre was expended in draining, cutting outfall ditches,
grubbing up and levelling old fences, making roads, adding to
and repairing buildings, and fallowing foul land. Mr. Prout

820 = 554 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

further obtained from Messrs. Fowler and Co., of Leeds, a
Steam culti- 14-horse power engine, with clip-drum, anchors, and 400 yards
vation. .^vire-rope, at a cost of 1065Z. This tackle has been very

effective, is still in admirable order, and enables Mr. Prout to
get through his work with from six to eight horses.

Annual expen- The annual expenditure for labour, manures, and for rent,
dituie. estimated at 21. per acre, may he taken to amount to 3900Z. Of

this, a sum of 1200/. is paid for artificial manures on an average.
During the last two years less money has been spent in the
purchase of artificials.

In 1875, Mr. Prout spent only 878/. Is. 6</. for artificial
manures, as he had left over from the preceding year a consider-
able quantity of bone-dust. This sum was spent in the purchase
of 42 tons of Ohlendorff’s dissolved Peruvian guano, 21 tons of
nitrate of soda, and 10 tons of mineral superphosphate, contain-
ing 25 per cent, of soluble phosphate.

In 1876 the manure hills for 44 tons of raw and dissolved
Peruvian guano, 25 tons of nitrate of soda, 20 tons of bone-dust,
and 15 tons of mineral superphosphate, amounted to 1173/. 16s. 8f/.

Bone-dust, mineral superphosphate, raw and Ohlendorff’s
dissolved Peruvian guano, and nitrate of soda, are the manures
generally used, and, as a rule, the artificials are drilled in and
How artificial not sown broadcast. To most crops Mr. Prout applies either
manures are dissolved Peruvian guano or a mixture of partially dissolved
applied. bones, at the rate of 3 to 5 cwts. per acre. This bone-manure is
made on the premises by saturating bone-dust with water, and
then mixing it in equal proportions with mineral superphosphate,
containing about 25 per cent, of soluble phosphate. The acid
phosphate acting upon the wetted bone-dust, partially dissolves the
latter and causes the mixture to heat. By leaving it undisturbed
in a heap for about six weeks, it is generally found sufficiently
dry, on turning over, to be readily distributed by the drill.

^ In addition to the artifical manures which are applied to the
clover and all corn-crops, excepting wheat after clover, the cereal
crops are top-dressed in March or the beginning of April, with
from 1 to cwt. of nitrate of soda.

Eesults of sales The total sales of crops since 1868, realised : —
of crops.

^ In 1868 £4726

„ 1869 3742

„ 1870 5232

„ 1871 4625

„ 1872 4743

„ 1873 4570

„ 1874 4628

„ 1875 4548

„ 1876 , 4672

This gives an annual average of 4609/., and it does not include

the Progress of English Agriculture. 821 = 555

the produce of from 15 to 18 acres (part of 25 acres lying near
the homestead), devoted to the growth of hay and roots for
eight horses and one cow, the whole of the live-stock kept at
present on Blount’s farm.

The labour and seed bills are included in the general pay-
ments, and the annual return of these 15 to 18 acres may be
estimated at 200Z, This brings the total annual receipts of
Blount’s farm to 4809Z.

For the last two years Mr. Prout has grown less wheat and
more barley than in previous years.

Thus, in 1874 — 310 acres were in Wheat, 60 in Oats, and none in Barley. Corn crops
In 1875 — 190 „ „ 40 „ 12G „ grown.

In 1876—193 „ „ 50 „ 124

The following Table presents the return per acre obtained from
each of the nine sales ; —

1st. For the whole of the crops sold.

2nd. For the wheat crop alone.

3rd. The average value of wheat per quarter for the week in
July in which the sale was held.

Years.

Total

Averages.

Wheat

Averages.

Price of AVheat
in Week of
Sale.

1868

1869

1870

1871

1872

1873

1874

1875

17 10

1876

Return per
acre.

The whole of the crops in the present year (1877) are looking
remarkably well, and there are no indications whatever [that the
nine consecutive corn-crops, sold off year after year, have dete-
riorated the land. Indeed, the enhanced value of the estate. Land improved
purchased at less than 16,000Z., and valued in 1875 by a com- in value,
petent surveyor at 31,000/., represents a handsome return for
permanent improvements, and affords the best possible proof
that the productive powers of the land are now greater than
they were when M r. Prout commenced the plan of continuous
corn-growing and selling off the whole of the produce, a plan
by which he has derived from 450 acres a clear profit of 900/.
p er annum in round numbers.

Hitherto Mr. Prout has not found it necessary to apply special
potash-manures to his fields, some direct experiments with

Improvements
in land culti-
vation.

Powers of
nitrogen.

822 = .556 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

potash-salts having given unsatisfactory results, but no doubt
there are other farms where it would be necessary to add potash
in some form or other to the manuring agents employed if the
whole produce were sold off land which naturally contains potash
in more limited quantities than Mr. Front’s.

CHAPTEE III.

Manures.

Altogether, then, our knowledge of the agricultural capa-
bilities of the various classes of soils found in England has been
greatly extended during the last fifteen years, and, in conse-
quence, a general improvement has taken place in the cultiva-
tion of the land. Furthermore, the recent achievements by agri-
cultural chemists, who have studied experimentally questions
relating to the exhaustion of soils, and the means of increasing
their productiveness, have had the effect of breaking down, in a
great measure, the rigid adherence to farm covenants prescribing
a strict observance of certain rotations of crops, regulations as to
the sale of produce, &c., and have rendered the cultivator of the
land more independent in pursuing the course of cropping, system
of manuring, and general farm-management, which local con-
siderations and actual experience have pointed out to yield to
him the best economical return without permanently injuring
the land.

Of all the constituents of soils, none affects so much their
productive powers as nitrogen, in a condition in which it is
available for the use of plants, and none is so rapidly removed
from the land than available nitrogen, by the production of corn
and other crops, by drainage, and by other yet unexplained
causes.

In a certain sense, it is the available nitrogen which mainly
imparts condition to the land, or imparts to it an acquired fer-
tility, which may be described as “ good condition,” and which
it rapidly loses again if the supply of suitable nitrogenous manure
is withheld for a few years. Speaking with reservation, it may be
said, on the other hand, that the standard of natural produce, or
the permanent fertility of different soils, mainly depends upon
the larger or smaller quantities of available phosphoric acid,
potash, lime, and other of the more important ash-constituents of
plants, which exist in an available form in a given area and
depth of land. Unquestionably, nitrogen in the shape of ammo-
nia-salts, or as nitrates or nitrogenous organic matters readily
entering into decomposition and furnishing nitrates as ultimate

the Progress of English Agriculture. 823 = 557

products, is, in a purely practical sense, the most important ele-
ment with which the farmer has to deal. Hence the great value
of the laborious and long-continued field-experiments by Messrs.

Lawes and Gilbert, and their extremely interesting laboratory
researches relating to the sources and assimilation of nitrogen by
plants, and to the exhaustion or accumulation of the same
elements in the land.

What, then, are the sources of the nitrogen of vegetation ? Are Sources of
they the same for all descriptions of plants ? Are they to be “iti ogeu in
sought entirely in the soil, or entirely in the atmosphere, or “
partly in the one, and partly in the other ? These are some of
the questions which Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have endea-
voured to solve by a series of investigations extending over a
period of above thirty years, and in which these gentlemen are
still engaged ; for although their researches have thrown a good
deal of light on these questions, they involve great difficulties,
and a vast field of scientific inquiry is still left open ; and no
doubt much laborious work has yet to be accomplished before
they can be satisfactorily answered in all their bearings.

The combined nitrogen coming down from the atmosphere in
rain, snow, mists, or dew, undoubtedly contributes to the annual
yield of nitrogen in our crops, but it requires no lengthened
argument to prove that this source of nitrogen is altogether
inadequate to meet the requirements of our cultivated crops.

According to the average results obtained by Messrs. Lawes from the
and Gilbert, and by Professor Way, the combined nitrogen, in rain atmosphere,
and minor aqueous deposits, which fall annually at Rothamsted
upon one acre of land, amounts to 6’46 lb. as ammonia, and 'Ih
as nitric acid, or a total of 7’21 lb. of combined nitrogen per acre.

Professor Frankland’s more recent determinations are sub-
stantially confirmatory of these results. How much of this
nitrogen is available to the vegetation of a given area we have
not the means of estimating with any certainty. Numerous
independent determinations, both by Dr. Frankland and myself,
of the nitric acid in the drainage-water collected from land at
Rothamsted, which had been left unmanured for many years,
show that a considerable amount of nitric acid passes into land-
drainage, and render it all but certain that this loss of nitrogen
much exceeds the quantity brought down upon the land in the
rain and other aqueous deposits.

With regard to the free nitrogen in the atmosphere, it may Non-ability of
be stated that an elaborate investigation into this subject, by ^

Messrs. Lawes, Gilbert, and Pugh, fully confirmed the previous nitrogen from
experiments made by M. Boussingault, which showed that plants, the air.
by their leaves, do not appear to have the power to take up and
assimilate the free nitrogen of the air.

824 = 5 JS Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

Proportion of
nitrogen un-
recoverable.

The following Table, by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, shows
the amount of nitrogen recovered, and the amount not recovered,
in the increase of the crop for 100 supplied in manure, to wheat
and to barley respectively ; the result being in each case the
average over a period of 20 years.

Table II. — Nitrogen recovered, and not recovered, in the
Increase of Produce, for 100 supplied in Manure.

Manuring, quantities per Acre per Annum.

For 100 Nitrogen in
Manure.

Recovered Not

in recovered

Increase, in Increase.

Wheat, 20 years, 1852-1871.

Complex Mineral Manure, and 41 lbs. Nitrogen, as Ammonia
„ „ 82 lbs. „

„ „ 82 lbs. „ as Nitrate

32-4

.32-9

45-3

67-0

67-1

54-7

Barley, 20 yeans, 1852-1871.

Complex Mineral Manure, and 41 lbs. Nitrogen, as Ammonia

48-1

51-9

Notwithstanding the great effect produced by the nitrogenous •
manures, two-thirds of the nitrogen supplied was unrecovered )
in the increase of crops when the ammonia-salts were applied to
wheat ; the application having been made in the autumn. When,
however, nitrate of soda was used, Avhich is always applied in
the spring, the quantity left unrecovered was not much more
than half that supplied. With barley, also, the manuring for
which takes place in the spring, there is again nearly half the
nitrogen supplied in the manure recovered in the increase, and
therefore little more than half left unrecovered.

The question will naturally be raised, what becomes of the .
one-half or two-thirds of the nitrogen which is not recovered •
in the increase of the crops ? The examination of some 70
samples by myself, and a number of independent determina-
tions by Dr. Frankland, of the drainage-water from the experi-
mental wheat plots which yielded the preceding results, throw
much light on this loss.

The following Table contains a summary of some of the
more important results obtained by Dr. Frankland and my-
self.

(

the Progress of English Agriculture. 820 = 559

Table III. — Niteogen as Nitrates and Nitrites, per 100,000 parts
of Drainage Water from plots differently Manured, in the Ex-
perimental Wheat-Field at Kothamsted, Wheat every year, com-
mencing 1844.

Nitrogen as Nitrates and Nitrites, per 100,000 parts

of Drainage Water.

Dr. Frankland’s

Dr. Voelcker-s

Mean.

results.

Kxperi-

inents.

ments.

meats.

Farmyard Manure

0-922

1-606

1-264

Without Manure

0-31G

0-390

0-353

Complex Mineral Manure . .

0-349

0-50G

0-428

Complex Mineral Manure, ancll
41 lbs. Nitrogen, as Ammonia /
Complex Mineral Manure, andl
82 lbs. Nitrogen, as Ammonia /

0-793

0-853

0-823

1-477

1-400

1-439

Complex Mineral Manure, and)
123 lbs. Nitrogen, as Ammonia )

1-951

1-679

1-815

Complex Mineral Manure, andl
82 lbs. Nitrogen, as Nitrate ../

1-039

1-S35

1-437

The quantity of water which passes through the drains in
the course of the year, as may be readily conceived, -varies a
great deal in different soils, according to the distribution of the
rain in the year, and the quantity which falls at one period.
In the absence of satisfactory evidence from which might be
calculated the probable amount of water which passed annually
through the drains of the different plots of the experimental
wheat-field at Rothamsted, it is impossible to determine pre-
cisely the actual loss of nitrogen which the several plots sus-
tained by drainage. The figures in the preceding Table,
however, conclusively show that the quantity of nitrogen which
passed into the drainage-water in the form of nitrates increased
in proportion to the amounts of ammonia or nitrate put on the
manured plots. They show how serious may be the loss of
nitrogen by drainage when ammonia-salts or nitrates are liberally
applied to the land in autumn, if there should be much wet
weather during the winter ; or even when they are applied in
the spring, if heavy falls of rain should set in. Other experi-
ments at Rothamsted lead to the conclusion that, according to
season, from one-quarter to nearly one-half of the annual rainfall
may descend more than 40 inches below the surface. For every
inch of rain which passes through the drains and carries with it
one part of nitrogen per 100,000 of water, there will be a loss of
lbs. of nitrogen per acre from the manure applied to the land.

In the drainage-water from the experimental wheat-field at
Rothamsted, manured in the autumn by an amount of ammonia-

Can iecl away
by drainage.

826 = 5^0 Lijiuence of Chemical Discoveries on

Results of
investigation
into compo-
sition of waters
of land-
drainage.

salts supplying 82 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, I found on analysis,
in the middle of January 1868, as much as 3| parts of nitro-
gen, in the form of nitrates and nitrites, per 100,000 of water.

For every inch of rain passing through the drains of that
plot in January, there was consequently a loss of about 8i lbs.
of nitrogen, supplied in manure at a cost of about !.<?. per lb.
Assuming that during continued wet weather in winter several
inches of rain pass through the drains, and that, in the course ;
of the autumn, winter, and spring, from 7 to 10 inches will pass
beyond the reach of the roots, the loss in nitrogen must be very-
great. Future analyses of drainage-waters, collected under con-
ditions which allow the exact quantity of water passing through
the land to be measured, will probably show that by far the
larger proportion of the nitrogen of manure not recovered in the
crop is lost by drainage.

My investigations into the composition of waters of land-
drainage, embracing full analyses of 70 samples, in addition to
the light which they threw on the loss of nitrogen experienced
during the growth of corn-crops, disclosed chemical facts which
may be turned to good account by all who desire to apply farm-
yard manure, or artificial fertilisers, in a rational way to the
land, so as to derive the greatest benefit from them. These
analyses of the drainage-waters from the different plots of the
same field, variously treated as regards the supply of manure,
afford striking illustrations of the power of soils to modify the
composition of the manure used, and to prepare plant-food,
which is neither so soluble as to injure the crop, nor so in-
soluble as to remain inactive.

It is remarkable that although large quantities of ammonia-
salts were applied to some of the plots of the experimental wheat-
field, the drainage-water from these plots contained only faint
traces of ammonia ; but at all times of the year they contained
nitrates in appreciable quantities, which appears to render it
very probable that it is chiefly, if not solely, from nitrates that
our crops build up their nitrogenous organic constituents.
Although the drainage-waters were found to contain appreciable
quantities of phosphoric acid and potash, nevertheless these, the •
more valuable, mineral fertilising constituents supplied in the |
manures were retained in the land almost entirely, whilst the
less important, because more abundant and widely distributed
mineral matters, such as lime, magnesia, soda, chlorine, sulphuric
acid, and soluble silica, pass into the waters of land-drainage
in considerable quantities.

As may be naturally expected, the loss of fertilising matters
by drainage is greater from highly manured fields than from
land left unmanured, and greater during the autumn and winter

the Progress of English Agriculture. 827 =561

months than during the periods of the active growth of plants.

The fertility of land, it may further be observed, is more readily
impaired by the loss of nitrogen by drainage than by the removal
in that manner of those mineral matters which are food to
plants-

It follows from this, as a natural consequence, that much
more nitrogenous food must be applied to the land, and in good
practice is always used, than would be necessary to produce a
given increase in the crop, if all the nitrogen could be recovered
therein.

Again : this investigation clearly shows that when nitrogenous
organic matters are applied to the land in the shape of farmyard-
manure, or of organic refuse matters, they suffer decomposition,
and are gradually resolved into ammonia compounds, which are
retained by the soil for a limited period, and are finally oxidised
into nitrates. Farmyard-manure thus yields a more constant
and gradual supply of nitrogenous food than nitrate of soda,
which, unless consumed by the crop to which it is applied, is
wasted to a large extent by drainage.

In accordance with the teachings of modern chemistry, the Farmyard-
most advanced farmers in England apply to the land farmyard- manure, wh^n
manure, fresh from the stables or cattle-sheds, if possible, in
autumn or winter. The manure then has ample time to become
rotten, and by degrees the nitrogenous constituents of the manure
are transformed into nitrates, of which there will be a ready
supply in spring when vegetation makes a fresh start.

Peruvian guano and similar ammoniacal manures, when used
for winter-wheat, as a rule are applied in England in autumn
either before the wheat is sown, or after it is fairly above ground.

If the land is rather light, the best farmers prefer to top-dress Artificials,
their wheat with guano, soot, or other ammoniacal manures early
in spring. Probably the end of February, or beginning of
March, is the best time for the application of ammoniacal top-
dressings.

Since the price of nitrate of soda has been so moderate as
it has been of late years, its consumption in England has greatly
increased, and most English farmers are quite alive to the fact
that nitrate of soda is not retained in the land for more than one Nitrate of soda

CTOwing season, and that it is liable to be washed out of it retained
0^0 ' ^ ^ ••• in irnid one

by rain. Speaking generally, nitrate of soda is applied in most season.

parts of England towards the end of March as a top-dressing
for wheat or barley, either by itself, or in conjunction with
common salt for wheat, or in conjunction with superphosphate
for barley and oats.

With the remarkable increase of our knowledge, which has
taken place since 1860, of the physiological and chemical effects

82S = S62 Itifluence of Chemical Discoveries on

use of arti-
ficials. )

Magnitude of
the English
manufacture.

which the different organic and mineral constituents of the soil
and the various manuring agents are capable of producing on dif-
ferent natural orders of plants, the British agriculturists have
Increase in the learned to make good use of artificial manures. The annual
consumption of guano, nitrate of soda, bone-dust, dissolved
bones, superphosphate of lime, and compound artificiahmanures
specially prepared for particular crops, is unquestionably greater
in Great Britain than in any other country.

The manufacture of artificial manures, more especially that of
superphosphate of lime, is carried out in England at present on
a very large scale, millions of pounds sterling having been
embarked in this recent branch of applied manufacturing
chemistry. There are in England at present probably a dozen
or more manufacturers of artificial manures, each of whom
produces annually from 45,000 to 50,000 tons and upwards of
artificial manures, and many more makers turn out from 1000
to 20,000 tons each per annum. An idea of the magnitude of the
manufacture of, and trade in, artificial manures in England can
be formed from the fact that the importations into England of
phosphatic minerals, bone-ash, and phosphatic guano from all
parts of the world, for use as raw materials for the manufacture
of artificial manures, probably exceeds 500,000 tons per annum.

In a brief report it is not possible to give a lengthy descrip-
tion of the various raw materials used by manufacturers of
artificial manures, and imported into England during the last
few years, nor is it a matter of general interest to refer to the
composition and uses of the numerous manufactured, portable
manures Avhich are so largely employed at present by British
agriculturists, either alone or in conjunction with farmyard
manure. The following is a list of the raw manure materials
which are employed in the manufacture of artificial manures : —

R.iw materi.'ils
ii.'sed.

Phosphatic 1. Phospliatic materials : —

a. Phosphatic minerals, used chiefly in the manufacture of
superphosphate of lime, forming the basis of compound manures
for every description of agricultural produce.

Cambridge, Suffolk, and Bedfordshire coprolites ; Boulogne
coprolites ; South Carolina Land and River phosphate ; German
or Lahn-phosphate ; Spanish and Portuguese phosphorite ; Bor-
deaux or French phosphate. Canadian apatite ; Norwegian
apatite ; Welsh or Silurian phosphate ; Sombrero phosphate ;
Navassa phosphate ; St. Martin’s phosphate ; Curasao Rock
phosphate ; Redonda phosphate ; Alta Vela phosphate.

h. Bones and bone materials :

Raw bones ; refuse bones of glue-makers ; spent animal char-
coal ; South American bone-ash.

the Progress of English Agriculture. 829 = 363

c. Phosphatic guanos ;

Mejillones guano ; Patagonian and Falkland Island guano;

Patos Island guano ; Raza Island, or Gulf of California guano ;

Curasao guano ; Quito Serrano guano ; Petrel Island guano ;

Coral Island guano ; Booby Island guano ; McKeen’s Island
guano ; Baker’s Island guano ; Howland Island guano ; Jarvis
Island guano ; Bird’s Island guano; Malden Island guano ; Shaw’s
Island guano ; Flint Island guano ; Enderbury guano ; Starbuck
Island guano and Lacepede Island guano.

Full descriptions of these guanos and phosphatic minerals,
with their analyses, will be found in the ‘ Journal of the Royal
j Agricultural Society’ for 1875 and 1876.

2. Nitrogenous manures : — Kitrogenous

Peruvian guano ; nitrate of soda ; sulphate of ammonia ; gas-
refuse ammonia (crude and patent ammonia). Dried blood ; Avool-
refuse (shoddy). Dried-flesh refuse and similar animal matter
(refuse from the manufacture of meat-extract in South America
and Australia). Horn-shavings.

' 3. Saline alkaline materials : — Saline alkaline

i Kainite and Stassfurth crude potash-salts of various strengths.

Common lead salt, fishery salt, and nitre-refuse salt.

! Both raw and dissolved Peruvian guano are largely used by Uses of ma-
' the farmers of Great Britain. Of late years the consumption of
nitrate of soda has been very much increased, and many farmers
, now use it largely as a top-dressing for wheat and barley. For
, the latter crop it is usually employed in conjunction with super-
phosphate of lime, 2 to 3 cwts. of superphosphate, or 1^ to 2
cwts. of nitrate of soda being considered a good dressing per acre.

Nitrate of soda has also been used of late years in England
with considerable advantage, in addition to dissolved bones, or
' a mixture of superphosphate and guano, and some salt, as a
(l manure for mangolds. A dressing of 1^ cwt. of nitrate of
|, soda, 3 cwts. of Peruvian guano, 2 cwts. of superphosphate, and
j 2 cwts. of salt per acre, is considered a somewhat heavy but

*1 well-paying manure for mangold-wurzel.

, Potash-salts are not much used in England for manuring
purposes. Experience has shown that, on the great majority of
■ soils in a fairly good agricultural condition, the addition of
potash-salts to other artificial manures produces no decidedly
beneficial effect upon the crops to which it is applied. On poor
sandy land, and on worn-out pastures and peaty soils, however,
potash-salts, in conjunction Avith dissolved bones, or superphos-
phate, or mixture of superphosphate and guano, have been used
in England, as in other countries, Avith marked beneficial

830 = 564 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

For roots.

Disposal of
town sewage.

Effect of soil
and air.

effects. In artificial manures for potatoes, the admixture of
potash-salts to phosphatic and nitrogenous fertilising matters,
has also been found useful.

Common salt is used in England principally as an addition
to manures for mangolds, and, mixed in equal proportions with
nitrate of soda, as a top-dressing for spring-wheat and barley.
It is also useful on light land in dry seasons.

By far the largest quantity of all manufactured manures is
used in England for root-crops. There are many parts of
England where turnips and Swedes are grown with no other
manure than mineral superphosphate, containing on an average
21 to 25 per cent, of soluble phosphate of lime, at the rate of 3
to 4 cwts. per acre. On cold clay soils, in a fair agricultural
condition, it has been found that 3 cwts. of such a mineral
superphosphate will produce at least as heavy a crop of swedes
and turnips as a manure containing, in addition to soluble
phosphate of lime, ammonia or nitrogenous organic matter.

On light land, however, the use of a purely phosphatic manure
cannot be relied upon for producing a good crop of roots. On
such land artificial manures are seldom used alone, but usually
in conjunction with half a dressing of common dung. Dissolved
bones, dissolved Peruvian guano, or compound artificial manures
containing from 2 to 3 per cent, of ammonia, are greatly prefer-
able to mineral superphosphate as manure for root-crops on
light land and on loamy soils out of condition.

Sewage and Sewage Manures. — The disposal of town-sewage
and night-soil is surrounded with many difficulties, and generally
entails, more or less, considerable expense upon the inhabitants
of towns. The sewage question has not made much progress
in England since 1860, so far as discovery and invention are
concerned ; nor does there seem to be much prospect of any new
or startling light being thrown upon it in the future. It appears
from the most recent official reports and investigations of this
question, that town-sewage can be disposed of and purified best
and cheapest by the process of land irrigation for agricultural
purposes, where local conditions are favourable to its application.
With rare exceptions, however, sewage irrigation entails a more
or less considerable loss, for which adequate compensation
should be made to the sewage farmer by the town authorities
who desire to get rid of sewage, and to have it cleansed and
rendered innocuous in the most efficient way.

Experience has shown conclusively, that when foul liquids,
such as town-sewage, are passed through a depth of 5 or 6 feet
of porous and thoroughly drained land, they entirely lose their
offensive character ; and that by bringing into practice the prin-
ciples of downward intermittent filtration, a comparatively small

the Progress of English Agriculture. 831 = 565

area suffices to purify effectually large volumes of sewage. The
powerful oxidising properties of the air condensed within the
pores of the soil, and the renewal of the air in the soil, effect an
almost perfect destruction of the organic constituents of sewage,
and their conversion into harmless inorganic compounds. Land
properly prepared, and managed so as to admit of downward
intermittent filtration being practised successfully, may be com-
pared to a furnace charged with burning fuel. Like the fire in
a good-drawing furnace, a well-drained and fully aerated soil
burns up, or, in chemical language, oxidises, most perfectly the
putrescible nitrogenous organic matters in sewage, and transforms
them into nitrates and other final products of decomposition of
animal matters, products having no smell, colour, or injurious
properties. The soil, it may be observed, has not the power of
absorbing and retaining chemically the nitrates thus produced,
and in consequence the effluent drainage and the liquid mechani-
cally retained in the land are alike poor in nitrogen and other
fertilising matters, when liquids as dilute as town-sewage are
poured upon the land. It naturally follows that an accumulation
of nitrates or organic refuse-matters can as little take place in a
thoroughly drained and porous soil, so managed as to give full
scope to downward intermittent filtration as there can occur an
accumulation of half-burned foul products of combustion in the
chimney of a lighted furnace with a good draught, in which
foetid gases and organic refuse matters are effectively destroyed
by fire and air.

Land, deeply drained, and thoroughly impregnated with air. Soluble
exerts the same beneficial influence upon the soluble organic
constituents of sewage lor any number ot years, provided its dilute sewage
oxidising powers are not overtaxed in a given time, and a not concen-
sufficient interval is allowed between the successive operations
of concentrated irrigation for the admission of a plentiful supply gation.
of air, whereby the purifying oxidising powers of the soil are
constantly renewed. With good management, land suitable for
concentrated irrigation can never become overcharged with the
fertilising matters of sewage so as to become sewage-sick.

Indeed, no amount of sewage passed through a soil is capable of
materially raising its permanent fertility, for no soil has the
power of abstracting from dilute sewage the most valuable fer-
tilising matters, of concentrating them in the land, and allowing
the effluent to pass away deprived to a large extent of its fer-
tilising constituents. In other words, the soluble manuring con-
stituents of dilute sewage cannot be concentrated in the land by
irrigation. The land is not rendered more fertile if the clear
sewage of 10,000 persons is filtered through an acre, than it is
when the sewage from only 1000 persons is passed through the

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 K

832 = 566

Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

Proved by
analysis.

Failure to
purify by
chemical
agents.

same area. Growing crops derive advantage mainly from the
sewage held in the land mechanically, in the same manner in
which a sponge holds water ; and hence crops like Italian rye-
grass, which consume a large quantity of liquid, and admit of
being repeatedly irrigated with sewage, are precisely the kind
of crops that are peculiarly well adapted to sewage irrigation.

In proof of the fact that in light, porous, sandy soils, through
which enormous quantities of sewage had been passed, no
material accumulation of fertilising matters took place by long
continued irrigations with large volumes of sewage, attention
may be directed to an analysis which I made of the soil from
the noted irrigated Craigentinny meadows, near Edinburgh.

The soil was found to contain in 100 parts : —

■"Organic matter 1 • 60

Oxide of iron and alumina 1 ’04

Phosphoric acid ‘06

Sulphuric acid traces

Lime ’08

Magnesia ’25

Potash ‘08

Soda -13

Chloride of sodium ‘02

Silica (white fine sand) 96 '80

100-06

* Containing nitrogen • 039

Equal to ammonia -047

It appears from this analysis, that notwithstanding the enor-
mous volumes of sewage which, in the course of many years, had
been poured upon this land, it contained only a little above
1^ per cent, of organic matter, and practically merely traces of
accumulated nitrogen. What little organic matter there was in
the land, the examination showed not to be due to sewage, but
to consist of visible fibres of roots and similar organic remains
of the grass-crops grown upon the land. After irrigation with
large quantities of sewage for many years, the land, it will be
seen, is still a poor sandy soil, containing nearly 97 per cent, of
pure silica.

Many attempts have been made of late years to purify sewage
by various chemical precipitating agents, and to extract from it
at the same time fertilising matters, which in a dried and pul-
verised condition, are sold in England at prices varying from
IZ, to 3Z. per ton. The manufacture of night-soil and town-
refuse into portable manure is carried on at Rochdale, Halifax,
Manchester, Oldham, and other towns ; but as neither the manu-
facture of night-soil manures, nor the conversion of sewage-
deposits into portable manures, pays the contingent costs of the

the Progress of English Agriculture. 833 = 567

treatment, and as both have failed to be successful in an eco-
nomical point of view, no further reference need be made to
these processes.

The experience of the best sewage farmers in England appears Means of puri-
to prove that concentrated, or downward intermittent, filtration, sewage,
when it can be practised, is the most perfect means of purifying
nnd getting rid of sewage. It, however, can only be successfully
carried out with sewage deprived, by subsidence in settling-
tanks, of the greater part of its suspended matters ; for unless
those matters are previously removed, they accumulate on the
surface of the land, choke up its pores, and render it impossible
to filter rapidly large volumes of seAvage through the soil. The
slimy character of these suspended matters causes many diffi-
culties in the application of sewage to land, especially if the soil
is not sufficiently porous to allow the passage of large volumes
through it in a given time. There are many heavy clay-soils in Clay soils unfit
England which, in my opinion, are alike unfit for concentrated urigation.
and ordinary sewage-irrigation, and the attempts to render them
fit for the reception of sewage can only result in ruinous ex-
penses either to the ratepayers or to the occupier of such land.

Downward intermittent filtration, no doubt, is an excellent means
of disposing of sewage, if suitable land can be found ; but what
is to be done, it may be asked, with the sewage in localities
where clay-soils abound, or the land is so situated as to render
irrigation impracticable? In such a case, the best plan would
appear to be to purify raw sewage, by means of chemical precipi-
tating agents, sufficiently to admit of the clarified and partially
purified effluent being poured into a water-course without creating
a nuisance. Numerous experiments with all kinds of precipi-
tating agents, and the experience of others on a large scale,
have led me to the conclusion that by far the most efficacious
and, on the whole, the most economical precipitating agent is Crude sulphate
crude sulphate of alumina, assisted by the addition of just enough of alumina best
lime to render the effluent slightly alkaline and to effect the agent,
complete precipitation of the alumina from the crude sulphate.

In most cases sewage thus purified may be allowed to run into
a stream of adequate dimensions, and in places where running-
water is not at hand, special filtering-beds must be prepared to
effect the final purification of the clarified sewage.

Summing up briefly these remarks on the disposal of sewage
in England, I would observe : —

1. In my judgment, the most economical plan to dispose of Disposal of
town-sewage is to carry it, if possible, bodily far enough into sewage,
the open sea to destroy any chance of its being brought back

again by the tide.

2. When sewage cannot be taken out into the sea, and land

3 K 2

834 = 565 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

fit for downward intermittent filtration can be acquired, the
sewage, partially clarified by subsidence, may be dealt with
partly in the way of ordinary irrigation, with a view of realising
a profit in growing Italian rye-grass and other crops, and partly
by way of concentrated or downward intermittent filtration,
with a view of getting rid of the excess of sewage for which
the sewage farmers cannot find a profitable use.

3. When such land cannot be procured, recourse should be had
to the purification of sewage by chemical precipitating agents.

4. Town sewage, in my opinion, far from being a valuable
agricultural commodity, is a nuisance, which can only in
exceptional circumstances be turned to profitable account. It
cannot therefore be reasonably expected that the agriculturist
should have to pay the costs which the disposal of sewage entails,
and which ought to be defrayed by the ratepayers, who enjoy
the luxury and comfort of a system of water-closets and
thorough town drainage.

CHAPTER IV.

Improvement op Permanent Pastures.

Recent atten- PERMANENT pastures in England were much neglected previous
tion to the 180Q, little or nothing in the way of improvements having

■ been done until then to most grass lands. During the last six
or eight years, however, owing partly to the good prices of dairy
produce and of store stock and butcher’s meat, more attention
has been paid to the improvement of permanent pastures. In a
report on the application of chemistry to agriculture, it would be
out of place to enter into details as to the means whereby worn-
out old pastures, and grass land in general, have of late years been
so much improved. The subject is introduced into this report
mainly for the purpose of pointing out that the improvements
which have recently taken place in England are due in a great
measure to the laborious and long-continued experiments of
Eiperiments at Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. The experiments to which I spe-
Rothamsted. cially refer were carried out in Mr. Lawes’s Park at Rothamsted,
with a view of studying the influence of different manuring
agents on the mixed herbage of permanent grass-land. They were
commenced in 1856, and have now been continued over a period
of twenty years. At the commencement of this long experi-
mental period, the herbage was pretty uniform over the whole
area selected, and included a number of plants, of which about
fifty species vary so projninently as to be readily recognised in a
fair average sample of hay grown without manure. About

the Progress of English Agriculture. 835 = 569

twenty plots, from one-quarter to one-half an acre each, were
marked out, of which two have been left continuously without
manure, and each of the others has received its own special
manure, and, as a rule, the same description year after year.

Some plots were manured exclusively with salts of ammonia
or nitrate of soda ; others with purely mineral manures of various
kinds, some being of a more mixed character, including phos-
phates and salts of potash ; others being composed chiefly of
phosphates without potash. Again, on other plots, the effect of Efifects on the
mixed minerals and nitrogenous and animal manures in various herbage,
proportions on the mixed herbage was tried.

Under this varied treatment, a remarkable change in the flora
became apparent, even in the first years of the experiments, and
in later years these changes have been more fully developed ;
so much so that the herbage of most of the variously manured
plots now presents a striking contrast to that of the unmanured
plots.

On the plots manured with large quantities of ammonia, the
finer grasses, as well as the clovers and other leguminous plants,
in a few years disappeared all but completely, as if by magic ;
and on the other hand, on those plots to which potash and
superphosphate were applied clovers and other Leguminosm
made their appearance in increased numbers and vigour.

Dr. Gilbert summarises the general results of the experiments Results of the
briefly as follows : — exi>enments.

The mean produce of hay per acre per annum has ranged on
the different plots from 23 cwt. without manure to about 64 cwt.
on the plot the most heavily manured.

The number of species found has generally been about 50 on
the unmanured plots, and has been less on the most poorly
manured plots.

Species belonging to the order Gramineae have, on the average,
contributed about 68 per cent, of the weight of the mixed
herbage grown without manure ; about 65 per cent, of that grown
by purely mineral manures (that is, without nitrogen) ; and
about 94 per cent, of that grown by the same mineral manures,
with a large quantity of ammonia-salts in addition.

Species of the order Leguminosae have, on the average, con-
tributed about 9 per cent, of the produce without manure, about
20 per cent, of that by purely mineral manures (containing
potash), and less than O’Ol per cent, of that by the mixture of
the same mineral manures and a large quantity of ammoniacal
salts.

Species belonging to various other orders have, on the average,
contributed about 23 per cent, of the produce grown without
manure, about 15 per cent, of that grown by purely mineral

S3Q = 570 Irifluence of Chemical Discoveries on

Farm\’aril
dung best.

Early

maturity.

Value of che-
mistry.

manures, and only about 6 per cent, of that grown by the mixture
of the mineral manures and a large amount of ammonia-salts.

The preceding brief account obviously can only very inade-
quately indicate the interest of these curious illustrations of the
domination of one plant over another in the mixed herbage of
permanent grass-land, but it is sufficient to illustrate the power
which the farmer has in his hand to modify, by means of properly
selected manures, the herbage of his pasture land, and to increase
its produce.

Speaking generally, nitrogenous manures increased the quan-
tity, phosphatic and potash manures raised the quality of the
pasture.

Unfortunately, the application of artificial manures to per-
manent pastures is often disappointing in an economical point
of view. As a rule, no artificial manuring mixture gives so
favourable a return as good farmyard manure, or the manure
produced by the consumption of cake, more particularly decor-
ticated cotton-cake, on the pasture. In many cases the most
profitable way to improve permanent pasture is to feed off the
grass, giving from 3 to 4 cwt. of decorticated cotton-cake per
head of cattle ; and, on the whole, those farmers who apply farm-
yard manure liberally to pasture land, and grow their roots and
cereal crops with artificial manures, derive more advantage from
this practice than others who apply artificial manures to pasture
land, and common dung to cereal and root crops.

CHAPTER V.

Feeding and Rearing of Stock.

The great change which has taken place in the practice of
feeding stock in modern times has consisted in bringing the
animals much earlier to maturity, by means of careful breeding
and more liberal feeding.

In England great attention is paid to supplying the young
animals liberally with such foods as linseed-cake, pease, and
bean-meal, which are rich in nitrogenous constituents. It is
well known that animals stinted in their youth in food of the
proper kind do not fatten well in after years.

Chemistry has done already, and is still doing, good service
to the breeder and fattener of stock by determining the compo-
sition of nearly every description of feeding material, and inves-
tigating the physiological functions of the various constituents
of food in the animal economy, with the ultimate object of

the Progress of English Agriculture. S37 = 571

making the best economical use of the various kinds of feeding-
stuffs at the disposal of the breeder and feeder of stock.

The English market is well supplied with numerous articles
of food, some of which are scarcely ever used by continental
farmers, though largely employed by British farmers for feeding
and fattening purposes.

It may not be amiss, therefore, to give a list of the various
articles of food used in England, and to add a few remarks in
some instances.

Linseed and rape-cake, especially the former, are largely used Linseed-cake,
for feeding and fattening purposes, and, if pure and in good
condition, no food is considered to equal linseed-cake for rapidly
fattening sheep and oxen.

Earthnut-cake is occasionally sold in England to the farmer, Eaithnut-cake.
but more frequently it is bought up by cake-makers, and used
for adulterating linseed-cake.

There are two varieties of cotton-cake. One is made in Cotton-cake.
England from Egyptian cotton-seed, shell and kernel crushed
together, and the other is principally imported from New
Orleans, and made in America from the decorticated seed.
Decorticated cotton-cake has also been manufactured in Liver-
pool to a small extent the last year or two, from the kernels of
cotton-seed imported from America. Both descriptions of cotton-
cake are largely used by English stock-feeders. Whole-seed
cotton-cake has been found very useful to store sheep and oxen
out on grass, at periods of the year when they are apt to become
affected by scour ; and it is also given with much advantage to
stock fed upon abundance of succulent food, which has a ten-
dency to keep the bowels in too loose a state. In these cases the
astringent principle contained in the husk of cotton-seed acts
medicinally as a never-failing corrective. Decorticated cotton-
cake, being made from the kernel in which all the nutriment
resides, is a much more concentrated food than cake made from
the whole seed. On an average it yields about 40 per cent, of
nitrogenous matters, and possesses high manuring qualities, but
it is too rich in nitrogenous compounds to suit by itself the health
of herbivorous animals. It is rather indigestible, and requires
to be broken up finer than linseed-cake ordinarily is ; it should
be given to fattening stock more sparingly, and mixed with about
twice its weight of Indian corn or barley-meal, or meal rich in
starch and comparatively poor in nitrogenous compounds.

Experience further has shown that, when sheep are put on
rough poor pasture, on which they are obliged to ramble over
much ground in order to pick up sufficient food, the very test
means of making the most of the wiry herbage, and to keep the
sheep in good condition, and at the same time to materially

838 = 072 Ir^uence of Chemical Discoveries on

Cocoanut-cake.

Locust-beans.

Rice-meal.

Durra grain.

Cereals.

Rearing and
fatteningstock,

Experiments.

improve the grass land, is to allow them from one-half to three-
quarters of a pound of decorticated cotton-cake per head per
day. In that case it is essential, for maintaining them in good
health, to give the sheep free access to water.

Cocoanut-cake and palmnut-kernel cake and meal are pro-
duced at Liverpool and other places in England, and are much
appreciated for their fattening properties. These cakes contain
from 14 to 15 per cent, of albuminous compounds, and variable
proportions of oil, and are better adapted for fattening stock
than for young growing animals or store stock.

Locust-beans in the shape of meal, containing on an average
from 50 to 54 per cent, of sugar, are much relished by horses,
oxen, and sheep, and are used in England to a considerable
extent, and with advantage, as an addition to other and less
palatable food. Locust-bean meal is also a favourite addition
to almost all compound cattle-foods, compound feeding-cakes,
and cattlc-spices sold in England.

Rice-meal, obtained in preparing rice for consumption, is
rich in starch, the better qualities generally containing from
7 to 8 per cent, of oil, and about the same proportion of albu-
minous substances. It is largely employed in England for
fattening pigs.

Another good fattening grain which is seldom seen on the
Continent, dari or durra grain, the seed of the Andropof/on
Sorghum, is occasionally imported into England, and sold at a
cheap rate.

Indian corn, foreign beans, oats, and barley complete the list
of the concentrated foods most frequently employed in England
for feeding or fattening purposes.

The art of rearing and fattening stock has made considerable
progress in England during the last twenty years. Perhaps in
no country is it carried into practice so successfully as in
England. Although its present high state of development and
the success obtained in fattening stock in the most economical
manner are mainly the results of actual practical experience, it
cannot be doubted that the important investigations and
numerous feeding experiments carried on at Rothamsted by
Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have contributed to this success, and
much increased our knowledge of the rationale of the feeding
and fattening processes.

These experiments, commenced in 1847, and continued at
intervals up to the present time, have established numerous
important factors in relation to the proportions of the constituents
in foods, which are the most favourable for fattening ; the
amount of food consumed in relation to a given live weight ;
the amount of food consumed to yield a given amount ol in-

the Progress of English Agrieulture.

839 = 573

crease ; the composition of the animals themselves and of their
increase ; the relation of the constituents stored in the increase
to those consumed ; and, by difference, the proportion of the
food constituents expired, perspired, or voided in the dung.

Numerous analyses of the excrements of oxen, sheep, and
pigs, fed on foods of known composition, have also been made
by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert ; and from all the results of these
I important inquiries, it has been estimated that in the valuation
of animal manure, founded on a knowledge of the composition
of the food, 90 per cent, of the nitrogen of the food may be Proportion of
i reckoned to be recovered in the manure in the case of cakes, “‘trogen m the
pulse, and other highly nitrogenous feeding-stuffs ; and 85 per jn manure,
cent, in the case of foods comparatively poor in nitrogen, such
as the cereal grains and roots ; and less than 65 per cent, in the
I case of bulky feeding-stuffs, such as hay and straw.

I The investigations have proved that our farm stock, even in
the store condition, contain less nitrogenous substances and
more fat than was previously supposed, and that the so-called
fattening process, in fact, consists in the deposition of fat in the
animal body in a much greater degree, and that of lean muscle
in a much less degree, than was formerly supposed.

Another important general result of Messrs. Lawes and
Gilbert’s feeding experiments is that the amount of increase in
live weight and in fat is, as our fattening foods go, much more
dependent upon the amount of non-nitrogenous than upon that
! of the nitrogenous constituents which the food supplies.

1 In other words, the comj)arative values of our fattening foods,
m a source of saleable animal increase, depend more on their
1 amount of digestible and assimilable non-nitrogenous consti-
j tuents than on that of the nitrogenous ; but, as a source of
manure, their value is the greater the higher their proportion
I of nitrogenous compounds.

In the case of young stock or milking-cows not over well
I supplied with concentrated purchased foods, the dung will not
1 be quite so valuable as that of fattening-stock, inasmuch as a
small proportion of the nitrogenous and phosphatic food con-
stituents will be stored up during the increase in the live weight
of the young animal, or will be expended in the production of
milk ; still, even in the case of growing store cattle or milking-
cows, by far the larger proportion of the nitrogen and the
phosphates of the food will be rejected in the solid and liquid
excrements.

( It is well to bear in mind that the estimated manure value of Estimated
f purchased foods has nothing to do with mere speculation, but
I rests upon well-ascertained facts, brought to light by numerous
feeding experiments in this and other countries. The rate of

840 = 574 Ivjluence of Chemical Discoveries on

valuation that may be adopted by different persons may vary ;
but the statement that the food of fattening-stock, in passing-
through the animal, loses little (if any) of its nitrogen by exhala-
tion, and none of its mineral constituents, and that, practically
speaking, the whole of the mineral matter and about nine-tenths
of the nitrogen of the food are recovered in the dung and urine
of the animal, are based on carefully ascertained facts. In this
country, a long series of most carefully conducted and intelligently
conceived feeding experiments have been made by Mr, Lawes
of Rothamsted. These experiments extended over several years,
and they were carried out at great expense, with a variety of
feeding-stuffs which were given to oxen, sheep, and pigs, care
being taken to put up a sufficient number of fattening animals
to counteract the irregularities arising from the different feeding
capabilities of individual animals. The food consumed was
carefully analysed, the gain in the live weight noted, and the
loss in food by respiration ascertained ; and the amount and j
quality of the manure produced by the consumption of various i
foods were determined by laborious weighings and analyses.

The greater portion of the nitrogenous and mineral matters
of the food is recovered in the manure, and the greater part
of the non-nitrogenous substances is lost by respiration and
other exhalations, whilst a comparatively small proportion of
the nitrogenous substance and of the mineral matter of food is
retained in the increase.

For a given amount of increase produced, oxen void more as
manure, and expend more in respiration, &c., than sheep ; and
sheep very much more than pigs. And lastly, for a given,
weight of dry substance consumed, oxen void more as manure
than sheep, and sheep much more than pigs ; but oxen respire
rather less than sheep, and sheep rather less than pigs.

The proportions of certain constituents in a ton of various
articles of food which are stored up in the animal, and the pro-
portions which pass into the manure by the consumption of a
ton of different kinds of food, have thus been ascertained with \

tolerable precision by actual experiments. If, therefore, the '
composition of the various kinds of food that are given to |
fattening-animals is known, we can determine beforehand,
without actually analysing the manure produced from the con-
sumption of a ton of each kind, how much nitrogen, potash,
and phosphoric acid existing in the food will be recovered in the
manure produced. And as nitrogen (or its equivalent expressed
as ammonia), potash, and phosphoric acid (or its equivalent
expressed as phosphate of lime) have a certain market value
as manuring constituents, we can likewise ascertain the money
value of the manure produced from the consumption of a ton

the Progress of English Agriculture. 841 = 575

of any of the ordinary stock foods, the average composition of
which has been ascertained.

By allowing %d. per lb. for ammonia, 2d. per lb. for potash, and Money value.
Irf. per lb. for phosphate of lime, rates which fairly represent
the present market value of these fertilising constituents, the
value of the manure obtained by the consumption of different
articles of food may thus be estimated with sufficient accuracy
to be of considerable service from a practical point of view.
Proceeding on this basis, Mr. Lawes constructed the following
table in which the estimated money value of manure from one
ton of most ordinary articles of food is given : —

Table IV. — Estimated Value of the Makuee obtained by the Mr- Lawes’s
Consumption of different Akticles of Food, each supposed to bo
good quality of its kind.

No.

Description of Food.

Money Value
of the Manure
from one
Ton of each Food.

•

£ B. d.

Cottonseed-cake, decorticated

6 10 0

Kape-cake

4 18 6

Linseed-cake

4 12 6

Cottonseed-cake, undecorticatcd . .

3 18 6

Lentils

3 17 0

Beans

3 14 0

Tares

3 13 6

Linseed

3 13 0

Pease

3 2 6

Indian meal •

1 11 0

Locust-beams

12 6

Malt-dnst

4 5 6

Bran

2 18 0

Coarse pollard

2 18 0

Fine pollard

2 17 0

Oats

1 15 0

Wheat

1 13 0

Malt

1 11 6

Barley

1 10 0

Clover hay

2 5 6

Meadow hay

1 10 6

Bean-straw

10 6

Pea-straw

0 18 9

Oat-straw

0 13 6

Wheat-straw

0 12 6

Barley-straw

0 10 9

Potatoes

0 7 0

Parsnips

0 5 6

Mangoldwnrzel

0 5 3

Swedish turnips

0 4 3

Common turnips

0 4 0

Carrots

0 4 0

84:2=576

Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

Probable losses
in practice.

This table, published in a paper by Mr. Lawcs in the ‘ Journal I
of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ second series, vol. x.. Part I., I
p. 11, showing the calculated value of the manure resulting I
from the consumption of purchased food, gives a correct ■
chemical estimate of the comparative manurial value which ■
the various kinds of feeding-stuft’s, after they have passed through ■
the body of the animal, would possess if the whole of their ■
fertilising constituents could be incorporated with the soil I
loithout loss. I

In most cases, however, in the ordinary course of farming, a I
certain loss, differing in amount according to a great variety of I
circumstances, will occur. I

Thus, when the food is consumed upon the land by sheep, in
favourable seasons, the loss will be comparatively small. On
the other hand, if cake or corn is consumed in open yards, in a
district where the annual rainfall is excessive, and where, on
account of scarcity of straw or other available litter, the manure
produced is made under very unfavourable conditions, a large
proportion of the soluble and most valuable constituents of the
dung will run to waste.

The loss due to the removal of the most valuable soluble
manure constituents of food by heavy rainfall is much more
considerable than the loss by evaporation ; and hence the manure
produced under cover will be more valuable than that made in
open unspouted yards, where much of the soluble fertilising
material is washed out. In other localities, where the rainfall
is small, and in some cases barely sufficient to make the straw
and cattle excrements into manure, little or no appreciable loss \
in fertilising elements is experienced, although it may be made
in open yards. On farms where plenty of litter is used, it would |
be incorrect to make the same deductions from the calculated !
manure value of food as on those where the provision for retain-
ing the soluble fertilising matters of farmyard manure is more _
or less defective.

Again, when the manure is produced in boxes in which fatten- ;
ing stock are copiously littered with cut straw, the loss in manuring |
matters is less than when it is made in yards with long straw. ;

Cake and other concentrated food given to young growing ,
stock or to dairy cows supplies more or less of the substance of
the bone and lean muscle of the growing stock, or of the milk
constituents sold off the farm ; and in consequence the additional
value of the manure resulting from the consumption of purchased
food is less in these cases than in that of full-grown fattening i
stock fed upon the same description and same amount of cake.

Assuming that, under the most favourable circumstances, the
manure value given in the above table be adopted, we have to

the Progress of English Agriculture. 843 = 577

consider under what circumstances and to what extent deduc-
tions are to be made. A valuer may take into consideration
the various circumstances under which the manure was made.
For instance, whether in boxes or yards, whether the rainfall
was large or small, or whether the amount of litter was sufficient
to absorb all the liquid without loss ; in fact, he might value
each circumstance just as he would value each separate crop in
separate fields, or he may take a general average of loss.

CHAPTEE VI.

Industries attached to the Farm.

Both in France and in Germany the manufacture of starch, English
beetroot sugar, and vinegar, the distillation of spirits, and other farmers
industries, are frequently carried on in connection with ordinary cultural
farm practice. In England these industries are seldom attached
to the farm, but generally pursued in separate establishments
by persons not engaged in agricultural operations. Of the
industries having an intimate connection with agriculture, the
manufacture of beetroot sugar, the factory system of cheese-
making, and the production of condensed milk, may be briefly
noticed in this Report.

Manufacture of Beetroot Sugar. — The first attempt to pro- Beetroot
duce, on a manufacturing scale, sugar from beetroots grown s'lgar-
in England was made in 1868 by Mr. James Duncan, who in
that year established a factory for the manufacture of beetroot
sugar at Lavenham, in the county of Suffolk. The sugar-beets
grown by the farmers in the neighbourhood of the works, on an
average, yielded fully 10 per cent, of sugar, and the produce of
the roots of that quality amounted to from 15 to 18 tons per acre.

When the experiment was set on foot to grow sugar-beets in
the neighbourhood of Lavenham, grave doubts were expressed
in many quarters whether the climate of England would prove
suitable for beetroot culture. Numerous analyses, by myself
and other chemists, of sugar-beets grown in different English
counties, as well as in Ireland and even in some districts in
Scotland, set these doubts at rest, and proved that with care and
attention, and special regard to the kind and quality of manure
used, sugar-beets as rich in sugar as those produced in France
and Germany could be grown in Great Britain without difficulty.
Nevertheless, the manufacture of beetroot sugar, after having
been carried on for a limited number of years in a spirited
manner by Mr. Duncan, and with success, so far as the yield of
suffar was concerned, was abandoned on account of unforeseen

844 = 575 Lijiucnce of Chemical Discoveries on

Distillation of
spirits.

Influence of
manure.

practical difficulties. For some years past sugar has not been
produced from English-grown beets.

At about the time when the works at Lavenham were opened,
Mr. Robert Campbell, of Buscott Park, in Berkshire, put up
on his estate appliances of the most approved description for
the distillation of spirits from home-grown sugar-beets, but
after a few years these works also were closed.

Little consideration will show at once that, if the sugar-
beet industry is to succeed in England, the manufacturers will
have to take large areas, of land, farm it specially with a view
to the produce they want, and become entirely independent
of the farmers in the neighbourhood. It is well known that
large, heavily manured crops not only yield less sugar per cent,
in the juice than smaller unmanured or sparingly manured crops,
but that the juice of the former, moreover, contains much more
saline and nitrogenous constituents than that of the latter, and
that a proportionately larger amount of sugar can be obtained
from juice less impregnated with saline and nitrogenous matters
than from juice richer in these constituents. The interest of
the farmer, who sells his roots to the manufacturer at a given
price, manifestly is to grow large roots, and with them a heav}'
crop per acre ; but this interest is directly opposed to that of
the manufacturer, whose policy naturally must be to restrict the
farmer in the use of manures which, like dung or guano, or nitro-
genous manures in general, are known to produce large roots.
Any such restrictions are impracticable in a country like England,
and hence the difficulty which manufacturers of beetroot sugar
will always find in England, viz. in being supplied by farmers
with a sufficient quantity of roots of a quality to make the beetroot
sugar industry successful. Generally speaking, and within certain
limits, it may be said that the poorer and the smaller the crop per
acre, the richer in sugar will be found the juice of the roots.

The influence of different manures on the quality of the juice
of beet roots is not less marked than that on the yield per acre.
Thus in the interesting experiments which were commenced in
1871 at Rothamsted, the average produce of roots during three

years was : —

Tons.

"With dimg alone, about 1 fl

„ and nitrate of soda, about 21

„ and ammonia-salts 22 f

„ rape cake, and ammonia-salts . . . . 25

„ and rape cake, about 25

With mineral manure alone, about 6

„ and nitrate 19

,, and ammonia-salts .. .. 14-1

„ rape-cake, and ammonia, about 201

„ and rape-cake, about .. .. ITf

the Progress of English Agriculture. 84:5 = 57' 9

The experience of Messrs. Lavves and Gilbert, myself, and Climate
■others, has thus clearly proved that the climate and soils of Eng- fi'vomjable to
land are by no means unfavourable to sugar-beet culture, and that JJeetroot
roots as rich in sugar as in France and Germany can be grown
in this country. If, however, the manufacturer depends for the
supply of his roots upon the farmers in the neighbourhood of
the factory, the latter, probably, will not find it answer his pur-
pose to grow small crops, rich in sugar, if he can get no more
than IZ. per ton at the factory. 1/. a ton may appear a good
price, and to yield a good profit to a farmer who grows from 18
to 20 tons of roots per acre. Probably, however, he will have
to pay 5s. per ton on an average for cartage to the factory,
leaving 15s. per ton clear.

If, like many a continental beet-grower, a farmer has not suf-
ficient capital to fatten a good number of beasts, or no good
market to dispose profitably of his fat stock, it would no doubt
•answer his purpose very well to sell sugar-beets at 15s. per ton
net. In many parts of the Continent where no ready and profit-
able sale for fat stock exists, and capital is not so abundant as
in England, the manufacturers of beetroot sugar and the dis-
tillers find little difficulty in inducing farmers to grow the neces-
sary quantity of sugar-beets to keep the factory at full work ; but
in most parts of England farmers find it profitable not only to
consume the food raised on the farm, but to buy additional food
for the fattening-stock, and they can always obtain a much
better price for well-fattened meat than can be realised on the
Continent.

The fact is, a ton of sugar-beets, of average quality, is worth Selling beet-
more to the farmer for fattening purposes than 15s. a ton. On loots unprofit-
farms, therefore, on which not sufficient food can be raised to f^rj^efs
meet the requirements of the fattening-stock, and where consider-
able sums of money are spent in the purchase of oilcake, meal,
and other dry food, farmers cannot be expected to sell beets at
IZ. a ton, and cart the roots at their own expense to the factory.

Cheese Factories. — Since the establishment of the first cheese cheese
factory at Derby in 1870, some twenty factories have sprung up factories,
in five different counties in England, capable of dealing with
the milk of about 6000 cows. The time has therefore come
when the factory movement may be acknowledged as a success.

Experience has fully satisfied the expectations of those who first
introduced the American factory system into England, and no
doubt that system of making cheese will extend from year to year
in the dairy districts. In most places where cheese factories
have been erected, the kind of cheese produced is Cheddar.

The factory system is peculiarly well adapted to the making
of Cheddar cheese, for direct investigations into the chemistry

Cheddar plan.

Aylesbury
Dairy Com-
pany.

Condensed milk
manufacture.

84G = 580 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

of cheese-making made by me, as early as 1861, proved that,
according to the Cheddar plan, cheese-making can be redueed
to something like definite scientific rules, the strict observ ance
of which is followed by a successful result. In consequence of
the more uniform and systematic separation of the curd by
rennet of uniform strength, which is possible where larger quan-
tities are dealt with than in private dairies ; of its subsequent
treatment by exposing it to a definite elevated temperature not
exceeding 95° to 98° Fahr. ; and especially in consequence of
the attention which can be given to the heating of the ripening
and store room in cheese factories by hot-water pipes, Cheddar
cheese made in factories is generally of a superior character to
that made in private dairies. Another advantage of the factory
system is the diminished cost at which cheese of a superior
quality is obtained with certainty if only certain plain and
definite rules are strictly followed by the maker. Moreover, the
factory system saves much drudgery to the farmer’s wife and
daughters, and offers the opportunity to dairy farmers, who gene-
rally sell their milk, to dispose of their surplus production at
certain seasons of the year in the readiest and most profitable
manner.

A large London dairy company (the Aylesbury Dairy Com-
pany), within a recent date, have established a cheese factory
and piggery at Swindon, in Wiltshire, where the surplus supply
of milk is turned into cheese and the whey given to pigs ; and
it is not improbable that the combination of cheese-making and
pig-feeding with the milk supply of London will be found the
most profitable plan of turning milk into money.

Condensed Milk Manufacture. — It may be stated of this
industry that there are three establishments in the United
Kingdom — one at Aylesbury, another at Marlow in Ireland,
and a third at Swindon in Wiltshire, all of which produce
excellent condensed milk.

In the two first-named factories the milk is evaporated in
vacuum pans to the consistency of a thin syrup, which is further
thickened by the addition of sugar. In the latter the milk is
evaporated in open, shallow pans, at a low temperature, care
being taken to keep the surface constantly agitated by wooden
racks, kept in motion by machinery, so that no skin of casein is
formed. When the milk has reached a certain degree of con-
centration, fine white sugar, previously boiled up for some time
with a sufficient quantity of milk to make it into syrup, is added,
and the whole evaporated to a thick syrup, in which condition
the milk is transferred, whilst still warm, to tins, the lids of
which are at once soldered up air-tight. In this state condensed
milk generally contains from 25 to 28 per cent, of water.

847 = 55/

the Progress of English Agriculture.

CHAPTER VII.

Experimental Stations.

There are two agricultural experimental stations in England, English ex-
the oldest of which is the celelebrated establishment of world- pei'mental
wide reputation, belonging to Mr. Lawes, of Rothamsted Park,
near St. Albans, in Hertfordshire. The other, called into
existence quite recently, is at Woburn, Bedfordshire, on land
allotted by his Grace the Duke of Bedford, for the purpose of
carrying out certain field and feeding experiments, undertaken
on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, under
the direction of Mr. Lawes and myself.

In Scotland, the Aberdeenshire Agricultural Association, since Scotch.
1875, has employed a chemist, Mr. Thomas Jamieson, for the
purpose of conducting experiments in agricultural science on
five sites, or “ Experimental Stations,” of small dimensions,
viz. the stations at Aboyne, Durris, Hairis, Turriff, and Cluny.

Within the current year the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland has made arrangements to establish several
Experimental Stations in several parts of Scotland.

Rothamsted Experimental Station.

The foundation of the Rothamsted Experimental Station by
Mr. Lawes may be said to date from 1843.

This establishment has, up to the present time, been entirely
unconnected with any external organisation, and has been main-
tained entirely by Mr. Lawes, He has further set apart a sum
of 100,000/. and certain areas of land, for the continuance of the
investigations after his death. In 1854-5 a new laboratory was
built by the public subscriptions of agriculturists, and presented
to Mr. Lawes in July 1855, when the old barn-laboratory was
abandoned, and the new one opened.

From June 1843, up to the present time. Dr. J. H. Gilbert
I has been associated with Mr. Lawes, and has had the direction
of the laboratory.

The number of assistants and other helps has increased from
time to time. During the last twenty-five years the staff has
consisted of one or two and sometimes three chemists, and two
or three general assistants. The chief occupation of the general
assistants is to superintend the field experiments — that is, the
compounding of the manures, the measurement of the plots, the
application of the manures, and the harvesting of the crops ; also
the taking of samples, their preparation for analysis, &c. A
botanical assistant is also occasionally employed, with from three
to six boys under him, and with him is generally associated one

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 L

Mr. Lawes’

experimental

station.

848 = 582 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

Experiments
on vegetation.

Ra'ufall.

Drain-gauges.

of the permanent general assistants, who at other times undertakes
the botanical work.

Two or three computers and record-keepers have been occu-
pied in calculating and tabulating field, feeding, and laboratory
results, copying, «Scc.

The field experiments, and occasionally feeding experiments,
also employ a considerable but a very variable number of agri-
cultural labourers.

The investigations may be classed under two heads ; —

I. Field Experiments. — Experiments on Vegetation, ^c. — The
general scope and plan of the field experiments has been ; —

To grow some of the most important crops of rotation, each
separately, year after year, for many years in succession, on the
same land, without manure, with farmyard manure, and with a
great variety of chemical manures ; the same description of
manure being, as a rule, applied year after year on the same
plots. Experiments on an actual course of rotation, with differ-
ent manures, have also been made.

In this way field experiments have been conducted as follows :

On wheat, 34 years in succession, 13 acres, 35 plots, many of
which are duplicates of others.

On barley, 26 years in succession, 4J acres, 23 (or 29) plots-

On oats, 9 years in succession, ^ acre, 6 plots.

On wheat, alternated with fallow, 26 years, 1 acre, 2 plots.

On different descriptions of wheat, 9 years, 7 acres (each year
on a different field), about 20 plots.

On beans, 31 years (including 1 year wheat and 5 years fal-
low), 1;|^ acre, 10 plots.

On beans, alternated with wheat, 28 years, 1 acre, 10 plots.

On clover, with fallow or a corn crop intervening, 28 years,
3 acres, 18 plots.

On turnips, 25 years, about 8 acres, 40 plots.

On sugar-beets, 5 years, about 8 acres, 40 plots.

On mangoldwurzel, 1 year (in progress), about 8 acres, 40
plots.

On potatoes, 1 year (in progress), 2 acres, 10 plots.

On rotation, 30 years, about 2^ acres, 12 plots.

On permanent grass-land, 22 years, about 7 acres, 20 plots.

Almost from the commencement of the experiments the rain-
fall has been measured ; for 24 years, in a gauge of one-thou-
sandth of an acre area, as Avell as in the ordinary small funnel-
gauge of 5 inches diameter. From time to time the nitrogen —
as ammonia and as nitric acid — has been determined in the
rain-water.

Three “ drain-gauges,” also of one-thousandth of an acre each,
for the determination of the quantity and composition of the

P-

the Progress of English Agriculture. 849 = 583

water percolating, respectively, through 20 inches’, 40 inches’,
and 60 inches’ depth of soil, with its subsoil or natural state of
consolidation, have also been constructed. A more numerous
series of smaller drain-gauges, arranged for the investigation of
the influence of different crops, and of different manures, are in
course of construction. Each of the differently manured plots of
the permanent experimental wheat-field having a separate pipe-
drain, the drainage waters have frequently been collected and
analysed.

Experiments were made for several years in succession to
determine whether plants assimilate free or uncombined nitrogen,
and also various collateral points. Plants of the graminaceous,
leguminous, and other families, were operated upon. The late
Dr. Pugh took a prominent part in this inquiry.

II. Experiments on Animals, ^c. — Experiments upon the Experiments
animals of the farm were commenced early in 1847, and have animals,
been continued, at intervals, up to the present time.

The following points have been investigated : —

1. The amount of food, and of its several constituents, con-
sumed in relation to a given live weight of animal within a
given time.

2. The amount of food, and of its several constituents, con-
sumed to produce a given amount of increase in live weight.

3. The proportion, and relative development, of the different
organs or parts of different animals.

4. The proximate and ultimate composition of the animals in
different conditions as to age and fatness ; and the probable
composition of their increase in live weight during the fattening
process.

5. The composition of the solid and liquid excreta in relation
to that of the food consumed.

6. The loss or expenditure of constituents, by respiration and
cutaneous exhalation — that is, for the mere sustenance of the
living meat-making and manure-making machine.

Supplementary Investigations. — In conjunction with Professor Application of
Way, an extensive investigation was undertaken on the appli- sewage,
cation of town sewage to different crops ; but especially to grass.

The amount and the composition of both the sewage and the
produce grown were determined, and in selected cases the com-
position of the land-drainage water was also determined.

Comparative experiments were also made on the feeding
qualities of the differently grown produce ; the amount of in-
crease yielded by oxen, and the amount and composition of the
milk yielded by cows, being determined. In this inquiry part
of the analytical work was performed at Rothamsted, but most
of it by Professor Way in London.

3 L 2

Woburn

experiments.

Particulars of

experimental

lands.

850 = 5S4 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

The chemistry of the malting process, the loss of food con-
stituents during its progress, and the comparative feeding-value
of barley and malt have also been investigated.

Experimental Station at Woburn, Bedfordshire.

Origin, Objects, and Plan of the Woburn Experiments. — In
the autumn of 1875, Mr. C. Randell proposed to the Council
of the Royal Agricultural Society that it be referred to the
Chemical Committee to consider the propriety, and the manner,
of instituting a series of experiments, to test the accuracy of the
estimated value of manure obtained by the consumption of
different articles of food, as given in Mr. Lawes’ Paper in the
‘Journal’ of the Society for that spring {vide supra, p. 575). The
subject had become especially important since, in accordance
with the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings Act, compen-
sation to outgoing tenants for the unexhausted value of purchased
food would become subject to arbitration. Mr. Randell proposed
that such experiments should be conducted by practical farmers,
in different districts, so as to secure a great variety of soil and
climate, and that the Society should grant funds for the purpose. '

In the course of the inquiry and discussion which arose in con- I

nection with Mr. Randell’s motion, it seemed to be generally *

considered that further experimental evidence on the subject ‘

might be of much value ; but it was at the same time decided *

that the probability of obtaining sufficiently accurate and appli- ^

cable results in that way was not such as to justify the Council ®

of the Society in making a grant for the purpose.

Under these circumstances, his Grace the Duke of Bedford
expressed his desire to afford facilities for making new ex- I '
periments at his own cost ; and Mr. Lawes and myself were ?

requested to draw up a scheme for carrying on, at Woburn, ' P
such experiments as they, in communication with the Chemical
Committee, might determine on. His Grace offered to give up
for the purpose Crawley Mill Farm, comprising about 90 acres, r
with the house and buildings. But, on examination, it was
found that there was no sufficient area on that farm so even in
character and in condition of soil as to render it available for
a considerable series of comparative field experiments. Even-
tually, after inspection of many others, a large field of much
more suitable land was selected, on Birchmoor Farm ; and his
Grace made arrangements with the tenant to give it up for the
purpose. Crawley Mill Farm is, however, also retained, as a
means of providing a residence for the superintendent of the
experiments, the requisite buildings, and the opportunity of 1
having at command the necessary horse and hand labour for the J
experiments. ■

the Progress of English Agriculture. 851 = 555

As experiments to determine the value of the manure obtained
by the consumption of purchased foods obviously involved the
necessity of feeding animals under conditions in which the
manure could be collected with as little loss as possible, the
Duke of Bedford erected eight very complete feeding-boxes, in
which the manure for the experimental barley and root crops,
as will be explained further on, is made.

The following is a description of the various experiments : —

“ Stack-yard Field f which is devoted to the field experiments,
has an area of nearly 27 acres. The soil consists of a very light
loam, to the depth of about 9 inches ; and the subsoil is almost
pure sand. Samples of the soil and of the subsoil have been
taken in fifteen different places. In each case six samples, each of
the depth of 9 inches, or to a total depth of 54 inches, were taken.

Plan of the Field Experiments. — It was considered important,
especially with reference to valuations under the Agricultural
Holdings Act, to add, if possible, to our knowledge of the
manure value of both artificial manures and consumed feeding-
stuffs ; and it was decided, therefore, both to compare the
effects of the manure obtained by the consumption of selected
purchased foods with those obtained by artificial manures
estimated to supply the same constituents, and also to deter-
mine the effects of dung, and artificial manuring substances,
applied year after year, on the Woburn soil, and to compare
these with the results obtained for so many years, with the
same manures, on the very different soil at Rothamsted.
Accordingly, 2^ of the 6 acres where wheat had been grown in
1876, after tares and turnips, each fed with cake, are devoted to
the continuous growth of wheat, and 2J acres to the continuous
growth of barley. In each case the area is divided into eleven
plots, of a quarter of an acre each ; and the description and
quantities of the manures applied per acre per annum, to both
the wheat and the barley, are as follows : —

Plot 1. — Unmanured.

„ 2. — 200 lbs. ammonia-salts ; containing 50 lbs. ammonia.

„ 3. — 275 lbs. nitrate soda ; containing nitrogen =50 lbs. ammonia.

„ 4. — 200 lbs. sulphate potass, 100 lbs. sulphate soda, 100 lbs. sulphate
magnesia, 3^ cwt. superphosphate of lime.

„ 5. — 200 lbs. sulphate potass, ICO lbs. sulphate soda, 100 lbs. sulphate
magnesia, 31 cwt. superphosphate ; and 200 lbs. ammonia-salts,
containing 50 lbs. ammonia.

„ 6. — 200 lbs. sulphate potass, 100 lbs. sulphate soda, 100 lbs. sulphate

magnesia, 3a cwt. superphosphate ; and 275 lbs. nitrate soda,
containing nitrogen = 50 lbs. ammonia.

„ 7. — Unmanured.

„ 8. — 200 lbs. sulphate potass, 100 lbs. sulphate soda, 100 lbs. sulphate
magnesia, 31 cwt. superphosphate ; and 400 lbs. ammonia-salts,
containing 100 lbs. ammonia.

Plan of the
field experi-
ments.

Subdivision of
plots.

Rotation

experiments.

Feeding ex-
periments.

852 = 586 Influence of Chemical Discoveries on

Plot 9. — 200 lbs. sulphate potass, 100 lbs. sulphate soda, 100 lbs. sulphate
magnesia, 3s cwt. superphosphate; and 550 lbs. nitrate soda,
containing nitrogen = 100 lbs. ammonia.

„ 10. — Farmyard manure, estimated to contain nitrogen = 100 lbs. ammonia.

„ 11. — Farmyard manure, estimated to contain nitrogen = 200 lbs. ammonia.

The Rotation Experiments. — Mr. Randell’s original proposition
was to compare, experimentally, the manure value of four different
descriptions of cake, namely —

Decorticated cotton-cake,

Common cotton-cake.

Linseed-cake,

Rape-cake.

Calculation showed, however, that taking into consideration the
comparatively small proportion in the total dung of the con-
stituents yielded by the purchased food consumed, there would
not be sufficient difference in the manure value of dung made
by the use of equal quantities in each case of these four feeding-
stuffs to lead to the expectation that separate feeding experiments
with them, followed by separate field, experiments made with the
dungs produced, would give results sufficiently distinctive to form
any reliable basis of estimates of their actual and comparative
manure value.

It was decided, therefore, to limit the inquiry to comparative
experiments between decorticated cotton-cake, which, among
purchased feeding-stuffs, has a very high manure value, and
maize-meal, which has a very low manure value ; and to com-
pare the effects of the manures obtained by the consumption of
these foods with those of artificial manures supplying, in one
case, the same amount of nitrogen, potass, phosphoric acid, &c.,
as is estimated to be contained in the manure from the cotton-
cake consumed, and in another the same as in that from the
maize-meal consumed.

Accordingly, four feeding experiments have been conducted,
in each of which the same amount of litter has been used, and
the same amount of roots and the same amount of wheat-straw
chaff consumed. In Experiment 1, 1000 lbs. decorticated cotton-
cake were given in addition ; and in Experiment 2, 1000 lbs.
maize-meal. In Experiments 3 and 4, no purchased food was
given ; but in Experiment 3 artificial manures estimated to con-
tain the same amount of the chief constituents as the manure
from 1000 lbs. of cotton-cake, and in Experiment 4 the same as
from 1000 lbs. maize-meal, will be applied to the land, in addition
to the root and chaff manure.

It may be explained that the amount of nitrogen, &c., in the
manure from the purchased foods is calculated according to the
same rule as that adopted in the construction of Mr. Lawes’
table of the estimated value of the manure obtained by the con-

the Progress of English Agriculture.

853 = 5S7

sumption of different articles of food.* That is to say, in the
case of foods of high percentage of nitrogen, such as cakes and
pulse, 10 per cent, of the total nitrogen of the food is deducted
for increase in live weight and for some loss, and 90 per cent,
is reckoned to be recovered in the manure ; and in the case of
foods of comparatively low percentage of nitrogen, such as the
cereal grains, 15 per cent, is deducted for increase and loss, and
85 per cent, is estimated to go into the manure. Of the mineral
constituents, phosphoric acid, potass, «Scc., generally a consider-
ably less proportion of the amount of them in the food than of
the nitrogen is deducted; but the deduction of a little more
or a little less of these very immaterially affects the valuation of
the manure.

The rotation adopted is the ordinary’ four-course — of roots. Rotation
barley, seeds, and wheat. There are four kinds of manure to be adopted,
applied for the roots, as above described, to each of which 1 acre
has been allotted. When the land is in seeds. Plot 1 will be fed by
I sheep with a given amount of cotton-cake ; Plot 2 with the same
I amount of maize-meal ; Plot 3 without purchased food ; but arti-
I ficial manure, supplying the chief constituents estimated to be
I contained in the manure from the cotton-cake consumed on
I Plot 1, will be applied to the succeeding wheat ; Plot 4 also will
be fed without purchased food, but artificial manure, estimated
i to be equal to that from the maize-meal consumed, will be applied
i to the succeeding wheat.

Accordingly, 4 acres of barley grown in 1876, after spring
! tares fed once with cake, were sown with seeds ; and 4 acres
i were sown with mangolds. The remaining portion of the field
was again sown with barley, but manured with 7 cwt. of rape-
I cake per acre ; 4 acres of it were sown with seeds to come under
I experiment next year ; and 4 more will be sown with roots, and
: also come under experiment next year. Thus 8 acres came
into exact experiment this year (1877), and the remaining 8
will come in 1878.

The following plan shows at one view the course of cropping
of the 16 acres under rotation experiments : —

* Eolation, No. 1.
1 4 Acres.

Rotation, No. 2.
4 Acres.

Eotation, No. 3.
4 Acres.

Rotation, No. 4.
4 Acres.

1877

Seeds.

Boots.

t Barley, with 7 cwt. Kape-1
\ cake per acre. j

1878

1879

1880
1881

Wheat.

Eoots.

Barley.

Seeds.

Wheat.

Seeds.

Wheat.

Eoots.

Barley.

Eoots.

Barley.

Seeds.

Wheat.

* ‘ Journal of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England,’ vol. xi., s. s., Part I.

854 = 555 Influence of Chemical Discoveries, ^c.

In the introduction to this sketch of the influence of chemical
discoveries on the progress of English agriculture I briefly
alluded to the value of the Rothamsted field experiments ; in
the concluding pages I again referred to them somewhat more
in detail, and at the same time spoke of the recent extension of
field experiments in England and Scotland. This short account
of the experimental stations in Great Britain may appropriately
wind up my report, for it appears to me suggestive of the
direction which chemico-agricultural investigations have to
take, in a more decided manner and on a more extended scale
than in years past, in order to be followed by practically useful
results.

Agricultural not less than scientific progress, in a great
measure, is based on well-conceived and carefully executed ex-
periments ; and in no department of inquiry so much remains
to be accomplished as in the difficult and intricate field of
agricultural experiments. During the past twenty-five or thirty
years the chemical ground, so to say, has been well cleared by
numerous analytical researches into tbe composition, physiological
effects, and practical value of many kinds of feeding-materials,
the composition and chemical properties of soils, and the
chemical character and value of manures ; and the time has now
arrived when the labours of the chemist can only be expected to
bear still more useful fruits than hitherto if his investigations
are largely put to the test of practice in the fields and feeding-
stalls of the farmer.

Let us therefore hope that the example set by Mr. Lawes,
at so much expenditure of time and money, and with so much
benefit to the agricultural community at large, will stimulate
others, as it has done of late the Council of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, to promote the establishment and
maintenance of agricultural stations, which, if well directed, are
calculated to exert the most beneficial influence on the future
progress of British agriculture.

THE

KOYAL AGEICULTUEAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

H. M. JENKINS, F.G.S.,

SECRETAUT OF THE SOCIETY AKD EDITOR OF ITS ‘JOURNAL.’

( 857 = 591 )

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. — Objects, Constitution, and Management.

"When founded and incorporated by Royal Charter — -Exclusion of Politics —
Necessity of this Provision — Objects of the Society — Practice with Science
— Constitution — Election and Powers of President and Council — Present
Number of Governors and Members — Finance — Staff — Standing Com-
mittees— President — Functions of Committees .. .. Pages 593-600

CHAPTER II. — Practice.

Annual Exhibition — Honorary Officers — Development of Show — Results from
1839-1877' — Exhibition of Implements — Subordinate Position in 1839 —
Competition for Prize.s — Its Advantages — Classification of Implements for
Trial — Existing System — Steam Cultivation — Its Origin in 1854 — Its Posi-
tion in 1866 — Resumd — Exhibitions of Live Stock — Confined to Breeding
Stock- — ^Increase in the Number of Breeds— Shropshire Sheep — Present
Policy commenced at the Battersea Meeting in 1862 — Horses — Farm Prizes
— Originated at Oxford in 1870 — Subdivision of Classes in 1877 — Competi-
tion not always keen — Conditions of Competition — Instructions to J udges —
Reports of Judges — General Results .. .. .. Pages 600-616

CHAPTER Ul.— Science.

Chemistry — Members’ Privileges of Analysis — Reports on Sales of inferior
and adulterated Manures and Feeding-stuflfs — -Advice to Members — Experi-
ments and Investigations — Natural History — Members’ Botanical and
Zoological Privileges — Veterinary Department — Members’ Privileges — Im-
portance of the Veterinary Department — Investigations into Diseases of
Animals of the Farm .. .. .. Pages 617-622

CHAPTER IV. — The Propaganda of Agriculture.

The ‘ Journal ’■ — Its History — Its Usefulness — Agricultural Education — Senior
Examination — Junior Examination — Examination of Veterinary Surgeons
— Education of the Landowner — and of the Labourer — Retrospect

Pages 623-627

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( %bS\ = 593 )

THE EOYAL AGEICULTUEAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

Introduction.

It has been thought desirable to add to the foregoing series of
Memoirs on English Agriculture, a brief account of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, — the institution under whose
direction this book has been written, and upon whose model
the Societe des Agriculteurs de France was framed. Mr. Caird
has already mentioned the absence of a Ministry of Agriculture
from our executive government, and the distribution of certain
statistical, sanitary, and judicial functions between the Board
of Trade, the Privy Council, and the Inclosure Commission.
The other duties which usually devolve upon Ministries of
Agriculture, such as stimulating improvement in the various
breeds of live stock, in the cultivation of the land, in the
education of the agricultural classes, and generally in what has
been termed “ the propaganda of agriculture ” are in England
ignored by the Government, and therefore left to the “ private
initiative” of individuals or Societies. The Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England is the largest and the most influential
of the Societies which have been established in the three king-
doms for the advancement of agriculture. Owing to its national
character and the extent of its operations it has obtained the
support of a large number of leading landowners and tenant-
farmers in England and Wales, besides not a few in Scotland
and Ireland, which portions of the United Kingdom also possess
their own national Societies. Nearly every county and even
many smaller districts in England can also boast of their
Agricultural Society, each one having its independent manage-
ment and its own annual Exhibition, except when the “ Royal ”
comes their way, at which time the county Society generally
suspends its Show for the year, and makes a contribution from
its funds towards the expenses of the national Exhibition, most
frequently in the form of special prizes having a local interest.
It need scarcely be added that the Society receives no subsidy
from the Government in aid of any of its operations.

860 = 594 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

When founded
and incorpo-
rated by Royal
Charter.

E-xclusion of
Politics.

Necessity of
this provision.

CHAPTEE I.

Objects, Constitution, and Management.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England commenced its
career in 1838 under the name of “ The English Agricultural
Society.”* On March 26th, 1840, it obtained a Royal Charter of
Incorporation, which enumerated the chief founders of the Society,
and recited that they had “ formed themselves into a Society for
the general advancement of English Agriculture,” and that an
“ essential principle ” of its constitution was, “ the strictest
exclusion from their councils of every question of discussion
having a political tendency, or which shall refer to any matter
to be brought forward, or at any time pending, in either of our
Houses of Parliament.” Accordingly, the Royal Charter was
granted “ under the condition that a principle of its constitution
shall be the total exclusion of all questions at its meetings, or
in its proceedings, of a political tendency, or having reference
to measures pending, or to be brought forward, in either of our
Houses of Parliament, which no resolution, bye-law, or other
enactment of the said body politic and corporate, shall on any
account or pretence whatever be at any time allowed to
infringe.” Political subjects were further defined to be “ those
questions of debate on which the people of every individual
country entertain sentiments so much at variance with each other
The exclusion of questions of a political nature from the
Objects of the Society was no doubt essential to its success at
the time when the Royal Charter was granted ; and if the
Charter has conferred on the Society no other benefit, it had
the very beneficial effect of producing cohesion in the newly
formed association by giving the force of law to what was.
previously a voluntary resolution which might have been
rescinded by the majority of members present and voting at
any Meeting of the Council. Of late years it has often been
questioned whether the Society should not be at liberty to

* It may be desirable to mention that in the United Kingdom there is no-
obstaele to the voluntary association of individuals for the promotion of any law-
ful object. The embodying of such an association into a corporate body, which
has power to hold property in its own name, and to be itself responsible for its
debts — thus relieving the individual members from personal pecuniary liabilities,
arising out of its action — can be accomplished either by means of a Eoyal
Cliarter, or (of late years) by registration under the “ Limited Liability Com-
panies Acts.” In the former case, the objects and rules of the association must
l)c approved by the Privy Council, and their essence is embodied in the Eoyal
Charter of Incorporation, the limits of which must not be exceeded. In the
latter case, the Board of Trade is the examining body, and its function has a
more or less commercial character. Eoyal Charters are not now granted except
for well-defined objects of recognised public utihty.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 861 = 595

discuss practical questions which are to come before Parlia-
ment ; and the Government itself has from time to time sought
information on such subjects from the Council and officers of
the Society. These cases, however, have not actually been, at
the time they were under discussion, pending in either House,
but were preliminary to that state of things which the Charter
seems to contemplate. No objection, therefore, has been raised
to the Society petitioning the Government to take measures, for
instance, to defend agriculturists against a common enemy, such
as the Cattle Plague or the Colorado Beetle ; but there would
be an insuperable objection to the discussion by the Society or
the Council of the provisions of any Bill which might be laid
before Parliament for such purposes.

The Charter not only informs rtie Society what it may not
do, but states its function to be “ the general advancement of
English Agriculture” and the prosecution of the following
national objects, namely : —

“ First, to embody such information contained in agricultural publications,
and in other scientific works as has been proved by practical experience to be
useful to the cultivators of the soil.

“ Second, to correspond with Agricultural, Horticultural, and other Scientific
Societies, both at home and abroad, and to select from such correspondence
all information which, according to the opinion of the Society, may be likely
to lead to practical benefit in the cultivation of the soil.

“ Third, to pay to any occupier of land, or other person who shall under-
take, at the request of the Society, to ascertain by any experiment how far
such information leads to useful results in practice, a remuneration for any loss
that he may incur by so doing.

“ Fourth, to encourage men of science in their attention to the improvements
of agricultural implements, the construction of farm-buildings and cottages,
the application of chemistry to the general purposes of agriculture, the de-
struction of insects injurious to vegetable life, and the eradication of weeds.

“ Fifth, to promote the discovery of new varieties of grain and other
vegetables useful to man, or for the food of domestic animals.

“ Sixth, to collect information with regard to the management of woods,
plantations, and fences, and on every other subject connected with rural
improvement.

“ Seventh, to take measures for the improvement of the education of those
who depend upon the cultivation of the soil for their support.

“ Eighth, to take measures for improving the veterinary art, as applied to
cattle, sheep, and pigs.

“ Ninth, at the Meetings of the Society in the country, by the distribution
of prizes, and by other means, to encourage the best mode of farm cultiva-
tion and the breed of live stock.

“ Tenth, to promote the comfort and welfare of labourers, and to encourage
the improved management of their cottages and gardens.”

These Objects have been well embodied in the Society’s motto,
“ Practice with Science,” and to describe the manner in which
they have been carried out will be the chief aim of this paper.

It is necessary, however, to give a brief sketch of the “ Consti-

Objects of the
Society.

Practice with
Science.

Constitution.

Election and
])owers of
President and
Council.

862 = 396 Tlie Royal Agricultural Society of England.

tution and Management ” of the Society, to enable the mode in
which its operations are conducted to be properly understood.
The Charter enacts that the Society shall consist of an indefinite
number of Subscribers classed according to their rate of pay-
ment into Governors and Members (with such individual privi-
leges as shall appertain to them respectively), as well as such
Honorary, Corresponding, and Foreign Members as may be
found desirable. It also stipulates that there shall be an Annual
General Meeting held in London on the 22nd of May ; a General
Meeting held in December, also in London ; and a third “ in
such other part of England or Wales as shall be deemed most
advantageous in time and place for the advancement of the
objects of the Society.” At the Annual Meeting in May the
Governors and Members “ have the full power and privilege
of electing the President, Trustees, Vice-Presidents, and other
members of the Council from the Governors and Members ; ” but
beyond this point they have no voice in the management of the
Society, for the Charter further enacts “ that the President and
Council shall have the sole management of the income and
funds of the said body politic and corporate, and also the entire
management and superintendence of all the other affairs and
concerns thereof.” This condition is not usually found in the
Charter of Incorporation of a learned Society, and its insertion
in this Society’s Charter is probably due to the political circum-
stances of the time. Harshness has been wisely softened as much
as possible by the Bye-laws which have been enacted by the
Council. These permit Governors to be present at the meetings
of the Council, and to speak, though they may not vote. It is
also the practice to ask the Members at the General Meetings
whether they have any suggestions to offer for the consideration
of the Council ; and the suggestions made on those occasions
receive careful attention at the next meeting of the Council.
Thus, although the Council have the entire management and
control of the affairs of the Society, the Members have the
opportunity of expressing their views on the action of the
Council at the General Meetings three times in the year, and
the Governors can do the same at each Monthly Council.
Further, all the Trustees and Vice-Presidents, of whom there
are twelve of each title, are elected annually at the General
Meeting in May, when 25 out of the 50 other Members of the
Council are also elected by the Governors and Members then
assembled. Therefore two-thirds of the Council might be
replaced at any Annual Meeting.

Governors pay an Annual Subscription of 5/., or a Life Com-
position of 50Z. ; and Members pay an Annual Subscription of
1/., or a Life Composition of lOZ. At the last General Meeting

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 803 = 557

held in December, 1877, the numbers of the Society were as Number of
follows ■ Governoi's and

Members.

81 Life Governors,

74 Annual Governors,
2280 Life Members,

4182 Annual Members,
17 Honorary Members.

Total . . 6634

The income from Annual Subscriptions for the year is thus Finance,
theoretically 4552Z. ; and in the year ending December 31st,

1877, it was actually 4413/. 18s. In that year, however, the
Life Compositions received amounted to 1201/., and the question
therefore arises, in what manner are such payments treated ? In
the infancy of a Society the recognised principle is that all
Life Compositions should be invested either in dividend-paying
stocks or in some property of a permanent and remunerative
character. When, however, a Society acquires stability, and
may be regarded as established on a permanent footing, it is
generally held to be sufficient if the acquired property repre-
sents a sum equal to that of the Life Compositions of existing
Members. Thus, if 100 new Members pay Life Compositions
amounting to 1000/. in any year, and if during the same year
100 old Life Members die, it would be safe to treat the sum
of 1000/. as part of the income of the year, for the interests
created are balanced by the interests extinguished. At the end
of 1876, the value of the Society’s property was 30,126/., of
which 25,511/. was invested in Government securities, while
the compositions of Life Governors and Life Members on the
list at the General Meeting in December amounted to 26,850/.

This is as close an approximation to theoretical requirements
as can fairly be expected in the accounts of a Society whose
finances must fluctuate with the result of its annual Exhi-
bition, and whose expenditure includes large annual grants to
defray the cost of important scientific investigations.

It may be of interest to mention the proportionate cost of the
several departments of the Society’s work to each of the 6634
members, supposing all to pay an Annual Subscription of 1/.

That sum would roughly be apportioned as follows : manage-
ment, including rent, taxes, &c., printing, postage, &c., and
salaries would absorb 6s. 6d. ; ‘ Journal,’ including postage, but
deducting sales, 4s. 6d. ; Chemical, Botanical, Veterinary, Edu-
cation and other grants, 5s. ; thus leaving a margin of 4s. in
the £, or 20 per cent, towards the cost of the annual Exhi-
bition.

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 M

staff.

864 = 595 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Table I. — Showing the Number of Members, the Eeceipts and the
Expenditure of the Kotal Agricultural Society of England
from 1841 to 1877 inclusive.

Subscriptions,

' Year.

j No. of
j Members.

including
Compositions
of Life

Divi-
dends on
Stock.

Total

Receipts.

Total Ex-
penditure.

Members.

1 ^

1 £ .

j £

1841

4595

5818

200

1 6018

3493

1842

5834

5884

214

6098

I 3630

1843

7000

6628

245

i 6873

3984

1844

6927

7117

320

! 7437

3921

1845

6933

6342

251

1 6503

3402

1846

6971

7040

221

i 7261

5063

1847

6391

6365

221

1 6636

4112

1848

6335

5211

312

5523

3830

1849

5512

6372

280

6652

4131

1850

5261

6083

321

6404

3994

1851

5121

5953

321

6274

3664

1852

4981

5244

334

5578

3892

1853

4923

4801

327

5128

4022

1854

5177

5053

335

5388

3362

1855

4882

3449

261

3710

3678

1856

4979

5156

259

5415

3538

1857

5068

3728

265

3993

4051

1858

5146

5339

282

5621

3734

1859

5161

3027

289

3316

3466

1860

5165

6398

319

6717

3877

1861

4633

4789

425

5214

4181

1862

4823

5463

505

5968

5041

1863

5183

5050

478

5528

3960

1864

5496

5144

546

5690 !

4282

1865

5752

4796

672

5468 i

5140

1866

5622

4238

561

4799 ;

5501

1867

5465

4835

518

5353

4869

1868

5461

4732

487

5219 1

4950

1869

5446

5043

649

5692 1

5021

1870

5438

5138

786

5954

4459

1871

5648

4958

748

5706 i

4859

1872

5766

5998

754

6352

4934

1873

5916

5085

765

5850 1

5391

1874

5846

5269

733

6002

5256

1875

6145

6264

607

6871

5614

1876

6349

5752

565

6317

5604

1877

6634

5614

752

6366 ^

5867

Pri

isC

, The operations of the Society are so extensive that an
efficient organisation is an absolute necessity. The Charter
gives power to the President and Council “ both to appoint, and, >
as they may think fit, to remove, one general Secretary to the ^
Society,” whose duties must be defined by Bye-laws or special i
resolutions, but no other executive officer is mentioned. Under i ity
the general clause giving them the sole management of the t
Society’s affairs, the Council have power to appoint such other

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 865 = 5i?9

officers as they may deem necessary, but those officers cannot con-
tract or discharge in the name and on the behalf of the Society.
Practically, the only paid officers of the Society, other than the
Secretary and his staff, are its scientific advisers, as will be. ex-
plained presently, for even the editorship of the ‘ Journal ’ has
for the last ten years been merged in the secretaryship.

The direction of the Society’s affairs must therefore be the standing
work of the Council in reality as well as in name ; and for this Committfics.

I purpose each department of affairs is placed under the charge of
, a Standing Committee. These Committees report to the Council
t at large, and in the event of their recommendations being adopted,
it becomes the duty of the Secretary to carry them out, and in
I cases of difficulty to confer with the Chairman of the Com-
I mittee having charge of the department affected. This system
is common in England, where all classes of society are thoroughly
imbued with the principles and practice of “ self-government.”

The most able members of the community give their time and
I thoughts to the affairs of the country and of its several institu-
tions in the interests of the public at large. Thus a large, an
instructed, and an influential governing body, who work for
the honour and the pleasure that such labour brings with it, is
generally found, as in this case, controlling the affairs of an
institution established for the public benefit.

The President of the Society is elected for one year only, and Picsidcnt.
according to the Charter is not eligible for re-election until after
an interval of three years. The list of Past-Presidents contains
the names of some of the most influential landowners and most
prominent agriculturists in the country, including the late
Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, the late and the present
Dukes of Richmond, the late Earl Spencer (first President),
the late Lord Walsingham, the present Earl Cathcart, Viscount
Bridport, and Lord Vernon, the late Mr. Pusey, M.P., Sir H. S,

Meysey Thompson, and Mr. E. Holland (the founder of the Royal
Agricultural College), and many others whose names are house-
hold words in the annals of English Agriculture.

The President of the Society for the current year (1877—78) functions of
is Colonel Kingscote, C.B., M.P., of Kingscote, Gloucestershire ; Comnuttecs.
and the following is a list of the principal Standing Com-
mittees, with the names of their Chairmen : —

Committees. Chairmen.

Finance .. .. Mr. C. Eandell, of Chadbury, Worcestersbii'e.

Selection .. .. Earl Catbcavt, of Thornton-le-Street, Yorkshire.

Stock Prizes . . Mr. R. Milward, of Thurgarton, Nottinghamshire.

Implement .. .. Mr. J. Hemsley, of Shelton, Nottinghamshire.

mcpfino «jLord Skelmersdale, of Lathom Hall, Lancashire

Lountry-meeung .. (Ex-President).

3 M 2

866= 600 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Annual

Exhibition.

Committees,

Chairmen.

Woodhorn Manor, Northum-

Mr. W. Wells, of Holme Wood, Northamptonshire.
Mr. C. Whitehead, of Maidstone, Kent.
iHon. W. Egerton, M.P., of Eostherne Manor,
\ Cheshire.

Mr. J. D. Dent, of Kibston Hall, Yorkshire.
Education .. .. Duke of Bedford, of Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire.

Chemical

Botanical

Veterinary

Journal

The foregoing brief sketch of the Objects, Constitution, and
Management of the Royal Agricultural Society will, I trust, be
sufficient to enable readers of the following pages to understand
how the Society’s operations are carried out under the supervision
of the Standing Committees just enumerated. It has already
been mentioned that the Society’s motto is “ Practice with
Science,” and I shall now endeavour to show how its functions
are performed in accordance with that epigrammatic synopsis
of its objects. The Finance Committee, of course, have charge
of the accounts. The Selection Committee recommend the
election of successors to vacancies in the Council and in the
various Honorary offices. The Stock Prizes, Implement,
Country-meeting, and Showyard Contracts Committees divide
amongst them those objects which come under the head of
“ Practice the Chemical, Botanical, and Veterinary Com-
mittees include the “ Science,” while the ‘ Journal ’ and ‘ Educa-
tion ’ Committees deal with those subjects which form the
connecting link suggested by the central word in the Society’s
motto, and which I have placed under the heading of “ The
Propaganda of Agriculture.”

CHAPTER II.

Practice.

Annual Exhibition. — Improvements in Agricultural Practice are
stimulated, and successful attempts are rewarded by the Society
at or in connection with an Annual Exhibition, which is held
under the clause of the Society’s Charter which stipulates that
in addition to the two General Meetings held annually in
London, there shall be held a third “ in such other part of
England or Wales as shall be deemed most advantageous in time
and place for the advancement of the objects of the Society.”
This meeting is afterwards mentioned as the “ Country Meeting,”
and by that name it is generally known to the Members and
referred to in official documents. Before the incorporation of
the Society, the principle of a peripatetic Country Meeting
had been adopted, and it took the form, which it has since (

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 867 = 601

maintained on an ever-increasing scale, of an annual Exhibition
of Live Stock, Agricultural Implements, Farm Produce, and
Miscellaneous Articles of domestic utility. For more than
thirty years the Country Meetings of the Society were under
the honorary direction of Mr. B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, to whose
fostering care and unremitting exertion much of the success of
the Exhibitions must be ascribed. Mr. Gibbs retired upon his
well-won laurels in 1874 ; and his office was divided between
an Honorary Steward of General Arrangements and the paid
officers of the Society. The following is a list of the Honorary
Officers for the Liverpool Meeting last year : —

Steward of General Arrangements. Honorary

I Mr. Jacob Wilson, Woodhorn Manor, Morpeth, Northumberland. officers.

' Stewards of Live Stock.

Hon. W. Egerton, M.P., Eostherne Manor, Knutsford, Cheshire.

Mr. Joseph Shuttleworth, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln.

Mr. William Wells, Holmewood, Peterborough, Northamptonshire.

Sir K. C. Mdsgrave, Bart., Edenhall, Penrith, Cumberland.

Mr. William H. Wakefield, Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland.

Stewards of Implements.

Mr. J. Bowen Jones, Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, Shropshire.

Mr. John Hemsley, Shelton, Newark, Nottinghamshire.

Mr. G. H. Sanday, Wensley House, lledale, Yorkshire.

I Steward of Forage.

Mr. Thomas Kigby, Darnhall Mill Farm, Winsford, Cheshire.

It would be tedious, and of merely antiquarian interest, to Development
describe in detail the earlier Shows of the Royal Agricultural Show.
Society for the purpose of showing the enormous development
which has steadily gone on during the thirty-eight years which
have elapsed since the first Show was held at Oxford in 1839.

It may be mentioned, however, that at Oxford, in that year,

I there were twenty exhibitors of Implements, and at Cambridge,
the following year, there were thirty-two. The report of this
I meeting stated that “ beyond controversy such a selection of imple-
1 ments was never before collected in one Showyard.” Contrast these
facts with these relating to the second Show of the Society at
Oxford in 1870, when 359 exhibitors showed 7851 articles
described in the Implement Catalogue. The exhibits of Live
Stock, which were about 100 in 1839, attained their maximum
of nearly 2000 at Battersea in 1862, and generally range between
1200 and 1500 entries of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs. Such
an increase in the number of exhibits has entailed an enormous
increase in the size of the Showyard and in the expenses of every
department of the Exhibition. Thus the area of the Show held
jat Liverpool in 1841 was 7 acres, and that of last year’s Exhi-
llbition held at the same town was no less than 70 acres, — an area

S(iS = 602 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Results from
1839-1877.

which left little or no superfluous land unoccupied. But if the
extent and the cost of the annual Exhibitions have so largely
increased of late years, it may safely be added that their
popularity and utility have at least advanced in an equal
ratio. The following Table, though incomplete for the twelve
years preceding the Gloucester Meeting in 1853, will doubtless
be found interesting : —

Table II. — Showing the Results and Extent of the various Country
Meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society since its Esta-
blishment.

Year.

Place of Meeting. I

Number
of Imple-
ments ex-
hibited.

Stock ex-
hibited.

Number of
Tersons
' admitted.

Receipts
in excess I
of Ex-
penditure. j

Expen- '
diture in
excess of
Receipts. ,

1839

Oxford !

£ '

£ ,i

1161 '

1840

Cambridge . .

, ,

939 ^

1841

Liverpool

;ii2

2166

1842

Bristol

455

510

1806

1843

Derby

508

730

, ,

3164

1844

Southampton

948

575

• •

2142

1845

ShrewsbiiiT . .

942

437

. ,

2995

1846

Newcastle

735

637

2138

1847

Northampton

1321

459

1636

1848

York

1508

718

2826

1849

Norwich

1882

624

1958

1850

Exeter

1223

619

, ,

1629

1851

Windsor

988

1294

1852

Lewes

1722

655

3218

1853

Gloucester . .

1803

737

36,245

2083

1854

lancoln

1897

735

37,635

1002

1855

Carlisle

1314

808

37,533

860 I

1856

Chelmsford . .

2702

752

32,982

, ,

1982

1857

Salisbury

2496

1027

.37,342

346:

1858

Chester

3648

1026

62,539

lik

1859

Warwick

4618

1159

55,577

1434

1860

Canterbury . .

3947

891

42,304

2006

1861

Leeds

5488

1027

145,738

4471

1862

Battersea

5064

1986

124,328

, .

3634

1863

Worcester

5839

1219

75,087

1279 i

1864

Newcastle

4024

1 1099

114,683

ik2

1865

1866

Plymouth
No Show.

4023

i 934

88,036

1 743,

1867

Bury St. Edmund.s

1 4804

719

61,837

i 2040'

1868

Leicester

6369

994

97,138

448

i »

1869

Manchester . .

1 7724

1315

189,102

9153

1870

Oxford

i 7851

1377

75,749

i 2504 ^

1871

Wolverhampton* . .

i 7650

1267

108,213

87,047

2175 •,

1872

Cardiff

5843

1293

603

1873

Hull

1 5634

1145

104,722

, 413

1874

Bedford

1 5931

1527

71.989

3717

1875

Taunton

4214

1096

47,768

4576

1876

Birmingham . .

6414

1499

163,413

34'k

1877

Liverpool

6930

i 1292

138,354

4283

* Exhibition of Diiplic.ute Implements prohibited after this date.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 869 = 603

Implement Department. — The subordinate position of this Exhibition of
department in the earlier Shows of the Society has been briefly Iraplemcnts.
mentioned, and contrasted with its present importance, which
demands that two-thirds of the total area of the Showyard should
be allotted to it. There is no department of the Society’s ope-
rations which in past years gave rise to so much discussion as
the action of the Council in their endeavour to encourage the
invention and manufacture of improved agricultural machinery ;
and it may be useful to give a brief outline of the history of the
subject.

At the present day it is almost impossible to realise the
primitive condition of this now enormous industry at the time
of the earlier meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society, before
it had been systematically stimulated by the trials which were
I made in connection with the annual Country Meetings ; but the
following extract from the late Sir H. S. Meysey Thompson’s
paper “ On the Royal Agricultural Society and the Progress of
Agriculture ” will carry more weight than the same facts ex-
pressed in any other words : — *

“ The subordinate position occupied by agricultural machinery at the time Subordinate
of these [the two first] Meetings is sufficiently evident ; hut a striking corro- position
boration of the fact is to be gained in the first Essay read before the Society in 1839.
(March 13th, 1839), by that accomplished writer, the late Mr. Puscy. The
title of the paper was ‘ On the present State of the Science of Agriculture in
England,’ and no one was more capable than Mr. Pusey of justly estimating the
I relative importance (according to the ideas of the day) of the numerous subjects
I discussed in that valuable and exhaustive article. f It is curious to find that
i the only implements there alluded to were the plough and the harrow, the
turnip-alicer and the threshing-machine, with the exception of the following
I paragraph on the drill, which sounds so strange in the ears of a farmer of the
I present day that it seems barely credible that it should have been penned by
one so thoroughly conversant with his subject at so late a date as 1839.

‘ The use of another instrument, the drill-machine, a more complicated one,
hy which the seed is laid in regular rows, has lately become frequent in Southern
as V)ell as in Northern England ; though it has established itself so slowly, that
^ for a long time travelling machines of this hind have made yearly journeys
from Suffolk as far as Oxfordshire, for the use of those distant farmers by
whom their services are required.' Volumes of proof of the complete revolu-
tion which has taken place in farming implements since 1839 would not be
more convincing than the simple announcement that Mr. Pusey, in his
inaugural address to the Members of the Pioyal Agricultural Society, thought
it necessary to inform them that the drill was a machine by which the seed was
laid in regular rows ; or than the surprising fact which he records, that Suffolk
drills have actually jierambulated the half of England since the accession, not
of good Queen Bess, but of her gracious Majesty, Queen Victoria ! ”

At the first meeting of the Society, in 1839, prizes for agri- Competition
cultural implements in the form of money and medals were i’^izes.

* ‘ .lournal of the Eo3'al Agricultural Society of England,’ vol. xxv., pp. 9, 10.
t Ibid. vol. i., p. 1.

S70= 604 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

offered for competition, and the plan has been pursued ever since
under various regulations. For some years, with few exceptions,
no particular classes of implements were indicated as those which
were specially designed for trial. As the stamp of the Society’s
approval, by the award of a prize or a medal, became appre-
ciated by the public, and therefore more desired by the manu-
facturers, more new implements were exhibited year after year,
and a continually increasing number had to he tried in the
comparatively short time available for the purpose, in the week
preceding the Show. The effect of the system pursued was,
however, very marked ; and, after an experience of ten years,
was thus described in the Reports of the Stewards of Implements
for 1848 and 1849 : —

Its advantages. “ The principal advantages to be derived from Shows of Implements may be
classed under three heads, of which the first and most important is, that the
awards of prizes should point out to every farmer who enters the Showyard the
best implements in their respective classes which the kingdom produces.
Farmers, as a body, have neither the means nor the leisure required for travelling
about to visit the manufactories of the various implement-makers ; nor, if this
were practicable, could they safely decide on the comparative efficiency of their
respective productions by merely seeing them in the makers’ yards. It is,
therefore, a great advantage to the farmers of any district to have a large show
of implements brought into their neighbourhood, especially when the best of
each class are pointed out to them by competent judges after a fair trial.*

“ The attention of some of the leading members of the Society (especially of
the late lamented Mr. Handley) w’as earnestly directed to the improvement of
this department, and they soon perceived that little was gained by collecting
implements in a Showyard for people to gaze at, unless an adequate trial could
be made of their respective merits. To attain this end great exertions were
made, and every improvement in the mode of trial was followed by so marked
an increase in the number and merit of implements brought forward at subse-
quent Shows, as to prove the strongest incentive to further effort. . . . The
additional amount offered in prizes at the later meetings has undoubtedly
assisted in creating this great increase of competition, but it cannot be con-
sidered the principal cause, since the implement-makers are unanimous in
declaring that, even when successful, the prizes they receive do not reimburse
them for their expenses and loss of time. How, then, are the increased
exertions of the m.ichine-makers to be accounted for? Simply by the fact
that the trials of implements have gradually won the confidence of the farmer,
so that, when selecting implements for purchase, he gives the preference to
those which have received the Society’s mark of approval. . . .

“ It thus appears that, concurrently with the extension and improvement of
the trials, a corresponding increase and improvement has taken place in the
exhibitions of implements ; and though it is difficult io prove that the one has
been the cause of tbe other, still the probability that such is the case almost
amounts to certainty, vffien it is found that classes of implements which
are so faulty in construction as to be strongly animadverted on by the Judges
at one Meeting, are at the next nearly free irom those defects which had been
previously pointed out. ... If the foregoing reasoning be correct (and the
facts on which it is founded will not admit of question), the Society may fairly

* ‘Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England,’ vol. ix., p. 378.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. %1\ = 605

claim to have been, in great measure, the authors of the very rapid improve-
ment made of late in almost every kind of agricultural implement.” *

It will thus be seen that an experience of ten years was suffi-
cient to demonstrate the utility of the Trials of Implements.

The anxiety of manufacturers to obtain the Society’s medals
and prizes kept pace with the increasing importance which was
attached to them by the agricultural community. It therefore
became necessary to spread over a series of years the labour and
cost of submitting to trial the ever increasing variety of farm
implements. Accordingly a triennial scheme was arranged in Classification
1855, as the result of an interview between the Council of the
Society and a deputation of the Agricultural Implement manu-
facturers. This first division was as follows : —

1. Implements for tillage and drainage.

2. Machines for the cultivation and harvesting of crops.

3. Machines for preparing crops for market and food for

cattle.

This scheme was expanded to a quadrennial one in 1859, but
again reduced to a triennial in 1864, and afterwards enlarged
to a quinquennial in 1869. This last classification, in spite
of its extension, was found too condensed for practical use, and
was further expanded on account of the time required to try,
thoroughly and scientifically, the increasing number of imple-
ments in each class. The following statement of the amended
classification, arranged in its natural order and not as actually
tried, will give the best idea of the trial-system in its final
development : —

1. Horse-power machines and implements used in tillage,

2. Steam-power machinery used in tillage.

3. Machines and implements used in the cultivation and

carrying of crops.

4. Machines and implements used in the harvesting of

grass crops.

5. Machines and implements used in the harvesting of

grain and root crops.

6. Machines and implements used in the preparation of

crops for market.

7. Machines and implements used in the preparation of

food and in the feeding of stock.

At the present time a rotation or classification of implements Existing
for trial in successive years is not included in the Society’s pro- system,
gramme. For some years the cost of the trials of agricultural
implements to the Society alone has exceeded an average of

• ‘ Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England,’ vol. x., p. 528.

872 = 606 TJie Royal Agricultural Society of England.

2000Z. per annum, while the cost to the numerous competitors
must have been enormous. In itself, the cost of a public benefit
is regarded by the Society as of secondary importance ; but it is
essential that, as trustees for the public, the Council see that the
benefit obtained is commensurate with the outlay which it has
entailed. Of late years, it has become increasingly evident that
the quality of certain classes of agricultural implements had
become so uniform that no public advantage could be derived
by submitting them to further competitive trials, until, at least,
the expiration of several years ; therefore in 1875 it was decided
that the trials should, for the present, be confined to the follow-
ing classes of Implements : — Machinery for cultivating the land
by Steam-power, Double Ploughs, Root-thinners, Manure-dis-
tributors, Mowing Machines, Horse-rakes, Haymakers, Reaping
Machines, Sheaf-binders, Stacking Machines, Thatch-making
Machines, Agricultural Locomotives and Waggons suitable to
be drawn by them. This list is not classified, but, according to
circumstances, the Council selects certain classes of the imple-
ments contained in it for special encouragement in each year,
and this has recently been done three years consecutively in the
case of sheaf-binders. The agricultural wants of the locality in
which the Exhibition is to be held also receive attention ; *

* For instance, at Bristol, which is in the centre of a large dair}' district,
the following prizes are this year (1878) offered for dairy appliances : —

PlUZES.

Class

1. For the best Milk-can, suitable for conveying milk long distances by

road or rail without injury 10

2. For the best Churn for churning a sufiScient quantity of milk to

produce not more than 20 lbs. of butter 10

3. For the best Churn for churning a sufficient quantity of cream to

produce not more than 20 lbs. of butter 10

4. For the best mechanical or automatic Butter-worker, suitable for

large dairies and for factories 10

5. For the best mechanical or automatic Butter-worker, suitable for

small dairies ; price to be specially con.sidered 10

6. For the best Cheese-tub ; economy of labour to be specially considered 10

7. For the best Curd-knife 5

8. For the best Curd-mill 5

9. For the best Cheese-turning apparatus 10

10. For the best mechanical means of cleansing churns and other dairj'

utensils 10

11. For the best automatic means of preventing the rising of Cream .. 10

12. For the best Milk-cooler 10

13. For the best method of keeping a large quantity of milk at a tempe-

rature under 40° Fahr., for a period of not less than twelve hours,
sufficiently economical for practical purposes 20

14. For the best Milking-machine, to be tested during six consecutive

months of the spring and summer of 1879 50

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 873 = 607

and any new implement or important improvement exhibited
at any Show may be put to trial and receive an appropriate
award if found worthy of the approval of the Society’s
Judges.*

The detailed results of the Society’s efforts to encourage the Steam-culti
improvement of agricultural machinery would require a volume ^atioH.
for their description, and cannot be even glanced at in this
brief Memoir. It may, however, be claimed for the Society
that, without pursuing any chimerical views of over-sanguine
inventors, it has appreciated and steadily fostered the germ of
any real improvement in the mechanical appliances of the farm.

The encouragement of steam-cultivation may be cited as an illus-
tration of the manner in which such questions have been dealt
with by the Society. At the Lincoln Meeting in 1854 Mr. Fowler
received a Silver Medal for a “Steam Draining Apparatus,”
and at the close of their report on its work when under trial,
the Judges remarked, “Surely this power can be applied to
more general purposes. We earnestly commend this idea to our Its origin
engineers and mechanists.” In the following year the Society,
acting upon this hint, offered a prize of 200/., without effect ;
but in 1856 two competitors appeared at the Chelmsford
Meeting to contest the prize, then increased to 500/., “ for the
Steam-cultivator that shall in the most efficient manner turn
over the soil,t and be an economical substitute for the plough or
the spade.” Neither of the competitors fulfilled the conditions
included in the terms of the prize ; the offer of which was
renewed the next year at the Salisbury Meeting, and again the
year after at Chester. At the latter meeting the prize of 500/.
was awarded to Mr. Fowler, and a Gold Medal to Messrs. .1. and F.

Howard. At Warwick in 1859, Worcester in 1863, Leicester
in 1868, and lastly at Wolverhampton in 1871, the relative
merits of different systems of steam-cultivating machinery were
put to the test, and on each successive occasion in a more exhaus-
tive manner. In 1866 the Society appointed three Committees

* There are ten Silver Medals, the award of which the Judges appointed by
the Council have the power of recommending in cases of sufficient merit in New
Implements.

t Mr. Smith, of Woolston, has always argued against this condition of the
Society’s prize for a steam-cultivator, and has maintained that for effective culti-
vation by steam it was not necessary that the soil should be inverted. In this
respect he was very much in advance of his time, and at present a great number
of practical agriculturists are of opinion that the best u.se of steam power, espe-
cially as a preparation for the root-crop, is to thoroughly break up and pulverise
the subsoil without bringing it to the surface. At the same time, it must be
observed that much less power is required to break up the soil than to turn it
over with a plough, and that Mr. Smith’s steam-tackle, which competed at
Chelmsford, was not designed to comply with the condition which was embodied
in the Society’s offer of their Prize, and by which their Judges were bound.

Its position
in 1866.

874= 60S The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

of Inspection to inquire into and report upon the results of steam-
cultivation in the various counties of England and Wales up to
that date, with special reference to different classes of soils, and
to different descriptions of ownership of this kind of farming
machinery, including partnership arrangements and systems of
hire. One of the three reporters (Mr. J. A. Clarke) thus tersely
sums up the work of these Committees and the objects with
which it was undertaken: —

“ The experience of some 140 practical farmers upon an area of 66,000 acres
arable, — consisting of holdings of all sizes, from less than 200 up to 2500
acres, and averaging 536 acres each ; embracing a great divei'sity of soils, and
situated in the most varying climates, from the draughty east to the rainy west,
from the chilly north to the sunny south ; an. experience derived from four up
to ten years’ employment of all the different forms of apparatus now in use,
under every system of working, and with every style of management ; an ex-
perience also, for the most part, investigated upon the spot by ten business
men, whose names and reputation are staked upon the truthfulness and im-
partiality of their Reports, — ought to establish the success or demonstrate the
failure of steam-tillage in this kingdom. And the Society’s munificent outlay
upon the Inquiry will be sanctioned by results, if only a small percentage of
its members and of the proprietors and tenants of land still under horse cul-
ture shall be led by the mass of evidence concentrated in the three Reports to
treat their fields as well as their produce by the power of the steam-engine.”

These reports will always rank with the classics of agricultural
literature ; and the evidence which they contain in favour of the
application of steam power to the cultivation of the soil has
since been strengthened by the more recent improvements in
steam-cultivating machinery, the rise in the wages of the agri-
cultural labourer, and the increased price of horses. Since these
reports were written the Society has twice submitted steam-
cultivating machinery to trial ; and on the last occasion, at the
time of the Wolverhampton Meeting, the investigations were
more searching than at any other trial of any class of agri-
cultural machinery. Again, from time to time, medals have
been awarded for essential improvements in engines, anchors,
and other separate parts of a steam-cultivating apparatus, while
the ‘ Journal ’ of the Society has contained reports upon special
matters connected with steam-cultivation, such as the influence
of a very wet autumn, and the management of companies formed
to extend the hiring system.

I have given this brief sketch of the Society’s efforts to
stimulate the application of steam to the cultivation of the soil
as an example of the manner in which its influence has been
used to promote the improvement of agricultural machinery.
Its trials are open to the public, and those who prefer to rely
upon their own judgment have every opportunity of forming
it for themselves ; while for the benefit of others, the work of
adjudication is intrusted to practical farmers, assisted by emi-

Tlie Royal Agricultural Society of England. 875 = 609

nent engineers, who have at their command the most refined
means of testing every qualification which may be deemed an
essential element in the competition ; and every important detail
in the construction of the competing implements, and in the
nature of the work performed by them, is described in the
reports published in the Society’s ‘ Journal,’ which are drawn up
by qualified men, specially appointed for the purpose.

It will have been seen that the Society’s efforts to improve Resume,
agricultural machinery were in the first instance successful
beyond the calculation of the most sanguine of its supporters.

Thirty or forty years ago it was a difficult and expensive matter
to travel long distances, and therefore such journeys were rarely
undertaken for the purpose of investigating the merits of a farm-
implement. The Society’s Country Meetings soon became recog-
nised as a centre where the best implements could be examined,
and their efficiency at work could be proved ; and thus it is
easy to account for the rapid and extensive diffusion of improved
machinery in those early days through their agency. With the
' extension of the railway system and the coincident multiplication
; of country and district Agricultural Shows, the Country Meetings
! of the Royal Agricultural Society lost something of their general
interest, while they acquired a new and special importance
I owing to the classification of implements for trial, and the
i uniform offer of medals and other rewards for new inventions.

I The trials made by the Society’s officers have always been more
exhaustive than those made elsewhere, and of recent years have
acquired the character of elaborate scientific investigations. One
r result has been that the quality and efficiency of the standard

I implements of the farm have approached more and more to a
uniform level, which has thus, for a time, rendered the Society’s
further tests of them practically unnecessary. There remains,
however, for the future a very large field in the encouragement
of the invention of labour-saving machinery generally, and
particularly in the development of a system of steam-cultivation
which shall be within the purchase-power of an occupier of 200
or 300 acres.

Eive Stock. — The improvements which have been made in Exhibitions
the breeds of live stock since 1839 have been frequently de- Live Stock,
scribed as the extension of excellence to a larger number of
animals, rather than the further improvement of a few choice
individuals. This is doubtless a fair statement of the case with
reference to Shorthorns, and possibly one or two other standard
breeds of cattle, and also with regard to Leicester and South-
down sheep and horses, both agricultural and thoroughbred.

I Prizes were won in 1839 with animals which would probably
win prizes if they could be shown in the same condition at the

S7Q = 610 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Confined to

breeding

stock.

Increase in,
the number
of breeds.

Paris Exhibition in 1878. But, on the other hand, it may be
confidently asserted that the prizes offered by the Royal Agri-
cultural Society during the last fifteen years for some of the less
widely known breeds of animals of the farm, coupled with the
regulations attached to the competitions, have given fixity of
type and increased excellence to Sussex, Jersey, and other breeds
of cattle ; as well as to Hampshire Downs, Oxfordshire Downs,
Shropshire, and other breeds of sheep. Further than this, the
historians of our several breeds of farm-animals concur in main-
taining that the average representatives of all breeds now possess
that quality which is known as “ early maturity ” to a greater
extent than their progenitors. Premising that the efforts of the
Society are confined almost entirely to the improvement of
breeding animals, and that the Judges are prohibited from taking
into account the value of the animals to the butcher, it seems
not unreasonable to ascribe much of this early maturity to the
application of experience gained in the endeavour to “ make
up” animals for show purposes.* On the other hand, these
efforts not unfrequently have a prejudicial effect upon the
breeding qualities of the animals, and therefore some breeders
no longer run the risk of permanently injuring their most
valuable animals by preparing them for show. This con-
sideration, however, does not affect the value of steers or wethers
forced for the butcher, and although the overfeeding of breeding
stock is an admitted evil, and frequently a serious loss to those
who practise it, some compensation may have been obtained
by the knowledge of the principles of the fattening process thus
gained, and by their application to ordinary farm practice.

For many years the prizes for live stock offered by the Royal
Agricultural Society were confined to the breeds of Shorthorn,
Hereford, and Devon cattle ; Leicester and Southdown sheep ;
Pigs, without distinction as to size or colour, and two or three
classes of Horses, together with an open class for “ other breeds
of cattle,” and another for “ other breeds of sheep.” The prac-
tice of encouraging the exhibition of local breeds commenced,
however, as early as 1844, when the Society’s Show was held at
Southampton, and special prizes were offered for Channel Island
cattle. The plan was followed at Shrewsbury, in 1845, and
Newcastle, in 1846, by the offer of prizes for “ Sheep best adapted
to a Mountain district;” and at the latter meeting the classes

* It should be mentioned that the Shows of the Smithfield Club, which are
held annually, about a fortnight before Christmas, have of late had a direct bear-
ing upon the attainment of the quality of “ early maturity ” in the standard
breeds of sheep and cattle. With this view, classes for young steers and for fat
lambs have been introduced, a limit has been placed upon the ages of old steers
eligible for competition, and the classes for old sheep have beenabolished altogether.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 877 = 611

of Pigs were for the first time divided into two sections, de-
signated “ Large ” and “ Small ” breeds. At Lewes, in 1852,

Kentish sheep ; at Gloucester, in 1853, Shropshire sheep ; at
Lincoln, in 1854, Lincoln sheep ; and at Carlisle, in 1855,

Cheviot and Herdwick sheep were similarly recognised by the

Society as local breeds deserving of encouragement. In 1853,

also, the open class for sheep Avas divided into two, one for

“ Long-woolled sheep not qualified to compete as Leicesters,”

and the other for “ Short-woolled sheep not qualified to compete ^

as Southdowns.”

It is not necessary to follow in detail the prize-sheets of each Shropshire
successive year, but it will probably surprise many to learn that
it was not until the Warwick Meeting in 1859 that Shropshire
sheep were deemed of sufficient national importance to entitle
them to rank as a separate breed in the Society’s Showyard ;
and it may not be out of place to mention that, although twenty
years have since then nearly elapsed, the true characteristics of
a Shropshire sheep have been a “ bone of contention ” until the
last two or three years. This matter Avould not require notice in
a sketch of the Royal Agricultural Society if it did not forcibly
illustrate the results of the Annual Exhibitions as an educational
institution, in addition to their influence as a stimulant to
breeders of pure stock. Some years ago the Shropshire breeders
petitioned the Council of the Society to appoint certain well-
known connoisseurs of the breed as Judges for a term of years,
for the avowed purpose of fixing, by means of their awards, the
true type and character of a Shropshire sheep. The Council,
in reality, gave effect to the desire of the memorialists ; and
thus the animals decorated by the Society’s Judges became
annually very special objects of study to those interested in
the breed. Each one saw for himself Avhat to acquire as well
as what to avoid, and with the knowledge of his own flock could
estimate in what direction his efforts should be turned. In this
indirect manner the Society’s Shows have enormously increased
the number of good animals of all descriptions throughout the
country, while the experience of every winner of Show-honours
testifies to the direct value of a Royal Prize and even of a Com-
mendation.

The Battersea Show of 1862 was the turning-point in the Present policy
history and the policy of the Society’s Exhibitions of Live
Stock. Held in the year of the International Exhibition, when Meetin<r in
the means of locomotion in and about London were already 1862.
overtaxed, and in a suburb of the metropolis which was almost
inaccessible to the multitude, it was not visited by so large a
number of people as might have been expected, and the Society
consequently suffered a large pecuniary loss. But the benefit

SIS = 612 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Horses.

which has been conferred on the breeders of those kinds of
sheep and cattle which had not before been recognised by the
Society, in consequence of the continuation of the policy then
commenced, must many times exceed in value the drain which
the Exhibition entailed upon the Society’s funds. At that
Meeting the Stock Prize-sheet was expanded to include classes
for the following recognised English and Scotch breeds of
Horses, Cattle, and Sheep, in addition to others for certain
foreign races of cattle : —

Horses.

Thoroughbred — Hunters — Carriage — Roadsters — Suffolk Agricultural —
Agricultural (not qualified to compete as Suffolks) — Clydesdale — Dray —
Ponies.

Cattle.

Shorthorns — Herefords — Devons — Sussex — Longhorned — Norfolk and
Suffolk Polled — Welsh — Irish — Channel Islands (Jerseys and Guernseys) —
Polled Aberdeen and Angus — Polled Galloway — Highland — Ayrshire. ,

Sheep.

Leicester — Lincoln — Cotswold — Kentish, or Romney Marsh — Long-woolled
— Irish pure native Long-woolled — Southdowns — Shropshire — Hampshire and
West Country Down — Oxfordshire Downs — Dorset — Mountain — Blackfaced —
Cheviot.

The majority of the newly recognised English breeds con-
tained in the foregoing list have since retained their place in
the Annual Prize-sheet of the Society, especially the Channel
Island and Sussex cattle, and the Cotswold, Lincoln, Oxford-
shire Down and Hampshire Down sheep ; while the Norfolk
and Suffolk, the Longhorn and the Scotch breeds of cattle, the
Kentish, the Dorset, and the different Moor and Mountain breeds
of sheep receive due recognition whenever the Society’s Meeting
is held within a reasonable distance of the limited districts
in which they severally prevail.

In its efforts to encourage the breeds of horses the action of
the Society has been similar to that which has just been sketched
in reference to cattle and sheep. Commencing at Oxford and con-
tinuing at Cambridge with but three classes, namely cart stallions,
cart mares, and thoroughbred stallions, the two former were at
the first Liverpool Show subdivided into two-year-olds and
older horses ; and this classification appears to have satisfied
the requirements of the times until 1855, with the exception
that, during the most of that interval, the class for thoroughbred
stallions was supplanted by one for “ roadster ” sires. At Car-
lisle, in 1855, the Clydesdale was recognised as a distinct breed,
and in 1857, the thoroughbred came once more to the front.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 879 = 613

a distinction beinsr at the same time drawn between the sires and
dams suitable for breeding Hunters and Hackneys respectively.
At Battersea, as already stated, there was a great advance,
j including the recognition of the Suffolk as a distinct breed of
I horse, and ever since that Show a similar prize-sheet has been
issued, varying chiefly in details rendered desirable by the
geographical position or other circumstances of the locality in
which the Show was to be held.

Farm Prizes. — The efforts of the Society to improve the agri-
culture of the district in which the Country Meeting is held in
any year, were extended, in 1870, by the offer of prizes for the
best managed farms in the district or county. Public attention
I is by this means drawn to those farms which may be entered
i for competition. Farmers living in their neighbourhood follow
the course of cultivation on them through the year of trial with
great interest, and discuss with one another the respective
chances of the competitors. Those who have not the advantage
of neighbourhood content themselves with a personal visit to
the winning farms at the time of the Show, or with reading
the generally exhaustive reports of the Judges, which are pub-
lished in the Society’s ‘Journal.’

The definition of the class or classes of farms which are
entitled to compete varies from year to year in accordance with
the variations in the methods and styles of farming which
are characteristic of the several counties of England. In 1870,
the first year of these competitions, the farms entered were
required to be not less than 200 acres in extent, as the Country
Meeting was held at Oxford, in the midst of a district of
large arable farms. The prizes consisted of a handsome silver
cup, value lOOZ., given by Mr. Mason, the High Sheriff of
Oxfordshire (who may really claim to be the originator of the
competition for farm prizes in connection with this Society),

I and prizes of 50Z. and 25/., given by the Society, by whom
! also the expenses of judging are always borne. Next year the
I Country Meeting was held at Wolverhampton, and the prizes
I were offered in two classes, one for arable and the other for
dairy farms ; the prizes in each were — 1st, 100/. ; 2nd, 50/. ;
with two special prizes of 25/. each. It is not necessary to give
these details for each succeeding year ; but before passing on to
the current year (1877) it will be sufficient to mention that in
1870 there were 21 competitors, and in 1871 there were 23 in
the arable and 4 in the dairy class.

In connection with the Liverpool Meeting a more minute
subdivision of the farms into classes was made by the Local
Committee, who offered the prizes ; and the following is the list,
with the number of entries in each class : —

VOL. XIV. — S. S. 3 X

Farm Prizes.

Originated at
Oxford in
1870.

Subdivision
of classes in
1877.

880= 614 The Royal Ayricultural Society of England.

Competition
not always
keen.

Sectiok I. — Farms in Lancashire, Cheshire, Denbighshire, Flintshire.

A. — Arable Farms with at least two-thirds of their area
under rotation of cropping : —

Class 1. Farms of one hundred and fifty acres and up-i

wards in extent, 50?

Class 2. — Farms above eighty acres in extent, and under
one hundred and fifty acres. First Prize, 40?. ; second.

20? J

Class 3. — Farms above forty acres in extent, and under)
eighty acres, 20? }

No. of Entries.
10

B. — Dairy or Stock Farms where the course of cultiva-
tion is chiefly directed to the production of cheese or
butter, or of animal food : —

Class 4. — Farms of not less than two hundred acres in)

extent, 50?. )

Class 5. — Farms of not less than one hundred acres and)
under two hundred acres. First Prize, 40?. : second, 20?. J
Class 6. — Farms of not less than fifty, but under one)
hundred acres, 20? f

Section II. — Farms in the Isle of Man.

Class 7. — Farms of seventy acres or upwards in extent,)

25? j

Class 8. — Farms under seventy acres in extent, but not)
less than twenty-five acres, 15?. )

Total

It must not be inferred, however, that the Farm-prizes offered ^
have always been so keenly competed for, or that the offers of ‘

the Society and its Local Committees may not again be received '

with indifference in some districts. For instance, the Council ^
offered two prizes of lOOZ. each, in connection with the Hull
Meeting in 1873, for the best-managed farms above 200 acres in
extent in the Holderness and Wold districts respectively. Only
four Holderness farms were entered, and in the Wold class
there was no competition, although the areas defined were of
considerable extent, and are both characterised by large and
highly cultivated farms. The cause of this supineness was
openly stated at the time to be that the prize-winners would
probably have their rents raised in consequence of their success ;
and this apparently extraordinary reasoning was supported by
reference to a prize-winner at a local competition whose rent ^ ^
was afterwards raised, and therefore the relation of cause and I4 -
effect was ascribed to the two events. .

Post hoc is often very different from propter hoc ; but if such ^

a feeling as that I have just mentioned were to become general, '

the system of Farm-prizes would certainly die of strangulation.
F’ortunately, however, I have never heard it suggested that a '

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 881 = 615

Royal Farm-prize has been a cause of pecuniary loss to any of
the winners. On the contrary, many landlords have supple-
mented, not only the prizes, but even the commendations of the
Society’s Judges, by silver cups or other marks of their satis-
faction ; and in nearly all cases a share of the credit obtained
by the tenant is necessarily reflected upon his landlord. The
landlord, or his agent, also knows that a bad farmer is a very
expensive appanage to an estate ; and the practice of estimat-
ing the value of a tenant by the success of his farming is
becoming more and more general. If a farmer can produce
good average or over average crops, with clean land, his land-
lord is satisfied ; but if, on the other hand, the land is badly
farmed, it becomes foul, yields poor crops, and the landlord
will lose almost as much as the tenant, if the landlord does not
soon change his tenant, or the tenant change his farming.

It has been found necessary to attach certain conditions to Conditions of
the offer of these prizes, with a view to exclude so-called “ Model competition.
Farms,” which are held as an amusement at a great expense by
wealthy men. The object of the prizes is to encourage good
and profitable farming as a business, and the competitions are
therefore limited to tenant-farmers paying a bond fide rent for at
least three-fourths of the land which they cultivate. All the land
in their occupation must be entered for competition, although
some of it may not be in the area defined for the purpose. This
is a necessary stipulation, to enable the Judges to come to a
correct conclusion as to the quantity of stock maintained on
a given acreage, that being one criterion of the quality of the
farming.

The Judges are instructed especially to consider : — Instructions

® ^ to Judges.

(1.) General Management with a view to Profit.

(2.) Productiveness of Crops.

(3.) Goodness and Suitability of Live Stock.

(4.) Management of Grass Land.

(5.) State of Gates, Fences, Roads, and General Neatness.

(6.) Book-keeping.

In the case of Dairy Farms there is an additional instruction
on the “ Management of the Dairy and Dairy Produce.”

Three Judges, one of whom acts as Reporter, are appointed
by the Council of the Society, and the awards made are founded
on the results of their inspections, usually three in number : —

One in winter (preferably before Christmas), when the winter-
management of stock is the chief subject of investigation ; one
in spring (generally in May), when the state of the land, both as
regards cultivation and cleanliness, the appearance of the growing
corn, the preparations for turnip-sowing, and the management

3 N 2

882 = 616 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Reports of
Judges.

General

results.

of the flock, can be thoroughly examined ; and the last in July,
immediately before the Show, when the prospects of the harvest
can be tolerably well estimated.

The reports of the Judges, which are published in the
‘ Journal,’ and the unofficial descriptions published in the agri-
cultural newspapers, are read with keen interest, especially by
the competitors and their neighbours. It is to be hoped that a
material effect is thus being produced, analogous to that already
described as the result of the encouragement given during so
many years to breeders of different classes of stock, namely, an
increase in the number of really good farmers, for it is probable
that the few who are now the best could not farm any better
with profit to themselves. The time during which the system
of Farm Prizes has been in operation is still too short, how-
ever, to permit of any inference on this question being yet
drawn.

Still, it may be asked whether the eight competitions which
have already taken place have not pointed to any general con-
clusions which may be safely accepted as guides to good farming.
Opinions will doubtless differ as to the legitimate inferences
to be drawn from the awards and reports of the Judges;
but, to my mind, there is one salient feature characteristic of
all the competitions, and that is the value of green crops in the
rotation. In each case the prizes have fallen to farmers who
pursue the old-fashioned four or five-course shifts, to the defeat
of those who take successive corn-corps with the aid of stimu-
lating artificial manures. Even at the Liverpool competition,
of which the Judges reported very highly, stating that the com-
petitors possessed complete freedom of action, grew what they
liked, and sold what they chose, this freedom was used to grow
more grass, green crops, and early potatoes, and not successive
crops of grain. It does not follow, however, that this will always
be the case, as our knowledge of the practical and systematic use
of artificial manures for double-cropping is as yet confined to
the experience of a comparatively small number of farmers.
The increasing value of straw, as a crop to be sold off the
farm, is also rapidly enhancing the importance of corn-crops,
especially in the neighbourhood of large towns. Moreover,
much weight must be allowed to the climate, not only of the
locality, but of the year ; and a dry year in a dry district
will necessarily furnish one extreme combination, and tell a
different tale from that which would be observed in a wet dis-
trict in a rainy season.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. SSo=617

CHAPTER III.

Science.

Chemistry. — The Chemical department of the Society has for chemistry,
many years been one of the most important, especially since
the Council resolved to publish the names of those persons who
supplied to its members artificial manures and feeding-stuffs
which on analysis proved to be inferior or adulterated. The
Chemical Committee has the immediate supervision of this
department ; and the post of executive officer, officially known
as the “ Consulting Chemist,” has for many years been held by
Dr, Voelcker, in whose skill and knowledge the Society and
the public repose complete confidence. The duties of the Con-
sulting Chemist are (1) to make analyses at a stipulated charge
1 for those Members of the Society who are not engaged in the .

manufacture or sale of the substances sent to be analysed ;

! (2) to report to the Chemical Committee any cases of inferior
! or adulterated substances thus sent for analysis ; (3) to conduct
I or superintend experiments in the field and researches in the
1 laboratory ; (4) to write such reports and memoirs as may from
I time to time be deemed desirable for publication in the Society’s
‘ Journal ’ or otherwise.

The following Table will show the reduced scale of fees Members’
charged for analyses made for the Members, and the extent to Privileges of
which the privilege was used last year; and it may be added ^

(that the average number of analyses made in a year is, in round
numbers, about 700 : —

I No.

1. An opinion of the genuineness of Peruvian Guano, bone-dust

or oil-cake (each sample)

2. An analysis of guano ; showing the proportion of moisture,
organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts

and ammonia

3. An estimate of the value (relatively to the average samples
in the market) of sulphate and muriate of ammonia and

of the nitrates of potash and soda

4. An analysis of superphosphate of lime for soluble phos-
phates only

5. An analysis of superphosphate of lime, showing the pro-
portions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and
insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime and ammonia
6. An analysis (sufficient for the determination of its agricul-
tural value) of an ordinary artificial manure

7. Limestone : the proportion of lime, 7s. 6(f. ; the proportion
of magnesia, 10s. ; the proportion of lime and magnesia
8. Limestone or marls, including carbonate, phosphate and
sulphate of lime and magnesia with sand and clay

No. of
Analyses.

lOs.

10s.

10s.'

15s.

£1

171

£1)

, £1 49

884 = 615 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Reports on
sales of inferior
and adulte-
rated manures
and feeding-
stuffs.

Advice to
members.

No. of

No. Analyses.

9. Partial analysis of a soil, including detemiinations of clay,

sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime .. .. £l'l g,

10. Complete analysis of a soil £3/

11. An analysis of oil-cake or other substance used for feeding

purposes, showing the proportion of moisture, oil, mineral
matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre, as well as
of starch, gum, and sugar in the aggregate £1 206

12. Analysis of any vegetable product £1 21

13. Analysis of animal products, refuse substances used for

manure, &c from 10.5. to 30s. 7

14. Determination of the “ hardness ” of a sample of w’ater before

and after boiling 10s.

15. Analysis of water of land drainage, and of water used for

irrigation £2) gg

16. Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water .. .. £lj

In the year 1870, at the suggestion of the Earl of Lichfield,
the Council passed the following resolution : — “ The Consulting
Chemist is required to submit, in March, June, and December,
a Report on the various samples of manures and feeding-stuffs
forwarded to him by Members of the Society ; and such Report,
together with the names of the dealers who supplied the sub-
stances analysed, shall, if the Council think fit, be published in
the Agricultural Journals.” Thus was imposed the second of
Dr. Voelcker’s quartette of duties. Considering the nature
of the English law of libel, and the absence from our system of
any officer having such functions as the public prosecutor of
foreign countries, it is obvious that the Council assumed a very
grave responsibility when they passed this resolution. The
Agricultural Journals soon asked for an indemnity against any
consequences which might follow from their complying with
the request to publish the Society’s Reports ; and the requisite
assurance was given to a certain number, on condition that the
reports were published verbatim et literatim as issued by the
Secretary. More than once the Council have been under the
necessity of redeeming its pledge, and has paid the costs of
expensive actions at law; but the Members of the Society and
the Agricultural Associations throughout the country have un-
animously and heartily approved of the course pursued by the
Council, notwithstanding its cost. And if the publication of
these Reports has been thus appreciated by purchasers, it can
scarcely be doubted that its effect upon a certain class of manu-
facturers and dealers has made them beneficial to the farmer
by restricting, at least for a time, the growing practice of selling
inferior, “ mixed,” and adulterated manures and feeding-stuffs
under misleading names.

In addition to these Reports, the Council have on several
occasions issued advice to its Members, drawing their atten-

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. SSb = 6l9

tion to the precautions which they should take and the
guarantees of quality which they should obtain when they
purchase various kinds of artificial manures and feeding-stuffs.
Thousands of these circulars have also been issued by other
Societies ; but still the Consulting Chemist finds ample material
for his Quarterly Reports, although for a time the actions at
law just referred to cleared the air of much floating mischief,
and temporarily denuded those Reports of their most striking
character.

To defray the cost of the third and fourth heads of the Con- Experiments
i suiting Chemist’s duties, the Council make an annual grant of ‘“^csti-
200Z. ; and every volume of the ‘ Journal ’ contains one or two
I records of the results of those investigations made either in
1 the field or in the laboratory. Last year, as has been already
I described, the efforts of the Society in this direction received
a great impetus from the passing of the Agricultural Holdings
Act, and were much facilitated by the liberality and public
[ spirit of the Duke of Bedford, to whom the Society is entirely
indebted for the Experimental Station at Woburn.

It will thus be seen that the Chemical Committee have the
charge of a most important section of the Society’s functions,
and that their activity is commensurate with their mission. But
however great may be the work which they have done in the
j past, there can be no doubt that they have a still larger field for
I their operations in the future. The increasing use of artificial
manures and feeding-stuffs for the mutual benefit of landlord
I and tenant will lead to a considerable extension of the use which
has hitherto been made of the facilities for analysis which are
afforded to the members of the Society ; while the establish-
ment of the Experimental Farm at Woburn seems lo open out
; the prospect that the questions upon which practical and

I scientific men are not yet agreed, will be submitted to careful
and crucial tests under the supervision of a joint committee
combining “ practice with science.”

■ Natural History. — A separate department to take cogni- Natural
sance of the application of these sciences to agriculture was History,
not formed until the year 1871, when Mr. Carruthers, F.R.S.,
the Keeper of the Botanical department of the British Museum,
was appointed “ Consulting Botanist ” to the Society. More
recently the same gentleman has undertaken to supply the Mem-
bers with advice on Zoological matters. Thus the Members
of the Society can now, at the cost of a few shillings, have
their seeds tested and obtain advice on any animal or vege-
table pest that may damage their crops. The following J is
a list of the Natural History Privileges of Members of the
Society ; —

886 = 620

The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Jlembers’
Botanical and
Zoological
Privileges.

Veterinary

Department.

I. Botakical.

No. S.

1. A report on the purity, amount and nature of foreign materials,

perfectness and germinating power of a sample of seeds .. .. 5

2. Detailed report on the weight, purity, perfectness, and germinating

power of a sample of seeds, with a special description of the weeds ^
and other foreign materials contained in it 10 \

3. Determination of the species of any weed or other plant, or of any j

epiphyte or vegetable parasite, with a report on its habits, and the |
means of its extermination or prevention 5 j

4. Keport on any disease affecting the I'arm crop 5 1

5. Determination of the species of a collection of natural grasses found 1

in any district on one kind of soil, with a report on their habits I

and pasture value 10 ,

II. Zoological. i

6. Determination of the species of any insect, worm, or other animal

which, in any stage of its life, injuriously affects the farm crops, j
with a report on its habits and suggestions as to its extermination 5 I

In other respects, Mr. Carruthers’s duties are similar to Dr.
Voelcker’s ; but the Council have only recently decided to pub-
lish the names of those dealers who supply the Members with '
bad or mixed seed. For this delay there are two reasons, t
viz., (1) there is a special statute, known as the “ Adulteration 1
of Seeds Act,” which imposes penalties on persons convicted of t
killing or dyeing, or causing to be killed or dyed, any kind of
seed ; and (2) this department of the Society has not been in >
operation long enough to bring the Members into the habit
of systematically submitting their seeds for examination. There
can be little doubt, however, that in a few years the facilities
offered for the detection of bad, killed, or dyed seed, and of the
presence of seeds of injurious weeds or parasites, will be more
highly appreciated by the Members of the Society.

Veterinary. — This department is organised upon analogous
though not exactly similar principles to those just described.
For many years the Society was intimately connected with the
Royal Veterinary College, and the Principal of that Establish-
ment (Professor Simonds, whose services to the Society in past
years it would be difficult to exaggerate) is still the Consulting
Veterinary Surgeon of the Society. The practical work of the
department, however, is now done by the officers of the “ Brown
Institution,” which was established for the investigation of the
diseases of animals useful to man. Members of the Society
have privileges with respect to the diseases of cattle, sheep, and
pigs, as follows ; —

I. — Seeiocts oe Extensive Diseases.

No. 1. Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance ■
and spcci.al advice in cases of serious or extensive disease among his cattle,

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 887 = 621

sheep, or pigs, and will address a letter to the Secretary, will, by return of Member
post, receive a supply stating whether it be considered necessary that the Privileg
Society’s Veterinary Inspector should visit the place where the disease
prevails.

No. 2. The remuneration of the Inspector will be 21. 2s. each day as a
professional fee, and 1/. Is. each day for personal expenses ; and he will also
be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his
services may have been required. The fees will be paid by the Society, but
the travelling ex])enses will be a charge against the applicant. This charge
may, however, be reduced or remitted altogether at the discretion of the
Council, on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary Com-
mittee.

No. 3. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will
report to the Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and pro-
ceedings, which report will be laid before the Council.

No. 4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the
duties confided to the Inspector, he may, subject to the approval of the Com-
mittee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall
receive the same rates of remuneration.

II. — Ordinary or Other Cases of Disease.

Members may obtain the assistance of the Veterinary Inspector on any case
of disease by paying the cost of his visit, which will be at the following
rate, viz., 21. 2s. per diem, and travelling expenses. AppUcations should be
addressed to the Superintendent of the Brown Institution, care of the Secre-
tary of the Royal Agricultural Society, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.

III. — Consultations without Visit.

Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector 5s.

Consultation by letter 5s.

Consultation necessitating the ivriting of three or more letters 10s.
Post-mortem examination, and report thereon 10s.

A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society
during each half-year is required from the Veterinary Inspector.

IV. — Admission of Diseased Animals to the Brown Institution, Wands-
worth Road, S.W. ; Investigations ; Lectures and Reports.

No. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle,
sheep, and pigs to the Infinnary of the Brown Institution on the following
terms ; viz., by paying i'or the keep and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week
each animal, and for sheep and pigs “ a small proportionate charge to be fixed
by the Professor-Superintendent according to circumstances.”

No. 2. The Professor-Superintendent of the Institution has also undertaken
to carry out such investigations relating to the nature, treatment, and pre-
vention of diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be deemed expedient by
the Council.

No. 3. A detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in
the Infirmary of the Institution or on Farms in the occupation of Members
of the Society will be furnished to the Council quarterly ; and also special
reports from time to time on any matter of unusual interest which may come
under the notice of the Institution.

Occasionally it is somewhat difficult to discriminate between
cases in which the whole expense of the visit of the Veterinary
Inspector should be borne by the Member, and those in which

888 = 622 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Importance of
the Veterinary
Department.

Investigations
into diseases
of animals of
the farm.

a part should be borne by the Society ; but the Council have
always endeavoured to deal with these matters in a liberal
spirit, and the clauses have been most liberally interpreted in
times of public danger — such, for instance, as an outbreak of
cattle-plague.

In some respects this is the most necessary of the scientific
departments of the Society. The loss to farmers in consequence
of their buying bad seed, adulterated manure, or “ mixed ”
cakes is often very great, but the action is their own ; and irre-
spective of the Society, though probably with greater cost and
less security, the remedy is in their own hands. In the case,
however, of the outbreak of a contagious or infectious disease
among his flock or herd, the farmer is practically powerless.
He can rarely fasten the blame upon any one, and if he should
be able to prove the carelessness of a drover or a shepherd it
brings him no pecuniary compensation. His best course is to
obtain without delay the most reliable advice, with a view to
stay the progress of the destroyer; and this the Society has
placed within his reach at a very moderate cost under any cir-
cumstances, and at none at all in matters of public importance.

This department of the Society’s organisation is not confined
to the application of the known truths of veterinary science to
the diseases of animals of the farm, but it is largely occupied
with endeavours to increase the technical knowledge of these
subjects by stimulating research in reference to both preventive
and curative measures. The volumes of the Society’s ‘Journal’
•contain numerous papers embodying the results of experiments
made at the Royal Veterinary College, the Brown Institution,
and elsewhere ; and of a large number of local investigations at
special farms into nearly every important disease which com-
monly affects farm-stock. I may specially mention researches into
cattle-plague and inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia, made over
a large area upon the continent of Europe by Professor Simonds ;
experiments upon almost every known contagious or infectious
disease of cattle, sheep, and pigs made at the Royal Veterinary
College ; and, more recently, very careful scientific experiments
upon foot-and-mouth disease, pleuro-pneumonia, and anthrax,
made at the Brown Institution ; while at the present moment
ari'angements are being made to test, on an extensive scale and
in different parts of the kingdom, the protective effect against
pleuro-pneumonia, of the new method of inoculation devised
by Dr. Burdon Sanderson.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 889 = 625

CHAPTER IV.

The Propaganda of Agriculture,

Under this heading I shall attempt to describe briefly the
manner in which the Society endeavours to promulgate the facts
and principles of modern improved agriculture to its Members
through its ‘ Journal,’ and to the farmers, land-agents, and
veterinary surgeons of the future by stimulating their technical
education through the offer of rewards for special success at
school and at College.

The Journal. — From the date of its establishment in 1838, The ‘Journal,
the publication of a periodical ‘ Journal ’ has been one of the
distinctive features of the Society’s efforts. For the first three
years three “ parts ” were published in each year, but since
then only two, namely, one in spring before seed-time, and one
in autumn after harvest.

To a student of agricultural history, a comparison of the con-
tents of the earliest with the successive and the latest volumes
of the ‘ Journal ’ cannot fail to suggest many interesting ques-
tions. Forty years ago, when railways were comparatively
few and far between, residents in remote country districts seldom
had the opportunity of meeting to discuss practical questions
which were then beginning to acquire importance. In those
days, too, class newspapers devoted to technical subjects were
! comparatively unknown. Therefore the earlier volumes of the
‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society ’ teemed with short
I practical articles written by enthusiastic landowners and farmers
I who had been among the founders of the Society, and who were
encouraged and stimulated by the example and the exhortations
of the first editor of the ‘ Journal ’ — Mr. Pusey, M.P. — to whom
English agricultural literature, from a practical point of view,
is indebted to an extent that is probably exceeded only by the
services of Arthur Young.

In the course of time, greater intercourse between farmers, the Its history,
enormous development of the newspaper press, and other cir-
cumstances, induced the writers of short practical essays to seek
immediate publication, instead of waiting for the six-monthly
interval between the publication of the numbers of the Society’s
‘Journal.’ The Council, therefore, found it necessary to offer
prizes for well-considered essays on selected subjects ; and for a
series of years the contents of the ‘ Journal ’ very largely con-
sisted of the “crowned” memoirs, many of which were well
worthy of their success, and to this day hold their ground as
text-books upon their several subjects.

890 = C24 The Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Its usefulness.

Agricultural

education.

Senior

Examination.

These two periods in the history of the ‘ Journal ’ were, ten
years ago, succeeded by a third. The Prize-system had become
inadequate to supply sufficiently meritorious essays upon the
subjects which then began to demand attention. Our agri-
culture had become more scientific, and our food-supplies more
dependent upon the wants and crops of other nations. There-
fore the information required by the Society’s Members was
in most cases of such a nature as to require a special investiga-
tion by a trained mind, or a special journey to a foreign country.
Realising this alteration in the circumstances of agriculture, the
Journal Committee gradually modified their practice in the
conduct of the ‘ Journal,’ until, as at the present time, and for
some years past, each half-yearly number may be regarded as a
collection of exhaustive essays upon their several subjects, not
the least useful and interesting being the Official Reports on
scientific investigations — Veterinary, Chemical, Botanical — and
on practical competitions for prizes offered for Farms, Live-
Stock, and Implements.

Notwithstanding these alterations in the system of conducting
the ‘ Journal,’ in conformity with the spirit of the times when
they were made, it may be safely asserted that no other publica-
tion bearing upon agriculture contains such an amount of useful
matter connected with so little that is irrelevant. The Chair-
men of the Journal Committee (who, until the last twenty years,
were also the editors of the ‘ Journal ’) are singularly few in
number, namely, Mr. Pusey, Sir H. S. Meysey Thompson, and
Mr. Dent ; and the result of their successive labours is a most
valuable magazine of facts, figures, and principles, elucidating
the Science and Practice, as well as the History, of European
Agriculture.

Education. — The Society has made many efforts to carry out
the seventh “Object” enumerated in the Charter,* namely, “to
take measures for the improvement of the education of those
who depend upon the cultivation of the soil for their support.”
Many schemes have been tried, and all have more or less failed.
At the present moment the only measures taken with a view
to stimulate purely agricultural education are the encouragement
of young men at College and boys at school to apply them-
selves to the study of agriculture, and the sciences which are
most necessary to its successful practice.

The Senior Examination, chiefly applicable to young men
leaving College, is held every April ; prizes and certificates are
offered to the successful candidates, and every First-class Cer-
tificate carries with it the Life-Membership of the Society.
Very few candidates present themselves for examination ; and

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 891 = 625

although this scheme has been in operation more than ten years,
the value of the Society’s Certificate as a proof of knowledge
and ability does not yet seem widely enough recognised to
induce many Students to go through the somewhat thorough
course of study necessary to obtain it.

The Junior Examination has not been in operation more Junior
than four years. Ten scholarships of 20/. each, tenable for one Examination,
year, are annually offered for competition to pupils of certain
Middle-Class Public Schools. The examinations are held
at the schools in November, and the scholarships are not
paid until the following November, and then only upon receipt
of a certificate that the scholar has passed the year either at
school, or at an Agricultural College, or with a practical farmer
approved by the Council. This scheme was designed as an
inducement to tenant-farmers to keep their sons at school
longer than they usually do ; and also as an encouragement
to the schools to introduce the Science and Practice of Agri-
culture into their curriculum. In both of these objects the
scheme has already been fairly successful ; and it promises
very well for the future, as the number of schools on the list,
and the number of those which enter candidates for exami-
nation, are both gradually increasing. In the course of time
it may be hoped that this scheme may act and re-act upon the
Senior Examination, first by inducing the junior scholars to enter
upon the more thorough course of study for its own sake and
for its practical value ; and secondly, by creating a demand
for teachers at the Middle-Class Schools — the head-masters of
Avhich would attach due importance to the Society’s First-class
Certificate. (

A third educational examination has been established only Examination of
two years, and has already achieved a fair measure of success,

Prizes and Medals are annually offered to Graduates of the °

Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons who have been educated
at an English Veterinary College, and who have obtained their
degree not less than three, and not more than fifteen months.

The examination is both practical and theoretical, and is con-
fined to the diseases, treatment, and pathology of cattle, sheep,
and pigs, with a view to induce young Veterinary Surgeons to
extend their observation and knowledge of the animals of the
farm generally, instead of confining them, as has hitherto been
too generally the case, exclusively to the horse and his ailments.

In all the existing schemes, the education of the Middle-class Education of
is alone sought to be stimulated. The Senior Examination aims la“<io'vner
at the large tenant-farmer and the land-agent ; the Junior
Scholarships are offered to the smaller tenant-farmer of the

892 = 626 Tlie Royal Agricultural Society of England.

and of the
labourer.

Retrospect.

future ; and the V eterinary Medals and Prizes to the rising
cattle-doctor ; but the landowner and the labourer are alike
unprovided for. With regard to the landowner, it may be said
that if self-interest does not induce him to acquire some tech-
nical knowledge of agriculture, no system of examination, and
no offer of prizes or certificates would be likely to tempt him.
'At the same time it must be admitted that the English Uni-
versities have, one and all, failed to give proper facilities for
such a course of study to the young landlord during his College
career.

The technical education of the young labourer is a more
difficult and a more pressing consideration. The Education
Acts have not yet been long enough in force to make much
impression upon the rural youth ; but that his intelligence will
be much increased by their operation in the course of a few
years cannot be doubted. Here, then, is the opportunity to
remedy the growing evil of “ worse work for more pay,” which
is heard whenever the agricultural labourer is mentioned. It
would be foreign to the scope of this Memoir to enter into
a discussion of the means which might be adopted for this
purpose, and it is alluded to here in the same manner as other
topics which are still in the future, to show that the scope of
the Society’s operations, which has been very largely widened
during the last ten years, has not yet attained its ultimate
extension.

A retrospective glance at the last ten years will show that in
so short a period of time the Society has increased in number
20 per cent. ; its ‘Journal’ has become more popular with its
Members ; Farm-prizes have been established ; the systematic
testing of competing agricultural implements has been much
improved ; scientific investigations into diseases of animals of
the farm have been placed on a sound basis ; the technical
education of Veterinary Surgeons and of tenant-farmers and
land-agents has been stimulated and encouraged ; a Consulting
Botanist and Entomologist to advise the Members has been
appointed ; an Experimental Farm has been established ; and
a system of exposure of persons connected with the sale of
inferior or adulterated feeding-stuffs, manures, and agricultural
seeds has been organised and fearlessly carried out, to the great
benefit of the agricultural community. It has been said that a
man should be strong at thirty, wise at forty, and rich at fifty.
Ten years ago the Royal Agricultural Society had completed
the first of those periods, and with 5500 Members might be
considered strong in numbers and in influence. Its action

The Royal Agricultural Society of England. 893 = 627

during the past ten years entitle it, in my judgment, to claim
that at forty years of age it is deserving of the epithet which
belongs to that stage of existence ; and I have no doubt that at
the end of another ten years it will, without any diminution of
strength or wisdom, be rich in everything which will add to its
power to carry out the great object for which it was established
— the general advancement of English Agriculture.

INDEX TO THE MEMOIR

ON THE

AGRICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND WALES,

FORMING

PART IL, VOL. XIV.— SECOND SERIES,

OF THE

JOUENAL OF THE EOYAL AGEICULTUEAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

ABERDEENSHIRE.

Aberdeenshire cattle (J. A. Clarke), [
285.

Abortion, preventing (J. A. Clarke),
251. '

Absorbent power of soils (Dr. Voelcker),
543.

Ache, average yield of wheat per (J. A.
Clarke), 196.

Acreage devoted to growth of vegetables
(C. Whitehead), 483 ; potatoes, 490.

of England and Wales (J. A.

Clarke), 194.

of fruit-land in Great Britain (C.

Whitehead), 471.

of hop-lands (C. Whitehead), 457.

of the United Kingdom (J. Caird),

24.

Adulterated manures and feeding stuffs
(H. M. Jenkins'), 618.

Age of hop grounds in Kent (C. White-
head), 458.

when cattle begin to breed (J. A.

Clarke), 225; ewes, 250; sows, 264.
Agreement, formsof (Clifford and Foote),
90.

, form of, between farmers and their

carters (H. J. Little), 521.

Agricultural education (H. M. Jen-
634m

Holdings Act (J. Caird), 39.

Holdings Act (Clifford and Foote),

99; review ofthe act, fOO-iio ; results,
116.

Holding.s Act (E. P. Squarey), 171.

Interest, Taxation as affecting the

(Captain Craigie), 123.

Labourer, see also “ Labourer.”

AMMONIA.

Agricultural Labourer (H. J. Little),
499.

population, decrease in proportion

to other classes (J. Caird), 31.

products, prices of (J. A. Clarke),

I 202.

I returns (J. A. Clarke), 198.

\ statistics (J. A. Clarke), 193.

I statistics of the United Kingdom

I (J. Caird), 14.

I tenants (Clifford and Foote), 83.

! Agriculture (British), General View of
I (J. Caird), 11.

I (Practical) (J. A. Clarke), 185.

I principal occupation of the people

of Ireland (J. Caird), 29.

results of the Agricultural Holdings

Act on (Clifford and Foote), 116.
Agriculturists, number of, with inde-
pendent incomes (Captain Craigie),
124 ; dependent classes, td.

Ailments of calves (J. A. Clarke), 231.
Air, effect on foul liquids (Dr. Voelcker),
564.

Alderneys (J. A. Clarke), 277.
Alienation of land, right of (Clifford
and Foote), 72.

Allowances to labourers (H. J. Little),
510.

to tenants for improvements (E. P.

Squarey), 177.

America, importation of meat from (J.
Caird), 13.

Americans, gieat meat consumers (J.
Caird), 13.

Ammonia, absorption of, by soils (Dr.
Voelcker), 544.

AGRICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND WALES.

895 = 629

ANALYSES.

Analyses do not always show agricul-
tural capabilities of the soil (Dr.
Voelcker), 543 ; questions answered by
analysis, 548.

for members (H. M. Jenkins), 615.

Analysis of stored chaff (J. A. Clarke),
247.

of taxation (Captain Craigie), 128.

Anglesea cattle (J. A. Clarke), 284.

Angus cattle (J. A. Clarke), 285.

Animal food, value of, imported (J. Caird),

12.

Animals, experiments on (Dr. Voelcker),
583.

of the farm, investigation into the

diseases of (H. M. Jenkins), 622.

Aphis blight on hops (C. Whitehead),
465.

Apple orchards in Herefordshire (C.
Whitehead), 472.

Arable farm, proportion of landlord’ s'and
tenant’s capital on an (E. P. Squarey),
165.

land improved by drainage (J.

Caird), 45.

land, management of sheep on (W.

T. Carrington), 447-^50.

Arbitration (Clifford and Foote), 98.

Artificial manures (J. A. Clarke), 354.

, best time to apply (Dr. Voelcker),

545.

, value in times of war (J. Caird), 19.

, imports of (J. A. Clarke), 202.

Artificials when best applied (Dr.
Voelcker), 561 ; manufacture, 562.

Ash-poles for hops (C. Whitehead), 462.

Asparagus culture (C. Whitehead), 486.

Asses (J. A. Clarke), 365.

Assessment of improvements under the
Agricultural Holdings Act (Clifford
and Foote), 108.

of tenant farmer to income tax (Cap-
tain Craigie), 142.

Atmosphere, sources of nitrogen from the
(Dr. Voelcker), 557.

Atmospheric moisture (J. A. Clarke),
187.

Authors, list of, Caird, 1 ; Clifford and
Foote, 73 \ Craigie, Squarey, 16.9;
Clarke, 185 ; Morton, 381 ; Carrington,
435 ; Whitehead, 457 ; Little, 499 ;
Voelcker, 541 ; Jenkins, 593.

Autumn calving (J. A. Clarke), 227.

Awards for compensation under the
Agricultural Holdings Act (Clifford
and Foote), 112.

Aylesbury Dairy Company (Dr. Voelc-
ker), 580.

Ayrshire cattle (J. A. Clarke), 286.

(J. C. Morton), 396.

BREEDS.

Bakewell’s improved Longhorns (J. A.
Clarke), 276.

Banks (E. P. Squarey), 173.

Barge navigation (J. Caird), 56.

Barley, continuous growth of (Dr.
Voelcker), 551.

, experiments in the growth of (J.

Caird), 21.

, more likely to succeed after barley

than wheat (J. Caird), 20.

• , yield of, compared with foreign

countries (J. A. (Ilarke), 198; home
production, 207; imports and prices,
208.

Bateman, Lord, machinery on his farm
(J. A. Clarke), 368.

Bath cheese (J. C. Morton), 420.

Battersea Meeting (H. M. Jenkins),
612.

Beans (J. A. Clarke), 340.

, imports for feeding (J. A, Clarke),

202.

Beet-root sugar, manufacture of (Dr,
Voelcker), 577.

Benefit societies (H. J. Little), 525.

Berkshire pigs (J. A. Clarke), 307.

Bird scarers (H. J. Little), 530.

Black-face D mountain sheep (J. A-
Clarke), 304.

Blight-proof potatoes (C. Whitehead),
492.

Board Schools (H. J. Little), 529.

Boards of Guardians (Capt. Craigie), 146.

Bone-dust, beneficial results to root-
crops (Dr. Voelcker), 547.

Bones as a manure (J. A. Clarke), 358.

and bone materials (Dr. Voelcker),

562.

Border Leicester sheep (J. A. Clarke),
288.

Botanical department of the Eoyal
Agricultural Society (H. 51. Jenkins),
619.

“ Bothy system ” in Scotland (H. J.
Little), 524.

Boxes for feeding cattle (J. A. Clarke),
234.

Breaking straw (J. A. Clarke), 247.

Breaking-in colts (J. A. Clarke), 364.

Breeders of Shorthorns (J. A. Clarke),
268 ; Herefords, 271 ; Devons, 274.

Breeding, age at which cattle commence
(J. A. (jlarke), 225 ; ewes, 250 ; sows,
264.

farm-horses (J. A. Clarke), 964.

season for ewes (J. A. Clarke), 249

Breeds of cattle for milk supply (J. C.
Morton), 382.

3 0

VOL. XIV. — S. S.

890^630

INDEX TO THE MEMOIR ON THE

BRITISH.

British Apiculture, General View of
(J. Caird), 11.

, influence of Chemical Discoveries

in (Dr. Voelcker), 541.

Brocoli culture in Cornwall (C. White-
Lead), 488.

Buckinghamshire dairy farm (J. C.
Morton), 423.

Buildings, improvement of, by state
loans in Ireland (J. Caird), 42.

Bullock breeding (W. T. Carrington),
442.

Burial Clubs (H. J. Little), 527.

Butter (J. A. Clarke), 220.

, manufacture of (J. C. Morton), 423.

Cabbage (J. A. Clarke), 341.

Cabbages (C. Whitehead), 487.

Caird, A. M'Neil, plan of cottages built
by (H. J. Little), .519.

, James, C.B. F.R.S., General View

of British Agriculture, 11.

Cala'es, diseases of (W. T. Carrington),
4.38.

, number dropped per year (J. A.

Clarke), 214 ; treatment of, 228.

, the rearing of (J. C. Morton), 401.

Calving, season chosen for (J. A. Clarke),
225.

Canary seed (,T. A. Clarke), 316.

Capital more profitably employed than
in improving our poorer class of soils
(J. Caird), 14.

of landlords and tenants, 163.

of the agricultural classes (Capt.

Craigie), 125.

Carrington, W. T., his farm management
(J. C. Morton), 386.

on Pastoral Husbandry, 435.

Castlemartin cattle (J. A. Cllarke), 283.

Caterpillars on fruit trees (C. White-
head), 475.

Cathcart, Earl, on wool (J. A. Clarke),

221.

Cattle (J. A. Clarke), 199; number,
compared with foreign countries, 201.

, dairy and grazing breeds of (J. C.

Morton), 382.

, estimated dead-weight of (J. A.

Clarke), 212 ; management of, 225.

, rearing of (W. T. Carrington), 4.37.

Cattle-food, cooked (J. A. Clarke), 238.

Caustic lime as a dressing for fruit
trees (C. Whitehead), 476.

Celibacy uncommon among labourers
(H. J. Little), .'534.

Cereal food, value of imported (J.
Caird), 12.

climate.

Chalk, rotation on the (J. A. Clarke),
317 ; in Hampshire, 323.

Chalking (J. A. Clarke), 359.

Chancery, Court of, and settled estates
(Cliflbrd and Foote), 80.

Channel Island cattle (J. A. Clarke),
277.

“ Charges on estates,” the creation of,
by landowners (Clifford and Foote),
113.

Charity estates (J. Caird), 65 ; value,

ib.

Charter of the Royal Apicultural
Society (H. M. Jenkins), 595.

Cheddar cheese (J. C. Morton), 407.

Cheddar plan of cheese-making (Dr.
Voelcker), 580.

Cheese (J. A. Clarke), 220.

, the manufacture of (J. C. Morton),

407.

factories (Dr. Voelcker), 579.

Chemical department of the Royal Api-
cultural Society (H. M. Jenkins), 617,

Discoveries, influence on English

Agriculture (Dr. Voelcker), 541.

Cherries, cultivated in Kent (C. White-
head), 477.

Cheshire cheese (J. C. Morton), 409.

dairy farm (J. C. Morton), 388.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

351.

Chestnut for hop-poles (C. Whitehead),
462.

Cheviots (J. A. Clarke), 302.

Chiltern district, crops in the (J. A.
Clarke), 336.

Church estates (J. Caird), 62.

Cider (C. 'Whitehead), 473.

Civil list (J. Caird), 64.

Clarke, John Algernon, on Practical
Agriculture, 185.

Clergy, number of (J. Caird), 63.

Claims under the Apicultural Holdings
Act, procedure in establishing (Cliflbrd
and Foote), 111.

Clay soils unfit for irrigation (Dr .Voelc-
ker), 567.

Claying (J. A. Clarke), 359.

Clifford, Frederick, on English Laud
j Law, 71.

Climate (J. A. Claj-ke), 186.

influence on sheep (W. T. Carring-
ton), 444.

, of England, variation in the (AV. T.

Carrington), 435.

I of Scotland unfavourable for fruit-

I growing (C. Whitehead), 481.

' of the United Kingdom (J. Caird),

24.

' unfavourable to powth of beet-root

(Dr. Voelcker), 579.

AGRICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND WALES.

897 = 631

CLOVER.

Clover, impossible to secure a continuous
crop of (J. Caird), 21.

alternating with seeds (J. A. Clarke),

339.

Clydesdales f J. A. Clarke), 313.

Cob-nuts (C. Whitehead), 479.

CocoANDT-CAKE (Dr. Voelcker), 573.

CoLEJiAN, J., on Berkshire pigs (J. A.
Clarke), 307.

Colonies enable England to dispense
with checks on increase of population
29.

Colts (J. A. Clarke), 364.

Commons and waste lands (J. Caird), 57 ;
extent, 58.

Companies for improvement of land (J.
Caird), 42.

(E. P. Squarey), 175.

Compensation, conditions of, under the
Agricultural Holdings Act (Clifford
and Foote), 110.

to out-going tenants (E. P. Squarey),

169.

Composts (J. A. Clarke), 358.

Condensed milk manufacture (Dr. Voelc-
ker), 580.

Constitution of the Royal Agricultural
Society (H. M. Jenkins), 594.

Contents sheets, 7, 69. 121, 161, 183,
379, 455, 497, 539, 591.

Continuous cropping (Dr. Voelcker),
550.

Contract, freedom of (Clifford and
Foote), 92.

Cooked caitle food (J. A. Clarke), 2.38.

Copyholds (J. Caird), 57; enfranchise-
ment, 60.

Corn, imports for feeding (J. A. Clarke),

202.

returns (J. A. Clarke), 202.

Corn-crops, diminution of, in Ireland
(J. Caird), 16.

, distribution of (J. A. Clarke), 195.

, experiments in the growth of (J.

Caird), 21.

, successive (J. Caird), 19.

Cornwall, market-gardening in (C.
Whitehead), 488.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

329.

, temperature of (J. A. Clarke), 186.

CoRVE Dale, rotations in the (J. A.
Clarke), 338.^

CoTswoLD Hills (J. A. Clarke), .332.

CoTswoLDS (J. A. Clarke), 293.

(W. T. Carrington), 445.

Cottages for labourers (J. Caird), 46.

(E. P. Squarey), 168.

• , improvement in, for the poor(H. J.

Little), 512.

Cotton-cake (Dr. Voelcker), 571.

DAIRY.

Counties in which hops are principally
grown (C. Whitehead), 458.

, distribution of poor rates in dif-
ferent (Capt. Craigie), 148.

Country Meetings of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society (H. M. Jenkins), 600.

supply of milk (J. C. Morton), 404.

County Courts, jurisdiction of (Clifford
and Foote), 113.

, customs of the (Clifford and Foote),

87 ; effect, 88 ; exclusion, 93.

rates (Capt. Craigie), 149.

Covenants in leases (Clifford and Foote),
95.

Covered yards (J. A. Clarke), 361.

for cattle feeding (J. A. Clarke), 235.

Cows kept by masters for the labourers
(H. J. Little), 521.

, management of (J. C. Morton), 381.

, number in the United Kingdom (J.

A. Clarke), 213.

, on feeding, for milk ( J. C. Morton),

405.

Craigie, Captain, on Taxation as affecting
the Agricultural Interest, 123.

Cream cheese (J. C. Morton), 420.
Creosoting hop-poles (C. Whitehead),
463.

Cropping land, freedom of (E. P. Squarey),
173.

Crops, extent of land under various, in
1877 (J. Caird), 16.

, sale of, on continuous corn growing

land (Dr. Voelcker), 554.

Crown estates (J. Caird), 64; conditions
on which they are let, 65.

Cucumbers (C. Whitehead), 487.
Cultivation of Hops, Fruits and Vege-
tables (C. Whitehead), 457.
Cultivators (J. A. Clarke), .370.
Currants (C. Whitehead), 478.

Custom of emblements (Clifford & Foote),
84.

Customs, local (Clifford and Foote), 87 ;
effect, 88 ; exclusion, 93.

Dairy appliances, prizes for (H. M. Jen-
kin.s), 606.

cows (J. C. Morton), 381.

factories (J. 0. Morton), 414.

farm in Staffordshire (J. C. Morton),

386 ; Cheshire, 388 ; Herefordshire,
395.

farm, proportion of landlord’s and

tenant’s capital on a (E. P. Squarey)

farming (J, C. Morton), 381.

implements (J. C. Morton), 429,

products (J. A. Clarke), 220.

3 o 2

898 = 652

INDEX TO THE MEMOIR ON THE

DAVY.

Davy, J. T., description of a Devon (J. A.
Claike), 272.

Dead meat, importation of (W. T. Car-
rington), 452.

, plan adopted in importation of (J.

Caird), 1.3.

De Donis, the statute, when passed and
result (Clifford and Foote), 73.

“ Death duties” (Capt. Craigie), 1.3S.

De Bary, Professor, on the potato disease
(C. Whitehead), 491.

Deeds, stamps on (Capt. Craigie), 138.

Denton, J. Bailey, on English climate
(J. A. Clarke), 187.

Derbyshire cheese (J. C. Morton), 412.

Devon Longwools ( J. A. Clarke), 292.

Devons (J. A. Clarke), 272.

(J. C. Morton), 397.

(W. T. Carrington), 444.

Devonshire butter (J. C. Morton), 427.

, fruit-land of (C. Whitehead), 474.

, soil and crops of (J. A. Clarke), 328.

Diagram statistical map (J. A. Clarke),
194.

Diet for a weaning calf (J. A. Clarke),
229.

Dipping lambs (J. A. Clarke), 236.

(W. T. Carrington), 448.

Dips for sheep (J. A. Claike), 258.

Disease-proof potatoes (C. Whitehead),
492.

Diseases of animals, investigations into
(H. M. Jenkins), 622.

of calves (W. T. Carrington), 483.

Distribution of taxation (Capt. Craigie),
128.

Domesday Book, division of landowners
in the (J. Caird), 28.

Domestic life of the labourer (H. J.
Little), 512.

servants (H. J. Little), 533.

Dorset pigs (J. A. Clarke), 308.

horned sheep (J. A. Clarke), 300.

(W. T. Carrington), 446.

Dorsetshire dairy farm (J. C. Morton),
425.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

328.

Double-furrow plough (J. Caird), 19.

Drain gauges (Dr. Voelcker), 582.

Drainage (E. P. Squarey), 167.

Commissions, formations of (J.

Caird), 55.

improvements by State loans (J.

Caird), 42; a remunerative improve-
ment, 45 and 50.

, loss of nitrogen by (Dr. Voelcker),

559.

. outfalls for, in England and Wales

(J.' A. Clarke), 190.

Dress of the labourer (H. J. Little), 532.

ENTAIL.

Dressing for hop plants (C. Whitehead),.
461.

for sheep (J. A. Clarke), 261.

Dry food for sheep (J. A. Clarke), 261.

Duckiiam, T., description of a Hereford
(J. A. Clarke), 270.

, on spring calving (J. A. Clarke),

226.

, on the five-course rotation in Here-
fordshire (J. A. Clarke), 334.

Dung-heaps and pits (J. A. Claike), 361.

Duties of the landowners (J. Caird), 33.

on legacies, probate, &c. (Capt.

Craigie), 1.38.

Duty on Imps (C. Whitehead), 469.

Earnings of the labourer (Capt. Craigie) .
126.

(H. J. Little), 508.

Earth-nut cake (Dr. Voelcker), 571.

East Riding of York.shire, soils and
crops of (J. A. Clarke), 34S.

Eastern counties, mean monthly tem-
perature and rainfall of the (J. A,
Clarke), 188.

Edmonds, W, J., his practice of preparing
cattle food (J, A. Clarke), 243.

Education, agricultural (H. M. Jenkins)^
624.

of the Labourer ( J. Caird), 35.

(H. J. Little), 528.

Educational rates (Capt. Craigie), 130.

Emblements, custom as to (Clilford and
Foote), 84 ; legal doctrine, 100.

Emigration, extent of yearly (J. Caird),.
30 ; benefits. 37.

Enclosure Commi.<sioners, action of
(E. P. Squarey), 176.

Enfranchisement of copyhold lands
(J. Caird), 60.

Engines, fixed and portable (J. A..
Clarke), .367.

England dependent on foreign supply
for increase of meat and dairy produce
(J. Caird), 14 ; cost of carriage, ib.

, Royal Agricultural Societv of

(H. M. Jenkins), 593.

, system of “tenancy at will” is

general in (J. Caird), 38.

English Agriculture, influence of
Chemical Discoveries on (Dr. Voelcker),
541.

Land Law (Clifford and Foote), 71.

landowners receive no special train-
ing (J. Caird), 51.

settlement, examples of (C ifl’ord

and Foote), 78.

Entail, power of (Clifford and Foote),
76 : limited by law, 78.

AGRICULTURE OP ENGLAND AND WALES.

899 = 633

ESSEX.

Essex pigs (J. A. Clarke), 309.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke), 342.

•“ Estates tail,” why created (Clifford and
Foote), 75.

Europe, the importation of fresh meat
from America into (J. Caird), 13.
Evershed, Hy., his practice of steaming
chaff (J. A. Clarke), 245.

Ewes lambing twice in the year (J. A.
Clarke), 243; selection and age for
breeding, 250.

Exajunations in connection with the
Royal Agricultural Society (H. M.
Jenkins), 624.

Examples of the law of family settlement
in England (Clifibrd and Foote), 78.
Exchange of lands, inexpensive and
simple (J. Caird), 56 ; extent, 57.
Exhibitions in connection with the
Royal Agricultural Society (H. M.
Jenkins), 600.

Exmoor sheep (J. A. Clarke), .301.
Expenditure and receipts of the Society,
1841-77 (H. M. Jenkins), 598.
Expenses of the labourer (H. J. Little),
507.

Experimental lands at Woburn (Dr.
Voelcker), 584.

stations (Dr. Voelcker), 581.

Experiments at Rothamsted (Dr.
Voelcker), 538, 572; Woburn, 584.

, influence of (Dr. Voelcker), 54.9.

on vegetation (Dr. Voelcker), 582 ;

animals, .583.

Exportation of hops (C. Whitehead),
469.

Factories for cheese making (.1. C.
Morton, 415 ; statistics, 417.

Fairs in Lincolnshire (J. A. Clarke),
290; Hants and Wilts, 298.

Family settlements, establishment of the
system of (Clifford and Foote), 76.

Farm buildings, caution required in ex-
penditure (J. Caird), 45.

, erection of, under the Agricultural

Holdings Act (Clifford and Foote), 114.

horses (J. A. Clarke), 363.

prizes (H. M. Jenkins), 613.

Farm capital (E. P. Squarey), 163.

, increase of (J. Caird), 24.

Farmers, their early position (Clifford
and Foote), 100.

and the labour market (H. J.

Little), 505.

Farmers’ taxation (Capt. Craigie), 154.

Farming without manure (J. A. Clarke),
.360.

folding.

Farming, circumstances which attract or
repel capital from (E. P. Squarey), 171.

, Dairy (J. C. Morton), 381.

Farmsteads, noted (J. A. Clarke), 367.

Farmyard-manure (J. A. Clarke), 360.

, when best applied (Dr. Voelcker),

561.

for vegetables (C. Whitehead), 485.

Farrowing (J. A. Clarke), 204.

Fattening cattle, roots for (J. A. Clarke),
237.

house lambs (J. A. Clarke), 253 ;

sheep in sheds, 263 ; pigs, 265.

Feeding cattle for the dairy (J. C.
Morton), 391.

■ experiments at Woburn (Dr.

Voelcker), 586.

and rearing live stock (Dr.

Voelcker), 570.

and winter housing of cattle (J. A.

Clarke), 232; fittings and arrange-
ments, 235.

horses (J. A. Clarke), .364.

stuffs, inferior (H. M. Jenkins),

618.

Fees of good benefit clubs (H. J. Little),
526.

Fertile land, tenant’s capital less in
(E. P. Squarey), 166.

Fertility of soil.--, examples of the
(J. Caird), 26.

Feudal tenure (Clifford and Foote), 71.

Field experiments at Woburn (Dr.
Voelcker), 585.

Filberts (0. Whitehead), 479.

Finance department of the Royal Agii-
cultural Society (H. M. Jenkins), 597.

Fines and recoveries on land, how insti-
tuted (Clifford and Foote), 76.

Fir plantations for hop-poles (C. White-
head), 462.

Fish as a manure (J. A. Clarke), 358.

Five-course rotation in Herefordshire
(J. A. Clarke), 334.

Fixtures, claim to composition for,
under the Agricultural Holdings Act
(Clifford and Foote), 114; conditions
of removal, 115.

Fleeces, weight of (J. A. Clarke), 223.

, weight of Lincoln (J. A. Clarke),

290.

Flock, management of the (J. A. Clarke),
249 ; summer treatment, 255.

, general management of the (W. T.

Carrington), 450.

Floods (J. Caird), 56.

Fluctuations in the supply and price of
wheat (J. A. Clarke), 206.

Folding sheep, advantages of (W. T.
Carrington), 449.

in winter (J. A. Clarke), 259.

900 = 634

INDEX TO THE MEMOIR ON THE

FOOD.

Food of fattening cattle (J. A. Clarke',
237.

, home and foreign supply of (J.

Caird\ 12 ; proportion in the United
Kingdom, 13.

, nitrogen in the, recovered in

manure (Dr. Voelcker), 573.

preparing machinery (J. A. Clarke ,

370.

Foods, estimated manure-value of (Dr.,
Voelcker), 573.

Footk, j. Anderson, on English Land
Law, 71.

Foot-rot (W. T. Carrington', 451.

Foreign and home food supply ( J. Caird),
12 ; proportion in the United Kingdom.
13.

yields of wheat and barley com-
pared with English (J. A. Clarke),
198 ; total imports, 205.

Forests, Her Majesty's revenue from
(J. Caird), 64.

FoRFEiTUBEof leases(Clifford and Foote),
99.

Forms of agreement (Clifford and Foote),
90.

Four-course system of cultivation, its
advantages (J. Caird), 19.

France, importations of fruit from (C.
“Whitehead), 482.

Freedom of contract (Clifford and Foote\
92.

of cropping land (E. P. Squarey),

173.

Free-trade, advantages of (J. Caird),
27.

Frosts injurious to hops (C. Whitehead),
465.

Fruit, cultivation of (C. Whitehead), 470.

and hops (J. A. Clarke), 318.

Fruit-bushes under standard trees (C.
Whitehead), 476.

Fulcher, T., on Norfolk and Suffolk
polled cattle (J. A. Clarke), 282..

Functions of Government in our supjily
of food (J. Caird), 12.

Galloway cattle (J. A. Clarke), 285.
Gardens for cottages (H. J. Little), 519.
Garth, J. C., machinery on his farm (.1.
A. Clarke). 369.

Gavelkind, ancient common law of
inheritance (Clifford and Foote), 73.
Geology (J. A. Chirke), 192. \
Geological formation suitable for hops
(C. Whitehead), 458.

Gilbert, Dr., experiments on continuous
cropping (Dr. Voelcker), 5.50.

I heavy.

Gloucester cheese (J. C. Morton), 411.
Gloucestershire, fruit - land in (C.
Whitehead), 475.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

I 331.

I Gooseberries (C. Whitehead), 478.

' Government, its functions in regard to
supply of food (J. Caird), 12.

\ inquiry into the loans made by the

State and Land Improvement Com-
panies, 43 ; results, ib.

Grain, average prices of (J. A. Clarke),
203.

Grass-land improved by drainage (J.
Caird), 45 ; by floods, 56.

, increased acreage in Ireland (J.

Caird), 16.

Grazing, profit of (W. T. Carrington).
441.

breeds of cattle (J. C. Morton),

382.

calves (J. A. Clarke), 231 ; ewes and

lambs, 255.

cattle in the hilly districts (W.

Carrington), 439.

j farm, proportion of landlord’s and

tenant s capital in a (E. P. Squarev),
166.

land in Scotland, increase in value.

and cause (J. Caird), 49.

; Greengages cultivated iu Kent (C.
j Whitehead), 478.

Guanos (J. A. Clarke), .957.

, imports of (J. A. Clarke), 202.

Guernseys (J. A. Clarke), 277.

(J. C. Morton), 399.

j Hammels (J. A. Clarke), 234.

I Hampshire, soils and crops of (J. A.
Claike), 322.

IlAMrsHiBE Downs (W. T. Carrington),
446.

lambs, management of (J. A.

Clarke), 255.

shee]) (J. A. Clarke), 296.

Harding, Air,, his process of cheese-
making (J. C. Morton), 407.

Harrison, J. T., milk produce of a dairv
(J. C. Morton). 431.

Harvest wages (H. J. Little), 508.
Harvest-home entertainment (H. J.
Little), 533.

Hay-tea (J. A. Clarke), 230.

Health of dairy cattle, 434.

Heasman, a., description of Sussex cattle
(J. A. Clarke), 274.

Heavy land, management of sheep on
(W. T. Carrington), 4.50.

AGRICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND WALES.’ 901 = 655

HEAVY.

Heavy land rotation in Somersetshire (J.
A. Clarke), 331 ; Warwickshire, 339.

Hegan, J. machinery on his farm (J. A.
Clarke), 368.

Heifers, number in the United Kingdom
(J. A. Clarke), 213.

Her Majesty’s Woods, Forests, and Land
Revenue (J. Caird), 64.

Hebdwicks (J. A. Clarke), 303.

Herefords (J. A. Clarke), 269.

(J. C. Morton), 395.

(W. T. Carrington), 442.

Herefordshire, apple and pear orchards
in (C. Whitehead), 472.

farm (J. C. Morton), 395.

liop plantations (C. Whitehead),

439.

, soils and crops of ( J. A. Clarke),

334.

Highway rates (Capt. Craigie), 148.

Hill farms, management of sheep on
(W. T. Carrington), 451.

Hine, Mr., design for cottages (H. J.
Little), 517.

Home production of wheat (J. A. Clarke),
203 ; of meat, 210; of wool, 221.

and foreign supply of food (J.

Caircl), 12.

Homesteads, noted (J. A. Clarke), 367.

Hop-digging machine (C. Whitehead),
461.

Hors (J. A. Clarke), 318.

, cultivation of (C. Whitehead), 457.

Horse-breeding (J. A. Clarke), 311.

Horses (J. A. Clarke), 200 ; number
compared with foreign countries, 201.

(J. A. Clarke), 311.

(H. M. Jenkins), 612.

for farm work (J. A. Clarke), 363 ;

cost, 363.

Horsfall, Mr., his practice of preparing
cattle food ( J. A. Clarke), 241.

House lambs, raising and fattening
(J. A. Clarke), 233.

Housing and feeding cattle during
winter (J. A. Clarke), 232.

young cattle (W. T. Carrington),

439.

Howard, James, on the advance in the
price of meat (J. A. Clarke), 210.

IIowMAN, Henry, on covered yards (J. A.
Clarke), 235.

on fattening yearlings ( J. A. Clarke),

247.

Hurdles (J. A. Clarke), 260.

Husbandry, covenants in leases, as, to
(Clifford and Foote), 96.

Hydrography (J. A. Clarke), 190.

IRISH.

Illustrations, 383, 393, 394, 397, 398,
399, 400, 461, 463, 465, 466, 478, 479,
517.

Immigrants as liop-pickers (C. White-
head), 467.

Imperial direct taxes (Capt. Craigie),
138.

Implements of agriculture (E. P.
Squarey), 169.

, exhibition of (H. M. Jenkins), 603.

for working hop-lands (C. White-

head), 464.

used in tlie dairy (J. C. Morton),

429.

Import of Irish store cattle (W. T. Car-
rington), 441.

Importation of fruit (C. Whitehead),
482 : potatoes, 489.

of meat from America (J. Caird),

13.

Improvement of land. Companies for
the (E. P. Squarey), 173.

Improvements under the Agricultural
Holdings Act (Clifford and Foote) 104 ;
second-class, 107 ; third-class, 108.

Inclosure Commission, the only State
department (J. Caird), 55 ; its func-
tions, ib.

Income and capital of landowners (Capt.
Craigie), 125 ; tenants, ih.

tax (Capt. Craigie), 141.

Incumbrances hinder free action of
many landowners in the management
of their property (J. Caird), 42 ; expe-
dients adopted to overcome this, ih.

India, a source o^our future corn supply
(J. Caird), 14.

Indian corn, amount imported in 187G
(J. Caird), 18.

Influence of the landowners (J. Caird),
33.

of Chemical Discoveries on English

Agriculture (Dr. Voelcker), 541.

Insects destructive to hop-plants (C.
Whitehead), 465.

Ireland, diminution of corn and increase
of grass in (J. Caird), 16; its agri-
cultural prosperity, ih.

, result of the potato famine in the

population of (J. Caird), 30 ; decrease
of small holdings on the return of pros-
perity, 31 ; the peasant proprietors, 32.

tenancy in (J. Caird), 39.

Irish dairy husbandry (J. C. Morton),
427.

Land Act, provisions of the (J.

Caird). 32 ; agitation which led to its
being pas.sed, 4J.

902^636

INDEX TO THE MEMOIE ON THE

IRISH.

Irish peasant-farmers (H. J. Little), 501.

rates (Capt. Craigie), 150.

store cattle, import of (W. T. Car-
rington), 441.

Irrigation (E. P. Squarey), 166.

by town sewage (C. "Whitehead),

492.

unfit for clay soils (Dr. "V'oelcker),

567.

Jam making, fruit used for (C. "White-
head), 482.

.Jenkins, H. M., F.Gr.S., on the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, 593.

Jerseys (J. A. Clarke), 277.

(J. C. Morton), 399.

.Jonas, S., his practice of preparing cattle
food (J. A. Clarke), 246.

Jones, tV. Bence, on Irish dairy hus-
bandry (J. C. Morton), 427.

Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society (H. M. Jenkins), 623.

.Judging by points (.1. A. Clarke), 279.

Jurisdiction of county courts under the
Agricultural Holdings Act (Clifibrd
and Foote), 113.

.Justices in quarter sessions administer
county rates (Capt. Craigie), 149.

Kennedy, Mr., his practice of cooking
cattle food (J. A. Clarke), 239.

Kent, acreage of hops in (C. "Whitehead),
458.

, law of gavelkind still lingers in

(Clifford and Foote), 74.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

316.

IvERRY cattle (J. C. Morton), 400.

Kilns for drying hops (C. Whitehead),
467.

Knifing (J. A. Clarke), 374.

IjABOUr, cost of (E. P. Squarey), 170.

on good soil less costly than on poor

clay (J. Caird), 25.

in market gardens (C. Whitehead),

487.

unions (H. J. Little), 505.

Labourer, the Agricultural (H. J.
Little), 499.

, earnings of the (Capt. Craigpe),

126 ; proportion of taxation, 133.

LANDOWNER.S.

Labourer, education of the (H. M.
Jenkins), 626.

Labourers, experience and education
(J. Caird), 35 ; position improving, ih. ;
emigration, 36 ; wages, ib. ; general con-
dition, ih.

Labourers’ cottages (E. P. Squarey), 168.
when judiciously placed are remu-
nerative (.J. Caird), 46.

Lambing-ewes, treatment of (J. A.
Clarke), 251.

Lambing season (W. T. Carrington), 44‘^.

twice in the year (J. A. Clarke),

249.

Lancashire cheese (J. C. Morton), 413.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke ,

352.

Land Act in Ireland, provisions of the
(J. Cair.1), 32.

agents (J. Caird), 34.

drainage, see “ Drainage.”

, examples of improvements in (J.

Caird), 47 ; very remunerative, 48.

, exchange of, inexpensive and simple

(J. Caird), 57 ; extent, ib.

Improvement Companies (E. P.

Squarey), 175.

(J. Caird), 42; amount of money

advanced, 43.

, increase in the value of (J. Caird',

24.

in the United Kingdom principally

cultivated by tenant-occupiers (J.
Caird), 29.

Law (Clifford and Foote), 71.

, percentage of cultivated, in foreign

countries (J. A. Clarke), 201.

, systems of tenancy in Englaml,

Scotland, and Ireland (J. Caird), 38.

tax (Capt. Craigie), 139.

, uncultivated, distribution of (J. A.

Clarke), 194.

Landed property, distribution of (.J.
Caird), 27.

Landlord’s capital (E. P. Squarey),
163.

covenants in leases (Clifford and

Foote), 98.

taxation (Capt. Craigie), 154.

\ Landowner, education of (H. M.
Jenkins), 625.

Landowners, advantages and disadvan-
tages of yearly tenancies to the
(Clifibrd and Foote), 85 ; effect upon
tenants, 86.

, capital and income of (Capt.

Craigie), 125.

, proportion of, to the whole popula-
tion (J. Caird), 28; do not generally
cultivate their land, 29 ; their position,
duties, and infiuence, 33.

AGRICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND 'WALES,

903 = 557

LANDOWNERS.

Landowners in Scodand specially trained
(J. Call'd), 50.

Lane, Mr., his system of extra cropping
(J. A. Clarke), 340.

Large-breed white pigs (J. A. Clarke),
H09.

Lawes, j. B., experiments on continuous
cropping (Dr. Voelcker), 550.

, experimental station at Kothamsted

(Dr. "Voelcker), 581.

, table of money-value of articles of

food (Dr. "Voelcker), 575.

, value of his experiments to British

agriculture (J. Caird), 20.

Lawrence, C., his practice of preparing
cattle food (J. A. Clarke), 240.

Lea, John, his farm management (J. C.
Morton), 388.

Leasehold interests considered as per-
sonality (Clifford and Foote), 7i).
I.EASEs (Clifiord and Foote), 94 ; powers
of life tenants, ih. ; legal effect, 95.

in Scotland (J. Caird), 40.

Legacy duty (Capt. Craigie), 138.

IjEgal effect of leases (Clifford and
Foote), 93.

Leicester, Earl of, improvements in Nor-
folk (J. A. Clarke), 344.

sheep (J. A. Clarke), 286.

Leicesters (W. T. Carrington), 445.
Licensing Acts (H. J. Little), 533.

Life of the agricultural labourer (H. J.
Little), 530.

, tenancy for (Clifford and Foote), 79.

Light land, management of sheep on (W.
T. Carrington), 447.

lands of Shropshire (J. A. Clarke),

338.

Lime, use of (Dr. "Voelcker), 546.

Iaming (J. A. Clarke), 359.

Tancoln sheep (J. A. Clarke), 289.

(W. T. Carrington), 445.

Lincolnshire, effect of local customs in
(Clifford and Foote), 101.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke"',

.343.

Linseed-cake (Dr. "Voelcker), 571.
Liquorice (J. A. Clarke), 331.

(C. Whitehead), 486.

Tattle, H. J., on the farm labourer, 499.
Iave animals, difficulties of importing
( J. Caird), 1.3.

Iaverpool prize farms (J. A. Clarke),
332.

Live-stock (E. P. Squarey), 170.

, census of (J. A. Clarke), 198; den-
sity of summer stocking in proportion
to cultivated area, 199; comparison
with foreign countries, 201.

of the country (J. C. Morton), 382.

, exhibition of (H. M. Jenkin.s), 609.

MEAT.

Live-stock, number of, in the United
Kingdom in 1877 (J. Caird), 16 ; build-
ings for, 43.

Loans for improvement of land, repay-
ment of (E. P. Squarey), 176.

from State ami Land Improvement

Companies and reclamation of land
(J. Caird), 42.

Local customs (Clifford and Foote), 87.

rates (Capt. Craigie), 143.

Locust-beans (Dr. "Voelcker), 572.

London market, advance in the price of
meat in the (J. A. Clarke), 209.

Longhorns (J. A. Clarke), 273.

(J. C. Morton), 392.

Lonk breed of sheep (J. A. Clarke). 303.

Low-lying grass, management of sheep
on (TV. T. Carrington), 450.

Machinery, treatment of, under the Agri-
cultural Holdings Act (Clifford and
Foote), 115.

Main Drainage Commissions (J. Caird),
.'3.7.

Maize, imports for feeding (J. A. Clarke),

202.

Malt tax (Capt. Craigie), 135.

Management of the Royal Agricultural
Society (H. 31. Jenkins), 394.

3Iangold crop, increase in the cultiva-
tion of (J. Caird), 15.

3Ianors (Clifford and Foote), 72.

3Ianufacture of cheese (J. C. 3Iorton),
407 ; butter, 423.

3Ianure, farming without (J. A. Clarke),
360.

, nitrogen in the food recovered in

(Dr. Voelcker), 57.3.

for hop plantations (C. Whitehead),

464.

3Ianure-value of foods (Dr. Voelcker),
373.

3Ianures (E. P. Squarey), 170.

( J. A. Clarke), 354.

(Dr. Voelcker), 556.

effect of, in continuous corn crops

(Dr. Voelcker), 552.

value of, in the fertility of soils (J.

Caird), 26.

3Iap, statistical (J. A. Clarke), 194.

Market-gardening, introduction into
England (C. Whitehead), 483.

JIarket gardens (J. A. Clarke), 317, 320.

3Iarl, use of (Dr. Voelcker), 546.

3Iarling (J. A. Clarke), 3.58.

3Iartin, James, design for cottages (H.
J. Little), 514.

3Ieat, rise in the value of (J. Caird), 12 ;

904=655

INDEX TO THE MEMOIR ON THE

MEAT,

importation from America will check
the rise of price in Europe, 13.

Meat, advances in the price of (J. A.
Clarke), 209 ; home supply, 212 ;
foreign animals imported, ih. ; impor-
tation of dead moat, 218.

, consumption of, by labourer (H. J.

Little), 507.

3Iechi, j. j., his practice of preparing
food (J. A. Clarke), 245.

Medicine and dressing for sheep (J. A.
Clarke), 261.

Members, number of, 1841-77 (H. M.
Jenkins), 598.

Merton Southdowns (J. A. Clarke),
296.

Metropolis, cultivation of vegetables
round the (C. Whitehead), 483.

Metropolitan milk supply (J. C. Mor-
ton), 404 ; cheese trade, 420.

Middle classes, taxation of the (Capt. |
Craigie), 135.

Middle-breed white pigs (J. A. Clarke),
311.

Middle-men in Ireland, and consequent
evils (J. Caird), 41.

Middlesex , temperature of (J. A. Cl arke),
186.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

319.

Military tenures abolished (Clifford and
Foote), 73.

IMilk, calf-rearing on (J. C. Morton),
401.

produce (J. C. Morton), 381.

, the sale of (J. C. Morton), 404.

substitutes for calves (J. A. Clarke),

230.

supplied to labourers (H. J. Little),

521.

Milkers, the Longhorns as(J. A. Clarke),
277.

Mining industry (H. J. Little), 503.

Mixed farm, proportion of landlord’s and
tenant’s capital on a (E. P. Squarey),
165.

Money payment in lieu of tithes (J.
Caird), 62.

value of foods (Dr. Voelcker), 575.

3Iontgomeuy Act, its origin (J. Caird),
50.

Moore, IL F., metropolitan cheese trade
(J. C. Morton), 420.

3Iortmain, law of (Clifford and Foote),
82.

Morton, J. Chalmers, on Dairy Farming,
381.

, on dairy products (J. A. Clarke),

220 ; money value of roots, 238.

MoL'NTAiNshelterforshoep J. A. Clarke)
261

ONIONS.

Mowing-machines (J. Caird), 18.

(J. A. Clarke), 376.

Mules (J. A. Clarke), 365.

National income (Capt. Craigie), 127.

schools (H. J. Little), 529.

Natural History department of theRoyal
Agricultural Society (H. M. Jenkins),
619.

Nets for folding sheep (J. A. Clarke),
260.

New Red sandstone, rotations on the(J.
A. Clarke), .330.

Nidgett for working hop-lands (C. White-
head), 464.

Night schools (H. J. Little), 527.

Nitrate of soda (Dr. Voelcker), 561,
563.

, its importance in time of war (J.

Caird), 19 ; value to corn crops, 20.

, imports of (J . A. Clarke), 202.

Nitrogen, powers of (Dr. Voelcker), 556 ;
sources of, iii vegetation, 557 ; from the
atmosphere, ih.

in food recovered in manure (Dr.

Voelcker), 573.

Nitrogenous manures (Dr. Voelcker),
563.

Norfolk, Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., on sum-
mer and winter stock of (J. A. Clarke),
199.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

343.

Norfolk polled cattle (J. A. Clarke).
281.

(J. C. Morton), 398.

North Riding of Yorkshire, soils and
crops of (J, A. Clarke), 350.

Northumberland, wages in (H. J. Little ,
520.

Notice to quit under the Agricultural
Holdings Act (Clifford and Foote), 113.

Nottingham, temperature of (J. A.
Clarke), 186.

Oast-houses for hops (C.Whitehead),457'.
Oats, average prices, lSCl-76 (J. A.
Clarke), 203.

Objects of tlie Royal Agricultural So-
ciety (H. M. Jenkins), 594.

Oilcake, advantages of (W. T. Carring-
ton), 440.

, consumption of (J. A. Clarke), 202.

Old English horses (J. A. Clarke), 314.
Onions (C. Whitehead), 487

AGRICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND WALES. ^05 = 639

OOLITE.

Oolite district of Wiltshire (J. A.
Clarke}, 327.

Open yards for cattle (J. A. Clarke),
232.

Orchards, cost of raising (C. White-
head), 476.

Outgoing tenants, payments to (Clifford
and Foote), 98.

Ownership of hmd (Clifford and Foote),
71.

Oxfordshire, soils and crops of (J. A.
Clarke), 336.

Downs (J. A. Clarke), 298.

(W. T. Carrington), 446.

Ox-teams (J. A. Clarke), 362.

Parish clergy, number of (J. Caird), 63.
Parliamentary recognition of tenant’s
rights (Clifford and Foote), 102.
Parochial clubs (H. J. Little), 523.
Pastoral Husbandry (W. T. Carrington),
435.

Pasture land, distribution of (J. A.
Clarke), 195.

, increase in the acreage of (J.

Caird), 15.

Pastures, improvement of (Dr. Voelcker),
568.

Pear orchards in Herefordshire (C.

Whitehead), 472.

Peas (J. A. Clarke), 341.

, imports for feeding (J. A. Clarke),

202.

Peasant farmers in Ireland (H. J. Little),
501.

proprietors iu Ireland (J. Caird),

32.

Pedigree herd, management of (W. T.
Carrington), 436.

Peerage, land held by the (J. Caird), 29.
Pembrokeshire cattle (J. A. Claike),
283.

Permanent fertility (Dr. Voelcker), 540.

improvements, costs of, charged on

lands (Clifford and Foote), 81 ; compen-
sation awarded for, under the Agricul-
tural Holdings Act, 104; presumed
duration, ib.

pastures, improvement of (Dr.

Voelcker), 568.

Perquisites to labourers (H. J. Little',
510.

Perry (C. Whitehead), 473.

Persona r, projierty, leaseholds considered
(Clifford and Foote), 79.

Persons, numbers admitted to the country
meetingsof the Society, 1853-77 (H. M.
Jenkins), 602.

FRIZES.

Peruvian guano, see “ Guano.”
Phosphatic materials (Dr. Voelcker',
562.

Physical features of England (J. A.
Clarke), 185.

of Great Britain (H. J. Little), 500.

Picking hops (C. Whitehead), 467.
Pickle manufacturers (C. Whitehead),
I 487.

I Piecework (H. J. Little), 507.

Pigs (J. A. Clarke), 306.

- , management of (J. A. Clarke).

' 263.

Plans, 389, 514, 515, 516, 518, 519, 523.
Plants predominating in uncultivated
land (J. Caird), 27.

Plough (double-furrow) (J. Caird), 19.
Ploughing matches (H. J. Little), 528.
Ploughs and cultivators (J. A. Clarke),
370.

Points, judging by (J. A. Clarke), 279.

of a Hereford (J. A. Clarke), 269 ;

Devon, 272; Sussex, 275 ; Longhorns,
276.

Police rates (Capt. Craigie), 149.
Poling hops (C. Whitehead), 461.
Politics, exclu>iou of, from Society (II.
M. Jenkins), 594.

Poor, improvement of cottages for the
(H. J. Little), 512.

Poor-law allowances (H. J. Little), 502 ;

Scotland exempt, 503.

Poor-rate (Capt. Craigie), 144; origin,
145 ; fluctuations, ib. ; purposes, 145 ;
local distribution, 146.

Population, checks on increase of (J.
Caird), 29.

, the proportion of landowners to the

(J. Caird), 28.

Post Office savings-banks (H. J. Little),
527.

Potash salts (Dr. Voelcker), 563.
Potato culture (C. Whitehead), 488.

in Cornwall (J. A. Clarke), 329;

Cheshire, 351.

disease (C. Whitehead), 491.

famine in Ireland, results on the

population (J. Caird), 30.

Poultry (J. A. Clarke), 224.

Pr.actical Agriculture (J. A. Clarke),
185.

Pressing machine for hops (C. White-
head), 468.

Prices of Shorthorns ( J. A. Clarke), 266.
Primogeniture law, limited operation of
(Clifford and Footc), 74.

Prize cottages (H. J. Little), 514.

farms round Liverpool (J. A.

Clarke), 352.

Prizes for best cultivated farms (H. M.
.Jenkins), 613.

^06 = 640

INDEX TO THE MEMOIR ON THE

PKOBATE.

PnoBATE duty (Capt. Craigie), ISS.

Pkocedure in establishing claims under
the Agricultural Holdings Act (Clifford
and Foote), 111.

Property, agricultural share of taxes on
(Capt. Craigie), 136.

tax (Capt. Craigie), 141.

Prout, Mr., continuous corn growing
(Dr. Voelcker), 553.

Provident Societies (H. J. Little', 524.

Pruning gooseberry trees (C. White-
head), 478 ; filbert trees, 479.

Public roads (J. Caird), 59.

Public-house clubs (H. J. Little), 526.

Pulping roots (J. A. Clarke), 242.

Radnor sheep (J. A. Clarke^, 302.

Raftering (J. A. Clarke), 332.

Rain, efiect of, on top -dressings of
ammoniacal manures (Dr. Voelcker),
545.

Rainfall (J. A. Clarke), 186.

(Dr. Voelcker), 582.

of the United Kingdom (J. Caird),

25.

Ram, age for breeding (J. A. Clarke), 250.

Randell, C., his practice of preparing
cattle food (J. A. Claike), 243.

■ , his practice of wintering sheep

(J. A. Clarke), 262.

Rates, share of, levied on land (Capt.
Craigie), 143.

Rawlence, Mr., management of sheep
(J. A. Clarke), 256.

Read, C. S., M.P., on summer and winter
stock of Norfolk (J. A. Clarke), 199.

, on store pigs (J. A. Clarke), 265.

, on extra crops in the Chiltern

district (J. A. Clarke), 336.

Reaping-machines (J. Caird), 18.

(H. J. Inttle), 508.

Rearing live stock (Dr. Voelcker), 570.

Receipts and expenditure of the Society,
1841-77 (H. M. Jenkins), 598.

Reclamation of lands by State loans
< J. Caird), 42.

Recreation of the labourer (H. J. Little),
530.

Referees, powers of, under the Agricul-
tural Holdings Act (Clifford and Foote),
111.

Reform Bill, its benefit to tenant farmers
(J. Caird), 39.

Religion in England supported by tithes
(J. Caird), 62.

Rent of land (E. P. Squarey), 174.

, i)rc8suro of income tax on (Capt.

Craigie) 141.

schools.

Rents of market gardens (C. Whitehead),
487.

EEVE^'UE of Her Majesty from woods,
forests, and land (J. Caird), 64.

Rice-meal (Dr. Voelcker), 572.

Roads connected with enclosures (J.
Caird), 59.

Romney Marsh (J. A. Clarke), 318; sheep
management, ib.

sheep (J. A. Clarke), 291.

Roots for fattening cattle (J. A. Clarke),
237 ; value of roots, 238.

■ , pulping of (J. A. Clarke', 242.

, storing, cleaning, and cutting (J. A.

Clarke), 260.

, consumption by sheep (W. T. Car-
rington), 449.

Root-crops, beneficial results of bone-dust
(Dr. Voelcker), 547, 564.

Rotation on heavy lands in the North
(J. A. Clarke), 316.

where potatoes are grown (C. White-

head), 490.

experiments at Woburn (Dr. Voelc-
ker), 586.

Rothamsted field experiments (Dr. Voelc-
ker), 542, 568.

experimental station (Dr. Voelcker),

.581.

Royal Agricultural Society of England
(H. M. Jenkins), 593.

Ruck, E., his system of farming (J. A.
Clarke), .374.

, Henry, his method of rearing

calves (J. A. Clarke), 230.

Russell, Mr., his practice of preparing
cattle food (J. A. Claike), 239.

Ruston, a. S., his practice of wintering
sheep (J. A. Clarke), 262.

Rye (J. A. Clarke), 337.

Ryi.and sheep (J. A. Clarke), 294.

Sainfoin (J. A. Clarke), 325.
Sainfoin-roots, allowance for (E. P.
Squarey), 177.

Saline alkaline materials (Dr.Voelcker),
563.

Salt as a manure (Dr. Voelcker), 564.
Sandy soils, value of lime on (Dr.
Voelcker), 546.

Sanitary rates (Capt. Craigie), 149.
Savings-banks (H. J. Little), 526.

, School Board-rate (Capt. Craigie), 150.

' School fees for labourers’ children (H. J .
I Little), 529.

ScHOOi.s for labourers’ children (J . Caird),
I 35

AGRICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND WALES.

90’7 = 64t

SCIENTIFIC.

Scientific researches, influence of (Dr.
Voelcker), 541.

Scotch breeds of cattle (J. A. Clarke),
284.

experimental stations (Dr. Voelcker),

581.

landowner, his advantages (J.

Caird), 50.

mountain sheep (J. A. Clarke), 304.

■ shepherds (H. J. Little), 500.

Scotland, assefsmeut of property to

Poor-rate in (Capt. Cragie), 150.

climate unfavourable for fruit-
growing (C. Whitehead), 481.

exempt from Poor-law allowances

(H. J. Little), 503.

, mode of tenancy in f J. Caird), 38 ;

leases, 40.

, rise in value of land in (J. Caird),

40 • V/i

Sea-kale (C. Whitehead), 4S6.

Season, effect of, on the wheat crop (J.
A. Clarke 1, 196.

Seasons chosen for calving (J. A.
Clarke), 225.

Seaweed as a manure (J. A. Clarke), 358.
Settlejients of estates, origin of (Clif-
ford and Foote), 76 ; not prescribed by
law, 77.

■ often hinder the free action of land-

owners ill the management of their
property, 42; expedients adopted to
overcome this, th. ; should be limited, 53.
Sew'age and sewage manures (Dr.
Voelcker), 564, 583.

Shearing (J. A. Clarke), 256 ; time, 258.
Shed-feeding sheep (J. A. Clarke), 263.
Sheer (J. A. Clarke), 200 ; number com-
pared with foreign countries, 201.

dipping (J. A. Clarke), 258.

folding in Wiltshire (J. A. Clarke),

327.

, influence of climate on (W. T.

Carrington), 444.

shearing (J. A. Clarke), 258.

washing (J. A. Clarke), 258.

Shepherd’s hut (J. A. Clarke), 261.

in Scotland (H. J. Little), 500.

Sheppey, Isle of, crops in (J. A. Clarke),
316.

Shire-bred horses (J. A. Clarke), 314.
Shorthorns (W. T. Carrington), 436.

(J. A. Clarke), 266.

(J. C. Morton), 384.

Shropshire, soils and crops of (J. A.
Clarke), 338.

sheep (H. M. Jenkins), 611.

Shropshires (W. T. Carrington), 446.

(J. A. Clarke), 299.

Skim-milk, calf-rearing on (J. C. Morton),
402.

steam-engines.

Small-breed white pigs (J. A. Clarke),
310.

Smith, William, his clay-land husbandry
(J. A. Clarke), 374.

, Worthington, on the potato dis-
ease (C. Whitehead), 491.

Soil, effect on foul liquids (Dr .[Voelcker),
564.

of England, variation in the (W. T.

Carrington), ^5.

of the United Kingdom (J. Caird), 25

Soils, distribution of (J. A. Clarke),
193.

, chemical composition of (Dr.

Voelcker), 543 ; absorbent power, ih.

, examples in the fertility of (J.

Caird), 26.

Somersetshire, fertility of land in (J.
Caird), 26.

, fruit land of (C. Whitehead), 474.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

330.

SouTiiDOWNS (W. T. Carrington), 440.

(J. A. Clarke), 295.

South Hams cattle (J. A. Clarke), 274.

Sovereign’s power over the land (Clif-
ford and Foote), 71.

Spirits, distillation of, from beet-roots
(Dr. Voelcker), 578.

Spring season destructive to fruit trees
(C. Whitehead), 475.

Spring-calving (J. A. Clarke), 226.

Spuds for hop digging (C. Whitehead),
461.

Squarey, Elias P., on Farm Capital, 163.

, on Hampshire Down sheep (J. A.

Clarke), 297.

Staffordshire dairy farm (J. C. Morton),
386.

Stall-feeding (J. A. Clarke), 233.

Stamps on deeds (Capt. Craigie), 138.

State loans for drainage and reclama-
tion of estates (J. Caird), 42 ; rate of
repayment, ib.

schools or flocks, none in England

(J. Caird), 54.

Statistical agriculture (J. A. Clarke)
185.

diagram map (J. A. Clarke), 194.

Statistics of dairy factories (J. C.
Morton), 417.

of the United Kingdom (J. Caird),.

14; accuracy sufficient for practical
use, 15 ; main features, ih.

Statute Be Bonis, when passed, and
result (Clifford and Foote), 75.

Steam cultivation (H. M. Jenkins), 607.

(Dr. Voelcker), 554.

Steam-engines, erection of, under the
Agricultural Holdings Act (Clifford
and Foote), 115.

908 = 642

IXDEX TO THE MEMOIR OX THE

STEAJIIKG.

Steaming chaff (J. A. Clarke), 'J43.
Steam-plough, use of the (J. Caird), 18.
Steam-ploughs, and cultivators (J. A.
Clarke), 370.

Steam-poweu (J. A. Clarke), 866.

and manipulation of crops (J.

Caird), 19.

Sties, arrangements and fittings (J. A.
Clarke), 264.

Stilton cheese (J. C. Morton), 419.
Stock, feeding and rearing (Dr.
Voelcker), 370.

, number exhibited at the Society’s

country meetings, 1841-77 (H. M.
Jenkins), 602.

of the farm, see “ Live Stock.”

Store pigs, management of (J. A.
Clarke), 265.

Storing roots (J. A. Clai-kc), 260.

• straw-chaff (J. A. Clarke), 245.

Strafforu, H., description of a Short-
horn (J. A. Clarke), 268.

Straw for feeding (J. A. Clarke), 244.
Straw-chaff, storing (J. A. Clarke),
245.

Subscriptions, amount of, received from
members, 1841-77 (H. M. Jenkins),
398.

Suburban milk dairies (J. C. Morton),
406.

Succession duty (Capt Craigie), 138.

and ownership of land (Clifford and

Foote), 71.

Successive com crops (J. Caird), 19 ;

use in time of war, ib.

Suckling of calves (J. A. Clarke), 228.
Suffolk cart-horses (J. A. Clarke), 312.

pigs (J. A. Clarke), 309.

polled cattle (J. A. Clarke), 281.

soils, and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

342.

, temperature of (J. A. Clarke), 186.

Sugar, manufacture of, from beet-roots
(Dr. Voelcker), 577.

Sulphate of copper used in pickles (C.
Whitehead), 487.

Sulphuring machine for hops (C. White-
head), 466.

Summer prices of meat for twenty-six
years (J. A. Clarke), 209.
Superphosphate of lime (J. A. Clarke),
337.

Surrey hop plantations (C. Whitehead),
439.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

320.

Sussex cattle (J. A. Clarke), 274.

cattle (J. C. Morton), 398.

hop plantations (C. Whitehead),

439.

, soils and crops of ( J. A. Clarke), 320.

transfer.

Table showing comparative quantity
and value of home and foreign agri-
cultural produce consumed annually
(J. Caird), 17.

Tamworth pigs (J. A. Clarke), 308.

Taxation as affecting the Agricultural
I Interest (Capt. Craigie), 123.

I Teeswateu Longwools (J. A. Clarke),
291.

Temperature (J. A. Clarke), 186.

of tlie United Kingdom (J. Caird),

25.

Tenancies, yearly (Clifford and Foote)
83; advantages and disadvantages to
' landowners, 85.

Tenancy at will, system in England
(J. Caird), 38 ; its origin, 39.

for life (Clifford and Foote), 79 ; at

' will, 84.

' Tenant-farmers, extent of their holdings
and emulation amongst them (J.
Caird), 34 ; number and capital, ib. ;
best examples of farming found among
them, 38.

, numbers and vested interests (J.

Caird), 28 ; cultivate the great bulk of
the laud, 29.

, assessment of, to income tax (Capt.

Craigie), 142.

Tenant’s capital and income (Capt.
Craigie), 126.

; (E. P. Squarey), 169.

covenants in leases (Clifford and

Foote), 95 ; as to husbandry, 96 ; end
1 of tenanc}’, 97.

I title to compensation under the

! Agricultural Holdings Act (Clifford
and Foote), 103.

Tenure of land (Clifford and Foote), 71.

Thanet, Isle of, crops in the (J. A.
Clarke), 317.

Thrift among labourers (H. J. Little),
333.

Tillages, allowance for (E. P. Squarey),
177.

Tithes for supporting religion (J. Caird),
62 ; commuted to a money payment, ib.

Tolls for maintaining roads (Capt.
Craigie), 148.

Tomatoes (C. Whitehead), 487.

Town sewage, application of, to the
growth of vegetables (C. Whitehead),
I 492.

, disposal of (Dr. Voelcker, odJ, 583.

Trade and colonies dispi nse with checks
on increase of population (J. Caird), 29.

Transfer of land, right of (Clifford and
Foote), 72.

AGEICULTURE OF ENGLAND AND 'WALES,

909 = C-;.3

TUEFOIL.

Trefoil (J. A. Clarke), 837.

Trial, implements for, at the Society’s
Shows (H. M. Jenkins), 603.
Trifolioi (J. a. Clarke), 337.

Turnips (J . A. Clarke), .340.

, two successive crops (J. A. Clarke),

325.

Turnpike Trusts (Capt. Craigie), 148.
Tying hop-bines (C. Whitehead), 464.

TJ.

Umpire, election of, under the Agricul-
tural Holdings Act (Clifford and
Foote), 111.

Uncultivated lands, distribution of
(J. A. Clarke), 194.

Unexhausted improvements, under the
Agricultural Holdings Act (Clifford
and Foote), 103.

Union Chargeahility Act (H. J. Little),
313.

of labourers (H. J. Little), 506 ;

its effects, tb.

United Kingdom, estimated production
and consumption of wheat in the (J . A.
Clarke), 205.

, proportion of home and foreign

supply of food in the (J. Caird), 13.

, variations in the systems of local

rateage in the (Capt. Craigie), 149.

Unmarried labourers (H. J. Little), 512.

Upland pastures, sheep on (W. T. Car-
rington), 432. _

Upper classes, taxation of the (Capt.
Craigie), 1.34.

Value of land as an investment (E. P.
Squarey), 173.

Veai., number of calves killed for (J. A.
Clarke), 214.

Vegetables, cultivation of (C. White-
head), 483.

Vegetation, experiments on (Dr.
Voelcker), 582.

, sources of nitrogen in (Dr.

Voelcker), 557.

Vetches (J. A. Clarke), 337.
Veterinary department of the Eoyal
Agricultural Society (H. M. Jenkins),
620 ; examinations, 623.

Village clubs (H. J. Little), 527.
Vinery system of poling hops (C.
Whitehead), 463.

Voelcker, Dr. Augustus, on the influ-
ence of Chemical Discoveries on the
progress of English Agriculture, 541.

WHEAT-LAND.

Wages of the agricultural labourer (J.
Caird), 36.

in 1796 compared with 1850 and

1870 (H. J. Little), 504; present time,
507.

of the labourer (Capt. Craigie), 126.

Wales, fruit-land in (C. Whitehead),
481.

War, importance of artificial manures in
time of (J. Caird), 19.

Warnes, Mr., his practice of cooking
cuttle food (J. A. Clarke), 238.

Warp land in Yorkshire (C. Whitehead),
489.

Warwickshire, soils and crops of (J. A.
Clarke), 339.

Washing sheep (J. A. Clarke), 238.
Waste lands and commons (J. Caird),
57 : extent, 57.

Water-power (J. Caird), 56.

(J. A. Clarke), 363.

Watersheds, description of, in England
and Wales (J. A. Clarke), 190.
Weaning calves (J. A. Clarke), 231 ;
lambs, 256.

lambs (W. T. Carrington), 448.

Weight and relative value of corn crops
(J. Caird), 25.

Weights of Shorthorns (J. A. Clarke),
269.

Welsh breeds of cattle (J. A. Clarke),

283.

mountain sheep (J. A. Clarke), 301.

West Country sheep (J. A. Clarke), 296.
Highland cattle (J. A. Clarke),

284.

Biding of Yorkshire, crops and

soils of (J. A. Clarke), 350.

Western counties, mean monthly tempe-
rature and rainfall (J. A. Clarke), 188.
Wheat areas, distribution of (J. A.
Clarke), 195.

, average yield per acre (J. A. Clarke),

196 ; effect of seasons, ib.; principal
wheat-producing counties, 197 ; com-
parison with foreign countries, 198;
average prices, 1861-76, 203 ; home
production, 204 ; consumption, 203 ;
imports, ib.; fluctuations in supplies
and prices, 206.

, continuous growth of (Dr.

Voelcker), 551.

, experiments made in the growth of

(J. Caird), 21 and 26.

, cost of carriage from distances equal

torentof landin England(J. Caird), 14.
W HEAT-LAND district of Shropshire (J. A.
Clarke), 338.

910 = 64-/

INDEX TO THE MEMOIE, ETC.

WHITEHKAD.

Whitehead, Charles, on the Cultiv.ation
of Hops, Fruit and Vegetables, 467.

Wilkinson, Mr., on barley after wlieat
(J. A. Clarke), 324.

Wiltshire Down lambs, management of
(J. A. Clarke), 255.

, soils and crops of (J. A. Clarke),

326.

Wind-power (J. A. Clarke), 366.

Winds, prevailing in England (J. A.
Clarke), 187.

Winter folding of sheep (J. A. Clarke),
2.59.

housing and feeding cattle (.J. A.

Clarke), 232.

Wintering calves (J. A. Clarke), 232.

Wires for training hops(C. Whitehead),
463.

Woburn experiments {J. Caird), 22.

(Dr. Voelcker), 584.

Wolds of Yorkshire (J. A. Clarke), 349.

Woman’s labour in request in the North
(H. J. Little), 520.

Woodlands district of Hampshire, course
of cropping (J. A. Clarke), 322.

producing hop-poles (C. Whitehead),

462.

Woods, Henry, on preventing abortion in
ewes ( J. A. Clarke), 252.

, Her Majesty’s revenue from (J.

Caird), 64.

Wool (J. A. Clarke), 221 ; home produc-

ZOOI.OGICAL.

tion, tb. : imports and exports, 223 ;
value of different wools, ib.

Wool, production of (W. T. Carrington),
444.

Worcestershire, fruit-land in (C-
Whitehead), 475.

hop plantations (C. Whitehead), 459.

Yards for wintering sheep (J. A. Clarke).
262.

Yearlings, fattening of (J. A. Clarke),
247.

Yearly tenancies (Clifford and Foote).
83 ; and advantage to owners, S3 ; effect
upon tenants, 86.

Yeomen farming their own land, very
small proportion to that of tenant
farmers (J. Caird), 32.

Yorkshire, soils and crops of (J. A.
Clarke), 348.

Youths in Yorkshire, early career of (H.
J. Little), 522.

Zoological privileges of the Eoyal Agri-
cultural Society (H. M. Jenkins), 620.

LONDON: PRINTED BT WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET
AND CHARING CROSS.

Year

when

Elected.

1855

1857

1850

1861

1863

1868

1854

1860

1846

1839

1856

1858

1873

1861

1839

1867

1847

1848

1858

1839

1852

1859

1861

1855

1858

1877

1875

1868

1863

1861

1866

1860

1868

1871

1873

1876

1875

1874

» 'p

July,

llopal ^igruultural ^on'etp of (l^nglanlJ.

1878.

COLONEL KINGSCOTE, C.B., M.P.

Cni£ftec£(.

Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bai't., M.P., Sprydoncote, Ercfer, Devonshire.
Bridport, Viscount, Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somersetshire.

Chesblam, Lord, Latimer, Chesham, Bucks.

Dent, J. D., Bibston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire.

Kingscote, Colonel, M.P., Kingscote, WottcM-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
Lichfield, Earl of, Shugborough, Staffordshire.

Macdonald, Sir Archibald Keppel, Bt„ Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hunts.
Marlborough, Duke of, K.G., Blenheim Park, Oxford.

Milward, Richard, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell, Notts.

PORTMAN, Viscount, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.

Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

Rutland, Duke of, K.G., Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Leicestershire.

Bedford, Duke of, Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire.

Cathcart, Earl, Thomton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

Chichester, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex.

Devonshire, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire.

Eversley, Viscount, Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth, Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, London, W.
Kbrrison, Sir Edward C., Bart., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk.

Miles, Sir William, Bart., Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire.

Richmond and Gordon, Duke of, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex.
Vernon, Lord, Sudbury Hall, Derby.

Wells, William, Holmewood, Peterborough, Northamptonshire.

Wynn, Sir Watkin Williams, Bart., M.P.,TFynnsta?/, Buabon,Dcnbighshire.

•“Amos, Charles Edwards, 5, Cedars Boad, Clapham Common, Surrey.

* Arkwright, J. H., Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire.

Aveling, Thomas, Bochester, Kent.

Aylmer, Hugh, TFest Dereham, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk.

*Booth, Thomas Christopher, Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorkshire.

*Bowly, Edward, Siddington House, Cirencester, Gloucestershire.
Cantrell, Charles S., Biding Court, Datchet (Bucks), Windsor.

*Davie3, David Reynolds, Agden Hall, Lymm, Cheshire.

*Druce, Joseph, Fynsham, Oxford.

*Edmonds, William John, Southrop, Lechlade, Glozicestershirc.

♦Egerton, Hon. Wilbraham, M.P., Bostherne Manor, Kni’tsford, Cheshire.
Evans, John, Uffington, Shrewsbury, Salop.

Feversham, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire.

*Frankish, William, Limber Magna, TJtceby, Lincolnshire.

*Hemsley, John, Shelton, Newark, Notts.

lose Members of Council whose names arc prefixed by an asterisk retire in
ut are eligible for re-election in May next.

XIV. — s. s.

List of Officers.

Tear

wiieu

Elected.

1876

1871
1848
1869

1872

1874
1865
1871
1874-
1871

1875
1878
1857

1874
1861

1875
1867

1871

1869
1861
1875
1874
1856

1872

1874

1875

1873

1874
1845
1871
1871

1870

1865

1878

' Howard, Charles, Biddenham, Bedford.
j Jones, J. Bowen, Emdon House, Montford Bridge, R.S.O., Salop.
I*Lawes, John Bennet, Bothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.

! Leeds, Eobert, Keswick Old Hall, Norwich.

] ‘Leicester, Earl of, K.G-., Holkham Hall, Wells, Norfolk.

; ‘Lindsay, Colonel Loyd, BI.P., Lockinge Park, Wantage, Berkshire.

[ Lopes, Sir HIassey, Bart., M.P., Maristow, Roborough, Devon.
i McIntosh, David, Havering Park, Romford, Essex.

I Martin, Joseph, Highfield Hotise, Litlleport, Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire.
i*Masfen, E. Hanbcry, Pendeford, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire.
j‘MDSGRAVE, Sir E. C., Bart., Edenhall, Penrith, Cumberland.

|‘Odams, James, The Grange, Bishop Stortford, Herts.

\ Pain, Thomas, The Grove, Basingstoke, Hants.

Pole-Gell, H. Chandos, Hopton Hall, Wirksworth, Derbyshire.
‘Eandell, Charles, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire.

Eansome, Eobert Charles, Ipswich, Suffolk.

Eayensworth, Earl of, Ravensworth Castle, Durham.

‘Eawlence, James, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts.

Eldley, Sir M.White, Bart., M.P., Blaydon, Cramlington, Northumberland .
Eigden, William, Ashcroft, Kingston-by-Sea, Shoreham, Sussex.

Edssell, Egbert, Farningham, Dartford.

‘Sanday, George Henry, Wensley House, Bedale, Yorkshire.
♦Shuttleworth, Joseph, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln.

Skelmersdale, Lord, Lathom Hall, Ormskirk, Lancashire.

Spencer, Earl, K.G., Althorpe, Northampton.

‘Stratton, Eichabd, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire.

Tore, John, M.P., Carlett Park, Eastham, Cheshire.

‘Tdrbervill, Lieut. -Col. Picton, Ewenny Priory, Bridgend, South Hales.
Turner, George, Great Bowley, Tiverton, Devonshire.

Turner, Jabez, Norman Cross, Yaxley, Huntingdonshire.

Wakefield, William H., Sedgivick, Kendal, Westmoreland.
‘Welby-Gregory, Sir William Earle, Bart., M.P., Denton ILdl,
Grantham, Lincolnshire. '

‘Whitehead, Charles, Barming House, Maidstone, Kent.

Wilson, Jacob, Woodhorn Manor, Morpeth, Northumberland, '

I ‘Wise, George, Woodcotc, Warwick. <

^ccretari) anl) CEKitor.

H. M. JENKINS, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.

Consulting Chemist— Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.E.S., 11, Salisbury Square, S.C.
Consulting Botanist — W. Carruthers, E.E.S., F.L.S., British Musi.um,^ .C.
Consulting Veterinary Surgeon — James Beart Simonds, Royal Veterinary College,
Camden Town, N.W.

Officers of the Brown Institution, Wandsworth Road, S.W. — Dr. J. BurdoN San-
derson, F.E.S., Professor Superintendent ; W. Duguid, Veterinary Inspector.
Consulting Engineers — Eastons & Anderson, 3, Whitehall Place, S.W.

Surveyor — George Hunt, Evesham, Worcestershire.

Seedsmen — Thomas Gibbs and Co., Comer of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W.
Publisher — John Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers — The London and Westminster Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, S.W.

• Tliose Members of Council whose names are prefixed by an asterisk retire in
July, but are eligible for re-election in May next.

( iii )

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1878,

^Finance (Committee.

Eandell, Charles (Clinirman). Booth, T. C.

Bridport, Viscount. Kingsoote, Colonel.

Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt. Shdttlewortu, J.

5?ou«e Committee.

The President.

Chairman of Finance Committee.
Bridport, Viscount.

3)ouviiaI

Dent, J. D. (Chairman).

Cathcart, Earl.

Vernon, Lord.

Welby-Guegory, Sir W. E., Bt.
Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt.
Frankish, W.

Hemsley, j.

Jones, J. Bowen.

Cantrell, C. S.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth.

Committee.

Kingsoote, Colonel.
Milward, Richard.
Pole-Gell, H. Chandos.
Ransome, R. C.
Turbervill, Lieut.-Col.
Wells, W.

Whitehead, Charles.

<Cl)cmical

Wells, William (Chairman).
Bedford, Duke of.

Lichfield, Earl of.

Vernon, Lord.

Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bart.
AVelby-Gregory, Sir VV. E., Bt.
Arkwright, J. H.

Aveling, T.

Cabrcthers, W.

Dent, J. D.

Edmonds, W. J.

Committee.

Howard, C.

Hemsley, J.

Jones, J. Bowen.
Lawes, j. B.
Tuberi’ill, Licut.-Col.
Voelcker, Dr. a.
AVakefield, AV^. H.
Warren, R. A.
Whitehead, Charles.
AVilson, Jacob.

S’eetJiS auU BlanLlOiscaeir^ Committee.

Vernon, Lord.

Ridley, Sir M. AA’’hite, Bt.
AVelby-Gregory, Sir W. E., Bt.
Carrcther.s, W.

Frankish, AV.

'Feteiinani

EGERTON, Hon. AAhLBRAII.VM
(Chairman).

Cathcart, Earl.

Bridport, Viscount.

Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt.

Booth, T. C.

Brown, Professor.

Carpenter, Dr.

Dcgdid, W.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth.

Harpley, M. j.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth.
Jones, J. Bowen.
Turbervill, Licut.-Col.
Voelcker, Dr.

AVhitehead, Charles.

Committee.

Kingsoote, Colonel.
Lindsay, Colonel Loyd.
Milward, R.

Pole-Gell, H. Chandos.
Quain, Dr.

Sanday, G. II.

Sanderson, Dr. J. Burdon.
SiMONDS, Professor.
AVakefield, AV. H.

Wells, William.

AVilson, Jacob.

^tofh«13iiAr<; Committee.

Milward, Richard
(Chairman).
Bridport, Viscount.
Ridley, Sir M. White,
Bt.

Arkwright, J. H.
Aylmer, H.

Booth, T. C.

Bowly, Edward.

Evans, John.

Frankish, AV.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth.
Hemsley, J.

Howard, C.

McIntosh, D.

Masfen, R. H.

Pain, T.

Pole-Gell, H. Chandos.

Rigden, William.
Sanday, G. H.
Stratton, R.

Torr, j.

Wakefield, AV. H.
Wilson, Jacob.

The Stewards of Live
Stock.

Standing Committees for 1878.

Hemslet, J. (Chairman).
Bridport, Viscount.
Vernon, Lord.
Macdonald, Sir A. K. ,Bt.
Amos, 0. E.

Anderson, W.

Aveling, T.

Booth, T. C.

implement Committee.

Cantrell, Chas. S.
Edmonds, W. J,

Frankish, W.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth.
Jones, J. Bowen.

Martin, J.

IVIlLWARD, K.

Uansome, K. C.

Sanday, G. H.
Shuttleworth, Joseph.
Torbervill, Licut.-Col.
Turner, Jabez.
Whitehead, Charles.
Wilson, Jacob.

Tho Stewards of Imple-
ments.

Skelmersdale, Lord
(Chairman).

Bridport, Viscount.
Chesham, Lord
IjOpes, Sir Massey, Bt,
iitusGRAYE, Sir E., Bt.
Egerton, Hon. W.
Aveling, T.

Aylmer, H.

Booth, T. C.

Bowly, Edward.
Bristol, High Sheriff of.
Bristol, Mayor of.
Cantrell, Charles S.

Dyke, T.

Frankish, W.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth.
Hemsley, j.

Jones, J. A.

Jones, J. Bowen.
Martin, J.

Masfen, E. H.

Milward, Eichard.
Nichols, George.
Pole-Gell, H. Chandos.
Eandell, Charles.
Eansome, E. C.
Eawlence, j.

Sanday, G. H.
Shuttleworth, J.
Smith, AV.

Stratton, E.

Thomas, Christopher J.
Thompson, AV.
Turbervill, Lieut -Col.
Turner, George.
Turner, Jabez.
AVakefield, W. H.
AA'ells, A\'.

AVhitehead, Charles.
Wilson, Jacob.

Contracts Committee.

AVilson, Jacob (Chairman).
Bridport, Viscount.

Amos, C. E.

Aveling, T.

Booth, T. C.

Frankish, W.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth,
Milward, Eichard.
Pole-Gell, H. Chandos.
Eandell, Ciiarle.s.
Shuttleworth, Joseph.
Stratton, E.

Committee of Selection.

Cathcart, Earl (Chairman). Milward, E.

Bridport, Viscount. Pole-Gell, H. Chandos.

Egerton, Hon. W. Wilson, Jacob.

Booth, T. C.

And the Chairmen of tho Standing Committees.

CtJucatt'ou Committee.

Bedford, Duke of (Chairman).
Aveling, T.

Carruthers, AV.

Dent, J. D.

Jones, J. Bowen.

Kingscote, Colonel.
Turbervill, Licut.-Col.
Voelcker, Dr.

AA'^ells, AVilliam.
AVhitehead, Charles.

Cattle IJlaguc Committee.

The whole Council.

*** The President, Trustees, and Vice-Presidents arc Members ex officii
of all Committees.

( V )

J^oi)al 91gn'cultural of (^uglanti*

. GENERAL MEETING.

12, Hanover Square, Thursday, December 13th, 1877.

KEPOET OF THE COUNCIL.

The Council have to report that during; the year 1877 the
number of Governors and Members has been increased by the
election of 1 Governor and 412 Members, and diminished by
the death of 4 Governors and 107 Members, the resignation of
127 Members, and the removal of 50 Members by order of the
Council.

The Society now consists of : —

81 Life Governors,

74 Annual Governors,

2280 Life Members,

4182 Annual Members,

17 Honorary Members,

making a total of 6634, and showing an increase of 124 Members
during the current year.

The half-yearly statement of accounts to the 30th June last
has been examined and approved by the Society’s auditors and
accountants, and has been published for the information of the
Members, in the last number of the ‘ Journal.’ Since then the
funded capital has been increased by the investment of 4000Z.
in the New Three per Cents. — chiefly the surplus receipts of the
Liverpool Meeting. The funded property is now 26,511/. 11s. 5d.
New Three per Cents., and the balance in the hands of the
Bankers on the 1st inst. was 1610/. 19s. 6c/.

The Liverpool Meeting was one of the largest and most
successful which the Society has ever held, and the attendance
on the first three days even equalled that at the Manchester
Meeting. Unfortunately the wet weather on the two closing
days prevented many thousands of people from visiting the

VOL. XIV.— S. S. b

vi Report to the General Meeting.

Show, but, notwithstanding this drawback, the total number
registered by the , turnstiles has been exceeded only three times
in the history of the Society, namely at Leeds in 1861, at Man-
chester in 1869, and at Birmingham in 1876, while the money
receipts were second only to those at Manchester. The Local
Committee and the authorities of Liverpool made every exertion
to render the Meeting successful. Besides their remarkably
handsome additions to the Society’s prize-list, the Local Com-
mittee organised a parade of more than 300 cart-horses in the
Show-yard on the Saturday afternoon, and it was generally
admitted that this was a most instructive and attractive as well as
a novel exhibition. The Mayor and Corporation and the mer-
chants and mamjfacturers of Liverpool invited the Members of
the Society to inspect the buildings and processes over which
they had control, and many Members of the Society availed
themselves of this opportunity to acquaint themselves with the
extensive docks, public buildings, factories, and warehouses
for which Liverpool is famous. In every respect the country-
meeting will long be remembered as one of the largest and
most useful of those which the Society has held.

The competition for the Society’s Gold Medal offered for
an efficient sheaf-binder, took place at harvest-time on Mr.
Scotson’s farm at Aigburth, near Liverpool. Only three
machines, all of American make, were brought to trial ; and
although the Judges were of opinion that these labour-saving
appliances had not yet been made sufficiently perfect to justify
them in awarding the Gold Medal, they were of opinion that
great credit was due to the three inventions, and they recom-
mended that a silver medal, in recognition of progress, should be
given to Mr. W. A. Wood, and a high commendation bestowed
on the binding mechanism employed by D. M. Osborne and Co.
The Judges also suggested a renewal of the offer of the Gold
Medal next year, and the Stewards having reported favourably
of this course, the Council have acted in accordance with their
recommendation.

The competition for the numerous prizes offered by the Local
Committee for the best managed Dairy (or Stock) and Arable
Farms in the counties of Lancaster, Cheshire, Denbigh, and
Flint, and in the Isle of Man, was very keen ; and the striking
Reports on the two sections of the competition, written by
Mr. J. C. Morton and Mr. S. D. Shirriff respectively, and

Report to the General Meeting. vii

published in the last number of the ‘ Journal/ are well worthy
of careful study.

The Country-meeting for the ensuing year will be held at
Bristol ; and the Council are glad to announce that the Local
Committee have obtained the use of a most eligible site for the
Show-yard on Durdham Down.

The Bristol Local Committee have offered the following
Prizes for best-managed farms in the county of Gloucester,
the eastern division of Somerset, and the northern division of
Wilts:—

Section I. — Arable Farms with at least two-thirds of their area under
rotation of cropping : —

Class 1. Farms of 200 acres and upwards. First Prize, £50 ;
second, £25.

Class 2. Farms above 80 and less than 200 acres. First Prize,
£30 ; second, £15.

Section II. Dairy or Stock Farms, where the course of cultivation is
chiefly directed to the production of Cheese, Butter, or of Animal
Food : —

Class 1. Farm of not less than 200 acres. First Prize, £50;
second, £25.

Class 2. Farms of not less than 80 and under 200 acres. First
Prize, £30 ; second, £15.

In addition to the renewed offers of the Society’s Gold Medal
for an efficient Sheaf-binder, the Council have decided to offer
for competition at the Bristol Meeting prizes for improved
Dairy appliances ; and the Local Committee will offer prizes
for several classes of Dairy Produce. It is hoped that by these
means the most improved methods and the best results of
cheese and butter making may be illustrated in the Bristol
Show-yard.

Following the precedent of the last two years, the Council
have decided that the Bristol Meeting shall commence on
Wednesday, July 10th, and that the Implement-yard shall be
open to the public on the preceding day.

The Council have added the following new rules to the
Implement Prize-sheet : —

1. In the Catalogue there shall be no statement of any prize awarded to an
implement except such as may have been awarded by the Eoyal Agricultural
Society.

2. No placard or other statement shall be attached to any machine, imple-
ment, or other article in the Society’s Show-yard, referring to any prize,
except such as may have been awarded to it by the Eoyal Agricultural
Society.

Vlll

Report to the General Meeting.

3. In the Show-yard exhibitors must use smokeless coal, which, for their
convenience, will be provided and sold at a fixed price by the Society, or by an
agent duly appointed by it.

4. Shafting, belts, gearing, high-speed machinery, and any other exhibits
likely to prove dangerous to the public, shall be securely fenced and protected
to the satisfaction of the Society’s Stewards or Engineers ; but such approval
by the Stewards or Engineers shall not relieve the exhibitor from his liabilitj'
under other Clauses.

5. Emery wheels and similar grinding machinery driven at high speeds will
not be allowed to be exhibited in motion ; and the decision of the Society’s
Stewards or Engineers in reference to such machinery shall in all cases he final
and of immediate effect.

6. Engine-drivers in charge of boilers under steam, and of steam-engines
when running, shall not absent themselves from their posts without leaving
their machinery in charge of competent persons.

The Committee appointed by the Council to ascertain what
sites within the Metropolitan area may be available and suit-
able for the Society’s Show in 1879 are continuing their investi-
gations, and it is hoped that they may be eventually successful ;
but up to the present time no definite conclusion has been
arrived at.

The health of the Live Stock of the Farm has been the most
prominent subject which the Council have had to consider
during the past year. At the Annual Meeting in May, when
it was still uncertain whether the Liverpool Meeting could be
held, they reported that they had Avatched with the greatest
anxiety and alarm the progress of the outbreaks of cattle-plague
in London and Hull ; that, in addition to suggesting certain
measures for the purpose of dealing with the immediate emer-
gency, they had represented to the Lord President of the Council
the necessity of protecting English herds from this and other
foreign contagious diseases, by prohibiting for the future the
importation of Live Stock from European ports, and by en-
forcing uniform and compulsory measures for the suppression
of contagious diseases amongst farm stock throughout the
kingdom.

The result of these representations was the appointment of
a Select Committee of the House of Commons to enquire into
the whole subject of Cattle Plague and the Importation of Live
Stock. The Council secured the examination of practical and
scientific witnesses, both agricultural and otherwise ; and they
believe that the evidence given was felt to be of a most useful
and representativ'e character. Although the recommendations
made by the Select Committee did not go so far as the resolu-

Report to the General Meeting.

tions of the Council which had led to its appointment, either
with regard to foreign or to home stock, the Council felt it
necessary to urge upon the Government the desirability of
taking, as soon as possible, the necessary steps to carry those
recommendations into effect. At their request the Prime
Minister received a deputation on the 23rd of last month, when
they had the satisfaction of learning that it is the intention of
the Government to legislate upon the subject as early as possible
next session. A report of what took place at this interview
has been sent to every Member of the Society, and the Council
venture to express the hope that the Members generally will use
their influence in their several districts to obtain that general
effort to stamp out the contagious diseases of farm stock to which
the Prime Minister so pointedly referred.

The recent large importations of American meat into Great
Britain have proved that the prohibition of importations of
live stock need not enhance the price of meat to the consumer,
as similar appliances to those used by American exporters
could be adapted to the requirements of the Continental trade.
The Council have, therefore, thought it desirable to place the
Members of the Society in possession of the fullest informa-
tion on this subject, and with this view have published two
exhaustive articles, by Professor Sheldon, of Cirencester, and
Professor Alvord, of Massachussets, U.S., in the last number of
the ‘ Journal.’

The experiments upon Pleuro-pneumonia and Foot-and-mouth
disease have been continued during the year at the Brown
Institution, under the superintendence of Dr. Burdon Sanderson.
Valuable indications have been obtained and described in the
Reports already published in the ‘Journal,’ and in the agricul-
tural newspapers ; but before these can be accepted as final,
they will require careful confirmation. The Council have
renewed the grant for these investigations, the scope of which
will next year be extended to Quarter-evil and diseases of a
similar nature.

The last Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee shows
that the need of caution in purchasing artificial manures and
feeding-stuffs still continues. The Council, therefore, take this
opportunity of once more repeating their advice that these sub-
stances should be bought by guaranteed analysis, and that their
quality should be checked by sending a sample from the bulk
to a qualified chemist for examination.

Report to the General Meeting.

The Chemical Committee have lately visited the experimental
farm at Woburn, and have reported that, as regards the experi-
mental field of 25 acres, the various plots sown for the second
year’s experiments are in a satisfactory state of progress. Owing
to the original condition of the Crawley Farm of 90 acres,
which is not experimental but only auxiliary, some time must
elapse before the land is thoroughly clean and the farm gene-
rally has been brought into a condition which will accord with
good farming. Mr. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker have submitted
to the Chemical Committee the results of the first year’s experi-
ments, and this Report is at present under their consideration.
A Sub-Committee has been appointed to confer with Mr. Lawes
and Dr. Voelcker with the view of relieving them, if possible,
of the responsibility of farming operations, in order that their
undivided attention may be given to the various experiments in
progress.

The Council have had under their careful consideration the
threatened importation of the Colorado Beetle, and have made
certain suggestions to the Government with a view of reducing
the danger to a minimum. They have also issued to each
Member of the Society figures of the beetle in all its stages, and
a statement of the means for its destruction, which have been
found most efficacious in America.

This new danger has again drawn the attention of the Council
to the 'desirability of placing within the reach of Members of
the Society competent advice on injuries caused by insects to
farm-crops ; and they have arranged with Mr. Carruthers, the
Consulting Botanist, to obtain such information and advice for
the Members at a small rate. A copy of these additional privi-
leges has been sent to each Member of the Society, together
with instructions as to the methods of conveying information in
regard to any injuries which their crops may suffer from insects
or other causes.

In consequence of the revelations made at the recent trials at
the Mansion House, as to the adulteration, colouring, and
killing of seeds, and of information laid before the Botanical
Committee showing the great extent of this practice, the Council
have authorised the Botanical Committee to publish the names
of the persons who have sold to the Members of the Society
seeds which have been determined by the Consulting Botanist
to have been killed, coloured, or adulterated. The Council

Report to the General Meeting.

hope that such publication may tend to suppress the traffic in
worthless seeds, and that the Members of the Society will avail
themselves largely of the services of the Consulting Botanist
in the determination of the quality and germinating power of
seeds.

Thirty-two candidates were entered for examination for the
Society’s Junior Scholarships from the following Schools : —
Bedford County School (2), Devon County School (1), Dorset
County School (2), Glasnevin College (5), Sandbach Grammar
School (3), Surrey County School (19). The following can-
didates, arranged in order of merit, have gained Scholarships : —

Equalj

Surrey County School.

1st. F. Wyles,

2nd. A. Budd,

3rd. C. Caldecott,

3rd. Charles Walker, Bedford County School.

5th. Eichard Pearse Chope, Devon County School.
6th. John Golding, Glasnevin College.

7th. A. J. Waghorn, Surrey County School.

Twelve candidates were eligible to compete for the Society’s
medals and prizes offered to Veterinary Surgeons of not more
than fifteen months’ standing for proficiency in Cattle Pathology.
Of these six have entered, and the examination will be held at
the Royal Gollege of Veterinary Surgeons in the course of the
current month.

By order of the Council,

H. M. Jenkins,

Secretary.

( )

laogal asricultural 3Englantr.

1878.

DISTRIBUTION OP MEMBERS OP THE SOCIETY AND OP MEMBERS

OP COUNCIL.

Number

Distbicts.

COUKTIES.

Members op Council.

Members.

Council.

Bedfordshibe

69 ..

(■Duke of Bedford, v.p. ;
\ C. Howard.

Buckinghamshire . .

70 ..

(Lord Chesham, t. ; C. S.
\ Cantrell.

Cambridgeshire . .

90 ..

J. Martin.

Essex

124 ..

D. McIntosh.

Hertfordshire

Ill ..

J. B. Lawes ; J. Odams.

A. <

Huntingdonshire . .

47 ..

Jabez Turner ; W. Wells, v.p.

Middlesex . .

290 ..

B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, v.p.

Norfolk

Oxfordshire ..

222 ..
142 ..

iEarl of Leicester; Robert
\ Leeds ; Hugh Aylmer.
(Duke of Marlborough, t. ;

\ J. Druce.

Suffolk

141 ..

(Sir E. C. Kerrison, v.p. ; R. C.
\ Ransome.

1306

—

Cumberland ..

105 ..

Sir R. C. Musgrave.

Durham

107 ..

Earl of Ravensworth.

“■ \

Northumberland . .

136 ..

(Sir M. White Ridley ; Jacob
\ Wilson.

Westmoreland

70 ..

W. H. Wakefield,

f Derbyshire ..

418

119 ..

/Lord Vernon, v.p. ; H. Chandos

{ Pole-GeU.

Leicestershire

103 ..

Duke of Rutland, t.
fW. Frankish ; Sir W. Earle

Lincolnshire..

210 ..

< Wei by-Gregory ; J. Shuttle-
( worth.

N ORTH AMBTOKSHIRE

120 ..

Earl Spencer.

Nottinghamshire . .

149 ..

R. Milward, t. ; J. Hemsley.

Rutland

17 ..

718

—

Distribution of Members of the Society.

Xlll

DISTEIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY— confonwetZ.

Districts.

COBKTIES.

Number

Members.

Number

Council.

Beekshibe

Cornwall

Devonshire

Dorsetshire

Hampshihe

Kent

Somersetshire
SCRBET . ,

Sussex

WiLTSHIEE

Yorkshire

118

112

136

288

143

123

138

112

-1284 ! — 18

348

Members op Council.

Colonel Loyd Lindsay,

Sir T. D. Acland, t. ; Sir M.

Lopes ; G. Turner.

Lord Portman, t.

Viscount Eversley, v.P. ; Sir A.

K. Macdonald, t. ; T. Pain.
T. Aveling ; C. Whitehead ;
E. Eussell.

Viscount Bridport, T. ; Sir W.

Miles, v.P.

C. E. Amos.

Earl of Chichester, v.p. ; Duke
of Richmond and Gordon,
V.P.; W. Rigden.

J. Eawlence.

Earl Cathcart, v.p. ; Earl of
Feversham ; T. C. Booth ;
J. D. Dent, T. ; G. H. Sanday.

Cheshire
Lancashire . .
North Wales

Gloucestershire

Herefordshire
Monmouthshire
Shropshire . .

\ Staffordshire

Warwickshire
Worcestershire
South Wales

170 ..

282 ..

194 ..

646

— 7

|D.R. Davies; Hon. W. Egerton ;
\ John Torr.

fDuke of Devonshire, v.p. ; Lord
\ Skelmersdale.

|Earl of Powis, T. ; Sir W. W,
\ Wynn, v.p.

194

375

305

217

141

139

— 12

JE. Bowly ; W. J. Edmonds ;

\ Col. Kingscote, t.

J. H. Arkwright.

R. Stratton.

John Evans ; J. Bowen Jones,
|Earl of Lichfield, t. ; R. H.
\ Masfen.

George Wise.

C. Randell.

Lt.-Col. Picton Turbervill.

Scotland

Ireland

Channel Islands

Foreign Countries

Members without addresses ..

XIV

Dr.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

Half-yearly Cash Account

To Balance in hand, 1st July, 1877': —

Bankers . .

Secretary

At Deposit, London and Westminster Bank

To Income

Subscriptions:— £. s. d.

Governors’ Annual 15 0 0

Members’ Life-Compositions 467 0 0

Members’ Aimual 901 0 0

Dividends on Stock . . . .

Interest on Deposit Account

Establishment : —

Bent

Journal. —

Sales

Advertisements .

147 18 11
63 1 0

Farm Inspection : —

Prizes given by the Liverpool Local Committed
Entry Fees for 1878

300 0 0
18 0 0

Birmingham Meeting . . ,
Total Income

To Liverpool Meeting . . , . .

£ s. d.
3,295 17 2
5 16 6

3,301 13 8

2,000 0 0

1,383 0 0

392 14 0
29 2 5

318 0 0
39 10 0

a. d.

5,301 13 8

2,473 6 4
17,243 11 3

£25,018 11 3

Balance-Sheet,

To Capital:- LIABILITIES.

Smplus, 30th June, 1877

Less Surplus of Expenditure over Income during the
Half-year, viz. : — £ t. d.

Expenditure 3,572 1 10

Income 2,473 6 4

1,098 15 6

Less half-year’s interest and depreciation on 1 irt a e
Country Meeting Plant J

To Liverpool Meeting: —

Excess of Receipts over Expenditure

£ i. d.

£ s. d.

27,109 9 0

1,266 4 0

25,843 5 0

4,283 1 11

£30,126 6 11

QUILTEE, BALL, & CO., Accountanti:.

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

FROM 1st July to 31st December, 1877.

By Expenditure": — £ *. d.

Establishment

Salaries, Wages, &c 592 lo 0

House : — Rent, Taxes, &c. 394 10 4

OflSoe : —Printing, Postage, Stationery, &c 276 0 9

Journal : —

Printing and Stitching 427 14 3

Postage and Delivery 142 2 0

Literary Contributions 153 15 0

Woodcuts 21 11 0

Advertising 6 14 0

Chemical

Consulting Chemist’s Salary . . . .

"Veterinary. —

The Brovm Institution (one year) 250 0 0

Expenses in procuring Evidence for Cattle Plague } o i n o

Committee f 8 10 3

Botanical:—

Consulting Botanist’s Salary

Education :—

Scholarships ..

Farm Inspection : —

Judges 495 19 10

Prizes 350 0 0

Sundries : —

Preparing Dynamometer, &c., for Exhibition at) ,

South Kensington 5 39 14 5

On account of Memoir for International Agricnl- > cn n n

tural Congress at Paris J ®

Birmingham Meeting

Total Bhcpendlture

By Stock : —

Purchase of £4177 11s. New 3 per Cents

By Cwital Account : —

Country Meeting Plant

By Liverpool Meeting

By Balance in hand, 31st December : —

Bankers 250 8 2

Secretary 20 9 6

At Deposit, London and Westminster Bank

Cr.

£ s. d.

1,262 1 1

751 16 3
ISO 0 0

258 10 3
50 0 0

845 19 10

89 14 5
84 0 0

4,000 0 0
107 13 9
16,067 18 0

270 17 8

1,000 0 0

t. d.

3,572 1 10

20,175 11 9

1,270 17 8

£25,018 11 3

JlsT December, 1877.

ASSETS.

£ S. d.

£ s. d.

By Cash in hand

270 17 8

By New 3 per Cent. Stock 26,5111. lls. 5d.*

25,340 7 1

By Books and Furniture in Society’s House

1,451 17 6

By Country Meeting Plant

2,063 4 8

By Deposit Account

1,000 0 0

* Value at 94)- = £25,058 8s. 8<i.

30,126 6 11

Mem. — ^The above Assets are exclusive of the amount

recoverable in respect of arrears of Subscription to

31st December, 1877, which at thatdate amounted to

7061.

£30,126 6 11

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 26th day of February, 1878.

FRANCIS SHERBORN, )

A. H. JOHNSON, > Auditors on behalf of tKe Society.

HENRY CANTRELL. J

XVI

Db.

To Balance in hand, 1st Jan. 1877 ; —

Bankers

Secretary

To Income ; —

Subscriptions : —

Governors’ Annual

Members’ Life-Compositions . . .
Members’ Annual

Dividends on Stock

Interest on Deposit Account ....

Journal : —

Sales

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