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THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL
OF ENGLAND.
^ertee.
VOLUME THE FIFTH
PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.
LIBRARY
NE*7 > * -<C
BOTANICAL
UARuBN
SOCIETY
LONDON :
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET,
1894.
Extract from the Society’s Bye-Laws
( Bating from the Foundation of the Society) : —
“ The Society will not be responsible for the accuracy of the
statements or conclusions contained in the several papers in the
Journal, the authors themselves being solely responsible.”
library
Kt-*' ****
li&TAMCAL
tiAKUEN
CONTENTS OF VOLUME V.
THIRD SERIES.
1894.
PORTRAIT OF ROBERT BAKEWELL . . . Frontispiece
Special articles.
PAGE
Robert Bakewell ( With an Illustration) 1
By William IIousman.
Economy in Cultivation 31
By R. Stratton.
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation 39
ByL. L. Price, M. A., F.S.S.
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious ( With Twelve Illustrations ) . . 60
By Charles F. Archibald.
Small Holdings 84
By Thomas Stirton.
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle ( With an Illustration) . . 94
By Clement Stephenson.
The First Two Country Meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society :
Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840 {With Two Plates) . .205
By Ernest Clarke, M.A., F.S.A.
Willows and their Cultivation 234
By Edmund J, Baillie, F.L.S.
Advantages in Agricultural Production 250
By William E. Bear.
IV
Contents of Volume V.
PAGE
The Prevalence of Anthrax in Great Britain 265
By (1) Professor J. McFadyean, M.B., B.Sc.
(2) Professor G. T. Brown, C.B.
Irrigation and the Storage of Water for Agricultural Purposes . . 272
By Joseph Darby.
Some Minor Rural Industries 290
By W. Freah, B.Sc., LL.D.
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894 (With a Nan ) 421
By W. Fream, B.Sc., LL.D.
The Trials of Spraying Machines at Cambridge ( With Two Illustrations) 459
By Charles Whitehead, F.L.S., F.G.S.
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge ( With Twelve
Illustrations) 466
By Thomas Stirton.
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge ( With Four Illustrations and
Three Diagrams) ...... .... 487
By Percy E. Crutchley.
Typical Farms in East Anglia 497
By Robert Bruce.
The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds ( With Six Portraits) . 631
By W. J. Malden.
Rotation of Crops ( With an Illustration) 585
By Sir John Bennet Lawes, Bart., LL.D., F.R S.,
and Sir J. Henry Gilbert, LL.D., F.R.S.
Light Railways . . 647
By W. M. Acworth.
Anomalies of the Grazing Season of 1894 667
By C. B. Fisher.
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad 673
By William E. Bear.
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge ( With Twenty-Jive Illus-
trations) 696
By Professor D. S. Capper, M.A.
With a Prefatory Note by F. S. Courtney, M. Inst. C.E., Consulting
Engineer to the Society.
Contents of Volume V.
v
Official IReports.
PAGE
Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the Royal Veterinary
College ( With Six Illustrations) ....... 110
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, March 1894 . . . 127
Report of the Council to the Anniversary General Meeting of Governors
and Members, May 22, 1894 304
Report of the Special Committee on Abortion in Cattle . . . 312
Anbury, Club-Root, or Finger and Toe in Turnips .... 318
By J. Augustus Voelcker, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June 1894 . . . 322
Report of the Education Committee on the Results of the Senior
Examination, 1894 331
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, July 1894 . . 641
Louping-Ill in Sheep . . 547
By Professor J. McFadyean, B.Sc., M.B.
Report of the Council to the Half-Yearly General Meeting of
Governors and Members, December 13, 1894 . . . .739
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December, 1894 . . 748
Report of the Education Committee on the Society’s Senior
Examination 751
Report of the Education Committee on the Results of the Junior
Examination of November, 1894 759
Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist .... 764
By J. Augustus Voelcker, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.
Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Botanist .... 773
By "William Cabruthers, F.R.S.
Annual Report for 1894 of the Zoologist. ( With Three Illustrations) 774
By Cecil Warburton, M.A.
motes, Communications, ant) IReviews.
Panics in Sheep, with Special Reference to that of December 4, 1893 . 130
By 0. V. Aplin.
The Work of the Geological Survey .
By Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S.
. 140
VI
Contents of Volume V.
PAGE
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists : —
(1) Tlie Sheep-breeding Industry of Argentina.
By Sir J. H. Thorold, Bart. 162
(2) The Cone-bearing Trees.
By The Editor 167
Index Numbers of the Prices of Commodities in 1893 . . . 171
Overhanging Trees. By S. B. L. Druce 173
The Winter of 1893-94 175
The Late Sir Harry Yerney, Bart. (With a Portrait) . . . 178
By Ernest Clarke.
The Weather of 1893 186
Hay Harvest Forecasts, 1893 189
Recent Agricultural Inventions 190
The Price of English Corn in 1893 . . . . . . .193
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests .... 194
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution 342
By J. M. H. Munro, D.Sc.
The Tewfikieh College of Agriculture, Egypt ..... 352
By Lord Egerton oe Tatton.
Awards under the Agricultural Holdings Act . 356
By S. B. L. Druce.
Overhanging Trees '. 359
By S. B. L. Druce.
Metayage and its Applicability to England ..... 3G0
Romney Marsh Sheep 365
By Arthur Finn.
Bacteria : their Nature and F unction ....... 367
By E. Klein, M.D., F.R.S.
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists 381
(1) Cross-fertilisation of Pears.
By William Carruthers, F.R.S.
(2) Hawks and Owls.
By Cecil Warburton, M.A.
The Geological Survey of England and Wales 386
The Spring of 1894 394
Our Imports of Hay 397
By The Editor.
Recent Agricultural Inventions 401
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests .... 405
Contents of Volume V.
vii
PAGE
The Evolution of the British Breeds of Cattle 561
By Professor T. McKenny Hughes, M.A., F.R.S.
The Agricultural Holdings Act . 564
By S. B. L. Drttce.
A Fungus on Butter {With Five Illustrations) 567
By Edjioxd J. McWeeney, M.A., M.D.
"Wheat, Sheep, and Cattle in 1894 569
By The Editor.
The Summer of 1894 574
Recent Agricultural Inventions 579
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests .... 583
Notes on French Agriculture 785
By Sir J. H. Thorold, Bart., LL.D.
The Assessment of Agricultural Laud 788
By S. B. L. Drtjce.
How to Estimate Seed Mixtures for Pastures and Hay . . . 797
By William Carruthers, F.R.S.
Vaccination against Anthrax.
By Professor J. McFadye.vm, B Sc , M.B. .... 800
An Infection Experiment with Finger and Toe ( With an Illustration)
By Professor William Somerville, B.Sc., D.CEc. . . .808
The Autumn of 1894 812
Recent Agricultural Inventions ,816
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests 822
APPENDIX.
List of Council of Royal Agricultural Society of England .
Standing Committees for 1894
Chief Officials of the Society
Geographical Distribution of Members and Council
List of Governors of the Society
List of Honorary Members of the Society ....
Summary of Members on the Register at March 31, 1894
Vlll
Contents of Volume V.
PAGE
Balance-sheet for 1893, with appended Statements of General and
Country Meeting Receipts and Expenditure xii
Table showing number of Governors and Members in each year
from the Establishment of the Society xx
Proceedings of the Council, February 7, 1894 xxi
Proceedings of the Council, March 7, 1894 ..... xxxiv
List of Judges for the Cambridge Meeting, 1894 xlii
Principal Additions to the Library during the year 1893 . . . xlv
Proceedings of the Council, April 4, 1894 xlix
Proceedings of the Council, May 2, 1894 lviii
Proceedings of the Council, June 6, 1894 lxviii
Proceedings at the General Meeting, May 22, 1 894 . . . lxxiv
Proceedings of the Council, J une 28, 1894 ..... lxxvii
Proceedings of the Council, July 25, 1894 ..... lxxx
Proceedings at the General Meeting, June 26, 1894 . . . . xc
Officials and Judges at the Cambridge Meeting, 1894 . . . xcvi
Awards of Prizes at the Cambridge Meeting, 1894 . . . xcix
Proceedings of the Council, November 7, 1894 .... clxv
Proceedings of the Council, December 12, 1894 .... clxxviii
Proceedings at the General Meeting, December 13, 1894 . . clxxxvii
Prizes offered in connection with the Darlington Meeting,
June 24 to 28, 1895 cxci
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.
AU the pages of text (1 to 824) should come first in the bound volume ; and the pages of
Appendix (i to cxcvi) at the end.
Ttxl Pages 1 to 204 of the text are included in Part I. (March 31, 1894) ; pages 205 to 420 in
Part If. (June 30, 1894) ; pages 421 to 584 in Part III. (Sept. 29, 1894) ; and pages 585 to 824
in Part IV. (December 31, 1894).
Appendix : Pages i to xlviii are included in Part I. ; xlix to lxxvi in Part II. ; lxxvii to clxiv
in Part III. ; and clxv to cxcvi in Part IV.
Cloth cases for binding can be obtained of Messrs. Spottiswoode 4 Co., price D. 3<f,
THE
JOUBNAL
OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.
£#trb ^ertee.
VOLUME THE FIFTH.
PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1894.
A J
.013$
V, ‘a"
Extract from the Society’s Bye-Laws
(Dating from the Foundation of the Society) : —
“ The Society will not be responsible for the accuracy of the
statements or conclusions contained in the several papers in the
Journal, the authors themselves being solely responsible.”
iii
CONTENTS OF PART I. OF VOLUME V.
THIRD SERIES.
(MARCH 31, 1894.)
PORTRAIT OF ROBERT BAKE WELL'
• Special articles.
. Frontispiece
Robert Bakewell (With an Illustration)
By Wm. Housman.
ag a
. 1
Economy in Cultivation .....
By R. Stratton.
. 31
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation
By L. L. Price, M.A., F.S.S.
. 39
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious .
(With Twelve Illustrations)
By Charles F. Archibald.
. 60
Small Holdings ......
By Thomas Stirton
. 84
Managements Aberdeen Angus Cattle .
( With an Illustration)
By Clement Stephenson.
. 94
Official iReports.
Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the Royal
Veterinary College (With, Six Illustrations). . 110
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, March, 1894 127
motes, Communications, ant> IRevtews.
Panics in Sheep, with Special Reference to that of
December 4, 1893 ...... 130
By O. V. Aplin.
The Work of the Geological Survey . . . . .140
By Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D, F.R.S.
V
Contents of Part 1.
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists : —
(1) The Sheep-breeding Industry of Argentina.
By Sir J. H. Tiiorold, Bart. . . . 1G2
(2) The Cone-bearing Trees.
By The Editor 167
Index Numbers of the Prices of Commodities in 1893 . 171
Overhanging Trees. By S. B. L. Druce . . . .173
The Winter of 1893-94 ....... 175
The Late Sir Harry Verney, Bart. (With a Portrait')
By Ernest Clarke 178
The Weather of 1893 ....... 186
Hay Harvest Forecasts, 1893 . . . . . . 189
Recent Agricultural Inventions . . . . .190
The Price of English Corn in 1893 ..... 193
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests . .194
APPENDIX.
List of Council of Royal Agricultural Society of England i
Standing Committees for 1894 ..... iii
Chief Officials of the Society ..... iv
Geographical Distribution of Members and Council . v
List of Governors of the Society ..... vii
List of Honorary Members of the Society . . . xi
Summary of Members on the Register at March 31, 1894 xi
Balance-sheet for 1893, with appended Statements
of General and Country Meeting Receipts and
Expenditure ....... xii
Table showing Number of Governors and Members in
each Year from the Establishment of the Society xx
Proceedings of the Council, February 7, 1894 . . xxi
Proceedings of the Council, March 7, 1894 . . . xxxiv
List of Judges for the Cambridge Meeting, 1894 . . xlii
Principal Additions to the Library during the year 1893 xlv
JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.
ROBERT BAKEWELL.
Robert Bakewell, son of Robert and Rebecca Bakewell, was
born, early in the year 172G, at The Grange, Dishley, two
miles north of Loughborough, in the county of Leicester, where
also, on October 1, 1795, he died, “ after a tedious illness, which
he bore with the philosophical fortitude that ever distinguished
his character.” The words here quoted, from the earliest
biographical memoir, written immediately after his death and
published before the close of the same year,1 convey a guiding
hint of his idiosyncrasy.
One of the memoirs of Bakewell, written within ten years
after his death, describes him as a yeoman of considerable
properly; another, also of an early period, as the son of a
farmer. The truth appears to be that his nearer ancestors,
whether as landowners or as tenants, had been engaged in
agricultural pursuits, and that he was the descendant of a very
old and highly respectable family. The exact social position of
his forefathers may not, perhaps, be of general public interest,
but the offices held by some of them at different periods of the
600 years, extending over nineteen generations, through which
his pedigree can be traced, suggest the inheritance of more than
average brain-power, thus illustrating one of those laws of which
Bakewell himself was an intelligent student.
The most remote ancestor named in the records of the
family was Leverrettus, Thane of the. King, and King’s
1 Gentleman's Magazine, Yol. LXY., Tart II., 1795.
VOL. V. T. S.~ -17
15
2
Robert Balcewelh
Chancellor in the reign of Henry II., presented to the rectory of
Bakewell, in the county of Derby, in the year 1158. Three of
liis descendants consecutively were Rectors of Bakewell ; and the
last, on his ejectment in the reign of King John, retained the
territorial name, and thus became the founder of the family. A
direct descendant, Sir John de Bakewell, Seneschal of Poitou, a
lineal ancestor of Robert Bakewell, was Baron of the Exchequer
in the years 1322-23, and had two brothers, Sir Thomas, who
represented the county of Kent in Parliament in 1321, and
Roger de Bakewell, member for Derby. Four generations
down the line from Sir John we find Henry, Ambassador to
Rhodes in 1415 ; and three generations later, Thomas, having
the degree of LL.D., appointed Ambassador to Brittany. It is
needless to add the various Church benefices held by members
of the family at different periods. Robert Bakewell, Rector of
Hartingbury, was the first of five consecutive descendants
bearing the same baptismal name, the last of whom is the
subject of this memoir ; and although the Dishley branch ended
with him, the family, in its hereditary social status, is still
extant. Robert, one of the sons of the Rector of Hartingbury,
resided at Normanton, in Leicestershire. He had four sons,
who all left issue. One of those sons, Robert, was the first
Bakewell of Dishley ; from wbat date we are not told pre-
cisely; but as he was born in 1 G 43, and died in 1716, we
may assume that an old chronicler, who indefinitely places the
beginning of the connection with Dishley somewhere about
the beginning of the last century, was probably not far from
the truth.
Bakewell’s first biographer, already quoted, says that
Bakewell’s father, the second Robert Bakewell of Dishley, died
about the year 1760 ; and several subsequent writers, no doubt
taking him, with or without acknowledgment, as their authority,
have given that statement, by repetition, the semblance of con-
firmation. It has apparent support, also, from the fact that
about that time the Bakewell began to come to the front as
an experimental agriculturist and as a breeder of live-stock
improved by himself. But his father, from whom, as we shall
see, he derived much of his pioneering instinct, and of the
enterprise which marked his character, was born in the year
1685, and died, assuredly, as his monumental inscription proves,
on May 23, 1773, aged 88 years. However hale a man he may
have been, he would scarcely take an active part in the business
of the farm to that advanced age, but more probably at the age
of 75 years, or thereabout, transferred the entire control to his
able son, then in his 35th year, and qualified, by several years
Robert Bakewell. 3
of participation in the management of the farm, to take it into
his own hands alone.
From his father Bakewell had an excellent training for
practical and experimental farming, besides many of those special
mental qualities, possibly inherited either immediately from
him or through him, which were manifested in his advance
beyond the traditional notions and practice of the old English
farmer. “ His father,” says the writer of the obituary notice
in the Gentleman's Magazine , “ had always the reputation of
being one of the most ingenious and able farmers of his neigh-
bourhood.” According to Arthur Young, who inspected
the operations at Dishley on two occasions, with the space of
Dishley Grange, as it appeared in 1790.
fifteen years between, the irrigation, which was one of the most
prominent features of the Dishley husbandry, had been begun
by Bakewell’s father.
In Necrology ,‘ memoirs of eminent men who died between
1 75Gand 1798, edited by John Lawrence, Bakewell is described as
tall, broad in the chest and shoulders, with a benevolent counte-
nance combining intelligence and sagacity. “ His manners had
a rustic yet polite and pleasing frankness. He spoke neatly
in few words, always to the purpose, and had a store of anec-
dotes and stories.” In politics he does not appear to have
allied himself decisively with any party, or to have classed
himself under any name ; but the same writer tells us that “ he
1 Necrology. London, 1805. Article on Bakewell by “Benda.” John
Lawrence, in his General Treatise on Cattle, says : “ I formerly gave the best
sketch in my power of the life and character of Bakewell in a volume entitled
Necrology .”
4
Robert Bakewetl.
lived and died one of the warmest supporters and staunchest
defenders of liberty.” He adds that one of the principal
blemishes of Bakewell’s character was a certain degree of
acquired cunning, “the vice of his profession.” The writer
first quoted (in the Gentleman’s Magazine) describes him1 as
tall, broad-set, and in later years rather inclined to corpulency,
his countenance bespeaking intelligence, activity, and a high
degree of benevolence ; his manners frank and pleasing ; well
calculated to maintain the popularity he had acquired. Sir
John Sinclair described him as “ a person of strong natural
sagacity ” ; and another authority as a man of unimpeachable
morals, whose conversation was never disgraced with expletives.
Visitors at Dishley without exception have agreed in cele-
brating his generous hospitality. The doors of Dishley Grange2
were ever open to friends and strangers alike, and the liberality
of entertainment appears to have been fitly accompanied by the
most genial and hearty welcome with which he received all who
could show the claim of a real interest in agricultural progress.
In appearance [says Mr. Prothero in his Pioneers and Progress ] he
resembled the typical yeoman who figures on Staffordshire pottery, “ a tall,
broad-shouldered, stout man, of brown-red complexion, clad in a loose brown
coat and scarlet waistcoat, leather breeches, and top boots.” In his
hitchen he entertained Russian princes, French and German royal dukes,
British peers, and sightseers of every degree. He never altered the routine
of his daily life. “ Breakfast at eight ; dinner at one ; supper at nine ; bed
at eleven o’clock ; at half-past ten, let who would be there, he knocked out
his last pipe.”
The benevolence of countenance, remarked by more than
one of those who have described his personal appearance, was
the true index of a characteristic mentioned by many who have
recorded, from personal acquaintance, their estimates and im-
pressions of him as a man. These all concur in showing that
he was eminently kind-hearted, and that his natural kindliness
made him the friend of man and beast. He was surrounded by
old and attached servants, and so much disliked losing sight of
a familiar face that he would not engage a farm man for a
shorter term of service than four years. After spending four
1 The portrait of Bakewell on horseback, which appears as the frontispiece
to this part of the Journal, is reproduced from a painting in the possession
of Mr. J. S. Bakewell of The Old Hall, Balderton, Newark- on-Trent, and the
Society is indebted to Mr. Bakewell for his kindness in lending the portrait of
his distinguished ancestor for the purpose of illustration. — Ed.
2 The woodcut on page 3 is taken from the background of a picture, by
J. Boultbee (also in the possession of Mr. J. S. Bakewell), representing “ the
celebrated Cart Horse, the property of Mr. Bakewell of Dishley, 1790.” This
picture was reproduced in 1791 as a coloured engraving, a ccpy of which is in
the possession of the Shire Horse Society. — Ed.
Robevt BaTcewell.
5
years with such a master, the man was seldom found who
desired to change his place. But the happy relations of master
and servants at Dishley seem to have belonged to the traditions
of the house of Bake well, for several of the people who re-
mained with the last Robert Bakewell to about the close of his
life had lived some years in his father's service. “ How long
have you been here?” a visitor asked, in July, 1793, turning
to William Arnold, the junior herdsman. “About twenty
years” was the reply. “And you?” addressing the senior,
John Breedon, who promptly answered : “ Since the King was
crowned, sir ” — fully thirty-two years. William Peet, super-
intendent of the horses, said he had served the family for nearly
forty years, but had been away a few years and returned to
Dishley. Others had been ten or twelve years in the service.
Mr. Bakewell’s kindness to brute animals was proverbial,
and being in constant practice at Dishley was rewarded with
extreme docility in the farm animals. Powerful bulls of
terrible presence, looking the more formidable for the immense
horns distinguishing their breed, were led about by mere
children. One writer says he saw an animal of elephantine
bulk led about with a pack-thread by a boy of seven ; another,
that a lad with a switch could single a bull out from his com-
panions and guide him to any part of the farm by holding the
switch to one side or the other to indicate the way ; and a
third had been greatly amused by a little boy, five years old,
mounted upon one of the big bulls, and so guiding him with the
point of his switch. Similar instances of docility, resulting
from unvarying kind treatment, were noticed in the stallions ;
and throughout the live-stock departments of the Dishley farm
confiding gentleness, as an effect, afforded the surest evidence of
considerate and compassionate gentleness as the cause. On
this subject Mr. Bakewell was far in advance of his day, for his
genei'ous anger was kindled instantly by the sight or report of
cruelties so often practised in the times when the sufferings of
the inferior animals, however discreditable and degrading to man
who inflicted them, were thought beneath the notice of the law.
In quite early life, having developed to some extent his
father’s desire to discover or learn better methods of husbandry
than those of his predecessors, and thirsting for knowledge of
what men were thinking and doing elsewhere, Bakewell often
left his home to travel about England, seeing the different bi’eeds
of farm stock, to find out the purposes for which the breeds
severally were best suited, and the conditions under which they
served those purposes ; his main object,, no doubt, being to
ascertain what breeds would do best at Dishley, That such
6
Robert BaTcewell.
was his purpose appears to be indicated by the fact that after
looking around him in various districts he selected a few choice
specimens of different breeds, purchased and took them to
Dishley. “ This selection,” an early writer states, “ gave the
original stock from which his own proceeded ” ; but we are not
here informed whether his own proceeded from a mixture of
breeds, or from a final selection of the best of those he had
tested upon his own farm.
Mr. Bakewell saw much of the West of England. There
he could see, carried into fairly extensive practice, the system of
irrigation which his father had adopted, and which he himself
was destined to extend. There, too, he found a breed of cattle —
the Devon— which he pronounced incapable of improvement by
a cross of any other breed. If we take this declaration in
connexion with his own avowed principle of refining and
reducing the bone as a means of getting a greater proportion of
flesh to food consumed, and a greater tendency to fatten, may
we not reasonably suggest the probability that the Devon
served as his model for the improvement of the larger breed
which he adopted as a breed already established in the Midlands,
and perhaps as a breed capable of doing better in Leicestershire
than any other breed he had tried ? The same model would
also serve his design of founding an improved breed of sheep,
for the same principle of lessening the bone to increase the
fattening propensity was applied by him to all classes of
butchers’ beasts. We shall see this as we come to the records
of his practice and experiments.
Before, however, we consider the work for which he is recog-
nised as a man of distinguished power, his improvement of sheep
and cattle, we shall find a glance at his general husbandry useful
in assisting us the better to gauge the man. His great pre-
vailing idea, we should say, and that which lay at the very root
and sources of his strength, was economy. If the Devon really
was his model — and he assuredly admired it — he had in it
economy both in structure and in the proportion of the cost to
the quantity and quality of human food produced ; or, say, in
the return per acre. He maintained that he had secured such
economy in the breeds established by himself as improvements
upon all other breeds. The English farms he most admired
were those of Norfolk, where he found “ cheap, expeditious, and
effective modes of husbandry ” ; the foreign farms — for he occa-
sionally went abroad to enlarge his knowledge — those of Holland
and Flanders, where he found that orderly neatness which is
true economy, inasmuch as slovenly farming is wasteful. Upon
the principles of management at these British and Continental
Robert Bakewell.
7
farms lie is understood to have founded his own system of
farming at Dishley.
We find, accordingly, as we follow the testimony of the
different visitors at Dishley who have recorded their impressions,
most scrupulous neatness, order, regularity ; ingenious time-
saving contrivances ; the cheapest ways of doing efficiently the
ordinary work of the farm ; in short, at all points, rigid economy.
When Arthur Young was at Dishley, in the course of his cele-
brated tour through the East of England in 1770, the farm
comprised 440 acres, of which 110 were under the plough.
The proportions of white and root crops were generally about
15 acres of wheat, 25 of spring corn, and not more than 30 of
turnips. The rest of the farm (330 aci’es, less the sites of build-
ings, the yards, watercourses, &c.) was all grass land. Bakewell
is classed by Marshall as having stood first in the kingdom as
an improver of grass land by watering ; and from Monk’s Agri-
cultural Report we learn that by means of irrigation he was
enabled to cut grass four times a year. Young says that his
irrigation is “ among the rarest instances of spirited husbandry,”
much exceeding anything of the kind he had seen before, even
in the hands of landlords. He describes the water meadows,
from 60 to 80 acres, as having been, like the rest of the country,
all in ridge and furrow, covered with ant-hills and disfigured by
inequalities of surface. These Bakewell had ploughed up,
thoroughly tilled, and laid down again to grass with a perfectly
even surface ; while the old-time farmers around stared at an
operation which they said was “ burying good land to bring up
bad,” and, filled with alarm lest his overflow should “ poison ”
their rough, untidy lands, threatened, and one chronicler declares
actually commenced, legal proceedings to restrain him. “ Our
farmer,” Young remarks, “ has expended large sums in these
uncommon undertakings : he richly merits the enjoyment of
their profit.” The meadows seen by this authority when he first
visited Dishley did not, however, comprise one-half of the land —
200 acres — which was eventually irrigated.
After laying down the 60 or 80 acres as already stated, Mr.
Bakewell cleaned to equal depth everywhere the brook supplying
the water, using the heaps and ridges of earth and sand left by
the stream as filling for the hollows in its course, without
throwing any out upon the banks. This process was extended
to the ditches and the water conveyed to other fields away from
the brook, further ditches being used to take the water off after
it had flowed over the land. He did not hastily either adopt
or extend his system of irrigation, but felt his way as he ad-
vanced, trying various experiments to satisfy himself of the
8
Holer l Bake well.
efficacy and economy of the system before incurring further
expense. Side by side he had plots of land : two plots, one
watered, the other not watered ; two again, one watered, the other
manured ; and again two, one watered from a spring, the other
from the stream ; so that he could form his estimates of the
comparative value of irrigation as against other fertilising
agencies, and of different modes of irrigation.
Mr. Bakewell’s notion of economising the uses of everything
within his control did not allow him to forget that water pos-
sessed other than fertilising power. One purpose to which he
turned his brook was to make it a cheap and ready means of
conveyance of crops of turnips and cabbages from the land to
the buildings, and manure from the buildings to the land. He
cut, with but little fall, a narrow, silently flowing canal, and
against the cost had a large reduction of human labour and of
the expense of horse-power. In the way of carrying out this
improvement we have an instance of his singular ingenuity in
devising cheaper and more expeditious methods than anyone
else could suggest. Floating his turnips down on a flat-
bottomed boat, he found that the attendance of a man with a
pole was required to keep the boat from loitering on the way ;
so he one day hauled his boat on to the bank, discharged of its
load, which went away easily with the stream and met him at
the end of the barn on his return. There he placed a man to
draw out the turnips as they arrived ; but this plan was soon
superseded by a still more self-acting method : a pit with a
grate at the bottom of it, the depth of the water at its ingress
to the pit being measured to the depth of the largest turnip
below the water-line as it floated, so that roots thrown into
the canal in the field where they grew were delivered in a heap,
ready washed, down in the farmyard.
Economy in the use of straw was a great point with him,
and he was strongly opposed to the practice of having it trodden
down in yards, for he regarded it as of much greater value as
a fertiliser after it had served the purpose of food. His stalls,
therefore, were so constructed that the animals tied up could
just stand upon the raised and paved floor with some difficulty,
or at most with no room to spare. The refuse thus passed
beyond the standing room to a lower level, and the animal
lying down gathered itself up on the clean higher pavement,
without litter. Barns, sheds, and other buildings were fitted
up with stalls for this purpose, and the manure thus produced
was kept pure. For some years Bakewell maintained that it
increased in fertilising value with age, and that it should be
applied in a dry, crumbled gt&te (like peat dust) ; but in Iqsj
Robert Balcewell.
9
later life lie acknowledged a change of opinion upon this question,
and made a corresponding change in his practice.1 His convic-
tion of the superior value of this fertiliser over the mixed
contents of a stratv-yard was so strong that he was willing to
take in his neighbours’ cattle, so far as he had room for them,
and to feed them on straw without further recompense than
their returns towards the enrichment of the land.
The difficulty of inducing cattle to eat up straw without
waste may occur to the reader. This was overcome by giving
only a small quantity at each feed. The animal, eating with a
keen appetite, would not leave any, and not having at one feed
fully satisfied its hunger, was always prepared to clear up the
next feed to the last straw. All lean cattle in winter — from
November to the end of March — had straw as their only food;
young cattle requiring to be kept in a growing and thriving state,
and cattle in process of fattening, straw and turnips until the
turnips were finished in spring, and afterwards hay as the sole
substitute for roots. Neither hay nor straw was bought, yet
the cattle always looked well, and the usual numbers of the
different kinds of stock upon the farm were 60 horses, 400
large sheep, and 150 head of cattle, all sorts and ages counted.
More than once 170 of the latter had been wintered.
On the planting of hedges, as on every other branch of farm
work, Mr. Bakewell had his own strong opinions of the way how,
and how not, to do it. He preferred planting on the level, three-
year old quicks, with plenty of manure. On road-making he
is said to have satisfied himself that if people would only make
their roads concave, instead of convex, and mend them by
watering, one shilling that way would go as far as five shillings
the other way ! By some of his watercourses he grew willows,
which were cut every seven years, peeled, and reared in a stack
for making handles of rakes, forks, and other tools, and fencing
for newly-planted hedges.
We have seen in the instance of his irrigated land how
Mr. Bakewell tested the worth of his notions by frequent and
varied experiment. He did the same in every department of the
farm. This was the grand source of his power. He did not
try to make facts square with his opinions, but his opinions with
facts. His animals in their lifetime were often submitted to
1 See Mr. George Culley’s notes upon a paper entitled Observations made
at Mr. BalieivelVs in 1771, communicated by the Duke of Buccleuch to the
Board of Agriculture under Sir John Sinclair’s presidency, and supposed to be
written by a Scotch farmer (Annals of Agriculture, Vol, XXVIII. [1797],
pp. 588-rCOl). * ' ‘ d
10
Robert Bakewell.
experiment to prove their rate of increase in proportion to food
consumed ; and after their death, to examination of the quality
of their flesh and proportion of fleslx to offal. But that
was not all. Skeletons and pickled joints of specimens of the
best of the Dishley sheep and cattle formed a little museum at
The Grange, for the comparison of one generation with another,
ancestors with their descendants. The degree of fineness
of bone, the size and shape of the frame, the thickness of the
layers of muscle, and the depth of outside fat and quantity
of inside fat were thus brought under notice, and any change
for the better or worse was recognised in time to serve as a guide
to the breeder, to whom the animals were known, alive or dead,
inside' and outside. Mr. Bakewell’s post-mortem examinations
of his cattle and sheep must have helped very much to educate
the senses of sight and touch for use in judging the living
animals, whilst enabling him the more accurately to estimate
the intrinsic value of the latter for breeding purposes by their
relationships to the different specimens seen in the shambles, or
represented by relics in the private museum of The Grange.
The question of the principles recognised by Bakewell has been
much discussed, that of his practice somewhat warmly disputed.
In the volume entitled Necrology (1805), already mentioned, his
principles are laid down dogmatically as (1) “ Like will produce
like,” and (2) “ Animal manure the main science of husbandry,”
which the author says are allowed to be just ; but Bakewell’s
application of them, he adds, was far from incontrovertible.
Now we know that the first is no more a Bakewellian than it is
a Shakespearian principle, for we have evidence that in many
familiar passages Shakespeare recognised it two hundred years
before Bakewell’s day ; and if an earlier reference still be required,
the first chapter of the Book of Genesis may suffice. The law of
reproduction after kind has been known to man certainly from the
dawn of his own history. Bakewell, like other great breeders,
acted upon his own observation of the workings of that law among
domesticated animals, more subject to variation than animals in
their free state of nature. He maintained that by the exercise
of intelligent care in selecting it is quite possible “to get beasts
to weigh where you want them to weigh,” in the roasting instead
of the boiling pieces ; that the shape should give “ the greatest
value in the smallest compass”; that the shape which does that
is correlated with a hardy constitution and great readiness to
fatten ; that the shape of a barrel, swelling in the middle and
gently lessening towards the ends, is the true model ; and that
“ the smaller the bone the truer the shape,” and the better,
consequently, the return for food consumed. The breeder, he
Robert Bakewell.
11
declared, must find the best “ machine ” for turning the direct
products of the land into products of higher money value as
food for man. He scouted the old notion that the blood must
be constantly varied by the mixing of different breeds, and
challenged the world to show him a herd of cattle or a flock of
sheep of high credit, bred on “ the old system ” for great bone,
by the crossing of breeds, or from ever-varied blood. In his
own herd and flock he showed, with natural feelings of pride
and self-gratulation, the results of breeding according to “ the
new system,” which differed from the old mainly upon those two
points — small versus large bone, and permissible in-breeding
versus perpetual crossing with strange breeds or strange
families. In these two points we have the heart and marrow
of his practice as a breeder, and upon these questions he was
ever ready to maintain his position in friendly discourse.
Biographical faithfulness obliges us to consider the evil as
well as the good associated with the name of Bakewell by
writers whose own names are respected, and whose opinions
and works are recognised as authoritative. Lightly-written
detraction we may promptly dismiss. We read : —
The mystery with which he [Bakewell] is well known to have carried
on every part of his business and the various means which he employed to
mislead the public induce me not to give that weight to his assertions
which I should do to his real opinion could it have been ascertained.1
The words here reprinted are those of Sir John Sebright, in
his letter on breeding, quoted by the Rev. Henry Berry in the
first letter of his series upon the state of some of the improved
breeds ; and they are introduced by Mr. Berry, with the
comment that they would show why he had preferred to look to
Bakewell’s practice rather than to what was said to have been
his declaration. By the doubt thus cast upon Mr. Bakewell’s
word, Mr. Berry saws off the bough upon which he sits, and
falls with it. He bases his argument upon the breeding of
animals as declared by Mr. Bakewell, and calls that “ Bakewell’s
practice.” Having thus laboured to prove his own foundation
false, he proceeds to show that Bakewell’s system was not one
of close and exclusive in-breeding, as was commonly supposed,
but that it was a system of breeding mostly within his own
herd and flock, occasionally from closely-related animals, and
occasionally, also, from unrelated animals. His analysis is
careful, and his reasoning upon it sound. The unsoundness is
1 British Farmer's Magazine , 1827, Vol. I. p. 290.
12
Robert Bakewell.
down below, for be wastes bis pains, because be bas started with
tbe assertion that Bakewell’s declaration is unworthy of trust.
Tbe case stands thus : Mr. Berry bad declared against close
in-breeding. Mr. Bakewell bad declared in favour of in-breed-
ing, and bad referred to tbe in-breeding practised by bimself.
Mr. Berry does not call that, as stated, the degree of in-breeding
to which be objected ; and if be bad kept bis bands off the
reputation of Mr. Bakewell, who bad died many years prior to
Berry’s controversy upon the subject, bis position would have
been a strong one. His argument stands or falls according
to our faith in, or doubt of, Mr. Bakewell’s word.
Of tbe justice, or unintended injustice, of Sir John Sebright’s
remark we can judge only from balance of evidence. Primd
facie, it seems probable that if Mr. Bakewell desired, as Sir
John says, “ to mislead the public,” be would have put bis
declaration of practice and bis declaration of opinion, in perfect
harmony, upon one common level of falsehood. If Sir John
bad confined bimself to a single and specific charge against
Mr. Bakewell, tbe answer would have been less obvious than it
is. But bis all-round charge of duplicity is too much. It dies
of plethora. It affects tbe whole character of the man, of whom
we have a very different account from bis most trustworthy con-
temporaries.
There was one early writer, however, by whose statements,
possibly, Sir John’s estimate of Bake well’s character may have
been unfavourably influenced. Tbe author of tbe memoir of
Bakewell in Necrology (before quoted ; see note, page 3) thus
writes : —
A sort of monopoly was created among the fraternity of improvers, who
adopted all the arts, and put in practice all the tricks, of jockeys and horse-
dealers. Sham contracts were made by purchasers at wonderfully high
prices ; puffers were regularly engaged to spirit up the buyers at auctions ;
and a young lord or gentleman, with his pockets well lined and his senses
intoxicated by the fumes of improvement., was as sure to be imposed upon
by these as by the gentry at Newmarket. The pens of itinerant agricultu-
rists, whose knowledge of live-stock originated merely iu their writings
about it, now took up the cause and blazoned forth the transcendent
qualities of the “ New Leicesters.” Tn consequence of this the country
began to consider these oracular decisions as orthodox. Not so the town.
The sages of Smithfield, before whom the fatted animals of all counties pas3
in hebdomadal review, and who try the merits of all by the unerring stan-
dard of the balance, although they were compelled to purchase the com-
modity, never approved the barrel shape, or the Dishley improvements.
They pretend at this hour that the original breed was more advantageous
in point of public utility than the new one ; and that the Lincoln, a branch
of the ancient family of Teeswater, is, in respect of form, superior to all.
They do not even scruple to assert that the feeding of Dishley sheep hf^
qever fairly repaid the cultivator,
Robert Baheweli.
13
Surely “ the cultivator ” himself ought to he at least as
good a judge on this point as “the sages of Smithfield,”or as
“ the town.” Even “ the unerring standard of the balance ” is
unerring only so far as the weight of the product sent to
market is concerned. The quality is proved by other tests,
known alike to producer and consumer ; but the cost of qrrc-
duction is best known to the producer. The strictures of
Lawrence or of “ Benda,” stripped of a certain amount of mock-
loftiness of style and affectation of smartness, are reducible to
little more than another old writer, scarcely observed because
of unobtrusive manner, has said, to the effect that Bakewell’s
conduct was in some respects unpopular, and that the measure
most so was the establishment (with its rules) of the “ Tup
Club,” or Dishley Society, which was condemned, he adds,
“ exactly in proportion to the rise in prices.” 1
The Dishley Society, an association (founded in 1783) for
the preservation of purity of breed, had also the object — -
perhaps we should call it the primary object — of protecting
and advancing the interests of the breeders of improved
stock. They, at the cost of much time and pecuniary
capital, had raised the standard of merit in the flocks of the
country ; they had established a breed capable of widening
incalculably to other breeds the circles of improvement ; and
they had a just claim to recompense for their outlay and their
time and skill. The club, therefore, was formed. Whether its
proceedings, and those of its agents and friends, were always
such as the enlightened and sensitive conscience could approve,
or whether the meaner tendencies of human nature were some-
times exemplified in its transactions, and, if so, who were to
blame, we cannot at this distance decide ; but we can scarcely
hesitate to allow that the existence of the club was justified by
the certainty that the pioneers of improved breeding would be
heavy losers unless they combined to protect themselves.
The Society flourished. Prices rose. Envy and jealousy
rose with prices. Hence the attacks upon the associated breeders,
and charges, possibly much exaggerated, of unfairness in the
means employed to keep up the prestige of the new breed.
Bakewell, the foremost man, was necessarily singled out as the
man most responsible for the alleged knavery of the Dishley
coterie, and his name more than any other is consequently asso-
ciated with discreditable practices. But when we remember that
men of the mental and moral type of Arthur Young were Bake-
i
1811.
Husbandry of Three Celebrated Farmers) section on Bakewell. London,
14
Robert Bakewell,
well’s friends and visitors, and that they have left on record re-
spectful impressions of his character and work, we may discount
most of what we read about Newmarket “ gentry,” jockeys’
trickery, and the hired pens of those “ itinerant agriculturists”
who presumably were more familiar with the sound of Bow
Bells than with the lowing of oxen and the bleating of sheep.
It appears that even before the days of railway trains, tele-
graphs, and cheap newspapers there was a class of hangers-on
about the press, eager to “ write up ” a ram-letting or assist a
prospective sale. If persons of that class sometimes sought
interviews with Mr. Bakewell and his brother-breeders and
followers, and from hospitable men, proud of their flocks and
herds, obtained material for occasional notices, we can readily
account for the development of a “ mystery ” about the Dishley
system of breeding. The results of that system were sufficiently
wonderful to support any hints of hidden knowledge and secrets
of practice which such persons would be likely to assume as the
only possible explanation of those results. To such questioners,
and to farmers who came to him in the pride of deep-rooted
prejudice as superiors, accounting him a man of new-fangled
notions, Mr. Bakewell might not care to be very particularly
communicative. But to men like Young, Holt, Nichols, Monk,
and Marshall he evidently unfolded his views very freely. It is
difficult to harbour the idea that he concealed either his real
opinion or his I’eal practice when we read their accounts of their
visits to him at Dishley.
Bakewell’s success, great as it was in one branch of his
work as a breeder, cannot be compared with the success of his
incalculably great work as the leader in the art of improvement
by a new system. His most distinguished success, unquestion-
ably, as a single breeder, was in the production of the Dishley
or New Leicester sheep. The origin of the breed is usually
regarded as uncertain. Professor Low says : “ All presumption
is that the basis of Bakewell’s breed was the long-woolled sheep
of the Midland counties, from which he may be supposed to have
made such selection as suited his purpose.” Young and Culley,
however, who both had exceptionally great opportunities of
learning the truth, concur in giving prominence to the
Lincolnshire element in the origin. Bakewell himself admitted
to Mr. Chaplin (as Low states) that at one time he had used
Old Lincoln rams. What is meant by the term “ the Old
Lincoln breed ” in Bakewell’s day is a question quite worth
asking. The Lincolns bred by Mr. Chaplin, Bakewell’s con-
temporary, were certainly large sheep. From a passage, how-
ever, in the inaugural address of Sir John Sinclair, in
Robert Raheivell.
15
Edinburgh, to the Society for the Improvement of British
Wool, established January 31, 1791, we gather that all the
large breeds of English sheep were then of recent introduc-
tion, within half a century before that date, and therefore only
newly imported or newly developed breeds when Bakewell began
his work of improvement. Young says of the Dishley sheep :
“The breed is originally Lincolnshire, but Mr. Bakewell thinks,
and very justly, that he has much improved it.” Cullev, who,
like Young, knew Bakewell at home and watched the develop-
ment of his flock, describes the improvement effected in “ a
certain variety of the Lincolnshire,” and promptly explains that
he means the variety “ first selected by Mr. Robert Bakewell, of
Dishley, in Leicestershire, who, with singular discernment and
great attention, has raised a breed of sheep unknown in any
former period, and which surpass all other breeds in their pro-
pensity to get fat, and in paying the most money for the
quantity of food consumed.” He then describes the distinctive
peculiarities of the breed, in its differences from other longwool
breeds — the fine lively eyes, clean head, straight, broad, flat back,
the barrel-like form of the body, fine small bones, thin pelt, and
inclination to fatten early ; the mutton, fat, fine-grained, and of
superior flavour ; wool averaging 8 lb. a fleece, and in length
from 6 to 14 inches ; wethers killed to best profit at two years old,
when they made from 20 lb. to 30 lb. a quarter ; if kept longer
they get too fat for what he calls “genteel tables.” James Bolton’s
three-year-old wether of this breed, killed at Alnwick, Oct. 20,
1787, cut straight through the ribs without any slope, measured
7§- inches of solid fat, and had a back like the fattest bacon,
from head to tail. This shows the character of the breed several
years before Bakewell died, and within how short a space ot
years Bakewell’s will and judgment had prevailed to produce
properties “ unknown in any former period.” No wonder the man
was looked upon as a magician, possessing a secret which he
would not impart to anyone.
At the time when Gulley wrote, the weight of wool had
been less an object than the quantity and quality of mutton ob-
tained at the least expense of food. The next point, he sug-
gests, for rural philosophy to obtain would be the increase in
the value of the fleece. Bakewell, according to his custom, had
just stuck to his main design.
In another place Culley, writing on the old Teeswater
breed, records the rapidity with which it was improving from
the introduction of Dishley rams. The improvement was
not only in the flesh and fattening properties, but also in the
wool ; for whilst the fleeces were not so heavy as those of the
16
Robert Babewell.
large old breed, more wool per acre Was grown. That waS
an illustration of one of Bakewell’s points — the economy of his
system — not the weight of the single animal, but the aggregate
weight returned for so much grass. Young, however, says that
Bakewell’s sheep were individually as weighty as the individuals
of nine-tenths of the sheep in the kingdom ; and “ his wool,” he
adds, “is equal to any.” Marshall (in Georgical Essays, 1803,
p. 386) shows that the breed was not greatly deficient in wool,
wethers’ fleeces generally going at the rate of 4 to the tod (of
28 lb.), and those of ewes about 44 — say, wethers’ 6 lb. to 8 lb.,
ewes’ 5 lb. to 7 lb.
The last-named authority also gives a minute description of
the Dishley or New Leicester sheep, which is here selected from
among many other descriptions for comparison with Culley’s, as
no two men were more competent than Culley and Marshall to
describe the breed, and none, probably, have taken greater trouble
to do so accurately and intelligibly. Marshall 1 takes his notes
from “ superior individuals, especially ewes and wethers, in full
condition but not immoderately fat.” Head long, small, hornless ;
ears somewhat long and standing backward ; nose shooting for-
ward. Neck thin, clean towards the head, but taking a conical
form, standing low, and enlarging every way at the base. Fore-
end altogether short. Bosom broad ; shoulders, ribs, and chine
exceedingly full. Loin broad ; back level. Haunches compara-
tively full towards the hips, but light downwards, and altogether
small in proportion to the fore parts. Legs (“ at present,” he
expressly interposes, as if a new variation were probable) of a
moderate length, with extremely fine bone ; and the bone
throughout remarkably light. Pelt thin ; tail small ; the wool
shorter than longwools in general, but much longer than the
middle wools, the ordinary length of staple 5 to 7 inches, varying
much in fineness and weight.
Upon the question of utility of form, Marshall considers
that the most distinguishing characteristic of the breed, the
weight of its fore quarters, is contrary to the general principle
of improvement, as legs and saddles, not shoulders and breasts,
are the favourite joints. But, on the other hand, he quotes
the arguments of the New Leicester breeders, that “ eaters
of mutton ai’e of the poorer class,” and the increase of their
supply is the great object in view. Also, that in proportion
to bones and other offal a greater weight of meat may be
grown upon the fore quarters than upon the hind quarters.
His description of one peculiarity must be quoted verbatim.
1 Georgical Eesags, Vol. XX. p. 336
Bober t Bakewell.
17
“ The carcass, when fully fat, takes a remarkable form, much
wider than it is deep, and almost as broad as it is long ; full on
the shoulder, widest on the ribs, narrowing with a regular
curve towards the tail ; approaching the form of the turtle
nearer than any other animal.” He remarks, moreover, as
another distinguishing character, the smallness of bone in this
breed compared with the old sorts, not of the legs only, but
ribs and other bones. He had seen the rib of the New
Leicester compared with that of the Norfolk sheep, the latter
nearly twice the size of the former, the meat on the former
three times the thickness of that on the latter, showing a
very remarkable difference in the proportion of meat to
bone.
The Dishley rams, Marshall observes, were often grooved
along the middle of the back, and he refers to the belief
that this was an evidence of the best blood. The notion, like
many other popular fallacies, had a long life, for in the year
1830 Mr. John Wright, of Chesterfield, in his prize essay on
sheep, presented to the Manchester Agricultural Society, took
pains to show that the cloven back is not a mark of merit but
rather the reverse. He, too, has remarks upon Bakewell
which are perhaps sufficiently instructive for repetition in sub-
stance here. He takes the Leicester as the breed of sheep
which had attained to early maturity in the highest degree,
and asserts that under Bakewell’s masterly management the
breed had reached a height of perfection never exceeded since
his day (he wrote 35 years after Bakewell’s death) ; but how
the original improvement took place was a question of imper-
fect history, “ authors ” having differed widely in their opinions,
and Bakewell himself having failed to record the process. His
most intimate friend, however, his most frequent travelling
companion, had preserved the information that it was by selec-
tions from the Lincolns without any other cross. At one period,
Mr. Wright says it is well known, Mr. Bakewell’s sheep had
become too small, fine, light- woolled, and what he calls “ effe-
minate,” a term by which, probably, he means that the mascu-
line character of the ram had been lost. He assumes the pro-
bability that Bakewell effected the refinement from the coarser
original type by the constant use of light-boned under-sized
rams. The sure result of very long perseverance in this process
would be that which he says actually occurred — diminution of
the average size of the sheep of that breed. It is quite possible,
too, that in the effort to realise and to fix his ideal form Bake-
well had sacrificed somewhat of the character peculiar to the
male sex. Mr. Wright infers that “ perseverance in the
VOL. v. t. s. — 17 c
18
Robert Bakewell.
means which had been at first adopted for the improvement
of large sheep did not preserve them in that improved
state.”
The statement immediately following is worthy of notice :
“ But at this juncture Mr. Bakewell, with his usual ability, made
a judicious cross, and thereby produced a very great amendment.
At his death he left two distinct characters of sheep, which
breeds have been continued with various degrees of success by
many very eminent agriculturists until the present day. The
former sheep were called the Dishley, or New Leicester. But
since the latter improvement took place, which has been desig-
nated the Improved, or New Leicester, the former are commonly
called the Old Leicester.” Mr. Wright proceeds to say that it
is uncertain how that last improvement was effected, “ as the
secrecy with which every experiment was conducted by that
able man is notorious.” It scarcely could be otherwise. Mr.
Bakewell was one of those men who would learn as long as he
lived. That was the secret — the secret of his ability. Bom at
a time of great ignorance upon the subjects to which he early
devoted his attention, he spent his professional life mainly in
feeling his way out of darkness into light. Many of his experi-
ments, in all probability, were neither expected nor intended by
him to give improved results. If they answered certain ques-
tions in his own mind, they satisfied him ; they gave him what
he sought — an item of knowledge required. Step by step he
must have toiled to gain the mastery of his art.
To the foregoing descriptions of the Dishley sheep we must
just add Young’s opinion and statement that better-made animals
than Mr. Bakewell’s rams and ewes could not be seen — bodies
true barrels, backs bi’oad, legs not more than 6 inches long, and
fat on ribs just within the forelegs (where common sheep are
never examined, because they carry none there), indicating the
kindly tendency of the Dishley breed to fatten. This may
be instructively compared with the following measurements
recorded by Young: —
I have this day measured Mr. Bakewell's three years old ram, and find
him as follows : —
His girt
His height .......
His collar broad at ear tips
Broad over his shoulders ....
Ditto over his ribs
Ditto over his hips
Dishley, 17th March 1770.
feet inches
5 10
2 5
1 4
1 11*
1 104
1 9*
H. Sandford.
Robert Bakewell.
19
This day measured a two years old barren ewe : —
feet inches
Height 1 11
Girt .59
Breast from the ground, the breadth of four fingers.
N.B. — I would have measured her breast but for a fall of snow.
Dishley ut sup. — H. S.
An anonymous writer, perhaps borrowing from one of the
authors whose names appear, observes very truly that the quiet
disposition of the Dishley sheep was favourable to their matur-
ing and fattening at less cost than other breeds.
Vague, rambling stories about the crosses introduced by
Bakewell into the composition of the New Leicester sheep very
probably had their flimsy foundations in the sight of mixed
breeds and crosses presented to strangers who went to Dishley
and were taken into the fields to see the various agricultural
improvements. Bakewell’s rule, we learn from several sources,
was to introduce his animals to his visitors always in the yards
and buildings, and not in the fields. But besides the animals
shown there were others out at grass, some which were not
worth showing — ordinary farm stock. Among these, no doubt,
were animals under experiment, which sometimes were shown
to privileged friends, not to any casual caller. One who went
over the farm saw a miscellaneous lot, including three sheep
(which must have been pointed out to him and their history
told), all the produce of “ a Ryeland ewe,” by which the visitor
who tells the story may mean, perhaps, three different ewes all
of the Ryeland breed. One was by a Ryeland ram, one by a
Spanish ram, and one by a Dishley ram ; and the difference was
very great, the offspring of the Dishley sire being far superior to
either of the others. This was probably an experiment, not with
a view to a further infusion of strange blood into the Dishley
breed, but to prove to the satisfaction of Mr. Bakewell himself
the comparative merits of different crosses ; testing the worth of
the Dishley sheep for crossing other breeds.
Another experiment, seen by a friend of Bakewell’s, was
tried with five or six pure Dishley ewes turned out into the
highways at May Day for a summer’s range there without other
food. The roads were narrow in those days, and the hedge-sides
were bare ; yet the ewes, at the close of their term of probation,
were in excellent condition — nearly fat.
That experiment, probably, was intended by Bakewell to
serve as one of the illustrations of a theory which he seems to
have held from about the beginning of his experiments to per-
haps the close of his life. Young mentions it in both his 1770
20
Robert Bakewell.
and 1785 notes on visits to Mr. Bakewell at Dishley. It was
this : “ The poorer the land the more it demands a well-made
sheep ” ; that no land was too bad for a good breed of sheep ;
and that in places where a large-boned animal would be almost
useless, a well-made one of smaller bone would do well. This
opinion he was prepared to support by a moderate wager, “ that
his own breed — each sheep of which is worth several of those of
poor sorts — would do better on poor soils than the stock generally
found on them.” This, no doubt, is true, certain conditions
granted ; and attentively examined it enables us the better to
understand what Bakewell’ s work really was, and to appreciate
his improvement. It was improvement obtained not so much by
what he put into the animal as by effective modification of the
animal’s structure ; not so much by generous feeding (although
he kept his best breeding-stock in high condition) as by the
production of an animal capable of turning any food into the
most profitable product. You cannot eat bone, he argued ;
therefore substitute for bone the muscle and fat which you can
eat. The same cost of food for your stock will give you either
bone or flesh, and the food diverted from the production of the
one can be directed to the production of the other.
The advance of improvement upon Bakewell’s lines, since
Bakewell’s day, and the application of his system in the modifi-
cation of many breeds, have opened and solved further questions.
Whilst we still grant that on the poorest lands the stock may
be improved up to the sustaining capability of the land, we are
obliged by the overwhelming proofs afforded by later experiment
to qualify the theory of Bakewell. If a breed of cattle, or of
sheep, so highly improved that it can do full justice to the
richest land, be kept through several consecutive generations
with no better support than that of very poor land, much of the
improvement is wasted and lost. The quality of the breed drops
down to the level of the quality of the land.
Arthur Young, on the occasion of his second visit, in 1785,
records an experiment conducted by a young Russian living at
Dishley, Bakewell not having time to attend to it himself.
On March 19 six rams, respectively of the Durham, Wilts,
Norfolk, Dishley, Charnwood Forest, and Herefordshire breeds,
were weighed, tied up in the sheep-house, and fed on turnips,
their food weighed to them, and they again weighed at the end
of the experiment on April 2. Particulars of the results as
given by Young are incomplete, but the incident seems worthy
of this notice as showing Bakewell’s habit of acquiring
knowledge, even to a late period of his life, by experiment, and
not merely by rough guessing.
Robert Bakewell.
21
Bakewell was opposed to the practice of folding. Of the
health and comforts of his flock he was most careful. We read
that his sheep were kept as clean as racehorses, and were some-
times put into body-clothes. On the subject of foot-rot he had
opinions based upon his personal observation. He thought it
was caused only by floods, never by wetness from rising springs,
nor from rains which do not flow over the land ; and he ascribed
it to what he termed the “ slashy ” nature of the grass grown
under flowing water. One of the facts he had noted was that
the flooding was not followed by lameness before the end of
April, and that after the middle of May, and through the
summer, the disease came, as surely as ever effect followed
cause, after the water had been turned on the land. He was
so certain of this that in a manner highly characteristic of his
habit of turning misfortunes to useful ends, if not quite consistent
with his kindness of nature, he made use of his discovery.
When his best-bred sheep, superannuated, were to be fed for
the butcher, and he thought he had reason to fear that the
purchaser would resell them to a breeder, he simply flooded a
field or two, confined them to that part of his land in the
summer, and invariably found them, when fat, in a sufficiently
advanced state of foot-rot to prevent their transfer from butcher
to breeder.
The story of “ Bakewell’s black ram ” is purposely excluded
from the foregoing scraps of tradition about the origin of
the Dishley breed of sheep. Mr. Valentine Barford, for whose
flock unbroken descent from that of Mr. Bakewell was claimed
upon the evidence of a carefully-kept private register of pedigree,
referred to it in his controversy with the Kev. Henry Berry in
1828, saying that at that time more than fifty years had passed
since Mr. Bakewell, as stated by Mr. Astley,1 had used his
black ram, yet no breeder’s flock had produced more black
lambs than his (Mr. Barford’s) own flock, although none of
them had been retained for breeding. Mr. Barford had inter-
bred his flock very closely from that of Mr. Joseph Robinson,
one of the members of the Dishley Club from its foundation in
1783, and Mr. Robinson’s flock had been as closely interbred
from Mr. Bakewell’s. This allusion to the existence and alleged
use of the black ram at Dishley may suffice for the present
purpose of recording, without prejudice, a statement believed
1 The authority mentioned by Mr. Valentine Barford, I presume, was Mr.
Bakewell’s neighbour, Mr. Richard Astley, of Odstone, one of Mr. Bakewell’s
associates as a prominent breeder, and one of the founders of the Smithfield
Club in 1798.
22
Robert Bakewell.
by at least the one breeder most lastingly interested in the
purity of the Dishley breed of sheep.
Mr. Bakewell, as already shown, had rams of many breeds
upon his premises, but we have no authentic record of their
use, otherwise than for experiments outside the New Leicester
flock. On one occasion, as told by the Rev. Henry Berry, he
obtained, surreptitiously, from the shepherd at Holkham a
couple of Norfolk rams, during Mr. Coke’s absence, and when
Mr. Coke, who exchanged visits with Bakewell, next called at
Dishley, there was the expected parade of the splendid Dishley
rams, which were led out, as usual, from their house ; but after
them, by way of contrast, a sight for which the visitor was
scarcely prepared. Each wearing a neck-collar, his own two
formidable-looking Noi’folk rams, with thick spiral horns, black
faces and legs, high-carried heads, and long bodies, were led
past. “ At a given signal, away they bolted, at the top of their
speed, each clearing the hurdles in high style, and then, return-
ing, accomplished the same feat.” No one enjoyed the practical
joke more than Mr. Berry’s informant, Mr. Coke himself.
One of the many anecdotes of Mr. Bakewell illustrates the
estimate of the value of his sheep in his own time and neigh-
bourhood. A Dishley ram, already let for 25 guineas for the
season, had not been delivered to the hirer, when a farmer of
the old type of the district took a great fancy to that particular
sheep, and wished to buy him. Mr. Bakewell, knowing his
man, readily offered to sell the ram to him for twenty-five
shillings. The farmer, as promptly, said he would give him
eighteen shillings.
Mr. Bakewell’s inspection of the Old Lincoln flock of Mr.
Chaplin, in the year 1788, in the owner’s absence, had a less
pleasant sequel than his dealings with the shepherd at Holkham
when Mr. Coke was away. An angry correspondence ensued.1
The personalities, the charges, retorts, and explanations are
somewhat sad reading when more than 100 years are past and
gone. Bakewell’s style of letter-writing does not tell us much
more of him than we know from other sources. It is no better,
nor perhaps worse, than might be expected of a man of his day
and vocation. That part of the correspondence which most
concerns us, in examining his work as a sheep-breeder, is the
passage of Mr. Chaplin’s letter in which he sajs : —
1 The letter of Mr. Chaplin to Mr. Bakewell and Mr. Bakewell’s reply are
printed in a foot-note to Professor Low’s account of the Old Lincoln breed of
sheep in Domesticated Animats, &c.
Robert Rahewell.
23
The small sheep that have no cross of the Durham hind, which you have
had the address to impose upon the world, without size, without length,
and without wool, I have always held to be unprofitable animals ;
and the answering passage in Mr. Bakewell’s, saying —
And now I take the liberty of asking you to explain what you mean by
“ sheep without size, without length, and without wool,” which you say I
have “ had the address to impose upon the world ” ;
and continuing, in one long, gasping sentence, to inform Mr.
Chaplin that he, Mr. Bakewell, was fully persuaded that ten
rams without a Durham or any other cross had been in that
same season let “ for 1,000 guineas more than the same number
of the true Old Lincolnshire breed, of the long staple,” &c. The
same sentence goes on through several more lengthy clauses, of
which the extracted cream is the assertion that some of the
highest-priced of those rams had gone into the counties ol
Lincoln and Nottingham, to breeders who had used Dishley
sheep for twenty years, and had already offered, for future
seasons, higher prices than they had yet paid, and might surely
be supposed to be capable of knowing the value of the sheep
which Mr. Chaplin had “ always held to be unprofitable animals.”
Here Mr. Bakewell has fairly run himself down to a full stop,
after which, in two short sentences, he asks whether, unless to
their own interest, they would persevere, and observes that his
own address must be extraordinary to impose upon such men
against their interests and long experience.
The ram-lettings, which Mr. Bakewell is said to have been
the first to establish as a recognised trade, began in a small
way. In 17 CO rams were hired for a few shillings for the
season ; ten years later prices varied up to 25 guineas ; and
within a few years Mr. Bakewell’s aggregate was declared to be
3,000 guineas for rams hired from him in one season. His
celebrated ram, Two Pounder, was let one season for 800
guineas in cash, with reservation of his use to Mr. Bakewell for
one-third of the total number of ewes specified in the contract,
which was reckoned as making the payment equivalent to a
rent of 1,200 guineas. The enormous prices obtained by other
breeders belong rather to the history of the breed than to a
memoir of its founder.
The shows of the Dishley sheep in the hands of Mr.
Bakewell and his followers and supporters began annually
on June 8 (Marshall states), and lasted nominally until
Michaelmas, or until all the rams offered were let; but on
October 10 the private shows closed with a public sale and
letting. For a few weeks after those shows began each breeder
24
’Robert Bakewell.
kept open house. But few rains were sold compared with the
numbers let. The principal ram-breeders saved 20, 30, or 40
ram lambs, which were “ chosen more by blood than by form,’1
weaned in July or August, and then indulged in keep to the
utmost and “ pushed forward ” for show. Each of the principal
breeders, by common consent, showed forty rams, one-shear to
five-shear, comparatively few being serviceable after that age,
although some retained their vigour to the sixth or seventh
year. Even at that age, Marshall remarks, decay is not
natural , but is brought on by unnatural fatness. The ewes are
prolific to a greater age. The females, however, of this breed
enter the stage of decay sooner than those of other breeds,
because they enter the stage of fatness sooner. In the choice of
rams, some farmers observed a distinction between sheep suit-
able for ram-breeding and those for wether-breeding, the former
“ cleaner and finer,” the latter having more strength. Some
breeders refused to recognise this difference, and Marshall held
that if there was no danger of breeding too fine they were
right. From this remark it would appear that they took the
more refined rams as sheep of the higher and truer improved
type. Their wether-breeding could be adjusted, if more strength
were required, by the choice of coarser ewes for that particular
purpose. But Bakewell, as we have seen, left two types of sheep,
the finer, and the stronger, the latter established late in his life.
Bakewell’s work of improvement in cattle, as most probably
also in sheep, was expended upon what we may truly
enough call the breed of his own district. As in his sheep-
breeding, whatever crosses he may have taken, he certainly took
the Longwools, already introduced, and perhaps we may say
established, with local variations, as the prevailing race of sheep
in his own and neighbouring counties, so in his cattle-breeding,
however far he went to bring together different branches of the
breed, he took the Longhorn, the prevailing breed of the Mid-
lands, when he began his work of improvement.
The material he had to work upon, however, was already
greatly improved from the fiat-sided, coarse-shouldered, old
Longhorn of Ireland and the western side of England, a slow
grower, slow mover, light in the hind quarters and lean-fleshed,
a fair but not extraordinary milker. That breed, in some parts
of the North of England, particularly in North Lancashire, the
adjoining part of Westmoreland, and the Craven district of
Yorkshire, had risen to a considerable degree of excellence, both
as a beef breed (time allowed) and for dairy purposes ; whilst
successively in Derbyshire Sir Thomas Gresley, of Drakelow, and
Robert RakeiveU.
25
in Warwickshire Mr. Webster, of Canley, had also effected much
improvement. The reason why these two names stand out in
the history of the Longhorn as an improved breed is perhaps
questionable. Without detracting in the least from the excel-
lence of their work, as compared with anything else in the same
direction done in those days in the Midland counties until
Bakewell came upon the scene, we may be allowed to doubt
whether they excelled some of the forgotten breeders in the
Northern counties. The bull Bloxedge, called by Youatt the
Hubback of the Longhorns, was the son of a Lancashire sire.
Thirty or forty years ago Lunesdale retained traditions which
have nearly died out with old inhabitants whose memory
reached back to their childhood, when their grandfathers in
the chimney-nook told of the grand herds of Longhorns all up
that valley and on the fell farms of Barbon and Casterton and
all through the dales over Skipton way. “ The Craven heifer,”
as portrayed on the board swinging over the doorway of many
a village hostelry, displayed a degree of embonpoint worthy of
Canley or of Dishley. But the signboard painter came again,
and went, and as his American prototype in Rip van Winkle
had dexterously metamorphosed “ The King’s Head ” into that
of the immortal Washington, the Yorkshire artist, although he
left behind him, indeed, the name unaltered, had “touched up”
the white back and brindled sides to a bloomy roan, and for the
old-fashioned horns had substituted a dainty little pair of a
waxy-yellow colour.
The original portrait may be supposed to have represented,
with or without exaggeration, the Longhorn of the North of
England at the time when Robert Bakewell founded his herd
by the purchase of two heifers from Mr. Webster and a bull from
Westmoreland. From these pure Longhorns he bred the whole
of his herd ; but how many others he ever had as tributaries of
different but equally pure blood we have no evidence to show.
The writer is not aware of the existence of any evidence to show
that he crossed his Longhorns at any time with another breed.
There are, however, in the imperfect records of some of his
Longhorn pedigrees which have come down to us through
Marshall blanks which possibly may be filled by Longhorns
unrelated to his original three. One of the Canley heifers
was Comely. She was slaughtered at the age of twenty-six
years, and historically is known as Old Comely. Some parts of
her were seen in pickle at Dishley, years after her death, among
Mr. Bakewell’s relics of his most remarkable animals, and it is
recorded that the fat on her sirloin was four inches thick. The
celebrated bull Twopenny was a son of Old Comely, and of the
26
Robert Bcikewell.
Westmoreland bull. Arthur Young, writing in 1771 of his
tour in 1770, says he then saw Twopenny, a very big bull, most
truly made, on the barrel principle, circular, but broad across
the back. Mr. Bakewell would not take 200 guineas for him.
He had several cows for which he would not take 30 guineas
each. The fee for Twopenny (at home) was five guineas, but
his sons were let out for the season at rents varying from five to
thirty guineas. In describing his visit to Mr. Bakewell in 1785,
Young noticed in the cattle considerable “ improvement,” which
in these days would be questioned. It consisted in the enormous
development of masses of fat over the hip-bones and at the end of
the hind quarters. Whereas Mr. Bakewell had been formerly
contented to grow beasts heavy in the hind quarters, he had not
until recently attempted to produce those excrescences of fat.
Now, he had produced a remarkable disposition to fatten on
those parts ; “ and I measured ” — -Young proceeds — “ the hip-
bones of one buried in a mound of fat 14 inches in diameter,”
with other protuberances to match, “ yet she has a calf every
year.”
A bull named D., doubly grandson of Twopenny, and other-
wise closely in-bred, was allowed to be a still better bull than
Twopenny, and he became the sire of the celebrated Shakspeare,
bred by Mr. Fowler, of Rollright, from a daughter of Twopenny,
thus further complicating the much-entangled relationships.
Shakspeare was the bull described by Marshall (whom Youatt
quotes) as a striking specimen of natural varieties. Although
so closely in-bred from the original purchases of Mr. Bakewell, “ he
scarcely,” Marshall observes, “ inherits a single point of the
Longhorn, his horns excepted.” In the description which
follows, Marshall mentions “ some remarkable wreaths of fat
formed round the setting on of the tail ; a circumstance which
in a picture would be called a deformity, but as a point is in the
highest estimation.” Thus Marshall agrees with Young in
regarding this gross extravagance of the development of fat as
desirable. The difficulty had been, up to BakewelFs day, to
breed animals disposed to fatten readily. The reaction from
Bakewell’s too ample results of his efforts to overcome that
difficulty had not then begun.
An anonymous journalist, writing his impressions of Dishley
soon after Mr. Paget’s sale in 1793, says: “The famous white
bull is a noble animal, but I found there were many who pre-
ferred that sold at Mr. Paget’s sale.” This man’s style is more
that of a town newspaper reporter than of one expert in the
matter of live stock. The description as “ white,” therefore,
may be taken for what it is worth from such a source. Possibly
Robert Bakewell.
27
a large proportion of white, as compared with the characteristic
Longhorn colours and marking on the sides, may account for the
use of the term. The same writer records a remark of Bake-
well’s that “the only way to be sure of good offspring is to
have good cows as well as good bulls.” He mentions also a
heifer, sold at Mr. Pearce’s sale for 80 guineas, as being valued
when driven through Leicester at 8 guineas by a party of farmers
in the street.
John Lawrence gives, as seeming to accord as nearly as
possible with Bakewell’s ideas, the following general descrip-
tion of the Dishley Longhorns. Bound, tight, cylindrical
carcass ; wide in the hips, but very little prominence in the
huckle-bones ; straight back, well filled behind shoulder ; neck
long and fine, without any superfluous skin or dewlap ; horns
long, taper downwards, and of a deep yellowish colour ; head
fine and smooth. The barrel form, gradually tapering towards
the ends, was the model, as in sheep. Another authority says
that his Longhorns, like his sheep, were remarkable for the
fineness of their bone, and for their flesh. Marshall describes
a rich mellow touch when lean, firm when fat.
Youatt, taking Marshall’s remarks upon the principles of
breeding as no doubt faithfully representing Bakewell’s views,
although Marshall, with commendable delicacy towards Mr.
Bakewell, introduces them with the explanation that he does
not intend to deal out Mr. Bakewell’s private opinions nor to
attempt to recite his particular practice, draws from them the
inference that Mr. Bakewell kept four principal points steadily
in view : (1) breed; (2) utility of form ; (3) quality of flesh ;
(4) propensity to fatten, the three latter depending upon the
first, and really comprised within it. Marshall’s words are cer-
tainly suggestive of inspiration from Dishley ; and this impres-
sion of the source of their substance is confirmed by the remarks
of those other writers who, like Marshall, had frequent access to
the same source of knowledge. Utility of form included fine-
ness of bone, light offal, and the greatest weight in the best
parts. Propensity to fatten, at first favourable, when excessive
became unfavourable to the production of the best quality of flesh.
One of the uses to which Bakewell turned his three-year-old
heifers was an example of his prevailing notion of economy
throughout his business, whether in the form of an animal, the
feeding of stock, the use of straw, the saving of labour, or any
other way in which the most could be got out of the least. His
heifers, in later years, were made to do the draught-work pre-
viously done by oxen. They lived on straw, and as soon as
ready for breeding were put into the team, bringing their first
28
Bolert Bcikciveli.
calves when they were well forward in their fourth year. As the
Dishley Longhorn was not an early-maturing breed, an earlier
age was considered too soon for the health and strength of both
the calf and its dam. Bakewell would not have taken 120
guineas, he said, for one of his teams of six “ cows ” — or
heifers, if we must so call them until they become mothers.
Bakewell tried many experiments with cattle, as with sheep,
to ascertain the return for food consumed, testing his own with
other breeds. With regard to these experiments, the results
being in favour of his own, he certainly did not seek publicity,
and Young doubtless followed Mr. Bakewell’s own sentiments
in his reason for withholding the facts of which he had full
knowledge. “ Accuracy in such experiments,” he said, “ is
impossible, from differences in certain beasts in feeding, fatten-
ing, &c. Besides, even supposing accuracy, other people would
not give credit to such comparisons unless the breeders of each
had selected specimens to represent their different breeds in the
trial ; nor does Mr. Bakewell’s breed want such experiments to
recommend them.” High condition was the rule of the breed-
ing herd at Dishley ; but this, no doubt with much truth, was
by Mr. Bakewell declared, and by Mr. Young believed, to be
due to the superior breed of the animals, their hereditary fine-
ness of bone, and correlated disposition to fatten rapidly. Young
says : “ The general order in which Mr. Bakewell keeps his cattle
is pleasing ; all are as fat as bears.” Again he remarks : “ If
the degree of fatness in which he keeps all these cattle be con-
sidered, and that he buys neither straw nor hay, it must appear
that he keeps a larger stock on a given number of acres than
most men in England.” Lawrence, in a less friendly tone,
writing after Bakewell’s death, says : “ His animals were made to
look well by high keep,” and significantly adds that Bakewell
himself had “ shrewdly observed that ‘ the only way to have
capital stock was to keep the price high.’ ” The prices, how-
ever, with which Bakewell appears to have been satisfied were
generally very moderate compared with some of those realised
by breeders who obtained their stock from him and hired his
bulls. This, however, if pursued, takes us out of the line of
Bakewell’s immediate work.
On one occasion Bakewell had let a bull for the season to a
gentleman who died before the animal was due to return to
Dishley. The executors sold it for 8 guineas to a butcher, who
retailed its beef to his customers at 2\d. a pound. Bakewell
thereupon brought an action and recovered 200 guineas as the
value of the bull and 50 guineas for the season’s hire.
If Bakewell made any secret of his practice in the improve-
Egbert Bakewell.
29
ment of sheep ancl cattle, he was open at least in respect of his
horses. George C alley authoritatively relates the circumstances ;
the return of the Earl of Huntingdon from an Embassy to the
States-General with a set of black coach horses, mostly stal-
lions, which became sires of horses of a capital stamp, bred by
the Trentside tenantry ; the excursion of Bakewell, many years
afterwards, with Mr. George Salisbury, in search of the breed
on the Continent; their return with Dutch or Flemish
mares, and Mr. Bakewell’s use of some of the imported mares
to improve the old black breed of Leicestershire carthorses. In
the year 1785, as we learn from several sources, he had the
honour of exhibiting his famous black horse to the King in the
courtyard of St. James’s Palace ; but a horse named K.,
which died at the age of nineteen years in the same year in
which he took the “ famous ” horse for his Majesty’s inspection,
is described by Marshall as a far grander animal, “ the fancied
war-horse of the German painters,” a horse under whose magni-
ficent forehand “ a man of moderate size seemed to shrink, and
whose head and neck were carried so high that his ears stood,
as Mr. Bakewell said every horse’s ears ought to stand, per-
pendicularly over his fore feet.” Derbyshire, the same writer
stated in 1796 (the year after Bakewell’s death), had been for
some time indebted to Leicestershire for the best black cart-
horse stallions. So recently as the year 1858 an animal was
exhibited at the Chester Meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England as a descendant and representative specimen
of Bakewell’s stud.
Bakewell appears to have extended to his horses the letting
system adopted for the disposal of his surplus bulls and rams.
He is said to have let stallions for 100 guineas and up-
wards; another authority says from 25 to 150 guineas. At
home the fee was 5 guineas. One of the leading chroniclers
remarks that he bred the horse like the ox in form, thick and
short-bodied, with very short legs. Bakewell himself used to
say that bad drawing horses were made so by bad management.
All his were perfectly gentle and willing workers, slow, but of
great power. The general practice of the country was to use
from four to seven horses to the plough. He never used more
than two, and these, with a Rotherham plough, without a
driver, turned four acres in the day — four times the work his
neighbours did with the same strength.
His pigs are variously described as of Berkshire breed and
as “ a mix breed sort.” They were bred in-and-in very closely,
until one observer, either by sight or by hearsay, found that
30
Robert Bakewell.
they were “all rickety,” another that they were “all fools.”
Bakewell and his admirers were of a different opinion, and con-
sidered the sort much improved under the working of his
system. There was at Dishley an experiment-sty, where pigs,
nine at a time in sets of three, were weighed, fed on weighed
food, and so forth, the weights duly chalked on a board, and the
complete notes finally transferred to Mr. Bakewell’s book of
experiments and results.
Mr. Bakewell’s farming and breeding do not appear to have
proved, in the aggregate, financially successful. Several autho-
rities refer to straitened circumstances, and one writer goes so
far as to say that Mr. Bakewell had become bankrupt in November
1776. As neither his flock nor his herd was ever dispersed dur-
ing his lifetime, but both were bequeathed by him to his nephew,
Mr. Honeybourn, who for some years after continued to breed
at Dishley the descendants from his uncle’s original animals, the
story of failure needs confirmation and explanation. It is clear
that at the time of Mr. Bakewell’s death the Dishley herd com-
prised lineal representatives of Old Comely, the cow calved at
Canley in or about the year 1765 and purchased as one of the
original pair of heifers from Mr. Webster. His lavish hospi-
tality, however, was enough to account for some measure of
pecuniary trouble.
Thus, in each department of farm practice, we have traced,
from widely scattered fragments of evidence, the work of Robert
Bakewell, of whom it was justly said by the author of the
memoir published on the announcement of his death, that
“ every branch of agricultural art was more or less indebted to
him, his fortunate genius, and his original mind.” While we
remember the benefits which he has conferred upon the nations
in the substantial results of his work, his breed of sheep having
effected, in various degrees, through many well-known crosses
and how many unacknowledged crosses no man can tell, the
improvement of other breeds, we must remember to his credit
the wider distribution of the good originated in his discovery of
a shorter and surer way than before was known to enlist in
man’s service the laws and powers of nature. Had he been a
man of higher education, we should have been the richer,
no doubt, by his contributions to the literature of agriculture.
But like other men of bis educational level, he was more apt
to act well than to tell clearly how he acted. There he was,
perhaps wisely, silent. Yet others gleaned, and indirectly told,
the secrets he was accused of studiously concealing. The cor-
relation of form and certain propensities was one discovery upon
Robert Bdkewell.
31
which he is known to have acted ; the fact that nnder some
conditions consanguineous breeding might be practised with
most advantageous results was another. Upon these two
principal rules all the other parts of his system appear to hang.
They are sufficiently known, and are indicated in the foregoing
notes. Men have been really, for a century past, following
Bake well’s words and practice whilst denying that he had ever
disclosed the “ mystery ” of his success, and breeds superseding
his own have risen from the use of the knowledge which the
world owes to Robert Bakewell.
Wm. Housman.
Lune Bank, Lancaster.
ECONOMY IN CULTIVATION.
At a time like the present, when farming generally is at a
lower ebb than at any other period during this century, when
corn-growing seems impossible, and land is going rapidly
out of cultivation, owing to low prices and increasing cost of
labour, we, whose living depends on farming, have to consider
whether we have to abandon the pursuit of a lifetime, and take
up we know not what — for most of us, from one cause or
another, are unfit for any other employment — or whether we
should pack up what little yet remains, and try our fortunes in
those countries where rent and taxes are not, whence flow those
inexhaustible streams of corn and meat that have driven us to
such lamentable straits.
But many of us are too old for such a change, and none of
us like being beaten by anybody, whether a foreigner or of our
own kin ; and before taking this last desperate step, I think we
should fully consider the situation, and endeavour to find some
means by which the struggle against foreign competition can be
successfully maintained until the tide turn.
Farming, as I do, on a very considerable scale, both as to
stock and corn, my mind has been much exei’cised on this sub-
ject. One naturally first looks for higher prices as the remedy,
but hopes in this direction seem only born to die young ; bad
crops in this country seem to produce a fall in prices, owing to
inferior quality of grain and abundance in other lands. If we
anticipate that America will soon be consuming all she grows,
are there not other new fields of virgin soil, in the Argentine,
South Africa, and elsewhere, all being rapidly opened up by
the aid of British capital ? Hope in this direction will, I fear,
only make the heart sick.
32
Economy in Cultivation.
If we look for any artificial means of increasing prices, such
as Protection, what hope is there of this coming about before the
end comes to our own career ? The most sanguine cannot anti-
cipate such a change without years of political struggle, and
then it is a question whether farmers generally would be greatly
benefited, whatever the advantage might be to the country at
large.
Is there any hope of producing better crops, and obtaining
salvation in this line ? I see but little light in this direction.
Euglish corn crops are already greater than those of any other
corn-growing country, excepting perhaps little Belgium ; to aim
at growing very big crops only means increased disaster in a wet
season ; and though there may be some advantage in attempting
to reach a higher standard than the present average, there is
no remedy for low prices here.
Cost of production seems the only question left worth con-
sidering. Can this be reduced to any considerable extent ?
And if so, how ?
Not by reducing the price of labour. Fann -hands are not over-
paid now in the corn-growing districts, and the tendency appears
to be rather in the direction of higher wages and shorter hours
of labour ; besides, if wages were reduced a couple of shillings
per week (which I should much regret to see), that would not
materially affect the cost of production, but, on the other hand,
would be a national misfortune. Many think that rents must
fall still lower; this probably will be the case, though landlords
have suffered cruelly already, and if they are to be utterly im-
poverished it will be to the great regret of a very large majority
of all classes, including the tenant-farmers. Small occupations
are the panacea of those who know nothing of practical, eco-
nomical farming, in spite of every known experience that large
businesses of all kinds can be more economically managed, and
made to produce more cheaply, than small ones.
In what direction, then, can we look for more economical
production ? That is the question to which I have given a good
deal of thought, and with which I propose now to deal very
briefly.
The plough has from time immemorial been the chief imple-
ment of the arable farmer, and probably will continue so until the
end, ploughing being the principal operation and the most expen-
sive. No work of any other implement will compare with it in
efficiency, either in the preparation of a seed bed or as a pre-
liminary to cleaning ; but it is a very expensive operation, and
my object is to show that this may be reduced without sacrificing
efficiency.
Economy in Cultivation.
33
It is customary to have only one type of plough on the farm
to do all kinds of work, an implement well suited for deep
winter ploughing, but utterly out of place for spring, summer,
or autumn work ; and though I know too well the objection to
a multiplicity of implements, I contend that it is as absurd to
have only one type of plough as it would be to use only heavy
drags to effect all the harrowing operations of the farm.
Being much impressed with this idea, and seeing the absolute
necessity for every possible economy, my attention was attracted
by the light four-furrow plough of Ransome, the “ seed plough ”
I believe it was called. I used a very light form of this some
years ago, and found it useful for a certain class of work, but it
was too light for a general-purpose summer plough, and suitable
only for extremely light work.
Last spring I fixed upon Ransome’s three-furrow plough as
being something like the implement I wanted, so ordered three
of this type, one’to my home farm in Monmouthshire, and the
others to Salperton, on the Cotswold Hills. At this place I
was about to put my ordinary digging ploughs into a piece of
ground that had been ploughed four to five inches deep in the
autumn and was coming into oats ; ploughing was absolutely
necessary, there being coltsfoot, thistles, a considerable amount
of squitch, &c. No scarifier would have made a proper job of
it. Had the ploughing been done by the digger in the ordinary
way, one acre per day might have been ploughed. The three-
furrow light plough with a pair of active little Welsh horses,
without any special inducement being held out to the ploughman,
turned over seventeen acres in six days. The field occupies
eighteen acres ; it was begun with the new plough the first
time of using on the Monday morning, and by Saturday night
certainly not more than an acre remained unploughed — seven-
teen acres instead of six, and the work done decidedly better, as
a preparation for cleaning, than it would have been done by
the digger ; for the small furrows, eight inches wide, are more
penetrable for the harrows than the clumsy, rough, broad fur-
rows of the digger. The depth was four inches. The work was
quite enough for the horses, but by no means excessive.
The next field to be operated upon had been ploughed in
the ordinary way in the autumn, manured for roots, and on half
of the piece the dung lay on the top of the ground (not having
been ploughed in). After two consecutive corn crops, the first
following a clover ley, the ground was decidedly “ dirty,” and,
dry weather having thoroughly set in by this time, it had become
very hard ; in short, it was a really tough job. I sent another
man with a pair of powerful half-bred horses to tackle this with
VOL. V. T. S. — 17 D
34
Economy in Cultivation.
the new three-furrow plough, again without any special order to
make haste, because, for one thing, I knew that the work would
be too much for two horses to be hurried ; the result was that,
notwithstanding considerable hindrance from the long dung,
fully thirteen acres were ploughed in six days, and for my pur-
pose done better than it would have been by the other ploughs.
I am absolutely certain that not more than one acre per day
would have been ploughed in the ordinary way, for I find it a
universal article of faith that not more than one acre per day
is to be ploughed by a single-furrow plough. This experience
satisfied me completely so far, and my after-experience here
fully confirmed my first impression.
To turn to Gloucestershire. Here the ground is by no
means friable, or free-cutting, but hangs on the mould-board
more or less in all weathers ; moreover, the gradients are bad,
and though there is no danger of very deep ploughing, three
inches there are quite as bad to turn as five inches in Monmouth-
shire, and an occasional “ rock ” is trying to the implement,
horses, and driver. In this case I had one plough of the same
pattern as that already alluded to. This was drawn by a
pair of Welsh cobs and an old nag working abreast, the three
having cost with their harness 30 1. They did a large amount
of good work, generally ploughing about 2 Jr acres per day. The
other plough was fitted with a seat for the driver, and at the
suggestion of Mr. Ransome was of a rather stronger, heavier
pattern than those before alluded to.
I would here say that my idea from the outset was to adapt
what is known -as the “ gang ” system to the plough already -men-
tioned, viz., making it so that the ploughman could ride;' if so
inclined. Having long considered this matter, I have come to
the conclusion that ploughing, as hitherto practised, is altogether
too slow an operation ; and my experience goes to prove that if in
these days you want work done quickly, it must be done with
the least possible exertion to the individual who has to do that
work. Ploughing is always associated with the slowest speed,
heavy horses, heavy implement, heavy, slow action in the
ploughman. The necessity for all this I am unable to discover,
but the result of it is utter demoralisation of men and horses.
It may be said that allowing ploughmen to ride is more de-
moralising still. I differ from this view. Is it demoralising
to allow the driver of the mowing-machine, the horse-rake, the
reaper, &c., to ride? Why. should he not ride the plough as
well ? In winter he may be unable to do so on account of the
cold, then let him get off and walk fast to keep himself warm ;
but in summer, when weather is hot and dust abundant, it is
Economy in Cultivation.
35
absurd to expect anyone to walk fast with four pounds of hob-
nailed boots on his feet for eight or nine hours a day. The
gang plough system has long been used in America, where wheat
appears to be produced more cheaply than anywhere else, and
where labour is dearer than, perhaps, in any other country of the
world. Here the labourer never seems to walk after an imple-
ment if he can ride it, whether it be a reaper, mower, drill,
plough, or harrow ; and I think the Americans can be trusted to
get work done as economically as possible. Why, then, should
our chief operation on the farm be effected so slowly and ex-
pensively ?
This naturally brings me to the subject of deep cultivation
and the cultivation of heavy land. With regard to the latter,
it appears to me to be quite impossible that any such land re-
quiring more than two horses to draw an ordinary single plough
can pay for cultivation with corn and meat at present prices, and
the sooner it is laid down to grass or planted to wood the better
for landlord and tenant. But regarding deep cultivation, which,
together with heavy land, is chiefly responsible for slow plough-
ing, is it clear that deep cultivation is ever advantageous in
the production of ordinary farm crops ? I know that it is a
necessity in the case of potatoes, also where the system of dung-
ing in the ridges for roots is adopted — a most objectionable
system to my mind ; also, it may sometimes be desirable to
plough “ ley ” ground a sufficient depth to keep it clean ; but I
know no other case in which a depth of from three to four
inches is not sufficient, if not superior to any other. Of course
every inch of extra depth means considerable extra labour or cost,
and though I have no data to go upon, it is probable that,
generally speaking, five-inch ploughing means twice as much
strain as three-inch, inasmuch as the greater the depth, the
harder is the ground. Certain it is that crops grown after the
old breast plough, about one to two inches deep, whether corn
or roots, were equal if not superior to any that have been grown
on the same land since. I have spoken to many farmers of very
wide experience on this subject, who agree with me that deep
cultivation has no advantages over light, or moderately light,
cultivation on any kind of soil. Squitch is often ploughed down
deep, only to be brought up again at great expense ; weed seeds
also, to germinate when least expected ; manure ploughed
deeply down to be near the drains and farther from the roots of
plants. It appears absurd to discuss such a question as this at
this period of the world’s agricultural history, and it looks, on
the face of it, as though I were advocating a system to suit an
implement ; but I am strongly of opinion that economy in this
36
Economy in Cultivation.
direction may be advantageously effected. Do the Americans
plough deep ? I am told that the general run of price for
ploughing in the Far West is a dollar an acre, the contractor
finding man, horses and plough. How does this compare with
the cost of ploughing for wheat here ? The inference is that the
ploughing must be light in America ; and would it be so if there
were any advantage in a deeper and more expensive process ?
But I will return to my own gang plough, which was the
idea I had in my mind when I started on this subject. I dis-
cussed this matter with Mr. J. E. Ransome, who threw himself
heartily into the question, taking the greatest pains to construct
a suitable implement on the basis of the three-furrow plough
before alluded to, the final result being an implement that is
admirably adapted for my own and general practice.
The first gang plough, as I before stated, was somewhat
heavier than the seed-plough, and the soil being more tenaci-
ous than this, and the gradients bad in many cases, we put three
horses (always working abreast) to this plough, very moderate
animals of no great size or strength. They got over a large
amount of work, which can be well understood when I state
that the driver was paid generally by the “job,” and was quite
content with 1(M. per acre in lieu of wages. The same three
horses worked the plough all the summer, were kept only
moderately well, and were in better condition at the end of the
summer than at the beginning. In many of the fields the
ploughman would ride on the level ground and downhill, and
walk up ; and though on side-land ground he sometimes had
difficulty in keeping the plough well into its work, the general
result was highly satisfactory, and the work done was decidedly
better for cleaning, or for a seed bed, than that of the ordinary
plough. I do not wish to convey the idea that this plough is
suitable for deep ploughing, or for hard ground. Three horses,
of course, would not draw such an implement with its three
furrows, eight inches wide and four or five inches deep, in “ ley”
ground ; but for spring, summer, and stubble ploughing it is all
that is required, and my point is that for such work the ordinary
single plough (which is almost invariably used as a universal
plough) is too heavy for the work demanded, and that to plough
only one acre per day (which is more frequently three-quarters
of an acre) is not enough work for a pair of horses, and that the
cost is out of proportion to the work done.
Now, assuming that three smart horses do three acres per
day, and the cost per horse per week be 6s., and the wages of
the man 1(M. per acre, the cost would be Is. 1(M. per acre. On
the other hand, with a single plough, a pair of horses, and a man
Economy in Cultivation.
or lad at 2s. per day, the cost would be 4s. per acre, assuming
that an acre per day were ploughed. This means a very consider-
able saving, such as cannot be ignored in times like the present.
But it appears to me that in the development of this system
there are even greater possibilities of economy. Supposing, for
instance, the farmer is busy with hay or corn, and wishes to
concentrate as many of his hands as possible on some special
operation, he might take two out of three of his horsemen, put
them on this particular work — let one man work two sets of
three horses each by the “ job ” on the gang plough — and get six
acres a day ploughed, the driver earning 5s. at 10c/. per acre.
I see no difficulty in obtaining such a result. I know that
some object to the system of driving three horses abreast, saying
that they tread each other and bring side-bones. With proper
“ spreaders ” there is no more risk in this respect than where a
pair is driven, aud if two men instead of three can work six
horses, and get only the same work done, the saving must be
worth effecting.
The mere saving of so much cost per acre, however, is not all ;
expedition is sometimes all-important. A good or a bad crop
may depend upon the fact of its being got in properly in the
“ nick of time,” which it might be impossible to do without
means such as I have described ; success or failure may depend
on this. The cost of a pair of horses, man’s wages, interest of
money and depreciation to horse and harness, varies from about
75/. to 100/. a year: if, therefore, as I am convinced, one team
out of every four can be dispensed with by adopting the most
suitable labour-saving implements, it is clear at a glance how
great that saving is, and what a proportion it bears towards
rent. Besides this absolute saving, in place of the horses cattle
or sheep might be kept, which may be presumed to pay some-
thing. Then there is often great waste of time in unnecessary
neatness, in mathematically measuring out the “ lands,” finishing,
&c. All this may be necessary in ploughing for a winter crop,
where surface drainage is required ; but for spring crops, roots,
&c., I see no reason why the plough should not go continuously
round the field, where the conformation of the land is suitable,
and so save great waste of time in turning at “ land’s end.”
Again, with this gang plough, where the gradient is bad, the field
might be ploughed three ways, the plough going idle up the hill.
Of course it will be said that though so many horses may not be
required for the actual ploughing, there are the other operations,
such as harvesting, &c., in which the full complement of horses is
required. In reply, I would say that, in harvesting, waggons
are still very generally used when (whatever farmers’ prejudices
38
Economy in Cultivation.
may be) one-horse carts do at least equally well, and that if there
is horse-power sufficient to keep the ploughing in good place,
that should be strength enough for all the other operations of
an ordinary arable farm. This brings me to the question of
farm horses, and their suitability for the work they have to do.
It has been for a long time the fashion to keep a heavy class
of horse of the Shire type, such horses having been found very
saleable for town work, and farmers have been advised to go in
for breeding this class of horse, working him up to five or six
years old, and then selling him at a good price for town work.
This is, no doubt, a wise thing to do on grass farms, or where the
production of marketable horses is the chief business of the farm —
in short, where the farm is kept for the horses ; but where horses
are kept for the purpose of working the farm, I submit that heavy,
slow horses are a mistake, and that farmers should go in for the
van-horse type of animal, 16 hands high, with short legs, that
will walk 25 per cent, faster than the Shire horse and do that
much more work, provided he is not overweighted. I much
prefer this kind of horse to any other, and if quick despatch
is to be the order of the day in the future of arable farming, a
change in this direction is essential. Then, if it is desii’ed to
dispose of these horses in their prime, there is no class of horse
that sells more readily or, perhaps, at more money. The chief
difficulty is to breed them, or buy them, as the case may be ;
but I have had some satisfactory results from crossing the light,
active cart-mare with a thoroughbred horse, and no doubt the
hunter mare and the cart-horse would do nearly equally well.
The policy of farmers of arable farms selling out their horses
at five and six years old appears to me to be a doubtful one, as
it generally means playing with these animals for a couple of
years, or, in other words, keeping two horses and a man going
at slow pace for the benefit of the young horse ; this man is
generally the head horseman, who sets the pace for all the
others, the result being general sluggishness of men and horses.
It should be borne in mind that a team of horses working the
gang plough at the rate of three miles per hour continuously
for seven hours, turning 2 feet wide, ploughs five acres ; a team
with a single plough, turning 1 foot at the rate of two miles
per hour, which is about the fashionable pace, would turn rather
less than If acres in the same time.
The tendency of the day, in every business excepting farming,
appears to be to get as much work done as possible with the
minimum exertion to the operative. This seems to me to be true
economy, and to carry it into operation should, I think, be
the aim of the employer. I think the plough should be ridden,
39
Economy in Cultivation .
the drill likewise ; and I shall at once try the American Massey-
Harris Cultivator (hoping to find in that implement a sub-
stitute for drags or harrows), on which the driver can ride,
believing as I do that in dry, hot weather especially, when clods
are hard and dust abundant, I shall get much more work done
than at present. Another possibility occurs to me in connexion
with this plough. I see no difficulty in attaching a light
drill to drop the seed corn into each furrow, and so ploughing
and drilling would go on simultaneously ; the extra strain would
be a mere trifle, as there would be no coulter cutting into the
ground. I think a better system of planting than that of
“ under the furrow ” cannot be devised, and the mode I have
suggested seems to combine economy with efficiency.
Feeling very strongly that more economy must be practised
in arable land farming, I venture to offer these experiences of
mine, together with the foregoing general ideas, for the considera-
tion of my brother-farmers, in the hope that if agricultural
salvation cannot be found here, at all events the question of the
more economical cultivation of the land may be fully considered,
with the result that God may “ speed the plough.”
R. Stratton.
The Duffryn, Newport, Mon.
THE CENSUS OF 1891 AND RURAL
DEPOPULATION.
I. Introductory Remarks.
With the publication of the fourth volume of the Census,1 con-
taining the General Report and the Summary Tables, it becomes
possible to establish from the material which the Registrar-
General has collected conclusions of some interest respecting
that section of the population which is engaged in agricultural
industry. The interval which has elapsed between the previous
census and that of which the completed results are now given
to the public has been one of prolonged, if not of intensifying,
depression for English agriculture. It is true that the last two
seasons, which have proved so disastrous to large districts of the
country, have not come within the scope of the present census ;
but it may be argued with probability that those seasons only
1 Census of England md Wales, 1891, vol. iv.
40 The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation.
revealed in its full extent tlie mischief which had been working
for several years. It is, then, a task of curious, and it may well
be of melancholy, interest to attempt to detect traces of the
depression in tlie returns of the Registrar-General ; and the
point which demands the closest attention is the extent to which
the figures confirm complaints of depopulation of the rural
districts. For there can be little, if any, doubt that among
the causes to which this phenomenon may be plausibly attributed,
in England at least, agricultural depression occupies an impor-
tant place.
The inquiry may have its encouraging side ; for it is often the
case that a popular notion, brought to the test of unimpassioned
figures, is compelled to modify, if not to transform, its expres-
sion, and becomes far less formidable on careful examination
than vague surmise or alarmist prediction has represented. In
fact, a danger appears not infrequently to arise in the opposite
direction, and the careless observer, astonished to find his
gloomy anticipations inadequately realised, is prone to conclude
that no reason exists for his previous alarm. It would be diffi-
cult for a careful student to fall into any such mistake after
examining with a moderate measure of attention the census
returns of 1891. And yet comments in not a few organs of the
press on an article contained in the January number of
the National Review 1 afford an apt illustration of the ease with
which such a comforting error may be disseminated.
Few topics in connection with English agriculture have occu-
pied a larger space in the public mind during recent years than
the influx of rural labour into the towns. No doubt the magnitude
of this immigration has been often exaggerated. No doubt an
experience, repeated in several places, of those who have known
of instances among their own acquaintance that have swelled
the volume of immigration has been multiplied by imaginative
rumour into wholesale abandonment of the country for the
attractions of the town. No doubt the wider interest which has
been naturally taken by politicians and others in the condition,
movements, and aspirations of the agricultural labourer since he
received the parliamentary franchise has caused enthusiastic
investigators to bestow upon him a microscopic observation,
which may sometimes have magnified, and sometimes have dis-
torted, what had escaped notice before. No doubt the increased
attention devoted to certain social problems in the towns has
given greater prominence to the competition of new-comers,
whether, like Jews, they find their way in from abroad, or, like
1 “ The Decline of Urban Immigration,” by Edwin Cannan.
41
The Census o/lSOl and Bund Depopulation.
rustics, they are allured by the quicker movement and bustle of
the city. In the one case, as in the other, the precise amount
and character of the competition have been mistaken, and more
expert inquiry has detected and exposed the error. But all
these influences have undoubtedly contributed to popularise an
impression that the rural districts are being deserted, and that
the great towns are absorbing, and in the process are deterior-
ating, the masses of the people.
By a natural sequence the impression, unquestionably
founded on fact, proves unable to stand fully the test of
statistics so comprehensive as those registered in a census
of the whole population ; and a counter-opinion is given
currency, which is no more accurate a representation of
the truth than the original impression. In more than one
newspaper, and from more than one seemingly unprejudiced
observer, we have learnt in the last few weeks that the
influx of rural labour into the towns is a discredited myth, and
the authority for this dogmatic statement has been generally
sought in the article by Mr. Cannan to which we have referred.
Before, then, we turn for ourselves to the census figures and
examine this question from the positive side of the returns of
the population of the rural districts, and of the numbers of the
classes engaged in agricultural occupations, it may be well to
see exactly what Mr. Cannan has established, approaching the
question from the other side — that of urban immigration.
II. Decrease of Urban Immigration in tiie Last Decade.
The figures which Mr. Cannan has obtained are certainly of a
nature to make hasty observers pause. He shows that “ by sub-
tracting the excess of births over deaths — the natural increase of
population as it is sometimes called— from the actual increase . . .
we arrive at the net immigration ” into any particular district.
Applying this process to nine of the largest towns in England—
to London, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield,
Bradford, Newcastle, and Bristol — and including in the towns
certain “ registration districts ” 1 which properly belong to them,
he finds that in the case of London (comprising in the term the
“ registration division of London, the remainder of ‘ regis-
tration’ Middlesex, and the unions of West Ham, Romford,
Gravesend, Dartford, Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, and Rich-
mond”) the “natural increase” between the beginning of 1851
and the end of 1890 was 1,989,710. The actual increase between
1 The boundaries of “ registration districts ” generally coincide, Mr. Cannan
points out, with Poor-law Unions, but not always with towns as usually known.
42
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation.
the census of 1851 and that of 1891 was 2,952,324, and therefore
the “ net immigration ” was some 962,614. Distributed equally
over the four decades, the amount in each would have been
240,653. Distributed over them in proportion to the growth
of London, it should have been some 178,000 in 1851-60,
213,000 in 1861-70, 257,000 in 1871-80, and 314,000 in
1881-90. “ As a matter of fact, it was 245,679 in the decade
1851-60, 256,791 in 1861-70, 302,121 in 1871-80, and only
158,023 in 1881-90.” As Mr. Cannan observes, “this enor-
mous drop is far too great to be explained away.” A sum-
mary table of the other eight large towns exhibits a net immi-
gration of 184,057 in the first decade, 222,161 in the second,
157,921 in the third, and only 23,803 in the fourth.
Nor would it appear that this diminution is counterbalanced
by an increase of net immigration into towns of the second rank.
Grouping the statistics of twenty-two Lancashire unions and
Stockport, of eight West Riding unions, of the unions in Cleve-
land and the Tees district, of those in the Potteries, and those
in the Black Country, the figures stand thus : — An increase of
85,891 in the first decade is followed by one of 66,969 in the
second, of 120,263 in the third, and by an actual decrease of
24,174 in the fourth and last.
From the manufacturing districts Mr. Cannan passes to the
scattered towns outside. He finds that, with the exception of
the commercial ports, which show a steady increase of net
immigration with each decade, the results obtained are similar
to those reached before. Adding together the totals of all his
tables, which include London, the other eight great towns, the
five manufacturing districts, and seventeen minor towns, the
net immigration is seen to have been 613,456 in 1851-60,
620,301 in 1861-70, 695,418 in 1871-80, and 241,764 in
1881-90. Mr. Cannan remarks that “ it requires a somewhat
strong imagination to conceive that the inclusion of the smaller
towns not dealt with could wipe out any considerable portion of
the drop of four hundred and fifty thousand.”
The figures are certainly startling, and have naturally
attracted attention. They have been represented in some quar-
ters as if they put the question of rural efflux out of court.
But Mr. Cannan himself is too acute an observer to be
betrayed into any such assertion. If the figures really justi-
fied this conclusion, they would be open to the charge so
frequently levelled against statistics, that “ figures will prove
anything.” For it would be impossible to believe that the com-
plaints raised in so many quarters of an efflux from the rural
districts, and the significant facts supported by the observations
The Census of 1891 and Rural De'pojndation. 43
of so many competent inquirers, and recently asserted afresh in
the reports of the Assistant-Commissioners sent by the Labour
Commission to visit certain selected districts, could be des-
titute of foundation. The truth remains that Mr. Cannan’s
figures, fairly interpreted, do not lead to such an improbable
conclusion. “A decline,” he remarks, “of net immigration into
the towns is, of course, not necessarily accompanied by a decline of
net emigration from the country. Migration goes on not only
between the towns and the rest of England, but between the
towns and the rest of the world outside England.”
In this circumstance is to be found the probable explanation
of the congruity of what Mr. Cannan may claim to have esta-
blished— the decline of urban net immigration — with the belief, so
widely held, and so authoritatively supported, of rural emigration.
The Registrar-General himself observes that “ emigration to foreign
countries increased enormously ” 1 during the last decade ; and
Mr. Cannan shows that, as a matter of fact, the net emigration
from the rest of the country outside the towns has slightly
increased. “ The whole country,” he remarks, “ lost by migra-
tion 469,189 more ” persons in the last than in the preceding
decade, and certain statistics render it probable that this
“ increased loss was divided between the towns and the rest of
the country.” “ A large portion of the diminution of urban net
immigration must be due to a change in the balance of migration
between the towns and places outside England.” There is no
doubt that immigration into England and Wales from those
places has fallen off, while emigration to them has increased.
The final conclusion, accordingly, which Mr. Cannan
reaches, is that, “ except in the case of a few of the most
prosperous towns, the influx from the country districts is
nearly or completely outweighed by the efflux to the rest of
the world.” This result undoubtedly supports his contention
that the complaint, so often and so loudly urged, that the
urban labourer is dragged down by the competition of rural
immigrants, is not well founded ; and it may be the case, as
he affirms, that it is “ highly probable that in the future our
great towns will be regarded as the cradle rather than the grave
of population.” But his article affords no justification for the
hasty inferences which have been drawn by newspaper writers
respecting the unreality or unimportance of rural emigration,
and it leaves this question in much the same position as that in
which it found it.2
1 He adds, also, that there has been no corresponding increase in migration
within the borders of England and Wales.
2 The percentage of “ stationary natives ” in 1891 was, the Registrar-General
44
The Census o/ 1891 and Rural Depopulation.
III. The Occupations Returns of the Census.
Dismissing, then, the interesting figures which Mr. Cannan
has brought out from the census returns, we may now proceed to
investigate the problem from the positive side of rural emigra-
tion rather than the negative side, which he has treated, of
urban immigration ; and we may endeavour to ascertain the actual
position with as much accuracy as the figures of the Registrar-
General will permit. We must not expect to find that the broad
evidence furnished by such vast masses of figures can correspond
exactly with estimates to which the observations of individuals,
however painstaking and unprejudiced, have given rise. Nor
must we look with any precision of detail in the colourless
records of the census for a measure of the various causes which
have promoted the movement. They are probably as mixed in
their origin as they are connected in their effects, and it is futile
to attempt to isolate them, and to assign to each its due influ-
ence. The greater gaiety of life in the towus, which is, no
doubt, reflected in the notable increase of actors, musicians,
performers, and photographers,* 1 who may all be regarded as
“ ministering to art and amusement,” may, and probably does,
as much by the influence of vague rumour as by any certain in-
ducement, exercise an attraction. The growth of teachers,2 again,
testifies to the spread of education, which broadens the horizon
and enlarges the ambitions of the rustic youth, and leads them to
seek a wider and more likely sphere for their attainment than
can be offered by the country village. But the endeavour to
trace such connecting-links as these, when we pass beyond the
broadest generalisations, might soon lead to fanciful illusion, and
would rather afford temptation to the exhibition of audacious
ingenuity than furnish any solid basis of reliable information.
We may therefore pass without delay to more certain evidence.
The Occupations Returns of the census are, as the Registrar-
General admits, far from satisfactory ; but it is possible to draw
from them certain broad deductions. The main difficulty of the
returns arises, it is stated, “ from the extremely inaccurate and
inadequate manner in which uneducated, and often, indeed,
even educated, persons describe their calling.” “The most that
it is reasonable to expect ” is that the data collected “ shall give
states, 74'86, as compared with 75-19 in 1881. But the agricultural counties
of Radnor and Rutland had not retained 50 per cent., and the proportion
was not much higher in Herefordshire, Huntingdonshire, Oxfordshire, Shrop-
shire, and Brecknockshire.
1 They have increased by 53 per cent, in the decade 1881-90.
2 15 5 per cent, in 1881-90, 30 per cent, in 1871-80.
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation. 45
the means of drawing such a picture of the occupational dis-
tribution of the people as shall be fairly true in its main lines,
though little value can be attached to the detailed features. It
is not wise to demand from a material a result for the produc-
tion of which it is unsuited.” Accordingly, the Registrar-Gene-
ral holds that the endeavour, made for the first time in the present
census, to obtain statistics of the numbers of employers and
employed has led to anything but satisfactory results. This
distinction — adopted in deference to the suggestion of econo-
mists— does not, perhaps, possess any great importance for agri-
culture ; but the general difficulties which confront the attempt
to attain accuracy do not fail to present themselves. It is only
broad conclusions which can be drawn with any certainty, and
these, perhaps, are mainly useful because they corroborate evi-
dence furnished from other sources.
The Agricultural Class is combined in the census returns
with the fishing industry, but the Registrar-General observes that
“ the latter is too small to affect seriously the total.” The sub-
divisions of the class have undergone valuations in different cen-
suses, and, in drawing a comparison between the figures of one
and another, it is desirable to confine the attention to those sub-
divisions which are similar. Happily, they represent the more
important constituent elements of the agricultural community.
In Tables I. and II. (p. 46) are contained the classification
adopted in the last three censuses of the various subdivisions,
and the figures for the last five censuses of the total of the agri-
cultural order — of the farmers, of their male relatives, of the
bailiffs, and of the labourers.
From the first of these tables it will be seen that the changes
made in the subdivisions of the agricultural class proper in the
last three censuses do not vitiate or obstruct comparison between
the numbers at the respective periods of the farmers and
graziers, of their male relatives living with them in the house
and returning no other occupation, and therefore presumably
engaged in farming, of the farm bailiffs, and of the agricultural
labourers and shepherds. For all practical purposes these classes
constitute the vast majority of the agricultural population, and
the broad significance of the figures relating to them can hardly
be misinterpreted.
The agricultural order as a whole has 'fallen steadily since
the beginning of the period comprised in Table II. In 1891
it was composed of 1,336,945 persons. These, the Registrar-
General states, were “ almost exclusively males,” and “repre-
sented 6T per cent, of the population” of the age of ten or
upwards. In 1881 the class contained 1,383,184 persons, and
46
The Census o/1891 andj Rural Depopulation.
this total exhibited, so the Registrar-General stated, a decline
of 8-2 per cent, as compared with 1871.* 1 This was, in fact,
the period when the percentage of diminution was the largest ;
but the reality of an important decrease during the last decade
is shown by an examination of the separate figures of the
different subdivisions.
Table I. — Classification of the Agricultural Order in the
Censuses of 1871, 1881, and 1891.
1871
Land proprietor
Farmer, grazier
Farmer’s son, brother,
grandson, nephew
Farm bailiff
Agricultural labourer 1
Farm servant (indoor) [
Shepherd
Land surveyor, estate
agent
Agricultural machine
proprietor, attendant
Land-drainage service
Others engaged in agri-
culture
1881
Farmer, grazier
Farmer’s, grazier’s son,
grandson, brother,
nephew
Farm bailiff
Agricultural labourer,
farm servant, cottager
Shepherd
(Transferred to land,
house, and ship sur-
veyor)
Agricultural machine
proprietor, attendant
Agricultural student,
pupil
Land-drainage service
Others engaged in, or
connected with, agri-
culture
1891
Farmer, grazier
Farmer’s, grazier’s son,
grandson, brother,
nephew
Farm bailiff
C Agricultural labourer,
J farm servant
I Ilorsekeeper, horse-
l man, teamster, carter
Shepherd
As in 1881
Agricultural machine
proprietor, attendant
(Transferred to all other
students)
} Others engaged in, or
connected with, agri-
culture
Table II. — Totals of Population of the Agricultural Order , and oj
the chief subdivisions in the last five Censuses.
1851
1861
1871
1881
1891
Total of agricul- T
tural order . j
1,928,796
1,833,295
1,634,192
1,383,184
1,336,945
Farmer, grazier .
249,431
249,735
249,907
223,943
223,610
Farmer’s male re- )
latives . . . /
111,704
92,321
76,466
75,197
67,287
Farm bailiff . .
Agricultl. labour- y
erand shepherd J
10,561
1,253,786
15,698
1,188,786
16,476
980,178
19,377
870,798
18,205
780,707
The total number of farmers returned in 1891 was, indeed,
1 The 1871 total had to be corrected for comparison, owing to the removal
of certain classes to another part of the census, c.g. that of Land Proprietors,
amounting, in 1871, to 22,961, and that of Land Agents, numbering 4,810.
The removal of agricultural students in 1891 was comparatively unimportant.
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation. 47
only 333 less than at the previous census, the number in the
earlier year being 223,943, ancl in the later 223,610. Here,
again, the figures for the preceding decade indicated a con-
siderable decline, amounting to 10 per cent., while up to
1871 the number of the class had grown with each successive
census. To compensate, however, for the small diminution in
the number of farmers between the last and the present census
there was a drop of over 10 per cent, in the number of male
relatives living in the farmhouse. There was a similar decline
in the number of agricultural labourers and shepherds, who
have been grouped together in the last line of Table II. In
1881 the number was 870,798, of whom 830,452 were males
and 40,346 females. In 1891 the number of males was 756,557,
and of females 24,150. The total, which' amounted to 780,707,
exhibited a diminution of 10-3 per cent. In 1851 this class of
the population was enumerated as consisting of 1,253,786
persons ; and accordingly, within forty years it has lost more
than a third of its numbers. The number of farm bailiffs, lastly,
after undergoing a considerable increase in the previous decade,
diminished during this. Whether the change is due to the fact
that between 1871 and 1881 farms were taken in hand by land-
lords averse to recognising the depression as permanent by granting
reductions of rent, while between 1881 and 1891 the stern logic
of facts, convincing them of their error, induced them to prefer
retaining an old tenant by almost any concession to indulging
in the risky venture of farming their own land,1 may be left to
the curious to determine ; but the change itself is certainly
noteworthy.
Comparing, then, the figures of the last three censuses, we
find that, as regards the first class — that of the farmers — the
decline between 1871 and 1881 amounted to 10 per cent. ; the
decline in the number of male relatives was but slight in com-
parison, and that in the number of agricultural labourers was,
as in the succeeding decade, some 10 per cent. Taking the
three subdivisions as a whole, the decrease seems to have been
similar in both periods ; but it is noteworthy that in the earlier
decade the farmers themselves should have diminished, while in
the later the decrease should apparently have been transferred
to their sons and relatives. It is true that in 1871 “retired
farmers ” were also included in the reckoning ; but it seems that
this circumstance would only account for some 2 per cent, of the
diminution. Here, as in the instance of the farm bailiffs, we
1 The Agricultural Returns of 1891 “indicate a rather larger surface
, occupied by tenants, and a slightly smaller amount in the owners’ hands.”
48
The Censxis of 1891 and Rural Depopulation.
may suggest probable explanations ; but from the nature of the
case such solutions of the problem must necessarily be hypo-
thetical.
It may be, as the Registrar-General observes, that the pro-
spects of success in an agricultural career have ceased to hold out
attractions to an increasing number among a younger generation.
With the first brunt of the depression the weaker farmers may
have tended to disappear ; and, as it continued, those already
engaged in farming may have held on for the chance of improve-
ment, while the young have sought other occupations in pre-
ference. Or it may be that their relatives have been unable to
support them at home, and in these, as in other figures of the
census, we may note traces of an anxiety to diminish expense,
and to cut down the unpaid as well as the paid labour bill. Or
it may be that the figures reflect a change in the direction of
substituting smaller for larger holdings ; and the withdrawal of
the older farmers, and the tendency caused by depression in any
industry to produce a diminution of the numbers engaged in it,
may have been counteracted by some such process, while it is
natural that these smaller farmers should seek to economise in
their household expenses and to limit the number of workers
about the farm who are perhaps not always fully employed.
Or, lastly, the explanation suggested in the case of the farm
bailiffs may hold so far as regards the number of farmers, who
may have taken the place of the bailiffs of the previous decade.
But it is rash to assert that any one of these explanations is
adequate or certain, and it seems more probable that the solution
is to be found in the mingled operation of a number of such
causes.
IY. TnE Diminution in the Number of Agricultural
Labourers.
The returns of the agricultural labourers are, the Registrar-
General states, “ never very trustworthy. There is no doubt
that a considerable number of agricultural labourers return
themselves simply as ‘ labourers,’ without anything to indicate
that they are employed on farms, and these would be classified
as general labourers. Similarly, there is good reason to believe
that many agricultural carters and waggoners, owing to the
imperfect way in which they state their occupation, get trans-
ferred to the carters, carriers, and hauliers of general traffic.” It
is impossible to determine how far these errors compensate one
another ; and it may be the case that the spread of education and
of general intelligence between one census and another exercises
49
The Census o/1891 and Bural Depopulation.
an influence on correctness of description. But it is probably
safe to assume that the amount of error in tbe last and the present
census is not materially different, and that the figures, whatever
intrinsic error they contain, are reliable for purposes of com-
parison.
It is also possible, as the Registrar-General shows, to coun-
teract the causes of error to a certain extent by selecting for
special examination certain counties which are purely agricul-
tural, and where all the labour is, with exceptions which may be
neglected, of an agricultural character. Taking, for instance, as
examples of such counties, the East Riding of Yorkshire (exclud-
ing Hull), Lincolnshire, Norfolk (excluding Norwich), Suffolk,
Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Oxfordshire, Wilt-
shire, Dorsetshire, Devonshire (excluding Plymouth), Hereford-
shire, Brecknockshire, and Cardiganshire, the Registrar-General
finds that “ the total number of men and women returned in these
counties, either as agricultural or general labourers, together
with the shepherds, and the carters, carriers, and hauliers of all
kinds, amounted in 1881 to 380,161, while in 1891 it was only
354,972." The decline was therefore a “ fraction less than 7
per cent.”
The Registrar-General mentions three main causes to which
this decline appears to be due. The first is the attraction of
the towns, with the prospect of higher wages and the certainty
of a more varied life; the second is the natural effort of the
farmer to diminish his labour bill ; and the third and last is the
conversion of arable land into pasture. If we consult the Agri-
cultural Returns, this last influence would certainly seem to be a
vera causa) for in 1891 those returns showed a diminution of
1,074,077 acres of arable land in England and Wales as com-
pared with 1881, while the increase of pasture beyond this
difference, although reaching a total of some 552,234 acres,
seems to have been largely nominal rather than real.1 And
yet, in spite of the reality of the cause, it is not easy to trace
the precise connexion between it and its effect in the figures of
the census. Mr. Druce, in an article 2 in this Journal on the
census of 1881, failed to discover any definite relation between the
decrease of labourers and the substitution of permanent pasture
for arable land, although such a relation was discoverable between
1 A part may be “ traced to an amended classification of certain areas
reckoned for the first time as coming within the category of permanent
pasture rather than that of unenclosed mountain and heath land."
2 The Alteration in the Distribution of the Agricultural Population of
England and Wales between the Returns of the Census of 1871 and 1881, by
S. B. L. Druce. — Journal R.A.S.E., Second Series, Vol. XXI., 1885, pp. 96 et seg.
VOL. V. T. S. — 17 JE
50
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation.
this substitution and the decline in the number of farmers. On
the contrary, taking the six counties which showed the maximum
decrease, and the four which showed the minimum, he found
that in the two counties — Huntingdonshire and Buckinghamshire
— in which the percentage of decrease was greater than in the
rest, the percentage of the increase of permanent pasture was
less ; and that in Worcestershire, where the decrease was
smaller than in any county save two, the increase in permanent
pasture was also greater than in any county save two. So diffi-
cult is it to isolate causes and to trace their connexion with
their effects in the mass of figures recorded in a census. So
probable would it seem that a common impression may appear
not to be supported in any definite, unmistakable manner by the
returns of the Registrar-General.
Few opinions, for example, have been more confidently put
forward, or more generally accepted, than the assertion that it is
the very young and the very old who have been left behind
by the influx into the towns. But no such certain testimony
is borne by the census. As far as the aggregate of the male
agricultural labourers of England and YVales is concerned
there has been, so the Registrar-General states, “ a greater pro-
portional diminution at the advanced than at the earlier
ages.” In 1881 the proportion per 100,000 living of male
agricultural labourers between 15 and 20 was 20,513; in 1891
it was 21,031; between 20 and 25 the figures stood respec-
tively at 13,012 and 13,237 ; between 25 and 45 at 31,562
and 32,750 ; between 45 and 65 at 25,460 and 24,035 ; and for
65 and over at 9,453 and 8,947. It is true, however, that in the
towns, as compared with the country, there is a great excess of
persons from 15 to 45 years of age, and, except in the case of
children under 5, there is a deficiency at all the other age-
periods. No doubt this fact is explained, as the Registrar-
General says, by the influx of adults attracted by higher wages
and the other allurements of urban life ; and, as they themselves
are of reproductive ages, the large number of infants born
swells the proportion of the first age-period, though it must be
added that the notable decrease of the birth-rate, which has
been one of the most significant features of the last decennium,
and has disturbed many plausible predictions, has resulted in a
counterbalancing of the excess of births in the towns by their
greater infantile mortality.
It may be noted also as a curious fact, which has an inter-
esting bearing on the question of rural efflux and urban immi-
gration, that the proportion of females to males for all ages is
much higher in the towns than in the country. It is 109 to 100
51
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation.
in the former, but only 101 to 100 in the latter. Up to 10
years of age there is no difference ; from 10 to 15 the proportion
of females becomes much higher in the urban than in the rural
districts; between 15 and 20 it is 107 to 100 in the towns, and
only 87 to 100 in the country ; between 25 and 45 the migration
of males, setting in later than that of the other sex, reduces the
inequality very considerably ; but, 45 past, the disproportion
increases in the urban population until, in the last age-period —
that of 85 years and upwards — the towns have 99 per cent,
more women than men, while in the rural districts the dispro-
portion increases indeed, but not at so early an age or by such
rapid stages. In the last period it is only 41 per cent., as com-
pared with the urban 99. Of this difference the Registrar-
General furnishes two explanations. One is, that the conditions
of town life as contrasted with life in the country are more fatal
to men than to women of advanced age, and this explanation is
supported by actual statistics. The other is probable rather
than proven. It is that, as they grow old, men leave the towns
and retire into the country more generally than women. They
are probably incapacitated for their work at an earlier stage,
while women can pursue their lighter occupations for a longer
period of their working life. And so, alike at the beginning
and at the decline of life, the females come sooner and remain
longer in the towns, while the males leave the country later and
find their way back to it at an earlier age.
Among the remaining particulars of interest brought out by
the Occupations Returns are a decline in the number of corn-
millers from 23,462 in 1881 to 22,759 in 1891, and an increase
of gardeners of 20-9 per cent, in the same interval, and of wood-
men of 15-9 per cent.; while the Agricultural Returns exhibit
for the corresponding period an increase of some 65 per cent, in
the area used for market-gardens or nursery-grounds, and of
less than 10 per cent, in the acreage of woods and plantations.
V. Decrease in the Populations of certain Counties.
The returns are, as we have seen, defective. But they
suffice to establish certain broad conclusions. It is impossible to
ignore the general drift of the evidence that they furnish ; and the
conclusion to which they lead may be reached independently.
In the earlier portion of the census report we are informed that in
13 registration counties of England and Wales the population
declined between 1881 and 1891. The counties were, with few
exceptions, those which had also fallen off in numbers between
1871 and 1881. In the earlier period Flintshire, Merioneth-
52 The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation.
shire, and Anglesey, had increased, while in the later they had
diminished; but, on the other hand, Westmoreland, Cambridge-
shire, and Dorsetshire, which had declined between 1871 and
1881, exhibited some increase between 1881 and 1891. All
the counties were agricultural, and comprised eight in Wales,
those of Shropshire and Herefordshire on the Welsh border, to-
gether with Huntingdonshire, Rutlandshire and Cornwall. In
the last case, no doubt, the decline may be attributed largely to
the decay of the mining industry.
This actual decline of population in certain counties is one
piece of evidence pointing to rural efflux furnished by the
census. A second is to be found in a comparison of the urban
with the rural population. The population of all the “urban
districts,” so called, in 1891 amounted to 20,895,504 persons, as
compared with 8,107,021 in the “rural districts.” The propor-
tion of urban population had accordingly increased on this basis
from 212 to 100 in 1881 to 258 to 100 in 1891. The Registrar-
General, however, observes that this comparison is rendered
somewhat fallacious by changes of area in some urban districts,
and by the creation of others. Accordingly, adopting a fresh
mode of measurement, and regarding the areas as urban in
1881 which were so in 1891, and then comparing the growth of
population in the interval, he finds that the urban population so
distinguished had increased by 15 '4 per cent., while the remain-
ing or rural population had only grown by 3 per cent.
But, he proceeds to urge, even this mode of comparison is
hardly fair. Districts technically urban may be really rural in
character. The small towns in the rural districts belong to the
rural whole, although any line of distinction between them
and the really urban towns must be drawn with a somewhat
arbitrary hand. Two rough standards of measurement, how-
ever, may be employed. We may include in the rural divi-
sion all districts with populations below 10,000; or we may
draw the line lower and only include those with less than
5,000. Adopting the first standard, the urban population
amounted to 17,920,210 in 1891 as compared with 15,382,403
in 1881, and the rural population to 11,076,315 as compared
with 10,592,036. The one had grown by 16-54 per cent, and
the other by 4-57. Applying the other standard, the increase
in the former would be 16-05 per cent., and in the latter 3-29 ;
while an adherence to the strictly technical classification would
show an increase of the urban population of 15-4 per cent., and
of the rural population of 2 98.
The results of these different methods do not themselves
differ greatly ; and they all show that, tested in this way, there
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation. 53
has been no actual diminution of the rural population as a
whole, but a growth which is relatively less rapid. Viewing
the matter, then, in this comprehensive manner, it is erroneous
to speak of “ depopulation ” of the rural districts, although the
phenomenon may be found in certain districts. Proceeding by
one of the two rough standards of measurement indicated before,
and adding to the population of the rural sanitary districts,
first, that of urban districts of less than 10,000, we find that
twelve English and eight Welsh counties exhibit a decrease
between the two censuses of 1881 aud 1891. The eight Welsh
counties coincide with those enumerated before by the Registrar-
General (vide Table III., p. 56), and the largest decrease occurs
in the cases of Montgomeryshire, Cardiganshire, Radnorshire,
Flintshire, Merionethshire, and the border counties of Hereford-
shire and Shropshire. Of the other English counties, Hunting-
donshire and Rutlandshire are so small as to be by comparison
insignificant ; the loss in others, such as Norfolk and Suffolk,
has been vexy slight, amounting to less than 1 per cent., and the
only counties of importance whichj have sustained a notable
decrease ai'e Lincolnshire, the North and East Ridings of York-
shire, Cornwall, Bedfordshire, and Wiltshire.
It will be interesting to compai’e these l’esults with those
obtained by Dr. Longstaff in a paper read before the Royal Sta-
tistical Society in June last.1 Dr. Longstaff adopted a different
mode of distinguishing the rural population. He urged that
counties were delusive as standards of measixrement. The
growth of the town of Cambridge, for example, concealed the
depopulation of the rural parts of the county, and the case was
similar with Poole in Dorsetshire, with Yarmouth and Norwich
in Norfolk, and with New Swindon and Salisbury in Wiltshire.
The method, accordingly, which he adopted was to take
all the registration districts in each registration county which
had exhibited a decrease of population in either of the last two
deceixnia, to exclude all the districts comprising towns of con-
siderable size, and, lumping the population of the districts so
selected for each county, to regard this as its rural population.
While, therefore, the Registrar-General, in the figures we have
already cited, proceeds by the methed of inclusion, Dr. Longstaff
has followed a method of exclusion. The net loss of rural popu-
lation thus ascei’tained was, he shows, pi’actically the same, both
absolutely and relatively, between the census of 1871 and that of
1881, and between this and that of 1891. It amounted to some
160,000 persons, or about 3 per cent.
* Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. LVI. Part III. p. 380.
54 The Census o/1891 and Rural Depopulation.
It will be remembered that the Registrar-General’s calcula-
tions show no actual diminution, but only a less rapid growth,
of the rural population as a whole, while the Occupations
Returns exhibit a decrease in the total of the agricultural class
between 1881 and 1891 amounting to less than 50,000 persons.
This decline corresponds closely with Dr. Longstaff’s 3 per
cent. But it is to be noted that the decrease of certain sub-
divisions of the order represents a much higher percentage,
ranging from 7 in the case of labourers in certain selected
agricultural counties to 10 in that of agricultural labourers as
an aggregate and in that of male relatives of farmers. We
should naturally expect that, with a smaller aggregate on which
to measure the percentage, the percentage itself would increase.
But the increase undoubtedly points, by a posteriori evidence, to
a conclusion to which a priori reasoning would naturally con-
duct, and emphasises the connection of the rural efflux with
depression in agricultural industry.
In the first of the two decades with which he has dealt, Dr.
Longstaff finds that the loss was greatest in the South-West,
South Midland, and Eastern divisions, and in the latter in Wales
and Yorkshire. Between 1871 and 1881 the rural depopulation
in the South-West, South Midland, and Eastern registration
divisions amounted to eight-tenths of the whole ; between 1881
and 1891 it was less than three-tenths. On the other hand, in
the former decade Yorkshire exhibited a trifling diminution and
Wales an actual increase, while in the latter period Wales came
first and Yorkshire third in the list. Taking the whole twenty
years, eleven counties — those of Durham, Cardigan, Westmore-
land, Montgomery, Huntingdon, Radnor, Leicester, Cumber-
land, Cornwall, Monmouth, and Devon — have lost from a sixth
to a tenth of their rural population, and in twenty-three other
counties the loss has varied between a twelfth and a twentieth.
Dr. Longstaff, like Mr. Druce in the article in this Journal to
which we have before referred, endeavours to ascertain the con-
nexion of this rural depopulation with arable and pastoral farming
respectively. He carries back his analysis to the beginning of the
century in the case of three typical corn-growing counties — those
of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex — and of four typical grazing coun-
ties in the South-West — those of Dorset, Devon, Wilts, and Somer-
set. Of the fifty-six registration districts in the former group, two
declined in the first decennium, all increased in the second, third,
and fourth, and with 1841 to 1851 we find a diminution setting
in, which has steadily continued. Between 1841 and 1851 four
districts decreased ; between 1851 and 1861 thirty-eight; between
1861 and 1871 thirty-two; between 1871 and 1881 thirty-
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation. 55
three; and between 1881 and 1891 thirty. In forty years, 13
per cent, of the population has been lost. In the case of the
grazing counties in the South-West the “ exodus began ten
years earlier ” and “ more gradually.” “ In the two decades
1851-61 and 1861-71 the numbers were curiously alike in the
two groups of districts chosen ; but during the last twenty years
the volume of the migration has been about twice as great in
the West as in the East.”
In Tables III. and IV. we have combined the results of the
Registrar-General and of Dr. Longstaff. In Table III. we have
shown in the first column (A) those registration counties which
exhibited an actual decrease of population in the last census,
and we have arranged them in the order of magnitude of their
decrease. In the next three columns we have shown the per-
centage of decrease of these counties according to each of the
three methods followed by the Registrar-General, first (B) taking
the rural districts by themselves, then (C) adding to them the
towns under 5,000 inhabitants, and then (D) those under 10,000;
and we have added to the counties enumerated in the first column
those mentioned by the Registrar-General under the new heading.
In another column (E) we have given the percentages of de-
crease for all these counties calculated according to Dr. Longstaff ’s
method of arriving at the rural population. To these figures we
have added three additional columns, showing, (a), the decrease
of population between the census of 1871 and that of 1881 in
the case of the registration counties, calculated according to the
simple enumeration of the census ; (/ 3 ), the same decrease
calculated according to Dr. Longstaff’s method ; and (7), Dr.
Longstaff’s results for the whole twenty years from 1871 to 1891.
In Table IV. we have shown the order in which the counties
distinguished 1 by the Registrar- General as those which have
exhibited an important decrease stand in the different columns.
In Table V. we have given the recorded figures of the farmers,
farm bailiffs, labourers, and shepherds, for the seven English
counties so distinguished.
From Tables III. and IY. it will be seen that the claims of
the Welsh counties of Montgomeryshire, Cardiganshire, Radnor-
shire, and Flintshire, to the first places in the list for the last
decade are undisputed. But there are certain differences
between the results of the several methods which will reward
attention. The increase in the Registrar-General’s list of
counties which have diminished in population, from thirteen in
1 We have omitted Cornwall for the reasons which were previously stated.
Flintshire, Cardiganshire, and Montgomeryshire, also seem to have been
affected by a considerable decline of lead miners.
56
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation,
column A to twenty-six in column B of Table III., illustrates
the manner in which the growth of the towns may disguise the
depopulation of the country. Even the inclusion of urban dis-
tricts with less than 5,000 inhabitants serves to remove Oxford-
shire and Somersetshire from the list, and the inclusion of those
with less than 10,000 causes the additional removal of Cam-
bridgeshire, Devonshire, Gloucestershire, and Carnarvonshire.
Table III. — Percentages of Decrease of Population in certain
Counties in the last two Censuses.
County
A
B
O
Montgomeryshire . .
11-68
12-77
12-49
Cardiganshire . . .
9-20
10-12
9-53
Radnorshire . . .
7-68
1012
7-58
Flintshire ....
7-01
10-30
8-26
Huntingdonshire . .
5-51
814
5-51
Merionethshire . . .
6-15
8-63
6-88
Shropshire ....
4-18
3-94
4-08
Herefordshire . .
393
6-48
512
Rutlandshire . . .
384
3-84
3-84
Anglesey .....
2-57
414
3-66
Cornwall
2-43
4-45
4-29
Brecknockshire . .
2-34
5-26
513
Pembrokeshire . .
200
4-27
3-61
Oxfordshire ....
.
1-24
+ 0-80
Bedfordshire . . .
— i
3-59
3-37
Cambridgeshire . .
—
0-17
030
Suffolk
—
2-39
1-17
Norfolk
—
113
0-65
Wiltshire
2-70
261
Devonshire ....
—
1-47
0-87
Somersetshire . . .
—
0-50
+ 0-40
Gloucestershire . .
—
1-21
1-41
Lincolnshire . . .
534
4-38
Yorkshire, E. Riding
3-40
303
„ N. Riding
—
7-65
5-85
Carnarvonshire . .
—
5-10
0-02
D
E
a
d
y
11-68
11-7
2-81
2-8
14-2
9-20
11-7
2-79
3-7
14-9
7-58
73
6-23
6-2
133
701
70
+
6-19
+ 6-2
22
5-51
5-5
8-29
83
13 3
5-81
6-2
+
1101
+ 110
+ 5 2
439
3-8
0-48
19
6-5
6-18
3-9
315
32
70
3-84
3-8
1-62
16
6 4
2-57
2-6
+
004
___
2-6
3-76
2-4
8-92
8-9
111
3-44
2-4
4-90
4 9
7 1
3-59
4-9
023
27
7-5
+ 0-80
1-9
+
1-29
41
67
2-55
3-0
+
1-78
5-0
7-8
+ 215
+ 11
0-48
53
42
0-56
20
+
1-82
60
7-0
0-68
20
+
1-64
15
35
2-14
3-4
+
102
51
83
+ 2-45
3-4
+
038
6-7
100
+ 1-85
13
+
1-68
4-4
64
+ 0-25
3-4
+
7-42
3-7
7-0
4-29
5-8
+
817
21
7-9
2-41
50
+ 18-20
1-4
6-4
4-62
6-9
+ 17-74
14
8-2
+ 1-44
4-2
+ 1114
+ 90
+ 4-4
A Percentage
D =
K=
a=
0 =
»
of decrease in registration counties, 1881-91.
„ of rural districts by themselves in certain counties, 1881-91.
„ of rural districts by themselves in certain counties, 1881-91, adding
urban districts of uuder 5,000.
„ of rural districts by themselves in certain counties, 1881-91, adding
urban districts of under 10,000.
„ of certain rural districts calculated according to Dr. Longstafb
„ in registration counties, 1871-81.
„ of rural districts on Dr. Longstaff's method, 1871-81.
» n i> »> » 1871-91.
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation. 57
Table IV. — Position of certain Counties in the Columns of Table III.
County
A
B
O
D
E
/Montgomeryshire .
1
1
1
1
1
Cardiganshire
2
3
2
2
2
Radnorshire .
3
4
4
3
3
Welsh Counties . ■<
Flintshire
Merionethshire
4
6
2
6
3
6
4
5
4
8
Pembrokeshire
13
13
15
13
10
Brecknockshire
12
10
8
14
21
'-Anglesey .
10
14
14
15
19
On the Border . j
Herefordshire
Shropshire .
8
7
8
16
9
12
7
9
12
13
/
Lincolnshire .
9
10
10
6
York, North Riding
—
7
6
8
5
English Counties 4
York, East Riding .
—
18
17
17
9
Bedfordshire .
—
17
16
16
18
l
Wiltshire
—
19
18
18
15
Table V. — Numbers of Farmers, Bailiffs, and Labourers in certain
English Counties at the three last Censuses.
Farmers .
Farm bailiffs .
Agricultural \
labourers and
shepherds , J
Herefordshire
1871 1881 1891
3,496
271
12,772
3,288
304
11,805
3,346
263
9,708
Shropshire
1871 1881 1891
6,102
449
21,428
5,566
458
19,173
5,829
385
17,229
Liucolushire
1871 1881 1891
11,788
1,215
48,676
10,048
1,161
44,640
9,939
1,441
42,550
York (North Riding)
York (East Riding)
1871
1881
1891
1871
1881
1891
Farmers
Farm bailiffs ....
Agricultural labourers and 1
shepherds . , . J
7,552
320
16,640
6,790
483
15,924
6,913
347
13,636
4,273
384
17,520
3,649
585
16,299
3,593
431
14,520
Bedfordshire
Wiltshire
1871
1881
1891
1871
1881
1891
Farmers .....
Farm bailiffs ....
Agricultural labourers aud )
shepherds . . . (
1,527
162
16,807
1,301
177
15,146
1,270
161
13,761
3,252
270
29,636
3,011
378
24,772
3,275
326
20,893
The figures for 1871 and 1881 are taken from Mr. Druee’s paper (see p. 113, &c.) contributed (see
footnote, p. 49) to a former volume of this Journal.
58 The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation.
It is true that, according to Dr. Longstaft’s method, the first
of these four counties would fall out for the period from 1881
to 1891, although it would occupy a high place on the list for
the previous decade and for the whole period of twenty years.
But counties which in this list show as great a decrease as 8*3
per cent, in the case of Durham ; of 7 ’3 in that of Leicester-
shire ; of 7*1 in that of Cumberland ; of 6'7 in that of Mon-
mouthshire ; of 5-7 in that of Westmoreland ; of 5*3 in that of
Northumberland ; of 5T in that of Northamptonshire ; of 5-0 in
that of Denbighshire ; of 4'9 in that of Lancashire ; of 4‘8 in that
of the West Riding of Yorkshire; and of 1*0 in that of Essex,
for the last decade, are entirely excluded from the list of the
Registrar-General. A county, again, like the East Riding of
Yorkshire occupies a high place with Dr. LongstafF, but a low
position with the Registrar-General, and does not appear at all in
column A. Nor do the counties of Lincolnshire, Bedfordshire,
Wiltshire, and the North Riding of Yorkshire, although the first
and last are high up in all the other columns.
VI. Concluding Remarks.
For these, as for other reasons, the connexion of the figures
with agricultural changes is not difficult to establish. As we
proceed from the counties as a whole to distinguish the more
rural districts, and as the methods we adopt are more carefully
calculated to eliminate the urban element, the number of
counties which exhibit a decrease of population grows. In
column A there are only thirteen ; in column B the number
is increased to twenty-six ; while Dr. Longstaff’s tables show
as many as forty-seven counties for the last decade, forty-four
for the ten years from 1871 to 1881, and forty-seven for the
whole twenty years.
Of the counties, again, in Table IV., those of the East
Riding of Yorkshire, of Lincolnshire, Bedfordshire, Wiltshire,
Herefordshire, Brecknockshire, and Cardiganshire, are specially
distinguished, as we have seen, by the Registrar-General as
counties in which there are no great manufactures and all the
labour is of an agricultural character ; and, of the other counties
so distinguished, those of Norfolk, Suffolk, Hertfordshire, Oxford-
shire, Dorsetshire, and Devonshire, appear in the columns of
Dr. Longstaff’s tables for both decades; and Cambridgeshire,
which is the only county remaining, appears in the tables for
1871 to 1881.
All the counties, again, in Table IV., with the exception
of Flintshire, Cornwall, and the North and East Ridings of York-
The Census of 1891 and Rural Depopulation. 59
shire, are specially mentioned by the Registrar-General as con-
taining a population of which at least 14 per cent, belonged
to the agricultural order; and in Montgomeryshire, which on
any method maintains an unenviable primacy, the proportion
amounted to 21*1 percent., while in Herefordshire and Lincoln-
shire, both of which are high in the list of English counties
exhibiting a decrease, the proportion was over 18 per cent.
Radnorshire, in which the proportion was the highest, amounting
to 25'5 per cent., is third in order of decrease on columns A, I),
and E, and fourth on columns B and C. Here, again, all the
counties mentioned, with the exception of Cambridgeshire and
Buckinghamshire, appear in Dr. Longstaff’s list for the last ten
years.
The figures, lastly, in Table V. exhibit a diminution for
the seven English counties mentioned in Table IV. in the
numbers of agricultural labourers during the last twenty years
which fully corresponds with that of the aggregate class for the
whole of the country, and exceeds the percentage given for
1881-1891 by the Registrar-General for those purely agri-
cultural counties to which we have just referred as specially
distinguished in his report.
It is impossible to resist the general tendency of this
evidence ; and from all the indications we have now passed in
review we may safely draw the conclusion that the Census
of 1891 bears indisputable testimony to the reality of rural
depopulation in certain districts, although we must be careful
not to exaggerate its dimensions, and it does not appear to
have increased appreciably during the last decade. Dr. Long-
staff points out very aptly, at the conclusion of his investi-
gations into England and Wales, that Wiltshire has still a
density of population “equal to that of New Jersey” in
America, “far greater than that of Connecticut, New York,
or Pennsylvania, and double that of Ohio or Delaware.” But,
on the other hand, while the figures which Mr. Cannan has
extracted on the decline of urban immigration are, as we have
seen, by no means incompatible with rural efflux, the diminution
in the Occupations Returns of the male relatives of farmers and
of the agricultural labourers combines with the actual decrease
of certain rural districts to point to one conclusion, and to
confirm a general impression. Whether the efflux can be
arrested by wise legislation or prudent statesmanship, whether
it has yet attained sufficient dimensions to call for any com-
prehensive or urgent treatment of this character, are questions
which may be hotly argued, and will be answered differently
60 The Census o/1891 and Rural Depopulation.
according to the disposition and temperament of the individual ;
but of the reality and continuing nature of the movement itself
no candid and careful student of the Census Returns can enter-
tain any doubt.
L. L. Price.
Oriel College, Oxford.
WILD BIRDS USEFUL AND INJURIOUS.
II. Warblers, Tits, Pipits, Buntings, and Finches.
Warblers.
The Warblers include several species of birds, more or less
generally known, but not always discriminated from each other.
They come to us in the spring of the year from the South of
Europe and Africa (the males usually arriving some days before
the females), and return to a milder climate for the winter.
The Whitethroat, Peggy-white throat, or Nettle-creeper
Fig. 1.— Whitethroat, Sylvia rufa.
(Sylvia rufa), is perhaps the best-known and most widely distri-
buted of the warblers. It is (fig. 1) a soberly clad bird, the head
and neck being smoke-grey, the back reddish-brown, the quill
feathers greyish-brown, the tail feathers brown with the ex-
ception of the three outer pairs, which are marked with white,
and the underparts brownish-white. The whole length is five
inches and a half. The whitethroat arrives in this country
about the third week in April, and its vigorous song, often
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
61
uttered on the wing during a sprightly and characteristic flight,
soon makes it conspicuous. The nest, a slight structure, formed
of bents with a lining of fine grasses or horsehair, is usually
placed within two or three feet of the ground amongst brambles,
nettles, or other tangled vegetation, and contains from four to
six eggs, yellowish or greenish- white in ground colour, speckled
with grey, light brown, and olive-green. The markings often
form a zone round the larger end, and the eggs vary considerably,
though there is not much difficulty in identifying them. It
is pleasant to watch the fussy anxiety of the old bird, as it
utters its scolding note when it thinks its offspring are in
danger.
The whitethroat feeds largely on insects, particularly cater-
pillars, which it picks off the hedgerows, or collects in the
woods which it frequents, and in this way renders good service.
It also visits gardens for the sake of the ripe fruit, currants and
raspberries presenting especial attractions. The latter it devours
piecemeal, picking off the divisions of the fruit separately.
Green peas are also laid under contribution, and the whitethroat,
notwithstanding its slender bill, is able to open the pods for
itself. In recompense, however, for this attack on garden
produce it eats a quantity of destructive caterpillars, aphides,
and other garden pests. A closely allied but less abundant
species, the Lesser Whitethroat (Sylvia cnrruca), which may
be recognised by the dark patch on the side of the head, so
nearly resembles the whitethroat in the nature of its food that
it needs no further notice here.
The Blackcap ( Sylvia air leap ilia), another summer visitor, is
larger than the whitethroat, the males being about five inches
and three quarters in length, and the females half an inch
longer. It may be recognised (fig. 2) by the dark cap, which
relieves its grey plumage, and which in the male is jet black
and in the female reddish-brown. This species is often con-
founded with the tits, to some of which the same name is
applied. It is, however, a very different bird, and its actions
bear no resemblance to the comical energy of the more sprightly
titmice. Though essentially a summer visitor, the majority
leaving this country in September, it has been observed on
several occasions in winter. It is a rather shy bird, and usually
shuns observation, but when there are young birds in the
slightly-made nest the parents come close to any intruder and
hop about in a peculiar shuffling manner. As is the case with
many species, the male bird shares the task of incubation, his
jet cap rendering this fact easy of observation.
Its food consists of spiders, aphides, and many other insects,
62
Wild Birds Usefid and Injurious.
Bometimes captured on the wing, and of wild fruits, including
blackberries and the berries of the ivy, privet, and elder. It is
also devoted to cultivated fruit, attacking currants, strawberries,
raspberries and cherries, whilst, like the whitethroat, it opens
pea-pods. Its visits to the garden, therefore, cannot be considered
altogether desirable.
* The Garden Warbler ( Sylvia salicaria ) in size, food and habits
closely resembles the blackcap, but the pale brown upper parts
are not relieved by a dark cap. Its food is, in fact, practically
Fig. 2. — Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla.'
identical with that of the bird last described, and consists of
insects, wild berries, and fruit. It is said to show a marked
partiality for the destructive caterpillars of the white cabbage
butterfly. Both these warblers are comparatively rare, so that
any damage they may do is not likely to be serious, and if it
were not for the fact that they frequently build their nests in
thick shrubs or tangled vegetation in gardens, and that they
make themselves conspicuous when the fruit is ripe, they
would escape the notice of most people. Their insect-eating
propensity and vocal power, if insufficient to atone for the loss of
fruit for which they are responsible, at least render the debt
against them very slight.
1 Figs. 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 are from Yarrell’s British Birds (Gurney &
Jackson).
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
63
Three smaller warblers deserve a passing notice — namely, the
Wood-wren or Wood-warbler ( Phylloscopus sibilatrix ), the Willow-
wren or Willow-warbler (P. trochilus ), and the Chiffchaff (P.
collybita). They closely resemble each other in plumage and
size, though the wood-wren is the largest of the three, measuring
five inches and a quarter in length, and the chiffchaff is the
least, measuring only four and three-quarter inches. So great
is their resemblance to each other that good observers, who
have acquired their knowledge of Nature by outdoor study un-
aided by books, though perfectly familiar with the distinctive
notes of these three small warblers, often think that the various
sounds proceed from one species, to which they apply some
local name, such as that of yellow-wren, ground-wren, oven-
bird, or miller’s-thumb. The notes may perhaps be recognised
from the following descriptions. That of the wood-wren has
been rendered by Blyth : “ Twit, twit, twit, tit, tit, tit, ti-ti-ti-i-i-i,
beginning slow, but gradually becoming quicker and quicker,
until it dies away in a kind of trill,” accompanied by a peculiar
quivering of the wings. Of the willow-wren’s song Hewitson
says “ there is a simplicity and a sweet cadence about the note
of this species which never fails to excite within me feelings of
pleasure, which none but the lover of Nature can either appre-
ciate or understand, but which are to him amongst the chief
enjoyments of his life” — a passage the truth of which will be
admitted by any naturalist. The song cannot be further de-
scribed in print, but it is loud for the size of the bird, and in
the springtime, when several willow-wrens are singing within
hearing, the woods are delightfully enlivened by their strains.
The chiffchaff on its arrival contents itself with repeating
perseveringly the two syllables of its name from morning till
night, though after a while the monotony is somewhat varied by
a change which may be represented thus : “ cherry chiffchaff,
cherry cherry chiffchaff.”
The nests of the three species, constructed externally of hay,
dead leaves, and moss, are covered in or domed, with an entrance
at the side, and are placed on or very near the ground. Those
of the willow-warbler and chiffchaff are nearly always lined
with feathers, whilst the wood-wren is never known to employ
this material. As with most birds, freaks of fancy occasionally
occur in the choice of a nesting site, and both the willow-
wren and the chiffchaff have been known to build their nests
several feet from the ground. I knew, for instance, of a chiff-
chaff’s nest in a yew-tree, built near the extremity of a branch,
and more than six feet from the ground.
The food of these small warblers consists of insects in all
64
Wild Birds Useful amd Injurious.
stages, some of which they capture on the wing. In gardens
they may often be seen picking innumerable aphides from the
fruit trees, hopping about in a peculiarly gentle manner, and
examining the leaves with great assiduity. They also render
valuable protection to forest trees, for they feed largely on
destructive leaf-rolling caterpillars, including no doubt those of
the beautiful little green oak-moth, which at times is so abundant
that the oak-trees are absolutely stripped of their foliage by its
ravages. If these small warblers ever touch fruit, it is certainly
exceptional, and for practical purposes it is safe to say that
the benefit derived from their presence is not in the least
degree detracted from by any loss of garden produce.
The Wren.
The Wren ( Troglodytes pcvrvulus') is too well known to require
description, and with regard to its local names it need only be
said that by common consent some such prefix as “Jenny” or
“ Kitty ” is applied to this cheery little favourite. The upright
position (fig. 3) in which it elects to carry its tail gives it a very
Fra. 3. — Wren, Troglodytes parvulut.
pert appearance, and at once distinguishes it from other small
birds. Its lively song is an extraordinary production for the
size of the bird, and is uttered during the greater part of the
year — even in hard frost. In such weather the wren endeavours
to keep itself warm at night by roosting in company with
65
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
several others of its own species in some hole in a thatched
roof or other snug retreat.
Its domed nest is skilfully constructed, often carefully con-
cealed, but at times conspicuous enough. It is placed in all
manner of situations. I once found one in a swallow’s nest ; the
green mossy nest of the wren on its foundation of mud, with the
owner’s head peering out of the orifice, made a very pretty
picture. The well-known habit which the wren displays of
building nests without any apparent intention of devoting them
to the reception of its eggs need only be alluded to, as at pre-
sent it cannot be satisfactorily explained. Many theories
have been advanced to solve the difficulty, as, for instance, that
the extra nests are built by the male bird for his own accom-
modation, that they are designed for winter retreats, or that they
have been deserted before completion owing to human inter-
ference. In connexion, however, with this latter point, it may
be stated that the wren is by no means so jealous of interference
as is usually supposed, provided that the nest is treated with due
respect and carefully handled.
Its food consists of various insects, including aphides, and
of small seeds, for which it may be seen hunting along the sides
of ditches aud the bottoms of hedges. In the nesting season it
renders good service by feeding its numerous family on green
caterpillars from fruit trees, and on other garden pests, and it
need scarcely be said that it is entirely harmless.
Tits.
Though detested by gardeners, there can be no doubt that
the tits are amongst the most useful of our small birds. There
are five comparatively common species.
The Blue Tit (Parus cceruleus ), otherwise known as the Nun.
Bluecap, Pick-cheese, or Billy Biter, is pre-eminently the
tomtit, and possesses (fig. 4) the characteristics of the race in a
marked degree. Perhaps no bird endears itself more to the
lover of Nature than this cheery little specimen of feathered
life. Its bright blue cap, yellowish-green back, blue wings and
tail, in strong contrast with its sulphur-yellow breast, form a
very pleasing picture, and its ceaseless activity, loquacious
cheeriness, and enterprising disposition are a never-failing
source of amusement. It may, moreover, be easily studied at
close quarters, for in the winter it will quickly discover suet
suspended by a piece of string in a walnut-shell or other recep-
tacle, and will constantly and fearlessly visit it, even when close
to the window of an occupied room. Other species of tits take
VOL. V. T. S. — 17 F
66
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
tlieir share of this meal, and even the tiny golden-crested -wren
occasionally puts in an appearance. When the suet is sus-
pended in the manner indicated, other birds cannot conveniently
get at it, for they are not active enough to cling to the swinging
morsel, though I have seen a robin fly up and peck pieces of the
suet out of the shell whilst hovering momentarily before it.
Cocoanuts and bones are also accounted acceptable dainties by
the tits.
Though in winter the blue tit has sufficient enterprise to
make use of animal food as just described, and will then
even fly away with a few grains of maize thrown down for
Fia. 4.— Blue Tit, Purus cocruleus.
poultry, and though in the summer it will pick at apples, pears,
and cherries, it supports itself throughout the year almost
entirely on insects in their various stages. These it in-
cessantly hunts for under the eaves of buildings, on palings,
amongst the foliage of trees and in the crevices of their bark,
and in any other place likely to harbour insect life, displaying
extraordinary gymnastic powers during its search. Countless
small beetles, flies, moths, and the eggs, grubs and chrysalids of
insects of all sorts and descriptions are brought to light and
devoured by the energetic and persevering tomtits. Some idea
of the value of their services may be gained from the fact that
amongst the injurious insects which form so large a proportion
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
67
bf their food are numbered aphides, the destructive caterpillars
of the gooseberry-moth, the grubs of wood-boring beetles,
the maggots in the round galls on oaks, and apparently the
caterpillars of the little green oak-moth, the ravages of which
have already been alluded to. In winter the blue tit has been
known to visit sheds in which turnips are stored, for the purpose
of extracting the grubs from the galls so commonly seen on the
roots.
Whilst searching for its insect food it sometimes appears
exceedingly and wantonly mischievous. It may be seen tearing
the buds or blossoms of fruit trees to pieces in a reckless manner
and most capriciously, for after a cursory survey it will leave
one tree and then subject to a prolonged investigation another
to all appearance exactly similar. There is, however, method
enough in this procedure, for it is not the buds or blossoms
themselves that are so eagerly sought for, but the eggs or grubs
of insects with which they are so often infested. From their
minute size these pests escape human observation, but the keen
vision of the tit enables it to detect them. It is scarcely
necessary to add that the insects, if unmolested, would not only
destroy the buds and blossoms, but would produce a countless
progeny as rapacious as themselves. I witnessed not long ago
a good instance of this apparently destructive propensity.
Some blue tits were busily engaged in a willow, stripping the
catkins from the twigs, and showering them down on to the
road, chuckling to themselves at intervals with evident delight.
The whole performance looked as if it were a piece of exuberant
mischief, but on examining some of the catkins scattered on the
road I noticed dark-brown channels in their centres, and on
gathering further specimens from the willow the secret of the
tits’ satisfaction was revealed. For in many of them a little
white grub was ensconced, eating out the core of the catkin.
It was impossible to resist the idea that chuckles of exceptional
vivacity heralded the discovery of grubs of more than ordinary
dimensions.
A fancy for bees occasionally brings the bluecap into dis-
repute with the bee-keeper, for, especially in the winter and
spring, the bird will alight at the mouth of the hive and by
tapping on the board entice the inmates to venture outside. It
then carries them away, one at a time, to be devoured at leisure.
Another instance of the intelligent enterprise which it displays
in its search for food is its habit of examining street-lamps, for
in common with entomologists it is well aware how attractive
the light is to insects. In noticing this habit, the Rev. H. A.
Macpherson says, ‘ I spied a blue titmouse alight on a lamp-
f 2
\mL .
68
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
post, and proceed to scrutinise its four sides. Before the bird
crossed the road to try another post, I saw him deliberately
squint through the round hole left for the gas-burner, in order
to assure himself that no insects were left lurking in the in-
terior.” The benefit conferred by this and other species of tits
is immense, and any mischief they may do is comparatively
insignificant.
The nest of the blue tit, chiefly composed of moss and
feathers, is hidden in some hole in a wall or tree, occasionally
close to the ground, or in the deserted nest of another bird, in
a pump, letter-box, lamp-post, or other convenient receptacle.
When the nest is inspected, the parent bird does not evince
any inclination to leave her treasure, but, on the contrary, puffs
out her feathers, and, hissing like a snake, pecks most valiantly
at the intruding finger.
The Great Tit (Paras major ), often called the Ox-eye, Black-
cap, or Saw-sharpener (fig. 5), is a handsomely-marked bird,
nearly six inches in length. The top of the head is black, the
cheeks are white, the upper surface is chiefly greyish-blue, and
the under parts yellow, with a conspicuous black band running
centrally from the chin to the tail. Its notes are varied and
defy description, except that certain of them resemble the sound
made in sharpening a saw, and hence one of the local names
assigned to this species. The site selected for the nest is most
commonly a hole in a wall or decaying tree, but, as in the case
of the blue tit, many other situations are occasionally chosen ;
thus I have known the burrow of a sand-martin tenanted by a
pair of great tits.
The food of the great tit is somewhat varied, but consists
chiefly of insects, which it obtains much after the manner of the
blue tit. Like that species, it occasionally robs bee-keepers of
the inmates of their hives. It has also been known to pull
straws out of thatch for the purpose of getting at lurking
insects, and Gilbert White watched one occupied in this manner,
to his “no small delight and admiration,” though whether the
owner of the thatch equally appreciated the little bird’s intelli-
gence is not recorded. Insects, however, do not constitute the
whole of its diet, for yew berries, the kernels of beechmast and
hazel nuts, and other vegetable food come under its notice. It
has even been known to kill small birds, though it is usually in
captivity that this propensity is developed.
The Coal Tit ( Pants ater, fig. 6) is slightly smaller than the
blue tit, being about four inches and a quarter in length. Its
back is olive-grey, the wings dark-grey with two white lines
across them, the tail dark -grey, the breast greyish-white, and
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
69
the head glossy-black, with the exception of the cheeks and
nape of the neck, which are white. The double white bar on
the wings and the white nape serve to distinguish this species
from the marsh tit, with which it is frequently confounded.
Like the two species already described, the coal tit lives princi-
pally on insects, but in addition feeds on the seeds of the Scotch
fir and on small earthworms. It is, perhaps, more addicted to
Fig. 5.— Great Tit, Parus major.
searching for its food on the ground than the other tits. Its
nest, composed principally of moss, wool, and rabbit’s fur, is
usually hidden in some hole in a wall or rotten stump, or even
in the burrow of a mouse, rat, or mole, close to or beneath the
surface of the ground.
The Marsh Tit ( Parus palustris) is the most soberly clad of
the British tits. It is of the same size as the blue tit, and in
70
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
colour is brownish-grey above and greyish-white beneath,
relieved by a glossy black cap, but without the white nape which
characterises the coal tit. Its brisk and sprightly actions at
once proclaim it a tit, and, like its relatives, it spends most of
its time hunting for insects, though various seeds — including
those of the thistle, dog’s mercury, and honeysuckle — are also
acceptable. The white berries of the snowberry shrub in
gardens likewise offer attractions in the shape of the little
kidney-shaped seeds which they contain. A loud tapping may
Fig. 6.— Coal Tit, Parus aler.
often be heard in the woods, which on investigation proves to
be due to an energetic marsh tit engaged in cracking some hard
seed for the sake of the kernel. Whilst hunting for its insect
food it sometimes splits off flakes of the rough scaly bark of
the Scotch fir and similar trees. This habit is probably shared
by others of the family — in fact, the various species of tits are
so fond of hunting in company, and resemble each other so
nearly in the nature of their food, that they naturally acquire
similar methods of obtaining their prey.
A typical nest of this species, composed of moss, fur, and ft
Wild Birds Useful awl Injurious.
71
few feathers, was found hidden in the rotten branch of a willow, in
which the tits had made a convenient cavity with an entrance
only large enough to admit themselves. I watched one of the
old birds carrying away chips from the excavations, some of
which I afterwards found a few yards distant.
The Long-tailed Tit (Acredula caudata ), known in various
districts as the Oven-builder, Bottle-tit, Mumruffin, or Long-tailed
chitterty magpie, is distinguished alike by the enormous length
of the tail attached to its tiny body and by the extreme beauty of
the nest which it builds. This marvellous piece of work is oval
in shape, composed of moss, cobwebs, and wool, adorned with
lichens on the outside, whilst the interior, to which access is
gained by a single small hole at the side, is densely quilted with
feathers, of which there are literally thousands. A blackthorn-
bush is often the site selected, though furze, ornamental shrubs,
and similar situations attract the attention of the tiny builders.
The parent birds are very tame, and I once induced a pair to
make use of some fluffy shreds from the silk lining of my hat,
placed on the bushes close to a nest, in the construction of
which they persevered notwithstanding my immediate presence.
The food of the long-tailed tit consists almost entii’ely of
“ looper ” caterpillars, beetles, and other small insects, of which
it is able to obtain an abundant supply, even in winter,
Wagtails.
Graceful and buoyant in its actions, the Pied Wagtail ( Mola -
cilia lugubris ) attracts attention by running nimbly over the
lawn or by the side of some stream or pond, with its long tail in
constant motion. Its plumage is a pleasing mixture of black,
grey, and white, the proportion of these colours varying with
the season, and with the sex and age of the bird itself. The
whole length is seven inches, or rather more. In its choice of a
nesting-place it resembles the robin, though it is not such a neat
architect. The eggs, four to six in number, are white, abun-
dantly speckled with grey, and are similar in appearance to
those of one variety of the house-sparrow.
The pied wagtail feeds almost entirely on insects, which it
frequently obtains by following the plough, and it is delightful
to watch it running lightly across a lawn or roof, or picking up
aquatic insects by the water’s edge. No doubt small slugs,
snails, worms, and perhaps a few seeds, give variety to its diet,
whilst in captivity it has been known to catch and eat minnows.
It may often be seen on the seashore, attracted thither by the
punjerong sipall forms of life which swann on the tangled sea^
72
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
weed. In autumn these birds flock together, and perhaps a score
may be seen enlivening the scene at the same time ; and at dusk
the angler may notice small parties of them retiring to roost in
the bushes which fringe the stream. There is a closely allied
species, the White Wagtail ( Motacilla alba), but in appearance
and habits it is so like the commoner bird, with which it has been
known to interbreed, that it is only necessary to allude to it here.
The Yellow Wagtail (. Motacilla rail), so well known as a
summer visitor to our fields, where it often attracts attention by
following cattle for the sake of the insects they disturb, and the
Grey Wagtail ( Motacilla sulphur ea), with its sulphur-yellow
Fig. 7. — Tree Pipit, Anthus trivialis.
breast, the most graceful of a graceful race, which in the breed-
ing season is chiefly found by the side of rocky streams, also
devote their energies chiefly to the discovery of small snails, flies,
and other insect prey.
Pipits.
The pipits, though lacking the bright plumage and length
of tail which characterise the wagtails, nevertheless have many
points in common with them. The two well-known species, the
Tree Pipit ( Anthus trivialis , fig. 7) and the Meadow Pipit (Anthus
ptratensis), Moss-cheaper, Lingbird, or Teetick, are sufficiently
distinct in their habits, but from the similarity of their plumage
73
Wild Birds Useful cindj Injurious.
are almost invariably confounded together under the common
name of tit-lark or pipit-lark.
The food of both species consists principally of insects,
worms, small slugs, and snails, in pursuit of which the birds
may be seen running nimbly over the fields. Small seeds,
especially in winter, form a considerable portion of their susten-
ance, with occasionally a few grains of oats and barley.
The Skylark.
The Skylark or Laverock ( Alauda arvensis ), so well known
for its glorious and unmistakable song, is, happily, a common
bird in most parts of this country, and at times in winter visits
us in flocks of prodigious magnitude. The whole length of the
male is seven inches and a quarter, the female being rather
smaller. On close inspection the great length of the claw of
the hind toe is at once sufficient to identify this mottled brown
bird. Its song is often heard long before daybreak, and never
sounds more sweet and clear than when uttered by a chorus of
larks in the stillness of a summer night. This I once heard
to perfection on Salisbury Plain about two hours after midnight.
The nest and dusky eggs of the bird are by no means easily
detected, and the nestlings also closely assimilate with the
colour of their surroundings. Though some nests are destroyed
by horse-hoeing and other tillage operations, the greater
number are saved by the hollows scratched in the ground for
their reception. As is the case with peewits, the parent birds
make several of these hollows before finally adopting one
as suitable for their requirements. The nest, too, frequently
owes its immunity to its situation amongst growing crops,
where it is comparatively safe from interference.
The food of the skylark is composed to some extent of farm
produce, but for this it makes amends by eating many destruc-
tive insects, including the wireworm, as well as the seeds of
such pernicious weeds as charlock, knotgrass, and chickweed.
Seed corn, especially autumn-sown wheat, both before and after
sprouting, possesses great attractions for it, but it is only in
exceptional cases that the crop is materially injured in con-
sequence. It should be remembered that the wireworm is
known to enter into the skylark’s dietary and, when a crop fails
to braird thickly, it is advisable to make quite certain of the
cause before accusing the birds. The injury is most felt in the
case of a field sown out of season, or in an isolated position, so
that the attention of a large flock of birds is concentrated on
a small area. In hard weather the skylark feeds on the leaves
74
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
of swedes and rape, and on any grass or other vegetation appear-
ing above the snow. It is also accused of eating peas. Earth-
worms, berries, and small potatoes left in the ground are known
to form part of its diet, and a specimen shot on the seashore
was found to contain narrow succulent leaves, perhaps those of
the sea-pink. It is tempting to give a more lengthy account of
this delightful bird, but it must suffice to record the fact that it
has been known to carry its eggs or young from a place of
danger, that it sings from the ground or whilst perching on a
bush as well a3 on the wing, that many lose their lives by
flying against telegraph wires, and that hundreds of thousands
are captured for the table. It is some satisfaction to know that
this custom does not sensibly diminish their numbers.
Buntings.
The Yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella), Yellow Bunting,
Yowley, Yeldring, Yeorling, Yeldrock, Yite or Yoit, is one of
our most attractively coloured birds, and the canary-like breast
of the male perched on the top of the hedge and uttering at
intervals his plaintive droning song, confers a charm on many
a dusty road. When making the most of himself for the
edification of his more soberly clad mate, he looks extremely
handsome as he shuffles along the road with trailing wings and
crest erect. In length the yellowhammer measures seven inches.
The eggs, which may be found from April till August, or even
September, are curiously marked with irregular dark lines,
which suggest the idea that they have been put on with a pen
- — hence the name of “ writing-master,” applied to this species in
some districts.
The yellowhammer eats a considerable quantity of corn,
both in the fields and in farmyards, but it also destroys many
insects, which form the chief food of the young, as well as the
seeds of such weeds as plantain, dock, wild vetch, chickweed,
thistle, and knotgrass. Various green leaves, blackberries and
other wild fruit, are also included in its bill of fare, and in severe
weather it has even been known to attack the carcass of a horse.
The Bunting ( Emberiza miliaria), Bunting Lark, Common,
Grass, or Corn Bunting, may sometimes be detected amongst
the bundles of skylarks hung up in poulterers’ shops. In
colouring it resembles the lark, from which, however, it may be
distinguished by (fig. 8) its much stouter bill and by the
absence of the long claw on the hind toe. In length it rather
exceeds seven inches. It may be recognised by its clumsy
Shape, stupid monotonous song, and lazy flight, during which
75
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
the legs often hang down from the body — attributes which render
it comparatively uninteresting, except to ornithologists. The
food of the bunting resembles that of the yellowhammer, consist-
ing of corn and the seeds of grasses, knotgrass, sorrel, and
other weeds. It also destroys insects, especially when it has
young, and has been observed feeding on cockchafers. Though
called the “ corn bunting,” it is by no means confined to the
vicinity of cornfields.
The Sparrow.
The Sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) has received an overflowing
measure of abuse from farmers and gardeners, and, notwith-
standing all that has been urged in its favour by enthusiastic
Fig. 8. — Bunting, Emleriza miliaria.
advocates, there can be little doubt that it deserves a large
share of the vituperation bestowed upon it. The keynote to
the sparrow’s character is to be found in the delusion, under
which it labours, that corn-growing is carried on for its especial
benefit. This impression, coupled with a disposition sufficiently
enterprising to induce it to follow the Russian colonists to
Siberia, renders it little better than a parasite. Its robust form,
powerful bill, and strong constitution enable it to endure intense
cold, and to obtain food under most unpromising conditions,
whilst its wariness and cunning ensure its comparative safety
from the devices of its enemies.
Corn is undoubtedly the mainstay of the sparrow. This it
obtains in the fields at seed time, when sprouting, in the unripe
76
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
milky condition, and when fully matured. At this last-named
period a quantity of grain is wasted by being shaken out on to the
ground by the birds, in addition to the amount actually consumed.
At this time, too, numbers of sparrows which live for the
greater part of the year in towns are tempted to visit the fields,
their grimy appearance proclaiming their usual haunts. It
is no exaggeration to say that bushels of grain are pilfered from
a single field, especially from the vicinity of the hedgerows.
Not content with this allowance, the corn is further laid under
contribution, for it is taken from the stack at threshing-time,
from poultry and pheasant food, and lastly from the granaries
of our docks and large towns, where greedy sparrows may
sometimes be found ruptured or suffocated by the excess of food
with which they have gorged themselves. They are also con-
stantly on the watch for scattered, and therefore useless, grain
from the nose-bags of horses and amongst their droppings. It
is evident, then, that an enormous amount of corn is consumed
by the myriads of sparrows with which the country is infested.
In gardens the sparrow finds full scope for its destructive
propensities in devouring peas, of which it is very fond, as well
as a few gooseberries and cherries. In the most mischievous
way, too, it pulls to pieces the flowers of the crocus, dahlia,
primrose, polyanthus, hepatica, heartsease, wisteria, the shoots
of pinks and carnations, the pods of the laburnum, and the
blossom of fruit trees. It also does considerable damage to
beds of young radishes and lettuces, besides levying toll on the
grass seeds sown on lawns. Another source of annoyance is its
habit of destroying thatch by burrowing into it, and of building
its great untidy nest, constructed externally of straw, hay,
string, rags, paper, or other rubbish, snugly lined with feathers,
in spouts, ornamental trees, or other situations where it is any-
thing but desirable. In the nesting season, moreover, it exhibits
another evil habit, one that appears an unpardonable crime to
anyone even slightly interested in bird life. For, not content
with appropriating the nests of martins for roosting-places in
winter, it takes possession of them in summer, and, after stuff-
ing a handful of straw into them, proceeds to lay its eggs and
bring up its family. The robbery is of such frequent occur-
rence that pitiable accounts of the consequent diminution in
the number of martins have been written by many observers,
including Colonel Russell, who, with Mr. J. H. Gurney, has so
ably chronicled the misdeeds of the sparrow. This vile habit of
dispossessing the martins is much more developed in some
districts than in others, but there are few places where traces of
it cannot be observed. No effort should be spared to make it
77
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
clear to the sparrows that such conduct will entail speedy
retribution. There can be little doubt that these, noisy and
obtrusive birds diminish, directly or indirectly, the numbers of
many desirable species.1
On the other hand, it must be freely admitted that the
sparrow does a great deal of good. For instance, it destroys
numberless iusects, especially in the nesting season. The belief,
however, that its young are brought up entirely on an insect
dietary is certainly erroneous, for even when recently hatched
they are often supplied with milky grain. Amongst the pests
destroyed by the sparrow are wireworms, daddy longlegs,
weevils from peas and beans, aphides, caterpillars of various
kinds, chovies, house flies, “ blue-bottles,” “ black-beetles,” and
white butterflies. It is unnecessary to dilate upon the injury
caused by such insects as the wireworm, daddy longlegs, or
chovy. In some- districts chovies, otherwise known as bracken-
clocks or May-bugs, occasionally do immense damage, and at
such times sparrows have been seen with their mouths crammed
full of them. The quantity of weed seeds which the sparrow
eats must also be placed to its credit, for in this way it helps to
suppress such objectionable plants as charlock, corn bind-weed,
goosefoot, knotgrass, buttercup, dandelion, chickweed and dock.
It is evident, therefore, that there are two sides to the
“ sparrow question,” and many good naturalists have been
unable to decide which way the balance inclines. It can, how-
ever, scarcely be denied that sparrows are almost everywhere
too abundant, and, in all probability, if their numbers were
greatly reduced, other more attractive and less mischievous
birds would be equally efficacious in keeping the ravages of
insects within bounds.
As it is a prevalent belief that when a sparrow builds its
nest in a tree it thereby becomes a Tree Sparrow ( Passer
montanus ), it may be worth while to mention that the two
species are quite distinct. The tree sparrow differs from the
commoner bird in having a reddish-brown crown, two light bars
on the wings, the cheeks white but conspicuously spotted with
black, and a less robust shape. The sexes, too, closely resemble
each other in plumage, whereas in the house sparrow they differ
considerably.
1 An instance of a sparrow attacking a willow-wren, which it seized and
carried for some yards in the air, is recorded by Mr. J. Whitaker in the
Zoologist for 1885, p. 263. The sparrow was driven away before its victim was
much hurt.
7S Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
Finches.
The Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs ) is one of our commonest
birds, and has gained for itself many local names, including the
following : Spink, Skelly, Scobby, Skilfer, Shell-apple, Buck-
finch, Horsefinch, Beeckfinch, Copperfinch, Wliitefincb, Piedfinch,
and Wet-bird. The conspicuous white bars on the wings are
common to both sexes, but the male is much the handsomer of
the two, and is well worth a close examination. In length it
measures about six inches. The lichen-covered nest, carefully
lined with hair and feathers, is wonderfully compact and beau-
tiful, but, like the bird itself, is so common that it does not
meet with the admiration it deserves.
The chaffinch feeds largely on insects, and bi’ings up its
young almost entirely on an insect diet. It may be seen catch-
ing flies on the wing, or diligently searching the foliage of trees
for caterpillars and aphides, including the kind known as
American blight. It also eats beeckmast and quantities of
small seeds, amongst them those of many noxious weeds.
Some of the seeds are shelled before being eaten, but others
are swallowed without any such preparation. I have seen a
chaffinch pecking at the flowers of a species of Polygonum
or knot-grass before any seed was visible. The cones of the
Scotch fir and similar trees also furnish food for the chaffinch in
the shape of the seeds which they contain, and the membranous
scales may be seen fluttering down deprived of the seed by the
birds busily engaged in the branches overhead. The chaffinch
may likewise be observed with other small birds picking about
on the tangle of the seashore. Though it eats corn, it. is only
when its numbers are very great that it causes any serious loss
to the farmer by so doing, but at times it does considerable
damage to young turnips, radishes, and similar crops. In winter,
flocks composed exclusively of one sex may be observed, but
generally the sexes feed in company.
The Greenfinch, or Green Linnet ( Goccothraustes chloris, fig. 9),
is a stoutly built bird, rather more than six inches in length,
and the colour of its plumage is green of various shades, with
bright-yellow markings on the wings and tail. Young birds
are light-brown in colour, with darker streaks on the breast. It
is a noisy bird, and in the spring its notes, which differ widely
from each other, are uttered incessantly.
As might be inferred from the shape of its powerful bill,
the greenfinch feeds largely on seeds, including corn and turnip
seed. When too numerous both this species and the chaffinch
do considerable damage, and it may be necessaiy to keep them
79
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
within bounds. It is worthy of remark in passing that an undue
increase of small birds is the inevitable result of exterminating
such of their natural enemies as the sparrow-hawk, jay, and
magpie. The greenfinch co-operates with other small birds in
devouring the seeds of such weeds as the dandelion, corn mari-
gold, dock, plantain, goosegrass, corn crowfoot, charlock, knot-
grass, and wild vetch. Its young are chiefly fed on insects and
a few soft seeds, and immense quantities of moths, flies, cater-
pillars, and other pests are captured for their sustenance. The
seed of spent hops in a brewery yard sometimes attracts scores
of greenfinches.
Fig. 9. — Greenfinch, Coceolhraustes Moris.
The Hawfinch ( Coccothraustes vulgaris) may be at once re-
cognised by (fig. 10) its bulky appearance and powerful bill,
which in an exaggerated degree resembles that of the greenfinch.
It is considerably larger than the other finches, measuring fully
seven inches in length, notwithstanding its comparatively short
tail. Though still generally considered a rarity, it has greatly
increased of late years in the southern and midland counties of
England.
The hawfinch, in spite of its shy nature, has attracted atten-
80
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
tion and excited considerable disgust amongst gardeners by
visiting the rows of peas, which form an irresistible temptation.
The damage undoubtedly done in this way cannot be disregarded,
for the success of the pea crop is a matter of no small interest.
It is, however, a great pity to kill such an interesting bird, espe-
cially as the nature of its food throughout the rest of the year
renders it not only harmless but useful. It subsists principally
on the seeds of the hornbeam, pine, laurel, and hawthorn, with
the kernels of wild cherries and other stone fruits, which it is
enabled to extract by means of its powerful beak. In summer
it captures quantities of insects, principally for its young, and a
Fig. 10.— Hawfinch, Coccotliraustes vulgaris.
female hawfinch was once found to contain no less than forty
caterpillars.
The Bullfinch, Olph, or Hoop ( Pyrrhula europcea ), is charac-
terised by (fig. 11) a very short, strong bill, a blue-black cap,
and a pure white rump in both sexes. The male has in addition a
brilliant red breast. The total length is rather more than six
inches. The bullfinch would often escape observation if it were
not for its mournful call-note, or for a glimpse of its white
feathers as it flits through the coppice.
Most unfortunately this handsome finch is destructive in
gardens, for it strips the buds, especially the flower-buds, from
gooseberry-bushes, cherry, plum, and other fruit trees. It also
attacks the buds of the larch, beech, hawthorn, and similar
trees. On dissection the bird’s crop may be found full of buds,
whilst insects occur in very small numbers, though it has
been stated that the winter moth, a great pest in orchards,
forms part of the bullfinch’s diet. It is even doubtful whether
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
81
insects form the main support of the young, for they appear to
be fed on seeds softened by their parents. Many attempts have
been made to establish the bullfinch’s innocence, or to show that
it is only slightly injurious. It can, however, hardly be denied
that the damage done by it is often very serious, so much so
that many ornithologists have been compelled, to their sorrow,
to wage war on this otherwise delightful bird. The most that
can be said in its favour is that its ravages are confined to a short
period, whilst during the rest of the year it leads a useful life,
and that in spite of its visits the trees sometimes bear abundantly.
The bird, too, is frequently blamed for a deficiency in the crop
Fig. 11. — Bullfinch, Pyrrhulci Europcea.
due in reality to a late frost or an insect attack. A large portion
of its food consists of blackberries, hips and haws, rowan berries,
and the seeds of duckweed, thistle, groundsel, ragwort, plantain,
dock, and other objectionable weeds. It has also been observed
feeding on lilac seed. I have seen a small party of these birds
eagerly devouring the seeds of a large sow-thistle, showing con-
siderable activity in reaching the heads, and sometimes flutter-
ing over them the more readily to attain their object. On
another occasion a cock bullfinch showed to great advantage
against the snow-clad ground as it stripped the seed from a tall
dock.
VOL. v. t. s. — 17
G
82
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
The nest is neatly formed of small twigs with a lining of
fibrous roots, and is commonly built in thick woods protected by
game-preservers. This fact accounts for the comparative abund-
ance of the species in the face of continued persecution.
The Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans, fig. 12), Thistlefinch, Flinch,
Goldie, Grey-pate, Proud Tailor, King Harry Redcap, or Sheriff’s-
man, as it is variously styled, is most deservedly a general
favourite. In length it measures about five inches. Its crimson
mask set off by the white cheeks and black crown, the white
breast suffused with brown, and the brilliant yellow of the
wings, form a lovely picture in the sunshine. The actions
Fig. 12. — Goldfinch, Carduelis elegans.
and twittering notes of this bright finch are equally pleasing,
and it renders good service to agriculture. As ifc is entirely
harmless, it is evident that no bird has a greater claim to pro-
tection throughout the year. Yet such apathy prevails that
no steps are taken to prevent its extermination. Not only
are quantities of goldfinches illegally captured during the
close time, but after August 1 any birdcatcher may ply his
abominable trade with the full sanction of the law. Though
the lamentable decrease in the number of goldfinches, so
noticeable throughout the country, is partly due to the
enclosure of waste land and the comparative scarcity of thistles
and similar weeds, it is without doubt largely dependent on
Wild Birds Useful and. Injurious. [83
the depredations alluded to. There is no excuse for the present
state of the law, and it is to be hoped that some change will be
made in the right direction before it is too late. The fact that
the decrease is equally noticed in districts which birdcatchers do
not frequent is due to the migratory habits of the birds. They
continually rove over the country in small parties to search for
food, and in the autumn the majority journey across the sea to
the Continent. Our North-country birds, therefore, may easily
fall victims in the course of their wanderings to the wiles of
birdcatchers on the South Coast.
The favourite food of the goldfinch consists of the seeds of
various weeds, including the thistle, hardhead or horseknop,
dandelion, ragwort, groundsel, teasel, burdock, chickweed, and
plantain. Like the chaffinch, it picks out the small seeds from
fir cones. It also attacks the twigs of the lime and willow,
stripping off the outer bark for the sake of the inner tissue.
Caterpillars, beetles, and other insects are destroyed by it in
summer, and it is probable that its young are partly fed on
aphides.
The nest is a beautifully neat structure, resembling that of
the chaffinch, but rather smaller. It is frequently placed in
orchard trees and in sycamores, sometimes in a furze-bush,
hawthorn, ash, alder, horse-chestnut, or fir, and I once found
one in a cedar.
The Linnet (Linota cannabina ) has a variety of epithets pre-
fixed to its name, and is called the Grey, Brown, Red, Rose, or
Whin Linnet ; whilst the terms Redcap, Gorse-cock, Pay wee,
Whinfinch, Whingrey, Hemplin, Lintie, amongst many others,
are also applied to it. It measures about five inches and three-
quarters in length. Comparatively few people are aware how
handsome the male is when in full plumage, with his glossy red
crown, rose-coloured breast, and chestnut back. The female is
more soberly clad, and even the males are sometimes found
breeding without having attained their full beauty. The
plumage also varies with the season. The linnet is partial to
furze-covered commons, and, especially in summer, is a
characteristic feature of such localities.
When very abundant, linnets do considerable damage to
turnips, rape, and similar crops, by feeding on their seed, which
they attack when newly sown, and also, where the crop is
grown for seed, at harvest time. With this exception they are
harmless, for the amount of corn taken by them is compara-
tively trifling. The seeds of flax and hemp are eagerly sought
by the linnet, and it devours quantities of weed-seeds, including
those of the dock, sorrel, knotgrass, charlock, groundsel, ragwort,
84
Wild Birds Useful and Injurious.
chickweed, and of plants allied to the deadnettle. Numerous
insects and a few berries also form part of its diet, and it is,
therefore, a bird which may well be encouraged, except in occa-
sional circumstances.
Charles F. Archibald.
Rusland Hall, Ulverston.
SMALL HOLDINGS.
Probably none of the English industries excites at the present
time so much anxious thought as that of Agriculture. Indeed, it
is impossible to overestimate the gravity of its present condition ;
but, unfortunately, while the depression is already sufficiently
marked, it does not yet seem to have reached its limit. To
enumerate the lamentable effects already evident may be unne-
cessary, but it may, notwithstanding, help to a clearer definition
of the position of affairs. Large tracts of land have gone out
of cultivation, rents have suffered serious reduction, rural
districts are witnessing an appreciable decline in the able-bodied
population, and, as the worst resulting feature of all, the sources
of native food-supply are dangerously diminishing.
Although it is considered by many that there is little
hope of relief by legislative means, yet legislation has been
much invoked within the past few years. The exodus of agri-
cultural labourers from country districts, one of the chief effects
of the depression, has brought the question of re-creating small
ownerships and tenancies more particularly forward for parlia-
mentary consideration. But, although it has been urged that,
farming being nearly profitless, it is useless attempting to re-
create either the one or the other, nevertheless, possibly in hope
of better times, attempts to do so are continued. It may not,
therefore, be without interest to examine more exactly the
reason for the migration of the labourers, the attempts to retain
them upon the land, and the practical results of such attempts,
so far as they may be ascertained or anticipated. To do this
it is necessary to take a brief retrospect of the period from when
the small-proprietary system seemed firmly established to the
time of its extinction, and, incidentally, to notice the causes of
the extinction.
Historical Retrospect.
To look backward no further than the seventeenth century,
where historic proof can establish the fact, the greater part of
Small Holdings. 85
the land was cultivated by yeomen and labourers, these latter,
however, forming but a small proportion of the rural population.1
The yeomen lived upon the land, and were its holders, either
as freeholders or under such conditions of copyhold and lease-
hold as afforded tenure nearly as secure as freehold. The
labourers held cottages and gardens under tenure as privi-
leged as that of the yeomen, and were, in addition, entitled
to rights of common, to fuel, to litter, to thatch, and to
pasturage for cows and donkeys. There was a general security
of possession to all grades of agricultural society. The feudal
system, adapted to the needs of its time, had become replaced
by a system which may now be regarded as absolutely ideal.
But the system of entail, the outcome of the desire of the feudal
lords to transmit their vast landed possessions unbroken to their
posterity, which had been evaded during the peaceful period
between the beginning of the fifteenth and near the middle of
the seventeenth centuries, when land became freely dealt with
and the number of owners greatly increased, at the time of the
Revolution again asserted itself. In the stress of the Civil War
the interests of their posterity once more became paramount in
the minds of holders of land. No man was safe, nor heritage
secure, in the general unsettlement of affairs. Legal subtleties
were again invoked, and the system of entail, however modified,
once more secured from courts of law the claims of the children
to estates of which they might be deprived if the parties in power
chanced to be hostile to their fathers. The system tended
again to the aggregation of estates and the diminution of the
number of the owners.
But other causes were at work. To the ownership of land
exceptional privileges were attached, governmental, social,
and sporting, and the influence and position as chiefs of the
large districts which these privileges afforded. It became
the ambition of rich traders and professional men to join the
ranks of this influential class of landowners, and win for them-
selves these great and exclusive advantages. The competition
amongst the landless rich led to an artificial increase in the
value of all land that came into the market, and soon land
became more an object of luxury than a means of investment
for mere livelihood. Tempted, therefore, by artificial prices,
entails were frequently rendered nil , and small owners readily
thrust their holdings upon the market. When, at last, the
common lands were enclosed, the deathblow was dealt to the
1 Vide Agrarian Tenures, by the Rt. Hon. G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., to which I
desire to express my obligations for valuable information.
86
Small Holdings.
small-proprietary system ; the yeomen had sacrificed — the
labourers were unable to preserve — their former privileges.
Now the rural grades are three : the landowners, the tenant
farmers, and the labourers; the latter two classes having no
local attachment beyond the profit that the tenant sees possible
in his farm, and the price that the labourer may realise for his
hire.
But change has not been the lot of the working agricultural
population solely ; the position of the landlords themselves has
been subject to vital alterations. In these days the privileges
which appertain to the ownership of land, while still as
important, are no longer exclusive. The ranks of the
magistracy are not open only to the possessor of the soil ;
parliamentary honours are no longer his prerogative ; the sport
of his domain has been subject to legislative interference, and
sometimes he has been forced to lease it away through stress of
pecuniary necessity. Political conditions have so altered that
the wealthy among the mercantile class may now successfully
combat his territorial influence in the race for parliamentary
honours ; while the spread of education and strain of competition
have displaced sentiment and increased his financial difficulties.
These facts have led to a startling decrease in land values and
to decline of proprietary influence.
As to the farmers, though the rigidity of their covenants
with their landlords has been relaxed, and their rents have
become in many cases nearly nominal, yet the fierceness of
present competition has tended to nullify both these advantages.
While on the great virgin tracts of American soil agriculture
performs its operations with a free hand, and railways and
shipping encourage transport of produce by the minimum of
charge for freightage, in England the farmer contends with
an intrinsically less productive and less easily cultivated soil,
and with the antagonism or indifference of the railway com-
panies, which seek only how they may increase their rates,
without consideration of those developments in agricultural
production which a more liberal and enlightened policy might
encourage.
The distress of the farmers will ultimately further affect the
labourers, and these already, as a body, have felt the effects of
the consolidation of the farms. The wages of individuals up to the
present have not declined, but the scope for labour through the
consolidation has become diminished. It is inevitable that
further tracts of land will cease to be cultivated, and labourers
are aware of it. They recognise that they are gradually losing
all their former chances of assuming a more substantial status.
Small Holdings.
87
Despite industry, intelligence, and thrift, they now grasp the
fact that their native villages are likely to afford them only the
barest hope of independence. And the new generation of
labourers has grown up under the direct influences of the peri-
patetic politician, popular education, and a free and cheap press.
They recognise the precariousness and dependence of their
position, and revolt against it. They demand conditions more
approaching equality, higher wages, greater opportunities of
rising in the social scale. Their imagination is stimulated by
all they hear and read of town life : its higher wages, its
pleasures, its variety of openings for industry, strength and
ability, added to some vague sense of possibilities which they
dream exist ; and so they are leaving the country to the older
and nearly worn-out men, to the apathetic and unambitious,
adding to the crowds of the towns and intensifying their already
pronounced labour difficulties. Meanwhile, in the towns, in the
face of a declining trade which necessitates, for its mere pre-
servation, lengthy hours and low rates of pay, labour clamours
for increased advantages, for higher wages, and for extended
leisure ; and the labourers from the country are only adding to
a dangerous force of the discontented and unemployed, which,
if trade continue to fall away, will thrust itself against the
present conditions of commerce and of government.
Recent Legislation.
Small holdings may or may not be the best and most
economic method of land culture, but, if they can be secured,
they will tend to relax the labour tension in the towns, and
strengthen the bonds of English society by restoring to the
land the thousands of yeomen and labourer-proprietors who
formed in the past one of the chief sources of the power and
stability of the nation. English politicians of both historic
parties have, in later years, given this fact recognition. What
have they accomplished in the attempt to re-create these small
ownerships, to stop the abnormal immigration into the towns,
and to restore the political balance ?
They have passed four notable Acts of Parliament : the Allot-
ments Acts of 1887 and 1890, the Glebe Lands Act of 1888, and
the Small Agricultural Holdings Act of 1892.
The Allotments Act of 1887 was intended to obtain for the
labourers, from the landlords, by hire, or purchase by agreement
or compulsion, allotments not to exceed 1 acre in extent, and
not to be sub-let, at a rent which should be calculated as the
original rent, plus expenses of purchase, preparation, cost of
88
Small Holdings.
rent collection, and of management. It also gave power to
obtain land for letting as common pastures to allotment-holders.
Boards of Guardians, who were empowered to administer the Act,
regarded it with coldness, and the 1890 Amending Act was
therefore passed to delegate to County Councils the powers of
the Boards of Guardians, if these latter still neglected to exer-
cise them. It may at once be ascribed to the influence of these
Acts that the number of allotments, apart from cottages,
increased from 188G to 1890 by nearly 100,000 ; but, practically,
no purchase of land for common pasture, as contemplated by the
Act of 1887, has been made. Of these 100,000 allotments,
about 3,000 only were actually acquired under the Acts, the
others being provided by landowners, subject to private agree-
ment. However much the Acts have contributed to this large
increase in the number of allotments, that so considerable a
proportion should have been let by private agreement is rather
a matter for congratulation than the reverse. Under private
agreements the tenants inust be, in the majority of cases, better
off than where land has been compulsorily acquired. In the
former case the rents are lower, because the landlords generally
throughout the country have themselves paid all the charges
incidental to the preparation, fencing, draining, &c., of allot-
ment land ; whereas, in the cases of compulsory allotments,
the local committees have had to pay all these necessary charges ;
and, in addition, rent is further increased to their tenants owing
to the acreage for boundaries, roads, &c., which is lost in divid-
ing and rendering the plots accessible to carts. The Acts of
1887 and 1890 have certainly justified their appearance amongst
the statutes of the kingdom.
The Glebe Lands Act of 1888 authorised the sale of glebes,
either in small portions to the labourers direct, or to the Sanitary
Authority of each district, for distribution under the provisions
of the Allotments Act of 1887. This Act, so far as the creation
of small ownerships is concerned, has proved a complete failure.
No labourer purchased any portion of the glebes, for there had
been no provision made for part of the purchase money to
remain. The sale of the glebes only resulted in further increas-
ing the dimensions of the adjoining estates.
The Small Agricultural Holdings Act of 1892 is the most
comprehensive attempt of all at re-creating the small-proprietary
system, and alleviating the position of the labourers. It was deter-
mined by means of State loans at low interest, repayable by
instalments, to purchase estates, divide them up, and sell or let
them in small portions. Purchasers were to pay one-fifth of the
purchase money, one-fifth might be secured at a rent- charge to
Small Holdings.
89
be either perpetual or redeemable, and the remaining three-filths
were to bo spread over a period of fifty years, but with power
to pay all at any time. The holdings so purchased were not to
exceed fifty acres in extent, nor a value of 50/. par annum ;
while the holdings to be let were not to exceed an extent of
fifteen acres, nor an annual value of 15/. The Public Works
Loan Commissioners were empowered to lend the necessary
funds to County Councils at interest at the rate of 3 1. 2*'. Gd.
per cent. General experience teaches that an arable holding, by
cultivation of which a man may earn his entire livelihood,
should be from thirty to fifty acres in extent. Under this Act,
to obtain a holding of such a size, a man must purchase. Its
cost, with the necessary fann-buildings, has been estimated at
37/. per acre. Of this sum, under the Act, the labourer must
find one-fifth, or, for a thirty-acre holding, over 200/. In
addition, he must provide money for implements, stock, the
growing crops, and manure, and for living expenses until his
holding begins to bring him return for the expenditure of his
capital and labour. For these the estimate is another sum of
200/., or a total of 400/.
The Local Government (England and Wales) Act, 1894,
extends the principle of the Allotments and Small Holdings
Acts by permitting Parish Councils to let to one person an
allotment or allotments exceeding one acre, but, if the land is
hired compulsorily, not exceeding in the whole four acres of
pasture, or one acre of arable land and three acres of pasture,
instead of one acre of arable, as permitted by the Act
of 1887.
The deterrent effects of the foregoing legislation upon the
immigration of the labourers into the towns will not, it is very
probable, be great, unless the stress of foreign competition should
slacken, railway charges be diminished, and newer systems of
cultivation more generally prevail. Better prices and decrease
of expenses must increase the wages of the labourer, and his
means to avail himself of the advantages of the Acts. But it
certainly appears improbable that the purchase clause of the Act
of 1892 will be useful in raising a man to the position of owner
from that of labourer. How many English farm labourers are
likely to be possessed of the 400/. necessitated by the Act?
Again, under the letting powers of the Act, the local authority
may lease small holdings not to exceed fifteen acres ; but while
a man remains a labourer it is impossible that he will be able
to stock or cultivate more than three acres of pasture, or half
an acre of arable land, at the most ; and experience proves that
he could not support himself entirely out of fifteen acres of arable
90 Small Holdings.
if he gave up other work, leaving hope of profit entirely out of
the question.
The Small Holdings on the Stratton Estate.
The system of Small Holdings on the Stratton Estate, in
Hampshire, a typical English estate, furnishes an interesting
index to the probable results of the various Acts.
On the Stratton estate some small holdings of arable land were
set out by the late Sir Francis Baring in 1849, with the expressed
intention of furnishing means to the labourer of rising to the
position of a tenant farmer, incidentally attaching him to the
district, increasing his interest in his neighbourhood, encouraging
habits of thrift, and fostering the hope of ultimate independence.
At the outset every man was made aware that so long as his
rent was paid he should retain possession of his holding; but, while
punctuality of rental payment was inculcated, the tenants were
allowed six months of grace after the due date, in accordance
Avith the custom of the estate in the case of larger occupations.
It Avas also understood that no restriction Avas to be imposed
upon the system of cropping, neither Avas it to be incumbent
upon the tenant to replace by artificial, or other manure, the
material drain of the land. The labourers who took these small
holdings lived in cottages at a rent which barely afforded return
for the capital outlay. All rates, taxes, tithe, and other out-
goings Avere paid by Sir Francis Baring, and, in addition, the
cottages Avere kept in repair at Sir Francis’s entire charge. All
these arrangements Avere rigidly adhered to by their author,
and, since his death, have been continued by the present Earl
of Northbrook. He would be a harsh critic Avho could find fault
Avith proposals so exceptionally favourable as these.
Applications for the small holdings Avere received from fifteen
persons, and an area of two hundred and fourteen acres was set
apart for them, being an average of fourteen and a quarter acres to
each man. Of these fifteen persons, seven only Avere of the labour-
ing class, the class sought to be directly benefited. The remaining
eight were small shopkeepers, carriers, carpenters, and other
persons immediately above the labouring grade. The tenants and
their families supplied all the labour necessary to their holdings,
except during the harvest and also when they co-operated, both
with horses and occasional manual labour, in ploughing and
preparing the land for seed. The records of the holdings during
the forty-four years show that throughout the first twenty
years all were continually in occupation. But in 1866 the
number of holders declined from fifteen to twelve, there being
Small Holdings.
91
six labourers instead of the original seven. In 1870 one more
labourer quitted his holding, the total number of holdings in
occupation being eleven. This state of things continued until
1877, when, although the number of holdings remained at
eleven, the number of labourer-holders fell to four. In the year
following labourer-holders numbered only three, and in 1882
only two labourers remained upon their holdings. These
proved to be the last representatives of the labourer-holders of
the land, for after 1887 they also disappeared, while at the
same time the total number of small holdings declined to five.
At the present time the small holders number four, a publican,
a blacksmith, a baker, and a carrier, who occupy the whole of
the original two hundred and fourteen acres ; and none of them
would have retained their holdings but for the support afforded
them by the combination of business. The total rent through the
forty-four years fell from 439/. per annum to 20GZ.
It has been seen that from 1849 to 1882 the number of small
holders only fell from fifteen to eleven ; but these thirty-three
years, with few exceptions, were years of good prices and general
agricultural prosperity, while during the earlier of them holders
obtained the full yield of land which had been handed over
to them in a good state of cultivation. But the period between
1882 and 1893 has witnessed, as farmers too well know, a
continued decrease in prices ; and there is, therefore, 'small matter
for wonder that all the labourers and the small tradesmen,
handicapped as they were by insufficient capital, should have
been forced to relinquish their holdings. Bad harvests as well
as bad prices have mainly contributed to the unfortunate result.
But another evil contended with in the later years was the
smaller yield of the land, resulting from the absence of restric-
tion concerning cropping and the sale of produce, which has
been mentioned. Such advantage was taken of this absence of
restriction that, if the land had not been above the average of
Hampshire, it could not have withstood the extreme drain to
which it was submitted.
There were other instances of really bad farming, due
rather to lack of capital than to laziness or ignorance, the land
of some of the tenants being in a continued state of foulness.
But, taking the small holders generally, it may be stated that
neither the yield of their crops, nor the numbers and quality
of their stock, ever bore comparison with those of the larger
tenant farmers. As might have been expected, the small
holders occasionally displayed some amount of business as well
as farming incapacity. But they have been to a great extent
crippled by causes for which they cannot be held accountable,
92
Smtill Holdings.
and the evil effects of which they were unable to avoid or
mitigate ; their small stacks of hay were peculiarly liable to
injury from rain, and dealers would not therefore give such
prices for them as were commanded by the larger stacks. In
addition, the materials they required to purchase — seed, corn,
manures, &c. — were needed in such small quantities that
merchants would not sell to them at wholesale rates ; while for
quantities of material under two tons in weight the railway
companies charged nearly double the rates of freightage. They
have been unable to keep sheep upon their limited holdings,
and, in Hampshire, sheep -breeding was almost the only profitable
department of farming which, until recently, remained untouched
by the depression. Neither have they been able to take advan-
tage of steam to lessen the cost of cultivation.
It appears from this experiment that the advocates of small
holdings of arable land, especially in such a district as the Chalk
lands of North Hants, have yet to learn from stern experience and
the fruits of hard practice the vast difficulties that militate against
the realisation of their hopes. In other parts of Hampshire
there are still living many people who remember how tena-
ciously the hardy cultivators of small holdings clung to the
land until they were literally starved off it, and there are many
land agents of the old school who especially remember the
unpleasant and difficult work they experienced in evicting the
small tenants from their miserable dwellings to make way for
the larger farms managed by men of education and capital,
better fitted than they to cope with the intense stress of foreign
competition. The larger farms produced at nearly double the
rate of the small holdings which they replaced, taking into
account the production of beef and mutton and the increased
growth of corn resulting from the use of cake and other artifi-
cial food. The small holders were much to be pitied that in a
certain sense they lost their independence ; but the regular work
that some of them obtained upon the large farms enabled them
to enjoy comforts forbidden to them in their former condition,
and certainly unknown to farmers of limited holdings like the
Scottish crofters and small Irish tenants. But it should be
remembered that, as has been shown, the consolidation of the
farms and the employment of steam decreased the scope for
labour ; and while some of the former small holders benefited,
many of them were forced away.
Success is undoubtedly as much a question of the man as of
the conditions under which he labours ; but, upon the Stratton
holdings, both the industrious and the easy-going, the man of
business capacity and the man who lacked it, have together
Small Holdings.
93
come to the ground. From the resume of facts affecting the
small arable holdings of the Stratton estate, it will be seen that
no single example has been found of a labourer having been
able to retain his holding for any great length of time, and
certainly not one ever seemed likely to earn the 400Z. required
to make him a purchaser of thirty acres, as contemplated by the
Act of 1892. There were exceptional conditions of tenure, the
land is close to the village of Stratton, the rent does not
exceed 19s. 6d. per acre, the quality of the soil is above the
average of Hampshire, which is a typical English farming
county, and there was every facility for the disposal of produce.
In spite of all these advantages, the Stratton small holdings, at
least where the labourers have been concerned, have proved
lamentable failures. Would not this important experience,
extending over a period of forty-four years, seem to argue that
the Small Agricultural Holdings Act of 1892, praiseworthy and
comprehensive as it is, must remain useless towards the re-crea-
tion of the small-proprietary system with all its social, economic
and political advantages? And yet, perhaps, it may not be
entirely useless. When the population of the New World shall
have so increased that exports of food produce shall be limited,
the Act will probably be the useful instrument for which it was
designed.
The most successful of the small tenancies on the Stratton
Estate have been the grass lands, which have always maintained
a fair standard of rent, and for which there is an increasing
demand. It has never been found difficult to let by agreement
any small pasture holdings of three to five acres, and to appor-
tion these in the immediate neighbourhood of the villages. A
minimum of labour is necessary to them, and their produce finds
ready purchasers close at hand. Experience has shown that a
pasture holding of fifteen to twenty acres is sufficient to furnish the
entire means of livelihood to one family, and the present pasture
holdings on the Stratton Estate do no more than supply the
adjacent villages with milk and butter ; but, if the number
were extended, it is doubtful if the competition would tend to
benefit the additional tenants. The inevitable surplus produce
would scarcely pay them to send into the more distant centres of
population, as the railway charges are so very high. Therefore,
it would appear that only a favoured few can find profit and hope
of bettering their position by means of pasture holdings of any
extent; while the tenants of three to five acres may supply
family wants, but will have no surplus considerable enough to
help them to positions of ownership and complete inde-
pendence.
94
Small Holdings.
Allotments on the Stratton estate of the extent of twenty-
poles each were largely made available for the labourers nearly
eighty years ago. At the present time there are one hundred
and twenty, of which a few are held by some of the village small-
tradesmen ; but the number shows no tendency to increase,
although the available land is situated close to the villages, con-
taining a purely agricultural population of about 1,400, and
produces good crops. The reason doubtless is that the cottages
built by the Earl of Northbrook have large gardens attached to
them in all cases, and their occupiers have sufficient leisure to
cultivate only these to advantage. No demand under the Acts
of 1887 and 1890 has been received. All the rents of the
allotments are promptly paid, and they have undoubtedly proved
successful, but only as adjuncts to the support of the labourers’
families ; in no case have they contributed to the advancement
of the labourer to the position of a tenant farmer.
The general conclusion from the workings of the Stratton
estate small tenancies seems to indicate that the objects of the
legislation of 1887, 1888, 1890 and 1892 are scarcely likely to
be realised under the present hard conditions of agriculture ;
and it is not unreasonable to anticipate that, if the depression
be accentuated, the wages of individual labourers must fall, and
a further impetus consequently be given to the immigration
into the towns.
Thomas Stirton.
West Stratton, Micheldever, Hants.
MANAGEMENT OF ABERDEEN ANGUS
CATTLE.
With slight variations the general systems of management of
pedigree breeding herds of cattle, whatever the breed may be,
must of necessity be very much alike. Consequently, although I
have in this paper to deal with the management of an Aberdeen
Angus herd, much of what I have to say is undoubtedly applic-
able also to other breeds, and therefore it may to some readers
appear to be stale and unprofitable. However this may be,
there can be no doubt that the first and main object of all
breeders is the production of high-class calves — of calves that
will add to the value of the herd, and that will maintain and
perpetuate the special properties of the breed.
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
95
Formation of a Herd.
The herd, I believe, is best commenced by buying a small
number of in-calf cows or heifers as near to the drop as possible,
and then selecting the best stud bull obtainable. As to the
females, it is not, in my opinion, wise to at first buy high-priced
and so-called fashionable-bred ones ; these may with advantage
be bought afterwards, when the establishment of the herd has
become an accomplished fact.
Good thick-fleshed animals upon short legs, and with good
polled heads, are the sorts not only to start with but to stick to,
and the bull that is bought should be the best that can be found
or that the buyer can afford to pay for. A really good bull will
make a herd even from moderate cows, whilst an inferior bull
will ruin a herd regardless of the high qualities of the cows it
may contain.
Those who intend to start a herd should, in my opinion, con-
sult someone who is quite familiar with the breed ; of course,
the man who has a natural eye for cattle can easily pick out the
good sorts, but there is more than this required if the new herd
is to be a success. There is the family history to consider. Were
the ancestors of the animals it is proposed to buy all good ones ?
Were they regular breeders and good milkers ? Were they free
from white markings on the body and legs (no one objects to a
white udder) ? and were they'sound and robust in constitution ?
These are important points, and should all be well considered,
but it is only those who have made a special study of the sub-
ject who are competent to advise.
Experientia docet always comes in, but, alas ! it generally
comes too late. It is better, therefore, for the beginner to
remember the law of caveat emjptor, and to consult an expert,
and pay for his advice. Or he may place himself unreservedly in
the hands of a well-known breeder, but should be prepared to
pay full value for good animals.
Having selected the animals and got them safely into their
new quarters, it becomes a question how to treat them so as to
obtain the best results. In my subsequent remarks I propose
dealing with the several subjects in what may be termed chrono-
logical order.
Preparations for Calving.
The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland dates the
age of calves from December 1, consequently Scottish breeders
so arrange that their cows begin to calve down in that month.
96
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
In England, on the other hand, we breeders have to consider the
rules of the “ Royal,” which dates the birth of calves from
January 1, and so we arrange to have our calving season to
commence after that date.
Up to a few days before calving the cows may remain in
their stalls in the byre, always, of course, provided that the stalls
are long enough and wide enough to allow the animals to have
plenty of room when they lie down — an important consideration
when cows are heavy in calf. For calving, the cow should be
taken from the byre, and isolated either in a box or stall ; and
if two cows are due to calve at about the same time, they may
be put together. In no case should a cow be allowed to calve
in a byre amongst other in-calvers ; the act of parturition sets
up an undesirable amount of excitement amongst the other
occupants, which in some sympathetic animals may even bring
on premature calving.
Calving.
The time occupied in the act of parturition varies consider-
ably ; in some cases it is quickly completed, in others it may be
protracted and delayed for hours. In the generality of cases
little or no trouble is experienced, but instances do occur when
the situation is an anxious and a serious one. In all cases there
is a golden rule to observe : Give the cows time — do not interfere
unless it is absolutely necessary. Premature interference, or
trying to get the calf away before all the parts are perfectly pre-
pared, has caused the loss of many calves, and even the cow, if
not also lost, is often seriously injured.
In protracted cases it is wise to make a careful examination
in order to see that all is right. If this proves satisfactory, give
the cow more time, but if, on the other hand, it is not satis-
factory, then send for veterinary aid at once.
Parturition being completed, we must next look after the
calf. It is a general custom to attempt to dry the young crea-
ture by rubbing it with wisps of hay or straw, but the operation
is much more perfectly performed by the rough, warm tongue of
the cow. Besides, she likes to do it, and the operation is bene-
ficial to both ; it is Nature’s way, and it has a satisfying and
soothing effect upon the cow, and allays any excitability of
temper that may have resulted from her calving.
Aberdeen Angus calves are very precocious, and it is aston-
ishing how soon they are on their feet and helping themselves
to the teat.
There are different systems adopted for rearing calves, but
9?
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
in pedigree herds, at any rate, Nature’s plan is the best; therefore,
let the calf suck its dam — that is, if she is healthy and in a con-
dition to suckle her calf. There is nothing like its mother’s
milk, taken just as required, for making a good calf ; it is the
food provided for its sustenance, and it supplies all that is re-
quired to build up a healthy structure. Besides, in the act of
sucking, the milk is taken just in the proper quantity and
suitably mixed with the salivary secretions to ensure good
digestion — a very different condition from that which exists
when calves are fed from a pail at certain hours of the day, or
are only allowed to suck at fixed intervals.
For the first three or four weeks after calving the udder
should be frequently examined, and until the calf can consume
the whole of the milk any surplus supply must be drawn off.
At all times, so long as the calf is still sucking, attention must
be given to see that all the teats are clean. Calves will not suck
a dirty teat, and if not regularly sucked the quarter of the
udder it belongs to will become engorged.
So long as there is no demand for the calving-box, the cow
and her calf may remain there ; but if it is required, then the
cow may be returned to her stall in the byre, and the calf be
tied up by her side. This tying-up of the calf is best done by
means of a strap around the neck attached by a swivel to a
pretty long collar shank ; this allows the calf to get a fair
amount of exercise, and at the same time it acts as a first lesson
in breaking-in. I need scarcely add that the cow with the calf
by her side requires a double stand ; this may be a drawback
when space is of importance, but if the plan can be adopted it
is a good one, and no more interesting and instructive object-
lesson can be furnished than a row of cows, each having her
calf by her side.
When the bull calves are from one to two months old, those
that it has been decided to alter should be operated on. And
here let me point out the supreme importance of keeping only
the best bull calves for stock purposes — by best I mean those
that in the first place are good ones individually, and have in
addition a good record as to ancestors and all other qualities
that are not only desirable but absolutely needed in a stock
bull.
The demand for small-priced — it is a mistake to call them
cheap — bulls of this breed is considerable for crossing purposes,
and breeders may be tempted to keep on animals that would be
worth as much or more as steers. This is a mistake, and the
sooner both the pedigree breeder and the cross breeder
realise it the better it will be for all concerned. In breeding
VOL. V. T. S— 17 H
98
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
cross-breds the sire at any rate must be pure and good. When
this is the case the result of the first cross is most marked ;
if the sire is an Aberdeen Angus, about 80 per cent, of the
calves will be black and hornless, and will take after the breed
generally for thriftiness and early maturity.
Care must be taken to see that the calves continue thriving
and doing well ; that they get a sufficiency of milk, but not too
much ; and that their surroundings, particularly the floor and
their bedding, are kept sweet and clean.
The calves soon begin to pick and eat whatever is given to
the cow, and when kept running loose some of them learn to
steal milk from other cows. These indulgences may lead to
a derangement of the digestive organs, and may perhaps bring
on “ scour.”
Scour in calves is liable to occur in the best-regulated herds,
and it is often caused by an alteration in the quality of the dam’s
milk ; thus it may sometimes be observed to set in when she is
coming in use — in fact, scour in the calf may be the first inti-
mation of her approaching oestrum.
It may, however, be set up by some irregularity of the
stomach due to errors of dieting ; but whatever the cause may
be, the proper treatment is to give a full dose of linseed oil at
once. Remove the offending material from the alimentary
canal, and the calf will soon be all right again.
I have just said that scour is often caused by an alteration
in the quality of the dam’s milk, therefore in every case her
health and the quantity and character of her food must be
inquired into. Milk is quickly affected by changes of food ; so
is it also by any derangement of the stomach and liver. To
yield good milk the cow must have food that is sound and
wholesome, and water that is pure, and her general system
must be in a healthy condition. All these points must there-
fore be attended to, for it is of no use to go on dosing the calf
with medicines when its illness is due to its dam’s milk. We
must go to the fountain-head, and the cause, whatever it may
be, must be removed before health can be restored. Scour
requires prompt treatment ; there must be no delay, otherwise
the case becomes chronic, and if the calf recovers, it will only
be a wreck of its former self.
It may be well to follow this part of the subject a little
further, for much of the success of breeding and rearing stock
depends upon it. It has been truly said that “ half of the
goodness of a beast goes in at the mouth,” and it may with
equal truth be said that many of its troubles go in by the same
road. If cattle have to be kept in a healthy thriving condition,
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
99
and if cows are to produce healthy calves, and that at the proper
time, and their milk is to be nutritious, the food and water
supplied to them must be free from deleterious properties. It
is pretty generally recognised that the quality and quantity of
milk are affected according to the rations the cow is fed upon,
and experts are well acquainted with the fact that when certain
drugs are given traces of them can be quickly detected in the
milk. To illustrate this, I may mention that I was recently
asked to advise as to the treatment of a dairy cow that had lost
her appetite and gone off her milk. I ordered some powders
containing carbonate of ammonia to be given. The cow made
a good recovery, and in a few days was feeding and milking
again all right, but her milk smelt so strongly of ammonia that
it could not be used. I mention this simply to show the close
affinity that exists between the contents of the stomach and the
quality of the milk secreted. It illustrates how special proper-
ties of food, water, or medicinal agents become absorbed, and
are afterwards secreted or excreted, as the case may be, by
special organs. Further, seeing that the quality of the blood
depends largely upon the quality of the food and water supplied,
it shows how important wholesome food and water must be to
in-calvers. The existence of the foetus depends upon a pure
supply of blood from the dam ; without it the foetus cannot
live — it is poisoned, and abortion is the result. In 1881 ten of
my cows aborted within twenty-three days of each other, and
the cause was clearly traced to the water supply, which was
found to be polluted with sewage.
At all times, from calfhood upwards, it is important to try
to keep the digestive apparatus in good working order ; it is
better to prevent indigestion and the troubles that belong to it
than to have to cure them. With this object in view much may
be learnt by observing the natural habits and peculiarities ot
animals. During summer, when cattle, and horses too, are at
grass, it may be noticed that although they of necessity con-
sume a certain amount of soil with the grass they eat, yet still
they may occasionally be seen to indulge in licking or even
in eating soil ; doubtless the soil is required, and it acts as a
corrective to the acidity of the stomach. But this craving for
soil is much more developed in winter, when the cattle are con-
fined to the house, and the higher the quality of the food
supplied the greater is the demand for soil — or its equivalents,
rock-salt, chalk, or lime; even young calves may be seen to
lick the lime-wash from off the walls, and the lime from between
the stones of the wall. But it is in cattle that have been
highly fed and forced for some time that the craving for soil is
100 Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
most marked. Bring an animal that has been prepared for the
show-ring out of its box, and unless its particular wants have
been supplied it will, if possible, get its head down to the ground
and eat soil or even dirt from off the road.
It is wise to follow the natural habits of animals as closely
as may be under domestication. I therefore keep a large piece
of rock-salt, and sometimes chalk also, in the racks, so that
both old and young may lick it when they choose to do so.
Sometimes I even go further than this, and have a grass sod,
with a fair amount of soil attached to it, put into the manger —
and it is surprising with what relish some animals will consume
both sod and soil.
Harking back to where we left the cows and their calves, the
former, as soon as the weather is favourable and there is a pick-
ing of grass to be got, should go out to the fields for a few hours
each day, and about the beginning of May cows and calves may
go out together, but for the earlier nights, or until the weather
is something like settled and fine, they should be brought into
the house at sunset.
In the case of Aberdeen Angus cattle the bull and heifer
calves must not be allowed to go together, as the precocity of
the former keeps them always roaming about looking for work ;
hence they become troublesome both to the cows and to the
heifer calves.
Cows with bull calves must be kept by themselves in fields
separated from the cows with heifer calves. Should the dams of
the bull calves begin to fail in their milk supply, which may
happen towards the end of summer, it is well to give their
calves a small allowance of cake per day. This is best done by
placing the cake in some convenient place, the access to which
is only just high enough to allow the calves to get in, but
not the cows.
Weaning.
The weaning of the calves, except any odd late one, should
take place in September. The heifer calves may be put all
together in some large, well lighted and ventilated, covered
fold ; the bull calves may be put in boxes or small folds (covered)
in lots of two or three, depending upon the space available.
The cows should be put in a field as far as possible removed
from the calves. For three days and nights both the cows and
the calves are very noisy and unsettled, but at the end of that
time quietness is restored, and now is the time to commence
breaking-in the calves.
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
101
Breaking-in.
This I look upon as important work, and work that requires
a combination of care and firmness. For the first lesson the
calves are haltered, and tied up in their folds or boxes in such
a position that if they show temper they are not likely to hurt
themselves. After learning to stand tied up quietly, they are
taken out and taught to be led and turned to right or left as
required. At first two, and sometimes three, men are required at
the halter. Some calves are easily broken and become quite handy
in a short time, others may show fight ; but with firm treatment
and no ill-usage they soon all become amenable to reason, and
in the course of three or four days they can be haltered and
taken away in any direction. This breaking-in they never
forget, and it renders them easy to handle for the remainder
of their lives.
Quarter III.
This well-known and rapidly fatal disease carries off year
after year large numbers of young cattle. Once they are attacked
by it, treatment is of no avail ; our efforts must therefore be
directed to prevent it, and for this purpose I have perfect faith in
setoning the dewlap with strong rough tape that has been
previously saturated with oil of turpentine. When I was
engaged in general practice I setoned large numbers of young
cattle for my clients, and for twenty-two years I have setoned
all my own calves just after they were weaned, and I have
never had a case of quarter ill in my herd, nor have I known
one to occur in the animals I setoned for my clients.
I am aware that this simple operation is now looked upon
by many as antiquated and of no real service, and I admit that
I am not able to explain the exact modus operandi by which
setoning prevents the disease ; nevertheless, I consider that I
have good reasons for believing in its efficacy and in continuing
its use.
Treatment of the Young Animals.
The ringing of the young bulls should be done in December
— this allows of time for the nostril to heal up — so that they can
be led by the ring when they go out for sale in February.
From weaning time to turning-out time in the following
spring all the calves should be well attended to ; their food
must be of good quality, adapted to young growing animals,
102
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
and given at regular intervals. They do not want coddling up in
warm places, but should be kept in covered folds which are well
lighted and ventilated, and in which they have plenty of room
to move about, and twice a day they should be let out into a
yard to scamper and play about. They should be accustomed to
being handled, and kept clean with brush and comb, and should
any of them be observed to be itchy and rubbing themselves,
they should be washed with some of the dressings that are sold
for the purpose.
Nothing will give better results than good care of the young
ones, and if this is bestowed it is astonishing how well they can
afterwards rough it. After being turned out at May Day, they
need not be brought into the house again until the following
spring, and then only for service. A shed in the field that they
can go into if inclined to do so, and oat straw in the winter, are all
they require, but if it is thought advisable to give them cake it
should be linseed cake ; in my experience cotton cake is not a
suitable food for heifers that are to be bred from. Before being
served it is advisable to accustom them to be tied up by the
neck in the byre ; this completes their education.
Having traced the calves from birth to the time when the
bulls are sold and the heifers put to breeding, we may now
consider the
Qualities of the Bull.
I have already pointed out the supreme importance of the
stud bull — he makes or mai’s the herd — and I have also men-
tioned that the young bulls are generally sold when about
twelve months old, and when they are quite fit to serve a limited
number of cows or heifers. Those in want of a good young
bull think it no trouble to travel hundreds of miles to find one.
And there is one advantage in buying at this time — namely, that
his sire, dam, and other members of his family may be seen at
his place of birth.
The stud bull should have a straight top and under line, be
deep and wide round the heart, have strong loins, be neat at the
tail-head, have short legs well set on, a good polled head, an
honest face, and withal plenty of muscular development (flesh)
and masculine character. See that he walks well, and that his
hocks are good ones — the latter is an important point in a bull.
If to his personal qualities he adds descent from good parents,
and belongs to a prolific, long-lived, sound family, that is the
bull to buy, and the probabilities are that he will be a success.
To obtain him neither trouble nor money should be spared.
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle. 103
Pedigree.
Observant breeders quickly realise the all-pervading powers
of heredity and atavism. To breed good animals we must
start with good parents, and to prevent any ill results from
atavism (throwing back to a remote ancestor) we must as far as
possible make sure that the ancestors of the animals we breed
from were good ones. I have great faith in a good pedigree,
and I would not buy any animal unless the pedigree pleased me.
The pedigree is the title-deed by which we know whether or not
its possessor is a good and safe investment. The so-called
fashionable pedigree, or the long pedigree, is no guarantee of ex-
cellence, and both may be rendered objectionable by the inclu-
sion of some inferior animal in them. Neither is the ordinary
pedigree, where simply the direct dams and sires are given, to
be implicitly relied upon.
To establish a good pedigree it should be possible to trace
every animal to its foundation, and in none of the collateral
branches must there be a stain. At the same time individual
merit must be our first consideration, and the pedigree comes
afterwards.
Occasionally an old bull that has proved himself to be a
good getter may from one cause or another come into the
market for sale ; opportunities such as this should never be
missed. Young bulls can always be bought, but their power to
produce stock of the right sort has to be proved, and in doing
so much time may be lost. Therefore a good old bull should
always be looked after, and bought if still active and efficient.
In using old bulls a word of caution is required. As age ad-
vances a time comes when, although the bull serves as well as ever
he did, the cows break to his service at the third, sixth, or
ninth week ; this is evidently due to want of vitality in the
spermatozoa, and when this is found to exist the bull should be
sent to the butcher at once. There must be no hesitation about
this step, nor any thought of giving the bull another trial ; othei’-
wise the cows will become demoralised, some will become non-
breeders, and at best the calving season will be thrown incon-
veniently late.
Treatment of the Bulls.
Bulls should at all times be well fed — not made fat, but kept
in vigorous condition — and when being used pretty freely they
should have their ordinary diet supplemented by an allowance
of stronger, more nitrogenous food, such as bean-meal or crushed
oats. The bull-house should be well lighted and ventilated.
104
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
A mature bull disposes of a large amount of air, hence what may-
be considered ventilation for an ordinary animal is not sufficient
for him. There should also be a walled yard adjoining the
house, into which the bull can go at any time for exercise and for
relaxation from the monotony of his box. During summer, and,
in fact, for so long as the weather will permit of it, he should be
kept in a well-fenced (walled for preference) small paddock
containing a shed into which he can retire when inclined to
do so.
Bulls are great thinkers and have wonderfully retentive
memories ; they must not be played with, teased, or ill-used — the
temper of many a bull has been ruined by such treatment.
Do not make an unnecessary fuss about the bull. Be gentle
yet firm, without harshness, and he behaves like a gentleman;
use him roughly or strike him wantonly, and he will certainly
never forget it, but will wait his time, and probably pay you
back with compound interest.
In some herds the bull is allowed to run with the cows ; this
looks very like Nature’s plan, and under certain conditions it
may be permitted. But there are various drawbacks and risks
attending it. In the first place, his temper may from some cause
be rendered disagreeable, and trouble may result ; and his powers
of hearing and smelling are so acute that he may be tempted to
cross hedges and ditches in order to visit some neighbouring herd ;
whilst if put amongst cows with bull calves the latter combine
to fight him. They cannot hurt him, but they torment him, and he
can get no peace for them ; and if he is put amongst the cows
that have heifer calves, some of the latter may be served by him.
I have known a calf six months old served by a bull over a ton
in weight.
Tkeatment of the Cows.
If the cow has calved and cleansed properly there is very
little further trouble with her ; of course she needs attention and
careful dieting. As to food, so long as she is in the house
sloppy mash, sweet hay, and a few turnips are all that are required.
Cake is not necessary, neither is it advisable to give it — at any
rate, until she has been again safely settled in calf.
From certain causes, such as abortion, premature calving,
difficult calving, and fast or retained cleansings, the generative
organs sometimes become much deranged and require careful
and special treatment. Let me here say that all such cases
should be isolated.
After a prolonged and difficult calving, particularly in heifers
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
105
with their first calf, the walls of the vagina may be bruised and
the lips of the vulva may be torn ; for these injuries the parts
should be dressed with carbolised oil two or three times a day.
In cases where the cleansings (the foetal membranes) are fast, I
think that it is advisable to take away as much of them as can
with safety be removed — the more of the decomposing, septic
material that can be taken away the better — and the uterus
should be washed out twice or thrice a day by means of a
syringe, or preferably an enema funnel, with warm water in
which an antiseptic such as Condy’s Fluid, Sanitas, or Jeyes’
fluid has been mixed.
The antiseptic should be also applied to the hind quarters,
tail, and hind legs, and to the floor of the house, particularly
the water channel ; this is best done by means of a watering-
can, which should be often used. This treatment must be
continued until the parts have regained their normal condition
and all discharges have ceased. During her indisposition the
cow requires good nursing and nourishing food.
Cases occur in which, after an ordinary easy calving,
neither the vulva nor the pelvic ligaments regain their natural
condition, but remain more or less relaxed. With this condition
irregularity of oestrum is often present — in fact, I have known
cases of the kind where cows have quickly developed into
regular bullers. The same conditions may follow ordinary
cases of abortion, and also those early cases where the foetus is so
small that it is never seen, or even the act itself suspected. The
latter cases are quickly followed by oestrum — which, indeed,
may be the first indication that something has gone wrong — and
if, unfortunately, such cows are then served, a diseased condition
of the generative organs is set up that may bid defiance to all
treatment.
Of these cases, and cases of doubtful and non-breeding
cows, I have had some experience both in my own herd and in
the herds of other owners and breeders, and I have also had
opportunities of carrying out experimental treatment upon them
with varied success. It is only after such treatment and
many post-mortem examinations that we are enabled to under-
stand the causes that may be in operation to produce them, and
how futile our remedial measures must be in some of them.
Alterations in the position and condition of the uterus and of
the os uteri, a diseased condition of the ovaries, and tubercular
complications, set all remedies at defiance ; but, on the other
hand, I have seen cases of irregular oestrum, with abnormal
discharges, relaxed vulva and pelvic ligaments, completely cured,
and the patients have again become regular breeders. When
106 Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
recovery does take place, the improvement begins and progresses
rapidly after treatment has commenced; this, therefore, may be
our guide, and if cases do not quickly respond to the treatment
they should be sent to the butcher at once. In dealing with
such cases I have tried several agents and several plans, but the
one that has given me the best results is corrosive sublimate
(bichloride of mercury), dissolved in warm water and applied
as a vaginal douche. Of course it is an agent that requires
extreme caution in its use, and when not required it should be
kept under lock and key. It is now dispensed in the form
of “ Antiseptic discs,” and by varying the quantity of water
in which they are dissolved a solution of the desired strength
may be easily prepared. The strength I have used has been
from 1 to 3,000 up to 1 to 2,000. It is best to begin with the
weaker solution, and to inject it into the vagina with a syringe
or enema funnel ; it may be repeated after an interval of six
or seven days, and with me cases that will recover never require
more than three dressings. The cow must be tied up when the
dressing is applied, as it brings on more or less severe straining.
Cows that recover must not be served again till they have
passed over two periods of regular oestrum, though three are
to be preferred. In all these cases I am sure that it is wise to
look upon the vaginal discharges as infectious ; they are un-
doubtedly so in many of them. Cows with the slightest
abnormal vaginal discharge should not be served, for in the first
place service intensifies the diseased condition, and the bull
himself is very likely to contract disease, which he will transmit
to cows that he may afterwards be put to. I have known such
cases, and the results have been most disastrous. Occasional
cases of abortion, fast cleansings, and disease of the generative
organs (both male and female) will occur. By no amount of
foresight can they be prevented, but the serious troubles that
follow in their wake may be much mitigated by watchful care
and by always being on the look-out for signs of approaching
trouble, and, when these are seen, by promptly adopting strict
isolation and thorough disinfection.
In some non-breeders there are no abnormal changes to be
observed externally, and three months or more may elapse
between periods of oestrum. These animals, after a fair but
unsuccessful trial of changes of management and of bulls, should
be sent to the butcher. No greater mistake can be made than
to keep animals in the herd that are not regular breeders.
Some of these doubtful ones take to wandering about the field,
and to bellowing somewhat like a bull ; when this is the case
the sooner they are sent to the butcher the better.
Management oj Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
107
Nothing is more hereditary than the power to reproduce
stock. Some families are noted for being regular breeders —
and here let me say that regular breeders are as a rule good
milkers : breeding and milking go hand in hand. The cows of
these families go on breeding year after year, and even if they
should unfortunately suffer from abortion, they readily breed
again, and continue to do so till stopped by old age. The bulls
of these families are also good servers and sure getters. On the
other hand, the members of some families, both male and female,
are at best slow to breed, and when started they take the first
opportunity or excuse to either abort or to stop breeding. So
much is this the case that, instead of multiplying and replen-
ishing the earth, their numbers dwindle down, and finally their
line becomes extinct.
Service.
There is no more important problem for the breeder to
consider than that of service. In the first place there is the
question of properly mating the animals from which it is desired
to breed ; this should be carefully thought out and arranged for
before service time. If it is wished to obtain strong, robust
animals there must be no close in-and-in breeding. There
must be no uncertainty as to the health, activity, and procreative
power of the sire, and the cows must be in a healthy breeding
state. Cows vary as to the time they will come in use after
calving; some come early — that is, at the third or fourth week, but
service at this early period is not often effective ; it is therefore
better to let them pass and serve them the next time. From
the sixth to the ninth week after calving is a safe and reason-
able time, but it may be that three months may elapse before
some cows are seen to be in use ; though as a rule these late
ones settle to their first service and give no further trouble.
In no case should a cow or heifer be served unless cestrum is
regular (every twenty-one days) and the animal is in a perfectly
healthy condition. In those cases where cows are difficult to
get settled in calf, perfect rest and change are advisable. Here
let me strongly advise breeders to always have a post-mortem
examination made upon all animals that may die, or that from
any cause have to be sent to the butcher ; by doing so much
valuable information may be obtained. In cases of death the
cause should, if possible, be ascertained — the knowledge will be
of use in the future, — and in the case of non-breeders the con-
dition of the generative organs is instructive, and will often
demonstrate not only the futility of treatment, but also the
108
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
folly of having kept them in the herd so long, which is another
valuable lesson for the future.
There is, further, the opportunity of finding out if the animal
were free or otherwise from tuberculosis. This disease is now
recognised as an infectious one— in my experience it is also
hereditary — therefore, if found post mortem, every means should
be used to free the herd from its taint. The question is one
that must be faced, and the disease should at any rate be purged
from every pedigree herd in the kingdom.
Conclusion.
The Aberdeen Angus breed has many good properties. In
the first place, there are no horns to disturb and injure other
animals, and consequently more cattle can be kept in a given
space than is the case with horned animals ; it is astonishing
what a number of them can live comfortably together in a fold.
They are “ good doers.” In Aberdeenshire they are said to get
fat in winter on “ neeps and strae ” (turnips and straw), and
there is no doubt they do well when so fed ; but in the high-
lying lands the “ neeps ” are scarce, and the foddering of straw
is supplemented by an out-rake upon the heather-clad hills of
their native homes. The calves are strong and easily reared,
the breed matures early, and they finish at the highest quotation
as “prime Scotch” in the London market. Even the old bulls
and cows market well, for they rarely look old.
Finally, in the management of a pedigree herd a careful,
steady, experienced herdsman is all-important — that is, unless the
owner takes absolute charge himself, which is not often the case.
The herdsman is always on the alert, nothing escapes his eye,
and his experience guides him as to what is best to be done
under all circumstances. He is acquainted with the peculiarities
and habits of the different animals and families, and thus knows
that what might be considered important in some animals
is of no consequence in others. No herd can be successfully
managed unless the herdsman loves his cattle, and is as much
interested in their well-being as their owner is, or even more so.
I began this paper by saying that although it deals with the
management of an Aberdeen Angus herd, much of it might be
applicable to other breeds. How far this has been so I must
leave to my readers to judge ; but I will conclude by giving a
hint upon a matter that may not be generally known, and that
I am sure will be found useful to all who have to do with cattle.
Cattle might be taught to have their feet lifted and held up
in the same way as horses, but their training has not yet been
109
Management of Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
carried to this extent. As a consequence, if anything has to be
done to their feet, either as a result of disease, accident, or
ovei’growth, they are troublesome to handle, and whatever has
to be done is generally imperfectly accomplished.
The best way is to cast the animal, and this may be quickly,
easily, and safely effected by the following method : —
Put a halter on. Take a sound ordinary cart-rope, make
a loop at one end and pass it over the head, and let it rest close
around the neck, low down like a collar ; bring the rope to the
near side, pass it over the back just behind the shoulders, bring
it underneath the chest, and pass it under and then above the
rope so as to make a loop around the chest ; carry the rope
back, pass it over the loins, and bring it underneath the belly,
close to the flanks ; make another loop as before, and carry the
rope straight behind the animal ; tighten up the loops, one close
to the elbows, the other close to the hind flanks.
All being ready, instruct the man who holds the halter shank
to pull forwards, and at the same time the men who have hold
of the loose end of the rope to pull straight backwards, and
down the animal goes, generally without a struggle. Keep the
head down and the rope firm, and as a rule the animal lies
quietly until such time as it is desired he should get up, when
slacken the rope, and up he gets, none the worse for the casting.
The heaviest bull may be cast in this way ; but of course no
one would think of casting an in-calf cow or heifer, either in this
way or in any other.
I give an illustration of an animal ready to be cast, so that
it may be seen exactly how the ropes should be placed.
Clement Stephenson.
Sandyford Villa, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
110
©ffictal IReports.
ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1893 FROM THE
PRINCIPAL OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY
COLLEGE
In Reference to the Investigation of Diseases of the Animals
of the Farm.
The following Report of the Professor of Comparative Pathology,
a department which was founded a few years ago by the aid of a
grant from the Royal Agricultural Society, must be taken only as
a selection from the subjects which have been under investigation,
and not as representing the whole of the work of the past year.
Considering the short time which has elapsed since the department,
with a fully equipped laboratory of research, was established, there
is every reason to be gratified at the results which have been
obtained. N ot only are new members of the veterinary profession
sent forth with a practical familiarity with modern methods of in-
vestigation, but established veterinary surgeons avail themselves in
a steadily increasing ratio of the resources which the College is now
enabled to offer in answer to their inquiries, and it is impossible
that these facilities can fail to raise the scientific status of the
veterinary profession throughout the country. In the present
report the diseases which are dealt with are : —
Anthrax, especially in regard to its causes and indications.
Tuberculosis, with some important remarks on the use of
tuberculin as a means of diagnosis.
Actinomycosis, which is a widely prevalent disease, to be relieved,
if not radically cured, by the internal use of iodide of potassium.
Detection of glanders by the injection of mallein, a pre-
paration from the virus of the disease.
A fatal disorder of horses which has long been known, but
only exhaustively studied recently.
A new disease among turkeys causing serious fatality among
them. The investigation proves that the malady depends on an
organism, and that the disease is readily conveyed by inoculation to
turkeys, but with difficulty to fowls.
Several parasitic diseases are considered, and among them a
form of inflammation of the intestines in cattle, due to the presence
of an extremely minute worm, which is not visible to the unaided
Annual Report from Principal , Royal Veterinary College. Ill
eye. There is no reason to suppose that the disease is a new one.
It may, indeed, have existed from an early time, but its true character
would not be suspected unless it had occurred to the inquirer to
examine a scraping from the inflamed intestine under the microscope.
A fatal disease among young pheasants was found to depend
upon parasites in the intestine, the invaders in this instance being
much lower in the scale of creation than the lowly worm. The
parasite belongs to the Protozoa, the first dawning of animal life.
The organisms are known as Coccidia, a class of beings which from
their constant presence in higher animals are attracting from the
pathologist special attention, which they escaped for a long period on
account of a false idea of their insignificance.1
To the recorded investigations might have been added, if more
space had been available, observations on an important investiga-
tion into the causes and nature of louping-ill among sheep ; a fatal
disease among calves affecting the tongue and structures of the
mouth ; the history of the ringworm fungus, and other diseases
which have been and are still under observation, and will form sub-
jects for future reports.
G. T. Brown.
February, 1894.
Professor McFadyean's Report.
Anthrax.
During the past year a number of interesting observations have
been made regarding anthrax, and an attempt will be made to
summarise these in the following paragraphs.
Diagnosis. — During the twelve months viscera from forty-nine
cases of suspected anthrax have been submitted to microscopic
examination, and of these nineteen were found to be anthrax and
nineteen not anthrax, while in the remaining eleven the examina-
tion did not justify an opinion regarding the cause of death. As
regards the meaning of the expression “suspected of anthrax,” it
may be explained that the ground of the suspicion usually was that
the animal had been unexpectedly found dead, or that it had died
after a brief illness for which no cause other than anthrax could be
assigned. As is well known, the returns published by the Board of
Agriculture indicate that there lias been a serious increase in the
prevalence of anthrax during the past year, but in the light of the
examinations made in the Research Laboratory grave doubts regard-
ing the accuracy of inspectors’ reports are justifiable. This is
probably true at all times, but mistakes in diagnosis appear to have
been unusually frequent during the summer of 1893. For such
mistakes there is very little excuse, for when an opportunity to make
a post-mortem examination soon after death is afforded, there is no
difficulty in arriving at a certain conclusion as to whether a given
animal has or has not been affected with anthrax.
1 See note on “ Some Relations of Biology to Agriculture ” (Journal,
R.A.S.E., 3rd. Series, Vol. II., Part II., 1891, p. 434). — Ed.
112 Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the
Anthrax is caused by a comparatively large bacillus, which, on
account of its size and its constant presence in immense numbers in
the spleen in every case of the disease, is easy of detection. Fig. 1
reproduces a photograph of a tiny speck of spleen pulp (magnified
about 750 times) from a case of anthrax, and in every case of the
disease microscopic examination of the fresh spleen pulp would show
substantially the same picture. The bacilli are short, straight,
motionless cylinders, and while they are here represented under a
high magnification after staining, in order to show their characteristic
shape, it may be observed that they are easily recognised in the
unstained blood when magnified only 300 or 400 times.
Much has been written regarding the characteristic shape of the
anthrax bacillus and the means of distinguishing it from other
organisms, but it may safely be said that, provided the examination
is made within a few
hours after death, and
before the carcass has
become putrid, there
is little chance of mis-
take on the part of
anyone who has once
seen a preparation of
blood or spleen pulp
from a case of anthrax.
On the other hand, if
the'carcass is already
putrid, the safe rule
for the veterinary sur-
geon is to abstain from
basing his diagnosis on
the result of a micro-
scopic examination.
For this there are two good reasons. The first is, that when putre-
faction sets in, even in cases other than anthrax, the blood and the
spleen become invaded by germs that may readily be mistaken
for anthrax bacilli ; and the second is, that in cases of genuine
anthrax the bacilli rapidly degenerate as putrefaction proceeds, and
their presence may thus be overlooked. It was on this latter
account that a positive opinion could not be given in eleven out
of the forty-nine cases examined in the Research Laboratory during
the past year.
But anthrax in nine cases out of ten can be diagnosed by the
appearance of the spleen without having recourse to microscopic
examination. That organ in anthrax — of cattle, at least — is engorged
with blood, dark in colour, and softened to such a degree that its
substance will almost flow out when a cut is made into it. When
this condition of spleen is met with in an animal unexpectedly
found dead, or that has died after an illness of only a few hours’
duration, there is very little risk of error in diagnosing anthrax ; and,
on the other hand, when the spleen is normal in appearance the
Royal Veterinary College.
113
diagnosis “ Not anthrax ” may be made with almost absolute cer-
tainty, even although the circumstances in which the animal has
died have created a suspicion of that disease.
Source of Infection in Anthrax. — The anthrax germ in certain
circumstances is capable of multiplying and producing spores in
soil or water, and when once such spores have been formed they
may lie dormant for many years, and at the end of that time cause
anthrax by being taken into the system of an animal with food or
drink. Such multiplication and spore-formation can only take
place when the bacilli are freely exposed to the air, at a temperature
over 60° Fahr., and in the absence of putrefactive bacteria. It would
be a perfectly hopeless search to endeavour by microscopic examina-
tion to discover the particular spot of ground on which the cattle
have picked up the germs of anthrax in any given outbreak, and this
fact deserves to be brought home to stock-owners. In the vast
majority of cases the most searching investigation fails to discover the
exact source of the outbreak, and to declare one’s inability to point
out the contaminated spot is no confession of ignorance or incom-
petence. Occasionally the owner of an animal that has died from
anthrax thinks otherwise, and the veterinary surgeon, to maintain
his credit, is constrained to lay the blame on some particular article
of the animal’s diet.
Within recent years oil-cake and cotton-cake have frequently
been thus accused. The notion appears to have arisen from a habit
of reasoning loosely and jumping to conclusions. Generally the
only evidence cited in support of it is that in such-and-such an out-
break of anthrax the cattle were receiving cake, and if it can be
added that no more deaths occurred after the cake was stopped the
case is supposed to be proved beyond a doubt. In reality, however,
this is no proof that cake is ever the means of infecting cattle with
anthrax ; it would be evidence in that direction if it were not the
case that more outbreaks occur among animals not receiving cake,
and that in the great majority of cases the outbreak ends with the
death of the second or third animal, even when no change is made
in the diet.
When cake is the cause of anthrax there is an obvious way of
putting the fact in evidence, and that is to communicate the disease
by feeding or inoculating experimental animals with it. On two
occasions during the past year this test was applied to cake sus-
pected of having caused anthrax. In the first of these cases the
evidence — if such it can be called — pointing to the cake being at
fault was unusually strong, and it therefore appears desirable to
narrate the circumstances in detail. In the month of September
last portions of two spleens, in which microscopic examination
showed numerous anthrax bacilli, were sent to the Research Labora-
tory, with the following history. One portion of spleen belonged to
a bullock that had been grazing out of doors all the summer, and
which had likewise been fed with a compound cake that was taken to
the field daily by a cattleman. The other piece of spleen was taken
from a heifer that had been confined to the byre during the pre-
VOL. V. T. S. — 17 I
114 Annual Report for 1893 from the Rrlncipal of the
ceding four or five months ; she received grass, corn, and compound
cake the same as the bullock was fed upon. The two animals were a
quarter of a mile apart, and yet both died from anthrax on the same
day. Here, then, was a case in which the circumstances were un-
usually suspicious, and it was determined to test the cake. The
residue of the bag of cake that the two animals had been fed upon
for several days prior to the date of their death, and four or five
cakes taken from as many other bags, were accordingly forwarded
to the Veterinary College, where, with the exception of about 1 lb.,
the whole was consumed by a heifer and two sheep. The heifer
consumed about 3 lb. of the cake daily for a week, while the sheep
were given it ad lib. during the same time, but none of them
developed any abnormal symptom in consequence. A small quantity
of the cake from the bag that was being used at the time of the
animals’ death was triturated with sterilised water, and when the
coarser particles had subsided about twenty drops of the liquid were
injected under the skin of each of two guinea-pigs, but in neither
case was anthrax thus produced.
In the second case the precise circumstances incriminating the
cake were not communicated, but it was suspected of having been
the cause of an outbreak of anthrax. It was tested in the same
manner as the sample above referred to, and with the same negative
result.
It must be admitted that these experiments do not absolutely
prove that the two outbreaks in question were not caused by cake,
but their negative result was the strongest evidence against that
view obtainable in the circumstances, and stock-owners may rest
assured that there is not on record a single alleged case of infection
with anthrax by means of cake that will bear examination.
In another instance that came under observation the outbreak
was attributed to infection by means of “ shoddy,” which is largely
used in some districts as a hop manure. As it is well known that
foreign wool often contains the spores of anthrax, there is nothing
inherently improbable in the view that “ shoddy,” if eaten or inhaled,
might infect animals with the disease ; but no opportunity to prove
this material infective by means of experiment has yet been afforded.
Anthrax communicated to Dogs. — In most of the standard text-
books on bacteriology the dog is credited with an almost absolute
immunity against anthrax, but this view is contrary to the experience
of many veterinary surgeons, and, as the following observation will
show, dogs sometimes fall easy victims to the disease. In October last
the carcass of a dog and two dead ferrets were forwarded to the
Research Laboratory for post-mortem examination. The only history
accompanying these was to the effect that the animals had died
after a very short illness, the chief symptoms in the case of the dog
being great depression and twitching of the muscles. The examina-
tion disclosed the fact that both dog and ferrets had died from
anthrax. In the dog the spleen was swollen to triple its normal
volume, and there was marked inflammation with abundant gelatin-
ous exudate in the region of the throat. The spleen was much en-
Royal Veterinary College.
115
larged in the ferrets also, and in all three animals the spleen pulp
was found to be swarming v/ith anthrax bacilli. In reply to inquiry
the owner subsequently communicated the following history. Part
of the flesh of a sheep that had died from what the shepherd called
“ cold in the chest ” was given to five dogs and thirteen ferrets. Of
the five dogs, one died in two days and another in three days, two
others showed symptoms of illness but recovered, while the fifth dog
never developed any symptoms. Of the thirteen ferrets, ten died
within four days, but the other three remained well.
Protective Inoculation against Anthrax. — In only three instances
during the year has advice been sought regarding the means of pre-
venting anthrax, and in each case the owner was recommended to
have all the animals on the farm inoculated according to the method
devised by M. Pasteur. In two of the cases the advice has been
adopted, and the result will be communicated in a future report.
There can at this date be no discussion regarding the value of
protective inoculation in reducing the losses from anthrax on infected
farms. The method has already been practised on the most colossal
scale in France, Austria-Hungary, and elsewhere abroad, and with
the most beneficial results. The operation is attended with little
risk, and the entire animals on a farm can be thus protected at a
cost which is a mere trifle compared to the loss of even a single
valuable ox or cow. The subjoined table gives the statistics regarding
anthrax vaccination in France from 1882 tol892 : —
Year
Animals vaccinated
Deaths
per cent,
during !
following
year
Year
Animals vaccinated
Deaths
per cent,
during
following
year
/ 1882
243,199
1-08
('1882
22,916
0-35
1883
193,119
077
1883
20,501
0 31
1884
231,693
097
1884
22,616
0-37
1885
280,107
0-90
1885
21,073
0-50
Ch
1886
202,064
075
a
1886
22,113
0-28
1887
187,811
1-29
1887
28,083
039
1888
101,834
061
! <
O
1888
10,920
0-43
1889
88,483
1-16
1889
11,610
0 45
1890
69,865
1-20
1890
11,057
021
1891
63,640
0-67
1891
10,476
0 13
'1892
63,125
0-99
'1892
9,757
027
The success of these vaccinations in reducing the mortality from
anthrax in France may be estimated when it is stated that before
the introduction of vaccination the losses amounted to from 8 to 10
per cent, per annum for sheep, and about 5 per cent, for cattle.
Tuberculosis.
During the past year some very important evidence has been
obtained of the value of tuberculin in the diagnosis of tuberculosis
in cattle. By far the most interesting trial was the one made on
a herd of Jerseys belonging to Earl Spencer, regarding which #
i 2
116 Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the
brief note has already appeared in the Journal (1893, Part IV.
p. clxxxii.). All the animals of the herd, twenty-three in number,
were injected with tuberculin, and during the course of the next
sixteen hours the temperature in all save one had risen to 104°
Fahr., or over (normal temperature about 101°), and in the exception
it reached 103§°. According to previous experience with tuberculin
this indicated that every animal in the herd, with the doubtful
exception of the one whose temperature barely reached 104°, was
affected with tuberculosis ; and when an opinion to this effect was
communicated to Earl Spencer, he decided that the whole herd
should be slaughtered and submitted to careful post-mortem exami-
nation. The result afforded striking evidence of the correctness of
the indications given by tuberculin, for tuberculous lesions were
found in each of the twenty-three animals.
In one respect this test was not so conclusive as it might have
been in other circumstances, for it is obvious that anyone might
raise the objection that had the herd contained a healthy animal
that would probably have reacted also. But this objection is to a
large extent met by the following experiment. There happened to
be at the College in the month of October last a heifer which, on
account of extreme emaciation without apparent cause, was
strongly suspected of being tuberculous ; and a young cow in very
good condition and supposed to be healthy. Both of these animals
were injected with the same sample of tuberculin that was
employed to test the Jersey herd, with the result that the con-
sumptive-looking heifer did not react (highest temperature 102’8°),
while the healthy-looking cow did react (highest temperature 105,6°).
These two animals were afterwards killed, and the post-mortem
showed that the healthy-looking cow had rather extensive tuber-
culous disease in the lung and the mediastinal gland, while a search-
ing examination failed to discover any trace of tuberculosis in the
lean heifer.
The publication of these facts has already induced several
veterinary surgeons to use tuberculin in their practice, and it is to
be hoped that its employment will soon become general. It is now
generally recognised that tuberculosis is slowly but certainly con-
tagious when diseased and healthy cattle are housed together, and
the main obstacle hitherto encountered in attempts to eradicate the
disease from infected herds has been the impossibility of detecting
it in its early stages. It deserves the widest publicity among
owners of stock that this obstacle has been removed by the dis-
covery of tuberculin. In pedigree stocks especially, tuberculin
ought to prove of great value, for by its means the disease may be
eradicated from herds in which it has already obtained a footing (at
the cost of slaughtering the animals already affected), and, in the
case of healthy stocks, higher prices could probably be obtained if
the animals were sold with a guarantee that they were free from
tuberculosis as indicated by the tuberculin test.
Tiiberculosis in Horses. — Most British veterinary authors describe
the equine species as almost insusceptible to tuberculosis ; but
Royal Veterinary College.
117
during the past year no fewer than ten cases of tuberculosis in the
horse have come under observation in the Research Laboratory. In
the past the lesions of this disease in the horse have generally been
confounded with those of glanders or cancer. From the material
collected in the Laboratory a comparative study of the lesions of
glanders and tuberculosis is now being made.
Actinomycosis in Cattle.
Treatment. — In the last Annual Report attention was called to the
ready manner in which this disease, formerly regarded as incurable,
yields to treatment by iodide of potassium, and an account was
given of the successful treatment of a heifer. At the date when
that Report was written the cure appeared to have been complete ;
but a short time afterwards it was discovered that the animal was
again slavering, and examination of its mouth showed that the
disease of the tongue was returning. The heifer was therefore
again submitted to a course of iodide of potassium, begun on April
5th and continued till the 29th of the same month. During this
period the animal received about 1 lb. of the salt, and the improve-
ment in the state of the tongue was just as rapid as in the first
instance. Within six weeks’ time the disease had apparently, for a
second time, been cured or arrested ; but as it appeared important
to ascertain whether the cure was absolute, the heifer was kept
under observation at the College until the month of November, when it
was killed. During the interval the heifer had become fat, and there
had not been any sign of a relapse. Nevertheless, the post-mortem
examination, made on November 9th, showed that, while the tongue
was free from actinomycosis, the glands of the throat were consider-
ably enlarged, and contained a quantity of purulent matter in which
microscopic examination readily revealed the actinomyces parasite.
The cure had therefore not been complete, and had the animal been
allowed to live, it is very probable that the disease would again have
become active. Several other cases of relapse after the iodide
treatment have been reported by veterinary surgeons during the
past year, in some instances as long as twelve months after the first
attack. It is possible that many of the cases of alleged cure
would, if the animals were submitted to careful post-mortem
examination, turn out like the one above referred to ; but even if
further observation should show that such is the case, the iodide
treatment will still remain a great success, for whereas formerly the
disease, except by severe surgical treatment, could not even be
temporarily arrested, the worst cases are now so far curable that
the animals can for a time be made apparently sound, and brought
into a condition fit for the butcher.
In order to gain further evidenoe on this point a second case of
the disease was obtained for experimental treatment in November
last. The animal in this instance was a two-year-old bullock, and
the disease had its seat in the upper jawbone. At the date of
admission the bullock had a large swelling in this position, mastica-
118 Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the
tion was obviously very painful, and there was marked emaciation
in consequence. The only treatment adopted was the internal
administration of iodide of potassium, and during the first month
little if any improvement was observable. After that the animal
began to eat better, the swelling of the jaw diminished in size, and
the general condition improved. Since then improvement has been
steady, and at the date of writing the cure might be pronounced
complete, since the animal is fat, and the enlargement of the jaw
has all but disappeared. The bullock will be kept under observation
for some time longer, and finally submitted to post-mortem examina-
tion, in order to see whether the cure is real or apparent.
During the year a considerable number of tongues, jaws, &c.,
affected with actinomycosis have been examined in the Laboratory,
and in one instance the facts connected with the development of
the disease were of such an unusual nature as to warrant their
being recorded here.
In the month of July last Mr. F. L. Gooch, F.R.C.V.S., of
Stamford, on three different occasions forwarded to the Laboratory
pieces of tumours removed by him from yearling steers, with the
history that all the animals of a lot of twenty-one had such tumours,
and that he suspected they had all been infected with actino-
mycosis by means of setons. Owing to the hot weather prevailing
at the time the first tumour was so putrid as to be unfit for exami-
nation when it arrived, but in the case of the other two microscopic
examination showed the presence of actinomyces granules. The
facts since communicated by Mr. Gooch are as follows : , The whole
of the herd were reared on a farm on the borders of the Fen district,
and in the autumn of 1892 they were sent to a farm in Deeping
Fen, to be wintered in a straw-yard. During their stay here they
were all setoned by an “empiric” as a preventive of Black Quarter,
and they were brought back to the farm on which they had been
reared about the beginning of May, at which time some of them were
showing signs of enlarged shoulders, and two had large “ wens ” on
the jaw. When Mr. Gooch was first called to see the animals (in
July), he found that every one of them was affected in some degree.
Some of the setons were still in position, and around the seat of
operation there were small tumours, while a hard cord extended up
from the dewlap to a firm tumour near the shoulder. Under com-
bined surgical and medicinal treatment (iodide of potassium) all the
animals subsequently recovered. The unusual seat of the disease,
and the fact that every animal in the herd was affected, hardly
admit of any other explanation than that the person who performed
the setoning operation had, by some means or another, contaminated
the wounds, probably by means of his hands or the material with
which he dressed the setons.
Detection of Glanders by the use of Mallein.
The last Annual Report of the College contained a reference to
glanders, and to an attempt which was being made to introduce the
Royal Veterinary College.
11&
substance termed mallein into veterinary practice as an aid in the
diagnosis of that disease. During the past twelve months a large
quantity of the agent has been prepared in the Research Laboratory,
and supplied gratis to veterinary surgeons. Prejudice, and probably
also ignorance regarding the nature of the substance, have prevented
the general adoption of this means of detecting glanders in infected
stables ; but the demand for it has been steadily increasing, and it
has already been used with great success in the suppression of out-
breaks, both in London and in the country.
It is to be feared that in the case of some of the large horse-
owning companies in London full advantage of mallein as a means
of detecting cases of glanders has not been taken because, so long as
compensation is not given for glandered horses destroyed, the com-
panies shrink from ascertaining how many of their animals are really
aftected. Some owners, although anxious enough to discover which
of their animals have contracted the disease, refuse to allow mallein
to be used with this object, owing to a fear that it might be a
means of inoculating their horses with glanders, and at least one
eminent veterinary surgeon has publicly expressed his apprehension
that the substance might have this effect. It therefore appears
desirable to explain briefly how mallein is manufactured, and what
are its effects when introduced into the system by hypodermic in-
jection.
The first step in the manufacture of mallein is to obtain a pure
culture of the germ of glanders. These germs are invariably present
in the discharge from the diseased nose of a glandered horse, but it
is generally a matter of difficulty to obtain pure crops of them from
that source, because of the number of other species of germs acci-
dentally present with them. At the post-mortem of a glandered
horse, pure cultures may sometimes be obtained from unbroken
glanders nodules in the nose, or from an unopened farcy bud ; or the
germs may be separated from the accidental microbes by inoculating
a guinea-pig with nasal discharge or farcy pus. The guinea-pig
usually dies in the course of a few weeks, and in the diseased parts
in its organs the bacillus of glanders is generally present as a pure
crop. The medium most suitable for the cultivation of the glanders
bacilli with a view to the preparation of mallein is faintly alkaline
meat extract, or bouillon, to which 5 per cent, of glycerine has been
added. Small flasks of this liquid are inoculated from a glanders
abscess in a guinea-pig, or from a culture of ascertained purity on
agar-agar or potato, and then placed in an incubator kept at a
temperature of about 100° Fahr. In the course of a few days the
previously clear liquid becomes turbid from the growth of bacilli in
it, while a deposit of the germs begins to collect at the bottom of the
flask. The incubation of the flasks is maintained for six weeks at
least, and at the end of that time they contain innumerable glanders
bacilli, as well as substances manufactured by these bacilli, and pro-
ducts resulting from the death and disintegration of the numerous
generations of them that have grown in the liquid during the six
weeks. The smallest quantity of this liquid might suffice to give a
120 Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the
horse glanders if it were injected beneath the skin, owing to the
living germs which it contains ; and the next step is therefore to kill
these germs. This is effected with certainty by exposing the
unopened flasks to a steam temperature (212° Fahr.) for one hour ;
but even then the liquid is unsuitable for use, not because it could by
any means infect a horse with glanders, but because the dead
glanders bacilli suspended in the liquid are unnecessarily irritating
when injected beneath the skin. In order to get rid of these dead
bacilli the turbid liquid is made to pass through a filter of unglazed
porcelain, and before doing this it is well to add to the liquid car-
bolic acid in the proportion of 1 : 200. The liquid which exudes
through the filter is the so called mallein ; it is a perfectly trans-
parent sherry-coloured liquid, free from even dead germs, but con-
taining in solution certain chemical substances upon whose presence
the value of the liquid as an aid to diagnosis depends.
Fig. 2.
The appropriate dose for a horse varies in different samples of
mallein, but of that manufactured in the Research Laboratory
about 20 drops are usually found sufficient. When it is desired to
ascertain whether a horse is the subject of glanders or not, the
above-mentioned dose of mallein is injected beneath the skin of the
neck ; and during the next fourteen or sixteen hours the temperature
of the animal is taken every three hours, the changes that ensue at
the place where the mallein was injected being at the same time
noted. In healthy or non-glandered horses mallein, in the dose
mentioned, has no appreciable effect beyond exciting a little
transient swelling at the seat of injection ; but in a glandered horse
it provokes a distinct rise of temperature, and in the majority of
Royal Veterinary College.
121
cases also causes a painful flat tumefaction of considerable extent
at the place where the mallein was injected (see fig. 2).
The experience gained at the Veterinary College during the past
year, and the information furnished by veterinary surgeons who
have obtained mallein from the Research Laboratory for use in
private practice, have amply confirmed the previous reports regarding
the value of this substance in the detection of glanders. The
accuracy of its indications, in view of our ignorance regarding its
mode of action, almost deserves to be called marvellous. In many
cases during the past year glanders was detected in horses that
showed no external symptoms of the disease, and, conversely, the
lives of horses that had been condemned as glandered by veterinary
surgeons of great experience have been by these means saved.
Azoturia or Hemoglobinuria in Horses.
The term azoturia has for a number of years been applied by
veterinary surgeons in this country to a very fatal disease of the
horse. A most remarkable point in connection with the disease is
that it has never been known to attack an animal doing regular work.
The subjects of it have invariably been standing idle for at least
two or three days ; but it has not been observed in horses that have
been confined to the stable through illness. In the majority of
cases it is found that the animal attacked has been allowed a labour
diet although at rest. The disease occurs at all seasons of the year,
but more cases are met with in winter than in summer. It very
rarely attacks a horse while he is kept in his stall or loose-box, but
the first symptoms are usually exhibited before the animal has
proceeded far on the first journey after the period of illness. It
attacks both sexes indifferently, although at one time it was re-
garded jas peculiar to the mare.
The symptoms of the disease are hardly less remarkable than the
circumstances in which it occurs. The onset is so sudden that in
very many cases the horse falls before his driver can get him out of
harness or back to his stable. Before he falls the driver may have
noticed some lameness or stiffness of the hind quarters ; but this is
not always detected, and the driver may suppose that his horse
has merely slipped on the pavement. When down the animal
generally struggles violently and perspires, but it is difficult to say
how far this may be due to pain and how far to the distress of
the horse on finding that he is unable to get up. At this stage
various groups of muscles, most frequently those of the loins
and haunches, are found to be strongly contracted, and in conse-
quence firm or almost wooden to the touch. Sometimes the horse
urinates before he falls, and the urine thus passed, or that which is
withdrawn by the use of the catheter after he has fallen down, is
invariably found to be profoundly altered in colour, its tint being
often as dark as stout or black coffee. The fatality of the disease
is very great, at least 50 per cent, of cases ending in death within a
few days.
122 Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the
Such are the main clinical points in connection with this disease ;
and before describing the observations that have been made regard-
ing it at the Veterinary College during the past year, it will be well
to refer to the view generally held hitherto in this country regard-
ing its pathology.
According to the standard British text-books on veterinary
medicine, (1) the urine in this disease contains a marked excess of
urea ; (2) the post-mortem does not reveal serious or constant
lesions in any of the organs ; and (3) the essence of the disease is the
presence of large quantities of urea and allied substances in the blood.
Repeated observations have shown that all of these views are
erroneous. The urine does not contain an excess of urea, but it
does contain large quantities of pigment, to which it owes its dark
colour. The blood-plas-
ma (the liquid in which
the blood-cells are sus-
pended) also contains a
large quantity of dis-
solved pigment. For
such pigment there are
only two possible sources,
viz. the red cells of the
blood or the red muscles
of the body. Micro-
scopic examination of
the muscles that were
rigid during the attack
brings to light a most
interesting lesion, which
is illustrated in fig. 3.
The section there repre-
sented shows only a few
fibres that have retained
their normal structure
(A) ; these show regular
transverse markings. But in most cases the fibres have undergone a
serious alteration. They first lose their transverse markings, their
substance then swells up and becomes homogeneous, and finally they
break up into irregular fragments (B).
That the blood-plasma in this disease contains a large excess of
haemoglobin in solution, and that the muscles that were rigid during
life are altered in the way described, has for a number of years
been known to German veterinary pathologists, and two theories
of the pathology of the disease have been based on these facts.
The first is, that the pigment in solution in the blood-plasma is
derived from destroyed red blood -corpuscles, and the second, that
it is muscle pigment set free by the destruction of the fibres in the
rigid muscles. There are several ways in which one might obtain
evidence to show which of these views is the correct one, but
perhaps the most obvious way would be to ascertain from time to
Fig. 3
Royal Veterinary College.
123
time during the course of an attack whether there is a diminution
in the number of red cells of the blood pari passu with the excretion
of pigment in the urine. During the past eighteen months the
opportunity has been taken to make observations on this point in the
case of three horses suffering from hemoglobinuria, and the results
obtained throw a new light on the real nature of the disease.
By using an instrument termed a corpuscle-counter for the
examination of the blood, it was found that, even some time after
the onset of the attack, the number of red cells in the blood was
above normal — in one instance the corpuscles were nearly twice as
numerous as they are in healthy horses — and during the progress of
the disease the number gradually declined, but never fell below
the normal eight millions.
In view of this discovery it would appear that the disease has its
starting-point during the period of unwonted rest and liberal diet,
which has the effect of raising the number of red cells in the blood.
As soon as the horse is taken out to exercise the destruction of the
superabundant corpuscles sets in, and the products of this de-
struction are accountable for the remarkable train of symptoms.
The colouring matter of the destroyed red cells becomes partly dis-
solved in the plasma, is carried to the kidneys, and there excreted
with the urine ; while part takes the form of minute granules, which
become arrested in the capillaries of certain muscles, cut off the
supply of nutriment to these, and thus cause their death and
destruction.
If this view of the pathology of the disease is correct, the copious
abstraction of blood would be indicated by way of treatment when
this can be done at the very onset of the attack. As regards pre-
vention, it is obvious that the best way of obviating an attack is to
let every horse have daily exercise when that is possible, and when
that is not possible to cut down his rations to a bare subsistence
scale.
New Infectious Disease in Turkeys.
During the past year numerous experiments were made in the
Research Laboratory in order to ascertain the cause of a very fatal
disease of turkeys which prevailed on a farm near Newport Pagnell.
The chief symptoms of the disease, as communicated by Mr. G. E.
King, M.R.C.Y.S., of Newport Pagnell, were as follows : At the
outset the birds showed a peculiar twitching of the eyeballs, stiffness
of the neck and legs, drooping of the wings and tail, and ruffling of
the feathers. Soon afterwards a discharge from the nostrils appeared,
and the affected birds made a peculiar rattling or gurgling sound in
the throat, while the mouth became filled with a frothy liquid.
The faeces passed during the attack were very thin, and milky-white
or yellowish in colour. The woman who attended to the poultry
said that she could readily find out the affected birds by the drops
which collected at the end of the beak.
At the outset of the epizootic the owner had forwarded one of
124 Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the
the diseased birds to the office of an agricultural paper in London,
and in reply had been informed that it showed “ every symptom of
poisoning.” Subsequently Mr. King was consulted, and by him
three dead turkeys were sent to the Research Laboratory. By this
date about twenty turkeys had succumbed to the disease, and
nearly as many more died before it was arrested.
The post-mortem, examination of the first turkey revealed the
following abnormalities : — The right lung, which in the healthy
state is a small spongy organ of a bright red colour, was severely
inflamed, being enlarged to treble its normal volume, very dark in
colour, and solid throughout. The pericardium (the bag that sur-
rounds the heart) was much inflamed, and partly covered with
flakes of fibrinous lymph. The other organs appeared to be healthy.
Microscopic examination of blood taken from the heart, spleen pulp,
and fluid from the diseased lung and pericardium showed in each
case indescribable numbers of a very minute germ or bacterium.
The examination of the second and third turkeys revealed an
almost identical state of affairs, and in these also the diseased parts
were crowded with innumerable bacteria, all belonging to the same
species, as far as one could judge from their shape and size.
The discovery of these germs in three successive cases suggested
that they were probably the cause of the disease, but much remained
to be done in order to give this supposition certainty. The germ had
first to be obtained in pure culture in artificial media suitable for
its growth, it had then to be cultivated in successive generations,
and finally it had to be shown that by inoculating or feeding
turkeys with such artificial cultures a disease could be set up
identical with that which prevailed at the farm.
As regards the first of these steps no difficulty was experienced.
It was found that the bacteria were easily cultivated in most of the
media used for growing germs in the Laboratory. In meat extract
rendered solid by gelatine the growth was very slow at ordinary
temperatures, and not very rapid even when the tubes were kept
at 70° Fahr. In liquid bouillon or meat extract, and in meat
extract rendered solid by the addition of agar-agar, the growth, on
the other hand, was rapid when the tubes were incubated at about
the body temperature.
When the germ had been cultivated for several generations its
power to produce disease was tested by the following experiments
with turkeys : —
Experiment I. — A young turkey was inoculated with mixed
gelatine and agar cultures of the bacterium by means of a sterilised
hypodermic syringe, and at the same time some of the culture was
poured over the turkey’s throat. The turkey was found dead sixty-
six hours after inoculation.
Post-mortem. — Skin removed from seat of inoculation shows the
subcutaneous tissue over an area of two square inches blanched and
necrotic ; around this the subcutaneous tissue is moist-looking, and
its vessels are injected. On section the necrosis is found to extend
into the subjacent muscular tissue for the depth of a quarter of an
Royal Veterinary College.
125
inch. Cardiac muscle abnormally pale ; surface of heart shows a
spot of commencing pericarditis. Posterior fourth of left lung in a
condition of dense croupous consolidation. Abdominal organs nor-
mal. Cover-glass preparations showed immense numbers of the
short bacteria in the hepatised lung, and about one bacterium
for every three or four red corpuscles in blood from the heart. The
bacteria were also fairly numerous in a cover-glass preparation made
from the surface of the heart.
Experiment II. — Inoculated a full-grown turkey-cock with an
agar culture of the bacterium (third generation from the turkey of
Experiment I.). The growth on the surface of the agar was sus-
pended in sterilised bouillon, about twenty drops of which were
injected with a sterilised syringe underneath the skin of the neck.
On the following day the turkey was obviously ill — refused food,
purging, wattles livid, feathers ruffled. On the second day it was
much worse, respiration
partly oral, frequent open-
ing and closing of the
beak. It was found dead
fifty-three hours after in-
oculation.
Post-mortem. — Car-
cass very well nourished,
fat abundant. No swell-
ing at seat of inoculation.
Abdominal organs appear
normal. No obvious peri-
carditis. Blood in heart
firmly clotted. Right
lung almost entirely hepa-
tised, the lesion exactly
repeating that present in
the spontaneous cases.
Hepatised lung appears
much swollen, dark in
colour, and firm on sec- Fra. 4
tion, with a slightly mot-
tled cut surface. As regards its swollen appearance and its con-
sistence, the hepatised lung recalls the solidification of bovine pleuro-
pneumonia. Cover-glass preparations showed that the short bacteria
were enormously abundant in the hepatised lung, and cultures made
from the lung on agar yielded numerous colonies of the same bacteria,
with one or two colonies from other organisms apparently acci-
dentally present.
Three other experiments with turkeys, the details of which need
not be given here, had a like result, the turkey in each case dying
within seventy-two hours after infection, and exhibiting at the post-
mortem a pneumonia identical with that present in the turkeys
which had contracted the disease naturally. Moreover, in each
case the same short bacterium was present in immense numbers in
126 Annual Report for 1893 from the Principal of the
the inflamed lung, as was ascertained by a microscopie examination
and by making cultures.
These experiments, therefore, sufficed to prove that this bac-
terium was the actual cause of the outbreak among the farm turkeys.
Numerous experiments have since been made to test its virulence
for other animals ; and its characters in respect of size, mode of
staining, and appearances when cultivated on various substances
have been studied. As a result it has been definitely established
that the bacterium constitutes a new species, in many respects closely
related to the germ of fowl cholera, but easily distinguished from
that by its feeble virulence for pigeons and fowls.
Diseases caused by Animal Parasites.
Inflammation of the Intestines caused by Worms. — During the
year several cases have come under observation in which fatal
disease was excited in
horses by the presence
of the Strongylus tetra-
canthus. The most ag-
gi’avated case was the
one from which the pre-
paration represented in
tig. 4 was taken. The
lining membrane of the
large bowel of this colt
was inflamed through-
out, but even close in-
spection with the naked
eye might have failed
to detect the cause of
this inflammation, al
though that became
very obvious on micro-
scopic examination. A
small quantity of liquid
scraped from the sur-
face of the large bowel at any point and magnified about thirty
times showed young worms of the above-mentioned species in great
numbers (see fig. 4). In all the cases investigated the history was
the same. The disease occurred in colts at grass or recently taken
up from grass, and the symptoms present were unthriftiness, soon
followed by most obstinate diarrhoea and rapid loss of condition.
Some of the cases died in spite of the liberal administration of worm
medicines. Probably early diagnosis, which might be made from a
microscopic examination of the fseces, and prompt treatment are all-
important in determining success.
In five cases from different farms very similar symptoms in
young cattle were found to be due to the presence of a minute
strongyle in the fourth stomach and the bowel. In all of these
Royal Veterinary College.
127
cases the symptoms were at first ascribed to tuberculosis, and it is
very probable that mistakes of this kind in diagnosis are not un-
common.
Great mortality among young pheasants was in one case found
to be caused by the parasite of which a photograph is shown in fig. 5.
This is a very minute parasite (a psorosperm), differing from the
Coccidium oviforme of the rabbit only in point of size. Assuming
that it has a life-history similar to the last-named organism, it is
probable that the egg-shaped structures are passed out with the
faeces of diseased birds, and then resolve themselves into spores,
which are taken in with the food, and thus infect fresh individuals.
Medicinal treatment in such a case would probably be impracticable
or of little avail, and the course indicated is to take perfectly fresh
ground for rearing the pheasants.
Pneumonia caused by Worms. — In a few cases very serious mor-
tality among sheep was found to be caused by the Strongylus
ru/escens. The adult
worms of this species
are easily overlooked
at the post-mortem,
as they are consider-
ably smaller than the
well-known Strongy-
lus Jilaria, and fre-
quently are found ex-
clusively in the very
minute bronchi, or
even in the air-cells
of the lung. Here the
female worms lay their
eggs and the young
embryos are hatched.
The lung lesion takes
the form of scattered
greyish patches of ca-
tarrhal pneumonia, and
by placing a scraping from such a patch under the microscope a
correct diagnosis can readily be made (see fig. 6). The disease
attacks sheep of any age and at any season of the year.
QUARTERLY REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL
COMMITTEE.
March, 1894.
Since the publication of the last Quarterly Report nine cases have
been brought to the notice of the Chemical Committee. Seven of
these refer to linseed cakes, one to boiled bones, and one to a
manure called “ Silicate manure.” In five of the seven cases con-
128 Quarterly Report oj the Chemical Committee , March, 1894.
cerning linseed cakes the purchases were made with a distinct
guarantee of purity.
1. In the first instance, tons of “linseed cake ” were bought
from a local dealer, who signed one of the Society’s “ contract notes ”
guaranteeing the purity and good condition of the delivery, though
it turned out that he had not the maker’s authority for so doing.
The cake was, after analysis, described by Dr. Yoelcker as “a bad
cake, containing a large quantity of weed seeds, as well as other
impurities. Rape and spurrey are present in abundance, also
mustard, polygonum, cockle, &c., besides over 3 per cent, of
sand.”
2. In a second case, a linseed cake was found to be “ mouldy
and acid, and not in fit condition for feeding.”
3. A delivery of cake sold as “ linseed cake ” was found on
analysis to be composed partly of linseed, partly of locust bean.
The vendor admitted the mistake to be his in transhipping another
quality of cake for that ordered, and he allowed 10s. a ton on it.
4. A delivery of linseed cake, costing 81. 10s. per ton in Liverpool,
was found to contain no less than 6| per cent, of sand. The pur-
chaser would not give particulars as to the transaction.
5. A delivery of cake manufactured in Hull was sold by a small
local vendor to a member of the Society, who received with it a
guarantee of its containing “12 per cent, linseed oil.” Analysis
showed it to have 10'34 per cent, only of oil, and that this oil was
not derived only from linseed, but also from rape, spurrey, cockle,
mustard, and numerous other weed seeds, and that there was rice
husk and over 4 per cent, of sand in the cake as well. On inquiry it
proved that the vendor had given the guarantee in ignorance, and
had received none from the manufacturers.
6. A delivery of cake sold merely as “ oil cake ” contained 5 per
cent, of sand.
7. A delivery purchased as “ containing from 10 to 12 per cent,
of oil ” (the vendor concluding the oil to be linseed oil) was merely
invoiced as “ oil cake,” and though costing as much as pure linseed
cake, viz., 81. 10s. per ton, was found to contain, besides linseed, a lot
of rape, earth-nut, and other weed seeds.
8. A purchase of £-inch bones, on a guarantee of their contain-
ing 3 35 per cent, of nitrogen and 40 to 45 per cent, of phosphates,
was sold at 6 1. 15s. per ton, and was found, after analysis, to have
only 2’91 per cent, of nitrogen and 5354 per cent, of phosphate of
lime, being thus a mixture of raw and boiled bones, and not J-inch
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, March , 1894. 129
bones. The error was admitted, and though full particulars were
not forthcoming, a considerable allowance was made.
9. Mr. W. W. Berry, of Gushmere Court, Selling, near Faversham,
sent, on February 13, a sample of what had been recommended to
him as a manure for fruit, and specially for grapes. It was called
“Patent Silicate manure,” and the price was 71. per ton.
On Dr. Voelcker inquiring under what guarantee the material
was sold, the following letter was forwarded by Mr. Berry : —
The Patent Silicate Manure Co. The Chemical Works,
Hemel Hempstead, Herts.
Mr. W. W. Berry, Selling. February 13, 1894.
Dear Sir, — In reply to yours re analysis of our manure, we beg to say
that, with the exception of a trace of ammonia, our manure contains none
of the ordinary ingredients of manures. As these are what analysts look for
and report on, they are disappointed. The composition of our manure is a
secret — and of course we do not explain it. Many attempts have heen {sic)
by competent chemists.
If the effects of our manure were due to the presence of ordinary in-
gredients, they would he similar. But the early ripening and colouring of
fruit is due to its difference. This is obvious. — Yours faithfully,
(Signed)] P. S. M. Co.
Patent Silicate Manure, artificially compounded, and containing a trace of
nitrogen — guarantee under Feeding Stuffs Act.
Dr. Voelcker reported on the material as follows
February 28, 1894.
Moisture
Organic matter, water of combination, &c.
5-65
Sulphate of lime .....
. 20o3
Oxide of iron, alumina, &c.
1-96
Insoluble silicates and sand
. 66-81
100-00
1 containing nitrogen ....
•88
equal to ammonia ....
107
Soluble silicates ....
•60
“ The material contains no phosphates. Beyond some sulphate of lime
(gypsum) and a little ammonia, it contains no fertilising ingredients, and
flint and gypsum would, with a sprinkling of ammonia salts, make quite as
good a manure.”
March 6, 1894.
Emlyn,
Chairman.
VOL. 'V. T. S. — 17
K
130
IRotes, Communications, anb
IRcviews.
PANICS IN SHEEP, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO THAT OF DECEMBER 4, 1893.
Sheep are notoriously timid and nervous animals, and are not only
highly susceptible of coming changes in the weather (as evidenced
by their nervous activity and tendency, when folded, to jump the
hurdles), but are apt to exhibit fright at purely imaginary dangers,
or at all events at causes of supposed danger, which, whatever porten-
tous shapes they may assume to the eyes of the sheep, are not apparent
to human beings. Witness the behaviour exhibited by sheep on
some occasions when passing through a gateway.1
We should accordingly expect sheep to be peculiarly liable to
that form of unreasoning fear which has, for want of a better
word, been generally known as panic. And, in point of fact, panics
among sheep, extending over considerable tracts of country, have
happened more than once in England.
To mention the most recent instance previous to the one to be
treated of in this paper : on the night of November 3, 1888, at
about 8 p.m., tens of thousands of folded sheep were seized with
sudden fright, jumped the hurdles, and stampeded. They were
found by the shepherds early the next morning, under hedges and
in roads, panting and terror-stricken. This panic took place in the
country north-west and east of Reading, every large farm from
Wallingford to Twyford being affected, and those on the hill-
country north of the Thames most so. It was an intensely dark
night, with occasional flashes of lightning. A suggestion was made
that there had been a slight earthquake, which was not otherwise
perceptible, but no evidence in support of the suggestion was forth-
coming.2
Various causes for these panics have been suggested, but
hitherto no reasonable one has been satisfactorily adduced.
On the night of December 4, 1893, another very remarkable
panic among sheep occurred in the northern and middle parts
1 I particularly noticed this on Estancias in Uruguay, chiefly devoted to
wool, among the large flocks of both Merino and English sheep, which, of
course, live in a much wilder state than sheep in England.
2 Annual Register, vol. cxxx. ; Science Gossip, March, 1889.
Panics in Sheep.
131
of Oxfordshire, extending into adjoining parts of the counties of
Warwick, Gloucester, and Berks. Individual farmers on finding
the next morning that their sheep (almost all sheep in this part of
the country are folded or “penned” on turnips on the arable land
at that time of year) had broken out during the night, and observ-
ing that the condition of the pens and hurdles, as well as of the
sheep themselves in some cases, pointed to the fact of the sheep
having been severely frightened, naturally concluded that they had
been worried by a dog ; some, finding that the sheep exhibited no
marks of being worried, concluded that they had only been frightened,
perhaps by a dog, perhaps by a fox ; others applied to the police.
The result of any inquiries made by the police, or privately, or by men-
tioning the fact among neighbours, however, was to elicit the fact
that the panic had extended over a very large tract of country, and
that unless it was allowed that all the dogs and foxes in the district
had with concerted action simultaneously arisen and attacked
hundreds of flocks on the same night, this attempt to account for
the panic would have to be abandoned. The panic was then
attributed by all flock-owners (save one, who seemed very loth to
exonerate some sparrow-catching boys !) to some atmospheric or
meteoric cause, or to an earthquake.
As the subject of the susceptibility of various birds and animals,
not excepting the human species, to atmospheric changes, and especi-
ally to changes in the weather, had then recently been occupying my
attention, I felt some interest in investigating the facts of the panic,
and in ascertaining the cause, if possible. With this end in view I
wrote a letter to one of our county newspapers, asking for information
as to the extent of country over which the panic extended. The chief
result of this letter was that I received one from Lord Moreton, in
which he did me the honour to ask me to contribute a paper upon
the subject of the sheep panic to this J ournal. I had great pleasure
in undertaking to prepare a note on the occurrence, but I ought to
add here that the greater part of the information at my disposal was
collected and forwarded to me by Lord Moreton, who has all along
taken the greatest interest in the inquiry.
The general effects of the panic, and the results and consequences
of it, were, roughly speaking, the same in all cases, though in some
flocks the fright seems to have been greater and more lasting than
in others. Shepherds on going to the sheep on the morning of the
5th found the hurdles knocked down or broken, troughs and racks
overturned, and the sheep “ out ” and at varying distances from the
folds. To give a few examples : Mr. Willocks, agent to Lord Dillon,
at Ditchley, writes of Ditchley Model Farm : —
My shepherd found the ewes had broken out of their pens, in several
places all round, and eight huidles were broken in two, and several stakes
were broken over level with the ground. The ewes were found in the
morning about 300 yards from their pen. They had travelled direct north,
and were lying down at the side of the carriage-drive.
K 2
And of a farm at Taston Mr. Willocks writes : —
132
Panics in Sheep,
A tenant of ours, about two miles north-west from Ditchley, had all his
feeding sheep mixed up together, hurdles broken, racks and troughs heaped
up together, and some of the sheep were hurt.
Mr. Charles Calvert, of Fairspeir House, Ascott-under-Wych-
wood, writes : —
My sheep broke loose, overturning some of their racks and troughs. . . .
The shepherd next morning found them scattered about the adjoining fields,
apparently not much the worse for their panic.
Mr. A. Hay ley Gregson writes of Potter’s Hill Farm, Witney,
Oxon : —
I found the 200 ewes and 110 fatting sheep (penned 500 yards one from
the other) had broken their folds. Every trough and rack were overturned,
one ewe lying on its back dead, apparently thrown in the rush and unable
to regain its legs ; two more ewes had been on their backs for some time, as
shown by the marks in the soft ground. I noticed that the ewes, after
breaking from the fold, stopped directly and fed, as if their fright was the
matter of a moment or so’s duration.
And of High Lodge Farm, near Fairspeir : —
The whole of the sheep on that farm had been seized with the same
panic, but although one was held in some netting no losses resulted.
In other cases, however, the effect of the fright was more lasting.
Mr. A. F. Douglas, agent to Mr. Freeman Mitforcl. at Batsford,
Moreton-in-Marsh, reports of Mr. Dugdale’s sheep on Sezincot
Farm, which broke out, knocking the hurdles down, but remaining
beside the fold, although outside it : —
Ever since that night, until the moon began to shine in the morning, the
sheep have been very frightened, and whenever they heard the shepherd’s
footstep would get up in a startled way and huddle together till they heard
his voice. Never used to do so before.
Also of Batsford Home Farm : —
Three lots of sheep were in the field — two lots of feeding sheep, one lot
of breeding ewes. The latter were in a more sheltered place than the feed-
ing sheep. The feeding sheep knocked down, and more or less broke, about
twenty hurdles. All the troughs and racks in their pens were knocked over.
Two sheep seem to have separated themselves from the others and rushed
down the field ; one fell over a clump of roots, and evidently lay there for
some time, presumably either stunned or cast on its back. The other feed-
ing sheep went down the field and joined the breeding ewes, and were
found outside their fold in the morning.
And of Lower Lemington Farm, near Batsford : —
Sheep broke down about four hurdles and raced partly over the field,
and were found in the morning, some lying down, others quietly eating some
unburied roots. Were very frightened in the morning for some time after.
It may be remarked that Batsford Home Farm is at an altitude
of nearly 1,000 feet.
ivith Special Reference to that of December 4, 1893. 133
It was suggested that the panic might have a disastrous effect
upon the spring lambing, which is rather early on the brashy and
limestone districts in West and North-west Oxfordshire. But very
little information upon the point has reached me. Mr, C. Calvert,
writing early in J anuary, says
I regret to add that two dead lambs have been bora since, and I fear
that there will be some more.
Mr. Willocks writes, on January 12, from the Ditchley Model
Farm : —
I have bad one ewe slip since — ewe died — and one ewe died with dead
lambs in her ; the other ewes that have lambed are doing well, and the
lambs are healthy.
In the northern part of Oxfordshire, where few lambs are dropped
before February, I have at present heard of no unusual proportion
of dead lambs being born.
The fact has been noticed and remarked upon that these panics
in sheep always take place among those that are folded. One
answer to this remark is that in December nearly all the sheep in this
part of the country are penned upon the arable land ; another is that
where sheep are running loose in a big grass-field signs of their
having experienced a panic in the previous night would be very
difficult to detect.
The point, however, should not be lost sight of, and the following
information, supplied by Mr. Willocks, bears upon it : —
Lees Best Farm: Mr. Harwood . . . bad bis ewes and feeding sheep
penned in one field, the ewes in a large pen, and their hurdles were not dis-
turbed ; but the feeding sheep, which were in ordinary -sized pens [italics
are mine], were mixed up together, and had broken out of their different
pens. . . .
Hill Barn Farm: Mr. Fowler. (On the Blenheim estate, and adjoining
the above farm on the south-east.) Mr. Fowler keeps about 400 feeding in
small lots', they were all mixed up together, but no sheep killed. Ewes
were not penned, and no sign of their being disturbed was traceable [italics
are mine].
With regard to the extent of country over which the panic
spread, although we have information which has enabled us to
trace its effects in a large number of parishes, I have made no
effort to ascertain its farthest limits ; nor do I think it necessary
or desirable to do mere in this direction than to show that the
panic did extend over a considerable tract of country. For, grant-
ing that the cause was meteorological (as I think will be admitted
when this paper has been perused), it follows that the extent of
the panic would be co-extensive with that of the meteorological
phenomenon, and this is rather a subject for determination by
meteorologists.
Taking the town of Chipping Norton, in North-west Oxfordshire,
as a starting-point, we trace the panic northwards as far as Brailes,
in Warwickshire, and Shipton-on-Stpur, and north-eastwards
134
Panics in Sheep,
thence to Mollington, five miles north of Banbury. Proceeding
southwards from Chipping Norton, it extended past Sarsden and
Burford, across the Isis to Coleshill, near Faringclon, in Berkshire, and
is believed to have gone still farther, to Wantage. We trace it all
the way from Banbury to Woodstock (but I heard nothing of it east
of the Cherwell Valley, although I have no proof that that part of
Northamptonshire was not affected), and on to Standlake, on the
Isis. W estwards we hear of it at Batsford, near Moreton-in-Marsh,
and Northleach, in Gloucestershire.
From Mollington, in North Oxon, southwards to Coleshill is not
less than 36 miles.
W e have been able to fix the time at which the panic took place
with some approach to accuracy. It happened early in the night, at
sometime probably between 7.30 and 9 p.m., varying a little in dif-
ferent places, and usually taking place a little after 8 o’clock.
Mr. James Bliss’s shepherd at Little Rollright thinks that as
the sheep had not cleared up their last meal the panic seized them
between 8 and 9 o’clock. Mr. Calvert writes that at Fairspeir
House, Ascott-under-Wychwood, they broke out, as far as could be
ascertained, at about a quarter to 9 o’clock. Mr. Stanbra, foreman
on a farm at Cold Harbour, on the Heythrop estate, just as the
sudden thick darkness (to be alluded to subsequently) came on, at
about 8.45 p.m., met the ewes, or rather heard them coming ; he could
not see them, but he spoke to them, and they seemed to come to
him for safety. Mr. Hayley Gregson writes : —
I have tried to ascertain the time of the fright, and found beyond a
doubt that the whole thing happened at, I should say, the same moment,
and some time between eight and nine o’clock — nearer, I should say, nine
than eight. My Potter’s Hill shepherd’s wife heard the noise caused by
sheep rushing through their fold a few minutes before nine (the ewes hap-
pened to be folded close to tbe shepherd’s house), but did not tell her hus-
band, who was in bed, until later. At 3 a.m. he got up, being unwell, and
then saw or heard the sheep moving about outside the fold. He went to
them, and found one ewe dead and stiff. Another point fixing the time was
that the school treat was given in Leafield that night, and the children
returning about nine found the Fairspeir flock of ewes out of their fold and
huddled together by the gate they wished to go through. The children also
at High Lodge heard the sheep on that farm about the same time moving
about uneasily.
Mr. T. E. Robertson, of the Estate Office, Coleshill, Highworth
(at the southern extremity of the affected district, so far as we have
traced it), puts the time down as between 8 and 10 o’clock. Mr. A.
F. Douglas, Estate Office, Batsford, Moreton-in-Marsh, informs us
that when the shepherd left the sheep, about 5 o’clock, all their racks
and troughs were full of food, and this must have been finished
before the scare took place, as there was no food spilt by the over-
turning of the racks. P.C. Sirman, stationed at Shipton-under
Wychwood, having inquired into supposed cases of sheep-worrying,
informs us that, from the inquiries he made, he had no doubt most of
the sheep got out early in the night. On the Wayhouse Farm,
icith Special Reference to that of December 4, 1893. 135
Bloxham, the sheep were said by some boys, who were occupied in
clap-netting, to have been out at about 7.30 p.m.
From inquiries I made immediately after the panic I had an idea
that the flocks affected were invariably on high ground, while those
which were in valleys (which very few are in winter, the valleys
being chiefly grass-land) escaped. Further information which came
to hand, however, showed that there were too many exceptions to this
rule for any theory to be founded upon it alone. Nevertheless, it has
been ascertained that (with one notable exception, and some others)
sheep folded on high-lying land and hills were nearly all affected,
while some which were in the valleys escaped. In treating of the
cause of the panic I shall have occasion to refer to this matter
again, but I may here mention that, while most of the sheep in my
own parish (Bloxham) stampeded, those of Mr. J. Barrett, which
were in a valley, did not ; nor did those on Mr. Fawdrey’s farm
(Choicehill), in the parish of Over Norton, which were penned in a
valley ; -while on adjacent farms (as Mr. Hayes, of Chipping Norton,
informs me), where the sheep were folded on higher ground, they all
broke out.
Some other exceptions within the district are worth noticing,
since in many cases it is impossible to give any reason why in the
case of farms, and even of flocks on the same farm, some of the sheep
should have stampeded and others should not. Several cases have
already been alluded to.
Mr. R. Angas, agent to the Duke of Marlborough on the
Blenheim Palace estate, writes : “I can hear of no scare in this
immediate neighbourhood.” 1 Mr. H. A. Warriner, agent to Lady
Camperdown, writes : “ On this farm (Weston Park, Shipston-on-
Stour) the sheep did not break out, but they did on nearly every
other farm round here,” including Lady Camperdown’s Long Compton
Farm, where both ewes and tegs broke out (the former were lying
on land about 650 ft. level, the latter, perhaps, 80 or 90 ft. lower).
At Sutton-under-Brailes (about 380 ft. only), about one and a
half mile distant from Weston, they were out. Weston is about
650 ft. above sea level. On Bloxham Grove Farm, near Banbury,
Mr. W. H. Warriner tells me that their ewes, penned upon a level
bit of high-lying land, about 390 ft. altitude, broke out (as did sheep
on neighbouring farms), while their wether tegs, not a quarter of a
mile away, on land sloping a little to N.E., did not stampede. Mr.
W. H. Stilgoe, of Adderbury, who had two lots (in two fields
separated by a hedge) on the same level, tells me that one lot broke
and the other did not. The sheep on the large flat and very open
field called “ Farm Field,” at Banbury, did not stampede. Mr. John
Addy, of South Lawn, Burford, states that none of his sheep were
out. This farm adjoins Potter’s Hill, where the stampede was very
violent. The South Lawn sheep were at about 500 ft. level, on a
plateau. Mr. Willocks reports that on Mr. Mace’s farm, about
one mile due north of, and many feet higher than, Ditchley Model
Further information brought one case at least to our notice.
136
Panics in Sheep,
Farmhouse, there was not the slightest sign of any disturbance to
the flocks. He adds that the subsoil on the farm is of an entirely
different nature from the Ditchley land. But I do not attach any
importance to the question of geological formation, the red land (a
marlstone, holding a good deal of water and iron) of the northern
portion of Oxfordshire being so very different from the stone-brash
and limestone of West and Mid-Oxon and East Gloucester, although
the panic extended equally over both. On a farm at Fairspeir the
ewes were out, but the fatting sheep (half a mile away) were not,
though the troughs were overturned. The ewes on Adderbury
Manor Farm broke out, while the tegs on a slope of the Cherwell
Valley did not. Mr. Alfred Neild, of Bean, while sending us some
valuable information, and saying that his sheep at Chalford Green
had broken the hurdles down as if chased by dogs, adds : —
I have heard that sheep in the hollows were not so universally out as on
the hills, especially about Tew and beyond.
A slight earthquake has been suggested as the cause of the
panic. Mr. A. Hayley Gregson writes : —
I cannot help thinking that the sheep, which no doubt were lying down,
heard or felt a slight rumbling or tremor of the earth, caused possibly by
an earthquake too slight for anyone standing upright to observe, and yet
sufficient for an animal lying down to feel.
If this was the cause we ought to find that sheep panics of a very
violent character have taken place on those occasions when earth-
quakes very perceptible to human beings have affected England in
the night during that period of the year when sheep are usually
penned on the arable land. But I do not remember ever hearing
or reading anything to that effect.
Various meteorological causes (in addition to the causes of dogs,
foxes, boys, &c., which were at once dismissed when the extent of the
panic was realised) have also been advanced. Mr. Neild writes :
“ Another man at Finstock is said to have seen a wonderful meteor
at the same hour.” Mr. Calvert thought it might have been caused
by a sudden electrical or phosphorescent light playing fitfully on the
ground — a sort of will-o’-the-wisp. Mr. J. Clowes, of Dunthrop,
Chipping Norton, thought it was an electric disturbance, “ as we
had strong lightning during the night afterwards.” There were
also other reports of this phosphorescent light, but I have met with
no thoroughly satisfactory evidence of it, and it may be pointed out
that if it was the general cause of the panic all over the great
affected district, it would certainly have been actually seen by
many of the numerous people who must have been out of doors
during the early part of the night the panic took place. The same
may be said of the supposed meteor ; and upon this point it is instruc-
tive to observe that the extraordinary and brilliant meteor which
attracted so much attention on the night of January 26, 1894, and, as
noticed in the papers, even when the sky was covered with dense
clouds, illuminated the whole landscape with a light so bright that
ivitlb Special Reference to that of December 4, 1893. 137
objects became nearly as visible as in ordinary daylight, was not
accompanied or followed by any panic among the sheep. Lord
Moreton writes from Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, of this
meteor : —
Several people hereabouts saw the strong light — so strorig that our keeper
said that it was light enough to pick a pin off the ground.
I may now say that I have little doubt that the cause of the panic
in the sheep was not any kind of light, but simply thick darkness.
1 believe, though I have not evidence of actual instances at hand,
that panics which have occasionally happened amongst the horses
and working cattle of travellers in wild countries ; to big herds be-
ing driven down to the townships, or to the rail, in cattle countries ;
and even to troops in hostile countries, have always happened upon
intensely dark nights.
Very few people, probably, have ever been out in a really dark
night, and it is impossible for anyone who has not had this experi-
ence to imagine what it is like. So long as you can see, in an un-
lighted village at night, the difference between the roofs of the
houses and the sky, or, in the open fields, the difference between the
trees, or some line of high land and the sky, it is not a really dark
night, and it is perfectly possible to find your way easily, and to know
exactly where you are going if you are familiar with the country.
But directly you cease to be able to see these differences, you speedily
lose all sense of direction, and it is impossible to find your way. I
have twice, and twice only, been out in nights of this description, and
although in each case I had only a short distance to go, and was ex-
ceedingly familiar with the ground, I had the greatest difficulty in
getting home. In nights of this kind the sensation is that of being
shut up in a dark room — let anyone turn round twice in a perfectly
dark room, and try to walk straight to the door. A sensation of a
thick Egyptian darkness is felt. Had the sheep in Oxfordshire followed
the example of the fellaheen of former days in an Oriental accept-
ance of destiny, and not risen from their places until the darkness
had passed away, all might have been well.
It is quite possible to imagine human beings even, who have
lost their sense of direction in darkness of this kind, becoming
nervous. Still more easy is it to imagine timid, susceptible animals
like sheep being overcome by ungovernable terror, and then doing
as sheep do when frightened badly, viz. rushing violently in some
direction or other.
That a thick darkness of this kind descended upon the earth in
the early part of the night of December 4 (at a time agreeing with
that at which, so far as we know, the sheep stampeded) there is
abundant evidence to prove.
On that evening I was being driven in the village fly to a meet-
ing in a distant place, and was on the road from 6.15 to 7.30 p.m. ;
then walked up the village to the schoolroom, which I reached about
8 p.m. I only noticed that it was a still and very dark night, with
damp, heavy atmosphere. As to the degree of darkness in the village
138
Panics in Sheep,
I am unable to speak, as my conductor had a lantern. Late in the
night there were several flashes of lightning, but not until some time
after I had reached home, about 11.30 p.m. Mr. Henry Blea, inn-
keeper, of Bloxham, who keeps traps for hire, and is out a great deal
at night, says that on that night he was driving between South
Newington and Tew, on high ground, about 7 p.m., and that a thick
darkness came on, so that he could not see his hand in front of his
face, and he had to get down and lead his horse, as he had no idea
of where he was going. About 8 o’clock it got lighter, and he could
see very well. Mr. Stanbra, the foreman at Cold Harbour, was
coming from Swerford about 8.45 p.m., when the darkness came on
suddenly, just as if the clouds were down on the ground. It lasted
about half an hour, when he had to strike a light to see where he
was. Another account says : “ All at once he felt a curious sensa-
tion, as if the clouds were going to fall on him.” A writer in the
Chipping Norton Deanery Magazine (who also mentions a phos-
phorescent light, “to be seen at times playing on the ground,” but
does not say who saw it or where it was seen) says : —
It was between 8 and 9 p.m. when such a thick and heavy darkness came
on that a man could not see his own hand.
P.C. Sirman, stationed at Shipton-under-Wychwood, writes: —
Respecting the weather on that night there was nothing unusual, except
that a little before 8 o’clock there was an extraordinary black cloud
travelling from north-west to south-east, which appeared to be rolling along
the ground. I was on a hill at the time, and as it passed over it was very
dark. This lasted for about thirty or forty minutes, and during that time it
was like being shut up in a dark room.
He adds that, as the sheep which he heard of being out were on
high ground, he believes they must have been frightened at the
unusual blackness of this cloud.
The following reports were received from superintendents of the
Oxfordshire Constabulary. Superintendent Sutton, at Chipping
Norton : —
I beg to report that none of the P.C.’s of this division noticed anything
unusual on the night, except that it was very dark during the early part.
The Superintendent at Witney reports that his men noticed no-
thing. Superintendent Jennings, of Banbury, reports that P.C. Lam-
bourne at Swalcliffe, P.C. Bizzel at Hornton, P.C. J ustice at Wroxton,
and Inspector Wright at Deddington, each informed him that from
6 to 8 p.m. on the night of December 4 they saw a very thick
black cloud descend, which seemed to rest on the earth until about
8 P.M. ; it was so thick that they could scarcely find their way
along with their lamps ; that later on it got light again ; and that
the cloud appeared to have come from the direction of Kineton,
Edge Hill, Hornton, Wroxton, Swalcliffe, for Dunston and
Deddington.
Animals probably see perfectly well on ordinary dark nights
with Special Reference to that of December 4, 1893. 139
and we can easily imagine a bewilderment — an entire loss of
confidence if I may so express it — overtaking them when they
find themselves overtaken by a thick darkness in which they
can see nothing. In moving about they would knock against
their troughs and one another, and the first one that got a fright
from this and made a little rush would probably come into collision
with one or two others, and it would need nothing more to imbue the
whole pen with the idea that there was some cause for fear, occasioning
this rushing about. Then they would all make a rush, and their
terror and the momentarily recurring incentives to and aggravations
of it in the shape of collisions would only subside when they were
in the open, clear of one another and of their troughs and hurdles.
If this is a true explanation of the panic (and I confess I can see
no other), then it is at once clear why folded sheep are so much
more likely to suffer from these panics than are those in open
fields. The heavy, oppressive air accompanying this thick darkness ;
the susceptibility of sheep to any atmospheric disturbance ; and
the nervous, timid, and fanciful dispositions of these animals, must
all be taken into account in forming an opinion upon the probability
of the cause I have here assigned for sheep panics being the true one.
The cause of the panic being a thick black cloud rolling along
so low down as to (apparently) touch the ground, the tops of hills
and the high-lying ground would naturally be most affected ; and this
supposition is borne out by the facts adduced in this paper.
We also account in this way for the fact of flocks penned in
valleys, or (from the lie of the ground) in sheltered positions, being
unaffected.
The line of country also usually followed by storms — whether of
rain only or accompanied by thunder — which in a hilly country like
ours is generally rather well marked and fairly well known, may
explain why some parts of the district were not affected, while the
sheep on the farms all round stampeded.
To give only one instance of this. Lord Moreton took me to
the top of a low rounded hill at Sarsden, on which on the night of
the panic several flocks were penned, and told me that none of them
were at all disturbed. Some part or other of this hill (which at a
very rough computation contains about 5,000 acres) is exposed to all
four quarters of the compass, and from the top an extensive view
can be obtained ; the situation is therefore open and exposed.
From the top of the hill Lord Moreton pointed out a long line of
country passing at no great distance, along which, as far as we know,
the sheep stampeded on nearly every farm. Along this line many
thunderstorms pass which do not reach Sarsden and the hill above-
mentioned.
Some attempt was made to discover the direction from which
the cause of fright came by ascertaining on which side of the pens
the sheep broke out. Subjoined is the evidence.
Bloxham Grove Farm (Mr. W. H. Warriner) : E. or N.E.
140
The Work of the Geological Survey.
Witney (Mr. Gregson) :
The rush in most or all instances appears to have been from the west to
the east, as the hurdles were generally down on the east side of the folds.
Bloxham (Mr. Denchfield) : E.
Ditchley :
They had travelled direct north.
Sezincote :
Appears as if whatever frightened them came from the south.
Batsford Home Farm : Ditto.
Lower Lemington Farm : Ditto, or S.E.
Lord Moreton was told that in many, if not most, cases the sheep
broke out at the S.E.
P.C. Sirman says that the black cloud travelled from north-
west to south-east, and the evidence of the Banbury District
Constabulary points to its travelling from N. to S., or perhaps N.N.W.
to S.S.E. But supposing that the sheep fled from the advancing
darkness, which is not very likely, we could hardly expect the rush
to have taken the same direction in all cases when we remember the
hilly nature of the country and the effect of the lie of the land upon
the line taken by storms and clouds moving at a low elevation.
In conclusion I wish to tender my thanks to those who have
been kind enough to furnish the valuable and accurate information
upon which the above report on, and attempted explanation of, sheep
panics is founded ; without which it would, of course, have been impos-
sible to draw up this paper,
0. V. Aplin.
Bloxham, Banbury.
THE WORK OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.1
Before geology became organised into a definite branch of science
men had begun to perceive that one fundamental requisite as a
groundwork for the study of the rocks of the earth’s crust, alike in
their theoretical and industrial aspects, lay in the delineation of the
respective areas of these rocks upon maps. At first the maps so
constructed were merely rough representations of the general distri-
bution of the mineral masses. They were mineralogical, or, as it
was called then, geognostical, that is, they only aimed at an indica-
tion of the relative positions of the rocks at the surface. They
made no attempt to show the structure and sequence of the various
formations. It was not until the time of William Smith that
1 From a paper read by the Director-General of the Geological Survey
before the General Meeting of the Federated Institution of Mining Engineers,
and reprinted by special permission of the Council of that body,
The Work of the Geological Survey.
141
geology \Vas supplied with the means of determining the true
succession of the stratified rocks, apart from mere lithological
characters, which had previously been the only guide. Well may we
look back upon that great pioneer as the Father of English Geology.
In every department of the science we may trace the direct or
indirect influence of his fruitful labours. But in no branch of
investigation has this influence been more profound than in geological
map-making, and in the assistance which geological maps have
furnished to the onward progress of the science. The earliest truly
geological map, as distinguished from its geognostical or mineralogical
predecessors, was the famous map of England laboriously con-
structed by Smith himself after years of patient investigation, and
published in 1815-1819. The appearance of this map marks an
epoch in the history of the science. It showed for the first time
how the successive stratified formations of the earth’s crust could be
recognised and traced, apart altogether from their varying mineral
characters, and how the geological structure of one country could be
logically compared with that of other countries. In fulness, accuracy,
and artistic delineation, an enormous advance has been made during
the last three generations in the construction of geological maps,
but the initial impetus of this advance must unquestionably be traced
to the early surveys of William Smith.
We are all more or less familiar with the important share which
this country has taken in the development of modern geology. It is
perhaps not so generally recognised how much the science has been
aided here by the early delineation of the geological features of the
British Isles upon maps. What William Smith did for England
and Wales, MacCulloch did for Scotland, and Griffith for Ireland.
MacCulloch’s map, published in 1832, though less original than
Smith’s, and bearing more evident trace of the influence of the older
geognostical school of observers, was a remarkable achievement for
a single observer in a region so complicated in its geological structure
and, in the early decades of this century, so difficult to traverse.
Griffith had the advantage of coming later into the field, when
geological methods of observation had made considerable progress.
His great map of Ireland, published in 1846, is consequently much
more modern in its treatment of the subject. It will ever remain
a monument of extraordinary industry, sagacious observation, and
felicitous inference, employed in the investigation of a country
where, save in a few detached areas, he was practically the first
great pioneer.
But it was not only in the British Isles that the necessity for
geological maps was recognised as a basis for scientific progress in
the investigation of the earth’s history. I need only refer to the
first sketch of a geological map of France, Belgium, <fcc., by J.
d’Omalius d’Halloy (1822), to the excellent map of France by
Dufrdnoy and Elie de Beaumont (1840-42), and to the early maps
of Desmarest, Dumont, Yon Dechen, Naumann, and other carto-
graphers in different parts of Europe.
Even the best of these early maps were confessedly mere outlines.
142
The Work of the Geological Survey »
•Their scale was small, and their topography often meagre and even
inaccurate. For geological research they were inadequate, while for
industrial purposes they were entirely insufficient and even in some
degree misleading. The connexion between geological investigation
and many practical affairs in daily life had now begun to be perceived.
In this country the first geologist who devoted himself to the de-
velopment of this connexion was Henry Thomas de la Beche — a
name which we regard with pride and affection as that of one of the
greatest leaders of the science whom Britain has produced. Having
begun to study the geological structure of Devon, Cornwall, and
West Somerset, he became greatly interested in the many problems
which the rocks of that region present. He saw that an accurate
delineation of the courses of the mineral veins, elvans, and faults
through the masses of killas and granite could not but be of the
utmost service in the prosecution of the mineral industry on which
the prosperity of the country so largely depended. Accordingly,
supplying himself with the Ordnance maps on the scale of one inch
to a mile, he began, with a few assistants and at his own charges,
to map the details of the geology. Impressed with the national
importance of the work which he had undertaken, he made application
to the Government of the day for assistance and recognition. In
the year 1832 he obtained a small Parliamentary grant-in-aid, and
in successive years he was able to so influence the official mind
in favour of the views which he advocated that in the end he had
the gratification of establishing a Geological Survey of the kingdom
as one of the scientific undertakings of the nation, with an affiliated
School of Mines, a Museum of Practical Geology, and a Mining
Record Office. His aim was to conduct the whole establishment on
the basis of strictly scientific investigation, but to afford in every
possible direction all the aid which geology could furnish to mining
industry, engineering works, agricultural progress, and other practical
affairs. This design, broadly conceived by him, was efficiently
carried into execution. The Geological Survey which he founded
grew under his fostering care and that of his successors, and became
the parent and model of the other national surveys which have
since been organised so plentifully both in the Old World and in
the New.
Without attempting to give, even in outline, a history of the
progress of our Geological Survey, I propose to offer some details as
to the nature and extent of the work that is now carried on by the
Survey. The designs so ably planned by Sir Henry de la Beche
were extended by his successor, Sir Roderick Murchison, and were
further improved by my predecessor, Sir Andrew Ramsay. Since
my own appointment as Director-General, in 1881, I have been
enabled to introduce other modifications that tend to still greater
efficiency. But essentially the organisation and methods remain
as they were planned by the first founder of the service.
The Geological Survey is now divided into three distinct branches
— one for each of the three kingdoms — but united and kept in
organic connexion under one Dii’ector-General. Each staff has its
The Work of the Geologiccd Survey.
143
separate organisation, but its members may be interchanged. It
consists of two grades : (a) district surveyors, geologists, and assis-
tant geologists, whose chief duty, under the superintendence of
their director, is the preparation of the maps, sections, and memoirs,
and ( b ) collectors, who, under the supervision of the other officers,
search for fossils and collect specimens of minerals and rocks for
determination and for exhibition in the museums. There is an office
and likewise a museum in London, Edinburgh, and Dublin. Each
branch has thus its own headquarters, with a small resident staff, the
head office for the whole Survey being the establishment at 28 Jermyn
Street, London, S.W. The total strength of the service in the United
Kingdom, including the officers engaged in museum work, is at pre-
sent 60. As the duties are practically the same in each branch of
the Survey, I shall treat the whole as one service and describe its
work under the following heads : — 1st, mapping ; 2nd, petrogra-
phical determination ; 3rd, palaeontological determination ; 4th, the
collecting of rocks, minerals, and fossils ; 5th, the preparation of
maps, sections, and memoirs for publication ; 6th, museum work ;
7th, general administration ; 8th, relations of the service to other
Government departments and to the general public, as regards the
furnishing of geological information.
I. Mapping.
The first and most important duty of the Survey is to map in
detail the geological structure of the country. When this task was
first undertaken by De la Beche and his associates they employed
the Ordnance Survey maps on the scale of 1 inch to a mile
which had then been published for Cornwall and Devon. These
early Ordnance sheets, however, were imperfect and incorrect in
their topography, having been among the first undertakings of the
Ordnance Survey, before methods of surveying had been brought to
the perfection that has since been attained. The connexion
between the Geological and the Ordnance Surveys was at first so
intimate that the former was instituted as a subsidiary branch of the
latter. The geologists belonged to the “ Ordnance Geological Sur-
vey,” and though they were never under military orders, they wore
a uniform. The only surviving relics of that connexion are some of
the waistcoat buttons, which on festive occasions continued to be
worn after the rest of the raiment had disappeared. But from the
first, and up to the present day, the Ordnance maps have been the
basis on which all the geological work has been conducted. We
have heard much in the last few years of the inaccuracies and im-
perfections of these maps. But the experience of the Geological
Survey does not bear out this charge. I do not suppose that these
maps have ever been put to a severer test than by the officers of the
Geological' Survey, who have carried them into every nook and
corner of the country, from coast- line to mountain-top, and have
checked them in many ways while fixing the positions of geological
lines. It is, of course, admitted that the old 1-inch maps are un-
144 The Work of the Geological Survey.
equal in value, and frequently imperfect or even inaccurate in their
topography. But since the Ordnance Survey was plotted on a large
scale the accuracy attained has been so great and so invariable as
to fill my colleagues and myself with admiration. It is on these
most excellent maps that our geological lines are traced upon the
ground, and on which they are ultimately engraved and published.
So that although the old outward bond of connexion between the
two Surveys has long been severed, the relationship between them
remains as intimate and cordial as it has ever been.
All the mapping of the Geological Survey is now conducted upon
the Ordnance maps on the scale of 6 inches to 1 mile (ro l 6TT). These
maps were not available in England and Wales until about two-
thirds of the country had been surveyed geologically, and it was
only in the northern counties that they could be adopted. In
Ireland, however, and in Scotland, they were obtainable from the
commencement of the geological operations, so that the whole of the
work has been conducted with them as a basis. It is impossible to
overestimate the gain, both in completeness and accuracy, from the
substitution of a large-scale map in the general investigation of a
complicated geological region. For example, no more admirable
piece of geological mapping had ever been achieved when the
Geological Survey maps of North Wales, by Ramsay and his col-
leagues, were published. That difficult region was surveyed on the
1-inch scale, and excellent though the work still is, it is far inferior
to what the same band of intrepid mountaineers could have ac-
complished had they had the good fortune to be furnished with
6-inch maps. Occasionally, when the structure becomes excessively
complicated and when its details require to be mapped out clearly
to be intelligible, maps on the scale of 25 inches to a mile are
made use of. Ultimately, however, all the work is reduced to the
1-inch scale, this being the scale on which the general geological
map of the United Kingdom is published.
Let me say a few words about the actual methods of geological
surveying. The question is often asked of us, Do we bore or dig 1
and when we answer in the negative, an incredulous smile may
often be seen on the face of the inquirer, who evidently at once
begins to doubt the trustworthiness of any surmises we may make
as to what lies concealed beneath the surface. In reality, however,
a trained geologist can generally tell, with a close approximation to
accuracy, the character and arrangement of the rocks underneath
his feet. There are many indications to guide him which do not
strike the eye of the ordinary observer. So far from being guess-
work, his conclusions are often based upon such an array of observed
facts as to be irresistible. The first experience of a recruit who
joins the service is to be trained in the practice of searching for
geological evidence. He soon learns how unobservantly he had
walked about before, and in how many ways he may detect indica-
tions as to the direction of geological boundaries, even when the
rocks themselves may generally lie out of sight. He finds that
moles and rabbits help him greatly, by throwing up the subsoil for
The Work of the Geological Survey.
145
his inspection. The farmer assists him as he ploughs and drains
the land. He is even indebted now and then to the gravedigger.
Every ditch and cutting may be made serviceable for his purposes.
Wells, quarries, pits, railway-cuttings, in short, every natural and
artificial exposure of the rocks, or of their detritus, may furnish him
with the information he requires. It does happen now and then
that, after fairly exhausting the evidence, he has to confess himself
puzzled. He cannot be quite sure how the rocks exactly lie and how
his boundary-lines should be made to run. In such cases we have
sometimes recourse in the Survey to the boring-rod, and by its
means we have been able in one or two localities to prove the
existence of formations of which no superficial evidence could be
obtained.
A member of the Geological Survey may start fully accoutred
for his work in the field without betraying by any outward visible
token what is his handicraft. His maps are carried in a portfolio
which slips into his pocket or hangs by a strap inside his coat. His
hammer goes into a sheath and belt round his waist. His clino-
meter, compass, notebook, lens, pencils, and other small items are
easily stowed away among his numerous and capacious pockets.
Thus lightly equipped he may make his way over any kind of
ground, ancl can spend a long day in the prosecution of his work.
Not only by minute observations of superficial detritus, but by
measurements of the dip of rocks, where these are exposed at the
surface, the observer may form tolerably accurate conceptions of the
nature and arrangement of the rocks underneath and of the depth
at which any given stratum may be expected to be reached. Thus
in questions of water-supply he may, from such superficial observa-
tions, predict with some confidence the distance to which a boring
must be sunk before a certain water-bearing stratum will be
reached.
(a) Drift Survey. — Geology had made considerable progress in
the study of the underlying solid rocks before much attention was
paid to the looser superficial deposits. The Geological Survey in
this respect followed the general rule, and for many years made no
systematic attempt to represent the numerous and often complex
accumulations of superficial materials. Some of these, indeed, were
shown on the maps, such as tracts of blown sand and river-alluvium.
But it must be remembered that in the south-western counties,
where the Geological Survey began its work, and in those where for
many subsequent years this work was continued, superficial deposits
are of such trifling extent and importance that they were not unnatu-
rally ignored. Only after most of the southern half of England had
been completed was it determined to map the surface-deposits with
as much care and detail as had been expended on the older forma-
tions lying beneath them. It had been discovered that this course
was necessary both on scientific and practical grounds. In the first
place, these superficial accumulations contained the records of the
later geological vicissitudes of Britain, and were beginning to reveal
VOL. V. T. S. — 17 L
146
The Worlt of the Geological Survey.
a story of the profoundest interest, inasmuch as it dovetailed with
the history of the human occupation of the country. In the second
place, it was recognised that in many various ways these surface-
deposits had a direct and vital influence upon the welfare of the
population. In agriculture, in water-supply, in questions of drain-
age and of the location of dwellings, it was seen that a knowledge
of the soils and subsoils, and of the formations from which these are
derived, was of the utmost practical importance. It was therefore
determined that thenceforth the Geological Survey should not only
portray the lineaments of the solid earth, but trace out the drifts
and other surface-deposits which, like a garment, overspread and
conceal them. It was impossible at first to go back over the ground
where the surface-geology had been omitted. But it was arranged
that when the whole country had once been mapped those tracts
should be re-examined wherein the superficial deposits had not been
surveyed. And, in the meantime, over all new areas the survey
was made complete by the tracing out both of the surface-deposits
and of the older rocks below them.
No one who has not given some personal study to the complicated
details of surface-geology can realise the amount of labour which the
mapping of them often involves. The distinctions between the
various superficial deposits, though real, are sometimes slight, and as
sections are frequently few and wide apart, and the deposits so
often occur in irregular patches, the ground has to be traversed with
a detailed scrutiny which is generally not required for the older
rocks underneath. Viewed broadly, the superficial accumulations
are grouped and mapped by the Survey in two leading series.
First come those which have resulted from the decay of rocks in situ,
and then those of which the materials have been transported into
their present position.
1. The first of these two series, in so far, at least, as it is capable
of being mapped, is mainly confined to the extreme southern fringe
of England. All over the three kingdoms, indeed, the weathering
of rocks has for ages been in progress, and here and there, especially
in the upland and mountainous districts, accumulations of rotted
rock may be observed at the foot of the crags and on the slopes. But
what can there be observed is only what has accumulated since the
last glaciers and ice-sheets scraped the loose detritus off the surface
to form parts of the great group of glacial deposits. South of a line,
however, drawn from the mouth of the Severn to the mouth of the
Thames this country seems never to have lain under a mantle of
moving land-ice, nor beneath a sea covered with drifting ice, though
fragmentary sheets of old marine gravels cap many of the plateaux,
and traces of probable ice-transport are found on the south coast.
The surface in this southern tract has thus been left undisturbed for
a great length of time. Its rocks have slowly decayed and their
debris has gradually accumulated above them with only such slight
transport as may have been due to the washing of rain and the sift-
ing of wind. We see the i-esults of this prolonged waste in the
The Work of the Geological Survey.
147
brick-earths, clay-with-flints, and other deposits, that form so
marked a feature on the Chalk Downs. Erom the Chalk districts
westward across the Jurassic, Devonian, and older formations, even
to the farthest headlands of Cornwall, every rock is more or less
buried under a covering or “ head ” of its own decayed material.
Sometimes, as on the Oolitic strata of Dorset or the killas of Corn-
wall, this upper decayed layer may be traced as a yellow or orange
band, varying from a few inches to many feet in thickness, con-
forming to the shape of the surface, and presenting a singular con-
trast to the black horizontal shales of the one coast and the purple
vertical slates of the other. In the interior, where natural or
artificial exposures of the rock are sometimes scarce, the spread of
this mantle of disintegrated material is a serious impediment to the
mapping of what lies underneath it.
2. But it is the second or transported series of surface-deposits
which chiefly engages the attention of the Survey. In mapping it
an effort has been made to discriminate each of its members, to
trace out their relations to each other, and to ascertain the con-
nected geological history of which they are the records. At the
same time, regard has been had to the practical applications of the
inquiry, the connexion between soil and subsoils has been kept in
view, pervious and impervious deposits have been distinguished,
and an endeavour has been made to collect and embody on the maps
as much information as possible concerning the practical bearings of
the surface-geology.
As an illustration of the detail into which the mapping in this
department has been carried, I may mention that under the
single term “ alluvium ” we now discriminate and indicate by
separate signs and colours a large number of distinct deposits.
Thus, there is a group of freshwater alluvia, beginning with the
present flood-plains of the rivers and rising by successive terraces
to the highest and oldest fluviatile platforms. Deposits of peat are
separately traced, and tracts of blown sand are likewise mapped.
Then there is another series, of marine alluvia ranging in position
and age from the mud of modern estuaries and the sands of flat
shores exposed at low water, through a succession of storm-beaches
and raised beaches, up to the highest and most ancient marine
terraces 100 feet or more above the present level of the sea. Re-
garding the origin of some of the high-level gravels there is still
much uncertainty, but the Survey has taken the first necessary step
for their ultimate explanation by carefully tracing their distribution
on the ground.
But the most abundant and complex group of superficial deposits
is that which may be classed under the old name of glacial drifts.
These have been mapped by the Survey in detail, and much of the
progress of glacial geology in this country has been due to the sedu-
lous investigation thus required. The ice-strise on the solid rocks
have been observed over so much of the country, that maps may
now be constructed to show both the march of the main ice-sheets
148
The Work of the Geological Survey.
and the position of the later valley-glaciers. The various boulder-
clays have been mapped, likewise the sands and gravels, the esker-
drifts, the marine shelly-clays, and the distribution of erratic blocks.
A vast amount of information has thus been collected regarding the
history of the Ice Age in most parts of the country. Even in the
southern or non-glaciated fringe which I have already referred to
one of the members of the staff has been able to detect interesting
evidence that though beyond the limits of the northern ice-sheets,
this southern tract nevertheless had its frozen soil and its rafts of
coast-ice. In the north of Scotland proofs have been obtained of
the long-lingering of the ice-fields in that region ; while in all the
mountainous districts the gradual retreat of the valley-glaciers, as
the climate grew milder, has been shown by mapping the successive
crescents of moraines, one behind the other, up to the very base of
the crags from the material of which they were formed.
The survey of the superficial deposits thus combines a wealth of
geological interest with a great deal of practical value. The geolo-
gist may find in it the solution of some problems and the presenta-
tion of many more, whilst the farmer, the water-engineer, the
builder, and the sanitary inspector may each in turn gain some
practical information from it for their guidance.
( b ) Solid Geology Survey. — By way of distinction the mapping
of the formations of every age that lie beneath the recent superficial
deposits is known as the survey of the “ solid geology.” The object
in this part of the work is to represent on the maps the exact area
which every formation or group of rocks occupies at the surface,
together with all indications that can be obtained of its structure,
such as its variations of inclination, its changes of lithological cha-
racter, and the dislocations by which its outcrop is affected. While
the basis of this work is rigorously geological, an effort is made to
ascertain and record any facts which may have an industrial bearing,
such as the presence of useful minerals, or the depth and variations
in thickness of water-bearing strata. The large scale on which the
Survey is conducted allows much local detail, both of a scientific and
a practical nature, to be inserted on the maps.
In those districts of the country where the rocks have long been
well-known and where the geological structure is simple the duties
of the surveyor are comparatively light, though it often happens in
these tracts that the simplicity of the solid geology is compensated
for by a great complexity in the overlying “ drifts.” Yet even
among formations that have long been familiar the diligent surveyor
may generally glean new facts or be able to throw new light on
facts which were already well-known. Thus only a few years ago,
even in a formation so well worked out as the Chalk, one of the
members of the Survey detected the existence of a phosphatic
deposit like those which have long been worked in the Chalk of
Belgium and France.
It is where the rocks are varied in character and complicated in
structure that the full working power of the Survey is called out.
The Work of the Geological Survey.
149
Take, for example, such a tract as that of the North-west Highlands
of Scotland. In that region the mere physical difficulties of the
ground are great. With a topography of exceeding ruggedness and
sometimes of great elevation, with a climate wetter and more
boisterous than almost any other to be met with in these islands,
and with quarters often of the most uncomfortable description, the
geological surveyor needs all his enthusiasm and ardour to carry him
bravely through these preliminary obstacles. But when he comes
to unravel the structure of the rocks he finds it almost incredibly
complex. Day after day he may be seen traversing the same face
of cliff, creeping from crag to crag, hammer in hand, heedless of the
eagle that sweeps out from its nest above him or the red deer that
breaks from its covert in the rocks below, his eye intent on the face
of each scar and cleft as he pauses to take his measurements or set
down his notes on map and notebook. He encounters varieties of
rock which he may be unable to identify by any of the simple tests
that can be applied in the field. He takes chips of these home with
him, and if they still offer difficulties he sends them up to the office,
where they are cut into thin slices and examined with the micro-
scope, or are chemically analysed, and a report embodying the results
of the examination is returned to him for his guidance, while he may
himself study the slides and verify or check the observations which
the petrographer has made upon them. Again, he may detect in
other rocks traces of organic remains, the importance of which he
at once perceives. Such specimens as he can himself collect are sent
up to the head office for determination by the paleontologists, and
upon their decision may depend the name to be assigned to the
fossiliferous rock and the colour and sign whereby it is to be desig-
nated on the published maps.
The complication of the “ solid geology ” in these north-western
regions is enough to tax to the utmost the capacity and the energy
of the surveyor. But he has besides all this to keep his eye ever
open to all the varying problems presented by the superficial deposits.
The ice-stria; on the rocks, the scratched stones high on the moun-
tain sides that mark where the “ till ” once lay, the varieties of
boulder-clay, the sand and gravel eskers, the scattered erratic blocks
and the detection of their probable sources of origin, the moraine
mounds fringing or filling the bottom of the glens, the sheets of
flow-peat and the rugged peaty mantle that hangs down from the
cols and smoother ridges, the recent alluvia and the successive
stream-terraces, the lines of raised beach and the estuarine silts — all
these and more must be noted by him as he moves along, and must
be duly chronicled on his map and among his notes.
It is obvious that the progress of a surveyor in such ground
cannot be rapid. If the work is worth doing at all, it should be
well done, and if well done, it must be done slowly and carefully.
It is evident also that the total area surveyed in a year, if given in
square miles, affords no guidance whatever as to the amount of
labour involved. There may be a hundredfold more exertion,
physical and mental, required to complete a single square mile in
150
The Work of the Geological Survey.
some districts than to fill in ten square miles in others. It is
customary in the service to estimate not only the area annually
surveyed by each officer in square miles, but also the number of
miles of boundary-line which he has traced. The ratio between
these two figures affords some measure, though an imperfect one, of
the comparative complexity or simplicity of the work. In simple
ground a surveyor need have no difficulty in mapping from 70 to 100
square miles in a year, each square mile including from 3 to 6 linear
miles of boundary. But in more rugged and difficult districts it is
often impossible to accomplish half of that amount of area. In these
cases, however, the ratio between area and boundary-lines usually
rises to a high proportion. Thus last year, in Argyllshire, the
average number of linear miles of boundary-lines was as much in
one district as 17 miles in every square mile surveyed.
In mining districts an endeavour is made to express on the maps
the positions of the outcrops of all seams and lodes, the line of every
important fault and dyke, with the place of such faults at the
surface, and where they cut different seams underground. For the
information necessary to record these data we are mainly indebted
to the owners and lessees of the mines and pits, who, as a rule, most
generously give us every assistance. Details, as far as possible, are
inserted on the 6 -inch Ordnance sheets. Copies are taken of borings
and pit-sections, and notes are made regarding variations in the
character of the seams or lodes from one part of a mineral field to
another. At the same time the district is surveyed in the usual
way, and by exhausting the surface-evidence the surveyor is not
infrequently able to supply important additional information beyond
what can be obtained from the mining-plans.
It is the necessary fate of all geological maps to become anti-
quated. For, in the first place, the science is continually advancing,
and the systems of arrangement of the rocks of the earth’s crust
are undergoing constant improvement, so that the methods of
mapping which satisfied all the requirements of science thirty years
ago are found to be susceptible of modification now. In the second
place, in the progress of civilisation new openings are continually
being made in the ground — wells, roads, drains, railways, and build-
ings are being constructed, whereby fresh light is obtained as to the
rocks below. Geological lines which were traced with imperfect
evidence can thus be corrected, and new lines which perhaps were
not suspected can be inserted. If this kind of obsoleteness over-
takes geological maps even where only superficial openings are con-
cerned, much more does it affect those which depict the structure of
mineral fields still actively worked. The geological maps of Devon,
Cornwall, and South W ales, made more than half a century ago by
De la Beche and his associates were for their time admirable in
conception and excellent in execution. Nothing approaching to
them in merit had then been produced in any part of the world.
But the mineral industry of the country has not been standing still
all these years. Enormous progress has been made in working the
The Work of the Geological Survey.
151
ores of the western counties and in developing the great South
Wales coal-field. Yet the maps remain as they were originally
published. The Geological Survey has of itself no power to under-
take revision, and much as we would like to see all the mineral fields
re-surveyed and brought up to date, we cannot go faster than Parlia-
ment will sanction or the Treasury will authorise. Two years ago,
in response to an important memorial from South Wales, we received
instructions to commence the re-survey of that coal-field, and the
work is now in active progress. I trust the day may not be distant
when similar revisions will be made of the other mineral-fields
which were surveyed many years ago on imperfect 1-inch maps.
The re-surveys of the mineral districts can now be carried out
on the 6-inch scale with a completeness and accuracy unattainable
when the original surveys on the 1-inch scale were made. In some
cases the maps of mining districts have been published on the 6-inch
scale, but where the sale is likely to be small, instead of incurring
the heavy expense of engraving the 6-inch sheets, we issue manu-
script copies of these sheets at the cost of manual transcription.
As an illustration of the kind of work undertaken by the Survey in
the mining districts, I may refer to the Maps, Sections, and Memoir
of the Yorkshire coal-field. There is no reason, save that of
expense, why all the mining districts of the country should not be
similarly treated.
Though systematic re-surveys are not undertaken by the
Survey without express sanction, it is customary to make minor
corrections which from time to time may be required in the published
maps. Those counties in the south and south-west of England of
which the superficial deposits were not originally mapped are now
undergoing revision for the “ Drift Survey,” and advantage is taken
of the re-examination of the ground for the insertion of the surface-
geology to make any needful alteration on the lines of the solid
geology.
II. Petrographical Work.
In the earlier days of the Geological Survey each member of the
staff determined for himself, by such tests as he could apply, the
various rocks encountered by him in the field. Only in rare cases
were chemical analyses made for him. The study of rocks had
fallen into neglect in this country, being eclipsed by the greater at-
traction of the study of fossils. The introduction of the microscope
into geological investigation has, however, changed this apathy into
active interest. It is now recognised that, apart from mere ques-
tions of nomenclature, rocks contain materials for the solution
of some of the most important problems in physical geology.
Accordingly, microscopic inquiry has in recent years been
organised as one of the branches of the Geological Survey, and now
affords constant and material aid in the progress of the mapping.
Chemical analyses are likewise made, so as to afford all available in-
152 The Work of the Geological Survey.
formation as to the composition of the mineral masses encountered
in the field.
When an officer engaged in mapping meets with rocks which
present difficulties, either as to their classification or as to their
bearings on the structure of the ground, he takes specimens of them,
which he numbers consecutively and sends up to the petrographer
at the office, who enters them in a book under the name of that officer,
and keeps a record of the destination of each. Those specimens
which are selected to be sliced are numbered consecutively in the
order in which they are cut, and are entered in books kept for the
purpose. When they have been microscopically studied, described,
and named, they are again entered in two distinct catalogues, one
of which is arranged according to the sheets of the 1-inch map,
and the other according to petrographical types. Every sliced
specimen is thus entered four times, and every specimen sent up for
examination (whether sliced or not) can at once be found. A report
is made out by the petrographer and sent back to the officer, who is
thus put in possession of all the details which can be furnished to
him regarding the rocks about which he needed assistance. In
many cases the thin slices are also sent to the surveyor, who often
spends his evenings in the study.
The original specimens from which the thin slides have been
prepared are carefully kept in cabinets, so that if any accident
should befall a slide a new slice can at once be cut. The mounted
slides are arranged in separate cabinets. A large number of such
slides have now been accumulated. From Scotland alone upwards
of 5,000 have been determined, and are ready for reference at any
moment.
But besides assisting the field-work, the petrographers are
engaged in determinations required for the arrangement of rock-
specimens in the museums at Jermyn Street, at Edinburgh, and in
Dublin. The collectors are employed under the supervision of the
surveying officers to make illustrative series of specimens of the rocks
of each district. These are sent up to the office for examination
and for insertion in the museums. In the course of the research
thus imposed on them the petrographers are from time to time
enabled to make important original contributions to petrographical
science. Moreover, they confer in the field with the officers who are
engaged in mapping, and sometimes in concert with them make
observations which are embodied in conjoint Memoirs on the geology
of the districts.
III. Palaeontological Work.
In a country where the geological formations are to a large
extent fossiliferous, it is necessary to pay close attention to the
organic remains found in the rocks, to collect specimens of them, to
determine these specifically, and to regulate thereby the geological
boundary-lines upon the maps. The duty of examining and
reporting upon the fossils is entrusted to the palaeontologists, who
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153
occasionally visit the field, but are mainly engaged at the museums.
With reference to the exigencies of field-work, a somewhat similar
system is followed with regard to fossil evidence as in the case
of the petrography, though the same minute detail is not necessary.
The officer when in doubt about any species, the names of which
are needful in separating formations and drawing their mutual
boundary-lines, collects specimens of them and sends them up to
the office for identification. They are compared by the paleontologists
with published descriptions and named specimens, and a list of
their specific names as far as they can be made out is supplied to
the surveyor.
Besides such specimens as may require to be identified in the
course of the mapping, full collections from the formations of each
important district are made by the collectors under the guidance
of the officers by whom the district has been surveyed. Every
specimen is numbered and registered in the collector’s book, so that
its source and destination can at once be found. Lists of the
fossils are drawn up by the palaeontologists for insertion in the
published Memoirs. A selection of the best specimens is placed in
the cases, drawers, or cabinets of the museum. Fortunately, in the
case of the palaeontologists also, though much of their work is
necessarily of a routine official character, opportunities are afforded
to them of making interesting and important additions to
palaeontological science. It was from this department of the
Survey that Edward Forbes produced some of his best work, that
Salter made his fame as a palaeontologist, and that Professor
Huxley enriched geological literature with his memoirs on Silurian
Crustacea, Old Red Sandstone fishes, and Triassic reptiles. Within
the last few months fresh distinction has been won by one of
the staff of the same department from the investigation and
restoration of a series of remarkable reptiles from the Elgin
Sandstones.
IY. Collecting Work.
From what I have already said it will be seen that the systematic
collection of the minerals, rocks, and fossils of the country is an
essential part of the operations of the Geological Survey, and is
made to aid the progress of the mapping and the completion of the
illustrations of British geology in the museums. Each branch of
the Survey has its collector, who moves from district to district as
his services are required. When he begins work in any area, he
is supplied with a map on which the field-officer who surveyed it
has marked every locality that should be searched, and also with a
list of these localities, giving local details as to the rocks to be
specially examined and the kind of specimens to be looked for and
collected. When necessary the surveyor accompanies the collector
to the ground and starts him on his duties. Every specimen which
the collector sends up to the office has a number affixed to it, and is
entered in the lists, which are also at the same time transmitted to
154
The WorTc of the Geological Survey.
headquarters. The specimens are then unpacked and treated by the
paleontologists or petrographers, as the case may be, in the manner
already indicated.
Y. Preparation of Maps, Sections, and Memoirs for
Publication.
The results obtained by the Geological Survey are made public
in three forms — Maps, Sections, and Memoirs ; to which may be
added the arrangement of specimens in the three museums, with
their diagrams, handbooks, and other explanatory matter, and also
the original papers, which lying often beyond the scope of the
Survey’s publications, are prepared by members of the staff and,
with the consent of the Director-General, are communicated by
them to scientific societies or journals.
(a) Maps. — Every surveying officer is responsible for keeping his
6-inch field-maps inked-in and coloured-up, so that if required to
be exchanged with his colleagues they shall be clear and intelligible.
He is likewise required to prepare duplicate copies of these field-
maps, which when completed are transmitted to the office and are
kept there for consultation by the public.
As already stated, 6-inch maps of some of the mineral-fields
have been published. These have been prepared by the officers who
surveyed them, the geological work being put on a dry impression
from the plate of the Ordnance map, which is then sent to the
Ordnance Office to be transferred to an electrotype of the plate. In
a few cases, also, maps on this scale, where the geology is of special
interest or complexity, have been prepared and published. But for
the country at large it is not desirable to publish maps on so large
a scale as that of 6 inches to a mile. Over all the counties which
have been surveyed on that scale, MS. copies of the 6-inch maps
can be obtained by the public at the mere cost of manual transcrip-
tion from the duplicate copies retained in the office.
The work surveyed by an officer on the 6 -inch scale is reduced
by him upon a dry impression of the 1-inch Ordnance map. A single
1-inch sheet may comprise the work of half a dozen surveyors, and
in that case the sheet is passed from one to another, each adding his
own share. The completed dry proof is then checked at the office,
and is sent to the Ordnance Survey to be engraved on an electrotype
copperplate specially prepared for the purpose from the original
Ordnance plate. After the final corrections have been made in the
engraved map and the scheme of signs and colours has been engraved
on the margin, a copy of this map is coloured as it is to appear on
publication, each surveyor again taking the portion for which he is
personally responsible. The scrutiny involved in this process serves
generally to detect any errors that may have previously escaped
notice. This original coloured copy remains as the standard to
which all subsequent copies of the same edition of the map are made
to conform.
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155
When, finally checked and approved, the original coloured copy
is sent to the colourists, who colour all the maps by hand, the work
being done by women. Experiments were tried some years ago as
to the feasibility of producing the Geological Survey maps by colour-
printing. But with our system of engraving it was found impossible
at the Ordnance Survey Office to ensure sufficiently accurate registra-
tion, and there was the further practical difficulty that so large an
impression of each sheet would require to be printed off that a large
stock would remain on hand, and new editions and alterations of
the maps would be impracticable for many years. The original
system has therefore been retained. It has this great advantage,
that, by keeping the supply of copies of each sheet just sufficient
to meet the demand of the public, we are enabled to make any
alteration of a map which from time to time may be found to be
necessary without the loss involved in cancelling a large stock of
copies.
Some idea may be formed of the nature of the colouring work of
the Survey maps from the fact that upwards of 180 different tints
and combinations are employed to denote the various kinds of rocks
separately discriminated on the maps. It is difficult to find colours
distinct from each other, yet harmonious, and that will not fade on
exposure. To guard as far as possible against the risk of fading,
every colour is also distinguished by its own symbol, which is legibly
engraved where the colour occurs on the map.
Two editions of the maps of England and Wales are now issued
for those districts of which the Drift survey has been completed.
One of these editions shows all the superficial deposits, and only so
much of the underlying formations as lies bare at the surface. The
other edition presents the underlying formations as these would
appear if the superficial accumulations could be stripped off. Each
of these editions has its value for special purposes. In all questions
of sanitation, water-supply, agriculture, and building, it is obviously
the Drift edition that should be consulted ; while, on the other hand,
where the information desired has reference to what lies deeper
beneath the surface, as in the sinking of deep wells and mines, it is
the “ solid ” edition that will be most usually consulted. The
difference between the two is merely one of colouring, for they are
printed from the same copperplate, and as far as the engraving goes
are exact duplicates.
The prices of the maps are regulated by Her Majesty’s Stationery
Office, and are fixed according to the amount of colouring work upon
them. In England and Wales, full sheets usually range from 3s. to
8s. 6 d , and quarter sheets from Is. Gd. to 3s. In Scotland and
Ireland the sizes of the maps are different, but the prices are
calculated on the same scale, being in Scotland from 4s. to 6s., and
in Ireland (where the sheets are similar in size to the English
quarter sheets) from Is. Gd. to 3s. In some cases the price at which
a map is sold is less than the cost of colouring, but it is estimated that
the excess of selling price beyond that of cost in other cases will
compensate for this loss.
156
The Work of the Geological Survey.
The total number of 6-inch maps published by the Geological
Survey up to the present time is for England and Wales, 217 sheets ;
Scotland, 130 sheets ; Ireland, 10 sheets. The number of 1-inch
whole-sheets and quarter-sheets published for England and Wales
amounts to 258 ; 142 of these are as yet published only as “solid ”
maps; 89 are issued in two editions, “solid” and “drift”; of 23
only the “ drift ” edition is published. Four quarter-sheets of the
map of England yet remain to be published, but will be issued this
year. The number of sheets published of Scotland is 48, and of
Ireland 205. The whole of Ireland has been completed and pub-
lished. Every effort is now being made to complete at as early a
date as possible the survey of Scotland, but the extraordinary com-
plication of the geological structure of the Highlands, being far
greater than was ever anticipated, renders the progress less rapid
than could be wished.
The desirability of having a general geological map of the country
on a smaller scale than that of 1 inch to a mile has long been
recognised. When the mapping of England was completed,
advantage was taken of the existence of an index Ordnance Survey
map on the scale of 4 miles to an inch. This map, based on the old
1-inch maps, had been laid aside incomplete by the Ordnance
Survey, but it was likely to be so useful for geological purposes that
at my request it was finished at Southampton. The work of the
Geological Survey is now being reduced upon this map, of which
there are in England and Wales 15 sheets. Four of these sheets
have now been published with the geology, embracing the east of
Yorkshire and the southern counties from Essex to Torquay. Other
sheets are in progress, and the whole map when completed will
present at a glance a clear and vivid picture of the geological
structure of the entire country.
The value of reduced index-maps for geological purposes was
recognised long ago by the preparation of a map of Wales. When
the Geological Survey of the Principality was finished the whole
work was reduced to the scale of four miles to an inch and engraved
in six sheets, which include parts of the West of England. This
map has been on sale for many years.
(b) Sections. — A geological map can for the most part express
only what lies at the surface, though it may afford information,
more or less definite, as to what lies below. To supplement the map
it is needful to construct sections to show the arrangement of the
rocks beneath the surface. A complete and detailed map should
contain sufficient data to allow such sections to be plotted in outline,
but these details can usually be filled in only from the notes of the
sections examined in the course of the mapping. Two kinds of
sections are prepared and published by the Geological Survey —
vertical and horizontal. They are drawn to scale, and engraved and
published in sheets measuring 3 feet by 2 feet. But, besides these,
numerous measured and also diagram sections are inserted in the
text of the printed Memoirs.
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157
The vertical sections are drawn usually on the scale of 40 feet
to 1 inch, and are prepared almost entirely to illustrate the succession
of strata in the coal-fields. Each sheet generally contains more than
one section. The materials for the plotting of these sections is
sometimes obtained by actual measurements taken by the surveyor
himself, but more commonly they are supplied by the lessees or
managers of the collieries. Sometimes tables of comparative sections
are given in illustration of the variations in character and thickness
between the seams of coal, ironstone, or limestone in different parts
of the same mineral field.
Occasionally, where a group of strata, though of little industrial
importance, possesses great geological interest, a vertical section of
it has been constructed and published in the same style as the coal-
field section. In this way we have issued some useful sections of
the Jurassic rocks in Eastern Yorkshire, of the Lower Lias and
Rhjetic rocks in the West of England, of the Tertiary strata in the
Isle of Wight, and of the Purbeck group in Dorset.
Altogether 87 sheets of Vertical Sections have been published
for the three kingdoms. The price of each sheet is 3s. 6d.
The Horizontal Sections have always been an important feature
in the work of the Geological Survey. De la Beche, recognising
the practical disadvantages arising from the construction of sections
without any regard to the proportion between height and distance,
instituted the practice of drawing them on a true scale. He
adopted the scale of 6 inches to a mile, and invented a system of
patterns for the different kinds of rock, which, as he was himself
an artist, are appropriate and effective, for they represent in no
small measure the general structure of the rocks. The institution
of such sections in lieu of the distorted diagrams too generally
employed was of great service to the Survey itself, and also to the
progress of geology, for it served to correct the evil influences of
distorted drawing, with regard not only to geological structure but
to the true forms of the ground.
When a line of section was chosen and drawn on the 1-inch
map, it had to be measured on the ground with chain and theodolite.
This was the invariable practice until the 6-inch contoured Ordnance
Survey maps came into use. With these maps as a basis, the
laborious process of chaining the sections is no longer required.
The section- lines are drawn on these maps and the sections are
plotted from them. The contour-lines and bench-marks allow the
line of the surface to be traced with a close approximation to accu-
racy. But in order to ensure final correctness of detail the ground
is gone over with the section in hand, and each little feature is then
put in.
The sections start from Ordnance datum (mean sea level), but
where the ground is low and there is consequently not room to ex-
press what is known of the geological structure above that datum,
the lines are prolonged below it. The same practice is also followed
in mining districts. An effort is made to illustrate every great
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The Worh of the Geological Survey.
district of the country. Each geological formation, as it varies
from one point to another, is crossed by lines of section, so that by
comparing these the changes in that formation from district to dis-
trict can at once be seen. The length of each section varies indefi-
nitely with the nature of the ground, many of them being upwards
of 100 miles in length. Thus a series of sections runs from Angle-
sey and the coast of Merionethshire, across the mountainous ground
of North Wales, to the plains of the Midlands. Another group
crosses from the central counties to the South Coast. A connected
chain of sections traverses the breadth of the island from Liverpool
to the coast of Yorkshire.
As an illustration of the character of these sections and their
usefulness in correcting popular misconceptions as to geological
structure and form of the ground, I may refer to that which runs
from Leicestershire to Brighton and passes through London (sheet
79). What is called the “London Basin” is by many people
regarded as a deep trough of clay with the Chalk rising steeply
from under it both to the south and north, and we may see this
conception embodied in actual diagrams in text-books and else-
where. But in reality both the London Clay and the Chalk are so
flat that their inclination can hardly be detected except by careful
measurement. And the section, accurately plotted from borings
and well-sections, shows them apparently horizontal, though on
further inspection we find that their line of junction, which is well
above the datum-line at either end, lies some way beneath it in the
centi’e.
The Horizontal Sections are engraved on copper and published
in sheets, each of which, if the ground is low, may include six lines,
or 36 miles of section. The same continuous line of section may
thus extend over several sheets. Small explanatory pamphlets are
published with these sheets, giving general information as to their
formations and their local peculiarities. Each sheet of sections is
published at the price of 5s. In all 191 sheets of such sections for
the United Kingdom have been issued.
Besides the usual Horizontal Sections on the scale of 6 inches to
a mile, occasional sections on a larger scale are prepared to illustrate
the geological structure of particular localities. In this way the
coast-line of Cromer and Yarmouth has been represented in detail,
and its numerous features of geological interest have been inserted
so as to exhibit a kind of picture of the arrangement of the strata
in these changing cliffs. Portions of the coast-line of Dorset and of
the Isle of Wight have been similarly treated.
(c) Memoirs. — Obviously, in the course of a geological survey, a
large amount of detailed information is collected which cannot find
a place either on the maps or on the sections. This material embraces
much local detail and a large body of evidence which is of impor-
tance in general geological inquiry. It can only be properly used
by being arranged, condensed, and printed. The issue of Memoirs
of its work has been from the beginning one of the chief occupations
The Worlc of the Geological Survey.
159
of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. The form in
which these publications have appeared has varied. De la Beche’s
plan was to publish volumes of General Memoirs embracing descrip-
tions of particular regions, and also essays on special branches of
geological inquiry. His own memoir on the geology of Cornwall,
Devon, and West Somerset is an admirable example of his method,
and has long taken its place among the classics of English geology.
There were practical difficulties, however, in the way of continuing
his method when the staff increased, and the literary labour had to
be shared by a number of observers, who were, in many cases,
more willing to wield their hammers than their pens. When
Murchison succeeded to the charge of the Survey, he sought to
avoid these difficulties by instituting the practice of accompanying
every sheet or quarter-sheet of the 1-inch map with an explanatory
pamphlet, giving the chief data on which the map had been con-
structed, with references to the best sections, lists of minerals and
fossils, and information as to the geological structure of the ground.
These pamphlets, containing essential details only, were to be even-
tually condensed and collated by the Local Director, so as to form
a generalised view of each important geological region. This scheme
was well conceived, and with some modifications rendered necessary
by the progress of the Survey, has been carried out ever since. It
is not always possible or desirable to prepare a separate explanation
for each sheet or quarter-sheet, for much reduplication of geological
information would thereby be involved. Several quarter-sheets or
sheets may be described together in a single Memoir.
Each surveying officer is expected to contribute the account of
the area mapped by him. Where more than one surveyor has been
engaged on a map or district, the accounts furnished by the several
officers are collated and edited in the office, and are published gene-
rally in paper wrappers and at a low price.
Occasionally these Memoirs, when dealing with an important
district, have been expanded beyond the limits of mere Sheet
Explanations, and have taken the form of thick octavo volumes.
Such, for instance, are the Memoirs on the Yorkshire coal-fie.d, on
North Wales, on the geology of the Weald, on the geology of
London, and on the Isle of Wight.
The chief literary work on which the staff of the Survey is now
engaged is the preparation of the General Memoirs or Monographs
to which the Sheet Explanations were designed to be preparatory.
It appeared to me that the most generally useful plan on which
these could be prepared was to make them fundamentally strati-
graphical — in other words, to devote them to a description of the
various geological systems which are embraced within the British
Isles, and to show not only what has been done by the Survey in each
of these systems, but what has been ascertained by others. Each
Monograph should thus be a compendium of all that is known of its
subject up to the date of its publication. The information obtained
by the Survey in its progress is necessarily scattered through many
maps, sections, and memoirs. The work of the service would be
160
The Work of the Geological Survey.
incomplete and difficult of consultation if it were left in this dis-
seminated state. It needs to be gathered together, arranged, and
put into connected form, so as to present an intelligible account of
the geology and mineral products of these islands. The task is a
heavy one, and cannot be speedily finished. But satisfactory progress
is being made. We have published a Monograph on the Pliocene
deposits of England, and two volumes of another on the Jurassic
rocks, while a third volume is in the press. Another Monograph on
the Cretaceous rocks is in preparation. Each monograph will
embrace one system or group of rocks, and may consist of a number
of volumes, according to the importance of the system and the area
which it occupies in the country.
In the preparation of the Memoirs, and for museum purposes,
much assistance is now derived from photography. Several
members of the staff have become expert photographers, and a large
number of views of geological sections, coast-cliffs, and other
natural or artificial exposures of rock, have been taken. These serve
as illustrations for the Memoirs, and some of them are mounted to
accompany the specimens in the museums.
Besides the geological Memoirs, the Survey has published a series
of Decades of British organic remains, with plates and descriptions,
also Monographs of important genera or groups of fossils.
VI. Museum Work.
For the complete illustration of the geology of a country it is
necessary not only to construct geological maps and sections, and to
publish printed descriptions, but also to collect and exhibit speci-
mens of its minerals, rocks, and organic remains. Each branch of
the Geological Survey has from the beginning kept in view the
gathering of such specimens, and the galleries of the museums in
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin may be appealed to as evidence of
the manner in which the duty has been discharged.
The Museum in Jermyn Street is intended to be primarily illus-
trative of the minerals, rocks, and fossils of England and Wales,
but as far as space will admit an endeavour is made to exhibit what
is specially characteristic of the other two kingdoms. For the more
detailed illustrations of Scottish geology recourse must be had to the
Museum at Edinburgh, and for those of Irish geology to the Museum
in Dublin.
The portions of the Jermyn Street Museum more especially
connected with the work of the Survey are the collection of fossils,
the series of rock-specimens, and the remarkably fine and complete
suite of ores and their accompaniments from the mines of the
British Isles and those of the Colonies. The Museum was organised
to illustrate the practical applications of geology. As an example
of the manner in which this design has been carried out, I may refer
to the section in which the connection between raw material and
finished pottery is displayed. The British ceramic collection was
The Worh of the Geological Survey. 161
one of the earliest formed, and is still, perhaps, the most illustrative
in the country.
The fossils are arranged stratigraphically, and furnish the basis
on which the Survey maps of the fossiliferous formations have been
constructed. Every important subdivision of the Palaeozoic, Secondary,
and Tertiary systems is represented by a full series of its character-
istic fossils gathered from the various districts in the British Isles
wherein it is developed. These are arranged and tableted in such a
way as to be readily accessible to the public. Those who wish to
follow out the palaeontological details of the Survey maps and
memoirs, or to study general text-books of the science, have thus the
fullest opportunities afforded to them.
The palaeontologists, with their assistants, are continually engaged
in arranging and re-tableting the collections to make room for fresh
material received from the officers in the field, from donations, or
from purchase. Catalogues of the fossils in several departments
have been prepared and published.
The Rock-collection has in recent years been greatly increased
and entirely re-arranged so as to bring it abreast of modern petro-
graphy. It includes a collection of rock -forming minerals in illustra-
tion of the characters of the more important minerals that enter
into the composition of rocks ; a series of typical rocks, named,
classified, and so arranged close to the eye that the visitor may have
no difficulty in observing their general external characters ; a section
devoted to illustrations of various geological structures, such as
cleavage, jointing, foliation, plication, the structures of igneous
rocks, the effects of contact-metamorphism, the markings made by
glacier ice, and the results of weathering in different rocks. But the
chief part of the collection is a series of British rocks arranged in
stratigraphical order from the oldest gneisses up to the most recent
shell-sand. Not only are the sedimentary rocks represented in this
series, but a large suite of igneous rocks is included, so that the
student of volcanic history may see samples of the lavas and tufts
which have been ejected at each of the periods of volcanic activity
in the geological annals of Britain. Diagrams and maps are placed
near the specimens to show the geology of the districts from which
the latter were taken. Illustrations are likewise given of tire more
important microscopic structures met with in rocks, and especially
among those of Britain. A handbook is being prepared to this part
of the Museum, which it is hoped may prove to be a useful aid to
students of petrography.
The Geological Survey collections in the museums in Edinburgh
and Dublin are set out on similar lines. They have been arranged
stratigraphically to elucidate the maps, sections, and memoirs, and
furnish a tolerably full series of specimens in illustration of the
geology of each kingdom. A handbook for the Edinburgh gallery is
published, and one for that of Dublin is nearly ready.
VOL. V. T. S. — 1 7
M
1G2
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
VII. General Administration.
I have already spoken of the organisation of the staff. The
collectors are placed under the direction of the field-officers. The
assistant-geologists are promoted, as vacancies occur, to the ranks of
the geologists. Over these officers come the district-surveyors, who
supervise the work of a number of geologists or assistant-geologists
in a wide district. The district-survpyors report to their director,
who takes general charge of the work in his own kingdom. The
Director-General is the head of the whole organisation, and is re-
sponsible for its conduct. He personally visits the officers in the
field in each of the three countries, and is thus enabled to see that
the work is being everywhere conducted on the same lines, and that
the results obtained harmonise. It is his duty to bring the experi-
ence gained in one kingdom to the elucidation of difficulties met
with in another, and to decide from time to time when the surveyors
of one branch may usefully be sent to see the work in progress by
another branch. It will be understood that to these duties in the
field are added the general correspondence and administration of the
whole service, and editorial labour connected with the issue of the
various publications.
VIII. Relations to other Government Departments
and the Public.
From the beginning of its existence the Suiwey has been continu-
ally referred to by all branches of the Government service for infor-
mation regarding questions in which a knowledge of geology is
required. The sinking of wells, the choice of sites for forts and
Government buildings, the placing of graveyards, the selection of
materials for buildings or roads, the nature of soils and subsoils with
reference to matters of drainage — these and many other subjects have
been reported on. Nor have the general public been backward in
application for similar information. The offices of the Survey are
always open, and every assistance which can be rendered to
inquirers is placed freely at their service.
Archibald Geikie.
28 Jermyn Street, S.W.
PUBLICATIONS OF INTEREST TO
AGRICULTURISTS.
I. THE SIIEEP-BREEDING INDUSTRY OF ARGENTINA.1
Nobody can fail to be impressed by this book, least of all English
farmers, who will have to meet the competition, both in wool and
1 The History and Present State of the Sheep-breeding Industry in the
Argentine Republic. By Herbert Gibson. Pp. xx-t- 297, with 13 full-page
illustrations aud 2 folded maps. Buenos Aires : Ravenscroft &. Mills.
London : Simpkin, Marshall & Co. 1893.
The Sheep-Breeding Industry of Argentina.
163
mutton, from what I believe I may fairly call an unexpected quarter.
In his introduction the author states that the work is written for
the prospective colonist and for the prospective sheep-farmer ; that
the outlook for the latter is especially good in a land said to carry
a sheep and upwards to the acre ; where the rainfall varies from
26 inches to 32 inches, and is well distributed throughout the
year, and the temperature does not fall below 20° Fahr., nor rise
above 96° in the shade ; where there are no snowstorms or hurri-
canes, no diseases of an epidemic character, neither rabbits nor
any other destructive animals ; where the supply of wool and
mutton is rapidly increasing, and where railroads have been
made from east to west and from north to south ; but where, un-
fortunately, a period of inflation, fostered by enormous sums of
money lent by England for the promotion of the wildest schemes,
has been followed by a period of depression ; where all Argentine
securities are equally distrusted, and where it is probable that the
most primitive and important industries of Argentina — agriculture
and stock-raising — will redeem the prosperity of the country.
The industries of South America were discouraged by the short-
sighted home administration. The inhabitants were even prohibited
from intercourse with those of another province. Commerce was
exclusively carried on with Spain, whose yoke was finally thrown
off in 1810. Sheep were introduced from Peru in 1539, and 4,000
Spanish sheep were brought in from that country in 1587. These
were the origin of the indigenous flocks. The wool was long, weak,
and coarse, and the sheep yielded about 1^ lb. annually. Wool was
first exported in 1660, but until the close of the eighteenth century
there is little to record. Mutton was not eaten, and sheep were
neglected and despised. Ten Merino rams and 20 ewes were imported
from Spain in 1794, at the same time that Merinos were first im-
ported into New South Wales. A hundred ewes were imported in
1813 by Mr. Halsay, and were dispersed in 1828 ; they were the origin
of several famous studs. In 1825, 30 Southdown sheep were im-
ported from the celebrated Babraham flock, and were the progenitors
of the Southdown stock of Don Leonardo Pereyra, who, to the
present day, is an extensive breeder of that class of sheep.
In those days wild dogs were most dangerous to the flocks, and
prairie dogs undermined the grass. The wool was greatly deterio-
rated by a large burr, and the flocks were in danger from lawless
marauders. Between 1836 and 1838 4,200 Merinos were said to
have been imported, and in 1838 the first lot of German Negretti
Merinos were introduced. The native Merinos at that time produced
sheep giving 6 to 7 lb., and rams giving 10 to 12 lb. of washed
wool. Scab is said to have been introduced with the German
Merinos ill 1838, but as it was known to the Indians it was probably
indigenous.
It was not until 1860 that shearing became an annual and
general operation. In 1843 a boiling-down factory was established
by Messrs. Gibson. In 1858 the protective tariff of the United States
caused a heavy fall in wool and in stock, but increased the boiling-
h 2
164 Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
down business, and induced owners to cull and improve their flocks,
so that in 1866 the Argentine wools had so much improved as to be
in demand on the European markets. The wet seasons of 1842, 1843,
and 1845 had developed foot-rot in the Merinos, and the fluke and lung-
worm made serious ravages amongst them, and induced the English
breeders to introduce long-wool sheep. After a few years’ experience
most of the stock owners decided in favour of Lincoln sheep : they
throve well and gave great increase in the yield of wool, which sold
readily, the Merino cross wools fetching a high price ; but it was no*--
until 1882 that the Lincoln became a generally popular breed, and
to-day it disputes the land with the Merino. This appears to be due
to a succession of wet seasons, from 1877 to 1884, which occasioned
heavy losses amongst the Merino stock in the lands by the sea-
board, while the long- wools throve apace. The frozen meat trade
also afforded a market for the more valuable carcass of the Lincoln,
and the fall in Merino wool in 1 884 further depreciated that breed
of sheep. From 1856 to 1886 the stock of sheep increased from
sixty millions to over ninety millions, surpassing Australia with
her eighty-four millions ; but while the latter averaged 5 lb. per
fleece, the Argentine only reached 31b. The returns for 1891 give 41b.
per fleece for seventy -eight millions of sheep, which number might be
doubled in twenty-five years without overstocking the country. A
certain number of Merino flocks are still kept pure, but about half
the total number of sheep own to a cross of Lincoln or Leicester.
The wool of the first and second cross is healthy and fine, but as the
crossing goes on the wool gains in length and loses in fineness.
The carcass is also of medium size and of fine flavour, but with too
pronounced a Lincoln type the mutton loses in quality, though it
gains considerably in weight. The cross-bred sheep fatten much
more quickly than the pure breeds. The Southdown and Oxford
Down have not been so successful for crossing as the long-wools,
as the wool is not of great weight or value, and the produce suffers
more from foot-rot.
The province of Buenos Aires, which is of nearly the same area
as the United Kingdom, maintains stock at the rate of 186 per 100
acres per annum. The climate is humid, the rainfall averaging
30 inches. Being close to the meat markets it is there where most
of the long-wools and their crosses flourish. The Merinos hold their
ground on the drier lands more distant from the markets. The
Pampas formation is undulating, with water in the hollows, and
close to the surface it is covered with nutritious grasses, but is with-
out trees ; it grows a species cf trefoil, the seed of which forms a burr,
which is injurious to the fleeces. Saline efflorescence and salt beds
are common in the west and south, and are much liked by the
stock. A shepherd will look after 1,200 to 2,u00 sheep, and is some-
times paid one-fourth of the profits of the flock, or has a aionthly
wage of 21. 10s. to 4 1. with allowances. He rides, but seldom keeps
a dog. When the sheep graze the open country they generally lie
by the shepherd’s house at night. Paddocks have lately been intro-
duced, and lessen working expenses, as one man can then look after
The Sheep-Breeding Industry of Argentina. 165
5,000 sheep. The paddocks consist of 3,000 to 5,000 acres, smaller
paddocks being used for breeding purposes.
Shearing commences the first week of October, before the grasses
and burrs shell their seeds. The sheep are shorn in the grease,
and the shearers are paid Is. to 10s. per 100, an average workman
being able to clip forty to fifty sheep a day. After clipping, the stock
are culled, and scab and other diseases receive treatment. In the case
of Merinos, the tups should be with the flock by the end of October,
in the case of long-wools by the middle of December. Lambing
commences in March and in June respectively, June corresponding
with December in our northern hemisphere. A month or so after
lambing the sheep are ear- marked, docked, and castrated. During the
winter the sheep lose condition, and fodder should be — but is not —
provided ; pumpkins, lucerne, and other crops might be profitably
grown for this purpose.
Labour is cheap and plentiful. A general labourer gets 21. to 3/.
a month, with board at special seasons, such as those of shearing,
dipping for scab, &c. The day labourer gets 3s. to 4s. a day, with
meals ; for very hard work 5s. to 6s. a day is paid.
Twice a year fairs are held in most of the principal towns, where
breeders can buy or dispose of stock. Land which sold at 45s. per
acre in 1889 could not be sold for 15s. an acre in 1891, and is now
depreciated below its real value. First-class land in the province of
Buenos Aires, with fences, homestead, &c., is worth 30s. to 50s. an
acre; second-class land, 20s. to 35s. ; third-class, 12s. to 25 s. ; out-
side lands, 10s. down to Is. per acre.
Title deeds convey the freehold of the land, but should be sub-
mitted to a lawyer of position, and signed before a notary public :
this is neither a troublesome nor an expensive transaction. Runs may
also be rented at Is. 6 d. to 2s. Gd. an acre — about 6 to 8 per cent,
on the value of the land.
The diseases from which sheep suffer are scab, for which dipping
is the only remedy (for the construction of pens and dipping troughs
excellent plans are given in the book) ; foot-rot, of which a con-
tagious and a non-contagious variety are recognised ; the throat- or
lung- worm, which occasioned serious losses in 1892, and the remedies
suggested for which are those in use in England. The fluke, or liver-
rot parasite, which is not common, is found where pools of water are
exposed to the sun. There are some weeds of a poisonous character,
such as the romerillo, Baccharis cordifolia. Stock born on the land
avoid it, but if it is eaten death ensues in twenty-four hours. If
the plant is burnt, and the stock fumigated with it, they will not
afterwards eat it. When cut up and macerated it makes an excel-
lent blister, and it is also used as a diuretic. The chuchu, Nierem-
bergia hippomanica, one of the Solanum family, is also poisonous,
but it is fortunately scarce. Other species of the same family occa-
sionally injure stock ; but it may be said of the provinces of the
River Plate that they are as poor in noxious weeds as they are rich
in all kinds of nutritious grasses.
The first freezing companies started in 1883. There are now
166
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
five establishments, which exported 1,294,344 sheep in 1892.
Argentine mutton is worth 3 \d. per lb., against New Zealand 4 \d.,
the latter being better fed and of superior quality. Every portion
of the sheep is now utilised except the blood. There is also another
establishment which is prepared to can both beef and mutton, thus
giving an outlet for the meat that is not well fed enough for the car-
cass trades.
The greater part of the wool is sold locally, most of it by brokers,
but some by auction. There are three large markets in Buenos
Aires and one at Rosario. Wool is not at present properly graded,
and the lots are of an uneven character. Railroads are in a more
advanced condition than high-roads, which do not at present exist,
and are much required. The removal of the wool, &c., to the railway
stations is generally undertaken by carters, who make a specialty of
the business.
As the station of Los Yngleses is the one with which the author
of the book is connected, it may in conclusion be taken as an ex-
ample from amongst those which he describes. Mr. John Gibson
went to the River Plate in 1818, and bought this estate in 1825.
At the time of the purchase the produce in hand was 15 cowhides
and one bag of tallow. The area of the estate was 68,352 acres,
less 3,300 taken back by the Government ; 12,000 acres were use-
less for grazing. The land is low, and intersected by lagoons. The
soil is sandy on the uplands, a shallow covering of black earth on
the intermediate lands, with a mixture of sand and clay in the
hollows.
Mr. Geoi’ge Gibson commenced sheep-breeding in 1835. Pre-
viously the stock had consisted of 18,000 cattle and 3,000 mares,
sheep having been neglected. Merinos were first introduced. The
wethers of the Creole flock were clipped, but their wool was thrown
away as valueless. About this time much damage was done by
wild dogs. A premium was paid for them, and 2,000 were destroyed.
Pumas also were troublesome, but a premium of $100 per head
secured their extermination. Scab is first mentioned in 1845, the
lung-worm in 1846. The first wire fence was made in 1853 ; there
are now 84 miles of it. Boiling down commenced in 1843. The
flock in 1849 reached 12,000, in 1845 it was reduced to 7,000, in
1850 increased to 14,000, and in 1855 to 23,000.
The first change in sheep-breeding dates from 1856. The deli-
cacy of the Saxony Merinos and the loss of lambs made it apparent
that the soil did not suit Merinos. In the next seven years different
English breeds of sheep were introduced : in 1858 Romney Marsh
sheep, in 1862 Cotswold and Improved Leicester, and the same year
a Lincoln tup was sent out by Mr. Platten, with the message that
he wished Mr. Gibson to have “ at least one good sheep ” upon
the place. This sheep was found to cross better with the Merinos
than any others that had been tried. In 1863 a large number of
Lincolns were introduced, and in 1865 no other tups than Lincoln
were used. In 1863, 5,000 Pampa sheep, an indigenous breed with
The Cone-bearing Trees.
167
long, coarse wool, were crossed with Lincolns, and the progeny was
much improved both in carcass and in wool. The increase of the
stock became marked with the diffusion of the long-wool strain ;
from 23,000 in 1855, it rose to 100,077 in 1883. In 1884, in accord-
ance with a new law, 20,010 acres were taken by Government,
the run being now reduced to 45,036 acres, 9,000 of which are
useless. The sheep stock was reduced to 70,000 or 75,000 head.
After 1882 the demand for Lincolns increased rapidly, the freezing
of mutton greatly helping to spread that breed. The weight of
wool has also increased, the average return from 70,000 sheep being
—for 1883, 5-14 ; 1884, 4-95 ; 1885, 4'94 ; 1886, 5-28 ; 1887, 605 ;
1888, 6-12 ; 1889, 5-34; 1890, 6-45; 1891, 6-32 ; 1892, 6-03 lb.
per fleece. The wool is clean, and washes out 58 to 65 per cent, of
scoured wool, valued in Liverpool in 1893, first Lincolns, 8 d. to 8j<7. ;
second, 8 \d. to 8^cf. ; third, 8 d. to 8|cf. per lb.
The type of sheep aimed at by the breeders is one of smaller size
than the Lincoln, carrying a fine woollen fleece of lustrous lock and
bearing the same character of wool all over the body, the face and
legs being as much covered with wool as in the Merino. Ewes
give up to 21 lb. of wool, rams from 16 to 28 lb. The run is
administered in two head stations. The southern station is well
wooded with indigenous and imported trees, and is not at all like
the generally uninteresting character of the Pampas. For house
consumption 450 acres are kept under cultivation with lucerne and
maize, which provide the more valuable stock with winter food.
Tobacco is also grown for dipping purposes. The soil is capable of
growing all the vegetable produce necessary to an advanced system
of stock raising.
From the photographs of the Lincoln sheep bred by Messrs. Gibson
it is evident that they have been brought to great perfection, and do
credit to the enterprising owners of this typical station. We can only
hope that efforts such as theirs may eventually raise the Argentine
Republic from the unfortunate position into which speculators and
politicians have brought it.
J. H. Thorold.
Syston Park, Grantham.
II. THE CONE-BEARING TREES.
That the cone-bearing trees, members of the Natural Order Coniferce ,
should afford abundant material for an instructive Conference is a
matter that will surprise no one who has ever bestowed more than
a moment’s thought upon their utility and their beauty ; nor is it to
be wondered at that the report of such a Conference should occupy
an entire volume of the official organ 1 of the Royal Horticultural
Society, under whose auspices the two days’ meeting at the Chiswick
Gardens was held.
1 Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, vol. xiv., 1892. Report of
the Conifer Conference. Pp. vi + 588. Paper covers. Offices: 117, Victoria
Street, S.W. 15s. 6r7.
168
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
The proceedings were opened by Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.R.S.,
with an address on “Some Features of Interest in the Order of
Conifers.” He mentioned the fact that, with the exception of the
Scotch Fir, the Yew, and the J uniper, no species of Conifer is wild
in Great Britain, and that as a consequence we are, and always
have been, largely dependent on foreign supplies. It appears that
our earliest records of the introduction of exotic species only extend
back to the sixteenth century. It is known, however, that the
Norway Spruce, the Cypress which grew in Gerard’s garden, the
Arbor Vi he, and the Stone Pine were in cultivation prior to 1548,
and had probably been introduced much earlier. The Pinaster was
known in this country in 1596, the Larch in 1629, and the Cedar of
Lebanon in 1664, shortly before the time of the Great Fire of London.
The Balsam Fir and various Atlantic- American species were intro-
duced through the agency of Bishop Compton, whilst John Evelyn
is credited with the introduction of the so-called Red Cedar, Juni-
perus virginiana. Between 1827 and 1833 the Douglas Fir, the
Lambert Pine, the Menzies Spruce, and other now well-known trees
were sent home by Douglas, and simultaneously the Deodar was
introduced from the Himalayas. The useful Austrian Pine came
into our country in 1835 from South-east Europe. In the following
decade Hartweg introduced numerous species, amongst them the
Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens. In 1850 the Weilingtonia,
Sequoia gigantea, first made its appearance in our island.
“ Conifers for Economic Planting ” is the title of a paper by
Mr. A. H. Webster, who regards it as a strange fact that out of
nearly 250 species of coniferous trees that have been introduced
into Britain only 16, so far as is at present known, can be utilised
in an economic sense, or for truly profitable planting. Equally
remarkable is it that, with perhaps one exception, the very trees
the timber of which is imported so largely into this kingdom for
constructive purposes have received but little attention at the
hands of the British planter, being found unsuitable in one way or
another for extensive planting in almost every part of the country.
The 16 trees which the author, as the result of long personal experi-
ence, is disposed to confidently recommend for profitable planting —
as distinguished from cultivation for ornamental purposes — in
almost any part of the British Isles are the following, the order in
which they are named denoting their relative values as timber-
producers : —
1. Larcb, larix europma.
2. Silver Fir, Abies pectinata .
3. Corsican Pine, Pinus Laricio.
4. Douglas Fir, Pseudotsuga Douglasii.
5. Weymouth Pine, Pinus Strolus.
6. Scotch Pine, Pinus silvestris.
7. Giant Arbor Vitae, Thuya gigantea.
8. Norway Spruce, Abies excelsa.
9. Austrian Pine, Pinas austriaca.
10. Cluster or Maritime Pine, Pinus Pinaster.
The Cone-heciring Trees.
169
11. Noi'dmanns Fir, Abies Xordmanniana.
12. Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens.
13. Lambert’s Cypress, Cupressus Lambertiana (? macrocarpa).
14. Mount Atlas or African Cedar, Cedrus atlcintica.
15. Pitch Pine, Pinus rigida.
16. Lawson’s Cypress, Cupressus Lawsmiana .
Useful notes are added concerning each of the above species. It
is maintained that the Common Larch, the first on the list, “has no
equal as a profitable timber Conifer in this country ” ; also, “ that a
greater number can be grown to the acre, or, in other words, the
number of cubic feet of Larchwood that can be produced from an
acre is greater than that of any other Conifer.”
In response to a paper of questions, which was circulated in order
to obtain information upon certain points, a large number of re-
turns were sent in. Tables drawn up from these returns, embodying
the consensus of opinion as to Conifers suited for particular purposes,
should prove of much value to planters. Space only permits of
naming the leading trees in each section : —
I. Conifers most suitable for Park Trees. — Thirty-eight varieties
received five or more votes each. At the top of the list are: — Abies nobilis
(28 votes), Pseudotsuga Douglasii (26), Abies Nordmanniana (23), Sequoia
gigantea (23), Cedrus Libani (22), and Abies grandis (21).
II. Coxifers most suitable for Large Gardexs and Pleasure-
Grounds. — Forty-six varieties received five or more votes each. At the
top of the list are : — Cupressus Lawsoniana (32 votes), Thuya gigantea (22),
Araucaria imbricata (21), Cupressus nootkaensis (19), Abies nobilis (17),
Cryptomeria japonica elegans (17), and Tsuga Mertensiana (17).
III. Coxifers suitable for Smaller Gardens. — Twenty-four varie-
ties received four or more votes each. At the top of the list are Cupres-
sus Lawsoniana (22 votes), Cryptomeria japonica elegans (16), Thuya do-
labrata (14), and Juniperus chinensis (13).
IV. Conifers suitable for Rock Gardens. — Twenty varieties received
three or more votes each. At the top of the list are: — Picea excelsa Clan-
brassiliana (14 votes), Juniperus Sabina (10), Cupressus Lawsoniana nana
(9), and Thuya dolabrata (7).
V. Conifers suitable for Wind-breaks. — Sixteen varieties received
four or more votes each. At the top of the list are : — Pinus Laricio nigricans
(24 votes), Pinus silvestris (17), Pinus Laricio (16), Cupressus Lawsoniana
(11), and Picea excelsa (10).
VI. Conifers suitable for Exfo=ed Positions near the Sea. — Nine
varieties received three or more votes each. At the top of the list are : —
Pinus Laricio nigricans (16 votes), Cupressus macrocarpa (10), Pinus Laricio
(9), Pinus silvestris (9), and Pinus insignis (8).
VII. The Best Variegated and Coloured-Foliaged Conifers.—
Eighteen varieties received four or more votes each. At the top of the list
are: — Cupressus Lawsoniana lutea (16 votes), Cupressus pisifera plumosa
aurea (15), Taxus baccata aurea (13), Cupressus obtusa aurea (11), and Taxus
baccata elegantissima (10).
VIII. Conifers most suitable for Timber Trees in "Woods and
Forests. — Twenty-one varieties received five or more votes each, namely : —
170
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
1.
Pseudotsuga Douglasii. .
Votes.
. 35
12. Cupressus Lawsoniana
Votes.
. . 8
2.
Pinus Laricio
12. Pinus Strobus . . .
. . 8
3.
Abies grandis . . . .
. 18
12. Tsuga Mertensiana .
. . 8
4.
Thuya gigantea . . . .
. 17
15. Abies pectinata . .
. . 7
6.
Picea sitchensis . . . .
16. Picea excelsa . . .
6.
Abies nobilis . * .
. 14
17. Cedrus atlantica . .
. . 5
6.
Abies Nordmanniava . .
. 14
17. Cupressus macrocar pa
. . 5
8.
Pinus silvestris ....
17. Pinus Ccmbra . . .
. . 5
9.
Lari. v europcea ....
. 10
17. Pinus insignis . . .
. . 5
10.
Pinus Laricio nigricans .
. 9
17. Pinus monticola . .
. . 5
10. Sequoia sempervirens . .
. 9
By far the longest of the twenty contributions to the volume is
the paper entitled “ Pinetum Danicum,” by Professor Carl Hansen,
of Copenhagen. It bears, however, some signs of hasty work, and
it would probably have been improved had it been brought within
smaller dimensions. From the notes on the Yew the following are
worth quoting : —
The Yew being almost always raised from seed, the male and female
plants may be supposed to be nearly equally distributed, both in natural
woods and in artificial plantations. According to Miller and Lamarck, both
sexes are sometimes found on the same tree. “As far as we have been able
to observe,” says White of Selborne, “ the male tree becomes larger than the
female one.” 1
In a wild state the Yew affords food to birds by its berries, and an
excellent shelter to them during severe weather and at night by its dense
evergreen foliage, but no insects live on it ; and the male plant at least is
credited with being poisonous.
It is admirably adapted for underwood, because, like the Holly and the
Box, it thrives under the shade and drip of other trees. When planted in
masses by itself, the trees are drawn up with straight trunks, like Pine9 and
Firs, and in good loamy soil, on a cool bottom, plantations of Yews treated
in this manner must be highly valuable.
It is universally allowed to be the finest European wood for cabinet-
making purposes.
Mr. D. F. Mackenzie, in discussing the timber of Conifers,
mentions the following interesting fact observed in the working
of various pine timbers : —
It was found that the wood of pines having three leaves in a sheath
Was, as a rule, much harder than those having only two, whilst all those
having five leaves in a sheath were uniformly soft, and when dressed had a
silky appearance. So general is this characteristic that one could almost
at once tell to what class a certain plank of pine timber belonged.
Other important subjects dealt with in this comprehensive volume
embrace “ Conifers as Specimen Trees for Landscape Gardening,”
“ The Decorative Character of Conifers,” “ The Quality of Coni-
ferous Timber,” “ Diseases of Conifers,” “ Insects Injurious to Coni-
ferse,” “ List of Conifers and Taxads cultivated in Great Britain and
Ireland,” “List of Largest Specimens in the United Kingdom,” and
various statistical details.
1 J\'at. Hist, of Selborne, ed. 1789.
Index Numbers of the Prices of Commodities in 1893. 171
“ To maintain an adequate supply of timber, to protect existing
forests, renew old ones, and plant new ones, is,” argues Dr. Masters,
“ an urgent duty upon us as cultivators.” He quotes the opinion of
Dr. Schlich, to the effect that out of the total area of 26,757,000 acres
of waste lands in Britain, it may be assumed that at least six millions
would be suitable for tree culture. “ Large tracts in Ireland and
the Hebrides now unproductive might be planted ; and it is all the
more desirable that this should be done, as the prospects of a con-
tinuous importation of timber from Canada and Northern Europe,
whence at present we derive our principal supplies, are by no
means assured.”
W. Fream.
12 Hanover Square, W.
INDEX NUMBERS OF THE PRICES OF
COMMODITIES IN 1893.
The subjoined communication from Mr. Augustus Sauerbeck
appeared in the Times of January 15, 1894. A definition of
“ index number ” is given on p. 396 of last year’s volume of the
J ournal, in the course of a note1 by the same writer. It is evident
that but for the strike in the coal trade, which led to high prices
for coal, the index number for 1893 would have been lower than
that for any previous year : —
“ I have much pleasure in giving you the result of my index
numbers of the prices of forty-five commodities (1867—77 = 100)
1873
. Ill
1885 . . .
. . 72
1890 . .
. . 72
1879
. 83
1886 . , .
. . 69
1891 . .
. . 72
1880
. 88
1887 . . .
. . 68
1892 . .
. . 68
1883
. 82
1888 . . .
. . 70
1893 . .
. . 68
1884
. 76
1889 . . .
. . 72
“The index number for 1893 is as low as for the preceding year
and 32 per cent, below the standard period, 1867-77. The articles
comprised in the group of corn, which in 1892 had declined almost
uninterruptedly, followed again a downward course, and their
average is nearly 10 per cent, under the previous year, the prices
of wheat and rice being the lowest of the century. Animal food
did not show much change on the average, while sugar rose till
June, falling afterwards, and closing lower than a year ago.
Brazil coffee ruled distinctly higher, but tea remained on a low
level. Minerals were on the whole rather cheaper ; iron did not
move much — independently of the corner for Scotch pig in
February ; but tin, copper, and lead were lower. Coals were very
1 Prices of Comviodities during the last Seven Years (1886-92). By Augustus
Sauerbeck. Journal, 3rd Series, Vol. IV. Part II., 1893, pp. 394-104.
172 Index Numbers of the Prices of Commodities in 1893.
depressed until the time of the great strike, during which extreme
rates were reached, higher than at any time since 1873. Textiles
and sundry materials stood in the aggregate slightly above 1892.
The average price of cotton for the whole year was a little higher
than the abnormally low figure in 1892, but the closing prices were
considerably lower than a year ago. Flax, silk, and English wool
were dearer. Merino wool was as cheap as in the previous year,
and hemp was lower. Jute, on the other hand, went much higher
than in the latter part of 1892. Tallow, palm oil, and indigo were
dearer, but petroleum declined to 3| d., the lowest price on record.
“ The monthly fluctuations were as follow : —
1889. December . 73 7
1890. December . 71T
1891. December . 71 '4
1892. September . 66'8
1892. December . 67'7
1893. January . 68 4
1893. February
. 69
1893. March .
. 68-1
1893. April .
. 67-4
1893. May . .
. 67-4
1893. June
. 67-4
1893. July . .
. 67-7
1893. August . . 67T
1893. September. 68-2
1893. October. . 68-6
1893. November . 67'8
1893. December . 67
“ A tendency to a slight improvement in trade was observable
early in the year, and the position of some large articles of con-
sumption, of which the production had been arrested, was rather
favourable ; but this improvement was of short duration, and general
trade relapsed into a state of stagnation under the pressure of
financial disasters and other adverse influences such as have rarely
been experienced. These were the Australian banking crisis, the
drought and poor harvest prospects here and in several other
countries, the closing of the Indian mint, then the great commercial
and financial crisis, the repeal of the Silver Purchase Bill and the
uncertainty about tariff reform in the United States, the great coal
strike, the crisis in Italy and Greece, the revolution in Brazil, and
the generally unsettled state of the European bourses. Had prices
not been exceedingly low, they would no doubt have severely
suffered, but depressed as they were the monthly index numbers do
not throw much light on the state of affairs, particularly as during
the last five months they were affected by the high price of coal.
“Silver fell from over 38 d. during the first four months to
about 30 d. in June, when the Indian mint was closed, recovered
part of the decline and was worth between 33 d. and 34 d. from July
to October, and about 32 d. in November and December. The
average price was about 35 \d. (against 39 13-16(7. in 1892), or 42
per cent, lower, the closing price 31| d., or 48 per cent, lower than
the old parity of 1 gold to 15| silver. ”
In a subsequent letter, which appeared in the Times of
March 10, Mr. Sauerbeck gave the following index numbers of the
prices of 45 commodities : 1867-77, 100 ; 1873, 111 ; 1893, 68 ;
December 1893, 67 ; January 1894, 65‘8 ; February 1894, 65. He
added : —
“ Since the commencement of the year coals have fallen con-
siderably ; most of the other articles are also somewhat cheaper,
and the index number for February is the lowest on record.
Overhanging Trees.
173
“ The movements of silver were thus : —
“End December 1893, 31 \d. ; index number, 52-2.
“ End January 1894, 30jjk?. ; index number, 50-6.
“ End February 1894, 27f<7. ; index number, 45'6.
“ The last-named figure represents a ratio of 34 silver to 1
gold.”
OVERHANGING TREES.
In the short but interesting note on “Yew Poisoning,” by Lord
Moreton, in the last number of the Journal the following remarks
occur : — “ In the churchyard of a neighbouring parish a yew tree
spreads its branches over the adjacent field. The cattle have
grazed on these till they look as if they had been trimmed with
shears ; ” but, adds the writer, “ no harm has been done.” This
passage leads me to think that reports of the two following cases,
which relate to the mischief that may be done, and the nuisance
that may be caused to a farmer by the overhanging branches of
trees growing on his neighbour’s land, may not be uninteresting.
The first is peculiarly a propos, dealing as it does with the over-
hanging branches of a yew tree. I take the report from the
Salisbury and Winchester Journal of February 24 : —
On Friday, the 16th inst., the Hon. R. D. Yelverton (deputy -judge) and a
jury were occupied in hearing an action brought in the Andover County
Court by Mr. Frank Ponting, farmer, against the trustees of the Upper
Clatford school premises, to recover ‘221., damage sustained by the death
of a filly foal, which was alleged to have been caused through the defend-
ants negligently and wrongfully allowing the branches of a yew tree in
the school grounds to extend into plaintiff’s meadow, in such a way as to
be accessible to animals, by eating of which branches the foal died on
June 25, 1893. From the evidence of the plaintiff it appeared that his
meadow and the school grounds were adjacent, and separating them was
a post and rail fence, on the school side of which grew two yew trees, the
branches of which extended over the rail into his meadow and within reach
of his horses. On the evening of J une 24 he saw the foal in question in the
meadow alive and well. Next morning he went away from home early,
and on his return at 10 o’clock found that the foal was dead. He tele-
graphed for a veterinary surgeon, who made a post-mortem examination,
and found in the stomach a quantity of yew leaves and twigs. Within five
or six yards from the place where the foal was lying was one of the defend-
ants’yew trees, the branches of which appeared to have been recently nibbled
by an animal. In cross-examination plaintiff said that in an adjoining
garden, occupied by a Mr. Hunt, was another yew tree, the branches of
which overhung his meadow, and he wrote to the owner to that effect and
asked him to have the tree cut. In another field adjacent there had also
been a yew tree, now cut down, but this plaintiff stated did not overhang
the meadow where the foal was. The gate giving access to this field was
kept fastened. On his side of the school fence was a small ditch, but he held
that a horse could have nibbled the trees without stepping into that ditch.
174
Overhanging Trees.
He denied knowledge of there being a yew bush in a corner of bis own
meadow. The veterinary surgeon proved making a post-mortem examination
of the body of the animal, which revealed the cause of death to he yew
poisoning. He noticed that the yew near which the horse was lying had
been recently nibbled, and the position in which the animal lay led him to
believe that it had dropped down dead when turning away from defendants’
yew. The witness was cross-examined at considerable length with a view to
showing that animals had been known to walk a mile after eating yew before
dying ; which he explained was due to the fact that they ate on a full
stomach, whereas a horse that ate on an empty one would drop immediately.
As there appeared to be considerable difference of opinion respecting the
situation of the yews, his Honour ordered a view of the spot, and the jury
proceeded to the spot in conveyances. On their return the defendants’
counsel contended that there was no case to go to the jury, and claimed
a nonsuit on the ground that, there being other trees accessible, there was
no evidence to show that his clients’ trees caused the death. He also
argued that the hedge and ditch were, by presumption of law, defendants’
property, and that, even granting for the purposes of argument, though he
denied the fact, that the animal ate of defendants’ yew and died, it could
not have done so without coming on to the land in the ditch, and there-
fore was trespassing; so that defendants were not liable. He dwelt on
this point at considerable length, and further argued that his Honour
was not warranted in leaving it to the jury to determine which tree the
animal ate from. Evidence was called for the defence, which went to show
that not only were the defendants’ trees nibbled, but also the one in Hunt’s
garden, one in an adjoining field, the gate of which a witness said was open
at night, and a small bush behind some hurdles in plaintiff’s own field. His
Honour, in summing up, went against the defendants on the point raised as
to trespass, saying that though it might apply under certain circumstances, it
did not apply to a horse, which was not a sentient being. He also laid it
down that if the jury thought the horse had eaten of defendants’ trees,
although it had eaten of the others, they must find for the plaintiff ; but
if they thought the identity of the tree from which it had eaten was not
proved by the evidence they must find for the defendants. He also
thought they would be justified in finding for the defendants if they were
of opinion that the animal ate from the bush in plaintiff’s field, it being
proved on the view that there was one, though plaintiff did not previously
know of it. The jury, after consultation, in answer to the Judge’s question,
said they were satisfied that the animal ate from defendants’ trees ; that
they were not satisfied that it ate from other trees, nor that it ate from
plaintiff’s bush. They therefore found a verdict for the plaintiff for 221.,
for which amount judgment was given, with costs.
The second case 1 points out the rights which a person whose land
is overhung by his neighbour’s trees has to abate the nuisance caused
thereby. According to the report of the case from which this note is
taken it appeared that some of the branches of certain ancient oak
trees growing on the plaintiff’s land overhung the defendant’s land,
and as the defendant alleged, obstructed the entrance to his farm-
yard. The defendant without giving any notice to the plaintiff cut off
the overhanging branches, the points at which some of the branches
were cut being a few inches within the boundary of the plaintiff’s
Lemmon v. Webb. Weekly Notes of Cases, 1894, p. 26.
The Winter of 1893-4.
175
land. The plaintiff brought the action for damages, and an injunction
to restrain the defendant from cutting any of the branches. There
was no evidence that the overhanging branches were likely to be
dangerous to life or health. The action was tried by Mr. Justice
Kekewich, who held that trees overhanging the land of another
constituted a nuisance of omission, it being negligence on the part
of the owner of the trees to allow them to overhang, and that the
person who suffered from the nuisance was entitled to abate it, hut
only on giving reasonable notice to the owner of the trees , unless there
was danger to life or health. The object of the notice was to
give the owner of the trees a fair opportunity of abating the
nuisance while preserving his own property. The defendant had
acted wrongly in cutting the branches without giving notice to the
plaintiff, but the justice of the case would be met by ordering the
defendant to pay 51. damages and the costs of the action. And his
Lordship gave judgment accordingly.
S. B. L. Druce.
9 Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
THE WINTER OF 1893-4.
The ruling element in the weather of last winter was the passage
along our extreme northern coasts of large cyclonic disturbances,
on their way from the Atlantic to Scandinavia and Northern
Russia. As a result of these movements the United Kingdom was
exposed to an unusually strong current of air from the south-west
and west, with frequent gales, especially in the more western and
northern districts, and with mild, changeable weather over the
entire country. The only serious exception to the prevalent condi-
tions occurred during the early part of January, when a strong
easterly wind spread over our islands from Central Europe, and
brought with it a brief spell of intense frost, accompanied in many
places by gales and snowstorms. The weather appears to have
been most severe between the fifth and seventh of the month, the
lowest temperatures recorded over England at this time being
shown in the second column of the table on p. 176. It will be
seen that, with the exception of our north-western and southern
counties (including the Channel Islands), the thermometer fell
belowlO0 in all parts of the country, and that in the Midlands it
descended to zero, a lower point than any attained during the severe
and prolonged frost of 1890-91. At several stations situated in the
western and south-western parts of the kingdom the weather
is reported to have been the coldest experienced for very many
years past, and in some cases the truth of the statement is amply
supported by scientific records extending over more than a quarter
of a century. It may be noted in passing, that although the table
fails to give any temperature below zero, there is evidence to show
176
The Winter of 1893-4,
Temperature, Rainfall, and Bright Sunshine experienced over
England and Wales during the thirteen weeks ended March 3,
1894.
(The Winter Season.)
Temperature
Districts
High-
est
Low-
est
Day
temperatures
Night
temperatures
Day and night
temperatures
combined
ob-
ob-
serv-
serv-
Differ-
Differ-
Differ-
ed
ed
Mean
ence
from
Mean
ence
from
Mean
ence
from
average
average
average
o
o
o
o
O
o
o
o
North-eastern counties
57
6
44-4
+ 18
341
+ 01
393
+ 10
Eastern counties
58
9
44 9
+ 20
32-6
-03
38 8
+ 0 9
Midland „
•
69
0
45'6
+ 2 3
33-3
+ 0-3
39-5
+ 1-3
Southern „
.
57
12
46 0
+ 14
35 1
-0 1
40 6
+ 0-7
North-western counties,
» North Wales
with ^
• J
' 58
12
46 0
+ 1-8
36'5
+ 11
41-3
+ 1-5
South-western counties, with \
South Wales . . J
59
8
17 3
+ 08
37-1
-°
422
-01
Channel Islands
58
16
490
+ 1-1
41 0
00
450
+ 0*5
Rainfall
Bright Sunshine
Districts
Rainy days j
Total fall
Duration
Perce nt age
of possible
amount
Num-
ber
Differ- !
ence
from
average
Amo-
unt
Differ-
ence
from
average
Hours
re-
cord-
ed
Differ-
ence
from
average
Per-
cent-
age
Differ-
ence
from
average
per-
centage
North-eastern counties
55
+ 8
ins.
6’2
.
lllS.
-01
160
+ 28
21
+ 3
Eastern counties
53
+ 5
4'8
-1-3
227
+ 63
29
+ 9
Midland „
61
+ 15
7 4
+ 03
183
+ 40
23
+ 5
Southern „ . . .
55
+ 8
78
+ 0-3
230
+ 59
29
+ 11
North-western counties, |
with North Wales . J
j 66
+ 15
11-4
+ 2-5
127
+ 15
17
0
South-western counties, 1
with South Wales . /
64
+ 10
12-7
+ 0-7
220
+ 31
28
+ 7
Channel Islands .
65
+ 5
10-1
00
269
+ 51
33
+ 6
Note. — The above table is compiled from information given in the Weekly Weather Report of
the Meteorological Office. The averages employed are for Temperature, the records made during
the twenty years, 1871-90; for Rainy Days, the values for the thirteen years, 1878-90 ; for total
Rainfall, those for the twenty-five years, 1866-90 ; and for Bright Sunshine, those for the ten years,
1881-90.
The Winter of 1893-4.
177
that in some localities from which reports are received, either
unofficially or at irregular intervals, this crucial degree of cold
was exceeded. At Worksop, in Nottinghamshire, for example,
a carefully verified thermometer in a standard screen registered a
minimum of four degrees below zero, or thirty-six degrees of frost.
The only other frosts of any importance during the past winter were
observed respectively at the beginning of December, at the end of
January, and in the fourth week of February, the thermometer on
the first and last of these occasions falling to 20° or less in many
parts of England.
With respect to the temperature of the season as a whole, we see
from the table that while the day readings were above the average
over the whole of England, the night values were far less high,
an actual deficiency of nocturnal warmth being reported in the
eastern, southern, and south-western counties. The mean tempera-
ture, as derived from both day and night readings, was in excess of
the average in all but the south-western districts, the difference
from the normal being greatest over the north-western counties,
where the south-westerly winds blew more strongly and continu-
ously than in other parts of England. In the eastern and southern
districts, where the effects of the large storm systems in the
north were sometimes neutralised by anti-cyclones, which spread
northwards from the southern parts of Europe, the mean tempera-
ture was not much in excess of the average, while in our south-
western counties there was a slight deficit.
The rainfall statistics given in the table show very clearly that
the number of days was in excess of the normal in all districts, and
especially so in the midland and north-western counties. With the
exception, however, of the last-mentioned district, the aggregate
amount of precipitation was not large, and in the eastern counties
it was considerably short of the average. So far, therefore, as
England was concerned, frequency rather than abundance was the
main feature in the rainfall of the season. Farther north, and
especially in the West of Scotland, the quantity was unusually heavy,
and was mingled in several instances with hail, snow, or sleet.
The sunshine records for the winter were unusually good. In
the intervals which occurred between the departure of one of the
northern cyclones and the arrival of the next the weather frequently
remained fine for several hours together, the result being that the
aggregate amount of bright sunshine was in excess of the average
in all parts of England. The largest excess was observed over the
eastern and southern counties. In the former district the average
daily amount in the winter time, as deduced from records extending
over ten years, is about an hour and three-quarters. Last winter
there was a mean daily proportion of rather over two hours and a
half, or three-quarters of an hour more than usual. In the southern
counties the average daily allowance is a little under two hours ;
last season the proportion was rather over two hours and a half,
practically the same as in the eastern counties, and half an hour per
day in excess of the average. An examination of the Greenwich
VOL. V. T. S. — 17 N
178 Obituary.
records shows that while the prevalence of sunshine was nearly as
large in the winters both of 1886-87 and 1889-90, the amount
registered last season was actually greater than any observed at a
similar time of the year since the recording instrument was first
started, in 1876.
OBITUARY.
THE RIGHT HON. SIR HARRY VERNEY, BART.
Born December 8, 1801 : Died February 12, 1894.
The Royal Agricultural Society has been fortunate in many things ;
and not the least gratifying part of its now long and honourable
history is the continuous hold which it has retained on the affections
and interest of its original founders. Fifty-six years ago a public
meeting was held at Freemasons’ Tavern, under the chairmanship of
the third Earl Spencer (better known as Lord Althorp), which may
fairly be described as historic — at least in agricultural annals. That
meeting was attended by a number of men whose names were
already, or have since become, household words ; and the Society
may well be proud of ranking amongst its founders men like Earl
Spencer, the fifth Duke of Richmond, Lord Portman, Sir Robert
Peel, Sir James Graham, Mr. Shaw Lefevre (Vicount Eversley),
Mr. Handley, M.P., Mr. Philip Pusey, and last, but by no means
least, Sir Harry Yerney.
Lord Portman, Lord Eversley, and Sir Harry Yerney — each a
member of the Provisional Committee appointed at the meeting of
May 9, 1838 — were all three associated with the Society for more
than half a century. Lord Portman, active-minded to the last,
and keenly interested in even the smallest details of the Society’s
work, achieved the at present unique distinction of being con-
tinuously on the Council for over fifty years. Appointed Yice-
President on June 27, 1838, and Trustee on July 8, 1 8L6, he served
as President three times — in 1845-6 at Newcastle, in 1855-6 at
Chelmsford, and in 1862 at Battersea. Only a few days before his
death on November 19, 1888, I received a note from him (one of a
series of three) on the subject of the early history of the Society, in
which he mentioned that he was the very first member of the English
Agricultural Society to pay his subscription to the bankers, and
that he was, therefore, the oldest member of the Society. It
appears from the records that at the first meeting of the Provisional
Committee, held on May 10, 1838 (the day after the inaugural
meeting), it was decided that “ Any person setting down his name,
and paying his subscription before June 27 next, may become a
subscriber to this Society, and that subsequently all members be
elected by the Committee.”
170
The Right Hon. Sir Harry Verney, Bart.
Lord Portman, Lord Eversley, and Sir Harry Verney were all
present at this Committee meeting, and it is doubtless on this
account that they were able to claim precedence of the other
founders and well-wishers of the Society whose names appear in the
original list of Members published in the Farmers' Magazine of June,
1838. Some of these have only lately been lost to us (such as the
Duke of Devonshire, Lord Winmarleigh, and the Earl of Lovelace),
and two others still happily survive — Earl Grey, K.G.,1 and Lord
C. J. F. Russell.
The deaths of Lord Portman and Lord Eversley in 1888 left Sir
Harry Verney the only survivor of those who attended the inaugural
meeting, and then gave in their adhesion to the Society. Sir Harry
was particularly gratified at the reference made to him by H.R.H.
the Prince of Wales, at the Council Meeting held on February
6, 1889, as the “ Father” of the Society, which was reported in the
newspapers of the time ; and on the fifteenth of that month he
wrote me the following interesting letter : —
Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks : February 15, 1889.
Dear Sir, — I have read that at the Monthly Council of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, the President, H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, did me the
honour of mentioning my name as the oldest member of the Society.
I am not only the oldest Member ; I took the utmost interest in the
formation of the Society, and I urged its great value and importance on all
agricultural friends and acquaintances. I could not afford the 50/. that
those gave as donation, but I have, from that day to this, done all in my
power to forward the objects of the Society.
All we landowners have suffered from the lowness of agricultural pro-
duce ; but I am happy to know that the condition of the labourer — I speak
of my own neighbourhood — is greatly improved. One very cold November
evening I was riding home from Aylesbury, through the village of Waddes-
don, and there at the entrance to the village were 20 men standing idle,
leaning on their picks, each man by a heap of broken stones. I rode up
and said, “ My good fellows, why don’t you work, if only to keep yourselves
warm P ” “ We’re not allowed, sir ; we are only allowed to break this heap
of stones.” “ And what are you paid for each heap P ” “ Sixpence.” And
there were 20 more at the Bicester end of Waddesdon. This was before
1834, the new Poor Law.
All the work of the Royal Agricultural Society has been so directed as
to render impossible such a state of things, wherever prominent Members of
the Society have been at work.
Am I presumptuous in saying that there is still something to be done ?
England may be made more healthy, more productive. Pardon an ego-
tistical instance. When I came to live here ague was very common : we
have had no case for many years. . . .
I read in The Times the account of the meeting of the London Housing
1 Earl Grey, who now becomes the “ Father ” of the Society, is Sir Harry
Vemey’s junior by one year, having been born in December, 1802. Lord Grey
is now the only survivor of the Parliaments before the Great Reform Bill, he
having been returned, as Viscount Howick, for Winchelsea in 1826. At the
date of Sir Harry Verney’s death he shared with Mr. Gladstone and Lord
Charles Russell — the latter also one of the founders of the Society — the dis-
tinction of having been first sent to Parliament in 1832.
W 2
180
Obituary.
of the Poor. Surely the legitimate cure is cultivation of the land. I sel-
dom visit a parish where I do not hear of some farmers whose land is im-
perfectly cultivated. For good cultivation labourers are wanted. They
would not leave their villages if they could get work at home.
I am, dear sir, your faithful and obedient,
(Signed) Haeey Vernev.
The Secretary, Royal Agricultural Society.
I wrote in reply stating that as the early records of the Society
were less complete than could be wished, the Council would be much
obliged if he would favour them with any reminiscences as to his
associations with the Society. With great promptitude Sir Harry
sent from his sick-bed the subjoined reply, with a covering note
saying : “ I have been very ill, but my doctor tells me I am to be
well enough to attend the Windsor Meeting. It will afford me great
pleasure to do so.”
Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks : February 21, 1889.
Deae Sie, — You ask me, as “ Father of the Royal Agricultural Society,”
for any recollections that I may have with regard to its establishment.
There was, at that time, a very universal feeling in the country that
one of its most important interests had not received that national attention
which it deserved. There were small local agricultural associations, but
none in which the whole community took interest.
It was fortunate for the cause of agriculture that a man known as one
of the best practical farmers was then leader of his party in the House of
Commons. Lord Althorp was as much respected by his opponents as by
his own party ; not at all eloquent, but possessing that truthful and practi-
cal common-sense which gave him more influence than many an orator and
than men of more talent. He was closely united as an agriculturist with
the Duke of Richmond ; they were on opposite sides in politics. These two
were the founders of the Royal Agricultural Society. There were many
quite ready to second them, able, good men —Handley, R. Clive, Estcourt,
Childers, Philip Pusey ; but it required two such men as Lord Althorp and
the Duke of Richmond to bring together such a gathering as met at the
Freemasons’ Tavern on May 9, 1838.
Happily, party spirit, that bane of so much that would he good and
admirable in England, was quite unknown among these pioneers of agricul-
ture. When the members were to choose a chairman, 'no one asked whether
such a man were Tory or Whig ; but his knowledge with regard to agricul-
ture, or his capacity of judging the points of a fat beast, or of the merits of
South Down or Leicestershire sheep, or of a Clydesdale mare or Norfolk
punch, were much thought of.
In those days Protection occupied the thoughts of agriculturists, as well
as of the most thoughtful men ; how much of it would enable us to grow
corn enough for our own consumption and to withstand the competition of
the foreigner. No one at that time thought Free Trade possible. I am
afraid that many bore a secret grudge against the most distinguished politi-
cal economists of the day, as if they were trying to compass the injury of the
whole agricultural interest.
I was glad to hear a great number of my friends putting their names
down for CO/, each, and I saw from the large sums subscribed at that first
meeting how important a society this had become. . . .
I have mentioned the name of Philip Pusey. There is no one to whom
the Royal Agricultural Society has more reason to look back with regard
and gratitude than to him ; he was a very clever and learned man, and he
The Right Hon. Sir Harry Verney , Bart.
181
THE RIGHT HON. SIR HARRY VERNEY, BART.
» Father ” of the Royal Agricultural- Society of England.
182 Obituary.
undertook the editorship of the Journal of the Society, which all agreed he
conducted admirably.
The voters of Berkshire turned him out at the next election, in conse-
quence of his Free Trade tendencies, which I am afraid he felt very much.
It was indeed a lamentable return for all his services to the Society.
The proposal that the Society should hold its meetings in different parts
of the country was made soon after its establishment, and contributed much
to its usefulness and popularity.
I am, dear sir, yours faithfully,
(Signed) Harry Verney.
The Secretary, Royal Agricultural Society.
At a subsequent stage of the Society’s year of jubilee Sir Harry
Verney attended the Fiftieth Anniversary Meeting, held at 12 Hano-
ver Square, on May 22, 1889, in order to move the adoption of the
Report of the Council ; and as the speech he made on that occasion
has not yet been recorded in the pages of the Journal, I may be
allowed to reproduce it hei’e : —
Sir Harry Verney, who rose amid cheers, said he supposed he was the
only one who could look round on all the portraits in that room and recog-
nise every one of them. The reason why he had been so very much attached
to the Society from the beginning— and he had a good deal to do with the
commencement of it — was that he felt it would be more useful to the
country in general than any society that could be established, because it
would unite the agricultural classes with those who, by position, wealth,
and intelligence were able to make scientific experiments for the improve-
ment of the cultivation of the soil. Land became more healthy by being
well cultivated, there was a larger amount of produce, the labourers obtained
an increase in their wages, and altogether great benefits were conferred upon
the country. Above all, the greatest boon was the prevention of the agri-
cultural labourers and their families dropping away to London and other
large cities. He had known several of them who had come to London, and
spent their little all in coming there, and then desired to return, but found
it impossible to do so. Here they paid 2s. Qd. or 2s. for a single room in a
miserable court or alley in London, having paid the same sum in the country
for a cottage with a garden. Those who prevented the agricultural classes
coming to London conferred an enormous benefit on the community. Their
Society entirely owed its existence to Lord Althorp and the late Duke of
Richmond. He well recollected all their efforts at the beginning of its career.
His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales had lately done him (Sir Harry
Verney) the honour of calling him the “Father” of the Society. It had
certainly been a most prosperous family, and one which he believed had
conferred great benefits upon the country. As the oldest member of the
Society, he took the liberty of moving the adoption of the report, and of
expressing his great satisfaction and happiness at witnessing its prosperity.
The number of societies which he had seen established in England, and par-
ticularly in London, for the benefit of the working classes was something
quite enormous. For a very old man like himself, who had only a short
time to live, it was a source of happiness and of great gratitude to God to
see this increase (Cheers).
All through our correspondence and conferences of 1889 Sir
Harry was expressing the hope that his health might permit him to
attend the Society’s Meeting in Windsor Great Park. That hope he
was happily able to realise. I have a vivid remembrance of standing
outside the entrances on one of those terribly hot and exhausting days
The Right Hon. Si?' Harry Vemey, Bart.
183
of midsummer weather, endeavouring to arrange for the mitigation
of the plague of yellow dust that covered everything as with ochre,
and of espying Sir Harry Yerney sitting beside the driver in a
fly full of passengers, that was bringing visitors to the show from the
railway-station. I seized upon him at once, and endeavoured to save
him further fatigue by taking him to the Grand Stand in the
secretarial vehicle ; but I think he resented a little the implied sug-
gestion that he was not equal to traversing the showyard on foot.
When the preparations for the first number of the new Quarterly
Journal were on foot early in 1890, I had several interviews with
Sir Harry as to a biographical sketch by him of Earl Spencer, the
first president of the Society. The interesting note which appears
in Part I. of Vol. I. of the New Series was the subject of numerous
conferences between Lady Yerney, Sir Harry, and myself, and in
apologising for a day’s delay in forwarding the manuscript Sir Harry
(then, it must be remembered, in his 89th year) said : “ I have to
attend important meetings on all sorts of subjects, and have been for
some hours this morning in the City, but shall immediately go to
work on Lord Althorp.” Next day, March 14, he wrote, in sending
the manuscript : —
It is utterly unworthy of the dear and honoured man who is the
subject of it. Old age is a poor claim, but of course the only one that I
have, to he permitted to write this. Anyone who is allowed to co-operate
in any manner in the great and beneficent work of the Society ought to
do it as well as he can. I wish that this was much better.
Notwithstanding Sir Harry’s modest reference to it, the general
opinion of the sketch of Earl Spencer was that it was one of the
most attractive features of the number ; and it was certainly read
with the greatest possible interest, both on account of the subject of
it and of the biographer.
In his Buckinghamshire home Sir Harry set a splendid example
as a country gentleman living on his estate, interested in county
business, and solicitous for the welfare of his tenants and of all
with whom he came in contact. He began life as a soldier — the son
of a soldier (General Sir Harry Calvert, Bart., G.C.B.), to whose title
he succeeded in 1826. In 1827 he took the name of Yerney, on
inheriting the Buckinghamshire and other estates of Mary Yerney,
Baroness Fermanagh, the last of the original Verneys. Shortly after-
wards he retired, with the rank of major, from the Grenadier Guards ;
though, as the Duke of Richmond and Gordon has mentioned (page
xxxiv.), he retained his interest in his old regiment to the last by
attending its annual dinners.
From the first Sir Harry interested himself in all the social ques-
tions of the day ; and he found an outlet for his activity by becoming
a member of the first reformed Parliament of 1832.1 Amongst the
1 The Verneys were always a very parliamentary family. Sir Ralph
Verney was Member for London in 1472, and from that time almost up to the
present there was seldom wanting a representative of the name for the
county of Bucks or for one of its five boroughs. Sir Harry Vemey carried on
184
ObiiuM'y.
first acts of his Parliamentary life was to give a cordial support to
the movement inaugurated by Wilberforce for the abolition of slavery.
He also supported the measures passed for the improvement of the
Poor-Law system, Municipal Reform, the introduction of the Penny
Post, the extension of the Railway system, and, at a later period,
the abolition of the Corn Laws. Brought, as he was, into contact
with the leading men of the day, it is not surprising that his co-
operation was sought in the establishment of the new Agricultural
Society on a non-political basis. Though his name does not appear
prominently in the Society’s records, he took an abiding interest in
its welfare ; and a letter published in 1846 shows him to have been a
pioneer in the then almost untrodden paths of experimental research.
Writing on December 19, 1845, to “My dear Pusey,” he recorded
the results of the second year of an experiment with Spanish phos-
phorite and other manures, in a letter which the then Editor of the
Journal thought important enough to publish (see Vol. VI., First
Series, page 331).
Spanish phosphorite is a “ raw ” phosphatic material, used then,
and still, for making superphosphate of lime.1 Its use in the raw
and ground state (as tried by Sir Harry Yerney) has now no direct
importance, and the interest of the experiment is confined to the
demonstration of the superiority of dissolved to undissolved minerals.
No one now would think of using practically Spanish phosphate in
the raw or ground state ; but these points were not known in 1845,
when Sir Harry experimented.
Sir Harry’s activity of both mind and body was extraordinary.
In November, 1892, Dr. Yoelcker and myself paid him a visit at
Claydon, in connection with some schemes he had in view with regard
to the sanitary condition of the cottages on his estate,2 and we were
charmed, as everyone was, by his old-world courtesy and geniality
of manner. I remember being astonished at seeing from my bed-
room window, when dressing in the morning, an active, if somewhat
bent, figure walking along briskly in the distance, under an avenue
of trees Sir Harry himself had planted. After breakfast, Sir Harry
devoted the whole morning to walking round the estate with an old
this Parliamentary tradition. He was elected Member for Buckingham in the
first reformed Parliament of 1832, and took his seat in the same Legislative
Chamber as that in which his predecessor, Sir Ralph, had scribbled notes
(still preserved at Claydon) of the proceedings when Charles I. attempted to
arrest Pym, Hampden, Holies, Hazelrigg, and Strode in 1642. In 1835, 1837,
1857, 1859, 1865, and 1880, Sir Harry again sat for the town. In the Parlia-
ment of 1847, however, the Bucks farmers in the enlarged borough refused to
support him, believing that the repeal of the Corn Laws, for which he declared
he should vote, would ruin them ; he therefore contested and sat for Bedford,
which had been lost to the Whigs by Lord John Russell in 1 837. In 1886 the
borough of Buckingham was disfranchised after a life of 340 years, its last
member being a Verney, as was nearly the first. In 1885, on Sir Harry’s
retirement from the House, he was made a Privy Councillor by his lifelong
friend, Mr. Gladstone.
1 For the composition of Spanish phosphorite, see Journal, Vol. XI.
(Second Series), 1875, pages 409-12.
2 For a description of the sanitary improvements in cottages effected by
Sir Harry Verney, see Journal, Vcl. III. (1892), p. 638 (note).
The Right Hon. Sir Harry Verney, Bart.
J85
Indian friend. At luncheon he expressed his doubts as to whether
a certain road on the estate (six miles off) was being re-metalled in a
satisfactory manner, and intimated his intention of riding over in
the afternoon to see how it was progressing. He sat his horse well,1
and the woodcut on page 181, after an excellent photograph by
Mr. Payne, of Aylesbury, gives a good idea of his appearance on
horseback. At tea-time Sir Harry was back, full of information
about the road ; and after dinner he discoursed without flagging on
subjects of special interest to him — archaeology, social reform, Parlia-
ment, small holdings, and many more.
During Sir Harry’s life the greater part of the Claydon estate
has been drained, and in almost every case at his own expense.
New farm-buildings and improvements occupied a large share of
his attention, and he was particularly happy in his choice of site and
situation, with a view to secure the health and comfort of the tenants
and their farm-stock. The new cottages that have been built in his
time — and particularly those of recent years — are a vast improve-
ment on those which he inherited ; but even the old cottages have
undergone enlargement and improvement to meet modern require-
ments. He planted a quantity of tine timber in all parts of the
estate, and the specimens of oak and elm are hardly to be surpassed
anywhere.
Both he and Lady Yerney were greatly interested in the subject
of small holdings — which, indeed, was engaging his attention at the
time of his lamented death. The subjoined letter is interesting, not
only as being one of the very last which Sir Harry wrote before
his fatal illness, but from several other points of view. It evidences
an active mind ever busy for the welfare of his tenantry and agri-
culturists generally, a punctilious regard for the engagements and
convenience of others, and a confident looking forward to a con-
tinuance of useful work — as witness the mention of his engagements
on February 7 and 12, and his prospective visit to London at the
end of March : none of them, alas ! destined to be fulfilled.
Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks : Jan. 2(5, 1894.
My dear Mr. Ernest Clarke, — I am very anxious to persuade you to
spend a day or two with me here. I am desirous that by some means the
condition of tenant-farmers in this part of the country should be raised. I
think that what may be understood by l< the farm labourers treading on the
heels of the farmers ” should be avoided. I think that there is danger of it
in this neighbourhood, and that no one is so able as yourself to give an
opinion on the subject.
I shall also ask your opinion as to dividing a considerable portion of
an estate into small holdings. I have heard that Lord Tollemache has
divided a large portion of his estate near Chester in that manner. My land
is almost entirely grass, some of it very good grass-land. I should think
that better is hardly to be found anywhere.
If you are so good as to accept my invitation, might I suggest next week,
or the week following, or the week after that, for your visit, or at a later
time ?
1 Up to the last few days of his life Sir Harry took regular exercise on
horseback, and he was in the saddle only four days before bis death-
186
The Weather o/1893.
My only engagements are February 7th at our County Infirmary,
February 12th, Bedford Infirmary.
I ought to add that while I invite you, I do not forget how very full of
work your days must be. Perhaps you might be able to come for a Sunday.
I am happy to be able to say that we have an excellent clergyman, so
we are always sure of a good sermon.
I am, yours faithfully,
(Signed) Harry Verney.1
Ernest Clarke, Esq.
I intend to remain here until the end of March, then go to London for a
few weeks. — H. Y.
My intended visit on Friday, February 16, was carefully
recorded in Sir Harry’s notebook, and was the subject of frequent
mention by him to members of his family circle. Instead of this
pleasurable visit on the 16th, I had the melancholy satisfaction of
paying the last tribute of respect to Sir Harry’s memory by attend-
ing his funeral on February 15 as the representative of the Society.
It was a simple but very impressive ceremony, and fitly ended a long,
honourable, and modest career devoted to works of charity and
good-will towards his fellow-men.
Sir Harry Yerney exemplified nobly “the grand old name of
gentleman,” and the remembrance of his winning personality will
long remain one of the most precious possessions of those who had
the privilege of his personal acquaintance.
Ernest Clarke.
12 Hanover Square, W.
THE WEATHER OF 1893.2
First Quarter. — The weather in January was very cold during
the first week, and till the 18th, with frequent snow and rain, but
was warm, with fogs, from the 19th. The temperature of the air
was constantly below its average till the 18th ; the atmospheric
pressure was occasionally a little below the average, but was generally
above. The fall of rain at a few places was a little above the average,
but at most places a little below.
The weather in February was warm and unsettled, with rain fall-
ing on two days out of three. The temperature of the air was above
its average from the 1st to the 3rd and from the 7th to the 21st,
and below it on the other days. The atmospheric pressure was
generally above its average till the 7th, and below from the 8th,
and particularly so from the 20th to the 27th. The fall of rain
was above the average.
The weather in March was exceptionally fine, warm, and dry.
1 The facsimile of Sir Harry's signature appearing under the portrait on
page 181 is reproduced from this letter.
2 Abstracted from the particulars supplied to the Registrar-General by
James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S.
The Weather of 1893.
187
The temperature of the air, with the exception of the short period
from the 17th to the 21st, was above the average, and we have to go
back to 1859 for as warm a March, and there are but four other
instances back to 1771. The mean atmospheric pressure was higher
than in any March back to 1874. The fall of rain was remarkably
small j and we must go back to the year 1854 to find a March with
so small a rainfall.
Second Quarter. — The weather in April was noteworthy for its
small rainfall, unusual amount of sunshine, and fineness generally.
The temperature of the air was above its average on nearly every
day ; after the middle of the month the temperature was that of
summer. The atmospheric pressure was also above its average, and
the mean was higher than in any April back to 1861. The fall of
rain was only 0-09 inch at Blackheath, and we must go back to 1855
for as small a fall. The fall of rain in March and April together
was 0-49 inch, and we have to go back to 1840 for so small a fall.
The consequent drought became very serious, particularly in the
southern and midland counties.
The weather in May was remarkably fine and dry, being, in
fact, a continuation of the exceptional weather of the two preceding
months. The temperature of the air was above its average on nearly
every day till the 29th. The atmospheric pressure was above its
average till the 14th, and from the 25th. The fall of rain was
0-52 inch, and in the three months — March, April, and May — it
was 1 inch, giving a daily average of only about 1-1 00th inch,
which is, so far as I know, unprecedented. The drought was
general, but it was most severe at the southern stations.
The weather in June was very fine and dry. The temperature
of the air was generally above its average, but was occasionally, for
two or three days together, below. It was very warm about the
middle of the month. The atmospheric pressure was above its
average from the 4th to the 12th, on the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 30th
days, and below on all other days. The fall of rain at Blackheath
was small ; a little fell on the 7th and 20th, and daily from the
23rd to the 28th. The drought, which began on March 5th, con-
tinued to June 22nd ; the fall of rain
in.
days
From March 5
to 31 was 0-140 . .
. 27
„ April 1
„ 30
„ 0-086 . .
. 30
„ May 1
„ 31
„ 0-515 . .
. 31
„ June 1
„ 22
„ 0-170 . .
. 22
0-911
110
The fall of rain in the months of March to June was less than
in any four consecutive months back to 1815. Hay crops were
deficient everywhere, but were better in the north than in the south,
where they were very light. In some places the crop quite failed.
Third Quarter. — The weather in the early part of July was very
warm, and the month was generally fine and warm. The tempera-
ture of the air was above its average till the 11th, and from the
20th to the 25th, and below from the 12th to the 19th, and from
188
The Weather of 1893.
the 26th. Between the 1st and the 8th the temperature rose on
six days out of the eight above 80° at several stations. The atmo-
spheric pressure, with the exception of the first three days, and
of three days towards the end of the month, was below the average.
The fall of rain was generally small, but at a few stations it slightly
exceeded the average ; the want of water was severely felt. Harvest
work began fully a month earlier than usual.
The weather in August was very warm, fine, and dry, with a
remarkably hot period extending from the 8th to the 18th. The
temperature of the air was a little below the average till the 7th, and
from the 23rd to the 29th, and above on all other days. Between
the 8th and the 19th the temperature exceeded 80° on every day at
the Royal Observatory, and it exceeded 90° on three days at the
Royal Observatory, Camden Square, and Barnet. The atmospheric
pressure was above its average from the 6 th to the 17th, and from the
24th ; it was below till the 5th, and from the 18th to the 23rd. The
fall of rain was below the average, and grass fields were much dried up.
The weather in September was generally very fine and dry,
particularly during the first half. The temperaturo of the air was
above the average till the 8th, below from the 9th to the 13th ;
again above from the 14th to the 20th ; below, with slight frost at
night, from the 21st to the 26th, and slightly above to the end of
the month. The atmospheric pressure was generally higher than
the average till the 5th and from the 11th to the 15th, and mostly
lower on the other days. The fall of rain was very variable, being
much below the average at most stations, and fully up to it at a
few. The want of water was seriously felt at many places, ponds
and wells being dry.
Fourth Quarter. — The weather in October was generally fine,
with frequent rain towards the middle of the month. The tempera-
ture of the air was generally above its average till the 29th.
The atmospheric pressure was below its average from the 1st to
the 9th, and generally above from the 10th to the 31st. The fall
of rain was above its average at most stations. S. and W. winds
were prevalent. It was a very fine autumnal month.
The weather in November was cloudy and cold, with frequent
changes both of temperature and atmospheric pressure. The tem-
perature of the air was generally below its average till the 27th,
and above from the 28th to the 30th. The atmospheric pressure
was below its average from the 1st to the 5th, and from the 14th to
the 19th, and generally above on all other days. On the 18th and
19th a severe gale of wind from the N. and N.W., accompanied by
a fall of snow, was experienced in most parts of England, doing
much damage, and causing many shipwrecks and great loss of life.
The fall of rain was a little below the average around London and
at the midland stations, but generally above at the northern stations.
The weather in December was dull and mild, with the exception
of the 1st to the 5th and of the 29th to the 31st, which were cold.
The atmospheric pressure was below the average from the 7th to the
14th, and from the 19th to the 22nd, and was generally above on
all other days. On the 11th, 12th, and 13th a severe gale of wind
Hay Harvest Forecasts , 1893.
189
and heavy fall o£ rain were experienced all over England, accom-
panied at several places in the south by thunder and lightning,
doing much damage and causing loss of life on both land and sea.
The fall of rain was a little above its average at all stations.
HAY HARVEST FORECASTS, 1893.1
The results of the checking of the Hay Harvest Forecasts issued in
1893 by the Meteorological Office show that the general percent-
age of success for the entire country was 91, or 2 per cent, higher
than any previously recorded. The largest percentage was 97 in
England, E. ; the smallest was 84 in England, N.W.
The telegrams were sent between 3.30 p.m. and 4 p.m. on each
week-day for a period of about five weeks, the issue commencing in
the south of England on June 12, and extending to other parts of
the kingdom in the course of the ensuing three weeks.
In addition to the recipients named in the list, the telegrams
were sent to seven gentlemen at their own cost. In the two cases
of subscribers of former years declining to avail themselves of the
forecasts, the reason assigned was the shortness of grass, due to the
continued drought, and not any doubt as to the value of the fore-
casts.
Summary of Results.
Percentages
Total
per-
Districts
Staines of Stations
Com-
Par-
Par-
centage
plete
tiai
tial
of
sue-
sue-
fail-
ure
success
cess
cess
ure
Scotland, N.
Munlochy and Golspie
61
32
7
93
Scotland, E.
rAberfeldy, Huntly, and)
1 Glamis . . . . )
68
37
4
1
95
England, N.E. .
Ulceby and Chatton .
68
22
10
—
90
England, E.
Rothamsted and Thorpe
90
7
3
—
97
Midland Counties
( Cirencester, Retford, War- 1
t wick, and Broseley . . f
66
26
6
2
92
England, S.
f Maidstone, Caversham, and .
t Downton . . . .1
72
23
5
—
95
Scotland, W.
1 Ardwell, Islay, and Dum- 1
1 barton . . . . i
59
31
8
2
90
England, N.W. .
Leyburn ....
57
27
13
3
84
England, S.W. .
(Clifton, Tortworth, and)
1 Glastonbury . .
62
30
8
—
92
Ireland, N. .
1 Moynalty and Edgeworths- 1
l town . . . . }
49
38
8
5
87
Ireland, S. .
Kilkenny and Ardfert
62
25
11
2
87
Mean for all districts in 1893 .
64
27
8
1
9L
„ „ „ in 1892.
56
32
10
2
88
„ „ „ in 1891 .
58
31
10
1
89
1 Particulars supplied by the Meteorological Office.
190
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
RECENT AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
The subjects of Applications for Patents from Dec. xi, 1893,
to March 10, 1894.
N.B. — Where the Invention is a communication from abroad the name of
the Inventor is shown in italics, between parentheses, after the name of the
applicant.
Agricultural Machinery and Implements, &c.
No. of Name of Applicant.
Application.
Year 1893.
24216 Atterton, J.
24523 Gough, A. .
24573 New, A. B.,& Britton
24707 Duncan, J. .
1894
107 Dell, W. B.
194 Gindler, C. .
199 Ridler, E. .
492 Landis & Jenner
505 Gordon, T. .
579 Fyfe, D. A. .
662 Bamford, S. B. .
968 Smith, De W. B. .
1201 Jones, T.
1825 Moore, J. C.
1880 Pollock, A.
1978 Jones, L. M., & anr. .
2012 Massey, F. ( Jones and
others, Canada)
2306 Thompson, W. P. ( Stem-
art , U.S.A.)
2399 Forbes, J. .
2438 Topham, F. .
2640 Johnson, J. .
2794 Truscott, J., & J.
2827 Wallace, R. & W.
3013 Maxwell, E.
3557 Robinson, J., and
Brown, G.
3815 Tucker, F., & anr.
3854 Watson, T. .
4290 Allan, J. .
4446 Bamford, S. B. .
4658 Evans, T.
4951 Paasche, G. ,
Title of Invention.
Cleaning potatoes and roots.
Chaff-cutting machine.
Side hoeing, gapping, &c., implement.
Drying oats, &c.
Cleaning, decorticating, &c., wheat.
Horse hoes.
it it
Straw stackers for threshing machines.
Sickle grinders.
Treatment and preparation of hay.
Chaff cutters.
Knives for mowers and reapers.
Hand ploughing machine.
Mowing and reaping machine.
Land roller and broadcast seed sower.
Spring tooth cultivators.
Grain binders.
Topping and tailing turnips.
Distributing, &c., manure.
Drill-maker attachment to digging plough.
Cultivators.
Topping and tailing roots.
Balance ploughs.
Wrought metal-ploughshares.
Hay-pressing apparatus.
Digging ploughs.
Topping, tailing, and lifting turnips.
Mowing and reaping machines.
Distributing manure and sowing grain.
Ploughs.
Stable Utensils and Eittings — Horse-shoes, &c.
1893
23801 Livsey, T. . . , Roughing horses.
Horse-shoes.
Harness.
Nosebags.
Horse-shoes.
Draught traces.
23840 Shepherd, C. D.
23868 Bailey, R. D.
23871 McLardy, J. E. .
23921 Chamberlain, M. L.
24010 Baumann, R, ,
Recent Agricultural Inventions ,
191
Name of Applicant.
No. of
Application
Tear 1893.
24027 Symons, & Clarke, T. Side-saddletrees.
Title of Invention.
E.
&
24067 Williams, J.
24260 Hands, E. .
24335 Carmont, H.
24354 Hawkins, S.
24366 Risdon, J. .
24399 Norwood, J. E.
24636 Buckingham, J.
24703 Wilton, H. S.
24741 I)e Horsey, A.
24748 Sewell, F. G. G
24819 Meyer, J. .
24820 Wartnaby, G.
24917 Skinner, D. M.
25022 Hottelart, V. & L.
1894
163 Meyers, J. C.
236 Hencke, A.
556 Barratt, C. W., Sc anr,
669 Brown, J., & anr.
615 Cree, J. S. .
765 The Mail Horse-
shoe Synd. Ltd.
anr. . .
846 Sumner, J. .
948 Carrington, H. .
1032 Gledhill, J. W.
1410 Jeffries & others
1524 Fletcher, W. .
1567 Punchard, W. C.
1702 Sharman, J. H. .
1923 Withers, W. G. .
1951 Turner, A. W.(Dovglas,
U.S.A .) .
2273 Marshall, C. H.
2357 Lavine, J. F.
2413 Jensen ( Krause , Ger-
many)
2741 Glossop, G. .
2947 Mandeville
3031 Roberts, R. A. .
3349 Wincer, A. .
3390 Tenney, D. G.
3734 Gray, F.
3881 Langton, S.
3901 Thomas, T., & anr.
4578 Elliott, J. A. & G. C.
4673 Verity, J. M.
4852 Ogden, A. E.
Detaching horses from vehicles.
Fixing horse-shoes.
Shoes to prevent slipping.
Horse-shoes.
Automatic shaft and harness attachment.
Horse-shoes.
Side saddles.
Horse-shoes.
Horse-collar.
Saddles.
Compound horse-shoes.
Reins.
Feed-bag for horses.
Horse-shoes.
Stirrups.
Horse-shoes.
Horse-collars.
. Horse- shoes.
. Bridles.
. Safety stirrup.
. Horse-shoes.
. Whip sockets.
. Inflated linings for saddles.
. Non-slipping appliance for horse-shoes.
. Horse -shoe.
Spurs.
Horse-sandals.
Saddles.
Horse-tail holder.
Safety stirrup.
Nailless horse-shoes.
Metal fittings of headstalls.
Saddlery and harness.
Harness saddles.
Stallion shield.
Nosebag.
Attaching frost caulks to horse-shoes.
Trace hooks.
Training horses to step.
Tubular perforated bits.
Horse-shoes.
1893
23848 Kelvie, A. .
23935 Diss, A.
24513 Shoemaker, J. .
1894
415 Serrf, J. B. .
1578 Drapper& Gray
2848 Beard, J. , ,
Carts and Carriages.
. Brake for highway carriage poles.
. Attaching and releasing traces of vehicles.
. Carts, &c.
Adjusting the brake shoe of vehicles.
Brake.
Brake and weight regulators for carts, &c.
192
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
' No. of
Application.
Dairy Utensils, &c.
Name of Applicant.
Title of Invention.
Year 1893.
24299 Hardy, A. F.
24420 Gillings, W.
24564 Tipper, L. C.
1894
241 Vincent, W.
400 Mourant, P. Le S.
1049 Dowse & anr.
1405 Bond, F. T. .
2143 Cheeld, S. .
2963 Bradford, T.
3182 Maskrey, E.
4260 Fowler, W.
4520 Mills, J. W.
4537 Bradford, T.
. Collapsible box for carrying butter, &c.
. Milk churns, &c.
. Churns.
. Butter churns.
. Churns.
. Milk cans.
. Preparation of cheese.
. Testing milk and drying butter.
. Churning and butter- making apparatus.
. Top and cover for milk churns, &c.
. Butter churns.
. Milk churns.
. Manufacture of butter.
Poultry
1894
1099 Hooper, J. A.
1564 Duke, J. F. .
1946 Beech, F. .
2210 Champness, H. .
8216 Wilson, T. W.
3465 Russell, E. .
4518 Hearson, C. H. .
4900 Collins, Q. .
and Game, &c., Appliances.
. Incubators.
. Preserving eggs.
. Marking ring fastener for poultry, kc.
. Hencoops.
. Artificial mother for poultry.
. Incubators.
. Apparatus for rearing chickens.
. Poultry houses, &c.
1893
25078 Chevrolat, L. P.
1891
412 Ryan, M.
1670 McIlwaine k Common
2093 Kuwert, W.
2334 Jeune, D. M.
3600 Robertson, A. .
3861 Sinard, A. .
3971 Meadows, W. P. .
4382 Newburgh-Stewart,
H. R. .
Miscellaneous,
. Food for cattle, horses, &c.
. Sheep-shearing machines.
Preparing rapeseed for cattle food.
Double knob for distinguishing animals.
Apparatus for giving medicine to cattle, kc.
Wash to cure scab in sheep.
Sheep-shearing machines.
Beehives.
Picketing animals.
Numbers of Specifications relating to the above subjects Published
since Dec. 12, 1893. 1
(Price 8r7. each copy.)
Specifications of 1892.
23109, 23761, 23998.
Specifications of 1893.
277, 409, 766, 1469, 1482, 1722, 1783, 1866, 1888, 2087, 2144, 2175, 2216, 2542,
2963, 2969, 3047, 3097, 3421, 3459, 3526, 3783, 3816, 3925, 4220 4558,
4572, 4725, 6299, 5450, 6010, 6307, 6419, 6650, 6673, 6986, 7079, 7177
7511, 7522, 7524, 7815, 8627, 10443, 12110, 13993, 19341, 19537, 20040
20111, 20553, 20971,21047,21056, 21251, 21438, 21448, 21636, 21949
22528, 22552, 22799, 23366, 23840, 23921, 23935, 24010, 24399, 42819.
1 Copies may be obtained at the Patent Office (Sale and Store Branch),
38 Cursitor Street, London, E.C.
1893.— 'WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT FROM GOVERNMENT RETURNS.
193
8
3 «.
°° £
CM CO
A
CO u
eg e
»
3 ^
M CO
December.
\\i
• ;
Es'
W
£.
November.
If
: c
j j <
ii
a
October.
1
September.
m
M
•1
6
u
3
<
: « : :
M j
3
->
ft :
June.
: i
t?
S
i i i
i i;
i sj! j
April.
! i :
%
i
a
M
>>
CJ
&4
• A i
i :
,
i
1
Ml
H
i
« CO £
eg
co* to
1 eg eg cm
THE PRICE OF ENG-
LISH CORN IN 1893.
Averages for 1893.
s. d.
Wheat 26 4
Barley 25 7
Oats 18 9
(Each space between the lines of the diagram
represents fourpence.)
The diagram shows the weekly
Imperial average price of Wheat in
the past year ; the downward course
is continued from 1892. The annual
average has fallen 3s. 11c?. a quarter;
in 1892 wheat was 30s. 3d., but last
year it was only 26s. 4 d. a quarter.
In 1883 the annual average was
41s. 7 d. and in 1873 it was 58s. 8 d.
— more than double the price in the
past year. The highest weekly ave-
rage was 27s. 1 0 d., on October 7 last,
and the lowest was 24s. 8 d., on
March 25, being a fluctuation of
only 3s. 2d., whereas in 1892 it was
10s. 8 d. a quarter. The annual
average price of Barley was 25s. 7 d.,
being only Id. a quarter under that
of 1892. The highest price was
29 s. 6 d., on October 21 and 28, and
the lowest 20s. 3d., on July 22, a
fluctuation of 9s. 3d. ; in 1892 it
was 8s. 4c?. It is remarkable that
the price of Barley has exceeded that
of Wheat twenty-five weeks out of
fifty-two in the past year, in fact the
last week in 1893 Barley was 29s. 2d.,
and Wheat only 26s. 6c?. a quarter.
The annual average price of Oats wTas
18s. 9c?., or Is. lc?. under that of
1892. The highest price was 22s. 9c?.,
on July 15, and the lowest was
16s. 8c?., on January 7, 1893, a fluc-
tuation of 6s. lc?. a quarter ; in 1892
it was 5s. 11c?. The Imperial average
price of Corn in 1893 was — Wheat
26s. 4 d., Barley 25s. 7c?., and Oats
18s. 9c?. a quarter. According to
Willich’s Tithe Tables, the Septennial
Tithe Bent Charge is 74?. 3s. 9^c?. per
100?., or 11s. 0 jc?. lower than last
year. The average for the fifty-eight
years from the commutation in 1836
is 99?. 6s. 7\d. per 100?.
Henry Allnctt.
VOL. V. T. S. — 17
O
194
STATISTICS AFFECTING BRITISH
AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS.
Table I. — Average Prices of British Corn per Quarter {Imperial
Measure), as received from the Inspectors and Officers of Excise
conformably to the Act of 45 <k 46 Viet. ch. 37, in each Week of the
Year 1893.
[From the “ London Gazette .”]
Week ending
Wheat
Barley
Oats
Week ending
Wheat
Barley
Oats
1893
5.
d.
s.
d.
s.
d.
1893
s.
d.
s.
d.
J.
d.
January 7
25
10
24
9
16
8
July 8
26
8
20
6
21
0
January 14
26
4
25
6
16
11
July 15 .
*
26
8
22
3
22
3
January 21
26
6
25
7
17
0
July 22 .
26
5
20
3
21
9
January 28
26
4
25
6
17
3
July 29 .
.
26
5
23
1
21
7
February 4
26
3
25
4
17
5 1
August 5
26
2
21
8
21
5
February 11 .
25
11
25
0
17
n
August 12
26
3
21
11
20
6
February 18 .
25
7
24
11
17
10 1
August 19
26
5
22
5
19
6
February 25 .
25
5
25
1
18
0
August 26
25
11
26
9
18
6
March 4 .
25
1
25
2
17
n
September 2
25
5
26
9
18
7
March 11
25
0
25
2
18
i
September 9
.
25
7
27
2
17
4
March 18
24
9
25
0
18
7
September 16
.
26
0
27
8
17
6
March 25
24
8
25
5
13
3
September 23
.
26
9
27
10
17
9
April 1 .
24
9
25
11
18
4
September 30
•
27
6
28
4
17
11
Average of j
Winter I
25
7
25
2
17
7
Average of'
Summer
26
4
24
1
19
9
Quarter J
Quarter
April 8 .
24
9
25
6
17
11
October 7
27
10
29
0
17
10
April 15 .
24
10
24
8
18
7
October 14
27
9
29
5
18
0
April 22 .
25
5
24
6
18
8
October 21
27
6
29
6
18
1
April 29 .
25
10
24
0
19
3
October 28
27
6
29
6
18
2
May 6
25
10
23
11
19
5
November 4 .
27
4
29
5
18
2
May 13 .
26
4
22
7
19
4
November 11 .
27
4
29
3
18
1
May 20 .
27
0
23
2
19
8
November 18 .
27
4
29
2
18
2
May 27 .
27
6
25
0
19
6 1
November 25 .
27
1
28
9
18
3
June 3 .
27
5
24
2
20
2
December 2 .
27
0
28
8
18
3
June 10 .
2.7
4
22
10
20
o ;
December 9 .
26
9
29
1
18
4
June 17 .
26
11
23
5
21
i
December 16 .
26
9
28
10
18
3
June 24 .
26
9
23
3
21
3
December 23 .
26
6
29
0
18
0
July 1
26
9
20
9
21
5
December 30 .
26
6
29
2
17
11
Avera ge of
Average of 1
Spring
26
2
24
0
19
5
Autumn 1
27
2
29
1
18
1
Quarter
Quarter J
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,
195
Table II. — Annual Average Prices and Quantities of British Corn sold in the
Towns in. England and T Vales from which Returns are received under the
Act of i 5 $ 46 Viet. ch. 37, in each of the Years 1884 to 1893.
\_From the “ London Gazette .”]
Year
Wheat
Barley
Oats
Wheat
Barley
Oats
8.
d.
8.
d.
s.
d.
Qrs.
Qrs.
Qrs.
1884
35
9
30
8
20
3
2,833,132
3,149,341
492,918
1885
32
10
30
2
20
7
2,739,515
2,765,500
393,042
1886
31
1
26
7
19
0
2,739,822
2,474,466
367,083
1887
32
6
25
4
16
3
2,495,124
2,589,667
309,478
1888
31
10
27
10
16
9
2,427,861
1,911,835
255,726
1889
29
9
25
10
17
9
2,945,408
3,329,814
415,783
1890
31
11
28
8
18
7
3,439,699
3,327,991
599,033
1891
37
0
28
2
20
0
3,248,743
3,255,518
561,713
1892
30
3
26
2
19
10
3,052,879
3,493,634
492,166
1893
26
4
25
7
18
9
2,620,060
3,366,056
575,522
Table III. — Returns published pursuant to the Corn Returns Act, 1882, and
to Act of 6 7 Wm. IV. for “ Commutation of Tithes in England and
Wales," showing what has been, during the Seven Years ending Christmas
Day in each Year, the Average Price of an Imperial Bushel of British
Wheat, Barley, and Oats, computed from the Weekly Averages of Corn
Returns in each of the Years 1887-93.
[ From the “ London Gazette."]
Year
Average (Septennial) Prices per Bushel
Wheat
Barley
Oats
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
1887
4 84
3 8*
2 64
1888
4 5*
3 74
2 5
1889
4 24
3 6|
2 44
1890
3 Ilf
3 7
2 3|
1891
4 0|
3 5i
2 31
1892
4 0
3 H
2 31
1893
3 11
3 4
2 31
Table IV. — Average Prices of Wool in each of the undermentioned Years.
Year
English 1
Austral-
South
Leicester
Half-breds
Kent
Southdown
ASIAN
African
Per lb.
Per lb.
Per lb.
Per lb.
Per lb.
Per lb.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. s. d.
d.
d.
1887
92 to 101
10 to Hi
10* to lOf
101 to 1 Of
10*
io|
1888
9* ,, 10
H „ io*
94 „ 10*
lof „ 10f
9f „ 0 Ilf
10* „ 1 o|
10*
9f
1889
9| „ 101
10* „ 11
10| „ 111
10*
10*
1890
10 „ io|
10J „ 11
11 „ 1 1
11
"I
1891
94 „ 10
10 „ 11
9* „ 10*
104 „ 1 1
9f
1892
1893
8* „ 9
8* .. 91
9f „ 10i
9* „ 10*
9* „ 9f
9 „ 9*
10* „ 1 Oi
104 ,.io
9
9*
1 The prices of English wool have been calculated from the list given
weekly in the Economist newspaper.
196 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,
Table Y. — Summary of Agricultural Produce Statistics (Wheat,
Barley, and Oats) for England , Wales, Scotland, and Great
Britain in 1893.
WHEAT
Estimated Total
Produce
Acreage
Estimated Average
Yield per Acre
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
England
Bushels
46,429,407
Bushels
55,107,186
Acres
1,798,869
Acres
2,102,969
Bushels
25-81
Bushels
26-20
Wales ....
1,205,006
1,318,763
51,562
55,278
22-09
23-86
Scotland
1,612,884
2,134,983
44,093
61,591
36-58
31-66
Great Britain
49,247,297
58,560,932
1,897,524
2,219,838
25-95
26-38
BARLEY
—
Estimated Total
Produce
Acreage
Estimated Average
Yield per Acre
1893
1832
1893
1892
1893
1892
Bushels
Bushels
Acres
Acres
Bushels
Bushels
England
49,032,708
59,511,003
1,751,602
1,709,587
27-99
34-81
Wales ....
2,802,971
3,350,862
. 111,851
114,520
25-06
2926
Scotland .
7,699,698
7,622,732
211,644
212,703
36-38
35-84
Great Britain
59,535,377
70,484,597
2,075,097
2,036,810
28-69
34-61
OATS
Estimated Total
Produce
Acreage
Estimated Average
Yield per Acre
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
England
Bushels
67,164,434
Bushels
73,266,495
Acres
1,914,373
Acres
1,765,463
Bushels
3508
Bushels
41-50
Wales ....
7,452,468
7,976,830
240,865
233,399
30-94
3118
Scotland
38,270,477
35,051,664
1,016,518
998,683
37 65
3510
Great Britain
112,887,379
116,294,989
3,171,756
2,997,545
35-59
38-80
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,
197
Table VI. — Number and Value of Live Cattle, Sheep, and Swine Im-
ported into the United Kingdom in the undermentioned Years.
[ From Trade and Navigation Returns.']
Number
Value
1891
1892
1893
1891
1892
1893
/From Denmark
8,602
901
£
91,481
£
9,455
£
„ Spain
7,662
1,591
—
134,971
27,655
—
and
Bulls
„ Canada .
98,376
90,012
81,232
1,629,975
1,458,142
1,436,479
„ United States .
314,228
392,679
248,825
6,053,483
7,470,333
4,667,152
„ Other Countries
11,636
5,098
7,006
183,136
95,957
109,816
i Total .
440,603
490,281
337,063
8,093,046
9,061,542
6,213,447
From Denmark .
11,998
844
129,355
8,942
„ Sweden .
293
45
—
3,366
604
—
„ Canada .
9,148
7,934
1,690
140,665
118,807
28,526
Cows h
„ United States .
667
255
66
10,386
4,439
1,144
„ Other Countries
3,208
1,428
1,152
52,335
24,108
19,326
^ Total .
25,314
10,506
2,908
336,097
156,800
48,996
From Denmark.
6,263
260
22,756
880
„ Holland .
34,168
762
126,776
3,484
—
Calves .
„ Canada .
765
293
3
1,261
761
13
„ Other Countries
394
135
71
1,638
644
305
^ Total .
41,590
1,450
74
152,431
5,669
318
/From Denmark
66,368
1 38,529
1 29,227
95,561
48,100
35,254
„ Germany .
—
—
—
—
—
—
Sheep
„ Holland .
208.443
6,686
—
441,867
14,877
—
„ Canada . .
31,633
15,743
3,589
61,337
31,359
6,782
Lambs
„ United States .
10,537
2,829
—
17,948
5,854
—
„ Other Countries
28,623
15,261
29,866
46,302
25,469
46,494
Total .
344,504
79,048
62,682
663,015
125,659
88,630
'From Denmark .
„ Holland .
640
24
1,808
86
Swine -j
(
„ United States .
2,568
8,003
—
„ Other Countries
2
1,234
138
1
4,376
413
Total .
542
3,826
138
1,809
12,465
413
Total Value of all kinds .
• •
• •
• •
9,246,398
9,362,135
6,351,704
‘ Mostly imported from Iceland. That island, in these Returns, is included with Denmark, and animals
from thence are allowed to be landed.
198 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,
Table VII. — Quantities and Values of Corn , Meat, Food Products,
Kingdom in the Year 1893, with the
[ From Trade and
Quantities
Values
1891
1892
1893
1891
1892
1893
Animals, Living (for
food) : —
Oxen and Bulls .
No.
440,503
No.
490,281
No.
337,063
£
8,093,046
£
9,061,542
£
6,213,447 j
Cows
25,314
10,506
2,908
336,097
156,800
48,996
Calves
41,590
1,450
74
152,431
5,609
318
Total Cattle
607,407
502,237
310,045
8,581,574
9,224,011
0,262,761
Sheep and Lambs .
344,501
79,048
62,682
663,015
125,659
88,530
Swine .....
542
3,826
138
1,809
12,465
413
Total
-
-
-
9,246,398
9,362,135
6,351,704 1
Corn
Wheat ....
Cwt.
66,312,962
Cwt.
64,901,799
Cwt. J
65,417,308 j
29,448,204
24,857,902
21,193,048
Wheat Meal and Flour
16,723,003
22,106,009
20,408,168
10,184,887
12,267,453
9,761,510
Barley ....
17,465,698
14,277,34 2
22,842,257
5,941,899
4,313,902
5,772,313 ,
Oats
16,600,394
15,661,394
13,976,982
5,471,279
5,013,545
4,306,289
Peas
2,419,381
2,501,492
2,302,443
802,427
803,235
728,294
Beans
3,672,413
4,429,933
3,940,985
1,206,916
1,365,221
1,127,501 |
Maize
26,825,625
35,381,224
32,880,003
8,411,763
9,425,211
7,884,613
Maize Meal . .
55,700
173,664
71,428
39,740
70,426
37,748
Other kinds of corn and )
meal J
-
_ -
455,294
550,197
487,826
Total
-
-
-
62,022,409
58,733,092
51,299,802
Meat
Beef, Sa'.ted
Cwt.
247,759
Cwt.
275,394
Cwt.
200,514
356,022
338,588
278,997
„ Fresh
1,920,511
2,079,637
1,808,052
4,038,495
4,413,148
3,830,599
Mutton, Fresh .
1,662,994
1,699,966
1,971,500
3,282,001
3,447,102
3,873,863
Bacon
3,510,209
3,881,378
3,198,887
6,650,324
7,930,121
8,479,815
Hams
1,204,803
1,253,132
988,411
2,791,437
2,903,712
2,890,252
Turk, Sa'.ted (not Hams) .
226,798
228,354
186,921
295,932
306,202
289,577
„ Fresh . .
127,518
132,107
183,091
302,725
310,105
455,544 j
Meat, unenumerated— )
Salted or Fresh J
113,357
150,573
177,509
255,898
344,945
399,912
Meat preserved otherwise 1
than by Saiting I
776,261
799,501
591,919'
1,888,061
1,951,765
1,545,207 3
Rabbits . .
103,685
107,630
103,823
286,981
303,262
287,737
Total
9,893,895
10,607,672
9,410,627
20,147,876
22,359,070
22,331,503
' Beef, 386,617 cwt. ; Mutton, 83,882 C'.vt. ; Other sorts, 121.420 cwt.
3 Beef, 961,359?.; Mutton, 154,818?. ; Other sorts, 429,030?.
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,
199
and Articles affecting Agriculture , Imported into the United
Corresponding Figures for 1891 and 1892.
Navigation JReturns .]
Quantities
Values
1891
1892
1893
1891
1892
1893
Dairy Produce
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
£
£
£
Butter ....
2,135,607
2,183,009
2,327,473
11,591,183
11,965,190
12,754,233
Margarine ....
1,235,430
1,305,350
1,300,033
3,558,203
3,712,884
3,656,224
Cheese . . . •
2,041,325
2,232,817
2,077,482
4,813,404
5,416,784
5,160,918
Total .
5,412,362
5,731,176
5,704,988
19,962,790
21,095,858
21,571,375
Poultry, &c. : —
Poultry and Game, alive 1
or dead . . . j
-
-
-
456,979
583,430
578,959
Gt. Hunds.
Gt. Hunds.
Gt. Hunds.
Eggs
10,628,314
11,139,419
11,025,908
3,505,522
3,794,718
3,875,039
Total
-
-
-
3,962,501
4,378,148
4,454,598
Fruit, Vegetables, Ac. : —
Bushels
Bushels
Bushels
Apples (raw)
3,147,373
4,514,700
3,463,917
1,033,997
1,353,812
844,312
Other Fruit (raw) .
3,490,226
2,870,175
4,090,146 1
1,762,406
1,413,033
1,849,715 1
Onions ....
4,281,046
4,420,276
4,673,710
733,745
724,040
783,399
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Potatoes ....
3,192,830
3,008,336
2,828,125
1,196,824
950,332
906,952
Vegetables, unonume- )
rated (raw) . . J
-
-
-
932,917
1,016,280
1,076,752
Hops
195,266
187,507
204,592
980,050
960,280
1,141,294
Total
-
-
-
-
-
Other Articles
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Lard
1,051,284
1,239,051
1,118,106
1,720,051
2,223,011
2,808,519
Flax
1,078,940
1,733,100
1,445,320
2,771,568
2,743,305
2,517,953
Lb.
Lb.
Lb.
Wool, Sheep and Lambs’ .
715,470,708
738,251,203
671,663,194
27,856,546
26,839,319
24,437,178
Wood and Timber :
Loads
Loads
Loads
Hewn ....
2,250,692
2,469,139
2,127,891
4,500,667
4,885,850
4,048,697
Sawn or Split, Planed |
or Dressed . J
4,379,060
5,090,798
4,762,752
9,384,916
11,171,920
10,269,900
Staves ....
129,987
136,063
131,708
589,362
593,539
512,567
Tons
Tons
Tons
Oil-Seed Cake .
270,671
311,872
283,101
1,843,285
2,147,099
1,935,989
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Seeds: Clover and Grass .
256,920
297,321
333,412
552,979
635,135
790,061
Tons
Tons
Tons
„ Cotton .
350,437
409,668
389,867
2,047,747
2,363,375
2,409,942
Qrs.
Qrs.
Qrs.
„ Flax and Linseed .
2,200,112
1,902,152
1,699,425
4,564,669
3.730,341
3,473,112
„ Bape
261,169
244,017
252,560
388,446
315,484
343,424
1 Cherrie3, 340,148 bus. ; Plums, 777,842 bus. ; Pears, 915,213 bus. ; Grapes, 978,505 bus. ; Un enumerated
1,072,438 bus.
* Cberries, 194,584?.; Plums 331,731?.; Pears, 347,191?.; Grape3, 530,448?.; Pnenurnera ted, 445,76]?.
200 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
Table VIII. — Quantity and Value of Dead Meat Imported into the
United Kingdom in the Four Years , 1890-93.
[ From Trade and Navigation Returns.']
Thousands (“000”) omitted.
DEAD MEAT
1890
1891
1892
1893
Quan-
tity
1 XT ,
value
Quan-
tity
Value
Quan-
tity
Value
Quan-
tity
Value
Bacon
Cwt.
£
Cwt.
£
Cwt.
£
Cwt.
£
From United States
2,935
4,891
2,675
4,518
2,896
6,354
2,177
5,523
„ Other Countries
856
2,087
835
2,132
985
2,576
1,022
2,957
Beef
Total .
3,791
6,978
3,510
6,650
3,881
7,930
3,199
8,480
Salted
i From United States
263
359
235
335
268
376
188
257
l „ Other Countries .
12
23
13
21
8
13
13
22
Total . .
275
382
248
356
276
389
201
279
Fresh
i From United States
1,693
3,630
1,748
3,745
1,952
4,206
1,490
3,296
l „ Other Countries .
162
293
173
293
128
207
318
535
Hams
Total .
1,855
3,923
1,921
4,038
2,080
4,413
1,808
3,831
From United States
1,094
2,584
1,117
2,580
1,131
2,669
921
2,687
„ Other Countries .
115
285
88
211
122
295
67
204
Total . . .
1,209
2,869
1,205
2,791
1,253
2,964
988
2,890
Mkat, U nenumerated : —
_ .. , „ , < From United States
17
33
20
40
21
46
22
46
1 „ Other Countries .
87
195
93
216
130
299
156
353
Total
104
228
113
256
151
345
178
400
Preserved, other-
' Beef ....
551
1,424
527
1,210
668
1,321
387
961
wise than by-
Mutton .
79
182
92
221
68
139
84
155
Salting .
Other Sorts
105
340
157
457
163
492
121
429
Total .
735
1,946
776
1,888
799
1,952
592
1,545
Mdtton, Fresh
From Holland
116
275
57
128
165
393
197
444
„ Australasia .
897
1,823
1,063
2,109
977
1,981
1,187
2,305
„ Argentine Republic
435
823
436
791
471
866
516
959
„ Other Countries .
208
627
107
254
87
207
71
166
Total .
1,656
3,448
1,663
3,282
1,700
3,447
1,971
3,874
Pork
Salted (not
From United States
205
282
170
233
162
233
109
195
Hams) ,
„ Other Countries .
95
59
184
63
66
73
78
94
Total .
300
341
354
296
228
306
187
290
f
From Holland . .
26
62
90
216
93
214
121
291
Fresh . . J
„ Belgium .
11
27
31
76
22
56
25
63
1
„ Other Countries .
8
20
6
12
17
40
37
102
Total .
45
109
127
303
132
310
183 ;
456
Rabbits
From Belgium
129
357
84
234
89
248
82
225
„ Other Countries .
14
41 *
1
20
53
19
55
21
62
Total. . . |
143j
398 j
104
287
108
303
104 |
288
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 201
Table IX. — Quantities and Values of Butter , Margarine , Cheese, and Eggs
Imported into the United Kingdom in each Year from 1891 to 1893
inclusive.
[From Trade and Navigation Returns .]
QUANTITIES
VALUES
1891
1892
1893
1891
1892
1893
Butter
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
£
£
£
From
Sweden ....
234,987
228,885
267,400
1,269,187
1,243,016
1,451,739
Denmark . . .
876,211
863,532
934,787
4,865,842
4,848,735
5,279,875
Germany . . .
115,509
124,233
164,985
615,791
713,859
830,706
Holland . . .
146,539
141,838
142,811
770,460
750,314
763,897
»»
France ....
535,196
542,687
468,309
3,038,063
3,027,648
2,679,075
Canada ....
46,267
59,571
43,139
187,392
255,652
194,806
*»
United States .
63,693
46,846
22,930
251,750
191,145
104,220
”
Other Countries .
117,205
175,417
283,112
592,698
934,821
1,449,915
Total ....
2,136,607
2,183,009
2,327,473
11,591,183
11,965,190
12,754,233
Margarine
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
-
From Norway. . . .
26,466
25,426
14,071
77,863
70,477
38,761
»»
Holland . . .
1,104,050
1,196,756
1,229,737
3,093,595
3,360,707
3,417,377
France . . .
69,016
56,002
41,302
263.574
192,675
160,377
>»
Other Countries .
35,898
27,166
14,923
123,171
89,025
39,709
Total ....
1,235,430
1,305,350
1,300,033
3,558,203
3,712,884
3,656,224
Cheese
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
From
Holland. . . .
307,925
273,821
269,384
761,387
678,573
676,001
France ....
43,756
45,605
58,346
138,521
143,208
181,763
Canada ....
857,841
1,038,599
1,046,704
1,991,597
2,493,025
2,575,893
United States
774,893
818,433
645,235
1,779,260
142,639
1,961,407
1,578,631
99
Other Countries .
56,910
56,359
67,813
139,971
148,730
Total. . . .
2,041,325
2,232,817
2,077,482
4,813,404
5,416,784
5,160,918
Eggs
Great
Great
Great
Hundreds
Hundreds
Hundreds
From
Russia ....
1,439,954
1,254,323
1,504,615
383,791
354,705
426,106
Denmark . . .
1,161,174
1,247,964
1,098,013
395,963
413,469
376,793
»>
Germany . . .
2,714,484
2,751,340
2,129,076
782,094
827,195
618,631
,,
Belgium . . .
1,768,155
1,985,768
2,040,692
540,699
629,264
682,636
France ....
3,119,754
3,512,174
3,820,636
1,259,009
1,437,203
1,611,495
»»
Other Countries.
424,793
387,850
441,876
143,966
132,882
159,978
Total . . .
10,628,314
11,139,419
11,025,908
3,505,522
3,794,718
3,875,639
202 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,
Table X. — Value of Corn, &c., Imported into the United Kingdom
in each of the Five Years, 1889-93.
{From Trade and Navigation Returns .]
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
£
£
£
£
£
Wheat .
22,530,838
23,584,616
29,448,204
24,857,902
12,267,453
21,193,648
Wheat Flour .
8,559,5G3
9,074,290
10,184,887
9,761,510
31,090,401
32,658,906
39,633,091
37,125,355
30,955,158
Barley .
4,968,947
4,985,406
6,941,899
4,313,902
5,772,313
Oats . •
4,472,598
3,908,497
5,471,279
5,013,545
4,306,289
Maize .
8,680,080
9,863,034
8,411,763
9,425,211
7,884,613
Maize Meal .
19,365
30,060
39,740
70,426
37,748
Beans and Peas .
Other kinds of Corn
1,676,736
1,598,604
2,069,343
2,228,456
1,855,855
and Meal .
—
—
455,294
556,197
487,826
Total of Corn, &c.
50,808,127
53,044,507
62,022,409
58,733,092
51,299,802
Table XI. — Quantities of Wheat, and of Wheat Meal and Flour,
Imported into the United Kingdom in each of the Five Years,
1889-93 ; also the Countries from which they ivere obtained.
[From Trade and Navigation Returns .]
Thousands (“ 000”) omitted.
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
Wheat from —
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Russia
21,322
19,389
14,553
4,363
10,062
Germany
2,539
1,101
714
606
362
France
127
1
126
26
1
Turkey
667
900
1,510
494
104
Roumania
2,862
4,654
1,088
937
738
89
Egypt
325
425
385
11
United States
17,016
17,201
24,195
33,887
32,263
Chili
573
24
2,120
2,288
2,680
6,184
British East Indies . . .
9,217
9,112
13,006
12,495
Australasia
1,406
3,058
2,086
2,017
2,655
British North America .
1,168
1,128
3,174
3,875
3,157
Other Countries ....
1,380
3,482
2,805
3,728
7,949
Total Wheat . . .
58,602
60,475
66,314
64,902
65,417
Wheat Meal and Flour from —
Germany
1,155
895
364
163
116
France
91
103
44
40
52
Austrian Territories . .
1,838
1,370
1,218
977
1,100
United States
10,068
12,026
13,703
19,467
17,996
British North America .
1,169
933
1,029
1,360
1,081
Other Countries ....
378
446
364
98
63
Total Wheat Meal i
— and Flour . . . I
14,699
15,773
16,723
22,106
20,408
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,
203
Table XII. — Numoer of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs Imported
into Great Britain from Ireland in each of the Years 1886-92.
[ From Agricultural Returns.']
—
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Horses :
Stallions . . .
Mares ....
Geldings . . .
43
12,497
16,239
68
11,801
15,769
67
12,388
17,373
80
13,647
18,097
105
14,625
19,422
125
14,065
19,216
113
14,273
18,095
Total . .
28,779
27,638
29,828
31,824
34,152
33,396
32,481
Cattle :
Oxen, 1 Fat . .
Bulls (Store. .
and j Other
Cows ) cattle .
Calves ....
285,156
388,917
1,247
42,069
331,119
302,878
2,283
32,973
282,537
405,540
2,941
47,698
248,362
372,682
1,432
47,367
216.339
360, 75S
1,152
53,449
240,183
323,075
3,985
63,559
256,538
305,373
6,278
56,268
Total . . .
717,389
669,253
738,716
669,843
631,698
630,802
024,457
Sheep :
Sheep ....
Lambs ....
493,983
240,230
321,644
226,924
400,836
236,748
373,313
240,374
387,220
249,761
569,698
323,477
713,528
366,674
Total . . .
734,213
548,568
637,584
613,687
636,981
893,175
1,080,202
Pigs:
Fat
Store
391,509
29,776
438,155
42,765
495,680
49,292
428,103
45,448
543,417
59,745
459,596
43,988
457,977
42,974
Total . .
421,285
480,920
544,972
473,551
603,162
503,584
500,951
Table XIII. — Humber of Horses, and their Declared Value, Imported
into, and Exported from, the United Kingdom in each of the
Years 1888-93.
[From Agricultural Returns and Trade and Navigation Returns.]
Year
Imported
Year
Exported
Number
Value
Number
Value
1888
11,505
£
192,624
1888
12,880
£
848,311
1889
13,832
277,388
1889
14,260
984,611
1890
19,404
336,496
1890
12,916
687,978
1891
21,672
432,268
1891
11,234
525,035
1892
20,994
425,401
1892
11,233
563,364
1893
13,719'
376,954
1893
11,965
472,790
1 Note. — The countries from which horses were imported in 18D3 were as follow : — Germany,
5,628 ; Denmark, 1,764 ; Holland, 1,253 ; France, 471 ; Belgium, 357 ; United States of America,
1,319 ; Canada, 1,815 ; Argentine Republic, 351 ; and 763 from other countries.
Table XIV. — Quantities of Certain Articles of Foreign and Colonial
Production Imported into the United Kingdom in each of the
Years 1890-93.
[From Trade and Navigation Returns.]
—
1890
1891
1892
1893
Bones (whether burnt or not) tons
69,949
83,095
63,008
44,979
Guano ....
. tons
28,005
23,623
27,874
18,311
Cotton, Raw
. cwt.
16,011,350
17,811,476
15,850,324
12,649,822
Hemp ....
1,890,367
2,053,500
1,857,040
1,628,740
Hides untauned : Dry
455,098
451,380
368,191
357,118
„ „ Wet
584,948
565,690
541,286
589,245
Petroleum • . .
gallons
104,809,146
130,615,360
130,186,085
155,125,987
204 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
Table XV. — Number of Carcasses of Frozen Mutton Imported into
the United Kingdom from the Countries named in each Year
from 1880 to 1893.
[From Messrs. W. Weddel $ Co.'s “ Review of the Frozen Meat Trade , 1893,”
corrected to date.']
Year
From
New Zealand
From
Argentine
Republic
From
Australia
From
Falkland
Islands
Totals
1880
—
—
400
—
400
1881
—
—
17,275
—
17,275
1882
8,839
—
57,256
—
66,095
1883
120,893
17,165
63,733
—
201,791
1884
412,319
108,823
111,745
—
632,917
1885
492,269
190,571
95,051
—
777,891
1886
655,888
434,699
66,960
30,000
1,187,547
1887
766,417
641,866
88,811
45,552
1,542,646
1888
939,231
924,003
112,214
—
1,975,448
1889
1,068,286
1,009,936
86,547
—
2,164,769
1890
1,533,393
1,196,531
207,984
10,168
2,948,076
1891
1,894,105
1,111,137
334,684
18,897
3,358,823
1892
1,539,605
1,247,861
504,738
17,818
3,310,022
1893
1,893,604
1,373,723
605,692
16,425
3,889,444
Table XVI. — Home Product and Importations of Sheep and Mutton
(United Kingdom) in each Year from 1883 to 1893.
Year
Population
at the middle o{
each year
Number of
Sheep and
Lambs
enumerated
annually in
June (from
Ayric. Returns)
Number
assumed to be
slaughtered
annually, i.e.
40 per cent.
of those
enumerated
Number of
live Sheep
imported
in each
year
Number of
Carcasses
of Frozen
Mutton
imported in
each year
1883
(estimated) 35,6 1 2,000
28,348,000
11,339,200
1,116,000
201,791
1884
„ 35,962,000
29,377,000
11,750,800
945,000
632,917
1885
„ 36,325,000
30,086,000
12,027,200
751,000
777,891
1886
„ 36,707,000
28,955,000
11,582,000
1,039,000
1,187,547
1887
„ 37,092,000
29,402,000
11,760,800
971,000
1,542,646
1888
„ 37,454,000
28,939,000
11,575,600
956,000
1,975,448
1889
„ 37,809,000
29,485,000
11,794,000
678,000
2,164,769
1890
„ 38,187,000
31,667,000
12,667,000
358,458
2,948,076
1891
(census) 37,704,283
33,534,000
13,414,000
344,504
3,358,823
1892
(estimated) *36?, 082, 000
33,642,000
13,456,000
79,084
3,310,022
1893
„ 38,463,000
31,775,000
12,710,000
65,000
3,889,444
JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.
THE FIRST TWO COUNTRY MEETINGS
OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY:
OXFORD, 1839 ; CAMBRIDGE, 1840.
It is difficult for a fin de siccle chronicler to give from the
imperfect materials at his command anything like a faithful
picture of the earliest Country Meetings of the Society, when
visitors from a distance had all to come to the shows by road, in
coaches, postchaises, or their own vehicles ; when an attendance
of 20,000 people was deemed phenomenal ; and when 247 entries
of live stock and 54 of implements were described as consti-
tuting a show “ on a scale of unprecedented magnitude.” The
circumstance, however, of the Society revisiting, after an interval
of 54 years, the place where it held its first Country Meeting as
a chartered organisation, affords an opportunity of reproducing
from old records some particulars as to the very earliest gather-
ings of the Society, which may offer, perhaps, some food for
reflection on the general advance of agricultural science, and on
the growth of the agricultural shows which now cover the face
of the country.
The story of the origin of the English Agricultural Society,
which blossomed forth two years after its establishment (in
1838) as the Royal Agricultural Society of England, has
already been told elsewhere,1 and it is to be noted that from
the very first the holding of an annual show was regarded
1 Journal, Third Series, Vol. I., 1890, pp. 1 et scq.
VOL. V. T. S. — 18
P
206
The First Two Country Meetings of the
as an integral part of its functions. When, in December 1837,
Lord Spencer, as President of the Smithfield Club, suggested
the establishment of “ an English national society for agricultural
purposes exclusively,” he mentioned the success of the system
which had then for some years been adopted by the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland, of holding annually a
peripatetic Country Meeting ; and his great ally and supporter,
the Duke of Richmond — himself a Scottish as well as an
English landlord — spoke of this example as an excellent one to
imitate. Mr. Handley, M.P., followed in the same strain, and
shortly afterwards planned an elaborate scheme of organisation
for the new Society, which, published as a pamphlet in January
1838, had a considerable circulation at the time. In this
pamphlet Mr. Handley thus referred to the proposal to hold
Country Meetings in different parts of the provinces : —
It will be matter for due consideration how far or in what form it may
be desirable to adopt the migratory principle of the Highland Society and
the British Association. London should, doubtless, be the seat of direction
of such an institution ; it is the natural focus from which all communications
can best emanate ; where all information can be most readily collected ; it
is the easiest of access to the general mass of subscribers, and the place in
which the co-operation of men of science may be most readily obtained.
London, however, is probably not the spot in which the greatest number of
practical agriculturists can be brought together to discuss or acquire infor-
mation on subjects interesting to themselves. The multifarious demands
upon the time of those visiting London operate irresistibly against a con-
tinuous attendance upon a course of lectures or discussions, in which it is
so desirable there should be no interruption ; and which, once in the year
at all events, it may be presumed may afford much new matter and
valuable information. If, however, such annual meeting were held alter-
nately at some considerable town situated in an important agricultural dis-
trict, such, for instance, as York, Lincoln, Norwich, Bath, Northampton, &c.,
not only would it be attended by a vast assemblage of gentlemen from dis-
tant parts who had communications to impart, and from others whose desire
for information would induce them to be present, but it would excite a deep
interest in the proceedings amongst a large class of resident yeomanry, who
would be induced to contribute their assistance, both by subscription and
practical experience, and who, by adopting various proposed improvements,
would, as it were, convert the district, containing probably many varieties
of soils and different modes of culture, into a large experimental farm.1
The publication of this letter had so far prepared the way
that when the Inaugural Meeting of the new “ English Agri-
cultural Society ” was held on May 9, 1838, unanimous
assent was given to the third resolution, proposed by Earl
Fitzwilliam, and seconded by Mr. Philip Pusey, M.P. : “That,
with the view of effecting the objects of this Society, the
annual meetings be held successively in different parts of
England and Wales.”
1 The farmer's Magazine, March 1838, p. 197.
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839 ; Cambridge, 1840. 207
At a meeting of the Provisional Committee, held on May 12,
1838, the objects of the Society were defined, and amongst them
was the following : “ At the Meetings of the Society in the
country, by the distribution of prizes, and by other means, to
encourage the best mode of farm cultivation and the breed of
live stock.” At a later meeting, held on June 26, the Com-
mittee resolved to recommend to the General Meeting on the
following day “ to hold the first meeting in the country at
Oxford, on Wednesday, July 17, 1839.”
The Committee had a variety of sittings to discuss the
details of the prizes to be offered, but eventually they reported
to the General Meeting held in December 1838, that “ The
prizes for cattle to be given at Oxford next year, through which
improvement in the breeding of stock is mainly contemplated,
will be publicly announced in a few days. And your Committee
trust that the owners and occupiers of land in Oxfordshire and
neighbouring counties will co-operate in rendering the first
Meeting of this Society efficient for the objects for which it was
instituted.”
Oxford Meeting, 1839.
The prize sheet for the Oxford Meeting was published in
the form of a huge placard, a copy of which has been presented
to the Society by the courtesy of Mr. J. Kersley Fowler, and is
now hung up on the walls. It is interesting amongst other
reasons as illustrating the state of things existing before the
establishment of the Penny Post. Our veteran Trustee, Sir
Thomas Acland, then a young member of the Committee of
the Society, used his privilege as a Member of Parliament to
frank a copy of the prize list to Mr. Fleetwood Wells ; but
misdirecting it to Ellesborough, Andover , instead of Wendover,
it travelled over a great part of England before it reached its
destination, and is covered with postal memoranda. Mr.
A eland's “ frank” saved the Society 7 d. for postage for sending
this prize sheet 40 miles.
It is evident from the newspapers of the period and from the
recollections of many of the older members of the Society, that
the first Show was awaited with the greatest interest and excite-
ment by agriculturists at large. Bell's Weelcly Messenger of
July 22, 1839, thus prefaces its account of the Show : —
For some months past, but more particularly the last few weeks (the
interest being, if possible, more intense as the time of meeting drew near),
the all-absorbing topic of conversation, not only amongst those immediately
engaged in agricultural pursuits, hut also the community at large, residing
in England, Ireland, and Scotland, has been the formation of the above-
p 2
208
The First Two Country Meetings of flu)
named praiseworthy, and, in every respect (viewed with regard both to
present and prospective benefits which must inevitably accrue from it),
most excellent Society ; indeed, we may venture to affirm without the least
fear of contradiction, that no event tending in any way to ameliorate the
condition of the British yeoman, or advance the cause of agriculture, has
produced that almost universal approbation which this Institution has done.
In those days before railways, exceptional efforts were made
by visitors to reach the Show-ground, and we have a glimpse of
these in a communication from Mr. George Drewry, of Holker,
Carke-in-Cartmel, Lancashire, who was at that time living in the
neighbourhood of Tavistock, and who has attended nearly all
the Society’s meetings. Mr. Drewry journeyed to Oxford in
company with Mr. Benson, the Duke of Bedford’s agent, Mr.
George Turner, and several others, and states that they put up
at Exeter the first night, on the second they reached Cheltenham,
and on the third day they arrived at Oxford, travelling by coach
part of the way and posting the rest. “ The Show,” he adds,
“ was considered to be a wonderful one ; there had been nothing
like it before, and many people said there would never be another
like it.”
Another old member of the Society, Mr. Kersley Fowler,
writes : — “ The Duke of Bedford was very desirous that his
tenants should visit the first Meeting of the Society, and I re-
collect seeing Mr. Bennett, the Duke’s steward, Mr. Thomas
of Bletsoe, and others — about thirty altogether, coming in two
coaches-and-four to Aylesbury from Woburn, and posting on
to Oxford, ordering dinner at the White Hart at Aylesbury on
their return, and bringing with them interesting accounts of the
wonders of the great exhibition. I myself went on the ‘ dickey ’
of a yellow postchaise, with three friends of my father’s from
Northamptonshire stowed inside the chaise, and we came home
nearly starved to death, from the difficulty we had in obtaining
food at Oxford.”
An even more striking illustration of the difficulties attend-
ing the locomotion of men and animals at that period is given
by Mr. Fowler in his entertaining Recollections of Old Country
Life, published quite recently by Messrs. Longman : —
I can perfectly remember my father being applied to, one evening in June
of 1839, to arrange for the reception of some Shorthorn cattle which were
going to the Oxford Show. These animals had come in a freight boat from
London, by the Aylesbury branch of the Grand Junction Canal. He sent
them to the Prebendal Farm, which I some time afterwards tenanted for
over thirty years. This farm was alongside the turnpike road to Oxford ;
and I have not forgotten the beauty of those animals, which far exceeded
in style and character any that I had ever seen before. The animals, I am
informed, were driven from the residence of their breeder, Mr. Bates, at
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839 ; Cambridge, 1840. 209
Kirkleavington in Yorkshire, to Hull, and there shipped to London, then
put into the canal boat, and forwarded to Aylesbury. They remained the
night, and the next day were driven ten miles to Thame, and finally, the day
after, another thirteen miles to Oxford, having been nearly three weeks on
the road ! If the renowned “ Tommy Bates,” their owner, now wished to
send his cattle to Windsor or Oxford from Darlington, he could put them
into a close van, and in twenty-four hours they would reach their destina-
tion— (page 232).
The animals thus referred to were the four exhibits sent
to the Oxford Meeting by the famous Shorthorn breeder, Mr.
Thomas Bates, of Kirkleavington, viz., a roan bull, “ Duke of
Northumberland” (1,940), a roan cow (dam Matchem Cow)
afterwards named the Oxford Premium Cow, a roan in-calf
heifer, “ Duchess 4<2nd,” and a yearling red heifer, “ Duchess
43rd.” Mr. Bates accompanied his beasts on board during
their adventurous sea journey, and looked after their treat-
ment. Whilst in the London Docks, the “ Duke of North-
umberland ” became restive and slipped, lying across the
gangway ; but he was quieted by Mr. Bates and suffered no
injury.
The site of the Show-yard was “ Mr. Pinfold’s pasture ground,
Holywell,” which is now covered with the buildings of Mansfield
College. This field was about seven acres in extent, conveniently
adjacent to the town, and forming part of a farm at Holywell,
in the occupation of Mr. John Pinfold, a wealthy bachelor,
carrying on a large butcher’s business in Oxford market,
chiefly in connexion with the college kitchens. During the
Show Mr. Pinfold entertained Mr. Bates at Holywell ; and Mr.
Frederick King, of Wealdstone, Middlesex, who was present
with his father at the Oxford Meeting, writes that as they were
personal friends of Mr. Pinfold, who was much engaged in his
ordinary occupation at such a busy time, they saw a good deal
of his guest. “ Mr. Bates ” (says Mr. King) “ spent most of his
time with my father and myself, and confided to me how his
bull was descended from the breed of the celebrated Durham
Ox, even now admitted to have been the grandest specimen of
the Shorthorn breed ever yet produced.”
A handbill (for a copy of which the Society is indebted to
Mr. King) was extensively circulated as to the arrangements for
the Show, and on page 210 is given a reduced copy of it, as
nearly as possible in facsimile.
Lord Spencer, the President of the Society, with Mr. Hum-
phrey Gibbs, the Director of the Yard, and the Stewards
(Messrs. S. Druce, E. Franklin, and B. T. B. Gibbs, “ on the
part, of Mr. Trinder”), were early at Oxford directing the
arrangements, and during the whole of Sunday and Monday
ENGLISH
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
General Regulations for the Oxford Meeting, July 17, 1839.
SHOW YARD,
In Mr. Pinfold’s Pasture Ground, Holywell.
No Stock can be admitted for exhibition unless the necessary Certificates, in the form
prescribed, and signed by the Exhibitor in the manner directed, be delivered to the Secretary,
or sent post paid, so as to reach the Society’s Rooms, 5, Cavendish-square, on or before the
1st of July.
Non- Subscribers to pay Five Shillings for every head or lot of Live Stock before obtaining
a ticket of permission to bring their Cattle into the Show Yard.
Persons intending to exhibit Extra Stock must give notice to the Secretary on or before
the 1st of July.
No Stock will be admitted into the Show Yard before Seven o’clock in the Morning, nor
later than Nineo’clock on Monday Evening, nor before Four o’clock on thefollowing Morning,
Tuesday the 16th of July; and Stock of every description must be in the Show Yard before
Eight o’clock that Morning, and will remain in the charge of the Society until Seven o’clock
on Wednesday Evening.
No Animal can be removed during the Show without an order obtained from the Stewards
of the Show Yard.
Whenever reference is made to Weights or Measures, it is to be considered that the
Imperial Weights and Measures are alone referred to.
Persons intending to exhibit Implements, Roots, Seeds, &c. must give notice of their
intention to the Secretary, and furnish him with a description, on or before the 10th of July;
and all such Implements, Roots, Seeds, &c. must be brought to the Show Yard on Monday
the 15th of July.
Tickets of Admission to the Show Yard can be had before Twelveo’clock on Wednesday
Morning the 17th of July, by exhibitors of stock, gratis ; by the Public at a charge of Two
Shillings and Sixpence each; and after Twelve o’clock that Morning the Public to be
admitted at One Shilling for each person.
The Tickets to be had at the entrance into the Show Ground, and at the Star and Angel
Hotels.
All Stock, and other Articles for Exhibition, to enter the Show Yard at the approach by
Holywell Churcb, and Visitors to enter from the Parks, next Wadham College Gardens.
No Person to be allowed to enter the Show Ground without a ticket of admission.
Arrangements will be made for a Sale by Auction on Thursday the 18th, in the Show
Yard, of such portions of Stock exhibited as Proprietors may decide to submit for Sale, of
which due Notice will be given, and Catalogues prepared.
Admittance to the Yard, on the day of Sale, One Shilling each person.
All Exhibitors having Animals fot Sale are requested to give notice thereof to the Secretary,
5, Cavendish Square, on or before the First of July.
DINNER,
In Queen’s College Quadrangle, High Street,
On WEDNESDAY the 17th of July.
Books to be opened both at 5, Cavendish Square, and at the Star Hotel, Oxford, for the
insertion of Names of Members of the Society desirous of engaging Tickets for the Dinner,
which will be kept open until the First of July.
Tickets will be reserved for such applicants at Oxford.
LODGINGS, &c.
Registers will be kept at the Bars of the Star and Angel Hotels, Oxford, to enter parti-
culars of Lodgings, &c. offered for the occasion ; and all Persons having Rooms, Stables, or
Coach-Houses to Let, or requiring such accommodation, are requested to apply to Mr.
Griffith, at these Hotels.
N. B. On Tuesday the 1 6th Trials of Agricultural Implements will take place; and
the Brize Essays will he read in the Totvn Hall, open to all Subscribers to the Society.
Committee Room, Star Hotel, Oxford, June 15, 1839.
H, Hall. Fruiter. Oxford.
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839 ; Cambridge, 1840. 211
caravans and conveyances of all kinds, capable of containing
cattle, sheep, &c., were seen hastening to the centre of
attraction. By Monday evening the greater portion of the
stock for exhibition had arrived, and by eight o’clock on
Tuesday morning the entire space allotted for the exhibition
was occupied.1
The proceedings commenced on Tuesday morning, July 1G,
with a trial of implements in a field adjoining the Show-
ground, those tested being a subsoil plough, Biddell’s scarifier,
a drill for depositing manure for turnips, and one or two others ;
but the ground was not in very good condition for displaying
their action to the best advantage. In the afternoon a meeting
was held at the Town Hall, where various prize essays were
read— viz., one by Col. Le Couteur, of Jersey, on the most ap-
proved varieties of wheat hitherto introduced into England;
another by Mr. Handley, M.P., on the comparative advantages
of wheel and swing ploughs ; and a third by Mr. Richard
Hopper, of Nottingham, on the advantages of drawing turnips
from the land and consuming them in houses or yards. Mr.
J. W. Childers, M.P., sent a communication on the advantages
of shed-feeding for sheep ; and the President, Earl Spencer, read
some physiological observations on the gestation of cows, de-
duced from his own experience. These matters disposed of, a
party of about three hundred and sixty gentlemen made an
agreeable ending of the day’s proceedings by dining together at
the Star (now the Clarendon) Hotel, under the presidency of
Lord Spencer.
Next morning Oxford was astir at an early hour, for the
Show-ground at Holywell was opened to the public at seven
o’clock, and from that time until the evening a continuous
stream of visitors passed through the gates. “ The influx of
visitors from many miles around Oxford was exceedingly great,
the principal streets being completely lined with gigs, coaches,
and other conveyances, whilst the town throughout the whole
day presented such a scene of bustle as was never, perhaps,
before witnessed. The crowd waiting for admittance to the
Show-yard was so extensive that, immediately the gates were
thrown open, the rush was so tremendous that many gentlemen
had their coats torn from their backs. Although 5,000 tickets
of admission had been printed, before ten o’clock the whole had
been disposed of at 2s. 6d. each. The consequence was that
some thousands who were unable to obtain them were refused
admittance to the Show. It was calculated that upwards of
1 JicU's Weekly Messenger , July 22, 1839,
212
The First Two Country Meetings of the
15,000 noblemen and gentlemen and farmers reached the town
by various conveyances.” 1
Exhibitors of stock were admitted without payment ; until
one o’clock tickets were issued at 2s. 6d. ; after that time shilling
tickets became available, and, though 12,000 had been prepared,
these were soon sold, and the Committee had to take money
at the entrance. Altogether not fewer than 20,000 persons at-
tended the Show in the course of the day, and the receipts
amounted to 1,189Z. Though not unaccustomed to functions
of special interest and attraction, Oxford had never before seen
such an influx of strangers. The day being very fine, the streets
were thronged with vehicles and pedestrians, the inns with com-
pany, and many found no little difficulty in securing food and
lodging. The attendance, indeed, surpassed the most sanguine
expectations, and must be regarded as extraordinary, when we
consider the difficulty and expense attendant on locomotion in
those days.
Although there is nothing specifically stated in the records
as to the time of the judging, it must have taken place on the
day (Tuesday) before the Show was open to the public,2 as all
the animals had to be in the yard at 8 a.m. that day, and in the
early years of the Society’s history it was considered to be of
cardinal importance that the utmost secrecy should be observed
as to the names of the Judges, the animals brought before them,
and the awards made. For a considerable period, indeed, after
the Oxford Meeting, the most elaborate precautions were taken
to ensure the privacy of the Judges whilst they were engaged
upon their awards. Sir Brandreth Gibbs, who commenced his
long series of eminent services to the Society at Oxford in the
capacity of assistant to his brother, Mr. Humphrey Gibbs, thus
describes the original system of judging in a letter which was
published in the Journal for 1885 3 : —
Public judging was not contemplated, and so great was the desire for
secrecy, that the animals arrived under a fictitious number, which was
changed for a permanent number early in the morning of the judging day ;
this being intended to frustrate any knowledge on the part of the Judges as
to the ownership of the animals. Such a precaution now seems strange
1 Bell’s Weeltly Messenger, July 22, 1839.
2 Probably the artist who drew the picture of the Oxford Meeting which
is reproduced as an illustration to this article intended to portray the calm of
the judging day, and not the bustle of the Show itself. The group in the right-
hand corner appears to consist of the Duke of Kichmond, with his back to the
post ; Mr. Handley arguing with his Grace, but seemingly not making much
impression ; and Lord Spencer in a characteristic attitude, with hjs hands in
hjs popkets.
? Journal, Vofi XXI , Secpnd Serjes, pp. 614, 6J5.
[ tidv^liumiijUuxoduutuoo v rno.ij
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839 ; Cambridge , 1840. 213
indeed, because the number of shows at which animals compete, and their
coming year after year, from calves up to full maturity, makes all the
notable stock so well known, that the best precaution is to have Judges in
whose honour and integrity perfect confidence may be placed. The award
also was, as far as possible, kept secret until it was publicly announced at
the Council dinner, which took place on the judging day.
At Oxford the awards were apparently not announced until
the great dinner, held in the quadrangle of Queen’s College, on
the afternoon of the Show day ; but at Cambridge, in the follow-
ing year (as will be seen on p. 226), they were made known on the
evening previous to the opening of the Show-yard.
As the list of Judges at Oxford has never been published in
the Society’s Journal, I subjoin it below : —
List of Judges at Oxford Meeting, 1839.
Class I. [Short-
horns.]
Mr. T. Charge
Mr. W. Smith
Mr. J. Hall
Class II. [Here-
fords.]
Earl Talbot
Mr. J. Ashdown
Mr. W. Warner
Class III. [Devons.]
Mr. W. Wyndham
Mr. E. Pestur
Mr. W. Umbers
Class IV. [Cattle of
ANY OTHER BREED.]
Mr. W. F. Paley
Mr. T. Charge
Mr. J. Ashdown
Class V. [Dairy
Cattle.]
Mr. C. Stokes
Mr. S. Bennett
Mr. W. Smith
Class VI. [Oxen.]
Mr. W. Wiley
Mr. Short
Mr. W. Pratt
Class VII. [Horses.]
Lord Moreton
Sir F. Lawley, Bart.
Mr. Quarterman
Class VIII. [Leices-
ter Sheep.]
Sir F. Lawley, Bart.
Mr. W. Wiley
Mr. T. Chapman
Class IX. [South-
down or OTHER
Short - woolled
Sheep.]
Mr. T. Weall.
Mr. T. Northeast.
Mr. H. Overman.
Class X. [Long-
woolled Sheep.]
Mr. Clark
Mr. R. Martin
Mr. Edmunds
Class XI. [Pigs.]
Mr. Dodd
Mr. Salter
Mr. Stokes
Class XII. [Extra
Stock, Implements,
Roots and Seeds.]
Mr. II. Handley
Mr. J. Parkes
Mr. Morton
The following were the awards of the Judges, as announced
by Mr. Handley, M.P., at the great dinner held on the Wednes-
day afternoon : —
Prizes awarded at the English Agricultural Society’s
Meeting at Oxford, Wednesday, July 17, 1839.
Bull .
Cow in mi{k ,
Class I. — Shorthorns.
30 sovs.
15
/ Mr. Thos. Bates,
\ Yorkshire .
Pit to
Entries
Kirkleavingtop, ]_
ditto
7
4
214
The First Two Country Meetings of the
\v
Prizes awarded
at Oxford, 1839 — continued.
In-calf Heifer, not
exceeding 3 yrs. j
\ 15
SOVS.
Mr. Thos. Bates, Kirkleavington .
Yearling Heifer .
10
V
Ditto ditto
BuH Calf .
10
/Marquis of Exeter, Burghley Park,
” \ Northamptonshire . .
Class
II. — Herefords.
Bull .
30 sovs. -j
fMr. Thos. Jeffries, jun., The Grove,
( Pembridge, Herefordshire .
Cow in-milk .
15
” "1
fMr. Jas. Walker, Nortlrleack, Glott-
ic cestershire
In-calf Heifer, not)
i 15
j
(Mr. E. West, Littlefrome, Here-
exceeding 3 yrs. J
” 1
1 fordshire . . . .
Yearling Heifer .
10
f Mr. J. Hewer, Hampton Lodge,
( Herefordshire .
Bull Calf .
10
V
Mr. J. Walker, Burton, nr. Wrcstr. .
Bull .
Cow in-milk .
Class III. — Devons.
„n / Mr. M. Pauli, Compton Pauuceford,
Ov SOYS, v n i
( oomerset
15
In-calf Heifer, not / ^ -
exceeding 3 yrs. J
Yearling Heifer . 10
Bull Calf . . 10
/ Mr. J. W. Peters, South Petherton, \
\ Somerset /
/ Mr. M. Pauli, Compton Paunceford, '
\ Somerset J
Ditto ditto
Ditto ditto
Class IV.— Any Breed or Cross, not qualified for the foregoing Classes.
Bull .
30 sovs.
Cow in-milk .
15 „
In-calf Heifer, not
exceeding 3 yrs._
\ 15 „
Yearling Heifer .
10 „
Bull Calf .
10 „
Class
( 15 sovs.
Cow in-milk .<j
^ 10 „
/Mr. R. Hortin, Sherbourne, War-
J Mr. J. Putland, Firle Place Farm, i
\ near Lewes (pure Sussex cow) . /
No entry.
Mr. T. Stephens, Wliitelackington, j
Somerset (Hereford and Devon >
heifer) J
/ Mr. Cother, Middle Aston, Oxon. \
\ (Hereford and Durham hull calf ). J
Class V. — Dairy Cattle.
/ Rev. J. R. Smythies, Lynch Court,')
\ Hereford (9-yr-old Hereford cow)
f Mr. J oseph Badcock, Pyrton, near j>
< Tetsworth, Oxon. (14-year-old I
t Durham cow) . . . . j
Class VI. — Oxen.
/Mr. R. Rowland, Creslow, Bucks,")
Best 5 Oxen,shown'l 20 sovs. j A nereford ox;n)
as grazing am- )> mi. wt w,
mals .
I on /Mr. W. Trinder, Wantage, Berks, f
* ” l (5 North Devon oxen) , . ,J
to to
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840, 215
Prizes awarded at Oxford, 1839 — continued.
Class VII. — Horses.
Cart Stallion
Cart Mare and Foal
Stallion for breed- 'l
ing Hunters, l
Carriage Horses, J
0A / Mr. T. Freeman, Henham, Suffolk,
S0V8, \ “ Briton” (8 years old)
10 „ Mr. J. Osborne, Chilton, Bucks
Entries
!> io
30
No merit
or Roadsters
Shearling Ram
’{ io
Ram of any other 1
age . . ./
Pen of 5 Ewes, /
with their lambs /
Pen of 5 Shearling 1
Ewes . . J
Class VHI. — Leicester SnEEr.
30 sovs. Mr. S. Bennett, Ridgmont, Beds
Mr. J. Inskip, Marston, Beds .
/ Mr. J. Earl, Earl’s Barton, North
Z amptonshire (3-vear-old)
/Mr. R. Archer, Tachbrook, War
\ wickshire ....
/Mr. T.. Umbers, Wappenbury, War
Z wickshire ....
10
Class IX. — Southdown, or other Short-woolled Sheep
Stoneham
Shearling Ram
or. r Mr. S. Grantham,
30 8OV8-i Sussex . .
10
30
Ram of any other/
age . ./
Pen of 5 Ewes, / -^q
with their lambs /
Pen of 5 Shearling \ 1A
T? r to
Ewes
Shearling Ram
•/
Mr. J. Harris, Hinton, Berks .
Mr. T. Crisp, Gedgrave, Suffolk .
Mr. J. Maton, Collingbourn, Wilts
Ditto ditto
Class X. — Long-woolled Sheep.
r 30 sovs.
1 10 „
Ram of any other/ 0q
age . . ./
Pen of 5 Ewes, /
with their lambs /
Pen of 5 Shearling / ■. A
Ewes . ./ 1U
Boar
Sow
Pen of 3 Pigs of
same litter above
4 and under 9
months , ,
10
15
2
3
10
15
2
7
/ Mr. C. Large, Broadwell, Qxon )
\ (Oxfordshire and Long-woolled) . (
J Mr. W. Slatter, Stratton, Glouces- j
/ tershire (Improved Cotswold) .J
f Mr. C. Large, Broadwell, Oxon )
/ (Oxfordshire and Long-woolled) /
/Mr. J. Hewer, Eastington, Glouces- /
/ tershire (Cotswold) . . ./
/ Mr. O. Large, Broadwell, Oxon /
/ (Oxfordshire) . . . ./
Class XI. — Pigs.
10 sovs /Ei?ht n°n- c- Lefevre, M.P.,/ q
Z Heckfield Place, Hants . . /
g / Mr. G. Carrington, jun., The Abbey, / .
” Z Great Missenden, Bucks . ./
1 n / Mr. R. Smallbones, Hordley, Oxon., / ,
” Z (Chinese and Oxfordshire) . . J
216
The First Two Country Meetings of the
It will be seen that of these animals Mr. Bates’s Shorthorns
only were brought from a very long distance, and one can very
well understand the interest they excited amongst the visitors,
most of whom had never set eyes on such bovine perfection
before. There were, indeed, several animals that had to travel a
hundred miles or more, from Suffolk, Sussex, and other counties,
and this enterprise on the part of distant breeders was very com-
mendable, considering the circumstances of the time ; but, taken
as a whole, the stock was necessarily drawn from a somewhat
limited radius.
The Shorthorns especially, with the exception of the Kirk-
leavington stock, were bred in the neighbourhood, and the
great superiority of the Duchess tribe impressed all who
saw them. Indeed, many of the older authorities have been
known to declare that, notwithstanding the great progress which
has since been made in all departments of agriculture, it is
questionable if any advance has been made upon these repre-
sentatives of a famous breed. That excellent judge, Mr. George
Drewry, writes, “ The two things I remember best at Oxford were
the ‘ Duke of Northumberland ’ and ‘ Duchess 43rd,’ which I still
think the two best Shorthorns I ever saw.” The two tribes of
cattle from which the animals exhibited by Mr. Bates were bred
have become famous in the history of Shorthorns, and in the
prosperous times of a few years ago realised fabulous prices. It
is worthy of note that the cow (out of the Matchem Cow) with
which Mr. Bates won the first premium for the best cow in
milk was afterwards named the “ Oxford Premium Cow,” and
from her and her half-sister was bred the famous “Oxford”
tribe, a strain which was so long and successfully bred by the
late Duke of Devonshire at Holker Hall.
One other class remains to be noticed — Class XII. for Extra
Stock, Implements, Roots and Seeds, for prizes in which 50Z. was
placed at the disposal of the Judges. In this most comprehen-
sive class, which even included the implements, a prize of
10Z. was awarded to Mr. S. Druce, of Eynsham, Oxon., for a
Hereford ox ; 51. to Mr. John Pinfold (on whose ground the
Meeting was held) for another ox of the same breed ; 51. to Mr. J.
H. Langston, of Sarsden, Chipping Norton, for a Shorthorn cow ;
51. to Mr. R. Pratt, of Spilsbury, Oxon., for 3 long-woolled
wethers ; and 31. to the Duke of Norfolk for 3 two-shear wethers.
The extra stock also included a 9-year-old Nogore cow, from
Delhi, exhibited by Mr. Wood, of Bramdean House, Alresford,
Hants, remarkable for its alleged ability to travel at the rate of
eight miles an hour — one of a breed utilised in India for State
purposes. There were Mso 4 horses, 10 sheep (including Doomb$
tloyal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839 ; Cambridge, 1840. 21'/
rams from Allahabad, shown by Mr. EL Newnham, of Silchester
Bungalow, Basingstoke, and Mr. T. Gibbs, of Elalf Moon Street,
Piccadilly), and 4 pigs.
In addition to the prizes originally contemplated, thes Uonl=
mittee had decided on December 18, 1838, in pursuance of a
suggestion made by the Rev. J. R. Smythies, at the General
Meeting held earlier on that day, that two prizes of 50/. each
should be offered for the best 14 bushels of white and 14 bushels
of red wheat of the harvest of 1838, grown by the exhibitor.
Keen competition was excited for these prizes, there being no
fewer than 22 entries. The Judges selected four samples, shown
respectively by Lieut.-Gen. Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart., M.P., of
Oakley Park, Eye, Suffolk ; Mr. H. Sea well, of Little Bookham,
Surrey ; Mr. Wm. Spencer, of Adderbury, near Woodstock ; and
Mr. Wm. Fisher Hobbs, of Mark’s Hall, Coggeshall, Essex; and
it was intended that these should be sown in the following
autumn by three farmers, under the direction of the Society, that
the results should be duly reported, and that 10/. should be given
to each of the two unsuccessful competitors. But it so happened
that when the public had satisfied their curiosity by personal
examination of the selected samples in the approved market
fashion, they were not over-particular in restoring the handfuls
of corn to the sacks from which they had been taken. The
consequence was that before the close of the day they became
hopelessly mixed, and at a meeting of the Committee it was
resolved that, as it had become impracticable to carry out
the contemplated experiments with any satisfactory degree of
accuracy, the exhibitors of the selected samples should receive
a “ complimentary premium ” of 20/. each, “ with the Society’s
regrets,” and have their wheat returned to them.
The only portion of the “ Extra Stock ” left unnoticed is the
implement section, so modest in its proportions that the list
of exhibits occupies less than one of the sixteen pages which
sufficed for the Oxford catalogue. As this list is of special
interest now, it may be worth while to give it complete : —
Extra. Stock. — Implements.
Mr. J. Le Boutillier, of St. Mary’s, Isle of Jersey, a small one-horse plough,
for setting potatoes, and a paddle plough for tilling the ground.
Mr. W. J. Hannam, of Burcott, Oxon., a wilkie (of Udington) expanding
horse-hoe and harrow.
Mr. W. J. Hannam, of Burcott, Oxon., a ridging and moulding plough.
Messrs. W. & C. King, of Southmore, Berks., a narrow-wheeled Berkshire
waggon, with iron axle-tree.
Mr. J. Springall, of Ipswich, Suffolk, patent wrought-iron corn stack stand.
Mr. James Gardner, ironmonger, of Banbury, patent turnip-cutting machine.
218
The First Two Country Meetmc/s of the
Mr. J. Gibbs, of Elsfield, a draining plough.
Mr. H. J. Ilannam, of Burcott, Oxon., a one-horse harvest cart.
Messrs. Jones & Draper, of Charlbury, a “scorcher” machine.
Mr. J. Adams, of Great Tew, Oxon., a wrought-iron plough, with mould'
boards, &c.
Mr. W. J. Hannam, of Burcott, Oxon., a one-horse heavy roll.
Mr. Samuel King, of Buckland, Faringdon, a swing plough and other im-
plements.
Mr. W. J. Hannam, of Burcott, Oxon., a Perry and Barnett’s (of Beading)
light plough for a single horse.
Mr. T. White, Coundon, near Coventry, a new subsoil plough.
Mr. C. Hart, of Wantage, a four-horse portable thrashing machine, a swing
plough for two horses, a wheel ditto for three ditto, and a 14-wlieel land
presser.
Mr. T. Salter, of Great Hallingbury Hall, an improved corn-dressing
machine.
Mr. T. Grounsell, of Louth, a newly invented drill, to deposit seed and
manure at the same time.
Mr. W. J. Hannam, of Burcott, Oxon., a Cumberland one-horse cart, with a
spring key or tilting stick.
Mr. VV. Armstrong, Hawnes, Beds., newly invented harrow.
Mr. B. Edmunds, of Banbury, two improved turnip machines.
Mr. J. Bussell, of Kenilworth, Warwickshire, a subsoil plough.
Mr. P. Cox, of Stow, Gloucestershire, a dynamometer, &c.
Mr. E. J. Lance, Barossa Cottage, near Bagshot, machines for sowing
manure and seeds at the same time.
Messrs. Bansome, of Ipswich, Suffolk, ploughs, chaff-cutters, thrashing-
machine, &c., &c.
Messrs. Ransome, of Ipswich (according to the Journal),
“ sent up their waggons laden with more than six tons of
machinery and implements, the superior manufacture and
variety of which commanded universal approbation,” and were
awarded the Gold Medal of the Society for their excellent display,
especially their chaff-cutting machines and Bid dell’s scarifier.
Although they do not appear in the list as actual exhibitors,
the Journal also makes mention of the names of Howard,
Garrett, and others familiar to agriculturists, as having been
represented by implements shown at the Meeting. As some
readers may be curious respecting the “ scorcher ” exhibited by
Messrs. Jones and Draper, it may be explained that it was a
machine for destroying weeds, having at the lower end a fire-
place with a revolving blower ; and it was stated that, by the
consumption of 5 cwt. of coals, it would in a day kill all the
weeds on an acre of ground as soon as it was cleared of its crop.
Viewed in the light of modern experiences, the display was
a meagre one indeed ; but insignificant as the Show was in com-
parison with the gigantic displays of later years, it was never-
theless regarded as “ on a scale of unprecedented magnitude” —
to use the words of a very sedate contemporary authority, thq
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840. 219
Gentleman's Magazine. The Society’s Journal, in its somewhat
vague and sketchy account of the Meeting, states that “ the
show of live-stock was numerous, and in most of the classes
there were as many superior animals as have often been ex-
hibited together before.” But it adds, with commendable
candour, that there “ were several of a very inferior descrip-
tion.” We are further told by the Journal that “ it must be
admitted that, if a foreigner had come to Oxford, expecting to see
the best show of breeding stock which England could produce,
he would have been led to form a very inadequate idea of the
merits of the different sorts of live-stock bred in this country.”
Nevertheless, “ the number of excellent animals shown, and the
admirable arrangements for showing them which had been made
by the Stewards, rendered the exhibition a most interesting and
attractive one to the thousands who came (some from great dis-
tances) to view it.” 1
A more independent authority, the Quarterly Journal of
Agriculture , says that “ upon the whole the Show was not so
great, nor the stock so generally good, as might have been ex-
pected,” and that, “ with the exception of a few animals in each
kind of stock, the quality was in no way remarkable.” After
noticing Mr. Bates’s animals as “ the only Shorthorns worth
looking at,” and referring in commendatory terms to Mr.
Hortin’s Longhorned bull, Mr. Pauli’s Devon “ queys ” and bull-
calf, Mr. Jeffries’ Hereford bull, and Mr. Druce’s fat ox, the
writer proceeds to state that the sheep “ were in general good,
and proved a pretty extensive show,” but the pigs were “ neither
numerous nor good.”
It is pretty obvious, however, that the Show itself was
regarded as of subsidiary importance to the great gathering of
agriculturists at the annual dinner of the Society. For this
dinner immense preparations had been made. The quadrangle
of Queen’s College had been roofed in and adapted for the
purpose at a cost of over 800Z., and accommodation had
been provided for 2,450 guests — a goodly company indeed,
considering that the price of the tickets was 10s., and that
not more than fifty were distributed gratis amongst the re-
presentatives of the press, &c. Every window of the surround-
ing buildings was filled with ladies, who were thus enabled
to lend the charm of their presence to the proceedings in the
banqueting-hall, a representation of which appeared in various
forms, and was also published in the Oxford Herald a week later.
Journal, Vol. I., 1810, pp. lviii-lis.
220
The First Two Country Meetings of the
At least 1,000 prospective diners were waiting fit thd
doors an hour before the feast began, and punctually at 4
P.M. the outgoing President (Earl Spencer) took the chair.
The company included nearly all the leading members of the
Society, together with several distinguished guests, amongst
whom were the Chevalier Bunsen, and the great American
statesman — perhaps the greatest orator the United States has
ever produced — Daniel Webster, who was then, for the first and
only time in his life, on a visit to Europe, and devoted parti-
cular attention to the agriculture of England and Scotland.
Lord Spencer was, of course, overjoyed to witness the successful
issue of the Meeting. During the proceedings his Lordship
remarked that for many years past the formation of such a
Society had been his urgent desire, and he had been apprehen-
sive lest the effort might be attended with failure ; but if he had
entertained any feeling of concern as to whether it would meet
with the real support of the farmers of England, the question
had now become no longer a matter of doubt, for he saw before
him the most convincing proof that the movement had resulted
in the highest success.
Amongst the other speakers were the Duke of Richmond
(the President-elect), the Vice-Chancellor (replying for the
University in the absence of the Duke of Wellington, the
Chancellor), Sir James Graham, Chevalier Bunsen, the Earl of
Devon, the Provost of Queen’s, Mr. Daniel Webster, the Mayor
of Oxford, Mr. Handley, M.P. (who read out the lists of the
successful competitors), Lord Moreton, the Marquis of Down-
shire, Lord Stradbroke, Lord Talbot, Lord Sandon, Sir Thomas
Acland, the Rev. Dr. Buckland, Mr. Philip Pusey, and Mr. Shaw
(the Secretary).
Those were the days of portentously long toast lists, and
interminable after-dinner speeches ; but the visitors present
appear to have maintained their enthusiasm to the last, for
“ loud cheering ” and “ immense cheering ” punctuate the report
of almost every speech up to the last, when the toast of “ the
Agricultural Labourer ” was drunk with “ loud applause and
three times three.” The success of the evening was, however,
made by Mr. Daniel Webster, the American statesman, whose
stirring oratory appears to have thrilled all present.
Lord Spencer having coupled his name with the toast of
“ Distinguished Strangers,” as that of “ a most illustrious
visitor from the country whose people we are obliged legally to
call foreigners, but who are still our brethren in blood,” Mr.
Webster, in responding, said that he was more than ordinarily
moved by the spectacle of so great an assemblage of persons,
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840. 221
whose interests, hopes, objects, and pursuits were connected with
the cultivation of the soil.
Whatever else (he continued) may tend to enrich and beautify society,
that which feeds and clothes comfortably the great mass of mankind should
always be regarded as the great foundation of national prosperity. I need
not say that the agriculture of Eugland is instructive to all the world ; as a
science, it is here better understood ; as an art it is here better practised ;
as a great interest, it is here as highly esteemed as in any other part of the
globe. The importance of agriculture to a nation is obvious to every man ;
but it, perhaps, does not strike every mind so suddenly, although certainly it
is equally true, that the annual produce of English agriculture is a great
concern to the whole civilised world.
After speaking of the great advantage to agriculture which must
result from the formation and operations of the Society, Mr.
Webster went on to remark that societies on a similar principle
had been found very advantageous in the United States, and that
among other means of improving agriculture they had imported
largely from the best English breeds.
I am sure (he continued, alluding doubtless to Mr. Thomas Bates of
Kirkleavington) that a gentleman who has to-day deservedly obtained many
prizes for stock will not be displeased to learn that I have seen, along the
rich pastures of the Ohio and its tributary streams, animals raised from
those which had been furnished by his farms in Yorkshire and Northumber-
land.
In conclusion, Mr. Webster made a noble response to the
fraternal tone of Earl Spencer in proposing his health : —
The noble chairman (he said), was pleased to speak of the people of
the United States as kindred in blood with the people of England. I am an
American. I was born on that great continent, and I am wedded to the
fortunes of my country, for weal or for woe. There is no other region of
the earth which I can call my country. But I know, and I am proud to
know, what blood flows in these veins. I am happy to stand here to-day,
and to remember that, although my ancestors, for several generations, lie
buried beneath the soil of the Western continent, yet there has been a time
when my ancestors and your ancestors toiled in the same cities and villages,
cultivated adjacent fields, and worked together to build up that great struc-
ture of civil polity which has made England what England is.
Confirmation lias been received from various sources, includ-
ing the vivid reminiscences of Mr. W. P. Hoblyn, of The Fir
Hill, St. Columb, Cornwall, and others who were present, of the
statement appended to this striking speech in the first volume
of Webster’s collected works, to the effect that “ he made a deep
impression on those who heard him.” His Ci flowing eloquence,”
says a later writer,1 “ contrasted strangely with the hesitating
and involved sentences of Lord Spencer, whose style of speaking
in the House of Commons, subtracting nothing from his great
1 Hon. Francis Lawley, in his report on the Exhibition of Horses at
Kilburn. See Journal, Second Series, Vol. XV., p. 572.
VOT. V T. R. — 18
Q
222
The First Two Country Meetings of the
and deserved influence, is elaborately described in Mr. Greville’s
famous Memoirs ; ” but his Lordship’s utterances, as well as
those of the Duke of Richmond — an illustrious soldier who had
fought through the Peninsular War and at Waterloo — secured for
these most earnest friends of the Society the warmest reception.
The late Mr. J. Chalmers Morton, who was present on the
occasion, thus incidentally describes the scene in the Journal for
1885 1 : —
I remember the faces and the voices of many of our great leaders pre-
sent at the Oxford Show — the homely, kindly presence of the late Earl
Spencer, our first President ; the sonorous voice of the late Duke of Rich-
mond, who succeeded him ; Mr. Pusey’s pale and anxious, somewhat
absent-looking face; Mr. Handley’s hearty jollity ; Baron Bunsen’s staid
and placid countenance ; the voice, good nature, and the humour of the
Rev. Dr. Buckland — a distinguished row, seated as they were with others
at the dais; Daniel Webster, also evidently a great power both bodily and
intellectually ; Sir Thomas Acland, bright-eyed, eager-looking ; and Sir
James Graham — all of them speakers at the banquet. These were men and
faces likely to impress themselves on the memory ; and perhaps it is not
surprising that, in comparison with them, I do not remember tbe young
man [Mr. Brandreth Gibbs] then already busily engaged in the Show-yard
in assisting his elder brother, Mr. Humphrey Gibbs, to whom the Steward-
ship of the Yard had been committed.
The remnants of the dinner — about 2,000 lb. of meat — were
distributed to 700 poor families recommended by the parochial
clergy, and on the following day (Thursday) the Meeting was
brought to a conclusion by a sale of stock from the Show-ground,
at which the following prices were obtained for some of the prize
animals ; — Mr. Pauli’s Devon bull, 3 years 2 months, 94/. ; Mr.
Hortin’s Longhorned bull, 4 years 4 months, 43 guineas ; Mr.
Peter’s Devon cow, 9 years 3 months, 35 guineas ; Mr. Pauli’s
Devon heifer, 2 years 3 months, 140/. ; Mr. Thomas Stephen’s
yearling heifer, Hereford and Devon, 37/. ; Mr. Pauli’s Devon bull
calf, 23 weeks, 43/. ; Mr. Archer’s 5 Leicester ewes (with their
lambs), 91. 10s. each; and Mr. Thomas Crisp’s Southdown
ram, 30/.
Remarking generally on the results of this Oxford Meeting
the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture says: —
As a first effort, the getting up of the Meeting was highly creditable to
the English Agricultural Society, and it fully indicated that, if they are
capable of such exercise in infancy, what will they not be able to accomplish
in maturer years P Indeed, we conceive that the impulse which the Society
is likely to give to agricultural improvement in England will draw so many
of the agriculturists of that wealthy and powerful nation around their
banners, that they will soon become a larger body than it will be possible
for one board of managers to wield their movements.
' Journal, Second Series, Yol. XXI., p. 612.
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840. 223
Cambridge Meeting, 1840.
The first Country Meeting having been held in one Uni-
versity town, it was but natural that the other should be
similarly honoured, and, even before the Committee quitted Ox-
ford, a requisition to that effect was presented from Cambridge.
Two days later (on July 20) the second annual Stock Fair took
place at the latter town, and at an “ ordinary ” held in the after-
noon at the Red Lion Hotel, the proposal to hold the 1840 Meeting
at Cambridge was viewed with cordiality by Mr. Jonas Webb, Mr.
Witt, and others, who had just returned from the Oxford Show.
A local committee was appointed, with the Mayor (Mr. R. Foster)
as its chairman, and Mr. F. Barlow as secretary, and the Minutes
of this Committee show how zealously they worked to secure the
success of the Meeting, being in constant communication with
the Society’s Secretary, Mr. James Hudson, who had, on July 24,
been appointed to that office on the resignation of Mr. Shaw.
We find here, amongst other matters, the proud intima-
tion to Mr. Barlow that “ our title is ‘ Royal Agricultural
Society of England ’ ” (a Royal Charter having been granted
by Her Majesty on March 26, 1840); an application from.
Messrs. Ransome for an area of 30 yards by 15 yards, “ they to
be at the expense of fencing, &c.,” with similar requests from
other implement-makers ; an expression of a desire that the
ordinary on the first day “ should bear a good price, in order
that the great dinner the next day may be offered to the
farmers at the lowest possible rate ; ” an intimation that “ the
sealed award of the Judges would be opened at the ordinary,”
and “ catalogues ready by next morning,” and that “ no atten-
dant is to accompany stock into the yard except in case of bulls
and stallions ; ” a minute to the effect that “ a great incon-
venience having been felt at Oxford from the want of places to put
hats in the great dining-hall, it is now proposed to remedy that
inconvenience by nailing a piece of twine opposite each seat on
the under-side of the table, to which the band of the hat may
be tied — nails, twine, and labour for 2,500 hats, 1Z. 10s. ; ” and
so forth. Could anything show greater concern for the comfort
of the guests than this last entertaining minute ?
The Prize Sheet for the Cambridge Meeting amounted in
all to 900Z., as against 890Z. at Oxford. The prizes for Short-
horns, Herefords, Devons, and Other Breeds were repeated as
before, with the addition of a Yearling Bull prize for each breed.
The prizes offered at Oxford for Dairy Cows and Oxen were not
given again, but the value of the two prizes for Cart Horses was
increased at Cambridge from 20Z. and 10Z. to30Z. and 15Z. The
224
The First Two Country Meetings of the
prizes for Sheep and Pigs were the same as at Oxford, and it
is significant of the importance then attached to sheep-breeding,
that the only classes for which two prizes were offered either
at Oxford or Cambridge were those for Shearling Rams, and that
these ram prizes were worth 30 1. for the first, and 10Z. for the
second.1 As at Oxford, 50 1. was set apart for prizes for “ Extra
Stock, Implements, Roots and Seeds,” and the two prizes of 50Z.
each for the best 14 bushels of White and Red Wheat respec-
tively were repeated.
The Council, including the Duke of Richmond, Earl Spencer,
and other leading members, met at the University Arms Hotel
on Saturday, July 11, and settled the following programme of
the business of the week : —
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
Tuesday, July 14, 1840.
1. The trial of agricultural implements will take place in a field belong-
ing to Mr. Grain, about a quarter of a mile beyond the turnpike gate, on the
Hills Road, at ten o’clock. Near to this, on the premises of Mr. Emson
and Mr. Grain, thrashing and dressing machines, and other implements, will
be at work.
2. A ploughing match will take place near the field where the imple-
ments are to be tried ; to commence at ten o’clock.
3. The prize essays will be read at three o’clock, by permission of the
'Vice-Chancellor, in the law schools.
4. The dinner in the hall of Trinity College will take place at five
o’clock.
Wednesday, July 15, 1840.
1. The Show-yard will be open from six o’clock to twelve o’clock at noon,
at 2s. 6<f. each person, and from that hour till seven p.m., at Is. each.
2. The dinner of the members of the Society will take place in the quad-
rangle of Downing College, at four o’clock.
3. Members to apply for tickets for the dinner on Monday, from twelve
to six ; on Tuesday, from eight to six ; on Wednesday, from six to twelve
o’clock, at the Town Hall.
4. Tickets for the Show-yard to be applied for at the booth on Parker’s
Piece, fronting the entrance doors.
(Signed) Richmond (President).
Cambridge, July 11, 1840.
N.B. — The prizes for the ploughing-match will be distributed by His
Grace the Duke of Richmond at half-past two o’clock in the ploughing field.
A sale by auction of stock and other articles exhibited at the Cambridge
Meeting will take place in the Show-yard, and on Thursday morning, the 16th
inst., at ten o’clock precisely ; entrance Is. each, the Society paying the
auctioneer for his attendance on the occasion.
1 The Babraham flock was then in its glory, and at the fourteenth annual
letting, held, with a discreet eye to business, on the day before the Cambridge
Show, Mr. Jonas Webb declined the Duke of Richmond’s offer of 100 guineas
for one of his ram lambs. Those were, however, days of good prices generally,
for only a week earlier the Osbaldeston hounds, which had hunted the old
Berkeley country under the mastership of Harvey Combe, were sold at Hyde
Park Comer, and the 13 lots, comprising 127 hounds, brought 6,511 guineas,
or upwards of 100 guineas per couple.
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840. 22o
By permission of the Mayor and Corporation, the Show was
held on Wednesday, July 15, on the well-known Parker’s Piece,
and was on that account viewed with some disfavour by at least
one who has since become a prominent member of the Society —
Mr. Albert Pell, then an undergraduate of Trinity, who tells us
among other things that on visiting the Show-ground his chief
thought was how it would spoil the pitch for cricket ! The
following description of the internal arrangements of the yard,
taken from the Cambridge Advertiser , will be read with interest : —
The plot enclosed for the cattle yard is upwards of 450 feet square,
containing an area of nearly five acres, and is nearly level. The fence is a
close-boarded one, nine feet high, with four entrances for visitors on the
west side, and one as an outlet only on the opposite or east side. In the
middle of the north and south sides are wide entrances and outlets for
carriages, cattle, implements, &c. Within this fence at the distance of
sixteen feet from it, on every side, are buildings, roofed in, sixteen feet wide,
open at the sides, of which ten feet were occupied by cattle, horses, &c., the
remaining six feet forming a covered way for visitors. The whole extent of
these buildings is upwards of sixteen hundred feet. Within this square, at
the distance of eighty feet from the last-mentioned buildings, is another
entire square of buildings, roofed in, fourteen feet wide, open at the sides,
and upwards of eight hundred feet in length. These buildings were occu-
pied by sheep, pigs, corn, grain, seeds, vegetables and roots, and the smaller
agricultural implements; the open spaces in the centre and between the
rows of buildings were occupied by the larger agricultural implements of
the most celebrated makers. There are two extra sheds, ninety feet long
each, in which their implements, models, &c., were exhibited. At the south-
west and north-west angles of the inner square of buildings are two rooms,
fifteen feet by twelve, furnished complete, for the use of the Judges, Stewards,
Committee, &c. These rooms are on a peculiar construction (the invention
of the contractor, Mr. Manning), they having been made for exportation to
Australia ; they are fitted together as a bedstead, with screws, no nails
being used, and can be put together and struck as easily as a tent.
On the Tuesday the Judges commenced their mysterious
labours in the Show-yard, and the following extract from the
President’s speech at the first public dinner, held in the hall of
Trinity College that evening, gives some curious further details
as to the secrecy in the judging then considered essential : —
The noble Chairman (Duke of Richmond) said the lists had just been
put into bis hands, containing the awards of the Judges on their inspection
of the stock that morning. It might be thought right that he should allude
to certain rules which the Judges had observed, and which had had their
origin with the Council, especially as there were some gentlemen for whom
he had a high respect, who did not think the plan that had been pursued in
all respects right and proper. On former occasions, when no lists were put
upon the animals, and in which Lord Spencer had acted as a Judge, those hav-
ing the charge of the animals were allowed to be present. If the members of the
Association had not full confidence in the Judges, it might be thought that an
esprit de corps would bias them in giving a prize. This plan had been altered.
He was a Southdown breeder, and he confessed that he possessed the esprit de
226
The First Two Country Meetings of the
corps in favour of the county to which he belonged (hear, hear). If, then, it
was permitted for the shepherd to be with the animals exhibited, the object
in view — strict impartiality — might be defeated. Now, the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England had thought it better that the shepherds should
he excluded (loud cries of hear, hear). The shepherd, who might be con-
sidered as the father of his flock, did not like to see his sheep pass over to
the care of another; he watched with jealous attention, and was almost
certain to he known by the Judges. The permitting the shepherds to he
present during the inspection hy the Judges was therefore a half
measure, and which afforded no security at all (loud cheers). Under the
new system all persons were excluded who were connected with the animals
(hear, hear). The Judges were selected by the Council from parties from
every county. The Judges, therefore, were entitled to consideration.
He (the Chairman) was not at present aware if he had gained a prize
or not.
Whereupon Earl Spencer (one of the Stewards, his colleagues
being Messrs. S. Druce and F. Pym) rose and said that not one
of the Judges at that moment knew who were the successful
candidates ; a remark greeted with loud cheers. They only
knew the numbers affixed to the animals to which prizes had
been awarded.1 The list of awards then read by the President
contained what was doubtless to His Grace the highly agree-
able announcement that he had earned off the prize for a shear-
ling Southdown ram — the first of a long series of successes for
the Goodwood flock in the Royal Show-yards.
To make the story complete, it may be well to append here
the list of the Judges who officiated at Cambridge, and the
awards made by them : —
List of Judges at Cambridge Meeting, 1840.
Class I. [Short-
horns.]
Mr. J. Wright
Mr. Eaton Clark
Mr. W. Smith
Class II. [IIere-
FORDS.]
Mr. John Buckley
Mr. Robert Lucas
Mr. H. Chamberlain
Class III. [Devons.]
Mr. W. Wyndham
Mr. Stace
Mr. G. Smythies
Class IV. [Cattle of
ANY OTHER BREED.]
Mr. George
Mr. John Ellrnan
Mr. John Hall
Class V. [Horses.]
Mr. G. Clark
Mr. C. Bowman
Class YI.
[Leicesters.]
Mr. John Manning
Mr. Thomas Chapman
Mr. W. Pratt
Class VII. [South-
downs or OTHER
Short - woolled
Sheep.]
Mr. J. Bevan
Mr. J. Raymond Barker
Mr. II. Chamberlain
Class VIII. [Long-
woolled Sheep.]
Mr. Hindley
Mr. J. Elliot
Class IX. [Pigs.] ,
Mr. Wilkie
Mr. Oakden
Implements.
Mr. J. Morton
Mr. R. S. Graburn
Mr. G. Legard
Seed Wheat.
Mr. G. Kimberley
Mr. B. Wilton
Mr. Samuel Jonas
> See ante, p. 212.
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840. 227
Prizes awarded at the Royal Agricultural Society’s
Meeting at Cambridge, July 15, 1840.
Class I. — Shorthorns.
Bull .
Yearling Bull
Cow in-milk.
In-calf Heifer, not
exceeding 3 yrs,
Yearling Heifer
Bull Calf .
Entries
7
/ Mr. R. M. Jaques, St. Trinian’s, {
” / near Richmond, Yorkshire . . j
(Mr. Thomas Bates, Kirkleavington,) „
” \ Yorkshire . . . . j 6
/ Right Hon. Charles Arbuthnot, \
” \ Woodford, near Kettering . . /
fMr. R. M. Jaques, St. Trinian’s, I
” / near Richmond, Yorkshire . . j
/ Mr. Thomas Bates, Kirkleavington, /
” / Yorkshire /
Class II. — Herefords.
Bull ... 30 sovs.
YTearling Bull . 15 „
Cow in-milk . 15
In-calf Heifer, not 'j
exceeding 3 yrs. J
Yearling Heifer .
Bull Calf .
” \ Harewood, near Ross, Hereford
15
10
10
Bull .
Yearling Bull
Cow in-milk
In-calf Heifer, not /
exceeding 3 yrs. J
Yearling Heifer .
Bull Calf .
15
10
10
Class IY. — Any Breed or Cross, not qualified for the
foregoing Classes.
Bull .
Yearling Bull
Cow in-milk
In-calf Heifer, not /
exceeding 3 yrs. J
Yearling Heifer .
Bull Calf ,
15
15
15
10
10
11
4
11
8
/The Duke of Bedford, Woburn !
/ Abbey, Beds /
No entry.
/ Sir Hungerford Tloskyns, Bart., \
. - * d ./
Ditto ditto
Mr. Francis Hewer, Hereford .
No entry.
Class III. — Devons.
ori f Mr. W. Porter, Hembury Fort, near "I
30 sovs. {_ Honiton, Devon ._ . . .)
15 „
15
/ The Duke of Norfolk, Fornham, Bury 1
\ St. Edmunds . . . . J
J Mr. Thomas Umbers, Wappenbury, /
\ Warwickshire . . . . f
Mr. G. Turner, Barton, near Exeter
Ditto ditto
/ Mr. Thomas Stephens, Atherstone,
\ near Ilminster, Somerset
:}
qa „ /Mr. J. Putland, West Firle, Sussex J
30 sovs. | (gugsex) * _ . . .)
/Sir E. Kerrison, Bart.,M.P., Oakley/
/ Park, Suffolk (Suffolk Bull) . /
/ Mr. J. Putland, West Firle, Sussex /
\ (5-year-old Sussex) . . . J
Ditto ditto (2-year-old Sussex)
Ditto ditto (Sussex)
/ Ditto ditto (Sussex 5-month- /
\ old Bull Calf) . /
228
! The First Two Ccnintry Meetings of the
Prizes awarded at Cambridge, 1840 — continued.
Cart Stallion
Cart Mare and Foal
Stallions for breed-
ing Hunters,
Carriage Horses,
and Roadsters,
which shall have
served Mares
during the sea-
son of 1 840 at a
price not exceed-
ing £3 each
Shearling Ram
Class VI. — Horses.
/Mr. John Bell, Welton-le-Wold,
30 sovs. •< t .1 t
1 near Louth, Lines.
/Mr. T. N. Catlin, Chillesford, near
1 Orford, Suffolk .
15
Entries
19
6
30
/Mr. John
/ Cambs.
Reynolds, Wisbeach, / ^
10
Ram of any other/
age . . . /
Pen of 5 Ewes,/
with their lambs J
Pen of 5 Shearling/ jq
Ewes . . j
Class VI. — Leicester Sheep.
30 sovs. f Mr. Samuel Bennet, Bickering’s )
<{ Park, Beds
l Ditto ditto
/Mr. T. E. Pawlett, Tinwell, near/
/ Stamford . . . . . /
Mr. T. Inskip, Marston, Bedfordshire
/ Mr. W. Pawlett, Barnack,Northamp-
/ tonshire .....
19
19
1
2
Class VII. — Southdown, or other Short-woolled Sheep.
f 30 sovs. /The Duke of Richmond, Goodwood }
/ Park, Chichester. . . .
/ Mr. T. Crisp, Gedgrave, near Orford,
\ Suffolk .....
Shearling Ram
1 io
l
Ram of any other 1 .,q
age . . ./
Pen of 5 Ewes, /
with their lambs J
Pen of 5 Shearling / n n
Ewes . . /
Shearling Ram, not
qualified to com-
pete in Class VI.
Ram of any other/
age . . ./
Pen of 5 Ewes, /
with their lambs /
Class
30
VIII.
sovs
10
30
10
{
” {
- {
■
Pen of 5 Shearling
Ewes
10
Ditto ditto
Mr. Jonas Webb, Babraham, Cambs.
Ditto ditto
— Long-woolj.ed Sheep.
Mr. C. Large, Broadwell, near Bur-'
ford, Oxon. (New Oxfordshire) .
Mr. J. Harradine, Needingworth,
near St. Ives, Hunts.
Mr. C. Large, Broadwell, near Bur-'
ford, Oxon. (New Oxfordshire) . _
Rev. J. Linton, Hemingford Grey, '
Hunts (Lines, and Leicester Ewes) _
Mr. E. Smith, Charlbury, near En- '
stone, Oxon. (Improved Oxford
Ewes)
2G
32
4
10
10
2
4
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1 $39; Cambridge, 1840. 229
Prizes awarded at Cambridge, 1840 — continued.
Class IX. — Pigs.
Boar
Sow
lfl /"Mr. E. G. Barnard, M.P., Gosfield\
10 S0Y9. J - ’ - —
1 Hall, near Halstead, Essex . . /
( Mr. W. F. Hobbs, Mark’s Hall,
Entries
13
Pen of 3 pigs of
same litter, above
4 and under 9
months old
n j ■ ■ • — * /
” \ near Coggeshall, Essex
10
/Mr. G. W. Kirkby, Eppingbury
1 Essex
:}
:}
On the day that the judging was going on in the Show-yard,
more than fifty ploughs engaged in a ploughing match 1 on the
farm of Mr. Peter Grain, on the Hills Road, and a large com-
pany, in carriages, on horseback, or on foot, assembled to
witness this competition and the trial of various implements in
a field near by. The late Mr. John Hicken, of Bourton, War-
wickshire, who was present at this and many subsequent
Meetings, wrote before his death to say that though the ground
was dry and hard, some of the ploughing was exceedingly well
done, and that “ a boy of fifteen, with a pair of horses, made
such good work with a plough with one handle, and a foot
standard instead of a wheel, as to cause great attraction and
general admiration.”
In the afternoon, the Prize Essays (five in number) were
read before a numerous company in the Law Schools, and in
the evening upwards of 400 noblemen and gentlemen dined
together in the magnificent hall of Trinity College, under the
presidency of the Duke of Richmond, Earl Spencer occupying
the vice-chair. The company also included the Dukes of Rutland
and St. Albans ; the Marquesses of Northampton and Downshire ;
Earls Lucan, Chichester, and Lincoln ; Viscounts Bridport and
Neville ; Sir Robert Peel, Sir James Graham, the Vice-Chan-
cellor of the University (Dr. Tatham), Professors Whewell,
Buckland, and Henslow, and many others — Peers, members of
Parliament, heads of houses, landowners, and tenant-farmers.
In the course of the proceedings the President congratulated
the company on the fact that since the Oxford Meeting the
number of members had increased from 1,200 to 3,500 ; the
Vice-Master of Trinity (Rev. John Brown) regarded with favour
the possible establishment of a Professorship of Agriculture in
that University ; Professors Henslow and Buckland pointed out
the great advantages to be derived by agriculture from a study
1 This did not form part of the Society’s proceedings, but was under the
patronage and sanction of the Council.
230 The First Two Country Meetings of the
of geology ; and Colonel Le Couteur urged the desirability of
forming an Experimental Farm. The “ sealed award ” of the
Judges was, as already stated, opened and read to the Meeting.
“ On the morning of Wednesday, July 15, so early as 5 A.M.
the approaches to Cambridge in every direction, so far as
the eye could reach, presented one continuous line of carriages
and vehicles of all kinds, horsemen and pedestrians ; and these
continued to increase as the day advanced. At 6 a.m. (the hour
of opening), Bridge Street, Sydney Street, and St. Andrews Street
were thronged, persons crowding from all parts to the centre of
attraction, Parker’s Piece. Immediately on the opening of the
doors, at six o’clock, the yard became thronged with company,
amongst whom we observed most of the nobility.” 1
The sum realised for admission during the day was between
1,600Z. and 1,650Z., or some 500Z. more than at Oxford, and it
was estimated that about 25,000 people entered the Show-yard.
By ten o’clock in the morning it became thronged with an
immense assemblage of persons, and as it was impossible to find
accommodation in the town for all the horses and carriages
bringing visitors, owners were compelled to resort to the fields
near the borough to stand their horses.
The entries of stock in the yard numbered 337, reckoning a
pen of sheep or pigs as one entry — if counted separately there
were about 460 head of stock. The various classes included 47
Shorthorns, 7 Herefords, 25 Devons, 17 “ any Breed or Cross,”
35 Horses, 138 Sheep, 18 Pigs, and 50 entries of “ extra stock.”
As it had been determined that no animal which had won a first
prize at Oxford should be allowed to compete for a similar
premium at Cambridge, the Kirkleavington Shorthorns were not
in such strong force as at the first Meeting, but Mr. Bates com-
pleted his triumphs by showing that it was as easy for him to
win with a bull calf as with older animals, and he also took the
prize for a six-year-old cow. This cow, by Belvedere from Red
Rose 9th, was afterwards named “ Cambridge Premium Rose,”
and became the ancestress of a tribe of cattle, long bred by
Lord Braybrooke, almost as famous as Mr. Bates’s Duchess and
Oxford tribes. The bull prizes in the Shorthorn class were
awarded to Mr. Wm. Paul and Mr. R. M. Jaques ; in the
Herefords, to the Duke of Bedford ; and in the Devons, to
Mr. Wm. Porter and the Duke of Norfolk. In the Sheep,
attention was divided between Shortwools and Longwools —
between the Southdown classes, in which the prizes for rams
Cambridge Advertiser, July 16, 1840.
0THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S SHOWYARD AT CAMBRIDGE, 1840
Royal Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840. 231
were taken by the Duke of Richmond and Mr. Thomas Crisp,
of Gedgrave, Suffolk, and those for ewes by Mr. Jonas Webb, of
Babraham ; and the Leicesters, in which the prizes went to
sheep of the Dishley breed shown by Mr. S. Bennet, Messrs.
T. E. and W. Pawlett, and Mr. Thos. Inskip.
The implement exhibitors were 31 in number, and amongst
them were thp names of Messrs. Ransome and Co., Garrett,
Crosskill, Howard, Woods (Stowmarket), Hornsby, and Smyth
(Peasenhall). A prize of 20 sovs. had been offered for a cheap
and effective gorse-crushing machine ; but the Judges made no
award, as they did not consider the conditions were fulfilled by
any one of the three competing machines. No other prize was
offered for implements at this Meeting, but the Society’s
“ honorary rewards ” were given to Mr. Beart, of Godmanchester,
for a tile-making machine ; to Mr. Grounsell, of Louth, for an
improvement in his dropping-drill ; to Messrs. Garrett, for a
corn and turnip drill ; to Mr. Woods, for a barley roller ; to Mr.
Crosskill, for a clod-crushing roller and a liquid manure cart ;
to Mr. Wedlake, for a corn and stubble rake ; and to Mr. Hannam,
of Dorchester, for a skeleton harvest-cart. In justice, however,
to the exhibitors, who had sent from various quarters li such a
selection of implements as, beyond controversy, were never before
collected in one Show-yard,” the Judges also particularised others,
“ which, although on this occasion they were unrewarded, yet are
not the less entitled to notice.” Amongst these was the collec-
tion of machinery shown by Messrs. Ransome, whose “ bank of
ploughs (86 varieties) were arranged and elevated on planks to
the height of at least twenty feet, and struck the eye of the
beholder as he entered the yard ” ; the turnip-cutter of Messrs.
Gardner & Hart ; Messrs. Bond, Turner, & Co.’s cake-
crusher, &c.
In the afternoon, the Duke of Richmond, as President, took
the chair at the great dinner of the Society, which was held in
a pavilion erected, at a cost of about 1,300Z., in the quadrangle
of Downing College. The tables were arranged (as at Oxford)
in the form of an amphitheatre, so that every one was seated
with his face towards the raised platform occupied by the Presi-
dent, Vice-Presidents, and Council, behind which was a gallery
filled with ladies.
The papers of the period are full of details of this dinner,
which they seem to have regarded as the feature of the Meeting
most worthy of record, the show itself being dealt with in some-
what cursory fashion. None but members had the privilege of
buying tickets, and “ to prevent members who cannot be pre-
sent themselves selling or giving them to their friends,” tickets
232 The First Two Country Meetings of the
could only be purchased at Cambridge. The Cambridge Adver-
tiser described the structural arrangements of the pavilion
in great detail, and a lithograph was afterwards published
showing the disposition of the tables.1
The dinner began at four o’clock, a trumpeter stationed
behind the President’s chair proclaiming silence by sound of
trumpet. Grace having been sung by choristers of the Uni-
versity, the 2,650 guests sat down to the following bill of fare :
“ 56 lambs, 600 fowls, 100 hams, 100 tongues, 100 raised pies,
100 pigeon pies, 550 fruit tarts, 120 pieces of roast beef, 120
pieces of boiled beef, 120 pieces of roast veal, 500 salads, and
500 dishes of hot potatoes.” “ The appearance of the hall at
the commencement of the repast was,” says the reporter, “ ani-
mating beyond description, the ladies’ gallery forming not the
least interesting part.”
There was a very long list of toasts, and the after-dinner
proceedings appear to have been most enthusiastic. Sir Robert
Peel especially met with a great ovation. On the Chair-
man calling on Sir Robert to propose the toast “ Success to
the Royal Agricultural Society,” “the most deafening accla-
mations arose, which lasted for at least five minutes, after
which the rallying cry of ‘ one cheer more ’ was responded
to with immense vehemence. The hon. baronet was about to
address the company from the position he occupied on the floor
(the Duke of Richmond having previously stood upon a chair in
announcing the toasts), when there was a general call of ‘ for-
ward,’ ‘ stand up.’ After a short lapse, during which the call
of ‘ forward ’ became general, Sir Robert, stepping across the
table, appeared in front of the platform and was received with
the utmost applause.” The Duke of Buckingham, Duke of
Rutland, Marquess of Northampton, Marquess of Downshire,
Earl Spencer, Earl of Hardwicke, Sir James Graham, Mr.
Handley, Mr. Philip Pusey (the President-elect), and others,
also took part in the proceedings.
As a record of the great event, the Cambridge Advertiser 2
went to the length of publishing an extraordinary edition,
containing “ two lithographic drawings of the cattle yard and the
great dining hall, which we hope our readers will receive as a
welcome and pleasing memorial of the events the anticipation
of which, for some time past, has occupied the attention of the
agriculturists of Great Britain, we might say of Europe, and which
has brought together into this town not less than 30,000
1 A copy of this has recently come into the possession of the Society.
2 For the loan of a copy of this paper, I am indebted to the kindness of
the present Mayor of Cambridge, Mr. E. H. Parker, J.P.
Boy al Agricultural Society : Oxford, 1839; Cambridge, 1840. 233
visitors — namely, the Grand Meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England — a Society which promises to become the
means of infusing into the science of agriculture a strong and
healthy vitality, pregnant with wealth and prosperity to our
great nation.”
The Society itself was less florid in its description of the
Show ; for with little regard for the efforts of the future his-
torian, the Council contented themselves with reporting to the
General Meeting of December 12, 1840, that “the success
which attended the Society’s Annual Meeting at Cambridge, in
July, is too recent to require any comment on the part of the
Council, but they beg on this occasion to report to the General
Meeting that at the first Council held after the Cambridge
Meeting they had the pleasure of expressing by their unanimous
votes the deep obligations of the Society to the Vice-Chancellor,
the heads of the colleges, and the municipal authorities of the
town, for their co-operation in promoting the successful issue of
the Meeting.” 1
There is little doubt that the Cambridge Meeting was a
very real success, and the memories of those who attended the
Show and still survive are full of pleasant recollections of it. Mr.
Clare Sewell Read, amongst other contributory notes, writes :
“ My earliest recollections of the R.A.S. are connected with the
Cambridge Show in 1840. I was then a schoolboy, and I
remember in my summer holidays driving my good father to
Norwich, where he was joined by five relatives, all bound for
the great Agricultural Show. It was before the days of our
London railway, so they started very comfortably in a roomy
‘ post-chay,’ with four good horses and two postboys. These
were no more horses than were needed, for they were such a
sample of Norfolk yeomen as you could hardly find in the
county now — all save one standing six feet, and he made up
for his want of stature by weighing over sixteen stone. This
jolly party had their head-quarters at Newmarket, driving to
Cambridge while the Show lasted. I felt very proud that
week, being left in charge of a big farm to make the hay and
finish off sowing the turnips for the ewes and lambs, which were
drilled with rape-cake and malt-dust, a dressing for such turnips
still considered by our best flockmasters preferable to any artificial
manure.”
By way of complement to these details of the Society’s earliest
shows, I have compiled the following comparative statement
showing the amount of Prize money, numbers of animals
1 Journal, First Series, Vol. II., 1841, p. iii.
234
The First Tivo Country Meetings , &c.
exhibited, &c., at the first and second meetings held at- the two
University towns : —
—
First Meeting
at Oxford,
1839
First Meeting
at Cambridge,
1840
Second
Meeting at
Oxford,
1870
Second
Meeting
at Cam-
bridge,
1894
Amount of Prizes offered
Number of Entries of :
£890
£900
£3>525
£5.433
Horses ....
24
35
203
617
Cattle ....
92
96
435
659
Sheep ....
81
138
548
588
Pigs ....
16
18
191
—
“ Extra Stock ”
34
50
—
—
No. of Implement Exhibitors.
19
31
406
442
Number of Paying Visitors .
about 20,000
about 25,000
75-749
..
Total Receipts
£2,394
£3,416
£11,892
—
Total Expenditure .
3,556
4,354
14.397
t
The contrast between the five acres of Parker’s Piece and the
64 acres of Midsummer Common, between the 337 entries of stock
and 115 of implements in 1840 and the 1,864 entries of stock
(besides 705 of poultry, and 538 of produce) and the 6,031
entries of implements in 442 stands in 1894, gives rise to many
reflections as to the origin, progress, and probable future of the
Society’s annual gatherings, which have now become so important
a part of agricultural history. It is gratifying to find the same
interest and the same enthusiasm in the Show displayed by
members in these latter days as at the beginning of the Society’s
life ; and it may be hoped that the annual gatherings of the
Society may never lose the hold which they have so long retained
upon the affections of agriculturists at large.
Ernest Clarke.
12 Hanover Square, W.
WILLOWS AND THEIR CULTIVATION.
Classification of the Willows.
The genus Salix, to which the Willows belong, is admittedly
one of the most complicated sections of the British Flora. There
have been numerous lists prepared, both by botanists and by
those engaged in the consideration of the subject from a more
strictly commercial point of view, and it is scarcely possible
to find two lists, prepared independently, that on comparison
will even approximately agree with each other. The points of
Willows and their Cultivation. 235
difference are quickly confusing, for there is at the outset
remarkable difference of opinion as to the range of the genus in
the number of its species and varieties, and the difficulty is
increased the moment we consider the subject of nomenclature.
Thus William Scaling, a cultivator of willows and a shrewd
observer of facts in connexion with his calling, in 1871 and
1872 prepared and published a series of papers on “ The Salix
or Willow,” and he there tabulated as many as 207 varieties.
He was under the belief that each of these possessed some
characteristics sufficiently distinctive to entitle its separate
mention in the classified list.
Botanists, too, are free to admit the extreme difficulties
presented by the genus, and it has been frequently noted that
varieties seem to overlap and intermingle, and that hybrids con-
stantly come in to add to the perplexities of those engaged
upon the study and separation of species, and the determination
and definition of features sufficiently constant and marked to
constitute distinct varieties. Loudon 1 after describing the
characteristics of the genus goes on to say : “ The appearance
of the male plant and of the female plant (for the plant is
dioecious) is generally more or less different, and hence one of
the difficulties in the study of this genus, the species of which
may be described as in a state of inextricable confusion.” The
latter part of this statement seems to be extreme, and does not,
probably, put the matter in its true light ; but that there is some
show of reason in the view thus put before us, in the sentence
as a whole, a critical examination of natural specimens will
quickly confirm ; or, if access cannot readily be had to the
plants themselves, a reference to the excellent plates in Sowerby 2
may serve to indicate what Loudon had in mind when he wrote
a sentence so sweeping.
As against the 207 varieties tabulated by Scaling, however,
it may be noted that Babington 3 only makes 29 species,
but with these he interweaves some 60 varieties. Hooker 4
gives 17 species, whilst Bentham,5 whose classification has
at least the merit of simplicity, — so far as simplicity is safe,
consistent with correctness, on the less critical basis of broadly
defined differentiation, reducing the number of varieties to
a minimum, and noting more particularly only clearly marked
and well-maintained features, — remarks that 15 species can
1 Loudon’s Trees and Shrubs of Great Britain, 1883 Ed.
2 Sowerby’s English Botany , edited by John T. Boswell Syme, F.L.S.
3 Babington’s Manual of British Botany, Seventh Edition, 1874.
4 The Student's Flora of the British Isies. By J. D. Hooker, C.B. i870 Ed.
5 Handbook of the British Flora, by George Bentham, F.R.S. 1865 Ed.
236
Willows and their Cultivation.
include all variations. In another field, that of Topographical
Botany, the late Mr. Hewett Cottrell Watson 1 remarks :
“ Salix is another genus much like Rubus and Rosa in being
inconveniently numerous in uncertain species and little-known
varieties, in novelties about which most botanists must
agree to differ. David Don enjoyed telling an anecdote of
somebody having offended the estimable William Borrer by
a remark that all sensible botanists eschewed Willows, while
the crazy ones had each their own ideas about the species.”
He proceeded to say : “ Perhaps the most sensible among us
are those who rest content to look at Willows in the wilds and
take least heed of their names and arrangement in books . . .
23 salices (reckoning in the omitted aurita ) have been treated
in the synopsis as quasi-specific groups or correct species. . . .
I cannot make out that Hooker, Babington, Bentham, or even
Boswell Syme, have subsequently written under the advantage
of very complete or very clear knowledge of these difficult
plants in their living reality and wild confusion. At any rate
they have more usually re-said than added to their previous
knowledge.”
The fact of the Willow being a dioecious plant and there-
fore at once doubling the number for the sexes, taken in
conjunction with the further fact that salices are peculiarly
susceptible to hybridisation, will readily suggest that the
investigator may soon find himself involved with puzzles which
take a great deal of thought and examination to solve.
There have been excellent specialists who have given the
closest attention to the genus — Professor Koch, William Borrer,
J. E. Leefe, James Ward, N. J. Andersson, and Dr. Buchanan
White, to confine the list to half a dozen names — but it often
happens that we have to face paradox and perplexity in this
field of investigation and registration thus narrowed when we
look at the groupings as they are put before us. It seems
pretty clear, however, that, with very few exceptions, the types
of each species are well distributed over the divisional pro-
vinces of Britain, into which Watson has divided the home area,
under numbered geographical sections.
Different methods for the better determination of species
and their classification as applied to Willows have been sug-
gested and worked out. Andersson seemed to have got a fairly
clear division in the initial stages by parcelling out the genus
into three families, which he terms Pleiandrge, Diandrse, Syn-
andrse. Classification has been worked out by type form of
Watson’ Cylele Britannica, 1870 Ed.
Willows and their Cultivation .
237
the plant taken in conjunction with character of the foliage.
Divisions have been arranged upon the basis of features of
variation in the inflorescence, assisted by colour variation in the
wood, and by natural phenomena connected with growth and
development ; but the matter is complicated and technical, and
too complex and difficult for us to follow, satisfactorily, in a
paper of this character. Anyone interested in the scientific
aspect of the question will do well to consult the able and
exhaustive essay on “ A Revision of the British Willows,” by
Dr. F. Buchanan White, F.L.S.1 This valuable review is unique
in its treatment of a difficult subject, and is usefully supplemented
by diagrams.
Trade Uses of the Willows.
Leaving the scientific aspect, we may next glance at
the commercial side of the subject. Willows are always in
demand. It cannot accurately be estimated what amount is
paid year by year for imported Willows, as in the official
Board of Trade accounts they are not separately distinguished
in the tabulated statements from imports of other “ unmanu-
factured goods unenumerated.” Mr. Scaling wrote that in
1866 we imported, chiefly from France, Belgium, Holland, and
Prussia, 4,400 tons, of the estimated value of 43,609?., and baskets
to the value of 45,840?., and he further mentioned that there
was a greatly increasing demand even at that time.
From general inquiry it seems safe to say there is now a well-
sustained upward tendency in the market demand for home-
grown willows. This may be in some measure attributable to
the rapidly increasing area of British land devoted to fruit
cultivation, an industry which makes immediate claim upon the
resources of the basket factories. There are also hampers for
potatoes and for other produce of the farm and the market
garden ; and with the extension of the railway system and of
holiday excursions there continually arise new calls for packages
and increased demand for crates, skips, and baskets, in the
production of which the willow forms an element.
Willows for basketwork are employed in the two conditions,
‘ unpeeled ’ and ‘ peeled.’ The unpeeled rods are, of course, the
natural growths of the willow with the bark unstripped. They
are further divided into two kinds, spoken of as green and brown.
Green rods are those which are worked up as freshly cut. The
brown rods are those which have been left to dry unpeeled and
are afterwards used. The peeled willows, again, are divided into
two kinds — white and buff. The white are those which have
The Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol. xxvii., Nos. 185 and 186, 1890.
VOL. V. T. S. — 18 R
238
Willows and their Cultivation.
had the bark stripped off at once whilst green and sappy, so that
the white wood is exposed, and thus prepared it is worked into
pattern. The buff are those which have been boiled when in
a brown state unpeeled, and the colouring-matter in the bark
has been thus given to the underlying wood, which assumes
a buff tinge, though the effect is now often secured by dyeing
the white rods to the required tint.
The stronger rods are used for uprights and corners of hampers
and baskets; branches of the tree kinds are used as stakes,
handles of garden tools, implements, &c., whilst the timber is
excellent for stone carts and barrows, and is used also for sides
and bottom boards of trucks, brake blocks for railway wagons,
mills, &c. In the domain of sport the cricket-bat is made of
the willow. In building construction the wood is used for
purposes where lightness and durability are desirable features.
There are many other purposes to which willows may be put and
are put, which cannot be classified as associated exactly with
either commerce or trade, but are more or less accidental, as,
for instance, the lining of the submerged banks of artificially
formed waterways, and it is noticeable that during late years
the increasing demand has been steadier, and in some districts
difficulty has been experienced in getting sufficient osiers for the
purposes of manufacture to which they have been applied.
Cultivated Varieties of Willows.
There is some difficulty in giving, under accurate botanical
name, the identical varieties most used in particular districts
and for particular work, inasmuch as the willows employed by the
wicker-workers carry local names rather than scientific titles.
In some cases the name is distinctly geographical, as, for instance,
the name Dee Willow, here applied to the salices found growing
along the margins of the river Dee, in the upper reaches, by
some of the basket-makers who cut their rods from the plants
found in this district. Probably at first the local name Dee
Willow would include the several species found in the locality,
but, gradually, the basket-makers would come to reject the kinds
least suitable for their purpose and confine themselves to the
use of the one kind which they found best adapted to their re-
quirements, so that the Dee Willow is now merely the common
osier used for making agricultural hampers and baskets, employed
largely in the county for the transport of market-garden produce
and for early potatoes and other farm crops grown for market.
Another instance of the mutation of words and change of idea,
in a similar way, has recently come under my notice. Amongst
Willotrs dnd their Ouliivatioti.
289
basket-makels a certain variety of willow is known as “ Spanish.”
In bestowing an individuality upon the species it became known
as “the Spaniard.” Confusing measure with locality, it became
the span-yard — its “ span/’ or measure, a yard. These pecu-
liarly introduced errors offer a wide field for the follower of
folk-lore and antiquarian research.
There is in most districts a fairly well-recognized distinc-
tion of the sections, or groupings, of the varieties under the
headings Osiers, Willows, and Sallows, but the application of
these terms is not identical as to the ground covered by each
in the different districts to which the terms apply, so that what
may be a Willow in one place may become an Osier in another ;
and altogether there seems to be as much difference of opinion
in the popular mind in the application of popular titles as there
is in the scientific world in the effort to systematize botanical
nomenclature. Then, again, sometimes salices take distinctive
common names from some characteristic or quality they possess,
whilst others appear to have taken their local name from some
individual who had grown the variety or had in some such way
become identified with some particular kind either in cultivation
or in commerce.
At the Willow Beds and the Salicetum in our Chester nur-
series (Dickson’s) the two willows most in demand and evidently
the best suited for basket-making, including heavy hampers and
all such work, are the Green Willow and the Bitter Osier. These
are the popular names under which these two species are grown
in great numbers to meet the demand for sets or cuttings. The
Green Willow here referred to is a variety evidently of Salix
viminalis. It only seems to differ from the type plants of S.
vimincilis in that this particular variety (Dickson’s Green
Willow) does not seem so liable to throw out the occasional
lateral branchlets found in S. viminalis. The Bitter Osier is
evidently Salix Kerksii. In the Salicetum there are other
varieties which seem to be nearly, if not equally, as good as
these two kinds, specially grown in quantity to meet the
demand for cuttings for basket rods. Amongst the more notice-
able in this respect are Helix pyramidalis, triandra , phylicifolia,
lanceolata, rubra , rubra Forbyana, Lambertiana, Smithiana , &c.
In a recently issued work on “ British Forest Trees,” 1 the
following ai’e given as the best willows for basketwork : —
Salix viminalis
Salix triandra (including Salix amygdalina)
Salix purpurea (including Salix rubra)
* British Forest Trees and their Sylvicultural Characteristics and Treatment.
By John Nisbet. Macmillan & Co. 1893 Ed.
240
Willows and their Cultivation .
William Scaling,1 in dealing fully with the different va-^
rieties, gives the following list as the best for ordinary basket-
work : —
Salix longifolia Salix Merriniana Salix inflexus
„ mollissima „ longifolia alba „ Harrisoniana
„ rosea ,, Ballardiana „ rubra
but as these names do not fit with the nomenclature of recognised
botanical standards, we cannot, by Mr. Scaling’s method, get
at the exact varieties indicated under his specific titles. It seems
likely, however, that several of the varieties here tabulated are
of the S. viminalis type, and others of the S. rubra group.
For the heavier work it seems clear that the Green Willow
(under the sections viminalis , Smithiana, or whatever name'
may be given to this particular variety in different localities)1
and Kerksii, the Bitter Willow (useful especially where there'
is fear of ravage by game), are the best. For coppice, prob-
ably Salix caprea, the Goat Willow, or English Palm, would'
be best, and for finer basketwork the varieties known commonly
as the Purple Willow and the Yellow Osier are most suitable..
Cultivation and Harvesting.
We proceed to consider the cultivation of the plants. There?
seems to be a widely spread notion that willows will only grow
in wet boggy land, and indeed that the more water in which
they can be placed the better. This popular idea is entirely
erroneous, but it is likely that it may have given some colour
to the supposition, often indulged, that the willow crop is not
profitable.
A willow plantation is usually called a “ Holt,” an Anglo-
Saxon word meaning probably, shelter or cover, and subse-
quently applied to pieces of protective plantation, fitting best-
the character of such a tract of cultivated ground as willow beds-
might be likely to suggest. In the formation of a Willow Holt
due care should be taken as to the kinds to be grown. Soil and.
situation, as well as market demand, must be well thought out.
It may here be mentioned, as showing the wide range covered'
by the variation in growth of the willow tribe, that whilst Salix
herbacea in its native habitat grows scarcely an inch in a year,
some of the basket willows, under favourable conditions, and
when regularly cut for basket rods, grow eight to ten or twelve
feet in a season.
1 The Salix or Willow, by William Scaling. 2nd Ed., revised and enlarged
1871.
Willows and their Cultivation.
241
All the varieties of the soft- wooded kinds will grow in a
much damper soil than the harder- wooded kinds ; but, in any
case, one of the first things to be done is to secure proper drain-
age. All stagnant surface water should be drained off, and the
bed should be well prepared by trenching the ground to the
depth of twelve or fourteen inches at least, and so clearing it of
surface weeds. If the land is poor it should be well manured,
and if the land is strong and cold lime may be used, but with
care, as if lime is applied to light land it is liable to cause the
crop to canker. A deep alluvial soil is the most suitable, as it
affords a rich and moist bed for the cuttings, but any heavy soil
inclined to moistness may be planted. Hot land should be
avoided.
Difference of opinion exists as to drains. It used to be the
practice to plant willow holts in beds with broad open drains
between them. This plan is still followed, but it has also be-
come a practice to lay down the holt in a flat area with covered
drains, using drain pipes in the usual way ; and it is argued that
this system admits of the land being cleared much more econo-
mically than where open drains have existed, though there is ox
course the danger that the drains may sooner or later be choked
with the roots of the willows.
When the ground has been prepared carefully, the next
matter is the planting ; for this cuttings are required. Much
difference of opinion exists amongst planters under this head
also. It is pretty generally admitted that the better plan to
follow is to obtain cuttings from two-year-old shoots. They may
be taken, however, from one-year-old shoots, and it has been
said that cuttings from such shoots strike more easily, and in
many instances carry more rods than two-year-old cuttings, but
they are the more quickly exhausted, and a willow bed planted
with cuttings from two-year-old shoots will be likely to last the
longer. The cuttings need not exceed twelve to fourteen inches
each in length. The rod should be cut into these lengths with a
sharp knife in a slanting direction, the cut being a clean one made
with a sharp decided stroke. Taking the rod in the hand, the
bottom of the cutting (the thicker end, leaving the buds directed
upwards, of course) should be properly sharpened, the length
for the first “ set,” or “ cutting,” properly gauged, and the cutting
then made. The point at which the cutting was made will then
be the bottom of the next — this will now be sharpened, the
cutting measured, and a clean cut made as before ; and so on until
the rod shows that the point has been reached where the wood
is not sufficiently matured for the purpose of making good
puttings from the fipened wood, 4? a rifle, one-year-old shoofg
242
Willows and their Cultivation.
will give three cuttings ; a two-year-old shoot may be cut up
to the entire length of the first year’s growth.
Planters have different ideas as to the distances which should
separate the cuttings in the beds. For the ordinary basket-
willows 18 inches or even less each way may be found best.
Some calculate to put in about 20,000 cuttings to the acre,
which would mean about 20 inches between the rows and
nearly 1 6 inches between the cuttings in the rows ; others
allow about 2 feet each way, that is, between the rows and
between the sets in the rows; if so arranged, about 11,000 sets
to the acre would be needed. For the smaller kinds for finer
work 15 or 16 inches between the rows and 8 or 9 inches
between the sets in the rows may be regarded as a safe distance.
Pains should be taken to insure accuracy of line and regularity
of space and distance, as unevenness and irregularity would be
permanent disfigurement and also a waste of land and of growth ;
the closest adherence to methodical arrangement insures the
maximum yield of produce with the minimum expenditure of
labour.
The cuttings should be pushed carefully into place, the usual
practice being to put, say, two-thirds of the cutting beneath the
surface, thus allowing one-third to remain above ; but cuttings
should not be so long as to require that they be pushed into the
ground too deeply where there is moisture beneath the surface,
or the ends rot. Mr. Scaling advocates, however, that the whole
of the cutting should be pushed quite into the ground, so that
no part of it should remain uncovered. Many advantages are
claimed for this system, e.g., that the rods so planted send out
straight shoots — that manure can be led on to the land and
spread so much better, and that the holt can be much more
readily cleaned. It is a fact, too, that cuttings thus pushed
quite beneath the surface strike better than those which rise
above the ground-level. In the latter case it not unfrequently
happens that that portion of the cutting above the ground dies
down to the ground-level. In such cases the decayed portions
are simply pruned away. When the cuttings have been pushed
into their proper position in line, the ground should be firmly
trodden about them and, the work thus completed, root action
and surface growth will very quickly commence.
It is most important that the holt should be kept clean.
Rank grasses and quick-growing weeds and under-scrub quickly
establish themselves, and, if allowed to remain, choke the growth
of the shoots and otherwise impair the success of the planting.
It is desirable when cleaning to have the rubbish and debris
removed at once — to compost heaps if to be rotted into manure,
Willows and their Cultivation.
243
or to the fire if to be burned. The weeding of the beds can be
done at moderate cost, as the work is not arduous and can be
accomplished by unskilled labour under supervision. In going
through the beds care should be taken to see that there are no
blanks allowed to remain. If through any cause a dead plant
is found it should be removed and an unshortened rod (not a
cutting) set in its place, as, if a cutting only is put in, the rank
weeds will smother it and choke it, thus leaving the blank still
unfilled, whereas a rod will bi’eak at once and can be cut to
its proper level the succeeding season.
In the cutting of the crop, a sharp hook, something like
a short-bladed sickle, is to be used, as it is desirable to sever the
rods with a clear, clean, sharp cut, avoiding split rods or torn
bark. It is essential that this process should be so carefully
carried out as to insure the rods being cut off close to the stools,
not leaving spurs, as if spurs are left they throw out weakly
shoots, and thus injure the crop of the succeeding season, and
also tend to exhaust the stools. Cutting may commence in the
later weeks of November or in December. The buds will then
swell during the winter and will be more likely to put forth
vigorous shoots than if the cutting is delayed until nearer the
succeeding spring ; it is also better for the land that it should
be opened up to the winter frost by being stirred up after the
crop is taken and cultivation made possible by the removal of
the rods from the stools. It may be safe to decide the time of
cutting not by the calendar so much as by the conditions of
season and of crop ; that is to say, the rods should not be cut
until the leaves have fallen, or the stools will be weakened by
the flow of sap which would follow the process if conducted at
this period. On the other hand, the harvesting process must
not be too long delayed, or it may encroach upon the period of
the flow of sap for the coming season. During the early
summer the spaces between the rows should be cleaned by hoe
or fork or both. As a rule one cleaning will be found sufficient
for the summer. The cost need not be much, but would neces-
sarily vary. Estimates have been formed at from 10s. to 20s.
per acre for this summer cleaning, but it is money well spent,
and even if the weeds are not abundant the soil so stirred acts
with quickly apparent benefit upon the health and growth of the
plants.
It may be thought desirable to let some part of the crop
stand for the second year’s growth. Sometimes, when stakes
and uprights for hampers and baskets are scarce, the second
year’s shoots command a price in the market sufficient to
warrant the decision that the crop shall stand for the second
244
Willows and their Cultivation.
year. A Lancashire basket-worker tells me that this happened
to be the case in the season of 1893.
In the case of leaving the shoots for a second year’s growth
that particular part of the holt should be brought back again to
the one-year system afterwards, and another part of the plant-
ing reserved for the portion for the two-year growth next
arranged. When it is decided to leave the shoots upon the
stools for the second year it is desirable to remove all the small
crooked or rough rods, only leaving the sound rods to grow on.
If the second year’s growth has been allowed to remain upon
the stools with the object of providing cuttings to plant up an
extended area, the finest rods may be selected and put in their
places in carefully prepared ground, as rods in their entirety
(that is, without shortening them into cuttings), and left in
that state to be cut off at the harvesting period in the following
season. An excellent crop of Osiers will thus be secured and
the new ground planted up at the same time.
The cultivation of the W illow in woodlands as a timber tree,
in parks and gardens for decorative effect, and in other situa-
tions more or less connected with arboriculture or horticulture,
does not quite come within the scope of our present purpose,
but we may point out that the growing of Willows might be
safely extended not only in holts and properly prepared beds,
but as hedges and for shelter the Willow might be introduced
with great advantage, with safe return from an economic point
of view, and with good effect considered decoratively. The
Bitter Willow is not, as a rule, damaged either by cattle or
game, so that willow hedges could be planted in certain positions
on the farm or homestead where thorns and other hedge plants
are now used. Several methods of planting are available. Willow
stakes four or five feet in length might be used, the ends
sharpened, and pushed ten or twelve inches into the ground,
which must have been properly prepared by trenching, as pre-
viously shown, cleared of weeds, and manured. Should the
ground be low and hold stagnant water, a ridge should be
thrown up whereon to place the rods. After the “ sets ” have
been placed in position, they may be temporarily “ wattled ” or
laced at the top to hold them in position. Or they could be so
arranged, sloping at opposite angles, as to form a kind of lattice-
work, and fixed at the top as before. The rapidity of growth of
the Willow quickly secures a good fence, and an efficient shelter
for either stock or vegetation, and it eventually becomes almost
impenetrable, whilst the natural growth in the shape of shoots
can be utilised for the same purposes a? the usupl produce of a
willow holt proper,
Willows and t heir Cultivation.
245
The numerous railway cuttings also offer themselves for
experiment. They might, I think, be turned to profitable
account by being planted up with Willows, especially the lower
portions of the cuttings lying nearest the level of the railway
track, as in such a situation there is moisture sufficient to insure
all conditions needed for healthy permanence and vigorous
growth. Then there are screens for divisional fences in fruit
gardens and vegetable beds needing shelter, the margins of
streams and watercourses to prevent subsidence of the banks in
waterways, besides other purposes, places, and positions which
will readily suggest themselves.
The essential condition wherever willow-growing is carried
on, and for whatever purpose it may be followed, is due atten-
tion and care — keeping the plants clean and the ground in good
condition, sticking in rods to take the place of failures, and
keeping down the growth of the shoots, with due regard to
regularity and order. Where only small patches are to be utilised
it is better to plant for stakes or poles rather than to grow for
basket rods.
Planting may be safely carried out when the ground is clear
from frost at any time from November to March, or even early
April. Different growers select different periods as the best
for their purpose, but it is generally agreed that one time is
about as good as another, provided it is not before the sap
has settled in the autumn, or after it has risen in the spring.
There are possible reasons why the autumn may be considered
as possessing advantages over spring, but either season will be
found perfectly safe under ordinarily favourable conditions.
Insect Pests of Willows.
Nothing has been yet said as to the diseases of the Willow,
nor yet as to insect and other pests. It is probably best that
each case of infestation or attack should be considered separately
at the time, and with actual specimens before one. It is difficult
to say where to begin, and more difficult to determine where to
leave off, when dealing with a subject so wide. In the case of
Salix caprea , for instance, no less than seventy-five species of
lepidopterous larvae are known to feed upon the leaves and wood
of this species alone. Some of the caterpillars feed upon the
leaves ; in other instances the larvae are found in the wood,
as is the case with the larvae of the Clearwing Moth, Trochilium
crabroniformis. The Coleoptera infesting the Willows are more
general feeders. The large green Musk Beetle, Aromia moschata,
is foupd ip the wood and op the leaves, The small blackish
246
Willows and their Cultivation.
larva, so abundant on the various species of Salix, is that of the
beautiful bright green Willow Beetle, Plimtora vitellinee. A
keenly observant naturalist, Mr. Robert Newstead, F.E.S.,1 tells
me that when touched this little creature emits a double row
of liquid globules along its back. A tiny drop of the liquid
placed upon the tongue produces a peculiar numbing sensation —
a fact which he has proved by personal experiment. There
are, further, the various galls upon the leaves of Willows mani-
festing themselves in different ways. In the case of Salix Helix ,
the so-called Rose Willow, the terminal shoots are often con-
verted into rosette-like forms, for which reason, apparently, this
variety is called in many country places Rose Willows or Rosy
Willows. The fusiform or hard oval swellings on the stems or
twigs are produced by the dipterous fly Cecidomyia salicis. There
are other features of entomological interest which we need not
here follow further. Little can be said, with any degree of
certainty, as to the best methods for dealing with these insect
pests. “ Spraying,” with some of the insecticides most generally
used, would probably be in great measure effective, but the
results of insect attack in this particular field of cultivation
have not been so seriously harmful as to call for special remedial
measures.
Cost of Cultivation and Yield per Acre.
I have not said anything as to the profit and loss account.
This, indeed, is a matter that can scarcely be spoken about with
anything like certainty. After the preparation of the land the
account need not contain a long array of items, which might be
set down somewhat as follows: 20,000 cuttings at 10s. to 15s.
per thousand; planting at say Is. per thousand ; summer clean-
ing, say 20s. per acre ; cutting the crop, say 30s. per acre. The
first cost would then be, say,
Preparation, &c.
Cuttings, say
Planting „
Cleaning „
Harvesting „
it S. (1.
10 0 0
10 0 0
10 0
2 0 0
2 10 0
£25 10"0
But after the first preparation of the holt the items of expense
would naturally be curtailed, as there would only be the making
up of deaths and deficiencies, cleaning and cutting ; so that apart
1 Memorandum from Mr, R, Newstead, F.E.S.* curator of the Grosvenor
Museurp, Chester, 1893,
Willows and their Cultivation.
247
from rent and taxes an outlay of 5 1. to 71. per acre would probably
cover cost per annum. It has been estimated that it takes three
years to cover the cost of preparation and planting ; after that
period the profit upon a properly cultivated willow holt is well
assured.1 At certain intervals the beds would have to be man-
ured. Under ordinary circumstances every fifth year might be
regarded as the time for this attention, otherwise the stools
would suffer and eventually exhaust themselves.
The yield varies naturally, but as a rule in a fair season from
6 to 8 tons of willows, weighed green, may be expected per
acre, and a fair average price might be set down as from 21. 10s.
to 3 1. per ton for the ordinary osiers. Exceptional seasons may
give a greater or less yield, and exceptional years may also lead
to variation in prices, but the figures here set down appear to
be approximately correct.
Timber.
James Brown in his book upon Forestry 2 speaks of Salix
alba , S. Russelliana, and S. fragilis as the best varieties to grow
as timber trees. He remarks of Salix alba : —
Its growth is very rapid, and it is thus well adapted to plant in any
situation upon the park where it may he wished to hide any disagreeable
object. Upon the estate of Arniston I have planted this tree rather exten-
sively, and find it grows well in almost any soil provided it has a little
1 The following estimate of the cost of cultivation has been furnished by
a Lincolnshire grower : —
First year's expenses, per acre.
£ s. ci.
Trenching and preparing land, 12 to 14 in. deep, say . 13 0 0
Cuttings, 20,000 per acre at 10s. per 1,000 . . . 10 0 0
Planting at 2s. 6 d. per 1,000 2 10 0
Cleaning 10 0
Total, first year £2tTTb 0
Second year's expenses per acre.
£ s. (/.
Hoeing, first time, 21., second time, 1Z 3 0 0
Cutting, tying, and carrying rods (2 years old) . . 2 10 0
Carriage, loading, stacking 2 10 0
Total, second year 8 o 6
Return for crop, say 6 tons at 21. 10s. per ton . . . £15 0 0
Thus the total working expenses for the first two years amount to
34Z. 10s. 0 d., exclusive of rent, rates, and taxes, and the value of the crop to
15Z., the adverse balance at the end of the second year being 19Z. 10s. 0 d. per acre.
In a succession of favourable seasons, he adds, the return for the second and
third years’ crops will just about balance the expenses incurred during the
first three years, whilst should blight affect the crop in the first year of
growth, as was the case in the summer of 1893. no profit can be expected
under four or five years.— Ed.
2 The Forester, By James Brown. Third Edition. 1861. Blackwood
i % Son,
248
Willows and their Cultivation.
shelter and moisture. I could point out young trees only three years
planted standing from twelve to fifteen feet in height ; and I believe that
were it introduced extensively into all hollow parts of forest ground the
planter would have a return from his crop which is but seldom realised bv
the planting of our common hardwood and fir trees in such situations.
He further states the wood of all the tree willows is much
sought after and preferred in all cases to that of the poplar. It
is reckoned more tough and durable than the latter, and is used
for a great variety of country purposes. It makes excellent
charcoal for powder manufacturers, and is much sought after on
this account.
He proceeds : —
In making harrows for agricultural purposes, the wood of the saugh or
willow is much used, and as a paling rail it will last much better than the
young wood of the Scots pine or spruce fir. Its branches make excellent
posts for palings, but they are very apt to grow and set out young shoots.
To prevent this tendency of the wood the posts should be made and laid
aside to dry for a few weeks before they are used.
In order to have the wood of the willow clean and tall for useful
purposes, the trees should be planted in a mass and drawn up consider-
ably either among themselves, or planted at 12 feet distance with a few
larch or spruce firs among them as nurses for a time. This is particularly
necessary with the Huntingdon willow, which is extremely liable to set
oil into large branches if left to itself in any open part without confine-
ment, but where planted close together, or mixed with a proportion of
firs it rises to a great height before branching off, and when timeously
thinned excellent timber is produced. As’ its wood is soft and open in
the grain the willow, and indeed the poplar too, should never be pruned
except in the young state. If any branch of considerable size be taken
from a full-grown tree, the wound never heals up ; the weather takes effect
upon the cut part at once, and soon produces rot, rendering the timber near
it useless. Therefore, in pruning, let them be put into proper shape while
young, and in order to do away entirely with pruning, grow them for a
few years closely together, which will prevent the side branches spreading
to any undue proportion.
This is corroborated by facts before me. We had in the
Chester Nurseries some large specimen trees of Salix alba,
which had been standing for some 30 or 35 years, effective and
beautiful from a decorative point of view. They had, eventu-
ally, to be taken down some four or five years ago. They were
over 60 feet high and proportionate in girth. They com-
manded ready sale at good prices, and the timber merchant
who bought them wrote us more than once to ask if we could
spare more.
Willow-Culture on Sewage Farms.
A modern feature of osier-farming, which deserves at least a
brief notice, is the growing of willows under a system of irriga-
tion pp sewage farpis. The pot unnatural dislike to sewage
Willov)s and tli6ir Cultivation.
249
grown Vegetables and other produce for human consumption
has given occasion for the suggestion of new methods of utilis-
ing land irrigated by sewage. The Willow lends itself admi-
rably to this method of cultivation. Upon a ‘ farm ’ of this
nature which I have recently inspected the beds are laid out
in flats. The inlet for the sewage is arranged with flood-gates
regulating the flow and also the direction of the stream, the
sewage being thus turned on alternately to the different sides
of the quarters through broad diverting channels. In the first
tolerably wide open channel there are “ weirs ” or “ locks,”
arranged so that the solid matter is retained before the smaller
channels which are cut between the beds are reached. The
surfaces of the beds are not saturated, but the water level is
maintained some few inches below the surface level. The
channels or open gutters, however, keep the subsoil in a state
of moisture, and this is so regulated as to be beneficial to the
growth of the plants without injuring their vitality. There is
no odour, no appearance of filth, and at the point where the
outflow is arranged, the water, having passed this so far natural
process of filtration, flows away without serious discoloration and
with no trace of odour. Many Local Boards have adopted some
such plan for the right disposal of the sewage of the districts
under their control, and this seems a common-sense solution of
a troublesome and difficult sanitary problem.
Conclusion.
In writing upon Willows and Basketwork and the different
phases of this fertile industry we may call to mind that we are deal-
ing with a subject of ancient interest and importance. Mr. Leo.
Grindon 1 remarks that we may form some idea as to how long
basket-making from osiers has been practised in our island by
the fact that the word “ basket ” is, with a trifling differ-
ence in the spelling, the very same that was used here two
thousand years ago. The shields and the coracles of the ancient
Britons were also made of wicker — osier-work having apparently
been with this rude and simple people just what papyrus work
Was with the ancient Egyptians.
It has been pointed out that the osier industry has not
thriven and extended as it might have done of late years, on
account of cane and other pliant woods and fibres being largely
used for purposes which otherwise would have made demands
upon the willow. Boxes and barrels have been largely used for
1 The Trees of Old England. By Leo. H. Grindon. 1870 Ed.
250
WiUouls and ilieW Cultivation.
packing purposes where baskets and hampers might be employed j
but with the fact before us that our importations both of the raw
material and of manufactured basketwork are every year large,
and that the industries which provide occasion for the use of
baskets and hampers are extending and increasing, the subject
of the cultivation of Willows as a source of profit deserves and
demands closer attention than it has hitherto received.
Edmund J. Baillie.
Woodbine, Itpton Park, Chester.
ADVANTAGES IN AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTION.
Advantages in agricultural production may be divided into two
categories — natural and artificial. The first division includes
advantages of climate, soil, and situation or aspect ; the second,
acquired knowledge, skill, nearness to markets, rail or water
transport facilities, cheap labour, protective duties or bounties,
currency bonus, co-operation, security of property, and legisla-
tive action. Cheap land may belong to either division — to the
former, if its cheapness is the result of abundance ; and to the
latter, if it is due to human consideration. Natural and
artificial advantages in production may be concurrent or con-
flicting. In the former case they carry all before them ; in the
latter, the balance is in favour of one division in some instances,
and of the other in different cases.
The importance to the agriculturist (a term which will
include the horticulturist throughout this article) of paying due
attention to advantages of both kinds is obvious, and yet many
lamentable failures are constantly resulting from the disregard
of this precaution. Mistakes, however, are not always avoidable,
because our knowledge upon the subject is greatly lacking in
comprehensiveness and precision alike. I am not presumptuous
enough to imagine that I can supply the lacking information.
My object is rather to compare advantages in agricultural
production so far as they are recognised, and to point to certain
reasonable deductions which may be derived from such recogni-
tion. It will be necessary, moreover, as a rule, to keep to
generalities, for the complications involved in the details of my
subject are almost endless, and would require a volume for their
fqll elaboration.
251
Advantages in Agricultural Production,
Advantages of the United Kingdom.
Let us consider first the case of the United Kingdom as a
whole. So far as I know, it was the late Mr. James Howard
who first published the statement that no other country in the
world could boast of natural advantages in agricultural produc-
tion, taking animal as well as all classes of vegetable products
into consideration, equal to those of this country. There are
soils more fertile than the average of our own, and climates far
more stimulating to certain kinds of vegetation ; but for
combined advantages of soil and climate in relation to pasture,
corn, roots, other forage crops on arable land, tubers, hops, and
fruit, taken together, the country equal to the United Kingdom
has yet to be discovered. It is straining a point to take vege-
table products alone ; but I think that our country can stand
the test of the division. The position is strengthened, however,
if we add animal products ; for the inquirer will look in vain
for another country in which horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs
together can be bred and matured in perfection equal to that
which they attain in the British Isles. New Zealand, which
probably comes nearest to our own country, taking all things
into account, falls behind in quality of permanent pasture, in
quality of barley, in flavour of fruit, and in the constitution and
size of cart-horses, to say nothing of other stock.
There are great tracts of land in Manitoba and the North-
west of Canada, in parts of the United States, and in llussia,
more fertile naturally than any equal area in the United
Kingdom ; but in all three countries the climate at one season
or another is less favourable both to variety of vegetable and
animal production and to full fruition or perfect maturity.
The soil of Manitoba, for example, would produce better crops of
wheat than we grow, with equally good farming, if it were not
for the severity of the winter, which prohibits the growth of
winter varieties, and for the early autumn frosts, which
frequently destroy or badly injure the grain just before it has
become ripe. The climate of Manitoba also prevents the growth
of clover, roots of prime quality, and fruit of any but the hardiest
kinds. In countries hotter than our own, such as Australia,
India, and the Argentine Bepublic, too, there are vast tracts of
very fertile land ; but the extreme heat of the summer, frequent
droughts, and insect scourges prevent the growth of heavy crops
of cereals, which must have time for their perfect development.
Holland alone among the countries of the world equals Great
Britain in yield of corn and in fatness of pastures together ;
but, apart from the fact that some of her most fertile land has
252 Advantages in Agricultural Production ,
been reclaimed from the sea, the severity of her winter and the
greater heat of her summer place her slightly below us for all-
round agricultural production. If we take any other European
country, not excluding the fertile Danubian lands, into consider-
ation, it will be found that the climate at one season or another
is less favourable to a high average of quantity and quality in the
fruits of the soil, taken together, than our own. The Channel
Islands we claim, of course, as part of the United Kingdom.
It may be asked how it is, if we have such paramount
natural advantages, that we suffer so severely from foreign and
colonial competition. I think that the answer to this question
is twofold. In the first place, we had farther to fall than any
other country ; and secondly, in the supply of certain commodi-
ties, some of our competitors have artificial advantages over us.
Owing to the high degree of prosperity at one time attained by
British agriculture, our landowners and farmers had become
accustomed to higher standards of living and expenditure than
those owning or occupying equal areas of land in any other
country had reached. “ He that is low need fear no fall,” and
the farmers of certain countries which compete with us most
keenly have lost less because they had less to lose, and have
been less reduced in style of living because they were never
above the status of superior labourers. Again, our former
prosperity led to the imposition of burdens upon agriculture
greater than have been put upon it in any country not protected
by heavy duties on imports ; and the same remark applies to
the high value to which land, as an investment, rose in this
country. Nor is this all, for in many parts of the world where
land is extremely cheap, railway charges and ocean freights to
England are also very low, while here railway rates are so
high that bulky produce will often not yield enough money to
cover its conveyance from one end of England to a central
market. Moreover, it is difficult to compare degrees of depres-
sion in different countries. We know how the shoe pinches
here, but have not equal facilities for gauging the pressure
elsewhere.
On several occasions recently men of position, in Parliament
and elsewhere, have affirmed that agricultural depression is
even worse in some other countries than it is in England. For
reasons already given I doubt this, though I believe that, in
proportion to preceding prosperity, the fall has been as great
elsewhere as here, and that the difficulty of making ends meet
has become as serious. But where farmers can live entirely off
the produce of their land, and are accustomed to a life which the
best paid of English or Scottish labourers would disdain, thej
Advantages in Agricultural Production.
253
have an advantage over our farmers in ability to sustain de-
pression, although a very miserable advantage.
To claim that agriculture in this country has natural advan-
tages superior to those cf any other is not to say that they are
greater than the concentrated advantages of the whole world.
Our great trial is that of having to meet in our own markets
every country which has a special superiority in the cheap pro-
duction of one or two or three particular commodities. One
country can produce wheat more cheaply ; another, meat ; a
third, fruit; and a fourth, wool ; and each makes the United
Kingdom the dumping ground for its surplus. Under such
circumstances the wonder is, not that our agriculturists have
suffered severely, but that they have been able to exist all. No
other country in the world has been subjected to such a trial,
and it may safely be declared that no other would have stood it
without even greater suffering than we have experienced. If
this be true, it must be regarded as evidence in support of our
superior natural advantages. No doubt we have the best
markets in the world, but, as already stated, our farmers are
handicapped in reaching them, and then other artificial disad-
vantages, in the forms of rent, fiscal burdens, and high commis-
sions to middlemen, have also to be taken into account.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that British
farmers are in possession of certain artificial advantages in a
high degree. In knowledge of their business and skill they have
no superiors, if they have any equals ; and they also enjoy
the benefits of moderately cheap labour, cheap manures and
feeding-stuffs, and security of property as far as it is conferred
by a strong system of civil government and freedom from
internal war3.
Taking all things into consideration, and in spite of the fall
in prices which has taken place since, I am not disposed to
depart from the position which I took up in 1891 in this
Journal, when writing upon “ The Future of Agricultural Com-
petition : ” namely, that it is possible to remove the artificial
disadvantages of British farmers to such an extent as to enable
them to stand up against a world of competitors, whose superior
advantages are certain to diminish on the whole by growth of
population and consequent changes.
The Production of Wheat.
Let us now consider the advantages of certain countries in
the production of a few of the principal agricultural commodi-
ties. For many years it was the fashion to represent the United
VOL. v. t, s. — 18 s
254 Advantages in Agricidtural Production.
States as the country best suited for the production of wheat,
though it was obvious that where the average yield was only a
little over 12 bushels an acre, the natural advantages could not
be high, apart from the great abundance of cheap land. Ex-
tremely cheap methods of production and very low rail and
ocean freights, however, greatly helped the American wheat-
growers. Yet, after having grown two phenomenally great
crops in succession and a moderate one to follow, evidence
of the unremunerative character of the wheat-growing
industry is stronger than ever. Last year the area under
wheat, which had risen to 39,916,897 acres in 1891, according
to the Department of Agriculture, fell to 34,629,418 acres, and
it is well known that the area under winter wheat for next
harvest is much smaller than it was in 1893, while less spi’ing
wheat also has probably been sown. If we compare last year’s
average with that which was grown nine years ago, we find a
decrease of nearly five million acres, in spite of an increase of
more than eleven millions in the population. In a country where
it is practically imperative to sow wheat on new land, this great
decrease in its cultivation is sufficient to prove that the advan-
tages of the United States in the production of this grain are
not sufficient to enable her to stand up against the tremendous
fall in prices. In this connexion it may be mentioned in
passing that the Senate Committee on Agricultural Depression,
in a report recently issued, came to the conclusion that, in the
great State of Illinois, wheat has not paid the cost of production
in six out of ten years ending with 1892.
South Australia used to boast of being able to grow wheat
more cheaply than any other country in the world, in spite of
her miserable ten years’ average of 64 bushels an acre. But
there has been a decrease in the wheat area since 1884-5, when
1,942,453 acres were grown, or 207,000 more than in 1893-4 ;
and it is generally admitted in Australian papers that the
industry is not now remunerative. In India, in spite of a
great currency bonus, the wheat area is less than it was nine
years ago ; and in Canada, notwithstanding the increase in
Manitoba, the advantages and disadvantages of which have
already been mentioned, the advance does not keep pace with
the population. Let us turn, then, to the country which is the
latest favourite as a wheat producer.
Agricultural statistics in the Argentine Republic are compi-
lations of the roughest of rough guesses. There is no doubt,
however, that the wheat area has greatly increased in recent
years, while favourable harvests have raised Argentina to the
third position among the wheat-exporting countries of the world,
Advantages in Agricultural Production.
255
putting her in India’s place in succession to America and
Russia. According to the Buenos Ayres Standard , the wheat
area has risen from 120,000 acres in 1850 to 6,100,000 acres
in 1893, while as recently as 1880 it was only 490,000 acres,
and in 1890 no more than 2,800,000 acres. Seeing that this is
the only country in the world in which any considerable increase
in wheat growing has taken place since 1880, it is obvious that
Argentina possesses peculiar advantages of one kind or another.
It is wrorth while, then, to inquire what they are.
In the first place, a practically unlimited area of cheap land,
a good deal of which is very fertile, must be noticed ; but that
this fertility is neutralised by climate, or by climate and locusts
together, is obvious from the fact that the average yield in an
exceptionally good harvest, that of 1893, was represented as only
10^ bushels per acre. The authority named above put it at 13
bushels, but only by making the strange mistake of converting
weight into measure at the rate of 50 lb., instead of 60 lb., per
bushel. The estimate, probably much exaggerated, was
1.920.000 short tons (of 2,000 lb.), or 64,000,000 bushels from
6.100.000 acres, which will work out at barely 104 bushels an
acre.
What, then, are the advantages ? First, there is the tre-
mendous gold premium, which has frequently been over 200
percent., and occasionally over 300 per cent. Mr. Gastrell, of Her
Majesty’s Legation at Buenos Ayres, in a very interesting re-
port on the agricultural condition of the Argentine Republic,
written last June, says : —
During the last five years the continually rising gold premium made
wheat growing unusually remunerative. "Wheat, whether sold locally or
for export, naturally fetched a price based on its gold value in European
markets, which price meant a great deal in depreciated paper currency, in
which the wheat grower paid all his outlay, except for agricultural instru-
ments and a few other articles, which were paid for at gold rates. His
wages and expenditure bemg consequently' so much less when converted
to gold, his profits were therefore considerably higher than in former
years. Again, the high gold premium enabled persons having gold to
buy wheat lands cheaply, for their value in depreciated paper dollars
remained much the same. A great impetus was thus given to wheat
cultivation, and a demand created for labour and capital to still further
increase its area.
Another advantage is the level surface of almost the entire
country, which renders transport easy and comparatively cheap
wherever there are roads or railways. The absence of forests,
too, renders the expense of breaking up fresh land small,
though, for that matter, the lack of fuel is a disadvantage, and
one that causes rail rates to be higher than otherwise would
be the case.
256
Advantages in Agricultural Production.
The great difficulty is that of labour, which is often so
scarce in the wheat districts that portions of the crop are lost
because they cannot be harvested in due time. Italians form
the great majority of immigrants, and they do well, while the
Englishman of the labouring class, Mr. Gastrell says, “ is not a
success in this country.” The bulk of the labour is performed
by Italians, the natives being averse to agricultural pursuits.
The cost of producing wheat depends upon whether it is
done with hired labour or by the colonist and his family. In
the former case it is put at about 21s. Qd. per acre, delivered at
a local railway station in bags ; but Mr. Gastrell makes the cost,
including transport (presumably to the coast), commission and
brokerage, 32s. 6d. an acre. He adds that, at the price realised
in 1893, namely, 10s. per 220 lb., there was a profit of at least
11. per hectare, or 8s. an acre, and often much more. But in this
reckoning he allows for a yield of 13 bushels an acre, which is
much above the average. Allowing for this over-estimate, the
profit must have been very small at the price in 1893, where
hired labour was necessary, and if the extension of wheat grow-
ing depended upon the operation of large farmers, who employ
labourers, it would probably be slow. But, as will be shown
presently, this is not the case.
It is not much to the purpose to mention the extent of
cultivated land in Argentina. Mr. Fliess, the statistician, puts
it at nearly 240,000,000 acres ; but Mr. Gastrell believes this
to be much too high. At all events, he says, wheat beyond a
certain radius would not be profitable, and it is already grown
300 miles from a railway. He goes on to say that it is highly
improbable that any more than a small portion of the great area
will be cultivated, as the stock-raising acreage, a large propor-
tion of which is included in the total, is certain to be extended.
But the Italians, he thinks, would probably go on growing
wheat even at lower prices than those of 1893, as it is almost
the only thing they understand ; and this brings us to an ad-
vantage in cheap wheat production which must be taken into
account.
A writer in the Review of the River Plate makes the follow-
ing significant remarks upon the subject under consideration : —
The opening-up of the Argentine wheat fields appears to he mainly
due to the labour of the Italian colonists. Except, perhaps, Chinamen,
no people in the world, we are told, are such steady, hard workers as
Italians, and no people are content with such mean living, spend so
little, and are so keen to make money. Consequently an immense amount
of hard work is bestowed upon wheat growing, and with no taste for spend-
ing money at all equal to his thirst for making it, the chacarero puts all his
profits into the purchase of land and machinery. It is useless to attempt any
Advantages in Agricultural Production » 257
calculation of C09t of production of wheat, because the great itenl of labour
is not to be estimated if you deal with an Italian who will plough by
moonlight, and with all his family will work at harvest from 4 a.m. till
7 p.m. in a blazing sun.
But we are told that the farmers of the country have very
little knowledge of agriculture, and do not practise rotation of
cropping. Unless they improve their ways, then, they will find
their land becoming less and less productive. As the native
Argentines are greatly averse to agricultural pursuits, the
extension of tillage depends mainly upon immigration.
The great question is whether the bonus now enjoyed by
the cultivators will continue or not. The Governor of Santa
Fe, in his message to Congress last year, said : — “ Our grow-
ing prosperity is mainly due to the depreciation of the paper
currency, which is a great boon to the producer.” Referring to
this bonus, Mr. Gastrell remarks : — “ Hence the possible doubt
as to the continuance of agriculture on its present large and
rapidly increasing scale, and of many now promising Argentine
industries, should the premium on gold fall greatly and again
approach par.” Even if it does not fall, is it not probable
that, in course of time, the bonus will disappear, through
everyone who is paid for land, labour or goods, demanding his
gold premium ? Certainly the remarkable agricultural inflation
in Ai’gentina cannot be said to rest upon a very secure foun-
dation.
The Production of Cattle.
For the production of cattle several countries claim to be
peculiarly well fitted. The United States, besides the advantage
of vast tracts of cheap land and ranges which have been free, or
practically free, have the benefit of comparative nearness to
Europe. But the great wild tracts are being steadily settled,
and the cattle interest has been badly depressed for some years
past. In the greater portion of the country the winter is so
severe that cattle perish by hundreds of thousands. For this
reason the natural advantages of Argentina and other River
Plate countries, and possibly those of the Alberta region of
Canada, are superior to those of most of the States. Australia,
in spite of having to set starvation by drought against starvation
by frost and snow in the United States, has probably the better
natural advantages for cattle raising, taking into account the
rapidity with which the latter country is being settled. The
number of cattle increased in Australia from 7,843,399 in 1882
to 11,415,729 in 1892. In the Argentine Republic the number
is said to have increased from 10,000,000 in 1861 to 18,200,000
258 Advantages in Agricultural Production.
at the beginning of 1890. A more recent report has made the
number about 20,000,000 for 1892 or 1893, but has been
questioned. There is never any certainty about Argentine
statistics, and it is said that the pastoral industry there has not
increased since tillage took up the running. A well-known
Victorian pastoralist, who visited Argentina in 1891, having
heard such favourable accounts of the country that he thought
of selling out in Victoria and emigrating to the other country,
was altogether disappointed. He was told that cattle did not
pay, but were kept only to eat off the rank grass for sheep.
This proved to him, he said, that Argentina was not a sheep
country, and if cattle would not pay in it, he decided that he
had better stay in Australia. Although his visit was made in
summer, when the country was “ a sea of grass,” he never saw
what would be considered in Australia a fat bullock or a fat
sheep. The natural grasses of the country, he said, were of
two kinds, hard and soft, and equally useless. They had to be
got rid of by over-stocking, after which they were replaced by
better grasses. Probably this account is greatly exaggerated,
though many other visitors to the country have preferred
Australia or New Zealand for pastoral farming. But Argentina
has the great advantage over those countries of comparative
nearness to Europe. Nor should the magnificence of the growth
of alfalfa, or lucerne, in Argentina be ignored. Hitherto, it
must be admitted that the country has not produced any con-
siderable quantity of beef or mutton of good quality.
The Production of Sheep.
The writer just mentioned objected to the wetness of the
soil in Argentina for sheep, which, he says, are much subject
to foot-rot and lungworm in consequence. He remarked upon
the absence of signs of wealth having been made by pastor-
alists in Argentina. In the suburbs of Buenos Ayres, he
said, there are no mansions denoting incomes of 5,000?. to
10,000?. a year, as there are in Australia ; nor do you hear in
England of many men who have returned from the River Plate
with fortunes made out of stock. The statistics regarding
sheep in Argentina are conflicting. In 1880 there were about
Gl,000,000,lt is stated, and in 1893, 72,000,000 according to
one account, and 85,000,000 according to another. The latter
number is given by Mr. Gibson, who has written a highly
laudatory book 1 on the country as one for sheep farming. He
predicts that there will be 150,000,000 sheep there in 1900.
1 Reviewed in this volume of the Journal, Part I., p. 162, — Ed.
Advantages in Agricultural Production. 259
Probably, for natural advantages, in respect of tbe breeding
and fattening of first-class sheep, there is no country in the
world superior to New Zealand. Tasmania is also noted for the
quality of her sheep, and it is well known that many of the
splendid rams which realise enormous prices in Sydney are bred
there. But the vast expanse of cheap land in Australia gives
that island continent an advantage over the smaller islands in
respect of cheap production, though her merinos will never
equal the New Zealand crossbred sheep for mutton. The number
of sheep in Australia increased from 61,661,010 in 1882 to
101,690,597 in 1892. For New Zealand the corresponding
figures are 12,500,597 and 18,570,752. North America is
simply “ nowhere,” as a sheep-producing country, in comparison
with Australia and the River Plate.
If mutton and beef should hereafter be sent in a chilled,
instead of a frozen condition to Europe, it would be a serious blow
to producers in European countries, although, with an increasing
population, the demand for fresh-killed meat in our own country
will always remain an advantage which nothing can take from
us. It is a significant fact that, in spite of the export of chilled
beef from the United States, the cattle industry in that country
has suffered at least as severely from depression as it has in Great
Britain ; but we cannot feel at all confident that this would be
the case with Australia if the meat could be sent chilled. Nor
can we be sure that, as the breed of cattle in the Argentine
Republic and other River Plate countries becomes improved,
our beef producers will be able to stand up against the natural
advantages of their rivals in those countries.
Dairy Produce.
With respect to dairy produce there is nothing new to say
about the natural advantages of the United States and Canada.
We know what they can do with cheese. They can render our
third-rate cheese unprofitable, but cannot touch the best, or beat
the second-rate article out of the market. In butter they do
not take a considerable position. Until recently, Denmark,
Sweden, and Normandy have been our chief competitors in the
supply of butter ; but their natural advantages in this connexion
are not equal to our own, and it is only by superior organisation
in making and marketing that they have obtained and kept a
strong foothold in our markets. In Denmark and Sweden, at
any rate, neither the pastures nor the cattle are equal to our
own ; and in Normandy the pastures are not better, while the
cattle are not generally as good. Nor are there any advantages
260
Advantages in Agricultural Production.
in any of those countries in cheapness of land. Labour is a little
cheaper than it is in most English counties, but not much. Where
these European competitors have the “ pull ” of our dairy farmers
is in the employment of less labour, most of the work being
done by the farmers and their families and in the dairy factories.
In the supply of butter during the winter season, which has
now been made a very long one, Australia and New Zealand bid
fair to beat Denmark and Normandy. I believe there is no
country in the world which has as great natural advantages for
dairy farming as New Zealand, in consequence of the abundance
of grass food grown there all the year round. Yet Victoria,
with greatly inferior natural advantages, has left New Zealand
far behind in our markets, by means of her factory system and
her Government inspection of exports. There are a few good
brands of New Zealand butter which realise the same prices as
the best of the Victorian supply ; but the bulk of the former
commodity is so far inferior to that of the latter that wholesale
dealers have given up the name “ New Zealand ” as applied to
butter, and adopted “ Colonial.” In all probability New
Zealand, by extending the factory system, and by ceasing to
send strong butter, which is a drug in our markets, will attain
the position which her natural advantages entitle her to aspire
to ; but the great superiority of quality in the Victorian exports
of butter is a striking example, just as the Danish success has
been, of what can be attained by taking trouble. Whether the
export trade from Victoria will pay if the bonus paid by the
colonial Government should be entirely withdrawn, as it has
been partially, remains to be proved. It is no longer paid on
exports ; but a considerable sum is devoted to refrigerating
stores, and this goes into the pockets of the shareholders of the
factories, many of whom are the dairy farmers themselves. The
only natural advantages which Victorian dairy farmers possess
are cheap land, cheap cattle, and — most important of all — their
antipodean position, which gives them summer during our
winter. Wages in Victoria, as well as in New Zealand, are
double those of most parts of England. Neither colony has yet
done much with cheese, though New Zealand has sent some
quite equal in quality to the best Canadian.
Fruit and Vegetables.
In the production of early fruit and vegetables, it is hardly
necessary to say, many countries have advantages greatly superior
to those of Great Britain or Ireland. But it is also true that
many have natural advantages superior to those of our Channel
Advantages in Agricultural Production. 261
Islands, and yet those portions of the United Kingdom have
attained a degree of success not exceeded, if equalled, in any
other part of the world in this respect, as far as the supply of
European countries is concerned. In raising new potatoes out
of doors there are only a few districts in England as well
suited in respect of climate and soil together as Jersey is ; but in
that island, and still more in Guernsey, the earliest potatoes, as
well as other vegetables and fruit, are produced under glass.
Owing to the mildness of the climate and the abundance of sun-
shine, a good deal can be done without artificial heat, and in
this respect the Channel Islands are better placed than England
is. But glass and coal, as well as labour, are cheaper here than
in Jersey or Guernsey, where a great deal is done in hothouse
culture. In this, then, as well as in the great enterprise shown
in the production of early potatoes, success in the little islands
is largely due to that “ infinite capacity for taking trouble,”
which is certainly the genius of business. The growth of toma-
toes and grapes under glass in this country has been extending
rapidly for some years past, with great success to those who
have engaged in the industry, and there is no reason why the
other early produce which will stand heat, grown in the
Channel Islands, should not be grown here also.
As an example of the neglect of natural and artificial
advantages, it would be difficult to beat the case of the South of
Ireland, a tract of country admirably suited to the production
of early vegetables, and within easy reach of good markets by
means of cheap transport by sea.
Differences in England.
Within the bounds of England there are great differences in
the natural and artificial advantages of agricultural (including
horticultural) production. This fact is too commonly ignored by
advocates of small holdings. Now, holdings of twenty acres or
less are successful only, as a rule, when devoted to the produc-
tion of milk, cheese, culinary vegetables, or fruit. Taking
them in this order, it may safely be asserted that a small dairy
holding pays well generally only where there is a good sale for
milk, or where the land is well suited to the production of first-
class cheese. Butter-making may pay where there is a retail
sale for it in a large town ; but the disadvantages of this industry
on a small scale are well known, and there are very few small
dairy farmers who can turn out butter of good quality regularly.
A twenty-acre dairy farmer cannot make a good living for a
family by butter, as a rule, if he has to sell it wholesale, or has
262 Advantages in Agricultural Production.
it made for him in a factory. At the best, this industry is not
highly remunerative. For cheese, distance from a market is of
comparatively little importance, and some of the most success-
ful small holders I have met with are those who make Stilton.
According to a high authority, there is no reason why this
cheese should not be made in any part of the country. That it
can be made well far from its special district is certain, as
results have proved that excellent Stilton can be made in York-
shire, Bucks, and Hampshire. But even in the Stilton district
there are pastures upon which good cheese cannot be made,
because they are too rich, and are more suitable for butter-
making or cattle-fattening. At any rate, this is the opinion of
the local dairy farmers, and their conviction is, without doubt,
based on experience.
For the production of vegetables either an exceptionally
suitable soil or nearness to a good market is essential to
success, especially in the case of a small holder. In some parts
of Cornwall the advantages of climate for early produce neutral-
ise the long railway carriage to the best markets ; but even
there the soil must be suitable to insure success. Favoured
spots on the Greensand, such as Sandy in Bedfordshire, and
limited districts in Hunts and Sussex, grow potatoes and other
vegetables so well that somewhat long distances by road or
rail do not preclude financial success. But a few yards beyond
the limit of the Greensand, w'here there may be a clay subsoil,
the attempt to pursue the same industry is useless, or at any
rate an arduous undertaking, yielding a poor return to
great labour. The large increase in allotments in the suburbs
of towns has seriously added to the difficulty of making market
gardening pay, by reducing to an enormous extent the number of
purchasers of culinary vegetables, as well as by increasing the
supply. Therefore, suitability of position, or exceptional fitness
of soil, is more than ever essential to the market gardener.
Even in the Isle of Axholme, where much of the soil is ex-
ceptionally well suited to the production of potatoes and other
vegetables, the small holders have lately had a hard struggle
to “ make ends meet,’’ because most of them have to cart their
produce several miles, and then to pay high rail rates to the
markets.
For fruit-growing in the open air, aspect and altitude, as
well as soil, the general climate of the district, and nearness
to a good market have to be taken into consideration. Many
of the old orchards were planted in the valleys and other low
situations, under the impression that such places, being sheltered,
were more suitable to fruit than exposed situations. Apparently
Advantages in Agricultural Production.
263
it was not known in tke old times that frost is most injurious
in low-lying places, because of the dampness of the atmosphere.
But now it is well known that a hill slope, with a sunny aspect,
is the best situation for a fruit plantation. Not long ago I
visited a fruit plantation in a Kent valley which had every
appearance of prosperity. The soil is excellent, and the trees
and bushes were of the best varieties, while the cultivation was
all that could be desired. The occupier, who had acquired a
considerable capital in business, thoroughly understood fruit-
growing, and did not stint expenditure. His trees in blossom
were a magnificent sight, and any visitor would have supposed
that the grower was doing remarkably well. He informed me,
however, that during his lease he had lost thousands of pounds
which he did not expect to recover. The reason he gave was
that his plantation was not only in a low situation (for there is
lower land to the south, to which his plantation slopes), but
mainly because there is a hill to the east of him, and when the
sun rises over that eminence, its rays are in full heat, and fatal
to fruit blossoms with hoar-frost upon them. If the hill was
not where it is, the heat of the sun would be slight to begin
with, and the thaw would be gradual ; instead of which scorching
rays suddenly strike the frost-touched blossoms, and frequently
destroy the promise of a great crop.
For the growth of ordinary farm crops farmers generally
know pretty well “the length of their tether.” That it is
useless to attempt to grow mangel in the North of Scotland
or on thin chalky soils, or sainfoin where there is hardly any
lime in the soil, or beans on gravel, or potatoes on clay is
generally recognised, though there are men who always insist
upon buying their experience. But what is less generally
known is the best substitutes for crops which do not succeed in
particular districts. For example, it is the special hardship of
farmers in the Eastern Counties that on a great deal of the land
now unprofitable for corn permanent pasture does not flourish,
on account of the dryness of the climate. Suitable mixtures
of grasses and leguminous plants, however, do fairly well for
temporary pastures on that land, and there is a great lack of
knowledge as to the best mixtures to use. The Scotch settlers in
Essex owe their moderate success in great measure to the economy
in horse and hand labour which they have effected by laying down
most of their land in temporary pasture, and stocking it with
cows for the London milk trade. I believe that one of the most
valuable and yet most neglected of all forage crops, lucerne,
would grow well on the land referred to, or on a good deal of
it. The old plan of growing lucerne in drills, and keeping on
264 Advantages in Agricultural Production.
hoeing it, is too expensive, and yet we see experienced agri->
culturists still recommending that out-of-date method when
writing on the subject. In Guernsey and Alderney the visitor
sees magnificent crops of lucerne and rye-grass, sometimes with
clover added, sown broadcast to stand for five or six years. It
would be well to try such mixtures in the Eastern Counties,
when permanent pasture does not succeed.
Differences in natural advantages may also be illustrated by
the familiar case of barley. It is well known that malting
barley cannot be grown in some parts of the United Kingdom,
and that where it can be grown there are great differences in
colour, body, and texture, which go to make up quality.
Grinding barley hardly pays for growing nowadays, and it is
strange that the crop should still be cultivated in so many parts
of the kingdom as it is, where it never produces a good malting
sample. Fortunately, the best of oats can be produced in many
places where prime barley will not grow.
A point which has not yet received sufficient attention is the
difference in natural advantages for the growth of roots, and
particularly swedes and other turnips. The great superiority
of the turnip crops (including swedes) in Scotland and the
North of England to those of the Eastern and Southern Counties,
in bulk and quality alike, has often been noticed. It is a ques-
tion whether it pays at all to grow swedes on heavy land which
will not bear sheep in the late autumn, winter, or spring, even
if it pays to grow early turnips which can be fed off' before the
land becomes wet in some seasons. Further than this, it may
be questioned whether it is good policy to grow a large acreage
of roots of any kind on heavy land, which is liable to be seriously
deteriorated for years by either feeding roots upon it or carting
them off in a wet autumn. In addition to the damage done in
the way indicated, it must be borne in mind that roots are
nitrogen-exhausting crops, and that loss of fertility in any soil
upon which they are grown is only prevented by feeding them
on it, or manuring very heavily for them or after them. This
being the case, the reasonable policy for heavy-land farmers to
adopt seems to be that of growing the greatest quantity of roots
(mangel for choice) on the smallest acreage, by means of heavy
manuring, and devoting the rest of the area intended for feeding
purposes to the growth of nitrogen-accumulating crops. There
is the question of cleaning the land to be considered in this
connexion, no doubt ; but to clean heavy land on a large scale
by growing roots upon it is too costly a process.
Other illustrations of my subject might be given ; but enough
Advantages in Agricultural Production.
265
has been written, I trust, to commend it to the thoughtful
consideration of agriculturists who know a little of science and
a great deal about practice.
William E. Bear.
Thorpe, Riggindale Road, Streatham, S.W.
THE PREVALENCE OF ANTHRAX IN
GREAT BRITAIN.
The returns for the past year indicate that anthrax has been
more widely spread among animals of the farm in this country
than in any previous year during which statistics have been
collected. In explanation of the large increase of reported cases
it has been suggested that many deaths which have been
attributed to anthrax were due to other diseases, and the results
of the examination of specimens sent to the Royal Veterinary
College lend support to this view. Nevertheless, it is certain
that anthrax is more extensively distributed throughout this
country than it was supposed to be, and there is no doubt that
the obscurity which is associated with the disease on a farm and
the fatality which always attends its progress have given rise
to considerable alarm among stock-owners.
It is known that anthrax depends on the introduction into
the blood of a minute rod-like body, the Bacillus anthracis ,
the spores of which may be brought on to a farm in many
ways, and obtain an entrance into an animal’s system through
any slight abrasion in the skin or mucous membranes. Treat-
ment of the disease is scarcely ever successful ; in fact, the death
of the animal follows too quickly on the declaration of the
disorder to give time for the action of medicines. To prevent
the extension of the disease by destroying the activity of the
infecting germ is all that the stock-owner can hope to effect.
The following observations by Professor McFadyean and
Professor Brown may be accepted as an important contribution
towards the attainment of this object. The experimental
evidence is conclusive and consolatory, proving, as it does, that,
under certain easily assured conditions, the blood of an animal
dead of anthrax loses its virulence in a comparatively short
time ; and it is also satisfactory to know that, as an outcome of
this inquiry, the most ready and convenient method of disposing
of carcasses, i.e. by burial, is at the same time the most safe and
266 The Prevalence of Anthrax in Great Britain.
effectual. The apprehensions which have been hitherto enter-
tained in regard to the risk of the contamination of the soil by-
buried carcasses need no longer exist, always provided that the
very simple precautions suggested to prevent the escape of
blood are strictly observed. Contamination of the soil is usually'
the result of the morbid materials which are distributed over its
surface, and not of the substances put underneath it.
Ed.
I. — On the Disappearance of the Anthrax Bacillus
after Death.
That anthrax bacilli, in certain circumstacces, rapidly dis-
appear from the blood and organs of animals dead of the disease
is a fact not so well known as it ought to be. Ignorance of it
is accountable for some mistakes made in diagnosis by those who
have resort to microscopic examination in suspected cases, and
it is further accountable for a great deal of unnecessary alarm
regarding the alleged spread of anthrax from places in which
animals dead of anthrax have been buried.
When a cow or sheep dead of anthrax is opened immediately
after death, the bacilli which are the cause of the disease are found
unmixed with other germs in the blood all over the body, and in
special abundance in the spleen. It is mainly during the last
few hours of life that the complete invasion of the blood takes
place, and it might be supposed that the germs in the blood
would continue to multiply even after death. Such, however,
is not the case. As soon as the breath has left the animal,
growth and multiplication of the bacilli cease, because the germs
of anthrax belong to the class of so-called aerobes, for the growth
of which oxygen is strictly necessary. During the life of the
animal that harbours them the bacilli obtain the necessary
oxygen from the same source as the animal cells — viz. from the
blood, which becomes charged with oxygen in passing through
the lungs. But as soon as respiration ceases the supply of
oxygen is cut off, and the growth of the bacilli is promptly
arrested.
But in the blood of an animal dead of anthrax the bacilli do
not merely cease to grow or multiply — they degenerate and die.
The alimentary canal of the sheep, ox, and horse always contains
large numbers of putrefactive bacteria, which, during life, are
unable to penetrate into the blood or tissues, but immediately
after death these bacteria rapidly make their way into the wall
of the bowel, and gain access to the blood-vessels, along which
they soon spread over the whole body. Chief among these
On the Disappearance of the Anthrax Bacillus after Death. 267
putrefactive germs is the so-called malignant oedema bacillus,
which, as regards size and shape, is so like the anthrax bacillus
that the one may readily be mistaken for the other. The
malignant oedema bacillus belongs to the class of anaerobic
organisms — that is to say, it will not grow or multiply in the
presence of free oxygen — and hence the deoxygenated blood of
the dead animal is a most excellent medium for its propagation.
As soon as the breath is out of an animal that succumbs to
anthrax the invasion of the blood and organs by putrefactive
germs begins, and, pari passu , the anthrax bacilli disappear.
The invasion always starts from the bowel, and it proceeds with
great rapidity in the chest and belly, as these parts cool slowly
after death, and warmth is favourable to the growth of bacteria.
When an anthrax carcass is left unopened, the invasion by
putrefactive bacteria is sometimes so complete within twenty-
four hours that not a single anthrax bacillus can be detected
by microscopic examination in any of the organs in the chest or
abdomen ; but in the blood of the ears or the feet the anthrax
bacilli may be recognisable on the third day after death. These
statements are based on observations that have been made in
the Research Laboratory during the last three months, and they
indicate that when an animal is unexpectedly found dead, and
anthrax is suspected, if the carcass is already partially putrid
blood from an ear or a foot ought to be examined in preference
to spleen-pulp or blood from one of the large veins of the body.
At the present time the material sent to the Laboratory for
examination in suspected cases of anthrax is almost always the
spleen or a part of it, and in a considerable proportion of cases
a positive opinion cannot be given because of putrefactive
changes.
When the post-mortem can be made within an hour or two after
death the naked-eve appearance of the spleen is by itself gener-
ally sufficient to enable one to decide whether the case is one of
anthrax or not, and if any doubt remains a microscopic examina-
tion will remove it. But if, as is generally the case in anthrax
of sheep, the animal is not found until some hours after death,
and if putrefactive changes have already made considerable pro-
gress, it would probably be a wise plan to abstain from a com-
plete post-mortem examination, and to simply cut off an ear in
order that the blood in its veins may be submitted to microscopic
examination. Such a proceeding obviates the soil contamination
inseparable from an ordinary post-mortem examination, and it is
attended with no risk to the operator. Besides, as already said,
although simple it is much more likely than the ordinary post-
mortem to lead to a correct diagnosis.
268
The Prevalence of Anthrax in Great Britain.
The destruction of anthrax bacilli which takes place during
the putrefaction of the carcass is very important in another respect.
When one follows step by step the invasion of the carcass by
putrefactive bacteria, and the disappearance of the anthrax
bacilli which accompanies putrefaction, one cannot help surmising
that putrefaction may in this case be a valuable means of disin-
fection. The experiments hereafter given prove that this surmise
is correct. They appear to warrant the conclusion that in certain
conditions complete putrefaction renders an anthrax carcass
innocuous. The conditions referred to are those that exclude the
possibility of spore-formation on the part of the anthrax bacilli
before putrefaction sets in. The conditions necessary for this
spore-formation are — (1) free exposure to the air, and (2) a
summer temperature (about 70° F.). It is obvious, therefore,
that prompt burial at even a moderate depth, since it puts the
carcass in conditions under which the formation of spores is
impossible, and in conditions which are eminently favourable for
putrefaction, is a perfectly safe method of disposing of an animal
dead of anthrax. The experiments furnish good grounds for
believing that soil contamination is much more frequently
brought about by the shedding of blood in making post-mortem
examinations, or by the discharge of anthrax bacilli from the body
before death (in urine, &c.), than by the liberation of the bacilli
from buried carcasses.
Experiment I.
April 4. — Inoculated two rabbits by scarifying the ear and rubbing in
spleen-pulp of a sbeep dead of anthrax. The spleen had been removed from
the body on the same day, about eighteen hours after death, at which time
the carcass gave evidence of advanced putrefaction. No anthrax bacilli could
be identified in the pulp on microscopic examination.
Result. — The rabbits remained unaffected.
Experiment II.
April 4. — Inoculated two rabbits as in Experiment I. with spleen-pulp
from a sheep dead of anthrax. In this case, also, about eighteen hours had
elapsed before the spleen was removed from the body, and the carcass was
putrid, but bacilli were still recognisable in the veins of the extremities.
Result.— The rabbits remained unaffected.
Experiment III.
April 4. — Inoculated a rabbit by scarifying one of it3 ears and rubbing
in pulp from the spleen of a cow dead of anthrax. This cow had died on
March 30, and the spleen had been removed shortly after death. While still
fresh (on the 31st) it showed on microscopic examination enormous numbers
of anthrax bacilli, unmixed with any other bacteria.
Result. — The rabbit died from anthrax on the afternoon of April 9.
Experiment IV.
May 9.— Inoculated a rabbit by scarifying its ear and rubbing in spleen-
pulp from a lamb dead of anthrax. This lamb bad died on April 9, and its
On the Disappearance of the Anthrax Bacillus after Death. 269
ear-blood when examined on the 10th showed great numbers of anthrax bacilli
unmixed with other bacteria. The carcass was left unopened for three weeks,
and the spleen was then removed and left exposed to the air till May 9.
Result. — The rabbit remained unaffected.
Experiment V.
May 9. — The lamb’s spleen referred to in the preceding experiment was
cut into small pieces and pounded up with about half a pint of water. The
liquid thus obtained was poured over the throat of a sheep.
Result. — Negative.
Experiment VI.
May 9. — Repeated Experiment III. with spleen-pulp from the cow
which died of anthrax on March 30. The spleen was now very putrid, and
no anthrax bacilli could be detected in it by microscopic examination.
Result. — The rabbit remained unaffected.
Experiment VII.
May 9. — Took a portion of the cow’s spleen (weighing about 4 oz.) re-
ferred to in the preceding experiment, cut it up into small pieces, and
pounded it with about half a pint of water. The liquid thus obtained was
poured over the throat of a sheep.
Result. — Negative.
Experiment VIII.
May 9. — Inoculated a rabbit by scarifying its ear and rubbing in pulp
from the putrid spleen of a sheep dead of anthrax on April 2G. The ear-
blood examined on April 27 had shown enormous numbers of anthrax bacilli.
The spleen was left in the body for a week after death, and after its removal
it stood exposed to the air.
Result. — Negative.
Experiment IX.
May 9. — The putrid spleen referred to in the preceding experiment was
minced and pounded with half a pint of water, and the mixture, with the
exception of the coarser particles, was poured over the throat of a sheep.
Result. — Negative.
Experiment X.
May 9. — Inoculated a rabbit by scarifying its ear and rubbing in spleen-
pulp from a sheep dead of anthrax on April 27. The ear-blood examined on
the day of death showed anthrax bacilli unmixed with any other organisms.
The body was left unopened for about a week and the spleen after its removal
stood exposed to the air. On the date of inoculation no anthrax bacilli could
be detected in the spleen-pulp by microscopic examination.
Result. — Negative.
Experiment XI.
May 9.— The spleen of the sheep referred to in the preceding experiment
was minced and pounded with half a pint of water, and the mixture, with
the exception of the coarser particles, was poured over the throat of a
sheep.
Resul t. — Negative .
J. McFadyean.
Rov3i1 Veterinary College.
VOL. V. T. S. 18
T
270
The Prevalence of Anthrax in Great Britain.
II. — On the Disposal of Carcasses of Animals dead
of Anthrax.
It is admitted that the risk of infection of man and animals
with anthrax exists whenever the blood of an animal recently
dead of the disease comes in contact with them. On this
account it is essential that the greatest possible care should be
taken when it is necessary to make post-mortem examinations
and in the subsequent disposal of the carcass.
Burial is the ordinary method of getting rid of a carcass,
and it has the merit of being the most convenient one, but the
expediency of this plan has recently been much criticised. It
is contended that a buried carcass is likely to infect the soil
with which it is covered, and that earthworms may bring the
anthrax organism to the surface, and that in various ways the
infective matter may be distributed even years after the carcass
has been buried.
To what extent the above statements deserve consideration
is an open question, but it is quite certain that the objections
do not apply to a carcass buried without being cut so as to let
the atmosphere come in contact with the blood in the tissues,
and thus apply to the organism the oxygen on which the main-
tenance of its activity depends.
The fact that the anthrax bacillus disappears from the blood
when the carcass has undergone decomposition has long been
admitted, but the experiments of Professor McFadyean prove
that the destruction of the bacillus occurs a very short time after
death.
In the experiments numbered I. and II. the blood of the
spleen when taken from an anthrax carcass eighteen hours after
death proved harmless to rabbits, and in subsequent experiments
negative results followed inoculat ion with the spleens of animals
which had been dead for different periods varying from thirteen
days to a month. The explanation of this loss of virulence is
given in the article. The two essential conditions for the main-
tenance of the activity of the virus are oxygen and a temper-
ature not below 70° Fahr. : both these conditions cease to exist
when the animal no longer breathes, and the carcass is covered
with earth, while the destruction of the organism is further
aided by the action of the septic bacteria which already exist in
the digestive canal, and are developed in large numbers when
decomposition commences.
Complaints have been made by professional men that in the
present state of the law it is impossible to study the morbid
appearances of anthrax if dissection of a carcass is prohibited.
On the Disposal of Carcasses of Animals dead of Anthrax. 271
There is no law, in fact, to prevent anyone making a post-mortem
examination; but the caution has been given in order to avoid risk
of spreading the disease, and so far as the identification of anthrax
is concerned it is only necessary to cut off the ear or foot of the
animal to obtain all that is required for microscopic investigation.
The real difficulty and the great danger are due to the circum-
stance that carcasses are frequently flayed, cut up, used for the
purpose of feeding dogs or pigs, or perhaps thrown upon a manure
heap, without the slightest suspicion being entertained that the
animal has died of anthrax ; and the only possible way of avoid-
ing this risk seems to be to conclude that, in every case whe-n an
animal dies suddenly, anthrax is the cause of death. The question
can be settled in a very short time by the microscopic examination
of a drop of blood taken from the ear.
Alternative methods of disposing of carcasses are permitted by
the Anthrax Order — i.e. by exposure to a high temperature or by
chemical agents. High temperature, of course, refers to the pro-
cesses of burning or boiling, or the employment of high-pressure
steam in a digester. The use of chemical agents is only practicable
in the immediate vicinity of a chemical manure manufactory.
All the above processes have the common objection to be urged
against them, that they necessitate the removal of the carcasses
to a convenient place for the purpose of destruction, and in the
majority of instances cutting would be required before burning,
boiling, or steaming could be effected.
Under all the circumstances — of the different methods of
getting rid of a dangerous carcass — burial, under proper pre-
cautions, appears to be the safest. It is obvious that the burial
should take place as near to the spot where the carcass is found
lymg as possible. When removal is necessary the soil which is
contaminated by blood which may flow from the carcass should
be covered with quicklime or commercial carbolic acid.
In selecting a place for burial the possible contamination of
water-courses with septic matter must be considered. This
caution is necessary, as it has more than once happened that
carcasses have been buried in such a position as to be dangerous
to public health, and it has been necessary to exhume and re-bury
them under the supervision of the sanitary authority.
G. T. Brown.
Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W.
272
Irrigation and the Storage of Water
IRRIGATION AND THE STORAGE OF
WATER FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES.
The memorable drought of the summer of 1893 served to revive
the interest in the subject of the conservation of water supply,
even in this generally humid island. If man cannot command
the seasons, he may do much to lessen their disasters. Some
seasons bring far too much rainfall, others scarcely any what-
ever. The lesson learned should be to store up water when
plentiful, that by means of irrigation the absence of rainfall upon
the land may be compensated for.
Irrigation in Continental Countries.
Nowhere perhaps is irrigation practised to greater perfec-
tion than in Italy. Travellers have often remarked that the
plains of Lombardy present a perfect network of canals and
irrigating streams. The water is got either from springs or
from the rivers, and is measured out to those who use it, and
paid for as exactly as the water and gas taken into London
houses. The existence of springs on a farm is valued as a
blessing, and is considered to enhance the value of the property
very much, as it saves the proprietor having to purchase river
or canal water. Thus when there is the slightest indication of
a subterranean spring, boring is resorted to ; and if water is
discovered it is conducted by wooden pipes to the fields most
requiring to be irrigated. The meadows north of Milan are
almost entirely irrigated by spring water ; yet from the copious
supply combined with high manuring they are considered very
little inferior to the meadows on the south of the city, which
are enriched by its sewage. The latter are said to be cut
seven or eight and sometimes nine times a year. The meadows
are watered every sixth or eighth day in summer, and are
almost continually covered with a sheet of flowing water in
winter. Very often, from November to March, two or three
abundant crops are cut, so that dairy cows and other cattle are
not deprived of fresh grass for more than thirty or forty days
during the entire winter. The plains of Lombardy have,
however, a great natural advantage, as they receive a vast
supply of water from higher levels — the lakes at the foot of
the Alps. The fertilising power of these waters has been
known to convert wild heaths into luxuriant meadows, and to
raise the value of land three-fold. The farmer not infrequently
for Agricultural Purposes. 273
pays for his water three times as much as he pays in rent for
the land itself.
In Spain also irrigation receives great attention, and
meadows capable of being irrigated are considered worth three
or four times as much as ordinary dry meadows. In the
Ampedan plain the farmers find that the produce of their
meadows can be increased at least 200 per cent, by their being
watered, and in the valley of the Tagus there has always been
a considerable enhancement of fertility by irrigation, the increase
in produce being estimated at twelve times as much as it
otherwise would have been. Water is bought and sold in Spain as
in Italy, as much as 11. per acre being often the outlay for it
in the Tagus valley ; while in Arragon it is said to approach
27s. an acre. At Alicant, about a century ago, the King of
Spain made a reservoir which brought him a revenue of 2,000Z.
per annum.
On irrigation as practised in Switzerland there is an instruc-
tive paper, by Mr. H. T. J. Jenkinson, in Vol. XI. 1st Series
of this Journal (1850), wherein it is stated that it was pursued
in that country as early as the fourteenth century. According
to Mr. Herzog’s system in the canton Aargau the meadows are
irrigated during October, November, and December, till the hard
frosts commence and the winter snows fall. In March the
system is recommenced and continued throughout summer, with
the result of four crops of grass and sometimes five being
obtained per year. M. de Fellenberg at Hofwyl, in another
canton, also obtained four crops in one season, and occasionally
he had six. One year the grass was being cut for his cattle as
late as Christmas. In general, however, the first crop is cut in
May and the last in October. M. de Fellenberg believed that he
could not irrigate too much, and Mr. Jenkinson after inspecting
his farm gave (p. 610) the following description of his water
meadows : —
I never saw fields look brighter or greener than the water meadows, and
the grass was thick “ like a brush.” M. de Fellenberg irrigates as late as
possible in the year, and only stops when there is danger of the water freez-
ing in a mass on the land. As long as the water trickles underneath a sur-
face of ice he continues watering, and considers that this surface of ice pro-
tects the roots of the grass. The water is made to flow over a certain portion of
land for twenty-four hours. It is then shifted farther on, and in about a week
they return to the point where they commenced, this shifting being owing to
the scanty supply.
Irrigation was also extensively adopted by the Romans.
Cato says : — “ As much as in your power make water meadows.”
Columella also alludes to the advantages of irrigating, but deems
it more profitable for weak, poor, thin soils than for those more
74
Irrigation and the Storage of Water
fertile, liis language being, “ Land that is naturally rich, and in
good heart, does not need to have water set over it, because the
hay produced in a juicy soil is better than that exerted by water ;
yet when the poverty of a soil requires it, water may be set
over it.”
Irrigation in England.
In Arthur Young’s “Farmer’s Calendar” the following
appears under November : —
In this month you may begin to winter water the meadows and pastures
wherever it can he done ; and be assured that no improvement will pay
better : a winter's watering will answer in the hay fully equal to a common
manuring of the best stuff you can lay on the land; and the expense, in some
situations, is trifling. The lower parts of a farm are generally in grass ; the
farmer should attend to his ditches, so that the water from all the higher
parts of the farm may have an unobstructed course to a ditch a little above
the bottom, from which it may be let at pleasure over the meadows, observ-
ing that it only runs over them, and does not stagnate.
Underneath April Young also wrote : — “ Throughout this
month if there are watered meadows on a farm the use of them
in supporting ewes and lambs is exceedingly great,” than which
nothing can be more true, as has been amply exemplified in the
April of 1892 and of 1893, when the flockmasters of the South-
West of England who had water meadows were able to give their
sheep abundance of luxuriant fresh grass, while all others devoid
of this resource were compelled to fall back almost entirely on dry
winter fodder in conjunction frequently with costly meals or other
feeding stuffs. These water meadows often appear to the eye of
a traveller from a railway carriage as oases in a desert — specks
of emerald brightness with sombre surroundings. They had
this appearance well-nigh throughout last summer, and proved
invaluable for yielding abundant crops of grass for hay when
no cuttings could be taken elsewhere. Mr. J. Deane Willis,
the well-known Shorthorn breeder, obtained three successive
crops of hay from his Bapton Manor Meadows in the Wylie
Valley of Wilts.
Arthur Young’s advice to utilise the drainage water from
arable fields at the higher part of a farm for irrigating meadow's
at the lower part has been carried out practically in several
instances since with the additional service being required of the
water to drive a turbine and machinery at the homestead.
In Vol. VI. 1st Series of the Journal (1845) appeared (p. 518) an
interesting prize essay on the reclamation of an extensive tract
of waste land on Brendon Hill by Mr. John Roals, and the
conversion of a portion of it into a water meadow. The arable
land at the upper part had to be under-drained, and the pipes
for Agricultural Purposes.
275
were made to discharge into a reservoir at the homestead to drive
the machinery of the farm, after which it was made to irrigate
meadows laid out for the purpose at a lower level. Mr. B.
Daniel, of the Brinder Ironworks, Glamorganshire, in the
seventies, reclaimed 100 acres of land near Cefn station, and he
also caused the drainage water of a considerable portion of it
to discharge into a reservoir and drive machinery by means of
a water wheel before it was utilised for irrigation.
Another improvement of a similar nature is recorded in Yol.
IV. 1st Series (p. 314) of the Journal (1843), wherein it is stated
that when Lord Hatherton came to reside at Teddeslev, Stafford-
shire, his house was surrounded by heaths and alder bogs. Of
these he under-drained 500 acres at a cost of about 3(. per acre.
All the water thus tapped from these bogs was conveyed to the
farmyard, where it turned a water wheel to drive the threshing
machine and other machinery of the homestead. Thence it was
made to flow over 80 acres, which were converted into catch
meadows at a cost of 224(., or about 50s. an acre. The water
in passing from the farmyard carried with it the liquid manure
from more than a hundred beasts kept in the yard summer and
winter. The late Mr. Philip Pusey, M.P., in commenting on
this grand improvement, said : —
The beauty of this arrangement, which resembles the complicated func-
tions of an animal body, is as striking as the practical benefit of changing a
morass into a sound corn and stock farm, for 1,250 acres carries 1,600 sheep,
besides more than 200 head of cattle. I know of no farm which offers so
perfect a model for the improvement of moorland lying towards the west
side of England.
The same authority, after witnessing these seemingly magical
effects of watering meadows in Devonshire, determined to
ascertain the effects of irrigation on some of his grass lands in
Berkshire, and afterwards described the result in Vol. X. 1st
Series (p. 462) of the Journal (1849). He admitted at the outset
that the money he had spent in forming and laying out his
meadows for watering had yielded him a return of 30 per cent.,
and that consequently this means of improvement was well worth
the attention of all landlords.
Very graphically did he describe the effects of watering
lands in winter as follows : —
It is well known that in forming water meadows to moisten them is not
the main object, the stream being laid on chiefly in winter, when commonly
the ground is already too wet. Yet a slight film of water trickling then over
the surface — for it must not stagnate — rouses the sleeping grass, tinges it
with living green amidst snows and frosts, and brings forth a luxuriant crop
in early spring, just when it is most wanted, while the other meadows are
still bare and brown. It is a cheerful sight to see the wild birds haunting
276
Irrigation and the Storage of Water
these green spots among the hoar frost at Christmas, or the lambs with their
mothers folded on tliem hi March.
As to the cost of forming water meadows, and their returns,
Mr. Pusey in the same essay (p. 470) wrote : —
Flat meadows are spreading widely in South Devon. That they pay for
this function there can be no doubt, costing from 3/. to 4 1. an acre to form,
and yielding 31. of rent, whereof 21. may be taken as the new value imported
by the operation. This, for an average rate of profit, is a very high one. In
single cases it is exceeded. About 2 miles from Exeter there is a small
property of 156 acres, all but eight of which, that are orchard ground, are
watered by two moderate brooks. It is let at more than 61. per acre all
round to different occupiers — three acres, worth naturally 3/. an acre, let at
10/., and six acres at 8/. an acre. The whole was worth about 21. an acre
originally, and the portion recently made cost about 31. 12s. per acre to
form.
In reference to his own meadows in Berkshire Mr. Pusey
added : —
It is mainly these catch meadows which enable me to keep a flock of 550
ewes, and winter their lambs also, on nearly the same farm upon which my
predecessor kept 170 ewes with their lambs. There is one test, however,
often applied by farmers when a person adopts and recommends some
improvement in farming. They ask, “ Has he gone on with it ? ” I may there-
fore mention that I have contracted this winter (1849) for 26 acres of
catch meadows to be made at 3/. 10s., and 30 more at only 21. an acre.
In Yol. IV. of the Journal, 1st Series (1843) Mr. Pusey
gave (p. 313) the following particulars of what he had seen in
West Somerset and North Devon : —
A hill farmer at Winsford showed me a field so steep that one could not
climb it without the aid of the hands. It had been rough ground, worth 5s.
per acre. He had limed it, and allowed his labourers to break it up, and take
potatoes for two years, after which time they returned it to him with the
water-gutters traced along the slope, so that, instead of waste at os., he obtained
almost for nothing a field bearing perpetual grass, worth certainly 40s. an
acre. Great as the change is, and strange as it appears, the practice is a part
of everyday farming in this hilly district, and these catch meadows meet you
at every turn — indeed the word meadow means here only watered land. Mr.
Blake, of Upton, has brought less than 400 acres, which had not let for 400/.,
to produce him 1,200/. a year chiefly by catch meadows, which he formed out
of moorland, and lets every year as summering ground to the lowland farmers.
There are some beautiful catch meadowsat Cutcombe Pass, on very high ground,
south of Dunster Castle. In Devonshire, too, Mr. Iloare, at Luscombe, near
Dawlish, has made them from very poor land, on which he turns the water,
first in the winter to feed, then to mow, and then three times afterwards in
the summer to feed off the herbage in the course of the year. On one farm at
King’s Brompton, near Exmoor, the tenant had drained a piece of moorland,
collected the runnings into a reservoir which Lord Carnarvon had built for him,
and used the water, which had been poison above, as food for the field below.
I do not mean that these catch meadows were all made without expense ; but,
where the land was previously dry, 2/. or 3/. per acre would be a fair estimate
of the cost. I will only mention one case pointed out to me by a farmer ot
Winsford as perfectly easy to be carried out upon a neighbouring farm.
27?
for Agricultural Purposes.
That hill farm consists of 232 acres, and is let for only 75/. But, as the
farmer observed, 100 acres are a steep slope, covered With rough grass and
short furze, worth about 5s. an acre. Now there are two copious springs
gushing forth near the brow, which might be turned along the wild land,
and thus for 21. or 3/. an acre the worthless slope would be converted into
catch meadow, which elsewhere would be worth 60s., and even in that
secluded spot 40s. an acre : so that the value of this farm might be raised,
for 300/., from 76/. to 250/. yearly. There are several practices of English
farmers changing the nature of land at a moderate cost — transformations
of soil which I have brought before the Society — but no discovery has sur-
prised me so much as the marvellous effect of hill-side irrigation. In West
Somerset a mere rill is made to produce on the barren flank of a moor more
abundant herbage than the old grazing land cf Northamptonshire yields.
The method seemed to me capable of wide application, as it requires but
trifling outlay. There is no doubt that it might be greatly extended in its
native district round Exmoor, and I should thiuk also in Wales. There are
many tracts in the North of England, and many valleys in Scotland, which,
if they were in Somerset, would be covered with catch meadows.
The very first volume of the Journal (1840) contains two
articles on this subject, the one being Mr. W. Paxton’s account
of the formation of an Economical Water Meadow at Bicester,
Oxfordshire, and the other Mr. John Evelyn Denison’s deeply
interesting paper on the Duke of Portland’s Water Meadows at
Clipstone Park, Nottinghamshire. The latter is no doubt the
most stupendous undertaking in artificial irrigation ever carried
out in this country, and deserves more than a passing notice.
The Clipstone Water Meadovvs were formed in the heart of
Sherwood Forest, so famous in old English traditions as the
haunt of Robin Hood. Mr. Denison in his report says : —
The eye, after wandering through the glades of the forest, and resting on
the brown carpeting of fern and heather with which it is clothed, is amazed
at coming suddenly in view of the rich grass of the meadows, extending for
miles before it, laid in gutter slopes and artificial terraces, and preserved in
perpetual verdure by supplies of water constantly thrown over this surface.
The land immediately occupied by these meadows was in its wild state aline
of hill-sides covered with gorse and heath — a rabbit warren, over which a
few sheep wandered — and a swampy valley below thick set with hassocks
and rushes, the favourite haunt of wild duck and snipe, through which
the little stream, the Mann, wound its way in its descent from the town of
Mansfield. The whole tract, both upland and lowland, was of very little
value. The valley was in many parts from 9 to 10 feet deep in bog, and
almost worthless. The hill-sides varied in quality, but 80/. a year would
have been a full rent for the 300 acres. Indeed, the whole of the Clipstone
Park farm, when taken in hand in 1816, containing 1,489 acres, had been
let for 346/. In 1819 it occurred to the Duke of Portland to carry the
stream over the sterile hills, and to drain the bog in the valley. No less
than 300 acres were by this means reclaimed, and converted to fertile water
meadows. His enterprise did not stop here. A large reservoir of 70 acres
was constructed above the town of Mansfield to secure the means of work-
ing the mills of that town and of irrigating the meadows in dry seasons.
In his prize report on the Agriculture of Nottinghamshire,
278
Irrigation and the Storage of Water
in Vol. VI. 1st Series of the Journal (1845), Mr. R. W. Cor-
ringham wrote (p. 40) as follows : —
These meadows comprise an area of 300 acres of land, extending over a dis-
tance of about 7 miles in length. The value of the land has been raised from
the annual sum of 80/. to that of 3,660/. at a cost (from their commencement
in 1816 to their completion in 1837) of 40,000/. The profit upon each acre,
after defraying all expenses, is computed at nearly 12/. a year, without taking
into consideration the great benefit they are to the arable land adjoining them,
which, in the words of Mr. Denison, they “ enrich to an extent of five times
that of their own.” Stretching through a dry sandy district for so long a
distance, and thus fertilising increasingly land so dependent on foreign aid,
must show at a glance their almost incalculable value. As a triumph of art
they must be considered one of the most brilliant and complete of any
that is known.
Advantages of Irrigation.
Attentive consideration of the subject naturally leads to
the conclusion that the manurial is only one of at least three
beneficial influences calculated to be imparted when grass lands
are irrigated. The thin water covering causes a higher tem-
perature than the chill atmosphere, and the moisture supplied
to the roots permits growth to be active even in the midst
of winter under such conditions. In a summer drought the
chief benefit derived would of course be that of bringing
abundant moisture to excite active growth. All waters except
those possessed of properties absolutely pernicious to vegeta-
tion would have been ardently prized could they have been
utilised for irrigation inthedrought season of 1893, whetherbring-
ing minerals in solution or not. Gardeners by watering their
plants are well known to grow three or four times the amount
of produce they would otherwise be enabled to do, and of course
the same resource is open to the agriculturist.
The provision of shelter and warmth by a thin covering of
water in winter or early spring is great also — much more,
indeed, than is generally understood. Sir Humphry Davy in
one of his lectures 1 observed : —
Even in case9 where the water used for flooding is pure, and free from
animal or vegetable substances, it acts by causing the more equable diffusion
of nutritive matter existing in the land, and in very cold seasons it preserves
the tender roots and leave? of the grass from being affected by frost. In
1804, in the month of March, I examined the temperature in a water
meadow near Hungerford by a very delicate thermometer. The temperature
of the air at 7 a.m. was 29°. The water was frozen above the grass. The
temperature of the soil below the water in which the roots of the grass were
fixed was 43°.
As to the shelter afforded in winter a coating of snow will
often provide it, so as to have the same magical effect in causing
1 Davy’s Elements of Agricultural Chemistry (1846 ed.). P. 277.
for Agricultural Purposes.
279
grass and all young plants it has covered to appear fresher and
more luxuriant when the covering disappears. And the selfsame
influence, although in a less degree, becomes manifested when
thorns or brushwood remain over the portion of a grass field
nearest the fence when the latter has been trimmed or made just
before or during winter. Moreover the favourite custom of many
light land farmers of spreading long dung on their young seeds or
mixed clovers and grasses in winter or early spring has its chief
utility in sheltering the tender plants from frosts and nipping
winds. There is fertilising influence also, no doubt, more or
less according to the feeding of the animals which made the
manure ; but some farmers are so well aware that the provision
of shelter is the chief benefit rendered that when they have
insufficient long dung, and straw happens to be abundant, they
have strewn the latter over their young clover and grasses, and
found that the beneficial result has nearly, if not quite, equalled
that of the dung.
The following is a fact bearing on the matter. Mr. Gurney,
having observed what many may have remarked, that whenever
any loose object, a bare branch or an old gate, lies on a meadow
in March the grass grows luxuriantly beneath it, conceived the
idea of spreading straw over a field at the rate of about a ton
to the acre with the object of promoting the growth of the grass.
The scheme succeeded so well that it was adopted by many
neighbouring farmers in Cornwall, and thus, interestingly
enough, a thin coat of dry straw produced the same effect
which had hitherto been obtained only by a thin sheet of
moving water.
Mr. Pusey, reasoning as to the cause of this, remarks on
p. 464, Vol. X. 1st Series of the Journal (1849) : —
I can see hut one. Gardeners, it is well known, spread nets over their
young crops to protect them from morning frosts in the spring. This effect
is clearly due to the interception of the radiation of heat. The earth is con-
stantly sending forth in a perpendicular direction, upwards into empty
space, its warmth derived from the sun, just as a stove darts its heat around
it. But a very slight interruption, such as the gardener’s net, is found to
check the passage of the heat, and thus to prevent that morning frost on the
surface, so much dreaded by gardeners.
The technical arts in relation to the formation and manage-
ment of water meadows were, for the matter of that, just as well
understood in Arthur Young’s days as now. He insisted on an
intimate reliance on the spirit-level in laying them out, and
gave facts to prove that by relying merely on the eye prac-
titioners have often been deceived as to the extent of areas
possible to be irrigated by available streams. He quoted some
interesting examples illustrative of the imperative necessity of
280
Irrigation and the Storage of Water
this, one being that Mr. Bakewell lent his irrigator to a friend
that he might ascertain whether he could water the church
meadow, and on the level being taken it proved that the water
might be carried over the church steeple, had the land been
high enough to receive it. Also that at Euston, the seat of the
Duke of Grafton, doubts having been entertained in a discussion
whether certain meadows below the hall could be watered or
not, he himself, to solve the point, took the levels for more than
five miles from Sappiston Mill, and found that the sand fox
covers on rather high hills near the hall might be converted into
water meadows. The following extract from the “ Farmer’s
Calendar ’’ also bears on this point : —
The lands usually chosen for the first operations are just those that
ought to he the last, namely, the low flat meadows by the river. These are
often improvable to a very high degree by draining and manuring with
sand, gravel, earth, chalk, marl, &e., but they are by far the most expensive
to irrigate, and when done, unless very well executed indeed, yield the
worst hay. They are best watered and in many cases only to be watered
advantageously by ploughing them into broad and highly arched ridges, the
delivering trenches to be on their crowns and the drains in the furrows, but
the profit of irrigating dry slopes and gravel, &c., and poor, dry, ling moors
is immense. The expense is comparatively trifling and the improvement
beyond conception. Such lands may be raised from 2s. or 3s. an acre to
40s. or 60s., while the fiat meadows may be worth 20s. before the under-
taking begins, and may not when ended be worth more than the others,
though effected at ten times the expense. I once found a friend in the full
speculation of watering some meadows which were worth 25 s. an acre, and
just ready to set a man to work, who ought to have known better. I
thought by my eye that the water (the quantity very limited) might be
better employed on some dry arable land above the meadows but further
down the vale. I took the levels and found it as I conjectured. The plan
was adopted, and I have since heard that the undertaking was remarkably
profitable. The meadow at Sixmile Bridge in Hampshire, which lets for
above 5 1. an acre, was a gravel worth only 10s. before watering, yet formed
at little other expense than converting a ditch into a carrier. Nor was the
conduct of the water when I saw it correct by any means.
Still another quotation may be taken from Arthur Young’s
“ Farmer’s Calendar,” as it illustrates very forcibly a fact about to
be insisted on, namely, that vast areas of comparatively high lands,
chiefly on hill-sides, might be subjected to irrigation if only there
was that provident storage of water which seems so necessary
when we consider the ruinous results of such seasons of drought
as the summer of 1893 gave us experience of. At p. 307, in
his “ Farmer’s Calendar,” Young states : —
I am confident that with a little attention out of from 20,000 to 30,000
acres on a range of mountains I have viewed in [reland water might be
thrown over three parts in four. The declivities through which the streams
run are considerable, and extensive tracts of land slope off on either side,
so that by obstructing those streams, by piling torrent stones across them
at various heights, and drawing small channels in the mountain-sides just
for Agricultural Purposes.
281
above such obstructions to receive the water, this most advantageous work
might, be done at small expense, and a single experimeut of it would
presently show the prodigious advantage of the practice.
He adds : —
The application of this system to mountainous moors is one of the most
profitable speculations which agriculture has to offer, and yet there are
none so much neglected. From viewing them I have been greatly sur-
prised at this, because there would be scarcely any that do not contain
such spontaneous proof of the advantage as might, have been sufficient for a
hint to the stupidest clown. The firm spots by the sides of the torrents,
from flooding, acquire a beautiful verdure, that proves a perfect contrast
to the dreariness of the waste around ; and where there are little rills on
the mountain-sides, not considerable enough to cut a regular bed for their
waters, but which spread, they are attended so universally with the
verdure, owing simply to the water, as shows the advantage in the clearest
manner.
Mr. Robert Smith actually undertook to convert absolute
wastes — the wild rough heather land of forest hill-sides — into
water meadows without previously reclaiming them by tillage,
and he appears to have been tolerably successful in this grand
enterprise. Another aim equally novel, and almost as bold,
he likewise successfully accomplished, that of making his water
carriers convey manure from his cattle yards to the fields
wanting it. He diverted his main stream so as to pass through the
farm premises, when, after driving a water wheel, “ the waste
water passed through the yards, and under every office to collect
and wash out the sewerage of the whole establishment, and then
pass it away to a pond at the outside of the buildings from
which the adjacent meadows were watered.”
Not only so, but Mr. Smith made this stream convey to
considerable distances large quantities of the solid farmyard
dung likewise. In this Journal, Yol. XII. 1st Series (1851),
he says (p. 144) : —
By means of tbe stream passing through the yards any portion of the
farmyard dung may be thrown into it, and washed at leisure to the
different meadows below, and at periods when possibly horse labour might
be invaluable for other operations on the farm.
Moreover finding that the heath water is impregnated
with injurious properties for irrigation, he remedied the evil
by mixing the excrements of cattle with it by a method
described by himself as follows : —
To effect a proper change in these waters, arrangements should be made
along the main carriages — which take their rise from the brook course at
the foot of the uncultivated bill — to form sheds for young cattle upon
them, that the dung and urine may continually mix with the passing stream.
These sheds were placed at the higher end of the meadows,
a short distance above the water carriage, just leaving sufficient
282
Irrigation and the Storage of Water
space between for the passing of the cattle. Upon the main
watercourse and opposite the sheds a small pond was formed for
the reception of the manure when thrown out from the cattle shed.
The water on its route thus passed through the pond, and by
mixing with the manure and sewage from the shed became
changed for the better, and the effect was deemed certain and
cheap.
The following will show that Mr. Smith’s enterprise in these
respects was attended by important results. He says : —
The water which has passed through my yard has been used upon a
selected portion of hill-side land as an experiment, which in its natural state
was partially covered with rough grass and heather, while on some parts
not a plant of any kind was ever seen to grow. That below the water
carriages upon which the water has been used is now covered with green
and daily improving grasses, the chief of which is white Dutch clover, not a
single seed of which has ever been sown there.
Construction and Cost of Water Meadows.
The Rev. Joseph Jekyll, in the Journal, Vol. XI. 1st Series
(1850), p. 675, thus describes details and cost of forming catch
meadows in the Western Hill districts of England : —
The cost is but trifling. The gutters should be cut with a spirit-level about
3£ perches apart, 4 inches deep, and 18 inches wide, decreasing in width
(according to length) to not less than a foot ; a 2-feet gutter may be required
at the top, and also some intervening gutters of the same width as the water
descends the combe. This can be effectually done for 1 id. per perch, and as
50 perches will be required for an acre the cost will reach 6s. 3d. per acre.
My valley meadow of seven acres is a flat uneven piece of ground ; it was
filled with large stones, covered with bushes and briars, and not worth 8s. per
acre when I took it in hand. I merely cleared and cropped it with turnips
at a cost of 51. an acre, and had a fair return for the outlay the same year.
I then laid it down to grass and the third year conveyed over it the Bazle
water in a 2-feet gutter through its centre, cutting the smaller gutters, some
at right angles, some serpentine, from the main gutter ascending to the
level. The expense of this, sluice and all, did not exceed 51. ; it is now
worth 21. per acre.
The technical art in the formation of a catch meadow
depends very much on the employment of the spirit-level.
Thus Mr. Smith, who in the fifties managed the newly
reclaimed estate of Mr. Knight, of Exmoor Forest, wrote as
follows in the Journal, Vol. XII. 1st Series (1851), p. 141 : —
The hill-side being already formed by Nature to our bands, the spirit-level
beautifully traces the varied slopes and marks the onward course for the
gutterer or waterman, who should be a man of some taste in the art of
levelling, as the marking out the intermediate spaces upon irregular ground
is found to be a nice point, that the water may flow in an even stream over
the sides of the gutters. The arrangement of the “ main water-carriages ”
depends solely upon the formation of the land and supply of water.
for Agricultural Purposes.
283
Mr. Smith’s estimate of the cost of laying out catch
meadows on Exmoor was 10s. per acre for cutting gutters and
water-carriers at an average distance of 22 yards — large or
small — and os. per acre for all other works, such as the necessary
culverts through the fences, under gateways and flood-gates,
hatches, and extra water-carriers for fetching distant water to
any given point or pond.
The Rev. Mr. Wilkinson in his report on the farming of
Hampshire (p. 288 of the Journal, Vol. XXII. 1st Series,
1861) says of the water meadows in that county: —
They are expensive both to make and to maintain, their construction
costing l'roiu 15/. to 40/. an acre, according to the form of the surface. If
the soil he not naturally dry it must be under-drained, and that deeply, so
as not to interfere with the irrigation. The ground lias to be turned by
manual labour into ridges and furrows, or, as it is called, “ bedwork,” the
beds being some eleven yards wide, with an elevation of 2 feet in the
centre; but this width generally and the gradients of their sides depend much
on the soil ; the drier this is the broader the beds and the less the declivity
of the sides. The great object is to give the water a quick run, for if it
stagnates the grass will suffer in quantity and in quality. The water is
admitted by a main carriage ; subordinate carriers or feeders at different
angles to the main convey the water along the summit of each ridge ;
the water soaks down and through the sides of the ridges into the drains
which run along the furrows. The used water is not returned to the river
for perhaps two miles from the spot whence it was originally abstracted and
does duty meanwhile. A “ head ” meadow is one flooded with the water
first coming from the river; a “tail” meadow with that previously
used in a head meadow. The meadow receiving the tail water is not the
one immediately contiguous to that receiving the head water, but the next
but one. If it were attempted to make a tail meadow next to a head
meadow it would be necessary to raise the water by hatches so high
that it would flood the head meadow ; the intermediate meadow is generally
watered by an “ over-carrier.”
As to the period of watering he says : —
The watering is continued throughout November and December six
days in the week if possible ; in January five ; in February four. If the
frost be bard the water is turned off until a thaw. The meadows are
dried the first week in March and trodden by men’s feet — a roller and
horses would do injury to the carriers and the drains — and about Lady Day
the ewes and lambs are turned in, being taken out at night and folded on
the arable. They stay in about six weeks ; if longer the meadows are liable
to injury. As soon as they are out the hatches are drawn and the water is
admitted, but very thinly and scantily at first in order that the grass may
have time to grow above it. Two days a week will be sufficient watering
till the grass is cut, and the hay made in the middle of J^uue. "Water may
again be applied once a week, and eight weeks after there will be a second
crop of hay. As to the produce the spring feed of one acre will easily keep
twenty couples, which will fold three-quarters of an acre of arable in the
time. Each hay crop will be from H to 2 tons per acre.
A range of valuable water meadows lies on each side of the
Rennet and of the Lambourne from Shefford to Newbury, and
284
Irrigation and the Storage of Water
a small quantity by the stream running from Hanstead Norris
to Pangbourne. These are usually fed off in the spring from
April to May with sheep, being let for 31. or 4£. per acre for the
feed — in some backward seasons they make more. They are
watered from the middle of May to about the middle of July
and afterwards fed up to the end of November by cattle and
horses.
The Storage of Water.
One inch of rainfall represents, as is well known, 100 tons
of water per acre, and the average annual rainfall of England
varies from about 20 to 25 inches on the East Coast to 40, 60,
and even 80 inches or more on the Western Hills and the West
Coast generally. If 30 inches be taken as the average down-
fall, this would be equivalent to 3,000 tons per acre, a quantity
equal to about 13,000 hogsheads of water. An immense portion
of this rainfall runs to waste, some authorities being of opinion
that it amounts to as much as nine-tenths. Why should not
a large quantity of it be stored in reservoirs at hill-sides, the
drainage water of farms, ditches, and brooks being intercepted
and made to fill them before it reaches valleys and lowlands ?
This idea recommended itself to Mr. Pitt before the present
century commenced, and he says in his survey of Staffordshire : —
The gTeat desideratum in this species of improvement seems to be the
introduction of reservoirs constructed so as to contain large quantities of flood
water, which may be successively and at pleasure distributed upon any lapd
below its surface. This idea as applicable to agriculture is, I believe, novel,
and may be treated as visionary ; but I am so thoroughly convinced of the
great advantages to be derived from it that I will venture a prediction of its
being in some future time practised to a great extent.
Mountain torrents are by no means so considerable in the
greater part of England as in Ireland, but there are hill-sides
and plains everywhere which might be profitably irrigated by
the drainage water, running in ditches from higher lands, being
intercepted and stored in reservoirs or catchponds, as they are
termed in the West of England. As the construction of these
is a matter attended with expense, it is important to con-
sider what this would be. The late Mr. Bailey Denton in a
lecture on water storage, delivered some years since, calcu-
lated that a reservoir to hold 720,000 gallons would require
four- tenths of an acre to be excavated at a depth of feet,
and that the cost of excavating and putting the earth round
to form a bank would be 62 1. 10s., the calculation being that
it would be 2,500 yards at 3d. per yard. If the bottom of the
pond had to be puddled, the cost would be considerably
28o
for Agricultural Purposes.
tiictfe, but it is a fact well known to practical agriculturists
that in many districts ponds can be made water-tight without
expensive puddling. Thus Major Staveley on his Royal Prize
Farm on the Chalk Wolds in Yorkshire, finding it difficult to
get sufficient water for his stock to drink in a district where
wells have to be sunk from 1 80 to 240 feet deep to obtain it,
formed an inexpensive pond, at a convenient spot where the
ditches of four fields met and could be made to discharge them-
selves, at a cost of only 30/. As recorded in the Journal,
Yol. II. 3rd Series (1891), p. 5G2, his method was after
digging to the required depth to spread a coating of lime ; then
one of clay well worked ; then another layer of lime, on which
some straw was spread ; and over all a thick stratum of chalk.
A pond thus constructed he found could be made quite water-
tight, and would be capable of collecting a considerable quantity
of rainfall and surplus surface water ; a fact worth noting by
those who suffered so severely last summer in having to fetch
water long distances for their stock, which unfortunately was
the case in numerous instances.
When the provision of drinking water for stock is the sole
object a better and perhaps a cheaper way under certain
circumstances would be that of pumping up water from a lower
level to an upland farm. Thus the late Earl Bathurst effected
a grand improvement at North Cerney, Gloucestershire, about
eighteen years since, whereby the greater part of that village
and the large hill farm of Mr. T. R. Hulbert, consisting of
about 1,400 acres, were fully supplied with ample pure drinking
water for human kind and for cattle, sheep, and horses. Advan-
tage was taken of there being a deep well close to an old grist
mill on the stream just below the village, and its water wheel
was utilised to work pumping machinery to send water from
the well to the upper part of Mr. Hulbert’s land, some 500 feet
above the level. A reservoir of solid masonry was then con-
structed whence water was conveyed by piping to cisterns placed
in every field, as well as to all the houses in the village requiring
it. As the entire undertaking only cost about 1 ,000/., a surcharge
of Is. per acre per year on the land alone would have given
5 per cent, interest on the capital expended ; and no doubt if
no portion of the water supply had been required for human
consumption, a much greater volume might have been pumped
up from the stream itself sufficient to have irrigated con-
siderable areas. As the case stands, however, Mr. Hulbert
derives some ulterior benefit from the supply other than a
perennial source of drinking water for stock. He is enabled
to use a water-drill in depositing turnip, mangel, cabbage, and
VOL. v. T. s. — 18 U
286
Irrigation and the Storage of Water
other seeds, whereby their germination is ensured in a droughty
season such as that of last summer. In the Royal Agricultural
Society’s Prize Farm competition of 1878 Mr. Hulbert won first
prize in Class 1, and some further details of this improvement
will be found in the Judges’ Report of the prize farms in Yol.
XV. 2nd Series of the Journal.
There are a great many other places in England, no doubt,
where existing water wheels or turbines might be usefully
employed in pumping up water to moderate heights both to
supply drink for stock and water for irrigation. Referring to
the supply of water for towns, in a paper read before the Society
of Arts,1 Mr. Bailey Denton said : —
When the relative height of the brook and the town will not allow of a
reservoir being directly tilled by the former, recourse can be had to a wheel
or ram to raise in winter the summer supply. The best formed hydraulic
rams, made by Easton and Amos, or Freeman Rowe, with an available fall in
the stream of 7 feet, will raise to the height of 30 feet one-eighth of the
quantity that sets them in motion ; and, assuming a reservoir formed above
the village to receive the water raised, a stream discharging 23 gallons a
minute during the winter and spring will be sufficient to raise in 180 days
720.000 gallons for use during the summer and autumn. A turbine or an
overshot wheel might take the place of the ram with advantage when the
quantity of the water to be raised is greater than that stated. But, of course,
the expense of either ram or wheel, and attendant works, would be saved in
those instances where water can be brought from a height, and conducted at
once into the service reservoir, with an overflow to discharge the excess when
the reservoir is filled. But in many instances even where streams exist a
better supply may be obtained by the under-drainage of land in the neigh-
bourhood ; and if we resort to it we have data which will quite satisfy the
most fastidious inquirer, showing that the minimum discharge will afford
a sufficient quantity of the very best water if the area of drained land be
sufficient. It is surprising, too, how few acres of land will suffice for the
purpose.
Mr. Bailey Denton also observed that the proportion of
drainage water to the rainfall would vary, according to the
nature of the soil and other circumstances, from more than
two-thirds to above one-fourth ; and that thus “with a winterfall
of 10 inches of rain and snow the maximum may be taken at
100.000 gallons per acre and the minimum at 00,000 gallons per
acre for every acre drained.” Moreover, he estimated that “ the
mean discharge of drained lands may be fairly taken at 100,000
gallons per acre.”
Only comparatively small portions of the above would be
required for human consumption, so that the greater part would
be available for agricultural purposes if we could but have the
reservoirs. The cost of construction of these would not in all
cases probably be so great as Mr. Bailey Denton's estimate
previously given, because it would vary considerably in accord-
See Society of Arts Journal, January 5, 1859.
for Agricultural Purposes.
287
ance with the nature of the land and its value for other
purposes. Thus Mr. Pitt in his survey of Staffordshire, before
quoted from, argued that a reservoir of a few acres and of two
yards average depth might be constructed at from 10/. to 20/. per
acre, according to circumstances of situation. Of course he could
not have taken into the calculation the value of the land itself,
or that the bottom of the reservoir would require puddling, and
manual labour was, perhaps, only a little more than half its
present cost a century ago. But he calculated that such re-
servoirs would serve for fisheries which, under proper manage-
ment, would be equal or superior in value to an equal breadth of
land.
Water like fire is one of the best of servants, but the
worst of masters, and the devastations caused to riparian
meadows and lowland moors by excessive injurious floods have
perhaps raised a prejudice against extending irrigation arti-
ficially. But if so, the great drought of the spring and summer
of 1893, and its direful, calamitous results, ought surely to be
sufficient, not only for its removal, but to make everybody
anxious to do everything possible to prevent the recurrence of
catastrophes which wrecked the prospects and minimised the
crops of thousands. This can only be done by storing up the
drainage water of the hills in reservoirs and catch ponds ;
arresting alike the trickling dyke and the swelling brook,
utilising every gushing torrent in those seasons when the rainfall
is more abundant and preventing the rushing down to the main
streams of the element which if conserved would be sure to prove
a great blessing, but by being allowed to run to waste where
it is not wanted becomes a curse to the plain.
Injurious floods will be lessened in their ravages in good
time no doubt, for such a season as 1879 shows the urgent
necessity of it just as much as the severe drought of 1893 has
inculcated the absolute need of much more water storage than
has ever yet been contemplated. Indeed, the two gigantic
undertakings of water storage for droughts and regulating the
outflow of rivers so as to prevent excessive inundations are
inseparably connected.
The favourite scheme of Mr. Ridley and of the majority of
the civil engineers who gave evidence before the House of
Lords’ Committee on River Conservancy was that of embanking
the main streams, and by placing the embankments far enough
back from the bed of the river to have a watershed between
sufficient to convey the excess of water in the most rainy season.
Both Mr. Ridley and Mr. Abernethy stated, however, that if
rivers were thoroughly embanked so as to prevent any overflow
288
Irrigation and ike Storage of Water
whatever, it would still be easy enough by means of Weirs and
sluices to keep back a certain head of water in the bed of the
stream, which at any time could be drawn from for irrigation
and other objects. Moreover, it was stated in connexion with
this scheme that a rhine could be cut all round the edge of the
moor where it abuts on the high land, which would of course get
filled after heavy rains with discharges from the hill ditches and
brooks, and that the water there collected might be always
utilised to irrigate the adjoining parts of the moorland.
Water Supply for Stock.
Many farm homesteads in hill districts are badly off
for drinking water for stock, especially in those localities where
wells have to be sunk from 200 to 300 feet ere water-bearing
strata or a spring can be reached. In these cases the cattle and
horses have to drink out of a pond, while too frequently it is no-
thing but a cesspool which takes the drainage of the farmyard
and all its offices. The spoutings of the farm buildings contri-
bute a great deal to the contents of all such ponds, and by keep-
ing the water from this source separate the evil might be
obviated and an ample supply of drinking water for all the stock
of the farm provided, not only for winter, but the entire year.
Cisterns are often employed to serve this object, but they
are seldom large enough to hold a full supply for any great
length of time, and a large proportion of the surplus water in
winter still runs to waste. When the largeness of the supply
from this source is considered, nothing less than a tank or
reservoir at most farmsteads would be requisite thoroughly to
carry out the object. As is well known, the rainfall is much
greater in some districts than it is in others ; but it has been
calculated that in the Home Counties the fall of rain-water is
about 4,800 gallons for each 400 square feet of roof surface, and
that taking the entire kingdom it would be something like
5,000 gallons for each 500 feet of roof surface. As to the cost
of tank construction the calculations made by Mr. Love in Yol.
XX. 1st Series of the Journal (1859) may be quoted, for although
they applied to the construction of liquid manure tanks, the same
kind would serve for the storage of drinking water for stock.
These will be found in the following table for tanks of the
depth of 1 0 feet, the depth of excavation for which would be
12 feet. The clay required to pack 4 inches thick behind the
brickwork is also given, and the number of bricks required for
the interior, 9 inches thick, with a 4-inch top and a 4-inch
bottom, and a manhole 3^ feet in diameter. The bottom is
recommended to be concave, forming a portion of a sphere,
the radius of curve of which is equal to the diameter of tank
for Agricultural Purposes.
289
Contents
in gallons
Diameter
of tank
Diameter of
excavation
Cubic yards
in
excavation
Stanching,
clay in
cubic yards
Bricks
required
Total cost
2,269
ft. in.
6 10
ft. in.
9 0
28
55
4.200
£ s. d.
8 6 2
4,538
9 8
11 10
49
8
6,100
12 4 0
6,807
11 10
14
0
68
101
7,900
15 17 4
9,076
13
8
15 10
87
12*
9,600
19 7 0
11,345
15
3
17
5
106
14
1 1,000
22 5 4
13,614
16
8
18 10
124
15^
12,400
13,700
25 3 6
15,883
18
0
20 2
140
174
27 17 0
18,152
19
4
21
6
161
19
15,100
30 16 3
20,421
20
5
22
7
180
203
16,500
33 15 0
22,690
21
7
23
9
199
22
17,900
36 13 0
Tanks for the collection and storage of pure rain-water to
serve as drink for stock 1 appear to be very badly wanted in
those districts where the soil itself impregnates the spring and
drainage water with medicinal and in some cases poisonous
properties. In 1862 there were several bad cases of splenic
apoplexy on farms in the neighbourhood of Ilchester, Somerset,
and lengthy reports were published from Professors Simonds,
Buckman, and Voelcker in the Journal, Yol. XXIV., 1st
Series (1863). One paragraph in the late Dr. Yoelcker’s report
was as follows : —
There can be no question that in a lias district there are materials in the
waters having a tendency to produce disease ; whether it be splenic apoplexy,
scouring, or some other affection I cannot say ; but that such water cannot
be drunk with impunity is certain.
In another report on the same subject Dr. Yoelcker sug-
gested that “ it is highly advisable to cut off the supply of hard
lias springs and to provide cattle with soft drinking water,”
and also that “ rain-water tanks for the supply of soft water should
be constructed in localities where cattle are obliged to drink
hard waters that rise in the lias clay.”
Conclusion.
Irrigation, water storage, and the provision of pure drinking
water for stock are all old, time-honoured practices, and it is
certainly noteworthy that the great Bacon’s ideas on the theory
of the former were quite as sound as any propounded to-day.
He recognised the truth that the influences work beneficially in
three different ways, for he said that “ meadow-watering acts,
not only by supplying useful moisture to the grass, but likewise
the water carries nourishment dissolved in it, and defends the
roots from the effects of cold.”
65 Benthal Road, Stoke Newington, N. JOSEPH DARBY.
1 See, on this subject, Professor J. Wortley Axe’s paper on Water in Rela-
tion to Health and, Disease. (Journal, Yol. IV,, 3rd. Series, No. 16, 1893, pp,
7?6-760.) — Ed,
290
SOME MINOR RURAL INDUSTRIES.
The steady increase year by year in the quantities of poultry
and eggs imported into the United Kingdom can hardly fail to
suggest the question as to whether the money which is thus ex-
pended could not, without very much trouble, be kept at home.
Sometimes the finger of scorn is pointed at the English farmer
because he does not produce from English soil all the beef and
mutton, or all the wheat, which is needed for home consumption.
The rejoinder is that in the case of almost any staple article of
agricultural produce we could raise in this country all that is
required, but that this would necessarily involve an equivalent
displacement of production in the case of some other article or
articles.1 With regard to poultry and eggs, however, it is sub-
mitted that, within limits, this is not so. It is believed that
the rearing and fattening of poultry — including fowls, ducks,
geese, and turkeys — as well as the output of eggs, might be very
largely extended at home without displacing any other kind of
produce. That there is considerable inducement to embark upon
these minor industries appears evident from the following
figures, which show that even within the brief space of the last
five years the value of our imports of poultry and eggs has risen
from 3,480,306L to 4,454,598^, an increase of nearly one
million sterling : —
Value of Poultry and Game (Alive or Dead), and of Eggs,
Imported into the United Kingdom in each year from
188S to 1893.
Poultry
Eggs
1888
403,197
. 3,077,100
1889
472,686
3,122,813
1890
497,858
3,428,802
3,480,306
3,595,490
3,926,660
Poultry
Eggs ‘ .
1891
£
. . 456,970
• • o,o0o,522
1892
£
583,430
3,794,718
1893
£
578,959
3,875,639
3,962,501
4,378,148
4,454,598
1 See on this point the concluding remarks (pp. 126-131) of the paper by
Sir John Lawes and Sir Henry Gilbert on the Rome Produce, Imports, $c., of
Wheat (Journal, Vol. IV., 3rd Series, Part I., 1893). With reference, for
example, to our imports of dairy produce, they say (p. 127) : “ In fact, to
produce the increased amounts of butter and cheese supposed would require
several million acres of grass land, necessarily displacing some other produce,
involving increased importation of something else to compensate the loss; an,d
j would also require increased importation of food-stuffs for the cqvys,”
Some Minor Rural Industries.
291
As examples of profitable industries, which might be
advantageously extended in many rural districts and usefully
introduced into others, some account is given in the following
pages of the duck-fattening business on the one hand, and of
the rearing and feeding of fowls on the other. A few notes
on the results of certain experiments in poultry feeding are
added.
The Duck-fattening Industry.
In the neighbourhood of Leighton Buzzard, on the border;
of the counties of Bedford and Buckingham, one of the leading
industries is the rearing and fattening of ducks. The business
was formerly localised more in the direction of Aylesbury, but
of late years it has extended towards Leighton Buzzard, which
has become a convenient centre from which to acquire a know-
ledge of the essential features of an occupation that is no doubt
capable of profitable pursuit in other parts of the country. As
will subsequently be seen, one of the chief points in favour of
an extension of the industry is that it may be entered upon
with very little capital, though as a set-off against this it should
be observed that it is an employment which, to be followed
successfully, demands a special exercise of patience and
perseverance, as well as unflagging attention, on the part of
those who devote themselves to it.
The general principle underlying the business as it is
carried on in the Leighton Buzzard district is that the breeding
of the ducks is undertaken by people who are quite distinct
from those engaged in the work of rearing and fattening the
young birds. The eggs, in fact, are bought up from anybody —
farmers, cottagers, and others — who may keep ducks and
drakes. Whilst, therefore, the production of eggs is undertaken
by many people, the hatching of the eggs and the rearing and
fattening of the young ducks are in the hands of comparatively
few persons, and it is these latter who may be regarded as
specially engaged in the industry now under notice. Various
methods are followed in the purchase of eggs. In some cases a
duck-keeper contracts to deliver all his eggs to one purchaser
at prices agreed upon. In other cases the duck-fattener buys
eggs where and when he can, and makes the best bargain
possible for himself. Whatever system be followed the result is
that the people who have breeding ducks find a regular market
for eggs amongst the fatteners, and these latter obtain their
supplies from a considerable range of country. Hence, although
the actual work of rearing and fattening may be in compara-
292
Some Minor Rural Industries.
tively few hands, the interest in the business is widespread,
from the fact that it embraces all the people who produce ducks’
eggs for sale. At the beginning of the hatching season — when
the inducement to put ducklings on the market early is a strong
one — a set of 13 eggs may command up to 6s. or 7s., and in
extreme cases as much as Is. each is sometimes given at
Christmas time for fertile eggs. As the laying season advances,
and eggs become more abundant, the price declines to ordinary
market rates, but as the produce of these eggs cannot be ready
for sale till ducklings are plentiful and cheap, the return is
correspondingly less. Another factor that operates against the
duck-fattener at the opening of the season is the difficulty at
the outset of obtaining hens for setting purposes. Artificial
incubation does not appear to be practised, and in the depth of
winter as high a price as 4s. may be given for a clucking hen to
hatch out eggs ; as the spring advances the price declines till it
finally falls to about Is. 9d. Any kind of hen will answer the
purpose.
It is convenient and economical to set several hens simul-
taneously, so that when, on about the tenth day, the eggs are
examined and the infertile ones are taken away, each hen
may be given a full complement of eggs, and one or two hens
which will thus be left without any may be put on a new nest
of eggs. The energy of the hens in the work of incubation is
thus economised, whilst the infertile eggs are boiled and
chopped up, shells included, as food for the ducklings during
the first week of their active life. The period of incubation of
ducks’ eggs is, as is well known, 28 days. The Aylesbury duck
is the variety exclusively bred in the district.
Inasmuch as the principal object in view is to get the duck-
lings fat for sale by the time they are eight or nine weeks old,
the management from the moment the young birds emerge from
the shell is directed solely to this end. For the first week after
hatching the ducklings remain with the hen, their food during this
period consisting of boiled egg and of toast soaked in water — of
the latter they are specially fond. This food may be continued
for a few days after the hen has been taken away, but it
is gradually replaced by boiled rice. Only good qualities of
rice — Rangoon or stained Japan, such as will become gela-
tinous in boiling — -are used, the price being about 10s. per cwt.
Later on, barley-meal and toppings (or sharps) are introduced
into the diet, and at five weeks old the ducklings are put upon
fattening food, an important constituent of which is greaves or
tallow scrap — sometimes called scrap-cake — which is the refuse
from tallow-chandlers’ factories, and costs abont 14s. per cwt,
Some Minor Rural Industries.
293
A mess of rice, barley-meal, toppings, and greaves boiled up
together, with some chopped and boiled stinging-nettles added for
blood-cooling purposes, usually constitutes the food upon which
the ducklings are fattened. In large establishments the carcass
of a horse or sheep cut up and boiled as required in a copper out
of doors affords useful fattening food which may be given in
place of, or as supplementary to, the greaves. The ducklings
are fed three times a day — at 7.30 A.M., 12.30 r.M., and
4.30 p.m.
As to the proportion of birds produced from eggs set, at the
beginning of the season it is about 8 out of 13, but the number
increases as the season advances and the eggs can be more
certainly relied upon as fertile. Of the birds hatched out, a
rearer in a large way of business finds he markets about 85 per
cent, as fat ducklings. Much depends, however, upon the
attention given to the young birds immediately after they are
hatched ; trouble and care bestowed at this time upon weak
birds is oiten amply repaid. A painstaking rearer will pick out
the delicate young birds and give them personal superinten-
dence in the kitchen for a few days, till they are strong enough
to be again placed with the more sturdy nestlings.
The equipment of a “ duck farm ” is simple in the extreme.
One or two low dry wooden sheds, each with a “ run ” in front,
are sufficient. The classification of the ducklings is determined
by age. They are, accordingly, divided into “ flocks,” of one
week old, two weeks old, and other ages. At a week old a flock
of Aylesbury ducklings is an exceedingly pretty sight. Each
bird is a little ball of yellow fluffy down, furnished with a bill of
delicate heliotrope colour. The youngsters are very nimble and
keep together as they run up and down or across their limited
range, uttering continually the plaintive call which falls upon
the ear almost like a plea for protection. As age advances, the
feathers turn white, and the bills grow paler. Very commonly
the run is littered with straw, upon which the little creatures
will peacefully nestle on a drowsy sunny afternoon. As an ex-
ample of economy in small things it may be noted that the
straw is periodically gathered up, shaken out elsewhere to dry and
sweeten, and then strewn again upon the run or under the shed.
In one case where a large shed is used for the ducklings the
straw is taken out daily and the mud floor swept, sprinkled with
a weak solution of carbolic acid, and dusted with lime, before the
straw is put back again. Great care has to be exercised in keeping
the ducklings healthy, and cleanliness is necessarily a first con-
sideration. In the spring of the present year a duck-rearer
pear Tring lost 1,0QQ ducklings, and attributes their untimely
294
Some Minor Rural Industries.
death to a species of louse — caught from the brood hens, he
opines — fastening on the back of the neck.
It will be understood that the young birds destined to be
killed as ducklings are never allowed to roam at large, nor do
they go on the water, the object being to reduce the wear and
tear of muscular tissue to a minimum, so that as much as possible
of the food may be utilised in adding to the weight of flesh upon
the bird. As the ducklings are never kept for breeding pur-
poses this somewhat unnatural mode of life can have no ill-
effects of an hereditary nature. Such water as the ducklings
are allowed access to is supplied to them in small troughs or
shallow vessels, and they use it for bathing and drinking purposes.
The duck-rearers are very particular as to the kind of grit which
is given in the drinking water. It is found that the local
gravel, which is free of clay, will not “ bind,” and material for
this purpose is therefore obtained from Long Marston, near
Tring, at Is. 6d. a load. As the birds are always kept in con-
finement, it is essential to health that they should be provided
with efficient means of triturating their food.
Where a large number of birds of the same age are kept
together, it is usual, except when they come to the front to feed,
to partition them off into small “flocks” of about 100 birds
each. This is easily done by means of planks about one foot
wide, set on edge, so as to divide up the ground space into a
number of rectangular areas. The object of this is to prevent
the birds from overcrowding, and possibly killing the weaker
ones by overlying. As the birds return from feeding they are
successively partitioned off as fast as a sufficient number enter
the shed. When the birds get larger with advancing age it is
found expedient to confine fewer in each pen — say, two dozen
or so.
A somewhat frequent malady of the ducklings is that known
as “soft bill,” which may possibly be induced by high feeding.
But this can hardly be the case when the bill is so soft that the
young bird cannot break its way out of the shell. The evil
would then seem to be, in some way, inherited, and too close
inter-breeding of the parent birds suggests itself as the cause.
Inquiry in the neighbourhood elicited the fact that in some
cases the same drake may be kept in use as long as four years.
Change of blood would, therefore, seem to be imperatively called
for ; but as a rule the egg-producers, who are scattered through
the district, seem indifferent to the most elementary principles
underlying the art of breeding, and are perhaps quite ignorant
of them.
The number of ducklings that can be reared on a very
Some Minor Rural Industries.
295
limited area of ground is surprising, and in some cases the
small garden attached to a cottage is all the space that is avail-
able. In one shed, visited in April, there were thirteen pens,
constructed as already described, each containing about 100
birds, so that when they were let out for feeding a little army of
1 ,300 ducklings came into view. In another place nearly 300 hens
were sitting simultaneously, the hatching boxes being arranged
in horizontal tiers, one above the other. On quite a small place
belonging to a cottager, the number of fat ducklings sent off in
the season of 1893 reached a total of nearly 1,900. Another
rearer, on a somewhat larger scale, plucks about 6,000 birds in
the year. At a still larger establishment, in connexion with a
farm of 160 acres, the number of fat ducklings sent to market
in 1893 was 10,000.
The controlling feature of the whole industry is, in effect,
furnished by the consumer. The game season in this country
may be regarded as extending from August to January, and the
object of the duck-fatteners is to supply the market with birds
during the alternating six months from February to July. To
put fat ducklings of eight or nine weeks old upon the market
early in February involves setting the hen upon the eggs in
November, at a time when eggs are scarce and clucking hens
are difficult to obtain. Hence the fat ducklings that come first
into the market, just at the close of the game season, command
a high price, but the quotations steadily diminish till they reach
a minimum in July, when the supply of ducklings is abundant.
The following may be taken as representing the price of duck-
lings per couple in the Metropolitan market at the times stated :
February, 16s.; March, 14s.; April, 12s.; May, 8s.; June,
6s. to 7s. ; July, os. to 6s. It is seen, then, that the ducklings
decline in value from 7s. or 8s. apiece at the beginning of the
season to about 2s. 6d. or 3s. at its close. The average weight
of the birds at the Metropolitan Market is 7| lb., dressing
to 5 lb. per pair.
As the season for marketing the ducklings ends in August, it
follows that the fatteners have three or four idle months before
the commencement of the next hatching season. During this
resting pei’iod the sheds are thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed,
and the ground on which the ducklings are reared is sweetened
and rendered fit for the next season’s operations. The interval
between one season and another is therefore very useful, for it
not only gives the fatteners a rest, but it permits of so thorough
an overhauling of the premises as cannot be otherwise than con-
ducive to the health of the birds.
An important feature of the business is that those engaged
296
Some Minor Rural Industries.
in it practically clear out the whole of their stock every year.
The turn-over is thus rapid, and as a very small capital would
suffice to enter upon the industry on a moderate scale there does
not seem, on the face of it, to be any reason why it should not
be profitably extended to other districts. It is to be noted that
around Leighton Buzzard nobody seems to depend upon it ex-
clusively as a source of livelihood, as all who are engaged in the
business have also some other occupation. Much of the work,
perhaps most of it, can very well be left to women and girls ;
the care of delicate young birds newly hatched, the preparation
of the food, and the regular feeding of the ducklings do not in-
volve heavy labour, and may well be entrusted to the female
members of the household. Constant care, unwearying attention,
scrupulous observance of details, and the maintenance of a healthy
condition of the birds — these on the one hand, and a due develop-
ment of the commercial instinct on the other, seem to be the
factors necessary to command success.
The disposal of the hens that have been used for hatching,
the killing, plucking, apd packing of the ducklings for market,
and the sale of the ducklings’ feathers are amongst the minor
details of the business. The railway carriage to London for a
package containing from four to a dozen ducklings is about
Is. 2 d., and it is estimated that the charge upon each bird for
carriage and commission is about 3d. If the price of fat duck-
lings in June be taken as fairly representing the average for the
season, this would come to about 3s. 3d. per bird all round.
The gross return from a small business which marketed 1,000
birds in the course of the season would thus amount to 162Z. 10s.,
especially if the return from feathers and worn-out hens be in-
cluded. Deducting from this all charges for rent, food, plant,
brood hens, and other contingent expenses, there should be left
a fair margin to recoup the members of the duck-fattener’s
family for their services, and to induce them to persevere in the
business. From the fact that a considerable number of people
are engaged in the industry, it may reasonably be inferred that
it is lucrative, whilst the circumstance that it can be easily and
conveniently dropped if desired at the end of any season is in
reality another argument in favour of its extension.
The Fowl-fattening Industry.
In certain districts of Sussex and Surrey much attention
has long been given to the rearing and fattening of chickens,
especially in the neighbourhoods of Heathfield and Uckfield.
At ope of the largest establishments as many as 6,000 chicken!?
Home Minor Rural Industries.
297
rhay be Undergoing the fattening process at one time ; at the
other extreme is the small farmer or cottager who does not
attempt to fatten more than a lew dozen birds. The chickens
are readily bought up from the breeders by higglers, who some-
times pay up to 3s. 6d. or 4s. in the spring months for well-
grown birds nine or ten weeks old ; moreover, the regular
senders of dead poultry to market understand the mode of pre-
paration after killing, a point of the highest importance when
the birds are exposed for retail sale. Inasmuch as the demand
for chickens far exceeds the supply, there should certainly be
room for a profitable extension of this minor industry. The
system of fattening is nowhere carried out on more enlightened
principles than at Iville Farm, Baynards, near Horsham, belong-
ing to Mr. 0. E. Brooke, Master of the Poulterers’ Company, so
that a description of the methods there pursued may be re-
garded as illustrative of the general features of the business.
The operations at Iville Farm are conducted on an area of
about fifteen acres of poor grass land, which, however, is fairly
dry. Here on a spring day a large number of hatching boxes
or coops may be seen, arranged at regular intervals upon the
ground, and each containing a hen, either sitting on eggs or
with young chickens which she has hatched out. The coops
are shifted daily to the extent of their own width, so that there
may be a continuous succession of fresh sweet soil and that the
fouling of the ground may be avoided. Each hen is taken out
of her box for from fifteen to thirty minutes daily, according
to weather, and is fastened by a string to a small peg on the
ground in front ; this is the opportunity allowed her for exercise.
The hatching season lasts from October to May inclusive, thus
extending over a period of eight months. Artificial as well as
natural methods of incubation are employed, the former more
particularly in the winter months, when as many as five in-
cubators may be in operation at the same time. In the rearing
of the young birds also both artificial and natural methods are
resorted to, the chickens being brought up under a brooder in
the former case, and left to the care of the hen in the latter.
For the first twenty-four hours after emerging from the egg
the young birds get no food, neither are they tortured by the
nostrum of forcing a peppercorn down the throat or by tearing
off the hard scale at the end of the beak. During the first
week their diet consists chiefly of Spratt’s chicken food, with
which is mixed hard-boiled eggs chopped up with their shells ;
these are the eggs which have proved to be infertile and have
been removed from beneath the hens or the incubators. The
chickens are next put on a more varied diet consisting of a
298
Some Minor Rural Industries.
mixture of1 barley meal and Spratt’s food in the morning, boiled
rice with oatmeal or bone meal at mid-day, and wheat in the
evening. At ages varying from four to seven months the young
birds are sent into the fattening house, after three weeks in
which place they are ready for killing. The house is a rectangular
apartment, kept sweet and clean by whitewash and other means,
and lighted from the roof only. All round the interior the
fatting boxes or coops are arranged side by side in horizontal
tiers, one over another, and when the house is full it contains
632 birds. The cages or coops are made of wood and have
vertical bars in front ; each cage is large enough to permit its
inmate to turn round, but no more. As each bird has a cage to
itself there is no loss of muscle or of energy, such as might arise
were the birds placed in a common pen, in which disagreements
might constantly occur.
There are two stages of feeding in the fattening house.
For the first week the food — a thick mixture of ground oats
and water — is delivered from a wooden spoon into a trough
which extends along in front of the cages. Each bird gets
a spoonful, which it devours by thrusting its head between
the bars of its cage. For the remaining two weeks the birds
are fed exclusively by cramming, and on a richer diet. The
food in this final period consists of a mixture of barley meal,
ground oats, and skim milk, to which is added the best beef and
mutton fat obtainable, the proportion of fat being increased day
by day. The cramming operation is easily effected. The
cramming machine containing its soft mess is wheeled along in
front of the coops. To feed a bird the attendant takes it out of
its coop by its wings, and passes the fingers of his left hand
beneath the bird’s crop. With his right hand he directs
the end of a flexible tube coming from the reservoir of the
machine through the fowl’s mouth into its crop. With his
right foot he presses the treadle of the machine, and thereby
drives a mass of food into the crop, judging by his left hand
when this cavity is sufficiently filled, and regulating the pressure
on the treadle accordingly. A careless attendant, or a beginner,
might burst the bird’s crop by over-distension, but an experi-
enced man is capable of feeding 100 birds from the machine in
the space of about twenty minutes. All the birds in the cram-
ming house are fed twice a day, at 7 a.m. and 4.30 p.m. A
small quantity of ground oyster shell is added to the food of the
birds in the cramming house to promote digestion. As soon as
the morning or evening meal has been administered, the blinds
of the skylights are drawn down and the birds are left in quiet
and semi-darkness to digest the food they have received and to
Some Minor ttural Industrie L
299
acquire ah appetite for the next meal. The isolation of the
birds is no doubt conducive to contentment, and results in a
quiet disposition of the avian mind which cannot be other than
favourable to the rapid laying on of flesh. Old or quarrelsome
fowls which it is desired to get rid of are rapidly fattened and
sold for making soup.
About 5,000 fowls are turned out from this establishment
in a year. The total probably includes, however, some
hundreds of very young chickens — petits poussins, as they are
called in France — about a month old. These rapidly-fattened
chickens fetch from Is. Gd. to 2s. in April and May, and furnish
a choice dish for which the demand is an increasing one.
The increase in weight appears to be very rapid in the
earlier stages of cramming, as may be seen from the following
details of nine birds which Mr. Brooke exhibited at the Dairy
Show in 1893 : —
Sept. 11 to 21
Days
. 10
Total
increase
lb. oz.
13 72
Average increase
per bird
lb. oz.
1 8
Sept. 21 to 28
. 7
5 51
o*
Sept. 28 to Uct. y .
. 10
2 122
5
27
21 10
2 61
At 21 days, or three weeks — the usual time of fattening —
the average gain amounted to 2 lb. 3 oz. per bird.
As to the best kind of poultry stock for flesh-producing
purposes, Mr. Brooke is loud in his praises of the Dorking.
“ The Plymouth Rock, too, is a splendid bird, though very leggy
and bony. Houdans— -which as table fowls are as highly
esteemed in France as are Dorkings in England — have also
attracted the attention of our fanciers ; and old English game
birds, which at one period seemed likely to become extinct, are
also increasing in popularity. Indian game, which has had to
live down the prejudice originally excited against it on account
of the colour of its flesh when cooked, is now a favourite. After
all, both in flavour and in colour, it most closely resembles the
pheasant.”
The fowl, however, which Mr. Brooke recommends as “the
very best for table purposes ” is the cross between the Indian
Game and the Dorking. It is quite hardy, it stands caponising
thoroughly well, and it is believed that its more general intro-
duction would exercise a beneficial influence in our barn-yards.
His experience has convinced him that the finest cross-breds
available for table purposes are the Indian Game-Dorkings ;
“ they give so much breast, and the flesh is so full.” At the
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Some Minor Rural Industrie^.
Birmingham Show, November, 1893, Mr. Brooke exhibited two
pairs of cross-bred pullets, from an Indian Game cock and a
Dorking hen ; the one pair weighed 14 lb. 1^ oz., and the other
pair 13 lb. 7 oz.
Mr. Brooke’s successful experience imparts a special value
to his general hints to poultry breeders, which he gives as
follows : —
Farmers and others cannot pay too much attention to the details of
housing and feeding, and this should be varied according to the season of
the year and the temperature. Only on these conditions can the birds
thi'ive and become a source of profit. We change our stock every second
year, it being an acknowledged fact that where the stock is left for three
or four years — or indefinitely, as too often happens — the bird deteriorates in
size. One frequently finds a man keeping four or five hens and one cockerel
with them for the period just mentioned, and the breed naturally degene-
rates. One authority, who has been delivering a series of lectures in Essex,
was surprised to find the people of that county exceedingly retrograde in the
selection of their stock, more especially as they are fairly successful in
bringing up strong hardy birds for table purposes. In eighteen farmyards
out of twenty in Essex one can find, he affirms, the greatest mongrels
possible, and when fresh blood is introduced it is only a cross-bred male
bird. In some districts hundreds of pullets hatched at the end of February,
March, and April had not laid an egg up to the middle of November.
Where a pure bred cock is turned down in a farmyard, say in November,
the pullets usually in a few weeks begin laying, when eggs are most in
request, as soon as the birds are between six and seven months old, and
some even before that age. It is not necessary for farmers and those who
merely want eggs and table birds to choose pure breeds for stock : they
simply require a separate pure-bred male bird every year for fresh blood.
Whilst in the Dedham district the authority whom I have cited called upon
Colonel Argozy, who keeps about six silver-pencilled Hamburghs in a small
stable-yard with nothing but gravel to run on ; and it was noticed that
this gentleman was getting more eggs from those six birds than were many
of the poultry-keepers round about with twelve or fifteen mongrels. At
one place there were 160 fowls, old and young, which produced about four
diggs per week. When he asked the farmer’s wife why she did not clear off
the old hens, she replied, characteristically, “ because they are such good
sitters in the spring.” It is ridiculous to keep a lot of old hens through the
winter with the chances of their laying a few eggs in March and. April, and
then bringing up a brood of chickens ; and yet hundreds of people do this.
If they kept young hens or pullets they might get eggs all through the
autumn and winter.
As regards feeding, I would be sparing at first, accustoming the birds
very gradually to the assimiliation of their food. In the early morning,
duiing the very cold spring weather, we give the fowls hot meal, mixed to
a proper consistency and put upon small boards in front of them in the pens.
It should be removed if the fowls do not want it, and their appetite will
then return. At no time should they have sour food ; and all stale victuals
should be taken from the trough. In the middle of the day we give them
wheat ; and the last thing at night a little maize, but only in a sufficient
quantity so that they can pick everything up. We keep them by the dozen
or so in large pens, and change them from one pen to another every three
weeks. After changing the pens, generally about three or four times a year,
we lime the grass, an operation that sweetens the ground. I highly approve
Some Minor Rural Industries.
301
of the movable house for laying hens. The idea is an excellent and practical
one. The shelter is by no means cumbersome ; two boys can move it, and
this may be done daily on to fresh ground.
The dust -bath is another great feature in the pen. Everyone who has
seen the delight with which hens scratch about the dust in a country lane
can appreciate the importance of providing them with at least a box of ashes,
or with dry earth and a sprinkling of sulphur in it. As regards grit, oyster-
shells ground fine will be useful, and in that form are greatly appreciated by
the fowls ; it may even be mixed with the food. I shoidd prefer flint if I
could pulverise it. Oyster-shells, however, are more manageable, and are
sufficiently plentiful. When the fowls are very eager for food we begin the
cramming.
Finally, where the production of eggs is found to be more remunerative
than the rearing of table chickens, it will be advantageous to keep varieties
that are non-incubating, as in that case the cont inuous production of eggs is
not interfered with by the hens becoming broody and losing time in sitting.
And the very best laying fowls are unquestionably the white Leghorn and
the black Minorca. The same careful and judicious treatment, however, is
in their case necessary to ensure the best results.
Experiments in Poultry Feeding.
In an experiment extending over a period of six months at
the New York Experimental Station, it was found that each
laying hen of the smaller breeds daily consumed an average of
2*56 ounces of food (mostly maize meal and wheat) ; birds of
the larger breeds ate 3-6 ounces each. At the same station the
weight of water-free food required to produce one ounce increase
on cockerels and capons was found to be 1 1*35 ounces. Each
fowl produced about 43 pounds of manure in a year, of which
two-thirds was moisture.
At the Maine Experimental Station the gain made by 24
cockerels in 32 days was 204 pounds, valued at 10s. The food
consumed was 94 pounds of maize and 1 2^ pounds of meat scrap
and blood, the whole costing 6s.
In another experiment hens which were allowed access to
coarsely-ground oyster-shells laid more eggs than hens which
received ground glass. The egg-shells of the birds eating oyster-
shells were also heavier. "When oyster-shells were used a pound
of eggs was produced for every 3-95 pounds of water-free food.
The quantity of ground glass consumed was large, and made up
between a fourth and a third of the water-free food. Hens
which were allowed as much tallow as they would readily
consume with their usual food exhibited no symptoms of injury
to health, but were later in moulting than those which ate a
less quantity of fat.
An investigation into the cost of food for growing chickens
conducted at the New York Station showed that, with skim milk
at Is. per 100 pounds (say Is. per 10 gallons), a mixture of maize
VOL. V. T. S. — 18 X
302
Some Minor Rural Industries.
meal, bran, middlings, and linseed meal at 4-1. per ton, green
clover at 8s. per ton, and meat scraps at 1 \d. per pound, it cost
approximately 2f d. for each pound of gain made by growing
chickens. At 101,- weeks old these chickens averaged 2 -4 pounds
in weight.
At the same station, when home-made incubators and brooders
were used for chickens and ducks, white Plymouth Pock chicks
at 12 weeks old averaged 1'7 pound apiece, whilst Pekin ducks,
also reared in a brooder, at the same age weighed nearly 4
pounds.
Conclusion.
A point of cardinal importance, upon which in the preceding
pages insistence has been laid in the case both of duck-rearing
and of fowl-rearing, is the maintenance of a vigorous young
male bird where breeding is the object in view. If this be not
attended to the number of infertile eggs is likely to cause annoy-
ance and loss. Another point is the commercial advantage
arising from securing the early market, at a time when prices
are at their best. A well-sustained effort in this direction brings
a substantial reward, for it is the means of raising very consider-
ably the amount of the season’s earnings. There is nothing new
in this point, for more than 170 years ago Defoe recognised the
commercial value of “ live chickens in the dear seasons.” His
remarks,1 at the end of which these words occur, are, however,
of so much interest that they will bear quoting : —
I cannot omit, however little it may seem, that this county of Suffolk is
particularly famous for furnishing; the City of London and all the counties
round with turkeys, and that it is thought there are more turkeys bred in
this county and the part of Norfolk that adjoins to it than in all the rest of
England, especially for sale, though this may be reckoned, as I say above,
but a trilling thing to take notice of in these remarks ; yet, as I have hinted,
I shall observe how London is in general supplied with all its pro-
visions from the whole body of the nation, and how every part of the island
is engaged in some degree or other of that supply. On this account I could
not omit it, nor will it be found so inconsiderable an article as some may
imagine, if this be true, which I received an account of from a person living
on the place, viz., that they have counted three hundred droves of turkeys
(for they drive them all in droves on foot) pass in one season over Stratford
Bridge on the River Stour, which parts Suffolk from Essex, about six miles
from Colchester, on the road from Ipswich to London. These droves, as
they say, generally contain from three hundred to a thousand each drove ;
so that one may suppose them to contain five hundred one with another,
which is one hundred and fifty thousand in all ; and yet this is one of the
least passages, the numbers which travel by Newmarket Ileath and the open
country and the forest, and also the numbers that come by Sudbury and
Clare being many more.
Tour through the Eastern Counties of England, 1722. By Daniel Defoe.
Some Minor Uurcd Industries.
303
For the farther supplies of the markets of London with poultry, of which
these countries (sic) particularly abound, they have within these few years
found it practicable to make the geese travel on foot too, as well as the
turkeys, and a prodigious number are brought up to London in droves from the
farthest parts of Norfolk ; even from the fen country about Lynn, Downham,
Wisbech, and the Washes ; as also from all the east side of Norfolk and
Suffolk, of whom it is very frequent now to meet droves with a thousand,
sometimes two thousand in a drove. They begin to drive them generally in
August, by which time the harvest is almost over, and the geese may feed
in the stubbles as they go. Thus they hold on to the end of October, when
the roads begin to be too stiff and deep for their broad feet and short legs to
march in.
Besides these methods of driving these creatures on foot, they have of
late also invented a new method of carriage, being carts formed on purpose,
with four stories or stages to put the creatures in one above another, by
which invention one cart will carry a very great number; and for the
smoother going they drive with two horses abreast, like a coach, so quarter-
ing the road for the ease of the gentry that thus ride. Changing horses,
they travel night and day, so that they bring the fowls seventy, eighty, or
one hundred miles in two days and one night. The horses in this new-
fashioned voiture go two abreast, as above, but no perch below, as in a
coach, but they are fastened together by a piece of wood lying crosswise
upon their necks, by which they are kept even and together, and the driver
sits on the top of the cart like as in the public carriages for the army, &c.
In this manner they hurry away the creatures alive, and infinite numbers
are thus carried to London every year. This method is also particular for
the carrying young turkeys or turkey poults in their season, which are valu-
able, and yield a good price at market ; as also for live chickens in the dear
seasons, of all which a very great number are brought in this manner to
London, and more prodigiously out of this country than any other part of
England, which is the reason of my speaking of it here.
Nothing lias been said as to poultry-farming, nor is it
intended to advocate a business which has so often resulted
in failure. Mr. Brooke has contrasted clearly enough the bright
promise which these ventures hold out at the beginning with the
disasters which usually follow. “ The fowls cease to lay, they
require a great deal of feeding, and finally they begin to die off
by the score. Croup and other diseases have seized them, owing
to the foulness of the soil, and in a few months Mr. Tegetmeier
has to record the failure of another poultry farm .” On the other
hand, a few fowls, or if the available ground is sufficiently large,
some dozens of them — not so numerous but that their houses and
haunts may be kept scrupulously clean — may be made a source
of profit. It is fowl-keeping on this modest scale that pays, and
it is from poultry-farmers in this humble way of business that
the higglers obtain the millions of eggs which are sent into this
country from the small peasant farmers of France and Holland.
W. Fream.
12 Hanover Square, W.
304
Official IRcpovts.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
TO THE
FIFTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY GENERAL MEETING OF
GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY
Held in the Hall of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society,
20 Hanover Square, W.
ON TUESDAY, MAY 22, 1894,
The Dcke of Devonshire, K.G. (President), in the Chair.
The Council have to report the following changes in the list of
Governors and Members during the year which has elapsed since
the last Anniversary Meeting in May 1893 : — Two new Governors
and 622 Members have joined the Society, 5 Members have been
reinstated under Bye-Law 12, and 18 Members have qualified as
Governors ; whilst the deaths of 1 Honorary Member, 2 Annual
Governors, 10 Life Governors, 52 Life Members, and 138 Annual
Members have been reported. A total of 22 Members have been
struck off the books under Bye-Law 10, owing to absence of ad-
dresses ; 67 under Bye-Law 11, for arrears of subscriptions ; and
228 have resigned.
2. The Council greatly regret to have to report the loss of the
Rt. Hon. Sir Harry Yerney, Bart., the “Father” of the Society,
who died on February 12 last at the patriarchal age of 92. Sir
Harry Yerney was the last survivor of those who met together at
the Freemasons’ Tavern on May 9, 1838, to found the English
Agricultural Society, and he was a Member of the original Com-
mittee. Up to the time of his death he continued to manifest the
keenest interest in all matters relating to the Society and to agri-
culture generally.
3. Through the lamented death, under circumstances of peculiar
painfulness, of Mr. George Mander Allender, the Council have lost
an active and valued colleague. Mr. Allender had been a member
of the Council since 1881, and his practical mind and business
acumen were always of great value in the deliberations of the
various Committees on which he served.
4. Amongst other Governors and Members whose loss by death
the Society has had to deplore since the beginning of the present
year are : — The Earl of Bective, the Earl of Lindsay, the Earl of
Lovelace (a Foundation Life Governor), Yiscount Somerton, Lord
Report of the Council , Tuesday , May 22, 1894.
305
Clonbrock, Lord Crewe, Lord Tweedmouth, Sir G. D. Fitzgerald,
Bart., Mr. James Atkinson, of Winderwath, Penrith, Mr. Hugh
Aylmer, of West Dereham Abbey (a Member of the Council from
1875 to 1889), Mr. George Burt, of Swanage, Mr. J. S. Corbett, of
Cogan Pill, Cardiff, Gen. A. Fytche, C.S.I., Mr. William Greaves, of
Bakewell (a Foundation Life Governor), Mr. John Hick, of Mytton
Hall, Mr. J. D. Morton, of Tunbridge Wells (a member since 1842),
Col. W. F. Newdigate, Mr. George Rea, of Wooler, Mr. G. M.
Sexton, of Ipswich, the Rt. Hon. E. Stanhope, M.P., and Mr. James
Theobald, M.P.
5. To fill the vacancy caused by Mr. Allender’s decease, the
Earl of J ersey, of Middleton Park, Bicester, has been re-elected to
the seat upon the Council which he vacated during his tenure of
the Governorship of New South Wales.
6. The Council have elected Professor G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
F.R.S., of Cambridge, an Honorary Member of the Society, in
recognition of his distinguished services to agriculture.
7. These and other changes bring the total number of Governors
and Members now on the Register to 11,218, divided as follows :
21 Foundation Life Governors (Members elected before the
granting of the Charter on March 26, 1840) ;
73 Governors paying an annual subscription of 51. ;
92 Life Governors ;
7,212 Members paying an annual subscription of \l. ;
3,705 Life Members ;
93 Life Members by Examination ;
22 Honorary Members.
11,218 Total number of Governors and Members ;
or a net increase of 92 Members during the year.
8. The accounts for the year 1893 have been examined and certi-
fied by the Auditors and Accountants of the Society, and are
published in the current number of the Journal. The final results
of the working of the year are that, after writing off the customary
percentages for depreciation, and discharging all the preliminary
expenses connected with the acquisition of Harewood House, the
Society’s assets amounted at December 31, 1893, to 38,2 7 9^. 14s. 7 d.,
as against 36,S58£. 18s. 3 d. at the end of 1892.
9. The structural alterations to Harewood House are now prac-
tically completed, and it is hoped that the Society will be able to
enter upon the occupation of its new premises shortly after the
Cambridge Meeting. Meanwhile, the internal fittings and the fur-
nishing of the house are being proceeded with. An underlease of
the Society’s present house, 12 Hanover Square, has been granted
to the Shire Horse Society, who will sublet portions of the house
to other kindred agricultural organisations.
10. The Council have the pleasure to report that a number of
306
Report of the Council ,
ancient works on Agriculture have recently been presented by
various donors to the Society’s Library, which with similar works
purchased at favourable opportunities by the Society itself, and
those previously in the Library, will help to form a very valuable
collection of classical agricultural literature. In view of the increased
bookshelf accommodation available in the new house, the Council
will feel greatly indebted to any Governors and Members who, upon
inspection of their Libraries, may find themselves in a position to
present to the Society any works upon Agriculture that it may not
already possess. Amongst the recent additions to the Library is a
complete set of the “ Memoirs of the Rothamsted Experiments,”
presented by the Board of Agriculture.
11. The preparations for the forthcoming Country Meeting at
Cambridge next month are well advanced. The Meeting will be
held on Midsummer Common, an open space of 64 acres near the
centre of the town. As the Council have already reported, it
became necessary, in view of the fact that the area of the Show-
yard could not be extended, to impose some limitations on the
entries both of implements and stock ; and the 13,402 feet of
shedding applied for in the former department will monopolise,
with the 1864 entries of horses, cattle and sheep, and the entries in
the other departments, the whole of the space available for the
purpose. For the same reason, the Council were obliged to close
the list of entries of live stock on May 1— the last day of entry
at ordinary rates — and to decline all post entries, in accordance
with the intimation printed in the Prize Sheet and on all the
certificates of entry. They have, however, passed a new regula-
tion allowing an exhibitor who has already made an entry of horses,
cattle or sheep in a particular class to withdraw the entry of such
animal, and to substitute for it, up to Thursday, May 31, the
entry of another animal in the same class, on payment of an extra
fee. This regulation, besides being, it is hoped, a considerable
convenience to exhibitors, will have the additional advantage of
reducing the number of empty stalls and pens in the Sliowyard.
12. In the Implement Department, the number of feet of shedding
(exclusive of open ground space) actually allotted is 13,402 feet in
442 stands, as against 13,018 feet in 408 stands at Chester last
year, and 12,511 feet in 411 stands at Warwick in 1892. Notwith-
standing the limitation of the maximum space allowed to an
exhibitor to 100 feet (instead of 150 feet), and the fact that a
number of applications had necessarily to be declined, the Implement
Department will still be the largest of any Meeting in the last
fifteen years, except the Jubilee Meeting at Windsor in 1889.
13. For the reasons stated in another paragraph (23), the Council
have felt it necessary to decline all the entries of Pigs which were
tendered : but, even under these circumstances, and the final closing
of the lists at an earlier date than usual, there are still 1864 entries
in the Live Stock Department, or more than at Warwick in 1892,
Tuesday , May 22, 1894.
307
Plymouth in 1890, Newcastle in 1887, and Norwich in 1886,
where horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs were all exhibited, and the
limitations as to entries were less than at present. There will be
617 horses at Cambridge, as compared with 509 at Chester last year ;
659 cattle as compared with 759 ; and 588 sheep as compared with
631. In addition, there will be 705 entries of poultry, 162 of butter,
72 of cheese, 74 of cider, 10 of jams and preserved fruits, and 220 of
hives, honey, &c.
14. The trials of the twenty-four oil engines which have been
entered for the prizes offered by the Society will take place in the
Showyard in the week preceding the Meeting, commencing on Mon-
day, June 18. The trials of churns (24 entries) will commence on
Wednesday, June 20 ; of sheep-dipping apparatus (6 entries) on
Friday, June 22 : and of spraying machines (17 entries) on Satur-
day, June 23. The inspection by the Judges of the 116 “New
Implements ” entered for the Society’s Silver Medals will commence
on Thursday, June 21.
15. The Implement Yard and the Dairy will be opened to Mem-
bers of the Society and the public on Saturday, June 23, when the
charge for admission to non-members will be 2s. 6 d. The judging
will take place in all classes on Monday, June 25, when the
charge for admission will be 5s. On Tuesday and Wednesday
the charge for admission will be 2s. fid. each day ; and on the last
two days, Thursday and Friday, it will be Is. each day.
16. Forty-four candidates have entered for the competitions of
Butter-makers for the Society’s Prizes and Certificates, to take
place in the Showyard, from Tuesday, the 26th, to Friday, the 29th
J une. Twenty-six shoeing-smiths practising in the Society’s Dis-
trict A will compete for the Prizes offered for shoeing Roadsters
and Agricultural Horses.
17. In their last report the Council referred to the receipt of an
invitation from the authorities of Darlington for the holding at that
place of the Country Meeting of 1895. The Committee of Inspec-
tion having since reported favourably of the site and other accommo-
dation offered for the purposes of the Meeting, and a deputation
representing the town and neighbourhood having had an interview
with the Council on the subject, it has been resolved that next
year’s Country Meeting shall be held at Darlington.
18. In connexion with the Meeting of 1895, the Council have
already resolved to offer for competition prizes for hay-making and
clover-making machines in two classes, as follows : —
First Second
Prize Prize
Class 1. — Hay-making machines .... 20/. 10/.
Class 2. — Clover-making machines .... 20/. 10/.
The last date for receiving entries for these prizes will be on
308
Report of the Council,
Monday, April 1, 1895, which is also the date for the closing of the
ordinary implement entries.
19. In accordance with the scheme of rotation of districts as
revised in 1892, the Countiy Meeting of 1896 will be held in
District C, which consists of the counties of Derby, Leicester,
Lincoln, Northampton, Nottingham, and Rutland.
20. To fill vacancies that have occurred, the Council have
appointed Mr. Lewis P. Rees, M.R.C.V.S., of Brecon, and Mr.
Charles Morgan, M.R.C.V.S., of Carmarthen, as the Society’s
Provincial Veterinary Surgeons for the counties of Brecon and
Carmarthen respectively. The Examiners on the Diseases of
Animals of the Farm other than the Horse, in the examinations
for the diploma of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons held
last year, have reported that the following gentlemen attained the
greatest distinction : — 1. Mr. H. T. Sawyer, Veterinary-Lieu-
tenant, A.V.D., care of Veterinary-Colonel Lambert, C.B.,
5 King Street, Westminster, SAV. 2. Mr. E. T. Thorburn, Morton
House, Frome, Somerset. The Society’s Silver Medal for Pro-
ficiency in Cattle Pathology has therefore been bestowed upon
Lieutenant Sawyer, and the Bronze Medal upon Mr. Thorburn.
21. The retirement, after nearly thirty years of active service,
of Professor Brown from his position as Chief of the Veterinary
Department of the Board of Agriculture, affords the Council an
opportunity of placing upon record their high sense of the value of
his past efforts in the extirpation of the contagious diseases of
animals, and of the conspicuous services which he has rendered to
the Society, both in his professional capacity and as a contributor
to the Journal. The Council are glad to state that the Society will
continue to have the advantage of Professor Brown’s co-operation
and assistance.
22. In the Report for 1893, reference was made to the steps
which had been taken to bring under the notice of the President of
the Board of Agriculture the subject of epizootic abortion among
cows. A reply has been received to the effect that while admitting
the importance of an inquiry into the nature and causes of the
disease, the Government regret that the present state of the public
finances does not permit the granting of moneys for the purpose.
Under these circumstances, it appeared to the Council desirable that
they should at once appoint a Special Committee of Inquiry to
collect evidence upon the subject, and to report as to the advisability
of experiments with breeding animals being undertaken by the
Society itself. Schedules of questions have been extensively circu-
lated, and some important evidence has been taken from stock-
owners and veterinarians. A leaflet has also been distributed among
stockowners, recommending the adoption of Professor Nocard’s
system of antiseptic treatment, which was described in the article on
Tuesday, May 22, 1894.
309
Abortion in Part IV. of the Journal for 1891. The Special Committee
is still engaged upon the inquiry.
23. In November last the Board of Agriculture commenced
the work of extirpating swine-fever under the provisions of the
Swine-Fever Act of 1893. The measures adopted have led to
the detection of a large number of centres of disease which had
hitherto been concealed, and it has been found necessary to order
the slaughter of swine which were affected with the disease, or had
been in some ways exposed to infection, at the rate of a thousand
per week. In view of the fact that swine-fever continues to be as
prevalent as ever, the Council have felt bound to give practical
support to the measures adopted by the Board of Agriculture for
the extirpation of the disease by excluding all pigs from their Show-
yard at Cambridge. It is hoped that, through the measures taken
in the general interests of agriculturists, swine-fever, if not totally
eradicated, may speedily be reduced to insignificant proportions,
when it may become possible for the present irksome restrictions
to be relaxed.
24. Reports of outbreaks of anthrax have been more numerous
than during the preceding year, but judging from the considerable
proportion of cases of suspected anthrax which were sent to the
laboratory of the Royal Veterinary College, and proved on examina-
tion not to be anthrax, there is reason to conclude that the reports
have been in excess of the actual outbreaks. The scarcity of food
during the past dry season led to the consumption of various indi-
gestible, and even poisonous plants, and it is most probable that
many of the deaths from this cause were attributed to anthrax.
There is no doubt, however, that the disease has increased in the
last two or three years. But it is a noticeable fact that during
1893, in 567 outbreaks of anthrax there were only 1,294 animals
attacked, a little over two for each outbreak. Cases of diseases of
the digestive organs in cattle from the presence of microscopic
worms have been numerous during the past year, and there have also
been serious losses in some districts among foals from the ravages of
a minute strongle, the young of the Strongylus tetr acanthus.
25. Investigations have been continued in the pathological
laboratory at the Royal Veterinary College, under the Society’s
annual grant, on the subject of ringworm in calves, with particu-
lar reference to the life history of the fungus which is the cause of
the disease. Protective inoculation for anthrax has received special
attention, witli the view to test its safety and efficacy. Some time
will be occupied in the necessary experiments. The results at pre-
sent justify the statement that the average losses among inoculated
animals are less than one per cent., but from time to time the loss
has reached five and even ten per cent, without there being any
detectable cause to account for the mortality. Further experiments
with mallein and tuberculin have added to the previous evidence of
the value of these agents for the detection of glanders and tuber-
310 Report of the Council ,
culosis in cases where there are no symptoms present to indicate
either disease.
26. A considerably larger number of applications have this
season been made to the Consulting Botanist. The undesirable
practice of purchasing mixtures for laying down to grass, without
specifying the seeds of which they are to be composed, is increasing.
The quality and feeding value of foreign hay, needed to supply the
deficiencies of the home produce, have been determined in several
cases.
27. Inquiries have been continued in reference to the disease in
turnips known as “ finger and toe.” The evidence so far obtained
points to the presence of the disease on one field of a farm and its
absence on another field of the same farm as not being associated
with any difference in the actual soil-constituents of the fields, but
that one or the other may be affected according as the fungus may
find its way on to it. But it seems also to be shown that where
fields are affected the soil is always poor in lime, and that on soils
possessing abundant lime the disease is not known. Experiments
are now in progress to ascertain if any application of manures or
chemical substances will prevent the fungus taking a hold on the
soil, or will destroy it when once present.
28. The passing of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act of 1893
does not appear as yet to have made any material difference to the
analytical work carried on by the Society on behalf of its members.
This may to some extent be due to the short time the Act has been
in operation, but it is also more than likely that members of the
Society find the procedure to be followed in submitting examples
to the Consulting Chemist simpler and practically quite as effective
as that necessitated by the Act, with its attendant regulations
and precautions. From December 1, 1893, to April 30, 1894, the
number of samples sent by members for analysis has been 642, as
against 688 during the corresponding period of last year.
29. The passing of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act has,
however, had one good effect, which has been abundantly brought
out in the correspondence sent to the Consulting Chemist, viz., the
obligation it imposes to give an invoice, which, in the case at least
of fertilisers, must also state their essential fertilising ingredients.
Experience has, however, shown that there are numerous ways of
“ contracting out ” of the Act, or of vitiating its intent, and the
giving of an invoice or even a guarantee does not necessarily imply
that money’s worth is being obtained. Hence it is believed that
there will be quite as much need as before for the vigilance of the
Chemical Committee in suppressing and exposing adulteration, and
for the assistance of the Consulting Chemist in advising members as
to their purchases. There is reason to think that the order forms
recently issued by the Society are made use of to a considerable
extent by members, and that the instructions given in relation to
Tuesday, May 22, 1894.
311
the working of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act have been
found of considerable benefit. In consequence of the approaching
transfer of the Society’s offices, a re-arrangement of the Chemical
Department has been under consideration, and will shortly be
carried into effect. Under the new arrangement it is hoped that
more time may be devoted to original researches than has hitherto
been possible.
30. As usual during the winter season, feeding experiments have
been carried out at the Woburn Experimental Farm. Those upon
sheep-feeding have been concluded, and point to the economy of
feeding sheep with a moderate diet for a longer period in preference
to more rapid feeding with large quantities of cake and corn, and
also to the value of hay as an addition to a diet for sheep. The
experiments on fattening bullocks have shown that the place of
roots cannot be taken by straw- chaff to which linseed oil has been
added, and that for fattening bullocks linseed oil is not a desirable
article of food.
31. The insects with regard to which the advice of the Zoologist
has been most frequently sought during the winter season belong to
the weevil tribe. The vine weevil, the turnip gall weevil, and, of
late, the pea and clover weevil ( Sitones ) have been the subjects of
complaint. The Zoologist has devoted considerable attention to the
investigation of substances likely to prove useful as insecticides. He
has also instituted, upon the spot, a careful inquiry as to the
methods which have proved most efficacious in dealing with the
beetle so destructive to mustard crops in the fen district.
32. Sir J ohn Thorold and Mr. Charles Whitehead have been re-
elected as the Society’s representatives upon the Lawes Agricultural
Trust for a further period of five years.
33. Thirty-two candidates entered and 28 actually competed
in the Society’s Senior Examinations, held from the 8th to the 12th
of this month. The answers of the candidates are now under con-
sideration, and the results will be announced as soon as possible.
The Council have resolved to discontinue after the present year the
award of free Life Memberships to the winners of First Class
Certificates in these Examinations.
By Order of the Council,
ERNEST CLARKE,
Secretary.
REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON
ABORTION IN CATTLE.
The Special Committee appointed by the Council to inquire into the
subject of Abortion in Cattle 1 beg to report that, immediately on their
appointment, instructions were given for the issue of circular letters,
(1 j to the Society’s Provincial Veterinary Surgeons in each county,
and (2) to a large number of owners of live stock, asking for statistics
and information respecting their experience in connexion with this
disorder, and in reply to these a considerable body of valuable
information was received.
2. The Committee met for the first time to take evidence on
Monday, March 5, 1894, and took further evidence on Monday,
April 2, and Monday, April 30. In the course of their sittings, they
examined the following ten witnesses, including stockowners whose
herds had suffered from abortion, and veterinary surgeons who had
had experience in dealing with the disease, viz. —
1. Mb. Clement Stephenson, F.R.C.V.S., Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2. Mr. James Peter, Agent to Lord Fitzhardinge, of Berkeley
Castle.
3. Mr. Frank Booth, M.R.C.V.S., of Abergele (the Society’s
Provincial Veterinary Surgeon for Carnarvon and Denbigh).
4. Mr. John Denchfield, Burston House, Aylesbury (stock-
owner).
5. Professor McFadyean, M.B., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Dean of the
Royal Veterinary College.
6. Dr. Sims Woodhead, M.D., F.R.S.E., Director of the Labor-
atories of the Conjoint Board of the Royal Colleges of Physicians
and Surgeons.
7. Mr. Robert Hickes, F.R.C. V.S., Market Weighton.
8. Professor Penberthy, F.R.C. V.S., Royal Veterinary College.
9. Professor J. Wortley Axe, M.R.C.V.S.
10. Col. Curtis Hayward, Quedgeley, Gloucester.
1 Extract from the Proceedings of the Council, Wednesday, February 7,
1894. — The Report of the Veterinary Committee having been received and
adopted, it was resolved, on the recommendation of the Committee, to appoint
a Special Committee to inquire into the subject of Abortion in Cattle, such
Committee to be empowered to collect evidence from stock-breeders and from
veterinary surgeons, both by the issue of circulars of inquiry, and by the
calling of witnesses, and to be instructed to report as to the advisability of
experiments with breeding animals being undertaken by the Society. Agree-
ably with the recommendation of the Veterinary Committee, the Special Com-
mittee was constituted of Sir John Thorold, the Hon. C. T. Parker, Sir Nigel
Kingscote, Col. Curtis Hayward, Mr. Garrett Taylor, Professors Brown, Axe,
and McFadyean, and Dr. Sims Woodhead, with power to add to their number.
[Mr. Clement Stephenson. F.R.C. V.S., added to the Committee, March 5, 1894.]
Report of the Special Committee on Abortion in Cattle. 313
History of Abortion.
3. That the disease of abortion in some form was known to the
ancients is apparent from the references which are made to a “ cast
calf” in Exodus, and in the Book of Job.1
Abortion is defined to be a premature expulsion of the embryo
or foetus before development has advanced to a sufficient extent to
render the animal capable of living when separated from the
mother.
In an article on Abortion, in the Second Volume, Third Series,
Part 4, of the Society’s Journal (1891), the periods of viability in
different animals are given in the following table : —
Animal
Period of gestation
Viability at
Foal ....
11-12 months
1 0 months
Calf ....
9-10 „
7
Lamb and kid
5 „
4
Pig ... •
4
3
Puppy
9 weeks
7 weeks
Kitten
55 days
45 days
Rabbit
25 „
20 „
4. There appears to be evidence that abortion is more common
in the domesticated races than among wild animals. In an article
written for the Society’s Journal by Mr. Barlow in 1851, it is said,
“ From various inquiries which have been made, and from the state-
ments of travellers and other persons competent to speak on the
subject, it seems that among the vast herds of wild cattle inhabiting
large tracts of country in the Old and New Worlds, abortion is un-
known.” 2
One of the earliest writers, Clater, speaks, in 1786, of abortion as
one of the curses of the breeder, and refers to some of its common
causes. He also remarks on the fact that the disease sometimes
assumes an epizootic character.
Youatt, writing in 1834, remarks on the susceptibility of cows
above that of other animals on the farm. He also refers to com-
mon causes of abortion, such as climatic changes, certain kinds of
food, and excitement ; and he gives the history of a case occurring
in France, in which the whole circumstances suggested that the
affection was of a contagious character.
Monsieur Bouley, writing, in 1863, in his Dictionary of
Veterinary Medicine , refers to abortion beginning with the intro-
duction of a new cow. He also notes various common causes,
and among these he mentions imitation, by which he means to
imply that when abortion takes place in a herd, a number of preg-
nant cows will quickly follow the example of the first. He also
points out that when abortion takes place, cows in a herd become
1 Job xxi. 10.
2 R.A.S.E. Journal, Vol. XII., Part 1, 1st Series, 1851, p. 64.
314 Report of the Special Committee on Abortion in Cattle.
extremely excited, running round thefcetus, and occasionally becoming
what he describes as “ frantic.” These facts are well known to
breeders at the present day.
5. Dr. George Fleming, in his work on Veterinary Obstetrics,
published in 1878, quotes the observations of different Continental
experts, and remarks that Ziindel found that if septic bacteria are
introduced into the vagina, abortion follows. Ten years later,
Monsieur Nocard expressed his opinion that the disease was of a
distinctly contagious character. Professor Axe, in 1885, refers to the
theory of contagion, which he looks upon as insufficiently sustained
by the evidence. ITe also gives an account in the Society’s Journal
for 1885 of an extensive outbreak of abortion amongst ewes in
Lincolnshire ; 1 and he considers the practice of feeding pregnant
cows exclusively on unripe or watery roots, and especially on unwhole-
some, filth-laden “ shells,” as among the principal causes of the
disease ; but he adds to these causes, “ the pain induced by pro-
tracted foot-rot, exposure to cold wind, and continuous heavy rains,
and the exertion necessary to take the animals through the deep
and sticky ground.”
Mr. Clement Stephenson, F.R.C.V.S., in an article in the
Society’s Journal in 1885, attaches considerable importance to
sympathy, and also refers to other known causes.2
Dr. Johnson, of Kirkby Overblow, in Yorkshire, writing in the
Society’s Journal in 1886, 3 advances a series of arguments, based on
his own observations, in favour of the presumption that the disease
arises from the consumption of ergoted grasses ; but he also remarks
that the belief in the infectious nature of abortion is universal.
6. In the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland for 1887 and 1889, there is a report from Dr. Sims
Woodhead, Professor McFadyean, and Dr. A. P. Aitken, who
conducted an inquiry into the subject in Edinburgh in 1887,
commencing by sending out a circular letter of questions for the
purpose of obtaining information. The inquiry proved that the
disease was then prevalent throughout the length and breadth of
Scotland, and there appears to be an opinion that it is yearly
becoming more common.
Results of Committee s Inquiries.
7. The information obtained by the Committee leads to the con-
clusion that abortion is also extensively prevalent in the greater part
of England and Wales ; and from correspondence which has taken
place, it is certain that it exists in several parts of Ireland,
notably in the counties of Limerick and Cork, but chiefly in the
latter county. An investigation of this district is being made by
Mr. Prentice, the Veterinary Travelling Inspector attached to the
Veterinary Department in Dublin.
1 R.A.S.E. Journal , Vol. XXI., Part 1, 2nd Series. 1885, pp. 199-20G.
2 Tbid., Vol. XXL, Part 2, 2nd Series, 1885 p. 499.
3 Ibid., Vol. XXII., Part 2, 2nd Series, 1886, p. 462.
Report of the Special Committee on Abortion in Cattle. 315
8. From the evidence given by several witnesses, it is evident
that the idea of the disease being generally contagious and infectious
is very widely spread. One witness was of opinion that any case of
abortion, arising from any cause, was likely to become the centre of
fresh outbreaks.
9. On the subject of causes which would produce abortion there
was a very considerable difference of opinion ; but the majority of
the witnesses seemed to think that it might be caused by offensive
odours, food in bad condition, especially in a putrid state, by the
consumption of highly contaminated sewage water, by fright, and
also from sympathy ; and it was generally agreed that the occurrence
of a single case in a herd was likely to be followed by others. Other
witnesses held the view that no importance whatever was to be
attached to feeding, or the drinking of contaminated sewage water,
and some announced their conviction that none of the alleged
common causes exercised any material influence in the production
of the disease.
10. In reference to the geographical and geological distribution
of the affection the majority of the witnesses had nothing whatever
to say ; but the whole of the evidence appears to point to the
conclusion that neither of these conditions is materially con-
cerned in the development of the disease. One witness, however,
alleged, as the result of his inquiries, that abortion was unknown,
or extremely rare, in the hilly districts in Wales ; the same thing
cannot be stated with regard to Scotland.
11. Questions as to the influence exercised by particular bulls
were asked of most of the witnesses ; and some of them were of
opinion that, from the want of potency in the male, abortion very
frequently occurred, apparently as the result of imperfect impregna-
tion of the ovum. It was also considered by most of the witnesses
that the use of a bull which had served a cow shortly after abortion
was extremely dangerous. There were, however, several cases
related in which this had occurred without any ill result fol-
lowing.
12. The effect of domestication was also a subject of inquiry ;
and in ans%ver to questions, some witnesses considered that well-bred
animals and those who were placed under highly artificial conditions
were more liable to suffer than those which lived in a more natural
state. This view, however, was combated by several others.
13. Two or three witnesses gave evidence to the effect that the
disease generally dies out without treatment in from two to four
years. It may, however, be remarked that in a very large
proportion of cases this satisfactory result does not occur.
14. As to the disposal of cows after abortion, a number of
witnesses stated their belief that it was very difficult to get them to
settle to service. It was also alleged that it was desirable under any
circumstances to allow several periods of oestrum to pass over before
service again took place. Some witnesses went so far as to advise
that several months should be allowed to elapse after the occurrence
of abortion before the animal was again used for breeding. It was
ol6 Report of the Special Committee on Abortion in Cattle.
universally agreed that it was undesirable to use them for this
purpose shortly after abortion, and it was admitted generally that
the safe course is to feed the animal for the butcher.
15. Most of the witnesses, in answer to the question as to the
importance of proving whether or not the disease is contagious,
expressed their belief that it was extremely desirable that the matter
should be set at rest.
16. The information which was elicited from the witnesses, and
also from the replies to the circular letter of questions, suggests that
very little is being done by way of preventive treatment. Three or
four stockowners stated that they had tried the method of disinfec-
tion by the use of bi-chloride of mercury, three of them with suc-
cess ; but the evidence generally suggests that the most ordinary
sanitary precautions, even the obvious one of destroying or burying
the aborted foetus, are frequently neglected.
Summary of Evidence.
17. From the whole of the evidence which has come before the
Committee, it is certain that abortion of the epizootic form is
exceedingly prevalent in this kingdom, and that it occasions very
serious losses — in fact, that it is, as Clater asserted more than a
hundred years ago, one of the curses of the breeder ; and it would
appear that for some years past it has been on the increase. It is also
clear that in the country generally it is accepted very much in the
light of a curse for which there is no remedy, and stockowners in
general do not take any steps for its prevention.
18. The theory of contagion is almost universally accepted ; and
it may be allowed that the theory fits in most accurately with the
observed facts. But, on the other hand, it must be affirmed that
there is no proof that the disease is one of the true contagia. This
question could only be settled by a series of experiments, which
must be carried over a considerable period and would necessarily be
costly.
19. In the majority of cases no cause for an outbreak of abortion
can be traced ; it is only in occasional instances that the evidence
appears to point to the introduction of a fresh cow, which is first
attacked, or to the use of a particular bull, or to some accidental
circumstances of the kind to which reference has already been
made.
20. As to the influence which is exercised by domestication it is
difficult to express any positive opinion ; but there appears to be no
doubt that the most highly cultivated breeds and those that are
placed in the most artificial conditions have less of the resistant
power which is expressed by the word “ stamina ” than those which
are placed under more natui-al conditions. On the other hand, it is
alleged with perfect truth that abortion often occurs in animals
which are left to shift for themselves, and are, in short, the subjects-
of neglect and unsanitary treatment.
Report of the Special Committee on Abortion in Cattle. 317
Recommendations.
21. So far as the inquiry has extended, the Committee believe
that they are justified in making the following recommendations : —
I. For practical purposes, and with a view to the adoption of
the necessary precautions, the disease should be deemed to be con-
tagious.
II. For the purposes of prevention, strict sanitary precautions,
including habitual cleansing and disinfection of places where breed-
ing cows are kept, should be insisted on, and particular attention
should be paid to the character of the food and the water with
which the animals are supplied.
III. The treatment by the aid of antiseptics of cows which have
aborted is certainly to be recommended ; and the evidence which
has been already furnished in favour of the use of a solution of bi-
chloride of mercury, as described in the leaflet already issued (see
page liv) appears to the Committee to justify the advocacy of its
general employment in every case where the disease presents itself in
a herd. It may be advisable to state that, in view of its poisonous
nature, it is necessary to guard against any injurious consequences
arising to pigs or poultry from the careless disposal of the sweepings
from the sheds in which this disinfectant has been used.
IV. On the question of experiments for the purpose of proving
whether or not the disease is of a contagious character, the Committee
do not feel justified in advising the Society to expend a large sum
of money in this direction. At the same time, it is impossible not
to realise that a decision on this point is a matter of very consider-
able importance ; and the Committee recommend that an addi-
tional sum of 200Z. be placed at the disposal of the Veterinary
Committee for the purpose of further scientific investigations into
the causes of abortion in cattle.
J. H. Thorold,
Chairman.
June 4tli, 1894.
VOL. V. T. S. — 18
Y
318
ANBURY, CLUB-ROOT, OR FINGER AND TOE
IN TURNIPS.1
The Occurrence of the Disease in its relation to the Constituents
of the Soil.
It has long been known that on light sandy land Turnips are
frequently liable to the disease known as “ finger and toe,” and that
the presence of the disease is often concurrent with the absence of a
sufficiency of lime, on which account a dressing of lime or chalk has
frequently proved, on such lands, an effectual cure. The late Dr.
Yoelcker conducted in the year 1859 an inquiry into this subject,
examining different soils, and analysing the diseased roots and the
excrescences from them. The results went to show what has been
stated, viz. that lime-deficient soils are those most prone to produce
“ finger and toe,” and that liming is a general, though not universal,
cure, while, as compared with sound turnips, the diseased ones con-
tained more nitrogen and more mineral matter. An inquiry of a
more extended nature having been set on foot by the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, it fell to me to make further
examinations of soils from different districts, with the view of ascer-
taining whether further information could be obtained as to those
constituents of the soil the presence or absence of which would
account for the prevalence of the disease. At the same time the
Consulting Botanist of the Society was charged with the work of
direct inquiry into the behaviour of the particular fungus producing
the disease, when brought into contact with lime and other bodies
believed to be effectual in preventing its spread. It was considered
desirable that, as the investigation, so far as the soil -constituents
were concerned, tended in one direction, the results should be now
summarised.
I may here say, in explanation, that while the botanioal view is,
that the presence in the land, or the importation on to it, in some
way or other, of the fungus is sufficient to determine its spread, I
was, on my part, somewhat hopeful that an examination of different
soils would lead to establishing more definitely which of them were
liable to be affected, and which, if any, might be considered “ disease-
proof,” and that I might indicate the constituents which determined
the liability to disease, as well as the quantities of these constituents
which ought to be present to insure immunity from disease.
In the course of the inquiry I noted that in some cases it was
stated, in answer to questions directed to this end, that on one and
the same farm there existed fields that were recognised as being
always liable to disease, and others that were never subject to it. I
hoped that by selecting typical examples and by analysing the soil of
these fields I might be able to bring out some clear differences in
their composition which might account for the appearances noted.
1 An illustrated article on this subject by W. Carruthers, F.R.S., appeared in
the Journal, Vol. IV. 3rd series, Part II., 1894, pp. 334-339.
Anbury , Club-root , or Finger and Toe in Turnips. 319
I give here instances which will illustrate the result of my investi-
gation.
1. On a farm in the occupation of Mr. W. H. Glossop, of Bab-
worth, near Retford, was a field, the whole of it having been treated
alike, but on one part of which the turnips were perfectly sound,
while on another part they were badly attacked by “ finger and toe.”
I selected this as a typical example, believing that analysis would
possibly bring out a decided difference in the composition of the
soil from the respective parts. The analyses, however, came out as
follows : — T n
Soil not Soil
affected affected
1 Organic matter and water of combination 3 35 3T0
Oxide of iron and alumina . . . 2-46 2'84
Lime TO '28
Alkalies, &c ‘47 ‘36
Insoluble silicates and sand . . . 93 62 9342
100-00 10000
1 containing nitrogen .... T08 T16
It will be noted that the two soils were very similar in composi-
tion, and that both of them contained very little lime ; indeed, there
was a marked deficiency. But, while this was so, the soil affected
by disease had even more lime than that which was not subject,
and it could therefore not be concluded that the larger proportion of
lime (this itself being small) had anything to do with the presence
or absence of disease.
2. In a second instance, from the farm of Mr. James Thomas,
North Otterington, Northallerton, it was reported that there were
five fields liable to the disease, and four others not liable. At my
request Mr. Thomas kindly sent me samples taken from fields
typical of the two different appearances. These I analysed, and ob-
tained the following results : —
Soil not liable
to disease
Organic matter and water of combination 3-21
Soil liable
to disease
3-49
Oxide of iron and alumina
. 3-63
3-84
Lime .....
. -32
•29
Alkalies, magnesia, &c. .
. 1-17
1-46
Insoluble silicates and sand
. 91-67
90-92
1 containing nitrogen
10000
■095
100-00
•114
2 equal to carbonate of lime .
•58
•52
Both the above soils are decidedly deficient in lime, but though
it is true that the one “ liable ” contains less lime than the
“ affected ” soil, yet the difference between the amounts contained
is not sufficient to constitute any practical difference between the
two. Nor yet are there any other points brought out by the ana-
lyses which would justify the conclusion being drawn that the pre-
sence of a certain constituent of the soil in a greater or less degree
determined its proneness to or immunity from disease. I was forced
to conclude that the liability of the one land as compared with the
x~2
320 Anbury , Club-root , or Finger and Toe in Turnips.
other must be dependent, not upon the soil, but upon the actual
presence of the fungus in the one case, and its absence in the other.
A striking proof of the correctness of this assertion was brought out
in the correspondence which followed. On neither of the fields the
soil of which was analysed had any lime been applied for at least
25 years. But it appeared that Mr. Thomas had carted on to the
field now considered “ liable to disease ” farmyard manure made by
cattle to which turnips attacked by “ finger and toe ” had been fed,
he being then unaware that it was possible to convey in this way
the fungus from one field to another. There is little doubt that the
disease had been spread through this means, and that the reason for
the existence of “ finger and toe ” on one field and not on the other
was not any difference in the composition of the soils of the respec-
tive fields, but the fact that the fungus producing the disease had
been conveyed to one field and not to the other. Had it been simi-
larly imported on to the soil considered “ not liable to attack ” there
is little doubt that it would have spread there similarly, this soil also
being very poor in lime.
The foregoing and other cases which I inquired into led me to
the conclusion that in the case of soils deficient in lime it could not
be established that the alleged liability to, or immunity from, disease
was traceable to the chemical constituents of the soils, or to the
proportions in which they existed, but that one or the other soil
may be equally liable, and that, where immunity from disease is
reported, it is only because the fungus has not as yet been conveyed
to the land.
Having accounted thus for the reported differences between
certain fields on the same farm, I turned next to a comparison of
the soils of farms where the disease appeared to be unknown, and
those where it was a constant source of loss. From analyses which
I have made of different soils I select the following : —
Soils not liable to
“ finger and toe "
Soils liable to “ finger and toe ”
i
ii
in
IV
V
VI
VII
1 Organic matter i
and water of l
combination J
1301
6 09
905
8-82
5-13
1 808
1110
Oxide of iron
1-94
3-16
3-49
2-49
1-53
1-96
•72
Alumina
1-93
1-80
2-66
1-47
1-22
1-05
115
Lime .
1-44
2-05
1-62
7-46
•18
•10
•29
Magnesia .
•31
•39
1-32
•86
•64
•18
•22
Potash
•14
•20
■39
•28
•11
•11
•06
Soda .
•31
•27
•72
1-86
•24
•12
•74
Phosphoric acid .
•18
•24
•25
•25
•14
•23
•22
Sulphuric acid .
•10
•07
•09
•05
•07
•06
•07
Insoluble sili- \
cates and sand J
80-64
85-73
80-41
76-46
90-74
88T1
85-43
100-00
100-00
10000
100-00 J
100-09 .
10000
100 00
' containing nitrogen
•409
•171
•283
•32
•196 |
•232
■322
Anbury , Club-root, or Finger and Toe in Turnips. 52 1
Soils not liable to “ finger and toe ”
Soils liable
VIII
IX
N
X
XI
XII
1 Organic matter and water \
of combination . J
5-58
7-22
7-48
10-50
7-72
Oxide of iron and alumina .
2-77
7-97
5-66
3-75
3-94
Carbonate of lime
•87
8-63
■78
•11
•31
Alkalies, &c.
•79
9-59
•50
■37
211
Insoluble silicates and sand
89-99
66-59
85-58
85-27
85-92
10000
10000
100-00
100-00
10000
1 containing nitrogen .
-
T09
•243
•332
•298
If these analyses are compared, it will be seen that the only
strongly marked points of difference, as between soils liable to
disease and those not liable, are in the relative proportions of lime
contained, and, to a lesser extent, in the potash. The latter may
possibly have something to do with the question ; but this is not made
clear by the analyses, the T4 per cent, of potash in No. I being
practically the same as the T1 per cent, in Nos. V and YI. But
the differences in the amounts of lime contained in the soils of
either class are very striking, and clearly point to this feature of the
presence or absence of sufficient lime being intimately associated
with the freedom from, or liability to, disease.
All the soils on which “ finger and toe ” never occurs are those
which an agricultural chemist would describe as containing sufficient
lime ; all those which are subject to disease are those recognised as
being lime-deficient. As regards theactual percentageof lime required,
it would appear that the presence of '75 per cent, of carbonate of
lime is enough to constitute a soil “ disease-proof,” if indeed such a
condition of soil can exist ; while less than one-half per cent, of
carbonate of lime would seem insufficient to ward off the attacks of
the fungus.
In saying this I am aware that it has not yet been shown that
the fungus cannot thrive in a soil which contains three-quarters of
one per cent., or even more, of carbonate of lime ; but the analyses I
have set out show that none of the soils which are reported to be un-
affected by disease have less lime than the first-named percentage, and
there is strong ground for concluding that in this lies the determin-
ing factor. For this reason I am of opinion that further inquiry
into this subject should take the form of ascertaining whether it is
possible to infect with the fungus land that is rich in lime, or
whether the presence in the soil of lime in sufficiency has a de-
structive or retarding effect upon the vitality and spread of the
fungus.
J. Augustus Voelcker.
12 Hanover Square, W.
322
QUARTERLY REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL
COMMITTEE.
June, 1894.
1. Mr. George Adams, Royal Prize Farm, Faringdon, Berks,
sent on March 19, 1894, a sample taken from a bulk of 30 cwt. of
what had been invoiced to him as follows : —
Jan. 3, 1894. 29| cwt. R. Meal 3s.=4l. 9s. 3d.
and which he stated had been sent to him as “ Rice Meal.” The
vendor was Mr. W. H. Davis, miller, Lechlade.
After receiving the meal, Mr. Adams found that his cattle would
not eat it, and he therefore sent a sample for analysis to Dr. Yoelcker.
The report was as follows : —
Moisture
Oil . . .
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters)
Starch, digestible fibre, &c
Woody fibre (cellulose)
2 Mineral matter (ash)
1 containing nitrogen .....
2 including silica ......
March 22, 1S94.
12'53\
1-40
4-94
28-95
33-52
18-661
100-00
•79
14-67
This is not rice meal, but the ground husks, or sh udes, of rice — a material
of very small feeding value. Rice meal has only about 5 per cent, of woody
fibre ; this material has 334 per cent.
The following case illustrates the importance of requiring an
explicit guarantee in the purchase of cakes : —
2. Mr. W. J. Millen, of Bluecoat, Goudhurst, Kent, sent on
March 29, on behalf of Mr. E. Hussey, Scotney Castle, Lamberhurst,
a sample of 3 tons of what he had purchased as “ Djeffkin’s Russian
Oil Cake,” at 81. per ton delivered, less 2^ per cent, discount.
Attached to the invoice was the following statement : —
Conditions of Sale of Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs.
Foreign Cakes.
American, Russian, and all imported cakes and feeding stuffs guaranteed
of the usual good and merchantable quality of the brand or description
stated, but exact composition unknown.
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , June, 1894. 323
Dr. Yoelcker’s report was as follows : —
Moisture
Oil
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters)
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre
Woody fibre (cellulose)
2 Mineral matter (ash)
1 containing nitrogen .....
2 including sand ......
April 6, 1894.
12-86\
9-64
26-19
36-54
8-34
6-43/
100-00
419
1-69
An impure cake containing much weed seed and starchy matters.
3. Lieut.-Col. Milligan, of Caldwell Hall, Burton-on-Trent, for-
warded for analysis, on April 20, a sample of what he had purchased
as “Blood and Bone Manure,” and which cost 6 1. per ton delivered.
The vendors were Messrs. E. Dean & Sons, Gibbons Street, Ashton
New Road, Bradford, near Manchester.
Messrs. Dean & Sons, in their circular, quoted, under the heading
of “ Blood and Bone Manure,” two different manures, one at 51. per
ton, and the other, which was stated to be “ specially prepared, of
extra quality,” at 6Z. per ton. The latter was recommended in a
letter from the vendors, they enclosing the following certificate
relating to it : —
Chemical Laboratory, Gibbons Street, Bradford, Manchester.
Harry Grimshaw, F.C.S., late Demonstrator in Chemistry,
Owens College, Manchester, Mem. Lit. Sc Phil. Soc., Manchester.
Below please find results of our analysis of the sample of manure which
you handed to me : —
Moisture ......... 20-09'
Organic matter 39-25
Sulphate of lime 8-14 - 100-00
Alkaline salts ........ 1-13
Mineral matter ....... 31‘39,
containing nitrogen equal to ammonia . . . 5 032 per cent
containing phosphoric acid. .... 8 060 „
The. approximate value of the
percentages is as follows : —
Organic matter
Sulphate of lime
Phosphoric acid
Alkaline salts
Ammonia
manure per ton calculated from these
£ «. <1.
. 39-25 at 10s. per ton 19 12 6
. 8-14 at 30s. „ 12 4 2
. 8-06 at 40/. „ 322 8 0
. 1-14 at 21. „ 2 5 2
. 5-03 at 80/. „ 402 8 0
100 758 17 10
7 11 9
This manure is very good value for 71. per ton, and should work well
without either requiring the addition of superphosphate or ammonia salts. —
I am, yours faithfully, H. Grimshaw.
324 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , June , 1894.
Dr. Voelcker’s report on the sample sent him by Col. Milligan
was as follows : —
April 26, 1894.
Moisture 24-85
1 Organic matter 20'94
Phosphate of lime 7-49 - 100 00
Carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, &c. . . . 28-66
Sand . 18-06,
1 containing nitrogen (total) ..... 2-97
equal to ammonia ..... . 3-61
An extravagant price to pay. The manure is a comparatively poor
one, and, if the price is for cash, I call it just about twice too dear.
On receipt of this report, Col. Milligan complained to the vendors
of the quality, and received the following reply from them : —
May 2, 1894.
Dear Sir, — In reply to yours to hand this morning we beg to say we
sent on April 10 last one ton bone manure at 6/. per ton and one ton at 51.
per ton. The query is, Out of which quality was the sample sent for
analysis to Mr. J. A. Voelcker ? We fail to understand analysis arrived at by
this gentleman, as it differs from that of ours. We beg to say ours of that
at 6/. per ton was taken from bulk heap of manure from which it was
bagged — that is, the 6/. per ton. In explanation we may say that the sample
you have sent may not have been properly and thoroughly blended with
bulk lot, which is often likely to occur if the men are a little careless in the
mixing. Then, again, every ton of manure we send out for root crops contains
2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia added before bagged up, value of which is
13/. 12s. 6d. per ton. This Mr. Voelcker would not, we presume, analyse
to its value, as in the case also of nitrate of soda, and the prepared raw
hones of which our manure contains large proportions, sometimes fails in
parts or portions of arriving at a correct analysis. I shall see Mr. Ashmull to-
morrow (Thursday) afternoon at Burton, and will then give a further explana-
tion to him of the difficulties of making a careful investigation of the quali-
ties, the test of which is best seen in the application and the results. No
single case has yet been known of a failure. The results hitherto have been
highly satisfactory, and I think I may with safety say this has been so in
your experience of its use, for we have now supplied you a few seasons
with it. I shall not ask for payment until you have been satisfied with the
results. In your case I dare venture on the above terms, on principle. — I
remain, dear Sir, yours truly, (for) E. Dean & Sons, Hugh Dean.
Col. Milligan replied : —
89 Sloane Street, S.W. : May 7, 1894.
Messrs. Dean & Son.
Sirs, — In reply to yours of 2nd inst. I hear from my bailiff that there
is no doubt about the sample sent to Dr. Voelcker being taken from the 6/.
per ton lot of “ Blood and Bone ” manure, and also that it was taken accord-
ing to the rules laid down. A duplicate sample is in his possession, which
you can have to be analysed by the County Council analyst, or if you are
not satisfied that the sample has been properly taken, come over to Caldwell
next week, or send a representative, and take a fresh sample in my presence.
Dr. Voelcker, whom I saw on Saturday, states that he has determined the
whole of the ammonia in whatever form present.
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1894. 326
I would point out to you that you have contravened the Fertilisers and
Feeding Stuffs Act, 1893, by not giving on your invoice a guarantee of
analysis. It seems to me it is a matter to bring before the County Council.
In your letter you mention that the men may be a little careless in the
mixing. I do not know whether you allude to your men at the works or my
men. As regards results it would be hard to say whether they were owing
to the general fertility of the land, the season, or your manure, so I cannot
go by that. What we farmers want is proper value for our money.
I am at above address till Monday, 14th inst. — Yours faithfully,
C. Milligan.
The vendors accepted Col. Milligan’s offer to resample. This
was done on May 15 in the presence of both parties, samples of both
the 51. and the 6/. per ton manures being taken.
One of the samples of the 5/. per ton manure was sent to Dr.
V oelcker, who reported upon it as follows : —
May 22, 1894.
Moisture ......... 24-04\
1 Organic matter 19-71
Phosphate of lime (1-63 100-00
Carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, &c. . . . 30-47 ;
Sand . 1915/
1 containing nitrogen ...... 2-77
equal to ammonia ...... 3'35
This is nearly as good as the 61. per ton manure ; there is hardly 5s. a
ton difference between them. Both manures are ruinously dear.
Col. Milligan paid the account and closed the transaction.
The following are two instances of worthless manures sold at
comparatively extravagant prices : —
4. Mr. W. S. Burton, of Childrey Manor, Wantage, Berks, sent
on April 28 a sample of what had been sold to him as “Blood
Manure,” at 20s. per ton.
Dr. Yoelcker’s report was as follows : —
May 7, 1894.
Moisture .' 15-71'
1 Organic matter 5'69
Phosphate of lime 1-26-100-00
Oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, &c. . . . 22-63
Sand 54-71,
1 containing nitrogen ...... -43
equal to ammonia . . . ... -62
This is not “ Blood Manure ” at all, though called so. It is a material
of very slight manurial value, and is not worth 5s. a ton.
Mr. Burton then wrote : —
Childrey Manor, Wantage : May 26, 1894.
Dear Dr. Voelcker, — Thanks for your kind letter. On due investiga-
tion I find that the vendor of the Manure had no intention to deceive.
326 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , June , 1894.
He is not a scientific man, and unfortunately mixed some refuse lime
•with the manure some months ago, thinking this would render it fit for
drilling.
Doubtless the lime has dissipated the ammonia &c.
He has relieved me from my purchase, so the matter need not be pur-
sued further. — Yours faithfully, W. Schoolcboft Bubioit.
Dr. Yoelcker replied
May 30, 1894.
Deak Mb. Burton, — I have examined the sample of manure further,
and have no hesitation in saying that the explanation given by the vendor
is not the real one. The sample contains no caustic lime at all, nor anything
that would drive the ammonia off, had it ever been present. What the
sample does contain is brick-dust, grit, earth, &c., with which it has been
adulterated. — Yours faithfully, J. Augustus Voelckeb.
5. Mr. H. Hedges, of Sunbury, Middlesex, sent, on May 2, a
sample of manure which was offered to him at 31. per ton.
The report on this was as follows : —
Moisture .
1 Organic matter
Phosphate of lime .
Carbonate of lime, &c.
Sand
May 14. 1894.
. 8-25\
. 14-60 1
•55 l 100 00
. 21-50 1
. 55-10j
1 containing nitrogen
equal to ammonia
•58
•70
A very poor material, and hardly worth the name
be dear at 10s. a ton.
of manure. It would
Mr. Hedges did not make any purchase.
The following is an instance of gross adulteration of nitrate of
soda : —
6. Mr. Henry Davies, of Goldby’s Farm, Astley, Nuneaton, sent
on May 5 for analysis a sample of what he stated had been sold
to him as i; 95 per cent, pure Nitrate of Soda,” the price being
11/. 10s. per ton delivered, payment vithiv one month.
On the invoice being sent, it reac1 : — -
Nitrogen
Min. Max. Tons .€ s. £ >■ d.
Nitrate of Soda 13 14 % 2 11 10 per ton 23 0 0
Dr. Yoelcker’s report on this sample was as follows : —
May 14, 1894.
Moisture 2-64\
Chloride of sodium (common salt) .... 25-74 1 j OO'OO
Other impurities '791
Pure nitrate of soda ...... 70'83/
An impure sample containing over 25 per cent, of common salt. The
price asked is high for even the very best quality of nitrate of soda.
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1894. 327
It may be pointed out that a sample of the quality represented
by the foregoing analysis would contain 11 ‘66 per cent, of nitrogen
only, while “95 per cent, pure” nitrate would have at least 15'6 per
cent, of nitrogen.
The merchants then wrote : —
May 21, 1894.
Mr. Henry Davies, Goldby’s Farm, near Nuneaton.
Dear Sir, — With reference to your favour of the 16th inst., we beg to
point out that the nitrate of soda was invoiced to you as containing the
nitrogen which your analysis shows it to hold. We therefore fail to see
where the cause of complaint lays. Our agent was not authorised to offer it
as pure, nor did we state it to be such, and the price must have shown you
that it could not possibly have been so, and you should not, if you had so
expected it, have taken delivery after receiving the invoice.
We are quite within our legal rights in refusing to make you any allow-
ance, but being desirous of retaining your custom should be glad to hear
what allowance you expect, and we will endeavour to meet you. — Yours
truly, * * * *
Dr. Yoelcker pointed out to Mr. Davies that he had only received
1 1 *66 per cent, of nitrogen, and not even that (13 per cent.) stated
on the invoice ; and he also showed that the price, instead of being
low, as the merchants indicated, was the full price of the best quality
of nitrate of soda.
On May 30 the vendors wrote : —
May 30, 1894.
Mr. Henry Davies, Astley.
Dear Sir, — In reply to yours of 24th inst., we have considered the
matter thoroughly, and in order to avoid all unpleasantness we now make
you the offer, without prejudice, of 25 s. per ton reduction, payment of
account to be made forthwith. — Yours truly, * * * *
The following case is an instance of a manure containing boiled
bones being sold as “Dissolved Bones.”
7. Mr. H. C. Gardner, of Ombersley, Droitwich, forwarded on
behalf of Mr. T. Amphlett, of Acton Hall, Stourport, Worcestershire,
for analysis, on May 8, a sample of what was sold as “ Dissolved
Bones.” The vendors were Messrs J. P. Harvey & Co., Kidder-
minster. On receipt of the invoice it read : —
£ J. d.
3 tons Diss. Bones at 61. 10s. 0 d. . . . . 19 10 0
1 ton Diss. Bones 7 0 0
26 10 0
Artificially compounded :
Ammonia 2 to 3 per cent.
Phosphates 30 to 35 „
Minimum guaranteed.
328 Qua/rterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1894.
Dr. V oelcker’s report on the sample was as follows : —
i
May 18, 1894
Moisture
Organic matter and water of combination
Monobasic phosphate of lime
Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime (bone phosphate)
rendered soluble by acid
Insoluble phosphates
Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts, &c.
Insoluble siliceous matter
11-31
29-77
8-01
(13-49)
26-39
y 100-00
22-47
1-45 '
1 containing nitrogen
equal to ammonia
1-79
218
This is not pure dissolved bones, not being made of raw bone and acid
only. The price is too high for this quality.
The vendors maintained that they had given what had been
guaranteed, and that the manure was entirely bone and acid. Dr.
Voelcker, however, showed Mr. Amphlett that the real point was
whether the manure was one that ought to have been described as
“ Dissolved Bones,” and whether it was made, as is understood in
the trade dissolved bones should be, from raw bone and acid
only, and not with boiled bone as well. Dissolved bones thus,
properly made, should contain over 3 per cent, of ammonia ; and
this the farmer has a right to expect when paying such a price as
that in question here, and not to be supplied with boiled bone giving
less ammonia than raw bone would.
The following case shows the risk run in buying feeding meals
without any guarantee : —
8. Mr. O. Wilkinson, The Lodge Farm, Dudmaston, Bridgnorth,
sent for analysis, on May 14, a sample of what was sent him in
response to an order for “ Bran,” the price being 51. per ton. No
particular guarantee was asked for.
Dr. Y oelcker’s report on the sample was —
Moisture
Oil .
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters)
Starch, digestible fibre, &c
Woody fibre (cellulose) .....
Mineral matter (ash)
May 19, 1894.
11-83
3- 89
14-01
56-19
9-39
4- 69
V 100-00
1 containing nitrogen .
2-24
This is not genuine wheat bran, but contains also a quantity of ground
barley, as also oats and some maize. It is a coarse and not nice sample, not
being in good condition — there are some maggots in it.
The vendors made an allowance of 10s. per ton.
The following cases exemplify direct contraventions of the
Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act as regards the sale, under the
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , June, 1894. 329
name of “ Linseed-cake,” of impure cakes which have no right to be
described as “ Linseed-cake ” : —
9. Mr. R. F. Gubbin, of Wyddial Bury, Buntingford, Herts,
forwarded, on April 30, a sample of 2 tons of what he had purchased
as “ Russian Linseed-cake,” at 71. 12s. 6 d. per ton delivered.
Mr. Gubbin stated that the vendors assured him that the cake
was pure. After sending a sample for analysis to Dr. Yoelcker,
the following report was received : —
May 2, 1894.
Moisture 12-98
Oil 975
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters)
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre
Woody fibre (cellulose)
5 Mineral matter (ash)
1 containing nitrogen .....
1 including sand ......
29-69
3374 '
7-65
10000
6-197
4-75
1-09
A cake adulterated to a considerable extent with spurry and other
weed seeds.
On receipt of the invoice it read as follows : —
R. F. Gubbin, Wyddial Bury.
April 23, 1894.
£ s. d.
April 3, 1894. 2 tons 1 cwt. 15 lb. Rus. Lin. Cake
at 71. 12s. 6 d 15 14 0
Subsequently the vendors wrote : —
April 27, 1894.
Dear Sir, — Your letter to hand re Linseed Cake. We beg to say we do
not guarantee the purity of any cake we sell. We do the best we can to
supply the purest cake on the market, and, as far as our knowledge goes,
what you had only contains its natural admixture. . . . We are, yours
truly, * ... *
Mr. Gubbin then gave the vendors an opportunity of taking a
fresh sample ; but this they did not avail themselves of. On the
parties meeting at Hertford later on, the vendors stated that the
broker declined to admit the impurity of the cake or to give any
compensation.
10. Mr. J. Drewitt, of Patching, Worthing, sent for analysis, on
May 15, a sample of Russian linseed-cake which he had purchased
with a guarantee of 16 per cent, of oil, the price being 71. 15s. per
ton delivered to nearest station. Four tons had been purchased
altogether.
Dr. Yoelcker’s report was as follows : —
Moisture
Oil . .
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters)
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre
Woody fibre (cellulose)
Mineral matter (ash)
1 containing nitrogen ....
May 22, 1894.
13-87\
11-38
28-75
31-91 '
8-85
5-24/
100-00
4-60
330 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1894.
Not only lias this cake considerably less oil than it is stated to contain,
but it is a very impure cake, containing a large quantity of foreign weed
seeds and starchy impurities. Polygonum and spurry are the chief weed
seeds. Such a cake ought not to be sold under the name Linseed-cake,
and if you have bought it for this I would advise you to send it back.
In reply to inquiries, Mr. Drewitt said that he knew the vendor
to be an honourable man who did not know the cake to be impure,
but had sold it relying on the wholesale merchant in London.
Nitrate of Soda.
The Committee think it desirable to call attention to the
changes which have taken place in the methods of sale and
the quality of Nitrate of Soda since the introduction of the
Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act.
Previous to this time, it was the exception for any sample sold
to a farmer by a respectable merchant to analyse below “ 95 per
cent, purity.” Everyone knew what “ 95 per cent, pure ” meant
in the case of nitrate of soda, and this quality was, as stated,
the minimum one generally met with. The introduction of the
Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act has, however, caused the
well-understood and recognised term “ 95 per cent, pure ” to be
replaced wholly, or in part, by a statement of the percentage of
nitrogen which the sample shall at least contain. The farmer
has no idea how much nitrogen there ought to be in what he
always knew as “ 95 per cent, pure,” and, as illustrated in case
No. 6 quoted in this report, it is to be feared that he is often
misled by the representations given him.
The percentage of nitrogen in “ 95 per cent, pure ” nitrate of
soda should be 15’6.
It is also noticeable that the quality of Nitrate of Soda has
very markedly deteriorated of late. It is rather the exception
now to meet with a sample that analyses “ 95 per cent.,” and
the greater number now yield only about 93 per cent, of pure
Nitrate of Soda.
Emlyjj,
June 5, 1894.
Chairman
331
REPORT OF THE EDUCATION COMMITTEE
ON THE RESULTS OF THE SENIOR
EXAMINATION, 1894.
Thk Committee have to report that thirty-two candidates entered,
and twenty-eight actually competed, at the Society’s Senior Examina-
tions which took place from the 8th to the 12th of May last, and
that of these twenty-eight competitors, fifteen have satisfied the
Examiners.
2. The following ten candidates, placed in order of merit, have
gained first-class certificates. In view of the fact that candidates
5 and 6 are practically equal in merit, the Committee recommend
that Life Memberships be granted to both, as well as to the winners
of the money prizes offered by the Society for the first four
candidates.
1. John Dronsfield Whittaker, Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester. First Prize of 25 1. and Life Membership
of the Society.
2. Alexander Clark Welch, 5 West Newington Place, Edin-
burgh. Second Prize of 151. and Life Membership of the
Society.
3. Charles J. R. Tipper, The Agricultural College, Aspatria.
Third Prize of 10/. and Life Membership of the Society.
4. Herbert Simpson Daine, Woolfall Hall F^rm, Huyton,
Liverpool. Fourth Prize of 51. and Life Membership of
the Society.
5. John Waugh Paterson, 14 Brunstane Road, Portobello, N.B.
Life Membership of the Society.
6. Grosvenor Berry, Fairseat, Wrotham, Kent. Life Member-
ship of the Society.
7. Joseph Terrence de La Mothe, The Agricultural College,
Aspatria.
8. Albert A. Dixon, The Agricultural College, Aspatria.
9. xVlfred George Scorer, Abercorn Lodge, Upper Hamilton
Terrace, N.W.
10. George Lloyd Pain, Woodhay, Silverdale, Carnforth.
3. The following candidates, having passed in Agriculture and
m three of the four other compulsory subjects, are entitled to
second-class certificates : —
11. Frederick Victor Dutton, University College of North
Wales, Bangor.
332
Report of the Education Committee, 1894.
12. Richard Henry Evans, Llecheiddior Mill, Garn, R.S.O.,
Carnarvon.
13. Alexander George Gibson, University College of Wales,
Aberystwyth.
14. William George Rumbold, 22 Great George Street, West-
minster, S.W.
15. Thomas Whiting, University College of Wales, Aberyst-
wyth.
4. Of the compulsory subjects, there were three failures in
Agriculture, ten in Chemistry, eight in Book-keeping, ten in Land
Surveying, and twelve in Agricultural Engineering. Of the
optional subjects, there were ten failures in Botany, one failure in
Geology, nine failures in Anatomy, and twelve in Agricultural
Entomology.
5. The Examiner in Agriculture (Mr. A. E. Milton Druce) reports
as follows : “ The farming experience of the twenty-eight candi-
dates who presented themselves widely differed, as the places whence
they had gained their knowledge ranged from Scotland and Wales
to the southern counties. The answers were satisfactory with
regard to the culture of grass, cost, and dairying. A great difference
was expressed in the written papers on the outlay for the root crop,
but in most cases the candidates when questioned showed sufficient
knowledge to justify the marks gained. Poultry -keeping had
evidently been a matter of much consideration to many of the
candidates. The students who had been engaged in practical work
were much more ready with their answers for the vivd voce
examination than those who had not had the advantage of such
experience.’
6. The Examiner in General Chemistry (Professor Liveing,
F.R.S.) reports that the work in this subject was, on the whole, well
done. Eight out of twenty-eight candidates obtained 70 per cent,
or upwards of the marks, and the candidates generally showed more
knowledge and more intelligent acquaintance with the principles of
Chemistry than had usually been shown in previous years. The Ex-
aminer in Agricultural Chemistry (Dr. J. Augustus Yoelcker, B.Sc.)
considers the results of the Examination very satisfactory, four papers
being of marked excellence. Dr. Yoelcker adds : “Of the six
questions, the one least well answered was that referring to con-
tinuous corn-growing. Several candidates omitted it altogether.
There was a decided disinclination to set out analyses (as required)
illustrating the differences of composition of root crops, and in no
single case was this done satisfactorily. The question on the utilisa-
tion of sewage was almost universally well answered, and the replies
to that on the ‘ripening of cheese’ were much better than I had
expected.”
Report of the Education Committee , 1894.
333
7. The Examiner in Book-keeping (Mr. Ernest Clarke) reports :
“ On the whole, the results of the Examination in Book-keeping
are disappointing. Of twenty-eight papers sent in, only four were
done really well. Considering that the paper set was by no means
a difficult one, and that ample time was given for its working, the
answers are by no means satisfactory ; and it is to be feared that
sufficient attention is not given, either by teachers or students, to
this subject, which is one of cardinal importance in the profession
of Land Agent, to which many of the candidates for the Society’s
examination aspire.’
8. The Examiner in Mensuration and Land Surveying (Mr.
G. H. Leane, F.S.I.) reports “an improvement in the quality of
the work compared with that of last year, though there remains
much to be desired, especially in that branch relating to the survey
of small estates, of which very few seem to realise the importance.”
9. The Examiner in Agricultural Engineering (Dr. W.
Anderson, E.R.S.) reports that “ the papers written this year do
not call for much remark beyond the one I have so often made, as
to the indifferent powers of sketching. Of the twenty-eight students
who presented themselves for examination, only one candidate pro-
duced presentable drawings. The answers to Questions 13 and 14
were, for the most part, very meagre, and not such as might have
been expected.”
10. In the optional subjects, the Examiner in Botany (Mr. W.
Carruthers, F.R.S.) reports that the papers have a larger proportion
of poor answers than he has ever had before. The Examiner in
Geology (Professor Rupert Jones, F.R.S.) reports that “the results
are very satisfactory. Of the twenty- three candidates all but one ob-
tained half the marks or more, eleven obtained two- thirds of the maxi-
mum of marks or more, and of these one obtained quite full marks.”
The Examiner in Anatomy and Animal Physiology (Professor J. B.
Simonds) reports that the results are not so satisfactory on the
whole as could be wished. The Examiner in Agricultural Entomo-
logy (Mr. Cecil Warburton, M.A.) reports that “the answers in
this subject are by no means up to the level of those of last year.
No fewer than twelve candidates have failed to obtain 50 per cent.,
and not more than three or four papers are distinctly good. Great
ignorance was displayed with regard to the ‘ gout fly,’ which did
such widespread damage in 1893. The question on clover weevils
was only attempted by two candidates.”
11. On the whole, the general standard of success attained by
the candidates is not so high as last year ; and the observations of
some of the Examiners appear to indicate that unequal attention is
given by the candidates to the several subjects which form part of
the Examination.
VOL. V. T. S. — 18
7
334
Report of the Education Committee , 1894.
12. The following Table gives the marks assigned by the
Examiners to the work done by each candidate in the several
subjects : —
Name of
Candidate
[The names of
those winning
First-class Cer-
tificates are printed
in capitals.]
Age of Candidate
Agriculture, max. 300
Chemistry,
max. 200
Book-keeping,
max. 200
be
1-8
cc:
m 5
^3 S
a
s
Agrl. Engineering,
max. 200
a. Botany, max. 100 j
a. Geology, max. 100
a. Anatomy, max. 100
a. Agrl. Entomology,
max. 100
Total Marks
max. 1,500
Result
“Berry, G.
24
172
167
185
100
100
85
86
80
68
1,043
Gth
+ •
18
193
+
4-
4-
4-
—
GO
+
—
4-
+
+ .
!9
165
+
4-
4-
4-
—
—
—
4-
4-
4-
+ .
44
109
+
120
4-
159
4-
63
4-
4-
+
4*
+ . . .
30
192
13G
4-
4-
+
51
50
—
4-
4-
4-
+ .
20
+
+
100
101
102
+
—
60
+
4-
4*
4" • .
33
179
100
100
4-
4-
G3
63
50
50
4-
4-
*Daink, H. S. .
37
245
157
135
1G5
1G0
74
92
50
90
1,168
4th
fDxxoN, A. A. .
22
172
133
105
100
125
G5
83
£5
50
888
8th
JDutton, F. V. .
29
1G7
157
120
4-
160
76
86
60
77
903
11th
+ . . .
29
180
124
4-
145
4-
62
59
4-
4-
4-
4-
JEvans, R. H. .
23
166
128
100
163
4-
51
64
4-
4-
G72
12th
JGibson, A. G..
18
1G2
115
110
103
4-
52
—
55
59
656
13th
+ .
18
+
+
4*
4-
4-
4-
—
4-
+
4-
4-
+ •
!9
+
109
4-
4-
4-
4-
50
—
4-
4-
4-
+
31
165
+
4-
105
4-
4-
71
4-
50
4-
4-
fMoTHE, J. T. de La .
19
173
128
140
152
104
62
82
75
50
966
7th
+ .
24
1G0
+
4-
101
4-
4-
50
+
4-
4-
4-
fPAIN, G. L. .
22
1G3
114
120
151
125
4-
65
4-
4-
738
10th
“PATERSON, J. W. .
25
177
158
100
143
150
64
98
80
77
1,047
5th
4- *
20
190
+
105
4-
100
4-
4-
—
4-
4-
4-
JRumbold, W. G. .
3°
180
+
100
135
134
—
51
—
—
600
14th
fScoiusn, A. G.
27
183
108
130
196
117
4-
75
—
65
874
9th
“Tipper, C. J. R. .
22
195
178
200
124
159
74
94
90
58
1,172
3rd
4-
24
205
4-
110
100
4-
—
81
—
68
4-
4-
“Welch, A. O.
24
220
145
200
174
162
G8
94
60
85
1,208
2nd
t Whiting, T. .
iS
200
100
115
4-
127
4-
—
4-
4-
542
15th
“Whittaker, j. D.
2S
256
172
170
18G
175
70
100
80
85
1,294
1st
Remarks.
* First-Olass certificate and life membership,
t First-class certificate.
J Second-class certificate.
a Optional subjects.
— Did not attempt.
+ Failed.
Moreton,
June 5, 1894.
Chairman.
EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURE.
Maximum Number of Marks for this Subject, including the Vi *a
Voce , 300. Pass Number, 150.
Tuesday, May 8th, from 2 p. in. till 5 p.m.
1. In selecting a farm of 400 acres, at least one-third grass, for occupation
at the present time, give your ideas as to the capital you would require ; what
would guide you in your choice as to situation, soil, rent ; how you "would
propose to pay the amount due for the first half-year ; the sum you would
allow for labour ; the cost of the Live and Dead Stock, in detail ; and briefly the
Senior Examination Papers, 1894. 335
items and probable amounts under each head of receipts and expenditure for
the financial year.
2. The prices of agricultural produce being now so low, state what im-
provements you consider could be introduced as to the management of such a
farm so as to lessen expenses without injuring the land.
3. What would be the average yield, weight, and value, per acre, at
present prices, of the various crops of corn, hay, and straw, on such a holding
{Question No. 1)?
4. State in full the cultivations and cost per acre for Mangel Wurzel,
Turnips, and Swedes, taking the land as clean, after a crop of wheat,
till the time the roots are ready to harvest or feed-off, and their fair
value.
5. What would be the cost (in detail) per quarter for threshing, winnowing,
and delivering corn five miles ? Given — -
4 Ricks Wheat containing say 85 qrs. in all
8 „ Barley „ ,, 320 „ „
3 „ Oats „ „ 180 „ „
2 „ Beans „ „ 40 „ „
C. The crop of hay and straw being so deficient last year, give some of
the lessons taught in economy, naming the substitutes used in the place
of hay and straw, and the approximate extra cost (if any) for the tenant.
7. Describe, as to putting down land to 2, 3, and 4 years ley, the
different varieties, quantities, and cost of such grass and clover seeds per
acre for each term, specifying and taking into consideration the peculiari-
ties of any particular soil, the cultivation, and mode of management.
8. What profits would you expect per head, per annum, and in full, how
derived, from a herd of forty dairy cows, to sell the milk near a town, the rent
of the land being 60s. per acre ?
9. Give a list of the different breeds of English sheep, making two
classes with regard to wool, their respective merits as to butcher’s value, any
particular breeds, as best adapted for certain soils, and full details of the
breed with which you are best acquainted.
In selecting a ram, state the chief points which you deem essential for
improving your ewe and feeding flock.
10. Give your ideas in full as to keeping poultry in fields, in movable
houses.
EXAMINATION IN CHEMISTRY.
Maximum Number of Marks, 200. Pass Number, 100.
Part A. General Chemistry.
Thursday, May 10, from 10 a.rn. till 1 p.m.
1. Give a brief account of the occurrence of nitrogen, combined and
uncombined, in nature. How can nitrogen be distinguished from carbon
dioxide, and from hydrochloric acid gas ? How could you prove the presence
nitrogen in albumen ?
2. Atmospheric air is said to be a mixture of gases, while nitric oxide and
sulphur di-oxide are said to be compounds ; state the reasons for the distinc-
tion. How is atmospheric air affected by (1) the burning in it of a fire, (2)
the fall of rain through it ?
3. Calculate the weight of nitrogen in one cwt. of each of the following
substances : Chili saltpetre, common saltpetre, ammonium sulphate, sal-
ammoniac. (N : O : Cl : Na : K = 14 : 16 : 35‘5 : 23 : 39.)
4. How is bleaching powder made ? How can it be made to yield
chlorine? Explain its chemical action with a solution of (1) sulphurous
acid, (2) ferrous sulphate.
336
Senior Examination Papers, 1894.
5. How do cast iron, wrought iron, and steel differ in chemical com-
position ? Mention the chief methods in use for protecting iron from rust,
and explain the principle on which each of them depends.
6. Explain how to detect each of the following substances when it is pre-
sent in a solution : copper, mercury, zinc, barium, silica.
7. Of the common compounds of lead which are soluble, more or less, and
which are quite insoluble in water ? Explain the action of litharge on an
oil, such as palm oil, or olive oil.
8. What is an antiseptic ? Show, by examples, that most antiseptics
belong to one of two classes, either mineral poisons or reducing agents.
9. State the relation between cane sugar and grape sugar. How can
starch be converted into sugar, and alcohol into acetic acid ? State the nature
of the chemical change in each case.
10. State the chemical composition of each of the following substances,
and give an account of its chief chemical properties: urea, ether, phenol, oil
of turpentine.
EXAMINATION IN CHEMISTRY.
Maximum Number of Marks, 200. Pass Number, 100.
Part B. Agricultural Chemistry.
Friday, May 11 th, from 10 a.m. till lp.m.
1 . Show by typical analyses the differences of chemical composition between
White Turnips, Swedes, and Mangels. Name the constituents upon which
the value of the roots as feeding materials chiefly depends, and what circum-
stances may modify the relative proportions of these constituents.
2. Suppose a farmer about to purchase for use on his land (a) nitrate of
soda, (b) bone-meal, (c) basic slag, (d) mineral superphosphate, (e) kainit.,
(/) dissolved bones, what ought he to stipulate for in each case when giving
his order ? Give your reasons for this.
3. What are the chief impediments to the utilisation of sewage as a
manurial source ? Describe any method of obtaining it in a portable form ;
and, when so obtained, on what class of land and for what purposes is it best
utilised ?
4. State anything you know as to the class of land most liable to “ finger
and toe,” and say whether there is anything to lead to the belief that the
prevalence or absence of the disease has any relation to the constituents of
the soil; also, what influence any particular kind of manuring may possibly
exercise upon the spread of disease.
5. Describe the chief characteristics of what is known generally as “ Prout’s
system ” of continuous corn-growing. On what class of land, and under what
conditions, is it most likely to be successful ? What modifications of it has it
been found necessary to introduce ?
6. What is the “ripening” of cheese? Under what conditions does it
proceed best, and what are the principal changes that take place during the
process ?
EXAMINATION IN BOOK-KEEPING.
Maximum Number of Marks, 200. Pass Number, 100.
Thursday, May 10 th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m.
To lessen the number of entries in the ledger, the single heading “Live
Stock ” may comprise all the animals except horses ; single entries may also
be used for “Rent, Rates, Taxes, and Insurance,” for “ Seeds, Manures, and
Foods Purchased,” for “ Tradesmen’s Bills and Petty Cash,” and for “Corn,
Hay, and Straw.”
Journalise the following transactions ; post them into a ledger make out
a Balance Sheet and a Profit and Loss Account.
Senior Examination Papers, 1894.
337
Robert Brown rents a farm at 250Z. a year.
On Sept. 29, 1892, his assets were : —
£
s.
d.
Cash at Bank .....
210
0
0
Petty Cash
13
5
0
Horses . . . valued at .
180
0
0
Sheep
460
0
0
Dairy Stock . . . „ .
380
0
0
Pigs ......
33
0
0
Poultry ......
6
0
0
Hay and Straw . . ,,
245
0
0
Corn ......
525
0
0
Seeds and Manures . . „ .
94
0
0
Oil cake .
57
10
0
Growing Crops and Tillages „
570
0
0
Implements, taken at cost price, less
10
per cent, per annum for depreciation
•
310
0
0
His liabilities were : —
£
s.
d.
To Landlord
,
125
0
0
„ Bankers, loan at 4 per cent.
400
0
0
„ Implement-makers for implements in-
eluded in the above valuation .
75
4
0
During the year he draws cheques for : —
£
s.
d.
Horses
40
0
0
Cattle ......
170
0
0
Pigs
25
0
0
Sheep
175
0
0
Seeds
15
0
0
Manures
33
0
0
Implements .....
14
0
0
Tradesmen’s Bills ....
37
0
0
House Expenses ....
174
0
0
Wages
447
0
0
Food Purchased ....
73
0
0
Rent
140
0
0
Rates and Taxes ....
43
0
0
Petty Cash
24
17
6
He sells to his landlord 20 tons of Hay at 51. 5s., and receives notice in
June that 25 per cent, of his rent is remitted for the current year.
He sells to his implement-makers 40 sheep at 39.?.
He sells to Smith 45 sheep at 42s., and accepts in part payment 5 cows
worth 16Z. each, the balance remaining due.
He receives and pays into the Bank for
Horses sold ....
Cattle „ ....
Sheep „ ....
Tigs and Poultry
Dairy Produce
Corn
Wool
£ j. d.
57 10 0
146 0 0
380 0 0
44 0 0
284 13 0
616 0 0
123 0 0
These receipts enable him on the 25th of March to repay the loan from
the Bankers.
On Sept. 29, 1893, he owes to tradesmen 65 1. 12s
338
Senior Examination Papers, 1894.
His valuations are : —
Cattle and Dairy Stock ....
Sheep
Horses
Pigs and Poultry
Corn
Hay and Straw
Growing Crops and Tillages
Seeds and Manures
Petty Cash in Hand
He values his Implements at cost price, less 10
depreciation.
£ s. d.
430 0 0
530 0 0
1G0 0 0
37 0 0
450 0 0
175 0 0
525 0 0
1G0 0 0
9 0 0
per cent, per annum for
EXAMINATION IN MENSURATION AND LAND SURVEYING.
Maximum Number of Marks, 200. Pass Number, 100.
Wednesday, May 9 th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.
1. On the plan given on page 4 of this paper 1 draw in pencil the chain lines
you would run to enable you to make and plot a complete survey without the
aid of angular instruments.
Note. — The Candidate must not spend more than fifteen minutes over this
question.
2. Compute the area of the inclosure given upon page 2,1 using the ordinary
plotting scale for this purpose, and giving the result in acres, roods, and
perches. Scale,
3. From the field notes given upon page 3 1 lay down the survey lines, and
plot the details to a scale of 2 chains to an inch.
Note. — The Candidate must not spend more than forty minutes over this
question.
4. Make up the level book on page 2,1 filling in the rises, falls, and reduced
levels (heights above base).
5. Plot the section in the last question to a scale of 2 chains to an inch
horizontal, and 20 feet to an inch vertical.
6. What area in statute acres will equal 14a 3r 20p ? customary acres,
where the rod or perch in use is 24 feet in length ?
7. In the process of a Survey it is necessary to obtain the distance of a
point (C) inaccessible by ordinary chaining. A base line A B is measured,
and the following angles are taken to C from points A and B with a
theodolite : —
C A B = 38° 10'
CBA = 66° 20'
The length of A B is 43 chains 25 links.
Give lengths of C A and C B.
8. The Reduced level of a certain mark (A) is 45-25 feet. By means of a
theodolite set over it — the axis of the telescope being 4 feet above it — the
angle of elevation to another mark (B) was found to be 3° 14'. The
distance A to B had been previously found by trigonometry to be 83 chains.
Give the Reduced level of the mark (B) without taking into consideration
Curvature and Refraction.
9. Give the amount for Curvature and Refraction in the foregoing example,
and state whether it will be an addition to or subtraction from the answer.
1 Not here reproduced.
Senior' Examination Papers, 1894.
339
EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING.
Maximum Number of Marks, 200. Pass Number, 100.
Tuesday, May 8th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.
N.B. — Not more than half the questions should be attempted.
1. Explain the arrangement of a pair of two-sheave blocks and calculate
the mechanical advantage gained in lifting weights.
2. What is meant by the term “ Energy ” in mechanics, and how is it
measured ?
3. Explain how it is that water on the earth does not set into solid ice
throughout its bulk in severe frosts, and show why, when it does set, the melt-
ing, in warm weather, goes on very slowly.
4. Describe the various means by which heat is diffused or communicated
from one place to another or from one substance to another.
5. What is the reason why air requires more heat to raise its temperature
a given number of degrees when at constant pressure than when at con-
stant volume ?
6. Describe the construction of the barometer, and explain its use in the
ordinary transactions of life.
7. What are the resistances to be overcome by water flowing through a
pipe, and how are these resistances usually measured ?
8. Sketch an ordinary water-wheel taking its water about the level of its
axis.
9. How is the efficiency of a steam boiler ascertained, and what does
“ coefficient of efficiency ” mean ?
10. Sketch an ordinary slide valve of a steam-engine, and explain the
distribution of steam during one revolution of the crank shaft.
11. Describe the difference between a non-condensing steam-engine
and a condensing engine, and state what is meant by “ surface con-
denser.”
12. Describe the action of a petroleum engine in which the combustion
of the oil takes place in the engine.
13. Describe one of the methods of applying steam power to the culti-
vation of land.
14. Describe the mechanical appliances in use in cutting and securing a
hay crop.
15. Sketch a chaff or straw cutter and describe its mode of action.
16. Sketch and describe a centrifugal cream separator.
17. Describe the means by which the power of a water-wheel or steam
engine is transmitted to a number of machines.
18. Describe a form of light railway such as is suitable for farm work.
EXAMINATION IN BOTANY.
Maximum Number of Marks, 100. Pass Number, 50.
Friday, May 11th, from 2 p.m. till 4 p.m.
Seven questions at st must be answered.
1. What is protoplasm, and what functions does it perform in the plant ?
2. Describe the elements of a vascular bundle in the stem of a grass.
3. How do plants receive, use, and part with water, oxygen, and carbonic
acid gas ?
4. What is an achene, a siliqua, a legume, and a drupe ? Give examples of
each.
340 Senior Examination Papers, 1894,
5. What methods would you adopt to obtain new varieties in cultivated
plants ?
6. Explain the different conditions under which seeds fail to germinate.
7. Specify the seven best plants for — («) permanent, and (b) temporary
pasture, and give reasons for your selections.
8. Give the name of the organism which causes “ Club-root,” “ Finger and toe,”
or “Anbury.” Describe its life-history, and state what steps you would take
to get rid of it.
9. Give the characteristics of the Natural Order Gramineat , and describe
the flower of a British species.
10. Name and describe in systematic order the plants marked A and B.
EXAMINATION IN GEOLOGY.
Maximum Number of Masks, 100. Pass Number, 60.
Saturday, May 12th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.
1. Name and describe some of the most common of the Rock-forming
Minerals, and the Rocks or Strata of which they are constituents.
2. Describe, and illustrate with diagrams, the dip and strike of Strata
and show how the physical features of a country are influenced thereby.
3. What are Metamorphic Rocks ? Why are they so called ? Where are
they chiefly met with ? Describe the geological position of some in par-
ticular.
4. Give a Tabular List of either (1) the Upper Silurian, — or (2) the
Cretaceous Formations, together with some of their most important Fossils.
5. Describe the origin and constitution of the chief kinds of Limestone,
with remarks on the aspect, character, locality, and uses of those you mention.
6. Give reasons, on geological grounds, why some parts of England are
respectively good for (1) pastoral, or (2) arable farming ; or (3) for the
manufacturing industries.
7. Write a brief account of the chief alluvial lands on the coasts of
England, — their extent, origin, and capabilities for farming or other
purposes.
8. Make a sketch-map or plan of the geological structure of any district you
are acquainted with ; and show how you would mark dips, strikes, faults, lodes
or metalliferous veins, and glacial strive by signs ; and by what colours you
would indicate the different kinds of rocks.
9. Describe (with diagrams) the geological structure and physical features
of one of the large Counties in the British Isles ; and give some notes on its
economic products.
10. By what Fossils would you be able to recognize the exposure or
occurrence of the Lias, the Oxford Clay, the Gault, and the London Clay
respectively ?
11. Which are the best Building-stones found in the British Isles? State
where they are found, and for what purposes they are specially used.
12. Name and describe four of the Specimens on the Table before you.
EXAMINATION IN ANATOMY AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.
Maximum Number of Marks, 100. Pass Number, 50.
Saturday , May 12th, from 2 p.m. till 4 p.m.
1. Name the cause why the head of an animal is maintained more or
less in a horizontal position, independently of the various movements to
which it is subjected by the bending, & c. of the neck.
341
Senior Examination Papers, 1894.
2. Describe the dentition of a four years old horse, a three years old ox,
a two years old sheep and a year old pig, so far as the incisor teeth and tusks
indicate.
3. Name the principal glands which secrete the saliva, and describe its
action on the food during mastication.
4. In the act of deglutition, say where involuntary action commences and
where it ends.
6. One of the animals of the farm does not possess a gall bladder : say
which it is. The heart, as the central organ of circulation, possesses four
cavities : describe the two which exist in connexion with the systemic circu-
lation.
6. State the names, in regular order, which are given to different sections
of the intestinal canal, commencing at the stomach, and say from which of
them the nutritive portions of the food are chiefly absorbed.
7. Suppose portions of the Rumen, Reticulum, Omasum and Abomasum of
an ox were cut from each viscus, how would you recognise each ?
8. Name the several divisions of the vertebral column, and give the
relative number existing in the horse and ox.
9. State the number of the so-called true ribs of the horse and ox, and
describe the difference which exists in their connexion with the Sternum.
10. Name the animal of the farm whose kidneys are lobulated, and explain
the cause why the urine on being expelled from the bladder does not pass
backwards into the tubes by which it entered.
11. Name the period of pregnancy, either in weeks or days, in the mare,
cow, ewe, and sow, and describe the position of the foetus in natural labour, and
the average time occupied in parturition by each animal.
12. By what means is the birth of a foetus effected, and in what respect
do the so-called throes differ from ordinary muscular contractions 1
EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY.
Maximum Number op Marks, 100. Pass Number, 50.
Friday, May \\th,from 4 p.m. till 5 p.m.
Candidates will not be required to answer more than five of the questions
on this paper. The replies are to be as short as possible, and where the can-
didate is not acquainted with the scientific name of an insect, the generally
received English name will be accepted.
1. Name the parts of which an insect’s body is composed, and describe its
method of breathing.
2. Describe the appearance of a Sawfly and of its larva, and give an
example of sawfly infestation.
3. What are the signs of the presence of “ Gout-fly ” ( Chlorops twniojms) in
barley, and what precautions are calculated to prevent the recurrence of the
pest ?
4. Describe the larva of the “ Crane-fly,” or “ Daddy-long-legs ” ( Tipula
oleracea ), mentioning the nature of its injury and the remedies applicable to it.
5. Give an account of any weevils which affect clover, and suggest methods
of treatment.
6. Write what you know of the Bot-fly which infests sheep ( CEstrus avis').
7. What are “ Surface caterpillars ” or “ Cut-worms ” ? Mention the
principal crops attacked, the nature of the injury, and the treatment you
would adopt.
8. Give an account of the life-history of the Cockchafer ( Melolontha
vulgaris).
342
Botes, Communications, anb
IReviews.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL AND RIVERS POLLUTION.
A paper read before the Surveyors’ Institution by Mr. R. F.
Grantham 1 conveniently summarises for us the present position of
the chronic question of sewage disposal. Taken with the discussion
elicited at an adjourned meeting, it enables us to glance at what has
been and is being done, in those places where the need has become
most pressing, towards a tolerable, if not a final, solution of a great
difficulty. During the few years that have elapsed since the last
epidemic of papers and discussions on the subject little knowledge
of real or startling novelty has been acquired and no revolutionary
modes of treatment have been introduced. There has nevertheless
been a certain steady working out in practice of rival theories and
recommendations, rendering possible a better adaptation of means to
ends and a more correct prevision of success or failure in any given
case than we formerly possessed. By a rough process of trial and
error, repeated here and there as necessity compelled, certain data
have been accumulated which may be utilised by the less wooden
of the sanitary and municipal boards in their endeavours to extricate
themselves from the dilemma in which they are often placed between
the mandates of the Local Government Board on the one hand,
and the advice of scientific experts on the other.
There is something to be proud of, and something to inspire a
less pleasurable feeling, in reviewing our national contribution to
the perfecting of sanitation. Cleanliness and decency are valued,
certainly, not less in Great Britain than in other countries, and we
can look with more equanimity on the probable result of a cholera
invasion than perhaps any other European nation. In spite of the
sometimes amazing local opposition,2 and the difficulties that often
1 Recent Experience in Sewage Filtration considered in relation to River
Pollution. Trans. Surv. Inst., Vol. XXV., Parts 12, 13, 1893.
2 “ In the smaller towns and villages,” Mr Grantham tells us, “ the proposal
for any scheme of sewerage, and sometimes of waterworks, is too frequently
and successfully met with the strongest objections by the inhabitants. It is
not long ago (in a town I had to do with where the death rate was high, where
in former years cholera had raged, and where the people visibly suffered in
health from the pollution at their doors) that at the Government inquiry into
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution. 343
beset the application of pressure from headquarters, all but the
smallest towns and villages have made some struggle to achieve a
pure water supply and to dispose of their filth innocuously. In
respect of the amount of money expended in these efforts, too, we
probably need not fear comparison with our rivals, but if we ask
ourselves how much of this money has been wisely expended, and how
much direct useful knowledge we have obtained by the expenditure,
we have little reason for self-gratulation. Expensive evidence has
been taken again and again before Royal Commissions, and expensive
battles have been fought between chemists and engineers, lawyers pro
and con., local boards and aggrieved individuals, municipalities and
the central government and the conservancy boards. How much has
been expended either by the Local Government Board or by Muni-
cipalities and Local Boards in direct, unbiassed, scientific experiment 1
To take a concrete example, the Metropolitan Board of Works has
spent, and was spending down to the time of its dissolution, vast
sums in connexion with the question. Can we trace any scrap of
scientific knowledge of sewage treatment to its initiative 1 True,
that its doings are often quoted in discussions like the one we are re-
viewing, but only to spice the narrative with a nuisance big enough
to strike the imagination by its millions of tons, or a bill for dis-
infectants running into many hundreds of thousands of pounds ;
certainly not as an example to be followed, or as a source of accurate,
well-ascertained, and exhaustive information. Yet it is not too
much to say that the metropolitan authorities might, by systematic
experiments ad hoc, carried on by competent persons under their
own control (not by chartering scientific advice at haphazard), have
long ago completely solved the problem of sewage purification and
be at the present moment discharging a clear and sweet effluent
into the Thames. Even failing this they might have abandoned the
attempt and addressed themselves with success to the alternative of
excluding the sewage from the river altogether and removing it to
a distance for disposal.
We cannot wonder, then, that the author has to go far afield
for examples of carefully conducted experiments throwing new light
on the question, or that the most instructive citations are the experi-
ments of the Massachusetts State Board of Health on sewage
filtration, and the successful working of the Berlin sewage farms.
A detailed account of these farms was given by Mr. Roechling in a
paper read in 1892 before the Institution of Civil Engineers. One
of the speakers, after remarking that London,1 with its five millions
a proposed scheme of sewerage, the strongest opposition was offered by a large
majority of the townspeople, headed by the vicar and supported by the prin-
cipal doctor. The scheme, however, has been carried out, and the opening of
the old house-drains and Cesspools revealed a frightful state of things. Long
lengths of pipes choked full of deposit, and cesspools within three or four feet
of the back doors, brimful of the foulest sewage, nearly level with the surface
of the ground, abounded all through the town.”
1 Of course this applies only to the Metropolitan District. Some of the
suburban boards (notably Wimbledon) have led the van of intelligent land
treatment.
344
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution.
of people, had not a single acre experimented upon for sewage puri-
fication, was corrected by the statement that Mr. Crimp (late of
Wimbledon) has now under the London County Council just laid
out one acre for the purpose ; we are also told that experiments
on the filtering process of different materials are now being carried
out for the London County Council. These are, at any rate, signs
of awakening, and with a few lines stating the present position of
the Metropolitan area we may pass on to review what is being
done elsewhere.
A partially successful though costly remedy for the filthy con-
dition of the Thames, which had literally become intolerable, has
been found by a rough clarification of the sewage at the outfalls at
Barking and Crossness by chemical precipitation. To each gallon
is added about 4 grains of lime and 1 grain of sulphate of iron, which
produce a rapid settlement of the grosser suspended matters in the
form of slime or sludge. From 2 to 2\ million tons of this sludge
are scraped off the settling tanks, pumped into barges, and sent
out to sea annually, and to that extent the effluent discharged into
the river is of course purified. The quantity of chemicals used is
the minimum that will produce anything like clarification when the
sewage happens to be of the quality experimented on by those
who prescribed the dose. Less would not clarify, more would
mean more cost and more sludge. But, alas ! sewage is not
always of this ideal quality, and so it is to be feared the clari-
fication is often Arery incomplete. To render the effluent more
presentable it is therefore dosed with a little of what is practically
Condy’s Disinfecting Fluid (manganate of soda and sulphuric acid
are the materials actually used) before discharge into the river ;
this, too, is a very costly business, and the success again very
partial, a small fraction only of the putrefiable matter being
destroyed by the disinfectant, and the disinfection, therefore, merely
temporary. The net result is that there is some improvement
in the condition of the river at the outfalls, though the mass of
impure effluent discharged into it still pollutes to a very undesir-
able extent, especially during such a season as the summer of
last year. A significant remark was made by Mr. Cooper —
“that the effluent of the London sewage into the river Thames
should be much more largely diluted, he thought, was quite
impossible. The water supply was, he thought, something like
one-third of the amount of water coming down the river in dry
seasons.” Unless, therefore, the metropolitan authorities can deal
successfully with their enormous effluent from the sludge tanks by
filtration through soil, sand, or prepared purifying material, there
is much justification for those who hold that ultimately the sewage
of London will have to be removed bodily .to the Mapplin Sands
or some more suitable distant spot.
Towards the possibility of purifying by filtration the partially
clarified effluent on the scale required for the enormous output of
London little attention has hitherto been directed, and until
recently no experiments worthy of the name seem to have been made.
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution.
345
For the Metropolitan Board of Works had fallen into the hands
of the advocates of purification by chemical precipitation, and
between these and the advocates of some form of irrigation or
filtration through land — broadly speaking, between the chemists
whose services might be required to advise on chemical treatment,
and the engineers who find their account in laying out sewage farms
and filtration areas — has long raged a bitter though highly
unreasonable warfare — profitable, no doubt, to the combatants, but
certainly hampering to the progress of sanitation. The unreason
is now beginning to be felt on both sides, for the process of trial
and error above alluded to has shown that the rival recommend-
ations are not so much antagonistic as supplementary. On both
sides similar extravagant expectations have been held out, which
time has shown to be illusory. The advocates of irrigation claimed
that the application of excretory matter to land was the natural
and only perfect method of rendering it harmless, and therefore
the only way of preventing the pollution of our rivers ; that
the throwing away into the sea of the fertilising ingredients of
millions of acres was a shameful waste ; and that by the restoration
of these to the land a profit could, and ought to be, obtained. Even
on this question of waste there is a pro and con. For experts
interested in the sale of artificial manures were not long in dis-
covering that, although too much sewage in our rivers may kill
fish, the fish at sea have claims on our bounty, and that sludge or
sewage carried out to sea is literally bread cast on the waters,
returning to us after many days !
The position taken by the chemists was that irrigation could
never be made to pay ; that in addition it was often a nuisance or a
failure ; and that by chemical precipitation alone an effluent could
be procured sufficiently pure for discharge into any river, whilst the
hope was held out that by the sale of the precipitated sludge
sufficient of the manurial value of the sewage might be recovered to
render chemical treatment the least costly method of dealing with
sewage.
Experience, now considerable, of both methods has left neither
position intact, whilst allowing some truth to each. Filtration of
sewage through soil, when that operation can be secured, has,
indeed, held its ground as the most perfect means of purification.
No precipitant, or combination of chemical nostrums, has been
successful in securing as sweet and pure an effluent as that which
has really passed through the pores of the soil. And there are
many instances, especially in the case of small towns in agricultural
districts, where simple broad irrigation,1 intelligently managed, has
proved both adequate and economical. Where a large acreage of
suitable land, otherwise worthless, can be secured, it has even
proved a financial success on a large scale. As a case we may quote
Dantzig, with a daily sewage flow of over 3]- million gallons per
24 hours, disposed of on “dune sand ” : —
1 Better with a preliminary screening through a layer of very coarse
material.
346
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution.
The sewage from Dantzig has been utilised by irrigation on what was
originally useless sandy land on the coast, the subsoil water rising to within
5 feet of the surface. The sewage liquid, when applied to the land, forces
out any air from it in bubbles, and then sinks rapidly into the subsoil,
lea-ring on the surface and in the pores of the soil both the suspended and a
portion of the dissolved matters. The land, originally let at 4 \d. per acre,
was subsequently leased to a contractor for 30 years at a rental of 1/. 11s. 6c/.
per acre. The whole affair, I am informed, has technically, financially, and
otherwise proved a complete success. The depth of humus or vegetable soil
has been increased, by the continued irrigation. The quantity of sewage
applied is equal to about 5,500 gallons per acre per day. Analyses of the
effluent water showed that it came within the standard requirement laid
down by the Rivers Pollution Commissioners.1
The checks to the universal spread of broad irrigation have,
however, been serious, though of simple character. In some places
there is no land suitable for sewage filtration, in others the sewage
is not suitable to be placed upon the land. Some land, actually
used for sewage farms, will take only 2,000 gallons per acre per
day,2 and does not deal effectually with this, whilst some few lands
will purify easily 5,500 gallons as at Dantzig, and in England the
gravelly soil of the Rugby Sewage Farm is made to take over 6,000
gallons, and the free soil of Croydon over 11,500 gallons. By the
combination of intermittent filtration with irrigation, that is by
laying out a portion of the land as filtration areas, the quantity of
sewage that can be dealt with is still more extended, and this is the
plan now generally adopted in the most successful sewage farms.
In this way at Kendal the farm takes an average of 37,500 gallons
per acre daily, and at Forfar (17 acres irrigation, 7 intermittent
filtration) an average of 20,000 to 25,000 gallons per acre. When the
filtration areas are used alone, as is often the case for weeks
together, they will take 70,000 gallons to the acre. The provision
of filtration areas as adjuncts to land intended for irrigation is a
positive advantage, too, from the farming point of view ; for one of
the main difficulties in sewage farming is the necessity of dealing
with the regular daily and nightly flow, whether the land and the
crops require it or not. Intermittence is one of the conditions of
success in the day-by-day application of sewage to land, whilst it is
obvious that land for cropping can deal with much larger quantities
in the spring and summer than in the winter, and that there are
periods — for example, when the land is frost-bound — when it is
desirable to keep the sewage off altogether, since the only result of
applying it would be for it to run off- the surface unpurified.
On the filtration areas frost is seldom an impediment to treat-
ment, the large quantity of (comparatively) warm sewage with
which they are constantly flooded effectually preventing the ground
from becoming frost-bound. At Leeds “ about two years ago an
attempt was made by flooding one of the areas to make a skating-
' Min. Proceed. Inst. C.E., Yol. XL1V.
2 This is equivalent to about seventy persons per acre.
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution. 347
rink of it ; the next morning, although a hard frost had prevailed
meantime, the sewage had all disappeared into the land.” The
objection to filtration areas that they must necessarily be un-
remunerative, since they are dosed with far too much sewage to
allow of growing profitable crops, has become less serious since the
idea of making a profit out of the application of sewage to land is
in many places an impossible one and is now everywhere recognised
as secondary to that of securing efficient purification. Moreover,
as we see, the small acreage devoted to filtration on a properly
planned sewage farm is an actual advantage to the farming. It is
true that near most towns it is impossible to get sufficient land at
an ordinary agricultural price to pemiit of the profitable application
of sewage, but for all that there are situations and circumstances
where sewage utilisation is not the dream of a bygone generation,
as it is now the fashion generally to term it. The instance of
Dantzig, already given, when sufficient waste land at a waste price
was obtainable, is a case in point ; but a more instructive one is that
of the Berlin sewage farms as described by Mr. Roechling ( loc . cit.).
Here we have the sewage of a metropolitan population, not too
favourably situated for the purpose, treated with success from a
sanitary and even from a financial point of view, by the intelligent
and thoroughly organised distribution over a sufficient acreage of
land, comprised in several farms, under a combined system of irri-
gation and intermittent filtration. The following abstract descrip-
tion of these farms given by Mr. Roechling in the course of the
discussion may be quoted in extenso : —
The city of Berlin had now a population of If million, and was situ-
ated in the sandy plains of North Germany, on either side of the Spree.
The flow of the river was sluggish and it was held up by one or two locks;
The Spree did not carry more water, in periods of great drought, than about
450 cubic feet per second. It was at first intended to collect the sewage of
Berlin at one pumping-station, and to treat it there chemically ; but this
plan had been given up, and the sewage of Berlin was now pumped from
twelve different pumping-stations within the boundaries of the town on to
farms north and south of Berlin, from 6 to 12 miles distant from the heart
of the city. The total area of the farms stood, on March 31, 1890, at 18,790
acres, of which 11,016 were under sewage treatment, the rest being farmed
agriculturally until it was required for the sewage of the town. The total
daily flow of sewage amounted now to over 30 million gallons.
The subsoil of the farms was chiefly sand, with a preponderance of
loamy sand and sandy loam in places, especially on the northern farms. The
effluent from the farms went into small ditches, which emptied into small
streams, not bigger in places than from 10 to 12 feet across. The effluent
from the northern farm came back to Berlin, whereas the effluents from the
southern farms discharged into the Havel at Potsdam, several miles below
Berlin. When the nature of the streams that took the effluent was con-
sidered, viz., their sluggish flow, their small area in cross section (almost too
small in places to carry both the sewage and the ordinary discharge), and
their much-obstructed and very tortuous course, it would be admitted that
the Berlin sewage farms were placed at a great disadvantage in this respect,
and that there was every chance that an effluent not perfectly purified would
set up secondary decomposition.
348
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution.
The farms were situated in the midst of the surrounding populous vil-
lages, and the money spent upon them amounted, on March 31, 1800, to
1 ,178,648/. At first a good many complaints were raised by the adjoining
owners against the sewage farms, and several Royal Commissions were
appointed to inquire into their condition. As a result of these inquiries the
Town Council of Berlin adopted very stringent regulations for the manage-
ment of the farms, and for the sewaging of each field in particular. Gradually
the complaints about the farms ceased, and now adjoining owners were
anxious to sewage their own land or to hire portions of the sewaged land
from the Corporation. The Berlin authorities rightly laid great stress upon
a most careful systematic sewaging of the land, as, without it, the results
from the farms, both commercially and from a sanitary point of view, must
be mere matters of chance. They had now quite an army of thoroughly
trained sewage men, which enabled them to cope most successfully with
sewage irrigation upon a scale that was at present without a parallel.
As to the financial results obtained from the farms, he might say that
the profit of management, expressed as the rate of interest on capital outlay,
amounted to a little more than 2£ per cent, in the year ending March 31,
1891, and this, it would be admitted, was a very fair interest in these days.
Concerning the degree of purification attained on the farms, he might
point out that, though they had absorbed over 350 millions of tons of sewage
since they were first laid out, they had turned out a most excellent effluent,
in which only from about 5 to 10 per cent, of the dissolved organic pollution
present in the raw sewage remained. These results had not been obtained
from a few isolated analyses made now and then, but from about three hun-
dred analyses regularly carried out during the last ten years or more. He
knew of no chemical treatment that was able to show such good results for
so long a period.
A good deal had been said against sewage farms on account of the
unhealthy conditions of life they were apt to produce, but that such was
not the case on the Berlin farms was evident from a careful perusal of the
mortality figures observed on them. He would only mention that, though
a severe epidemic of typhoid fever was raging in the eastern and northern
portions of the city at the commencement of 1888, yet no case of this fever
was reported from the farms throughout the year. The authorities had now
established four convalescent , homes, with 286 beds in all, on the farms,
which were supplied with water from wells sunk on the spot, and were doing
excellent work.
Much of the success obtained at Berlin is confessedly due to
skilled management and thorough organisation of the labourers
employed, the farms being cut up into small areas to which the
sewage is applied in the most carefully planned and systematic
manner. But it is evident that what has been done there can be
done elsewhere, if only the like conditions are observed.
Coming to those cases where sewage in its crude state is unsuit-
able for application to land, it is here that previous chemical treat-
ment becomes a valuable auxiliary. The sewage of some towns, e.g.
Wolverhampton, contains iron and sometimes compounds abso-
lutely injurious to vegetation. In other towns, especially where
the sewage is concentrated, it forms a slimy impervious deposit on
the soil, similar to j) ap ier-mdche, which soon prevents filtration
altogether. True that this can sometimes be overcome by periodi-
cally allowing the deposit to dry, and breaking up the surface with
349
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution.
tillage implements ; but it is evident that much of the filtering
power of the land must be lost on every occasion before matters
arrive at this pass. Previous clarification of the sewage by addition
of a few grains of lime per gallon before running it into settling-
tanks removes injurious iron .compounds if present, and produces a
rapid settlement of slimy suspended matter, giving in both cases
an effluent eminently adapted for application to land. On the other
hand, it introduces the new question of sludge disposal, which, how-
ever, is not the bugbear it used to be, the difficulty being now
overcome in several ways, and with greatest ease where there is land
attached to the sewage works. In London, where there is no land,
and the quantity of sludge produced is so enormous, they as yet
see no alternative for treating the bulk to carrying out to sea in
a fleet of steam barges. At Wimbledon, Wolverhampton, and very
many other places, the sludge is filter-pressed into semi-dry cakes,
which are sold at a nominal figure or given away to farmers who
will cart them away as manure. At Birmingham it is pumped up
into wooden conduits and conveyed to a porous section of the
sewage farm, where the liquid portion speedily drains away, leaving
the sludge in a condition to be dug into the ground. At each of
these three towns, and many others, the clarified effluent from the
liming tanks is employed to irrigate an adequate area of land, with
satisfactory results as regards purification, and this has always
seemed to the writer the correct way to employ effluents from pre-
cipitation processes. It must be remembered that little of the
manurial value of the sewage is removed in the sludge, and that the
application of the effluent to the growth of crops, considered in
itself and apart from the rest of the treatment, is a paying process.
Of course the claim has been, and is still, made by the anti-irri-
gation enthusiasts that chemical precipitation is of itself a sufficient
purification, avoiding the necessity for land altogether, and pro-
ducing an effluent fit for discharge into any stream. In practice
this is seldom realised. The use of lime alone produces an unsatis-
factory effluent, and to obtain a decent one it is in most cases
necessary to supplement the lime with a little sulphate of iron,
sulphate of alumina, or other chemical or patent nostrum. By
such means a fair effluent may be obtained with trial quantities of
sewage experimented on in the laboratory, but it is difficult to pro-
duce a good effluent day after day at the sewage works when the
changing quality of the sewage is not watched over by a skilled
chemist ready to proportion the precipitants to the actual charge to
be dealt with. This at any rate may be said, that whatever the
quality of effluent produced by chemical precipitation, it is infinitely
inferior in point of purity to the effluent from simple lime precipi-
tation after the latter has been filtered through soil or similar
purifying material ; whilst there can be no doubt that by a
combination of precipitation with soil filtration a perfectly satis-
factory effluent can always be obtained. There are, indeed, two
cases where chemical precipitation by itself may still be the best
procedure. As a stopgap, or a means of partial purification faute
VOL. V. T. 8. — 18 A A
350
Sewage Disposal and Divers Pollution.
de mieux, when land or filter beds are not available, as is the
present case with London, it is no doubt defensible ; and in the
very different case where the river itself into which the effluent is
discharged is already used for irrigating watermeadows on its
banks, it may be the best course to adopt. But there is now a
pretty general agreement, even amongst the advocates of chemical
treatment, that its proper function is as an adjunct to irrigation or
filtration.
Dr. Dupre himself, who, in conjunction with Mr. Dibdin, pre-
scribed the proportions of chemicals used to precipitate the London
sewage, admits in this discussion that “ no such chemical treatment
would do more than clarify the sewage by removing the suspended
matter, but would leave the matters in solution almost unaffected,”
and that by the system followed in London “ the effluent produced
was not such as could with safety be discharged into a relatively
small river.”
This being so, it is interesting to glance at the prospect of
advance in the direction of exalting the purifying power of soil or
other filtering material.
“Actual practice shows that quantities varying from 2,000 to
6.000 gallons per acre per day have generally been applied to sewage
irrigation farms, and from 10,000 gallons to 60,000 gallons to farms
laid out for irrigation combined with intermittent filtration where
crops are cultivated.” The well-known laboratory experiments of
Dr. Frankland, which led to the practice of intermittent downward
filtration, showed that volumes of 43,000, 74,000, and 96,000 gallons
per acre per day could be filtered through filters packed with six
feet of porous surface soil, with complete purification. Although
this estimate of Dr. Frankland’s led to much disappointment when
it was first attempted to put intermittent filtration into practice,
from the fact that the conditions obtainable were not such as existed
in his experimental filters, it appears from the statement of Mr.
Bailey Denton that when the soil is exceptionally favourable, as at
Abingdon and Forfar, a near approach to these maximum figures
has actually been obtained. At Abingdon, for example, the soil of
which he regards as ideally favourable, it appears that although
they have 274 acres for irrigation and 6 for intermittent filtration,
3 only of the latter are sufficient to purify the whole sewage of the
town (6,500 people), which gives an ordinary dry-weather flow of
67.000 gallons to the acre.
The experimental filters constructed by the Massachusetts Board
of Health 1 are in some cases of neai’ly double this efficiency, and throw
more light on the requisite conditions. These filters were 17 feet
in diameter and 6 feet deep. The best result was obtained with
5 feet of coarse clean sand, which filtered at the rate of 102,000
gallons per acre per day ; extremely fine sand filtered only 34,000
gallons, and garden soil only 8,600. The necessity of air spaces is
thus clearly indicated, and is forcibly pointed out by the result
1 Massachusetts State Board of Health, 19th and 22nd Annual Keports.
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution.
351
obtained when the filtering material was 5 feet of gravel and stones as
large as beans. “ For nine months sewage pumped directly from the
city sewer was applied nine times a day for six days in the week, in
quantity equivalent to 81,400 gallons per acre per day. Here we
find that 98-6 per cent, of the organic matter is removed by being
burned and converted into nitrates, and more than 99 per cent, of
the bacteria that were in the sewage were killed.” Even the rate
of 126,000 gallons per acre per day was successfully maintained
for three months, and the stones remained as clean as they were a
year before. Only after two years’ working did the effluent become
foul, when it was found that the air in the interstices had become
impure from the amount of organic matter which had been retained.
A layer of sand on the surface would perhaps have prevented this.
The upper surface only of the sand filters became clogged after four
years’ working.
Now sewage is a difficult material to filter, and some descriptions
will not filter at all. That such results as are recorded above have
been obtained with crude or slightly strained sewage is therefore
very encouraging. When it comes to filtering an effluent from a
precipitation tank, of course vastly greater rates of filtration can be
secured. We are told, for example, that a daily flow of 2| million
gallons of sewage is treated at Mortlake by precipitation, and the
effluent filtered through 1^ acre only of filter beds composed of
layers of gravel, sand, and carbon, the surface being covered with a
thin layer of earth sown with grass (=T6 million gallons per acre
per day). This is about the ordinary rate of filtration of the London
Water Companies’ filter beds. The rate claimed for some patent
filtering materials is even twice as great as this, when used upon an
effluent resulting from the use of a patent precipitant.
The amount of purification by destruction of dissolved organic
matter effected by filtration through porous materials was measured
in the case of the Massachusetts experiments by the quantity of
organic nitrogen that had disappeared by conversion into nitrate.
Now, although this process of nitrification may not be an exact
measure of the whole process of purification, it is doubtless a very
important part of it. We know about it that it is effected by the
agency of living organisms, that these are found in surface soil
only, or, as in the case of the Massachusetts filters, they doubtless
attach themselves to the surfaces of all the filtering particles which
have free access to air during the intervals of filtration. Hence the
supreme importance of porosity, and even coarseness, in the filter,
and of intermittence in filtration. This seems to us to have a direct
bearing on a remark of Dr. Dupre, who considers that turning a
sewage effluent into a river is something like filtering it through
land, or, to quote more exactly : —
Here he might point out a very common mistake made by advocates of
sewage-farming, namely, the comparison of the effluent from the farm with
the effluent from the chemical precipitation works. The river into which
the latter effluent was discharged must, in a measure, be looked upon as
taking the place of the sewage farm, and he maintained that if the river was
a a 2
352
Sewage Disposal and Rivers Pollution.
suitable it did its work as effectively and with far less nuisance than the
ordinary sewage farm. The whole surface of the river Thames, from
Barking to the Nore, was about equal to the smallest sewage farm proposed
for London.
Granting that rivers do purify sewage, as indeed must be the case
on even a superficial view of the question, it is still, to our mind, a
grave mistake to compare the purifying power of a river area with
that of an equal area of land, as is here done. If the nitrifying
power is to be taken as a criterion, the writer can say from his own
experiments that the difference between the nitrifying power of sur-
face soil and that of river water is so great that it is hard to compare
them at all ; and the reason is obvious, the nitrifying organisms being
immensely more abundant on the soil particles, all freely aerated,
than in the body of the water, aerated to an extremely limited
extent. Beside this the nitrifying organisms at any race form a
layer which has a great habit of sticking fast to surfaces.
We have dealt with sewage treatment at such a length that we
have little space left to touch upon the kindred question of rivers
pollution except in so far as it is implied in what has been already
said. With the advances above described in securing clean effluents,
and the prospect of further advances as efficient filtration is put into
practice, there is not the difficulty there formerly was in setting up
a standard of purity which may stand some chance of becoming an
actuality when rivers are merely subject to ordinary polluting
agencies. Rivers so unfortunately situated as the Irwell ought of
course to be judged by a different standard. The standards recom-
mended some years ago by the Rivers Pollution Commissioners have
been a dead letter, because absurdly stringent and absurdly inelastic.
What seems to be a suggestion in the right direction arising from
the discussion under review is that suitable standards should be
established for each river by local bodies empowered to do so. Mr.
Grantham suggests that committees of the County Councils should
conduct experiments to establish such standards for streams within
their boundaries, and should systematically examine all effluents.
Mr. Willis Bund replies to this that two or more County Councils
concerned with one river might set up different standards, and
moreover the Councils themselves are in some cases responsible for
pollution. He thinks that a Conservancy Board for each river basin
is necessary, though these might possibly be constituted by joint
committees of the County Councils concerned.
Riverside, Churchfields, Salisbury.
J. M. H. Munro.
THE TEWFIKIEH COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
EGYPT.
It may be of interest to record what has been lately done by
England to promote the agircultural prosperity of Egypt, and to
spread the knowledge of practical and scientific agriculture in a
The Teivfikieh College of Agriculture, Egypt. 353
country which is at present under the tutelage and protection of
England.
The Tewfikieh College of Agriculture at Ghizeh, near Cairo,
was founded in 1890 by a Government grant of 4,000/., and Mr.
Williamson Wallace was appointed Director. Attached to it is a
farm of 300 acres which formed part of the grounds and depen-
dencies of one of the palaces of the late Khedive, Ismail Pasha, the
principal building being at present utilised as an archaeological
museum. The accommodation provided is well adapted for the
purpose, and consists of a quadrangular arrangement of lecture
rooms, laboratory, and lodgings for the sixty-six students.
The students are taken from the sons of native proprietors,
small and large. The land is much subdivided, and there are, as a
matter of fact, very few large proprietors, except the Government,
who hold the “ Daira ” lands under public administration.
The course of instruction extends over four years, of which the
first is mainly devoted to the learning of English. The progress of
the students in English has been satisfactory, and has been
facilitated by the fact that many of the students have already
learnt French. After a year the lectures, which have at first to be
translated from English into Arabic, are understood, either wholly
or the greater part of them, by the students.
Subjects embraced in the Four Years' Course of the Teicfkieh College
of Agriculture.
1. Agriculture.
2. General Chemistry.
3. Practical Chemistry.
4. Agricultural Chemistry,
6. Botany.
6. Geology.
7. Veterinary Hygiene.
8. Gardening.
9. Entomology.
10. Land Surveying.
11 . Practical Gardening.
12. Practical Agriculture and the
Arabic and English lan-
guages.
The course detailed in the foregoing table extends over four
sessional years, and is so framed that the scientific instruction
is virtually completed before any considerable amount of practical
or manual work is undertaken. Daily visits, however, are paid to
the farm by the students, so that they know thoroughly what
are the operations which later on they will have to perform for
themselves.
The College now receives a gi-ant of about 5,000/. annually from
the Government, and the students pay a fee of 25/. a year for their
board and clothing. The College has only received about 1,000/. to
start the farm, but has made and saved about 1,000/. a year, the
profits of careful farming.
The sessional year begins in October and ends in June, when the
inundations commence.
Rotation of Crops. — A great revolution in the agriculture of
Egypt was made by Mehemet Ali (1805-1849), when the production
of the land was increased, and the character of the crops was changed
354
The Tewfikieh College of Agriculture , J Egypt.
by keeping the Nile within its banks, and substituting irrigation for
the flooding of the Nile, which was previously the normal state, and
under which conditions only winter crops could be secured after the
inundations had receded.
The Principal of the College, Mr. Williamson Wallace, to whom
I am indebted for the information relating to the farm, has given
me the following memorandum about the rotation of crops : —
“ The rotation of crops in Egypt is a three-course rotation, and is
as follows : — First Year. Cotton sown in March and gathered in
October and November. Clover and beans, sown in October and
November, cut four times during winter and finished in May,
followed in the second year by a catch crop of maize, sown in July
and reaped after ninety or one hundred days (generally no catch
crop is taken on large estates, but the land is left fallow in prepara-
tion for the following wheat crop). Third Year. Barley or wheat,
sown in November and reaped in the beginning of May, followed by
a catch crop of maize sown in July. When maize is not taken as a
catch crop in this year clover is sown in November, and the clover
root taken up after one cutting when preparing the land in
February for the following cotton crop. This is the rotation of the
Delta where the land is not inundated by the Nile. In Upper
Egypt, that is south of Cairo, the greater part of the country is
subject to the Nile flood, the water being drained off in No-
vember, and wheat, beans, clover, or barley sown immediately.
Here only one crop is got in the season, and a two-course rotation
more or less irregularly followed, namely, beans or clover one year,
followed by barley or wheat the next year. Sugar cane is grown
in Upper Egypt upon lands which are not inundated, and takes
the place of cotton in the rotation, standing two years in the land
and being preceded by fallow and followed by clover. Lucerne has
been cultivated in Egypt and Arabia as far back as there is any
information on the subject ; a patch of it is useful where cows are
kept, but it is unprofitable as a permanent crop on a large scale.”
The Director was the first to introduce good fresh butter on the
Cairo market, for which there is a ready sale at about 2s. a pound
among the European population. Dairy schools are now being or-
ganised in the country districts.
The stock on the farm consisted, at the time of my visit in Feb-
ruary, 1894, of the native cows, which have a strong resemblance to
the Channel Islands cattle, and seem to have been at some remote
period crossed with them, although they are at present rather larger
than the Jersey breed. The Director has, I think wisely, secured a
good Guernsey bull, which will improve the milking properties of the
native cattle. There are also the buffaloes, which give rich milk but
not in large quantity. All the ploughing is done by bullocks.
There seems an opening for the introduction of Shorthorn bulls who
would thrive in the climate and improve the beef-producing quali-
ties of the cows.
There were on the farm some native sheep, a long-legged breed
with perhaps some cross of the Merino. They are now using a
The Tewfikieh College of Agriculture , Egypt.
355
Shropshire ram with the native ewes, which were running on the
clover-root, and had some fine lambs in January.
The water used on the farm for irrigation is pumped up by an
engine from the Nile, and the fuel consists of the dried maize stalks.
The clover is generally cut four times in the cold season after being
irrigated in succession.
Seed and Manurial Experiments. — The principal English
grasses and clovers have been introduced, together with turnips,
mangel wurzel, several varieties of Italian wheat, Californian,
Smyrnian, and Algerian barleys, Bedford onions, and English varie-
ties of potatoes, the last named being subsequently shipped as ‘ new ’
to the London market early in the spring, and sold at remunera-
tive prices. Eight varieties of Egyptian cotton were grown, and the
results carefully investigated. A new variety has lately been in-
troduced which promises to increase the production of cotton
both in quantity and purity of colour. Native wheats were top-
dressed with poudrette and artificial manures, whilst nitrogenous,
phosphatic, and potassic manures were applied to the cotton crop.
These experiments have not been costly, being carried out on
small plots ; sulphate of ammonia has been tried on the corn crops
without any corresponding improvement. There seems to be
sufficient nitrogen and lime for the wheat crops in the Nile mud,
which constitutes the soil of the farm.
With regard to the labour on the farm, the work is done by
labourers, whose families have allotments and small patches where
they grow garden produce mainly. The workmen are thus kept
close at hand. Some land is let at about 6 1. or 71. per acre. This
is above the general average, which is from 3 1. to 51. per acre in the
country districts away from Cairo.
The grounds around the College also comprise the old gardens of
the palace of Gliizeh, with fine orange and lemon trees. The pro-
duce of these sells at as much as 25 1. an acre, to be gathered by
the natives, who co-operate together and purchase the crops, which
they watch till they are ripe for sale, otherwise they would be
robbed. The same is done with the sugar canes and the other crops,
which are worth up to 20/. an acre gross. The cost of cultivating,
taxes, and water-rent is high, up to 21. 10s. an acre for the two
latter items.
Implements and Machinery. — The plough used is an English one,
double, so that the workmen can plough either way without
turning, as it is important for irrigation that the furrows should be
even and level. Another native plough with long wooden share
follows and works the ground after the first one, to a depth of
about fifteen or seventeen inches.
European ploughs, harrows, rollers, scythes, and smaller farm
implements have been imported, and are in use upon the farm. The
grain crop was threshed by an improved machine ; the first reaper-
and-binder worked in Egypt cut the grain crop in 1891. A grass
mower was for the first time used to cut the clover crop. Silage
was successfully made, and the most improved utensils and acces-
356
The Tewfikieh College of Agriculture, Egypt.
sories for butter-making have been introduced. An oil engine
and flour mills are worked for exhibition and profit.
The College has received from the leading English implement
makers, as presents, the following : — A reaper-and-binder, a reaping
machine, a grass mower and other machinery, seeds from a leading
seedsman, and manures for experiments. This shows an apprecia-
tion of the importance to English trade of the experiments now
carried on at the farm.
The forced labour, or corvee, of the Egyptian Fellaliin has been
abolished, and the country is now prosperous. Sugar factories with
European machinery, generally French, have been established, at
which a large number of labourers are employed, and it is said that
for the first time the peasants have money in hand to pay their taxes
without mortgaging their standing crops. There is therefore an
opening for the introduction of English machinery into the country,
which will be facilitated when the students at the Agricultural
College return to their own homes and spread the knowledge of an
improved system of agriculture among their neighbours.
Egerton of Tatton.
Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire.
AWARDS UNDER THE AGRICULTURAL
HOLDINGS ACT.
In these days, when so much discussion is taking place about the
operation of the Agricultural Holdings Act, and when suggestions
are being made for its amendment in many different quarters, it
seems desirable to call attention to the case of Farquharson v.
Morgan,1 which tends to show that an amendment of the Act is
desirable in the direction of allowing moneys awarded to an out-
going tenant for tillages and such-like matters under lease, agree-
ment, or custom of the country, and moneys awarded for compensa-
tion under the Act, to be the subject of one valuation and award, and
to be recoverable in one lump sum from the County Court, which
is not the case as the law now stands.
The facts in the case were, so far as material, as follows : —
By a lease dated November 29, 1888, Farquharson let a farm to
Morgan from year to year. The lease provided that, on the
determination of the tenancy, the tenant should be entitled to
allowances and compensation in respect of various matters which
are not the subject of compensation under the Agricultural Hold-
ings Act, to be ascertained upon the basis provided by that Act ;
and it was agreed by the lease that the clauses of the Act relating
' Reported in the first volume of the Law Reports for 1894, Queen’s Bench
Pivision, p. 652.
Aivards under the Agricultural Holdings Act.
357
to procedure, and contained in Sections 7 to 28 (both inclusive) of
it, should apply as well to any claim for allowance or compensation
to be made under the lease as to any claim under the Act.
The tenancy was determined on March 25, 1891. The tenant
gave the landlord due notice of his intention to claim compensation
for matters which were the subject of compensation under the
lease, but the notice did not include any matters the subject of
compensation under the Act. The landlord gave the tenant a
counter notice of claim under the Act. The parties appointed
referees in the ordinary course, and the referees an umpire. The
referees being unable to agree, the umpire made an award, by which
he awarded a lump sum of 92£. 12s. 9 d. to be paid by the landlord
to the tenant, as the balance due to the latter after allowing the
amount due to the former.
In due time afterwards, the tenant applied to the County Court
to enforce payment of the award under Section 24 of the Act,
which enacts that, “ when any money agreed or awarded for
compensation is not paid within 14 days after the time when it is
agreed or awarded to be paid, it shall be recoverable upon order
made by the judge of the County Court, as money ordered by a
County Court under its ordinary jurisdiction to be paid is recover-
able.” Upon such application, the landlord took objection to the
form of the award, because it awarded a lump sum generally for
compensation, and did not specify particulars as required by Section
19 of the Act. He did not upon that occasion take any objection
to the jurisdiction of the County Court. By consent of both
parties, the award was remitted to the umpire in order that he
might amend it in conformity with Section 19. This the umpire
did, and, as amended, the award showed that it included compensa-
tion to the tenant for matters which were the subject of compensa-
tion under the lease, but not under the Act. The landlord appealed
against the amended award on the ground, amongst several others,
that compensation had been awarded for certain improvements, acts,
and things in respect of which the tenant was not entitled to com-
pensation under the Act ; the County Court judge, however, dis-
missed the appeal because the landlord’s notice of appeal against the
award was not given within the time (7 days after the delivery of
the award) prescribed by the Act, but he stated a special case for
the judgment of the High Court of J ustice. Upon that case coming
on for hearing, it was ordered, by consent of the parties, that the
matter of the appeal should be remitted to the County Court judge
to be re-heard upon its merits. So the case went back to the
County Court judge, who affirmed the award, and made an order for
the payment of the amount awarded.
Thereupon the landlord applied to the Queen’s Bench Division
of the High Court for a writ to prohibit the County Court from
proceeding upon the order that it had made, on the ground that
Section 24 of the Act did not give the County Court judge any
authority to enforce the award. The Divisional Court refused to
prder the writ tp issue, and the landlord appealed to the Court
358
Awards under the Agricultural Holdings Act.
of Appeal. The case was heard on January 15 in the pre-
sent year by Lord Halsbury (Ex-Lord-Chancellor), and the Lords
Justices Lopes and Davey, who took time to consider their judg-
ment until the 15th of the February following, when they reluc-
tantly gave it in favour of the landlord.
“In this case,” said Lord Halsbury, “with every disposition to
decline to interfere with the proceedings in the County Court on the
ground that, if it is possible for a person to render himself incapable
of applying for a prohibition in such a case as this, the appellant has
done so, I feel nevertheless constrained to decide that the writ must
issue to prohibit further proceedings on the order of the County
Court, so far as it is applicable to that portion of the award which
is in respect of matters outside the Agricultural Holdings Act. It
has been long settled that, where an objection to the jurisdiction of
an inferior Court appears on the face of the proceedings, it is im-
material by what means and by whom the Court is informed of such
objection. The Court must protect the prerogative of the Crown
and the due course of the administration of justice by prohibiting
the inferior Court from proceeding in matters as to which it is
apparent that it has no j urisdiction. Looking to what appears on
the face of the award in this case, and applying to that the provi-
sions of the Agricultural Holdings Act and the power of enforcing
awards given by that Act, I think it is impossible to doubt that
there is that on the face of the proceedings which shows that the
judge, in granting execution under the provisions of that Act, was
acting beyond his jurisdiction. The Act specifies the matters which
are to be the subject of compensation under it, and it appears on the
face of the award that there are matters included in the compensa-
tion awarded which are outside the provisions of the Act. Section
24 of the Act provides in substance that a sum awarded as com-
pensation under the Act may be recovered on the order of the
County Court judge as money recovered by an ordinary County
Court judgment. It is apparent that in applying that Section to
subject-matters which are not included in the provisions of the Act,
the County Court was exceeding its jurisdiction. Under these cir-
cumstances, reluctant as I am to aid the appellant in this case, I am
unable to resist the conclusion that the writ ought to issue. Con-
sidering the course of the litigation, I think the appellant ought not
to have any costs of the proceedings except in this Court where he
has succeeded.”
And so Lopes, L. J. “ The award on the face of it discloses a
want of jurisdiction. It contains and deals with matters which are
not the subject of the Agricultural Holdings Act, matters out-
side that Act, and which cannot be enforced under the 24th
Section. In such circumstances, most reluctantly I am compelled to
hold that the writ of prohibition must issue.”
And Davey, L. J. in a similar strain : —
“ The jurisdiction of the County Court in the matter is statutory,
and is conferred by the Agricultural Holdings Act.
“ It is obvious that Section 24 of the Act only applies to money
Awards under the Agricultural Holdings Act.
359
agreed or awarded to be paid in respect of matters within the Act, and
gives no jurisdiction over awards as to other matters made pursuant
to a contractual submission or with the consent of the parties.
Indeed, it was not and could not be denied that as far forth as the
award related to matters outside the Act, the County Court judge
had no jurisdiction to enforce the award, and the applicant was
prima facie entitled to the prohibition. But it was argued that
the granting of a prohibition is discretionary, and that the applicant
was estopped or precluded by his conduct from claiming a prohibi-
tion.” And after considering this argument at length and deciding
against it, the learned Lord Justice concluded his judgment thus :
“ Although I think the applicant is not precluded from asking for
a prohibition, yet he is doing so in breach of his contract, and I think
there should be no costs in the Court below; but the appellant
should have the costs of the appeal.”
Two points may clearly be deduced from this case. First, that
notwithstanding that Section 21 of the Act enacts that “ a sub-
mission or award shall not be made a rule of any Court, or be
removable by any process into any Court, and an award shall not
be questioned or otherwise than as provided by the Act,” and that
Section 22 enacts that “ the decision of the County Court on
appeal shall be final, save that the judge shall, at the request of
either party, state a special case on a question of law for the judg-
ment of the High Court of Justice, and the decision of the High
Court shall be final ” ; yet references under the Act may be made
the subjects of appeal to the Court of Appeal, and apparently
even to the House of Lords. Secondly, that notwithstanding the
contract of the parties, there should be separate awards for compensa-
tion payable under lease agreement or custom, and for compensa-
tion payable under the Act. The latter point may easily be
amended, but it does not seem so easy to prevent the proverbial
“ coach-and-four ” being driven through the appeal sections.
S. B. L. Druce.
9 Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
OVERHANGING TREES.
In the last number of the Journal (Pt. I., Vol. V. 3rd Series, p. 173)
I reported two cases relating to this subject which had been decided
by Courts of First Instance. In the first the plaintiff obtained
damages for the loss of a colt, the death of which was alleged to have
been caused by eating the defendant’s yew bushes ; in the second the
defendant was held to be liable in damages for having cut some
branches off the plaintiff’s trees, which overhung the defendant’s
premises, without having given previous notice to the plaintiff.
Both these cases have been reversed on appeal since the note was
360
Overhanging Trees.
written, and it is deemed right to insert a further note of that fact,
in order that no incorrect conclusions of law may be disseminated
through the Journal.
The first case was reversed partly on the ground that there was
no evidence that the colt had eaten the defendant’s yew bushes,
and partly that if it had eaten them it could not have done so
without going on to the defendant’s land, which it had no right to
do, there being no liability on the part of the defendant to repair
the fence, so as to prevent the colt from going on to his land.
The second case was reversed on the ground that a landowner is
entitled to cut off the branches of his neighbour’s trees which over-
hang his land, however long they have been there, and that he is
not bound to give his neighbour notice of his intention to cut them
unless he has to go on the neighbour’s land for the purpose.
S. B. L. Druce.
9 Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
METAYAGE AND ITS APPLICABILITY
TO ENGLAND.1
At a time when the suggestion is again made that some kind of
produce rents might be advantageous to agriculture in the United
Kingdom, it may be useful to inquire into the nature of metayage ,
its advantages and drawbacks, in the country nearest home. With
reference to this system Thorold Rogers says in his Political
Economy (p. 1G6) : “The tenant pays a fixed quantity in money or
produce for the use of his farm, generally using the landlord’s stock
and seed. This kind of tenancy is called metayer in France . . .
Such a tenancy prevailed in England for about sixty years.” This
view of metayage, however, is hardly to be defended. It is not a
fixed quantity either of money or produce which is paid by the
tenant, but a fixed quolity of produce, or its equivalent in money if
so agreed. And the essence of the contract lies rather in joint enter-
prise than in joint capital. If agricultural contracts of this kind
have never been Known in England, we cannot be surprised at there
not being an English name for them.2 By a loose extension of
1 Abstract of a paper on “Metayage in Western France,” by Henry Higgs
in the Economic Journal, Vol. IV.. No. 13, 1894.
2 As the name occurs in several English dictionaries it may perhaps be
regarded as anglicised. The following references are quoted from the Century
Dictiona/ry : —
M6tayage : the cultivation of land on shares ; the m6tayer system of agri-
culture.
Mitayage : that is to say, a kind of temporary partnership or joint venture, in which the pro-
prietor supplies the laud and the seed, and the peasants do all the work with their own horses and
implements.— D. M. Wallace, Rut sin, p. 519.
Metayer [M.L, medietarixes, one who tills land for half the produce] : a
Metayage and its Applicability to England.
3C1
popular language a small farm in France is still sometimes called a
metairie, even though the tenant uses no movable capital other than
his own, and his rent is fixed on the English system. But it must
be remembered that before the Revolution farmers were nearly
synonymous with mdtayers, — five-sixths of the whole land of the
kingdom according to Turgot, seven-eighths according to Arthur
Young, being held under metayage , though the latter writer states
almost simultaneously ( Travels in France , i. 399, 407) that one-
third of the land of the kingdom is in the hands of peasant
proprietors.
From the thirteenth century the system continued in France
with great persistence until the end of the last century. The
Revolution, by confiscating the land of the clergy, and selling the
estates of those who had been driven out of the country, or out of
the world, brought about a large immediate increase of small pro-
prietors and a diminution in the number of mdtayers. Thus in
1832 M. de Gasparin estimated that more than half the soil was
under metayage ; in 1842 M. de Chateauvieux put the proportion at
one-third; whilst in 18G0 M. de Lavergne thought the number of
metayers about equal to that of the farmers. It appears that a re-
action has set in during the present generation, and in spite of some
checks metayage is believed to be now gaining in favour. In the
Statistique agricole, published in 1886, figures of which the follow-
ing are the equivalents are given relative to land under cultivation
in 1882 : —
Acres Acres
4,324,917 holdings averaging 11-07 = 47,868,820 ( estivated by
° ° ° l their owners.
347,858 mUairies „ 32 21 = 11,212,125 „ „
749,559 farms on hire „ 29-49 = 22,1 14,201 „ „
Total 5,422,334 holdings 81,195,140
The system of metayage predominates especially in the centre
and south of France, and in Mayenne in the west, where during the
agricultural crisis farmers have become metayers almost without
exception. Broadly speaking, the metayer provides the labour and
cultivator who tills a farm or piece of ground for the owner on condition of
receiving a share of the produce, generally a half, the owner usually furnishing
the whole or a part of the stock, tools, &c. This system of cultivation, called
metayage, or the metayer system, prevails in the central and southern parts of
France and in most of Italy, and is practised to a considerable extent in the
Southern United States.
The principle of the mitayer system is that the labourer or peasant makes his engagement
directly with the landowner, and pays, not a fixed rent, either in money or in kind, but a certain
proportion of the produce, or rather of what remains of the produce after deducting what is con-
sidered necessary to keep up the stock. The proportion is usually, as the name imports, one-half,
but in several districts in Italy it is two-thirds. Respecting the supply of stock, the custom
varies from place to place ; in some places the landlord furnishes the whole, in others half, in
others some particular part ; as, for instance, the cattle and seed, the labourer providing the im-
plements.—J. S. Mill, Political Econ., II. viii. § 1.
The metayer has less motive to exertion than the peasant proprietor, since only half the fruits
of his industry, instead of the whole, are his own. — Ibid. II. viii. § 2.
It may be added that both metayage and metayer occur in the Stanford Lie -
tionary of Anglicised Words and Phrases. — Ed.
362
Metayage and its Applicability to England. '
implements, the landlord the immovables (land, buildings, &c.), and
both parties share equally in the provision of stock and the partition
of the produce, while the responsibility of management is mutual —
the discretion of the landlord, in case of dispute, being exercised in
some matters, and that of the metayer in others. On a few farms
of superior quality the landlord’s share is higher ( e.g . two-thirds),
while on some inferior farms he receives only one-third, — such ex-
ceptional cases, however, need not be considered. The details of
each contract of metayage vary according to the district, and are
regulated for the most part by local custom — a sort of “custom of
the country ” — as minutely codified in a Recueil des Usages ruraux
de V Arrondissement. This little code, issued by authority, may be
bought for a few sous in the local shops, and its contents are
accurately known by the metayers themselves. They provide for
almost every conceivable question which can arise affecting the
joint or several liability of the parties, prescribe certain limits to
the mode of cultivation, fix the approximate dates of successive
agricultural operations, the rotation of crops, the quantity of
manures, &c., and assume throughout the active co-operation of
intelligence and goodwill on both sides. A lease, after the usual
recitals, embodies any special stipulation which is agreed upon, and
refers for the rest to the customs as defined in the Recueil. The
little pamphlet of thirty-two pages duodecimo, now in use at'Laval,
was drawn up in 1858 by a commission appointed by the prefect of
Mayenne in 1855. The commission was aided by the agricultural
society of Laval, the justices of the peace, notaries, solicitors, and
experts ; and its labours are little more than a re-statement of
customs already of hoary antiquity, applicable as well to farms at
money-rents as to metayer-farms. The Recueil is judicially re-
cognised as an accurate statement of local custom, but it has no
binding force so far as the lease expressly provides to the contrary.
Where no special provision is made, the parties are presumed to have
agreed to be bound by custom.
Metayage then is, in effect, an agricultural partnership. The
fact that it is, on occasion, a loss-sharing as well as a profit-sharing 1
enterprise relieves it of one criticism frequently directed against
this form of co-operation. In other respects it may claim the
merits, and is open to the objections, common to profit-sharing in
general. An argument used by Adam Smith and most of those who
have followed him is that it could never be to the interest of
metayers to put their own capital into the land, “ because the land-
lord, who laid out nothing, was to get one-half of whatever it
produced. The tithe, which is but a tenth of the pi’oduce, is found
to be a very great hindrance to improvement. A tax, therefore,
which amounted to one-half, must have been an effectual bar to it.”
But Adam Smith expressly states that he is referring to a metayer
who, “having no stock of his own,” cultivated ‘only by means of
1 Seethe paper on Profit-sharing in Agriculture, by Albert Grey, in this
Journal, 3rd Series, Vol. II., 1801, pp. 771-793. — Ed.
363
Metayage and its Applicability to England.
what the landlord advanced to him.” Such an argument has no
bearing upon tenures which require the parties to advance capital
in equal shares. At present the metayer has no difficulty in per-
suading his landlord to share in the purchase of additional stock.
The metayer , less able to sustain a loss, is the more cautious of the
two, and when he has persuaded himself that such an outlay would
be remunerative, there is rarely any need for the landlord to hesi-
tate about embarking capital with his own little venture.
On the other hand, the metayer is said to be more disposed than
the ordinary farmer to the adoption of improvements. The example
of a landlord farming his own land has comparatively little local
influence. He is credited with ability to indulge his fancy in
experiments, and his neighbours have little opportunity of judging
whether or not his “ improvements ” pay. But if he lets his land to
a metayer , any reclamation of the soil, draining, levelling, &c., must
still be done at his own charges under the eyes of his tenant ; and
he is often spirited enough to introduce improvements in cattle,
manures, implements, &c., by the persuasion of experiment, at his
own expense when he is not otherwise abffi to convince the tenant
of their advantages. The gradual extension of the use of lime and
the crossing of cattle with Shorthorns in the department of
Mayenne are attributed to the example of the metayers , influenced
by the precepts and experiments of their landlords, and followed
slowly by farmers at money-rents when the success of the changes
had been established beyond a doubt.
Since the establishment of the Republic in France, the public
service has to a great extent been a closed career to the old aristo-
cracy, which has taken refuge in its landed property, and brought
to the service of metayers a knowledge of agriculture, chemistry,
and scientific farming of the greatest value. The necessity of keep-
ing accounts on both sides amply repays the trouble which it in-
volves, and the metayer is fortunate in having at his side a moneyed
partner without whose help certain improvements are strangled.
With reference to this point it is recalled that Thorold Rogers in his
Economic Interpretation of History (p. 171) says : — “When land-
lord cultivation ceased, marling was abandoned, it was too costly
for the risk, and sheep-breeding suffered at least some deterioration.”
The honesty of the metayers is admitted to be irreproachable.
Probity is, indeed, part of their capital, and any breach of it would
be fatal to their position and to their prospects of finding another
farm. It is sometimes argued, that having regard to the metayer’s
personal consumption, and to the payment of half his produce in
kind, his margin of saleable produce is so small that he cannot gain
much by a rise of prices, and is likely to become indifferent and
sleepy as a cultivator. There is no danger of this kind where
prices are stationary or declining ; and even when prices rise, an
increase in the product is almost entirely pure profit, of which a
half is a sufficiently powerful inducement to vigorous industry,
while the farmer is liable to have his rent raised, and thus gains
little more — perhaps even less — than the metayer.
o64 Metayage arid its Applicability to England .
Compared with the farmer, the metayer has more stability of
income, and is better able to weather such a currency crisis as that
of the last quarter of the present century. He profits by the intelli-
gence and resources of his landlord, with whom his personal rela-
tions generally place him on excellent terms, and these aids to his
small capital permit of a higher type of farming than is possible to
the farmer or the peasant proprietor who has no such collaborator.
Though he is less independent than either the farmer or the peasant
proprietor, he is generally more comfortable than the little owner,
who is liable to yield to a narrow and sordid parsimony under the
temptation of rounding off his plot of ground, and even to starve
such land as he has in the endeavour to buy more.
To what extent the introduction of metayage into England might
prove successful is a question for consideration. We are accustomed
to larger farms and to tenants of larger capital, and with these a
landlord-partner might be a source more of irritation than of advan-
tage. The English owner would dislike the bother of supervision
and the uncertainty of his income, whilst the English tenant would
resent “ interference ” in his management of the farm. Possibly,
too, the English soil and climate might oppose difficulties unknown
to the cultivators of France and Italy, whilst, finally, the social
constitution of our country might raise a further obstacle. The
French law of succession, which has accustomed peasants to divide
property frequently among themselves, smooths the way to the
division of their produce with the landlord, an operation which
might not be so easily effected where it is less familiar. If, however,
the farmers of England should continue to suffer as heavily as they
have done in the last few years, and the owners of land, failing
tenants, should employ bailiffs and stimulate their interests by
making their remuneration vary with the profits, we should not be
far removed from the contract of metayage. Produce rents would
be another step in the same direction.
Rigid as metayer tenure may at first sight seem to be, it is sus-
ceptible of considerable elasticity. The usages ruraux of Laval
differ in several respects from those of its adjoining arrondissement
of Chateau-Gontier ; the landlord may at each new contract adjust
such details as who is to pay the taxes, or may vary the size of the
farm, the amount and the shares of capital supplied, or the quantity
of labour required. On the whole there appears to be a balance of
advantage in favour of metayage, so far as small farms and small
capitals are concerned. It is conceivable, though nothing points
to such a course as probable, that metayage might supply a bridge
between the tenants of small holdings and a new class of yeomen in
this country.
365
ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP.
Bred on exposed marshes, and generally grazed upon short and
poor feed in its first year, the Romney Marsh Sheep may be said to
present a result to be expected after many years of the survival of
the fittest. Of a hardy and strong constitution, it will live and
thrive even upon the poorest lands without any artificial feeding or
assistance. Nevertheless, up on the best pasture, or when aided by
extra feeding, there is no breed which more readily responds, owing
to its natural kindliness and quick-fatting disposition. It may not
be out of place to briefly describe the sheep-grazing district, in the
counties of Kent and Sussex, known as Romney Marsh, which, for
drainage and sea-defence purposes, is divided into various “levels,”
viz., Romney Marsh, Walland Marsh, Denge Marsh, Broomhill, and
East Guldeford, comprising an area of about 42,000 acres of pasture
land, with a further considerable acreage of adjacent marshes ex-
tending inland and of similar character.
The Marsh may be regarded as a peninsula, terminating in its
southern extremity at Dungeness Point, and having a seaboard of
several miles upon the east and west ; while a low range of hills
bounds it upon the north and north-east.
Probably no more exposed and bleak country can be imagined.
In some parts miles may be traversed without seeing tree or hedge.
Severe winds from the east, or gales from the west, sweep across
it with full unchecked force from the sea ; and, in a hot and dry
season, such as we experienced in 1893, there is no shade or shelter
from the burning glare of the sun.
The fields are divided from each other by post and rail fences
or by water fences called “ditches” and “sewers” (for drainage
purposes).
The quality of the land in the district, which, regarded geo-
logically, is a recent reclamation from the sea, varies very con-
siderably. On the one hand there are parts which, from a rich
alluvial deposit, have become pasture of the highest quality, while
on the other, and closely adjoining, or intermixed, are many acres
of the poorest land — hard, stiff, and unkindly clay, or sand and
shingle sparsely covered with vegetation, and only barely sustaining
stock in the most favourable seasons.
In these circumstances it may well be understood that the
sheep “ bred of the soil ” must be of the most hardy and thrifty
nature, and such qualities may be pre-eminently claimed for the
Romney Marsh breed.
No sheep are better proof against the diseases which from time
to time play such havoc and devastation among our flocks. Although
none can be said to stand sound against, for example, attacks of
liver fluke (or rot), throat worm, or foot rot, under favourable
conditions for the development of these diseases, yet the Romney
Marsh sheep will be the last to succumb and is tl$e most likely to
withstand them.
yOL. V. T. S. — 18 B
366
Romney Marsh Sheep.
The system of the Romney Marsh grazier with regard to his
lambs is disadvantageous to early development. It is a loss to
himself and generally unprofitable.
It is not practicable to winter the lambs upon any large scale
in Romney Marsh. They are usually placed in August or September
in the uplands of Kent and other adjoining counties at keep until
the spring. The general manner of this wintering is wasteful.
Thousands of lambs are sent away, often full of flesh and condition,
to simply subsist on such feed as the keepers may find them. Heavy
losses are frequently sustained owing to mismanagement and un-
suitable feed. The result of a bad wintering naturally hinders the
growth, and is visible in all further stages of the animal.
The lambing down of the ewes on the Marsh usually begins
in April. Shearing commences in J une, and it is the practice to
shear the lambs.
It should be mentioned that sheep kept entirely upon the up-
lands of the county of Kent, and principally upon artificial food,
are of a larger size, coarser, and with more bone. They are generally
called “ Kents,” as distinguished from the Romney Marsh breed.
While originating from the Marsh sheep, it is possible that a strain
of the Lincoln has at some period been introduced into their
breeding.
It is difficult for the writer, himself a breeder, to describe the
shape and form which best represent the Romney Marsh breed,
for each breeder would seem to have his own ideal.
Old Dr. Price, who wrote a most interesting book upon sheep-
grazing in Romney Marsh in 1809, gives twelve points of a good
sheep. Among these are a good head, a short neck, a deep and
wide breast, a good leg, and width over the shoulders. Perhaps the
last named is the most important quality to obtain. Given this,
and a straight back, all other desirable points usually follow.
Sheep of this breed are held in much esteem by the butcher, and
neat weights commonly make as high a price per stone as the highest
quality Downs.
The mutton is usually the best obtainable from May to October,
and during that period the markets in Kent and Sussex, and also
the London market, are very largely supplied with it.
One of the most important matters of study is the quantity and
quality of the wool. It may be described as of heavy weight, with
a long, full, and decided staple. Very great improvement in the
direction of a good and even fleece has been made in recent years
by careful selection, the object kept in view being to increase the
wool of best quality and to lessen the amount of the breech and
coarser parts.
The result both as to quality and weight of wool from Romney
Marsh sheep kept in New Zealand, and in other countries, under
more satisfactory climatic conditions than here, has, to the knowledge
of the writer, been most satisfactory and profitable.
■ <ae As an example of sheep grazed in the usual way in Romney
Marsh he may instance, in one separately kept growth of wool from
Romney Marsh Sheep.
367
1,000 head, consisting of tegs, ewes bringing up their lambs, and
fatting sheep, in the dry and trying year of 1893, an average weight
of 8 lb. per sheep, the wool being washed on the sheep.
The Romney Marsh sheep seem well adapted to cross with
other breeds. The result of crossing with the Merino shows that
the extra weight and long staple are secured, while the wool assimi-
lates to the fineness of texture of that highly valued breed.
In this country, too, the ewes are frequently purchased from the
Marsh graziers and crossed with Shropshire, Hampshire Down, or
Southdown rams, for the purpose of breeding early lambs for fatting,
with excellent results.
To recapitulate what has been stated— the result of years of
careful selection, combined with the varied conditions of feed, and
roughness of climate, of its native home in the Marsh, have now
produced a breed which stands first for hardiness and healthiness,
with good kindly disposition, and heavy even wool.
There can, indeed, be but little doubt that the Romney Marsh
sheep is rapidly attaining a favourable and well-deserved recognition
both at home and abroad.
Arthur Finn.
Westbroke, Lydd, Kent.
BACTERIA, THEIR NATURE AND FUNCTION.1
A well-known English writer a short time ago informed the public
that Professor von Pettenkofer, the distinguished veteran in
sanitary science in Munich, expressed the opinion that “ the atmo-
spheric envelope of this globe is at present in a bacillophil humour.’
Expressions such as these have been repeatedly used in one form or
another, some more, some less witty ; the intention being, of course,
to convey an exaggerated impression of the frame of mind of over-
zealous enthusiasts. By such expressions more or less distinguished
speakei’s and writers have been enabled to exhibit the smartness of
their phraseology. Thus one distinguished professor relieved the
anxiety of his students by the jocular observation that idleness and
laziness will probably be found to be due to a specific bacillus,
while another no less profound writer enunciated that crime and
inebriety are probably due to bacilli. With regard to the distribu-
tion of bacteria, as well as with regard to their action, we meet
with statements which are almost made humorous by smartness of
exaggeration. Under the cover of the title “Science Notes,” one
of the London papers offered to its readers for breakfast the follow-
ing palatable dish : — “ In a grain of butter you have 47,250,000
’ The substance of a lecture delivered at the London Institution by
E. Klein, M.D., F.R.S.
B I) 2
368 Bacteria , their Nature and Function.
microbes ; when you eat a slice of bread and butter you therefore
must swallow as many microbes as there are people in Europe.”
Here it ought to be stated that a grain of solid matter of London
sewage contains only a small fraction of this number of microbes.
But, leaving these silly exaggerations and these grotesque sayings to
their authors for further improvement, it is nevertheless well esta-
blished that a considerable number of phenomena in nature are
intimately associated with bacterial life. The world of bacteria is
comparable to an unseen flora which, in variety of character, of
activity, and importance in the economy of nature, compares with
the visible flora, and in its extension and area of distribution is as
great as, in some respects greater than, that of the visible vegetable
and animal kingdom. Though unperceived by the unaided eye,
this bacterial world forces itself, by its multifarious activity, con-
tinually on our attention ; it comes into prominence by the vast
effects, the slow but far-reaching results, which it produces on man,
animal, and plant, for good and for evil, in life and in death. Some
of these actions I propose to notice, and it will be seen that while
there are bacteria whose actions are undesired and not conducive to
the well-being of man or animals, there are others which are of the
greatest service both to them and to plants, and are an essentia!
and integral part in the economy of nature.
Structure and Life-history of Bacteria.
I have spoken of the bacterial world as of an unseen flora ; I
mean by this a part of the vegetable kingdom not perceived by the
unaided eye, though, nevertheless, it is easily brought to perception,
by a variety of means. The individuals that constitute the bac-
terial world are, in fact, of such extremely minute size that only
by the aid of the microscope can they be seen, their size being often
less than $ 5 on or guiuo Pal'f of an inch, rarely more than ^Vrr part
of an inch. They are spoken of as having the character of plants,
because the elements, like those of a plant, are invested in a sheath
of cellulose, within which is contained the essential part, the living
protoplasm, the bacterial individuals being in fact comparable to
unicellular plants, in which, however, no definite cell nucleus has
been hitherto demonstrated. It ought, however, to be mentioned
that various observers have attempted to show, and, by complex
methods of staining, have succeeded in showing, in some bacterial
species the existence of parts which resemble, and which are con-
sidered as comparable to, the nucleus forming an integral part of
the typical vegetable cell.
In speaking of bacteria as of plants there are other than mor-
phological characters which guide us in this designation j bacteria
resemble plants in this essential, that they possess the power to
build up, out of simple organic compounds, the most complex sub-
stances, such as the protoplasm of their own bodies. There are
known not a few bacterial species which grow and multiply, i.e.
which build up their highly complex nitrogenous (albuminous) sub-
Bacteria , their Nature and Function.
869
stances at the expense of relatively simple nitrogenous bodies, such
as ammonium tartrate, urea and allied substances, or which can do
this even by the absorption of free nitrogen of the air. Other
species require for their growth and multiplication nitrogenous sub-
stances as complex as the animal body itself, and, like this latter, are
capable of breaking them up into simpler combinations. Patho-
genic ( i.e . disease-producing) bacteria and many of the species
concerned in the decomposition and putrefaction of albuminous
substances belong to this group.
All bacteria multiply by division ; hence their name, Schizo-
mycetes, or fission fungi, the typical process of multiplication con-
sisting in the enlargement of an individual, and its subsequent
splitting into two by fission, at the conclusion of which process two
new individuals are the result, each of them capable of enlarging
and again dividing in the same way into two, and so on. But it
can be easily shown by comparative observations, and examination
of suitably prepared specimens of artificial cultures of the different
species, that not seldom the process of multiplication does not
follow this line.
I was able to show at this stage a lantern slide of a microscopic
specimen of one of those species which, owing to the spherical or
nearly spherical form of the elements, is called a Coccus, or Micro-
coccus ; and, owing to the manner of growth in clusters and con-
tinuous masses, is called a Staphylococcus ; this microscopic speci-
men was obtained by the method of making “ impression prepara-
tions ” ; that is to say, by means of a thin glass pressed on to a
recent, i.e. a young colony or colonies growing on the surface of a
solid medium, an exact impression is obtained of the growth, and a
good and correct insight is obtained into the manner in which the
colony enlarges, and the way in which the individuals constituting
the colony grow and multiply. This photographic representation
shows that there are a good many individuals many times (4-10
times) as large as others, that some of these large elements are
uniform, while others show just the indication of a transverse
fissure by which the large element is dividing ; still others show
two fissures at right angles, by which the big element becomes
divided into four smaller ones. But it is seen also that the majority
of the cocci are only minute dots, some in pairs, others in clusters,
the former looking like two demi-lunes separated by a straight
clear line ; in fact, this latter appearance denotes the typical man-
ner in which one coccus, having first enlarged a little, divides into
two small elements. But the presence of the huge elements men-
tioned above tells us also that one coccus may go on growing to a
very large size without dividing, and, having reached this huge dia-
meter, then commences to divide, first into two, then into four,
eight, and sixteen individuals of the typical size.
A second specimen shown was an impression preparation of a
recent colony of another species ( Bacillus coli), the individuals of
which are rod-shaped or cylindrical, and are what are called typical
bacilli. Here the great majority of the individuals are of cylindrical
370
Bacteria, tlieir Nature and Function.
shape, and of a fairly uniform size ; a few only are shorter, and
arranged in the form of a dumb-bell, indicating that one of the
longer individuals has by fission split up into two smaller individuals.
But a glance at a third impression preparation, of which was shown
a photograph (Proteus), demonstrates that while there are a few
chains of cylindrical bacilli, indicating successive division of the
individuals and the new offsprings remaining joined end to end —
thus constituting what is spoken of as a Leptothrix — there are
other threads in the colony which either show a division into
cylindrical elements only imperfectly or not at all, appearing uniform
and unsegmented threads ; where the segmentation is imperfect the
individuals are of very various lengths, some not longer than those
typical bacilli in the first- mentioned chains, others three and more
times as long. These appearances indicate that the multiplication of
the bacilli does not always take place in that typical manner in which
it is generally represented ; viz. one individual elongates a little,
then splits up into two short individuals ; but a bacillus may go
on elongating till it reaches the manifold length of the typical rods,
and, having reached this great length, then segments off into a great
number of cylindrical rods. This mode of multiplication can be
made out not only in these impression preparations, but can be
actually observed in the fresh condition under suitable conditions,
e.g. on the warm stage of the microscope.
That this mode of growth appertains not only to cocci and
bacilli, but also to the third morphological group of bacteria, viz.
the Vibrios, or Spirilla, is ascertained by the fact that often one
vibrio, i.e. a more or less curved rod-shaped individual or a comma-
shaped bacillus, grows into a uniform homogeneous spiral or wavy
thread, which is capable of splitting up into a number, i.e. a chain
of comma-shaped vibrios.
We have then the typical mode of division by which one in-
dividual, a Coccus, or Bacillus, or Vibrio, as the case may be, slightly
enlarges, and then by fission divides into two ; or an individual
continues to grow to abnormal size or length, and then splits up
into a series of individuals of the typical size ; this latter mode of
multiplication implies a deficiency of fission for the time being, and
is not, as far as can be made out, due to any abnormal conditions
affecting the growth, for in many species this occurs in recent and
active colonies under conditions which in all other respects must be
pronounced as favourable for growth and multiplication.
Another interesting appearance, shown by some species of
bacteria, is generally ascribed to degeneration or involution, i.e. the
bacteria assume peculiar abnormal shapes stated to be due to ab-
normal influences, insufficient or unfavourable soil, unfavourable
temperature, &c., &c. ; but while it is true that such influences do
produce abnormal shapes, disintegration, &c., there are certain
changes in shape that are observed in some species of bacteria while
growing under perfectly favourable conditions and with the normal
rapidity, and which are anything but degenerating.
A recent colony of the Bacillus anthracis, like the photograph
Bacteria, their Nature and Function.
371
which was next shown, growing on nutritive gelatine, is made up of
twisted and convoluted threads of cylindrical rods, which threads
are seen to shoot out and to extend like filaments from the margin
of the colony. Instead, however, of these filaments being made up
of the typical cylindrical rods, the former consist of relatively huge
spindle-shaped or spherical masses many times the diameter of the
typical rods. The threads of this colony are perfectly active, and
are growing with vigour and in perfectly normal circumstances as
regards soil, temperature, and all other known conditions. As a
matter of fact, a few days later, as comparative specimens show, all
threads may be, and as a rule are, again of the typical aspect, i.e.
uniform threads and chains of rod-shaped elements.
Another photograph shown was from a colony of the bacillus of
diphtheria. Here also we notice the appearances already mentioned
of the anthrax bacilli, viz. shorter or longer filaments, in which
some of the elements show a conspicuous enlargement ; pear-shaped,
spherical, or club-shaped. Such forms are not involution forms :
they occur in vigorous and actively growing young colonies.
A still further illustration, and one of great importance, was
shown by a photograph illustrating a similar change of the tubercle
bacilli. This change has now been confirmed by several indepen-
dent observers. The typical tubercle bacilli of human or bovine
tubercle and of early cultivations are cylindrical rods. In cultiva-
tions of long duration but still actively growing we notice forms
which are more filamentous, and, as in the present illustrations, are
branched filaments with club-shaped enlargements.
From all this the conclusion is justified that in all these cases of
bacilli the typical cylindrical bacilli show occasionally an indication
that reminds one of forms belonging to the higher or mycelial fungi,
in which the growing filaments remain unsegmented and become
thickened and even branched. These thickened, branched, and
club-shaped forms of the bacilli would correspond to an atavism, and
would recall a probable former fungoid phase in the evolutional
history of these bacilli.
The next point to which I wish to direct attention is the rapidity
with which multiplication of the bacteria takes place. This differs
according to the amount and nature of the nutriment or soil on
which they grow, and to the temperature. While some bacteria
multiply even at lower temperatures at a great rate, others do so
only at higher temperatures. But in order to convey an idea of the
power and the rate of multiplication I may mention the following :
Direct observations show that the rate at which bacteria divide at
a temperature of 64° F. varies from eighteen minutes to thirty
minutes or a little longer, and at higher temperatures correspond-
ingly faster. A tube of nutrient broth was inoculated with a trace
of the growth of a staphylococcus ( Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus),
the number of cocci introduced into the tube having been previously
determined to be 8 per cubic centimetre. The tube was then kept
at 99° F. ; in the first twenty-four hours the cocci had multiplied
to 640,000 per cubic centimetre ; in the second twenty-four hours
372
Bacteria , their Nature and Function.
to 248 millions per cubic centimetre, and in the third twenty-four
hours to 1,184 millions per cubic centimetre. (1 cubic centimetre
= •061 cubic inch.)
A point of interest is the motility exhibited by certain bacteria.
In some species most, in others comparatively few, individuals show
active locomotion, spinning round and darting to and fro ; in many
other species no motility is observed. In the motile species it is
known that this motility is due to the presence and active motion
of cilia or flagella, and these have been seen and photographed in
former years in some of the larger forms, but only within recent
years has it been possible, by means of new methods (Loftier), to
actually demonstrate in the smallest forms these flagella, and here
the remarkable facts have been shown that while some possess only
one flagellum at one end, in other species the bacillus possesses a
bundle of them, or is covered with the flagella on its whole surface.
Photographs were shown of the flagella, one possessing two flagella
at one end ( Spirillum volutans), the other (cholera bacillus) one at
one end, and the third (typhoid bacillus) covered with quite a
number of flagella.
A not less interesting point is the formation of spores : the only
trustworthily ascertained mode of spore formation is that which is
called endospores ; a bacillus at a certain phase develops in its
protoplasm a minute glistening granule ; this increases in size and
becomes oval, while the rest of the substance of the bacillus becomes
pale, swells up, and gradually degenerates and disappears, leaving
the fully formed oval bright spore free. These spores offer great
resistance to temperature, chemical obnoxious substances, drying,
Ac., so that even after long periods and various adventures, when
again brought under proper and suitable conditions, they are cap-
able of germinating into the bacilli. These then grow and divide,
and continue to do so, producing new crops. Non-sporing bacteria
are for this reason more liable to succumb in the struggle for exist-
ence, although many species of non-sporing bacilli have such a vast
power of multiplication and are so little selective in their require-
ments that they manage to keep their crops perpetually going ;
some notorious putrefactive cocci and bacilli belong to this class.
Having now mentioned the essential features in the morphology of
bacteria, I proceed to give a short summary of some of the most
important activities which bacteria exhibit.
Bacteria causing Decomposition op Albumin.
Foremost in importance and vastness of result is the action which
certain species of bacteria have on albuminous matter, an action
which is termed 'putrefactive decomposition of albumin, animal or
vegetable. All organic matter when deprived of life is resolved into
similar compounds, is broken up into lower nitrogenous principles,
like leucin, tyrosin, indol, phenol, <fcc., of which the ultimate products
are ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates. The plant, it may be said in a
general way, builds up albuminous matter from nitrates. This
Baxterin, their Nature and j Function.
373
albuminous matter it is which forms the protoplasm of its cells, this
albuminous matter it is which serves as nitrogenous food for animals;
these again supplying the food for other animals and man. In the
living body of these the albuminous matter becomes broken up,
yielding nitrogenous principles like urea and allied substances,
which again, after further oxidation in the soil and in water, serve
to supply nitrates to the plant. Also, the bodies of animals and
plants after death form a large stock from which by a long chain of
processes, induced and sustained by micro-organisms, lower nitro-
genous compounds, and ultimately ammonia and nitrates, are pro-
duced, from which the living plants principally draw their nitrogen.
From this it is evident that the vegetable kingdom is dependent
for its nitrogen chiefly on processes by which from the albumin of
dead organic matter, by the activity of micro-organisms, in the first
place lower nitrogenous principles and ultimately ammonia, and in
the second place, also by micro-organisms, nitrites and nitrates are
formed. Now, the micro-organisms which are capable of producing
the first series of decompositions of dead albuminous matter form,
so to speak, the first army of attack ; it is this army which, while
multiplying at the expense of albumin, decomposes it, and thereby
is instrumental in changing it into lower nitrogenous principles, such
as leucin, tyrosin, indol, and ammonia. Amongst the large number
of species of putrefactive bacteria I will describe two only, which
by their wide distribution may be considered as playing a very
important part in this decomposition of albumin. The first is the
species known as Proteus vulgaris , the second is the Bacillus coli.
(a) Proteus vulgaris.— This species is the common putrefactive
organism ; it is almost invariably present in dead and decaying
albuminous matter ; it is the organism which in dead animals and
man plays the principal part in the destruction and resolution of
the body ; it is present in the cavity of the normal intestine ; it is
found in connexion with effete and dead matter occurring in the
body in health and disease ; it has a wide distribution in nature,
and is present wherever organic matter happens to be in a state of
putrescence ; it is liable to pass from this and to be transmitted to
other putrescible matter by air currents, by dust, by water, by
human contact or otherwise, and then to set up in this new organic
matter the same state of putrescence. The same applies to the
Bacillus coli , which has also a very wide distribution, and which
is in most instances associated with putrefaction and decomposition
of albuminous matter ; it is a normal inhabitant of the human and
animal intestine, and from here often passes into the soil, water,
and air.
These two species of organisms may be considered, then, as being
of great importance in the destruction and resolution of putrescible
matter — in short, of dead albuminous matter. Both these species
are motile bacilli.
Proteus vulgaris, as its name implies, presents itself in forms so
varied, that it is at first sight difficult to recognise them as belonging
to one and the same species : coccus forms, short ovals, short and
374
Bacteria , their Nature and Function.
long cylinders, homogeneous long threads, and even spiral forms.
But by artificial cultivation by exact methods they can be shown to
belong to one and the same species ; and it can also be shown that
under particular conditions of cultivation the bacillus almost invari-
ably shows itself as cylindrical and thread-like forms ; whereas
under other conditions it assumes the character of cocci and ovals.
Photographs which were shown gave an exact representation of
these cylindrical and thread-like forms observed in early gelatine
plate cultures ; later on, when the growth has proceeded for some
days, and the gelatine has almost entirely become liquefied, the
majority of the individuals are very short — either coccus-like or
short ovals.
It is on account of this unstable or protean character of its form
that Hauser gave it the name of Proteus, and being the common
microbe of putrid decomposition, he called it Proteus vulgaris.
This organism, as a first and important action, peptonises
albumin and liquefies and peptonises gelatine ; then this peptone
is decomposed, yielding, amongst other substances, leucin, tyrosin,
indol, skatol, phenol, and, further, ammonia.
(b) Bacillus coli. — The normal inhabitant of the intestine of
man and animals is another powerful albumin-decomposing microbe,
but, unlike the proteus, it decomposes albumin without first con-
verting it into peptone ; it therefore does not liquefy gelatine like
the proteus ; it rapidly decomposes albumin, forming indol and
allied bodies, and even ammonia.
Bacteria causing Ammoniacal Fermentation of Urea.
In connexion with these true putrefactive bacteria I must
mention a group of bacteria which, though not strictly connected
with decomposition of albuminous matter, play an important part,
inasmuch as their action supplements that of the former, the
group in question consisting of species which can change urea and
allied substances into ammonium carbonate. This action is generally
and justly considered of the nature of a ferment or hydrating
action, like that of other organised ferments to be presently
described. But we mention this group here because by changing
urea into ammonium carbonate it prepares, in one sense, the way
for the action of certain other bacteria which, by oxidising
ammonia into nitrites and nitrates, are the direct food-providers
for the vegetable kingdom. Urea and allied substances, as stated
above, are the last products of albuminous metabolism in man
and animals, and therefore form an integral part of the material
destined for the soil in which the plants of our gardens and fields
live and thrive. I showed at this stage one of the species of this
group — for there are seveial — the Micrococcus urea; ; this is a
coccus growing as a white staphylococcus, and forming connected
masses in the natural or artificial culture media ; it does not
liquefy gelatine, and grows extremely rapidly at higher tempera-
tures.
Bacteria, their Nature and Function.
375
Photographs give an idea of the character of this organism in
plate-, in streak- and stab-culture, and in microscopic specimens ; in
these latter it is noticed that neither in size, nor arrangement, nor
mode of division does this microbe show anything that would
distinguish it from other species of staphylococcus ; its action on
ui'ea is its chief distinguishing character, as it is capable of converting
it into ammonium carbonate.
At present it is well established that nitrogenous principles like
indol, phenol, and ammonia are produced during the decomposition
of albumin by proteus, Bacillus coli, and other putrefactive bacteria ;
and, further, that substances, as indol, phenol, and the like, are, by
the activity of certain other bacteria not yet sufficiently investigated,
converted into ammonia. We have now traced the decomposition
of albumin down to ammonia, and in this condition it is subjected
in the soil to the action of the nitrifying bacteria — that is, bacteria
which oxidise ammonia and convert it into nitrites and ultimately
into nitrates ; these bacteria complete then the series of processes
by which the nitrogen ultimately returns from where it started.
It started as nitrates in the soil surrounding the roots of plants,
and as nitrates it ultimately again finds itself in the soil ; first it
had been used by the plant in order to build up its albumin, then
as vegetable albumin it represents the food of animals ; in these it
serves to build up the protoplasm of the animal body, from which it
passes as food for carnivorous animals. The albumin of animals or
plants becomes decomposed by putrefactive bacteria, the ultimate
product of this, ammonia, becoming converted by the nitrifying
bacteria of the soil into nitrites, and finally into nitrates. “ From
earth to earth ” expresses the beginning and end of this wonderful
migration and change !
Nitrifying Bacteria.
Schloesing and Muntz were the first to show that the conversion
of ammonia into nitrates in the soil is most probably caused by
micro-organisms, but not till the researches of Warington, Wino-
gradski, and P. Frankland were these micro-organisms isolated
and more carefully experimented with. Warington, and particularly
Winogradski, have shown that there are two species of bacteria
which play an important part in these processes, one species
converting ammonia into nitrites, the other converting these
finally into nitrates. Some lantern slides of Winogradski were
here exhibited, in which these two species are well shown ; the
slides are of preparations of artificial cultivations, in which
Winogradski has been extremely successful. These two species
(the nitrous and the nitric organism) are minute rod-shaped or oval
bacteria ; when in the act of dividing, they form short dumb-bells ;
the nitrous organism is larger than the nitric, but both show forms
which possess cilia, and which therefore are possessed of motility.
Winogradski has by artificial cultivations obtained both these
species in large quantities, and on testing them on liquids of
376
Bacteria their Nature and Function.
suitable composition, found that the one is capable of converting
ammonia into nitrites, the other these latter into nitrates. There
can then be no doubt that the problem of the manufacture on a
large scale of these nitrifying microbes, so important for agriculture,
must be considered as solved.
Bacteria of Leguminos.®.
I have next to bring to notice a group of organisms which, like the
former, are of interest and importance to the vegetable kingdom, at
any rate to one portion of it, viz. the plants belonging to the natural
order Leguminosse.
Hellriegel and Wilfarth had shown that the excess of nitrogen
in the Leguminosas is obtained from the atmosphere by the instru-
mentality of bacteria in the soil around the roots of the leguminous
plants ; that these bacteria “ fix ” the free nitrogen contained in the
soil, derived, of course, from the atmosphere ; and that, if the soil
be sterilised, by which the bacteria are killed, no fixation of nitro-
gen can take place, and the growth of the leguminous plant remains
appreciably attenuated. The roots of leguminous plants growing
in the ordinary soil are known to possess numbers of nodular
growths. These nodules have been thoroughly investigated by a
large number of observers, and their importance in the process of
fixing the nitrogen, and in the proper development of the plant,
has been satisfactorily worked out ; foremost amongst these stand the
investigations of Marshall Ward, of Sir John Lawes and Sir Henry
Gilbert, of Beyerinck, Prazmowski, Nobbe, and Prank. Beyeriuck,
then Prazmowski, and particularly N obbe, have shown that the
nodules on the roots owe their origin to the growth in the tissues
of the root of certain bacteria, and it is these bacteria which are
instrumental in fixing the free nitrogen. These bacteria represent
well-defined species, and, as Nobbe has shown, differ for the different
Leguminosse.
Photographs were shown to illustrate the distribution, in the
tissue of the nodules on the roots of lupines, of particular species
of bacteria, then the character of these bacteria under cultivations,
and their aspect and size in microscopic specimens. This species of
bacilli is composed of motile cylindrical rods, which, cultivated in
gelatine, liquefy this, and produce in the liquefied gelatine a peculiar
greenish fluorescent colouring ; on agar they also produce this
colouring. The nature of the young colonies in plate cultivation,
their manner of spreading and swarming, are well shown in such
photographs.
Chromogenic and Phosphorescent Bacteria.
The remarkable species of what are termed chromogenic bacteria
have the power to produce pigments, either pigments which become
dissolved in the medium in which these bacteria grow, or which
remain limited to the substance of the bacteria themselves. Species
Bacteria, their Nature and Function.
377
of bacteria there are which produce pigments of scarlet, red, orange,
yellow, yellow-green, green, greenish-blue, blue, violet, or pink
colour. The nature of these pigments and the meaning and object
of their formation are still shrouded in a good deal of mystery,
though Erdmann and Schrotter showed long ago that many points of
similarity exist between some of these pigments and certain aniline
colours. Bacillus prodigiosus is the more common of the chromo-
genic bacteria, being occasionally present in water and in air. The
pigment is soluble in alcohol, though only to a limited degree.
I can only make a brief reference to another remarkable group
of bacteria, which comprises several species, all having the power to
produce luminosity of themselves and the medium in which they
grow. These phosphorescent bacteria have been long known
(P Auger) to be concerned in the production of the phosphorescent
condition of decomposing sea fish, but within recent times Ludwig,
Fischer, Katz, and particularly Beyerinck, have studied more in
detail the conditions under which these bacteria grow, and have
identified and cultivated several species. Dr. Beyerinck has sent me
one species of these phosphorescent bacteria, the elements of which
are short oval rods, often dumb-bells ; they grow in fish broth, and
when the growth becomes conspicuous to the unaided eye it is
luminous when viewed in the dark. Some cultures were exhibited
which, when placed in the dark, showed a beautiful phosphorescent
appearance. The phosphorescence is more or less limited to the
surface layer, that is the one in contact with the oxygen of the air ;
in the depth it is absent, but when shaking the flask the phos-
phorescence appears also in the depth.
Fkrmkntation.
I have mentioned, in connexion with a previous group, bacterial
species which have the power by hydration to change urea into
ammonium carbonate — a change which is called a fermentative
action. Changes similar to these are caused by micro-organisms in
many processes playing an important part in industries. Amongst
these changes I may mention one in particular, the souring of milk.
There are a good many others, the viscous or mannite fermentation,
the butyric fermentation, the indigo fermentation, the dextran fer-
mentation, the acetic acid fermentation, and others ; but we must
confine ourselves to the description of one, viz. the common Bacterium
lactis. It is a minute oval bacterium, which multiplies with great
rapidity, and which, introduced into milk, turns this sour in 12 to
24 hours at the ordinary temperature ; when sterile milk is inocu-
lated with this bacterium and kept in a warm place at a temperature
of 60° to 65° F., the milk is found solid and curdled before 20 or 24
hours are over, and in this curdled milk large numbers of the
Bacterium lactis are present either as dumb-bell ovals or as short
chains. When a needle is dipped first into such curdled milk and
then into normal milk, the same coagulation with the same appear-
378
Bacteria, their Nature and Function.
ances takes place in the latter. When a plate cultivation of such
milk is made it is seen that a large number of colonies, all of the
same character, are developed, which colonies are made up of the
Bacterium lactis ; through however numerous generations this
organism is cultivated in artificial cultivations — it grows well on
nutritive gelatine to which whey or only lactic sugar has been added
— if it is then transferred to fresh milk, it always produces this
souring and curdling ; that is to say, it changes lactic sugar into
lactic acid, and as this is being formed it coagulates and precipitates
the casein of the milk. With a trace of milk that has gone naturally
sour— that is to say, to which the Bacterium lactis has found entrance,
and in which by its multiplication it has produced curdling, any
amount of normal milk can be successively turned sour and curdled.
Bacterium lactis is not by any means a rare organism ; it is widely
distributed, and can at any moment, in dairies and other places,
through impurities of the utensils, by dust, &c., find access to milk,
which would soon succumb to its attacks. When, for instance, in
dairies or in one or another locality, the milk has a frequent tendency
to turn sour, this means that the Bacterium lactis has taken firm
footing in such a locality. It is well known that only extreme
measures of cleanliness, thorough boiling of all utensils and vessels,
cleaning of walls and floors, can banish or reduce it. In this the
analogy with an epidemic of an infectious disease is obvious. Just
as in an epidemic, every susceptible individual to which the con-
tagium has had access becomes smitten by infection, and just as in
an epidemic the contagium of the disease, being of wide distribution,
and having taken a firm hold of the locality, attacks an increasing
number of individuals, and thus causes the epidemic — so also
in the case of the Bacterium lactis : when this has taken a firm
hold of, and has acquired a great distribution in, any locality, any
sample of milk ( i.e . susceptible individual) may take the infection,
either by coming in contact, directly or indirectly, with a trace of
the milk already infected, e.g. by being placed in vessels in which
infected milk has been kept previously, or becoming infected through
dust charged with Bacterium lactis, or coming in contact with
water poured from a vessel in which traces of the microbes were
still left. All this finds its complete analogy in the case of an
epidemic infectious disease. The fermentative processes due to
microbic activity, and playing an important part in industries
(alcoholic and other fermentations), illustrate in a very striking
manner some of the essential features observed in the nature, in the
production, and in the spread of infectious diseases in man and
animals. The fermentative processes, thoroughly established as
b iing due to microbic activity by the researches of Pasteur, were by
Pasteur, and others after him, used as illustrations of the way in
which infectious disorders in man and animals arise, and it was
exactly these considerations which led Pasteur to his brilliant
studies of these diseases, the results of which studies have been of
such signal service in sanitary science in general, and in the pre-
vention of infectious diseases in particular.
Bacteria , their Nature and Function.
379
In the fermentative processes studied by Pasteur and others it was
shown that each specific fermentative process is due to the growth
and multiplication of a specific microbe. Just the same is the case
with the infectious diseases — when from a substance which is in the
process of fermentation, a trace containing the particular microbe is
introduced into fresh fermentable substance, this latter undergoes
the same fermentation ; further, it is shown that, however great the
number of accidental non-specific bacteria which may be introduced
at the same time, unless that particular bacterium be present
amongst them, the specific fermentative change does not ensue.
The same is the case with infectious diseases : the number of non-
specific bacteria in water, dust, air, various common articles of food,
<tc., is sometimes great, but no amount of these would set up any of
the infectious diseases, like cholera or typhoid fever, tetanus or
diphtheria ; in order to do so there must be amongst them the
particular microbe of cholera or typhoid fever, &c. Again in each
fermentative process the substance which is to undergo the fermen-
tation must be susceptible of the particular fermentation : a sub-
stance that contains sugar can undergo the alcoholic fermentation,
a substance that contains alcohol can undergo the acetic acid fer-
mentation, &c. The same is the case in the infectious diseases : an
individual must be susceptible to the disease, though it is not quite
clearly established what the meaning of this is. Further, just as
in the fermentative process the susceptibility of the substance alone
is not sufficient, is only a preliminary condition, the actual infection
with the specific microbe being the essential, so also in the infectious
disease : in order that a susceptible individual should become the
subject of the disease, it is essential that the specific microbe should
be present and should find entrance into this susceptible individual.
Just as little as a particular condition of the atmosphere, of tempe-
rature, &c., is capable of producing the souring of milk, so also a
particular atmospheric or telluric condition, season, or other external
circumstances alone cannot produce an infectious disease. What is
wanted in the first place is the presence of the Bacterium lactis in
the one, the specific pathogenic microbe in the other ; atmospheric
or telluric conditions may and do favour the more rapid multiplica-
tion and dissemination of the Bacterium lactis or other specific
microbes, but without the presence of the specific microbes these
processes could not take place. “ Thunder in the air ” could not
turn the milk sour, could not make meat tainted, could not turn
beer or wine sour, without the presence of the specific microbes,
which by their presence and multiplication produce those undesired
changes in these substances ; the particular condition of the air
could and would increase their rate of multiplication and distribu-
tion, and therefore increase the chances of infection of these sub-
stances, and consequently a more conspicuous manifestation of the
effects of the activity of those microbes, but it could not produce the
microbes themselves.
380
Bacteria , their Nature and I unction.
Pathogenic Bacteria.
The different pathogenic bacteria connected with and causing
the different infectious diseases have, then, the power of growing and
multiplying within the infected individual and, through the different
poisonous substances — toxins— which they therein produce, of
causing the changes which characterise the particular disease.
Photographs of a variety of such pathogenic bacteria serve to
show that both as regards the manner of distribution of these bac-
teria in the tissues of the infected individuals, as also in their mor-
phological and biological characters in artificial cultures, most of
them are sufficiently distinguished from one another and from
other non-pa'thogenic bacteria. In considering the general action
of pathogenic bacteria we find that they may be arranged in two
groups : —
a. Such as are entirely, so far as our knowledge at present goes, depen-
dent on the living body of man or animals. These are endogenic bacteria
or true parasites, for they do not appear to lead an existence independent
of the living body. "When, therefore, infection by them takes place, it is
effected by direct transference from an infected individual to a new one ;
this is so in small-pox, in vaccinia, and in hydrophobia.
b. A second group comprises those which are capable, besides a para-
sitic life, i.e. growing and multiplying within the animal body, of leading
also an existence independent of the animal body : that is to say, they, like
many other non- pathogenic bacteria, are capable of thriving in suitable
materials in the outside world ; such are anthrax and fowl cholera, Asiatic
cholera and typhoid fever, tetanus and diphtheria, and others. But also
amongst these some can lead such an ectogenic life comparatively easily,
while others do so only in a restricted sense. While, for instance, anthrax,
tetanus, typhoid fever can lead such ectogenic life easily, i.e. growing and
multiplying outside the animal body, others, like tubercle and glanders, do
so only to a very small extent. The former are obviously the more danger-
ous to man and animals, on account of their more ready distribution, than
the latter, of which the ectogenic existence is considerably restricted by
various conditions, e.g. they require higher temperatures to grow at, and
they require a much more specialised nutritive medium than is generally
attainable by them.
Many and wonderful are the results which have been obtained
within a comparatively short recent period by a large number of
workers as regards the identification of many of the pathogenic
bacteria, their habits of life, their mode of spread and infection ;
the way in which their action can be attenuated, their effects
weakened, and such weakened cultures used for protective inocu-
lations ; — the brilliant results achieved by Pasteur and many others
in these protective and curative inoculations against anthrax,
against fowl cholera, against tubercle, against hydrophobia, against
tetanus, and other diseases.
E. Klein,
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London.
38i
PUBLICATIONS OP INTEREST T6
AGRICULTURISTS.
I.— CROSS-FERTILISATION OF PEARS.'
A postscript to the paper on Cross-fertilisation of Cereals (Journal,
Vol. IV. 3rd series, Part IV. 1893, p. 701) indicated some important
results from experiments in cross -fertilisation of pears. The detailed
account of these experiments has since been issued from the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington. The results obtained deserve a
longer notice than was given to them in the note referred to,
because of their practical bearing on fruit culture.
A poor crop of pears is often due to causes over which the
cultivator has control. Care has to be taken that the trees are in a
healthy and vigorous condition. This is necessary not only for the
quality but also for the quantity of the fruit. In a weak or dis-
eased tree fewer blossoms set, and those that do set do not produce
full sized fruits. The character of the tree also must be observed,
and when that is not satisfactory the tree should be removed.
Sometimes a vigorous tree has a tendency to produce only leaf-bear-
ing branches ; this can be stopped by severe pruning. The causes of
a poor crop are, however, generally beyond the control of the culti-
vator. A small proportion only of the blossoms on a tree produce
fruit. In a cluster of flowers usually one develops into a fruit,
the others fall off early. Even before the blossom has disappeared
a large number have fallen to the ground, and within a week or two
some of those that have shown signs of setting also drop off. This
is a natural operation, which prevents the tree bearing more fruits
than it is able to perfect. Wet weather at the time when the
anthers are fully ripe and have discharged their pollen grains pre-
vents fertilisation. In such weather the bees and other insects,
which are the agents in carrying the pollen grains to the stigma,
are not about. Then a heavy shower will wash off all the free pollen
grains and carry them to the ground. A decrease in the tempera-
ture also is very destructive to the young fruit. A few degrees of
frost may kill the tender growing seed, and a little more severe frost
may fatally injure the pistil.
The experiments of Mr. M. B. Waite show that there are con-
ditions, hitherto scarcely suspected, which seriously affect the crops,
and which are completely within the control of the cultivator.
Mr. Galloway, the Chief of the Division of Vegetable Pathology
in the United States Department of Agriculture, resolved to
make some investigations into the influence of insects in producing
1 The Pollination of rear Flowers. By Merton B. Waite. Pp. 86, with
12 Plates and other Illustrations. U.S. Department of Agriculture: Washing-
ton, 1891.
VOL. V. T. S. — 18 C C
382 Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
“ the fire ” or twig blight of the pear, and put the matter into the
hands of Mr. Waite. The disease was prevented wherever the
blossoms were effectually guarded against the visits of insects.
It was clear that the bacteria causing this blight were carried by
the insects from flower to flower. But it was observed as a result
of the experiments that the exclusion of the insects from the
flowers prevented the blossoms from setting their fruit. This
suggested an inquiry into the conditions under which fertilisation
took place, and experiments having this in view were instituted,
in the spring of 1892, which have shed a new light on an important
cause of unfruitfulness in pears and apples which had not hitherto
been suspected by practical fruit-growers.
The method of proceeding was to cover the flowers while they
were yet in bud with bags of paper, cheese cloth, or nets. The
paper bags excluded insects and pollen, the cheese cloth bags were
nearly as efficient, while the meshes of the net, being about ten to
the inch, permitted the entrance of pollen grains if they were carried
from tree to tree by the wind.
To determine the effects of the pollen from different flowers, it
was necessary to prevent the pollen produced by the flower experi-
mented on from falling on the stigma. This was done by cutting away
with a pair of fine scissors the calyx, corolla, and stamens from the
flower bud just before opening. Examination of the vertical section
of the flower of a pear shows that this can easily be done. The calyx,
corolla, and stamens spring from the edge of a cup, while the styles
rise, at some distance from them, through the centre of the cup. A
careful cutting away of the cup below the rim, where the different
organs are given off, leaves the pistil uninjured. All the other
flowers in the cluster were removed. A sufficient number of flowers
being thus prepared, pollen was applied by the hand to the stigmas
from (1) the same flower, (2) a flower from another part of the same
branch, (3) a flower from another tree of the same variety, and (4)
a flower of another variety. One of the experiment stations was in
a large orchard, containing about 22,000 standard William pear-
trees (called in America Bartletts). Not a single William blossom
set fruit with pollen from a William flower, no matter where the
pollen was obtained from, while a large proportion of the flowers
crossed with other varieties did. The results were practically the
same in the other experimental stations, except that some varieties
were sufficiently influenced by their own pollen to produce fruit,
though in all the cases the fruits were smaller and the seeds small
and barren. The William is nearly, or quite, self-sterile, and so also
are the following twenty-one other varieties which were experimented
upon : — Anjou, Boussock, Clairgeau, Clapp’s Favourite, Columbia,
De la Chime, Doyenne Sieulle, Easter, Gansel’s Bergamotte, Grey
Doyenne, Howell, Jones, Lawrence, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Mount
Yernon, Pound, Sheldon, Souvenir du Congres, Superfin, Wilder
(Col.) Winter Nelis. A smaller number of varieties have been ob-
served to be able more or less to fertilise themselves. These are :
Angouleme, Box, Brockworth, Buffum, Diel, Doyenne d’Alemjon,
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
383
Flemish Beauty, Heathcote, Kieffer, Le Conte, Manning’s Elizabeth,
Sechel, Tyson, White Doyenne.
The failure to secure fertilisation by pollen from other plants of
the same variety is of the greatest importance to cultivators. Yet
it is only the confirmation of the more or less self -sterility of the
flowers borne by an individual plant, seeing that all the separate
portions of a cultivated variety, on whatever stock they are grown,
are portions of a single tree. Thus the trees of William pear growing
in Britain, on the Continent, in America, the Cape and Australia,
are all parts of the original William tree. By budding or grafting
the tree has been immensely multiplied, but it has never been repro-
duced from seed. Each separate fragment, though supported on an
independent stock, retains all the peculiarities of the original plant.
In operating, then, with the pollen from the flower of any William
tree, we are using only the pollen of a different, though now inde-
pendent, branch of one tree.
The large orchard of William pears where some of the experi-
ments were carried on had been planted some seventeen or eighteen
years. A portion of the site had been a small orchard of different
varieties, which had been very productive. So the proprietor, to
secure a valuable orchard, grubbed up the old orchard and planted
22,000 William trees. He has never been able to get a full crop
from them. One year the orchard yielded 4,000 boxes of three pecks
each, being an average of three-fifths of a peck per tree. Similar
trees twelve years old ordinarily yield four or five times that quantity
under favourable conditions. In 1891 the crop was only 1,200 boxes,
and in 1892 it was less than 100 boxes. In the orchard three trees
of different varieties had been by mistake planted among the
Williams ; two were Clapp’s Favourite and the other a Buffum. In
the neighbourhood of these three trees the Williams were very pro-
ductive, bearing down the branches to the ground with the weight
of fruit. His previous experiments led Mr. Waite to believe that
this limited and local abundance was caused by cross-fertilisation
from the other trees, and this view was fully confirmed by all his
subsequent experiments.
Another interesting result of these investigations of Mr. Waite
is that the fruits which have hitherto been described and figured,
and been generally known as the type pears of a particular variety,
are not pure bred but crosses. The fruits obtained in the few
cases where self-fertilisation was effective were remarkably uniform
among themselves, but they were smaller and different in form
from the general crop on the tree ; the seeds enclosed in the fruits
were small and imperfectly developed, and being without embryos were
incapable of germinating. On the other hand, the qualities of the
fruit in these self-fertilised cases were constant : they were more juicy
and more delicate in flavour than the genei’al crop. In a vigorous,
full-bearing tree of William pears one or two, or perhaps three, of these
smaller self-fertilised pears may be found. In future these small pears
must be studied as representing the pure type of the variety, while the
modifications in the general crop must be traced to the influence of
c c 2
384
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
tbe neighbouring varieties. There is here abundant scope for the
cultivator to secure, by proper selection, such parents in an apple
or pear orchard (for what is true of the pear is true also of the
apple) as will give the best qualities to his produce. Taking the
one property of weight as an indication of what may be done, it was
found that the average pear of a self- fertilised William weighed 100
grams, while the pollen of an Easter applied to the William gave
an average fruit of 167 grams, of an Angouleme 133 grams, of an
Anjou 116 grams, of Clapp’s Favourite 114 grams, and of a White
Doyenne only 89 grams.
The practical conclusions from these interesting experiments
are : 1. Plant mixed orchards, or at least avoid planting solid
blocks of one variety. 2. Where blossoms fail to produce fruit for a
series of years in large blocks of trees of one variety, it is most prob-
able that the failure is due to want of cross-fertilisation. 3. And
as bees and other insects are the agents for the transportation of
pollen, it is desirable to see that there are sufficient bees in the
neighbourhood, or within two or three miles, to visit the blossoms.
When feasible, sheltered situations should be selected to encourage
the visits of insects.
William Carruthers.
44 Central Hill, Norwood, S.E.
II.— HAWKS AND OWLS.1
This publication, which is an official bulletin on the Hawks and
Owls of the United States in their relation to Agriculture, is no
mere pamphlet, but a handsome volume of some two hundred pages,
illustrated by twenty-six original coloured plates. It presents the
results of a laborious scientific investigation extending over several
years, and the keynote of the bulletin is struck in the letter of
transmittal, whei’e we read : —
The statements herein contained respecting the food of the various
hawks and owls are based on the critical examination, by scientific experts,
of the actual contents of about 2,700 stomachs of these birds, and conse-
quently may he fairly regarded as a truthful showing of the normal food of
each species. The results prove that a class of birds commonly looked upon
as enemies to the farmer, and indiscriminately destroyed whenever occasion
offers, really rank among his best friends, and with few exceptions should
be preserved, and encouraged to take up their abode in the neighbourhood
of his home.
Seventy-three species of rapacious birds are dealt with, and these
are divided, on economic grounds, into four classes : — (a) Those
wholly beneficial or harmless ; (b) those chiefly beneficial ; (c) those
in which the beneficial and harmful qualities balance ; (d) those
positively harmful.
1 The Haivlcs and Owls of the United States in their Relation to Agriculture.
By A. K. Fisher, M.D. Published by the TJ.S. Department of Agriculture:
1893.
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
385
The second class is found to contain the greater number of
species, and, what is more important, most of the best known and
most commonly occurring species are included in it.
Only six species fall into the category of the positively harmful
birds. Three of these are so rare that their depredations may be
neglected ; one exercises its rapacity on fish, and two alone are to
be regarded as absolute foes to the farmer. Neither of these, we
may remark, are English birds.
Dr. Fisher pathetically laments the impossibility of any clear
division of rapacious birds into two groups, the beneficial and the
injurious. Such a division, besides possessing the charm of sim-
plicity, would afford the practical agriculturist a clear and unequivocal
guide to action on the appearance of any bird.
So simple a classification, however, is obviously quite out of the
question. Not only may the same bird both benefit and injure us
by its general habits, feeding, perhaps, impartially on mice and
poultry, but there are cases, like that of the rook, where a bird is a
serious nuisance for a brief period, and a valuable ally during the
remainder of the year. Clearly the only method by which a true
conclusion can be arrived at is an accurate determination of the
habits and a careful weighing of the pros and cons in the case of
each species, and it is the masterly application of this method which
entitles the publication under notice to rank as a valuable contribu-
tion to American agricultural science.
We say advisedly American agricultural science. Beyond the
general conclusion that all the owls and most of the hawks are
friends and not foes, this book, though highly interesting, possesses
little practical value for the English farmer on account of the fact
that most of the species dealt with are unknown in this country.
Only six of the birds under notice are to be recognised as true
British species, and of these the owls alone possess any economic
importance. In the United States, as in England, the barn owl
and the long- and short-eared owls are found to feed almost exclu-
sively on injurious rodents, such as mice and voles. Indeed no good
reason is given for denying them a place in the first class of entirely
beneficial rapacious birds.
The two members of the hawk tribe which possess the greatest
interest for the British farmer are not included in the American
list. These are, of course, the sparrow-hawk and the kestrel. The
former, though it preys to some extent upon mice and insects,
commits serious havoc among game and poultry, and there is little
doubt that the harm it does in this direction considerably exceeds
the benefits it otherwise confers, and the farmer is justified in
regarding it as an enemy.
With the kestrfel the reverse is the case. It will certainly take
game, but only when exceedingly young and helpless, while,
throughout the remainder of the year, the benefit it confers by the
wholesale destruction of mice and beetles is incalculable. English
wild birds in their relation to agriculture have, however, been
already treated in this Journal, and we may refer those interested
386
Publications of Interest to Agriculturists.
in the subject to the accurate and comprehensive articles by Mr.
Archibald which appeared in Part IY. of Yol. III., 3rd series, 1892,
and in the current volume of the Journal (Part I., 1894, p. 60).
The Report on the plague of field-voles 1 in Scotland issued by
the Board of Agriculture last year also deals with the economic
value of the kestrel, the sparrow-hawk and the owls.
To return to the American publication, the twenty-six coloured
plates deserve a special word of commendation. The drawings are
evidently original, being in no sense a reproduction of Audubon’s
figures, and, to judge from the few species familiar to us, they are
remarkably faithful portraits, and add greatly to the value of the
bulletin. The department recognised so clearly the importance of
ample and faithful illustration of a work intended for the use of
practical men that the publication was considerably delayed in
order that satisfactory plates might be prepared.
The figures are of course reduced, but their relation to the size
of the actual birds is indicated on each plate. This plan is no doubt
the best, though such awkward ratios as -f- and might surely
have been avoided without much difficulty. Absolute measure-
ments of length and “extent” are calculated to mislead rather
than to enlighten the uninitiated. Twenty-two inches across the
wings would probably suggest to the average mind a bird of much
larger dimensions than the familiar sparrow-hawk.
Cecil Warburton.
Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge.
THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ENGLAND
AND WALES.2
The general scope of the work of the Geological Survey has been
made the subject of a paper in the current volume of the J ournal
(Pai’t I., pp. 140-162). As, however, the work of the Survey is con-
tinuously progressing, and as many of the results are of direct
interest to agriculturists, the following extracts are made from
the latest published report of the Director-General.
Drift Survey. — In the early maps published by the Survey,
superficial deposits were generally left unrepresented. The import-
ance of these deposits in questions of agriculture, drainage, water-
supply, and public health having at length been recognised, it was
determined that in future they should be traced and shown upon
the maps. As at first they were inadequately understood by geo-
logists, the mapping of them could not be made wholly satisfactory
and complete. But as they came to be more thoroughly studied and
1 Reviewed in the Journal, Vol. IV. 3rd series, Part II., 1893, p. 421.
- Excerpts from the Annual Report for 1892 of the Director-General of the
Geological Survey. From the Fortieth Report of the Science and Aft
Department, published in 1893.
The Geological Survey of England and Wales.
387
more carefully traced, they have been represented with increasing
fulness and accuracy upon the maps. It has been thought desirable
to revise and complete the earlier drift surveys in the north of
England, and to extend these surveys over the other parts of the
country where they have not previously been made. This renewed
examination of the ground is carried on upon maps of the scale of
six inches to the mile, and advantage is taken of it to check, and
where needful to correct, the already published mapping of the older
geological formations underneath.
As the Geological Survey advanced into the eastern counties of
England, the importance of the drift deposits became increasingly
manifest. Over large districts, indeed, it was impossible satisfactorily
to delineate on maps the structure and boundaries of the formations
underlying the drifts which spread as a deep cover above them.
For such areas drift maps only could be issued.
It was not until the original survey of the whole of England and
Wales had been completed that the systematic re-survey of the
drifts was begun on the six-inch scale, over those areas not previously
re-surveyed for this purpose. In the south-east of England, where
the work is under the charge of Mr. Whitaker, it has extended
from Huntingdonshire across the counties of Bedford, Hertford,
Buckingham, Oxford, Berks, Wilts, Hants, and the south of Sussex.
Among the more important or interesting observations made by
the officers in the course of these operations, the following may be
referred to. Fresh information has been obtained as to the form of
the land-surface on which the oldest parts of the drift deposits were
laid down. A few years ago Mr. Whitaker described some deep
channels excavated in the Chalk, and subsequently filled with
Boulder Clay, in the long valley running south from Saffron Waldron.
The River Cam now drains the northern part of this old valley,
the River Stort the southern part. Mr. Cameron has recently noted
a similar old channel, 100 feet deep and filled with drift, near
Walkern in Hertfordshire.
In regard to the Boulder Clay itself, the mapping recently carried
on by Mr. C. Fox-Strangways in East and Central Leicestershire,
so far as it has gone, confirms the previous observations of Mr.
Deeley in the Trent Valley by tending to show that this deposit
may be grouped into three fairly well-marked divisions, separated
by sand, gravel, or brickearth. The oldest Boulder Clay seems to
have come from the west ; the “ Chalky Boulder Clay,” which is the
division most largely developed in this area, arrived from the east.
This Chalky Boulder Clay is well known for the occasional great size
of the transported masses which it contains. Mr. Fox-Strangways
has recently noted one of exceptionally large dimensions to the
north-west of Melton. It is a mass of Lincolnshire Oolite, at least
300 yards long and 100 yards broad ; but it may extend beneath
the Boulder Clay to a further distance. Quarries have been opened
in this mass, at one place to a depth of 15 feet. Again, in the
Boulder Clay of Huntingdonshire, Mr. Cameron has observed an
erratic of flinty Chalk, of such large dimensions that the village of
888 The Geological Survey of 'England and Wales.
Catworth has been built on it, and it extends also over a considerable
area of the surrounding land.
While alluding to the older drifts of the South of England, I may
refer to the fact that the recent extension of the Geological Survey
into South Wales, for the revision of the coalfield, has enabled us to
begin the systematic examination cf the superficial deposits of that
region, which up to the present time are almost unknown. Mr. A.
Strahan has found true ice-striated rock-surfaces and undoubted
Boulder Clay, indicating a southward movement of the ice, together
with abundant deposits of sands and gravels which are probably
the most southerly examples of true eslcers or kames in this
country.
Much attention has been given by the officers of the Survey to
the mapping of the high-lying or plateau-gravels in the Isle of
Wight. Much of this island, as well as of the low grounds of
Hampshire, has been shown to have been formerly overspread by
these deposits ; but they exist now only in widely separated patches,
which, lying high above the modern valleys, serve to mark the great
denudation undergone by the island. A more recent set of river
gravels, distributed along the existing valleys, has obviously been
derived from the waste of the plateau -gravels. By the encroach-
ment of the sea the valley of the West Yar has been cut across, so
that the valley-gravels now form a capping to the sea cliff. In the
Weymouth district Mr. Strahan has recently mapped some interest-
ing tracts of high-level gravels, which have been deeply denuded,
and from which possibly the materials of the famous Chesil Beach
may have been in part derived.
The mapping of the southern portions of Sussex by Mr. Clement
Reid has brought to light several novel and important facts in
regard to the condition of that part of England during the Ice Age.
He has discovered that a deposit with glacially striated erratics lies
there beneath certain clays full of the remains of temperate animals
and plants, whilst above these clays comes another deposit produced
apparently under arctic conditions.
Tertiary. — The re-examination of the Tertiary areas to the west
of London for the Drift Survey lias shown the general accuracy of
the old mapping, though the boundary lines have been occasionally
improved. In Hampshire and the Isle of Wight more extensive
alterations have been necessary. Thus, the Hamstead Beds, in
place of occupying mere isolated patches on the high ground, as was
believed when the original map was prepared, are now known to
cover a large area. This was proved by Mr. Reid, chiefly by the
use of portable boring-rods, such as had for some time previously
been employed by the Belgian Geological Survey. These tools have
also proved of great service in some recent work in the Eastern
Counties. Certain small outliers on the Chalk of Hampshire, shown
as Eocene on the old map, have now been placed among the drifts,
and have been mapped as “ Clay- with- flints.” Probably here, as is
often the case in parts of the London Basin, the so-called “ Clay-
grith-fjints ” is in great part rearranged Eocene material.
The Geological Survey of England and Wales.
389
The occurrence of lenticular masses of pebbles at the top of the
Reading Beds has been noted in the Hampshire Basin. These
possibly represent the Blackheath Beds of the London Basin. The
Bagshot Pebble-beds have also been detected over a fairly large area
in the Hampshire Basin.
In West Sussex, Mr. Reid has improved the mapping of the
Tertiary tracts. Although the strata ai’e much covered with drift,
well-sections and other data have enabled him to carry the Eocene
formations over a considerably larger area than is shown on the old
map, and also to ascertain in the district the nature and importance
of the folds and other disturbances which traverse the Secondary
rocks of the South of England. The westward extension of these
structural features has been traced by Mr. Whitaker through the
Southampton district, where Bagshot Sand and London Clay have
sometimes been thus brought up within areas hitherto believed
to lie upon Bracklesham Beds. In Sussex these folds trend east
and west, but in Hampshire they turn towards the north-west.
Cretaceous. — On the older one-inch maps the Chalk was shown as
one mass, no attempt being made to indicate its subdivisions.
Indeed, no such subdivisions were formerly recognised, save a
general grouping into Chalk- with- flints and Chalk-without-flints.
Sometimes the lowest portion was separately referred to as Chalk
Marl. In later surveys, however, advantage has been taken of the
opportunity of tracing on the ground the subdivisions that can now
be mapped. These are as follows : —
Upper Chalk.
Chalk Rock.
Middle Chalk, with Melbourne Rock (at the base).
Lower Chalk, with Totternhoe Stone.
Chalk Marl.
The Totternhoe Stone was mapped by Mr. Whitaker many
years ago along a part of the northern side of the London Basin ;
he also first recognised the “ Chalk Rock,” but only of late years
have these geological horizons been represented on the maps.
The subdivisions of the Chalk, as above described, are less
marked in the western areas. Along the northern outcrop,
Totternhoe Stone dies out in Berkshire, the Chalk Rock and
Melbourne Rock continuing into Dorset and Devon. Along the
southern outcrop, the Totternhoe Stone does not exist; and the
other rock-beds have not been recognised west of the neighbourhood
of Dorchester.
The separation of the thick mass of Chalk into so many distinct
subdivisions has both an economic and a scientific interest. By
revealing the actual structure of the Chalk and the outcrops of its
several members the new mapping renders essential service in
questions of water-supply. It likewise indicates the undulations
into which, in consequence of subterranean disturbances, the Chalk
has been thrown. These undulations, though often too gentle to be
safely inferred from surface exposures, are apparent when the outcrops
of the several subdivisions of the Chalk are continuously traced..
390
The Geological Survey of England and Wales.
In the Chalk area of Hampshire, Mr. Hawkins, by mapping out
these horizons, has proved the general accuracy of the interpretation
of the structure of that region given by Hr. Barrois. The uprise at
Winchester is well marked, Lower Chalk being there brought to
the surface. The folds traversing the Chalk in the western part of
the Hampshire Basin, though more strongly marked than those
of the London Basin, can only be satisfactorily made out by mapping
the subdivisions of the Chalk. Some of the ruptures attendant on
the plication of the rocks, so marked in Dorsetshire, are prolonged
even into Sussex, and have been detected by Mr. Reid as far east
as Eastbourne, where on the foreshore the Cretaceous strata are
repeated by faults and overthrusts.
It seems not impossible that the detailed and accurate mapping
of the disturbances in the Chalk may ultimately give a clue to the
depths of the underlying Palaeozoic rocks, a question of the utmost
practical importance in regard to the tracing of coal-bearing deposits
beneath the South of England.
In 1891 phosphatic Chalk, closely resembling that which is
commercially worked in the North of France and in Belgium, was
noticed for the first time in this country by Mr. Strahan. The bed
is exposed in a Chalk-pit at Taplow, but at present has not been
detected elsewhere.
The relations of the Gault and Upper Greensand have long been
a matter of uncertainty. Mr. Bristow, the late Senior Director,
believed that the two were really one formation, one being locally
developed at the expense of the other. Mr. Godwin- Austen
regarded the Upper Greensand as a shore-deposit, in part contem-
poraneous with the Gault of deeper waters. Other geologists have
expressed similar views. These opinions have received support from
our recent Surveys. The upper part of the Gault becomes more
sandy to the west, and was there mapped as Upper Greensand,
the clay coloured as Gault in Wiltshire representing only about the
lower third part of the Gault of Folkestone. This clay becomes so
thin to the west that it cannot be separately mapped.
Mr. Jukes-Browne makes three divisions of the Gault and
Upper Greensand Series, which are now found to constitute really
one formation : —
3. Greensauds and Sandstone, and Chert-beds (Zone of Pecten asper).
2. Buff Sands, Malmstones, and Silty Marls ; the last representing the
Upper Gault (Zone of Ammonites rostratus).
1. Lower Gault Clays (Zone of Ammonites lautus and Amm.
interruptus).
The Chert-beds of Wiltshire and Devonshire are local develop-
ments in the Zone of Pecten asper. They are not found in Dorset ;
but they attain importance in the Isle of Wight, and were there
separately mapped by Mr. Strahan.
In the neighbourhood of Devizes the subdivisions of the Upper
Greensand are well marked. The lower one, or “ Malmstone,”
contains, especially in the lower part, colloid silica in the form of
small round globules and sponge spicules, sometimes to the extent
The Geological Survey of England and Wales. 391
of from 40 to 50 per cent, of the stone. The upper division,
about 70 feet thick near Devizes, consists of green and grey sands.
As these are irregular in thickness, thin out rapidly to the north,
and extend as a band in a nearly east and west direction, they may
represent an ancient sand-bank. The persistence of the Malmstone
over a very wide extent of the Upper Greensand of England is a
noteworthy fact.
A revived industry of some interest on the borders of Bedford-
shire and Buckinghamshire is the extraction of fuller’s earth from
the Lower Greensand. This deposit is now worked by mines on the
flanks of the escarpment. Mr. Cameron has frequently visited these
mines, and has described them in papers read before the British
Association and elsewhere.
Jurassic. — Some of the most important recent additions to our
knowledge of the structure of the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks of
the South of England have been made by Mr. Strahan in his re-
examination of Dorsetshire for the Drift Survey. The area known
as the Isle of Purbeck has long had a peculiar geological interest,
not only from the fact that the Portland and Purbeck rocks there
reach their maximum development, but also from its structure. It
is traversed by an extremely sharp and faulted monoclinal fold, a
continuation of the Isle of Wight monocline, from which, however,
it differs in being accompanied by inversion of the strata and much
overthrust faulting. This structure may, in fact, be regarded as an
intermediate stage between a simple monocline and a complete over-
thrust. The deeply indented coast affords unusual facilities for
examining the effect of the movement. The old one-inch map, on
account of the smallness of the scale, gave merely a diagrammatic
view of the structure of the “island.” In the re-survey on the six-
inch scale both the faults and the subdivisions of the strata have
been traced with a detail that was before impossible. In the Isle
of Purbeck the principal additions to the map consist in the tracing
of the subdivisions of the Cretaceous system. The Lower Green-
sand, which is so well developed in the Isle of Wight, was known to
exist in the Isle of Purbeck also, but its limits had never been
determined. It has now been separated from the Wealden group,
with which it was formerly confused, and it has been traced west-
ward until it finally thins away, while at the same time the Wealden
Shales, which form the uppermost subdivision of the Wealden group
in the Isle of Wight, have been traced through the Isle of Purbeck
as far westward as they extend.
During the mapping of the Lower Greensand, some interesting
evidence as to its relation with the overlying Gault came to light.
This evidence tends to confirm the conclusions formed during the
re-mapping of the Isle of Wight, for the break at the base of the
Gault, which was there only suspected, becomes so much more pro-
nounced westwards as to suggest that the base of the Cretaceous
system might have been more suitably drawn at the bottom of the
Gault than at the bottom of the Wealden group, which is in-
separably connected with the Purbeck Beds, Moreover, a con-
392
The Geological Survey of England and Wales.
glomerate which forms the base of the Gault seems to correspond to
the Carstone of the Isle of Wight, which has again been correlated
with the Folkestone Beds. The suggestion, therefore, made long
ago, that a portion of the Folkestone Beds should be included in the
Upper Cretaceous group receives support. In the Weymouth
peninsula the principal alterations relate to the mapping of the sub-
divisions of the Chalk as far westward as they are recognisable, and
in the tracing of subdivisions of the Corallian rocks which are locally
developed near Weymouth. The numerous faults of the area have
also been followed with a minuteness of detail which was impossible
on the old one-inch map. An interesting result has been obtained
from this work. The faults and foldings of the strata, though nearly
all agreeing in direction, were found to have been formed at two
different periods, the one set affecting the Oolitic rocks, but passing
under the Upper Ci’etaceous strata without disturbing them, the
other breaking through both Oolitic and Cretaceous rocks alike.
The older movements took place between the deposition of the
Upper and Lower Cretaceous strata, while the later set were
obviously contemporaneous with the Isle of Wight and Isle of Pur-
beck monoclines, which are believed to be of Miocene age. In more
than one case faults of the later age cross obliquely the older lines
of fracture, producing a complication which could only be worked out
on the large-scale map. The break at the base of the Gault mentioned
above seems to have been due to the faulting and upheaving of the
rocks during the first of these periods of disturbance. It becomes
here a most pronounced unconformability, and the Gault, with a
thin conglomerate at its base, passes over the edges of the Wealden,
Purbeck, and Kimmeridgian rocks in rapid succession.
In the country around Bedford important changes have been
made in the maps. The Oxford Clay is now known to cover a large
area of Great Oolite to the north-west of Bedford. In the original
survey this clay seems to have been taken as part of the Boulder
Clay by which it is generally covered, the underlying Kellaways
Sands having been also taken as drift. But the detailed mapping
of the drifts of the district has enabled Mr. Cameron to make the
correction. Another improvement in the map is the mapping of the
Cornbrash over areas where it was formerly supposed to be absent.
This bed has now been ascertained to have a continuous range from
the coast of Dorsetshire to Yorkshire. A smaller but not unim-
portant alteration relates to the exposures of clay beneath the Great
Oolite near Olney. These were formerly considered to be Lias ; but
Mr. H. B. Woodward has now shown that, although Upper Lias is
present at no great depth, the strata laid bare at the surface are the
Upper Estuarine Clays of the Great Oolite series.
Triassic. — Advantage has been taken of the prosecution of the
Drift Survey across the salt districts of Cheshire and Staffordshire
to obtain much additional information regarding the Triassic rocks,
especially with reference to their industrial aspects. Mr. C. E.
de Ranee has collected 208 sections of the salt-deposits at Northwich,
Middlewich, Winsford and Lawton. He has likewise reduced some
393
(Geological Survey of England and Wales.
Hurting plans of salt-workings and placed their details in the six-inch
maps, and has further collected tables of the levels of the brines at
various periods, reducing these levels to ordnance datum, and thus
showing the height of the upper and lower rock-salt surfaces.
Carboniferous . — It is in the re-examination of the great coal-
field of South Wales that the chief recent operations of the Survey
in the Carboniferous system have lain. Sufficient progress has now
been made to show of how much practical value a detailed survey of
this coalfield will prove to be. Mr. Strahan, who has had charge
of this work, soon ascertained that, while the great thickness and
uniformity of character of the widespread “ Pennant Grit ” makes it
difficult to obtain indications of the geological structure over large
tracts of ground, the position of a certain coal-seam known as the
“ Mynyddislwyn vein ” affords an excellent horizon from which the
lie of the other strata can be followed in great detail. He has
accordingly devoted special attention to tracing the outcrop of this
seam and the trend of the numerous faults which have been met
with in working it. He has had occasion to examine a large series
of plans of old workings, and to reduce from these the necessary
data upon the six-inch ordnance maps. When these maps are
completed, with all the available detailed information, they will
probably afford a sufficient and accurate guide to the depth and dip
of the various coal-seams over a large part of the area. The infor-
mation thus worked out, combined with a precise geological mapping
of the ground, will prevent the waste of large sums of money in
seeking for coal, by showing exactly the limits within which the
seams may be looked for and the depths at which they may be
expected.
Devonian. — The maps of Devon and Cornwall were the first on
which the Geological Survey began its operations. The region which
they represent, besides the importance of its mineral industries, is
one of great geological complication, which could not be properly
worked out on maps of so small a scale as one inch to a mile and so
inaccurate in their topography. Moreover, at the time when these
maps were made, geological science was far from being so well
equipped as it now is for attacking such problems as are presented
by the rocks of the South-west of England. It has long been
recognised, therefore, that a total re-survey of that region was needed ;
but the state of progress of the survey of other parts of the country
has hitherto prevented this work from being undertaken on an
adequate scale. But as the eventual re- survey, which must sooner
or later be carried out, will be greatly facilitated by an accurate
determination of the stratigraphical horizons of the Devonian rocks,
and a detailed mapping of these in some one district, Mr. Ussher
has been employed in conducting these operations in the south of
Devonshire. By a sedulous scrutiny of the ground he has been
enabled to detect the presence of organic remains previously
unnoticed, and by their aid to distinguish and trace the three great
divisions of the Devonian system over the district between Newton
Abbott and Plymouth.
304 The Geological Survey of England and Wales.
Water Supply. — During 1892 a Royal Commission was appointed
to consider the question of the water supply of London. Having
been nominated one of the Commissioners Sir Archibald Geikie con-
sidered it desirable that every assistance to the inquiry which it
was in the power of the Geological Survey to render should be given.
As so much of the value of the investigation would depend upon the
accuracy of the geological information laid before the Commission, he
placed at its disposal the published maps of the Survey and such un-
published data as might be of service. Two maps of the region
embraced by the inquiry were supplied from the Survey office,
viz. : one of the entire Thames Basin, showing the nature and dis-
tribution of the superficial deposits over the Chalk and Tertiary
areas ; and one of the Chalk areas within that basin, indicating the
tract of bare Chalk, the districts covered with more or less pervious
accumulations which allow the rain to sink through them into the
Chalk, and the districts where the Chalk is covered with impervious
deposits which throw the rain off upon the surrounding ground.
The areas of these impervious deposits are further distinguished
according as they throw the drainage away from or into the
Chalk.
At the request of the Commission, Messrs. Whitaker and Topley,
who have an intimate knowledge of the geology of the London
Basin, made a careful examination of the Chalk area of the east of
Kent, with special reference to the possibility of obtaining an addi-
tional supply of water from that district for London. The data ob-
tained by them have been laid before the Commission and will
appear in its report.
Applications for Information. — During the year numerous in-
quiries were made at the office of the Survey, 28 Jermyn Street,
London, S.W., respecting Agriculture, Water Supply, Building
Materials, and allied subjects, and were duly attended to.
THE SPRING OF 1894.
Regarded from an agricultural standpoint, the weather of last
spring was distinctly disappointing, for while the earlier part of the
period was, as a rule, fine, warm, and dry, the latter part was
characterised by excessive rains, and, what was even worse, by
persistent low temperatures. The natural progress of the season
from winter cold to summer warmth was, in fact, to a large extent
reversed, the weather at the close of the spring being more in
keeping with the beginning of March than with the end of May.
During the first half of March the country experienced a con-
tinuance of the stormy showery conditions which prevailed through-
out the greater part of last winter, and by the middle of the month
the farmer was beginning to long for dry weather, in order that he
395
The Sping of 1894.
might get on with the ordinary spring work. The wish was soon
gratified, a complete absence of rain being reported over nearly the
whole of the United Kingdom during the closing fortnight in the
month. In some localities the drought continued much longer, and
early in April fears were expressed that the spring of 1894 might
prove as disastrous to the agriculturist as that of 1893. A gradual
break-up in the weather was, however, in progress ; and although for
a week or two the showers were very partial, and in many places
very slight, the entire country was at length visited by a fairly
copious rainfall. By the end of April the general outlook was, in
fact, unusually favourable, and had the following month proved
equally kind, there can be little doubt that the harvest prospects for
1894 would have been phenomenally good. The proverbial caprices
of an English May were, however, displayed this year in a more than
ordinary degree, the weather being changeable in the extreme, with
heavy rains in most places, and with unusually low temperatures,
especially during the latter half of the month. Occasional frosts in
May are common enough, but it is not often that the country
experiences such a spell of cold as that which prevailed between the
19th and 25th of the month, when sharp frost occurred almost nightly
in some of our central districts. Still later on, viz., between the 28th
and 30th, another touch of severe cold visited the midland counties, the
disastrous effect of so much inclement weather being now very appa-
rent, especially in orchards and market gardens, where an immense
amount of damage was occasioned. At the close of the quarter the
great desiderata appeared to be, firstly and above all, an abundance
of warm sunshine, and secondly, with the hay harvest in view, an
early cessation of the heavy rains. The leading features in the
weather of the entire spring are shown in the Table on p. 396, which
gives for various parts of the country a summary of the condi-
tions relating to each of the principal meteorological elements.
Temperature. — We find that over the country generally, the
mean readings were above the average in seven out of the first eight
weeks of the quarter, and either equal to or below the normal in
the five remaining weeks. Taking the season as a whole, the mean
of all the day readings was in most districts about two degrees above
the average, but in the midland counties it was as much as two and
a half degrees in excess. The mean of all the night readings was
a trifle below the average in the north-eastern counties, and very
little above it in the midlands or the south-western counties ; else-
where, however, there was a considerable excess. The mean of the
day and night readings combined was, upon the whole, about a
degree and a half above the average, the excess ranging from a
little under a degree in the north-eastern counties to very nearly
two degrees in the southern counties and in the Channel Islands.
The maximum readings for the quarter, given in the first column of
the Table, were registered in nearly all cases during the second week
in April, when the thermometer exceeded 70° in all districts
excepting the Channel Islands, and exceeded 75° in the eastern,
midland and southern counties. In May the only districts in which
396
The Spring of i894,
Temperature, Rainfall, and Bright Sunshine experienced oiler
England and Wales during the thirteen weeks ended June 2,
1894.
(The Spring Season.)
Temperature
districts
High-
est
Low-
est
Day
temperatures
Night
temperatures
Day and night
temperatures
combined
ob-
serv-
ed
ob-
serv-
ed
.Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
North-eastern counties .
o
72
o
25
O
52-6
o
+ 2-0
0
38 6
o
-01
45-6
o
+ 09
Eastern counties
77
24
557
+ 2-1
392
+ 10
47'5
+ 1-6
Midland „
7G
22
5G-5
+ 2-5
38-2
+ 0-4
47-4
+ 1-5
Southern „
.
7G
27
564
+ 20
42 1
+ 1T
49-3
+ 1-9 *
North-western counties,
eluding North Wales .
73
27
546
+ 1-9
41 0
+ 11
47-8
+ 1-5
South-western counties,
eluding South Wales .
in-\
J
71
25
55-4
+ 2-3
41-7
+ 01
48-G
+ 1-2
Channel Islands
69
34
55-5
+ 2-0
46 0
+ 1-7
50-8
+ 1-9
Rainfall
Bright Sunshine
Districts
Days with rain
Total fall
Duration
Percentage
of possible
amount
Num-
ber
Differ-
ence
from
average
Amo-
unt
Differ-
ence 1
from ,
average
Hours
re-
cord-
ed
Differ-
ence
from
average
Per-
cent-
age
Differ-
ence
from
average
per-
centage
North-eastern counties
51
+ 6
ins.
51
ins.
-0*5
482
+ 86
38
+ 7
Eastern counties
4G
+ i
5-7
+ 0-4
506
+ 23
40
+ 4
Midland „
43
0
5-2
-1-2
478
+ 55
38
+ 6
Southern „ . . .
41
- 1
50
— 0'5
550
+ 44
44
+ 9
North-western counties,
including North Wales J
49
+ 5
6'9
+ 0-6
46G
+ 62
37
+ 4
South-western counties, 4
including South Wales /
47
+ 1
7-7
0
588
+ G5
47
+ 8
Channel Islands .
49
- 1
6-6
+ 0-3
618
+ 23
50
+ 13
Note. — The above Table is compiled from information given in the Weekly Weather Report of
the Meteorological Office. The averages employed are For Temperature, the records made during
the twenty years, 1871-90; for Rainy Days, the values for the thirteen years, 1878-90 ; for total
Rainfall, those for the twentv-five years, 186G-90 ; and for Bright Sunshine, those for the ten years,
1881-90.
The Spring of 1894.
397
the thermometer exceeded 70° were the eastern and southern; in
the north-east and north-west of England the thermometer did not
exceed 65°, and in the last-mentioned district it did not even reach
that point. The minimum temperatures, given in the second column
of the Table, were recorded on various dates in March, but readings
very slightly higher were observed during the week ending May 26.
In the screen the thermometer at the latter advanced season of the
year fell to 26° in the midlands, to 27° in the south-western counties,
and to 29° in all other districts excepting the Channel Islands. On the
surface of the ground the frost was of course more severe, the lowest
points reached by exposed thermometers being 18° at Worksop, 19°
at Stoke-on-Trent, and 23° at Loughborough.
Rainfall. — The rainfall over the country generally was very
irregularly distributed throughout the quarter, but upon the whole
it was short of the average during the earlier half of the period, and
in excess during the latter half. The total amount for the season did
not differ much from the normal, excepting in the midland counties,
where there was a deficiency of about 19 per cent. In the eastern
and north-western counties and in the Channel Islands there was for
the entire quarter a slight excess, while in the north-eastern and
southern counties there was an equally slight deficit. The number
of days with rain also agreed fairly well with the average, excepting
in the north-eastern and north-western counties, where the falls were
more frequent than usual. The absolute drought which set in over
the country generally about the middle of March continued in many
places for three weeks or more, and in several isolated portions of our
eastern, central, and southern counties it lasted for as many as 25 or
26 days. In some few places situated in the same districts a partial
drought prevailed for upwards of six weeks. Snow or sleet fell at
many of the western and northern stations between May 19 and 22.
Bright Sunshine was largely in excess of the average in March
and the early part of April, but for the remainder of the quarter it
was almost continuously deficient, the only sunny week being that
ending with May 26. Taking the season as a whole, there was a
decided excess, the finest district of all being the north-eastern
counties, where the sun shone upon an average for nearly an hour
per day in excess of the usual duration. In the southern counties
the daily excess did not amount to quite half an hour, while in the
Channel Islands it was little more than a quarter of an hour.
OUR IMPORTS OF HAY.
A noteworthy result of the disastrous drought which prevailed
over most of England in the summer of 1893 has been the enormous
increase in our imports of hay consequent on the meagre crop of the
home-grown product. To such an extent have the imports gone up
that for the past year particulars have been supplied, month by
month, to the Board of Trade by Her Majesty’s Customs, showing
VOL. V. T. S. 1 8 D D
398
Our Imports of II ay.
the quantities and sources of the hay sent across the seas into the
United Kingdom. Even in the first six months of 1893, at a time
when the fate of the English hay crop was still undecided, indica-
tions were not lacking that hay was arriving at our ports to an
extent heretofore unequalled. Thus our imports for the first half of
1893 reached a total of 62,766 tons, which slightly exceeds the total
Table I. — Imports of Hay into the United Kingdom , showing
the Contributory Countries.
Country
Five months ended
May 31
X
Twelve months ended
December 31
1894
1893
1893
1892
Russia, North
Tons
25,0G1
Tons
Tons
26,839
Tons
2
Russia, South
997
—
855
—
Sweden
—
142
235
121
Norway .....
2,236
434
1,674
2,225
Denmark ....
3,391
1,930
4,252
2,291
Germany ....
1,675
652
2,188
4,290
Holland
7,895
8,385
28,332
19,403
Belgium ....
1,753
110
3,436
90
France
1,969
628
1,234
3,526
Portugal ....
—
—
61
—
Spain
39
—
144
Italy
125
—
—
—
Canary Islands
—
—
1
—
Malta
—
—
9
—
Turkey, European .
490
—
216
—
Turkey, Asiatic
542
—
4
Algeria
190
730
731
3,274
Cape of Good Hope
1
—
—
—
Bombay
—
—
69
—
South Australia
—
—
9
—
New Zealand ....
22
—
40
—
Canada .....
9,860
3,091
63,175
13,120
Newfoundland
23
—
206
—
United States, Atlantic .
108,369
34,013
101,132
11,588
Chili
3,310
—
3,614
346
Argentine Republic
583
3,606
24,594
961
Total ....
168,531
63,721
263,050
61,237
of 61,237 tons, representing the whole import for the year 1892. In
the second half of last year the quantity imported reached 200,284
tons, which is rather more than three times the quantity which was
brought in during the first half of the year. At the time of writing
the figures denoting our imports during the current year are avail-
able only down to the end of May ; that is, for the first five months
of 1894. But they do not indicate any falling-ofF in the imports,
Our Imports of Hay.
399
notwithstanding that the prospects of the English hay crop are now
vastly superior to what they were a year ago. Taking five-sixths of
the import of the latter half of 1893, we get a total of 166,904 tons,
as representing the average for five months, whereas during the first
five months of 1894 we have imported 168,531 tons, so that there
is really a slight increase in the rate of importation during the
current year, so far as it has gone. A more striking view of
the subject is obtained by comparing the 168,531 tons imported
within the first five months of the present year with the 263,050 tons
which represent the whole of the import in 1893. The former
number is 64 per cent, of the latter ; in other words, we have im-
ported for the first five months of 1894 about two-thirds as much hay
as was landed on our shores in the entire twelve months of 1893.
Table I. has been constructed to show the imports of hay, and
their sources, during the seventeen months which ended with May 3 1 ,
1894. The imports in 1893 are compared with those for 1892, and
Table II. — Imports of Hay into the United Kingdom , s ho whig
the Contributory Continents.
Continents
Five months ended
May 31
i
Twelve months ended
December 31
1894
1893
1893
1892
Europe .....
Asia
Tons
45,631
Tons
12,281
Tons
69,475
Tons
31,948
542
—
73
Africa
191
730
732
3,274
North America
118,252
37,104
164,513
24,708
South America
3,893
3,606
28,208
1,307
Australasia ....
22
—
49
Total ....
168,531
53,721
263,050
61,237
the imports in the first five months of 1894 with those for the corre-
sponding months of 1893. The fact that the United States of
America has sent us 108,369 tons in the first five months of this year,
as against 101,132 tons in the whole of last year, shows what efforts
she is making to retain and strengthen a trade which so recently as
1892 was represented by only 11,588 tons. As compared -with 1892
she last year increased her export to us nearly nine-fold, whilst in
the first five months of 1894 she has sent us nearly ten times as
much as she did in the twelve months of 1892. Canada is not hold-
ing her ground so well, but she sent us five times as much hay in
1893 as in 1892, and it is worth noting that Canada alone sent to
our ports in 1893 more than the total quantity of hay we took from
all sources in 1892. Holland, which was first on the list in 1892,
gave precedence to the United States and Canada in 1893, and in
the current year up to May 31 she further yields place to Russia.
A continental grouping of the sources of our hay imports, such
as is set forth in Table II., brings out some interesting results.
400
Our Imports of Haij.
Thus in 1892 just one-half of our imports were of European origin;
whilst North America contributed only 40 per cent. In 1893, on
the other hand, North America accounted for over 62 per cent., the
European tribute being but 26 per cent. ; so that, whilst the former
continent sent us about two-thirds of our total import, Europe did
not make up more than about one-fourth. For the first five months
of the present year the disparity is still more pronounced ; for, whilst
the North American supply has risen to 70 per cent, of the total
import, the proportion from European countries remains practically
stationary at 27 per cent. The fact, no doubt, is that several
European countries have like ourselves been in want of hay, owing
to the ill effects of last year’s drought.
Lastly, an inquiry into the gross monthly imports gives the
Table III. — Monthly Imports of Hay into the United Kingdo m.
Twelve months ended December 31
Five months, January to May .
1893
Tons
. 53,721
1892
Tons
21,607
June .......
9,045
4,459
July
. 18,636
3,614
August ......
. 38,416
2,497
September
. 35,948
4,723
October ......
. 28,923
7,412
November ......
. 41,047
7,740
December
. 37,314
9,185
Total ....
. 263,050
61,237
Five months ended May 31
January
1894
Tons
. 31,967
1893
Tons
8,368
February
. 26,745
9,248
March . . . .
. 41,132
12,474
April .......
. 35,560
13,394
May
. 33,127
10,237
Total ....
. 168,531
53,721
results recorded in Table III. As a matter of fact, the importation
never reached a monthly total of 10,000 tons till March, 1893.
During the twelve months extending from June, 1893, to May, 1894,
the highest monthly import was that of March, 1894 ; but the 41,132
tons in that month are closely approached by the 41,047 tons in
November, 1893. It cannot be argued that the import for May, 1894,
shows any effective decline, for it is greater than the import in any
of the months of June, July, October, January, and February.
Within the last twelve months our total imports of hay from all
sources for the year ended May 31, 1894, amounted to 377,860 tons.
The produce of hay in the year 1893, from both temporary and
permanent grass land, in England and Wales, was estimated at the
low total of 3,830,405 tons. Hence it would appear that our imports
Our Imports of Hay.
401
of hay in the year ended May 31, 1894, were equivalent to nearly
one-tenth of last year’s hay crop in England and Wales.
The figures which have been given possess an intrinsic interest,
but it is not exclusively for this reason that they have been quoted.
English farmers know only too well that, when the lines have once
been laid, there is little difficulty experienced in continuing to
transport along them any kind of foreign produce into this country.
Now that the growers beyond the seas have learnt the possibilities
of expansion in the hay trade, they will certainly make an effort,
not only to retain the position they have already acquired, but to
strengthen their interest in our market. In a Free-trade country
like Great Britain the only way to meet this threatened invasion of
foreign hay is to increase the home output to such a degree that the
prices will tend to check rather than to encourage a further develop-
ment in foreign imports. The season is yet young enough to permit of
our farmers increasing their reserves of hay to a greater extent than,
perhaps, they had intended. If, then, a return to moderate prices
should cause the foreign hay trade to shrink back within its old limits,
the lessened price of home-grown hay would bring with it its own
compensation, for its greater quantity would enable farmers to feed
hay largely to their stock, and thus to effect a substantial reduction in
the corn and cake bill. On the other hand, it is not unreasonable to
anticipate that, unless the foreign hay trade should receive some
such check as has been suggested, it must continue to grow in
volume, until the produce of grass lands beyond the seas is poured
into this country as regularly and as persistently as the grain
from the wheatfields of North America and Argentina, of Russia
and India.
W. Fream.
12 Hanover Square, W.
RECENT AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS
The subjects of Applications for Patents from March 12
to fane 9, 1894.
N.B. — Where the Invention is a communication from abroad, the name of
the Inventor is shown in italios, between parentheses, after the name of the
applicant.
Agricultural Machinery and Implements, &c.
Application, Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
Year 1894.
5382 Turner, H. E. . Cultivators, &c.
5485 C ASHMORE, T. J. and anr, Chaffcutter, &c.
5545 Blackstone, E. C. . Root-cutters.
6900 Thornton, J. and anr. . Steaming wheat, &c.
6983 Fleming, H. B. , . Elevating hay, &c.
402
Recent Agricultural Inventions,
Name of Applicant.
No. of
Application.
Tear 1894.
6344 Radford, A. L.
6373 Poschmann, T.
6461
6666
6667
6668
6773
6865
6980
7015
7095
7107
7193
7204
7279
7291
7546
7677
7866
7927
8180
8275
8279
8294
8626
8709
8710
8718
8797
8844
9320
9497
9720
9841
9912
9966
10005
10050
10051
10190
10608
10859
10877
10969
10977
McGregor, A.
McGeoch, J. A.
Perkins & Jaffs
Lee, J. W. .
Ransome, J. E.
Thompson, D. J.
Cunliffe, W.
Thomson, J.
Disturnal, T. J
Roberts, J.
Anderson, W.
Thompson, W. P. ( Lanz
Germany) .
Bamford, S. B.
Ballach, A.
Howard & Gibbs
Paine, E. G.
Thompson, W. P.
( Unterslip and anr.)
Lewin, T. .
Walker, W.
Newton, A. .
Robert, E. .
Kirkby, F. .
J» »»
Bentall, E. E.
Almont & Stevens
Doyle & Farrell
Oldershaw, S. .
Wilson, W. .
Sargeant, T. C. .
Ford, J.
Parke, W. .
Kessler, A. .
Paxton, R. .
Garfitt, C. .
Crawley, J.
Howard & Bousfield
Backhouse, J. .
Komnick and another .
Russell, G. .
Holyoak, J. E. . ,
Gregory, W.
Title of Invention.
Mowing machines.
Preventing straw coiling up on a threshing
drum.
Grain-binding harvesters.
Mould boards for ploughs.
Combination implement for cultivating the soil.
Harrows.
Appliances for sowing seeds.
Feed device of chalfcutters.
Ploughs.
Reaping machine.
, Scraper for wheat-cleaning machines.
Turnip topping, &c., machine.
Reducing oats to meal.
Potato digger and picker.
Manure distributing machine.
Threshing machines.
Machines for slicing turnips.
Adjustable coulter for seed drills.
Horse rakes.
Mowers and reapers.
Ploughs.
Self-binding harvester.
Double-horse hoe.
, Digging forks.
Ploughs.
Horse-hoe blade.
Plough coulters.
Disc machines for preparing roots for cattle.
Grain evener for self-binding harvesters.
Turnip, &c., sowing machines.
. Hand appliance for cutting grass, &c.
Chaff-cutters.
Drill and distributor.
Sheaf looser and feeder for threshing machines.
Hay-press.
Potato digging machine.
Drill rollers for turnip-sowing barrows.
Beaters for threshing machines.
Potato hoe.
Hay-presses.
Ploughs.
Threshing machines.
Manure and seed drill.
Drill coulters.
Hand banking plough.
Recent Agricultural Inventions. 403
Stable Utensils and Fittings — Horse-shoes, &c.
No. of Name of Applicant.
Application.
Year 1894.
Title of Invention.
5185 Harris, W. J.
5343 Earl Poulett .
5385 Metcalfe, F. R. .
5486 Harrison, A.
5502 Oswald, W.
5665 Von Preu and anr.
. Horse clippers.
. Roughing horse-shoes.
. Horse-shoes.
. Frost cogs for horse-shoes.
. Saddles, collars, &c.
. Horse-shoes.
5885 Metcalfe, F. R. . . Horse-shoes.
6907 Dewsbury, J. and anr. Safety stirrup.
6189 Poppe, C. .
6307 Lewis, J. .
6392 Kirk, H.
6399 Wilson, G. .
. Horse-collars.
. Horse-shoes.
. Bridles.
. Holding bits.
6414 Cloke, T. and anr. . Horse-shoe.
6464 Atkinson, C. & others Horse-collars.
6546 Palmer, J. ( Touch ,
BurmaTi) . . . Bits.
7103 Carrington, H. .
7186 Small, J. .
7293 Manifold, W. A.
7314 Delaney, J.
7513 Holcombe, E.
7625 Powell, A. & others
7747 Everall, D.
7898 Platt, J. E.
. Safety stirrups.
• Horse-shoes.
. Horse-shoes.
. Nosebags.
. Safety stirrup.
. Collar or saddle.
. Safety stirrup.
. Horse-shoes.
7957 Fbiedl, A. . . . Bridle bits.
7997 Jones, T. N. & others Horse-shoes.
8030 Leclercq, L. . . Safety saddle bars.
8211 Withers, T. G. and S. Stirrups.
8415 Austin, W. J.
8756 Stensloff, W. .
8846 Phipps, J. L.
8995 Sumner, J. .
9005 Royle, T. .
9117 Trees, J. and others
9335 Verrier, A. B. .
9339 Kirkman, W. T. .
. Bridles.
Instantaneously detaching shying horses from
vehicles.
. Collar for carrying the electric light onharness.
. Bits.
. Horse-shoes.
. Riding saddles.
. Pneumatic horse-collar.
. Appliance to prevent horses in shafts running
away.
986i}ROWLAND,T' •
. Apparatus for supplying feed to horses.
9929 Hughes, E. .
10164 Ralph, J. .
10574 Chipperfield, S. E. .
. Harness and fastenings for liberating fallen
horses.
Horse-collars.
Anti-slipping appliance for horse-shoes.
10686 The Cockshutt Plow
Co. Ld. . , , Horse-shoes,
404
Recent Agricultural Inventions ,
Application. Name of Applicant.
Year 1894.
10755 De Hoesey, E. .
10864 Yule, J. S. .
11153 Rowland, T.
Title of Invention,
. Horse-shoes.
. Safety spring halter chain,
. Supplying feed to horses.
Carts and Carriages,
6637 WlDDALL, E.
7014 Morton, J. .
10532 Carter, J. & S. .
12213 Thompson, W. P.
( Reer , Germany )
Adjusting seats of dog carts, &c.
Hay bogies.
Wheels of wagons and carts.
Cart or wagon.
Dairy Utensils, &c.
6063 McCarthy, J.
6076 Rawlingson, J.
7195 Barton, W. .
7328 Bradford, T.
7428 Wright, S. H.
7612 Grainger, R.
7824 Dunkley, E. T.
8711 King, H.
8780 Freeth, F. H.
9077 Vincent, W.
10455 Duncan, J. H.
others
10633 Swarbhick, G.
. Butter box.
. Receptacle for straining milk and separating
cream.
. Butter churns.
. Diaphragm for churns.
. Producing butter.
. Aerating milk.
. Self-acting air valve and eyelet for churns.
. Milk can.
. Railway milk cans.
. Butter churns,
and
. Butter churns.
. Butter press.
1 0044 1
l Salenius, E. G. N. . Cream separators.
10945 J
11006 Hampson, W. . . Billets for pillar reins.
11047 Weight, S. H. . Producing butter.
Poultry and Game, &c., Appliances.
6882 Mann, S.
6457 Moeant, G. F.
7055 Markham, E.
7203 Woodfield, V. .
10553 Green, J.G..& Blum
. Incubators.
. Pens for poultry, &c.
. Preserving eggs.
. Poultry markers.
, J. Incubator and rearer.
Miscellaneous.
6360 Ward, H. E. & others
10323 Denison, J. H.
10350 Kraatz, R. .
10499 Lana way, E. & H.
10787 Hole, G. W. .
10826 Hayward, C. P.
10848 Stempel, L.
Clipper? for animals.
Feed trough for cattle.
Drinking troughs for cattle.
, Honey extracters.
Queen trap, or swarm arrester for beehives.
. Marking cattle.
Drying onions and tomatoes.
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 405
Numbers of Specifications relating to the above subjects published
since March 10, 1894.1
Specifications of 1893.
5527, 5863, 1308, 1697, 3783, 4340, 4816, 5671, 6166, 7079, 7321, 7511, 7522,
7524, 7542, 7547, 7725, 8044, 8070, 8193, 8587, 8627, 8738, 8858, 9103,
9187, 9215, 9645, 9852, 10010, 10372, 10806, 11030, 11031, 11093, 11216,
11260, 11293, 11415, 11447, 11507, 11698, 11804, 11829, 12861, 13704,
14194, 14734, 15161, 15942, 16453, 18142, 18712, 19507, 21898, 22799
23361, 23801, 24420.
Specifications of 1894.
194, 492, 1032, 1825, 1978, 2012, 2093, 2846, 4165, 4951, 6343, 5882, 5907, 6373.
STATISTICS AFFECTING BRITISH
AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE STATISTICS, 1893.
The official report on the Crops of 1893 was issued by the Board of
Agriculture on April 27, 1894, under the usual title of “Agri-
cultural Produce Statistics.” The extraordinary nature of last
year’s harvest, and the disasters which befell the great majority of
farmers in that part of England lying south of the valley of the
Trent, are abundantly reflected in Major Craigie’s report, which is
prefixed to the tables, and from which the subjoined details are
extracted. The summary table presented on pp. 416-17 is compiled
partly from the Agricultural Produce Statistics, and partly from the
previously issued Agricultural Returns.
Totals for the United Kingdom.
To enable a general statement to be prepared for the United
Kingdom — exclusive of the Isle of Man and Channel Islands, where
statistics of this nature are not collected — particulars of the yield of
the Irish crops have been included.
In dealing with the aggregate results obtained by combining the
available data, it must be remembered that these totals fail in some
respects to indicate the characteristics of the season of 1893, which
perhaps more than any recent year was distinguished by a striking-
variety of local experience. Throughout Ireland, with the exception
of a section of the country in the South-East, the year proved a pro-
ductive one, while Scotland and some of the more northerly English
counties similarly escaped the more serious effects of the prolonged
1 Copies (price 8 d. each) may be obtained at the Patent Office (Sale and
Store Branch), 38 Cursitor Street, London, E.C.
406 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
drought, which not only told disastrously on the Hay harvest, but
also largely reduced the yield of the cereals of the year. The higher
yields of the more fortunate parts of the United Kingdom thus
to some extent counteracted the unusual losses of the Central and
Southern counties.
Even thus qualified, however, the general figures for the
United Kingdom indicate a marked deficiency in four out of the
five cereal crops reported on, while the Hay crop, from both
permanent and temporary grass, has been reduced to an extent
never before recorded in these returns. In Grain crops, as com-
pared with 1892, we have grown less Barley by 14 per cent., less
Wheat by 16 per cent., less Beans by 31 per cent., and less Peas by
5 per cent. The estimated produce of Wheat stands below the total
for the preceding year by as much as 1,233,000 quarters. This is
mainly in consequence of the smaller area under the crop ; but the
further loss of nearly 1,400,000 quarters of Barley must be wholly
ascribed to an inferior yield, as the acreage was slightly greater than
in 1892. Against these losses a total increase of only 50,000
quarters of Oats, on a largely increased area, is a relatively small set
off.
Grain Crops in the United Kingdom. — The estimates of the total
native production of Wheat, Barley, Oats, Beans, and Peas in the
United Kingdom as a whole, reckoned in quarters, compare as
shown in Table I. for each of the last three years, placing these five
crops in the order of their relative magnitude.
Table I. — Total produce of Corn Crops in the United Kingdom.
Crops
1891
1892
1893
Oats
Quarters
20,809.000
Quarters
21,023,000
Quarters
21,074,000
Barley
9,944,009
9,617,000
8,218,000
Wheat
9,343.000
7,597,000
6,364,000
Beans .
1,337,000
882,000
608,000
Peas
722,000
629,000
595,000
Such a table brings out the contrast with the harvest of 1891
as well as of 1892, and indicates that nearly 3,000,000 fewer
quarters of Wheat were grown in 1893 than were produced two
years previously.
These figures also strikingly emphasize the fact that with an
extending area in England, and an area always largely preponderat-
ing in Scotland and Ireland, the Oat crop bulks more largely than
all the other four Corn crops collectively in any estimate of the
total Corn production of the United Kingdom. And it may be
added that even if, as has been sometimes estimated, no more than
one-half of the Oats grown come into the category of saleable
produce, the value of that half at the prices current in March, 1894,
exceeds the entire value of the Wheat crop of the year.
The mean yields per acre of the grain crops for the United
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 407
Kingdom' in 1893 are shown in the table on pp. 416-17 to have
been, in the case of Wheat, 26-08 bushels ; of Barley, 29-30 ; and of
Beans, 19*61. These are quite the lowest figures returned in the
decade for which returns exist. In the case of Peas the yield of
22-61 bushels was the lowest with the exception of 1885, when only
18-78 bushels were secured, while but for a large Irish return, and
a Scottish crop over average by more than 5 per cent., the Oat crop
of 1893 would have occupied a similar position of inferiority.
Other Crops in the United Kingdom. — Turning to other forms of
produce, the aggregate totals of Potatoes, Roots, and Hay in the
United Kingdom in the past three years may be contrasted as in
Table II., in tons.
Table II. — Total produce of Potatoes, Roots, and Hay in
the United Kingdom.
Crops
1891
1892
1893
Tons
Tons
Tons
Potatoes .
6,090,000
5,634,000
6,541,000
Turnips .
29,742,000
31,419,000
31,110,000
Mangel .
7,558,000
7,428,000
5,225,000
Hay from clover, &c.
4,278,000
4,015,000
3,167,000
Hay from per- 1
manent pasture J
8,393,000
7,501,000
5,915,000
The abundant Potato crop of the season is here apparent, the
average yield being only once before reached, and the total outturn
estimated at 16 per cent, above the figures for 1892. In the case
of Turnips the produce is slightly below the previous year’s crop,
but above that of 1891. Mangel, however, shows a diminution of
30 per cent., a serious loss considering the value of the crop in a
season when fodder and feeding stuffs are scarce. But attention
will be mainly attracted to the conspicuous failure of the Hay crop.
The average production of both kinds of Hay in the United
Kingdom in a normal season may be taken as roughly 13,000,000
tons — whereof about one-third is raised in Ireland. Every one of
the last three seasons has, however, shown under average results,
and the total produce for 1893 is estimated at little over 9,000,000
tons. Since practically one half of this, or 4,483,000 tons, was the
produce of Irish fields, it follows that the reduction in the area
mown, and the scanty crops secured last season, left the growers of
Hay on this side of St. George’s Channel with not much over half
of their accustomed supply of fodder. Even with the aid of the fair
Irish crop, the total estimate of Hay of all sorts shown by the above
table to have been obtained in the United Kingdom stands at a
level nearly 2,500,000 tons below the crop of 1892, and 3,500,000
tons below that of the previous year, while it falls short of an
ordinary average crop by about 4,000,000 tons.
408 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
Map of England and Wales (and part of Scotland), showing the divisions and also the subdivisions
into whioh the counties of England have been grouped.
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 409
Yield of Crops in Great Britain.
Confining attention to the statistics collected of the yield of the
various crops in Great Britain alone, and disregarding the element
introduced by the Irish figures, we are met by an almost unbroken
series of under-average yields, the production of Wheat in the
year 1893 standing at only 25-95 bushels per acre, the yield
for Barley being 28-69 bushels, for Oats 35-59 bushels, for Beans
19-39 bushels, for Peas 22-61 bushels, for Turnips 13-30 tons, for
Mangel 12-84 tons, for Hops 7*21 cwt., for Clover Hay 18-74 cwt., and
for Permanent Meadow Hay only 12-56 cwt., or less than half a crop.
Potatoes alone show an average yield.
Comparisons with Freviotcs Harvests. — Perhaps the relation of
these figures to the records of previous years in some of the more
important crops may be most conveniently shown by Table III.,
wherein the normal yield for Great Britain, according to the local
estimates obtained in 1885 and 1886, and shown in the heading of
the several columns, is represented by the figure “ 100,” and the
proportion of the estimated yield per acre of each year,
from 1884 to 1893 inclusive, to this ordinary average is shown
accordingly.
Table III. — Relative Yields of Crops in Great Britain,
1884-1893.
Wheat
Bakley
Oats
Potatoes
Hat
(Clover, &c.)
Hay
(Permanent
Pasture)
Years
Estimated
ordinary
average,
28-80
bushels
Estimated
ordinary
average,
3402
bushels
Estimated
ordinary
average,
3904
bushels
Estimated
ordinary
average,
6-11
tons
Estimated
ordinary
average,
29-34
cwt.
Estimated
ordinary
average,
25*56
cwt.
per acre
per acre
per acre
per acre
per acre
per acre
1884
104
100
96
108
1885
109
103
94
95
—
—
1886
93
95
97
94
100
102
1887
111
92
89
104
93
81
1888
97
97
95
85
96
110
1889
104
93
101
101
114
114
1890
107
103
106
87
104
104
1891
109
100
99
94
97
92
1892
92
102
99
95
87
75
1893
90
84
91
108
64
49
Neither Wheat nor Barley, it therefore appears, has ever before
shown so small a yield as in 1893 since these returns were
collected, and the yield of Oats only on one occasion. Potatoes
have only once before been as good a crop, while Hay of both
kinds has, as anticipated, shown an enormous diminution from the
normal standard.
The Yield of Wheat in Great Britain. — Taking some of the esti-
410 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
mated results of the year’s harvest in detail, Wheat in G-reat Britain
was grown on a surface less by a seventh than in 1892 ; and the
mean yield per acre being also less, though only by half a bushel,
than in the bad harvest of that year, the gross total outturn was
smaller than the crop of 1892 by nearly a sixth part. As already
shown, the yield per acre of the Wheat crop in Great Britain was
practically 10 per cent, short of the accepted standard. But it
must be noted that the quality was in numerous instances unusually
high, and in one or two cases weights of 65 lb. and even 67 lb. per
bushel were reported.
So far as the reduced total produce follows from the diminished
area devoted to wheat growing, the comments offered on the
acreage returns explain sufficiently the local effect of the changes
thus arising. But the mean Wheat yield per acre on the area
still left under this cereal in 1893 covers such varied local results
as to invite closer inquiry. Compared with the standard ordinary
average, accepted since 1885 as a point for comparison, although
the English yield taken by itself was last year more than 3
bushels per acre short on the whole, yet in York, Durham, Northum-
berland, and in Scotland, an excess of 3 to 4 bushels per acre
over the average was recorded. In Cambridge, Essex, Middle-
sex, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, on the other hand, the yield was
8 to 9 bushels under average, and in Hampshire over 6 ^ bushels
short. These figures represent reductions of from 24 to 30 per
cent. They doubtless indicate the chief sufferers from the meteo-
rological conditions of the year, and help to explain the large
declines of 13 per cent, in yield in the first and 17| per cent, in the
second produce divisions which are shown in Table IV., and in the
map on p. 408, while they afford a strong contrast with the over-
average yield of 101? per cent, reported from the Northern and
North-Western counties of the fourth division.
The yield of WTheat in 1893 varied indeed so greatly in certain
groups of counties that it may be worth while to make a further
analysis of the general results in still narrower areas by breaking
up the four divisions of England shown in Table IV. into the
eight subdivisions which were referred to in the report on the
produce returns of 1891.
In Table IV. it is made clear that the greatest reduction in the
yield per acre of last season’s Wheat crop occurred in the five South-
Eastern counties lying south of the Thames, forming the first part of
the second division, with a decline of nearly 25 per cent, from the
standard. The first section of the first or Eastern division — which is
usually the area of highest Wheat yield, and is distinguished as the
district where this cereal still retains an exceptional share of the
cultivated area — comes next in order of diminished yield, with a
reduction of 21 per cent. ; the third largest decline being in the
counties of the extreme South-West ; while the whole Northern
division returned an over-average crop, which was best in the coun-
ties nearest the Scottish Border.
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
411
Table I Y. — Produce of Wheat in the Subdivisions of England
in 1893.
1893
Divisions
of
England
Estimated
total
produce,
1893
Estimated
yield
per acre,
1893
Ordinary
average
(as
estimated
in 1885)
Deficiency
(-) or
increase
( + ) on
estimated
ordinary
average
Per-
centage of
decrease
(-) or
increase
( + )
Division
No. 1 *
Part (a)
Part ( b )
Bushels
10,783,964
11,506,858
Bushels
24-37
30-21
Bushels
30- 80
31- 45
Bushels
-6-43
-1-24
Per cent.
-20-9
- 40
Division
No. 2 f
"Part (a)
[ Part (5)
5,455,301
5,809,038
22-69
2610
30-20
28-76
-7-51
-2-66
-24-9
- 9-2
Division
No. 3J
' Part (a)
Part (i)
5,433,897
3,138,804
25 02
21-70
26-39
24-36
-1-37
-2-66
- 5-2
-109
Division
No. 4 § '
Part (a)
Part (b)
2,445,780
1,855,765
28-37
28-84
24-94
2715
+ 3-43
+ 1-69
+ 13-7
+ 6-2
*Division I.
Containing (a) six
eastern and (b) three
north-eastern
counties
fDivision II.
Containing («) five
south-eastern and
(6) nine east-midland
■ counties
JDivision III.
Containing (a) six
west-midland and
(i>) four south-
western counties
§Division IY.
Containing ( a ) four
northern and (6) six
north-western
counties
(a) Cambridge
Suffolk
Essex
Herts
Beds
Hunts
( a ) Kent
Surrey
Sussex
Hants
Berks
(a) Shropshire
Worcester
Hereford
Gloucester
Wilts
Monmouth
(a) Northumberland
Durham
York, N.R.
York, W.B.
(i) Norfolk
Lincoln
York, E.R.
(5) Notts
Leicester
Rutland
Northampton
Warwick
Oxford
Bucks
Middlesex
London
(6) Somerset
Dorset
Devon
Cornwall
(b) Cumberland
Westmorland
Lancashire
Cheshire
Derby
Stafford
The Yield of Barley in Great Britain. — Turning to the Barley
crop of 1893, the differences are shown in Table Y. to have been most
marked in the groups of counties wherein the Wheat crop suffered
most. In the South-Eastern group of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hants,
and Berks, the Barley yield per acre was reduced by upwards of
36 per cent, below the normal figure. In the six Eastern counties
forming the first part of the division No. 1, the mean decline has
been 30| per cent., while in the South-West, again, from Dorset to
Cornwall, a mean reduction of nearly 29 per cent, is reported. In
three English counties, Middlesex, Surrey, and Cornwall, where the
normal yield ranges from 32 to over 39 bushels per acre, the Barley
yield of 1893 is returned as under 20 bushels per acre.
412 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
Table Y. — Produce of Barley in the Subdivisions of England
in 1893.
1893
Divisions of England
Estimated
total pro-
duce, 1893
Estimated
yield per
acre, 1893
Ordinary
average
(as esti-
mated in
1885)
Deficiency
(— ) or in-
crease ( + )
on estimated
ordinary
average
Percentage
of decrease
( — ) or in-
crease ( + )
Division
Part
(«)
Bushels
9,554,220
Bushels
24-91
Bushels
35-87
Bushels
-109G
Per cent.
-305
No. 1.
Part
(0
14,801,335
31-28
35-57
- 4-29
-12-0
Division
' Part
(a)
3,273,527
22 79
35-79
-13 00
-36-3
No. 2.
Part
W
5,565,458
27-23
34-37
- 7 14
-20-8
Division
Part
(«)
4,691,719
27-56
31-14
- 3-58
-11-5
No. 3.
Part
(0
3,265,689
2209
30 97
- 8-88
-28-7
Division
Part
(a)
6,610,416
35 23
33-04
+ 219
+ 66
No. 4.
Part
(0
1,270,344
31-01
32-40
- 1-39
- 4-3
Not till we reach the Northern group does the crop appear to
have escaped the loss of yield due to the drought of 1893 ; and,
indeed, Barley is returned as an under-average crop even in two
counties, Derby and Stafford, included in this division. In Scotland
the Barley crop was more than 4| per cent, over average, but in
Wales nearly 10 per cent, under average. Nor was the loss
measured by the number of bushels threshed the only damage sus-
tained, for except where the Barley was sown early, when some good
samples were obtained in various districts, the irregular germination
of the crop in very many English counties severely affected the
quality and value of the produce.
The Yield of Oats in Great Britain. — The Oat crop of 1893,
depi’ived of the moisture requisite to its growth in three-fourths of
England, fell also considerably below an average yield. Scotland,
however, furnishes a third of the acreage carrying Oats in Great
Britain, while it has only a little more than a tenth of the acreage
under Barley, and there the benefit of a remarkably early harvest
enabled an over-average crop to be secured. This caused the mean
reduction of the yield per acre of Oats in Great Britain to stand at a
smaller figure than that of Barley, the total decline of 8-8 per cent,
below the standard yield being the result of a drop of nearly twice
this ratio, or 16*7 per cent., in the English counties, and one of 4‘7
per cent, in Wales, checked by an increased yield of 5-3 per cent, in
North Britain.
In the three produce divisions of England which have suffered
in the case of the other cereals, the average loss in Oats is very con-
siderable. In five of the six smaller groups or subdivisions com-
pared in the preceding paragraphs, and collectively making up the
injuriously affected section of the country, a yield of from 44 to 18
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 413
bushels short of the standard has been recorded. As before, the
five counties of the South-East — Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hants, and
Berks — have the unpleasant pre-eminence of being collectively the
greatest sufferers, with a yield reduced from a standard of 46 bushels
per acre to one of 28 bushels, or very little more than three-fifths
of an ordinary crop ; the report from Sussex is the worst of the
five, the average Oat crop in that county being only a single bushel
above 3 quarters to the acre, while in ordinary seasons little short of
6 quarters per acre are looked for.
After the South-Eastern counties, some of the Eastern group have
been next worst off. Cambridge, which usually boasts the largest
Oat yield of any English county, with a normal outturn reckoned in
1885 at over 8 quarters to the acre, reports in 1893 a crop of less
than 5 quarters, while the whole of Part (a) of this division returns
only two-thirds of a normal harvest. Here also, in the case both of
Oats and of other cereals, instances of the crops being cut green to
make up for deficient fodder are reported.
The fluctuations shown in 1893 in the yield of Oats in each of the
eight subdivisions of England may be traced in Table VI.
Table VI. — Produce of Oats in ihe Subdivisions of England
in 1893.
1893
Bivisions
of
Eng’ and
Estimated
total
produce,
1893
Estimated
yield
per acre,
1893
Ordinary
average (as
estimated
in 1885)
Deficiency
(-)or
increase
( + ) on
estimated
ordinary
average
Percentage
of
decrease
(-) or
increase ( + )
Division f Part (a)
Bushels
6,980,940
Bushels
32-80
Bushels
50-43
Bushels
-17-63
Per cent.
-350
No. 1 LPart (b)
12,347,591
43 01
50-16
- 6-55
-130
Division
'Part (a)
7,052,277
27’80
45-80
-1800
-39-3
No. 2 '
_Part (b)
5,908,312
31-35
4039
- 9 04
-22-4
Division f Part (a)
5,G84,820
32-75
37-28
- 4-53
-12-1
No. 3 \Part (b)
0,489,842
27-15
34-92
- 7-77
-22-3
Division j
'Part (a)
10,850,071
41-91
38-40
+ 3-45
+ 90
No. 4 1
L Part (b)
11,849,981
38-88
39-40
- 0-58
- l if
In Wales, where Oats are grown on a not inconsiderable area,
the average decline is only a bushel and a half below the standard ;
but an exceptional loss occurs in three counties — Carmarthen, Car-
narvon and Pembroke. In the last of these, indeed, the deficit
appears as nearly 16 bushels below the standard, and may be traced
to the special suffering of this county from the drought which is
indicated by the rainfall records of the year. While the Scottish
Oat crop, as above noticed, has been on the whole over average
VOL. V. T. S. — 18 E E
414 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
one or two counties have there also come short, as in the case of
Sutherland and Orkney, and to a smaller extent in Perth and
Dumfries. Some special damage of a different origin occurred in
the South of Scotland by the gale of August 21, whereby quantities
of from 2 to 6 bushels per acre were said to have been shaken out.
The Yield of Potatoes in Great Britain. — The one crop of the
past season which was very generally good was Potatoes, the mean
yield per acre for Great Britain coming out half a ton or nearly 8
per cent, above the standard of 1885, and 13^ per cent, over the
yield of 1892. No doubt in the case of individual counties, possibly
where the original estimates were placed rather high, the yield of
1893 fell a little short. But, on the other hand, Potato crops
exceeding 9 tons to the acre were reported for Gloucester and Derby,
for Merioneth and Clackmannan. The estimated average for Eng-
land in 1893 is 6-64 tons per acre. It is 6'63 tons in Wales, and
6'42 tons in Scotland. The English average does not appear to have
been exceeded for any year since these returns have been collected,
while only once, in 1887, has the Welsh average been slightly
higher, and only twice, in 1887 and 1889, has the Scotch average
stood at a larger figure. The absence of disease was very generally
reported, and the excellence of the crop was a common matter of
remark. From Aberdeen, Stirling, and Dumfries mention was,
however, made of a varying degree of disease among the early
varieties affecting from an eighth to a third of these crops.
The Yield of Turnips in Great Britain. — The Turnip crop of 1893
seems to have been about 13 per cent, below the standard of 151-
tons to an acre, estimated as a normal crop in 1885. Since, however,
this figure is one which has never been reached for Great Britain as
a whole in any of the years for which produce statistics are forth-
coming, it is possible that the average of 13|- tons in 1893, although
less than last year’s estimate, does not represent so inferior a yield as
was at one time expected, and, looking farther back, it is considerably
better than the crops of 1888, 1887, or 1885.
The English Turnip crop stands much below the Welsh or the
Scotch, showing only 12 tons to the acre, against 15 tons and 16^
tons respectively in these countries. Moreover, the yield in the
English counties is marked by an extreme variety of range from
under 8 tons to the acre in Bedford and less than 9 tons in Cam-
bridge, Buckingham, Essex, Hertford, Middlesex, and Berkshire, to
17 to 20 tons in Chester, Westmorland, Derby, Northumberland,
and Lancaster. An estimate of 23 tons is given in Cumberland,
and in one Welsh county, Brecon, while no less than seven Scottish
counties return Turnip crops of over 20 tons to the acre.
The Yield of Mangel in Great Britain. — Although Mangel is
grown in every county of England and Wales, it is a relatively
unimportant crop in the northern counties, while its extent and
value are considerable in many of the more southerly districts in
which the drought of 1893 was severely felt. The reduction in the
yield in the past season is, therefore, not surprising, and must have
pressed with special severity on particular areas. The mean yield
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 415
per acre in England has dropped from 19 '89 tons to 1274 tons. In
Essex the return appears to have been less than 6 tons to the acre
— not one-third of an ordinary crop. In Hertfordshire, Berkshire,
and Middlesex less than 9 tons to the acre were reported, and in
Buckinghamshire 9 V tons. The county of Dorset, which has the
highest standard yield, shows less than 10 tons, in place of 26-6 tons
to the acre in the season of 1892.
The Yield of Hay in Great Britain. — The most serious of the
several disasters of the past year has lain in the failure, already
adverted to, of so unusual a proportion of the Hay crop. This has
affected a very wide and important section of the area of Great
Britain, and the loss extends to both forms of Hay, whether from
Permanent or Temporary Grasses. The estimated average production
of Hay of all kinds in an ordinary season in Great Britain exceeds
8.600.000 tons, but according to the reports furnished, only 1,918,000
tons were cut from clover and rotation grasses, while a total of
2.681.000 tons from permanent meadow was all that had been secured
last summer.
Besides the reduced area which the agricultural returns showed
to have been reserved for Hay in Great Britain under the peculiar
circumstances of the season, the yield per acre on this diminished
surface was in the case of Permanent Grasses less than half the
customary estimate, and the reduction in the yield of the Clover
and seed Hay exceeded one-tliird. In Hay from Permanent Meadow,
the deficit per acre, compared with the normal yield, reached 14 cwt.
in England, nearly 7 cwt. in Wales, while even in Scotland an
estimated loss of 3 cwt. to the acre is reported. The Clover,
Sainfoin, and Rotation Grasses cut were likewise about 3 cwt. short
in Scotland. They were not much under 9 cwt. short in Wales,
and nearly 13 cwt. deficient in England. In some cases where,
contrary to the usual practice, second cuttings were obtained after
rain had come, the estimated yield was only reached by including
these. More usually it is reported that the urgent need of grass for
grazing purposes led to there being little attempt to supplement the
scanty first crop of Hay by a second cutting, while frequent instances
are reported where no cutting at all took place until the autumn.
Not a single county in England, and only two in Wales and eight
in Scotland, returned over average yields per acre, but the different
extent of the loss in the various counties was as striking as in the
Grain crops. In Clover Hay the English average — 16-67 cwt.
per acre in place of 29'39 — included seven counties where less
than 10 cwt. was obtained. Bedford showed 8'63 cwt. only as
against a standard crop of 38-02 cwt., Surrey 846 cwt. only
against one of 26‘64 cwt., while the Berkshire and Buckingham-
shire totals for the year scarcely rose above 9 cwt. to the acre, and
Dorset, Gloucester, and Oxford also returned an average of less than
half a ton, while in 1 1 other English counties less than half a crop
was secured.
In ordinary seasons Lancaster returns one of the heaviest Clover
Hay crops, but even here the yield was reduced to 32'58 cwt. per
416
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests ,
Estimated Total Produce and Yield per Acre of tlie Principal Crops,
Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs, in the United
[From, the Agricultural Returns and
England
Wales
Crops
Acreage,
1 thousands ’
(000) omitted
Produce of
crops, ‘thou-
sands’ (000)
omitted
Average
yield per
acre
Acreage,
‘ thousands ’
(000)
omitted
Produce of
erops, ‘thou-
sands’ (000)
omitted
Average
yield per
acre
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
Corn Crops
Acres
Acres
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Acres
Acres
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Wheat
2,103
1,799
55,107
46,429
2620
25-81
65
55
1,319
1,205
23-86
22-09
Barley including Bere .
1,710
1,752
59,511
49,033
34-81
27-99
115
112
3,351
2,803
29-26
25-06
Oats . . .
1,765
1,914
73,266
67,164
41-50
35-08
233
241
7,977
7,452
34-18
30-94
Rye ....
39
47
-
-
-
-
1
1
—
—
—
—
Beans
295
229
6,390
4,257
21-70
18-58
2
2
44
35
28-34
2111
Peas
192
208
4,966
4,705
25-91
22-64
1
1
25
20
19-73
1616
Total Corn Crops .
6,104
5,949
-
-
-
-
407
412
-
-
-
- j
Grkkn Crops
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Potatoes ....
350
356
2,085
2,362
5-96
6-64
37
35
207
232
5-66
6-63
Turnips and Swedes
1,390
1,424
19,122
17,206
13-76
12-08
71
71
1,138
1,072
1604
15-02
Mangel ....
352
339
6,520
4,313
18-52
12-74
8
7
142
123
17-97
16-38
Cabbage, Kohl-rabi, and Rape
142
146
—
—
—
-
2
2
-
-
—
-
Vetches or Tares .
184
161
—
—
—
—
2
2
—
-
—
—
Other Green Crops
92
102
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
-
-
-
Total Green Crops
2,510
2,528
-
-
-
-
121
118
-
-
-
-
Other Crops, Grass, &c.
Clover and artificial grasses 1
and permanent pasture /
10,348
10,700
Cwt.
Cwt.
-
-
1,650
1,649
Cwt.
Cwt.
-
-
Ditto for hay . .
5,409
5,103
111,178
68,730
—
—
671
667
12,069
7,878
—
—
Flax
1
1
-
Cwt.
Cwt.
Hops
56
58
413
415
7-35
7-21
—
—
—
—
—
Small Fruit 3 . .
57
60
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
-
-
-
Total other Crops.
15,871
15,923
--
-
-
-
2,322
2,317
-
-
-
-
Live Stock
Year 1892
Year 1893
Year 1892
Year 1893
Actual No.
Actual No.
Actual No.
Actual No.
Horses
1,169,146
1,173,809
148,827
147,344
Cattle
4,968,590
4,744,059
754,467
738,608
Sheep
17,993,756
16,805,280
3,197,501
3,101,890
Pigs
1,828,542
1,793,456
197,302
200,676
Note.-1 The produce of Corn Crops for Ireland, originally returned in weight, has been converted into bushelt, at
the rate of 60 lb. to the bushel of Wheat ; 50 lb. to the bushel of Barley ; 39 lb. to the bushel of Oats ; and 60 lb. to tho
bushel of Beans and Peas.
f/ie Agricultural Produce Statistics .]
statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
417
Ireland
Acreage,
‘ thousands 1
(000)
omitted
Produce of
crops, ‘ thou-
sands ’ (000)
omitted
Average
yield per
acre
United Kingdom
Acreage,
‘ thousands '
(000)
omitted
Tear 1892
Tear 1893
Actual No.
Actual No.
200,109
203,374
1,221,726
1,218,009
7,643,447
7,373,164
112,015
119,398
Produce of
crops, ‘ thou-
sands ’ (000)
omitted
Average
yield per
acre
3 1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1892
1893
1 Acres
Acres
Bush
Bush
Bush
Bush
Acres
Acres
Bush.
Bush.
Bush
Bush.
8 75
55
; 2,214
1,666
29-36
30-28
2,295
1,953
60,775
50,913
26-48
26-08
8 176
169
6,455
6,211
36-76
36-76
2,212
2,244
76,939
65,746
34-78
29-30
5 1,226
1,248
51,886
55,701
42-31
44-62
4,224
4,420
168,181
168,588
39-82
38-14
13
13
-
-
-
—
61
70
—
_
_
8 4
3
149
118
37-51
35-85
316
248
7,054
4,863
22-38
19-61
9 J
h
11
6
24-97
19-68
196
210
5,028
4,756
26-85
22-61
1,494$
1,488$
-
-
-
-
9,302
9,145
-
-
—
—
2 740
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
724
2,585
3,064
3-49
4-23
1,265
1,252
5,634
6,541
4-45
6-23
4 300
303
4,071
4,848
13-55
16-01
2,238
2,278
31,419
31,110
14-04
13-66
1 52
1 47
1 747
1 769
1 14-49
*16-35
413
394
7,428
5,225
17-99
13-26
3 48
3 47
—
-
-
-
199
203
—
—
—
5
5
—
—
-
—
204
181
_
30
28
-
-
-
-
128
135
-
-
-
-
1,175
1,154
-
-
-
-
4,447
4,443
-
-
—
—
10,251
2,143
10,309
2,167
Cwt.
90,025
Cwt.
89,666
-
-
24,716
8,768
25,112
8,485
Cwt.
230,330
Cwt.
181,642
-
-
71
67
-
—
—
—
72
69
56
Cwt.
Cwt.
—
58
413
415
7-35
7-21
—
—
—
—
—
‘63
‘66
-
-
-
-
12,466
12,543
-
-
~
33,675
53,810
-
-
-
-
Tear 1892
Tear 1893
Tear 1892
Tear 1893
Actual No.
Actual No.
Actual No.
645,180
2,067,549
2,079,587
4,531,025
4,464,026
11,519,417
11,207,554
4,827,702
4,421,593
33,642,808
31,774,824
1,115,888
1,152,365
3,265,898
3,278,030
3 Gooseberries, strawberries, currants, and other sm»n fruit.
d( Including Beetroot.
^ a Excluding Ireland.
Cabbage and rape only.
418 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
acre in place of 42*05 cwt. In Durham 27*73 cwt. out of 31*43
was secured, and the average crops of the other Northern counties
— Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland — with those of
the considerable Hay areas of Chester and the West Riding, ranged
from 24 cwt. to 31 cwt. even in the past summer. But in other
counties where the area of Rotation Hay is large the yields have been
very small. Thus the yield of Norfolk was 15-36 cwt., and that of
Hampshire was 1 1 '69 cwt. only. In Wales the county of Pembroke
again stands out as the greatest sufferer with a Clover Hay crop of
7*33 cwt. as against a normal yield of 25-73 cwt. The Scotch Hay
crop of this class is nowhere put below 16*41 cwt., which is the
yield shown for Inverness. It is small, however, also in Orkney,
Shetland, and Caithness, but on the other hand the estimate exceeds
two tons to the acre in Edinburgh and Renfrew, and is very nearly
as large in Lanark.
Table YII. — The produce of Ilay in 1893 and 1892.
Divisions
1893
1892
Decrease
Decrease
per cent.
Great Britain .
Cwt.
91,970,022
Cwt.
140,305,061
Cwt.
48,329,039
Per cent.
34*45
England .
Wales
Scotland .
68,729,702
7,878,402
15,367,918
111,177,871
12,068,687
17,058,503
42,448,169
4,190,285
1,690,585
3818
34*72
9*91
England in Divisions :
Division 1 j ^
5,213,795
6,797,542
10,790,061
11,267,566
5,576,266
5,470,024
51*68
48*55
Division 2 ^ ^
5,162,573
5,535,578
9,957,887
11,523,102
4,795,314
6,987,524
48*16
51*96
Division
7,600,494
5,514,940
12,129,426
9,054,700
4,528,932
3,539,760
37*34
39*09
Division 4 ^ j
14,264,900
19,639,880
18,388,382
28,066,747
4,123,482
8,426,867
22*42
30*02
The record of Hay cut from Permanent Grass is very poor in
England. The English mean estimate gives only 12 cwt. in place
of an ordinary 26 cwt. per acre, but this includes some remarkable
returns which credit Kent with only 4*33 cwt. per acre, as against
a normal crop estimated at 25*52 cwt., Bedford with 4*38 cwt. out
of a customary crop of 24*43 cwt., Rutland with 4*64 cwt. out of
24*67 cwt., and Surrey 4*97 cwt. out of 25*02 cwt., while through
a belt of counties including Berkshire, Buckingham, Oxford,
Gloucester, and Somerset, with Warwick and Worcester, a yield
of less than 7 cwt. per acre is reported. Pembroke is again the
only Welsh county equally low. In Scotland, the Permanent
Meadow Hay is returned as from 9 to 12 cwt. over average
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 419
in Stirlingshire and Dumbarton, but little over half a crop in
Dumfriesshire, and two-thirds in other Border counties. The
estimate supplied shows but little more than a seventh of a crop in
Orkney.
Adding together the gross estimated produce of both kinds of
Hay in the past season, it may be interesting to compare, as in
Table VII., the general results of the year with those recorded for
1892, itself a year of under average production. If we contrast the
aggregate Hay crop of the leading geographical divisions of Great
Britain and of the eight groups of English counties previously
tabulated in respect of their cereal crops, it is possible to see what
percentage of loss has resulted from the diminished acreage and re-
duced yields of the year, and where it fell most heavily.
The aggregate Hay harvest for Great Britain was, it is seen, not
two-thirds of the 1892 crop, but in England not much more than
three-fifths was obtained, while in Scotland the loss was 10 per cent,
only. Again, throughout the two divisions forming the Eastern
half of England, the production of Hay in 1893 is just about half
that of the same district in 1892. In the third division of South-
Western and West Midland Counties the proportion of loss is 37 to
39 per cent. In the six North-Western counties the loss is just 30
per cent., but in the other section of this division — that is, in York-
shire, Durham, and Northumberland — not much over one-fifth of the
crop was lost.
The Hay Crop in Europe. — In France the failure of hay was con-
spicuous, especially in the central departments, and a deficit of some-
thing like 15,000,000 tons has been suggested. Complaints were
numerous of the impossibility of maintaining the cattle on the
scanty pastures and the small hay crops secured, and, as with Our-
selves, the driving of half-fed stock into the markets led to much
depreciation of values. Various expedients in the use of novel
fodder plants were resorted to, and the anxiety of the French
Government was shown by official inquiries made abroad as to the
probable sources whence foreign supplies might be sought, while
the import duties on fodder were suspended until the end of the
year. The total imports into France are said to have increased
from 21,000 tons to 159,000 tons in the year.
In Germany severe losses in certain districts were experienced,
especially near the Rhine, and after July 4 the export of hay was
forbidden, as well as that of fresh and dried fodder plants and
chopped straw. The final official reports put the clover and lucerne
hay crop for the German Empire, as a whole, at 21 per cent, under
the previous year’s yield, and 24 1- per cent, under average, the per-
manent meadow hay being 22 and 23 per cent, respectively under
the same estimates.
In Austria-Hungary the consequences of the drought induced
the Government to take similar measures of precaution, and ex-
ports of hay, oil-cakes, straw, and chaff were prohibited, although
on the Hungarian side of the dual empire, where the hay harvest
420 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
was not so seriously affected, this step was somewhat unfavourably
regarded. In Italy considerable apprehension was felt early in the
season at the reduced hay crop consequent on the drought then
experienced, and the official reports transmitted from Rome indicated
an extensive loss of pasturage in the neighbourhood of the
capital.
In Switzerland also, the shortness of the hay crop gave rise to
some apprehension, and proposals for a large import of hay from
America were reported as under consideration. In the Netherlands,
except in the water-meadow districts, the drought was severely felt,
and the scarcity of fodder formed the subject of discussion in the
Legislature owing to the extensive purchases of Dutch hay from
the more favoured provinces for export to other countries at com-
paratively high prices.
On the other hand, in south-eastern Europe a large hay crop in
Roumania enabled French and German buyers to make purchases
there. The southern provinces of Russia likewise enjoyed a plentiful
hay harvest, and the Russian hay crop was generally a good one,
although some damage from rain in certain districts was reported.
That Empire, however, as a whole, profited as an exporter of fodder
to meet the wants of some other European countries.
The Hay Crop in America. — Outside of Europe, also, considerable
supplies were available, and an important Transatlantic trade in hay
resulted. Although drought was felt in some of the States of the
American Union during the summer, and complaints were forth-
coming of the loss of pasturage in the autumn in the South, the
November estimates of the hay yield for the country, as a whole,
were above those of 1892, the bulk of the yield being much in-
creased by the greater proportion of the alfafa or lucerne crop now
included in the estimates. It may be noted, however, that while
the official return of the surface under hay in America approxi-
mates 50,000,000 acres, some importation of hay into the States has
been annually recorded of late, exceeding in the aggregate the ex-
ports of this form of agricultural produce. It is probable that the
circumstances of the past summer will have materially altered the
position in this respect, as our record of imports here from the
United States indicated an extraordinary increase in the twelve
months ended December 31, 1893, over the previous year’s arrivals,
and a total receipt from this source alone of over 100,000 tons.
In Canada, whence the United States draw a portion of their
imports of hay, the yield of 1893, judging from the Ontario
Returns, was over average by more than a third of a ton to the acre ;
and in the year up to December last Canada is credited with 63,000
tons of the hay imported into the United Kingdom, while reports
transmitted to the Board of Agriculture during the summer appear
to indicate that some part of the nominal American exports was
made up of hay from across the Canadian frontier which had been
brought down to and shipped at Boston or other ports.
JOURNAL
OP THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.
THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING, 1894.
The holding of this year’s Country Meeting at the ancient
University town of Cambridge is an event which, by its associa-
tions, carries us back to the earliest days of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England. The first Show which the national society
ever brought together was that at Oxford in 1839 ; the second
was that at Cambridge in 1840. Between the dates of these two
Meetings the Society — known originally as the English Agri-
cultural Society — received (March 2G, 1840) its Charter of
Incorporation as the Royal Agricultural Society of England, so
that in a sense the Meeting at Cambridge, fifty-four years ago,
may be looked back upon as the first Show held by the Society
as at present constituted. Oxford was revisited in 1870, but
the long interval just mentioned has been allowed to elapse
between the first and second visits to the rival seat of learning.
The incidents of the first two Country Meetings of the Society
have been so fully dealt with by the Secretary in this
volume of the Journal (Part II., pp. 205-234) that any further
comparison between the first and second Meetings at Cambridge
— in 1840 and 1894 — is rendered unnecessary. Subjoined are
a few details as to the seven Meetings which have been held in
the Eastern Counties.
Entries
Entries
Persons
Year
meeting
President
of live
of iniple-
paying for
stock
meats
admission
1840
Cambridge
The Duke of Richmond
337
1 15
no record
1849
Norwich
Earl of Chichester
G24
1,882
185G
Chelmsford
Lord Portman
752
2,702
32,982
18G7
f Bury St.
( Edmunds
| Mr. H. S. Thompson
719
4,804
61,837
1874
Bedford
Mr. Edward Holland
1,527
5,931
71,989
1886
Norwich
H.R.H. The Prince of Wales
1 ,823
4,656
101,909
1894
Cambridge
The Duke of Devonshire
1,864
6,031
111,658
F p
VOL. V. T. S. — 19
422
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
The Show-Ground.
Contrary to wliat is often of necessity the case, a site was
found for the Show within the limits of the town. The place
selected was an open area of sixty-four acres extending between
the grounds of Jesus College and the banks of the river Cam.
As may be seen from the plan on the opposite page, the Sur-
veyor had an awkwardly shaped piece of ground to deal with.
The main features of the arrangement were made dependent on
a public road — Victoria Avenue — which the municipal authorities
temporarily closed to traffic. Passing into the Showyard at the
chief entrance the visitor found that the display of implements
was grouped on the right-hand side of this road, whilst all the
live stock were collected on the left-hand side. A much-
appreciated innovation, due to the Honorary Director, was the
placing of finger-posts at the junctions of the main avenues.
The locomotion of visitors was further facilitated by the display,
at suitable conspicuous places, of large coloured plans of the
Showyard.
Entries.
The entries of live stock at Cambridge were made under
new conditions, which render it impossible to institute any fair
comparisons between the numbers of entries this year and those
in previous years. After 1890 the entries of live stock by an
individual exhibitor were restricted to three in any one class,
and for the Cambridge Meeting the number was reduced to
two. On account, moreover, of the prevalence of swine fever,
the Council on May 2, 1894, decided 1 that no entries of pigs
should be accepted, and accordingly this section of the Show
was entirely suspended. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, the
total entries of stock, as will be seen from the table on p. 424,
exceeded those at Warwick in 1892, and at Plymouth in 1890.
This was largely due to the capital entry of horses, which has only
been surpassed twice in the last ten years, namely, at Windsor
in 1889, and at Doncaster in 1891.
The Implement Yard was remarkably well filled, the total
extent of shedding being, with the exception of the Jubilee
Meeting at Windsor, the largest of the last ten years.
See this Volume of the Journal (Part II.), Appendix, p. lxi.
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894,
423
F F 2
424 The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
Number of Entries at the last Ten Country Meetings (1885-1894)<
Number of
animals
entered
Cam-
bridge,
1894
Ches-
ter,
1893
War-
wick,
1892
Don-
caster,
1891
Ply-
mouth,
1890
Wind-
sor,
1889
Notting-
ham,
1888
New-
castle,
1887
Nor-
wich,
1880
Preston,
1885
Horses
C17
509
419
717
333
996
540
500
493
433
Cattle
659
759
007
669
642
1,644
644
G2G
681
539
Sheep
588
031
GOO
649
571
1.109
537
513
440
433
Pigs .
102
202
205
223
205
148
194
203
203
Total
1,081
2,001
1,858
2,240
1,7G9
4,014
1,875
1,833
1,823
1,613
Poultry
705
830
835
789
695
8G1
343
405
191
325
Produce .
538
957
433
425
450
1,202
411
347
274
385
Shedding in Im-
plement Yard
(in feet) [exclu-
sive of open-
ground space]
Cam-
bridge,
1894
Ches-
ter,
1893
War-
wick,
1892
Don-
caster,
1891
Ply-
mouth,
1890
Wind-
sor,
1889
Notting-
ham,
1888
New-
castle,
1887
Nor-
wich,
1880
Preston ,
1885
Ordinary .
Machinery in
ft.
8,435
2,539
ft,
8,010
2,211
ft,
8,241
2,151
ft.
8,343
2,100
ft.
0,117
1,291
ft.
10,378
2,490
ft.
7,253
1,607
ft.
5,508
1,125
ft.
7,155
2,017
ft.
8,417
2,003
Special shed-
ding (includ-
ing seeds,
models, &c.)
2,428
2,1-97
2,119
2,024
1,070
2,728
1,883
1,584
1,040
1,520
Total
13,402
13,018
12,511
12,473
9,078
15,602
10,743
8,217
10,812
12,000
The Show.
In accordance with the usual custom, the Implement Yard
only was open to the public on Saturday, June 23. From
Monday till Fi'iday, June 25 to 29, the entire Showyard was
open daily.
The Meeting was favoured throughout by fine weather.
The Saturday was a bright, breezy day, and though on Monday
morning rain seemed probable, none fell. That day and the
next were dry, but were associated with clouded skies. The
last three days, however, left nothing to be desired in the way
of Showyard weather, brilliant sunshine and pleasant breezes
prevailing throughout the Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday.
It fortunately happened that, after a long spell of broken weather
in May and June, this delightful change was as welcome to
farmers in all parts of the country as it was to those who had
the success of the Cambridge Meeting most closely at heart.
Divine Service was held on Sunday morning in the largo
The Camlridje Meeting, 1894.
425
tent, and was attended by the grooms, Herdsmen, shepherds and
others in charge of live stock, as well as by a large number of
Members of Council, including the President and the President-
elect. The service, which was choral, was conducted by the
Rev. J. E. L. Dickson, vicar of St. Andvew-the-Less, Barnwell,
and the sermon was preached by the Bishop of Ely (the Right
Rev. Lord Alwyne Compton, D.D.), who took as his text (St.
Luke xii. 6-7) : “ Are not five sparrows sold for two farthings,
and not one of them is forgotten before G'od ? But even the very
hairs of your head are all numbered. Fear not, therefore : ye
are of more value than many sparrows.” After the benediction
the National Anthem was sung, the news of the birth of a son
to His Royal Highness the Duke of York having reached the
Showyard whilst the service was being held.
On Monday morning, at 8-30, the Stewards and Judges of
live stock met in the large tent, and were briefly addressed as
to the nature and extent of their duties by the Hon. Cecil T.
Parker, Honorary Director of the Show. At 9 o’clock judging
commenced in all sections, and the awards in the whole of the
live-stock classes were posted up before the Show closed for
the day.
The Prince of Wales honoured the Show with his presence
on Tuesday, and remained on the ground for most of the day,
spending the night at the Lodge of Trinity College, in the great
hall of which a banquet in honour of His Royal Highness was
given in the evening. The General Meeting of Governors and
Members of the Royal Agricultural Society, held on Tuesday,
filled the large tent to overflowing. The Duke of Devonshire,
K.G., President of the Society, took the chair, and was supported
by the Prince of Wales, Sir J. H. Thorold, Bart. (President-
elect), nearly the whole of the Members of Council, and by
several noblemen and gentlemen representing the University
and the Cambridge Local Committee. From the report of this
Meeting, given in the Appendix (p. xc.), it will be seen how
great was the appreciation of the efforts which had been made
by the Municipal Body, the Local Committee, and the townsmen
generally to promote the success of the Society’s visit to Cam-
bridge. On this and the remaining days of the Show the band
of the King’s Dragoon Guards played selections of music, the
programme of which was printed in the Catalogue.
On Wednesday afternoon the Duke of York, who in the
morning had received the degree of LL.D. from the University
of Cambridge, visited the Show, and witnessed the horse parade
in the great ring, besides inspecting various other sections of the
Exhibition. It is interesting to record that His Royal Highness
426
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
appeared at this Meeting for the first time as an exhibitor at the
Society’s Shows, and obtained several awards in the Red Polled
cattle classes.
As Cambridge is not the centre of a thickly populated
district, a large attendance of paying visitors could hardly be
looked for. The result, however, far exceeded anticipations,
and the total number of close upon 112,000 people who passed
the turnstiles must be regarded as exceedingly satisfactory.
The remarkable attendance of 63,981 people on Thursday, the
first of the one shilling days, has only been twice exceeded
during the last decade. Nearly 200 excursion trains emptied
themselves into the town of Cambridge on that day. Though
this large influx of visitors must be primarily attributed to tbe
beautiful weather, due acknowledgment should be made of the
successful efforts of the town authorities in providing on
Wednesday and Thursday evenings magnificent displays of fire-
works. These, given in College grounds, the beautiful surround-
ings of which enhanced the brilliancy of the spectacle, were
greatly enjoyed by large crowds of spectators.
Number of Paying Visitors at the last Ten Country Meetings (1885-1894).
Day of Show
Cam-
bridge,
1894
Ches-
ter,
1893
War-
wick,
1892
Don-
caster,
1891
Ply-
mouth,
1890
Wind-
sor,
1889
Notting-
ham,
1888
New-
castle,
1887
Nor-
wich,
1886
Preston,
1885
Implement day(2.s‘.6if.)
1st day (Mon. 5s.) . .
2nd day (Tues. 2s. 6<l)
3rd day (AVed. 2s. 6(/.)
4th day (Tlmrs. Is.) .
5th day (Fri. Is.) . .
260
1,873
13.152
17,890
63,981
14,496
299
2,397
20,959
19,034
59,555
13,664
266
3,570
16,598
15,779
36,448
23,801
344
2,681
12,331
18,530
57,580
20,034
194
1,234
10,008
39,308 1
32,371
14,026
493
6,223
18,809
24,690
32,965
44,493
1,826
1,671
11.103
9,057
88,832
35,438
1,209
1,097
11,331
12,020
77,410
24,305
148
625
8,074
10,894
42,774
42,394
394
3,557
21,713
19,318
34,302
14,908
Total .
111,658
115,908
96,462
111,500
97,141
155,707 2
147,927
127,372
104,909
94,192
1 Wednesday was a one shilling day at Plymouth. = Including 28,034 on the sixth day (Sat. Is.).
The Society and the University.
No record of the Cambridge Meeting would be complete
without an appreciative reference to the cordial and fraternal
spirit with which the Royal Agricultural Society was welcomed
by the ancient and illustrious University of Cambridge. Several
of the Colleges threw open their doors with that generous
hospitality which, from medimval times, is one of their most
treasured heritages. The happy coincidence that the President
of the Society was also the Chancellor of the University furnished
the strongest possible link between the renowned seat of
learning and the national society whose migrations, after the
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
427
wanderings of over half a century, had at length brought it
back to the scene of its earliest triumphs. The University
authorities resolved that the second visit of the Society to
Cambridge should not pass without some official recognition on
their part of the work which the Society has done — and is
doing — to promote the interests and to extend our knowledge of
the first of human industries.
What more graceful form could this recognition take than
the enrolment upon its records of the names of those whom the
University knew that the Society itself would delight to
honour ? Accordingly, it was resolved by a Grace of the
Senate to confer the following Honorary Degrees : — that of
LL.D. upon His Royal Highness the Duke of York, the Duke
of Richmond and Gordon, Earl Cathcart, Sir John Thorold,
Colonel Sir Nigel Kingscote, and Mr. Albert Pell ; that of
D.Sc. upon Sir John Lawes and Sir Henry Gilbert ; and that
of M.A. upon Mr. Ernest Clarke and Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker.1
The ceremony took place in the Senate House on the beautiful
morning of Wednesday, June 27, in the presence of a brilliant
assembly. The Duke of Devonshire, Chancellor of the Uni-
versity, presided, and seated on his Grace’s right were their
Royal Highnesses the Prince of Wales, attired in his robes
as LL.D. of the University, the Princess of Wales, and the
Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales. The honorary
graduates were loudly cheered as, one by one, they were
presented by the Public Orator to the Chancellor, and admitted
by the latter to their respective degrees.
The following is the text of the Latin orations delivered by
the Public Orator, Dr. Sandys, Fellow and Tutor of St. John’s
College, through whose kindness an English translation is given
of each.
Address of Welcome to the Society.
Dignissime domine, domine Cancellarie ; Principes illustrissimi ; ceterique
omnes quotquot liodie adestis :
Principis nostri, plusquam semel Praesidis sui, auspicio, Cancellari'
nostri sut) praesidio, Regiam agricolarum Anglicorum societa.tem Canta-
brigiam denuo invisentem Academiae totius nomine iubemus salvere. Ipso
Tullio auctore novimus, primum nihil Xenophonti tarn regale visum esse
quam studium agri colendi ; deinde liominum generi universo culturam
agrorum esse salutarem ; denique omnium rerum ex quibus aliquid adquiratur,
nihil esse agri cultura melius, nihil dulcius, nihil homine dignius. Salvete
1 Honorary Degrees were upon the same occasion conferred upon Mr.
Alexander Peckover, the newly appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Cambridgeshire
(LL.D.), and upon Professor Mendeleeff, the distinguished Russian chemist
(D.Sc.)
428
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894,
igitur studii tam praeclari professores, qui in agris colendis scientiam cum usu
et experientia coniunctam profitemini. Vos, segetis laetae in expectatione,
telluris gremio semina creditis ; nos, non miuore cum spe, iuventutis nostrae
in mentibus doctrinae germina inserere conamur. Vos, in agrorum cultura
scientiae lumen per Angliae ruralate diffunditis; nos, inter Academiae nostrae
numina, etiam ipsi Cereri locum nuper seposuimus. Et vestra et nostra
commoda suut aliquatenus communia ; vestrae artes dum vigent, etiam
nosmet ipsi prospera fortuna utimur, florent praediorum nostrorum reditus,
tiorent Collegia nostra, floret tota Universitas. Nihil igitur auspicatius
liodie precari possumus quam ut, vestrae societatis auxilio, patriae totius ad
fructum, civium omnium in usum, telluris munera divina indies ampliora
vobis reddantur ; utque nostrum quoque in populum universum descendant
benedictiones illae antiquae : — benedictus tu in civitate et benedictus in agro ;
benedictns fructus terrae tucie fructusque iumentorum tuorum ; benedicti
greges armentorum tuorum oviumque tuarum.
Atque haee quidem ominis causa praefati, pergimus deinceps titulo
nostro primum Principis nostri filium, Principis novi patrem, ornare, deinde
Arestrum omnium in bonorem etiam alios decorare. Non omnes sane, quos
volumus, bodie laudibus nostris adficere possumus ; sed, velut in frugibus
vendendis vosmet ipsi ex acervo magno grana quaedam aurea emptoribus
ostendere soletis, non aliter vestro ex ordine amplissimo nonnullos, quasi
exempli causa, Cancellario nostro, Praesidi vestro, praesentamus, fidemque
damus etiam ceteros esse bonae frugi.
Your Royal Highnesses, your Grace the Chancellor, and all who are present to-day :
In the name of the University we offer our welcome to the Royal Agricultural Society of
England on its second visit to Cambridge, — a visit paid under the presidency of our Chancellor
and under the auspices of a Prince who has been its President on more than one occasion. On
the authority of Cicero himself we are assured, first, that Xenophon deemed agriculture to be an
eminently royal pursuit ; 1 next, that it is salutary to the human race in general ; * and, lastly,
that, of all possible sources of profit, none is more excellent, none more delightful, none more
worthy of humanity.3 Such is the noble pursuit whose professors we welcome in you, who, iu the
calling of agriculture, claim to combine Science with Practice. While you , in expectation of a
happy harvest, entrust the seed of your sowing to the bosom of the earth, we, with a hope no
less bright than your own, endeavour to implant the germs of learning in the minds of our
students. While you, in the cause of agriculture, are spreading the light of science far aud wide
across the fields of England, we have been lately setting apart a place for Ceres herself among
the divinities honoured by our University. Further, your own prosperity and ours are to a large
extent linked together. When your pursuits are prosperous, we share in your prosperity, so long
as the rents of our farms, and consequently all our Colleges and the University at large, are in a
flourishing condition. Therefore, on this day we can breathe no more auspicious prayer than
that, by the aid of your Society, the gifts of the Earth that are granted by Heaven may be
reaped by yourselves in ever-increasing abundance, to the advantage of the country at large and
to the benefit of all our citizens ; and that England may thus see descending upon her the
benedictions promised to Israel of old: — “ Blessed shall thou be in the field; blessed shall be the
fruit of thy ground, and the fruit of thy cattle, the increase of thy tine, and the flocks of thy
sheep." *
Having thus far assured you of our good wishes for the future, we now proceed to offer the
compliment of our honorary degree, first to our Prince's son, himself the father of a new-born
Prince ; and next to certain other persons, in the hope of doing honour thereby to all of your-
selves. It is impossible for us to pay this compliment to-day to all whom we would desire to
honour ; but, even as iu the corn market, the seller (as you are well aware) is wont to display to
the buyer some few golden grains as samples of a goodly store, even so, out of your goodly
company, do we now present to our Chancellor, and your own President, a few individuals by
way of example, and in so doing we pledge our word that the remainder are of the same good
quality.
1 Cicero, De Senectute, 59. a Ibid. 56. 3 De Officiis, i 151. * Deut. xxviii 3.
Doctors of Law.
H.R.H. the Dulce of York.
Dignissime domine, domine Cancellarie, et tota Academia :
Quam libenter Reginae nostrae augustissimae et Principis Alberti, olim
Cancellarii nostri, nepotem Academiae totius nomine nunc primum salutamus.
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894,
429
Salutamus denuo patrern eius, Principem nostrum illustrissimum, quem
triginta abbinc annos titulo eodem ornatum vidimus ; salutamus matrem,
omnium consensu pulckerrimam, quam liodie etiam ipsam adesse vebementer
laetamur. Salutamus Principem, qui prope ex ipsa pueritia scientiae navali
perdiscendae sese strenue dedicavit ; qui maria magna emensus, colonias
nostras, toto orbe a nobis divisas, toto corde nobis coniunctas, regni sibi
aliquando fortasse destinati nondum conscius, invisit ; qui populorum
magnorum bistoriae studiosus, imperii Britannici gloriam navalem sibi
carissimam esse identidem indicavit. Nuper Kalendis Iuniis, dum miseri-
cordia solita pauperum aegrotantium saluti consulebat, classis Britannicae
victoriam centum abbinc annos eodem anni die reportatam inter omnium
plausus palam commemoravit. Idem prope uno abbinc anno (iuvat
recordari) inter regum principumque gratulationes, inter civium exultantium
acclamationes, Ducis primi Cantabrigiensis neptim ab omnibus dilectam
vitae totius consortem duxit. Hodie vero, gaudio novo elati, laetamur
regni tanti beredis beredem filio feliciter esse auctum, et matre salva genus
regium usque ad tertium gradum prospers esse continuatum.
Duco ad vos Principem Georgium Fredericum, Ducem Eboracensem.
Your Grace tlie Chancellor, and members of our University :
We have now the pleasure of welcoming for the first time, in the name of the University,
the grandson of our most gracious Queen and of the Prince Consort, our former Chancellor. We
welcome once again his father, our most illustrious Prince, whom we saw presented for the same
titular degree just thirty years ago ; we welcome also his mother, confessed by all to be most
fair, and we heartily rejoice in her presence here to-day. We are now offering our greeting to a
Prince who, almost from his very boyhood, has zealously devoted himself to acquiring a thorough
knowledge of the naval profession ; a Prince who, while yet unconscious of the kingdom haply des-
tined to be his own at some future day, traversed the ocean and visited those colonies that are so
far from us in geographical distance and are yet so near to us in their feelings of loyal affection ;
a Prince who, as an eager student of history, has repeatedly proved how dearly he prizes the glory
of England’s empire on the seas. It was only lately, on the 1st of June, on an occasion when,
with his wonted compassion, he was showing his interest in promoting the health of our
afflicted poor, that he recalled amid loud applause the victory gained by the British fleet on
that very day a hundred years before. It is scarcely a year ago (as we rejoice to remember)
when, amid the congratulations of kings and princes, and amid the loud acclaim of a rejoicing
people, his Royal Highness wedded a Princess who is universally beloved, a Princess who is the
grand-daughter of the first Duke of Cambridge. And now we have a new cause for rejoicing
in the birth of a Prince who happily continues the line of the descendants of the Queen to a third
generation, as heir to the son of the heir apparent of the throne of England.
I present to your Grace and to the University His Royal Highness Prince Geohue Frederick,
Duke op York.
His Grace the Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K. G.
Sequitur deinceps Universitatis Aberdoniebsis Cancellarius, vir in publi-
cis rebus saepenumero cum laude versatus, cuius pater agricolarum societati
quinquaginta qualtuor abbinc annos praeses prope primus fuit, quique ipse
societati eidem bis praepositus, inter Oxonienses suos lionoris titulo anno
eodem est ornatus, quo Cancellarii nostri pater, Cancellarius ipse, societati
praefuit. Virum tot titulis iam pridem ornatum etiam nosmet ipsi liodie
libenter decoramus. Atqui nullum titulum ipsi potiorem esse credimus
quam a Principe nostro inter epulas regias societatis suae in lionorem babi-
tas palam fuisse appellatum “ agricolarum amicum.”
Duco ad vos periscelidis equitem illustrissimum, Ducem de IIichmond.
Next in order comes liis Grace the Chancellor of the University of Aberdeen. His Grace has
often won distiuctionln the public service ; his father was the second rresident of the Society, four-
and-fifty years ago ; he has himself been its President on two occasions ; and he received an
honorary degree from his own University of Oxford in the year in which the President of the
Society was the late Duke of Devonshire, then Chancellor of our University, and the father of our
present Chancellor. "We gladly pay honour to-day to one who has long been adorned with many
titles of distinction ; and yet we venture to think that at the present moment there is no distinc-
tion which he prizes more highly than the fact that, at the banquet given in honour of the Royal
Agricultural Society by her gracious Majesty the Queen, he was publicly designated by ths
Prince of Wales as The Farmer's Friend.
I present to you an illustrious Knight of the Garter, his Grace the Duke of Richmond,
430
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
Earl Cat heart.
Incedit proximus vir insigni lepore et litterarum amore praeditus, qui
maioribus inter arma illustribus oriundus, Minervam et Cererem non minus
quam Martem coluit. Ipsa Ceres filiam suam, solis ex lumine telluris in
gremio absconditam, facibus accensis quaesivisse fertur; Cereris autem
cultor insignis, quem liodie ealutamus, nihil antiquius duxit quam, societatis
suae fastis litterarum luce illustratis, Angliae totius agricolis l'acem doctrinae
praetendere. Talium virorum merita, inter Cereris ministros non obscura,
etiam Academiae in lucem hodie libenter proferimus, Cererem ipsam atque
Solem veritatis arbitrum Euripidis verbis testati :
ri)v re nvpcpopov 6eav
Arjfirjrpa Bepevoi pdprvp’ fj\iov re (f>cos.
Duco ad vos virurn admodum bonorabilem, Comitem Cathcart.
The next to advance is one endued with a singular wit and a love of letters, who, although
descended from ancestors distinguished in arms, has himself been a votary of Minerva aud of
Ceres, no less than of Mars. We learn from an ancient legend that, when Proserpine was removed
from the light of day aud concealed beneath the earth, Ceres lighted a torch to aid her in her
quest for her lost daughter. The distinguished votary of Ceres whom we salute to-day has
deemed it a foremost duty to illumine the records of the Society with the light of literature and
to hold aloft the torch of Science before the agriculturists of England. The merits of such men,
which are by no means obscurely known to the ministers of Ceres, we gladly bring forth to-day
in the light of University life, while, in the words of Euripides, we summon Ceres herself and
the light of the Sun to bear witness in their honour :
“ Calling to witness heaven and earth, — Demeter,
Fire-bearing Goddess, and the Sun-god’s light.” 1
I present to you the Eight Honourable The Eael Cathcaet.
1 Euripides, Supplices, 260, with the Scholiast.
Sir John Thorold, Bart.
Salutamus deinceps virum societatis vestrae consilioruxn prope in omni
parte praeclare meritum, Cancellarii nostri in loco in annum proximum
Praesidem vestrum designatum. Per annos complures agrorum suorum
reditu infeliciter imminuto, quanta animi cum magnitudine, quanta cum
fortitudine, se gessit. Quam dignum laude ilia Horatiana sese praestitit :
“ est animus tibi
rerumque prudens et secundis
temporibus dubiisque rectus.”
Duco ad vos Baronettum illustrem. Ioannem IIenkiccm Thorold.
We welcome next in order one who has done excellent service to the Society in almost every
department of its work, one who has been elected President for the ensuing year in succession
to our Chancellor. For many a year, while the rents of Iris estates were unhappily diminishing, he
has shown a rare courage aud a singular magnanimity. He has in fact proved his right to
praise no less lofty than that contained in the lines of Horace :
“ A soul is yours,
Clear-sighted, keen, alike upright
When Fortune smiles, and when she lowers.” 1
I present to you an illustrious Baronet, Sir John Hexby Thorot.d.
1 Horace, Odes, iv 9, 34.
Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, K. C.B.
Adest deinceps vir in bello quondam insignis, in pace postea illustris,
primum Senatui Britannico ties et triginta annos adscriptus ; deinde Au-
gliae totius nemorum silvarumque et Cornwalliae metallorum reditibus exi-
gendis praepositus ; denique societatis vestrae de negotiis cotidianis praeclare
meritus. Adest “egregie cordatus homo,” vir in epistolarum commercio
admirabilis, in animalium salute exploranda et adiuvanda iudefessus.
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
431
Duco ad vos de Balneo equitem insignem, virum Principis nostri in domo
merito probatum, Robertum Nigel Fitz-IIardinge Kingscote.
’ i The next that is present to-day is one who was once distinguished in war, and lias long been
illustrious in the arts of peace. In the first place, he was for three-and-thirty years a member of
Parliament ; in the second, he has been appointed a Commissioner of Woods and Forests, and
Receiver of the Duchy of Cornwall ; and lastly, he has done admirable service in the discharge of
the customary business of the Royal Agricultural Society. We have before us one whom Ennius
would have described as a man of excellent heart, '' an exemplary correspondent, and an
unwearied student of animal hygiene.
I present to you a distinguished Knight Commander of the Bath, one who is held in well-
deserved esteem in the Household of our Prince, Colonel Sir Robert Nigel Fitz-Hardinge
Kingscote.
Mr. Albert Pell.
Iuris Doctorum agmen claudit alumnus noster, iudicis Alius, qui
adhuc iuvenis quattuor et quinquaginta abliinc annos societatis vestrae con-
ventui primo Cautabrigiensi interfuit; qui postea, pestilentia gravi inter
Britanniae boves saeviente, consilia salutaria solus obtulit pestemque tan-
tam iussu publico opprimendam curavit : qui deiuceps Senatui Britannico
per annos septemdecim adscriptus, agri culturae patronus strenuus exstitit ;
qui nuper denique Academiam nostram Seueschalli sui cum auxilio de agri
culturae studiis deliberantem magnopere adiuvit. Quod seientiae huius
diplomata nostra bodie in honore sunt, talium virorum praesertim consiliis
debemus.
Duco ad vos Academiae quidem nostrae artium magistrum, Britanniae
vero agricolarum revera praeceptorem atque adeo doctorem, Albertum
Pell.
The line of our honorary Doctors in Law closes with the son of a Judge and a member of our
own University, who, as an undergraduate four-and-fifty years ago, was present at the first
Cambridge Meeting of the Society. Afterwards, when a grievous plague was raging among the
cattle of our own country, he stood alone in offering salutary advice which led to measures being
taken by the Government that soon put an end to the pestilence. Thereupon, ho was enrolled in
the Senate of England, and for seventeen years proved himself an unwearied champion of agriculture
in Parliament. Lastly, when our University with theaid of its High Steward (Lord Waisingham)
was recently deliberating on the subject of agricultural studies, hisadvice was of the highest value.
The respect in which our diplomas of agriculture are now held is pre-eminently due to the
counsels of men such as these.
I present to you one who is a Master of Arts in our own University, but is at the same time a
leading authority, a very Doctor, among the agriculturists of England, Mr. Albert Pell.
Doctors of Science.
Sir John Bennet Lawes, Bart., F.B.S.
Salutamus tamlem par liobile collegarum qui de agrorum cultura, de
pecudum alimentis variis, experiments exquisitis una elaborandis annos quin-
quaginta, magnum profecto aetat.is humanae spatium, dedicarunt. Tot
annorum autem labores non modo chartae fideles in perpetuum custodient,
sed etiam saxum ingens nomine utroque insculptum inter posteros testabitur.
Ab ipso autem “ monumentum aere perennius ” erit exactum, experimentis
tam utilibus, tarn fructuosis, niunificentia ipsius etiam in posterum conti-
nuatis. Auguramur, nec nos fallit augurium, in agri culturae annalibus
talium virorum nomina fore immortalia.
Duco ad vos Baronettum insignem, Regiae societatis socium, virum doc-
toris titulo bis aliunde merito ornatum, Ioannem Bennet Lawes.
At length we reach the names of two generous fellow-workers who have devoted fifty years, a
large portion of the length of life allotted to man, to aiding one another in the most elaborate
experiments on the growth of crops, and on the various foods appropriate to the animals of the
farm. The labours of all those years will find a perpetual memorial in the printed record of the
investigations themselves, and will also be attested in the presence of posterity by the granite
boulder that bears the names of both ; while the generous provision which has been made for the
future continuance of experiments that have proved so rich in valuable results, will ensure to
the munificent founder himself “ a monument more imperishable than bronze.” 1 We prognos-
1 Horace, Odes iii 30, 1.
432
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
ticate (and our prognostication is true) that in the annals of agriculture tlie names of such men
as these will be immortal.
I present to you a Fellow of the Royal Society, who has twice already received an honorary
degree elsewhere, the distinguished Baronet, Sir John Bennet Lawes.
Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert, F.It.S.
Quos tot annoruni labores una coniunxerunt, eos in laudibus nostris
liodie divellere vix possumus. Constat tamen labores illos viri huiusce
scientiae admirabili et industriae indefessae plurimum debere. Constat
eosdem eiusdem scriptis, eiusdem orationibus, non modo in patria nostra sed
etiam peregre maximo cum fructu esse patefactos. Cum collega suo summa
concordia coniunctus, Plinii verba iure optimo posset usurpare : “ nobis erat
nullum certamen, nulla contentio, cum uterque pari iugo non pro se, sed pro
causa niteretur.”
“Felices ter et amplius
quos irrupta tenet copula.”
Duco ad vos Regiae societatis socium, virum ab ipsa Regina equitem
propter merita nominatum, Iosephuh Henricum Gilbert.
Those who have been joined together in the labours of so many years can hardly be set asunder
or in any way separated by ourselves in the award of our meed of praise. It is agreed, however,
that those long-continued labours owe a large debt to the scientific skill and the unremitting
industry of him whom you now see before you. It is also agreed that by his writings and his lec-
tures the results of those labours have been most fruitfully expounded in this and other countries.
United with his fellow-worker by bonds of closest concord, he might justly apply to himself and
his colleague the words of the younger Pliny : “ There has been no conflict, no contest between us,
while each of us like a true yoke-fellow, has been ever striving, not for himself, but for the common
cause.” 1
“ Thrice blest, and more than thrice, are they
Whom one strong bond unites for aye.” 2
I present to you a Fellow of the Royal Society, one whose merits have been recognised by his
receiving the honour of knighthood from the Queen, Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert.
1 Pliny, Ep. iii 9. 2 Horace, Odes, i 13, 17.
Masters of Arts.
Mr. Ernest Clarke.
V obis omnibus noturn esse arbitramur concilii vestri per annos septem
adiutorem strenuumet indefessum. virum in Britannia quidem societati anti-
quitatis studiosorum, inter exteros autem societatibus plurimis honoris causa
adscriptum. In agro Suffolciensi natum fuisse constat virum insignem, qui
scriptis suis fere centum abhinc annos in lucem missis agri culturam (velut
alter Tremellius) “ eloquentem reddidit.” Yiri tanti popularem, quern liodie
laudamus, e loco suo natali spiritum eiusdem hausisse crediderim.
Duco ad vos Ernestum Clarke.
We presume that you are all familiar with one who, for the last seven years, has been theever-
aetive and never-weary coadjutor of your Council, a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and an
honorary member of many Societies abroad. It is the county of Suffolk that claims the birthplace
of that distinguished agriculturist (Arthur Young) who in his writings, which saw the light
about a century ago, succeeded (like the Roman Tremellius) in “making agriculture eloquent." 1
We may well' believe that that eminent man’s fellow-countryman, whom we eulogise to-day,
caught something of that spirit from the place of his birth.
I present to you Hr. Ernest Clarke.
' Columella, i 1, 12.
Hr. John Augustus Voelcker.
Claudit seriem patris in scientia cliemica illustris filius in eadem scientia
insignia, qui inter Germanos Philosophiae Doctor multa cum laude nomina-
tvis, etiam de agri cultura inter Indos publice rettulit. Idem, per annos
novum societati vestrae in re cbemica consilio dando, patris successorem sese
433
The Cambridge Meeting, \ 894.
dignum praestitit. Quod omnibus gratum, nemini tamen miruin sit ; etenirn
experti nostis Horatianum illud : —
“ fortes creantur fortibus et bonis ; '
est in iuvencis, est in equis patrum
virtus.”
Duco ad vos Ioanxem Augustum Yoelckek.
We conclude with the name of a distinguished son of a father who was illustrious in the
science of Chemistry ; the name of one who in Germany attained with high credit the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy, and who has since presented to the Government an official report on agri-
culture in India. As consulting Chemist to the Society for the last nine years, he has proved
himself a worthy successor of his father : a fact which, though gratifying to all, need he sur-
prising to none. Members of the Society know from their owu experience the truth of the lines
of Horace :
“ ’Xis of the brave and good alone
That good and brave men are the seed ;
The virtues, wliioh their sires have shewn,
Are found in steer and steed.”
I present to you Dr. Jong Augustus Voelcker.
1 Horace, Odes iv 4, "0.
In proceeding to notice the several sections of the Exhibition
it should be mentioned that the views of the Judges are embodied
in the statements made, whilst frequent quotations are given
from the Judges’ reports. The names of the Stewards and of the
Judges, together with the complete List of Awards, will be found
in the Appendix, pp. xevi. et seq. This list affords such full details
as to the ownership, breeding, and pedigree of the prize-winning
animals that it is unnecessary to repeat these in the text.
Light Horses.
Thoroughbred Stallions. — The winners of the three Queen’s
Premiums of 150Z., offered by the Eoyal Commission on Horse
Breeding, and the Gold Medals offered by the Cambridge Local
Committee at the Spring Show, held March G to 8, 1894, were
exhibited — not for competition — in a special shed. They were
Serp a Pinto, belonging to His Royal Highness the Prince of
Wales; Mount Gifford, belonging to Mr. Donald Fraser; and
Persistive , belonging to the Duke of Hamilton and Brandon.
Hunters. — Fifty-six entries were distributed amongst 7
classes, none of which call for any special notice, save that the
yearling fillies (Class 7) “ were unworthy of the show.”
Cleveland Bays and Coach Horses. — An entry of 7 stallions,
all from Yorkshire, and of G mares from various counties, made
up this section. Mr. Lett’s first prize stallion was considered
far ahead of any other animal in Class 8. The first prize mare
was regarded by the Judges as the finest Cleveland mare ever
under their notice.
Hackneys. — The 13 classes allotted to this section con-
tained 1G0 entries. Norfolk headed the list with 34 entries,
434
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
followed by Cambs with 32, York 20, Hunts 15, Kent 14,
Essex 7, Surrey 7, Suffolk 5, Warwick 5, Scotland 5, Chester
3, Derby 2, Hants 2, Herts 2, Lancaster 2, Middlesex 2, Wales
(Montgomery) 2, Berks 1. The 39 class prizes were well
scattered, York taking 10, Norfolk 8, Cambs 5, Chester 3,
Kent 3, Hunts 2, Surrey 2, Warwick 2, Scotland 2, Essex 1,
and Lancaster 1. In addition, Chester jmd Essex each secured
a champion prize.
The 39 prize-winning animals were the produce of 24 dif-
ferent Hackney sires. Connaught sired two first prize winners
and a second, one of the former taking the female championship.
Rufus sired one first and one third prize winner, the former
being the male champion. Other sires were represented by
their produce in the following successes : Reality, two firsts and
two thirds ; Agility, two firsts and one third ; Lord Derby 2nd,
one first and two seconds ; Field Marshal, one first and one
second ; Copernicus, one first ; Ruby, one first ; Ritualist, one
first ; Wildfire, one first : Cadet, two seconds and two thirds ;
Danegelt, two seconds ; Assurance 2nd, one second ; Carton Duke
of Connaught, one second ; Lord Derby Junior, one second ; Den-
mark, one second; Golden Star, one second; Curfew, one third;
Evolution, one third ; Ileacham Swell, one third ; Roan Con-
fidence, one third ; Saxon , one third ; Stanley, one third ; Vigor-
ous, one third.
Amongst the three-year-old stallions, above 15 hands (Class
10), Sir Walter Gilbey’s Iledon Squire, subsequently selected as
the male champion, “ was an easy winner, looking and going
his best.” The other three-year-old stallions, above 14 hands
(Class 11), were “rather disappointing” in comparison with
Class 10. The two-year-old stallions (Class 12) formed not only
a large class, but had good merit also. Mares above 15 hands
(Class 14) made an excellent class, in which the first prize
animal won her position mainly by her fine all-round action.
The mares above 14 hands (Class 15) were not so good a class,
but in it the winner was “ far ahead of the others.” The colt
foals (Class 19) were “rather disappointing,” whilst the filly
foals (Class 20) were “just the reverse,” and contained several
animals of high merit, especially the winners of the first and
second prizes.
Ponies. — This section comprised 15 entries in 2 classes. The
stallions (Class 23) were “ an excellent class, both for action and
quality.” The winner, Mr. Hollins’s Portwood Confidence, “ went
with extraordinary force, his hock action being superb.”
Harness Horses and Ponies. — Twenty-five entries of mares or
geldings competed in 2 classes. In the class exceeding 14
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
435
hands Mr. (now Sir Gilbert) Greenall’s Lady Lofty “ scored
rather an easy win, owing to her magnificent action and pace,
combined with strength and quality.” In the class not exceeding
14 hands Mr. Pope’s Magpie “ was able to beat the other com-
petitors with ease owing to her extraordinary force of action and
her quality.”
Heavy Horses.
Shires. — A grand entry, to the number of 189, was contri-
buted by the following 25 counties in England and Wales:
Cambs 2G entries, Essex 20, Warwick 20, Middlesex 17, Beds
10, Herts 10, York 10, Lancaster 9, Chester 7, Hunts 7,
Stafford 7, Kent G, Bucks 5, Derby 5, Leicester 5, Gloucester 4,
Norfolk 4, Notts 4, Lincoln 3, Monmouth 3, Northampton 2,
Montgomery 2, Suffolk 1, Surrey 1, Carmarthen 1. The 33
class prizes were well distributed amongst 19 counties, of which
Warwick took the lead with 4 firsts, 2 seconds, and one third,
besides the female championship. Derby secured one first, and
with it the male championship. Beds and Lancaster each took
a first, a second, and a third, Monmouth a first and a second,
Herts a first and a third, Middlesex and Notts each a second
and a third, whilst Cambs, Chester, Gloucester, Hunts, Leicester,
Lincoln, Montgomery, Norfolk, Northampton, Stafford and
York each secured one prize.
The 33 prize-winning animals were the produce of 2G different
sires. Harold had one first, two seconds, a third, and the male
championship to his credit, and Lincolnshire Hoy one first, with the
female championship. The other sires, and the winnings of their
produce, are : Albert Edward, two firsts ; Vulcan , two firsts ;
Regent II., one first and one second ; Albert Victor 1IL., one
first ; Dunsmore Willington Hoy, one first ; Ilazlewood, one first ;
Hitchin Duke, one first ; Evince William , two seconds ; Hury
Victor Chief, one second ; Honest Tom, one second ; Marmion II.,
one second ; Moulton Briton, one second ; Premier Tom II., one
second ; Potentate, one second ; Vidcan of Worsley IX., one
second ; Bury King William, one third ; Bar None, one third ;
Carbonite, one third ; Duke of Worsley, one third ; Hitchin Con-
queror, one third; Laughing Stock, one third ; Lancashire Lad II.,
one third ; Royal William II., one third ; Salisbury, one third.
As a whole, the Shire classes “ were well filled with animals
showing great substance, with first-rate quality, good feet, and
nice silky hair.” The aged stallions (Class 27), though the
smallest class of Shires, included some grand animals. Class 31
was “ a very grand class of mares.” Class 35, yearling fillies,
436
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
“ although it contained some useful animals, was perhaps as
weak as any in the section.”
It may be noted that the Shire champions — Lord Bel per ’s
Roheby Ilarold , and Mr. Parnell’s RoTceby Fuchsia — have both
secured the highest honours obtainable at the Shire Horse
Society’s Show.
Clydesdales. — There were 5 classes comprising 29 entries,
to which England contributed 21, Scotland 4, and Wales 2.
The county entries were — Chester 7, Cumberland 4, Durham 4,
Kent 4, Dumfries 3, Glamorgan 2, Gloucester 1, Warwick 1,
Wigtown 1. Of the 13 class prizes, Durham secured two firsts
and a second, Cumberland two firsts and two thirds, Chester
two seconds and a third, and Kent, Glamorgan, and Wigtown
one prize each. In addition, the male championship fell to
Durham, and the female championship to Cumberland.
The Judges report that the stallion classes were badly filled,
and, with the exception of the prize animals, the quality of the
exhibits was very moderate. Mares and fillies produced a much
larger competition, and the merit as a whole was superior to
that of the male classes. In the older stallion class was found
the male champion, the Marquis of Londonderry’s Ilolyrood , “ a
big, good-coloured, stylish horse, with good quality and bone,
hair not quite so good, first-class action, good feet and pasterns,
and certainly a valuable stallion.” Three-year-old fillies (Class
41) made up “a really good class throughout,” but the two-
year-old fillies (Class 42) formed the best class the Judges had
before them : “ the five animals which received awards were
certainly of great excellence.” Mr. Graham’s female champion
“ is a remarkably sweet animal, with beautiful feet and pasterns,
and well brought out.”
Suffolks. — Eleven classes were occupied by 103- entries, of
which 87 were from Suffolk, 11 from Essex, 4 from Cambs,
and one from Oxon. Thirty class prizes and two champion
prizes were awarded, and, excepting a solitary third prize to
Essex, Suffolk secured them all.
The aged stallions (Class 48) formed a strong class, and a
very good representation of the breed.” The three-year-old stal-
lions (Class 44) “ were a poor show.” The two-year-old stallions
(Class 45) “ were anything but a strong class, but were headed
by a good colt.” The show of brood mares was a very good
one — “ many grand mares amongst them.” Both the three-year-
old mares and the two-year-olds (Classes 49 and 50) “ were very
strongly represented, and formed a grand lot of young mares.”
The colt foals were “ a poor lot,” the filly foals “ very
good.”
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
437
Agricultural Horses. — Ten entries of geldings, foaled in
1890 or 1891, competed in Class 54, and included “some use-
ful horses of great substauce and power.” The class restricted
to geldings got by a registered Suffolk stallion was vacant.
Cattle.
Shorthorns. — The Catalogue contained entries of 123 Short-
horn cattle, to which England contributed 115, Scotland 6, and
Wales 2. As many as 20 English counties were represented
by the following entries : York 10, Cumberland 9, Norfolk 9,
Cambridge 8, Bedford 7, Northampton 7, Wilts 7, Westmor-
land 6, Essex 5, Lincoln 5, Somerset 5, Cornwall 4, Hereford 4,
Lancaster 4, Berks 3, Hunts 3, Middlesex 3, Monmouth 3,
Nottingham 3, Herts 2, Kent 2, Suffolk 2, Hants 1, Oxon 1,
Rutland 1, Salop 1. The Scotch entries were from two
counties : Berwick 4, Midlothian 2. The solitary Welsh
county represented was Carmarthen, 2 entries. The 25 class
prizes were distributed amongst 10 exhibitors representing 9
counties, viz., Wilts 7 prizes, Hereford 4, Yorks 4, Cumberland
3, Berks 2, Berwick 2, Monmouth 1, Somerset 1, Westmorland
1. In addition, Berks and Wilts each secured a champion
prize.
The Judges report, “The show of Shorthorns has not
been surpassed for some few years. There was considerable
competition in most of the classes, particularly so among the
females.” Of the old bulls (Class 56) there was nothing to
command attention beyond the prize animals. The champion
male Shorthorn was found in Class 57 in Mr. J. Deane Willis’s
Czaroiuitz, but in the bestowal of this honour the assistance of
the umpire was sought. Whilst Class 58 provided a strong
competition, it produced “no animal of a leading character.”
Amongst the bull calves (Class 59) were “ a few very choice
animals.”
The old cows did not give vise to any very strong competi-
tion. The Shorthorn female champion prize was given to
Her Majesty the Queen’s Bouquet, a three-year-old cow “which
showed good dairy properties.” The two-year-old heifers (Class
62) included some beautiful animals, “ one of which contested
very closely for the championship.” The strongest competition
was in Class 63, yearling heifers, “ which contained many
splendid animals and required the utmost thought and care in
making the awards.”
Herefords. — Fifty entries were made from 7 counties in
England, and 2 in Wales, thus : Hereford 21, Worcester 11,
YOL. v. T. s. — 19 G G
438
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
Essex 6, Salop 6, Hertford 2, Berks 1, Norfolk 1, Brecon 1,
Cardigan 1. Of the 18 class prizes, Hereford secured 10,
Worcester 4, Salop 2, Essex 1, and Norfolk 1.
“ The Herefords on the whole were good, especially the
younger classes of bulls and heifers. Class 67 (yearling bulls),
Class 70 (two-year-old heifers), and Class 71 (yearling heifers)
all contained animals of exceptional merit.”
Devons. — The West Country cattle, though far from home,
mustered 25 entries, to which Devon contributed 10, Somerset
10, Berks 2, Cornwall 2, Norfolk 1. Of the 12 class prizes, 6
went to Somerset, 4 to Devon, 1 to Berks, and 1 to Cornwall.
Aged bulls were a good class, and the first prize animal
was “ far above the avei'age.” In Class 73, two-year-old bulls,
no difficulty was felt in awarding the first prize. The cows
(Class 75) made up “ a vex-y meritorious class.” The two-year-
old heifers were “ short in numbers but good in quality.” In
the yearling class the first pi’ize went to a heifer “ of grand
shape and quality.”
Sussex. — The heavy cattle of the Weald Clays “ were well
represented throughout as to number and quality.” To the
total of 52 entries Sussex contributed 29, Suri’ey 12, and Kent
11. The 17 class prizes went, 7 to Kent, 5 to Surrey, and 5 to
Sussex.
In the aged bull class the premier position was assigned to
“ a compact bull of great quality.” In the two-year-old class
the first prize went to a bull “ of good quality, and neat.” The
yearling bulls made up “ a very useful class.” Of the Sussex
females, the two-year-old heifers constituted “ an extraordinary
class of great quality.”
Welsh. — Eleven entries in this section comprised 4 from
Carnarvon, 4 from Merioneth, 2 from Denbigh, and 1 from
Anglesey. Of the 9 class prizes, Carnarvon and Merioneth
each took 4, and the remaining one went to Denbigh. The
Judges say : —
The Welsh cattle classes, as a whole, although the exhibits are few in
number — owing no doubt to the distance of Cambridge from the Principality
— w7ere up to the average in point of quality and, in our opinion, quite
worthy of the prizes awarded. The aged bull class was exceptionally good.
Red Polled. — At a centre so near to the home of the charac-
teristic breed of East Anglia a large display was reasonably to
be expected, and there were as many as 59 entries in the
Catalogue. Of these, Norfolk entered 41, Suffolk 11, Herts 3,
Essex 2, Cambridge 1, and Surrey 1. Of the 20 class prizes,
Norfolk secured 17, including all the firsts, besides the two
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
439
champion awards ; Cambridge, Surrey, and Suffolk obtained
one prize each. The report states : —
All the classes were numerically well filled, and presented a very credit-
able appearance. The old bulls, the cows, and the heifers were particu-
larly good, but among the young hulls and some of the heifers 9lack loins
and high tails were too prevalent. The females, with few exceptions, showed
good milking properties, and excellent quality of flesh.
Aberdeen Angus. — Of this breed there were 33 entries, com-
prising 22 from England and 11 from Scotland. The English
contingent represented eight counties, viz., Bucks 4 entries,
Essex 4, Northumberland 3, Sussex 3, Bedford 2, Gloucester 2,
Middlesex 2, York 2. From Scotland 5 were entered by
Aberdeen, 3 by Banff, and 3 by Midlothian. Of the 8 class prizes,
the three Scottish counties each took a first and a second, whilst
Middlesex secured a first and Bucks a second. The solitary
champion award fell to Middlesex.
The display was excellent. The aged bulls (Class 96) in-
cluded “ several animals of outstanding merit, and there was
very little to choose between the first and second prize animals.”
Mr. Crisp’s champion Gilderoy “ is of great substance for his age,
and carries a great amount of flesh.”
Galloways. — To the 11 entries of Galloway cattle Cumberland
contributed 4, Dumfries 3, Kirkcudbright 3, and Berwick 1.
Of the 7 class prizes, Dumfries secured 3, Cumberland 2, and
Kirkcudbright 2.
The display made up “a very fair representation of the
breed as to quality.” The cows and heifers “ were remarkably
good, particularly the first and second in each class.”
Ayrshires. — A small lot of 7 entries represented the
Scottish dairy breed. Dumfries contributed 5 of the entries,
and took all of the 4 prizes; the 2 remaining entries were
from Kirkcudbright. The quality throughout was “ first
class.”
Jerseys. — In this section 143 entries were contributed by
20 different counties, as follows Essex 32, Herts 24, Sussex
17, Chester 11, York 8, Cambs 7, Hants 7, Bucks 6, Suffolk 5,
Island of Jersey 4, Somerset 4, Surrey 4, Kent 3, Middlesex 3,
Rutland 2, Warwick 2, Devon 1, Lancaster 1, Leicester 1,
and Norfolk 1. Out of 17 class prizes, 3 firsts and 2 seconds
went to Chester, whilst the counties of Essex and Herts each
took 3 prizes, and the counties of Suffolk, Sussex, and York
2 prizes each. Of the prize- winning animals, 10 were bred
in Jersey and 7 in England. All 6 of the prize cows were
island-bred, and all 3 of the prize yearling heifers English-
bred.
g o 2
440
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894
The classes “ were, taken as a whole, of fair average merit.
The females, indeed, were represented by a few exceptional
animals, but we found that among the males the competition,
though very close, did not include any animals which approached
the ideal.”
Amongst the aged bulls (Class 106) the first prize went to
“ a very smart animal, lengthy and feminine in type — an
important point in our opinion in any dairy breed — with a
beautiful head and neck, good shoulder, and well-placed teats.
He is somewhat deficient in richness, and his quarters droop a
little too much, though the setting on of his tail is neat.” Of
the young bulls (Class 107), the first prize animal just won his
position. “ He is a rich bull, full of quality, with a fine cow-
like head, horn and neck, good shoulders, and level quarters.
He touches nicely, and has a fair placement of teats. He is,
however, rather throaty— a fault which will not improve with
age.”
The old cows (Class 108) “contained three or four beauties.”
The premier position was assigned to “ a cow of the very
highest quality, and with a beautiful udder. If her back were
straigliter and her type a little more robust she would be
perfect.” Amongst the three-year-old cows (Class 109) the first
prize went to one which the Judges regarded as “ the best in
the show.” “ She is a grey cow of almost ideal beauty, and
with an excellently well-balanced udder.” Of heifers calved in
1892 (Class 110) the first prize animal “is a very promising
youngster, of excellent quality, with capital shoulder and
quarters. Her udder is large and well shaped, but the teats
are rather too close together.” Amongst the yearling heifers
(Class 111), the first prize animal is “a lengthy yearling of
much quality, and with a splendid promise of udder. She is
good everywhere, but might be richer in colour.”
Guernseys. — Two score of entries were made up by the
following nine counties: — Middlesex 12 entries, Hants 9,
Sussex 7, Herts 3, Suffolk 3, Cambs 2, Essex 2, Wilts 1,
York 1. Of the 10 class prizes, Middlesex secured 2 firsts
and 3 seconds, Suffolk a first and a second, Hants and
Sussex each a first, and Cambs a second. Six of the prize-
winning animals were bred in England and 4 in Guernsey.
The Judges report that the entries show a great decrease
when compared with former years as regards both quality and
number, and that the absence of fully developed, first-rate and
valuable animals is particularly noticeable. This they attribute
to the changes that have been made in the prize schedule.
Amongst the old bulls (Class 112) the contest between the
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894. 441
first two animals was very close, the winner being “ a good all-
round bull, and having extraordinary development of teats.”
Of the cows (Class 114), the first prize animal “ stood out far
and away at the head, her well-shaped udder, milk veins, quality
and constitution leaving little to be desired — an excellent cow
in every way.” The yearling heifers (Class 116) made up the
best class the Judges had to deal with. “The most promising
bag ” of the first prize heifer “ at once placed her to the front.”
Kerries. — To the 22 entries in this section Cambs contri-
buted 8, Wilts 5, Warwick 4, Middlesex 2, Queen’s County
2, and Dublin 1. The 7 class prizes went: 2 to Cambs, 2
to Wilts, and one each to Warwick, Middlesex, and Queen’s
County, whilst Warwick also secured the champion prize.
The quality of the animals was superior or excellent in all the
classes.
Dexter Kerries. — The 26 entries were here drawn from a
wider area than those in the Kerry section, 12 counties being
represented in this case. Surrey made 4 entries, Warwick 4,
Hants 3, Sussex 3, Bucks 2, Norfolk 2, Northumberland 2,
Dublin 2, Beds 1, Devon 1, Rutland 1, Suffolk 1. The county
of Norfolk figures best in the award list, having secured two
first prizes and the championship. A solitary prize fell to each
of the counties of Beds, Hants, Northumberland, Surrey and
Warwick.
The old bulls (Class 120) were of excellent quality. Both
the cow and the heifer classes were found to contain some animals
which the Judges regarded as a mixture of the Kerry and
Dexter breeds,
Dairy Cattle. — There were two classes arranged respectively
for a milk test and a butter test, as explained in the following
report : — -
At the Chester Meeting of 189:3, prizes were awarded solely upon the
basis of the amounts of butter produced, as ascertained by the practical
test of the churn. In all, 25 cows then competed. On the present occasion
it was decided to revert to the system adopted previously, and to offer prizes
both for quantity and for quality of milk; in short, for milk-producing and
lor butter-producing animals. Also, the experience of last year having
shown that the determination of the amount of butter-fat by chemical
analysis gave the results of competitions for butter-producing cows quite as
satisfactorily as, and with less chance of error or loss than, the practical test
of the churn, the competition for production of butter was this year decided
by means of the chemical test.
Altogether, in the two Classes, 123 and 124, 20 cows competed, a number
which, considering the wide difference, as dairying districts, between the
neighbourhoods in which the Chester and Cambridge Shows were respec-
tively held, must be considered satisfactory.
The cows were all milked dry, in the presence of the Stewards, at 7 a.m,
on Monday, June 25, and the two milkings upon which the awards were
442
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
made, took place on Monday evening at 5 p.m., and on Tuesday morning
at 7 a.m., tkus constituting a milking period of 24 hours.
The milk produced was at once weighed, and samples were drawn for
analysis. The analyses were made in the University Laboratory, rooms in
which, together with every facility and assistance, had been very kindly
placed at Dr. Yoelcker’s disposal by Professor Liveing, the University Pro-
fessor of Chemistry. The analyses themselves were made by Dr. Voelcker
and his brother, Mr. E. W. Voelcker,
In Class 123 the prizes were awarded to the cows which gave the largest
quantity of milk, irrespective of the weight of the animals. But, inasmuch
as it is very undesirable to encourage the production of a large quantity of
milk irrespective of its quality, it was decided that the quality of the milk
should at least come up to the standard which Public Analysts have agreed
should fairly be reached by genuine milk from properly-fed cows. This
standard, it may be added, is one of 3 per cent, of butter-fat and 8 1 per cent,
of solids-not-fat, or lli per cent, of total solids.
A reference to the tables on the opposite page will show that in only
one instance (No. 1257) was this standard not reached.
Out of the original 10 entries in Class 123 there was one absentee.
The quantities of milk yielded in the two milkings by all the three prize-
winners were high, viz., 67 lb., 62 lb. 1 oz., and 60 lb. 14 oz. respectively.
As was to be expected, almost all the cows entered were either Shorthorns
or Shorthorn crosses. The first-prize winner (No. 1254) had previously
obtained the first prize at the Canterbury Show of the Royal Counties Agri-
cultural Society for the largest quantity of milk, and her attendant stated
that for nine weeks previously to the present competition she had been
giving over 60 lb. of milk daily. The third-prize winner (No. 1253) had
also taken milking prizes before.
It will be noticed that the evening’s milk was of richer quality than the
morning’s.
In Class 124 the prizes were awarded to the cows producing in two
milkings the greatest weight of butter-fat, the quantity being determined,
as stated previously, by chemical analysis of the milk.
There were, in all, 13 entries, but two cows did not appear, and as a third
was taken ill on the Showground, her returns were not recorded.
This was, naturally, a competition among Jersey cows. It will be seen
that none of the cows gave less than the minimum quantity of milk stipu-
lated. The yields were extremely good, and the quality of the milk in
several cases exceptionally high.
The first-prize winner (No. 1266) gave no less than 50 lb. 14 oz. of milk,
the fat percentages of which were 5'85 and 4'6 respectively ; while the second
prize went to No. 1275, which yielded 44£ lb. of milk at the two milkings, the
fat percentages being 5-0 and 47 respectively. The third-prize winner,
though giving less weight of milk, showed fat percentages of as much as 7'6
and 7'0.
No. 1266 yielded nearly 43 oz. of butter-fat. in the two milkings, and
was a clear winner, the next two cows (No. 1275 and No. 1268) coming
more closely together.
No. 1266 had not previously competed in any milking trials, but No.
1275 had won a medal at the Guildford Show of the Bath and West of Eng-
land Society in the ‘ Jersey Test.’ No. 1263, it was stated, had produced at
the Royal Counties Show 1 lb, 12£ oz. of butter in two milkings, which is
very similar to her production of 24-3 oz. of butter -fat on the present
occasion.
Milk and Butter Tests.
Class 123. — Dairy Cow, in-milk, of any weight, breed, or cross, giving the largest quantity of Milk, provided the milk
be, on the average of two milkings, up to the standard adopted by the Society of Public Analysts.
The Cambridge Meeting, 1 894.
443
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441
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
Sheep.
Leicssters. — There were 20 pens representing 4 flocks ; 3 in
Yorkshire and one in Leicestershire. All the prizes went to
Yorkshire flocks. The Judges regarded Mr. Hutchinson’s first
prize two-shear ram (Class 125) as “by far the best specimen
in the ram classes,” and Mr. Harrison’s first prize pen of ewes
(Class 128) as “by far the best specimens of the Leicester
breed in the Show.” On the whole, however, they did not con-
sider the Leicester classes so good as in former vear3, as many
of the exhibits were “ far from the type of pure Leicesters.”
Cotswolds. — Two dozen entries came from 5 flocks ; 3 in
Gloucestershire, one in Norfolk, and one in Oxon. The 10 class
prizes all went to Gloucestershire. The display was “ fairly
representative of the breed,” and the first prize pens were good
throughout.
Lincolns. — There were 37 entries from 9 flocks, 6 of the
latter belonging to Lincoln, one to Cambs, one to Notts, and one to
Yorks. Of the 13 prizes, 11 went to Lincoln, and 2 to Cambs.
The exhibit, as a whole, was “very creditable.” The shearling
rams (Class 134) made up an exceptionally good class. The
shearling ewes (Class 130) were also “ a very good class,” Mr.
Dudding’s first prize pen being specially noticeable.
Oxford Downs. — Here again there were 37 entries, but from
as many as 8 counties. Of the 13 prizes, Berks obtained 5,
Herts 4, Northampton 2, Hunts 1, and Beds 1. The Judges
“ did not find the Oxford Downs of exceptional merit.” In
Class 139 (shearling rams) they “were compelled to discard
some good animals on account of want of activity.” The
shearling ewes (Class 141) included some “ of great weight and
good character.”
Shropshires. — A total of 112 entries from 27 flocks did duty
for the West Midland breed. The flocks belonged — 10 to
Warwickshire, 7 to Staffordshire, 6 to Salop, 1 to Notts, 1 to
Cardiganshire, 1 to County Meath, and 1 to the United States
of America. Of the 13 class prizes, Salop secured 6, Warwick 3,
Notts 2, and Stafford 2, whilst the championship went to
Salop. Separate sets of Judges dealt with rams and ewes re-
spectively. The two-shear rams (Class 143) “ did not contain
so many good sires as may sometimes be seen at the Boyal Show,
but there were a few of outstanding merit.” The shearling
rams were “ a very good class all through, and contained fewer
‘ weeds ’ than usual.” It included Mr. Mansell’s champion, “an
extra good ram, combining size with quality; he possesses a
heavy coat of goed Shropshire wool, and is very strong in his
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
445
Iliad quarter and leg of mutton.” The ram lambs also were a
very strong class. The shearling ewes, though a good class,
were not equal to what the Judges have seen at some previous
Meetings of the Society. The ewe lambs, on the other hand,
were “ a very good class, and a credit to the breed.”
Southdowns. — Two dozen flocks in 9 different counties con-
tributed 105 entries. The flocks represented were 6 in Sussex,
4 in Cambs, 4 in Norfolk, 3 in Suffolk, 2 in Essex, 2 in
Gloucestershire, one in Berks, one in Middlesex, and one in Surrey.
Of the 13 class prizes, Sussex secured G, Surrey 3, Essex 2, and
Norfolk 2. Generally speaking, the Southdowns “ were a good
lot, showing more quality and character than of late.” The
class for ewe lambs “ was very well filled, considering it was the
first time a place had been given them at the Royal Show.”
Hampshire Downs. — Fifty-one entries were contributed by
15 flocks in 6 counties. These flocks comprised 4 in Hants,
4 in Wilts, 2 in Berks, 2 in Cambs, 2 in Herts, and one in Beds.
Four prizes went to Hants, and 4 to Herts, each county
securing two firsts, a second, and a third ; Berks took 2 prizes,
Cambs 2, and Wilts 1. Taken as a whole, it was a very good
show of Hampshire Downs. The ewe lambs were found to be
“ the best class of the breed,” most of the pens noticed by the
Judges “ showing marked Hampshire type and character.”
Suffolks. — There were 70 entries from 17 flocks in 4 counties,
the flocks being 9 in Suffolk, 4 in Essex, 3 in Cambs, and 1 in
Herts. Of the 13 prizes, 8 went to Suffolk, and 5 to Cambs,
besides which the former county took the champion prize for
Mr. Joseph Smith’s ram, “a sheep smart in character, with
good wool and black face.” The shearling ewes “ were the
great feature of the show.” Viewing the display of Suffolk
sheep as a whole, the Judges regard it as “ the best ever held,
there being a marked improvement all along the line”; this
they attribute in a great measure to the Suffolk Sheep Society.
Wensleydales. — There were 24 entries from 8 flocks. The
older ram class was “ exceptionally good, showing both size
and quality,” and the shearling ewe class “ as good as could be
got together.” Considering the long distance from home the
display generally was a satisfactory one.
Border Leicesters. — Seventeen entries from 5 flocks made up
an uniformly creditable lot,” and the Judges regarded the
display “ as of a highly satisfactory character.”
Somerset and Dorset Horned. — Here there were 16 entries,
also from 5 flocks. The Judges considered all the classes very
good, but the shearling ewe class as the best of the three.
Kentish or Romney Marsh. — Five breeders made entries in
446
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
this section, but only two of them were represented by exhibits.
Of the 13 sheep shown, several possessed good quality, and all
were strong, healthy-looking animals, well adapted for feeding
on the Kentish marshes.
Cheviots. — Nine entries were made from 4 flocks, and the two
classes were good throughout.
Black-faced Mountain. — Eight entries represented 4 flocks,
and both classes were good.
Lonks. — There were 5 entries from 3 flocks, and here again
the quality was good.
Herdwicks. — Ten entries came from 4 flocks. The Judges
considered the Herd wick ram class to be the best of the
mountain breeds. Shearling ewes were excellent.
Welsh Mountain. — Nine entries were made from 3 flocks.
“ Judging from former shows these classes have improved both
in size and quality, but still there is room for further improve-
ment.”
Poultry.
The entries, amounting to 578, were made up of the follow-
ing numbers : —
Dorking , ,
93
Langshan . .
33
Hamburgh . ,
9
Game . .
70
Wyandotte . .
6G
Any other recog-
French (any
Plymouth Rock .
47
nised breed .
46
variety) . ,
23
Minorca , ,
32
Table Poultry
Brahma and
Leghorn , ,
46
(pairs) , .
40
Cochin . .
G6
Andalusian .
17
BorJcings, taken all round, were superior. The Dark and
Silver Grey chickens were very forward, but many showed, in
weak legs, the evil effects of forcing. In the Old English and
Indian Game classes there was strong competition, and some of
the exhibits were very fine. In the French breeds, both the
adult and the chicken classes contained a few good birds, but on
the whole these breeds have deteriorated of late. Of the
Brahmas , the adult classes included a few fine birds. The
Cochins contained some exceptionally fine and handsome adult
birds ; the chickens of this breed held their own well against
Brahmas, some being very forward and promising. Of the
Langshans, the adult cocks were extremely fine, and the prize-
winning hens were good. The chickens were very fair, but less
numerous than they should be. Wyandottes presented some
thoroughly typical specimens in the adult classes, and the young
birds were full of promise ; altogether they were a most credit-
able collection. In the Plymouth Poclcs the cocks, excepting
the prize birds, were inferior ; the hens were fairly good, but
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
447
showed the wear and tear of the breeding season ; the chickens
were rather backward. Minor cas were not a strong show, and
the adults outnumbered the chickens. Leghorns were very-
good, the Whites being the best. Andalusians , on the other
hand, were poor, and the same may be said of Hamburglis.
Bucks included entries of 22 Aylesbury, 17 Rouen, 26 any
other useful breed, and 16 pairs of table ducklings. The
Aylesbury adults were true to type, but — excepting the winners
— this cannot be said of the young birds. Rouens were repre-
sented by some of the very best of their kind. The miscellaneous
section contained a very nice show of Pekins, Cayugas , and
Fancy Ducks, the last named being disqualified as not coming
under the denomination “ useful.”
Geese — 18 entries — were a splendid collection, and did full
justice to the two leading sorts, Embden and Toulouse.
Turkeys — 28 entries — were also an extraordinary display,
the Mammoth American Bronze and the Cambridge being repre-
sented. The report states : —
This long line of Geese and Turkeys alone forms a magnificent display j
which is in itself of the utmost significance, at once imposing, interesting,
and instructive, and their appearing as they do in such force and excellence
at the premier Agricultural Show should he a matter for justifiable
congratulation.
Table Poultry. — The following is the report : —
This section in point of numbers and variety of breeds and crosses was
fairly represented, hut the same immature state was here apparent as in
other classes, the same unaccountable climatic condition having somewhat
retarded growth, giving the birds an appearance of being at least three weeks
later in development than last year. Nevertheless, the quality throughout
was good, and in the majority of cases the pure breeds well maintained
their respective excellences, whilst the cross-breds were the result of
judicious unions, such as have hitherto proved productive of good.
We especially note in this year’s dressed birds the absence of crooked
breast or other structural disfigurement.
Class 278. Pair pure-bred cockerels. 1. Indian Game. 2. Wyandottes.
3. Old English Game. R. Silver Grey Dorkings. 7 entries.
Dorkings, being rather backward this year, have to make way for the
darker-fleshed breeds, which in this class are especially well grown, forward
birds — solid lumps of meat.
Class 279. Pair pure-bred pullets. 1. Indian Game. 2. Dorking. 3.
Dorking. R. Wyandottes. 10 entries.
Winners a very even couple, breast fairly imbedded in good solid flesh,
very praiseworthy ; as also the second, Dorkings, hut a bit raw and scarcely
a match pair.
Class 280. Pair cross-bred cockerels. 1. Indian Game and Dorking. 2.
Game and Langshan. 3. Indian Game and Rock. R. Indian Game and Dor-
king. 14 entries.
As a lot very creditable, and fully sustain the reputation of these unions
for table purposes,
448
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
Class 281. Pair cross-bred pullets. 1. Indian Game and Dorking. 2. ditto.
3. ditto. R. ditto. 8 entries.
All the same cross, and that a good one. The result shows beyond ques-
tion the happy blend of even these two extremes ; size and quality are hereby
secured, and thus a bumping dish of good solid food is produced. We still
commend this cross, and add five others for further experiments, such as
from personal experience we can recommend as the best record combination
up to date: La Fleche and Dorking ; Dorking and Langshan ; Langshanand
Wyandotte; Indian Game and La Fleche ; Old English Game and Langshan.
Ducklings as a lot were about up to the average of mid-summer displays.
Class 282. Pure-breds. 10 entries.
More than sustain their good reputation, Aylesburys being first and
second ; the winners a very superior couple of great size and substance, and
of undoubted purity. Third Pekins, and reserve Cayugas, the latter small
but a rare tit-bit.
Class 283. Cross-breds. 6 entries.
All the winners are the Aylesbury Pekin cross, which fairly demon-
strates the usefulness of this alliance for the production of giant ducks.
Butter.
This section comprised 162 entries arranged in three classes.
In Class 284, for one keg or other package of butter, not less
than 14 lb. and under 40 lb. in weight, there were 21 entries.
It was a condition that the kegs should be delivered to the
Society on February 1, 1894, and the date on which the butter
was made had to be stated. The Judges did not consider there
was sufficient merit in any of the entries to justify their award-
ing prizes. Several of the exhibits they found to be decidedly
bad, many being quite rancid. They add : —
The question of making butter for long keeping has not the interest that
formerly made this department of dairy farming so necessary. Importa-
tions of butter from abroad bring to this country comparatively' fresh butter
at all seasons, so that we are to a great extent independent as regards the
preservation of butter for keeping purposes. As regards the inferiority of
the entries in this class, there were causes which might be supposed would
operate against the keeping qualities that were almost inevitable. The
butter might have been made from the milk of cows that had been fed upon
food other than grass. It is generally admitted that the flavour of butter
made from gras3-fed cows cannot be obtained from that made from the milk
of cows fed upon winter fodder.
It is true that preservatives of various kinds are in use that will keep
butter sweet for a considerable time ; but we must face the fact that the fine
quality, the good flavour, and the keeping properties of butter are mate-
rially influenced by the feeding of cows, and preservatives can only main-
tain the quality that the butter has derived from cows fed upon food which
is calculated to produce butter of high quality.
Class 285, for two pounds fresli butter, slightly salted, made
up in pounds, attracted 72 entries. The Judges report: —
There was considerable uniformity in the entries here, and generally the
texture, grain, and mode in which the butter was made up were good. We
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
449
notice, however, that the flavour of the butter in this class was not of that
high character that is now so necessary to command the best markets of
the country. This may have been caused by want of skill on the part of the
butter-makers in the process of ripening cream, and in its treatment
previously to churning. Recent experiments have demonstrated that flavour
in butter is largely influenced by systems of ripening cream before churning.
On the whole we must say there was general excellence in this class,
but we desire to direct attention to the necessity for exercising considerable
care in producing butter of fine flavour, the absence of which will not be
compensated by attention merely to general appearance.
Class 286 was for “ two pounds fresh butter, slightly salted,
made from milk that has been drawn from cows other than
Channel Islands or cows crossed with the Channel Islands
breeds.” The entries numbered 69, of which 65 were present.
The Judges state : —
Of this class we must say that, whilst there was fair uniformity, there
was not that high standard of quality that is desirable. There were no cases
of absolutely bad butter, but there were few exhibits of the highest quality.
As in the previous Class (28 5) we notice an absence of fine flavour.
The grain and texture of the butter were not equal to those in Class 285.
This may have arisen through the butter of Class 285 having been made from
the milk of Channel Island cattle or their crosses. Want of skill on the part
of the makers may also have had its influence.
Viewing the butter exhibits generally, the Judges (Professor
Carroll and Mr. Prideaux) add the following observations : —
On the whole the show of butter may be considered as satisfactory-
There is considerable evidence of the results of dairy instruction in the
country. Those who have given attention to the subject of dairying, and
who remember the butter exhibited at the Shows of the Royal Agricultural
Society a few years ago, must notice enormous advances in the later exhibitions.
The greater uniformity in the quality of the exhibits is strong evidence of
general improvement.
There is, however, room for further advance in this important industry,
and the Society will do well in continuing its efforts in providing for its
encou ragement.
We respectfully suggest that the exhibits of butter might be left arter
adjudication in such positions that their quality may be seen by the per ons
visiting the Show, in order that those interested in dairying may obtain some
idea of the qualities that were appreciated by the Judges.
This might to some extent be done if the butter, as cut by the Judges,
were left exposed for examination.
The qualities that would be open for observation may be noted as — grain
— colour — freedom frem streakiness and moisture — solidity.
Cheese.
The 72 entries comprised — Cheddar 16, Cheshire 10, Stilton
11, any other British make 14, double Cottenham 1, cream and
curd 20. The following is the report : —
We consider the exhibits generally very good, those from the Cheshire
district more particularly so. Some of the Cheddars also were excellent,
450
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
others lean and urnipe Stiltons have the promise in them of being good,
hut at present they are a little unripe.
In Class 290 (any other British make), a portion of the exhibits were of
excellent quality, but we scarcely feel justified in commending the class as a
whole.
Class 291 (double Cottenham cheese) had only one exhibit, and this was
of poor quality ; consequently we make no award.
Class 292, for “ three cream cheeses (Victoria), under 2 lb.
weight each,” was occupied by 14 entries. The Judges
remark : —
Cream cheese varies considerably through the methods by which it is
made, hence the difficulty of keeping clear of adverse criticism after awards
are given. In some districts these cheeses are made through allowing the
cream to part with its whey by means of slight fermentation and different
methods of drainage. In others the addition of rennet is made in order to
hasten the separation of whey. Two classes of cream cheese are thus
obtained. Again, we find small cheeses, called cream cheeses, are put upon
the market that are made by adding cream to sweet milk.
There are very few cases where Judges give satisfaction to all the exhi-
bitors of cream cheese, and it will be difficult to arrange so as to avoid this
condition.
It might be desirable to consider whether this industry is of such impor-
tance as to warrant the Society’s establishing classes for cream cheeses made
with and without the use of rennet.
The class on the whole may be considered as fairly satisfactory, the first
prize cheese being of excellent quality, and made up in saleable form.
Class 293, “ three curd and cream cheeses (double York),
under 2 lb. weight each,” contained 2 entries, and Class 294,
“ three curd cheeses (single York), under 2 lb. weight each,” 4
entries.
There was considerable variation in quality of the cheese, showing that
different systems of making had been adopted by exhibitors. It is apparent
from the fewness of the entries in these classes that the farmers understand
that the making of cheeses for which there is but a limited demand is not
advisable for this country.
Cider and Perry.
The 74 entries in this section were above the average
number. Of the 12 prizes awarded, Herefordshire secured 7,
Norfolk 2, Gloucestershire 1, Somerset 1, and Worcestershire 1.
As might have been anticipated, after the fine summer and apple
crop of last year, the cider in casks (Class 295) was of good
quality, and most of the exhibits were in excellent condition.
The bottled cider made in 1893 (Class 296) was “ a very good
class — all exhibits in good condition, but a few not well ‘ up.’ ”
The bottled cider made before 1893 (Class 297) was “ not so
good as a whole, though some of the exhibits were of very fair
quality.” Bottled perry (Class 298) made “ a very good class,
all the exhibits being in good condition.”
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
451
Jams and Preserved Fruits.
There were 3 classes, embracing 10 entries, respecting
which the Judge reports : —
On the whole the jams and bottled fruits in this section are good. No.
309 is particularly good — the fruit being whole and well preserved, but as
there are only six different kinds of fruits in this collection, it cannot com-
pare with Nos. 313 and 312 in this important respect.
It is very unsatisfactory to find that there is such a small competition in
this section.
Hives and Honey.
The entries exceeded the average number, there being in all
222 entries disposed in 18 classes. Subjoined is the report : —
The interest taken in bee-keeping was fully maintained during the week
of the Cambridge Show, and it can, we think, be fairly claimed for this
department, that it was one of the most attractive on the ground, if we may
judge by the crowds of visitors who inspected the exhibits of honey and
appliances, and attended the lectures on bee-keeping, illustrated with
practical manipulations with live bees, in the bee tent.
Everything in this department was exceedinglywell arranged, and great
credit is due to those who had the management.
In Class 302 there were two large collections of useful and well-manu-
factured bee goods, containing all articles that are required to carry on
scientific bee-keeping in the most approved manner. It would have been
more satisfactory had there been a larger number of entries in tbis important
class, but the educational value of the display was none the less thorough,
seeing that every improvement in hive and appliance manufacture was
embodied in the collections shown.
In Classes 304 and 305, for hives, there was a cood entry, but nothing
particularly new worthy of special notice. In most instances the hives were
better made, and owing to the more general use of machinery, the prices
quoted were very reasonable.
On the part of a few manufacturers there is still a tendency to make hives
too unwieldy and complicated for practical purposes. Particularly was this the
casein those shown as “ Wells hives,” used for the double queen system, and
we consider tbis tendency needs repressing.
In the classes for honey the entries were larger than they have been for
some years, but, owing to the cold and ungenial weather in May and part of
June, several of the intending exhibitors had no honey to stage. Notwith-
standing the adverse conditions for the storage of nectar, continued almost
up to the date of the Show, sufficient honey had been gathered to make a
very creditable display.
Class 316, for granulated honey of 1893, was a strong class, and most
keenly contested. The exhibits came from all parts of the kingdom, and were
in such good condition and prime quality as to clearly establish the good
keeping properties of British honey.
In Class 318, for any practically useful inventions connected with bee-
culture, there was nothing specially worthy of mention.
In Class 319, for the most interesting and instructive exhibits, was one
illustrating the easy and useful method of raising queen bees as practised
in America and known as the Doolittle system.
Taken as a whole, the exhibition will compare very favourably with other
years.
452
The Cambridge Meeting, 1894.
Competitions of Butter-makers.
These contests were conducted at the Dairy, which occupied
an excellent position in the central part of the Show-yard.
Here, also, Miss Maidment lectured every morning and after-
noon on the six days of the Show, and, with the help of her
assistants, gave frequent demonstrations in butter-making,
cream cheese making, separating by machinery, &c.
It may be useful to place on record the quantity of milk
consumed, and of butter produced, in connexion with the Trials
of Churns (see pp. 487-97), and also with the ordinary work of
the Dairy.
Churn Tbials.
Cream received from contractor
Butter resulting sold
(Equivalent to 1-j lb. per quart.
Dairy.
Milk received from contractor
„ stock in yard .
Total
Less sold
Equal to cream at, say, -jbtb .
Less sold .
Equal to lutter at 4 lb. per gall.
Butter actually made and sold
The report of the Judges on the butter-making contests will
be read with interest and profit by many who wish to qualify
for these competitions.
Tbe competition in butter-making at the Cambridge Show brought
together classes of excellent merit. The difficulty of judging was extreme,
in consequence of the great excellence and skill of the different competitors.
In Class I., open to the United Kingdom, there were ten competitors,
many of whom appeared to have contested for honours in butter-making at
previous Koyal Shows and other butter-making competitions. The general
merit here was of such high order that we were obliged to recognise it by
giving prizes, high commendations, or commendations to all competitors.
The first piize was taken by Miss Edith Glenn, Little Barford, St. Neots,
830 quarts
1,044 lb.
1,231 galls.
1,033 „
2^04 „
_33 „
-,-31 „
~Tso „
4 „
182 „
728 lb.
7(50 „
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
453
whose butter when ready for adjudication was in splendid condition, firm in
texture, free from moisture, and made up in a tasteful manner. Not much
inferior was the butter made by Miss Frances M. Cole, The Dairy, Home
Farm, Tring, Herts, who was placed second, by a mere point or so. The
third, fourth, aud fifth prizes were taken by really excellent butter.
In the second day’s competition (Class II.), amongst “ female members
of a farmer’s family not in service or working for wages,” there were seven-
teen competitors, the general excellence of whom was most satisfactory.
There appeared to be some novices here as regards competing for prizes,
but a large number of those competing showed that they had been well in-
structed in the art of butter-making. Many of these had been pupils of
Dairy Schools under County Councils, or had received instruction from
County Council teachers. The first prize was awarded to Miss Agnes A.
Walker, Dymock, Gloucestershire, and certainly the exhibit was of most
excellent character. The other prizes were awarded to Miss Hetty Baynes,
Broxted Hall, Dunmow, Essex ; Miss Edith S. Wright, Appleby, Doncaster ;
Miss Rose Powell, Westry House, March, Cambs ; Miss Gertrude Connell,
Manor House, South Croxton, Leicester, in the order placed. The Reserve
Number was awarded to Miss Mary Wilson, Stone Broom Lane, near Alfre-
ton, Derby. Thus the prizes were allotted to competitors from over a wide
range of England, thereby affording evidence of the extended influence of the
Dairy Department of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.
The third day brought four competitors (Class III.) for the Society’s
prizes offered for Dairymaids and others residing in the Society’s District A.
The first prize was taken by Miss Elsie G. Cook, Clock House Farm, Ashford,
Staines ; the second was awarded to Miss Agues Mary Watts, Fairgreen,
Chipping Norton, whose butter came extremely close to Miss Cook’s in
general quality.
Another competition (Class IV.) for dairymaids and others for prizes
offered by the Cambridge Local Committee brought together twelve com-
petitors. Here there was considerable interest evidenced on the part of
visitors to the Show. The Dairy was surrounded during the churning and
butter-making by an enthusiastic assemblage. As might be expected, the
butter made at this competition was not up to the excellence of the butter
made previously, but it may be stated that there was really no incom-
petent butter-maker in the competition, whilst many of them were really
good.
On Friday the competition for the Society’s Silver Medal aud prize of
£5 gave the Judges a most difficult task in adjudication. This was the
Champion Class, and was composed of the prize-winners of the previous
competitions.
The temperature of the Dairy, although much lower than in any other
part of the Showyard, was decidedly bad for butter-making. At one time
the thermometer stood at 75° Falir. in the coolest part of the Dairy, so that
the competitors had need of knowledge and skill to manipulate butter under
such difficult conditions.
It was knowledge and skill, without question, that enabled Miss Elsie
Cook and Miss Iletty Baynes to bring their butter in such splendid condition
at this competition, in such trying weather. The difficulty of placing their
butter in positions of relative merit gave us no little trouble.
It would be impossible to find a finer collection of butter than was
brought to be judged by the twelve persons who competed for the champion
prize, and taking into account the trying character of the weather and the
ordeal of working in the excitement of a showyard, the operators showed
that they were accomplished in their art,
VOL. V. T. S. — 19
II H
454
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
Horse-Shoeing Competitions.
These contests were limited to shoeing-smiths in the Society’s
District A, comprising the counties of Bedford, Buckingham,
Cambridge, Essex, Hertford, Huntingdon, London, Middlesex,
Norfolk, Oxford, and Suffolk. The Judges report : —
In Class I., Roadsters, there were 13 competitors, amongst whom there
were several good workmen. With the exception that some of the com-
petitors made the shoes much too light for roadsters, the work upon the
whole was satisfactory. We awarded 5 prizes and one H.C. — and upon
inquiry found that 5 of the 6 men placed were Registered Shoeing Smiths.
In Class II., Agricultural horses, there were also 13 competitors, none
of whom had competed in Class I. The work done was very good, much
better and more uniform than in Class I.
The 1st and 2nd prize winners were Registered Shoeing Smiths.
It is satisfactory to state that every man entered competed, and that
there is now a marked improvement in the treatment of the foot.
A lecture, plentifully illustrated by specimens, was delivered
by Mr. Clement Stephenson, F.R.C.Y.S., at the Shoeing Forge
on the Wednesday. The subject was “ The Horse’s Foot and
How to Shoe it,” and the address was listened to by a large
number of farriers and others interested in the subject.
A “ Cambridge Meeting ” of the Past.
A delightful record of an old fair which used to be held on
the outskirts of Cambridge has been preserved in the quaint
writings of Defoe.1 With this year’s Meeting of the Society
still fresh in the mind it is interesting by way of contrast
to recall how business was conducted on almost the same spot
in the earlier years of last century. To mutilate Defoe’s
description would be to deprive it of its most attractive charm ;
hence it is quoted in extenso.
I now draw near to Cambridge, to wbicb I fancy I look as if I was
afraid to come, having made so many circumlocutions beforehand ; but I
must yet make another digression before I enter the town (for in my way,
and as I came in from Newmarket, about the beginning of September), I
cannot omit, that I came necessarily through Stourbridge Fair, which was
then in its height.
If it is a diversion worthy a book to treat of trifles, such as the gaiety of
Bury Fair, it cannot be very unpleasant, especially to the trading part of
the world, to say something of this fair, which is not only the greatest in
the whole nation, but in the world ; nor, if I may believe those who have
seen the mall, is the fair at Leipzig in Saxony, the mart at Frankfort-on-
the-Main, or the fairs at Nuremberg, or Augsburg, any way to compare to
this fair at Stourbridge.
It is kept in a large corn-field, near Casterton, extending from the side
of the river Cam, towards the road, for about half a mile square.
1 Tour through the Eastern Counties of England, 1722. By Daniel Defoe.
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
455
If the husbandmen who rent the land, do not get their corn off before a
certain day in August, the fair-keepers may trample it under foot and spoil
it to build their booths, or tents, for all the fair is kept in teuts and booths.
On the other hand, to balance that severity, if the fair-keepers have not
done their business of the fair, and removed and cleared the field by
another certain day in September, the ploughmen may come in again,
with plough and cart, and overthrow all, and trample it into the dirt ;
and as for the filth, dung, straw, &c. necessarily left by the fair-keepers,
the quantity of which is very great, it is the farmers’ fees, and makes them
full amends for the trampling, riding, and carting upon, and hardening the
ground.
It is impossible to describe all the parts and circumstances of this fair
exactly ; the shops are placed in rows like streets, whereof one is called
Cheapside ; and here, as in several other streets, are all sorts of trades, who
sell by retail, and who come principally from London with their goods ;
scarce any trades are omitted — goldsmiths, toyshops, brasiers, turners,
milliners, haberdashers, hatters, mercers, drapers, pewterers, cliina-ware-
houses, and in a word all trades that can be named in London ; with
coffee-houses, taverns, brandy-shops, and eating-houses, innumerable, and
all in tents, and booths, as above.
This great street reaches from the road, which as I said goes from
Cambridge to Newmarket, turning short out of it to the right towards the
river, and holds in a line near half a mile quite down to the river-side : in
another street parallel with the road are like rows of booths, but larger,
and more intermingled with wholesale dealers ; and one side, passing out
of this last street to the left hand, is a formal great square, formed by the
largest booths, built in that form, and which they call the Duddery ; whence
the name is derived, what its signification is, I could never yet learn, though
I made all possible search into it. The area of this square is about 80 to
100 yards, where the dealers have room before every booth to take down
and open their packs, and to bring in waggons to load and unload.
This place is separated, and peculiar to. the wholesale dealers in the
woollen manufacture. Here the booths or tents are of a vast extent, have
different apartments, and the quantities of goods they bring are so great,
that the insides of them look like another Blackwell Hall, being as vast
warehouses piled up with goods to the top. In this Duddery, as I have
been informed, there have been sold one hundred thousand pounds’ worth of
woollen manufactures in less than a week's time, besides the prodigious
trade carried on here, by wholesale men, from London, and all parts of
England, who transact their business wholly in their pocket-books, and
meeting their chapmen from all parts, make up their accounts, receive money
chiefly in bills, and take orders : These they say exceed by far the sales of
goods actually brought to the fair, and delivered in kind ; it being frequent
for the London wholesale men to carry back orders from their dealers for
ten thousand pounds’ worth of goods a man, and some much more. This
especially respects those people, who deal in heavy goods, as wholesale
grocers, salters, brasiers, iron-merchants, wine-merchants, and the like ; but
does not exclude the dealers in woollen manufactures, and especially in
mercery goods of all sorts, the dealers in which generally manage their
business in this manner.
Here are clothiers from Halifax, Leeds, Wakefield and Huddersfield in
Yorkshire, and from Rochdale, Bury, &c.,in Lancashire, with vast quantities
of Yorkshire cloths, kerseys, pennistons, cottons, &c., with all sorts of
Manchester ware, fustians, and things made of cotton wool ; of which the
quantity is so great, that they told me there were near a thousand horse-
packs of such goods from that side of the country, and these took up a
h n 2
456
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
side and half of the Doddery at least ; also a part of a street of booths were
taken up with upholsterer’s ware, such as tickings, sackings, Kidderminster
staffs, blankets, rugs, quilts, &c.
In the Duddery I saw one warehouse, or booth with six apartments in
it, all belonging to a dealer in Norwich stuffs only, and who, they said, had
there above twenty thousand pounds value in those goods, and no other.
Western goods had their share here also, and several booths were filled
as full with serges, duroys, druggets, shalloons, cantaloons, Devonshire
kerseys, &c., from Exeter, Taunton, Bristol, and other parts west, and some
from London also.
But all this is still outdone at least in show, by two articles, which are
the peculiars of this fair, and do not begin till the other part of the fair,
that is to say for the woollen manufacture, begins to draw to a close. Tbese
are the wool and the hops ; as for the hops, there is scarce any price fixed
for hops in England, till they know how they sell at Stourbridge fair ; the
quantity that appears in the fair is indeed prodigious, and they, as it were,
possess a large part of the field on which the fair is kept to themselves ;
they are brought directly from Chelmsford in Essex, from Canterbury and
Maidstone in Kent, and from Farnham in Surrey, besides what are brought
from London, the growth of those and other places.
Inquiring why this fair should be thus, of all other places in England,
the centre of that trade ; and so great a quantity of so bulky a commodity
be carried thither so far ; I was answered by one thoroughly acquainted
with that matter thus : the hops, said he, for this part of England, grow
principally in the two counties of Surrey and Kent, with an exception only
to the town of Chelmsford in Essex, and there are very few planted any-
where else.
There are indeed in the west of England some quantities growing : as at
Wilton, near Salisbury; at Hereford and Broomsgrove, near Wales, and
the like ; but the quantity is inconsiderable, and the places remote, so that
none of them come to London.
As to the north of England, they formerly used but few hops there,
their drink being chiefly pale smooth ale, which required no hops, and con-
sequently they planted no hops in all that part of England, north of the
Trent ; nor did I ever see one acre of hop-ground planted beyond Trent in
my observation ; but as for some years past, they not only brew great
quantities of beer in the north, but also use hops in the brewing their ale
much more than they did before ; so they all come south of Trent to buy
their hops ; and here being vast quantities brought, it is great part of their
back carriage into Yorkshire, and Northamptonshire, Derbyshire, Lancashire,
and all those counties ; nay, of late, since the Union, even to Scotland itself ;
for I must not omit here also to mention, that the river Grant, or Cam,
which runs close by the north-west side of the fair in its way from Cam-
bridge to Ely, is navigable, and that by this means, all heavy goods are
brought even to the fair-field, by water carriage from London and other
parts ; first to the port of Lynn, and then in barges up the Ouse, from the
Ouse into the Cam, and so, as I say, to the very edge of the fair.
In like manner great quantities of heavy goods, and the hops among the
rest, are sent from the fair to Lynn by water, and shipped there for the
Humber, to Hull, York, &c., and for Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and by New-
castle, even to Scotland itself. Now as there is still no planting of hops in
the north, though a great consumption, and the consumption increasing
daily, this, says my friend, is one reason why at Stourbridge fair there is so
great a demand for the hops. He added, that besides this, there were very
few hops, if aDy worth naming, growing in all the counties even on this side
Trent, which were above forty miles from London ; those counties depending
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
457
on Stourbridge fair for their supply, so the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk,
Cambridge, Huntingdon, Northampton, Lincoln, Leicester, .Rutland, and
even to Stafford, Warwick, and Worcestershire, bought most if not all of
their hops at Stourbridge fair.
These are the reasons why so great a quantity of hops are seen at this
fair, as that it is incredible, considering, too, how remote from this fair the
growth of them is as above.
This is likewise a testimony of the prodigious resort of the trading people
of all parts of England to this fair ; the quantity of hops that have been
sold at one of these fairs is diversely reported, and some affirm it to be so
great, that I dare not copy after them ; but without doubt it is a surprising
account, especially in a cheap year.
The next article brought thither is wool, and this of several sorts, but
principally fleece wool, out of Lincolnshire, where the longest staple is found ;
the sheep of those countries being of the largest breed.
The buyer's of this wool are chiefly indeed the manufacturers of Norfolk
and Suffolk and Essex, and it is a prodigious quantity they buy.
Here I saw what I have not observed in any other county of England,
namely, a pocket of wool. This seems to be first called so in mockery, this
pocket being so big, that it loads a whole waggon, and reaches beyond the
most extreme parts of it hanging over both before and behind, and these
ordinarily weigh a ton or twenty-five hundredweight of wool, all in one bag.
The quantity of wool only, which has been sold at this place at one fair,
has been said to amount to fifty or sixty thousand pounds in value, some say
a great deal more.
By these articles a stranger may make some guess at the immense trade
carried on at this place; what prodigious quantities of goods are bought
and sold here, and what a confluence of people are seen here from all parts
of England.
I might go on here to speak of several other sorts of English manu-
factures which are brought hither to be sold; as all sorts of wrought-iron
and brass-ware from Birmingham ; edged tools, knives, &c., from Sheffield ;
glass wares and stockings from Nottingham and Leicester ; and an infinite
throng of other things of smaller value every morning.
To attend this fair, and the prodigious conflux of people which come to
it, there are sometimes no less than fifty hackney coaches which come from
London, and ply night and morning to carry the people to and from Cam-
bridge ; for there the gross of the people lodge ; nay, which is still more
strange, there are wherries brought from London on waggons to ply upon
the little river Cam, and to row people up and down from the town, and
from the fair as occasion presents.
It is not to be wondered at, if the town of Cambridge cannot receive, or
entertain the numbers of people that come to this fair ; not Cambridge only,
but all the towns round are full ; nay, the very barns and stables are turned
into inns, and made as fit as they can to lodge the meaner sort of people : as
for the people in the fair, they all universally eat, drink, and sleep in their
booths and tents ; and the said booths are so intermingled with taverns, coffee-
houses, drinking-houses, eating-houses, cook-shops, &c., and all in tents too ;
and so many butchers and higglers from all the neighbouring counties come
into the fair every morning with beef, mutton, fowls, butter, bread, cheese,
eggs, and such things, and go with them from tent to tent, from door to
door, that there is no want of any provisions of any kind, either dressed or
undressed.
In a word, the fair is like a well-fortified city, and there is the least
disorder and confusion, I believe, that can be seen anywhere with so great
a concourse of people.
458
The Cambridge Meeting , 1894.
Towards the latter end of the fair, and when the great hurry of whole-
sale business begins to he over, the gentry come in from all parts of the
county round ; and though they come for their diversion, yet it is not a
little money they lay out, which generally falls to the share of the retailers,
such as toy-shops, goldsmiths, braziers, ironmongers, turners, milliners,
mercers, &c., and some loose coins they reserve for the puppet shows, drolls,
rope-dancers, and such like, of which there is no want, though not con-
siderable like the rest. The last day of the fair is the horse-fair, where the
whole is closed with both horse and foot races, to divert the meaner sort of
people only, for nothing considerable is offered of that kind. Thus ends the
whole fair, and in less than a week more, there is scarce any sign left that
there has been such a thing there, except by the heaps of dung and straw
and other rubbish which is left behind, trod into the earth, and which is
as good as a summer’s fallow for dunging the land ; and as I have said
above, pays the husbandman well for the use of it.
I should have mentioned that here is a court of justice always open,
and held every day in a shed built on purpose in the fair ; this is for keeping
the peace, and deciding controversies in matters deriving from the business
of the fair. The magistrates of the town of Cambridge are judges in this
court, as being in their jurisdiction, or they holding it by special privilege :
here they determine matters in a summary way, as is practised in those we
call Pye Powder Courts in other places, or as a Court of Conscience ; and
they have a final authority without appeal.
Conclusion.
The second Cambridge Meeting will be remembered as a
highly successful gathering. It could not, indeed, be other-
wise, for not one of the chief elements that make for success
was lacking. The Show itself possessed many features of excel-
lence both in the live stock and in the implement sections.
The Town and the University vied with each other in giving
the Society a hearty and hospitable welcome. The weather,
which might have spoilt all, was as near perfection as we can
ever expect it to be under an English sky, even at midsummer.
And thus it came to pass that, at a time of great stress, and
after perhaps the most trying winter within the memory of
farmers, the Royal Agricultural Society held in East Anglia a
Country Meeting which, however gratifying its results may be
to Members of the Society in general, cannot fail to be looked
back upon with feelings of special satisfaction by those agricul-
turists of the Eastern Counties who were mainly instrumental
in inducing the Society to revisit the scenes of its youth.
W. Fream.
13 Hanover Square, W.
459
THE TRIALS OF SPRAYING MACHINES
AT CAMBRIDGE.
The offer of prizes at the Cambridge Meeting for horse power
machines for distributing bouillie bordelaise, or Bordeaux mixture,
upon potato plants to prevent or cure disease was most timely
and judicious ; for, although the evidence in favour of this treat-
ment in the United Kingdom is not so decisively favourable as
in France and Belgium, there is quite sufficient to prove that it is
of the greatest value. Fortunately, in the last few years, and
since the discovery of the influence of sulphate of copper upon
the fungus which causes the potato disease or “ blight,” there
have been only light and partial outbreaks of the disease in this
country, so that there have not been opportunities of thoroughly
testing its efficacy. In this season, however, as there is a severe
attack of disease in many localities, there will be occasions for
trying it. And it may be said that at the time of writing this
report striking instances of its preventive power have already
been recorded.
There is also no doubt that some of the experiments with
the Bordeaux mixture in former years have had unsatisfactory
results, on account of its improper or unskilful composition, as
well as of its irregular and injudicious application. It is there-
fore most important that suitable machines for equable and per-
fect distribution should be brought to the front. There are
admirable hand machines of the “ Knapsack ” type for putting
the Bordeaux mixture on potato plants ; these are generally used
in foreign countries and answer well for small acreages of pota-
toes, and where labour is cheap. But, in the United Kingdom, as
labour is dear and many growers have large breadths of potatoes,
horse machines are necessary, since it is most important that
spraying should be done rapidly, especially when the disease has
made its appearance and the treatment is remedial.
For the prize of 10L offered by the Royal Agricultural Society
at Cambridge, only four machines were entered. Of these three
came to the trial ground, the remaining one, that entered by
Mr. W. W. Cousins (No. 4685), having been damaged in transit
and rendered unfit for working.
The machines that were actually tried are described in the
Implement Catalogue as follows : —
460 The Trials of Spraying Machines at Cambridge.
Class III. — Horse Power Machine for Distributing Bouillie Bordelaise
or other Mixtures on Potatoes.
No. in
Catalogue. Names and Addresses of Exhibitors.
4643 William Weeks & Son, Ltd., Maidstone, Price 3 71. lO.s.
4654 Strawsons, Ltd., 77 Queen Victoria St., London, E.C. 60 gallons.
Price 25/.
4686 Pk. Mayfartk & Co., 16 Mincing Lane, London, E.C. “ Syphonia.”
Price 22/. 10s.
The trials took place on Saturday, June 23, on the farm of
Mr. J. H. Ridgewell, Histon Road, Cambridge, in a large field
of potatoes well adapted for the purpose. The potato plants were
not very high, but there was ample foliage to test the distributing
powers of the machines.
The Judge had made up his mind that many points should
be given to the machine that would spray the under as well as
the upper sides of the potato leaves, for the reason that, as the
potato fungus, Phytophthora mfestans, appears first on the under
sides of the leaves, it is most desirable that the Bordeaux mix-
ture should be applied there, whether it be used as a means of
prevention or as a cure of disease. It must be admitted that
there is considerable diversity of opinion upon this subject.
M. Girard holds that it is immaterial whether the under surfaces
are sprayed or not ; but, on the other hand, M. Petermann, who
has conducted valuable experiments at the Belgian State Agro-
nomic Station at Gembloux, states that it is indispensable to
spray the lower surfaces of the leaves, particularly when the
mixture is applied preventively.
Independently of its manifest superiority in other respects,
No. 4654 thoroughly fulfilled this important requirement, as
every part of the under surface was covered with the mixture by
direct spraying, and the upper surfaces equally well by the mist
which fell upon them. Neither of the other competing machines
was arranged to spray the under surfaces.
The Strawsons’ Machine, as will be seen by fig. 1, is a
light water cart, with an arrangement of pump, tubes, and
nozzles behind for distributing liquid compositions. Its barrel,
holding 60 gallons, is set on a frame carried on high iron wheels,
4^ feet in diameter, with 3 inch tires. These wheels can be
moved upon the axle and adjusted easily to suit the width of
potato rows planted at from 24 to 30 inches apart. A powerful
double-action pump with brass lining is fixed on the frame. Its
lever is moved by gearing from the axles of the machine, and is
attached to the gear of the machine by a bolt and pin, so that
when the bolt is removed the pump can be worked by hand
power for filling the barrel or agitating its contents. The flow-
The Trials of Spraying Machines at Cambridge. 461
pipe of the pump, made of f india-rubber hose, armoured, leads
to the distributing pipes, being connected with them by a union
joint.
From the flow-pipe of the pump a small tube with a tap is
earned into the barrel, and supplies, at pleasure, a strong jet of
liquid, which impinges on the strainer inside the barrel and
agitates the liquid thoroughly, and at the same time keeps the
holes of the strainer free from particles. This is an ingenious
and most valuable feature of the machine.
Pipes for distribution are fixed upon long horizontal arms,
extending about 6 feet beyond the wheels on either side. On
these are fixed 7 steel shields, which hang down between the
rows of potato plants to within 8 or 10 inches of the gi’ound ;
a pair of nozzles on each shield are arranged to distribute the
liquid right and left under the leaves of the plants.
The shields can be adjusted to suit various widths of rows, and
Fig. 1.— Strawsons’ Potato-spraying Mac'uine.
the nozzles can be set at any angle. The nozzles, which are
like those known as Vermorel’s nozzles, are well suited for
distributing the Bordeaux mixture, as their spray forms a thick
mist.
When the potato plants are very thick and high, making it
difficult to spray the under surfaces, the whole of the shield
arrangement can be quickly elevated high enough to spray the
tops of the plants alone.
As there is naturally a thick sediment from the lime used in
the Bordeaux mixture, it is essential that distributing machines
should be furnished with perfect strainers. The Strawsons’
machine has three strainers in succession. One is on the end of
-the suction hose, another is fixed in the hopper on the tap of
462 The Trials of Spraying Machines at Cambridge.
the barrel, and a third is screwed on the end of the tap inside
the barrel, through which the liquid is pumped into the distribu-
ting pipe when the machine is at work.
For travelling and passing through gates the projecting arms
can be readily closed up behind the machines by removing a
bolt.
One horse can work the machine, which will cover, it is said,
from 8 to 15 acres per day. Its cost, which seems rather high,
is 25 1.
After the first turn or two, when slight stoppages occurred,
owing to the pipes, taps and nozzles being new, there was hardly
a hitch in the progress of the machine at work. The leaves were
covered with the Bordeaux mixture in a fine mist. When the
leaves were dry the bright blue deposit could be easily seen. It
is calculated that about 8 acres could be got over per day,
according to the work accomplished during this trial. But it
must be remembered that everything was new, that the horse
was not accustomed to the work, and the supply of liquid was
not regular.
There could be no doubt whatever that this machine was
entitled to the prize, as being by far the best of tbe three that
competed. It is considered that it is admirably adapted for the
application of Bordeaux mixture, and will prove of indescribable
benefit to large potato growers in seasons of blight if a few
necessary alterations and improvements are made, and the price
is reduced.
The machine (No. 4643), priced at 37 1. 10s., exhibited by W.
Weeks & Son, Limited, did not distribute the Bordeaux mixture
at all regularly. In some cases the leaves were thickly covered,
in others there was no mixture on them. This could be seen
clearly when the leaves were dry. This machine holds only 50
gallons and sprays 6 rows. There was no effective strainer in
the machine tried at Cambridge, consequently the jets were
frequently choked. The spraying was confined entirely to the
upper surfaces of the leaves.
The other machine, No. 4686, exhibited by P. Mayfarth &
Co., 16 Mincing Lane, E.C., is styled “ Syphonia, the Patent
Self-acting Spray Distributor,” and is priced at 227. 10s. It is
self-acting, the liquid contained in the long narrow tank being
forced through the pipes and nozzles by a continuous pressure
of air, no pump being required.
The tank, as shown in fig. 2, rests by means of two pivots
in an upright position upon the frame, and holds 22 gallons of
liquid, which will last about 25 minutes. Air is pumped in
first up to a pressure of “ 1 atmosphere,” indicated by the
The Trials of Spraying Machines at Cambridge. 463
“ manometer ” fixed on the tank. Liquid for spraying is then
pumped in until the “manometer” indicates “ 3 degrees of air
pressure ; ” the main pipe is thereupon connected with the spray-
ing pipes, and the machine is ready for work.
The distribution by this machine was irregular. There were
464 The Trials of Spraying Machines at Cambridge.
not adequate straining arrangements, and stoppages frequently
occurred. There was much delay in starting it and great difficulty
in keeping it to work ; but it is fair to say that this was due, at
least in a degree, to the want of knowledge on the part of the
person in charge of it as to its practical working in the field.
The following entries were made in the other class for spray-
ing machines at Cambridge : —
Class IY. — Machine for Distributing Insecticides and Fungicides
upon Fruit Trees and Bushes.
No. in
Catalogue Names and Addresses of Exhibitors.
4644 4V. Weeks & Son, Ltd., Maidstone. Price 42/. (for liquids only).
4615 do. do. Price 18/. 18s. (for powders).
4655 Strawsons, Ltd., 77 Queen Victoria St. “The Antipest.” Price 1/. 15s.
4656 do. do. The“Notus.” Price 1/. 8s.
4657 do. do. The “ Coronetta.” Price 1/. 10s.
4658 do. do. The Fruit Tree Sprayer. 5/.
4669 Stott Fertiliser &c. Co., Deansgate, Manchester. Hop and Plant
washer. Price 20/.
4670 do. do. Distributor. Price 5/. 10s.
4671 do. do. Hop and Plant Washer.
Price 14/. 10s.
4687 Ph. Mayfarth & Co., 16 Mincing Lane, E.C. “ Syphonia.” Price3/.8s.
4980 Boulton & Paul, Norwich. No. 86a. Price 9/. 15s.
4981 do. do. No. 87a. Price 81.
4981 do. do. No. 14. Price 8/. 10s.
There was one prize of 10£. offered in this class, which in-
cluded machines for spraying high fruit trees and small bushes,
machines drawn by horses and by hand, and machines carried
on men’s backs, commonly known as “Knapsack” machines. It
was most difficult to award the prize, as it involved invidious
comparisons of great things with small things, and there ought
really to have been two classes, one for horse and hand power
machines upon wheels, and another for “ Knapsack ” machines
and other machines for small holdings.
It was soon seen that the horse machines must be set on one
side, as they are only suitable for orchards or land planted with
standards without bushes between them. No. 4644 is prac-
tically a hop washer, admirably suited for washing hop plants,
and No. 4645 is a hop sulphurator perfectly adapted for putting
sulphur upon hop plants to prevent or check mould, but not for
use in fruit plantations. The “ Knapsack ” machines, Nos.
4655, 4656, 4657, 4658, and 4687, were then eliminated as
being suitable only for small holdings. Some of these most
useful machines are well suited for putting liquids and powders
upon half-standard, dwarf, pyramidal, and espalier fruit-trees,
The Trials of Spraying Machines at Cambridge. 465
and upon bushes. The “Antipest” is a good instrument,
modelled on the lines of the Continental “ Knapsack ” machines,
advantageously used for putting the Bordeaux mixture on vines
and potatoes in France, Belgium, and Germany ; and the other
three entries of the same exhibitor had many valuable points.
But in a country where labour is dear and holdings are large
they cannot be compared with machines like those of Messrs.
Boulton & Paul and the Stott Fertiliser, &c., Company, which are
calculated to spray large areas of fruit land, planted with stan-
dards, half-standards, pyramids, and dwarfs, and fruit bushes
that may be set between them, speedily and effectually.
With regard to the entries of the two firms just named,
long and repeated trials were made of them, and every possible
consideration was given to the respective merits of each. No.
4669, entered by the Stott Fertiliser, &c., Company, is a very good
machine. Its pump is strong, and with long lengths of hose,
and the patent nozzle fitted to them, liquid can be thrown high
enough to spray tall trees. Its draught is fairly light.
Messrs. Boulton and Paul’s machine is fitted with a very
powerful and yet most easy working pump, able to force liquid
great heights. It holds more liquid than the Stott Company’s
machinery, and it is as readily moved about ; but it must be said
that it is not so well constructed, except as regards its first-rate
pump, nor so smart in appearance. The lengths of hose attached
to it for the trials were not so long, and the nozzles, perhaps, not
quite so good as those of the Stott machine, but the hose can of
course be made of any length and any good nozzle may be
applied. Seeing that there is a very great difference in the
cost, the Stott Company’s machine being priced at 201. and
Messrs. Boulton and Paul’s at less than half the price, and that
the pump of the latter is much superior, it was decided to give
this the prize, though it must be recorded that the Stott
Company’s machine has very great merits.
The official list of awards in the competitions of spraying
machines will be found in the Appendix, p. clxii.
The trees and bushes upon which these experiments were
made are not planted regularly, so that it was rather difficult to
work the machines. The owner, Mr. Bidgewell, however, placed
all his fruit plantation at the disposal of the Steward and the
Judge, and assisted them throughout these trials as well as the
trials of the distributors of the Bordeaux mixture with the
greatest assiduity and intelligence.
Charles Whitehead.
Barming House, Maidstone.
466
MISCELLANEOUS IMPLEMENTS
EXHIBITED AT CAMBRIDGE.
The Royal Agricultural Society’s Country Meeting at Cambridge
was the fifty-fifth of the series. The period between the first
Show at Oxford in 1839 and the Show at Cambridge in 1894
has witnessed a wonderful development in the machinery applied
to agricultural purposes and in the interest taken in the Shows
of the Royal Society by all classes connected, in whatever degree,
with the cultivation of land. The great stride in the exhibits of
machinery may be gauged at a glance by a statement of the
figures: in 1839 the number of implements entered for exhibi-
tion was 54; in 1894 the total was 6,031. But the latter
figures, great as they are, have been exceeded on several previous
occasions; notably at Kilburn in 1879, when, taking advantage
of the nearness to the Metropolis, makers sent the huge total of
11,878 implements for exhibition. The facilities for transit
afforded by the railway systems have tended to this remarkable
increase. But, in addition, and more importantly, to withstand
the competition of the foreigners, farmers have had to revolu-
tionise their methods during the past half-century ; and, to
enable them if only partially to succeed, their need of labour-
saving machinery has brought into operation all the ingenuity
and the capital of makers who, eager to make their appliances
known to the farmers, have availed themselves so freely as has
been shown of the splendid opportunities afforded by the Royal
Shows.
It is interesting to note that at the Cambridge Show of 1840
only 115 implements were exhibited; but the Judges in their
Report referred to the exhibitors thus : “ At considerable cost to
themselves (they) had responded to the Society’s invitation, and
had sent from various parts of the country such a selection of
implements as, beyond controversy, were never before collected
in one showyard.”
This remarkable statement conveys with striking force an
idea of the poverty of the time in agricultural appliances. There
were several duplicates of the different ploughs, chaff cutters,
turnip machines, hoes, harrows, clod crushers, and drills, which
made up the total display of 1840. In 1894 there were also
many kinds of the same contrivance ; but the wonderful variety of
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 467
the machines makes clear the astonishing advance that has been
made.
At this year’s Exhibition thei’e were rustic bridges ; butter-
makers ; carriages ; churns ; corn drills ; cinder sifters ; steam
diggers ; draining appliances ; distributors ; electric lighting
plant ; elevators ; oil, gas, steam, and petroleum engines; ensilage
appliances ; fencing ; lire engines ; forges ; freezing machines ;
harrows ; harvesters ; hoists; haymaking machines; incubators ;
screw jacks ; mangers ; milling machinery ; ploughs ; pumps ;
mowing machines ; root cutters ; sheep dippers ; sowing
machines ; stone pickers ; threshing machines ; weighing
machines ; winnowers ; windmills ; and a lengthy list besides
of articles of direct and indirect service to the agricultural
industry. Some of the new implements indicate processes
unknown to the farmer of 1840 — the binders, incubators,
refrigerators, ensilage apparatus, &c. — and show the advance
in the art of agriculture itself as well as in its mechanical appli-
ances.
The applications for patents alone for agricultural inven-
tions now average annually above four times the total of the
known implements exhibited at Cambridge in 1840. In 1839,
according to Mr. Pusey, the plough, the threshing machine, and
the turnip cutter were the only implements in ordinary use. He
pointed out that “ the use of the drill machine, by which seed
is laid in regular rows, has lately become frequent in southern
as well as in northern England, although it has established itself
so slowly that, for a long time, travelling machines of this kind
have made yearly journeys from Suffolk as far as Oxfordshire for
the use of those distant farmers by whom their services are re-
quired; ” and this only fifty years ago.
The implements shown at the Oxford Meeting in the year
Mr. Pusey wrote were, in great part, “ crude, cumbrous, and
ill-executed machines, the work of village plough wrights and
hedgeside carpenters” (Parkes’ Liverpool Report, 1841). But,
three years after, so much benefit had accrued from the massing
of machines at the Shows, “ and the annual congregating of
agriculturists and mechanicians from all parts of the empire ; ”
so many fresh ideas had been developed, that the Engineer of
the Society was enabled to report that “the manufacture even
of the commoner implements has already, to a great extent,
passed out of the hands of the village ploughwright and
hedgeside carpenter and become transferred to makers possessed
of great intelligence, skill, and capital ; while examples are
not wanting in the higher classes of machinery to show that the
fourth important object for which the Society was incorporated
468 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
is to some extent fulfilled — viz. to encourage men of science in
their attention to the improvement of agricultural machinery.”
If this were true fifty years ago, how considerably the truth is
now emphasised could only have been realised to the full by
those who were fortunate enough to make the survey of the
magnificent machinery exhibited at the Royal Show of 1894.
According to a very competent authority, the total value of
implements now exhibited annually is 20,000k, and the total
annually manufactured beyond 3,000,000k ; “ the larger, but
unascertainable, portion of the machines representing this sum
being exported.”
The competition which British farmers have had to combat
has produced this comparatively new industry of agricultural
mechanics. What the British farmer has lost has been gained
to some extent by the mechanician ; but what he might have
lost has, by the mechanician’s skill and industry, and never-
failing progress towards perfection, been saved to him. It may
be said that British agricultural implement-makers export ma-
chines to most of the corn-growing countries, lightening man’s
labour, increasing the productiveness of the soil, cheapening
the price of daily necessaries, and proving that the fierce com-
petition which led to the production of labour-saving machinery
has been to mankind, if not to the great majority of agricul-
turists themselves, an unmitigated blessing.
There was a great dearth of novelty in the implements
entered at Cambridge for the Society’s Silver Medals, some of
the so-called “ new ” machines being revivals of old principles
in altered forms. There were also some undisguisedly old ;
and there were too many of a trivial character, and these, appa-
rently, entered but for one purpose — to secure the advertisement
afforded by the Society’s Catalogue.
There were a number of potato-gathering implements which
appeared not only novel and ingenious, but also of a practical cha-
racter, though it was impossible to adequately test their practi-
cability as there were no crops sufficiently forward for the
purpose. It would be well if a proper opportunity for trials
could be afforded at some early date.
Awards of Silver Medals.
Altogether 115 implements were entered as “ new,” but 99
only were exhibited ; and of the Silver Medals at the disposal of
the Judges they were able to award only two. They consider that
the Silver Medal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
should not be won except upon display of undoubted novelty,
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridc/e. 409
ingenuity, and perfection of workmanship. At the same time
they trust that the notices which follow will prove that they
have not lacked either appreciation of or sympathy with the
aims of the makers of implements.
The medals were awarded to the following exhibits : —
Catalogue Exhibitor. Nature of Implement.
1641 Ben Reid & Co., Aberdeen . Farmyard manure spreader.
2265 John Fowler & Co., Ltd., Turnwrest plough, for steam
Leeds cultivation.
Article 1641. Messrs. Ben Utvl & Co., Aberdeen. Farm-
yard Manure Spreader. Price 10/. — This is a new machine
(fig. 1) for breaking and spreading farm manure in the “ drill.”
The draught is light
enough for one horse.
It is mounted upon a
pair of skeleton driv-
ing wheels which are
concave instead of fiat
at the tyres, the con-
cavity permitting the
wheels to run upon
the tops of the ridges.
Motion is conveyed to
a crank shaft which
raises and depresses a
trio of swiftly revolv-
ing, breaking, and
spreading forks, whose
action is of a reci-
procating character.
Manure which may
have fallen out of the
furrows is collected
and guided into them
by a pair of plates
fixed in front of the
distributing forks.
These forks are capable FlG' J-Ben Reid 4 Co-’s Farmyard Manure Sprcader-
of adjustment to the depths of the furrows and quantities of the
manure thrown out by the driver while seated. In its trial upon
25 to 30 loads to the acre the work done was satisfactory.
Article 2266. Messrs. John Fowler & Co. Ltd., Leeds.
Turnwrest Plough for Steam Cultivation. Price 180/. — Instead
of the rigid beam to which it has been the custom to attach all
VOL. V. T. S. — 19
I I
470 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
gang ploughs, this eight-furrow turnover steam plough has a
bar carried by wheels on each end, to which are attached by
proper draught-links four pairs of ploughs ; each pair being
entirely separate from the others, and free to rise or fall with
the varying surfaces of the land. Its superiority in exactitude
of work over the rigid beam ploughs scarcely requires statement.
The rigid beams worked irregularly over unequal surfaces be-
cause the ploughs, being fixed in an immovable line, were unable
to make that equal attack upon the varying elevations which is
within the power of the new plough. But this new plough has
other points of superiority over the older ploughs. Each of
its eight ploughs has two mould-boards : one rests in the air
while the other is ploughing ; but, when the end of the field is
reached, the mould-board in the air, by an ingenious automatic
arrangement, falls to the ground to do its share of the work,
while the other takes its resting-place for the return furrow.
The carrying wheels and frame do not affect the depth of the
furrows. This is regulated independently, the weight of the
shears and moulding boards ensuring uniformity. Its trial
took place upon a piece of land where clover had been cut and
stacked, and where the soil was heavy and wet. It proved itself
capable of ploughing this at the rate of 30 to 4*0 acres per day.
The plough is 19 feet long, presents a fine example of ingenuity
and careful workmanship, and is altogether capable of accom-
plishing the end for which it was designed.
Other Exhibits.
There were several machines of a praiseworthy character,
and amongst them the following deserve mention : —
Article 542. Mr. T. A. Wynne Edwards, Denbigh. Hay
and Straw Box Baling Press. Price 30k — This press (figs. 2 and
3) is horizontal. When the ram is back the open space measures
5 feet by 4 feet — a larger opening than in the vertical presses,
easier to fill by throwing from the stack, and giving more room
for a man to turn about and pack the hay. When filled, the lid
is closed and fastened by automatic levers. Four strong racks and
pinions, moved by a ratchet lever 7 feet 6 inches long, which is
worked by two men, and the shaft of which is geared with the
two main shafts of the press, then force in the ram. The lid is
opened, the bale tied, and a false end falls back, permitting its
easy extraction. With this press two men can truss and tie about
34 tons of hay or straw per day.
Article 737. Mr. John D. McJannet, Woodlands, Stirling, N.B.
Weighbridge for Carts and Cattle. Price 18k — This weighing
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 471
machine (fig. 4) is meritorious in design and construction. The
platform is 6 feet by 3 feet 6 inches, and is provided with end sole
plates of roughened iron which increase the length to 9 feet. The
plates are rounded at the edges to form a slope for the feet of the
cattle, and rest upon strong angle irons. A cage holds the cattle.
It is made in halves, the lower ends of each half passing through
the weigh-table. At the top centre of each half there are two sets
of double- and single-pronged joints, through the eyes of which
strong iron pins are thrust to keep the frames in position.
When the upper parts of the halves are thus fastened, the lower
Fig. 2.— Edwards’s Hay and Straw Box Baling Press.
ends are drawn tight and prevent possibility of disturbance or
removal of the complete cage. Two men can easily erect the
cage upon the table, or remove it, within one minute. It will
hold one big bullock, or four stirks, or from seven to ten sheep.
Article 905. Dairy Supply Co., Ltd., Museum Street, W.C.
Laval Cream Separator, “ The Humming Bird.” Price 91. — This
is a small machine (fig. 5) calculated to separate fifteen gallons of
milk per hour. Its merit lies in the application to its purposes of
the familiar principle of the humming-top. The operator sits down,
and by pulling a string conveys a backward and forward motion
i i 2
472 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
alternately, the string being continually wound and re-wound,
with trifling exertion, until the work is done.
Article 968. Messrs. Henry Pooley & Son , Liverpool. Cattle
Weighbridge. Price 80?. — This machine will weigh up to fifteen
head of cattle at one time. The distinguishing feature is an
immense shadowless dial, which is so designed that its indications
may be read from any angle. The indicator is without springs
and is absolutely automatic in action. It is devoid of “ rack-and-
pinion ” movement, and the vibration of the finger is minimised
Fig. 3.— Edwards’s Hay an! Straw Bos Baling Press.
by the employment of an air-valve. The pen and gates are of
substantial construction. The machine may be fitted with the
usual steelyard and loose weights, or with Pooley’s patent steel-
yard, which ooviates the use of weights. It is specially intended
for auction marts and stockyards.
Article 99-5. Captain II. S. Tunnard, Rugby. Automatic Fire
Alarm. Price from 1 21. — This peculiarly sensitive automatic ther-
mostat is the salient feature cf a complete and effective system of
fire alarm. It conveys the alarm on experiencing the slightest
undue excess of normal temperature, and may be fitted in any
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 473
convenient and conspicuous position as an ordinary thermometer.
It records the exact position in the house in which the fire has
broken out, and automatically gives the alarm by means of a gong
placed above the front door on the outside, simultaneously with
another gong placed in any room of the house, and also with a
gong affixed at the nearest fire station. There the street or
house in which the fire has broken out is notified to the fire-
man in charge by means of an indicating board. The exact
position of the fire being thus shown to the fire brigade, valuable
time may be saved by the accurate information and the earlier
despatch of the fire engine, whilst increased possibility is thus
afforded of curbing the dimensions of a fire. Those passing a
house, on hearing the outside gong ringing, although no smoke
Fig. 4. — McJannet's Weighbridge for Carts and Cattle.
or flames may be visible, will be at once apprised of fire and
ready to assist the inmates. The circuits in the house can be
tested at all times. The efficiency of the thermostat is in no
way impaired or affected by changes in barometric pressure, or
by moisture in the atmosphere. It can be arranged to raise the
alarm at any desired temperature, and is correct to one-tenth
degree Fahrenheit. The apparatus cannot come into action
except through an undue rise of temperature ; and the risk of
false alarms, either through accident or tampering, is entirely
obviated. The apparatus can also be applied to the purpose of
detecting the heating of ships’ cargoes, the overheating of hay-
ricks, &c.
Article 1256. Mr. W. J. Burgess , Magdalen, King’s Lynn.
Potato-Picking Machine, “ Pioneer.” Price 20?. — This machine
474 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
can be attached to the potato-digging machines now in use. It
has a revolving screen of large dimensions, which travels upon the
ground by its central rim. With the rotary digging machine the
picker is arranged to receive the potatoes as they leave the digger,
which passes them into the screen. There the dirt and weeds are
screened out, and guides conduct the potatoes into cups or pockets
which empty their contents into a basket as the screen revolves.
The picker can be set nearly to touch the revolving forks of
the digger, or be easily placed at such reasonable distance
from them as may be desired. A box with a movable side is
fitted to carry the basket or sack immediately above ground, if
it be desired to bag or skep the potatoes ; or the box itself may
be made removable if it be re-
quired to carry them into a
heap at the headland before
turning 'round. The heap at
the headland may be made
large enough to be earthed
down for the winter. The
combined machine is balanced
upon the two driving-wheels of
the digger, and will back or
turn within its own length.
There are no belts, gearing,
cranks, or cams; and there is
no side draught or weight up-
on the horse’s neck or back.
The frame of the picker is made
of wood, with wires of gal-
vanised steel firmly bedded in
indiarubber, which are easily
set to any distance apart. The
entire machine is easy of al-
It is fitted with shafts and
horse-tree for a pair of horses abreast, and a third may be
attached in front of shaft if required. In action it is necessary
to remove the haulms from the front if they are long, and the
machine must be worked when the land is dry enough to use
the ordinary land roller. It will clear the field, in combination
with the digger, ready for the next crop, and takes one man and
cwo lads to work three acres per day.
Article 1601. Messrs. IV. Rainforth & Sons, Lincoln.
Hollingsworth’s Patent Cart. Price 221. — This cart embodies
many advantages, but is susceptible of further improvement. It
automatically regulates the load upon the back of the horse to
Fiu. 5. — “Humming Bird ” Cream Separator.
teration and repair anywhere.
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 475
meet all gradients, and in descending hills the action of the horse
applies a powerful brake to both wheels. The cart is self-tipping,
and it is not necessary for the man to leave the head of the horse
to take off the tail-door, replace the same, or perform any other
operation. It has a cranked axle, which reduces the height by one
Fig. 6. — Pooley's Patent Automatic Cattle Weighbridge.
476 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
foot below an ordinary cart, thus lessening the labour in loading.
It is fitted with 2^-inch patent arms, and is calculated to carry
30 cwt. The weight of the whole is 10^ cwt.
Article 1643. Messrs. Ben Reid & Co., Aberdeen. Wire
Strainer. Price 12s. 6d. — This is a small, exceedingly useful,
and original form of wire strainer. It consists of a lever with
double pawls working upon a ratchet bar. It can be quickly
attached to work in the erection of new fencing, or in straining
old wires which may have become loosened from the posts. It
should prove a valuable aid to estate carpenters, and its cheap-
ness places it within reach of the smallest users of wire fencing.
The ingenuity displayed, both in the construction and application
to its specific purpose, deserves high commendation.
Fig. 7.— Jolm Wallace & Sons’ Potato Digger.
Article 1800. Messrs. John Wallace & Sons, Glasgow.
Potato Digger. Price 14k — The principal feature in this digger
(fig. 7) is that the digging forks or graipes are made to revolve
in a horizontal instead of in the vertical position employed in
the construction of all other diggers. By the application of the
horizontal position the following advantages are claimed : that
the digger has rather lighter draught ; that it is much less liable
to clog up in long “ tops ” or “ shaws ” ; that the potatoes are less
scattered about and easier picked up, so that a screen is not abso-
lutely necessary ; and that no earth is thrown up to clog or cover
up the whole machine, so that a man is enabled to work in com-
fort from the driver’s seat. In addition to the above, the digger
has the gearing completely enclosed, and only one lever is used
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 477
for putting it in and out of gear, and in lifting and altering
depth of sock. One of the best of the advantages claimed for
the machine is that there is no necessity for removing the long
haulms from its front before it can be worked.
Article 1811. Mr. Henry Forman , Chellaston, near Derby.
Fork Plough. Price hi. 5s. — This is a four-breasted cultivating
plough (fig. 8), of simple construction, for which it is claimed
that it is capable of covering double the width done by an
ordinary plough, and doing the work of plough and cultivator at the
same time. Also that, if required, it will act as the ordinary plough,
but that when used as a cultivator it will turn the soil over and
pulverise it. It is claimed further that it brings the weeds to
the surface, to leave them exposed to the action of the weather,
or in a condition to be easily removed. It can be adjusted to take
a narrower furrow when finishing, thus leaving the sole of the
Fig. 8.— Forman's Patent Fork Plough.
furrow quite level, and giving a wide walk for the horses. It
is said to require only the same horse-power as an ordinary
plough. Both broad and narrow shears can be used : when
the broad are employed, the ground is cleared and all weeds cut
off: if the narrow chisel-pointed shears are used, the plough
acts as an ordinary garden fork. In the trial, upon fairly deep
soil, the digger acted more like a plough. As a consequence
the draught was very heavy, since the soil could not work
through the forks. Upon light land, which had been planted
with peas and failed, a further trial of the plough disclosed
more satisfactory results ; but the weeds were buried instead of
being brought to the surface of the soil.
Article 1967. Mr. J. E. Coolie, Bringsty, Worcester. String
Tyer. Price 1/. 10s. — Cooke’s Mechanical String Tyer is a simple
apparatus, fixed to the end of a light wooden shaft, for tying string
478 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
from cut lengths upon the wires in hopyards. It obviates the use of
stages and ladders, and saves the expense of hooks, which some-
times turn upon the wires. As each string is secured along the
shaft of the tyer while being placed in position, it cannot be
blown about in windy weather. The knots are immovably fixed
to the wires, and cannot slip or permit the strings to be blown
together. As the operator works from the ground he is better
able to judge where to tie, and is therefore enabled to preserve
a uniform distance between the strings. It is also valuable for
repairs to broken strings, and it renders work easy in corners
and at awkward angles. One man can use it, and with it fix
about four strings in a minute.
Article 2616. Messrs. John Crowley & Co., Sheffield. Chaff
Cutter. Price 28 1. 16s. — Noticeable features are embodied in this
New Combination Safety Lever Chaff Cutter. The lever is of the
duplex type, enabling the machine to be stopped or reversed from
either side ; and it is so arranged that it cannot be moved in a
wrong direction. A wooden roller, behind the pressure plate at
the top, obviates danger to the man in charge by preventing a too
near approach to the feed rollers. By a complete covering system
every part of the machine, except the pulleys, is protected,
whereby risk is minimised. Double-toothed rollers move the
feed to the knives, and release themselves automatically as soon
as the material is brought to the mouth. The mouthpiece is
adjustable, and free from any projection which might impede
the passage to the mouth. As the teeth of the rollers are placed
diagonally, instead of in the usual rows, a firmer grip is main-
tained upon the material. The extent of resistance by the
pressure plate can be adjusted, without ceasing work, by means
of a set screw. The machine is excellent, and ought to find
favour with employers, whose liability for accident is now more
pronounced than ever.
Article 2667. Messrs. T. J. Syer & Co., 45 Wilson Street,
London, E.C. Estate Carpenter’s Plow. Price 11. 5s. — The
plow (fig. 9) is designed to overcome the old difficulty experi-
enced in making a motion of the fence parallel with the body of
the tool. The fence is moved by universal action from one
central screw on turning the thumb wheel, instead of by inde-
pendent wedges. The arms are thus equally advanced or set
back. A locking nut secures the screw at the desired distance.
It is fitted with a convenient handle.
Article 2942. Dr. I. MacWilliam Bourke, 40 Redcliffe
Square, London, S.W. Spring Hub Wheel. Price 31. per pair. —
By the arrangement of a set of springs, fitted either with ball
bearings or slides, and adjusted between the axletree or axlebox,
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 479
the necessity for exterior springs to vehicles thus fitted is
obviated. Vibration, also, is much reduced. The entire
movement is adjusted by one nut, and secured by a lock nut.
The contrivance can be applied to wheels of whatever weight.
Article 3093. Mr. C. R. Whitmee, 279 and 281 York Road,
Battersea, London, S.W. Manure Waggon. Price 501. — While
there is nothing absolutely new about this waggon, it is un-
doubtedly well-made and calculated to be of valuable practical
service. It is intended for the conveyance of offensive manures,
offal, and town refuse. Patent steel covers close hermetically
and prevent the escape of smell. These can be opened and closed
again by the opei’ator standing upon the ground. The body is
swung upon a strong frame by powerful steel hinges, and is so
balanced that one man can tip the contents and easily restore it
Fig. 9. — Syer’s Estate Carpenter’s Plow.
to the working position, to be again fastened by a strong spring
locking bar. There is no complicated gearing.
Article 3345. Mr. W. B. Lake , Braintree, Essex. Root
Grater. Price 3?. 17s. 6d. — The feature of this very useful grater
is that the teeth may be individually renewed when worn out.
These teeth are made from cast steel and will cut easier and last
longer than the old description, while, as arranged, it is impos-
sible for them to be accidentally knocked out by stones or other
obstructions. The arms of the wheel near the centre are worked
away from the plate, thus enabling the teeth to be placed close
to the spindle, which arrangement not only increases the capacity
of the machine, but is also of great service in preventing roots
from choking it.
480 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambndrje.
Articles 3498 & 3499. Messrs. Freeth & Pocock, Wandsworth
Hoad, London, S.W. The Empress Cream Separators for Hand
and Steam Power. Price oOl. and 6ol. — The same principles are
employed in the construction of these two separators ; the differ-
ence lies in the amount of production. The hand-power machine
separates about 70 gallons per hour, the machine for steam 350
gallons in the same time. The revolving drum or bowl which
separates the cream is so constructed that the quantity of milk
passing through is claimed to be enormously increased without
necessitating the use of removable trays. It is provided with
an aluminium cylinder pierced by over a thousand holes, and
resembling a honeycomb of circular form. Each of the holes or
cells is said to act as an independent separator, and thus the
efficiency of the complete separator is stated to be greatly
increased.
Article 3915. Weldless Chain Co., Ltd., St. Helens, Lan-
cashire. Steel Weldless Agricultural Chains. — These weldless
chains possess a greater amount of strength in proportion to
their weight than those in ordinary use. They are an American
product, and tests are reported to have proved them, upon an
average, twice as strong, for each corresponding size, as the
English welded chain, five times as strong as the double jack
chain, and eleven times as strong as the single jack chain. In
every trial they are reported to have given way in the material
itself, and not, as in the case of the jack and welded chains, at
the joints.
Article 5122. Messrs. Blackstone & Co., Ltd., Stamford.
Fly Brush or Dresser. Price 81. — This implement, invented and
patented by Messrs. D. J. Smith and C. Flink, appears to be
decidedly useful and to do its work well. It consists (fig. 10) of
a water-cart (to be drawn by a horse) which contains about
35 gallons. Its axles are made to telescope so that the wheels
may be regulated to different widths apart, enabling the cart to
run between the rows and clear the crop. A brushing apron of
coarse canvas, about 20 feet from end to end, and capable of
adjustment to the height of the crop, is attached to the rear of the
machine. When at work the apron extends beyond the wheels,
but it may be folded to the width of the machine for passing
through gateways. Above, and fixed the entire length of the
apron, is a perforated pipe, from which the insecticide solution
from the circular tank runs down upon the apron, the supply of
liquid being regulated by a cock within the driver’s reach. As
the apron passes over the crop across the drills, it brushes the
under side of the leaf, where the fly is usually found, depositing
the solution at the same time, and effecting the destruction of
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 4S1
insects either upon the swedes or turnips or on the ground. The
solution advocated is so distasteful that flies will not return
to the plants and ground which have
been treated with it. This operation,
it is claimed, not only destroys the
insects, but is calculated to benefit the
crop by loosening the roots and caus-
ing them to strike farther into the soil.
The machine in complete working
order, and with the driver seated,
weighs within 10 cwt., and may there-
fore easily be drawn by a light horse ;
it will cover
from five to
six acres per
hour. It was
tested upon
swedes which
were rather
big for a fair
trial. The
liquid, which
was a solution
of paraffin and
soft soap— a
pint of paraf-
fin to an ounce
of soap — ap-
peared to un-
dergo uniform
distribution,
and no dam-
age was done
to the roots.
The practical
results, how-
ever, must be proved by
the future condition of
the crop.
Article 5304. Mr.
A. R. Tattersall, Willes-
den, London, N.W. Holler
Flour Mill. Price 150/. —
This machine produces
flour, dustless semolina
Fig. 10.— Blackatonc’s Fly Brush or Dresser
482 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
and cran, by a process of gradual reduction. The wheat is
poured into the top of the machine, to be broken upon three
pairs of 12 by 6 inch rolls, which are grooved and chilled to great
hardness. It passes through the first break, and thence to a
patent sieve. The tails then pass to the second break, and
again to a sieve. Both these sieves are kept from clogging by
a brush travelling beneath each. The flour and middlings
detached by the first and second breaks go together to a dust-
ing centrifugal covered with silk. Through this the flour passes,
and the semolina and middlings tail over the end free from
dust and ready for purification. The tails of the second sieve
pass to the third break, from which they go to the cran centri-
fugal. This produces flour, and tails the cran to a sifter, which
divides it into sizes suited to the trade. The flour from the
dusting centrifugal and that from the cran centrifugal run
together into a sack, fit for sale. The machine breaks down an
average mixture of wheat at the rate of one sack of flour per
hour. It is driven by two horse-power only, and a single belt.
It takes up very little room, occupying a space of 7 feet by 4
feet, and stands only 74 feet high over everything. The
hoppers of the centrifugals, which form its base, project below
the floor. It is of substantial construction, free from complica-
tions likely to endanger continuity of work, is perfectly rigid,
and runs with smoothness, while it requires no technical know-
ledge on the part of the attendant.
Article 5316. Mr. Jas. Coidtas , Grantham. Plough, with
Reversible Share, &c. Price 4 1. — This plough (fig. 11) is manu-
factured by Messrs. Thos. Watson & Son, Spilsby. Its novel
features comprise a reversible share, reversible point and re-
versible slipe, which are made in separate parts to economise
cost of fittings. Twice the wear is thus obtained from this
plough compared with that obtained from others. All the
wearing parts are chilled. The breasts are made of special hard
steel, and consequently are less subject to wearing, while the
draught is lighter. More work is obtained and horseflesh saved.
The machine is cheap and small, and fulfils all the advantages
which its makers claim. The price of each share is 7s. 6d.
Article 5333. Messrs. Eansomes, Sims & Jefferies, Ltd.,
Ipswich. Three-furrow Plough. Price 81. — This useful plough
(fig. 12), appropriately named the “ Gang Forward,” has been
designed and constructed from the suggestions of Mr. Richard
Stratton, of The Duffryn, Newport, Mon. Its salient feature is
a seat for the driver contrived so that he may easily take his
place and dismount, while the wheel, which runs directly beneath
the seat, takes the weight of the man, thereby obviating any
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 483
possibility of disturbance to the working of the plough. It is
intended specially for getting over a large breadth of light
ploughing with economy and greater celerity than with the older
forms of ploughs. It breaks up turnip land after sheep, ploughs
up the autumn stubbles, skims clover layers, and does general
light ploughing in a most effective manner. Its three furrows
each turn a depth of from 3 to 5 inches to a width together of
2 feet. The lever for steering is worked easily from the seat, as
is also the lever by which the plough is raised for turning at
the headlands. It is of comparatively light draught, and three
horses will plough three acres per day— a considerably greater
acreage than if the man in charge had to walk the distance. It
Fig. 11.— Jas. Coultas’s Plough, with Reversible Share.
decidedly meets the present necessity for a cheaper method of
cultivation, for, as has been shown, it will do work which is done
by an ordinary single-furrow plough at one-third the cost. Also,
where land requires cleaning, the work of this plough is superior
to that of others, for, as the furrows are narrower, it enables the
land to be, subsequently, more effectively operated upon by the
harrows. It affords full clearance for weeds, long stubble,
grass, or manure. The breasts are of steel, with cast chilled
self-sharpening shares, made with renewable points if desired,
and also in steel.
Article 5334 — price 1 01. 10s. — by the same makers, is the
foregoing plough fitted with a seed-box, of one bushel capacity,
481 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
with an adjustable slide and feeding apparatus. It is driven by
a chain from the furrow wheel in such a manner that a regulated
quantity of wheat, barley, or oats may be deposited in each of
the three furrows. The corn drops at the back of each furrow in
straight lines in any desired quantity and as evenly as if drilled,
the next furrow slice being turned immediately upon it. It is
well adapted for work upon heavy land.
Article 5572. Messrs. Richmond & Chandler, Manchester.
Chaff Cutter, with Riddle. Price 5 01. — This machine is fixed
upon a rigid timber frame ; the sifter works inside it with a
circular motion ; chaff is delivered at one end, cavings at the
other, and sand and dirt beneath. The fly-wheel is provided
with a cover, and the whole machine is everywhere cased in.
There is no possibility of the short chaff going over the end of
Fig. 12. — Ransome’s New Three-Furrow Plough.
the riddle with the cavings as in the older machines ; and the
motion of the sieve is so arranged that it obviates the waste of
time and power necessitated in stopping and reversing the former
reciprocating riddles.
Article 5573. Messrs. Richmond & Chandler. Oat Bruiser,
combined with a Splitter and Rubber. Price 91. 10s. — The
bruising rollers are smooth and of different diameters. The
smaller roller is held to its work by means of a strong spring,
which allows the passage of foreign bodies with the feed without
damage to the mill. The iron nuts so often found in foreign oats,
beans, and barley may now pass into the feed and through the
mill without damage to the kibbling barrel, simply breaking off
one of the triangular nibs. The pressure is adjusted by a hand
wheel. The feed regulator is worked by a lever which is
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 4fc'5
instantaneous in action. By means of an index-plate the feed
when shut off can at once be re-admitted to the rollers in pre-
cisely the same quantity as before the stoppage, thus ensuring
a perfectly regular sample. The barrel of the bean splitter
being fitted with triangular steel cutters, works with little
power, and the cutters can be so altered and refixed that each
of their three angles may be used until it is worn away.
Article 5575. Mr. R. Maynard, Wkittlesford Works, near
Cambridge. Portable Combined Chaff Cutter. Price 59/. — This
chaff cutter is fitted with a new exhaust cavings’ elevator. In
operation, when the cavings try to pass the spout they are sucked
up and deposited in the feed-box, and all the foreign substances
likely to damage the knives are left behind and allowed to fall
upon the ground. By means of this elevator the cavings, as they
are sifted from the chaff, are delivered on to and mix with the
feed as it passes into the feed-box, and so are recut, nothing
being left behind when the chaff cutting is done.
Article 5641. Messrs. Geo. Stephenson & Sons, Newark.
Hay and Straw Baling Press. Price 70 1. — Generally, this
machine is similar in form to a familiar type of baling press.
The material is fed forward from a hopper by a reciprocating
platen through a horizontal rectangular shoot. The friction of the
material in the shoot gives resistance to the compressive working
of the shoot, and the hay emerges at the farther end. A board
placed in through the hopper divides the formed bales from
those adjoining, and each is wired as it moves forward.
The novel features are a toggle motion at the rear of the
platen, and a folder at the top of the bale chamber, which
folds each portion of the material to make a bale quite smooth
and of equal density in all its parts. The toggle arms are
joined to the platen at a point of fixture on the same plane as
the bottom of the shoot. Pivoted to the juncture of the two
toggle arms is a connecting rod driven by spur gearing, ensur-
ing that the advance of the platen occupies three-quarters of the
revolution of the crank, and the backward motion one quarter.
Thus a prolonged pressure is applied to the hay, which prevents
rebounding. A pusher arm from the same crank packs the
hay into the hopper. The size of the bale chamber is 16 inches
by 18 inches, and the capacity of the implement about 15 cwt.
in hay per hour, and these pressed to a density of about 12 lb.
per cubic foot. It is driven by a single horse.
Article 5926. Messrs. Woods & Co., Stowmarket. Stone-
picking Machine. Price 20/. — This is a machine of light draught,
travelling upon two high wheels, and drawn by a single horse. A
number of collecting rakes with rows of bent steel teeth are
VOL. V. T. S. — 19 K K
486 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge.
mounted on three endless chains running round pitched wheels,
driven from the travelling wheel of the machine. In their progress
the collecting rakes are arranged to run parallel to the ground,
and, simultaneously, to rake it. The stones raked into the bend
of the teeth are there held until the rakes in their upward journey
reach an angle at the rear of the machine which permits them
to drop into a cradle, receiver, or bags, as may be determined.
There is a simple arrangement for lifting the bags when filled,
which is worked by levers, and enables a lad to easily remove
and replace them. The machine was first tried upon stones
lying thinly amid a crop of lucerne. It did its work fairly
well, but in some places failed to remove all the stones. It
was afterwards tried on land upon which stones had been
thrown among one year’s seeds. This was a fair and natural
trial, but again the work was not done entirely satisfactorily.
The construction, also, is too weak for heavy work. The Judges,
however, are persuaded that the machine possesses undoubted
merit, and that, with trilling additions to and variations from
the original design, it ought to be rendered in every way as
useful as it promises to be. They have recommended the
machine for further trial and exhibition as a new implement
next year.
Sheep-dipping Apparatus.
Class Y. in the Implement Catalogue was allotted to sheep-
dipping apparatus, for which a prize of 5 1. was offered by the
Society. There were six entries, all of which competed. The
trials took place at the farm of Mr. J. B. Ellis, Redlands,
Lolworth, on Friday, June 22. The Judges — Mr. J. B. Ellis
and Mr. Alfred J. Smith — on their arrival found the machines
all fixed and ready for work. A lot of two hundred and forty
sheep, which had been shorn some seven or eight weeks pre-
viously, were equally divided amongst the competitors. Of
these, ten in each case were first put through the bath and drainer
as an example of the method followed by each apparatus, and
as somewhat of a time test. This was, on the whole, satisfactory
in every case. The method of immersion or dipping was, with one
exception, that which we have seen in practice for many years
past — throwing the animal into the bath, and after more or less
handling and rolling about letting it walk out into the draining
pens. The one exception (the apparatus of Messrs. B. Cannon
& Co., Ltd.) had a contrivance for lowering the sheep into the
bath by means of a cradle, wherein the animal retains its standing
position. This, especially with ewes in lamb, may be an advan-
tage, and, although in this case it did not stand the test, the
Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Cambridge. 487
principle, when further developed and the apparatus fitly con-
structed, may find favour with flockmasters. Then followed the
thirty remaining shorn sheep, instructions being given to each
competitor to dip them in the manner and under the same con-
ditions as would be carried out were he actually working for an
employer. After these had gone through the process, thirty-
three sheep in the wool, half-bred hoggets, were penned for each
competitor. These were dipped, or washed rather, with an addi-
tion of soft soap to the water ; here instructions were given that
each sheep should be thoroughly soaked, as would be necessary
in treatment for scab. Only one apparatus was worked at a
time, and, after taking all practical matters into consideration,
together with the amount of inconvenience experienced by the
sheep themselves, the Judges made the following awards : —
Prize: Messrs. Fletcher, Bros. & Co., Grimsby. Price of apparatus
(No. 1037 in Catalogue-), 30/.
Reserve : Messrs. Hill & Smith, Brierley Hill, Staffs. Price of appa-
ratus (No. 4481 in Catalogue), 71. ; draining pen 21. 10s. extra.
Highly Commended : Messrs. Rainforth & Hayward, Lincoln. Price
of apparatus (Nos. 4435-0 in Catalogue), fixed 25/., portable 281.
The Judges wish to speak in favourable terms of the large fixed
apparatus of the last-named firm. This appears well adapted
and suitably constructed for large flocks both in England and
the Colonies. In these trials nothing but water and soft soap
was used, the trials being intended simply to test the apparatus,
and not to determine the efficacy of different mixtures or dips.
My colleague in the judging of Miscellaneous Implements —
Mr. Caleb Barker, Estate Office, Shadwell, Thetford — unites with
me in expressing our indebtedness to the kindness of Mr. J. H.
Ridgewell, Mr. H. Sanders, and Mr. William Kent, for giving
land for the trials. We both desire, also, to record our thanks
to Sir J. L. E. Spearman, Bart., Steward of Implements, for his
valuable aid in accelerating our work; and likewise to Mr. F. S.
Courtney, Consulting Engineer to the Society, and to his assist-
ants, for their kind technical help. Thomas Stikton.
West Stratton, Micheldever, Hants.
THE TRIALS OF CHURNS AT
CAMBRIDGE.
Amongst several competitions of mechanical appliances
announced to take place in connexion with the Cambridge
Meeting were two of special interest to the dairying industry,
namely, trials of churns. The following are the particulars of
K k 2
483
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
the two classes assigned to these competitions, and of the prizes
offered by the Society : —
Class YI. Churns capable of dealing with 10 quarts and
upwards of cream (not to exceed one man power). First
Prize 10?. Second Prize 61. Third Prize 4 1.
Class YII. Churns capable of dealing with from 5 to 10
quarts of cream (not to exceed one man power). First Prize
hi. Second Prize 3 1. Third Prize 21.
The attention of the Judges was directed by the Society to
the following points : —
] . Simplicity of construction and durability, combined with facility of
cleaning and of inspection.
2. Efficiency.
3. Cost.
4. 1’ower required.
The churns which competed are indicated in the tables on
the opposite page ; and it should be noted that some of the com-
petitors made a more modest estimate of the capabilities of their
churns in entering for these competitions than they had done in
previous catalogue descriptions.
The trials were conducted at the Dairy in the Cambridge
Showyard on Wednesday, June 20, and the three following days.
They were chiefly of inteiest because they gave an opportunity
of comparing the new quick-churning machines with those of
older make. The “ Disc ” Churn, it may be remembered, was
awarded the Society’s Silver Medal last year at Chester as the
pioneer of a new movement in the direction of quick churning.
In addition to the “ Disc ” Churns two other quick-working
machines competed, viz., Bradford’s “ Fishback,” and Vincent’s
Churn. These have without doubt come forward as a result
of the interest aroused by the “ Disc ” Churn.
The ordinary 8-quart “ Disc ” Churn was fully described in
the Journal last year.1 This machine was entered, and competed
in Class VII. The two “ Disc ” Churns which competed in
Class YI. are constructed on similar principles, but with twin
discs revolving on the same spindle, the discs in one case being
concave at the periphery, and in the other divided into points —
hence the name “ star” discs.
Vincent’s Churn was identical in construction in both
classes. This is a box churn in which a dasher is placed on an
oblique spindle. The dasher is made to revolve quickly by cog-
wheel gearing placed at the upper end of the spindle.
Sec Journal, Vol. IV., Third Series, Part 3, p. 555.
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
489
Class VI.
No. in
Cata-
logue
Exliibitor's Name and Address.
Name of Churn.
Maximum amount
of Cream with
which Churn was
declared to be
capable of dealing.
Price.
quarts.
£ s. <1.
815
Edmund Richardson,
Kendal.
No. 3, “ Princess.”
24
4 15 0
902
Dairy Supply Co., Mu-
seum Street, W.C.
“ Victoria ” (25-
qnart churn).
25
4 15 0
3323
Wm. Vincent, Arborfield
' Cross, Reading.
15-quart churn.
15
5 10 0
3393
Thos. Bradford & Co.,
Salford, Manchester.
“ Horseshoe,” Dia-
phragm End-
over-end Barrel
Chum.
30
9 5 0
3395
» »
“ Diaphragm ” End-
over-end Barrel
Churn, No. 12a.
20
4 17 6
3464
Disc Churn Co., 21 St.
Thomas Street, S.E.
20 - quart Star
Discs.
20
6 10 0
3465
» >»
16-quart Concave
Discs.
16
4 12 6
4852
W. H. Samuel & Co.
Leighton Buzzard .
“ Triangular Bar-
rel,” No. 33.
30
4 17 6
4876
G. Llewellin & Son,
Haverfordwest.
“ Royal Triangu-
lar,” No. 3.
25
5 15 0
4877
»» »
“ Eccentric End
Over,” No. 3.
25
5 5 0
4901
Bamber & Co., 14 Friar-
gate, Preston.
40
5 5 0
Class VII.
No. in
Cata-
logue.
Exhibitor’s Name and Address.
Name of Churn.
Declared Maximum
amount of Cream to
be used in trials.
Price.
quarts.
£ s. a.
816
Edmund Richardson,
Kendal.
No. 2a, “ Prin-
cess.”
10
3 10 0
903
Dairy Supply Co., Mu-
seum Street, W.C.
“Victoria” (10-
qnart churn).
10
3 10 0
3324
Wm. Vincent, Arborfield
Cross, Reading.
8- quart churn.
8
3 10 0
3396
Thos. Bradford & Co.,
Salford, Manchester.
“ Diaphragm ” End-
over-end Barrel
Churn, No. 11 A.
10
4 5 0
3397
tf »>
“ Horseshoe,” Dia-
phragm End-
over-end Barrel
Churn.
10
0 6 0
3398
“ Fishback.”
10
4 5 0
3466
Disc Churn Co., 21 St.
Thomas Street, S.E.
8- quart ordinary
disc.
8
3 10 0
4878
G. Llewellin & Son,
Haverfordwest.
“ Royal Triangu-
lar,” No. 1.
10
3 15 0
490
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
Bradford’s “ Fish back ” is a box chum in which a cylinder
of wood studded with pegs is placed in a horizontal position,
and made to revolve quickly by means of chain gearing.
With the exception of Bradford’s “ Horse-shoe ” Churn, the
other churns are so well known that it is needless to describe
them. The novelty in the “ Horse-shoe ” is an arrangement by
means of a fan and temperature cans for regulating the
temperature of and for ventilating the churn. The arrangement
is not a success.
The cream for the trials was provided daily from Manchester.
Care was taken that for each separate test all the cream supplied
to the competitors should be of uniform character. The churns
were worked by the competitors’ own demonstrators, who were
allowed to have as much ice as they desired. The churning
temperatures varied between 54° and 60° Fahr., and in most
cases ranged from 56° to 59°. The quick-working churns, as a
rule, churned at the higher temperatures.
The butter, when removed from the churns, was dried by the
delaiteuse, and weighed immediately afterwards, samples being
kept for comparison with each other as to the very important
points of grain, texture, and flavour. The delaiteuse was used in
preference to the butter-worker, in order that uniformity of
treatment might be secured. Butter with a good grain and
texture, however, was much more thoroughly dried in the
delaiteuse than badly churned butter. Hence the latter had an
advantage in weight.
In Class VI. each competitor in the first test churned the
quantity of cream he considered would be likely to show his
churn to the best advantage. Five selected churns were then
worked by the electric motor with the same quantity of cream
as in the first test, in order to ascertain the amount of power
taken by each. No consideration was given by the Judges,
when making up their awards, to the quantity or quality of the
butter produced in this power test.
In the third test five churns were taken with the maximum
amount of cream previously declared by the competitor, and
finally four churns were tried with ten quarts (the minimum
amount) of cream. The “ Disc ” Churns and Vincent’s Churn
were decidedly beyond “ one-man power ” in this class, and thus
did not comply with the Society’s conditions. The others were
easily within “ one-man power,” and varied very slightly in the
amount of power required. Diagram A, on p. 491, gives curves
showing the power used by those churns in Class VI. which
were tested on the motor, and Table A, on p. 492, records the
measurements taken.
Diagram 13. — Trial of selected Churns in Class YII., with 20 lb. of Cream.
492
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
Tablk A. — Trial of Churns in Class VI.
No. of
article
Name of exhibitor
Time of
run
Weight
of cream
Average
No. of foot
lb. per min.
3395
T. Bradford & Co. (Diaphragm) . .
min.
40
lb.
371
2264-2
4877
G. Llewellin & Son (Eccentric) . .
20
50
2420-5
487G
G. Llewellin & Son (Royal Triangular)
26
50
2511-4
903
Dairy Supply Co. (Victoria) . . .
35
62£
2336 1
3464
Disc Churn Co. (Star Disc) ....
9
60
5468 S
Some of the results of the work of the four churns that were
tested in all the trials are recorded in the upper table on the
opposite page.
The success of the
first Prize Chum
(fig. 1) was chiefly due
to the superiority of
its construction and its
general convenience,
and to the excellence
of the butter produced.
The second and third
Prize Chums (figs. 2
and 3, p. 495) were
well constructed and
did very good work.
Several of the
churns were fitted
with temperature
chambers which are
seldom used and are
probably of no advan-
tage. In the construc-
tion of the older types
of churns the weakest
point is probably the
spring ventilator,
which is difficult to clean, and often leaks.
In C lass VII. the churns were first tested with the declared
maximum amount of cream. Seven selected churns were next
given 8 quarts of cream each, and were worked by the electric
motor to ascertain the amount of power taken. These chums
were then tested with 5 quarts of cream each (the minimum
amount), and finally the “ Disc ” and the “ Fishback ” were
worked a second time by the electric motor with 6 quarts of
cream each .
Fig. 1. Bradford’s Eud-over-End “Diaphragm Churn.”
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
493
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494
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
The lower table on p. 493 gives some of the results of the
work of the seven churns which were tested with the maximum
and the minimum amount of cream. Diagram B on p. 491
gives curves showing the power used by four typical churns of
those which were tested on the motor with 8 quarts of cream,
whilst Table B gives the recorded measurements for all the churns.
Tablk B. — Trial of Churns in Class YII.
No. of
article
Name of exhibitor
Time of
run
Weight
of cream
Average
No. of foot
lb. per min.
min.
lb.
3396
T. Bradford & Co. (Diaphragm) . .
32
20
1892-7
4878
G. Llewellin & Son (Royal Triangular)
60
20
2617-8
903
Dairy Supply Co. (Victoria) ....
64
20
1847 2
816
Edmund Richardson (Princess) . .
72
20
2294-7
3324
William Vincent
18
20
3531-5
3398
T. Bradford & Co. (Fishback) . . .
12
20
3761-5
3466
Disc Churn Co. (Ordinary Discs) . .
8
20
4883-3
Diagram C. — Tiial of Disc and Fishback Churns (Class VII.) with six quarts of Cream.
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
495
Diagram C. gives curves of the “Disc” and “Fishback” Churns
when tested with 6 quarts of cream.
As in the previous —
class, the success of the
Prize Churns in Class
VII. turned on precisely
the same points, namely,
excellence of butter pro-
duced, and superiority of
construction and general
convenience of the churns.
These points more than
outweighed the special ad-
vantages possessed by the
quick-churningmachines.
The third prize machine
in Class VII. is illustrated
in fig. 4.
In the Diagram A, B,
C the time taken — which
was that recorded by the
Judges when the churn-
ing was complete — is in-
dicated in minutes by the
figures along the hori-
zontal base line, and the
amount of power expended
at any particular time by
the irregular upper line of
each diagram. The power
was measured by driving
each churn with an elec-
tric motor, readings being
taken at short intervals
of the amount of current
used ; so that the several
points of the diagram
fairly represent the
amount of work ex-
pended at any given
moment. The figures on
the vertical scale are the
measure of work equiva-
lent to the number of pounds lifted one foot high.
Regarding the diagrams generally, it will be noted that
Fig. 2. — Llewelliu's “Ecceutric End Over” Churn.
Fig. 3. — Llewelliu’s “ Royal Triangular ” Churn.
496
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
the total amount of work expended — as represented by the
areas of the several curves in the diagrams — was greater in the
case of the slow-running churns than in that of the high-speed
churns ; in the latter case, however, it will also be seen that in some
instances there were times when the power taken was excessive.
In the case of the “ Disc ” and the “ Fishback,” 6 quarts of cream
appears to be about the maximum quantity which can easily be
churned at the speed at which the churns were worked during
the trials.
Other weak points besides the excessive power required
became apparent.
The “ Disc,” when churning eight quarts, leaked badly at
the bearing of the spindle. This churn, even when churning a
smaller quantity, keeps the floor of the dairy in a sloppy
condition.
With the “ Fishback” there was a difficulty in washing a large
quantity of butter without over-churning it, on account of the
tendency of the
dasher to roll the
grains of butter
into a lump.
Perhaps the
strongest point
in favour of the
“Disc” Churn is
its comparative
freedom from
the danger of
over-churning.
The “Fish-
back ” is a
strong, well-
constructed
machine, and
can easily be
Fig. 4. — Dairy Supply Co.’s “ Victoria ’’ Churn. , cleaned
The “ Disc ” is inferior in construction. At the centre of
the wooden disc there is a prolonged boss, which extends from
one side of the churn to the other, and through which the
wrought-iron spindle loosely passes. The hole through this
boss is very inaccessible for cleaning, and when the spindle is
withdrawn for the removal of the disc, the butter is liable to
become fouled from this source. A brass tap for drawing off
the buttermilk is an undesirable adjunct to this churn, on account
of the liability of the metal to verdigris.
The Trials of Churns at Cambridge.
49?
The “ Vincent ” made good butter, but the design and con-
struction of this churn were not of such a substantial character
as to ensure the very desirable quality of durability, and only
warranted our regarding it as an experimental machine. An
ingenious attachment of the strainer and the provision for turn-
ing over the box to drain are worthy of notice.
The full list of the awards made in these competitions is
printed in the Appendix, p. clxii.
The Judges — Mr. D. A. Gilchrist and myself— are indebted
to the Engineering Staff of the Society for the diagrams show-
ing the power taken by the churns, and to the Dairy Stewards
and officials for the efficiency of all the arrangements for carry-
ing out the competitions.
Percy E. Crutchley.
Sunninghill Lodge, Ascot.
TYPICAL FARMS IN EAST ANGLIA.
As a North-country farmer I freely acknowledge having learned
much while engaged in the interesting work of inspecting — in
connexion with this year’s Country Meeting of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society at Cambridge — the selected farms in the
counties of Cambridge, Norfolk, and Suffolk. A great deal of
what I may attempt to describe may seem commonplace to
East Anglia farmers — so commonplace as to be deemed by them
unworthy of space or attention. Believing, however, that the
object of this paper is to give farmers at a distance some idea
of the working of the land, and the management of stock in the
above-named counties, it may be that many of these every-day
details will prove as interesting to them as they have been
instructive to me.
Within the space at my command it seems presumptuous on
my part to attempt the description of the twenty-two large
holdings which I saw. Every one of the number could have
afforded the material for a lengthened report that would have
been instructive to farmers in other districts of Great Britain.
I desire at the outset to acknowledge the kindness and
courtesy with which I was invariably received, and the willing-
ness with which answers were at once given to my rather
inquisitive, though perhaps pertinent, questions.
In order that farmers in other districts may understand the
position of their brethren in East Anglia, it may be well to
notice the different local conditions under which the farms are
held.
498
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
Cambridge Customs.
Micliaelmas Entry.
Annual tenancies, as a rule.
Consuming value payable for Hay, Straw, and Roots.
Dung valued over per cubic yard.
Threshing of outgoing tenant’s crop done by incoming tenant under
supervision, and grain carted to market.
Norfolk Customs.
Michaelmas Entry.
Consuming value paid for Hay and Roots, Straw free.
Dung valued over per cubic yard.
Threshing of outgoing tenant’s crop done under supervision, and carted
to market.
Suffolk Customs.
Michaelmas Entry.
Consuming value paid for Hay.
Dung valued per cubic yard, and in some cases outgoing tenant receives
half value of dung spread the preceding year for beans and young layers.
Roots free, but all labour, sometimes four or five ploughings, being
payable.
Straw free.
Besides these local customs, outgoing tenants have claims
for unexhausted manures and feeding-stuffs, either under the
Agricultural Holdings Act, or by the agreement under which
they farm.
It will thus be seen that a considerable amount of capital is
needed to take possession of a farm in either of the three
counties. This is different from the state of affairs in some of
the northern counties of England, where an almost free entry
into a holding induces keen competition for farms, with all the
attendant risks to landlords and tenants.
With regard to the actual working of the land, the four-
course system is very generally pursued, both on the heavy clays
and on the light soils. On several farms where the soil is very
light the present price of grain has driven tenants to make a
departure from the ordinary four-course. Mr. Ellis in Norfolk,
and Mr. Smith and others in Suffolk, have found that on their
poorest sandy soils such grass as the land will carry is better than
any crop they might attempt to grow, and they therefore plough
less than they did. In Mr. Ellis’s case there has been a gradual
change of system on his medium soils. Grasses and clovers
have been sown, fed off with sheep, and manured with a coating
of farm-yard manure.
Treated in this fashion, a good thick sole of grass has been
obtained, which is left down to be ploughed up as circumstances
warrant. The working out of this departure from the ordinary
four-course system enables the tenant to keep a large breeding
stock, and at the same time it lessens the labour bill.
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
499
While there are symptoms of changes being made from the
ordinary four-course on the lighter lands, I was unable to learn
from any of the strong land farmers that they had any idea of
altering their system. It is indeed difficult to see how such
perfect, clean, strong land-farming, as I had the pleasure to
inspect, can be maintained with grain at the present prices.
Freedom of sale of straw and hay may in some instances help
much, but the railway rates and other expenses operate to such
an extent as to make a privilege like this of little value in
ordinary years.
Several of the crops grown were new to me, as a North-
country farmer. On the very light soils lupin and cole-seed,
and on others mustard, trifolium, lucerne, sainfoin, and kohl-
rabi were everywhere grown.
Sainfoin struck me as a most valuable crop, and its culti-
vation might, in my opinion, be extended to districts where at
present it is not grown.
All know the difficulty of growing a full crop of clovers every
fourth, or even fifth, year, and such a crop as sainfoin to alter-
nate with clover would be of immense value.
On all the farms I visited the work was well done, and all
through there was a thoroughness in every department which is
unfortunately absent on too many farms. The ploughing,
whether done by the high- wheeled Norfolk, the ordinary, or the
one-handled Suffolk plough, was always straight and level ; and
no one from the North looking at the beautifully straight-round
furrows in a Suffolk field could fancy they were the work of one-
handled ploughs.
The amount of horse-hoeing and other land cleaning opera-
tions necessitates straight, regular drilling, and on every farm
the drilling and sowing were perfect.
The labour questiou is one which cannot be gone into, but
it may be stated that 10s., 11s., or 12s. a week, which is given
as the wages paid, by no means represents the money earned
by the farm labourers. After careful inquiry into all the com-
plications connected with the labourer’s pay in the counties visited,
itt seemed to me that the average weekly earnings of an average
farm hand must be put at 15s. to 16s. The difficulty of getting
at the exact amount of weekly pay arises through the great
amount of contract work which is done.
Taking 16s. a week as the average wage earned by an able-
bodied man, and deducting from this his house rent, say Is. 3d.,
North-country farmers will see that the wages are lower than
with them. If, however, they care to compare their wages rate,
per acre, with those of the several farms as given in the tables
500
Typical Farms m East AngUa.
below, they will find that the East Anglia farmers expend quite
as much on labour per acre as they do.
Nothing in connexion with the farming of East Anglia im-
pressed me so strongly as the careful, thorough way in which the
sheep are managed. On every farm I visited, whether it was
strong, medium, or light land, the same careful management
was evident.
On almost the whole of the farms large breeding flocks are
kept, and at the time I was in the district they were all on the
clovers or other green foods. In every case the lambs were
running forward, and were being fed, separated from the ewes.
This is effected by a double set of folds with creeps between
them, through which the lambs can pass to the fresh or forward
fold. One fold is moved daily so that the ewes may clean up
what the lambs have left the previous day. In the forward fold
the lambs, beside having the first bite of the food grown in the
fold, generally get artificial food, and in most cases mangel are
also spread about. The mangel seem to be relished by the
lambs, as they are always well broken into before the ewes get
a chance of them. In some cases, while the lambs were running
forward on a fresh fold, the ewes were being partly fed on vetches
or other green food brought from other fields and placed in
feeding racks.
While all the lambs were fed forward, on several of the
farms the single and twin lambs were separated, and both ewes
and lambs fed somewhat differently, so that the whole of the
lambs at weaning time might be a level lot.
As will be seen by the report*, on several of the farms for
certain portions of the day the lambs are separated from the
ewes. “ Use is second nature,” and, improbable as it may
seem to flockowners who have never seen ewes and unweaned
lambs grazing quietly in different fields, still they do so, ami
while the lambs are in every sense of the term “ in clover,” the
ewes earn their living in a harder way.
The following brief descriptions of the holdings I visited
may convey some idea of the different systems of management
pursued. It may help the reader, however, if at this stage I
briefly enumerate tho names and addresses of the occupants of
the several farms.
1. Mr. G. E. Dainiree, near Littleport, Cambridgeshire.
2. Mr. H. J. Martin, Littleport, Cambridgeshire.
3. Mr. C. E. E. Cooke, TIinxton Grange, Whittlesford, Cambridge.
4. Mr. Christopher Parsons, TTor«eheath, Linton, Cambridge.
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
501
5. Mr. R. R. Holben, Barton, near Cambridge.
6. Mr. William Haggle, Little Eversden, near Cambridge.
7. Mr. Chakles Damson, Grange Farm, Bourn.
8. Mr. F. Parsons, Trumpington, near Cambridge.
9. Mr. J. B. Ellis, West Barsham, near Walsingliam, Norfolk.
10. Mr. George Balt, Hardingkam, Hingham, Norfolk.
11. Mr. John Morion, West Rudkam Hall, Swalfham, Norfolk.
12. Mr. W. E. Learner, Dilham, Norfolk.
13. Mr. Garrett Taylor, Trowse, Norwich.
14. Mr. J. J. Paine, Rigby, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk.
15. Messrs. Estatjgh & Wilson, Butley Abbey, Suffolk.
1G. Mr. George Walker, Hackeston, Wickham Market, Suffolk.
17. The Colonial College, Hollesley Bay, Suffolk.
18. Mr. John Stmonds, Thistleton Hall, Burgh, near Woodbridge, Suffol k.
19. Mr. S. R. Sherwood, Hazlewood, Saxmundkam, Suffolk.
20. Mr. Alfred J. Smith, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk.
1. The Farm of Mr. G. E. Daintree, near Lit tie port, Cambridgeshire.
This large farm, held from several landlords, consists almost entirely of
peaty soil on a subsoil described as buttery clay. A portion near the main
homestead is on higher ground and mostly under grass. It is held under
yearly tenancies with freedom of cropping till the last year of tenancy. Sale of
produce is allowed under certain restrictions. These stipulate as to the pur-
chase of artificial manures in proportion to the value of hay or straw sold off.
The land is farmed chiefly on the five-course rotation — one-fifth roots,
one-fifth oats, two-fifths wheat and one-fifth beans, peas, mustard, and seeds.
Sometimes clovers and grasses. Seeds are left down two or three years if
the plants are strong and good.
Only a small portion of the grass land is mown for hay, the balance is
pastured with horses, cattle, and sheep. The following shows the extent of
the farm and the annual outlay : —
Arable
Grass
Rent and
tithes
Rates
stated to
have in-
creased
Drainage
rate
Artificial
manures
Cake
Labour
Labour
per acre
acres
acres
£
f
L7j per
£
1
£
£
£
£ s. <t.
1,000
200
951
cent, of
late yrs.
[i°°
120
050
1,750
1 9 2
There is also used for feeding a large quantity of home grown grain,
generally about twenty acre3 of barley and seventy acres of oats, witli all
the beans, and tail corn.
The stock on June 11, consisted of —
96 horses. 70 pigs.
227 cattle. 100 head of poultry.
370 sheep.
The horses were mostly good useful Shires with a few Hackneys, and a
number are bred annually. Several of the foals were suffering from what
was termed “ joint evil,” which occasions a considerable loss each year.
VOL. V. T. S. — 19 L L
502
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
The cattle were mostly young steers and heifers, feeding, hut thirty-foul*
cows are kept for dairy purposes.
A large number of calves are bought at an average cost of about 40s.
each.
These are fed on new milk for ten days and afterwards gradually turned
on to separated milk and meal. The cream is made into butter twice a
week, to be sold at an average price of Is. per pound. Owingto the difficulty
of keeping the yards clean, through scarcity of straw this year, the cows
were driven into temporarily erected folds in the fields to be milked. These
were moved from time to time so as to insure cleanliness and comfort.
The sheep are Oxford Downs and are quite a superior lot. A number
of the lambs are “ rickety.” As many as forty are more or less affected this
year. The lambs are reared in the ordinary way and sold fat as shearlings
after clipping.
At the time of my visit all the crops were large and so full of blade as
to look too big to stand ; and the heavy rains following soon after must
have caused great loss and waste.
The nature of the soil encourages a great growth of soft straw, and in
ordinary seasons much waste must take place in the large open bullock yards.
In fact, round many of the farm buildings in the Fen Country straw seems
to answer the purpose of road-making during the winter months, to be
gathered up in early summer and carted into heaps in the fields as manure.
Owing to the widespread drought of last year there was a great demand for
straw, and Fen farmers made a good price of all they could spare. This,
however, was quite an exceptional case, and, generally speaking, straw has
to be destroyed and turned into what is called dung in every way possible.
Any arrangement with the railway companies which would lower the rate
for carriage of straw to the great consuming centres would be of immense
benefit to this straw-producing district.
On such an extensive holding as that which Mr. Daintree farms there is
a large annual outlay in dyke-cleaning, as these dykes intersect the whole
of the arable land at frequent intervals. These channels are scorned every
four or five years at a cost of Is. Gd. to 3s. a chain. No statement was made
of the gross annual expense of this work, but it must be a considerable amount,
as the water-courses are all kept in good condition.
A statement was made by Mr. Daintree to the effect that, speaking gene-
rally, rents had been lowered about 50 per cent, in the Fen Country of late
years.
2. The Farm of Me. H. J. Maktijt, Littleport, Cambridgeshire.
This farm, belonging to the Rev. H. J. Martin, about four feet above sea
level, is entirely of fen soil, a black peaty surface resting on clay. The annual
rainfall is given as twenty-four inches.
To anyone from the North, or in fact from almost any part of England,
the situation and surroundings of such a farm are most striking. An entirely
level tract of land intersected with large main water-courses, and again sub-
divided by small water-courses or dykes, as they are locally called, however
good and valuable it may be as agricultural land, seems uninteresting and
depressing to a stranger. 1 The drainage throughout the whole extent of
1 The late Sir Andrew Ramsay, Director-General of the Geological
Survey, penned ( Phys. Geol. Gt. Britain ) the following graphic picture of this
flat, undiversified country : —
“ The great plain of the Wash consists partly of peat on the west and
south, but chiefly of silt. Those broad flats, about seventy miles in length
from north to south, and forty in width, include an area of more than 1700
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
503
fens is effected by conducting the water in the smaller water-courses, or
dykes, to common centres, where it is pumped up into the larger water-
courses or levels as they are called, whose beds are raised up with em-
banked sides to a height sufficient for the discharge of their contents into
the ocean.
A drainage rate is levied throughout the district and the pumping is
done by steam. Formerly windmills were largely used, hut these have
almost entirely given place to steam engines.
Mr. Martin’s farm is 200 acres in extent, 190 being arable and 10 grass.
The annual payments are as follows : —
Rent 1
Drainage rate
Ordinary rates
Artificial
manures
Labour
Labour
per acre
£ s.
185 17
£ .«.
17 10
£ s,
25 17
£ t.
65 0
£
300 0
£ s.
1 10
No statement was made as to cakes or corn bought for feeding, and
the labour bill has in some years been as high as 39s. 9d. per acre, when
what is termed claying was being done. Claying means trenching up clay
from below to spread it on the surface. This is an expensive operation, but
one that tends to the production of great crops of grain and roots generally
throughout the fen soils resting on a clay subsoil.
Mr. Martin can farm as he likes, with power to sell off produce. Ilis
ordinary course of cropping is green crop, wheat, oats, wheat, clover,
wheat. It is sometimes varied to green crop, oats, wheat, clover or beans,
wheat.
There were on the farm —
15 horses. i 14 pigs.
10 cattle. I And 200 head of poultry.
The ploughing is all done with two horses ; the soil being easy to work,
four horses are considered sufficient to work 100 acres. Mr. Martin breeds
a number of heavy horses, and the brood mares are of a very superior class.
square miles. The whole country is traversed by well-dyked rivers, canals,
drains, and trenches. Standing on the margin of the flat, or walking on the
long, straight roads or dykes, cheerfulness is not the prevailing impression
made on the mind. The ground looks as level as the sea in a calm, broken
only by occasional dreary poplars and willows, and farmhouses impressive in
their loneliness. The soil of these fens, ere the crops grow, is often as black
as a raven, the ditches are sluggish and dismal, and the whole effect is sug-
gestive of ague. Windmills of moderate size stand out from the level as con-
spicuous objects ; and here and there the sky-line is pierced by the ruins of
Crowland Abbey, Boston Tower, and the massive piles of the cathedrals of
Ely and Peterborough on the margins of the flat. Yet it is not wit hout charms
of a kind, as when at sunset sluice and windmill and tufted willows, com-
bined with light clouds dashed with purple and gold, compose a landscape
such as elsewhere in Western Europe may only be seen in the flats of Holland.
The same impression, in less degree, is made on the banks of the Humber,
where the broad warped meadows won from the sea by Nature and art lie
many feet below thetide at flood ; for, walking in the fields behind the dykes,
when the tide is up, good-sized vessels may be seen sailing on the rivers above
the level of the spectator’s head. An old and entirely natural loamy silt, some-
what of the same character, follows the course of the Ouse, and, to a great
extent covering the fertile Yale of York, passes out to sea in the plains that
border the Tees,”— Ed.
l L
504
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
Bullocks are generally bought in the autumn to consume the roots and
convert the straw into manure.
All the crops were good, and the land, much given to surface and other
weeds, was clean and well farmed.
Weeds were collected and burned, and the ashes were being mixed with
mineral superphosphates and drilled into the land for the roots.
3. The Farm of Mr. C. E. E. Cooke, Hinxton Grange,
Whittlesford, Cambridge.
This is a large arable farm belonging to Major de Erevelle, the altitude
being 90 feet on the river banks and about 230 on the higher fields. The
subsoil is chalk and gravel, and the soil a fairly friable one, with a con-
siderable mixture of clay, requiring careful and seasonable working.
It is held under a lease begun in 1889, the tenant having power to sell
hay or straw, but he must bring back feeding stuffs of an equal value. He
can farm as he sees fit, but must leave the farm at the expiry of his lease
under a four-course system. Compensation for unexhausted improvements
is arranged for in the agreement.
Being a Norfolk man, Mr. Cooke has all along managed his farm to some
extent different from his neighbours.
Under the four-course system he has a great breadth of roots, and with
the help of cake and corn he feeds a large number of bullocks and converts
his straw into valuable manure to be spread on the layers for the wheat-
crops.
Last year’s drought caused a failui-e of the clovers, and the ordinary rota-
tion is for a time disjointed. This year a considerable breadth of barley is
following barley, while the old layers were left, entailing a shorter acreage
of wheat.
Owing to the situation of the main farm buildings the farm is an
expensive one to work.
Built on the river side, in the heart of the grass land, the buildings are at
the lower extremity of the farm and distant from the arable fields.
To reduce expenses and save labour in haulage of roots and manure,
Mr. Cooke has built a bullock yard near the centre of the farm. This he
has done almost entirely at his own expense.
The whole of the grass land is pastured. It lies along the river side and is
fairly good, but not what could be termed rich feeding grass.
Subjoined are the particulars of the extent, annual outlay, &c. : —
Arable
Grass
Rent
Rates
Artificial
manures
: Cakes, Ac.
Labour
Labour
per acre
acres
900
acres
125
£ a.
935 0
£ .5.
58 10
£ s.
250 0
£ s.
966 0
£ s.
1,537 0
£ 3.
1 10
In the matter of feeding stuffs, about 400 quarters of home-grown oats
and 60 to 70 quarters of light wheat and barley are annually consumed.
The amount given for labour includes wages paid to gardener, grooms,
&c., and the rent given includes the game rent, as the tenant has the shooting.
There were on the farm on the 8th of June —
58 horses.
9 old steers.
4 cows.
3 calves.
520 ewes, rams, and hoggets
677 lambs.
24 pigs.
And 200 head of poultry
(no chickens counted).
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
505
The stock of cattle was under the average number at the season of the
year, and the pigs, owing to a recent visitation of swine fever, were much
below the ordinary number.
With regard to the horses, a large and valuable stock of pure-bred Shires
is kept. Five pedigree mares with their foals were in the grass fields near
the buildings, while six yearling colts and fillies were being grazed in a
poorer pasture.
At work, or on the rougher pastures, were twelve other mares and fillies,
while the stud horse Heydon Duke, 11612, stood at the buildings. This is
a powerful dark brown horse, 17 hands high, got by Sterling, 4066, from
Brown Duchess (Vol XI.).
The sheep are carefully managed. The ewes are pure Suffolks, and the
lambs are crosses with the Southdcwns and Cotswolds. The lambs by the
Southdown rams are sold fat, while the others are weaned and fatted during
the autumn and winter. At the time I saw the fleck the ewes were being
fed on the layers, with lambs running forward.
Generally two-thirds of the root crops are eaten on the land with sheep,
while one-third is carted to the bullock yards.
The land was all through clean and well farmed, and the crops generally
promised to be good.
Part of the oats had suffered through the May frosts, which had also
caught a considerable breadth of the early swedes, and re-sowing bad to be
done.
4. The Farm of Mr. Christopher Parsons, Horse-heath,
Linton, Cambridge.
Farming at an altitude of some 200 feet above sea level on a very mixed
soil, Mr. Parsons, without any pretension at display or effect, manages his
land well and grows good crops. The buildings are poor, the property
being held by the present owner under very peculiar conditions.
Part of the soil is heavy clay and part of a light heathy nature.
There are 425 acres of arable land and 75 acres of grass, which is mostly
grazed with horses, cattle, and sheep.
Sheep are folded on the lighter land grass fields, mangel, &c., being carted
on for them.
The present rent is 12s. an acre, paid by the tenant, while the tithe,
4s. 6«?. an acre, is paid by the landlord. Tire rates are about 55/. a year.
The four-course system is followed : all the bay and straw' is consumed
on the farm and a large quantity of good farmyard manure is made.
The root crops are put in wfith farmyard manure, and artificial manure
at an average cost of 25 s. an acre. There were on the farm-
28 horses. 1 375 lambs.
13 cattle. 16 pigs.
3 cows for use of household. | And a stock of poultry.
317 ewes.
Considerable care has been devoted to breeding strong useful horses, an
entire horse being kept and young horses reared.
The cattle stock are not expected to do much to pay rent, but sheep aro
looked upon as rent-payers, and receive great attention.
The ewes with single lambs are folded by themselves, the lambs running
forward and being liberally fed on beans and cake, to go out as fat lambs.
Those with double lambs, on a different part of the farm, are equally
well, if not better, fed ; their lambs are not expected to go off to the butcher,
hut are weaned and led oft' about Christinas. At the time I saw the farm
506
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
the ewes with double lambs were folded on sainfoin, getting a fresh brake
daily.
The pigs on the farm are sold off as small porkers when they weigh about
5 imperial stones.
On the strong clay portion of the farm the mangel was sown in rows 36
inches apart, and on June 8 furnished a strong, good plant after being singled
out. To me a novel system of cultivation was being pursued in the mangel
field.
An ordinary plough, minus the mould board, was being run on each side
of the rows, quite close to the plants, at a depth of 4 or 5 inches. On strong
clay soil this system of cultivation drains the water from the young plants
and opens up the soil to the action of the air, while at the same time it
assists in the cleaning of the land.
On the stronger clay fields Mr. Parsons uses shoes or sledge-shaped sup-
ports under the beams of the ploughs in place of the ordinary wheels. These
shoes are said to work better than wheels on the sticky clays, as the latter
are apt to wind up and become useless.
Mr. Parsons still threshes a considerable quantity of his corn with flails.
There is a very large barn on the farm which is filled in the autumn, and,
during winter, and at odd times, when work is slack, the grain is threshed
out with flails.
The labour on the farm runs to 30s. per acre.
5. The Farm of Mi;. P. 11. IIolbev, Barton, near Cambridge.
This is a large arable farm, the management of which is somewhat
different from any other inspected. Almost the whole of the straw is sold
oft' and horse manure is bought on. By an arrangement with the London
and North-Western Railway Company, Mr. Tlolben’s straw goes to their
stables, while he buys their horse manure, delivered at Lord’s Bridge Station,
near the extremity of the farm.
Another feature is steam cultivation, two sets of tackle being kept on the
farm.
Farming 850 acres, under five different landlords, and 150 acres belonging
to himself, Mr. Iiolben has experience of several sorts of land. With a pro-
portion of strong clay of good quality there is a considerable breadth of poor
clay land, difficult to work, and not at all kindly.
There are 900 acres of arable and 100 acres of grass land.
No exact statement was given as to rent, although it was spoken of as
being rather under 30s. an acre. The rates were put at 148/., and the labour
bill at 1,400/.
The numbers of stock were —
24 horses.
4 cows.
550 sheep.
935 lambs.
55 pigs.
And 200 head of poultry.
The four-course system is strictly adhered to, except on the higher lying
poor clays, where grasses are now left down for three or four years. A
neighbouring farm, adjoining the poor fields, has gone out of cultivation. It
has been found that these poor fields, if sown away in a clean state, will,
for several years, carry a fair covering of grass. This system, while saving
the labour bill, insures a certain amount of out run for the ewe flock at
seasons of the year advantageous to the stock and to the working of the
better fields. Last year only 14/. 7s. was expended on artificial manures,
but 581 tons 3 cwt. and 3 qrs. of horse manure was bought on, at the cost of
116/. 4s. fit/.
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
507
With regard to the horses, a few superior two- or three-year-old colts
are bought annually, and a like number of high class, heavy, seasoned horses
are sold off. The horses are fed during summer in the horse yard on such
green food as may he in season. The few cows that are kept are for the use
of the house, and occasionally a lot of bullocks are bought if the root and
straw crops are big, and prices tempting. Speaking generally, Mr. Holben’s
experience has been that, as manure makers, cattle are expensive.
The sheep have received a great deal of attention. Formerly a consider-
able number of tups were sold, but of late years fat lambs have been reared
and sold from one of the two flocks of sheep kept on the farm. The lambs
from the second flock are sold as stores in the autumn of each year.
No particulars were given about pigs or poultry.
6. The Farm of Mb. Wm. Haggee, Little Evesden, near Cambridge.
Mr. Hagger farms under three landlords, the Earl of Hardwicke, Mr.
Mortlock, and the rector of the parish.
The total acreage is 362, and about three-quarters of this lies on the flat
and the balance on the higher lands. The farm is widely spread and difficult
to work, as the farm roads, or rather tracks, are bottomless in wet weather.
The altitude may be put at 50 to 60 feet above sea level, and the annual rain-
fall at about 26 inches.
The soil is a rich, sticky clay, and one that needs most careful working.
At the time of my visit the neighbourhood generally was one blaze of yellow,
the wild mustard or ranch (charlock) being in full flower, and a prevailing-
weed in the district. By careful hand weeding and constant attention Mr.
Hagger’s fields were practically clear of this weed, and all through the land
was clean and exceedingly well managed. The following table gives par-
ticulars of acreage, outlay, &c : —
Arable
Grass, all
grazed
Bent
Artificial
manures
bought
Cake and
corn
bought
Own
grain
consumed
Gross
labour
bill
Labour bill
per acre
acres
342
acres
20
£ s.
320 0
£ s.
68 0
£ s.
607 0
£ s.
368 0
£ s.
543 0
£ «.
1 10
The land is worked upon the four-course system, and the tenant believes no
other rotation would be suitable. Sainfoin is largely grown and very much
valued. Its market price as hay is less than that of clover, but Mr. Hagger
values it quite as highly for home consumption.
A considerable breadth of beans is annually grown. These are all con-
sumed at home, as well as about one-third of the barley and one-fifth of
the wheat grown.
When I visited the farm the live-stock consisted of—
23 horses. i 55 pigs.
24 cattle. I 250 head of poultry.
380 sheep.
There were two cart mares and one nag mare, with their foals, and
several cart colts and fillies on the grass.
All the cart horses were being fed in the yards.
Four cows are milked, and after the house is supplied the cream is made
into butter to be sold, and calves are reared on the skim-milk. As in every
other department, careful attention is given to the young cattle, and through
being kept in the yards and well fed many of them go out to the butcher
at about 18 months old.
508
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
A flock of cross-bred ewes is kept, and before my visit 50 fat lambs had
been sold at 39s. each. Fifty more were expected to bring about the same
price. The balance of the lambs after the fat lambs are drawn out are well
fed and generally go out before Christmas, when others are brought in to be
fed on and sold fat as soon as they are clipped.
A number of breeding sows are kept, and Mr. Flagger has a great belief
in pigs being a paying stock. Last year 300Z. was drawn for pigs bred and
reared on the farm. They are sold to local butchers and go off weighing
10 to 12 imperial stones.
Chickens and eggs bring in a considerable sum annually, but no figures
were given as to this.
No one could walk over this farm without being impressed with the
thorough way in which all the work is done. As has been stated, the soil
needs careful working, and in no department is any waste to be seen. A
large extent of the farm has been drained, the owners finding the tiles, the
tenant doing all the rest-
7. The Farm of Mr. Charles Dawson, Grange Farm, Bourn.
This is a strong clay land farm, in a poorly farmed clay land district,
where the effects of unremunerative wheat growing are plainly visible.
Mr. Dawson’s farm shows evidence of careful management and thorough-
ness. The land is clean and the hedges are trim and well kept. No state-
ment was made as to the altitude of the farm. The subsoil is strong clay,
and on no part of the farm did I see any free working land.
There are 510 acres of arable land and 7 0 acres of grass, a considerable por-
tion of which has been laid down of late years. The land is worked on the
four-course rotation. Last year the failure of seeds had the usual effect of
upsetting the regular rotation, and what might be termed cross cropping
has been resorted to. After farming the land as tenant for 22 years Mr.
Dawson bought the farm last year. The following particulars were volun-
teered. Besides the 580 acres of farming land there are 40 acres under
timber, mostly young larch about 25 years old. Twenty jears ago the
estate changed owners, the price including timber being 20,560/. Since
then 5 acres have been planted, houses have been built, and roads made.
The present owner paid 12/. an acre for the land, 620 acres, and 560/. for
the timber ; in all 8,560/. Low as this price seems, Mr. Dawson affirmed
that he did not consider it a good investment, but having a rather exten-
sive business in the district as a steam threshing-machine owner, he stretched
a point to keep possession of his home.
Considering the condition of the land it really seems cheap at 1 21. an
acre, even with grain at the present low prices.
At the time I visited the farm the live stock consisted of—
26 horses.
9 cows.
9 young cattle.
18 calves.
150 ewes.
170 lambs.
100 pigs.
200 hens and chickens.
And 12 ducks.
Of the 26 horses, 16 were working horses, 6 were one- and two-year-olds
all bought in except one, a cart mare and foal and 2 nags. Young cart
horses bought in relieve seasoned saleable horses, so that year by year there
is something coming in from the horse stock.
The dairy work is carefully managed by Mrs. Dawson, whose butter has
a local reputation. No figures were given as to the income from butter
sold, but the statements made gave me the impression that the receipts from
509
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
butter, eggs, and chickens amounted to a considerable sum. The skim-
milk is given to the calves and pigs ; the calves are kept in the yards the
first summer, and some of the most forward go out, as beef, at about 24
months old.
The ewes, Oxford Down crosses, are large-framed, good sheep.
Pigs are looked upon as one of the best paying stocks on the farm.
They are kept in comfortable yards and fed on cheap grain, mangel,
vetches, &c. As a rule they are sold locally at a weight of 10 to 11 im-
perial stones, but sometimes they are made up to 15 or 16 stones and sent
to Birmingham. The manure made in the pig yards is highly valued.
8. The Farm of Me. F. Parsons, Trumpington, near Cambridge.
This farm, owned by Mr. E. B. Foster, is situated in the village of Trump-
ington, close to Cambridge.
It is about 50 feet above sea level, and the annual rainfall averages about
231 inches.
"The subsoil under part of the farm is chalk and chalk marl ; part is a
bed of phosphates, and the remainder gravel, which crops up at intervals all
over the farm.
The soil is a kindly, good one, easy to work, and capable, as was quite
evident, of producing splendid crops.
The extent and annual payments are as follows: —
Arable
Grass
Eent
Rates
Artificial
manures
Cakes, &c.
Labour
Labour
per acre
acres
acres
£ i.
£
S.
£ s.
£
£ s.
£ i.
316
64
560 0
46
9
40 0
580 0
665 0
1 15
Along with the cakes, &c., bought, the whole of the beans grown on the
farm (generally over 120 qrs.), with 200 qrs. of oats, and all the tail corns
are consumed on the farm.
At the time of my visit there were on the farm —
] 4 working horses. I 2 bulls.
35 cows. I And about 100 head of poultry.
No horses are bred on the farm, but strong young horses are bought annu-
ally, and fully seasoned ones are sold to go to town work. The horses are fed
both in summer and winter in yards, but owing to the loss of a large straw
stack last year through fire, they were running in a small paddock and being
fed on green food given them in temporarily arranged mangers or troughs.
Only powerful, good ones are bought, as these have a ready sale when they
get to an age to be drafted out as town horses.
Situated so near Cambridge, where milk can be delivered morning and
night, dairy farming is pursued under favourable circumstances. The cows
are evidently selected with great care, and are a very grand lot. They are
mostly Shorthorns, -with big frames and good bags.
Mr. Parsons considers that his cows, having to be kept on high-rented,
good land, and expensively fed, must be of high average excellence as milkers
before they can do what is expected of them.
All the calves are sold to farmers, and find, as a rule, a ready sale. About
40s. each is the usual price, although last year they made less. The cows
are brought into the yards twice a day to he milked. They are then tied up
and fed, the state of the pastures and the condition of the cow being care-
fully considered in the amount of cake and meal each receives.
510
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
The milk all goes to one firm in Cambridge, and the price is the same all
the year round. This price I am not at liberty to give, but it struck me as
being low.
Mr. Parsons, however, explained that there was a growing competition
in milk selling, and but for the fact that he has had a long connexion with
the firm, and his milk has a good reputation, he could not make the price he
does. As in the case of thousands of dairy farmers all over the country,
abortion causes great loss and disappointment, and although much attention
has been given to the subject, Mr. Parsons speaks of it as mysterious.
There were no sheep on the farm at the time of my visit, but 700 to 900
lambs are annually bought in soon after the hay is stacked. The clover,
sainfoin, and other aftermaths are invariably eaten off with a high-class stock
of lambs, none of the layers being twice mown or seeded. In root culture,
kohl rabi and mangel are grown in alternate stretches across the fields, the
former to be eaten off with sheep, and the latter to be carted home to be
shredded and mixed with cut chaff for the cows. The lambs bought in June
or July are invariably sold off fat by the end of March, at whatever price is
current for mutton in the spring. In a lengthened experience Mr. Parsons
has found that holding later, even although prices improve, upsets his whole
system of management and causes ultimate loss through spring seeding being
delayed.
Little need be said with regard to the farming, as its reputation is wide
and well deserved.
The whole of the land is clean and the crops were all that could be de-
sired. The fences were well kept and clean at the roots.
The four-course system is generally carried out. Tares or vetches are
seldom grown, but this year, owing to the failure of'last year’s clovers, some
extent is under this crop, which is being cut green for the horses. Sainfoin
is largely grown and very highly spoken of. It is grown alternately with
clovers and beans.
9. The Farm of Mr. J. B. Ellis, West Bar sham, near Walsingham, Norfolk.
Of this large farm, 1093 acres are rented from Lady Katherine Balders,
and 220 acres from Lord Hastings.
Along with this, 125 acres of marsh land at some distance from the farm
are held under yearly agreement. In all the figures in the following state-
ments as to rent, labour, and manure expenditure, neither the extent nor the
rent of the outlying land is considered, but it may be stated that an average
rent, one year with another, runs to about 48s. per acre.
In working these outlying acres in conjunction with the home farm, a
valuation is put upon stock sent to and brought from them, so that there is
no mixing up of accounts as to returns from the farm, although the possession
of such marsh grass land may be, and often is, a great convenience in the
live stock management of the farm.
The farm is some 200 feet above sea level, and the average annual rain-
fall may be put at 24 inches.
The" soil varies from a good mixed one, on a chalky clay subsoil, to light,
almost worthless, sand.
The present tenant has held the 1093 acres for 21 years, following his
father, who had held the farm for 56 years. He is just entering upon a 10
years’ lease. Along with the land he has the sporting rights, and the rents
of 11 cottages conveniently situated on the farm.
The 220 acres held from Lord Hastings are rented at 20s. per acre with-
out the game. There is one cottage along with this holding, and the farm
511
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
buildings are extensive and superior. The tenancy is from year to year, and
the conditions are in every way liberal.
Putting the whole under one farm, seeing there are no separate accounts
kept of these two tenancies, the following table may be given : —
Arable
Grass
Rent
including
tithes
Average
rates ior
past 2
years
Gross
labour, ave-
rage of past
2 years
Gross ex-
penditure
for manures,
average of
past 2 years
Gross ex-
penditure
for cake,
corn, Ac.,
average of
past 2 years
Average
of past
2 years of
labour
per acre
aores
1,200
acres
110, all
pastured
£ s. d.
1,151 0 0
£ s. d.
118 11 5
£ s. d.
1,718 8 0
£ i. d.
380 18 10
£ s. d.
1,390 19 8
£ s. d.
1 5 9j
On May 29, when the farm was visited, the live stock were —
221 cattle. 10 pigs.
1080 sheep. I Some 200 head of poultry.
82 horses. 1
The cattle consisted of 41 Jersey cows, some 20 young Jersey stock, and
the remainder of feeding steers.
These feeding steers are mostly Shorthorns, although occasionally a few
Herefords are grazed and are bought in during the autumn, fed in yards
through the winter, and sold off the pastures during the summer. Their
winter food consists of roots, straw, and about 5 lb. of cake per day,
although in the matter of cake there is no fixed rule, the condition of the
stock and the state of the markets regulating this to some extent. On the
grass a liberal supply of cake is given, 4 to G lb. per day, as may seem
necessary.
A few years ago Mr. Ellis turned his attention to dairy farming, and
having secured a market in London for his butter, made entirely from the
milk of Jersey cows, he is satisfied that a portion of his grass land of rather
poorer quality yields a better return under these Jersey cows than when
grazed with steers.
Till October 1893 the number of Jersey cows was kept at 25, but, as
has been said, there are now 41 on the farm. The gross receipts from
October 1892 to October 1893 were 53 81. 3s. 8 d. This was for butter alone,
as no calves were sold and nothing was counted for skim-milk used on the
farm and given to pigs, poultry, &c.
Every care is taken to maintain the high standard of excellence which
secures a ready sale for the butter in London. With the increased stock of
cows on the farm, about three-fourths of the calves have been fed off as veal,
only the best of the heifer calves being kept. Heifers are put to breed at
about nine months old, which brings them into the dairy at a little over 18
months.
There is nothing elaborate about the buildings on the home farm, but
cleanliness and the comfort of the animals are carefully attended to. While
on the subject of buildings it may be noticed that at convenient centres on
this wide farm there are yards erected, and bullocks are fed on the roots and
fodder grown in the fields in close proximity, so that both in food and
manure carting there is a great saving. The average amount received for
bullocks sold during the past five years was 3,932/. 12s.
With regard to the sheep stock there are now about 550 ewes in place
of 80 to 100, which were kept a few years ago. The low price of grain led
512
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
Mr. Ellis to alter bis system of farming to some extent. Up to a few years
ago tbe four-course was closely adhered to, but now upon the lighter soils
grass is left down for two, three, and even more years.
On these new-laid fields a larger ewe flock is kept, and at the time of my
visit the sheep were being folded over a field of good grass on land rented at
about 12s. an acre. In laying down these lighter land fields to grass for
several years every care is taken to have the land thoroughly clean. Having
been well manured for roots, and a certain proportion of the roots eaten on
the land with sheep, the seeds are drilled in with the barley after the land
has been horse-hoed between the barley rows, sown 9 inches apart.
The first year the seeds are mown, then eaten, and in the autumn 10 to
12 loads of rotten dung are spread per acre, and experience has proved that
such a covering of farm-yard manure insures a good thick sward of grass the
following seasons.
The average sales of sheep during the past five years amounted to
4614?. 12$. 9c?. per annum.
There are a few Shire mares kept, and by breeding strong good sorts, a
certain number of seasoned horses are annually sold and younger ones
taken into the working stock.
Taken up to do half a day’s work when they are two and a half years
old, they are, the following summer, allowed a run on the marshes and
again taken up in the autumn to do their full share of the work on the farm.
There was no waste land over this wide farm. At such places as had
been stack foundations, or where mangel heaps had been laid, the land had
been carefully worked and sown with some kind of crop. The crops were
grown close to the fences, which were wrell kept, although on the lighter
lands they were purposely left high.
10. The Farm o/Mk George Balt, Ilardingham, Hingham, Norfolk.
This farm, close by Ilardingham Station, wras one of the Society’s Prize
Farms in 188G. It is from 110 to 120 feet above sea level. The soil is a
loam inclining to clay, on a gravel and clay subsoil.
Tbe owner is the Earl of Kimberley, the tenancy is an annual one, and
the farm has been in the family for nearly 100 years. The ordinary Norfolk
covenants apply, with compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act.
The farm is worked on the ordinary four-course of cropping, and accord-
ing to the agreement all produce, hay and straw, must be consumed on the
farm unless authority be given by the landlord for selling off.
The rotation is given by the tenant as wheat, roots, barley, hay,
as a rule, but sometimes barley is grown after wheat, sometimes barley after
hay, and barley after barley when seeds fail. “ Oats are also sometimes
grown after hay instead of wheat, and at the present time I have twenty-
one acres growing after barley where seeds failed.” The following table
gives particulars of expenditure, &c. : —
Arable | Grass
Rent Rates
Labour,
average of 2
past years
Artificial
manures
Cake, corn,
&c.
Labour
per acre
acres 1 acres
170 30, all
grazed
£ s. d. £ s. d.
2G5 0 0 16 18 6
£ *. d.
321 12 0
£ .«. d. £ .<• d.
82 0 0 387 0 0
£ .i. d.
1 9 6
Whilst the arable land is carefully farmed and clean, with crops of all
sorts looking well, the main business on the holding is the production and
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
513
sale of milk. Thirty-five to forty cows are milked, and being close by the
station the milk is sent by train to Yarmouth and London. At one time
the cows, and in fact the cattle stock, were Norfolk Polls, but owing to the
repeated losses through that great scourge to all dairy farmers — abortion — -
rearing of home-bred stock and adhering to a particular breed have been
abandoned. The cows at present on the farm are of all breeds and are
brought in near, or after calving, to suit the requirements of the dairy.
They are milked at half-past five in the morning and at half-past four in the
afternoon. Two men and two boys do the milking. In winter the cows
are tied up and fed on shredded roots mixed with cut hay and straw, with
decorticated cotton and linseed cakes, and meal. A careful man, as feeder,
attends to the wants of the cows individually, and no hard and fast rule is
laid down as to the amount of artificial food each cow is to receive. In the
summer the cows are grazed on the meadows. These consist of a tract of
land along the sides of a stream, and, although fair grass, are by no means
first-rate pastures. A portion of the land is low-lying and full of water
grasses of little value, and one can quite understand that it suits a dairy
stock better than a fattening one.
A Shorthorn bull runs with the cows, but, as has been said, very few
young cattle are reared. Whether the system now being pursued is more
or less profitable than when, as formerly, the dairy cows were almost all
pure-bred Polls, and the produce were reared so that the herd was self-sus-
taining, and perhaps more, I had no direct evidence. I could gather, how-
ever, from Mr. Baly, that necessity, not inclination, drove him to a mixed —
what might be termed a flying-stock.
A considerable quantity of moss litter is used in the cow houses and
sheds, and the liquid manure is collected in a tank to be carted out and dis-
tributed over the grass land for mowing. This mowing land forms no por-
tion of the old grass land, but is new-laid to be broken up as the tenant
feels inclined.
At present there is a plot of some four acres of lucerne, a very heavy
crop, where, last winter, the liquid manure was distributed. With a dairy
stock attention must necessarily be given to the growth of crops to suit the
requirements of the cattle at the different seasons of the year. Mr. Baly
seemed fully alive to this, and with vetches at different stages of growth,
cabbages of early and late varieties, and different sowings of soft turnips, the
sufficiency of feed for his cows in milk was fully assured.
There were at the time I visited the farm fifty-five cattle in all, six of
these being young calves, while several dry barren cows were being fatted
for the butcher.
There were five pigs and 160 head of poultry. The poultry are kept for
their eggs, which are sent to Yarmouth to the parties who get the milk.
No chickens are reared, but they are bought when able to scratch for them-
selves at a shilling each. The poultry houses are primitive, and the fowls
seem to receive less attention than some might think they deserve.
11. The Farm o/Mr. John Morton, West Rudham Hall,
Sic a ff ham, Norfolk.
Mr. John Morton has been tenant of this farm for nearly 11 years.
It is about 200 feet above sea-level, and the annual rainfall is about 23
inches. The soil is a light, friable one on a chalk, gravel, and clay subsoil.
Taken all through, it must be classed as good land, and, being well managed,
it is productive and clean.
It is held under a yearly tenancy from the owner, the Marquis of
Cholmondeley. The agreement is in accordance with the Agricultural
514
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
Holdings Act, leave being given, but not taken advantage of, to sell one
quarter of the hay, straw, and roots grown in any year.
While a large quantity of manures and feeding-stuffs are annually
bought, no figures were given as to the amount paid, and the following
table will make other payments clear : —
Arable
G rass
Rent and tithes
Rates
Gross labour
bill for past year
Average labour
bill per acre
acres
r
acres
100, 97 of
£ s. (1.
£ s. <1.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
€50 j
which are
pastured
| 500 0 0
75 0 0
937 10 0
15 0
Along with his farm Mr. Morton owns 40 acres of marshes on which he
grazes 40 steers, and after they are brought to the home farm to be fed in
the yards on roots, &c., his ewes are sent down to the relief of the home
land.
He puts the rent of his own land at 80 1. a year. This would seem a
reasonable sum considering the stock it carries. The four-course system of
farming is followed generally, but not absolutely adhered to.
In Mr. Morton’s case, as well as in that of almost all others whose farms
were gone over, last year’s drought, by killing the clovers and grass-seeds,
upset the regularity of the course of cropping.
Many expedients were tried to meet the loss of the clovers ; catch-crops
were grown, harley followed barley, and winter oats were grown to be fed oft
with the ewe flock up to a certain time and then allowed to stand for a crop.
In other fields thousand-headed kale, Italian rye-grass, and trifolium
were tried, and although, taken as a whole, they were poor subtitutes for a
full plant of clover, a considerable quantity of valuable feed was raised.
Mr. Morton made the statement that, after expending 2501. on seeds
last year, he considered the drought left him with less than 20/. worth.
Before, however, last year’s drought affected the regular rotation, part
of the land had been left down in grass. Having dunged a seed-field in
preparation, as is the custom, for wheat, he did not plough it up ; and after
four years in grass it is now a beautiful close sward which will be allowed
to lie so long as the grass looks as well as it now does.
At the time of my visit there were on the farm
37 pedigree Shorthorn cattle.
3 crossbred cattle.
680 sheep.
47 horses.
12 pigs, 40 having just been sold.
60 head of poultry.
The pedigree cattle consisted of 14 cows, 6 in-calf heifers, 7 yearling and
heifer’ calves, 9 yearling andbull calves, and one stock bull. Great attention
has been given to the selection of sires, and the herd all through is a level
good one. Lately a good market has been opened up for the young bulls
in South Africa ; and, to suit the trade, attention has been given to the
colour of the sires used, reds being much preferred by the exporters.
While there is no pretension to anything great, in the matter of dairy
work done on the farm, here, as in everything else under Mr. Morton’s
management, practical care and attention are exercised.
Butter of a superior quality is made, and commands a ready sale in a
local market. Mr. Morton’s daughters get a bonus of Id. a pound for all
butter sold at Is. per lb. The following is a statement of the dairy account
for the past three years : — >
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
515
£ s. d.
for year ended October 11, 1891 , , , 514 1 1
„ „ „ 1892 . . . 520 18 6
„ „ „ 1893 . . . 538 3 8
During the first year 6 calves were sold, realising 20/. 14s. 9 d. ; but no
calves were sold the two following years, nor was there any value put
upon odds and ends of milk given to the pigs. While speaking of the dairy
and the interest taken in it by the ladies of the family, it may be well to
state what was done last year with poultry, although no money statement
was given. There were reared last year 177 chickens, 33 turkeys, and
44 ducklings, and during the season 2,200 eggs were collected.
With regard to the sheep, the ewes are large-framed crosses be-
tween the Suffolk and Cotswold, and the tups used are of the Oxford Down
breed.
Cake and corn are freely used in the feeding flock, and the whole of the
young sheep are expected to be off the farm fat when they are about twelve
months old.
It is quite beyond the province of this short notice of Mr. Morton’s farm
and stock to speak of the West Itudham Hall Shire horses. Mr. Morton is
well known as a judge and famous breeder of heavy horses, and the inspec-
tion of the mares with their foals, and the young stock in the fields, was
most interesting.
12. The Farm of Mr. W. E. Learner, Dilham, Norfolk.
Situated 20 to 47 feet above sea level, with an average district rainfall
of 26£ inches, this is a farm of superior land on a sand, gravel, and partly
clay subsoil. With the exception of one field it is in a compact block inter-
cepted with country and farm roads, and well fenced with well-kept, low
hedges. It is held from two owners, F. H. Windham, Esq., and Mr.
H. M. Taylor, in about equal proportions, while 10 acres are rented from the
Honing Poor Trustees. The following figures show the extent of land, pay-
ments, &c. : —
Arable
Grass
Rent and tithes
Rates
Average
labour bill
Labour
per acre
acres
501
acres
T18, all\
\ grazed J
1,027 7 6
S. (J.
81 0 0
£ *. d.
856 7 0
£ s. d.
1 13 0
Mr. Learner has kept strictly to the four-course rotation of cropping ;
this is wheat, roots, barley, and then seeds — i.e. clovers and rye-grass.
For the past few years a portion of the clover lays, 15 to 20 acres of cow
grass, after being fed off till the first week of June, have been allowed to grow
and ripen to be cut and saved for seed in the autumn. As this has been a
profitable crop, some 14 acres of white clover is to be seeded this year.
Both these fields of cowgrass and white clover looked well, being a full
plant and free from weeds. The land is all clean and beautifully farmed ;
at the time of my visit the clover-seed fields were being carefully gone
over and hand weeded. To save the land from becoming clover-sick
different seeds are sown in alternate rotation, so that there are generally
eight years between the croppings of the same variety of clovers.
One could not fail to admire the general excellence of the corn crops,
while the hay and roots were also most promising.
516
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
At the time of my visit, there were only 27 cattle on the farm, as the
bullocks intended for winter feeding were on the marshes for the summer.
Fro n 250 to 300 bullocks are fed off during the winter, nearly all of
them in boxes, when the whole of the manure, rich through the use of
large quantities of cake, is made under cover.
Several conveniently situated buildings, substantially and carefully
divided into feeding boxes, have been built to save labour in root and
manure carting.
There are no drains from the feeding boxes ; the great quantity of grain
grown on the farm allows the free use of straw as litter, and the dung is
carted from the boxes to heaps in the fields, full of liquid manure. The
dung-heaps are twice turned before being carted on the land, the clover
lays before being ploughed for wheats, getting about 10 loads per acre.
Very little artificial manure is used on the farm ; the roots being grown
with about 10 loads of farmyard dung and 2 cwt. of mineral superphosphate
per acre. No statement was made as to the gross quantity of cake con-
sumed annually, but all the feeding cattle were said to get whatever quan-
tity of cake they could or would fairly eat.
With 300 bullocks on a full ration of cake the manure must be rich, and
the condition of the soil and crops was sufficient evidence of this. In good
times, when wheat made a fair price and beef made 7 d. to 8 d. per lb., such
a system of farming as I have attempted to describe was doubtless a profit-
able one, but one can quite understand Mr. Learner’s anxiety for the ports
again to be open, so that Canadian store cattle may be available as fattening
stock.
Only a small percentage of the British farmers want to see these Western
store stock brought into the country, and if they are kept out I have no doubt
that a man with Mr. Learner’s energy will soon adapt his system to meet
the changed conditions under which he may have to farm.
Of the 17 cattle on the farm 8 or 10 were what are termed road bul-
locks. These had been bought in during May, and under the care of a lad
were grazed on the roads spoken of as running through the farm.
During the heat of the day and at night they were shut up in a covered
yard, and while keeping the roadsides and hedge backs tidy, with the help of
cake and meal when under cover they were likely to grow into money.
There were in the boxes in the homeyard 7 animals in preparation for
the shows, and a very gocd lot they were. One, a pure bred Hereford heifer,
was afterwards a prize winner at the Cambridge Meeting of the Royal
Agricultural Society.
Amongst several good steers a roan polled cross-bred to be shown in the
class of steers under three years of age at Christmas, seems a most promising
one, while a pure bred Shorthorn and a Hereford are also very good.
Thirty-four horses were upon the farm, 24 to work the land, 1 Shire
stallion, 6 foals, and three hackney mares and geldings.
One hundred and sixty lambs had just been bought and were being fed
on a field of rich clover with a full allowance of cake. These wese expected
to be fit to go off in autumn.
A fair stock of poultry is kept in two movable houses ; these are shifted
about the farm to pick up what may be left when the stacks are threshed at
the different buildings.
13. The Farms of M u. G ah rett Taylor, at Whitlingham,
Trowse, and Kirby, Norfolk.
This large and intensely interesting stretch of farming is held by Mr.
Taylor from three landlords— the Corporation of Norwich, Messrs. J. & J. Col-
man, and Mr. J. J. Colman, M.P.
517
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
It is a light porous soil, for the most part resting on gravel, and is from
1 0 to 50 feet above sea level.
The Whitlingham Hall farm is held on lease under peculiar conditions,
while the other two are ordinary yearly tenancies.
In attempting to give some idea of this large holding and its many
features, I can only, in the space at my command, touch a few of what
seemed to me the most striking, knowing well that I must overlook a
number of important ones.
The following table gives the extent of the holding, and the working
aud other expenses for last year : —
Arable
Grass
Rent
Rates
Artificial
manures
Cake,
corn, &c.
Gross
labour
Labour
per acre
acres
691
acres
441
£ s. it.
1,535 8 0
£ s. d.
174 8 8
£ s. (1.
160 0 0
£ s. d.
2,807 11 0
£ s. (1.
2,845 18 0
£ s. <1.
2 9 8
The actual amount paid for cakes and other food brought on to the land was
1,0827. lLs., aud home-grown corn to the value of 1,7257. was consumed,
whilst some 90 tons of wheat straw, 90 tons of hay, 465 tons of mangel, and
45 tons of swedes were sold off the farm.
The portion of the farm known as Whitlingham Hall is, as has been in-
dicated, held under peculiar conditions. Taken from the Corporation of
Norwich, the tenant is bound, under his agreement, to receive the sewage
of the city of Norwich, which is spread over some 340 acres, of which 40
acres belong to the farm held from Messrs. Colman.
About 140 acres of the irrigated land is under grass, which is all pastured
during summer. In the middle of the summer when the grass grows faster
than it can be fed off it is cut and made into silage for winter use. The
sewage grass, although difficult to save as hay, is easily converted into
valuable feed in the form of silage.
The arable portion of the sewage-dressed land is worked on a two-course
system — mangel and oats alternately. This has been found to be the most
suitable course of cropping, and has been adhered to for a considerable time.
Under the Whitlingham lease the tenant, at his own expense, does all
repairs, finding all materials and labour, hut by his agreement he has a
claim, at the expiry of his lease, for all permanent improvements he may
effect, such as erection of buildings, making ducts, sluices, &c.
He may crop as he sees fit, and sell off what he likes.
Excluding the small area of arable land under irrigation, the whole of
the ploughing land on the entire holding is farmed under the usual four-
course Norfolk rotation — wheat, roots, barley, hay.
With regard to the system of manuring, for wheat, some 11 to 12 loads
of farmyard manure are spread on the clover roots (ollands) to he ploughed
in. About the end of March or beginning of April a mixture of 3 cwt. of
broad salt and i cwt. of nitrate of soda is applied per acre.
For mangel some 10 loads of farmyard manure, 3 cwt. of salt, and 1 cwt.
of nitrate of soda are applied per acre before sowing, and a further dressing
of 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre is given after the plants are singled.
When farmyard manure is scarce 4 cwt. of superphosphate is substituted.
For barley, where the roots have been carted off, 2 cwt. of superphosphate
per acre is applied to the land about a month before seeding time, and 1 cwt.
per acre of nitrate of soda just as the young plant is showing above ground.
No artificial manure is applied where sheep have been folded on the roots.
Mixed clover and other seeds are sown with the barley, and after the
VOL. V. T. 8. — 19 M M
518
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
grain crop is reaped, 8 to 10 loads per acre of farmyard manure is spread
during the winter, and greatly aids the clovers and grasses. Any bleached
straw or rough manure which may be on the surface in the spring is raked
up and carted off, so as to prevent damage to the hay.
A large quantity of farmyard manure is made on the holding, and every
care is taken of it. In the fields several large heaps were carefully squared
up, with shallow trenches cut all round them. These led into holes or
temporary pits at the several corners of the heaps, to serve as tanks from
which auy liquid manure exuding from the heaps could be laved back again.
All the grain crops were heavy— too heavy, I fear, for the weather fol-
lowing my visit. The hay was good and well mixed with clovers. The roots
were a full plant, although up to the beginning of June they bad grown
slowly. All the land was clean.
Interesting as were the crops, the live stock on the farm were such as to
leave a deep impression on the mind of anyone privileged to see them. There
were altogether-
124 horses, 1 mule, and 1
donkey.
279 cattle.
1273 sheep.
47 pigs.
And 318 head of poultry.
The horses consisted of —
5 Shire stallions.
42 Shire working mares and
horses.
16 Shire fillies and geldings.
10 foals.
11 Hackney stallions.
17 Hackney mares.
8 Hackney fillies.
5 Hackney foals.
1 Hackney gelding.
5 milk-cart horses.
2 stewards’ horses
1 mule.
1 donkey.
The cattle, all Red Polled pedigree animals, comprised —
103 cows in milk.
13 dry cows.
30 heifers in calf.
37 yearling heifers.
36 heifer calves.
5 bulls.
18 bull calves.
33 yearling steers.
4 steer calves.
There were in the flock —
388 ewes.
465 lambs.
163 ewe hoggets.
257 feeding sheep.
The pigs were made up of —
8 sows.
4 boars.
And of fowls there were —
200 hens.
66 ducks.
25 turkeys.
It is quite impossible for me to attempt to describe the live stock ; space
will not allow anything beyond a passing glance at the three extraordinary
collections — the horses, the cattle, and the sheep.
The Shire mares with their foals were on the grass, and were wide and
short-legged, full of quality and substance.
Every care is taken in the selection of sires used, and both the Shire and
11 store pigs.
24 fat pigs.
22 geese.
5 guinea-fowls.
519
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
Hackney youngsters give sufficient evidence of the ability and judgment
brought to bear on the horse department of this great stock farm.
With regard to the cattle, volumes might be written. A more imposing
picture than the one I witnessed could not well be imagined. In a large,
gently sloping, sewage-irrigated field, of deep blue-green grass, 100 in-milk,
Red Polled, pedigree cows, were grazing — all of one mould, and all of one
colour. Under a bright evening sun the combination of colours was
perfect, while a closer inspection of the individuals composing the herd
afforded absolute proof of their practical utility.
The cows are milked night and morning, the whole of the milk being
sent to Norwich, except the Sunday afternoon supply, which is set in pans
and butter made from the cream.
The cows are turned out during the grass season, and in winter are tied
up in stalls in well-arraDged byres to be fed on roots, cut oat straw and
silage, with a mixture of dried brewers’ grains, decorticated cotton cake, malt,
and a small quantity of condiment meal.
The milk is weighed at every milking, and full records are kept, showing
the milking powers of every cow in the herd. Such records must have been
an immense assistance to Mr. Taylor in the matter of mating and breeding
his herd.
The calves are reared on calf foods, meals, and cakes, with roots and
fodder in winter, and green food and mangel in summer. The steers, and
such heifers as are not to be brought into the dairy, are fed off young, being
well attended to and kept improving when they are strong enough to eat.
Being raised without milk they look thin and weedy for the first few months
of their lives, but they soon begin to look smooth and pretty. A yard is set
apart for the young bulls that are for sale, and buyers are allowed to pick
the lot at a fixed price so long as the supply lasts.
The ewes are all Southdowns, and here again the great number together,
and the almost perfect uniformity of character throughout the flock, strike
one in a very impressive way. The lambs are well fed, every care being
taken to prevent any check in their development and growth. On the richer
grass fields during the day, the ewes are folded on the lighter arable lands
at night.
The breeding stock of pigs run in a very natural way, grazing out in well -
sheltered paddocks during the summer. They are Tamwortbs, and are pre-
ferred on account of their natural hardiness and great feeding propensities.
A well-arranged covered yard is set aside for the feeding pigs ; these are
fed on wheat and barley meal.
The poultry stock have been kept up to about the same number for years.
The hens are a mixed breed, chickens and eggs being both considered in the
management of the poultry yard.
14. The Farm of Mr. J. J. Paine, Risky, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk.
This is a light land farm on chalk and marl, some 220 feet above sea level,
with an average rainfall of about 27 inches.
It is almost entirely arable, there being only 10 acrss of grass on the hold-
ing, the extent of which is 480 acres.
It has been farmed by the present tenant 23 years, and by the family
56 years. The owner is John Lysaght, Esq.
The tenancy is a yearly' one, and there are no restrictions as to cropping,
but the four-course has been adhered to. The tenant has power to sell hay,
straw, and other produce. Until last year little advantage was taken of this,
but last year’s high prices for straw and hay induced the tenant to dispose of
a considerable quantity of old hay and wheat straw.
31 31 2
520
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
The following table gives extent, outlay, &c. : —
Arable
Grass
Bent
Rates
Artificial
manure
Cakes and ! T .
feeding-stuffs Labour
Labour
per acre
acres
470
acres
10
& s. d.
497 10 0
£ s. d.
57 12 0
£ s. d.
(58 0 0
£ s. d.\ £ s. d.
800 0 0 1724 0 0
1
e «. d.
1 10 2
Fifteen per cent, of the rent has been returned for the past year and a
half, and the labour is now quite 100/. a year less than formerly. Over and
above the 800/. paid for cakes, &c., all the light or tail corn grown on the
farm is consumed.
The stock on the farm were
19 horses. j 680 sheep and lambs.
10 cattle. i 64 pigs.
And about 1 00 head of poultry.
Compared with the average stocking the cattle were said to be, for the
season of the year, about 20, and the sheep 80 to 100 short.
At present the farm is under the following crops, in round figures : —
Wheat
Barley
Oats .
42 acres I Beans . .
115 „ Peas . .
24 „ Potatoes .
16 acres
18 „
10 „
Cabbages . 9 acres
Turnips . . 100 „
Layers (clovers,
&c.) . . 131 „
The farm is clean and well farmed, and being of a light nature is well
suited for sheep.
A pure-bred flock of Suffolks was formerly kept, but last year Cotswold
tups were introduced, and the lamb stock promise to grow into large-sized
sheep.
A few of the lambs are sold fat from the ewes, but the large proportion
are fed off on roots and sold in early spring.
Only two or three cows are kept for the use of the house, and bullocks
are bought in to consume roots and make manure in the yards and boxes in
winter. Bullock feeding is not looked upon as a profitable business, and
cattle have come to be considered a necessary evil, as manure-heap makers.
The horses, which are of a strong useful class, lie out in an open yard
summer and winter, without a single bit of roof shelter.
They are fed on green food carted into the yards in summer, and on
steamed wheat straw chaff in winter.
By a simple arrangement steam from a portable engine, which does the
chaffing and oilier work, is conducted in pipes through the chaff heap in
the bam, and a sufficient quantity is forced into the heap to set up fermen-
tation.
Since this system has been adopted Mr. Paine claims that his horses
have been entirely free from colic and other troubles, while they are, at less
expense, kept in good condition and fit for their work.
There is a silo on the farm, and every year silage is made and is said
to be most useful.
15. The Farm of Messrs. Esxatjgh & Wilson, Butley Abbey, Suffolk.
This extensive holding, the property of Lord Rendlesliam, is situated on
the Suffolk coast, 10 to 50 feet above sea level, with an annual rainfall of
some 20 inches. The soil varies very much ; part of the arable land is
rich good loam, part medium light land, and the remainder very light sand.
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
521
There is a proportion of good grass land, perhaps 200 acres, another 100
acres of fair grass, and some 1,800 acres of poor sheep walk. The entire
holding is over 2,800 acres in extent, and the present tenants came into
possession at Michaelmas, 1891, under an eight years’ lease. The conditions
under which they farm are liberal, free sale of produce being allowed for
the first seven years, and freedom of cropping for the first six.
The following table gives the extent, rent, labour, &c. : —
Arable
Grass and sheep
walk
Rent
acres
acres
£ s.
d.
710
2119
650 0
0
Rates
£ s.
98 3
Labour
d.
11
£
1132
s.
0
d.
0
No artificial manures are used, and no statement was made as to
amount expended on cakes, meals, &c. The impression given was that, in
the matter of feeding-stuffs, the farm was self-sustaining.
Although there is a considerable extent of light land, part of it
very poor sand, there are two to three hundred acres of good soil on the
lower part of the farm, where splendid crops of all sorts were being grown.
Part of the good grass land is mown every year, .and a portion of the
marshes is grazed or mown, as circumstances require. Some of the low-
lying land adjoining the marshes is being sown down to grass, the landlord
providing seeds but stipulating that such fields shall not be ploughed out.
The tenants are also sowing down part of the wheat-growing land at
their own expense. Some fields formerly sown down, but full of weeds, are
being ploughed up to be bare fallowed, cleaned, and sown away again.
A large quantity of hay is made, and during my visit a stack of superior
clover hay was being delivered, having been sold at 61. 10s. per ton. There
is a wharf on the farm and a road was being made to it, good material being
plentiful on the higher portion of the farm.
There were on the farm
50 horses. I 1000 sheep and lambs.
60 cattle. | And 250 pigs.
Good heavy horses are bred, and at two years of age they are worked
half time, and go into the regular teams at three. This allows a draft of
seasoned horses to be sold annually.
With the exception of a few cows the whole of the cattle were being
fed in boxes on mangel, hay, and meal. About 100 cattle are annually
brought in and fed in well-arranged comfortable boxes.
The sheep stock receive great attention. The ewes, all pure-bred
Suffolks, are put to high class Suffolk rams. At the time of my visit the
lambs were being fed on mustard, while the ewes were drawn off daily to
range on the poorer lands. A flock of shearling sheep were being fed on
lupins in one of the light sandy fields, as a preparation for turnips to be
sown on the flat.
Pigs are bred and fed on the farm, an outlying set of farm buildings
being entirely taken up with this stock, which the tenants hold is a paying
one, although no figures were given.
Considering the extent of this holding and the fact that there is a large
breadth of really good land, the rent may seem an easy one, but it must be
borne in mind that the game belongs to the landlord, the farm having been
taken with a clear understanding on this point.
522
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
16. The Farm of Me. George Walker, Hackeston, Wickham Market,
Suffolk.
This is a beautifully farmed holding, belonging to Lady Huntingford.
It is 80 to 90 feet above sea level, and the annual average rainfall is given
at 27 inches. The following table gives the extent, &c. : —
Arable
acres
246
Besides the feeding-stuffs bought, grain grown upon the farm to the
value of 106Z. 14.s. was consumed last year. It may also be stated that the
labour bill has been much reduced, and was last year about 47 1. under the
average of former years.
About one-third of the arable land is heavy clay, one-third a good loam,
and the balance a rather light sandy soil. The four-course shift is strictly
adhered to, the rotation being wheat, barley, and roots, a fourth each, with
one-eighth clover and one-eighth peas and beans. A fresh agreement was
entered into last year by which the tenant is allowed freedom of cropping on
certain fields adjoining the woods and plantations in which game is very
plentiful. He is also allowed to sell one-half the hay and straw grown on
the farm, on condition that the proceeds be spent on manures or oilcakes.
There were on the farm
15 horses.
20 catt’e.
584 sheep and lambs.
The horses were suitable for the farm, and the cattle kept were not
looked upon as directly profitable, but were needed to convert the straw
into manure.
The sheep are the important stock on the farm, and receive much atten-
tion and care. From a Suffolk ewe foundation the flock has been crossed, and
they are now large framed, heavy sheep.
The present crop of lambs are by Oxford Down tups, and are a beautiful
level lot. They are run off from their dams every morning, and fed on a
rich pasture with an allowance of bran and cake till noon, when they join
the ewes on a poorer pasture.
Mr. Walker makes a point of feeding the ewes well from the time they
are half gone in lamb, believing he gets stronger lambs, while his ewes are
healthier.
A few fat lambs are annually sold, and the balance of the lot are sold as
stores in June.
The following is a statement of the net receipts for sheep, after deducting
amounts paid for stock bought in:—
1889- 90 . . 402 12 8 1891-92 . . 365 17 3
1890- 91 . . 434 2 2 I 1892-93 . . 324 11 5
The pigs are all bred on the farm, and from a detailed statement of the
sales for the past four years the net average income amounted to 862. per
annum.
All the crops on the farm were good, the wheats and clovers exception-
ally so. Long stretches of wire-netting were in use to protect the crops
from game and rabbits, but after all there was considerable damage.
27 pigs.
And 30 head of poultry.
Grass
Rent
Rates
Artificial
manure
Cakes, meals,
&c.
Labour
Labour
per acre
acres
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£
s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
64
221 0 0
30 6 6
92 17 0
360
9 0
443 10 0
1 7 3
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
523
Many of the young mangel plants were eaten off, leaving the land bare in
parts of the field. Mr. Walker remarked that he had been bom under
game, and grown up with it, otherwise he could never have submitted to
the amount of damage annually done.
For the past four years the receipts for grain were —
£ t. <i.
1890 . . 1,059 5 0 1892
1891 . 863 8 8 1893
£ s. <1.
728 15 10
503 11 6
17. The Colonial College Farms, at Hollesley Bay, Suffolk.
This is a large holding, the extent in round numbers being 1 ,000 acres
arable and 600 acres pasture, with a considerable acreage under timber, and
a further extent returned as heath.
The subsoil is red crag on the London clay, the soil is good, and the
annual rainfall from 19 to 20 inches; the altitude above sea level is 70 feet.
The farm is the property of the College, and is generally cultivated on
the four-course system.
The College charges itself 21 s. an acre rent, including tithes.
About two-thirds of the grass-land is grazed, and a third mown for hay.
Cattle and sheep grazing on the marshes (the farm is close on the coast)
consume large quantities of aitificial food, this, even on the portions mown,
being considered sufficient manurial return for the hay taken off.
At the time of my visit the crops all looked well, the land was clean,
and the management evidently good.
There are seven different sets of buildings or homesteads on various
parts of the farm. These, as far as possible, are assigned to the different
kinds of stock.
The stock consists of
48 working horses. 490 lambs.
20 colts and fillies. 500 grazing sheep.
50 cows. 100 pigs.
300 breeding ewes. ( And about 600 head of poultry.
The cattle stock vary much in numbers according to the season.
There are several superior pure bred Suffolk mares, and the young stock
from these are very good, great attention being given to the sires used.
The dairy is managed so as to meet the requirements of the College as
a dairy school. Butter and quite a number of the different kinds of cheese
are made, so that the students may practically understand the different
systems. Milk is sold so far as needed by neighbours and people employed
on the estate.
The breeding sheep receive particular attention, and are a level good
lot of pure Suffolks. They are managed in the usual way of the district,
every care being taken to keep the lambs well.
About 1,7007 a year is paid for feeding-stuff's, cakes, corn, &c., and some
3007 worth of home-grown grain is annually consumed on the farm. The
labour bill in 1893 was 2,1607, about the usual amount. This sum does
not include a large annual expense incurred for gardens, workshops, &c.,
which is not charged to the farm.
A stretch of nice working land is set apart and cut up into garden plots
for the students. Much interest is evidently taken in these plots, students
vying with each other in the neatness of their work, and the crops their
individual plots produce.
Workshops are provided and every opportunity is afforded the students
to practically learn the different trades.
524
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
18. The Farms of Mr. John Symonds, Thistleton Hall, fyc.,
Burgh, near Woodbndge, Suffolk.
To anyone who has had to farm clay land, a visit to Thistleton Hall
and the neighbouring occupations could not fail to be most interesting.
With the space at my command it is quite impossible to do justice to the
management and work seen during my brief visit. Situated in the
heart of a country which seems but poorly farmed, Mr. Symonds’s land, and
the condition it shows, are most striking. Driving along towards the farm
thistles seem to be the principal crop in the many fields, as they overshadow,
in a very decided way, whatever crops may have been planted. On entering
Thistleton Hall farm the hedges, the crops, and their freedom from weeds
are at once striking and impressive. Large square-shaped, clean fields,
with low, well-kept hedges, at once attest the careful attention to detail
and management which are equally evident on closer inspection. I speak
strongly in this case, being quite aware of the difficulties to be met in
attempting to keep a strong clay land farm up to the mark, in these days
when grain makes such a miserable price.
Thistleton Hall and Heaths farms have been in the occupation of the
family, as tenants, from 1806 till about 1874, when Mr. John Symouds
bought them. Their extent is 350 acres, and adjoining them, and leased
from several proprietors, are Old Tom, Red House, Hatherley, and Church
farms. The total extent under the holding is 650 acres.
The soil is a strong clay loam, with a whitish clay subsoil, of a marly
nature. Tn such a season as last, when the drought caught the land in a
sodden state, full crops of any sort were out of the question, and failures of
such crops as clovers and other small seeds were a certain consequence. In
ordinary seasons this kind of land can bear drought well if a good tilth has
been obtained and seeds are put in with sufficient moisture to start them. The
altitude of the farm is from 150 to 200 feet above sea level, and the average
rainfall is about 2 6£ inches. The whole of the arable land on Thistleton
Hall and Heaths farms has been drained with 2 inch pipes about 3 feet
deep and 8 to 9 yards apart. All these drains are shown upon a map
which is most interesting through its absolute completeness ; not a
single acre but has been drained, and the plan shows catchwells at all the
junctions for the collection of sediment and as facilities for periodical in-
spection. The hired land held under a thirteen years’ lease, expiring in
1901, is some 300 acres in extent, and is held from three different landlords.
Much of this land has been drained by the tenant, hedges have been stubbed
out, and field fences have been straightened. The conditions of the ten-
ancies are to farm as the tenant may see fit, but in “ a husbandlike manner,”
until the last year of the tenancy, when “ the land must be cultivated
according to the four-course shift.” The usual Suffolk customs are meant
to apply at the termination of the tenancy.
In the statement made by Mr. Symonds the tithe rent is given on the
whole 650 acres, and the sum named, 140Z. 4s. 4d., is I expect pretty evenly
spread over the whole extent of farming. This being so, and putting the
rent of land owned at the same as that rented, namely 2 os. per acre, the
following table gives the annual expenses, &c. : — -
Arable
Grass
Rent
Rates
Artificial
manures
Cake,
corn, &c.
Labour
Labour
per acre
acres
570
acres
80
£ s. d.
852 4 4
£ s. d.
74 12 7
£ s. d.
200 0 0
£ t. d.
1,142 6 1
anti £560
worth of home
grown grain
£ 4. d.
1,022 10 0
£ s. d.
1 13 0
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
525
Linseed cake is bought with a guarantee as to purity ; very little cotton
cake is used ; the whole of the beans grown upon the farm — generally about
50 acres — are used for feeding, and latterly a considerable quantity of the
wheat. Maize is given with beans as feed for the horses, and with other
foreign grains it is used as pig food.
In ordinary seasons 400 to 500 shearling sheep and about 60 bullocks
are fed during the summer to go out as fat before harvest, when 500 to 600
lambs are bought, but the failure of the root crops through last year’s
drought entailed empty bullock yards and sheepfolds. Any practical
farmer can fancy how this state of matters must upset the whole economy
of such a holding. At the time of my visit there were
51 horses. I 1 cow.
11 bullocks. | And 206 pigs.
Pigs are looked upon as profitable stock, and are fed in dry. warm,
well-littered yards.
The land is too heavy to carry the feeding sheep in winter, and con-
venient folds are made for them near the straw stacks and where they can
be allowed to run out on some of the grass land. These folds are kept
littered and dry, and in wet seasons sheep are often fed in the hullock
yards.
The four-course system is the one generally adopted, and in fact it has
never been departed from except that during the past six years a portion of
the fallow shift has been put to mangel seed growing, a crop which has
proved a paying one.
19. The Farm of Me. S. 11. Sherwood, Hazleivood, Saxmundham, Suffolk.
This farm, on the River Aide, near the coast, is from 20 to 60 feet above
the sea level. The annual rainfall is put at 24 inches, and the soil is generally
light, on a sandy subsoil. The farm belongs to T. Vernon Wentworth, Esq. ;
the present occupier has held it since 1881 as a yearly tenant, under the usual
Suffolk customs. He has perfect freedom as to cropping and sale of produce.
His payments, &c. are as under : —
Arable
Grass
Rents and
tithes
Rates
Manures
Cake,
corn, &c.
Labour
Labour
per acre
acres
acres
£ s.
£ s.
£ 8.
£700 and
£155 worth
£ s.
£ s.
272
193
347 0
34 0
100 0
of home
grown
grain con-
sumed
597 10
1 10
Of the grass land, over 90 acres are poor, almost barren, sheep walk,
mostly covered with furze, and the remainder, low-lying meadows, cannot be
termed superior quality, although evidently it produces a considerable
quantity of rather rough food for stock.
About a quarter of these meadows is annually mown for hay.
The usual four-course system is generally pursued on the arable land,
the exception being some of the lighter fields, and these, if the layers are a
thick good plant, are allowed to lie down two or three years.
Being light land it is much given to the growth of annual and surface
weeds, while twitch seems a prevailing weed in the neighbourhood. Mr.
Sherwood’s farm is free of twitch and all through it is clean and well farmed.
526
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
The crops generally looked well, but one could easily see that drought in
summer would tell very hardly on such land. The stock consisted of—
12 cart horses.
5 cart mares with foals.
1 Hackney mare and foal.
5 cows and .5 calves.
11 bullocks fattening.
278 ewes.
432 lambs.
60 shearling ewes.
50 fattening sheep.
7 pigs.
140 hens and chickens.
There is an idea of increasing the cows and adopting milk-selling,
but at present only home wants are considered in the matter of milk and
butter.
Eleven bullocks were being fatted in the yards. These had been bought
in forward condition, and as a weighbridge has been erected on the premises
everything bought and sold is carefully weighed. The average cost of the
lot was 29s. 4 d. per cwt. on the farm. The weighing machine is very
cleverly arranged, while cattle and sheep weighing is the most important
work to which it is devoted, and strong substantial pens are so fitted as to
make this work easy ; carts can be backed on and weighed in a simple and
easy manner. Mr. Sherwood, like all others, encountered strong opposition
in his determined resolution to buy and sell by weight, and he is to be con-
gratulated on his practical system of work in this direction.
The sheep are looked upon as the rent payers and great attention is
devoted to them. A pure-bred flock of Sutfolks are kept, and as an evidence
of their quality it may be stated that Mr. Sherwood has gained three silver
cups for his flock ; one for a flock of 400, one for 250 to 400, and one for
100 to 250. The cup for the 250 to 400 flock was won two years in succes-
sion in 1892 and 1893.
No one can see the flock without being impressed by the evenness of
the sheep, while the number of lambs is evidence of the careful management
of the ewes.
20. The Farms of Me. Alfeed J. Smith, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk.
As tenant under Lord Rendlesham and the Marquis of Bristol, Mr. Smith
occupies the wide extent of 1,778 acres.
Of this some 600 acres are returned as heath and waste of little agri-
cultural value. Of these lands nothing more need be said, in this short
report, than that they are useful at certain seasons of the year and aie con-
venient as an outrun for sheep.
Volumes might be written describing the eleven hundred and seventy
odd acres, the balance of Mr. Smith’s holding. On every hand one sees
evidence of much natural ability and practical common sense being brought
to bear on the management of the farm, where the most minute details receive
careful attention.
The subsoil is given as London clay. The soil varies from a rather stiff
loam to gravel and poor sand. The altitude is put at about 77 feet, and the
rainfall at about 25 inches.
Rendlesham farm has been in Mr. Smith’s occupation 28 years, and
Eyke farm 20 years, under yearly tenancies.
656Z. 9s. is paid as rent and tithes for Eyke farm, but as this holding
includes a public-house and 11 cottages, it is difficult to arrive at the actual
agricultural rent. I, however, put the whole in the following table, and
allowance must be made for the above sub-tenancies as well as for 9i acres
of land also sublet, and one must remember that something over 600 acres
of the total extent of land given aie almost worthless: —
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
527
Arable
Gras?
Heatl
and
waste
Rent and
tithes
Hates
Artificial
manures and
feeding-stuffs
Gross labour
Labour
per acre
acres
885£
acres
286
acres
606|
£ s. d.
1,174 7 1
£ s. d
117 14 0
£ s. d.
1,(570 7 10
£ s. d.
1,786 3 5
£ s. d.
1 10 0
about
It must be borne in mind that the cost of labour per acre is calculated
excluding the heath and waste land, and in the matter of grass land 50 acres
of newly laid land is included.
The system of farming on the two holdings is somewhat different, and it
will be necessary to speak of them in this respect separately.
Itendleskam farm is cultivated on the four-course shift, the rotation
being wheat, roots, barley, ^ clover and grasses, and £ beans, peas, or white
clover seed.
Of late years some 200 acres of the poorest land has been allowed to lie
in such grass as it can produce, as it was unable to contribute its share
towards the labour and other expenses.
In describing the working of this farm Mr. Smith said : “ My practice is
to make my fallows as soon as the wheat (or oat crop now largely grown in
the place of wheat) is off. I breed many foals, and by taking the oldest of
these off the mares in August, I have their dams and the two and three
years old colts, coming off the grass land, to put to work on the stubbles at
a time when, in most years, fallows can be made. Of course couch or spear
grass is forked out of even the cleanest of the stubbles, and all are either
drilled with trifolium or rye and tares, &c.
“ As soon as these are fed oft the following spring, the land is directly
cropped with mangel, swedes, turnips, or maize.”
Such is the ordinary system, and he further remarks, “ The very poor
lands are now growing lupins, and will make a considerable amount of
sheep feed in the autumn ; on the whole worth as much as a white turnip
crop.”
On the Eyke farm the rotation is “ J wheat or oats, A roots, | barley, ^
peas, clover and grasses, & of which lays two years. The idea of this
course of cropping is that nearly of labour, horse and manual, is saved. My
wheat or oat crop never follows peas, and I have a much larger area of clover
and grasses for my flock. Moreover the peas are never planted on the same
ground at a less interval than 10 years, as the portion selected for peas is that
on which the two years’ grasses were grown.”
If grasses fail the second year, cole-seed or mustard takes their place.
A considerable extent of this farm is also sown away to lie five or more
years.
About one-fifth of the grass land is intended to be mown annually but,
where so large a flock of sheep is kept, dry seasons make a deep inroad upon
the meadows, and very little old land hay is made. When mown, the grass-
land is manured ; about 15 cart-loads of farmyard manure are applied, and
during frosts, in winter, the low meadows get a covering of from 40 to 50
loads of what is termed crag, a soil that contains much shell and conse-
quently phosphates.
At the time I visited the farm there were
91 horses. I 855 lambs.
123 cattle. 100 shearling ewes
580 ewes. I 19 pigs.
And about 200 head of poultry.
528
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
The horses are all Suffolk?, and the Rendlesham stud holds a very high
position. There are 12 stallions : five of these are travelling, three are two-
year olds, and four are yearlings.
There are 30 mares and 13 foals, one mare having died.
Mr. Smith’s stallion Wedgewood, 1749, was winner of the gold medal
at the Windsor Show in 1889, and has been the sire of a very large number
of prize-winning stock.
The cattle are pedigree Red Polled stock, and consist of —
With regard to the cows the object in view is milk production, the milk
from one dairy being sent direct to London during the winter, and to the
coast watering resorts during the summer. That of the other is retailed in
Woodbridge.
A milk record is carefully kept, and the first six cows, in 1891, gave
39,688f pints, in 1892, 38,369f pints, and in 1893, 35,487j pints, or an
average of 6,308 pints per cow per year. As to the system of rearing the
calves, Mr. Smith says : “ The calves are allowed to suck their dams till
they begin to eat, the herdsman, after a few days, robbing the cows before
they are allowed to suckle, night and morning, leaving only a scanty meal
for the calves, which have always an allowance of fresh dainty food. The
more of this they eat the less mother’s milk the stoekeman leaves to them,
until they are entirely weaned. This may be a primitive method, but, on
the whole, I find it answers.”
Sheep, as will he easily understood, form an important part of the live
stock. A registered Hock of Suffolks is kept, and a beautifully level lot
they are.
The usual course of management pursued is to send the 600 ewe flock,
soon after Michaelmas, for a month’s run on the heavy land stubbles in
parishes some distance from home. They are then brought home, divided
into lots, and sent to the marshes near the sea. After three or four weeks
they are again put together, on the heath land, with a small fold of white
turnips per day till Christmas. If roots are short they get a little cake, corn,
or malt culms. The allowance of artificial food is gradually increased till
lambing time.
Fresh lambing yards are erected annually in selected fields, the shelter
fences being constructed of furze tied up in faggots and set on end, and
having a foothold in the soil.
Thirty or 40 acres of rye is always provided for the earlier feed for the
ewes and lambs. This, with the meadows, young layers, and 15 to 20 acres
of rye and tares reserved for night folds with the lambs running forward, is
expected to carry the flock forward to May 1. It maybe stated that during
the entire spring all the twin lambs get cake. Trifolium, drilled on the
wheat and oat stubble as soon as the crops are off in the autumn, is ex-
pected to supply the flock with a fresh fold each day till June 1, when spring
tares and oats mixed are ready, and able with the help of artificial food or
com to carry the flock till weaning time.
Care is taken to have a supply of mangel all through the early summer.
These are spread in the forward fold so that the lambs get the first bite, but
about one half of the roots are left by the lambs and cleaned up by the ewes.
I have gone into detail to some extent as to the management of Mr.
Smith’s flock of sheep, in the hope that I may have been able to give sheep
49 cows.
8 bulls.
36 heifers.
15 young heifers.
And 15 calves.
Typical Farms in Fast Anglia.
529
owners in other parts of the country some idea of the system more or less
pursued in Suffolk and, in fact, in East Anglia.
Although only 19 pigs were on the farm in June, a number are bought
in about September each year, and fed off by April.
A mixed breed of poultry is kept, about 100 head at each farm. A larger
number Mr. Smith considers would not be profitable.
One industry must not be overlooked. Bees are kept, and the hives are
taken to the white clover fields where, in a good season, honey is quickly
made, and the seed returns of the clover are much increased. This is only
one of the many instances of careful forethought and management every-
where so evident at Rendlesham. The relationship existing between the
master and the men on the farm was a most pleasing feature, and one that
must largely contribute to the general thoroughness of work everywhere seen.
I was furnished by Mr. Smith with some interesting returns of the gross
value of corn grown on his farms in the four years 1880-83 and the four
years 1890-93. These I give: —
£ s. <i.
1880 'i
1881 [ Total value of grain and seed on both
1882 f farms : Average per year . . . 3,875 5 11
1883)
1890 1
1891 1 Total value of grain and seed on bot h
1892 f farms : Average per year . . . 2,559 8 01
1893 J
Conclusion.
In conclusion I may state that I put the following question
in writing to the twenty gentlemen whose holdings I visited : —
“ What expedients, if any, are being adopted to meet the present agri-
cultural depression in your neighbourhood ? ”
Ten gave no replies to the question ; the others answered as
follows : —
From Cambridge :
1. “ Rents have been reduced 50 per cent. Sow thepoorlands down with
grass, sainfoin, or lucerne, which would lessen the cost of horse and manual
labour; also, if meat is making a good price, feed cattle, sheep, and lambs,
with one-third wheat (coarsely ground) with other mixture.”
From Norfolk :
2. “ The light lands are going down to sheep walks. Barley and oats are
grown in place of wheat, expenses are cut down, implements and machinery
are not purchased so freely as they were some years ago.”
3. “ The most is made of all produce from the farm and no waste is
allowed ; less corn is grown and more stock are grazed.”
4. “General reduction in rent. Keeping labour hill as low as possible.
In some instances, cross cropping ; selling hay and straw, horse breeding,
more especially Hackneys.”
From Suffolk:
5. “Every endeavour to produce more, especially mutton and beef.”
6. “ Large percentages returned on rent days.”
7. “Rigid economy at all points.”
8. “Reduction of rents; selling hay, straw, and roots.”
530
Typical Farms in East Anglia.
9. “ Landowners have reduced rents, the acreage of wheat sown is much
less, barley and oats being substituted with doubtful advantage. Farmers
appear to trust more to general all-round carefulness than to any heroic
remedies for the present lamentable state of agriculture.”
10. “ We have gone to our landlords for reduction of rent. We have cur-
tailed household expenses in many ways, and have undertaken anything out-
side the farm that promised to bring in revenue. We all work, — my son, the
only one of eight now at home, does the work of those on the farm of his
age ; next year he must move up. We have kept our labour bill as low as
possible, and many operations tending more to neatness than profit are now
discontinued. W e have substituted oats in the room of wheat to a large
extent, and have abandoned the cultivation of a great deal of the poorest
land. Year by year we are compelled to admit that the high scientific, costly
farming of 25 years since will not answer on our uncertain description of
land under existing circumstances and prices.”
These are the answers given to a question which seems an
all-important one, so far as agriculture is concerned.
Although in the districts I visited derelict farms are almost
unknown, yet in a neighbouring county they are quite common,
and whole districts are going out of cultivation.
What the end is to be cannot at present be seen. It is
quite evident, however, that, apart altogether from such ex-
ceptionally well-managed farms as those I had the pleasure to
go over, the general condition of the farms in all districts where
corn is looked upon as the mainstay has been, if slowly, yet
surely declining.
Nor is this to be wondered at. The income from corn sales
is now one half what it was ten years ago, beef is cheaper,
mutton is cheaper, wool is lower, and so are all the less impor-
tant products of the farm. On the other side, while we have
manures, feeaing-stuffs, and machinery lower, and in most cases
rents reduced, yet the actual working expenses of the farm, the
rates and the taxes, amount to as much as, if not more than, when
products realised nearly, if not quite, twice as much.
It may be poor consolation for us, as farmers, to know that
we are not so badly off as our brethren in those foreign and
colonial countries whose products have demoralised our markets,
yet it seems to many that foreign supplies must have a stopping
point, and unremunerative production must cease.
Dark as the prospects may now be, we may be nearer better
farming times than anyone imagines. Such farms as I inspected
— full of manure, clean, and in good heart — may, and it is to be
sincerely hoped that they will, prove veritable gold mines to
their enterprising and intelligent occupiers when the change
takes place.
Darlington.
Robert Bruce.
531
THE INFLUENCE OF DEXTER CATTLE
ON OTHER BREEDS.
Indian agriculture is a subject of continuous interest to England.
It affords many difficult problems, on account of the widely
different conditions under which it is carried on. Much agri-
cultural knowledge has been brought to bear upon it within
recent years, but it is usually admitted that a good deal remains
to be done. In a land where the cow is held sacred, cattle-
breeding must always be a matter of interest as well as of
importance ; consequently it is not surprising that from time
to time endeavours have been made to improve the native
breeds of cattle. As far back as 1832 a crossbred Indian
bullock was exhibited at the Smithfield Show, and attracted con-
siderable notice. In this case, as in other instances of crossing
with English breeds, the typical hump over the shoulders
common to Indian cattle was bred out. Notwithstanding
various attempts to improve the breeds on their native runs, it
can hardly be said that the Indian cattle have been largely
influenced by breeds imported with that view. It may be that
these breeds have not “ nicked in ” with the native breeds, or
that the crossbred animal has not thriven sufficiently to warrant
the more extensive adoption of breeds not accustomed to the
circumstances of soil and climate which prevail in India — varied
even as these are in that great country of mountain and plain.
That the cattle of the country should nothave undergone greater
transformation is the more striking when it is borne in mind
how rapidly the cattle in the widely different climates of North
America and the Argentine have been influenced by the pure
breeds of England. Parts of the Argentine are as hot as some
of the districts of India, so climate can hardly be held account-
able for all. The prejudices and apathy of the natives are
doubtless reasons why the animals have not been improved, for
the natives of India appear far less inclined to place themselves
in direct communication with the English markets than do the
smart agriculturists of the New World. Many other causes
might no doubt be adduced to show why the improvement has
been so slow ; but probably one of the main reasons why the
crossing which has been practised has not spread more rapidly
is the want of adaptation to circumstances on the part of the
heavy breeds of England. Given even so hot a climate as that
of Northern Queensland, the Shorthorn thrives on its rich pas-
tures ; so, too, will the Hereford and other heavy breeds ; but
these are essentially the breeds of rich plains, and not of
532 The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds.
sparsely pastured mountains, forests or jungles. They have
been developed by careful selection and on rich diet into the
finest breeds in the world, and it is no more a slur on their
capabilities that they do not necessarily adapt themselves to
some less advantageous circumstances of feeding, than it is on
the Lincoln sheep that it does not thrive so well on a thin-skinned
turf growing on a hill slope, as it does on a rich lowland pasture ;
or that a forest breed does not maintain its type and keep sound
on its feet when brought to the lowlands. It therefore appears
desirable that small native breeds of cattle, accustomed to hard
conditions of life, should be mated with animals which possess
Fig. 1.— Zebu Bull in the Zoological Gardens, Dublin.
superior points acquired or maintained under somewhat similar
conditions of hard living. Unfortunately, such breeds are not
common, and there is a further difficulty in that they may not
“ nick in ” with the breed they are desired to improve ; but, on
the other hand, the inferior points in the two breeds may be
accentuated, and harm, rather than good, result. The breed
used to improve the other must not only be superior in appear-
ance and in thriving properties, but must be prepotent, so that it
shall endow the inferior with its good points. This brings us face
to face with another difficulty : the hardy hill breeds which have
been improved by careful selection are rare. The breed required
The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds. 533
to cross with native cattle must be good milk producers, as well
as good meat producers, for among some castes the meat is of
secondary importance to the milk. In the course of this article
we hope to draw attention to one breed of small cattle possessing
many of these good characteristics which should recommend it
to those who are interested in the development of Indian native
breeds.
In the Zoological Gardens at Dublin is an animal of
great interest, in that it is a cross between a Zebu bull
and a Dexter Kerry heifer. This crossbred heifer shows
how very prepotent the Dexter is over the Zebu, for at first
Fig.' 2. — Zebu-Dexter Heifer iu the Zoological Gardens, Dublin.
glance it appears to be almost a perfect Dexter. The hump has
disappeared, and the line from the shoulders to the setting
of the tail is perfectly straight, thus at once doing away with
two inferior characteristics in the Zebu. The portrait of the
Zebu bull shown in fig. 1 represents an animal with a short
goose-rump, and with the tail set on several inches below
the line of the back ; whereas, that of the heifer cross (fig. 2)
shows how thoroughly this great failing has been made good,
while the buttocks are both deeper and fuller. It would be
difficult to realise a greater transformation in the hind-quarter ;
that portion, where the best meat on the animal lies, has been
developed in the first cross.
VOL. V. T. S. — 19 N N
53 i The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds.
The heifer is well ribbed, and thick through the heart ; the
falling away behind the shoulders so common even in otherwise
well-bred animals is not present, for as the deficiencies of the
Zebu’s hind-quarters are made good by the Dexter, so the deep
shoulders of the Zebu seem to have to some extent been repro-
duced in the cross, although the hump has gone. The head is
rather remarkable ; the coarse, double- turned horns of the Zebu
have disappeared, and in their place are the slightly curved,
upright horns of the Dexter, whose chief fault in this case is
that they are somewhat close together at the base. The head is
well shaped, and gives one an impression that the animal is a
cross between a Dexter and a Jersey. This is due to the fact
that the muzzle is almost identical in colour and marking with
that of a Jersey. However, the muzzle of the Zebu bull has
this mark also, and this is the only point in the whole
cross in which the Zebu has strongly identified itself. This
heifer is one of three animals of the Zebu-Dexter cross
which were bred in the Gardens, one of the others having
died, whilst the third was sold when young, all trace of it
being lost.
The Zebu itself is not devoid of good points, for the
offal is not abnormally heavy, and the tail is beautifully
fine. The coarseness of the horn is one of its chief features
of ill-breeding, though its throatiness is not a good point ;
but altogether the animal does not possess the frame of a
milk-producing or beef-making beast. It has some points
similar to the Jersey beyond that of the muzzle, for the face is
fine, and the limbs are deer-like. The bull is about the same
height at the withers, except for the hump, as the heifer cross —
42 inches. The Zebu in its native state, however, varies con-
siderably in height, being much bigger in the northern pro-
vinces of India than in the southern. The Dexter, too, varies,
for, whereas a highly-bred Dexter heifer is prized greatly if it
does not exceed 40 inches, it is found that under more generous
treatment this height is considerably increased. The Zebu is
one of the oldest breeds of cattle, for the most ancient drawings
depict the animal as now found.
The origin of the Dexter, moreover, is a matter of conjecture,
though it is probable that it cannot be classed among the really
ancient breeds. It is locally supposed that it established itself
in Kerry through being part of a cargo of animals shipwrecked
on the coast ; but whether they came from Spain, from the
Highlands of Scotland, or from one of the several other countries
suggested, has never been proved. The breed has existed along-
side of the Kerry breed, and has in many cases become merged
The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds. 535
with it, but it is not until the early part of the century that
there is any record of special pains being taken to preserve the
type. Mr. Dexter, agent to Maude, Lord Hawarden, is credited
with having taken upon himself to establish the breed by care-
ful selection. He recognised the valuable characteristics it pos-
sessed both as a milk-producing and beef-making animal, and
by his endeavours and example the type was preserved from
total extinction. The breed being, as a rule, in the hands of
small farmers, after his death little pains were taken to keep
it pure, and it seemed probable that it would become extinct,
when, some twenty-five years ago, Mr. James Robertson was
attracted by it, and again brought it to the notice of breeders.
He searched all parts of Kerry for the best specimens ; and, by
opening up a market with England for the breed, aroused an
interest in it which has been of the greatest value to the
breeders in that hilly county. Since then, by means of its own
undoubted merits and the formation of the Herd Book, it has
been brought prominently forward, until, perhaps, at the present
day there is no breed of cattle growing more rapidly in favour,
or for which the price has increased so much during the past
few years. Heifers less than three years old, not 40 inches in
height, at their first calf frequently give daily three gallons of
milk of good quality, with no food but that obtained from a
moderate pasture. The frame is compact, and the loin, ribs,
and hind-quarters are well developed, affording meat of excellent
quality in those parts most appreciated by butchers. The flavour
of the meat is so good that, taking into consideration its size
compared with that of other breeds, it has been called the
Southdown among cattle. For the sake of comparison a portrait
of a Dexter heifer, My Queen , with which Mr. Robertson won
several prizes, is given in fig. 3. This heifer, barely 40 inches
in height, at her first calf gave over three gallons of milk per
day for a long period, although only three years old.
The early effort to establish fixity of type, together with
later endeavours, has resulted in producing a breed which
possesses that valuable characteristic of pedigree animals — pre-
potency, or the power of transmitting its distinguishing pro-
perties to animals of other breeds. The prepotency of such
breeds as the Shorthorn, Hereford, and others carefully bred for
a number of years, has had a marked effect on the less carefully
selected animals in all English-speaking countries.
We have seen how strongly the Zebu has been influenced.
As the Zebu is a poorly-bred animal, it is not surprising that
such a breed should undergo considerable transformation when
crossed with a well-bred one, for it is an accepted rule of breeding
N N 2
536
The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds.
that the less carefully selected animal yields readily to the better
bred one. As showing how prepotent the Dexters are, even with
animals on which great care has been bestowed for a long period,
we give in fig. 4 an illustration of a Shorthorn-Dexter cross. The
animal here shown was bred by Major Barton, of Straffan, who
possesses an old-established herd of Shorthorns of considerable
repute. Noticing how well the two breeds mated, he set to work
to produce a cross-breed possessing its own fixity of type, which
should combine the valuable properties of the two breeds. With
Fig. 3. — Dexter Heifer J/« Queen.
the animals thus bred he has taken several prizes, and he has on
his place animals the result of several crosses. The one here illus-
trated, Fairy King, is a yearling ; its great-great-great- grand-
dam was a pure-bred Dexter, which was crossed with a Short-
horn, and the offspring of the succeeding generations have been
systematically mated with Shorthorn bulls. Both breeds are
traceable in Fairy King, the Shorthorn having made considerable
impression on the head, but the legs and hind-quarters are those
of the Dexter, and generally there are indications throughout of
the influence of Dexter breeding. What is more important, the
The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds. 537
good characteristics of the two breeds have been retained. A better
idea of the Dexter points in this animal is realised when the head
and neck in the portrait are covered by the hand. As showing
how much of the Dexter is in him, Mr. Robertson’s Dexter bull,
The Parson, is illustrated in fig 5, and an examination of these
two portraits will, perhaps, show more clearly to what degree
the Dexter type is preserved through the crossings which have
resulted in the production of Fairy King , than could be
Fig. 4. — Shorthorn-Dexter Fairy King.
explained in words. The steers from similar crossing have
proved themselves to be of excellent beef-making properties,
and the heifers are equally good in the dairy.
As another instance of the value of Dexters for crossing
purposes, an illustration of a Dexter- Jersey cross is given
in fig. 6. This animal is one of several bred by Mr. Toler
Garvey, who has made systematic experiments with the cross.
Like some others interested in dairy breeds of cattle, Mr. Garvey
538 The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds.
began first to cross the Jersey with the Kerry, hoping thereby
to combine the cream-producing propensity of the Jersey with
the milking capacity of the Kerry, and at the same time to
gain for the offspring greater hardiness than the Jersey pos-
sesses. This cross did not answer his expectations, as the breeds
appeared antagonistic. He then tried the Dexter in the place
of the Kerry, and has had reason to be well satisfied with the
result. Mr. Garvey keeps careful milk records, and is thus
able to see exactly how well suited the breeds prove when
crossed. In a letter to me Mr. Garvey says, “These cows are
Fig. 5. — Dexter Bull The Parson.
good — not wondeful — milkers as to quantity, but excellent as
to quality, producing from 10 to 12 lb. of butter per week.
The pure bred Jersey calves are, as you know, very unprofitable
to rear ; but with this cross they are very good — quickly put-
ting on beef, and that of excellent quality. So far I am well
pleased with this experiment.”
Another cross which has proved successful is that of the
Polled Angus with the Dexter, but, as this is chiefly favourable
from a beef-producing point of view, it is only necessary to
make mention of it in passing.
Three crosses have now been illustrated, in all of which the good
The Influence Qf Dexter Cattle on other Breeds.
539
points of the Dexter show prominently, yet it would be difficult
to find three breeds more widely differing in make. Although
the Shorthorn ranks high as a milking breed, it is rather as a beef
producer that the more highly bred specimens are viewed. The
Jersey is essentially a milk producer, while of the Zebu it may
be said that it is not particularly good in either direction. As
the Dexter has shown its prepotency on two of the oldest estab-
lished pedigree breeds, it can scarcely be a chance that the
Zebu-Dexter heifer should have retained so much of the Dexter
type. The influence of the Dexter is the more remarkable, as the
Fig. 6. — Dexter- Jersey Cross.
sire usually has greatest influence on the outward form of the
offspring, but we have seen that in this case the Zebu bull has
had but little effect.
Another feature in the crosses resulting from mating the Dexter
with other breeds is that the size and proportions of the Dexter
are to a great extent retained. This indicates that it is a breed
which may, with reasonable safety, be put with those breeds
which do not exist under the most favourable conditions with
regard to pasture. A not-too-heavy animal results ; it comes on
both sides from breeds which have existed under unfavourable
circumstances in respect to food and climate ; and, although it is
540 The Influence of Dexter Cattle on other Breeds.
far superior in make to the Indian native animal, there is little
reason to suppose it would rapidly deteriorate. The Zebu is
frequently used for draught purposes, but there is no ground for
suggesting that the Dexter cross would prove injurious in this
respect, as it is both agile and handy, while its sturdiness denotes
strength. It is also docile and possesses great intelligence.
Even such small breeds of cattle as the little “ Pigmy ”
might reasonably be crossed with the Dexter, for from all out-
ward appearances the two would mate well.
Having seen how well the Dexter crosses with breeds so widely
different, it is, I repeat, fair to assume that it is not by an accident
that the excellent little animal in the Dublin Zoological Gardens
acquired its good points, or that the Dexter characteristics are
so prominent. Were the same results obtained on all the cattle
in India, the increased value of the animals would represent a
very great sum. A sudden change throughout the whole
country is impracticable, but it is quite possible to produce a
considerable alteration within a reasonable period of time. It
is at any rate worth while for those interested in the agricultural
development of India to give a careful and systematic trial at
convenient centres, in order to see how far success might be
attained. Such matters, left to chance, or to the care of indi-
viduals with small scope, cannot realise the best results, and
through want of proper guidance frequently prove to be labour
lost. The illustrations which have been given speak for them-
selves, aud show at least that there are sound reasons for a
thorough trial being made ; if such should be carried out there
is a reasonable likelihood of great good being accomplished.
W. J. Malden.
Caidington, Bedford.
541
©ffictal IRepovts.
QUARTERLY REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL
COMMITTEE.
July, 1894.
1. Mr. James Norris, of Castle Hill, Blechingley, Surrey, sent
for analysis, on May 18, a sample of Linseed-cake, 3 tons 4 cwt. of
which he had purchased, and which was invoiced as follows : —
33 bags Round Italian Linseed Cakes made of linseed with natural
admixture. 3 tons 4 cwt. 25 lb. at 6/. 18s. 9 d. per ton = 2 21. 5s. 6 d.
Dr. Yoelcker’s report was : —
A cake not only impure by reason of the foreign seeds in it, but posi-
tively poisonous owing to the presence of a very considerable quantity of
castor-oil bean.
The cake is also somewhat acid.
Mr. Norris stated that he had had a number of fat lambs die,
and that on calling in Mr. A. Glover, Y.S., Godstone Station, he
examined a dead lamb, and said it died from eating impure artificial
food. The vendors, when complaint was made to them, gave Mr.
Norris a certificate of analysis stating that the cake was “pure.”
Fresh samples were drawn at the vendors’ request, and submitted to
a third chemist. Ultimately it was satisfactorily ascertained that
the delivery of cake was a mixed lot, and that, while some of the
cakes comprising it were free from castor-oil bean, others contained
a very large proportion of this poisonous seed.
Altogether Mr. Norris lost over thirty lambs.
As Dr. Yoelcker pointed out to Mr. Norris, castor-oil bean could
hardly be considered as “ natural admixture.”
2. Mr. Norris also sent, on May IS, a sample of 4 tons of Lin-
seed-cake which he had purchased from Messrs. Taylor & Pinnock,
of 36 Mark Lane, London. This cake was invoiced : —
Moisture
Oil .
May 24, 1894.
13-47\
12-57
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters)
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre
Woody fibre (cellulose) .....
2 Mineral matter (ash) .....
1 containing nitrogen
2 including sand .
4-47
1-89
542 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , July, 1894.
May 4. 43 bags linseed cake, 4 tons 1 cwt. 1 qr. 8 lb., 61. 13-s. 9 d. per
ton on rail = 27/. 3s. lOd.
a footnote reading : —
Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act 1893.
The above cakes are warranted made from cleaned seed only, without
admixture ; but as such seed can neither be grown absolutely pure, nor
made so by machinery, the cakes must necessarily contain a small portion of
the natural impurities grown with the seed.
Dr. Voelcker’s report was
Moisture
. 12-62.
Oil
. 10-15
Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters)
. 31-19
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre
. 31-75
Woody fibre (cellulose)
. 7-85
Mineral matter (ash) .....
. 644/
1 containing nitrogen .....
4-99
2 including sand .... . .
. 1-14
May 24, 1894.
10000
An impure cake containing a great deal of weed seeds, chiefly spurry.
When Mr, Norris complained, the vendors wrote : —
36 Mark Lane, E.C. : May 30, 1894.
James Norris, Esq., Blechingley.
Deak Sib, — We have yours of yesterday, and have cancelled your order
for linseed. We shall send down to-morrow, as arranged, to sample the
linseed cake of which you complain, but it must be understood that we do
not admit any liability in the matter. If you had any cause of complaint
or claim you should have given due notice according to the Act within ten
days after receipt of the goods or the invoice, whichever was the later,
instead of which you paid for the goods on May 16 (some time after
receiving both goods and invoice) without one word of complaint, and it is
not till thirteen days after payment that you intimate that you are not
satisfied. As you are aware, we do not sell cake to be “ absolutely pure,”
as it must necessarily contain some foreign seeds grown with the linseed,
and which cannot by any possible process be dressed out of it, and therefore
the cake you have received may possibly contain some small percentage of
“ spurry ” or other seeds, and this is distinctly expressed in our invoice ;
but if, as you allege, it does contain “ spurry,” this seed, we are advised,
contains starch, and is quite harmless.
You seem to be under the erroneous impression that the trade is to be
bound by anything Mr. Voelcker says or reports, and you must allow us to
say that you have not proceeded at all in accordance with the Act, as if
you were not satisfied with the cake you should have given us notice, that
we may jointly take three samples and seal — one to be taken by us, one
retained by you, and one sent to the County Analyst (not to Voelcker),
and, if necessary, one to be afterwards sent to the Chief Analyst of the
County, whose decision would be final. Not having acted in conformity
with the Act, you have forfeited your right to claim. — Yours truly,
(Signed) Tayloe & Pinnock.
Dr. Voelcker, in reply, pointed out that the limitation of ten days
only applied in the case of samples analysed under the Fertilisers
and Feeding Stuffs Act, and did not apply to samples submitted,
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, July, 1894. 543
as these were, and in respect of which it was specially provided
that there might be a remedy at common law, though no proceeding
of a criminal nature could be taken under the Act if ten days had
been allowed to elapse.
Dr. Yoelcker also called attention to the fact that the cake, being
invoiced “ Linseed-cake,” should have been pure, whereas, so far as
the sample he examined went, he reported further : —
The quantity of weed seeds is very large indeed ; it is not a case where a
little seed has been left in through not being able to be perfectly removed,
but the cake is a positively impure and adulterated one.
3. Mr. Beville Stanier, of Hillhampton, Stourport, sent for
analysis, on May 1 4, a sample of 4 tons of cake which he had bought
as “ Linseed- cake.”
The letter from the vendor, containing the offer for purchase
said : —
“ Linseed-cake Square, seedy Polish, about 16 per cent. oil. 81.
per ton, cash monthly ; 2s. 6c?. ton less, cash with order. Free on
rails Hull. This is really very good value.”
The invoice read : —
4 tnos Square, seedy Polish Linseed-cake, about 10 per cent, oil, at
81. net monthly as per quot. 32/. on rails Hull. Less 10 per cent. disc,
cash per ret.
The vendor stated that he obtained the cake from Messrs. Alfred
Denniss & Co , of Hull, and the invoice given to him described the
delivery as “ Sq. Polish Linseed cakes.”
On arrival of the cake, Mr. Stanier noted that it was mouldy,
and complained to the vendor about it.
After sending a sample to Dr. Yoelcker for analysis, Mr. Stanier
received the following report : —
May 17, 1894.
Moisture
Oil
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh forming matters)
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre
Woody fibre (cellulose)
2 Mineral matter (ash)
13-64 \
10-34
21-19
3405
7 15
13-63?
L 100-00
1 containing nitrogen . . . . . . 3 39
2 including sand . . ... . . 975
A cake adulterated with nearly 10 per cent, of sand, and containing,
besides, a large quantity of weed seeds and starchy impurities. It is ex-
ternally very mouldy, and is not a fit cake to be given to stock.
After Mr. Stanier had complained to the vendor, the latter re-
ceived the following letter from Messrs. Alfred Denniss & Co. : —
Hull: April 12, 1894.
Dear Sir, — We are surprised at your letter. The small stone and small
piece of wood are not samples of the bulk. These cakes are made by
Russian peasants. We give no guarantee with them, except oil about 16 per
544 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , July, 1894.
cent. The small stone and small piece of wood were of course accidentally
in the cake. We note a little mould on one of the samples ; there was none
when the cake left here. The close confinement in a truck under the hot
sun must have produced this. We have opened the samples, and find them
all right inside. We have made a usual delivery of this kind of cake. Any
“ rubbish ” inadvertently sent we will take back, hut if you examine the
bulk you will find none. — Yours faithfully, A. D. & Co.
A request being made for the taking of fresh samples, this was
done, one portion being sent to Dr. Yoelcker, who reported as
follows : —
B. Stanier, Esq. June 4, 1894.
Dear Sir, — I have examined the further sample of cake. It is only
fair to say that it does not contain nearly the quantity of weed seeds that
the first sample did, though there is certainly too much for a “pure” cake.
Nor is there as much sand, though the amount still reaches the high figure
of 7\ per cent. The cake is mouldy just like the first one, and because of
the sand and the condition, is not a fit cake to give to stock.
If you crush the cake up and stir it in water you can see the sand settle
down by itself. Outwardly, both samples look much alike, and I have
kept some of the first one in case the vendors wish to have a piece of it. —
Yours faithfully, J. Augustus Yoelcker.
Correspondence then passed between the vendor and Messrs.
Denniss & Co.
Hull : June 4, 1894.
Sir, — Yours received. We have had the samples analysed (the samples
you sent), and find they give 4 per cent, less ash than the analysis you sent,
also 2 per cent, more oil. The cakes were free from mould when they left
here, and looked a usual delivery for this class of cake, which does not keep
well in warm weather. We have never had these cakes so low in oil before,
and fancy the mould has something to do with the low percentage (mould
which came on after delivery here) ; the sample you had analysed is either not
a fair one or is inaccurately analysed.
We enclose copy of analysis of the pieces you sent us. We point out that
we guaranteed nothing but oil. Any deficiency in this we shall be glad to
pay for, allowance being made for the influence of mould, for which we are
not responsible, for lessening the percentage. If you have any suggestions to
make I shall be glad to hear from you. — Yours truly,
(Signed) A. Denniss & Co.
[Copy.]
Chemical Laboratory, 11 High Street, Hull : May 30, 1894.
Certificate of Oil Cake from M. D. Penney, F. C.S.
Sample. — Square Polish linseed cake (several pieces) from Messrs. Alfred
Denniss & Co.
Moisture ....
12-32^
Oil . .
12-54
Albuminous compounds .
24-81
Mucilage, starch, &c.
35-22 [
Woody fibre .
6-03
Ash ....
9-08/
1 nitrogen
3-92
equal to ammonia
4-76
(Signed) M. D. Penney.
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , July, 1894. 545
After Mr. Stanier had commented on certain differences that
appeared between the analyses, and had inquired what compensa-
tion he was entitled to claim, Dr. Voelcker wrote : —
June 8, 1894.
As regards the difference of analysis between the two lots of cake, I am
not at all surprised at this, and it in no way implies that the analysis of
either was incorrect.
When you get cake of this impure nature, the impurity may be very
unevenly distributed, and the delivery be really a mixed lot. Referring to
the certificate of Mr. Penney sent you by the vendor, you will note, in the
first place, that, whereas the cake was described to you as “ Linseed Cake,”
it was called by Mr. Penney “ Oil Cake also, there is no statement as to
whether the cake was pure or not, nor reference to the mouldy condition it
was in.
Again, though the ash is stated, the percentage of sand is not given
separately. You would do well to write and ask for information on these
points, as the certificate does not give them. As to any seeming discre-
pancy of analysis, this can soon he set at rest by your asking the vendor to
instruct Mr. Penney to send me a sealed sample of the cake which he
examined, and which gave 9 08 per cent, of ash, and I will be happy to
submit to Mr. Penney a portion of either of the two samples I had from
you, and which I reported on as containing respectively 9'75 per cent, of sand
and 7\ per cent, of eand. We can then readily see whether there is a dis-
crepancy of analysis,, or if the variation is in the samples themselves.
But, even taking Mr. Penney’s low figure of 9 08 per cent, of ash, I can
maintain that this would (if the quantity of sand were stated) show an
amount which would alone render a cake impure, and not one which
should he called Linseed Cake, and this, even apart from the presence of
weed seeds and the mouldy condition, would justify you in refusing delivery.
As regards the oil, this is not the real pomt of the case, and you have
nothing to do with how the cake came to be in its mouldy condition or how
it lost some of its oil. Your position is that you had Linseed Cake guaran-
teed to you with 16 per cent, of oil, and that you had a right to expect that
you should receive linseed cake, and that it would be in fit condition for
feeding. As ic now has turned out, you have received a cake which I
consider to he highly dangerous to give to stock, and which is not, and
should not be, described as linseed cake. I would certainly advise you not
to use the cake, but return it at the vendor’s expense.
The matter is not one which can be decided merely by compensation for
inferiority of quality, It is a case of a cake not being fit or safe to use, and
you cannot assess the difference between a good and wholesome cake and
one like that which I examined for you, on such a basis as you indicate. —
Yours faithfully, J. Augustus Voelcker.
Mr. Stanier, on receipt of this letter, wrote to the vendor, draw-
ing his attention to the various matters alluded to in Dr. Yoelcker’s
communication. The vendor received the following reply from
Messrs. Denniss & Co. : —
Hull : June 22, 1894.
Dear Sir, — Yours received dated 13th inst. We would point out that
we sold the cakes as Polish Cakes of the usual quality. See our invoice.
They are always high in ash and a little gritty, as anyone conversant with
the usual quality of this make will affirm. We gave no guarantee of purity,
546 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , July , 1 894.
and did not invoice them as Linseed Cakes. As to the mould there was
none on when the cake left here, or we should not have sent it.
The oil, as already pointed out, might have been reduced by the mould.
We very much regret the mould came, but it is no fault of ours. We
do not know what influences, such as damp and close atmosphere, the cake
was subjected to after leaving here — influences favourable to the develop-
ment of mould. Your friend should have kept part of the cake sent to
Voelcker that it might have been retested. Oil is worth four shillings per
unit, and as that is 4 per cent, below our guarantee, we will allow on that
basis, or, to end the matter, 1/. per ton, which we think should meet the case.
Dr. Voelcker might send Mr. Penney part of his cake, but one piece is
no criterion of a bulk. — Yours faithfully, A. Denniss & Co.
Ultimately Mr. Stanier was made an allowance by the vendor
of 61. on the transaction, 51. of which, the latter stated, had been
allowed to him by Messrs. Denniss & Co.
4. Mr. D. W. Philip, of The Ashes, Whitacre, near Birmingham,
submitted for analysis, on June 6, a sample of manure which, he
stated, was manufactured by a horse slaughterer, and was sold at
51. per ton. Mr. Philip had not actually purchased any, but sent a
sample first in order to ascertain what the value of the manure was.
Dr. Voelcker’s report was : —
June 12, 1894.
Moisture ....
48-45
Organic matter
550
Phosphate of lime .
4-22
Oxide of iron, &c. .
3234
Sand ....
9-49
1 containing nitrogen
2-73
equal to ammonia
3-31
A poor manure, nearly 60 per cent, of which is ihade up of water and
sand, and it is not worth more than a third of the price you are asked to pay.
It is in bad condition.
No further particulars were obtainable.
5. Mr. R. O. Taylor, of Perton Court, near Wolverhampton,
sent, on June 22, for analysis, a sample of what was invoiced to him as
“ Roasted Nitrate of Soda.” The price charged was 31. per ton
delivered.
Dr. Yoelcker’s report was as follows : —
July 10, 1894.
Moisture 3-89 .
Nitrate of soda ’39
Potash 2 03 J- 100-00
Insoluble silicious matter ..... 3-79 1
Sulphate of soda, oxide of iron, &c 89-90
This material contains only a very small amount of nitrate of soda,
which, with about 2 per cent, of potash, constitutes the sole manurial
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , July, 1894. 547
properties it possesses. It is practically little more than sulphate of soda,
and its value to you, as a manure, would not be 10s. a ton. In fact, I
would prefer not to use it at all.
Mr. Taylor only purchased 6 cwt. on trial.
6. Mr. Henry Pye, of St. Mary’s Hall, near Rochester, sent, on
June 25, for analysis, a sample of what had been offered to him by
a local dealer as “ Guano,” and costing 71. a ton. It was recom-
mended as a manure for hops.
Mr. Pye, before purchasing, sent a sample for analysis to Dr.
Yoelcker, and received the following report : —
Moisture ....
1 Organic matter
Phosphate of lime .
Carbonate of lime, salt, ,tc.
Sand ....
1 containing nitrogen
equal to ammonia
July 10, 1894.
8-94.
10-51
7-05 [ 100 00
1086
62 64'
216
2-62
This ought not to be called Guano. It is nothing more than sea sand,
shells, &c., with a little fish hone.
The worth of such a manure as the above would not be more
than 21. a ton, instead of the 7/. a ton charged.
Emlyn, Chairman.
July 25, 1894.
LOUPING-ILL IN SHEEP.
The investigations recorded in this article were undertaken at
the desire of the Veterinary Committee of the Royal Agricultural
Society, in order to obtain information regarding the cause of the
disease termed louping-ill. The investigations were begun in the
month of May 1893, in the county of Northumberland, on farms
situated in the North Tyne district. I take this opportunity of
expressing my indebtedness to gentlemen in the district— and par-
ticularly to Mr. John Robson, of Newton, and Mr. Hedley, Whick-
hope — who lent valuable assistance in the inquiry, both by communi-
cating information gained from their own experience of the disease
and by procuring cases from the adjoining farms.
The plan of the inquiry was as follows : —
1. To study the symptoms in the living subject.
2. To make a careful postmortem examination of each case
obtainable.
To make inoculation experiments to test the transmissibility
of the disease.
It was rather unfortunate, in one sense, that the disease at the
548
Louping-Ill in Sheep.
time of my visit to Northumberland was much less prevalent than
it usually is in the month of May, but during the ten days’ stay I
had the opportunity of submitting fifteen cases to post-mortem
examination.
Record of Cases Submitted to Post-mortem Examination.
Case 1. — A lamb about three weeks old, said to have been ill for 3 or
4 days. Complete motor paralysis of the bind legs and quarters. Sensation
in the paralysed parts not appreciably impaired. Eye bright and intelli-
gent. Lamb sucks ravenously when held up to the dam. It was killed by
bleeding.
Post-mortem} — A number of ticks were adherent to the skin, and at the
point of attachment of some a small abscess bad formed. A cover-glass
preparation of this pus (subsequently stained and examined) showed
numerous bacilli, apparently in pure culture. The spleen was much
enlarged and somewhat softer in consistence than normal. The liver con-
tained an abscess as large as a hazel nut and surrounded by a zone of
necrotic liver tissue. It also contained two other areas of necrosis with-
out distinct suppuration. A small abscess was present between the longus
colli muscle and the spine at the level of the third and fourth dorsal ver-
tebrse. The suppuration involved the bodies of these bones and extended
through them to the spinal canal, which at this point contained a quantity
of pus around the dura mater (the outermost membrane covering the spinal
cord). The dura mater was here slightly adherent to the bodies of the
third and fourth dorsal vertebrae. The pus of this spinal abscess when
examined microscopically showed bacilli resembling those found in the tick
abscess. Attempts to obtain a cultivation of this bacillus failed.
Case II. — The carcass of a lamb about three weeks old, found dead that
morning, had been seen alive the previous evening. It had been unable to
stand for some days owing to paralysis, which, according to the shepherd’s
report, affected the fore limbs mainly.
Post-mortem. — Many ticks were present on the skin, and in some cases a
small abscess with thick pus had formed around the point where the tick
was adherent. The liver contained one pea-sized abscess. The dura mater
at the middle of the neck was inflamed and slightly adherent to the floor
of the spinal canal. The body of the underlying vertebra was found to con-
tain pus, which, on microscopic examination, showed numbers of micrococci
in pairs and in groups. Tubes of gelatine and agar inoculated from this pus
yielded cultures of a micrococcus whose characters will be described later.
Case III. — A ewe, said to have “ lost the power of her back,” and gone
down about 14 days previous. She lay flat on her side with the fore-legs
extended and stiff ; the hind legs were less rigid; skin sensitive everywhere.
When the ewe was set up on her haunches she could support herself with
the fore-legs. No convulsive fits had been observed at any time. She was
killed by bleeding.
Post-mortem. — No ticks were detected on the skin. The liver was
1 In order to avoid unnecessary repetition only the lesions or abnormal
conditions discovered at the post-mortem are recorded, but in every case
except those specially mentioned, the muscular system, the brain, the spinal
cord, and the principal organs of the abdomen and chest were examined.
In all the lambs special attention was paid to the navel and the umbilical
vessels.
549
Loupinj-lll in Sheep.
cirrhotic (indurated), and the bile ducts contained numerous living flukes.
Some of the mesenteric glands were enlarged, indurated, and gritty on section.
The bronchial glands were in a similar condition. The lungs contained some
pseudo-tubercles, and there was a quantity of dropsical fluid in the pericar-
dium. The blood was examined microscopically for micro-organisms, but
none were found.
Case IV. — The carcass of a lamb, hilled two hours previously as a hope-
less case of louping-ill. The skin had been removed before it was brought
to me, and unfortunately no history of its illness was obtainable.
Post-mortem. — This revealed no abnormality of any importance, save the
presence of a ball of bard grass mixed with wool in the fourth stomach. A
microscopic examination did not reveal any bacteria in the blood. The
blood and spinal cord of this lamb were used for the inoculation of 2 lambs
( see Experiment 1).
Case V. — A lamb about 3 or 4 weeks old, said to have been unable to
stand for a fortnight. The paralysis affected the hind limbs only. Killed
by bleeding.
Post-mortem. — A number of ticks were adherent to the skin. The spleen
contained six pea-sized abscesses with tough yellow pus. A similar abscess
was present under the latissimus dorsi muscle, and another between the
bodies of the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae ; the latter bulged into the
spinal canal and pressed on the spinal cord. Pus from these abscesses
showed under the microscope numerous staphylococci, and cultures of the
same were obtained from the spinal abscess (see Experiments with cultures).
The brain was not examined.
Case VI. — The carcass of a ewe, found dead the same morning, and sent
as a case of louping-ill. The abdomen was distended with gas, and putre-
faction was already well advanced. The liver and kidneys were almost
pulpy in consistence, and the lungs were congested. The case appeared to be
one of “ sickness ” or braxy, and the brain and spinal cord were therefore not
examined.
Case VII. — The carcass of a lamh which had died on an adjoining
farm. The skin had been removed before it was brought for examination,
but it was said that some ticks were present. The lamb had been unable to
stand for 4 days previous to its death, owing to paralysis of its hind limbs.
Post-mortem. — One pea-sized necrotic area in the liver. The fourth
stomach contained a mass of dried grass mixed with wool. Some congestion
of the coverings of the spinal cord in the cervical region ; surface of brain
abnormally moist.
Case VIII. — A ewe. Been unable to stand for some days. Lies on side
with neck stretched, head resting on ground, and both fore and hind legs
extended. No convulsions had been noticed. Consciousness appeared
unimpaired, and the legs were moved freely when pricked with a pin.
Killed by bleeding.
Post-mortem. — Fairly numerous pseudo-tubercles iu the lungs. Cerebro-
spinal fluid taken at the foramen magnum was used for inoculation (see
Experiment 3). No bacteria could be found in the blood on microscopic
examination.
Case IX. — A yearling ewe, which had been unable to stand for 12 days.
Position exactly the same as in the previous case. There appeared to be
no impairment of either sensation or consciousness, and at intervals both
fore and hind legs were moved backwards and forwards. Killed by
bleeding. '
Post-mortem. — A few pseudo-tubercles in the lungs. Cerebro-spinal
VOL. V. T. S. — 19 0 0
550
Loujping-Ill in Sheep.
fluid in excess both in spinal canal and cranial cavity. Some of this fluid
was used for inoculation (see Experiment 2). No bacteria were discoverable
by the microscope in either the blood or cerebro-spinal fluid.
Case X. — The carcass of a lamb which bad been taken ill on the pre-
vious day, and had died 3 hours before my arrival at the farm. The owner
stated that it had shown symptoms of brain disturbance, and lo3t the power
of its legs.
Post-mortem. — There were a few ticks on the skin. The mucous mem-
brane of the small intestine was congested, and there were some spots of
extravasation in the wall of the duodenum. The fourth stomach contained
a considerable quantity of fine sand adhering to the mucous membrane.
The spleen was swollen and the consistence of its pulp was diminished. The
kidneys were congested. The pericardium contained about 2 ounces of
clear, almost colourless, fluid. Numerous small spots of blood extravasation
were present in the muscles of the back and loins. No bacteria were dis-
coverable by microscopic examination in the spleen or blood.
Some of the pericardial fluid was used for inoculation (see Experiment 5).
Case XI. — The carcass of a lamb several weeks old. Died a few hours
before my arrival at the farm.
Post-mortem. — Numerous ticks on skin. Violent inflammation and blood
extravasation at their points of attachment. Intense inflammation of the
large intestine, with extravasation of blood into the lumen of the bowel.
The fourth stomach contained a ball of dried grass and wool. Spleen slightly
enlarged and softened. Liver pale. Lungs and kidneys congested. The
brain was slightly osdematous. Neither blood, spleen-pulp, nor cerebro-
spinal fluid showed any bacteria when examined microscopically. Blood
from the heart was used for inoculation (Experiment 7).
Case XII. — The carcass of a Iamb, several weeks old, found dead and
brought the same day for examination. It had been first noticed ill on the
previous day — unable to rise, but frequently struggled.
Post-mortem. — No ticks on skin. Abdomen tympanitic from putre-
factive decomposition. Stomach ruptured, apparently post - mortem.
Kidneys pulpy. The other organs were not examined.
Case XIII. — The carcass of a lamb brought 24 hours after death. Been
ill for 24 hours.
Post-mortem. — Putrefaction had not made so much progress as in the
preceding case, although a longer time had elapsed since death. No ticks
on skin. Small bowel congested. Spleen swollen and softened. The
fourth stomach contained a compact mass of dry grass, wool, and sand.
Kidneys somewhat pulpy. Brain and cord not examined.
Case XIV. — A lamb about a month old. Had been ill for about a
week, and unable to get up. Lies on side, sometimes holding the head up,
and at others resting it flat on the ground. No evidence of impairment of
sensation or consciousness. Sucks the finger, and can stand for a little when
placed on its legs. Killed by bleeding.
Post-mortem. — No ticks on skin. A small quantity of fluid in the peri-
cardial sac. A marked excess of fluid in the cranial sub-arachnoid space",
and brain tissue somewhat oedematous. The pericardial and cerebro-spinal
fluids, and the blood, were used for inoculation (Experiments 4 and 8).
Case XV. — A lamb about a month old. It had died about 2 hours
before my arrival at the farm. Its illness had lasted for 4 days, during
which tim9 it “ lay and trembled.”
Post-mortem. — The fourth stomach contained a ball of grass and wool.
Spleen a little enlarged. A small quantity of fluid in the pericardium,
Louping-ill in Sheep.
551
Cranial pia mater slightly congested, and excess of cerebro-spinal fluid.
No bacteria were discoverable by microscopic examination in the spleen-pulp
or cerebro-spinal fluid. Blood and pericardial fluid from this lamb were
used for inoculation (Experiment 6).
Inoculation Experiments with Natural Products.
Experiment I. — Two half-bred lambs, about 1 month old, were inocu-
lated with blood and spinal cord of a lamb said to have died from louping-
ill (Case IV). The inoculation was performed as follows. About 2 c.c. of
blood from the heart were mixed with an equal volume of sterile bouillon,
and by tbe aid of a glass rod a piece of spinal cord was mashed up in the
mixture. The liquid was then divided between the two experimental lambs,
the seat of injection being the inside of the thigh.1
Result. — Negative.
Experiment II. — A lamb about 4 months old was inoculated with
about 1 c.c. of cerebro-spinal fluid from a yearling ewe hilled while suffering
from louping-ill (Case IX.). The fluid had been preserved for 8 days in a
sealed glass tube. The seat of inoculation was the inside of the thigh.
Result. — Negative.
Experiment III. — About ten drops of cerebro-spinal fluid from a ewe
killed while suffering from louping-ill (Case VIII.) were injected under the
skin of the thigh of a four mouths old lamb. The fluid had been kept for
9 days in a sealed tube.
Res ult. — Negative .
Experiment IV. — About 20 drops of mixed pericardial and cerebro-
spinal fluid from a lamb killed while suffering from louping-ill (Case XIV.)
were injected under the thigh of a four months old lamb. The fluid had
been preserved for 4 days in a sealed tube,
Result. — Negative.
Experiment V. — About 15 drops of pericardial fluid from a lamb dead
from louping-ill (Case X.) were injected under the skin of the tbigh of a
four months old lamb. The fluid had been preserved for 5 days in a sealed
tube.
Result. — Negative.
Experiment VI. — About 20 drops of mixed blood and pericardial fluid
from a lamb dead of louping-ill (Case XV.) were injected under the skin of
the thigh of a four months old lamb. The blood and pericardial fluid had
been preserved in a sealed tube for 17 days.
Result. — Negative.
Experiment VII. — About 15 drops of heart blood from a lamb dead
of louping-ill (Case XI.) were injected under the thigh of a lamb about
four months old. The blood had been preserved in a sealed tube for 19 days.
Result. — A slight cord-like induration appeared at the seat of inoculation
on the second day ; it persisted for a few days, and then declined without
suppuration. The general health of the lamb appeared undisturbed.
Experiment VIII. — This experiment exactly repeated the preceding
one, save that the blood had been taken from the heart of Case XIV. and
preserved in a sealed tube for 18 days.
Result. — Negative.
'In all these experiments the usual precautions against accidental con-
tamination were taken. Fluids were aspirated into tubes previously sterilised
by heat, and the hypodermic syringes used for injecting had been sterilised in
the same way.
o o 2
552
Looping -III in Sheep.
Experiment IX. — A four months old lamb -was inoculated inside the
thigh with, about 20 drops of mixed blood and pericardial fluid from a lamb
dead of louping-ill (Case X.). The blood and pericardial fluid had been
preserved for 19 days in a sealed tube.
Result. — Negative.
Experiments with Cultures.
In all tlie cases except those in which the carcass was already
more or less putrid, tubes of gelatine and agar were inoculated from
blood, pus, pericardial fluid, or cerebro- spinal fluid. In Cases X. and
XI. the tubes inoculated from the blood yielded apparently pure
cultures of two different micro-organisms, but as these cultures were
found to be devoid of pathogenic effects -when tested by inoculation
(into lambs) it may be concluded that their presence was accidental.
The tubes inoculated from the abscesses of Cases II. and Y.
yielded pure cultures of a micrococcus, and inoculation experiments
with these cultures had results in harmony with the view that the
organisms in question were the actual cause of the disease.
The experiments, nine in number, have been performed on sheep
of various ages (from lambs four or five months old, to yearlings and
old ewes), and with so little variation in the result that it would be
waste of space to describe the whole series in detail. The following
two experiments will suffice to illustrate the pathogenic properties
of the micrococcus.
Experiment I. June 24, 1893. — Injected about 20 drops of a liquefied
gelatine culture (first culture from Case V.) under the sldn of each thigh of
a four months old lamb.
June 26. — Extensive branny swelling at the seat of inoculation in each
thigh.
June 28. — A well defined abscess about the size of a hen’s egg has
formed in each thigh.
June 29. — Washed the skin on the inside of the tight thigh with satu-
rated aqueous solution of mercuric chloride, and pierced the abscess with a
sterile glass pipette. A quantity of thick yellow pus forced ils way into
the tube, aud from this cover-glass preparations and cultures on agar were
made. The former showed among the pus cells groups of micrococci, and
apparently pure cultures of the same organism were obtained in the tubes
of agar.
The abscess in the left thigh burst spontaneously a few days later, but
more than a fortnight elapsed before healing was complete.
Experiment II. February 2, 1894. — Injected into the thigh of a year-
ling sheep about 20 drops of sterile water holding in suspension a culture
on agar (7th generation) of the micrococcus obtained from the vertebral
abscess of Case V. The skin of the thigh had previously been washed with
5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid in water.
February 3 . — Diffuse redness and swelling around the seat of injection ; a
flat yellow pimple marks the point where the hypodermic needle was inserted.
February 4. — Swelling more prominent and better defined.
February 8. — A distinct abscess has formed on the side of the thigh.
February 10. — Pierced the abscess, as in the previous case, with a
sterile pipette. From the pus thus obtained the micrococcus was recovered
in pure culture.
Louping-lll in Slieep.
553
This micrococcus has characters which mark it out as a new
species. The single organisms are spherical, with a diameter of
about '3/j, but in the abscesses they are usually present in pairs or
in irregular groups. It grows rapidly at all temperatures between
70° and 100° F. On slanting agar tubes its cultures have a faint
yellow tinge, and the colour is deeper but the growth scantier in
the case of potato cultures. It rapidly liquefies gelatine, and
deposits at the bottom of the tube a nearly colourless precipitate.
When cultivated in milk the latter becomes coagulated. It excites
suppuration when injected under the skin of the rabbit or guinea-
pig, but only an inflammatory swelling, which disappears without
the formation of an abscess, in the horse and ox.
Pathology of Loupistg-Ill.
In the face of the experiments described above it will hardly be
doubted by anyone that the micrococcus was the actual cause of
disease in the cases in which it was found (II. and V.). In each of
these two cases, it will be remembered, there was discovered an
abscess, which apparently had its origin in one of the bones of the
vertebral column, but which involved also the coverings of the spinal
cord. The lambs suffered from paralysis, and the abscess in each case
offered a perfectly satisfactory explanation of this symptom. It is
true that in none of the animals subcutaneously inoculated with
cultures of the organism did paralysis set in, but that in no way
invalidates the claim that the disease excited by the injection of
the cultures and that present in the original lambs (Cases II. and Y.)
were identical in their nature. The paralysis in the natural cases
was in a sense an accident depending upon the situation of the
abscess, and it is not at all unlikely that cases perfectly identical as
regards their nature pass undetected or end in recovery when
the abscesses are situated in the muscular system, the lungs, the
spleen, or the liver. On the other hand, it is very probable that by
injecting cultures of this organism into the veins of young lambs, so
as to insure the transport of the germs by the blood stream, and
thus bring about a chance of their becoming arrested in one of the
bones of the spinal column, cases identical, as regards the symptoms,
with II. and V. would be produced.
In Case I. also, the paralysis was fully explained by the abscess
discovered in connexion with the spinal cord, and, although the
strict proof was not led, owing to the failui’e to cultivate the bacilli
present in the pus, it is hardly open to doubt that these bacilli were
the cause of the disease.
It may therefore be said that in twenty per cent, of the cases
examined, the. post-mortem examination afforded a complete explana-
tion of the symptoms, and showed that the disease was bacterial as
regards its cause. But in the remaining cases (with the exception
of Nos. VI. and XII. which were probably cases of the so-called
‘ sickness ’) the exact nature of the disease is not so clear.
In Cases IV. VII. XI. XIII. and XV. the fourth stomach
554
Louping-ill in Sheep.
contained a compact ball of wool and dried grass, and there is a strong
presumption that this was the cause of the illness. In the same
way it is probable that the sand found in the fourth stomach was
at the root of the mischief in Case X. At any rate, it ought to be
noted that no evidence was obtained from these cases to show that
the disease was transmissible by inoculation.
In Case III. the post-mortem revealed a variety of morbid con-
ditions, which in combination may have been accountable for the
symptoms exhibited.
In Cases VIII. IX. and XIY. it must be confessed that the
cause of the illness was not discovered. In two of these cases the
cei’ebro-spinal fluid was unusually abundant ; but in all three cases
inoculation experiments made with the fluid had a negative result.
From what has been said it must be evident to anyone that
the fifteen cases investigated by me in Northumberland were not
all of one disease, and the question arises, which of them were
cases of louping-ill 1 In one sense it may unhesitatingly be answered
that the whole fifteen were cases of louping-ill. The object of my
investigation was to discover the nature, and, if possible, the cause
of what passes under that name among sheep farmers and shepherds
in Northumberland, and every one of the fifteen cases was submitted
to me as a case of louping-ill. All the cases had been diagnosed as
examples of louping-ill by men of great experience, and, indeed, cases
which the post-mortem afterwards proved to be beyond any doubt
due to different diseases were presented as typical and unmistakable
examples of louping-ill.
This experience did not occasion me any surprise, as in previous
investigations conducted in Dumfriesshire and Galloway I had
found that the term louping-ill does not represent a well-defined
pathological entity, but really covers deaths from a variety of
causes.
It is a very noteworthy fact that almost all the earlier descrip-
tions of the disease should agree in according to it a remarkably
complex and variable train of symptoms. In illustration of that I
may quote the following account of the symptoms by Fair.1
“ On the animals being slightly attacked there is an evident falling off in
condition, and a dull heavy appearance, with deadness of coat. There is a
loss of power in one or more limbs, and sometimes of a whole side, or even
the whole animal, as if struck with palsy or tetanus, of both which diseases,
as well as apoplexy, it seems to participate in no slight degree ; the head
and neck being more or less frequently, according to the violence of the
attack, convulsively or spasmodically contracted or drawn towards the
shoulders or back, with a violent tremor or constriction of the oesophagus,
so as to endanger suffocation when any liquid, however small the quantity,
is attempted to be conveyed into the stomach. This is also much retarded,
or prevented from being accomplished, by a convulsive and spasmodic
locking of the jaw, a frothy saliva being at the same time emitted from the
mouth, more especially when the convulsive fits have come on, which, in
severe cases, frequently takes place from once to twice every five minutes,
1 The Veterinarian , Yol. xii. 1839,
Louping-Ill in Sheep.
555
accompanied by a very laborious and quick respiration. The hurried
breathing, however, subsides altogether as soon »s the tit has terminate d.
In this state the animal will remain tor hours or days, and if he does not
rally from it death, sooner or later, ensues. . . . Some lew instances, how-
ever, have occurred among my Hock when they have most unexpectedly
recovered, so as to again follow their neighbours and get entirely well,
and in other cases they have for a length of time dragged a seemingly
powerless hind leg behind them, and the left leg oftener than the right
one. When this, however, takes place, the limb still remains cold and
dead for a time in despite of the use of friction or stimulants. If it is
a fore-leg it is not uncommon, after the sheep gets on its feet again, for
a tumour of the size of a pigeon’s, or even of a hen’s egg, filled with
pus or ichor, to appear. On being punctured it presently subsides and is
lost. These abscesses usually appear in the neighbourhood of the joints ;
but sometimes about the arms, the brisket, or any' neighbouring part of the
body. Other symptoms of this disease are a wild excited appearance on
being approached by a man, dog, or any other animal, and even by one of
their own species ; a champing or gnashing of the teeth, and foaming at the
mouth while yet on their legs, accompanied by vertigo and delirium, also
the assuming of a rotatory or sidelong motion. . . . In this complaint there
is also not unfrequently, when they have taken the ground, a great
appearance of sickness. The animal likewise exhibits great restlessness
and anxiety, mingled with debility — he trembles and tosses his limb3 about,
as if enduring great pain. At this time there is also less of involuntary
tremor and convulsive twitchings than at other stages of the disease ; and
it seems as if the seat of the complaint was in the thoracic or abdominal
viscera. ... In fact, the disease does occasionally assume so many' different
forms, although each is more or less connected and allied with the other,
that the most skilled veterinary practitioners may for a while be puzzled to
say whether it is most akin to tetanus, apoplexy, or palsy.”
At the present day no one with any pathological knowledge can
read the last sentence quoted without a suspicion that Fair described
not one but several different morbid conditions, for the history of
veterinary pathology’ warns the student to be on his guard whenever
he reads that a disease whose cause is not certainly known assumes
many different forms. This tendency to describe diseases as assuming
many different forms has been a fruitful source of error, and the
reason is obvious. While the pathology of a disease — that is, its
real nature and cause — is still unknown, its definition must rest
mainly on a description of its symptoms and lesions, and in such a
case it is quite unwarrantable to regard entirely different sets of
symptoms and lesions as manifestations of the same disease. For
example, when Fair wrote that louping-ill occasionally assumes
many different forms he made an assumption not warranted by his
knowledge, and he would no doubt have been puzzled to say why he
preferred to believe that the many different forms were varying
manifestations of one disease rather than so many different diseases.
At the present day, both in England and in Scotland, shepherds
appear, like Fair, to regard louping-ill as a disease that assumes
many different forms, for during the month of April and May they
call every case of illness in the flock louping-ill when the subject of
it is found paralysed or unable to stand, and this quite independent
556
Louping-ill in Sheep.
of whether a previous convulsion or tetanic stage has been observed
or not. The result, as might have been expected, is that when a
series of cases of so-called louping-ill are submitted to the test of
post-mortem examination, they have to be sorted out under several
different headings, and the confusion in the matter is so great that
one has difficulty in determining which of the morbid conditions
should have the term louping-ill reserved for it.
Without attempting to decide which of them has the best claim
to the name, I feel warranted in saying that the following are the
principal morbid conditions at the present time grouped under the
head of louping-ill : —
1. Pyiemic spinal meningitis, caused by pyogenic bacteria.
2. Gastritis and enteritis from indigestible substances (wool,
sand, dried grass) in the stomach or intestines.
3. Disorders of brain functions, paralysis, and general weakness,
with, in some cases, excess of cerebro-spinal fluid in the cranial
cavity, but without gross lesions in any of the organs of the body.
The first two of these conditions cover most of the cases of
louping-ill in lambs, and the third includes the bulk of the cases in
adult sheep. The cause or causes of the last of these groups of cases
have not yet been satisfactorily determined, but all the experiments
hitherto made indicate that these cases are not bacterial or trans-
missible by inoculation.
Prevention.
1. Pijcemic spinal meningitis. — This includes those cases of
louping-ill in which the essential lesion is an abscess involving the
spinal cord or its coverings.
Before discussing the possibility of preventing cases of this kind,
it will be necessary to make further reference to the cause of the
disease. The abscesses owe their origin to the presence of germs,
and before anyone can confidently say whether it would be possible
to devise and carry out measures that would prevent the entrance
of these germs into the system of the sheep, he must be able to
figure to himself the natural mode of infection, and the habit of the
parasite.
The common methods by which disease-producing germs obtain
access to the animal body are : —
1. The alimentary canal, with the food or water.
2. The air passages, with the inspired air.
3. Wounds or abrasions of the skin.
4. The umbilicus or navel (during the first few days of life only).
In infection by inhalation, especially in diseases characterised
by pronounced lesions (such as abscesses), the lungs or their
lymphatic glands are almost always the seat of disease, and, in like
manner, structural alterations of some part of the alimentary tube
or its associated glands are generally present when the disease germs
have been taken in with the food or water. In the cases of pyamiic
meningitis in lambs that have come under my notice no abscesses
Louping-ill in Sheep.
557
were present in connexion with the respiratory organs, and it is
therefore probable that the inhaled air was not the carrier of the
infection. The possibility of infection by means of germs taken in
with the food or water cannot be so certainly excluded, for although
no abscesses were discovered in connexion with the alimentary
tube, some were present in the liven
Both in England and in Scotland, there is in louping-ill districts
a very general belief among farmers and shepherds that ticks are
somehow concerned in the production of the disease, and, assuming
what I shall subsequently show to be probable, viz., that the germs
which are responsible for the formation of the abscesses are soil
organisms, it is not by any means a far-fetched idea that ticks may
sometimes be the instruments of infection. Indeed, Case I., in which
the pus that had formed around the point of attachment of the
tick to the skin contained a bacillus morphologically similar to
that present in the spinal abscess, is strongly suggestive of this
view.
Infection by means of the umbilicus or navel is a comparatively
common occuri’ence in the young of all the domesticated animals,
but this method of infection is usually easy of detection at the 'post-
mortem, owing to the presence of suppuration or some other form
of inflammation at the navel itself, or along the course of the vessels
that pass backwards and forwards from it inside the body. As pre-
viously stated, special attention was given to these parts in all the
lambs examined, but in every case the navel was perfectly healed
up, and its vessels appeared quite normal.
Coming next to discuss the probable habit of life of the germs
concerned in louping-ill, it would be all-important if one could state
whether they belong to the class of obligatory, or to that of
facultative, parasites — to know, in other words, whether pysemic
meningitis is a contagious disease or not, for, be it observed, there
are many germ diseases, such as tetanus, actinomycosis, and black-
quarter, that are neither contagious nor infectious in the ordinary
sense of these words. These are the diseases whose germs ordinarily
live and propagate outside the animal body in soil or water, and are
only occasionally, and in a manner accidentally, the cause of disease,
while the strictly contagious diseases, such as glanders and swine
fever, are caused by germs which in natural circumstances never
propagate except in the bodies of animals.
There need be no hesitation in venturing the opinion that none
of the forms of louping-ill is contagious. The fact that the
disease is only met with in the spring months, and that it is not
already diffused over the whole country, but is still obstinately
attached to particular districts, and even to particular tracts of
unfenced moor or hill, is wholly inconsistent with the view that
contagion plays any part in its development. The only assumption
that is in keeping with the known facts regarding the occurrence of
the disease (pysemic meningitis) is that it is caused by germs that
are normal inhabitants of the soil. It is probable that there are
• certain districts in which these germs are present at all seasons of
558 Louping-ill in Sheep.
the year, and in numbers that would make any attempt to destroy
them utterly futile.
If future investigations should confirm the suspicion that ticks
are instrumental in infecting the lambs, it is possible that something
in the way of prevention might be done, by dipping or smearing of
the young lambs with some substance that would prevent the tick s
from attaching themselves. On the other hand, if infection takes
place by way of the alimentary canal or the navel, it is difficult to
imagine a feasible method of prevention.
2. Indigestible substances in the stomach or intestines. — The
post-mortem examinations which I made in Northumberland appear
to indicate that in a considerable proportion of the cases diagnosed
as louping-ill in lambs the illness is caused by the ingestion of
such matters as dried grass, wool, and sand. In the cases in which
the presence of grass and wool in the fourth stomach was noted,
these substances were compacted together into a ball-like mass,
which in some instances was as large as a hen’s egg. It appears
probable that the lambs, having reached the age at which they
naturally begin to eat grass, ingest the dried stems simply from
lack of a more succulent herbage, and it is plausible to suppose
that this in large measure is the explanation of the statement that
louping-ill attacks the most thriving lambs (which would be the
first to take to eating grass) and is most prevalent in cold backward
springs (which retard the growth of the young grass). It is no easy
matter to suggest a feasible method of averting the danger, since in
practice it would hardly be possible either to eat the pasture so bare
as to leave none of the withered grasses over the winter, or to remove
the young lambs to succulent pasture before they begin to take to
solid food.
If, as seems not improbable, the wool which is found mixed with
the dried grass in the fourth stomach is pulled from the neighbour-
hood of the udder during the lamb’s efforts to seize the teat, some-
thing in the way of preventing this might be done by clipping the
long wool from the mammary gland and its neighbourhood at
lambing time. This operation — the so-called “ udder-locking ” —
was, I believe, at one time more frequently practised than it is at
the present day.
Previous Investigations.
By way of conclusion I may briefly indicate the results obtained
by others who have recently investigated this disease.
In the year 1879, the Teviotdale Farmers’ Club appointed a
committee to investigate the cause of louping-ill, and in the follow-
ing year the committee published its report. The report is interest-
ing chiefly on account of the extraordinarily discrepant views
quoted in it regarding the symptoms and cause of the disease,
and the conditions under which it manifests itself. No one can
read the report without feeling that much of the difference of
Louping-ill in Sheep.
559
opinion summarised in it is due to the fact that several different
diseases were described under the term louping-ill by the persons
whom the committee consulted. The inquiries of the committee
were mainly directed towards throwing light on the alleged r6le
of ticks, and of ergot or other fungi in the herbage, as causes of
the disease, but the report admits that the results of the inquiry
were “ more negative than positive.” Mr. Brotherston, who made
a list of the flora of certain louping-ill farms in Upper Teviotdale,
discovered ergot on no fewer than twenty-three specimens of grasses,
and the late Professor Robertson (then resident at Kelso) therefore
thought it not unnatural to regard louping-ill as a form of “ spas-
modic ergotism,” but in experiments which the committee made
with ergot of rye on five sheep “the results were disappointing,”
as the only effect produced was scouring.
As regards the tick theory, the committee ascertained that, while
in most cases ticks were found where the disease prevailed, this was
not universally the case, and they found it difficult to believe that
the effect of the ticks could be more than indirect, “ either as carriers
of the poison or as exhausting the stamina of the sheep and making
them more liable to disease.”
The Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for
1883 contain a report by a special committee on Louping-ill and
Braxy. Mr. Brotherston, who at the instance of the committee,
visited infected farms in Dumfriesshire, Roxburghshire, and Selkirk-
shire, found that the prevalence of louping-ill was “ in proportion to
the quantity of old withered grasses left from the previous year’s
growth.” The committee ascertained that ticks might exist without
louping-ill, and they were informed that louping-ill occurred without
ticks, but, as regards the latter statement, they remarked that
perhaps the disease referred to was not “ true louping-ill.” By way of
prevention, the committee recommended (1) direct improvement of
hill pastures, and (2) indirect improvement by keeping down rank
and excessive vegetation.
Professor Williams, who was a member of the above committee
appointed by the Highland and Agricultural Society, sent in a
special report, in which he claimed to have discovered the cause of
louping-ill. At the post-mortem examination of sheep killed while
suffering from this disease, Professor Williams found a jelly-like
substance lying external to the dura mater (the outermost covering
of the spinal cord), and he regarded this as a zooglcea formation
or mycelial growth. From the spinal fluid and from the blood in
such cases cultures were made, and one of the organisms thus
obtained — a bacillus — was regarded as the cause of the disease,
though this conclusion was not supported by any experiment to show
that the disease was transmissible by inoculation with either the
jelly-like substance or the bacillus cultivated from it.
Professor Williams’s cultivation experiments were made with
such obvious disregard of the precautions necessary in bacteriological
560
Louping-ill in Sheep.
investigations as to render his conclusions quite untrustworthy, and
there can be little doubt that the jelly-like substance which he
described as a mycelial growth was simply the adipose tissue that
normally exists between the dura mater and the bones of the spinal
canal.
In Part Til. Vol. IV. of this Journal (1893) there was published
(pp. 625-36) a report on the Etiology and Pathology of Louping-ill
by Dr. Klein, and special interest attaches to this, as Dr. Klein’s in-
vestigations were made almost simultaneously with my own, and in
the same district. Like some other reports on the same subject, Dr.
Klein’s account of the pathology of louping-ill is vitiated by failure
to recognise that the name covers a variety of diseases. He made
post-mortem examinations of eleven sheep and six lambs, but,
unfortunately, he does not describe the symptoms exhibited in each
separate case, and his account of the lesions is given in such a form
as to make it impossible to strictly compare his results with my own.
A most remarkable point in connexion with Dr. Klein’s post-
mortem examinations is that he does not appear to have made it a
rule to examine the spinal cord, for whereas he mentions all the
other principal organs of the body, if only to state that they were
normal, the spinal cord is not once referred to. On the other hand,
he found the most constant lesions in the brain, and next after that,
in the lungs, heart, pericardium — organs that were certainly normal
in appearance in most of the cases examined by me. Dr. Klein
cultivated a variety of microbes from the fluids or tissues of diseased
sheep, but he failed to prove that any of these were causally
related to louping-ill ; indeed, the latter statement might be put
more strongly, for the two experiments which he made with the
microbe that was most frequently encountered, furnish strong
evidence that this germ is not the cause of louping-ill.
J. McFadyf.an.
Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W.
561
Hotes, Communications, anb
IReviews.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE BRITISH BREEDS
OF CATTLE.
[During the Meeting of the Society at Cambridge this year Professor
McKenny Hughes, F.R.S., exhibited at the Woodwardian Museum a
series of skulls and horn-cores arranged to illustrate the origin of
the dominant breeds of cattle during successive periods of English
history, and he has very kindly furnished for publication the
following note on the collection. — Ed.]
In the inferences drawn as to the evolution of the British breeds
of oxen, chief importance is attached to the results of excavations.
If certain forms of skull and skeleton have been found associated
with other fossils, with coins, or with pottery of known age, such
positive evidence may be safely relied upon, provided the excavations
have been watched by careful and competent observers. The
negative evidence also is of increasing value as observations are
repeated and extended, until it may often be safely urged that, as
certain forms of horn and skull have never been, they are not likely
ever to be found associated, with remains of a certain age in this
country.
The skull of a Bison, which had been found in the river gravels
a few miles from Cambridge, was placed first in the collection
made at the Woodwardian Museum on the occasion of the Society’s
recent visit. This animal, like the American bison, which was
commonly, but improperly, called a buffalo, was fine-boned in the
limb, but ponderous in the head and in the muscular and bony
arrangements for supporting it. Its skull was easily distinguished
by the protuberant ridge between the horns, the large angle which
the forehead makes with the occipital region, and the very forward
position of the base of the horn-cores. This species lasted through
the time when man used rough unpolished stone implements, but has
not been found in Britain with the remains of the men of the
polished stone age.
Next in order came the Urns, or Bos primigenius, which is
first found with the bison in the ancient river terraces. It lived
od, after the bison had become extinct, throughout the age of
Neolithic man, who certainly hunted it. This is proved by a very
interesting skull which was found in the Fen north of Cambridge,
562
The Evolution of the British Breeds of Cattle.
with a polished stone implement sticking in the forehead, having
been poleaxed, perhaps, when mired. The skull of this species
is quite different from that of the bison. The forehead and
occipital region are inclined to each other at an acute angle ;
there is no protuberance between the horns, but the sweep of
the base of the horn-cores is prolonged across the ridge between
them. The forehead is flat or slightly concave, and the horn-cores
bend first out, then forward and downward, and finally the points
approach one another with an upward curve. This was a very
large animal ; the skull of one of them measured thirty-six inches in
length, and the form is so well marked that it is not likely that it
could have been overlooked if come across in any excavations.
But there is no record of the TJrus having been found in Britain
associated with Roman objects or any remains that would show that
it lived on later, at any rate, than the bronze age.
With the TJrus , however, there appeared a small ox, known
as Bos longifrons or brachyceros. It was about the size of a
Kerry cow, had small horns sharply curved forward, and a
considerably elevated ridge between them. This was the ox which
the Romans found in Britain. Their middens are full of its bones.
Mr. Ernest Clarke was good enough to lend me for exhibition some
specimens of the young of this breed, which were dug up about 1863
from a foundation in London Wall, and are now in the possession of
the Royal Agricultural Society.
When, however, we come upon a station where the Romans had
long resided, in a settled district where agriculture and the im-
provement of the cattle could be attended to, we find that this small
breed had been modified — not superseded by the introduction of a
different breed and the disappearance of the native cattle — but
improved by crossing the native breed with the new stock, for
specimens intermediate in form and size occur among them.
Now comes the interesting question, What was the new
breed with which Bos longifrons was crossed by the Romans 1 It
cannot have been the great Urus, for that had been long exter-
minated in Britain, and, even if there had been any of that breed
available, it would not account for the modifications we observe in
the improved breed, the head of which is not relatively so long,
and the horns of which turn outward and upward ; whereas the
TJrus is distinguished by exactly the opposite characters. It seems
natural, therefore, ‘ to inquire what was the form of the ox which
the Romans themselves bred at home, and probably imported
into their provinces. Turning to the contemporary sculpture and
coinage of Rome we find exactly what is required ; an animal of
medium size with upturned horns, which we know from Roman
authors was generally fulvous or black, while, sporadically, white
individuals appeared, and these were then, as among some races at
the present day, much prized.
The Roman cattle now referred to have nothing to do with the
great Podolian breed, but must have been in form not unlike the
modern Ayrshire. The white individuals were wanted for sacri-
The Evolution of the British Breeds of Cattle.
563
ficial purposes, and, having down to the middle ages a greater
market value they were kept apart. It is probable that all important
establishments, whether ecclesiastical or feudal, had their own herd,
which was kept within enclosures. Perhaps some of their de-
scendants remain at Chillingham and, with a stronger German cross,
at Chartley, The form of the Urus is well known, and so is that of
the Chillingham breed, but there is little resemblance between
them ; while, in form, the Chillingham and the Highland cattle can
hardly be distinguished.
From the Celtic Shorthorn and the cattle introduced by the
Romans came all our earlier breeds. Then followed the time after
the Roman legionaries had been withdrawn, when smaller or
larger bands of Saxons, of Angles, J utes, and Danes, arriving from
time to time, kept the country in such an unsettled state that
cattle breeding was impossible, and the country was unsafe for any
but those who lived in strongholds. The herds roamed over wide
tracts of country, and as there was no selection, there was, of
coui'se, a reversion to the numerically predominating native type.
So among the hundreds of horn-cores found associated with medi-
aeval remains in the eleventh- and thirteenth-century ditches round
Cambridge we notice very little deviation from the form of Bos
longifrons. In the refuse of Roman or early mediaeval age we find
no remains of longhorned cattle. But in later mediaeval times
large cattle were introduced from the Low Countries, and soon
modified the stock in all the southern and eastern counties, being
crossed with the native breeds, which had retained in one place more
of the type of the Celtic Shorthorn, and in another more of the
character of the Roman breed. The specimens of the horn-cores
of longhorn cattle which were exhibited were given to me by Mr.
Francis C. A. Barclay, who procured them from a drain, which was
inferred to have been made about 200 years ago on his father’s
property at Forest House, near Epping Forest.
What the origin of the German Longhorns was, and whether
we can find traces of Bos frontosus being brought in by the
Scandinavian invaders, would take us beyond the scope of our pre-
sent inquiry.
The conclusions arrived at, briefly stated,1 differ from those
usually received, in that it is considered as proved that the Urus is
not the progenitor of any of the native breeds ; that the White
Park cattle are not a true breed, and not derived from any native
wild breed ; that the influence of the Roman introduced cattle was
considerable ; that the real basis of our English cattle is to be found
in the Celtic Shorthorn, which was first modified by the Roman
cattle with upturned horn ; then after mediaeval reversion to the
longifrons type, of different extent in different districts, was again
modified by the introduction of German slouching Longhorns.
T. McKenny Hughes.
Cambridge.
1 For fuller discussion of the question see Proo. Soc. Ant., London,
June 14, 1894.
564
The Agricultural Holdings Act.
THE AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS ACT.
Meaning of “ Determination of Tenancy.”
In the first volume of the current series of the Journal 1 1 drew
attention to three cases, one English and the others Scotch, hearing
upon the subject of the determination of farm tenancies, which, as
I then pointed out, appeared to be of importance to landlords and
tenants of agricultural land in both countries, not only because the
words “ determination of the tenancy” are used in the same context
in both the English and Scotch Agricultural Holdings Acts, but also
because in both countries farm tenancies often come to an end as
regards part of a farm at one period of the year, and as regards
other part or parts of it at another or others. By the first section
of each Agricultural Holdings Act a tenant who has made on his
holding any of the scheduled improvements is entitled to obtain
from the landlord compensation for the same “ on quitting his
holding at the determination of a tenancy ; ” and by Section 7 of
each Act the tenant is required, “ two months at least before the
determination of the tenancy ” in the case of English holdings,
and “ four months at least before the determination of the tenancy ”
in the case of Scotch holdings, to give notice in writing to his
landlord of his intention to make a claim for compensation. In the
English case, which I reported in 1S90, the Queen’s Bench Division of
the High Court of Justice in England, and in the first of the two
Scotch cases, which I reported at the same time, the Court of
Sessions in Scotland, decided that the words “ determination of the
tenancy ” in Section 7 of each of the Acts meant the time when
a total determination of the tenancy took place, and not the time
when the greater part of the farm (1,000 acres out of 1,200) in the
English case, or the arable part of the farm in the Scotch case,
was given up. The principle of these decisions has recently been
held to be correct by the judgment of the House of Lords — which
I may perhaps remind readers of the Journal is the ultimate
Court of Appeal alike for England and Scotland — in a case in
which James R. Black was appellant and John Clay respondent ;
and as that case, though coming from Scotland, has, in effect, settled
the point of law in both countries, it has been deemed expedient
that a note of it should appear in these pages.2
Mr. Clay, it appeared, was tenant of a farm in Berwickshire
under a lease for nineteen years, which commenced in 1860. The
term of nineteen years was extended for thirteen years beyond
that period, and the provisions in the lease were made to apply to
such extended term. Now the lease provided that the farm was
thereby let “ for the space of nineteen years from and after the
entry of the said John Clay, which, notwithstanding the date or
1 Vol. I. (Part I.), 3rd Series, 1890, p. 204.
2 Black v. Clay, reported in the Weekly Notes for 1894, p. 120.
The Agricultural Holdings Act.
565
dates hereof, is declared to be to the houses (with the exceptions
aftermentioned), grass and fallow lands on May 26, 1860 ; to the
arable land in corn crop at the separation of the crop of the same
year from the ground ; and to the barns and barnyard and two
cothouses at Whitsunday 1861, from these periods respectively to
be possessed by the said John Clay during the space above
written.”
In May 1891 Mr. Black, who was the owner of the farm,
obtained a decree ordering Mr. Clay to remove (following the stipu-
lations in the lease) from the houses, grass and fallow lands at the
term of Whitsunday 1892 ; from the arable land at the separation
of the crop of the same year from the ground ; and from the barns
and barnyard and two cothouses at Whitsunday 1893.
Mr. Clay accordingly quitted possession of the houses, with the
exception of the barns, barnyard and two cothouses, and also of
the grass and fallow lands at the term of Whitsunday 1892 (May
1892), and on June 6th following he gave Mr. Black notice of a
claim for compensation for improvements under the provisions of
the abovementioned Section 7 of the Scotch Act. Mr. Clay’s next
step was to apply to the Sheriff of the County under the Scotch
Amendment Act 1889 (which has made the proceedings in Scotland
for the appointment of the tribunal to assess the compensation much
simpler than the proceedings in Scotch cases originally were and
than the proceedings in English cases still are), to appoint a compe-
tent and impartial person to be the referee. Mr. Black thereupon
commenced an action for an interdict or injunction to restrain all
further proceedings towards the assessment of compensation, upon
the ground that the notice served upon him was not in time
within the meaning of the aforesaid seventh section ; his contention
being that the lease determined at Whitsunday 1892, when Mr.
Clay ceased to hold the gi'ass and fallow lands, and that Mr. Clay’s
subsequent possession of the arable land was not a possession as
tenant, but only a privilege accorded to one whose tenancy was
already at an end.
The Courts of First Instance and of Appeal in Scotland having
decided adversely to Mr. Black, and refused to stop the proceedings
for assessing compensation, Mr. Black appealed to the House of
Lords, and that House, on June 22 of the present year, unani-
mously affirmed the decision appealed from.
In the course of his judgment the Lord Chancellor (Lord
Herschell) is reported to have said : —
“ It appears impossible to avoid the conclusion that, as to the
barns, barnyard, and cothouses, a tenancy is created a year later,
and terminates a year later than the tenancy of the grass lands :
and if there be a separate ish 1 or determination of the tenancy as
to these, how could the lease be construed otherwise than as creating
a tenancy in the arable lands which is to continue until the ‘separa-
1 “ Ish ” is a Scotch law term which is equivalent to the English expression,
termination of a lease or tenancy.
VOL. V. T. S. — 19 ” P P
566
The Agricultural Holdings Act.
tion of the crop ’ after the term of Whitsunday 1 The words of the
demise are the same with regard to all three subjects, which are to
be possessed for the space of nineteen years from the periods named
respectively.” For these reasons his Lordship came to the conclusion
that the contention that under the lease there was but one “ ish,”
namely, as from Whitsunday when the tenancy of the grass land
came to an end, could not be supported.
Lord Watson also gave judgment to the same effect. He
said : — That the contract embodied in the lease made effectual
provision for three terms of entry, and three terms of “ ish,” in
regard to different portions of the subjects let ; and that, until the
arrival of each term of “ish,” a proper right of tenancy existed,
with respect to such part of the subjects let as the tenant was
bound to quit possession of at that term. That the “separation
of the crops ” ought to be read as signifying the term of Martinmas
(11th November), the two being in popular language and legal effect
equivalent expressions when they occur in a Scotch lease. That the
expression “determination of a tenancy,” in Secs. 2 and 7 of the
statute, referred to the time when the tenant finally gave up
possession of the subjects which in the statute are described as his
“holding.” A holding which entitles the tenant to the benefit of
the provisions of the statute must, according to Sec. 35 of the
Scotch Act (Sec. 54 of the English Act), be either wholly agricultural
or wholly pastoral, or in part agricultural and as to the residue
pastoral. Mr. Clay’s holding, in so far as it consisted of lands in
crop after Whitsunday 1892, was agricultural, and that was sufficient
for the disposal of the appeal.
In the subsequent part of his judgment Lord Watson dealt
with the further point, to which I alluded in the second of the
Scotch cases which I reported in 1890, namely, whether the
principle above enunciated applies to the case — so very common by
custom in England — where the outgoing tenant has the right to use
the barns and other farm buildings, or part of them, for some time
after the period at which he gives up possession of the lands of the
farm. On this point his Lordship is reported to have said that
he entertained serious doubts whether, after Mr. Clay’s removal in
the autumn of 1892, that gentleman remained in possession of any
holding within the meaning of the Act, for his Lordship was of
opinion that the bare possession of a barn, barnyard, and two
cothouses, unconnected with any land either pastoral or agri-
cultural, was not a possession of a holding recognised by the Act.
This latter part of Lord Watson’s judgment, it will be noticed,
confirmed the decision of the Sheriff of Aberdeenshire in the second
Scotch case which I reported in 1890 ; and as the reasons for the
judgment would be similar in cases of farms in England, it is only
reasonable to infer that our English Courts would decide this point
in the same way if it should come before them.
This case of Black v. Clay is, I believe, the first that has been
taken up to the House of Lords under either the English or the
Scotch Agricultural Holdings Act ; and it occurs somewhat oppor-
The Agricultural Holdings Act.
507
tunely in support of the concluding paragraph of the last case I
reported for the Journal (see ante, p. 359), for the limitation of the
right of appeal is as strong in the Scotch as in the English Act —
perhaps stronger : “ The decision of the Sheriff on appeal shall be
final " (Sec. 20 of the Scotch Act).
S. B. L. Druce.
9 Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
A FUNGUS ON BUTTER.
A piece of butter, taken from one of the samples exhibited at
Cambridge, was submitted to me for examination by Professor
Carroll. It weighed about ^ oz., and displayed six dark-brown
circular specks, averaging 2'5 mm. in diameter. Under a low
power they were seen to consist of felted masses of brown branching
filaments, each divided by closely recurring transverse septa into
small, square compartments, many of which showed a tendency to
sprout somewhat after the manner of yeast-cells. The lateral pro-
longations thus formed were cut off by septa from the mother-cell
and were of a darker brown. Older specimens of these laterally
budded-off spoi-es became multiseptate from intercalation of trans-
verse partition- walls, or spuriously so from formation of fresh buds
at the apex. Many of the cells were almost wholly filled by a
shining globule.
The condition above described (figs. 1 and 2) is identical with
Fig. 1.— Mycelium of Dematium. Form on butter, showing Fig. 2.— Spore-chain on
chlamydo-spore formation, anil development of secondary butter. ( x 2U0.)
spores by budding. ( x 20U.)
Dematium pullulans, De By., and is to be looked upon as an imper-
fect state of some Spliserioid Pyrenomycete. It is hardly possible
to state what is the precise species, for there is no doubt that many
sphieriaceous fungi assume in their imperfect stage forms indis-
tinguishable from Dematium pullulans. Thus, Brefeld has shown
that Sphairulina intermixfa, a species occurring on rose-twUs,
possesses an imperfect form identical with the Dematium in question.
He considers the close segmentation of the brown mycelium to be
chlamydo-spore formation, and points out that the individual seg-
ments or chlamydo-spores reproduce themselves like yeasts by
sprouting. Such spores are frequently to be met with as unbidden
guests in beer-wort, where they vie with the true yeasts in un-
bounded power of prolification, and are one of the causes of viscidity.
In order to ascertain something of the life history of this fungus,
v p 2
568
A Fungus on Butler.
I planted some spores on sterilised slices of potato, on drops of sterile
nutrient gelatine, and on filter-paper that had been moistened with
sterile broth. All these substrata were kept damp, and sheltered
Fio. 3. — Low power view of part of gelatine
colony. ( x about 80.)
Fie. 4.— Diagrammatic view of branching
system of fungus grown on gelatine.
from contamination, in a moist chamber. Germination occurred on
all three media with great rapidity, and in a few days the site of
inoculation was covered with a dense mass of dark-brown mould-
growth. The gelatine culture being on a slide
| had only to be placed under the microscope, when
the following details were at once made out (figs.
3, 4, 5). The youngest portions of the hyphse,
spread out a long distance into the gelatine, were
colourless and septate only at lengthy intervals.
Passing inwards towards the centre of the colony
the hyphse gradually assumed an olive hue, and
gave off aerial branches, many of which ended in
spore-chains. Several rather lengthy, often some-
what echinulate, basidial cells were produced close
together from the end of the filament, and each
bore a string of ovate spores which were distinctly
beaked at each end so as to look like a somewhat
loosely strung chaplet. The older spores were often
uniseptate. Many of them had budded and thus
given rise to secondary spore- chains. I observed
a single basidial cell bear two distinct sterigmata,
each of which gave rise to a distinct spore-chain.
Another curious feature was that the basidial
cells were articulated to the hyphse by two points,
one at each side of their basal end. Between these
two points there was a concavity of the basal
end. The spore-bearing hyphse are often produced as lateral off-
shoots of submersed hyphse.
The central part of the culture-spot is quite opaque, from the
Fig. 5. — Portion of fig.
3 showing the con.
ncxion between the
spores. (x250.)
A Fungus on Butter.
o 60
close massing together of the dark-brown spore-chains. Many of
the submersed hyplne do not throw off aerial branches, but, instead,
exhibit a tendency to close transverse septation — Brefeld’s chlamydo-
spore formation.
A distinguished botanical authority, to whom I submitted a cul-
tivation, identified it as typical Cladosporium herbarum , Lk. It
appears to me, however, to differ in several notable respects from the
descriptions of that ubiquitous form as given by Cooke, Massee,
and Saccardo. On the other hand, Corda figures in his leones
Fungorum a “ Penicillium Olivaceum ,” which is very near the speci-
men I have under my eyes, but which I have been unable to trace
in the more modern books. Its specific name would now ensure its
exclusion from Penicillium. In his Mykologische Uhtersuchungen ,
Bd. X., Taf. VI., f. 40, Brefeld depicts a brown mould almost iden-
tical with mine, which he has traced to Sphcerella punctiformxs.
Whatever be the exact botanical position of this organism, I
think there can be little doubt that it belongs to the developmental
cycle of one or other of the Pyrenomycetes that infest the wood used
for making butter-boxes. Some months ago I was requested by a
leading box-manufacturer in Dublin to ascertain the nature of cer-
tain black spots on the interior of deal boxes used for packing butter.
I found the spots to consist of a fungal development almost identical
with that which I now describe as occurring on butter. It seems
natural to suppose that the spores still present on the imperfectly
seasoned planks may be induced to develop by the moisture exuding
from the butter. Inasmuch as parchment paper is generally inter-
posed between the wood and the butter, one must suppose that
either a solution of continuity takes place in the paper, or that the
fungal hyplne grow through it on to the butter — a by no means
unwarranted supposition, for damp paper is a happy hunting-ground
for the botanist on the look out for both Mucedines and Dematiei.
Should this occurrence of brown mould on butter become un-
pleasantly frequent, then it might be necessary to suggest some
means of keeping it in check. By selecting for boxes only such
wood as is carefully seasoned ; by brushing over the interior of the
boxes with some harmless antiseptic, such as boracic acid or boro
glyceride, and treating the paper in the same way ; and, lastly, by
avoiding the introduction of superfluous moisture with the butter
and ensuring closeness and uniformity of packing, the desired end
may, I believe, be readily accomplished.
Edmond J. McWeeney.
Bacteriological Laboratory,
Albert Farm, Glasnevin, Dublin.
WHEAT, SHEEP, AND CATTLE IN 1894.
The issue by the Board of Agriculture, at an earlier date than
usual, of certain sections of the Agricultural Returns of Great
Britain, renders available a series of figures which, though interest-
570
Wheat, Sheep , and Cattle in 1894.
ing at any time, are specially valuable at this period of the year.
The “ preliminary statement ” given on pp. 583-84 differs from that
which has hitherto been published at so early a date in setting forth
for the first time the figures as to hay.
Table I. — Areas of Wheat, Potato, and Hay Crops, and Numbers
of Cattle, Sheep, and Piys in 1894 and in 1893.
Crops
England
Wales
Scotland
Great Britain
WHEAT. .
acres
1,826,620
1,798,869
acres
56,470
54,562
acres
44,866
44,093
acres
1,927,962
1,897,524
Increase in 1894 .
27,757
1,908
773
30,438
POTATOES . . |
340,557
355,553
34,038
35,024
129,859
137,244
504,454
527,821
Decrease in 1894 .
14,996
986
7,385
23,367
HAY from CLO-")
VER and ROTA- } i oqo
TION GRASS .J 6
1,558,799
1,496,467
170,135
168,403
392,970
382,138
2,121,904
2,047,008
Increase in 1894 .
62,332
1,732
10,832
74,896
HAY from PER- f 1894
MANENT GRASS! 1893
4,178,720
3,006,918
510,049
499,009
163,073
164,553
4,852,442
4,270,480
Increase ( + ) or De- j
crease ( — ) in 1894. . J
+ 571,802
+ 11,040
-1,480
+ 581,962
Live Stock
f 1 ^Q-t
CATTLE (of allages) j Jggg
No.
4,450,607
4,744,059
No.
695.000
738,608
No.
1,201,506
1,218,009
No.
6,347,113
6,700,676
Decrease in 1894.
293,452
43,608
16,503
353,563
SHEEP (of all ages) | ^
15,509,995
16,805,280
3,078,641
3,101,890
7.272,864
7,373,164
25,861,500
27,280,334
Decrease in 1894 .
1,295,285
23,249
100,300
1,418,834
PIGS (of all ages) . j J°gg
2,013,823
1,793,456
227,608
200,676
148,535
119,398
2,390,026
' 2,113,530
Increase in 1894 .
220,367
26,992
29,137
276,496
A still greater advance has been made by the issue, in September,
of further details relating to the wheat, potato, and hay crops, and
to cattle, sheep, and pigs. From these figures Table I. has been
compiled. It shows that the wheat crop and the hay crop from
571
Wheat, Sheep, and Cattle in 1894.
temporary grassland both extended their areas in 1894 as compared
with 1893, alike in England, Wales, and Scotland ; that permanent
Table II. — Acreages of Wheat, and Numbers of Sheep and Cattle,
in each County of England, as on June 4, 1894.
Wheat
Sheep
Cattle
County
1894
Increase
( + ) or de-
crease ( — )
ou 1893
1894
I Increase
( + ) or de-
crease (— )
on 1893
1894
Decrease
on 18U3
Bedford ,
acres
40,016
+
acres
4,158
No.
100,411
1 No.
- 19,164
No.
30,772
No.
4,680
Berks .
38,867
+
371
182.334
- 31,000
38,003
6,368
Buckingham
38,383
+
2,736
188,53f
- 30,845
66,770
7,304
Cambridge .
96,658
—
1,783
209,929
- 29,015
49,379
6,413
Chester . .
12,621
+
2,471
78,541
- 18,977
169,618
7,661
Cornwall .
27,679
+
420
415,031
- 30,701
190,749
10,509
Cumberland
4,510
+
502
520,811
10,732
138,118
1,762
Derby . .
14,581
+
1,301
186,188
- 23,939
141,010
8,918
Devon .
62,901
+
724
868.708
— 50,450
264,969
8,014
Dorset . , .
21,657
-
1,074
383,693
- 26,441
79,955
3,614
Durham .
16,306
+
2,969
217.788
- 10,060
71,899
72,932
330
Essex . .
124,592
49,384
+
6,405
276,269
- 54,346
13,820
Gloucester .
—
1,185
o3o,8oo
- 4G.170
108,506
13,698
Hants
63,603
—
2,380
385,133
- 9,055
74,979
6,189
Hereford .
28,291
-
131
309,441
- 29,118
89,934
4,775
Hertford
52,415
+
3,732
1 15,474
- 27,202
30,051
7,022
Huntingdon .
32,669
+
2,174
104,581
- 7,249
30,841
2,458
Kent . .
57,927
+
4,901
899,374
- 76,579
65,071
12,181
Lancaster .
17,356
+
2,680
808,264
- 8 692
225,439
11,393
Leicester
23,213
+
017
307,853
- 34,661
133,178
6,021
Lincoln
180,170
724
1,153,863
- 120,453
237,055
15,857
London
343
—
44
6,399
+ 961
6,732
913
Middlesex .
3,614
7,867
—
326
18,792
- 5,802
16 222
2,349
Monmouth .
+
161
193,005
19,590
45,433
113,505
3,843
Norfolk
125,734
-
17,274
519,321
- 71,546
12,575
Northampton
46,261
+
1,802
397,595
- 43,722
119,617
3,062
Northumberland .
8,655
T
2,091
992.789
- 21,949
105,682
3,580
Notts .
39,430
—
94
217,358
- 23,286
84,714
7,359
Oxford .
37,448
+
1,608
245,929
- 26,262
54,919
6,187
Rutland ,
5,033
-
08
83,152
- 0,228
17,613
846
Salop .
34,896
2,615
445,461
- 50,060
163,382
7,869
Somerset .
33,419
22,373
+
915
524,097
- 37,015
212,476
10,256
Stafford
+
387
246,186
- 37,543
151,503
7,953
Suffolk .
106,020
—
4,914
40 ',302
- 49,364
62,772
8,059
Surrey ,
23,442
+
S84
74,467
- 6,476
40,764
5,578
Sussex
61,249
+
1,776
461,209
- 38,812
102,043
10,265
VV arwick
38,577
+
3,077
205,121 !
- 43,780
95,923
11,017
Westmorland
246
+
10
356,089
- 1,145
62,935
1,019
Wilts .
55,334
—
3,748
546,335
- 40,415
100,349
5,826
Worcester .
36,695
+
2,813
157,076
- 34,319
60,175
8,202
York, E. Riding .
60,700
+
3,738
438,977
- 20,287
86,537
4,631
\ork, JN. Biding .
29.013
+
6,492
676,427
- 27,786
167,651
6,024
York, W. Riding
46,478
+
2,702
694,836
- 16,868
270,432
7,052
572
Wheat, Sheep , and Cattle in 1894.
grass land was mown for hay upon a greater area in England and
in Wales, but upon a lesser area in Scotland ; and that the area
under potatoes declined in all three sections of Great Britain. The
table further indicates that in England, in Wales, and in Scotland
the number of cattle as well as the number of sheep diminished,
whilst the number of pigs increased.
In a note upon “Wheat and Sheep in England in 1893,” which
appeared in the Journal last year (3rd Series, Yol. IV. Part IV.
pp. 866-77), tables were introduced to show that in 1893 the area of
wheat and the number of sheep had alike decreased in every county
of England. Such a sweeping assertion cannot be made this year,
though it is possible to make the hardly less startling statement that
cattle have diminished in numbers in every English county. Save
for moderate increases recorded in a couple of counties, it would be
correct to say that sheep also had undergone an equally general
decline, whilst the total diminution under this head in England
exceeds the serious decline recorded in 1893. With regard to the
areas of wheat the changes in the counties are usually of but mode-
rate extent, though the number that register an increase is greater
than the number that show a decline. Moreover, whilst the largest
decrease is 17,274 acres in Norfolk, the largest increase is only
6,492 acres in the North Biding of York. Table II. is specially
constructed to show the changes which the English counties have
severally experienced in the areas assigned to wheat, and in the num-
bers of sheep and cattle of all ages. It may, perhaps, be usefully
studied in conjunction with the paper, already referred to in last year’s
Journal, where the table on p. 868, which shows the acreage of wheat
in each county of England, and that on p. 876, which shows the num-
ber of sheep in each county, are more particularly of interest.
Wheat in England. — In Table III. are recorded the changes in
Table III. — Number of Acres of Wheat in England in each
Year from 1885 to 1894.
Year
Acres
Increase ( + ) or
decrease ( — ) oui
previous year
Year
Acres
Increase ( + ) or
decrease ( - ) on
previous year
1885
2,349,305
-181,106
1890
2,255,694
- 65,810
1886
2,161,126
-188,179
1891
2,192,393
- 63,301
1887
2.197,580
+ 36,454
1892
2,102,969
- 89,424
1888
2,418,674
+ 221,094
1893
1,798,869
-304,100
1889
2,321,504
- 97,170
1894
1,826,626
+ 27,757
the area of the wheat crop of England for the last ten years. It is
seen that the diminution in area which has been in progress since
1888 has received a slight check this year, when for the first time in
six years an increase is registered on the year. Ten years ago — in
1884 — the wheat crop occupied 2,530,711 acres in England, or
704,085 acres more than in the present year. The average annual
area for the 5 -years period 1876-80 was 2,863,288 acres, and for
the preceding period of five years, 1871-75, it was 3,284,445. The
Wheat , Sheep, and Cattle in 1894.
573
area of wheat in England is now only about 60 per cent, of what it
was a score of years ago. Nevertheless at the present time it
constitutes nearly 95 per cent, of the entire wheat acreage of Great
B ritain, for in this island wheat is very characteristically the crop of
E ngland.
Sheep in England. — No recent fluctuation in the sheep population
of England is equal in extent to that which took place during the
year ended June 4, 1894. As will be gathered from Table IV., the
Table IV. — Number of Sheep of all Ages in England in each
Year from 1885 to 1894.
Year
Number
Increase ( + ) or
decrease ( — )on
previous year
Tear
1
Number
Increase ( + ) or
decrease ( — ) on
previous year
1885
16,809,778
+ 381,714
1890
10,841,288
+ 1,001,400
1880
10,402,138
-407,640
1891
17,874,722
+ 1,033,434
1887
10,452,508
+ 60,370
1892
17,993,750
+ 119,034
1888
15,788,794
-063,714
1893
10,805,280
-1,188,476
1889
15,839,882
+ 61,088
1894
15,509,995
-1,295,285
losses in sheep during the last two years, amounting as they do to
close upon two and a half million head, have more than swallowed
up the gains that accumulated in the four years 1889-92. Only on
two occasions since 1866 — the period for which the Agricultural
Returns have now been collected — has the number of sheep in
England fallen to so low a level as at present. 1 The annual average
number for the 5-years period 1871-75 was, indeed, 18,717,511,
so that twenty years ago sheep were more numerous than now by
upwards of three million head. This year’s decline exceeds the
heavy diminution of last year ; furthermore, in 1893 there was
no county decrease equal to this year’s loss of 120,453 sheep in
Lincolnshire, or 76,579 in Kent, or 71,546 in Norfolk.
The present distribution of sheep in Great Britain is, in round
numbers — England 60 per cent., Wales 12 per cent., and Scotland 28
per cent. To this year’s decrease of 1,418,834 head in Great
Britain, England contributed 91’3 per cent., Wales 1*7 per cent.,
and Scotland 7 per cent.
Cattle in England. — As with sheep, so with cattle, this year’s
movement exceeds in dimensions that of any other recent year, as
is evident from the number of 293,452 head by which this year’s
decline is measured in Table V. The diminution of over half a
million head in the last two years has gone a very long way towards
wiping out the increase which accrued during the three years
1890-91-92 ; and with two exceptions (1888 and 1889) this year’s
number of cattle in England is the lowest of the decade.
Moreover, the total of 4,450,607 for the current year is almost
1 In 1881, when the number of sheep in England was 15,382,850; and i
1882, when the number was 14,947,994. Liver fluke was very prevalent durin
these two years, and led to considerable mortality among sheep.
a to
574
Wheat, Sheep, and Cattle in 1894.
identical with the 4,451,658 of ten years ago (1884). It is much
higher, however, than the total of 4,064,800, which may be
taken as the annual average of the decade 1871-80.
It should specially be noticed (Table II.) that a decrease in the
number of cattle has this year taken place in every county of
England, Lincolnshire taking the lead with a loss of 1 5,857 head.
Of the cattle of Great Britain, as now distributed, 70 per cent.
Table V. — Number of Cattle of all Ayes in England in each
Year from 1885 to 1.894.
Year
Number
Increase ( + ) or 1
decrease (— )ou
previous year
Year
Number
Increase ( + ) or
decrease (—) on
previous year
1885
4,713,101
+ 261,443
1890
4,617,641
+ 264,984
1886
4,769,119
+ 56,018
1891
4,870,215
+ 252,574
1887
4,623,715
- 145,404
1892
4,968,590
+ 98,375
1888
4,352,826
-270,889
1893
4,744,059
-224,531
1889
4,352,657
169
1894
4,450,607
-293,452
belong to England, 11 per cent, to Wales, and 19 per cent, to
Scotland. Of the loss of 353,563 head of cattle in the year ended
June 4, 1894, 83 per cent, was borne by England, 12 per cent, by
Wales, and only 5 per cent, by Scotland.
Many points of practical interest might be brought out by a dis-
cussion of the circumstances which have led to the fluctuations in
the wheat areas of the English counties, and to . the almost general
decline in the numbers of sheep and of cattle during the present
year. Space, however, is not available for such a digression, and we
must rest content with directing the attention, at the earliest possible
moment, of farmers, and particularly of sheep and cattle breeders,
to the changes which are recorded in the figures here tabulated.
W. Fream.
13 Hanover Square, w.
THE SUMMER OF 1894.
The summer of 1894 proved a somewhat disheartening time for
the English farmer. Up to the close of April the weather of
the agricultural year had been so unusually favourable that the
most sanguine hopes were entertained as to the approaching
harvest. In May, however, a steady deterioration set in, and
from this time onward to the close of August the countiy ex-
perienced an almost constant succession of cloudy skies and low
temperatures, with frequent storms of thunder, hail, and rain.
Towards the close of J une there was, it is true, a marked improve-
ment, and for a time it seemed quite possible that the summer
The Mummer of 1894.
575
would even yet lend its aid in the production of a harvest of
abnormal excellence. Such expectations as these were, however,
soon falsified, for after ten days or so of genial sunshine the
atmosphere again fell into as unsettled a state as ever, the tendency
for the remainder of the season being for the conditions to become
more and more inclement. July was certainly worse than June,
while August proved quite as rainy and decidedly cooler than either
of the two preceding months. The general result of so much bad
weather was to materially diminish the high expectations which
prevailed early in the season. The beneficial effects of the winter
and early spring months were, however, not entirely effaced ; and
although the reports from the country were far from unanimous,
their general tenor seemed to encourage the belief that, in spite of
so adverse a summer, the harvest of 1894 would be quite equal, if
not superior, to the average of recent years.
The leading features in the weather of the past summer are
shown in the table on p. 577 which gives for various parts of England
and Wales a summary of the conditions relating to the temperature,
the rainfall, and the bright sunshine of the entire season.
Temperature. — -The mean temperature was above the average
during the last wreek in June and the first week in July, and equal
to the normal during the closing days of July and August. At
nearly all other times the weekly values were below the average, the
deficit being usually slight, but rather considerable in the third
week of August. Taking the summer as a whole, the mean tempera-
ture was decidedly low, the difference from the average ranging from
about half a degree in the north-eastern, midland, and north-western
counties and the Channel Islands to very nearly a whole degree in
the remaining English districts. From an examination of the maxi-
mum and minimum temperatures, taken separately, we see that the
absence of warmth was confined almost exclusively to the daytime,
the night readings being in many districts either equal to or slightly
above the normal. The day temperatures showed, on the other hand,
a marked deficiency, ranging from about half a degree in the north-
eastern counties to a degree and a half in the north-western counties,
and to about a degree and three-quarters in the eastern and
southern districts. The coolness of the past summer was, as a
matter of fact, due to the abnormal prevalence of dull weather, the
effect of which was shown in two ways. In the first place, the
absence of bright sunshine prevented the thermometer from
rising to its normal height in the daytime ; while, in the second
place, the undue prevalence of cloud hindered the progress of
terrestrial radiation, and thus kept the nights fairly warm. The
highest day temperatures recorded during the summer were observed
at the close of J une or the beginning of July, when the thermometer
rose to 85° and upwards in most of the English districts, and to 87° in
the eastern and south-western counties. Over the country generally
the thermometer at no other time reached 80°, and during the
greater part of the season the maximum readings were seldom as
576
The Simmer of 1894.
high as 75°. In the southern counties and the Channel Islands,
however, a reading of 80° was attained at the close of August.
The lowest night temperatures were observed on various dates in
the first half of June. In the eastern counties the thermometer
did not go below 40°, but in the midland counties it fell to 36°, and
in the south-western district to 35°. In the two regions last named
slight frost occurred on the surface of the ground.
Raivfall. — The excessive rainfall of last summer was due to two
distinct sets of cyclonic disturbances, which appeared alternately
over the northern and extreme southern parts of the United King-
dom. The former systems, which were of considerable size,
advanced in most instances from the Atlantic, and passed either
directly over Scotland, or along the west and north coasts of that
country. The latter systems were much smaller, and were either
developed in the neighbourhood of our south-west coasts, or advanced
in a north-easterly direction over the Bay of Biscay, France, and the
English Channel. The area of greatest disturbance consequently
lay, in nearly every case, over the northern or the extreme southern
parts of our islands, and it was in these regions that the heaviest
rains were experienced. In the east of Scotland (a district affected
by the northern depressions) the total fall during the summer was
32 per cent, in excess of the average, while in the north of Scotland
it was as much as 58 per cent, in excess. In the extreme south of
England (a region affected by the small southern depressions) the
excess was even greater, the rainfall over the district lying between
the Thames and the Channel being 36 per cent, more than the
average, while in the Channel Islands themselves it was no less
than 62 per cent, in excess of the normal. At St. Aubin’s, Jersey,
where the total amount was more than double the average, the past
summer was by far the wettest experienced for at least thirty years.
Over the northern and eastern parts of England the excess of rain-
fall was not very great, while in the midland counties (a distinct
which escaped the worst effects either of the northern or the
southern depressions) there was a slight deficiency. The number of
rainy days was in excess of the average in all parts of the country ;
but in this respect also the midland counties were the lightest
sufferers, the districts most affected being the northern and extreme
southern counties. Of the numerous heavy downpours which
occurred over England in the course of the summer, the most impor-
tant were those of June 4, July 10, 24, and 29, and August 2,
9, and 25. The J uly falls were especially heavy in the south. On
the 10th of the month over an inch and a half was experienced in
many parts of the southern and south-eastern counties, and over
two inches in some parts of Sussex ; on the 24th more than an inch
was recorded in the south-western counties, and between two and a
half and three inches in the neighbourhood of Bristol (where serious
floods occurred) ; on the 29th, amounts ranging between an inch and
an inch and a half were experienced in several parts of Sussex and
Hampshire, and more than two and a half inches at Westbourne
The Summer of 1894.
577
Temperature, Rainfall, and Bright Sunshine experienced over
England and Wales during the thirteen weeks ended September 1,
1894.
( The Summer Season.)
Temperature
Districts
High-
est
Low-
est
Day
temperatures
Night
temperatures
Day and night
temperatures
combined
ob-
serv-
ed
ob-
serv-
ed
Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
North-eastern counties .
O
CO
o
37
o
63-8
o
-06
50-7
o
-04
O
573
o
-05
Eastern counties
87
40
66-7
-1-7
51-3
+ 02
590
-0-8
Midland „
86
36
66-9
-10
50 2
00
58-6
— 0*5
Southern „
8G
39
667
-1-8
53-5
+ 02
601
-0 8
North-western counties,
eluding North Wales .
ln-}
83
38
63 8
-15
52 3
+ 0-4
581
-0-5
South-western counties,
eluding South Wales .
in-\
J
87
35
642
-10
523
-0-8
583
-0-9
Channel Islands
81
45
64-1
-1-3
55-8
+ 0-4
60 0
-0-4
Raixfall
Bright Sunshine
Districts
Days with rain
Total faU
Duration
Percentage
of possible
amount
Num-
ber
Differ-
ence
from
average
Differ-
Am- ; ence
ount from
average
Hours
re-
cord-
ed
Differ-
ence
from
average
Per-
cent-
age
Differ-
ence
from
average
per-
centage
North-eastern counties
52
+ 8
ins. ins.
8-0 +0*8
436
-23
30
_ O
Eastern counties
50
+ 5
7-9 +08
484
-81
34
- 6
Midland „
48
+ 3
7-2 -0 4
438
-68
31
- 5
Southern „
51
+ 9
87 +2-3
514
-75
37
— 5
North-western counties, |
including North Wales J
55
+ 8
9-6 +0 6
411
-57
29
- 3
South-western counties,')
including South Wales /
58
+ 10
10 5 +1-5
485
-116
35
- 8
Channel Islands .
56
+ 7
11*0 +4-2
540
-138
39
-10
Note. — The above Table is compiled from information given in the Weekly Weather Report of
the Meteorological Office. The averages employed are For Temperature, the records madeduring
the twenty years, 1871-90; for Rainy Days, the values for the thirteen years, 1878-90 ; for total
Rainfall, those fortbe twenty-five years, 1860-90 ; and for Bright Sunshine, those for the ten years.
1881-90,
578
The Summer of 1804.
(near Emsworth). The rainfalls of J une 4 and August 2 and 9 were
restricted mainly to the northern parts of the country, and were as
a rule less heavy than those in the south. On August 9, however,
more than two and a half inches are said to have fallen in the
neighbourhood of Carlisle. In nearly all cases the torrential rains
were accompanied by thunderstorms, and in many instances by hail,
the destructive effect of the latter upon the crops being often very
serious.
Bright Sunshine. — A deficiency in the amount of bright sun-
shine was reported throughout nearly the entire summer, the only
times in which any excess was shown being the end of June
and the beginning of July, when fine weather prevailed over the
entire country, and the last week in August, when the southern dis-
tricts were alone favoured. Taking the season as a whole, we see
from the table that the duration of sunshine was below the average
in all districts, the deficiency being comparatively small in the
north, but exceedingly large in the south. Over our southern
counties the mean daily amount was about three-quarters of an hour
less than the average, and in the south-western counties about an
hour and a quarter less ; while in the Channel Islands the deficiency
was as much as an hour and a half. Although any comparison with
so abnormally fine a summer as that of 1893 may seem a little un-
fair, the subjoined facts are of some value in furnishing a proof of
the extreme variability of our climate and the wide vicissitudes to
which the English farmer is exposed. Over the midland, eastern,
and southern counties the aggregate duration of bright sunshine in
the summer of 1894 was about 150 hours less than in that of 1893,
the mean daily amount showing a deficiency of nearly an hour and
three-quarters. In the south-western counties the aggregate dura-
tion this year was about 230 hours less than in 1893, the mean daily
amount showing a deficiency of about two hours and a half. This
difference, however, large though it undoubtedly was, sinks into
insignificance when compared with the state of things existing in
the Channel Islands, where the amount of sunshine last summer was
nearly 320 hours smaller than in the fine season of 1893. Last year
the mean daily amount of sunshine in that locality was as much as
nine hours and a half ; this year the amount was only six hours —
a deficiency for the entire summer of no less than three hours and a
half per day. The Channel Islands, usually one of the most favoured
spots in the British area, seem, in fact, this year to have ex-
perienced more rain and a greater deficiency of bright sunshine than
any other part of the country.
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
579
RECENT AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
The subjects of Applications for Patents from fane 9
to Sept. 8, 1894.
N.B. — Where the Invention is a communication from abroad, the name of
the Inventor is shown in italics, between parentheses, after the name of the
applicant.
No. of
Application.
Year 1894.
Agricultural Machinery and Implements, &c.
Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
11465
11479
11789
11819
12071
12096
12186
12228
12264
12298
12317
12373
12403
12461
12743
12843
13237
13498
13659
13963
13964
Blackshaw, F. .
Johnston, W.,
Gray, J. .
Seed drills.
and
Hardening knife
binders, &c.
Cultivators.
Hay, &c., forks.
Haymaking machines.
Threshing „
sections of harvester
Sleep, W. H. & B.
Caldwell, P.
Phillips, J. F. .
McKenzie, W.
Boult W. ( Hull ,
Canada )
Scales, E. .
Steevenson, J. E.
Howard, J. H. .
Sandeman, W. ( Green-
wood). . . . Threshing machines, &c.
Robinson, J. . . Wrought metal ploughshare.
Waldock, H. G. . . Chaff-cutting machines.
Livens, F. H. . . Straw-bruising apparatus for threshing ma-
chines.
Seed drills.
Chaff cutters.
Cultivating, &c., land.
Ploughshares.
Townsend, C. E., and
Nunan, T. . . Hay rakes.
Hill, M. T. . , . Hay turners.
Cook, T. W. . . . Hay, &c., elevators.
Thompson, W. P. ( Grab -
ner, Germany) . . Fastening device for scythes.
Bennett, E. . . Press-drill for attaching to a plough.
Scott, E. ( Chambers j
Co., U.S.A.) . . Side delivery hay rake, &c.
Scott, E. ( The Sandwich
Manufacturing Co.,
U.SA.) . . . Swathe or windrow hay loader.
580
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
Name of Applicant.
Title of Invention.
No. of
Application.
Year 1894.
14050 Whiting, G. L. . . Cultivator.
14085 Watts, S. Hand plough for potatoes.
14201 Kearsley, G., & others Mowing machines.
. Safety self-feeder to chaff-cutter.
. Cultivator.
. Harrows.
. Mowing and reaping machines.
. Feed apparatus for threshing machines.
. Reaping and binding machines.
. Hay-cutting knife.
Stable Utensils and Fittings — Horse-shoes, &c.
11400 Thompson, W. P. (Elder,
Germany ) . . . Safety stirrup.
11434 Peronnet, J., & anr. . Horse-collars.
11407 Garnter,E.,&Ellis,W. Pneumatic horse-collar.
14259 Osp.orn, J. .
14050 Whiting, G. L.
14485 Gerth, J., & anr.
1556G Pierce, P. .
16236 Holben
16298 Anderson, W.
16663 Garfitt, C .
11775 Torrens, J. A.
11781 Harries, Y. E.
12058 Machell, H.
12116 Terry, J.
12399 Mihaloczy, A.
12792 P, ENFIELD, J.
12793
12794
13119 Prangley, It. F
13132 Thudichum, L.
(Terry, U.S.A.)
Appliance for picketing horses.
Saddle-bars.
Appliance to hold reins on a carriage.
Horse-shoes.
Safety stirrup.
Horse-shoes.
and roughing cogs.
Mangers.
M.
. Feed bag.
13212 GRUNFELDER,L.,&anr. Horse-shoe pad.
13286 Pack, C. . . . Stopping horses by electricity.
13347 Thompson, W. P. (Gibbs,
US. A.) . . . Horse-shoes.
13196 Thompson, W. P. (Had-
dorf § anr., Germany') Stirrup.
13602 Garvie, C. A. . . Air-inflated horse-collar.
13691 Fabry, J. . . . Protecting pastern points of horses.
13966 McKenny . . . Muzzle for horses.
13985 By water . . . Side-saddles.
14026 Money, J. . . Combined horse-shoe and pad.
14051 Bill, D. K. . . . Horse-collars.
14097 Guest, C. H.,& Green-
all, J. Harness collars.
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
581
No. of
Application. Name of Applicant.
Year 1894
14335 Burrell, F. J. .
14378 Instone, A. J.
14640 Bailey, C. I. C, .
14703 Sewell, F. G. & II. J. .
15378 Zillwood, A.
15508 Gorman, J.,& Bolt, A.
15546 Torrens, J. A.
15578 Sutherland, J.,&anr.
15786 Spohr, P. .
16142 Johnson, J. Y. ( Little ,
New Zealand) .
16502 McKelvie, D. N.
16657 Hill, J.
16991 Cloke, T., k anr. .
17008 Lewis, H. .
17073 Corp, J.
Title of Invention.
Harness collars.
Tethering apparatus.
Horse-shoes.
Collars.
Nosebags.
Restraining runaway horses.
Saddle-bars.
Horse-shoes.
Joint horse-bit.
Horse-clipping machine.
Back bands and trace chains.
Rough for horse-shoes.
Self-locking pad for horses.
Nosebags.
Harness.
11759 Lang, W. V.
11956 Angus, W. .
12249 Trimmer, J.
13763 Sargent, W. D. .
13862 Williams, W.
14093 Walmsley k Smith
Carts and Carriages.
. Hand brake.
. Brake mechanism.
. Key sticks for tip carts.
. Prake shoes.
. Carts for loading, &c., hay.
. Carts.
11393 Casse, W. F.
12778 Wallwork, R. .
13057 Duncan, J. H. H.
13712 Nash, R. G. .
13722 Wright, S. II.
14128 Cheeld, S. .
14129
14458
Dairy Utensils, &c.
. Preserving milk, &c.
. Churns.
. Making butter.
. Sterilization and preservation of milk.
Producing butter.
. Churning butter.
„ and drying butter and testing milk.
. Holders or carriers for bottles of milk-testing
machines.
14638 Siiiels, A. .
14789
14832 Daul, A.
14845 De Laval, C. G. .
VOL. V. T. S. — 19
. Vacuum regulating apparatus for milking
machines.
. Teat cups for „ „
. Making butter.
. Mechanical milking apparatus.
Q Q
582
Recent Agricultural Inventions. •
No. of
Application. Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
Year 1894.
15027 Shiels, A. . . . Vacuum controlling apparatus for milking
machines.
15493 Duncan, J. H. H. . Manufacture of butter.
Poultry and Game, &c., Appliances
11698 McLaren, D. . . Egg carrier.
12081 Neil, A., & anr. . . Safety egg carrier.
Miscellaneous,
12234
13033
13067
13178
14003
14882
16075
Christopher, H. M.
Fletcher, R. S. &T. C.
Blackie & White
Millot, A. M.
Davis, J. G . .
Castleden, G. .
Daws, G.
. Apparatus for bathing the legs of animals.
Portable sheep-dipping apparatus.
. Preparations for dipping, &c.
. Food for cattle.
. Feed troughs.
. Beehives.
. Branding cattle, &c.
Numbers of Specifications relating to the above subjects published
since March 10, 1894.1
Specifications of 1893.
10404, 11424, 12177, 12268, 13620, 13866, 14099, 14312, 14371, 14382, 14391,
14654, 14921, 15352, 15636, 15762, 15893, 16241, 16330, 16424, 16768,
17240, 17250, 17499, 17584, 17714, 17724, 18606, 18628, 18768, 19173,
19201, 19498, 19580, 19817, 21406, 23678, 23868.
Specifications of 1894,
400, 3734, 6773, 8133, 8360, 10409, 10944, 11479, 12116, 12186, 12373, 13212.
1 Copies may be obtained at the Patent Office (Sale and Store Branch),
38 Cursitor Street, London, E.O. (Price 8d. each copy.)
583
STATISTICS AFFECTING BRITISH
AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS.
Agricultural Returns of Great Britain, 1891.
Preliminary Statement compiled from the Beturns collected on June 1, 1894,
showing the Increase or Decrease on the Beturns for the Years 1893 and 1892
respectively .
A. — 1894 compared with 1893.
Crops
1894
1893
In-
De-
In-
De-
crease
crease
crease
crease
Per
Per
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
cent.
cent.
Wheat
1,927,962
1,897,524
30,438
1-6
Barley
2,096,034
2,075,097
20,937
..
1-0
Oats
3,253,146
3,171,756
81,389
..
2-6
Potatoes ...
504,454
527,821
23,367
4-4
Hay, Clover, & Rotation Grasses
•
2,121,904
2,047,008
74,896
3-7
„ Permanent Pasture .
4,852,442
4,270,480
581,962
13-6
Hops
59,535
57,564
1,971
•' J
34
Live Stock
No.
No.
No.
No.
Per
cent.
Per
cent.
Cows & Heifers in Milk or in Calf
2,460,086
2,554,624
94,538
3-7
Other Cattle : — 2 years A above
1,516,672
1,580,242
63,570
4-0
„ 1 year & under 2
1,217,145
1,354,523
137,378
10-1
„ Under 1 year .
1,153,210
1,211,287
58,077
4-8
Total of Cattle
6,347,113
6,700,676
353,563
53
Ewes kept for Breeding .
9,668,002
10,128,676
460,674
4*5
Other Sheep : — 1 year & above .
6,342,730
6,911,063
568,333
8'2
„ Under 1 year .
9,850,768
10,240,595
389,827
3'8
Total of Sheep
25,861,500
27,280,334
1,418,834
5-2
Sows kept for Breeding .
351,119
308,722
42,397
13-7
Other Pigs
2,038,907
1,804,808
234,099
13-0
Tota«l of Pigs .
1
2,390,026
2,113,880
276,496
13-1
584 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
B. — 1894 compared with 1892.
Crops
1894
1892
In-
crease
De- j
crease i
In-
crease
Dc-
Wheat
Acres
1,927,962
Acres
2,219,839
Acres
Acres
291,877
Per
cent.
Per
cent.
13-1
Barley
2,096,034
2,036,810
59,224
29
Oats
3,253,145
2,997,545
255,600
8-5
Potatoes
504,454
525,361
20,907
40
Hay, Clover, & Rotation Grasses .
2,121,904
2,135,362
13,458
0-6
„ Permanent Pasture
4,852,442
4,489,626
362,816
8-1
Hops
59,535
56,259
3,276
5-8
Live Stock
Cows & Heifers in MUk or in Calf .
No.
2,460,086
No.
2,650,891
No.
No.
190,805
Per ~
cent.
Per “
cent.
7-2
Other Cattle : — 2 years & above 1 .
1,516,672
1,666,706
150,034
90
„ „ 1 year & under 2 .
„ „ Under 1 year
1,217,145
1,153,210
} 2,627,186
256,831
9-8
Total of Cattle
6,347,113
6,944,783
597,670
8-6
Ewes kept for Breeding .
Other Sheep 1 year & above
9,668,002
6,342,730
| 17,957,049
1,946,317
10-8
„ „ Under 1 year .
9,850,768
10,777,655
926,887
8'6
Total of Sheep
25,861,500
28,734,704
2,873,204
10-0
Sows kept for Breeding .
351,119
_ 1
—
—
_
—
Other Pigs
2,038,907
— 1
-
—
-
-
Total of Pigs
2,390,026
2,137,859
252,167
11-8
* Not separately distinguished in 1892,
Acreage of Hops.
Preliminary Statement compiled from the Returns collected on June 4, 1894, showing the
Acreage under HOPS in each County of England in which Hops were grown, with a
Comparative Statement for the Years 1893, 1892, and 1891.
Counties
1894
1893
1892
1891
Berks ......
Acres
11
Acres
11
Acres
10
Acres
11
Gloucester
39
33
39
25
Hants ......
2,911
2,795
2,775
2,749
Hereford
7,525
7,079
6,797
6,560
Kent
35,520
34,815
34,058
34,266
Notts
—
—
14
14
Salop
140
123
117
112
Suffolk
17
21
18
20
Surrey
1,935
1,845
1,938
1,955
Sussex
7,589
7,326
7,124
7,150
Worcester
3,848
3,516
3,369
3,280
Total . -
69,535
57,564
56,259
56,142
Note.— In 1894 as compared with 1893 the following counties show increases Gloucester,
C acres ; Hants, 116 acres ; Kent, 705 acres ; Salop, 17 acres ; Surrey, 90 acres ; Sussex, 263 acres ;
Worcester, 332 acres. The only decrease is Suffolk, 4 acres.
JOURNAL
OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.
ROTATION OF CROPS.
Contents.
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL SKETCH 585
THE EXPERIMENTS ON ROTATION MADE AT ROTHAMSTED . . . 591
THE SWEDISH TURNIP CROPS 592
THE BARLEY CROPS 597
THE LEGUMINOUS CROPS (OR FALLOW) COO
THE WHEAT CROPS C04
THE AMOUNTS OF PRODUCE GROWN IN ROTATION, AND IN THE VARIOUS
CROPS GROWN CONTINUOUSLY CIO
THE AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER PRODUCED IN THE ROTATION, AND
IN THE CONTINUOUS CROPS CIO
THE NITROGEN IN THE ROTATION, AND IN THE CONTINUOUS CROPS C1C
THE TOTAL MINERAL MATTER (ASH) IN THE ROTATION, AND IN
THE CONTINUOUS CROFS G22
THE PHOSPHORIC ACID IN THE ROTATION, AND IN THE CON-
TINUOUS CROPS 624
THE POTASH IN THE ROTATION, AND IN THE CONTINUOUS CROPS 629
THE LIME IN THE ROTATION, AND IN THE CONTINUOUS, LEGUMI-
NOUS CROPS 636
SUMMARY AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 641
Introduction and Historical Sketch.
It has frequently been explained that the general scope and
plan of the Rothamsted held experiments have included the
growth of some of the most important crops of rotation, each
separately, year after year, for many years in succession on the
same land, without manure, with farmyard manure, and with a
great variety of chemical manures — the same description of
VOL. V. T. S. — 20 R R
586
Rotation of Crops.
manure being, as a rule, applied year after year on the same
plot. But, besides such experiments, what may in a sense be
called ' complementary series have also been made — on the
growth of crops in an actual course of rotation, without and
with different manures. Lastly, others have been conducted on
the mixed herbage of permanent grass-land, both without and
with various manures.
It is obvious that the results of the field experiments with
individual crops must of themselves throw much light on the
characteristic requirements of the particular crop under investi-
gation ; whilst those on the growth of crops in an actual course
of rotation will serve to confirm and control those obtained with
the individual crops ; and they will, in their turn, receive elucida-
tion from the results with the individual crops. Then, again, the
results of experiments on the application of different manures to
the mixed herbage of permanent grass-land, which includes,
among others, members of the botanical families that contribute
some of the most important of our rotation crops, may,
independently of their value in reference to the special objects
for which they were undertaken, be expected to afford interest-
ing collateral evidence in regard to the requirements of
individual plants when thus grown in association, instead of
separately year after year, or in rotation, as in the other series
of experiments. Obviously, too, the chemical statistics of the
crops so variously grown, and of the soils of the plots upon
which they have been grown, must afford very important data
for further study and elucidation.
The individual crops which have been grown separately year
after year on the same land include — wheat, barley, and oats,
as members of the Order Gramine* ; beans, clover, and other
plants, of the Order Leguminos* ; turnips of the Crucifer* ;
sugar-beet and mangel-wurzel of the Chenopodiace* ; and
potatoes of the Solane*. Then, the experiments on rotation
include those with members of three different Orders of plants
— turnips of the Crucifer*, barley and wheat of the Gramme*,
and clover and beans of the Leguminos*. Lastly, there are the
experiments on the mixed herbage of permanent grass-land,
which, besides gramineous and leguminous plants, includes
numerous species of other natural Orders.
The first experiments made were those with root-crops,
which were commenced in June 1843, so that the present year
(1894) is the fifty-second of their continuance. The second were
those on wheat, commenced in the autumn of 1843, so that the
crop just harvested is the fifty-first grown in succession on the
same land. The experiments with beans were commenced in
Rotation of Crops.
587
1847 ; but, for .reasons which have been explained in various
papers, they have not been continued up to the present time.
Those with clover were commenced in 1848, and have been
succeeded on the same land by others with various leguminous
plants, which are still continued. Then, of the other more im-
portant series, those on barley were commenced in 1852, and are
still in progress, the crop of the present year being, therefore,
the forty-third in succession. Experiments with oats were com-
menced in 1869, and continued for ten years; and others, on the
growth of wheat alternated with fallow, but without manure,
were commenced in 1851, and are still going on, 1894 being,
therefore, the forty-fourth year. Of the other field experiments,
those on the mixed herbage of permanent grass-land were
commenced in 1856, so that ihis year completes the thirty-
ninth of their continuance. Lastly, the experiments on an
actual course of rotation were commenced in 1848, and are still
continued, so that the present is their forty-seventh year.
In former papers in this Journal, and elsewhere, the influence
of exhaustion, manures, and variations of season, on the
amounts of produce, and on the composition, of certain indi-
vidual and typical crops, when each is grown separately year
after year on the same land, have been considered. In this way,
there have been discussed the characteristic requirements and
results of growth — of various cereal crops, of various root-crops,
of potatoes, and lastly, of various leguminous crops. Results of
the experiments on the mixed herbage of grass-land have also
been given from time to time.
Our subject on the present occasion is the Rotation of Crops.
The mere numerical results of the field experiments made at
Rothamsted on rotation have been recorded in the annual
“ Memoranda ” ; but no systematic discussion, either of them or
of the laboratory investigations undertaken in connection with
them, has hitherto been published ; and although the present
communication embodies a good deal of detail, and a somewhat
comprehensive consideration of it, there still remains much
which could not be included within the limits of this paper.
The practice of Rotation is admitted to be the foundation of
the improvements in our own agriculture which have taken place
during this and a considerable part of the last century. It is of
great importance, therefore, carefully to consider, both in what the
practice itself consists, and how its benefits are to be explained.
If the rotation of crops as followed in our own country, indeed
over large portions of Europe, were to be defined in the fewest
possible words, it might be said that it consists in the alternation
of root- crops, and of leguminous crops, with cereals. In the
588
Rotation of Crops.
United States, however, it is a gramineous crop — maize — which
largely takes the place of root-crops in Europe.
The cereals constituting such a very important element of
human food, it was natural that they should he grown almost
continuously so long as the land would yield remunerative
crops. Hence, the history of agriculture, not only in our own
country, but in others where these crops were of high relative
value, shows that it very generally came to be the custom to
grow them for a number of years in succession, and then to
have recourse to bare fallow ; or, in some cases, to abandon the
land to the growth of rough and weedy herbage, affording
scanty food for domestic animals.
The improvement upon Jhese practices, attainable by
alternating other crops with the cereals, was very much
earlier recognised in the case of the leguminous than of the
root-crops, the introduction of which is of comparatively recent
date.
It was, in fact, distinctly recognised by the Romans more
than 2,000 years ago, that certain leguminous crops were not
only valuable as food for animals, but that their growth en-
riched the soil for succeeding crops — in fact, that they were of
value as restorative crops grown in alternation with the cereals.
There is, however, very scanty indication that root-crops were
an element in their alternate cropping.
As in the agriculture of the ancients, so in that of more
modern times, especially in our own country, various legumi-
nous crops were grown in alternation with cereals long before
roots were so interpolated.
It was, indeed, not until about, or after, 1730 that Lord
Townshend, who, as Secretary to George I., had been in Hano-
ver, and there seen turnips growing as a field crop, on his
return introduced them on his own estate in Norfolk, and there
founded the celebrated Norfolk four-course rotation of turnips,
barley, clover, and wheat. His own land was previously to a
great extent a marshy or sandy waste, and its value was
increased enormously under the new system. It was, however,
not until towards the end of the century that it became gene-
rally adopted even throughout his own county. In this exten-
sion Mr. Coke, of Holkham (afterwards Earl of Leicester), was
largely instrumental, and the practice seems to have next
extended into Lincolnshire.
It was thus that The Four-course Rotation , or, in other
words, the alternation of root-crops and of leguminous crops
with cereals, became established. Such alternation is, in fact,
the basis of all the various rotations which are adopted in
Rotation of Crops.
589
different parts of our own country ; and also to a great extent
which are followed in many other countries.
It is worthy of remark that, although we owe the introduc-
tion of the essential elements of our rotations to the example of
our Continental neighbours, we, with one or two immaterial
exceptions, obtain more per acre of all the staple saleable
products of rotation, grain and meat, under our landlord,
tenant, and labourer system, than any other country in Europe,
or than in America, under whatever advantages of climate, or
under whatever system of holding, or of size of holdings. Thus,
there is not a single country in Europe that reaches our average
produce per acre of wheat ; only Belgium and Holland approach,
but they do not equal, us in the produce of barley ; only
Belgium, Holland, and Norway exceed us in acreage yield of
oats ; and no country approaches us in acreage produce of
potatoes. Again, whilst several countries exceed us in number
of cows to a given area, and some in the number of pigs, not
one equals us in weight per acre of other cattle than cows ;
and not one nearly approaches us in the weight of sheep to a
given area. Nor, notwithstanding the great depression of our
agriculture in recent years, the result of the low prices of
produce, is there any probability that we shall soon lose our
pre-eminence in production per acre.
There can be no doubt that the effect of the extension of
the growth of green crops was — to a great extent to get rid of
unprofitable fallows, greatly to increase the supply of stock
food, especially for winter feeding ; so to lead to a largely
increased production of meat and milk, to a greatly increased
supply of manure, and thus to enrich the land for the growth
of grain, which, accordingly, yielded much larger crops.
We have now to endeavour to ascertain how the admittedly
very beneficial effects of alternate, as distinguished from
continuous, cropping are to be explained. It will be well first
very briefly to refer to some of the chief theoretical explanations
that have been put forward, and afterwards to discuss the
results of various direct experimental investigations conducted
at Rothamsted on the subject of rotation.
The first definite theory as to the benefits of the alternation
of crops assumed that the excreted matters of one description
of crop were injurious to plants of the same description, but
that they were not so, and might even be beneficial, to other
kinds of plants.
At first Liebig pronounced this theory of rotation to be the
only one having any really scientific basis. Later he seems to
590
Rotation of Crops.
have modified his view considerably ; and to have supposed
that the explanation was- — not that the excreted matters of one
description of plant were injurious to another of the same
description, but that, as the different plants had such very
different mineral requirements, the alternation of one kind with
another relieved the soil from exhaustion. In his latest work,
however, after many years of controversy, he obviously more
fully recognised that nitrogen probably played some important
part in the matter.
More than fifty years ago Boussingault published the
results of an investigation, extending over a period of ten
years, to determine the chemical statistics of some of the
rotations actually followed in his own locality, in Alsace ;
and he came to the conclusion that the difference in the
amounts of nitrogen taken up by the different crops constituted
a very important element in the explanation of the benefits of
rotation.
We can only further briefly refer to the results and conclu-
sions of the late Professor Daubeny, of Oxford, who commenced a
series of experiments in the Botanic Garden there in 1834. One
of the original objects he had in view was to test the truth of De
Candolle’s theory that the excretions of one description of plant
were injurious to plants of the same description. He soon came
to a negative conclusion on the subject ; and recognised the
validity of Boussingault’s argument that the actual facts of
vegetation in different parts of the world conclusively showed
that the same description of plant may continue to grow
healthily on the same land for long periods of time. On this
point it is scarcely necessary to add that the experience at
Rothamsted on the growth of various agricultural crops year
after year on the same land for many years in succession is
conclusive against the theory of injurious or poisonous
excretions.
But, as already said, Dr. Daubeny continued his experi-
ments for ten years; and although, in accordance with the
prevailing ideas of the time, all his analytical results related to
the mineral constituents of his soils and crops, his main con-
clusion was, that the benefits of rotation were^ probably as much
connected with the available supply of the organic as of the in-
organic constituents.
What, then, are the indications of the results of many years
of investigation of the subject, in the field and in the laboratory,
at Rothamsted ?
Rotation of Crops.
591
The Experiments on Rotation made at Rothamsted.
The experiments have been conducted in Agdell Field. An
area of 2^ acres is devoted to the purpose. The ordinary
four-course rotation of — turnips, barley, clover (or beans), or
fallow, and wheat, was adopted. The experiments were . com-
menced in 1848, so that the eleventh course of four years each
was completed with the harvest of 1891 ; and the wheat which
has just been sown (October 1894) is the fourth crop of the
twelfth course, and will complete the forty-eighth year of the
experiments.
The area of 2J acres was divided into three main divisions,
which have, respectively, been under the following conditions
as to manuring: —
1. Without manure from the commencement.
2. For the first nine courses, manured with superphosphate
alone, applied only for the turnip crop commencing each course ;
that is, once every four years. For the tenth, and each subse-
quent course, salts of potash, soda, and magnesia, have been
applied as well as superphosphate.
3. A complex artificial manure, also applied every fourth
year ; that is, for the turnips commencing each course. This
manure comprises — superphosphate, salts of potash, soda,
and magnesia, ammonium-salts, and rape-cake ; and it supplies
about 140 lb. of nitrogen per acre for the four years’ course ;
that is, an average of 35 lb. of nitrogen per acre per annum.
The complex manure (3) was designed to be, in great measure,
a substitute for farmyard manure ; and it was used instead of it,
in order that the amount of the different constituents supplied
might be more accurately known than would have been the
case if farmyard manure had been employed.
It should be further explained, that when the land is under
turnips, the roots, with their leaves, are removed from one
half of each of the three differently manured plots ; whilst, on
the other half of each, the produce is consumed on the land by
sheep ; or, if the weather be unsuitable for this, the roots are
sliced, and both roots and leaves are spread on the land. Thus,
each of the three main divisions is divided into two, making so
far, six in all.
Then again, after the first course of four years, in the third
year of each course the leguminous crop was grown on only half
of each of the three differently manured plots, and the other
half was left fallow. Lastly, as clover cannot be relied upon on
such land so often as once in four years, beans have frequently
been grown instead.
592
Rotation of Crops.
We have finally, therefore, twelve plots instead of only three.
That is to say, each of the three differently manured plots is
divided into four as above described, and as indicated in the
heading of the several Tables ; and, as the same form of Table
will, as far as possible, be adopted throughout, it is very desirable
that a clear idea of the arrangement should be formed at the
outset. It will be seen that under each of the three main divi-
sions designated in the heading according to the manuring, the
results are sub-divided, showing first the produce obtained
where the roots were carted from the land ; and secondly, where
they were fed (or left) upon it. Lastly, under each of these
two conditions so far as the disposal of the turnips is concerned,
there is again a sub-division into two — one where in the third
year of the course the land was left fallow, and the other where
either clover or beans was grown.
Each year the amount of produce on each of the various
plots is weighed ; samples of each crop are taken ; in all the
dry substance and the mineral matter (ash), and in many the
nitrogen, is determined ; in many cases also complete analyses
of the ashes of the crops have been made. Lastly, determina-
tions of the total nitrogen have been made in the surface soils,
and in the upper layers of the sub-soils, at different periods ;
and the nitrogen as nitric acid has also been determined to a
considerable depth. As to the results themselves, only brief
reference to the main indications of these various investigations
can be made.
Tables I., II., III., and IV. give the amounts of produce of
the turnips, the barley, the leguminous crops, and the wheat,
respectively, in each of the eleven years in which each was
grown, in the eleven completed courses. Each Table is divided
into three main divisions — the upper one giving the roots, or
the grain, &c., as the case may be ; the middle the leaves, or
the straw ; and the lower one the total produce — roots and
leaves, or grain and straw, together.
The Sivedish Turnip Crops.
Referring to Table I., relating to the Swedish turnips, it is
seen that in the first year, 1848, there was, both without
manure and with superphosphate alone, much more produce
than in any subsequent year ; showing that, at the commence-
ment, the land was in somewhat high condition due to pre-
vious treatment. Then, again, as already said, for the tenth
and eleventh courses, salts of potash, soda, and magnesia, were
used as well as superphosphate. For these reasons, the results of
Table I. — Experiments on the Rotation of — Roots, Barley, Clover (or Beans), or
Fallow , and Wheat; in Agdell Field, Rothamsted. 11 courses, 44 years, 1848-1891.
1. ROOTS -SWEDISH TURNIPS.
1884
1888
verage 8
Bourses,
1852 to
1880
I rerage 2
(Bourses,
884 and
1888
Unmauured
Years
Roots carted
Roots fed
ter."
1
™«tesr
Courses 1-9 superphosphate only.
Courses 10 and 11 mixed mineral
manure
Roots carted
Roots fed
Beansor p ,, Beans or
clover l clover
Mixed mineral and nitrogenous
manure
Roots carted
Roots fed
Fallow
Beansor
clover
Fallow
Beans or
clover
tonscwt.
tonscwt.
ton
1848
8
15}
3
5$
8
1852
1
17
1
G
i
1856
2
51
1
12
i
1860
0
1}
0
1
0
1864
0
7$
0
8}
0
1868
Crop
failed
1872
2
Hi
1
14$
2
1876
1
111
0
17}
1
1880
1
12 j
11
14
1
ROOTS.
9}
0 19$
1 III
0 1
0 8$
1 91
1 1
1 1
0 17$ | 0
0 15 0
1 6
0 16$
0 16$
0 3$
1 0$ | 0 12
1 3 1 0 8
1 4
0 15$
1 15
0 10
onscwt. tonscwt. tonscwt.
14 12
12 16
8 10$
1 13}
2 12}
7 2$
9 13}
11 4
U 5}
11 3}
6 16
1 9}
3 8
8 10g
9 8}
9 19$
7 19} 8 13}
7 2$ 10 7$
6 14$
7 11|
65
9 10}
tonscwt.|ti
11 01
7 10}
12 10}
9 16
1 18}
3 18}
9 101
11 5}
H 3}
10 6
J2 9}
7 10$
8 9} 11 7$
onscwtjtonscwt.
19 14} j 10 18
8} | 19 16$
8} j 16 13}
7$: 4 7$
2$ 8 16}
16 12
15 9}
22 10}
14 18}
21 11}
16 19J
17 16
21 191
14 6}
23 12;
13 2} 13 6$
18 4}
18 19}
tonscwt.
21 9
tonscwt.
11 9
19 10}
16 19}
4 7
9 5$
16 11}
18 17}
22 7}
19 6
17 1}
3 12
8 8$
16 10
17 19}
22 6}
14 16}
14 0}
21 3}
20 17|
13 9}
13 2}
18 0
17 9}
LEAVES.
1848
0
19}
2
H
1
0$
3
7}
1
15
5
6} :
l
19}
4
10
2
7
11}
2
6}
1
1}
1852
0
5}
0
4}
0
4
0
3}
H
1
2}
i
0}
l
2}
1
2
2
0
i
164
i
17}
1
13
1856
0
2}
0
24
0
2
0
0
8
0
74
0
12}
0
144
0
114
0
124
0
12$
0
11}
1860
0
0$
(6}
lb.)
0
0}
(5
lb.)
0
2
0
14
0
2
0
1}
0
34
0
3}
0
5}
0
44
1864
0
0}
0
0}
1 o
0}
0
1
0
4}
0
4}
0
5}
0
4}
0
9
0
8}
0
3}
0
8}
1868
Crop
failed
1872
0
8$
0
8}
0
7}
0
7}
0
14$
0
17$
0
173
0
194
1
14}
1
15}
1
134
1
19
1876
0
5*
0
5
0
5$
0
5
0
17
1
84
0
164
1
74
1
14}
2
15}
2
0}
3
3
1880
0
3$
o
2}
0
4
0
3
0
12$
0
11}
0
125
0
11
1
16
2
3}
1
18
1
18}
1884
0
73
<)
3$
0
7
0
5
0
184
1
0}
0
18}
1
3
2
15}
3
3}
3
6}
3
3}
1888
0
7$
0
_Ll
0
7i
0
3}
0
15}
1
14
0
16
1
3
1
17$
2
5}
1
15
2
04
verage 8}
courses, 1
1852 to [
0
3}
0
3
0
25
0
2$
0
10$
0
Hi
0
11
0
12$
i
1}
i
4$
1
2}
1
45
1880 )
verage 2 \
courses, [
1884 and f
0
7}
0
2$
0
7}
0
4$
0
16|
1
05
0
175
1
3
2
64
2
14}
2
105
2
12}
1888 J
TOTAL PRODUCE.
j 1848
9
15
5
11}
9
18}
8
16}
16
7
16
12
19
4}
15
10}
22
1
18
9}
23
15}
19
1852
2
2}
1
10}
1
11}
1
2}
13
194
12
34
14
154
13
12}
22
8}
21
13
21
8$
20
19
1856
2
7}
i
144
1
16
1
1}
8
184
7
34
10
6
10
104
16
19}
17
17
11}
17
13
1860
0
If,
0
1
0
1}
0
1
i
15}
1
10}
2
2}
2
04
4
11
4
10}
4
12}
3
164
1864
0
8}
0
94
0
9}
0
94
2
17}
3
12}
4
4}
4
34
9
114
9
5
9
15
8
17}
1868
Crop
tailed
--
1872
3
0
2
21
2
164
1
17}
7
16$
9
8
9
45
10
10
18
6}
18
15$
18
4}
18
9
1876
1
16}
1
2\
1
175
1
6
10
10}
10
16}
11
4?
12
13}
17
44
20
11}
20
18
21
2}
1880
1 164
0
>‘4
2
2}
1
4
11
164
10
11}
12
n$
11
14?
24
6}
24
2}
24
5}
24
5
1884
1
5}
0
8$
i
7}
0
17
8
18}
9
134
9
ii}
11
9
17
134
17
10
18
2$
17
4$
1888
1
2$
0
4$
1
10$
0
11}
7
18$
11
8$.
9
2
13
12}
23
9$
25
184
22
18}
22
18$
, verage 8\
courses, I
1852 to (
1
9}
0
19$
i
65
0
17}
7
4}
6
18$
8
1}
8
34
14
3$
14
10$
14
12
14
7|
1880 )
tverage 2 \
courses, |
1884 and f
1
3}
0
6$
i
85
0
14$
8
8}
10
11}
9
G|
12
10$
20
11}
21
14}
20
10$
20
1}
1888 j
R R 5
594
Rotation of Crops.
the first, and of the tenth and eleventh courses are excluded
from the averages to which attention will chiefly be confined.
In this Table, however, as well as in those relating, respectively,
to the barley and the wheat, averages are given at the foot of
each division of the Tables, not only for the eight intermediate
courses — second to ninth, but also for the two succeeding courses
— tenth and eleventh, for which potash, soda, and magnesia were
used as well as superphosphate. But, for the leguminous crops
the averages are, for reasons that will be explained, taken dif-
ferently.
The first point to notice in the results is that, under each
condition as to manuring, there is very great variation in the
amount of produce from year to year according to the seasons.
Thus, in 1868, the crop entirely failed on all the plots, although
seed was sown twice. Again, whilst the complex manure con-
taining nitrogen yielded more than 22 tons of roots in 1880, the
same manure gave little more than 4 tons in 1860 ; the average
yield over the eight courses being about 13£ tons. Against
this, the average by superphosphate alone ranged from about
6^ to about tons; whilst without manure there was an
average of only about 1 ton.
Referring to this last result, it is particularly to be observed
that this assumed restorative crop yields practically no produce
at all when grown without manure.
The plot with superphosphate alone gives very much more
than that without manure, but still very much less than an
average agricultural crop. The increase, such as it was, was
largely due to the greatly increased development of feeding-root
within the surface-soil under the influence of the phosphatic
manure ; and the necessary nitrogen, beyond the small amount
of combined nitrogen annually coming down in rain and the
minor aqueous deposits from the atmosphere, has doubtless been
gathered under the influence of the increased root-development
from the previous accumulations within the soil itself. There
is, in fact, perhaps no agricultural practice by which what is
termed the condition of land, that is the readily available fer-
tility due to recent accumulations, can be so rapidly exhausted
as by growing turnips on it by superphosphate alone — provided
of course that the seasons are favourable.
Compared with the produce with superphosphate alone, the
mixed manure, supplying, besides superphosphate, not only
salts of potash, soda, and magnesia, but a liberal amount
of nitrogen, yielded, on the average of the eight courses, nearly
twice as much, or between 13 and 14 tons of roots; though, as
already pointed out, it yielded in some seasons over 20 tons per
acre. There can be no doubt that, the necessary mineral con-
Rotation of Crops.
595
stituents being available, there was a large increase of produce
due to the supply of nitrogen in the manure.
The figures in the middle division of the Table show that the
produce of leaf as well as that of roots was increased by super-
phosphate, and that it was still further increased by the mixed
manure containing nitrogen.
The next point is to consider the effects of the other con-
ditions besides those of different manure supply ; that is, the
removal of the root-crop, or the feeding or the spreading of it
upon the land ; also whether, in the third year of each course, a
leguminous crop was grown, or the land was fallowed.
It is seen that, without manure , whether clover or beans
were grown, or the land were fallowed, there was even rather
less average produce of roots over the eight years where they
had been fed on the land, than where they had been carted off;
but with such very small crops the differences are immaterial, if
not accidental.
On the superphosphate plots, where the produce was much
higher, and where there would, therefore, be more loss to the
land by removal, the crops were materially better on the fed
portions of the plots.
On the mixed manure plots, on the other hand, with nearly
twice as much produce as with superphosphate alone, there would
be still greater difference between the condition of the land
where the roots were carted off and where they were fed on ;
but there was very little difference in the average produce of
the root crop.
It will be seen further on, that the higher condition of the
land where the more highly manured roots were fed upon it had
a very marked effect on the succeeding cereal crops, and espe-
cially on the immediately succeeding barley. This was the case
on both the superphosphate and the mixed manure plots.
The difference of effect on the average produce of the root-
crop, by fallowing, or by growing beans or clover, in the third
year of each course is, in the comparable cases, practically
immaterial under each of the three different conditions as to
manuring.
Before passing from Table I. it is to be observed that there
was higher average produce over the tenth and eleventh courses
with superphosphate and potash, soda, and magnesia, than over
the preceding eight courses with superphosphate alone. But, as
there was also increase in a greater degree with the mixed mineral
and nitrogenous manure over the two than over the eight years,
it is obvious that the character of the seasons had a good deal to
do with the result. It is noticeable, however, that on the plots
with potash, soda, and magnesia, as well as superphosphate, in
596
Rotation of Crops.
the two courses, there was a higher produce of roots on the plots
where beans or clover were grown than on those that were fal-
lowed ; a result doubtless due to the increased growth of the
leguminous crop under the influence of the potash manuring, and
SWEDISH TURNIPS.
GROWN IN POUR-COURSE ROTATION, IN AGDELL FIELD.
45th year, 1892. First Crop, Twelfth Course.
Unmanured continuously.
Crop of roots, 1892 : 8J cwts. per acre.
T
Mineral Manure, commencing each Course.
Crop of roots, 1892 : 11 tons, 6J cwts. per acre.
Mineral and Nitrogenous Manure, commencing each Course.
Crop'of roots, 1892 : 24 tons 18 cwts. per acre.
to accumulation of nitrogen in the soil thereby. It may further
be observed (though not shown in the Table) that in 1 892 — that is,
the first year of the twelfth course — the produce of the manured
plots was generally higher than in either of the two preceding
courses.
Rotation of Crops.
597
The accompanying figures represent selected typical Swedish
turnip-plants, grown in 1892 — without manure, with the mixed
mineral manure alone, and with the mixed mineral and nitro-
genous manure* Each plant was fixed upon a scaled back-
ground and so photographed, and the figures as given are about
one-twentieth natural size, and strictly comparable. The quan-
tities of produce recorded show that without manure it was less,
but that by each of the two descriptions of manure it was con-
siderably more, than the average of the preceding courses ; and
both the reversion to the uncultivated condition without manure,
and the increased growth under the influence of each of the
manures, are strikingly illustrated, both by the figures and by
the amounts of produce given. Indeed, the results conclusively
show how artificial a product is the cultivated root-crop, and how
dependent it is for its successful growth on an abundant supply of
available food — nitrogenous as well as mineral— within the soil.
The Barley Crops.
Table II. gives the produce of barley, the second crop of
the course, and therefore always succeeding the roots, in each of
the eleven years in which it was grown, in precisely the same form
as that of the Swedish turnips recorded in Table I. : the upper
division giving the grain per acre, the middle division the straw,
and the lower one the total produce, grain and straw together.
As in the case of the root-crops, so in that of the barley, the
produce in the first course is excluded from the calculation of
the averages to which reference will chiefly be made. Indeed, the
results of the first year of barley confirm the conclusion that the
land was in somewhat high condition due to recent accumula-
tions. The produce of the tenth and eleventh courses is also ex-
cluded from the averages, on account of the change of manure on
the superphosphate plot for the tenth and succeeding courses.
Referring, however, first to the results of each of the eleven
years, it is seen that, under each condition of manuring, or other
treatment, there is very great variation in the amount of produce
from year to year, due to variations in the characters of the
seasons. Thus, without manure, the average produce over the
eight courses was about 30 bushels per acre, whilst in 1857 it
was in each case more than 40 bushels, and in some considerably
more ; but in 1869 and in 1873 it was not much over 20 bushels,
and in the last two courses considerably less than 20. A glance
down the columns recording the produce on the manured plots
will show that in their case also there was a wide range in
amount above and below the averages, according to season.
Referring now to the average produce of the eight courses
(second to ninth), the first point to notice is, that whilst the
598
Rotation of Or ops.
Table II. — Experiments on the Rotation of — Roots, Barley , Clover (or Beans),
or Fallow, and Wheat ; in Agdell Field, Rothamsted. 1 1 courses, 44 years,
1848-1891.
2. BARLEY.
Unmanured
Courses 1-0 superphosphate
only. Courses 10 & 11 mixed
mineral manure
Mixed mineral and
nitrogenous manure
Years
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
[ Beans
Fallow or
clover
|
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
| Beans
Fallow or
| clover
DRESSED GRAIN.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Busli.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
1 Bush.
I Bush.
1849
33?
44*
44*
48
29*
205
41
42?
37
285
I 44*
423
1853
32*
34g
33
28*
32
28*
39*
58
37£
38*
I 37*
1857
43?
48*
44*
40*
30?
28*
48?
52§
47*
48
j 66*
63*
1861
35*
38*
33
29*
32*
30*
405
42*
60*
605
57?
645
1865
34*
39
35*
27?
31*
33*
39*
41*
445
47*
465
433
1860
218
24*
21
25*
25*
28?
30*
33*
39?
42*
385
42*
1873
20?
23*
20*
22*
22*
20?
27
295
31*
31?
i 47
46*
1877
23
23*
22*
23*
21
24*
315
385
30?
34?
; 445
49*
1881
29*
26 1
31#
255
24*
24*
28*
28?
335
355
47£
601
1885
15*
12*
22?
16
12*
19*
17*
32*
19
34?
32*
44?
1889
15*
11
16*
12*
15*
21?
1»*
29$
20
26*
23*
25*
Av. 8 courses )
1853-1881 |
30
32*
30*
28
27*
275
35|
38
40?
42?
485
47*
Av. 2 courses j
1 885 & 1889 j
15*
11*
19?
14?
14
20*
18*
31*
19*
30?
27*
35*
STRAW.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
1849
2.200
2.083
3.139
3.225
1.870
2,111
3,209
3,327
2,842
2.088
3.709
3,646
1853
2,187
2,430
2,210
2,077
2,003
1,873
2,729
2,756
2,595
2,604
3,323
3,981
1857
2,330
2,600
2,430
2,312
1,545
1,475
2,595
2,780
2,400
2,435
3,570
3,405
1861
2,190
2,522
2,018
1,970
1,954
2,000
2,475
2,553
3,920
3,940
4,175
3,940
1866
1,828
2,154
1,809
1,460
1,509
1,615
2,043
2,244
2,398
2,595
3,274
2,958
1869
1,628
1,948
1,648
1,944
1,873
1,370
2,025
2,265
2,401
3,064
3,309
3,244
3,229
1873
1,374
1,343
1,311
1,405
1,565
1,611
1,841
1,626
1,723
2,796
2,458
1877
1,244
1,291
1,275
1,341
1,054
1,174
1,706
1,994
1,625
1,918
2,646
3,125
1881
1,566
1.484
1,568
1.468
1.239
1.259
1,500
1,430
1,755
1.853
2,993
3,078
1885
1,518
1,270
1,768
1,379
1,043
1,441
1,480
2,358
1,528
2,461
2,778
3,386
1889
953
931
996
865
965
1,221
1,135
1,613
1,231
1.685
1,776
2.030
Av. 8 courses 1
1853-1881 |
1,792
1,971
1,784
1,758
1,568
1,623
2,116
2,250
2,423
2,547
3,253
3,146
Av. 2 courses )
1885 & 1889)
1,235
1,101
1,382
1,122
1,004
1,331
1,307
1,986
1,380
2,073
2,277
2,708
TOTAL PRODUCE.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
I lb.
i lb.
lb.
lb.
| lb.
lb.
1849
4,149
6,656
5,785
6,046
3.575
3,841
| 6,708
| 5,885
5,026
3.794
6,344
6,206
1853
4,046
4,464
4,161
3,817
3,876
3,560
5,110
5,058
4,849
4,873
5,672
5,190
1857
4,777
5,337
4,912
4,558
3,272
3,076
5,326
5,741
5,091
5,168
7,261
6,930
1861
4,248
4,718
3,871
3,635
3,807
3,775
4,803
4,982
7,419
7,391
7,654
5,753
7,148
1865
3,659
4,182
3,358
3,695
2,961
3.170
3,394
4,122
4,457
4,799
6,148
6,308
1869
2,881
2,843
3,387
3,328
3,686
3,999
4,313
5,414
5,800
6,491
6,701
1873
2.596
2,717
2,536
2,844
2,713
2,875
3,209
3,575
3,412
3,573
6,478
6,018
1877
2,602
2,623
2,609
2,673
2,304
2,558
3,530
4,157
3,406
3,890
5,217
5,963
1881
3,170
2,922
3,297
2,929
2,576
2,641
3,083
3,051
3,651
3,857
5,720
6.964
1885
2,402
1,789
1,960
3,056
2,235
1,833
2,538
2,576
4,193
2,643
4,436
4,624
3,045
6,946
3,409
1889
1,610
1,898
1,630
1,775
2,402
2,248
3,250
2,362
3,134
Av. B courses )
1853-1881 j
3,497
3,790
3,491
3,351
3,131
3,196
4,148
4,417
4,755
4,962
6,018
5,903
Av. 2 courses |
1885*1889*
2,095
1,735
2,477
1,882
1,804
2,470
2,412
3,722
2,503
3,780
3,836
4,677
Rotation of Crops.
599
assumed restorative crop— the roots — gave practically no pro-
duce at all without manure, the barley gave, on land un-
manured for so many years, an average of rather over 30 bushels
per acre. The truth is that the cultivation for the preceding
roots kept the land clean, and as there was practically no pro-
duce of roots, the soil was, in point of fact, left almost fallow
for the barley during the winter preceding the roots, during the
root-crop period itself, and during the succeeding winter, before
the sowing of the barley. There was, therefore, very good
preparation for the barley. It will be seen further on that,
when grown continuously without manure, both wheat and
barley yield more in proportion to their respective averages
under ordinary cultivation than do either of the fallow crops —
the roots or the leguminous crops. Yet, the produce of barley
in rotation without manure was much in excess of that when it
is grown continuously; the explanation doubtless being, as
above referred to, that the crop had been grown after well-cul-
tivated bare fallow.
Next, it is to be observed that, there having been practically
no crop of roots without manure, there was no material differ-
ence between the yield of the succeeding barley where the roots
were carted off or where they were fed on the land.
Turning now to the produce on the four plots with super-
phosphate alone, it is seen that whilst the average yield of
barley on the two portions from which the roots had been carted
off was under 98 bushels, that on the portions where they had
been fed on the land was, in one case more than 35^, and in the
other 38 bushels. The effect, on the one hand of the removal
of the larger crop of roots, and on the other of the retention on
the land of the greater part of its constituents, is thus very evi-
dent. It is further to be remarked, that the produce of barley
where the roots grown by superphosphate had been removed
from the land, was even less than on the two corresponding
portions of the unmanured plot. Thus, there is confirmation of
the supposition that the higher crop of barley without maniu’e
was due to the previous preparation, and conservation of con-
stituents, by fallow ; and that the lower produce on the super-
phosphate plot where the roots had been removed was largely
due to so much greater exhaustion, especially of the available
nitrogen, of the surface soil.
Next it is seen that, on the plots where the mixed manure
containing nitrogen had been applied for the preceding turnips,
the produce of barley was on a much higher level ; and it was
much higher on the portions where the turnips had been fed on
the land than on those from which they had been removed.
600
Rotation of Crops.
It may be observed, that the produce, even on the plots with
superphosphate alone, was, where the roots had been fed on the
land, about the average of the country at large under ordinary
rotation— namely, from 36 to 33 bushels ; whilst, on the full
manured plot, the produce was much more than this — namely,
in one case 40|, and in the other 42§ bushels, where the roots
had been removed ; and where they had been fed on the land, in
one case 48f, and in the other 47| bushels.
Thus, then, the effect on the succeeding barley of the full
mineral and nitrogenous manure applied for the preceding tur-
nips is very obvious ; whilst the effect, on the one hand of the
removal of the root-crop, and on the other of the retention on
the land of most of its constituents, is also very marked. The
experimental results relating to the second crop of the course —
the barley — so far fully confirm, therefore, the explanations
which have been given of the beneficial effects of root-crops grown
under the ordinary conditions of manuring, on the succeeding
cereal grown in alternation with them.
Examination of the results relating to the quantities of straw,
and of total produce (grain and straw together), as given in the
middle and lower divisions of the Table, will show that they fully
bear out the general conclusions that have been drawn from a
consideration of the produce of the grain alone.
The Leguminous Crops (or Fallow).
Table III. gives for the third element of the typical four-
course rotation — the leguminous crops — the results obtained in
each of the eleven years of the forty-four in which they were
grown, in exactly the same form as those previously recorded
for the turnips and for the barley. But, as in some of the years
clover, and in others beans, were grown, the averages are here
taken, not for the eight and for the two courses, as with the
other crops, but, respectively, for the four years of the eleven in
which clover was grown, and for the seven in which beans were
grown.
A glance at the Table brings to view some of the difficulties
connected with the growth of these crops. Thus, although the
scheme of the four-course rotation supposes the growth of red
clover as the third crop of each course, that is once in four
years, it has in fact only been grown four times in the forty-four
years — namely, in the first, seventh, ninth, and tenth courses ;
and when it failed beans were grown instead. It is, indeed, a
matter of general knowledge and experience, that it is only on
a few descriptions of soil that clover can be grown so frequently
Table III. — Experiments on the Rotation of — Roots , Barley, Clover (or Beans), or
Fallow, and Wheat ; in Agdell Field, Rothamsted. 11 courses, 44 years, 1848-
1891.
3. CLOVER (OR BEANS), OR FALLOW.
Years
Unmanured
Courses 1-0 superphosphate
only. Courses 10 and 11
mixed mineral manure
Mixed mineral and
nitrogenous manure
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted i
Roots fed
Fallow
Beaus
or
clover
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
Fallow
Beans
or
clover
BEANS ;
DRESSED CORN— 1854
’58, ’62
’66, ’70
’78 and ’90. (CLOVER, 1850, ’74, ’82 and ’86.)
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
1850
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
1854
5 A
54
5 A
10f
9ft
133
1858
6}
5}
64
8S
123
14J
1802
29
27
29j
30
433
41}
1806
10}
8?
73
10
203
24?
1870
133
174
15*
153
243
26g
1874
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
1878
8|
73
7}
134
20}
26f
1882
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
1886
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
1890
7
8}
243
24
15}
16}
Average 7
courses, beans,
1854, ’58, ’02,
113
H3
134
16}
20}
233
’ti6, ’70, ’78,
and ’90
BEANS ; STRAW— 1854, ’58,
’62, ’66,
70, 78, and ’90.
(CLOVER, 1850, ’74, ’82, and ’86.)
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
1850
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
1854
1,055
953
1,103
1,378
1,355
1,605
1858
1,100
965
1,155
1,320
1,520
1,760
18G2
1,840;
1,845
2,150
2,155
3,280
2,945
18GG
1,013
905
978
1,835
1,990
2,155
1870
738
710
768
878
1,056
1,008
1874
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
1878
710
7 t i)
1,045
1,350
1,655
1,880
1882
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
188G
(clover)
(clover)
(clover)
(clover^
(clover)
(clover)
1890
603
633
1,764
1,630
1.102
1,059
Average 7
courses, beans,
1854, '58, ’62,
-
1,013
969
1,280
1,507
1,708
1,773
’6G, ’70, ’78,
and ’90
CLOVER (AS HAY)— 1850, ’74, ’82 and
’86. BEANS (CORN and STRAW)— 1854, ’58, ’62, ’66,
70, ’78 and ’90.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
1850
(6,440)
(5,920)
(7,027)
(5,413)
(6,799)
(6,329)
(6,739)
(5,580)
(7,697)
(6,920)
(7,275)
(6,753)
1854
1,445
1,367
1,534
2,124
2,065
2,544
1858
1,515
1,307
1,605
1,895
2,357
2,754
1862
3,661
3,546
4,040
4,027
5,990
5,520
1866
1,689
1,485
1,463
2,481
3,343
3,782
1870
1,591
1,854
1,778
1,867
2,664
2,746
1874
(2,838)
(2,497)
(5,093)
(6,186)
(7,904)
(7,708)
1878
1,301
1,255
1,557
2,241
2,963
3,617
1882
(2,935)
(2,492)
(6,700)
(7,927)
(8,882)
(9,374)
188G
(1,285)
(1,305)
(4,925)
(4,695)
(3,255)
(3,645)
1890
1,079
1.197
3.441
3,269
2.145
2.195
Average 7
courses, beans,
1854, ’58, *62,
1,754
1,716
2,203
2,558
3,075
3,308
’G6, ’70, ’78,
and ’90,
Average 4
courses, clover,
1850, 74, ’82
3,245
2,927
5,762
6,097
6,740
6,870
and '-86
602
Rotation of Crops.
as every fourth year ; and in many cases it is not attempted to
grow it more than once in eight years. The difficulty of
growing red clover or beans frequently on ordinary arable land
has been very fully illustrated in our experiments on the growth
of leguminous crops. On the other hand, it has been found that
red clover may be grown for many years in succession on rich
garden soil ; and, further, that on ordinary arable land where
clover had entirely failed, some other Leguminosae, having more
extended root range, or more powerful root habit, grew luxu-
riantly, and yielded large crops, containing large amounts of
nitrogen, for a number of years in succession. Lastly, in another
field, where beans had frequently failed, red clover was after-
wards sown, and gave unusually large crops.
Referring to the results in Table III. it is seen that when
clover was grown in 1850, that is in the first course, and when
it had not been grown on the same land for many years, large
crops were obtained on all the plots ; though the larger where
the mixed manure including potash, and also nitrogen, had
been applied for the root-crop three years previously. For
the second, third, and fourth courses, clover was sown with the
preceding barley, but in all three it failed in the winter, and
beans were grown instead; that is, in 1854, 1858, and 1862.
After these repeated failures,- clover was not sown for the fifth
and sixth courses, but beans were taken instead, in 1866 and
in 1870. In the seventh course, clover was sown again, with
the barley, and gave three cuttings in 1874 ; that is, twenty-four
years since the last good crop. Without manure, the produce
was, however, not much more than one ton per acre ; with
superphosphate it was much more ; and with the mixed manure,
including potash, much more still— corresponding to about
34 tons of clover hay. For the eighth course clover was not
sown, but beans were taken in 1878. For the ninth and tenth
courses, however, clover was again sown, yielding in the ninth
(1882) even more than in 1874 ; but in the tenth (1886) very
much smaller crops, though more with mineral manure alone,
now including potash, than with the mixed manure containing
nitrogen also. Lastly, for the eleventh course, clover was again
sown with the barley, but failed, and in 1890 beans were grown
instead ; the crops, as in the case of the clover in the tenth
course, being greater with mineral manure alone (now including
potash) than with the mixed manure containing nitrogen
also.
Thus, in only four out of the eleven years in which clover
should have been grown, was any crop obtained, and beans had
to be taken in the other seven. The produce of clover is given
Rotation of Crops.
603
in the lower division of the Table, side by side with the total
produce (corn and straw) of the beans ; and the results for the
clover are entered in parentheses.
Briefly to summarise the results given in the Table, it may
be stated that the average produce of clover, reckoned as hay,
was, without manure, rather over 3,000 lb. ; with the super-
phosphate (in the last year with potash, soda, and magnesia
also) nearly 6,000 lb. ; and with the mineral and nitrogenous
manures together for each course, about 6,800 lb. With the
mineral manure alone, therefore, there was about twice as
much, and with the mineral and nitrogenous manures together,
considerably more than twice as much, as without manure.
Compared with these amounts of clover reckoned as hay, the
seven bean crops (corn and straw together) gave an average
of about 1,700 lb. without manure, of nearly 2,400 lb. with
mineral manure alone, and about 3,200 lb. with the mineral and
nitrogenous manures together.
Not only, therefore, was the average produce of the bean
crop very much less than that of the clover, but in point of fact
it was only in one year, 1862, that anything like a really good
crop of beans was obtained. It may be added, though the
point will be further illustrated presently, that the crops of the
four years of clover contained, even without manure about as
much nitrogen as, and with each of the two manures considerably
more than, those of the seven years of beans. In fact, the
average produce of the bean crop, and of nitrogen in it, was
very much less than in the case of the clover. Nevertheless,
even the average yield of nitrogen was much more in the beans
than in either of the cereals with which they were grown in
alternation. Thus, without manure, the four clover crops gave
an average of 60-2 lb. of nitrogen per acre, and the seven bean
crops 34-9 lb. ; but over the eleven courses the barley gave an
average of only 28'0 lb., and the wheat of only 3T7 lb. With
mineral manure alone, the average yield of nitrogen was, in
the clover 119'2 lb., in the beans 49-2 lb., in the barley only
27'7 lb., and in the wheat only 39'3 lb. Lastly, with mineral
and nitrogenous manure together, the clover gave an average
yield of nitrogen of 134-6 lb., the beans of 64T lb., the barley
41-2 lb., and the wheat 43‘5 lb. There can, indeed, be no doubt,
that the leguminous crops, and especially the clover, growing
on land in the same condition, and similarly manured, have the
power of taking up much more nitrogen over a given area from
some source, than the cereals with which they are interpolated ;
and that the beneficial effects of the growth of such crops in rota-
tion with the cereals are intimately connected with this capability.
604
Rotation of Crops.
Before passing from the results in Table III. it may be
observed that, both with mineral manure alone, and with
mineral and nitrogenous manure together, there is rather more
produce, both of the clover and of the bean crop, where the
roots had been fed upon the land, than where they had been
carted off ; that is the higher the condition of the land. Thus,
then, the effects of the treatment of the first crop of the course
— the roots — on the produce of the third or leguminous crop are
clearly shown.
As already referred to, in the second and subsequent courses,
when the third year came round each plot was divided, clover
or beans being grown on one half, and the other half left fallow.
We have, therefore, the means of comparing the effects on the
other crops of the rotation — of fallow on the one hand, which
of course removes nothing (though there may be the more loss
by drainage), and of growing beans or clover on the other, a
characteristic of which is the assimilation, and consequently
the removal in the crops, especially of large amounts of nitrogen,
but of other constituents also ; at the same time, however,
leaving in the land more or less of nitrogenous crop-residue.
Such a comparison obviously has a special interest, since it is
chiefly as a substitute for fallow that the growth of leguminous
crops has been introduced into our rotations.
The Wheat Crops.
Table IV. records the results obtained with the fourth element
of the rotation — the wheat — exactly in the same form as in the
case of the other crops.
Looking first to the figures relating to the individual years,
it is seen that, under each condition of manuring or other
treatment, there is an enormous variation in the amount of
produce in the different years, according to the seasons. Thus,
taking for illustration the results in the first column under each
of the three main conditions as to manuring, that is where the
roots were carted from the land, and where in the third year
of the course it was left fallow, there was, without manure, only
10$ bushels of wheat in 1879, but 45 bushels in 1863 ; on the
superphosphate plot there was in 1879 only 14f bushels, and
46 bushels in 1863; and on the mixed manure plot only 12$
bushels in 1879, but 52$ bushels in 1863. Or, comparing the
quantities of total produce, corn and straw together, which more
directly represent the amounts of growth, we have, on the same
plots, without manure, 2,162 lb. per acre in 1879, and 7,446 lb.
in 1863; on the superphosphate plot 2,905 lb. in 1879, and
605
Rotation of Crops .
Table IV. — Experiments on the Rotation of— Roots, Barley, Clover (or Beans), or
Fallow , and Wheat; in Agdell Field, Rothamsted. 11 courses, 44 years,
1848-1891.
4. WHEAT.
Unmanured
Courses 1-9 superphosphate
only. Courses 10 and 11
Mixed mineral and
mixed mineral manure
nitrogenous manure
Years
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Boots fed
Beans
Beans
Beans
Beans
Beans
Beans
Fallow
or
Fallow
or
Fallow
or
Fallow
or
Fallow
or
Fallow
or
clover
clover
clover
clover
clover
clover
DRESSED
GRAIN.
Bush.
Busli.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
1851
30*
m
31*
30*
31*
28
1 32*
32
30*
28*
27*
_5UL
40$
1855
37fJ
35*
37*
34*
38*
35*
37*
36*
38*
37*
37*
1859
354
35*
35*
30*
37*
34*
39*
37*
42*
39*
40*
38*
186:1
45
34*
42
30*
46
34*
49*
41*
52*
46*
49
44*
1867
27*
21
23*
15*
26*
19*
27*
25
22*
23*
19*
21*
1871
14*
20*
H*
21*
16*
23*
15 3
23
17*
24
17*
25*
1875
24*
21 3
24*
19*
28*
28*
30*
31*
29*
31*
30
30*
1879
10*
10*
11*
8*
14*
14*
14*
401
15*
12*
13
10*
14
1883
33*
29*
34*
25*
38*
36*
40
37*
45*
39*
501
43*
1887
34*
25*
33*
27*
41*
42*
40*
44*
391
42*
41
1891
32
29*
31*
26*
36
42*
40
60*
41
44*
45*
42
A v. 8 courses 1
1855 to 1883 )
CO
(M
2G
27*
23*
30*
28*
31*
31*
31*
32*
30*
33*
At. 2 courses 1
1887 arid 1891 J
33*
27*
32*
26*
38*
42*
40*
471
40*
43*
43*
42*
STRAW.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
Ih.
1861
3,273
3,431
! 3,498
3,760
3,497
3,371
3,834
4.014
3.610
3,552
3.969
4.035
1855
4,295
3,619
4,070
3,351
4,286
3,525
4,492
3,611
4,952
3,942
5,107
1869
4,315
4,030
4,045
3,355
4,310
3,930
4,720
4,320
6,330
4,610
5,545
1863
4,563
3,468
4,295
3,008
4,690
3,390
5,051
3,888
5,495
4,698
5'638
18C7
2,654
2,143
2,598
1,524
2,774
1,906
2,989
2,648
2,850
3,003
2,905
1871
2,075
2,799
1,946
2,655
2,128
3,048
2,240
2,980
2,628
3,440
2,863
1875
2,833
2,430
2,851
2,353
3,230
3,536
3,625
3,928
3,623
4,685
4,085
4*385
1879
1,493
1,324
1,612
1,219
1,956
1,771
1,843
1,771
1,091
1,658
1,426
1883
2,994
2,280
3,231
2,060
3,686
3,021
4,110
3,275
3.689
4.024
4.028
4,505
1887
2,505
1,859
2,655
1,844
3,465
3,298
3,480
3,468
3,308
3,423
3,763
1891
2,941
2,598
2,898
2,318
3,586
3,995
4,103
5,017
4,288
4,575
4338
<309
Av. 8 courses 1
1865 to 1883 /
3,153
2,762
3,081
2,441
3,383
3,023
3,621
3,303
3,782
3,758
3,950
3,821
Av.
1 887
2 courses |
and 1891 /
2,723
2,229
2,777
2,081
3,526
3,647
3,792
4,243
3,798
3,999
4,350
3,977
TOTAL PRODUCE.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
1851
5.290
5,389
5,584
5,855
5,617
5,253
6,062
6,176
5,642
5,500
5,801
6,169
1855
6,735
5,859
6,473
5,526
6,756
5,789
6,961
5,921
7,428
6,371
7,499
6,992
1859
6,582
6,262
6,270
5,265
6,671
6,120
7,242
6,689
8,066
7,154
8,136
7,417
1863
7,446
5,621
6,999
4,941
7,626
5,619
8,194
6,562
8,837
7,627
8,747
7,721
1867
4,330
3,473
4,126
2,506
4,420
3,222
4,702
4,242
4,328
4,567
4.180
3,023
1871
3,004
4,092
2,840
3,994
3,133
4,521
3,193
4,404
3,747
4,942
3,925
5,236
1875
4,412
3,784
4,396
3,642
5,065
5,328
5,443
5,954
5,448
6,699
5,942
6,292
1879
2,162
1,987
2,351
1,800
2,905
2,729
2,755
2,781
2,478
2,493
2,100
3,034
1883
5,140
4.175
5.445
3,741
6,208
5.400
6,778
5.901
6.1 32
6.921
6.536
7.743
1887
4,689
3,483
4,811
3,550
6,103
5,994
6,105
6,332
5,894
6,103
6,410
6,409
1891
4,868
4,371
4,763
3,921
5,742
6,546
6,509
8,034
6,748
7,250
7,610
6311
Av. 8 courses \
1 1855 to 1883 f
4,976
4,407
4,863
3,927
.5,348
4,841
5,658
5,307
5,808
5,847
5,883
5,932
Av.
4881
2 courses t
and 1891 f
4,779
3,927
4,787
3,736
5,923
6,270
6,307
7,183
6,321
6,677
7,010
6,610
VOL. V. T. s. — 20 s s
606
Rotation of Crops.
7,626 lb. in 1863 ; and lastly, on tbe mixed manure plot, only
2,478 lb. in 1879, but 8,837 lb. in 1863.
Tbe cases cited are those of tbe most extreme fluctuations
due to season ; but a glance at tbe columns will show that there
were very considerable variations in other years, under each
condition as to manuring, or other treatment ; whilst the
amounts of the variations differ more or less under the different
soil conditions. It will be obvious, therefore, that if we would
fairly compare with one another the effects of the varying con-
ditions, it is important to take the average results of a sufficient
number of years to eliminate the influence of the varying
seasons. Most of our illustrations will, therefore, be drawn
from the average results over the eight years of wheat in the
second to the ninth courses ; but some reference will also be
made to the averages for the tenth and eleventh courses.
Let us first compare ■ the average amounts of produce of
grain under the three main conditions as to manuring,
excluding, however, those obtained on the portion of the un-
manured plot where the roots were fed on the land, and where
beans or clover were grown in the third year of each course ;
as the crops, especially of the barley and of the wheat, were
somewhat adversely affected by a dell on one side of the plot,
the surface soil being in consequence comparatively shallow.
The figures show that, on the three portions, the produce ranged,
without manure, from 26 to 284 bushels ; with superphos-
phate from 284 to 31f ; and with the mixed manure from 304
to 33£ bushels. Or, taking the amounts of total produce
(grain and straw together), the range of amounts is — without
manure from 4,407 to 4,976 lb. ; with superphosphate from
4,841. to 5,658 lb. ; and with the mixed manure from 5,808 to
5,932 lb. There is, therefore, both in grain and in total
pi’oduce of the fourth crop of the course, an obvious difference,
but certainly less than might have been expected, due to the
varying conditions as to manuring in the first year, sepa-
rated from the fourth by the growth and removal of the inter-
mediate crops.
Next, comparing the effects on the fourth crop — the wheat —
of the removal of the first — the turnips — or the retention of
them, or of most of their constituents, on the land, it is seen
that without manure, under which conditions there were prac-
tically no roots grown, the difference of result from removal or
otherwise is quite immaterial, and is probably accidental.
With superphosphate alone, and more roots grown, the nitro-
gen of which was doubtless obtained from previous accumula-
tions within the soil, the removal or the retention on the
Rotation of Crops.
607
land of the constituents of the turnips should, therefore, more
materially affect the condition of the soil for the growth of
the succeeding crops. It was shown that the effect was
very marked on the barley which immediately succeeded the
roots. There was also somewhat less produce, both of clover
and of beans, where the roots had been removed ; and now,
in the case of the fourth crop — the wheat — there is still
distinct effect. Thus, taking the fallow portions, there was an
average of 30f bushels of wheat where the roots had been re-
moved, and 31 J bushels where they were fed or retained on the
land ; the corresponding amounts of total produce being
5,348 lb. and 5,658 lb. Or, taking the produce on the bean
and clover portions, there were 28^ bushels of grain where the
roots had been removed, and 31f bushels where they had not
been removed ; the corresponding amounts of total produce
being 4,841 lb. and 5,307 lb. Lastly, with the mixed manure,
including nitrogen, the average produce was, on the fallow
portions, 31 1 bushels after the removal of the roots, but only
30^ where they had not been removed ; the amounts of total
produce being, however, 5,808 lb. and 5,883 lb. On the bean
or clover portions, the results were 32|- bushels where the roots
were carted, and 33^ bushels where they were not removed ; and
the amounts of total produce were 5,847 and 5,932 lb.
Reference to the average produce of the last two courses,
the tenth and eleventh, the wheat years of which were of more
than average productiveness, shows, in the case of the manured
plots, moi’e striking difference in the amount of the fourth crop
due to the removal or the retention on the land of the constitu-
ents of the first crop — the roots. The roots of those courses were,
however, more than average in amount.
The results, both with superphosphate alone, and with the
mixed manure, afford, therefore, distinct evidence of the effect
of the removal or otherwise of the first crop of the course — 'the
turnips — not only on the second and third crops, but on the
fourth crop — the wheat — also.
The next point is to illustrate the difference of effect on the
other crops of the rotation, on the one hand of the growth and
removal of the highly niti’ogenous leguminous crop, and on the
other of fallowing which removes nothing ; and first as to the
wheat, which we are now specially considering, and which
immediately succeeds the leguminous crop or the fallow.
A careful examination of the average results over the eight
courses (second to ninth) will show that, both without manure,
and with superphosphate alone, that is under conditions of ex-
haustion, especially of available nitrogen, the wheat crops were
s s 2
608
Rotation of Crops.
in every case higher after fallow, with its supposed accumulation,
than after the leguminous crops, which removed much more
nitrogen than the succeeding wheat would require. On the other
hand, on the mixed manure plots, where the condition of the land,
and especially its nitrogenous condition, was not exhausted, but
fairly maintained, there was even rather more average produce
of wheat after the removal of the highly nitrogenous leguminous
crops than after the accumulations of the fallow.
It is unsafe to form general conclusions from the results of
individual years, since the characters of the seasons may have
so much influence. But it may be observed that, after the
heavy crops of clover on the superphosphate plots in 1882, and
more where the roots were fed than where they had been re-
moved, the wheat crops of the next year, 1883, which were
higher than average, were lower after the leguminous crop than
after fallow; whilst, on the highly manured plot, they were much
the higher after the leguminous crop. In the tenth course,
however, after the use of potash as well as superphosphate,
there were fair but by no means such heavy crops of clover as
in the very favourable season of the preceding course, and there
was less where there had then been the larger crop ; and in the
eleventh course also, there was less total produce of beans where
the heavier crop of clover had been grown in the ninth course.
The result was, that on the average of the last two courses, the
wheat gave less instead of more total produce after fallow than
after the leguminous crops ; but more where the roots had been
fed than where they had been carted ; that is, more where the
land was the less exhausted.
The general result is, that where there was not exhaustion,
but accumulation due to manure and to increased crop residue,
the growth and removal of the leguminous crops not only gave
large amounts of nitrogen in the removed crops, whilst the fal-
low yielded none, but also left more available nitrogen for the
succeeding wheat than was rendered available (and remained)
from the resources of the soil after the fallow. In other words,
not only were the nitrogen and other constituents obtained in
the leguminous crops an entire gain compared with the result
of fallow, but, on the average of years, a somewhat ‘larger suc-
ceeding wheat crop was obtained as well.
Here, then, is a striking illusti’ation of the advantages of
the interpolation of leguminous crops instead of fallow with the
cereals in our rotations ; and it is seen that the benefit may be the
greater if the land be not abnormally exhausted, as was the case
on the continuously unmanured, and on the superphosphate plots.
Although there was thus great difference between the effects,
Rotation of Crops.
609
on the one hand, of the growth and removal of a leguminous
crop, and on the other of fallow, so far as the third year of the
course is concerned ; yet, where the manurial conditions were
not defective, there was even more wheat succeeding the legu-
minous crop, than succeeding the fallow. The influence of the
conditions of the third year of the course does not, however,
seem to extend in any marked degree to the crops succeeding
the wheat ; that is, to the roots commencing the next course,
and to the barley succeeding the roots.
So far as the roots are concerned, the average results over
the eight courses show, both without manure and with super-
phosphate alone, that is on the most exhausted plots, that the
advantage, if any, is more with the fallow than with the legu-
minous plots ; whilst, with the full manure, there is scarcely any
difference of result clearly traceable to the treatment of the land
in the third year of the preceding courses. Over the last two
courses, again, without manure no benefit accrued to the root-crop
by the growth of the leguminous crop as compared with fallow.
On the superphosphate plots, however, now with potash, soda,
and magnesia, as well, and doubtless more leguminous produce
accordingly, there were more roots on the leguminous than on
the fallow plots ; but, with the full manure, there was practically
no difference in the produce of roots on the fallow compared
with the leguminous crop plots. Obviously, the fact that there
was not materially less produce of roots where the leguminous
crops had been grown and removed, as compared with where
the land had been fallow, is of itself evidence of the beneficial
rather than exhausting effect of their growth and removal, so far
as the requirements of the succeeding crops are concerned.
Nor is the effect of the growth and removal of a leguminous
crop, compared with fallow, very definite on the barley succeed-
ing the manured roots. It is, however, over the eight courses,
in favour of the growth of the leguminous crops ; and, though
with very small crops, it is, excepting without manure, much
more so over the last two courses.
From the results as a whole it maybe concluded that, where
the land was the most exhausted, the growth of the leguminous
crop was correspondingly limited, and, being at the expense of
the little accumulation that there was, its removal further ex-
hausted the immediately available supplies; whilst, where the
accumulations were greater, the growth was dependent on a
more extended root- development, and therefore greater range
of collection ; the luxuriance was much greater, and the surface-
soil at any rate, gained by an increased amount of highly nitro-
genous leguminous crop-residue. It has further been seen, that
610
Rotation of Crops.
the effects ot the manuring and treatment of the first crop oi
the course — the turnips — were manifest in the produce of the
fourth crop — the wheat ; and also that the effects of fallowing,
or of growing and removing a highly nitrogenous crop, in the
third year, was clearly traceable on the crop of the fourth year,
and to some extent, though in a much less degree, on the subse-
quent crops commencing the next course.
The Amounts of Produce Grown in Rotation, and in
the Various Crops Grown continuously.
Obviously, when considering what are the benefits arising
from rotation as distinguished from the growth of the individual
crops continuously, it is desirable, as far as practicable, to com-
pare the results of the two methods in regard to their yield per
acre of some of the more important constituents of the crops.
For the purposes of such a comparison, it will be of interest to
illustrate the point by reference specially to the amounts of dry
matter , nitrogen , total mineral matter (ash), phosphoric acid, and
potash (and in some cases of lime), in the crops grown in rota-
tion, and in those grown continuously, under as far as possible
parallel conditions as to manuring. Accordingly, so far as results
obtained under rotation are concerned, the amounts of each of
the above constituents in the average produce per acre per
annum over the eight courses (second to ninth), under each of
the twelve different conditions as to manuring, or other treat-
ment, are adopted ; and these are compared with the amounts
obtained when the individual crops are grown continuously ; in
each case when practicable in the same eight seasons as those in
which the rotation crops were obtained, and under the same, or
nearly parallel, conditions as to manuring.
The Amounts of Dry Matter produced in the Rotation, and in
the Continuous Crops.
Table V. shows the average annual amount of dry matter
produced per acre, in each of the four crops — roots, barley, legu-
minous crop, and wheat — grown in rotation, and continuously, as
above described. It shows the amounts, separately in the roots,
leaves, and total produce, of the turnips ; in the grain, straw, and
total produce, of the barley, and of the wheat ; in the com, straw,
and total produce, of the beans ; and in the clover. It will be
seen that the arrangement and headings of the columns are ex-
actly th6 same as in the Tables of produce already considered ;
and that, fdr each description of crop, or part of the crop, the
Rotation of Crops,
611
Table V. — Experiments on the Rotation of — Roots , Barley, Clover {or
Beans), or Falloio, and Wheat ; in Agdell Field, Rothamsted. 8 courses,
32 years, 1852-1883.
AVERAGE AMOUNTS OP DRV MATTER PER ACRE, GROWN IN ROTATION, COMPARED
WITH THOSE IN THE CROPS GROWN CONTINUOUSLY.
Uu manured
Superphosphate
Mixed mineral and
nitrogenous manure
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Beans
low clover
Fal-
low
Beaus
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal- |®eaus
, ! or
Iow clover
Fal- |Beaus
low 1 clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
SWEDISH TURNIPS.
1 Rotation . . .
Roots j Continuous ' . .
' ,'otn.+ or — cont.
lb.
359
236
lb.
228
236
lb.
323
236
lb.
205
236
lb.
1,724
945
lb.
1,631
945
lb.
1,918
945
lb.
1,901
945
lb.
3,081
1,876
lb.
3,128
1.876
lb.
3,107
1,876
lb.
3,069
1,876
123
-8
87
-31
779
686
973
956
1,205
1,252
1,231
1,193
| Rotation . . .
56
40
52
45
161
176
179
200
310
355
333
354
Leaves -j Continuous 1 . .
49
49
49
49
142
142
142
142
345
315
345
345
1 Rotn.+ or —cont.
7
0
3
-4
19
34
37
58
-35
10
-12
9
| notation . . .
415
277
375
250
1.885
1,807 !
2,097
2,101
3,391
3,483
3,440
3,423
Total -j Continuous 1 . .
285
285
285
285
1,087
1,087
1,087
1,087
2,221
2.221
2,221
2,221
iRotn.H- or —cont.
130
-8
90
-35
798
720
1,010
1,014 1 1,170
1,262
1,219
1,202
BARLEY.
Grain
j Rotation . . .
J Continuous . .
1,396
875
1,489
875
1,399
875
1,307
875
1,284
1,128
1,294
1,128
1,665
1,128
1,780
1,128
1,917
2,298
1,987
2,298
2,262
2,298
2,273
2,298
v Rot n.+ or —cont.
521
614
524
432
156
166
537
652
-381
-311
-36
-25
Straw
/ Rotation . . .
J Continuous . .
1,493
947
1,647
947
1,486
947
1,459
947
1,307
1,052
1,355
1,052
1,765
1,052
1,879
1,052
2,029
2,489.
2,129
2,489
2,701
2,489
2,613
2,489
V Rotn.-f or —cont.
546
700
1 539
512
255
303
713
827
-460
-360
212
124
Total
| Rotation . . .
■] Continuous . .
2,889
1,822
3,136
1,822
2,885
1,822
2,766
1,822
2,591
2,180
2,649
2,180
3,430
2,180
3,659
2,180
3,946
4,787
4,116
4,787
4,963
4,787
4,886
4,787
• Rotn.+ or —cont.
1,067
1,314
1,063
944
411
469
1,250
1,479
-841
-671
176
99
BEANS (6 COURSES), CLOVER (2 COURSES), OR FALLOW.
(■ Rotation . . .
Corn J Continuous . .
vRotn. + or —cont.
631
234
1 625
234
640
265
769
265
1,147
581
1,292
581
397
391
375
504
566
711
f Rotation . . .
Straw -j Continuous . .
V Rot n. + or —cont.
879
422
835
422
978
524
1,213
524
1,487
799
1,540
799
457
413
454
689
688
741
( Rotation . , .
Total Continuous . .
' Rotn.+ or —cont.
1,510
656
1,460
656
1,618
789
1,982
789
2,634
1,380
2,832
1.380
854
804
829
1,193
1,254
1,452
_ | Rotation . . .
Clover j continuous . .
j 2,309
1 ?
1,996
?
4,717
?
5,645
?
6,714
?
6,833
?
Average of 8 courses, 1
beaus and clover J
*1,710
i 1,594
2,393
2,897
3,654
3,832
WHEAT.
Grain
Rotation
Continuous
1,516
647
1,368
647
1,483
647
1,235
647
1,636
766
1,514
766
1,702
766
1,668
766
1,685
1,238
1,740
1,238
1,599
1,238
1,752
1,238
Rot.n.+ or —
cont.
869
721
836
588
870
748
936
902
447
502
361
514
Straw
Rotation
Continuous
2,636
1,082
2,296
1,082 !
2,573
1,082
2,036
1,082
2,844
1.204
2,513
1,204
3,021
1,204
2,767
1,204
3,158
2,142
3,137
2,142
3,273
2,142
3,186
2,142
Rotn.+ or —
cont.
1,554
1,214
1,491
954
1.640
1,309
. 1,817
1,563
1,016
995
1.131
1,044
Total
Rotation
Continuous
4,152
1,729
3,664
1,729
4,056
1,729
3.271
1,729
4,480
1,970
4,027
1,970
4,723
1,970
4,435
1,970
4,843
3,380
4,877
3,380
i 4,872
1 3,380
4,938
3,380
Rotn.+ or —
cont.
2,423
1,935 |
2,327
1,542
2,510
2,057
2,753
2,465
1,463
1,497
1,492
1,558
1 Average 19 years, 1819-1852 ami 1856-1870,
6J2
Rotation of Crops.
first line shows the amounts obtained under rotation, the second
those in the crop grown continuously, and the third the differ-
ence between the two : —
The Dry Matter in the Turnip Crops. — Referring first to the
upper division of the Table, relating to the Swedish turnips, it
should be stated that results for the crops grown continuously
are not available for the same eight years as those grown in ro-
tation ; but for each of the three conditions as to manuring, the
average for 19 years of growth is taken. So far as manuring is
concerned, the unmanured and the superphosphate conditions
were the same for the rotation and for the continuous crops.
But, in the case of the mixed manure, the rotation plots received
a larger amount of nitrogen for the roots ; in fact, enough to carry
the four crops of the course. The continuous plot, on the other
hand, received a less amount each year ; but, unlike the rotation
plots, with no intermediate crops to use up any available residue
from the previous application.
The figures show that — without manure — the difference in
the amounts of dry matter produced in rotation and in continu-
ous growth are immaterial. The utter failure in both cases
without manure is confirmatory of the absolute dependence of
this valuable rotation crop on supplies within the soil itself,
either from accumulations, or from direct manuring.
The less produce of the continuous than of the rotation crops
with superphosphate is also quite consistent with the supposi-
tion that, under such conditions, the crop greatly exhausts the
available nitrogen of the soil, and especially of the surface soil.
With the mixed mineral and nitrogenous manure, again, there
is also considerably less production of dry substance when the
crop is grown continuously than when it is grown in rotation.
The result is, however, due partly to the larger amount of nitro-
gen directly supplied by manure to the rotation crops as above
referred to, but partly to the fact that when the same description
of root-crop, with the same character and range of roots, is
grown year after year on the same land, the surface-soil be-
comes close, and a somewhat impervious pan is formed below ;
conditions which are very unfavourable for a crop which pre-
eminently requires a good tilth for great development of fibrous
root within the soil. The results with the mixed manure are, of
course, the most comparable with those of ordinary practice ;
and it is clear that, however explained, much more produce
is obtained under rotation than with continuous growth. It
need only further be remarked that, of the total dry matter
produced, there are many times as much in the edible root as in
the leaf which almost wholly remains only for manure again.
Rotation of Crops.
613
The Dry Matter in the Barley Crops. — The second division of
Table Y. compares the amounts of dry matter yielded in barley,
grown, respectively, in rotation, and continuously — that is, year
after year on the same land. The results for the continuously
grown crops relate to the average produce ofthe same eightseasons
as those in which the rotation crops were obtained. The unmanured
and the superphosphate conditions were also quite parallel in
the two series of experiments. In the case ofthe mixed manure
resalts, it should be borne in mind that in the rotation experi-
ments a quantity of manure was applied for the preceding crop —
the turnips — which is supposed to carry the whole of the crops of
the four years’ course ; whilst, in the continuous experiments,
the quantity of nitrogen, for example, which is applied each year
for the immediate crop, amounts to rather more than one-fourth
of that applied for four years in the rotation experiments.
Thefigures show that— without manure — there was much less
dry matter in grain, straw, and total produce, in the crops grown
continuously than in those grown in rotation ; in fact, in the
total produce only about three-fifths as much. The much higher
amount under rotation is quite consistent with the explanation
that in the rotation experiments without manure, the roots
having failed, the barley crop had, in point of fact, the benefit of
the preparation which bare fallow is known to confer.
With superphosphate alone, the continuously grown barley
crops yielded more dry matter in grain, straw, and in total pro-
duce, than those without manure ; the excess being largely due
to increased capability of utilising the available nitrogen of the
surface soil, under the influence of the phosphatic manure. Both
sets of the superphosphate rotation crops yielded more dry matter
than the continuous ones, the excess being, however, much less
where the rotation roots had been removed than where they had
been consumed or spread upon the land. The effect ofthe growth
and accumulation by the previous root-crop, and of the more or
less available manurial residue left under the different conditions,
%
as compared with the result when the barley is grown year after
year on the same land, is thus very evident.
As already said, the amount of nitrogen annually applied on
the mixed manure plot was, for the continuous crops, somewhat
more than one-fourth of that applied for the preceding root-crops
in the case of the rotation plots. Under these circumstances,
the amounts of dry matter in grain, straw, and total produce,
were considerably less in the barley grown in rotation where the
roots and leaves of the turnips had been removed than in that
grown continuously ; but where in the case of the rotation barley
the root-crops had been consumed or spread upon the land, the
614
Rotation of Crops.
average yield or dry matter per acre was much more nearly
identical under rotation and under continuous cropping ; though
upon the whole it was more under rotation. The effects on the
second crop of the course, of the manurial and other treatment of
the first crop, is here, then, further illustrated. Lastly, it is to be
observed, that a larger proportion of the total dry matter of the
crop is, on the average, accumulated in the straw which is gene-
rally retained on the farm, than in the grain which is, as a rule,
exported from it.
Thus, both the actual and the comparative results clearly
show, that the successful growth of the barley was directly
dependent on the supplies within the soil, and that the object
may be gained, either in a properly manured rotation, or by the
direct application ot suitable manures, including a liberal
supply of nitrogen for the immediate crop. Having regard to
the general economy of the farm, the former plan is as a rule
the most advantageous ; though, owing to the success with
which the crop can be grown by direct artificial manures, such
manures are often used as supplements ; or, sometimes, a barley
crop is taken after another cereal, by the aid of artificial manures
alone.
The Dry Matter in the Leguminous Crops. — The third division
of the Table (V.) shows the average amounts of dry matter per
acre per annum in the corn, straw, and total produce, of the six
crops of beans grown in rotation in the eight years ; also the
average amounts in the same six years when the crop was grown
continuously in another field. Below the bean results are given
the average amounts per acre per annum in the clover grown in
rotation in the remaining two of the eight years ; and there are
also given the average amounts over the eight years, in the six
crops of beans and two of clover. It will be seen, however, that
there is no entry in the line for continuous crops of clover, for
the simple reason that, as has been shown in various papers, it
was found impossible to grow clover year after year on ordinary
arable land.
The figures show that, meagre as was the average produce ot
dry matter in the crops of beans, even when grown in rotation,
they were much less still when grown continuously. This was
the case whether we look to the amounts in the corn, the straw,
or the total produce. Indeed, the lines of total produce show
that the average amounts in the continuously grown crops were,
under each condition of manuring or other treatment, less than
half as much as those grown in rotation. In both cases, there
was somewhat more with superphosphate than without manure,
and more still with the mixed manure, including both potash
Rotation of Crops.
615
and nitrogen, but even under these conditions, and in rotation,
the produce was very small.
Under each condition as to manuring, the produce of dry
matter in the clover grown in rotation was more, and in some
very much more, than in the beans so grown. Without manure,
it averaged only about 1 ton per acre per annum ; with super-
phosphate, in one case more than 2, and in the other more than
2 1,- tons ; and in each with the full manure, including potash and
nitrogen, more than 3 tons.
Lastly, the average production of dry substance in the six
crops of beans and two of clover taken together was — without
manure only about | ton ; with superphosphate, in one case
little more than 1 ton, and in the other rather more than 1 \ ton ;
and, with the mixed manure, in both cases less than If ton.
These amounts in the leguminous crops with the mixed manure
were, however, greater than those obtained in the turnip crops,
but less than those in either the barley or the wheat grown in
rotation. The significance of the amounts grown in the legu-
minous crops will, however, be the more clearly recognised
when we come to consider the quantities of nitrogen in the
different crops; and also the fact of the large proportion of the
manurial constituents of the leguminous crops grown in rotation,
that will generally be retained on the farm.
The Dry Matter in the Wheat Crops. — The bottom division ot
the Table (V.) shows the average amounts of dry substance in
the wheat — grain, straw, and total produce — grown in rotation,
and those obtained in the same years in another field under as
far as possible parallel conditions as to manuring, but grown
continuously ; that is, year after year on the same land.
A glance at the figures shows that, both without manure
and with superphosphate alone, the amount of dry matter pro-
duced was, both in grain and straw, in each case considerably
less than half as much in the crops grown continuously as in
those grown in rotation ; and that, even with the mixed manure,
supplying both mineral constituents and nitrogen, it was con-
siderably less in the continuous than in the rotation crops.
So far as the unmanured and the superphosphate crops are
concerned, it is obvious that the growth year after year must be
much more exhausting, both of nitrogen and of certain essential
mineral constituents, in a condition of composition and of
distribution within the soil and subsoil available to one parti-
cular crop, than when the crop is grown in alternation with
others, of different requirements, habits, and root-ranges.
It has been explained that iu the case of the mixed manure
rotation plots there was applied for the first crop of the course,
616
Rotation of Crops.
besides a full supply of mineral constituents, about 140 lb. ot
nitrogen ; at the average rate, therefore, of 35 lb. per acre per
annum over the four years. But, in the case of the continu-
ously grown wheat crops, not only a full supply of mineral
manure, but 43 lb. of nitrogen as ammonium-salts, were directly
applied every year. The fact of the greater amount of produce on
the rotation plots would indicate, therefore, that notwithstanding
the growth and removal of the intermediate crops since the ap-
plication of the manure for the roots, there was more nitrogen, and
more of other constituents also, in a condition of composition and
of distribution available for the wheat, than in the case of the
annual direct supply.
Of course, the proportion of grain and of straw in a wheat
crop varies, as it also does in barley, according to variety, soil,
season, and other circumstances. It is seen that, in the experi-
mental crops, whether grown in rotation or continuously, there
was always much more of the produced dry matter accumulated
in the straw than in the grain. Indeed, there was in some cases
nearly twice as much. On the assumption, therefore, that as a
rule the grain will be sold, and the straw retained on the farm
as food and litter, very much more than half of the produced
dry matter will be so retained.
Comparing the amounts of dry matter accumulated in the
different rotation crops, and taking as the most normal the
quantities obtained under the influence of the mixed manure,
including nitrogen, it is seen that, on the average, the two cereal
crops — the barley and the wheat — produced approximately equal
amounts ; and each considerably more than either of the fallow
crops — the roots or the Leguminosae.
The Amounts of Nitrogen in the Rotation, and in the Continuous
Crops.
Table YI . shows the average amounts of nitrogen per acre
per annum, over the eight years, in the rotation, and in the con-
tinuous crops, respectively : —
The Nitrogen in the Root-crops. — Without manure, with
extremely small crops, but very abnormally high percentage of
nitrogen in them, the amounts per acre were, in the continu-
ously grown crops only about twice as much as annually comes
down as combined nitrogen in the rain and minor aqueous de-
posits from the atmosphere ; whilst, even in the rotation crops,
the amounts averaged but little more than in the continuous.
With superphosphate alone, much larger crops, but much
lower percentages of nitrogen, there was very much more nitro-
Rotation of Crops. 617
Table: VI. — Experiments on the Rotation of — Roots , Barley , Clover (or
Beans), or Fallow, and Wheat ; in Agdell Field, Rothamsted. 8 courses,
32 years, 1852-1883.
AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF NITROGEN PER ACRE IN THE ROTATION CROPS. COMPARED WITH
THOSE IN THE CROPS GROWN CONTINUOUSLY.
Unmanureil
Superphosphate
Mixed mineral and
nitrogenous manure
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
| Roots fed
Fal-
Beans
Fal-
Beans
Fal-
Beans
Fal-
Beaus
Fal- |Beans
Fal-
Beans
low
or
clover
low
or
clover
low
or
clover
low
or
clover
low Jclover
low
or
clover
SWEDISH TURNIPS.
( Rotation . . .
Roots i Continuous 1 . .
\ Rotn.+ or — cont.
lb.
9-4
6-8
lb.
5- 8
6- 8
lb.
8-5
8-8
lb.
5- 3
6- 8
lb.
28-7
13-6
lb.
288
13-6
lb.
32-9
138
lb.
32-2
13-6
lb.
66-3
40-1
lb.
66'7
40-1
lb.
68-2
40-1
lb.
655
401
2-8
-1-0
1-7
-1-5
151
13-2
19-3
18-6
26*2
26-8
28-1
254
( Rotation . . .
21
1-8
1-9
1-6
6*1
6-5
6-9
7-6
12-2
139
130
139
Leaves j Continuous 1 . .
2-0
2*0
2-0
2-0
5-8
5-8
5-8
5-8
14-1
141
141
141
V Rotn. + or —cont.
01
-0-2
-o-i
-0-4
03
0-7
11
1-8
-1-9
-0*2
-1-1
-0'2
( Rotation . . .
11-5
76
10-4
6*9
34-8
33-3
39-8
39'8
78-5
806
81-2
79-4
Total ■! Continuous 1 . .
8-8
8-8
8-8
8-8
19-4
19-4
19-4
19-4
54-2
54-2
54-2
54-2
V Rotn.-f or —cont.
2-7
-1-2
1-8
-1-9
15-4
13*9
20-4
20-4
24-3
26-4
27-0
25-2
BARLEY.
Rotation . . .
21-5
230
21-5
201
17-8
17-8
22-9
24-6
29-7
30-7
350
34-9
Grain
Continuous . .
13-5
13 5
13-5
13-5
15-5
15*5
15-5
15-5
352
35*2
35-2
352
Rotn.+ or —cont.
80
9-5
8-0
8-8
2*3
2-3
7-4
91
-5*5
-4*5
-0*2
-0-3
Rotation . . .
8-6
7-4
8-0
8-8
55
57
75
7-9
95
10*0
12-5
11*9
Straw
Continuous . .
4*2
4*2
4-2
42
4'5
4-5
4-5
4-5
1 1-4
11-4
11-4
11-4
Rotn.-t- or —cont.
2*4
3-2
2-4
24
1-0
1-2
3-0
34
-1-9
-1-4
1-1
0*5
Rotation . . .
28-1
30-4
28-1
2G-7
23-3
23-5
30-4
32-5
39*2
40-7
47-5
46*8
Total
Continuous . .
17-7
17-7
1 7 7
17-7
20-0
20-0
20-0
20-0
46*6
46*6
46*6
46*6
Rotn.+ or — cont.
10-4
12-7
10-4
9-0
3-3
3,
10-4
12-5
-7*4
-5*9
0-9
0*2
BEANS (8 COURSES), CLOVER (2 COURSES), OR FALLOW.
Corn
Rotation . . .
Continuous . .
Rotn.-l- or— cont.
27-5
9-7
27-2
9-7
30-4
10-5
36-6
10-5
49-6
21-4
55-7
21-4
17-8
1
17-5
19*9
2G-1
28-2
34*3
Rotation . . .
9*4
8-9
10-1
12-4
14-0
14-5
Straw
Continuous . .
4*6
4*6
5*5
5-5
71
7-1
Rotn.+ or —cont.
4-8
4-3
4-8
6*9
6-9
7*4
Rotation . . .
36*9
381
40*5
49-0
63-6
70-2
Total -
Continuous . .
14-3
14-3
16-0
16-0
28-5
285
Rotn.+ or —cont.
22*6
1
21-8
24-5
1
330
35-1
41-7
Rotation . . .
55-0
47-0
124-5
144-6
187-0
168-4
Continuous . .
?
.?
?
?
?
?
Average of 8 courses, |
41*5
38*9
61*5
72*9
89*5
94*7
Beans and Clover /
WHEAT.
Rotation . . .
26-2
237
25-5
21-5
27-2
25-4
28-6
28-2
28-9
30-1
27-7
301
Grain
Continuous . .
11-6
11-8
11-6
118
13-9
13-9
13-9
13*9
23*9
23-9
23*9
23-9
.1
Rotn.+ or —cont.
14-6
12-1
13 9
9*9
13-3
11-5
14-7
14-3
5*0
6*2
3*8
0-2
Rotation . . .
10-4
9-1
9*9
8-2
11-8
10-5
12-3
11-7
13 2
13 6
13'8
131
Straw
Continuous . .
5*4
5-4
51
5-4
5-9
5*9
5*9
5-9
10-1
10-1
10*1
10-1
Rotn.-l- or — cont.
50
3-7
4*5
2*8
5*9
4-8
6*4
5-8
31
3*5
3-7
30
Rotation . . .
36*6
32-8
35-4
29*7
39*0
35-9
40*9
39*9
421
43-7
41*5
432
Total
Continuous . .
17-0
170
170
17-0
19 8
19-8
19*8
19-8
34-0
340
34-0
340
Rotn.+ or —cont.
19-6
15-8
18-4
12-7
19-2
161
211
201
8-1
9-7
7-5
9-2
* Average 19 years, 1849-52 and 1856-70.
618
Rotation of Crops.
gen taken up than without manure ; in fact, when grown in
rotation from three to four times as much, and when grown con-
tinuously more than twice as much. There was, too, very much
more in the rotation than in the continuous crops. The detailed
results published elsewhere, relating to the continuous growth of
root-crops afford conclusive evidence that the increased amount
of nitrogen taken up by the crop under the influence of phos-
phatic manures is derived from the resources of the soil itself,
by the aid of the greatly enhanced development of fibrous feed-
ing root induced by such manures.
With the mixed manure containing nitrogen there was, as
with superphosphate alone, much more nitrogen taken up under
rotation than with continuous growth. But, under rotation,
there was about twice as much taken up with the mixed manure
containing nitrogen as with superphosphate without nitrogen ;
and with continuous growth there was nearly three times
as much taken up as with superphosphate without nitrogen.
It is clear, therefore, that the crops, whether grown in rotation
or continuously, took up much of the nitrogen supplied by the
manure. Indeed, it cannot be doubted that, beyond the small
amount of combined nitrogen annually coming down from the
atmosphere in rain and the minor aqueous deposits, the source
of the large amount of nitrogen of root-crops is the store of it
within the soil, whether this be due to accumulations, or to direct
supply by manure. On the other hand, the large amounts of
produce obtained by the aid of nitrogenous manures on land to
which no carbonaceous manure has been applied for about fifty
years is evidence that the atmosphere is at any rate the chief,
if not the exclusive, source of the carbon of the crops.
Lastly, as to the results in the Table relating to the Swedish
turnips, it is seen that by far the greater part of the nitrogen of
the crops was accumulated in the edible root.
The Nitrogen in the Barley Crops. — The second division of
Table YI. shows the average amounts of nitrogen per acre per
annum over the eight years in the rotation and in the continuous
barley crops respectively.
Referring to the results chiefly in their bearing on the ques-
tion of the position of the barley crop in rotation, and of its de-
pendence, or otherwise, on the soil for its supplies of nitrogen,
the amounts of it in the total crops, grain and straw together,
are of most interest.
When considering similar results relating to the first crop of
the course — the Swedish turnips, it was seen that the average
amount of nitrogen per acre per annum in the total crops, roots,
and leaves together, was only 10 or 11 lb., or even less, when
Rotation of Crops.
619
grown without any manure. The results relating to the rota-
tion barley crops show, however, that the average annual removal
in them was without manure nearly 30 lb. ; the conditions of
growth being substantially equivalent to fallow, as practically no
root-crop had been removed.
Consistently with other evidence on the point, the amounts
of nitrogen removed in the barley crops grown on the super-
phosphate plots is seen to be even considerably less than with-
out manure, where the increased crop of roots grown under the
influence of the superphosphate had been removed from the
land ; but where the superphosphate turnips had been fed on
the land, the amounts of nitrogen removed in the barley crops
are more than under the parallel conditions without manure. In
other words, an increased amount of nitrogen having been taken
up from the soil by the turnips under the influence of the super-
phosphate, the land was left poorer in available nitrogen for the
barley where the increased turnip crop had been removed from
the land, but richer where it, or its manurial residue, was left
upon it.
Again, under the influence of the mixed manure, supplying
a liberal amount of nitrogen for the roots, which took up a con-
siderable quantity of it, there was much less nitrogen in the
succeeding barley, where the roots so grown had been removed,
than where they or their manurial residue had been left on the
land.
The actual quantities of nitrogen removed in the barley crops,
where the roots had previously been removed, were — without
manure nearly 30 lb., with superphosphate about 23^ lb., and
with the mixed manure about 40 lb. ; but where the roots had
been fed or left on the land, they were, without manure about
28 lb., with superphosphate more than 30 lb., and with the
mixed manure containing nitrogen about 47 lb.
Comparing the amounts of nitrogen taken up by the rotation,
with those by the continuously grown barley, it is seen, as might
be expected under the conditions described, that both without
manure and with superphosphate, the rotation barley took up
much more than the continuously grown. Where, however,
nitrogenous manure had been applied for the roots, and they had
been removed, the succeeding barley took up less nitrogen than
the continuous crops which annually received nitrogenous
manure; but where the roots had not been removed from
the land, the nitrogen in the rotation and in the continuously
grown barley were nearly the same — about 47 lb. per acre per
annum.
The influence of the manuring, and of the amount and
620
Rotation of Crops.
treatment of the previous root-crop, on the available supply of
nitrogen within the soil for the succeeding barley is, therefore,
throughout clearly traceable.
Lastly, in regard to the nitrogen statistics of the barley
crops, it is to be of served that, under whatever conditions of
manuring or other treatment, and whether grown in rotation
or continuously, there was generally three-fourths or more of
the total nitrogen of the crop accumulated in the grain, that is,
in the portion which is as a rule sold off the farm ; only about
one-fourtli, therefore, remaining in the straw which is supposed
to be retained on the farm.
The Nitrogen in the Leguminous Crops. — The third division
of the Table (VI.) gives the results relating to this point.
Referring first to the amounts of nitrogen in the total bean
crops (corn and straw together), it is seen that, under each of
the three conditions as to manuring, there was from twice to
twice and a half as much in the rotation as in the continuously
grown beans. The details further show that the advantage was
proportionally greater in the corn than in the sti’aw.
It is next to be observed that the amounts of nitrogen
taken up by the rotation beans were — without manure about
36 lb. per acre per annum, and with superphosphate between
40 and 50 lb. ; whilst with the mixed manure, containing
nitrogen, there were in one case 63-6 lb., and in the other 70’2
lb. In fact, both without manure and with superphosphate,
the amounts taken up in the beans were much greater than
in either the preceding roots or the preceding barley. With
the mixed manure supplying nitrogen, they were also much
more than in the preceding barley, but less than in the
root-crops, to which the mixed manure had been directly
applied.
The point of greatest interest in the results is, however,
that under each condition as to manuring, the clover took up
very much more nitrogen than the beans, and very much
more than either of the other crops of the rotation under
parallel conditions. Thus, even without manure, the average
amount of nitrogen in the two crops of clover was — in one case
55 lb. and in the other 47 lb. ; with superphosphate it was
124-5 and 144-6 lb. ; and with the mixed manure, containing
both potash and nitrogen, in the one case 167 lb. and in the other
168-4 lb. Or, taking the average amount of nitrogen in the
six bean and two clover crops, there were — without manure
41-5 and 38-9 lb. ; with superphosphate 6L5 and 72-9 lb. ;
and with the mixed manure 89-5 and 94-7 lb. It is, indeed, to
the occasional growth of clover, that the very large average
Rotation of Crops.
621
amounts of nitrogen removed in the leguminous crops of the rota-
tion are to be attributed ; and it is these amounts that have to
be taken into consideration in comparing the effects on the
yield of the other crops of the rotation, and of the rotation as a
whole, on the one hand of growing a leguminous crop, and on
the other of fallowing, which of course neither yields nor
removes nitrogen — unless by loss in drainage.
Further, the figures show that there was generally three or
even more times as much of the total nitrogen of the bean crops
accumulated in the corn as remained in the straw. Lastly, not
only does the leguminous crop of the rotation yield the most
nitrogen, but, unless in the case of some of the corn of the
beans, the whole of it is supposed to be retained on the farm ;
and there is, in addition, more or less, and sometimes a con-
siderable amount, of nitrogenous crop-residue left within the
soil for succeeding crops.
The Nitrogen in the Wheat Crops. — The results on this head
are recorded in the bottom division of Table VI.
Referring first to the amounts of nitrogen in the total produce
(grain and straw together), it is seen that, both without manure
and with superphosphate alone, that is with the greatest ex-
haustion, especially of nitrogen, there was generally about, or
even more than, twice as much in the rotation as in the con-
tinuous crops. With the full manure, both mineral and nitro-
genous, applied for the rotation crops only at the beginning of
the course, but for the continuous ones each year for the wheat
crop to be grown, the relative deficiency in the continuous
crops was, however, very much less. Thus, the figures show
that the average amounts of nitrogen in the total wheat crops
were — without manure nearly 35 lb. per acre per annum in
the rotation crops, and only 17 lb. in the continuous ones ; with
the superphosphate alone nearly 40 lb. under rotation, but in
the continuous crops not 20 lb. ; and lastly, with the full
manure there was an average of more than 42 lb. in the rota-
tion crops, and of 34 lb. in those grown continuously. There is
direct evidence, therefore, that there was, under all conditions,
more nitrogen available to the crops grown in rotation, than
to those growing year after year on the same land ; and
the advantage is relatively much the greater where no nitrogen
had been supplied in manure. The beneficial effect of the
interpolation of other crops with the cereals is, therefore, very
obvious.
In the case of the second crop of the course — the barley — it
was shown that without manure the increased produce in
rotation was due to scarcely any roots having been grown, so
VOL. V. T. S. — 20 T T
622
Rotation of Crops.
that the land was practically fallowed for the barley ; and now
in the case of the fourth crop — the wheat — there was the pre-
paration either of the growth of a leguminous crop leaving a
highly nitrogenous residue, or of fallowing. Then with super-
phosphate alone, the produce of barley, and the yield of nitro-
gen in it, were less than without manure where the turnips
had been removed, but more where they had not, and where,
therefore, there was an available nitrogenous residue from the
roots ; and now in the wheat, the effects on the available supply
of nitrogen, on the one hand of the growth and removal of a
leguminous "crop, and on the other of actual fallow, are obser-
vable. Lastly, with the mixed manui'e the influence of the
direct supply of nitrogen for the first crop of the course is
obvious. But, as the amounts of nitrogen taken up were not
very much more than where none had been supplied, it is
evident that in both cases much must have been due to
the influence of the preceding leguminous crop or fallow.
Upon the whole there can be no question that, so far as
nitrogen is concerned, the supply within the soil in a condition
of combination and of distribution available to the wheat is
increased, both by fallow, and by the growth of a leguminous
crop, especially of clover ; and, further, that such accumulation
of available nitrogen by fallow, and of nitrogenous crop-residue
by the growth of leguminous crops, is the greater when the soil
and subsoil are not abnormally exhausted of organic nitrogen.
Lastly, it is to be observed that, under all conditions of
manuring, or other treatment, there was, both in the rotation
and in the continuous wheat crops, more than twice, and in
some cases considerably more than twice, as much of the total
nitrogen of the produce stored up in the grain as in the straw.
Hence, in the sale of the grain, and the retention of the straw
for home use, by far the greater part of the nitrogen of the
crop is exported from the farm.
The Amounts of Total Mineral Matter ( Ash) in the
Rotation, and in the Continuous Crops.
The results are given in Table VII. for each of the four
descriptions of crop, in exactly the same form as those for the
total dry matter and the nitrogen, in Tables V. and VI. re-
spectively.
The record is deserving of careful study, as showing the
very various, and sometimes very large, amounts of mineral or
ash-constituents taken up from the soil, and stored up in the
different crops, or parts of the crops. But, it must suffice here to
623
Botation of Crops.
Table VII. — Experiments on the Rotation of— Roots, Barley, Clover (or Bean),
or Fallow , and Wheat ; in Ay dell Field, Rothamsted. 8 courses,
32 years, 1852-1883.
AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF MINERAL MATTER (AS//) PER ACRE IN THE ROTATION CROPS,
COMPARED WITH THOSE IN THE CROPS GROWN CONTINUOUSLY.
Unmanured
Superphosphate
Mixed mineral and
nitrogenous manure
Roots carted
! Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal- Beans
*ow | clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beaus
or
clover
SWEDISH TURNIPS.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
Rotation . . .
15-7
9-5
13-8
8-8
74-1
71-3
82-5
81-9
167-8
171-2
1824
172-3
1 Roots
Continuous 1 . .
10-9
10-9
10-9
10-9
40-0
40-0
40-0
40-0
100-3
100-3
100-3
100-3
Rotn.+ or — cont.
4-8
-1-4
2-9
-2-1
34-1
31-3
42-5
41-9
67-5
70-9
82-1
72-0
Rotation . . .
6-7
6-0
6 -6
5-9
17-9
20-4
19-2
22-9
35-2
41-9
40-1
416
Leaves -
Continuous 1 . .
5-9
5-9
5-9
5-9
16-4
16-4
16-4
16-4
40-5
40-5
40-5
40-5
Rotn. +or —cont.
0-8
0-1
0-7
0-0
1-5
4-0
2-8
6-5
-5-3
1-4
-0-4
1-1
Rotation . . .
22-4
15-5
20-4
■•‘14-7
92-0
91 7
101-7
104-8
203-0
213-1
222-5
213-9
Total •
Continuous ’ . .
168
16-8
1G-8
16-8
56-4
56-4
56-4
56-4
140-8
140-8
140-8
140-8
l.Rotn.+ or — cont.
5'6
-1-3
3-6
-2-1
35-G
35-3
45-3
48-4
62-2
72-3
81-7
73-1
BARLEY.
Rotation . . .
34-8
35-9
34-2
30-7
34-9
33-8
44'1
45-9
50-7
51-5
58-1
57-7
I Grain
Continuous . .
21-5
21-5
21-5
21-5
28-4
28-4
28-4
28-4
58-8
58-8
58-8
58-8
1
Rotn. + or —cont.
13-3
14-4
12-7
9-2
6’5
5-4
15-7
1 7*5
-81
-7-3
-0-7
-1-1
Rotation . . .
81-3
87-5
79-2
76-1
75-6
77-7
96-9
99-8
113-5
116-8
145-6
144-9
1 Straw
Continuous . .
47-3
47-3
47-3
47-3
55-6
55-6
55-6
55-6
130-6
130-6
130-6
130-6
Rotn. 4- or —cont.
34-0
40-2
31-9
28-8
200
22-1
41-3
44-2
-17-1
-13-8
150
14-3
Rotation . . .
116-1
123-4
113-4
2l0G-8
110-5
111-5
141-0
145-7
164-2
108-3
203-7
202-6
Total
Continuous . .
68-8
68-8
68-8
688
84-0
84-0
84-0
84-0
189-4
189-4
189-4
189-4
1 Rotn.-l- or — cont.
47-3
54-0
44-6
38-0
26-5
27-5
57-0
61-7
-25-2
-21-1
14-3
13-2
BEANS (6 COURSES), CLOVER (2 COURSES), OR FALLOW.
Rotation . . .
18-5
18-4
20-2
24-1
35-8
40-7
1 Corn
Continuous . .
7.6
. 7’6
9-4
9-4
21-1
21-1
Rotn.-l- or —cont.
10-9
10-8 |
10-8
14-7
14-7
19-6
Rotation . . .
53-1
53-3
65-8
72’5
87-7
90-8
1 Straw
Continuous . .
28-5
28-5
351
35-1
54-2
54-2
Rotn. + or —cont.
24-6
24-8
30-7
37-4
33-5
36-6
Rotation . . .
71-6
71-7
86-0
96-6
123-5
131-5
, Total
Continuous . .
36-1
36-1
44-5
44-5
75-3
75-3
Rotn.-l- or — cont.
35-5
35-6
41-5
52-1
48-2
56-2
j Clover ■
Rotation ....
198-3
-172-6
421-3
487-5
569-8
612-5
Continuous . .
1
?
?
?
?
Average of 8 courses, )
Beans and Clover j
103-3
-96-9
1G9-8
194-3
235-1
251-7
WHEAT.
Rotation . . .
26-3
24-6
26-6
22-1
29-6
29-1
30-0
31-1
30-6
33-3
29-5
33-2
Grain
Continuous . .
13-0
13-6
13-6
13-6
16-3
16-3
16-3
16-3
25-0
25-0
25-0
25*0
Rotn. + or — cont.
12-7
11-0
12-0
8-5
13-3
12-8
13-7
14-8
5 6
8-3
4-5
8-2
Rotation . . .
167-9
157 9
160-9
143-5
181-4
172-4
182-5
182-0
187-9
198-9
190-7
196-7
Straw •
Continuous . .
74*4
74-4
74-4
74-4
89-3
89-3
89-3
89-3
136-7
136-7
136-7
136-7
Rotn. 4- or — cont.
93-5
83-5
86-5
69-1
92-1
83-1
93*2
92-7
51-2
62-2
54-0
60-0
Rotation . . .
194-2
182-5
186-5
“165-6
211-0
201-5
212-5
213-1
218-5
232-2
220-2
229-9
Total
Continuous . .
88-0
88-0
88-0
88-0
105-6
105-6
105-6
105-6
161-7
161-7
161-7
161-7
Rotn.-l- or —cont.
106-2
94-5
98-5
77*6
105-4
95-9
106-9
107-5
56-8
70-5
58-5
68-2
1 Average 10 years, 1840-52 and 1856-70. 2 Probably crop too low owing to a dell.
T T 2
624
Rotation of Crops.
direct attention to some of the points of chief interest brought
to view, on the consideration of the amount, and of the distribu-
tion, of some of the more important individual mineral con-
stituents in the respective crops ; and for the purposes of such
an illustration reference will chiefly be made to the amounts of
phosphoric acid, and of potash, but in some cases to that of lime
also, in the crops.
The Amounts of Phosphoric Acid in the Rotation , and in the
Continuous Crops.
Table VIII. records the results relating to the amounts of
phosphoric acid in the different crops or parts of crops : —
The Phosphoric Acid in the Root-crops. — The figures show
that, without manure, the rotation turnip crops took up an
extremely small amount of phosphoric acid, reaching in only
one case to an average of lb. per acre per annum. By super-
phosphate alone the amount was increased to an average of
about 10 lb. ; and although this increase only represents about
one-tenth of the phosphoric acid applied in manure it is very
important, as it is directly connected with the greatly increased
development of fibrous feeding root within the soil, which is a
special effect of phosphatic manures when applied to turnips ;
and it is by virtue of this development that these crops so
markedly exhaust the available nitrogen within the soil, and
especially the surface soil. As has been shown, there is abun-
dant evidence that the increased amount of nitrogen taken up
under the influence of phosphates unaccompanied by any
supply of nitrogen itself, is at the expense of the stores of the
soil ; and that it is not due to a capacity to take up either
combined or free nitrogen from the atmosphere, by virtue of an
increased development of leaf-surface, under the influence of the
phosphatic manure.
With the mixed manure, supplying, besides superphos-
phate, salts of potash, soda, and magnesia, and a liberal amount
of nitrogen as well, there was, although the supply of phosphoric
acid by manure was exactly the same, now about twice as much
of it taken up, as a coincident of the greatly increased growth,
due partly to the other mineral constituents at the same time
added, but especially to the influence of the increased available
supply of nitrogen. Still, only a small proportion of the phos-
phoric acid applied was taken up, considering the recognised
importance of its application for turnips, and its undoubted
specific effects on their growth as above described.
Comparing the amounts of phosphoric acid in the rotation
625
Uotation of Crops.
Table VIII. — Experiments on the Rotation of — Roots , Barley , Clover ( or
Beans), or Fallow, and Wheat ; in Agdell Field, Rothamsted. 8 courses,
32 years, 1852-1883. '
AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID PER ACRE IN THE ROTATION CROPS,
COMPARED WITH THOSE IN THE CROPS GROWN CONTINUOUSLY.
Unmanured
Superphosphate
Mixed mineral and
nitrogenous manure
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Fal-
Beans
Fal-
Beaus
Fal-
Beans
Fal-
Beans
Fal-
Beans
Fal-
Beans
low
or
clover
low
or
clover
low
clover
low
or
clover
low
or
clover
low
or
clover
SWEDISH
TURNIPS.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
Rotation
1-20
0-77
1-11
0-71
7-91
7-68
8-83
8-78
16-67
17-02
18-14
1712
Roots
Continuous
0-88
0-88
0-88
0-88
4-14
4-14
4-14
4T4
9-91
9 91
9-91
9-91
Rotn.+ or —
cont.
0-38
-0-11
0-23
-0-17
3-77
3-54
4-69
4-64
6-76
711
8-23
7-21
Rotation
0-29
0-25
0-28
0-25
1-27
1-44
1-36
1-62
2-79
3-17
3-04
3-16
Leaves
Continuous
0-25
0-25
0-26
0-25
1-16
1-16
1-16
1-16
3-07
3-07
3-07
3-07
Rotu.+ or —
cont.
0-04
0-00
0-03
0-00
0-11
0-28
0-20
0-46
-0-28
0-10
-0-03
0-09
Rotation
1-55
1-02
1-39
2 0-96
9-18
9-12
10-19
10-40
19-46
20-19
21-18
20-28
Total
Continuous'
113
1-13
1-13
1-13
5-30
5-30
5-30
5-30
12-98
12-98
12-98
12-98
Rotn.+ or —
cont.
0-42
-0-11
0-26
-0-17
3-88
3-82
4-89
5-10
6-48
7-21
8-20
7-30
BARLEY.
Rotation
11-24
11-59
11-02
9-89
12-29
11-91 j
15-52
16-16
18-34
18-63
21-04
20-90
Grain •
Continuous
6*95
6-95
6-95
6-95
10-00
10-00
10-00
1000
21-31
21-31
21-31
21-31
ltotn. + or —
cont.
429
4-64
4-07
2-94
2-29
1-J1
5-52
616
-2-97
-2-68
-0-27
-0-41
Rotation
1-87
2-03
1-82
1-74
1-80
1-85 I
2-32
2-38
2-87
2-96
3-68
3-53
Straw
Continuous
1-10
1-10
1-10
1-10
1*33
1-33
1-33
1-33
3-30
3-30
3-30
3-30
Rotu. + or —
cont.
0-77
0-93
0-72
0-64
0-47
0-52 I
0-99
105
-0-43
-0-34
038
0-23
Rotation
13-11
13-62
12-84
31 1*63
14-09
13 76
17-84
18-54
21-21
21-59
24-72
24-43
Total
Continuous
8-05
8-05
8-06
8-05
11-33
11-33 1
11-33
11-33
2461
24-61
24-61
24-61
. Rotn. + or —
cont.
5-06
5-57
4-79
3-58
2-76
2-43
6-51
7-21
-3-40
-302
Oil
-0T8
BEANS (6 COURSES), CLOVER (2 COURSES), OR FALLOW.
Rotation
51 5
5-14
6-81 1
8-18
11-49
1305
Corn
Continuous
211
2 11
3-16
3-16
6-75
C*75
Rotn.+ or —
cont.
3-04
303
3-65
5-02
4-74
6-30
Rotation
1-17
117
1-78
1-97
1-99
206
Straw
Continuous
C-63
0-63
0-95
0-95
1-24
1-24
Rotn. 4* or -
cont.
0-54
0-54
0*83 ,
1-02
0-75
0-82
Rotation
6-32
6-31
8-59
10-15
13-48
15-11
Total
Continuous
2-74
2 74
4-11
4-11
7-99
7-99
Rotn.+ or -
cont.
3-58
3-57
4*48 1
6-04
5-49
7-12
Clover
Rotation
8-04
2G96
20-30 j
22-99
31-69
34'29
Continuous
1
?
?
?
?
?
Average of 8 courses, )
beans and clover J
6-75
3 6*48
11-52
13-36
1803
19-90
WHEAT.
Rotation
12-53
11-18
1219
10-50
14-48
14-23
14-68
15-25
15-12
16-50
14-58
16-43
Grain
Continuous
6-45
6*45
6-45
6-45
7-99
7-99
7-99
7-99
12-40
12-40
12-40
12-40
Rotn. + or —
cont.
6-08
4-73
574
4-05
6-49
6-24
6-69
7-26
2-72
4*10
2-18
403
Rotation
2-87
2-73
2-76
2-48
3-87
3-75
3-84
3-95
4-94
5-46
5-00
6-31
Straw
Continuous
1-27
1-27
1-27
1-27
1-88
1-88
1-88
1-88
3-62
3-62
3-62
3-62
lRotn.+ or-
cont.
1-60
1-46
1-49
1-21
1-99
1-87
1-96
2-07
1-32
1-84
1-38
1-69
Rotation
15-40
13-91
14-95
312-98
18-35
17-98
18-52
19-20
20-06
21-96
19-68
21-74
Total
Continuous
7-72
7*72
7-72
7-72
9-87
9-87
9-87
9-87
16-02
16-02
16-02
1602
Rotn.+ or -
cont.
7-68
6-19
7-23
5-26 | 8-48
8-11
8-66
9-33
404
5-94
3-56
5-72
1 Average 19 years, 1819-52 and 1856-70. ’ Probably crop too low owing to a dell.
62 6
Rotation of Crops.
crops with those in the continuous ones, the equally small, or
even smaller, amount taken up without manure by the latter,
is further confirmation of the incapability of this assumed
restorative crop to yield any practical amount of produce with-
out adequate soil supplies. With superphosphate alone, as
also with the mixed manure, the continuous crops took up
little more than half as much phosphoric acid as the rotation
ones under the assumed fairly parallel conditions as to manu-
ring. The deficiency is, however, obviously not due to any
deficiency of supply within the soil, but is only a coincident of
the less total growth, attributable to a great extent, as has been
explained, to the unfavourable mechanical condition of the soil
induced by the continuous growth of the crop.
Lastly in regard to the phosphoric acid in the turnip crops,
it is to be observed that in all cases much more was accumu-
lated in the edible roots than in the loaves which remain only
for manure again ; indeed, in the case of the most normal
crops, those grown in rotation with the full mixed manure,
there was five or six times as much accumulated in the roots as
in the leaves.
The Phosphoric Acid in the Barley Crops. — Looking first to
the amounts in the total produce, grain and straw together,
and to the portions of the rotation plots from which the previous
root-crops had been removed, it is seen that, without manure,
rather more than 13 lb. of phosphoric acid was, on the average,
annually removed in the barley crops ; and where superphosphate
had previously been applied for the roots, the succeeding barley
took up only about 14 lb., that is scarcely any more than with-
out the supply of it ; but where the mixed manure, including
nitrogen, had been applied for the roots, there was about one-
and-a-lialf time as much, or rather over 21 lb. of phosphoric acid
in the succeeding barley crops. Then, where the root-crops had
not been removed from the land, the amounts of phosphoric
acid in the succeeding barley crops were, without manure, about
12 lb. per acre, with superphosphate about 18 lb., and with the
mixed manure nearly 25 lb. In the case of the phosphoric acid,
therefore, as in that of the nitrogen, the influence of the manu-
ring, and other treatment, of the preceding crop of the course,
is clearly reflected in the amounts taken up in the succeeding
barley.
Comparing the amounts of phosphoric acid in the rotation
barley crops with those in the continuously grown ones, it is
seen that, both without manure and with superphosphate, the
rotation crops took up considerably the most phosphoric acid ;
and this was the case notwithstanding that the continuously
Rotation of Crops.
627
grown crops were annually manured with superphosphate,
whilst for those grown in rotation the application had only been
for the preceding crop — the turnips. The less assimilation in
the case of the continuous crops was doubtless due to the
diminished total growth, which in its turn was due to the
greater exhaustion of the available nitrogen of the soil with the
annual growth. Consistently with this view, where the mixed
manure supplying an abundance of nitrogen was applied,
and the crops, both rotation and continuous, were pretty full
averages for the particular soil and the seasons of growth,
the amounts of phosphoric acid in the rotation crops where
the roots had not been removed were almost identical with
those in the continuous crops. Where, however, the rotation
roots had been removed, carrying off therefore the whole of the
nitrogen that had been taken up, the succeeding barley crops
were accordingly not full for the seasons of their growth, and
the amounts of phosphoric acid in them were less than in the
continuously grown crops.
The figures relating to both the rotation and the continuous
barley further show, that about six-sevenths of the total phos-
phoric acid of the crops is accumulated in the grain which is
supposed to be sold off the farm. There was, indeed, even a some-
what higher proportion where phosphoric acid was supplied in
the manure. Lastly, as in the cases of the total produce, the
dry matter, and the nitrogen, there is much less difference be-
tween the amounts of phosphoric acid taken up under the three
different conditions as to manuring than in the case of the
turnips. That is, the assumed restorative crop is much more
dependent on direct manuring to yield any crop at all than is
the cereal crop, which is assumed to be benefited by the inter-
polation of it.
The Phosphoric Acid in the Leguminous Crops. — Referring
to the third division of Table VIII., it is seen that the
amounts of phosphoric acid in the total produce of beans,
corn and straw together, was more where superphosphate
was supplied than without manure, and more still under the
influence of the mixed manure containing, besides superphos-
phate, salts of potash, soda, and magnesia, and nitrogen also.
But, under all three conditions as to manuring, the continuously
grown crops take up much less than those grown in rotation.
Whether, however, grown in rotation or continuously, three, four,
or more times, as much of the phosphoric acid is finally accu-
mulated in the corn as remains in the straw. In reference to
all the results with beans, however, it is to be borne in mind
that under none of the conditions were good crops obtained.
628
Rotation of Crops.
The clover took up, without manure, little more phosphoric
acid than the rotation beans ; but, with superphosphate, the
clover took up more than twice as much as the beans ; and
with the mixed manure it took up more still, and also more than
twice as much as the beans grown under the same conditions.
Taking the average of the six crops of beans and two crops
of clover grown in the eight courses, there was, both without
manure and with superphosphate, much less phosphoric acid
taken up than in either the preceding barley or the succeeding
wheat ; and even with the mixed manure, which gave the most
normal crops, the average amount of phosphoric acid taken up
in the beans and clover was less than in either of the two cereals
under the same conditions.
The Phosphoric Acid in the Wheat Crops. — The bottom di-
vision of Table VIII. shows that the rotation wheat, as did
the rotation barley, took up very much more phosphoric acid
without manure than did either of the so-called fallow crops
— the turnips or the leguminous crops. With superphos-
phate, again, both the wheat and bai’ley took up more than
either the turnips or the average of the leguminous crops.
With the full mixed manure, however, when each of the four
descriptions of crop grew more normally, the amount of phos-
phoric acid taken up was more nearly uniform in the four cases ;
the barley, however, then yielding more than the wheat, more
than the turnips, more than the average of the leguminous crops,
but all considerably less than the average of the two years of
clover.
Comparing the amounts of phosphoric acid in the total pro-
duce of the rotation, with those in the continuously grown wheat,
it is seen that there is, without manure, only about half as much
taken up in the continuous as in the rotation crops; with super-
phosphate, again, only about half as much in the continuous as
in the rotation ; but with the more normal growth, when the
full mixed manure was annually applied to the continuously
grown crops, there was, with the fuller produce, proportionally
much more phosphoric acid taken up — indeed, on the average,
about three-fourths as much in the continuous as in the rotation
crops.
Lastly the figures show, that by far the larger proportion of
the total phosphoi'ic acid in the wheat crops is stored up in the
grain, which is assumed to be sold off the farm. Thus, without
manure more than four-fifths, and with superphosphate nearly
four-fifths, of the total phosphoric acid of the crops was in the
grain. With the mixed manure, however, with rather larger
total amounts taken up than with superphosphate alone, there
Rotation of Crops.
629
was comparatively little more stored up in the grain, the excess
for the most part remaining in the straw. The larger amount
of total phosphoric acid taken up with the mixed manure than
with superphosphate, the amount supplied by manure being the
same in the two cases, is to be attributed to the coincident
supply of other constituents in the mixed manure, inducing
greater luxuriance, and with it greater activity of collection.
The Amounts of Potash in the Rotation , and in the Continuous
Crops.
The results relating to the amount and distribution of potash
in the rotation and in the continuous crops are recorded in
Table IX.
The Potash in the Root-crops. — Before referring to the details
on this point, attention should be recalled to the facts fully
illustrated in other papers — that root-crops are essentially
sugar crops ; that the very characteristic effect which nitro-
genous manures exert on their increased growth is mainly
represented by a greatly increased production of the non-
nitrogenous substance — sugar ; that, however the action is to
be explained, it is certain that the presence of potash is an
important condition of the formation in plants of carbohydrates
generally ; and that, in the case of root-crops, the production of
the carbohydrate — sugar — is greatly dependent on a liberal
available supply of potash.
Referring to the upper division of the Table, and for the
purpose of the first illustrations to the rotation results, it is seen
that, without manure and very abnormally small crops, there
were only three, four, or five, times as much potash in the roots
as in the leaves ; with superphosphate, on the other hand, and
greatly increased root development, there were eight or nine
times as much potash in the roots as in the leaves ; and with
the mixed manure (including potash), there were, with the
further greatly increased actual amount of roots and of potash
in them, seven or eight times as much in the roots as in the
leaves. That is, there was the greatest accumulation of
potash with the greatest accumulation of sugar.
Looking to the actual amounts of potash in the total
produce, roots and leaves together, of the rotation crops, it is
seen that, without manure there was only from 4 to 6 lb. of
potash per acre per annum ; but with superphosphate, without
potash supply, from 25 to 28 lb. That is, without any supply
by manure the plants were able to gather about 20 lb. more
potash per acre per annum from the soil itself, by virtue of the
630
Rotation of Crops.
Table IX. — Experiments on the Rotation of — Roots , Barley, Clover (or
Beans), or Fallow, and Wheat ; in Agdell Field, Rotliamsted. 8 courses,
32 years, 1852-1883.
AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF POTASH PER ACRE IN THE ROTATION CROPS, COMPARED WITH
THOSE IN THE CROPS GROWN CONTINUOUSLY.
TJnmanured
Superphosphate
Mixed mineral and
nitrogenous manure
Roots carted
| Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
1
Beans
or
elovei
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beaus
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Pal- |Beaui
l0'v clover
SWEDISH TURNIPS.
| Rotation . . .
Roots i Continuous 1 . .
1 Rotn. + or — cont.
lb.
5-00
3-48
lb.
3-04
3-48
lb.
4-40
3-48
lb.
2-82
3-48
lb.
22-49
12-08
lb.
21-67
12-08 |
lb.
25-05
1208
lb.
24-86
12-08
lb.
66-62
39-51
ib. j
67-99
39-51 !
lb.
72-48
39-61
lb.
68-53
39-51
1-52
-0-44
0-92
— 04)6
10-41
9-59 |
12-97
12-78
27-11
28-48
32-97
29-02
( Rotation . . .
Leaves \ Continuous 1 . .
i Rotn. + or —cont.
1-07
0-94
0*95
0*94
1*04
0*94
0-93
0*94
2-60
2*38
2-96
2-38
2-77
2-38
3-31
2-38
8-66
9-98
10-32 1
9-98
9-89
9-98
10-25
9-98
0-13
0-01
0T0
-0*01
0-22
0-58 j
0-39
0-93
-1-32
0-34 [
-0-09
0-27
( Rotation . . .
Total J Continuous ‘ . .
( Rotn.+ or — cont.
6-07
4-42
3- 99
4- 42
5*44
4*42
2 3*75
4-42
25-09
14-46
24-63 1
14-46 |
27-82
14’46
28-17
14-4G
75-28
49-49
78-31 !
49-49
82-37
49-49
49-49
1-65
-0-43
1-02
-0-67
10-63
10-17 j
13-36
13-71
25-79
28-82 j
32-88
29-29
BARLEY.
( Rotation . . .
8T3
8-38
7-97
7-15
8-09
7-85 1
10-23
10-65
12-33
12-52
14-14
1404
Grain - Continuous . .
5-03
5-03
6-03
6-03
6-59
6-59 1
6-59
6-59
11-32
14-32
14-32
14-32
1 Rotn.+ or — cont.
3-10
3-35
2-94
2-12
1-50
1-26 '
3-64
4*06
-1-99
-1-80|
-018
-0-28
1 Rotation . . .
10-83
11-81 !
10-52
10-09
9-32
9-50
12-10
12-54
18-41
18-97
23-48
23-31
Straw t Continuous . .
G-45
6-45
6-45
6-45
7-03
7*03
7-03
7-03
21-00
21-00
21-00
2100
1 Rotn.-h or —cont.
4-38
5-36
407
3-64
2-29
2-47
5-07
6-51
-2*59
-2-03
2-48
2-31
( Rotation . . .
18-96
20-19
18-49
2 17-24
17-41
17-35
[ 22-33
23-19
30-74
31-49
37-62
37-35
Total -! Continuous . .
11-48
11-48
11-48
11-48
13-62
13-62
13-62
13-62
35-32
35-32 1
35-32
35-32
lRotn.+ or — cont.
7-48
8-71
7-01
576
3-79
3-73
8-71
9-57
-4-58
-3-83
2-30
203
BEANS (6 COURSES), CLOVER (2 COURSES), OR FALLOW.
( Rotation . . .
Corn J Continuous . . .
7-26
2-98
7-23
2-98
7-35
3-46
8-79
3-46
15-20
8-94
i 17-25
8-94
lRotn.+ or — cont.
4-28
4-25
3-89
5-33
6-26
| 8-31
I Rotation . . .
Straw -1 Continuous . .
2-87
1-54
2-87
1-54
3-47
1-82
4-01
1-82
6-96
4-33
7-21
4-33
1 Rotn.+ or —cont.
1-33
1-33
1-65
2-19
2-63
2-88
| Rotation . . .
Total J Continuous . .
1013
4-52
10-10
4-52
10-82
5-28
12-80"
6-28
22-16
13-27
24-46
13-27
\ Rotn.-f or — cont.
5-61
5-58
5-54
7-52
8-89
1119
m I Rotation . . .
Clover Continuous . .
3418
?
3 29-67
?
57-63
?
65-48
?
123-12
? 1
132-62
?
Average of 8 courses, )
beans and clover J j
16-14
= 14-99
22-52
25-96
47-40 1
51-50
WHEAT.
Grain
Rotation
Continuous
8-65
4-45
8-08
445
8-42
4-45
7*26
4*45
9-55
5-27
9-39
5-27
9-69
5-27
10-06
6-27
9-90
8-12
10-82
8-12
9-55
8T2
10-78
812
Rotn. + or -
cont.
4-20
3-63
3-97
2-81
4*28
4-12
4-42
4-79
1-78
2-70
1-43
2-66
Straw •
Rotation
Continuous
19-12
8-49
17-94
8-49
18-30
8-49
16-31
8-49
20-25
10-00
1914
10-00
20-45
10-00
20-21
10-00
25-85
18-81
27-47
18-81
26-21
18-81
2712
18-81
Rotn.+ or —
cont..
10-63
9-45
"9-81
7-82
10-25
9-14
10-45
10-21
7-04
8-66
7-40
8-31
Total -
Rotation
Continuous
27-77
12-94
26-02
12-94
26-72
12-94
= 23-57
12-94
29-80
15-27
28-53
16-27
30-14
15-27
30-27
15-27
35-75
26-93
38-29
26-93
35-76
26-93
37-90
26-93
1
Rotn.+ or —
cont.
14-83
13-08
13-78
10-63
14-53
13-26
14-87
16-00
8-82
11-36
8-83
10-97
* Average 19 years, 1819-1852 aud 1856-1870. 2 Probably crop too low owing to a dell. ,
Rotation of Crops.
631
greatly increased development of fibrous feeding root under the
influence of the phosphatic manure. With the mixed manure,
however, containing potash, there was about three times as
much of it taken up as with superphosphate alone. But, with
the supply of potash there was also a liberal supply of available
nitrogen, to which the greatly increased growth is largely to
be attributed ; and with the increased luxuriance much more
potash was of course required if there were to be a correspond-
ingly increased formation of the characteristic non-nitrogenous
product of the cultivated root-sugar. Thus, we have — without
manure only 4 to 6 lb. of potash taken up, with superphosphate
(without potash) from 25 to 28 lb., and with the mixed manure,
supplying besides phosphoric acid both nitrogen and potash,
nearly 80 lb. of potash per acre per annum in the crops.
Comparing the amounts of potash in the rotation crops with
those in the continuously grown ones, it is seen that — without
manure, and practically no growth, there was but little differ-
ence in the amounts taken up ; with superphosphate there was
little more than half as much taken up in the continuous as in
the rotation crops ; whilst with the mixed manure, with full
supply of potash, and much larger amounts of it in both the
rotation and continuous crops, there was rather less than two-
thirds as much in the continuous as in the rotation crops.
The deficient amounts in the continuous crops are, however, as
in the case of the other constituents, coincidents of the less
amounts of produce of the continuous crops ; which, as has
been pointed out, were, in the case of the superphosphate plot,
due partly to the greater exhaustion of available nitrogen of the
surface soil with the continuous growth, but partly also to the
unfavourable mechanical condition of the soil induced by such
growth ; and this was probably the chief cause of the deficient
produce in the case of the mixed manure crops also.
The Potash in the Barley Crops. — The second division of
Table IX. records the results on this point.
In the case of the turnips it was found that much more
potash was accumulated in the roots than in the leaves ; and
this fact was assumed to be connected with the greater amount
of the carbohydrate — sugar— in the roots than in the leaves.
The results relating to the barley show, however, that there
was in every case more, and in some much more, potash in the
straw than in the grain. On this point it is to be observed,
not only that the root-crop is taken up when still in the
vegetative stage, and its contents are still in the condition of
reserve or migratory material, whilst in the case of the cereal
the crop is ripened, and its constituents are, therefore, more
632
Rotation of Crops.
fixed. Further, whilst in the turnip-crop there was several
times as much dry substance in the roots as in the leaves, in
the barley there was even more dry organic substance in the
straw than in the grain. Again, in both crops, by far the larger
proportion of the dry substance consists of carbohydrates — in
the one chiefly sugar, and in the other almost exclusively starch
and cellulose — the latter making up by far the greater portion
of the dry substance of the straw. It is obviously quite con-
sistent that under these circumstances there should be more of
the total potash of the barley crop accumulated in the straw
than in the grain. It must at the same time be observed that,
whilst the potash in the grain is comparatively fixed and bears
a fairly uniform relation to the amount of di'y substance, the
quantity which remains in the straw is subject to great varia-
tion in proportion to the dry matter, according to the variation
in the supply of it within the soil — a great excess above the
amount in other cases being sometimes found in the straw.
Indeed, the figures show a considerably greater proportion of
the total potash of the crop accumulated in the straw where
there was a liberal supply of it in manure.
Referring to the amounts of potash taken up in the rotation
barley crops on the different plots, according to the manuring or
other treatment, the figures show that there was not much dif-
ference between the amounts without manure and with super-
phosphate alone. There was, however, distinctly more taken
up on the portions of the superphosphate plot where the roots
had not been removed than where they were ; and where, there-
fore, there was conservation for the succeeding crop. With the
mixed manure, however, with its supply of potash as well as of
phosphoric acid and nitrogen, the amount of potash in the crops
is greatly increased, the increase corresponding closely with the
increased amount of produce.
Lastly in regard to the potash, whilst without manure and
with superphosphate alone the rotation barley has gathered
much more than the continuously grown, with the mixed
manure and full supply of all constituents, the amounts of
potash taken up were, as were those of nitrogen and phosphoric
acid, nearly the same in the rotation and the continuous crops
where in rotation the preceding roots had not been removed ;
but where they had been removed, the amounts of potash in the
succeeding barley were less, as were the crops themselves.
The Potash in the Leguminous Crops. — Of all the mineral
constituents of the crops, perhaps potash and lime are the most
generally recognised as having some distinctive effects when
applied as manure for leguminous crops. We have now to refer
Rotation of Crops.
633
to the records relating to the potash in these crops, as given in
the third division of Table IX.
The figures show that, in the case of the beans, unlike that
of the cereals, there is much more potash in the corn than in
the straw ; indeed, more than twice as much of the potash of
the crops was accumulated in the corn as in the straw ;
indicating, therefore, a special requirement of it for the forma-
tion of the final and most fixed product of the plant — the seed.
Looking to the amounts of potash per acre in the total pro-
duce, corn and straw together, of the rotation beans, it is seen
that they take up very little more under the influence of the
superphosphate than without manure ; the quantities averaging
about 10 lb. per acre without manure, and scarcely 12 lb. with
superphosphate. With the mixed manure, however, directly
supplying potash for the previous root-crop, the amounts of it
taken up were, in the one case 22 T 6, and in the other
24-46 lb., or about twice as much as with the superphosphate
alone. The influence of the previous supply of potash on the
amounts of it taken up in the beans was, in fact, much greater
than was that of the supply of phosphoric acid on the amounts
of it taken up.
But, as in the case of the phosphoric acid, so also in that of
the potash, the continuously grown beans took up only about
half as much as those grown in rotation ; proportionally more,
however, where it had been supplied than where it had not.
It will be remembered that, when discussing the amounts of
produce of the bean crops, attention was called to the fact that
throughout the experiments a really good agricultural crop was
scarcely ever obtained ; and this of course must be taken into
account when considering the amounts of the several constitu-
ents of the crops.
Comparing the amounts of potash stored up in the rotation
clover with those in the rotation beans, it is seen that, even
without manure and with very small produce, the clover, with
its greater root-range and longer period of growth, gathered up
about three times as much potash as the beans — about 30 lb.
against only about 10 lb. in the beans.
With superphosphate alone, whilst the bean crops contained
only 10'82 and 12-80 lb. of potash, the clover contained 5763
and 65’48 lb. That is, under the influence of the phosphatic
manure, probably partly on the plant and partly on the soil, the
clover had accumulated in the removed crop five or six times as
much potash as the beans, from the soil itself; whilst, of the
phosphoric acid itself, little more than twice as much was taken
up in the clover as in the beans under the influence of the
634
Rotation of Crops.
superphosphate without potash. It would thus appear that
the beneficial effects of the phosphatic manure on the clover
were largely connected with the increased capability of the plant
to take up more potash.
With the mixed manure, supplying a large amount of potash,
the amount of it found in the clover crops was, however, much
greater still. Both in the beans and in the clover the amount
of potash in the crops grown under the influence of the direct
supply of it was about twice as much as those grown with
superphosphate without potash. But whilst, under the influ-
ence of the supply of it, the shorter-lived, more meagrely root-
ing, and less successfully grown bean crops stored up only
22T6 and 24-4-6 lb. of potash, the clover crops contained in
one case 123*12 lb., and in the other 132-62 lb.
The very much larger proportion of the total potash of the
bean crops which is found in the corn than in the straw would
seem to indicate its greater importance in connection with the
maturing than with the merely vegetative and accumulating
tendencies of growth ; yet the increased amount of it taken up
by the beans coincidently with increased growth, and the much
larger amounts of it in the clover with its much greater amounts
of growth and produce, and harvested as it is in the unripened
condition, are on the other hand indications of a direct connec-
tion between potash supply and the luxuriance of growth or
vegetative activity of these leguminous crops. Indeed, as already
referred to, potash manures are well known to be frequently
beneficial to such crops. To these points further reference will
be made presently, when calling attention to the amount of
lime taken up by leguminous crops.
The Potash in the Wheat Crops. — The results on this point
are given in the bottom division of Table IX.
It has been seen that by far the larger proportion, both of
the nitrogen and of the phosphoric acid of the wheat crops, was
accumulated in the grain. But the figures relating to the potash
show that of it there was very much more in the straw than in
the grain. There was also much more, but not in so great a
degree more, in the straw than in the grain of the other cereal
— the barley. It bas been pointed out that potash is at any rate
essentially connected with the formation of the carbohydrates.
Consistently with this it was found that by far the larger pro-
portion of the potash of the turnip crop was in the roots, where
was the great accumulation of sugar. Again, of the total potash
of the barley crop, the larger proportion was found in the straw
where there was the greatest accumulation of carbohydrate — as
cellulose : and now, in the wheat, with a larger proportion of
HoUdion of Crops.
635
straw to grain, and a proportionally larger amount of the total
carbohydrates accumulated in the straw, we have in it a still
larger proportion of the total potash of the crop. It is, however,
to be borne in mind, as has been pointed out, that the straw ot
both barley and wheat frequently contains, besides the mineral
constituents actually essential for the organic formations and
changes, a more or less surplus amount taken up as the result
of liberal supply, and retained by the plant.
Although there is doubtless clear foundation in fact for the
conclusion that the rule of phosphoric acid is more in connection
with the formation and activity of the nitrogenous bodies, and
that of the potash with those of the non-nitrogenous compounds,
yet it is obvious that in such a view we have only a partial and
imperfect explanation of the function of these mineral constitu-
ents. Thus, in the case of the beans there was, consistently
enough, much more phosphoric acid in the corn than in the
straw — that is, the more where there was the more nitrogen ; but
there was also by far the larger proportion of the potash accu-
mulated in the corn, although the greater part of the dry matter
of the crop, and with this of its carbohydrates, was in the straw.
Indeed, although the leguminous crops are pre-eminently highly
nitrogenous, a liberal supply of potash is essential for their
luxuriance ; whilst they contain a higher proportion of it in their
dry substance than do the cereals, with their higher proportion
of carbohydrates.
Reference to the figures shows that the application of super-
phosphate, without potash, enabled the wheat plant, whether
grown in rotation or continuously, to take up an increased, but
not a much increased, amount of potash, compared with that in
the unmanured crops ; and that the direct application of it in-
creased the assimilation of it still further, though the increased
amount of it stored up represented only a small proportion of
that supplied in the manure.
Without manure, the rotation wheat crops contained an
average of about 27 lb. of potash, but the continuously grown
ones scarcely 13 lb., or only about half as much. With super-
phosphate, without potash, the rotation crops gave an average
of nearly 30 lb., and the continuously grown ones little more
than 15 lb.; or, again, only about half as much. That is, when
the growing crops had to rely for their potash exclusively on the
stores of the soil itself, the rotation crops took up about twice
as much as the continuous. Lastly, with the mixed manure
supplying potash, the rotation wheat crops gathered nearly 36 lb.
after fallow, but about 38 lb. after the leguminous crops ; whilst
the continuously grown ones yielded an average of only about
636
Rotation of Crops.
27 lb. That is, although in the case of the rotation wheat
crops three other crops had been grown since the application of
the manure, they took up more potash than the continuously
grown ones for which potash was annually supplied.
So much for the results relating to the amounts of the two
important and typical mineral constituents — phosphoric acid
and potash — taken up by the different crops when grown, respec-
tively, in rotation and continuously, under different conditions
as to manuring, and other treatment. Similar results relating
to other mineral constituents of the crops have been got out, and
the discussion of some of them brings to view points of consider-
able interest, but neither time nor space will admit of their con-
sideration here. It must suffice to refer briefly to the amounts
of lime taken up by the leguminous crops under different con-
ditions ; a point which has an interesting relation to the results
as to the potash taken up by those crops, and to the questions
which arose in the discussion of them.
The Amounts of Lime in the Rotation , and in the Continuous
Leguminous Crops.
The following Table (X.) gives, for the leguminous crops
alone, the amounts of lime in the rotation and in the continuous
crops, in the same form in which the phosphoric acid and potash
have been given for each of the four crops of the rotation : —
Very different from what was found to be the case with the
potash, it is seen that in the rotation bean-crops a very small
proportion of the total amount of lime is accumulated in the
corn ; ten, twelve, or more times as much being found in the straw.
Then, the amounts of lime in the total crops were — without
manure between 15 and 16 lb. ; with superphosphate, which of
course supplied some lime, the quantity was raised to 18-68 and
20-71 lb. ; and with the mixed manure, also supplying the same
amount of lime in its superphosphate, it was further raised to
26-57 and 27*71 lb. It is further seen, that the continuously
grown beans contained — in corn, straw, and total produce — in
some cases only about, and in others not much more than, half
as much lime as the rotation ones.
It is remarkable, however, that whilst without manure the
rotation bean-crops contained only from 15 to 16 lb. of lime,
the clover contained 67‘8 and 59T lb.; with superphosphate
the beans gave 18-68 and 20-71 lb., and the clover 158-62 and
184-52 lb., or about eight times as much as the beans; and
lastly, with the mixed manure, the bean-crops contained 26-57
Rotation of Crops.
63?
and27'71 lb., and the clover 181*75 and 195*14 lb. of lime, or
about seven times as much as the beans.
An increased amount of lime is, therefore, even more directly-
connected with increased luxuriance and increased production,
than is an increased amount of potash taken up. Then, again,
the increased amount of potash was apparently more or less
directly connected with tendency to maturation or seed-forma-
tion ; but the lime is found chiefly in the straw of the beans, and
to be enormously increased in amount in the clover, which does
not ripen, but is cut whilst still in the vegetative condition. The
Table X. — Average amounts of Lime per acre in the Rotation , and
in the continuously grown, Leguminous Crops.
—
Unmanured
Superphosphate
Mixed mineral and
nitrogenous manure
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Roots carted
Roots fed
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beaus
or
clover
Fal-
low
Beans
or
clover
BEANS (6 COURSES), CLOVER (2 COURSES), OR FALLOW.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
/ Rotation . . .
1-15
1-14
1-10
1*32
2-10
2-38
Corn J Continuous .
0-47
0-47
5-02
0-62
1-24
1-24
vRotn.+ or — cont.
0-68
0-67
i 0-58
0-80
0-86
1-14
/ Rotation ....
14-61
14-60
17-58
19-39
24-47
25-33
Straw |Continuous- ' •
7-85
7-85
936
9-36
15-08
1508
' Rotn.+ or — cont.
6-76
6-81
8-22
10-03
9-39
10-25
/ Rotation ....
15-76
15-80
18-68
20-71
26-57
27-71
Total J Continuous. . .
8-32
8-32
9-88
9-88
16-32
16-32
v Rotn.+ or — cont.
7-44
7-48
8-80
10-83
10-25
11-39
1 Rotation ....
67-84
■59-10
158-62
184-52
181-75
19514
CIover 1 Continuous . . .
?
?
?
?
?
Average of 8 courses, )
Beans and clover f
28-78
■26-63
53*G7
61-66
65-36
69-57
’ Probably crop too low owing to a dell.
indication is, therefore, that the lime is, both actually and as
compared with the potash, much more directly connected with
the accumulative or vegetative, as distinguished from the matu-
ring processes of the plant. Certain it is, at any rate, that a
largely increased accumulation of lime is a coincident of increased
luxuriance in both crops ; and it is especially so in the case of
the crop the amount of which depends on the extension of the
vegetative stages of development, and the production of a large
amount of crude or unripened vegetable substance.
VOL. v. t. s. — 20 ’■ u u
.uz»
638
Rotation of Crops.
Thus, then, the actual and relative importance of potash and
lime in the growth of the highly nitrogenous leguminous crops is
clearly illustrated in the acreage amounts given, of potash in
the third division of Table IX., and of lime in Table X. But
the study of the percentage composition of the ashes of the
crops, and especially of both the percentage composition of the
ashes, and the amount of the constituents per acre, in the bean
plant taken at different stages of its growth, and of somewhat
similar results relating to the first, second, and third crops of
clover, affords further confirmation of the conclusions which
have been drawn from the results already considered. It will
be impossible to go into any detail here in regard to these
further results, and it must suffice to state very briefly their
general indications.
The bean-plant ash analyses showed that, on the average,
about 75 per cent., and at the time of pod formation nearly 80
per cent., of the total ash consisted of lime, potash, and carbonic
acid. Compared with these results, those relating to the more
highly nitrogenous clover, which is not allowed to ripen, but is
cut when it reaches the blooming stage, so inducing re-growth
and extension of the more specially vegetative stages, show that
from about 80 to about 84 per cent, of the total ash consisted of
lime, potash, and carbonic acid. But whilst in the ash of the
ripened corn-yielding bean-crop there was about one-and-a-half
time as much potash as lime, in that of the merely vegetating
unripened clover there was twice or even three times as much
lime as potash. Further, in the ash of the first and third crops
of clover, which would be the most succulent and unripe, the
relative excess of lime over potash is much greater than in that
of the second crop, which develops at the period of the season
when the seed-forming tendency is much the greater. Again,
in the clover ashes there was about one-and-a-half time as much
carbonic acid as in the ash of the ripened bean plant. It is
thus further illustrated that a peculiarity of the composition of
these pre-eminently nitrogen-assimilating elements of rotation
is, that their ashes consist chiefly of lime, potash, and carbonic
acid ; that the potash predominates in the ripened and less
nitrogen-yielding bean-crop ; and that the lime and carbonic
acid predominate in the continuously vegetating and much
more largely nitrogen-accumulating clover.
Referring to the probable or possible significance of these
facts, it is obvious that, so far as the nitrogen of the plant is
taken up as nitrate of a fixed base, that base, so far as it does
not pass back into the roots, will remain in the above-ground
parts of the plant, most probably in combination with an organic
Rotation of Crops.
639
acid, which will be converted into carbonic acid in the incinera-
tion, and be found as such in the ash, if not expelled by an
excess of fixed acid, or by silica.
In the case of the cereals of the rotation, it is probable that
most if not all of their comparatively small amount of nitrogen
is taken up as nitrate. Potash is by far the predominating base
in the ash of the grain, straw, and total produce; lime is in
much less amount, both actually and in equivalency ; and
magnesia is in less amount still, though it is a characteristic
constituent of the grain-ashes. There is practically no carbonic
acid in either wheat or barley grain-ash, and but little in the
straw-ash ; and if there have been organic acid salts formed with
the base of the nitrate, the carbonic acid may have been expelled
in the incineration, by the excess of fixed acid in the grain-
ash, or by silica in the straw-ash.
Taking the produce by the mixed manure as the most
normal, the root-crops of the rotation come next in amount ot
nitrogen assimilated over a given area. Potash and lime are
the predominating bases. There is much more potash than
lime in the more definite product — the root ; but the proportion
of lime to potash is much greater in the leaf-ash, as would be
expected if the nitrogen had been taken up chiefly as calcium
nitrate, and the nitric acid subjected to decomposition in the
leaves.
Lastly come the Leguminosas, with their much higher
amounts of nitrogen assimilated. These plants also doubtless
derive at any rate much nitrogen from nitrates in the soil and
subsoil ; and it has been shown that their great assimilation of
nitrogen is associated with very large amounts of lime and
carbonic acid in their ashes.
Referring to the results with the rotation beans grown by
the mixed manure, calculation shows that, taking the total
crop, corn and sti'aw together, it contained very much less lime
than would be required if the whole of its nitrogen had been
taken up as calcium nitrate ; so that, either part of the nitrogen
must have been taken up as nitrate of some other base, or in
some quite different state of combination, or as free nitrogen ; or
some of the lime must have been eliminated from the above-
ground parts of the plant into the roots, and possibly some of it
passed from them into the soil. Again, the amount of carbonic
acid found in the ashes of the crop for 100 of nitrogen in it,
would require about one-and-a-half time as much lime as was
found in association with it ; indicating the probability that part
of the nitrogen taken up as nitric acid was as the nitrate of some
other base — potash, and possibly to some extent soda also.
u u 2
640
Rotation oj Crops.
Turning to the results with the rotation clover grown by
the mixed manure, calculation shows that in the case of this
continuously vegetating, unripened, and much higher nitrogen-
yielding crop, there was very much more of both lime and carbonic
acid in the ash for 100 of nitrogen assimilated than in the total
bean-crop. If, however, the whole of the nitrogen of the clover
crops had been taken up as calcium nitrate it would have
required nearly twice as much lime as the amount found, pro-
vided the whole of it remained ; nor would the amounts of
potash and soda found suffice to make up the balance. Again,
the amount of carbonic acid found is little more than two-thirds
as much as would be required to represent organic acid equiva-
lent to the amount of nitric acid subjected to change. Either,
therefore, fixed base, partly in combination with organic acid,
must have been eliminated from the above-ground parts of the
plant, and passed into the roots, and possibly into the soil, or a
good deal of the nitrogen must have been taken up in some
other form than as nitrate ; possibly in part as organic nitrogen
taken up from the soil by the agency of the acid sap ; or, in
part as free nitrogen, probably brought into combination under
the influence of micro-organisms within the nodules found on
the roots of leguminous plants, the resulting compound being
either directly available as a source of nitrogen to the host, or
it may be so only after it has itself suffered change.
However this may be, considering the very characteristic
differences in the mineral composition of the different crops of
rotation according to the amounts of nitrogen they assimilate,
the fact that undoubtedly the highly nitrogenous Leguminosse
do take up at any rate a lai-ge proportion of their nitrogen as
nitrate, and that the greater the amount of nitrogen assimilated
the more is the ash characterised by containing fixed base, and
especially lime, in combination with carbonic acid, it seems very
probable, if not indeed established, that the office of the lime,
and partly that of the other bases also, is that of carriers of
nitric acid ; which, when transformed, and the nitrogen assimi-
lated, leaves the base as a residue, presumably in combination
with organic acid. Further, the power of these plants to assimi-
late so very much more nitrogen over a given area than the other
crops may, at any rate in part, be dependent on their being
able, by virtue of the range and character of their roots, to
gather up more nitrogen in the form supposed than the plants
with which they are alternated. Such a view does not, how-
ever, exclude the supposition that some of their nitrogen is
derived in other ways, as above referred to.
In connection with the foregoing results of direct experi-
Rotation of Crops.
641
mental investigation into the mineral composition of leguminous
crops, it may be observed — that clover at any rate grows more
favourably on land that has recently been chalked or limed ; that
chalking or liming of the mixed herbage of grass land also
favours the development of the leguminous herbage ; and that
the application of gypsum to clover has been found very effective
on some lands, especially in America, though it has not proved
to be at all generally useful when it has been so applied in this
country. Indeed, the direct application of potash as manure is
certainly more frequent, and is more generally recognised as
effective for leguminous crops, than is that of lime, notwith-
standing its obvious importance, and its great influence on the
luxuriance of growth of such crops. This may perhaps be
partly explained by the fact that, in many, if not in most,
soils, the immediately available supply of potash within the
root-range of the plant will probably be sooner exhausted
than will that of lime.
Summary and General Conclusions.
It remains, in conclusion, very briefly to summarise the facts
brought out in this extended inquiry on the subject of rotation,
and to endeavour to draw from them an explanation of the
benefits arising from the practice of it.
At the commencement it was pointed out, that although
many different rotations are adopted, they may for the most
part be considered as little more than local adaptations of the
system of alternating root-crops and leguminous crops with the
cereals. Thus, there are rotations of five, six, seven, or more
years. But these variations are, in most cases, only adap-
tations of the principle to variations of soil, altitude, aspect,
climate, markets, and other local conditions ; and they consist
chiefly in the variation in the description of the root-crop, and
perhaps the introduction of potatoes ; in growing a different
cereal, or it may be more than one cereal consecutively ; in the
growth of some other leguminous crop than clover ; or the inter-
mixture with the clover of grass seeds ; and perhaps the exten-
sion of the period allotted to this element of the rotation to two
or more years.
It is true, also, that, under any specific rotation, there may
be deviations from the plan of retaining the whole of the root-
crop, the straw of the grain crops, and the leguminous fodder-
crops, on the farm, for the production of meat or milk, and, coin-
cidently, for that of manure to be returned to the land. But it
is also true that, when under the influence of special local, or
642
Eolation of Crops.
other demand — proximity to towns, easy railway or other com-
munication, and so on — the products which would otherwise be
retained on the farm are exported from it. the import of town
or other manures is generally an essential condition of such
practice. Indeed, this system of free sale very frequently in-
volves full compensation by purchased manures of some kind. In
our own country, such deviations from the practice of merely sell-
ing grain and meat have been much developed in recent years ;
and they will doubtless continue to increase under the altered
conditions of our agriculture, dependent on very large imports
of grain, increasing imports of meat and other products of feed-
ing, and very large imports of cattle-food and other agricultural
produce. Already much more attention is being devoted to
dairy products, not only on grass farms, but on those that are
mainly arable ; and there will doubtless be some, but probably
by no means so great an extension as some suppose, in the
production of other smaller articles required by town popula-
tions.
It is further true, though the remark applies in a very limited
degree to our own country, that there are other deviations which
have more the character of exceptions to the general rule of
rotation, such as the introduction of flax, hemp, tobacco, or
other so-called industrial crops. But, in these cases, as with
potatoes, the growth involves special expenditure for manure
instead of conservation of it. Indeed, the inducement is the
high price of the product, rather than the maintenance, or the
improvement, of the condition of the land for future crops.
Still, as such deviations from regular rotation practice as
have been referred to, do, as has been said, generally involve
more or less, and frequently full, compensation by manure from
external sources, we may, in endeavouring to explain the bene-
fits which accrue from the practice of rotation, confine attention,
for the purposes of illustration, to what may be called the self-
supporting system, and to the simple four-course. one which has
been selected for investigation at Rothamsted, and from the
results relating to which the illustrations which have been
brought forward have been drawn.
It will be well first briefly to refer to the evidence relating
to some of the more important mineral constituents found in the
different crops of the four-course rotation.
Of phosphoric acid , the cereal crops take up as much as, or
more than, any of the other crops of the rotation, excepting
clover • and the greater portion of what they take up is lost to
the farm in the saleable product — the grain. The remainder,
that in the straw, as well as that in the roots and the legu-
Rotation of Crops.
643
minous crops, is supposed to be retained on the farm, excepting
the small amount exported in meat and milk.
Of potash , each of the crops takes up very much more than of
phosphoric acid. But much less potash than phosphoric acid is
exported in the cereal grains, much more being retained in the
straw ; whilst the other products of the rotation — the roots and
the Leguininosae — which are also supposed to be retained on the
farm, contain very much more potash than the cereals, and com-
paratively little of it is exported in meat and milk. The general
result is, that the whole of the crops of rotation take up very
much more of potash than of phosphoric acid, whilst probably
even less of it is eventually lost to the land.
Of lime, very little is taken up by the cereal crops, and by
the roots much less than of potash ; more by the Leguminosae than
by the other crops, and, by the clover especially, sometimes much
more than by all the other crops of the rotation put together.
Of the lime of the crops, however, very little goes in the saleable
products of the farm under the conditions supposed of a self-
supporting rotation. There is, however, frequently a considerable
loss of lime in land-drainage.
Although the facts relating to other mineral constituents of
the crops are not without significance, reference can be made
here to only one other of these constituents — namely, the silica.
The interpolated crops of rotation— the Roots and the Legu-
minosae— take up scarcely any silica ; but the cereals take up
a very large amount of it. Indeed, the large amount of silica
taken up by these crops when grown under ordinary conditions,
is as characteristic a chemical phenomenon of rotation as is the
very large amount of lime taken up by clover and other Legu-
minosae. Very little silica, however, is lost to the land in the
assumed saleable products.
Thus, then, although different, and sometimes very large,
amounts of these typical mineral constituents are taken up by
the various crops constituting the rotation, there is no material
export of any in the saleable products, excepting of phosphoric
acid and of potash ; and, so far at least as phosphoric acid is
concerned, experience has shown that it may be advantageously
supplied in purchased manures.
But, although the eventual loss to the land of mineral con-
stituents is, in a self-supporting rotation, comparatively so small,
the very fact that the different crops require for their growth,
not only very different amounts of individual constituents, but
require these to be available within the soil in very different con-
ditions, both of combination and of distribution, points to the
conclusion that, in any explanation of the benefits of an alter-
644
Rotation of Crops.
nation of crops, the position, and the role , of the mineral consti-
tuents must not be overlooked ; and the less can it be so, when
their connection with the very important element — the nitrogen
of the crops — is considered.
As to the nitrogen : — It haslbeen seen that, although very
characteristically benefited by nitrogenous manures, the cereal
crops take up and retain much less nitrogen than any of the
crops alternated with them. In fact, the root-crops may
contain two, or more, times as much nitrogen as either of the
cereals, and the leguminous crop, especially the clover, much
more than the root-crops. The greater part of the nitrogen of
the cereals is, however, sold off the farm ; but perhaps not more
than 10 or 15 per cent, of that of either the root-crop, or the
clover, or other forage leguminous crop, is sold off in animal
increase or milk. Thus, most of the nitrogen of the straw of the
cereals, and a very large proportion of that of the much more
highly nitrogen-yielding crops, returns to the land as manure,
for the benefit of future cereals and other crops. Indeed, it is, as
a rule, only a comparatively small proportion of the very much
increased amount of nitrogen obtained in rotation compared with
that in continuous cereal-cropping (chiefly due to the interpolated
crops), that is lost to the land in the saleable products.
As to the source of the nitrogen of the so-called ‘ restorative
crops,’ it has been shown that certainly in the case of the roots
it is not, as has sometimes been assumed, that such plants take
up nitrogen from the air by virtue of their extended leaf-
surface. Both common expei'ience and direct experiment
demonstrate, that they are as dependent as any crop that is
grown, on available nitrogen within the soil, which is generally
supplied by the direct application of nitrogenous manures —
natural or artificial. Under such conditions of supply, however,
the root-crops, so to speak gross feeders as they are, and
distributing a very large amount of fibrous feeding root within
the soil, avail themselves of a much greater quantity of the
nitrogen supplied than the cereals would do under similar
circumstances ; this result being partly due to their period of
accumulation and growth extending even months after the
period of collection by the ripening cereals has terminated, and
at the season when nitrification within the soil is the most
active, and the accumulation of nitrates in it is the greatest.
Lastly, full supply of both mineral constituents and nitrogen
being at command, these crops assimilate a very large amount
of carbon from the atmosphere, and produce, besides nitrogenous
food-products, a very large amount of the carbohydrate — sugar,
as respiratory and fat-forming food for the live-stock of the farm.
Rotation of Crops.
645
Very much the same may be said of maize as grown as a
fodder-crop in America, as of roots as grown in rotation in other
countries. Thus, there can be no doubt that the maize derives
its nitrogen from the soil, collecting some time longer than
wheat, and availing itself of the nitrates formed after the col-
lection by the wheat has ceased. But, so far as the product is
consumed on the farm, much of its nitrogen is recovered in the
manure — the more when the food is used for growing or fatten-
ing stock, and the less when for the production of milk.
The still more highly nitrogenous leguminous crops, on the
other hand, although not characteristically benefited by nitro-
genous manures, nevertheless contribute much more nitrogen to
the total produce of the rotation than any of the other crops
comprised in it. It is also certain that, at any rate a large
proportion of the nitrogen of these crops is obtained from the
soil and subsoil ; though recent investigations have proved that
some of their nitrogen, and sometimes much of it, may be
derived indirectly from the free nitrogen of the atmosphere,
brought into combination under the influence of micro-
organisms within the nodules on the roots of the plants.
It is the leguminous fodder crops, and among them
especially clover, which has a much more extended period ol
growth, and much more extended range of collection within the
soil and subsoil, than any of the other crops of the rotation, that
yield in their produce the largest amount of nitrogen per acre.
Much of this is doubtless taken up as nitrate ; yet, the direct
application of nitrate of soda has comparatively little beneficial
influence on their growth. The nitric acid is probably taken
up chiefly as nitrate of lime, but probably as nitrate of potash
also, and it is not without significance that the high nitrogen-
yielding clover takes up, or at least retains, very little soda.
The general result is, then, that although undoubtedly the
clover takes up a good deal of its nitrogen as nitrate, this would
seem to be derived from accumulations within the soil, which
are brought into suitable conditions of combination, and
distributed through a wide range of soil and subsoil.
So much then for the benefits of rotation, so far as the
requirements, the habits of growth, and the capabilities of
gathering and assimilating the various mineral constituents, and
the nitrogen, of the different crops, are concerned. It cannot be
doubted that the difference in the amounts, in the conditions of
combination, and in the distribution within the soil, of the
various mineral constituents, is at least an element in the
explanation of the benefits of alternation ; nor, on the other
646
Rotation of Crops.
hand, can there be any doubt that the facts relating to the
amount, and to the sources, of the nitrogen of the different
crops, are of still greater significance than are those in regard
to the mineral constituents.
But, it is not only the conditions of growth, but the uses of
the different crops when grown, that have to be taken into
account. Thus, the cereals, when grown in rotation, yield more
produce for sale in the season of growth than when grown
continuously. Again, the crops alternated with them, accumu-
late very much more of mineral constituents and of nitrogen in
their produce, than do the cereals themselves ; and, by far the
greater proportion of those constituents remains in circulation
in the manure of the farm, whilst the remainder yields highly
valuable products for sale in the forms of meat and milk.
Further, independently of the benefits arising from the
difference in the requirements and results of growth of the
different crops, of the increased amount of manure available,
and of the increased sale of highly valuable animal products,
there are other elements of advantage of considerable import-
ance. For example, with a variety of crops, the mechanical
operations of the farm, involving horse and hand labour, are
better distributed over the year, and are therefore more
economically pei’formed. Last, but by no means least, the
opportunities which alternate cropping afford for the cleaning
of the land from weeds is a prominent element of advantage.
Thus, then, the benefits of rotation are vei'y various ; and
the explanation of them, though largely dependent on the facts
which have been ascertained by scientific investigation, also
largely involves considerations connected with the general
economy of the farm ; and since, as has been seen, so large a
proportion of the produce grown is retained on the farm, as
stock-food or litter, it is obvious that the benefits cannot be
fully appreciated without arriving at some definite idea of the
importance to the farmer of the saleable animal products, and of
the manure obtained. It is proposed to consider this subject in
a future paper.
John Bennet Lawes.
JosErn Henry Gilbert.
Rothamsted, St. Albans.
647
LIGHT RAILWAYS
Now that the Board of Trade has held a Conference, and a com-
mittee has been nominated to inquire into the whole question of
light railways, we may assume that the subject is fairly before
the public, and that we shall hear a great deal of it in all direc-
tions in the immediate future. And, indeed, the more discussion
the better, for at present the public ideas are distinctly hazy on
the subject, and few people seem to have any idea of what a light
railway is and does. For example, it is not uncommon to read
in the press a complaint that no one defines what a light railway
is, whereas such a definition is, in the nature of things, obviously
impossible. You cannot define a slow train, except by reference,
implicit or explicit, to a fast one, and a slow train in England
would be an express in Bavaria. Similarly you can only define
a light railway by reference to railways which are not light. A
light railway must be something simpler and cheaper .than an
ordinary railway ; but the simplest and cheapest railway, prac-
tically possible in an old, settled, and rich country like this, may
well be found, necessarily and rightly, more expensive and more
elaborate than a railway of normal type in Texas or Mexico.
One definition, then, of a light railway may be said to be
a railway of second or third class standard. This is looking
at the subject from the practical side ; but there is also a legal
and administrative point of view, and it is rather from this
point of view that a definition would usually be given on the
Continent. For example, in Belgium a vicinal railway, as it is
there called, is a line belonging to, and worked by, the Societe
Nationale des Chemins-de-fer Vicinaux (National Light Rail-
way Society), and not directly by the State or the great railway
companies. In France a chemin de fer d’interet local (rail-
way of local interest) is one which is exempt from the code of
laws and regulations applying to ordinary lines, and the control
of which is entrusted, not to the Staff of the Minister of Public
Works, but to the Prefects of the several departments. In
Prussia, again, the Kleinbahnen (literally, little railways) are
lines belonging, not to the State, but to private companies or
local authorities ; controlled, not from Berlin, but from the
county centre, and subsidised — if subsidised at all— not by the
the nation, but by the local population directly concerned. Our
definition, therefore, is a purely negative one. A light railway
is one which, from whatever point of view it be regarded,
whether of importance, of speed, of expense, or what not, is
inferior to the ordinary railway.
648
Light Railways.
Having settled what light railways are, the next point for
inquiry is, Are such railways wanted here ? If so, for what pur-
pose ? “ Why,” it may be asked, “ have an inferior article ?
The English railways, as we know them to-day, are the best
and mo3t perfect in the world. For speed, for safety, for con-
venience, Continental lines cannot hold a candle to them. Why
should we deliberately accept a lower standard ? ” The answer
is simple ; that, unless we do, we shall have no new railways
at all in this country, except it be new main lines, affording an
alternative route for an important wholesale traffic already in
existence. Ten thousand pounds a mile — the lowest sum at
which railways of the existing standard can be built at all — is a
sum on which the traffic of an agricultural district can never
hope to pay interest. Unless, therefore, they are prepared to
put up with railways of a radically different type — -simpler and
cheaper in every way than the existing lines — the districts
which are at present without railway communication must
make up their minds to go without it to the end of time.
It may, however, be further asked, “ Why should they
not go without it ? If these lines are to be inferior at all points
to the existing railways, is it worth our while to have them at
all?” It is difficult to give any positive reply based on actual
experience in England, for practically we possess no light rail-
ways, and therefore have no experience of what they might do.
We have, however, a few lines broadly comparable to what
would be called light railways abroad. Take, for example, the
Southwold Railway, which runs nine miles from the market
town of Halesworth to the coast of Suffolk. Before this little
line, which is on a 3-foot gauge, was open, there was an omni-
bus now and then between Halesworth and Southwold. Last
year the railway carried 87,000 passengers and 9,000 tons of
goods and minerals. Or take another and more modern
instance. Easingwold is a little place of about 2,000 inhabi-
tants, lying on the old main high road from York to Tkirsk and
the North. Till two or three years back its communication
with the outside world was kept up by an omnibus that plied
two or three times a day backwards and forwards to a station
on the North Eastern main line, a couple of miles off, at Alne.
Last year the railway carried 43,000 passengers and 12,500
tons of goods and minerals. It can hardly be that such lines
have not met a real and serious want. Take, again, two other
lines, which also would be classed as light railways in Conti-
nental countries, but which here are legally tramways, because
they run along the high road, and were constructed under the
provisions of the Tramways Act of 1870. The Wantage tram-
Light Railways.
649
way, two and a half miles long, connects the town or village of
Wantage with its railway station. It carried last year 36,000
passengers, and earned besides over 1,000£. from goods and
parcels traffic — the Board of Trade returns do not give the
tonnage. Or take another somewhat similar line, the Wisbech
and Upwell, which runs eight miles along the road in a purely
agricultural district. Last year it earned 1 ,500/. from parcels
and goods, and carried over 100,000 passengers. In these
instances, too, it will hardly be questioned that the traffic must
have increased enormously beyond what it could have been had
carts and omnibuses remained the only means of communication.
If we turn from England to the Continent the evidence is
overwhelming that the extension of cheap railway communi-
cation into sparsely populated districts helps to promote agri-
cultural prosperity. It was especially for the benefit of agri-
culture that the light railway system of Belgium — the best
organised and most successful, on the whole, in Europe — was
undertaken, ten years back, under the direct guidance of the
Government. Below are extracts from documents showing the
ideas that animated the Belgian authorities. The first of them
is from a circular letter from the National Light Railway Society,
which is, as I have said, practically, though not nominally, a
State organisation. It runs as follows : —
For years past the spirit of enterprise and progress has directed itself
almost exclusively to the extension and improvement of main lines of rail-
way. It is true that the number of roads and canals has been increased,
and that their construction has been improved; but there have been no
changes, or almost none, in the manner in which traffic is conducted on
these lines of communication. Old-fashioned wagons continue to travel on
the high roads, and whereas the price of carriage for long distances has
enormously decreased, it costs as much as if not more than it did half a century
back to cart a load of wheat.
It is the function of light railways to improve this state of things. Con-
structed, as a general rule, on the existing roads, and in consequence more
economically than main railway lines, operated with the utmost economy
and by means of cheap rolling stock, they will furnish the people with the
means of transporting their products at the lowest possible price. Bv means
of their junctions with the main railway lines they will render access to
them more convenient both for passengers and for goods. They will assist
communication from village to village aud from the village to the adjacent
station. They will call into being new industries and increase the prosperity
of existing industries by affording them new outlets for their products.
Finally they will enable the farmer to procure at a cheap rate the fertilisers
necessary to enable him to face foreign competition, and by the low cost of
carriage will open to him the markets of his own country as well as those
abroad. For many places, deprived as it seemed for all time of railway
communication, these light lines will furnish an opportunity unhoped for and
possibly the last of escaping from their fatal position of isolation.
This circular was originally sent out to the Governors of the
650
Light Railivays.
various provinces of tlie Belgian kingdom, accompanied by a
covering letter from the Minister of Agriculture and Public
Works. In that letter the following passage occurs : —
I beg to direct your special attention to the exceptional importance of
the work that the National Society is charged to conduct to a successful end
and to the great services which it can render the country. The Society
comes at the precise moment in the middle of the serious crisis which
weighs upon agriculture, industry, and commerce ; in a word, on all the
sources of the prosperity and wealth of the nation. It will be able to con-
tribute largely to diminish the intensity of the crisis if it is well understood
and wisely made use of. The Government will do everything in its power
to encourage the construction of these new methods of communication.
The date of the above-quoted document is September 1885.
Since then the National Society has constructed some seven
hundred miles of light lines, and other smaller companies half
as much more, making, therefore, a thousand miles of light
railway, as against a mileage of not more than double of ordinary
lines. And in Belgium to-day there is but one opinion as to
whether light railways are or are not for the benefit of agri-
culture.
Subjoined is a table which speaks volumes on the subject,
this time from Hungary, a very different country : —
Year
Average mileage of
light railways open
for traffic
Total gross receipts
For tlie year
Per mile per annum
£
£
1888
1,144
280,537
245
1889
1,315
329,063
250
18.90
1,540
385,113
250
1891
1,799
480,833
267
1892
2,138
573,188
268
1S93
2,333
662,852
284
This table shows the development of light lines in Hungary
in the half-dozen years that have elapsed since the Light Rail-
way Law of 1888 was passed. It will be seen that while the
mileage has increased about 104 per cent., the gross receipts
have increased over 136 per cent., that is, 30 per cent, faster.
In other words, though presumably the most profitable lines
were undertaken first, the growth of traffic has been so rapid
that the opening of less profitable lines has not availed to
reduce the earnings per mile of the system as a whole.
As to the other, or Austrian, portion of the dual monarchy
this much may be said. There has of late years been a rapid
and successful development of light lines in various parts of
the country, more especially in Bosnia and in Styria. The
statesman who was mainly responsible for the adoption of a for-
Light Railways.
651
ward policy in Styria is now the Austrian Minister of Commerce.
He has recently organised in his Ministry a separate and in-
dependent light railway department, and an important Light
Railway Bill has been drafted for submission to the Austrian
Parliament in the current winter session.
Evidence of a very different kind, this time from France,
has been collected in an admirably written work, L’Utilite des
Chp-mins de fer d' Inter et Local , by M. Considere, an engineer oc-
cupying in the department of Finistere (the westernmost por-
tion of Brittany) a position apparently somewhat analogous to
that of an English county surveyor.1 M. Considere has ana-
lysed in great detail the accounts of the traffic of a whole series
of small lines. To take his first instance, this is what he found.
From Morlaix to the coast at Roscoff, a distance of 28 kilometres
(17 miles), a light railway was opened in 1883. Two years
before the opening, in 1881, the traffic through the main line
stations which then served Roscoff and its district amounted
to 1,608,000 francs. Had the conditions remained undisturbed,
natural growth would in four years have increased this sum to
1.672.000 francs. In fact, in 1885, two years after the opening,
the takings on traffic dealt with at these stations had fallen to
1.362.000 francs. But against this loss of 310,000 francs at
the old stations were to be set new takings of 701,000 francs on
traffic dealt with on the new branch ; a development of traffic
therefore in the district amounting to 391,000 francs, or an in-
crease of about 22 per cent, within two years. But the most
remarkable point in the statistics has yet to be told. The
actual earnings of the branch line proper were only 77,500 francs ;
the balance of 313,500 francs — four-fifths of the whole — was
earned by traffic contributed to the main line, which it is evi-
dent the main line would not have obtained had the branch not
been opened. I must not occupy space with all the sixteen
other separate cases fully set out by M. Considere. Here it
must suffice to say that in every case examined it was found that
the opening of a new line led to an important increase in the
traffic of the district, but that the importance of the increase
might never have been noticed by those who looked only at the
1 M. Considered work oil the value of light railways was originally
published in the Annales des Fonts et L'/iattssees, and subsequently issued in
book form (Paris, Dunod, 1892). It was criticised by M. Colson, then
professor of railway economics at the Paris Ecole des Hautes Etudes Com-
merciales, now Directeur des Chemins-de-fer in the Ministry of Public Works
(or, as we might say, railway secretary of the Board of Trade) in a pamphlet
entitled La Formula d' Exploitation de M. Considere (same publisher and
date). To this M. Considere replied in a further pamphlet (same publisher,
1893) bearing his original title. The three works taken together are perhaps
the most valuable contribution to the study of the question that exists.
652
Light Railways.
actual receipts of the light line proper, and closed their eyes to
all that occurred beyond the main line junction.
To avoid elaborating too far the point that all Continental
nations believe that light lines benefit agriculture, and are justi-
fied in so believing, let us quote the words of the Prussian Minister
of Public Works, spoken in moving in the Legislature the third
reading of the Light Railway Law of 1892, as to the position of
affairs in Italy, and so, as it were, kill the two birds, Italy
and Prussia, with one stone.
Elsewhere the construction and working of similar light railways have
proved a blessing to the country. A traveller to-day through North Italy,
through Belgium, and through Holland, can satisfy himself what a blessing
these light railways have been. It is as though irrigation canals had been
carried through the fields, and everything was growing and flourishing under
their fertilising streams. In North Italy, in particular, the blessing which
they bring with them is so obvious that even the casual tourist can hardly
fail to notice it.
It may therefore be taken as a fact that the conviction of
all the leading Continental nations — a conviction, be it remem-
bered, based, not on theories, but on practical experience extend-
ing over a series of years, which, moreover, is at the present
moment finding its outcome in energetic action in almost every
country in Europe — is that light railways are of great value in the
development of agricultural districts. It may, of course, be the
case that our circumstances in England are so different that
a thing which has been useful in all Continental countries, even
though so widely different in circumstances as Hungary and
Flanders, will not be of use to us in England. But the burden
of proving this to be a fact surely lies upon those who maintain a
proposition which prima facie seems improbable. In the absence
of actual English experience showing that light lines are useless
and unprofitable, we have a right to be guided by the analogy of
other countries who are nearest to us in circumstances and geo-
graphical position ; and this experience shows unmistakably that
light lines are useful and profitable.
Assuming, therefore, that it is desirable to have such railways,
if we can get them, the first question naturally arising is, Will
they pay in the ordinary sense of the word ? That is, can we trust
to ordinary commercial enterprise to provide them ? Is it likely
that capitalists will build them as they have built the main railway
lines, not out of philanthropy or even, in the general, to develop
their own property, but simply in order to obtain a dividend on
their investments ? To this point Continental experience once
more enables us to make a tolerably complete answer. In
Holland these lines have, in the main, been constructed as
private commercial enterprises, and they have paid a moderate
Light Hallways
653
rate of interest, on the average something like 3 per cent.
But Holland is the only country where the thing has been done
by private enterprise. The Belgian Vicinal Company is practi-
cally, though not nominally, a State organisation ; but it is
worked in a commercial spirit, and attains a fair measure of com-
mercial success. Recent dividends have been at the rate of
about 3 per cent, per annum. The light lines in Germany
have a very varied history : some of them, the little Felda line, for
instance, or the lines in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, pay hand-
somely ; others barely pay their working expenses ; and lines
may be found at all intermediate points between these two ex-
tremes. The same is the case in both portions of the Austrian
Monarchy. In France the light railways are a heavy tax on the
public funds of the districts and of the State. The same is
notoriously true in Ireland. The French failure to earn a satis-
factory income is, however, easily accounted for by special circum-
stances, more especially the extravagant prices that have been
paid for land, and the unthrifty bargains that have been made
with the operating companies. The Irish conditions must not
be touched here, for it would be necessary to occupy space out
of all proportion to the importance of Ireland as an economic
example, and it would not be easy to avoid trenching on matters
of current political controversy.
It will be seen, therefore, that experience shows that light
railways may pay in the commercial sense ; but it is on the whole
more probable that they will not do so, and it is well to put this
point in the plainest possible language as a difficulty which has
got to be faced by those who advocate an active light-railway
policy. When it is faced fairly the difficulty in great measure
disappears, for even the countries where as dividend-paying
undertakings the light railways do worst are still going steadily
forward in the construction of new lines. One is therefore en-
titled to say, with some certainty, that public opinion in these
countries regards the construction of such lines as a thing so
desirable as to be worth some financial sacrifice. Put in another
way, Continental public opinion is decided in holding that the
indirect gain more than balances the direct loss. One of these
indirect gains, not perhaps one of the most important, is so
easily recognised that it should be mentioned at once. Perhaps
it might almost be called a direct gain. It is in the economy of
road maintenance when the bulk of the heavy traffic is diverted
on to a railway or tramway alongside. Some of the Irish high-
way authorities have given figures showing that for a road which
cost 6s. per rod for maintenance before the railway came, the
cost is now at Is. Id.
VOL. v. T. s. — 20
X X
654
Light Railways.
But, even if we admit the necessity of facing the fact that
light railways may not be paying enterprises in the ordinary
sense of the word, yet the financial position requires the most
serious consideration. There are all degrees of unprofitableness,
just as there are all degrees of financial success. If we look at
Ireland, for example, some of the light lines built under the
Tramways and Public Companies Act of 1883 only make a very
small claim on the guarantee, as they earn from their traffic
sufficient to pay almost the whole of the interest on the capital
involved. Others do not even earn enough to pay their work-
ing expenses, and the public authorities have not only to pay
out of rates and taxes the whole of the interest on capital, but
also to make up a considerable deficiency under the head of
working expenses. Such a result as this is obviously a serious
reflection on those who are responsible for the lines in question ;
either they are being badly worked, in other words are spending
more or earning less (more probably both) than they ought to be
doing, or it may be that the capital cost of construction was
unduly inflated ; or, again — which is also more than probable —
the prospects of the line at the outset were so bad that it ought
really never to have been built at all. The first thing then re-
quisite is to see that no lines are built without reasonable pro-
spects of being, if not quite, at least very nearly, self-supporting.
Probably, on the whole, the best way to secure this result is to
demand that the local population which asks for the line shall
take a serious, not necessarily a preponderating, share in the risk.
Another safeguard would be a careful report made on the
authority of a Government Department, presumably the Board
of Trade, in which the traffic potentialities of the district should
be estimated exhaustively and in detail from the fullest data
available.
Another thing of at least equal importance is that both the
capital cost and the working expenses of the new lines should
be rigidly kept down to the reducible minimum. Probably one
would be justified, on the basis of all the statistics available
both on the Continent and in this country, in putting this point
in outline, somewhat as follows. Assume that the line can be
made for 5,000L per mile. Assume, further, that it earns 10 1.
per mile per week, or, say, 500 1. per mile per annum. Assume,
again, that it can be worked at 65 per cent, of the gross receipts.
This will leave a surplus of 1 75 A per mile per annum, or in other
words 3£ per cent, interest on the capital involved. Now it is
perfectly obvious that outside capital will not go into the ven-
ture on the basis of a prospectus only promising 3^ per cent. ;
but it is equally obvious that a County Council could raise the
Light Railways.
655
money for this line on the security of the county rate without
being one penny out of pocket by the transaction. It is obvious
also that a landowner whose estate the new line was to develop
would be wise if, even without a guarantee, he took the price of
the land required in shares paying at this rate.
Of course, to assume that a railway ten miles long can be made
in this country for 5,000L per mile and worked at a cost of
under 71. per mile per week is a large assumption. It involves,
let it be frankly confessed, a radical alteration in our existing
ideas. Broadly speaking, it may be said that no railway can at
this moment be built in England for less than 10,000Z. a mile,
that is, double the capital that we are assuming to be sufficient
for the new lines. But the same might be said in any
other country of main-line railways, and railways of main-line
standard are the only lines that hitherto have been recognised
by Parliament and the Board of Trade as possible in this coun-
try. In every other country it is admitted that, just as there
are county roads and parish roads and occupation roads, and
each of them has a different standard of construction and main-
tenance, so there should be main-line railways and branch rail-
ways and light railways, and the standard of construction must
differ fundamentally for the three classes. Our Board of Trade — -
and I am far from blaming the Board of Trade, for it has only acted
as a mouthpiece of a practically unanimous public opinion — has
hitherto insisted on the same standard of requirements through-
out, whether it be on the main line of the North Western be-
tween London and Rugby, or on a petty local branch with four
or six trains a day in Cornwall, or Caithness, or Cardigan.
Foreign Governments — and foreign Governments have always
interfered in the construction and working of railways with a
minuteness and constancy to which we are quite unaccustomed —
would as soon think of enforcing block working and interlocking
of signals and the use of continuous automatic brakes on lines such
as the Ravenglass and Eskdale, or the Looe and Liskeard, as the
Little Pedlington Highway Board would think of paving its
parish roads with jarrah-wood blocks laid on six inches of con-
crete because this has been found most suitable for the traffic of
Piccadilly.
The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society is not the
place to discuss technical details of railway construction or rail-
way operation, but it may be well to give in outline a sketch of
what is meant abroad by a light railway, in order that English
agriculturists may understand the class of railway which alone
can be built and worked at a paying price, and which they must
be content to put up with if they want to have a railway at all.
x s 2
656
Light Railways.
Let us deal with railway construction to start with. First and
loremost, railways of this class of course know nothing of the
obligation to construct over or under bridges where they cross a
road. They merely cross on the level, and at the crossing
point, instead of our elaborate gatekeepers’ houses and gates
closing alternately across the road and across the line, and
interlocked with signals from a, neighbouring box, there is at
most a simple barrier — a long pole balanced so as to fall across
the road when a watchman, half a mile off it may be, pulls a
string because he sees on the clock that a train is nearly due.
This amount of protection may be provided on really important
roads, but on the ordinary country lanes nothing of the kind is
found necessary, and the train simply crosses without barriers
of any sort. So, too, there may be fences along the line where
they are obviously required ; as, for instance, in passing through
enclosed fields in a grazing country. But fences are never erected
as a matter of coui’se, so that whenever the line passes through
woods or moorland or unenclosed down, or, again, through
market gardens, or allotments where cattle could never possibly
be grazing at large, or, yet more important, whenever it passes
along on the side of the high road, fences are habitually dis-
pensed with. It goes without saying that the permanent way
is also very different from main-line standard. The bridges are
probably of timber instead of steel girders ; 85-lb. rails in 45-lb.
chairs, packed with two feet of carefully broken ballast, are re-
placed by 45-lb. flat-footed rails spiked down straight on to the
sleepers, which in their turn rest, almost if not quite directly, on
the ordinary surface of the ground.
Then, too, the system of working is as rudimentary as the
method of construction. Signals, except possibly at a junction
with the main line, are unheard of. Interlocking of course
vanishes, because there are no signals with which to interlock
the points, and the facing-point locks and detector bars and so
forth disappear along with them. Block working in the strict
sense disappears also. In place of it the trains are timed to
pass each other — for that these lines are single goes without
saying — at certain fixed points, and if it is necessary to alter the
working for any reason the arrangement is made by telephone
between the staff concerned. For all that, the speed is main-
tained quite at a reasonable level. Fifteen to 20 miles an hour
may be said to be the limit in the case of railways that run along
the public road, while in the case of lines built on separate land of
their own 25 miles an hour is something like the average. In
the few cases in this country and in Ireland where lines ana-
logous to Continental light railways exist, our Board of Trade has,
Light Railways.
6 57
in its exuberant anxiety for the public safety, usually imposed
so very stringent a speed limit — it is, for example, eight miles an
hour as a maximum on the Wisbech and Upwell — that the
carrier’s cart can beat the train in speed, though perhaps not in
economy, and certainly not in comfort and safety.
Another point is of the very utmost importance. The staff
obviously cannot be specialised to the same extent as on a main
line. The tickets will perhaps be issued by the guard and collected
by the fireman, or it may be by a platelayer’s wife, at the road
crossing at which the passenger alights. For, when we have light
railways according to the Continental pattern, stations in our
ordinary English sense, with buildings and platforms, will of
course disappear, and station will come back to mean what it used
to mean in England, and still does in most Continental languages
— not a building, a gare or Bahnliof, but a mere stopping place.
And not only must the staff turn their hands to all sorts of jobs,
but they must be prepared to do work over very long hours. If
the first train on the line is at six o’clock in the morning and
the last at ten o’clock at night, it is absurd to imagine that the
light railway earnings can possibly pay for a double staff.
Anyone who has travelled as often as the present writer on the
engine of an express train knows that main-line engine driving is
extremely trying work, and that to expect a man to do such work
for many hours on end is quite indefensible ; but to argue from
this that a driver on a branch eight miles long ought not to be
required to work ten or a dozen times a day over it, taking half
an hour on each journey, with long intervals between, even
though his first journey be made at six o’clock in the morning
and his last at nine or ten o’clock at night, is really not reason-
able ; and from gentlemen who maintain the contrary one has a
right to ask whether, as a matter of fact, they have two shifts
of housemaids in their own house, and duplicate the services of
grooms and coachmen in their own stables.
One point in connexion with the modes of construction and
working cannot here be left unnoticed — the question of gauge.
But it can only be mentioned in order to say that it is far too
complicated and, one might say, too thorny a subject — for
English railwaymen have always been prepared to fight their
neighbours upon it any time this last half-century — to be handled
here. Probably the two strongest arguments in favour of a
narrow gauge are — the first, that Continental opinion is steadily
becoming more and more favourable to it ; the second, that a
break of gauge would give to all concerned notice in the most
conspicuous possible manner that the new light lines had finally
broken with the extravagant traditions of our English railway
658
Light Railways.
past. The strongest argument in the opposite direction is to be
found in the fact that England is a small country, and therefore
the new lines will all be short ; that it is a country old, settled,
and with highly specialised industries, and that the consign-
ments will, under these circumstances, usually be small. For it
needs no argument to prove that, the shorter the line, the larger
percentage the cost of transhipment will bear to the total cost
of carrying the traffic, and the smaller and the more miscellaneous
the consignments, the greater the cost per ton of dealing with
them, the longer the time the operation will take, and the greater
the risk that the goods will be damaged in transhipment.
An excessively and inordinately high standard of construction
and working is, however, not the only cause of the extravagant
cost of our English railways. Everything about them has been
done on the same lavish scale. The cost of obtaining a private
Act of Parliament is a thing that has been grumbled at and
acquiesced in any time these last seventy years. Evidently this is
not the place to discuss a reform in Private Bill procedure in
general, but a word or two in reference to light railways in
particular will not be out of place. As far as they are concerned,
there would seem to be two ways open for reducing the cost of
obtaining authority to proceed. The one would be entrusting
the whole matter to the discretion of some local body — presum-
ably the County Council. The objections to this are sufficiently
obvious. In the first place, most light railways would begin in
a country district and end inside the jurisdiction of a municipal
corporation, which, certainly if it were a county borough, and in
all probability even if it were not, would refuse to submit to the
authority of the rural County Council. In the second place,
there would be very serious risk, not perhaps of jobbery, but at
least of the suspicion of it. If a scheme were sanctioned by, still
more if it obtained financial support from a County Council of
which Lord X. was chairman, and the scheme was for a line
running for some miles through Lord X.’s estate, it is perfectly
obvious that things would be said that in the public interest
are better left unspoken. There is a yet more serious objection.
The management of railways is a subject on which the casual
and anonymous newspaper correspondent is always prepared at
a moment’s notice to instruct the general manager of the North
Western or the Great Western. But, for all that, railways are
really a highly technical subject. Those who have been concerned
with them for years have accumulated a fund of information
under various heads, technical, legal, political, financial, and
economical, of whose very existence the outside public has no
conception. The bulk of that information is concentrated in
Light Railways.
659
and around Westminster. It has never been reduced to writing,
but exists in floating shape in the heads of railway managers,
engineers, Parliamentary agents, and especially the Private Bill
authorities of the two Houses and a few habitual and experienced
chairmen of Parliamentary Committees. To start out on a new
development of a subject such as light railways, and commence
by refusing to utilise the whole of this accumulated information
and experience, would be nothing short of disastrous, even were
it not for the fact that uniformity by itself is a thing much to
be desired, and that uniformity cannot possibly be preserved if
one locality is to go ahead in one direction, and another locality
in quite another.
Assuming it, therefore, to be necessary to retain the control
of light-railway undertakings at Westminster, as at present,
what seems to be requisite is to simplify and cheapen, as far as
possible, the method of procedure. A great deal in this direction
can undoubtedly be done by a relaxation for the benefit of light
lines of the very stringent and costly requirements of the
Standing Orders in reference to advertisements, notices, the
deposit of plans and sections, the preparation of books of refer-
ence, printing minutes of proceedings, &c. A great deal more can
be done by the reduction of the quite unjustifiably heavy House
fees. At the present moment the promoters of enterprises which
need for their initiation the sanction of a Private Bill are fined
in a sum, I believe, of something like 100,000L per annum for
the relief of the general taxation of the country. It needs no
argument to show that it would be absurd, in the case of light
railways, for the State with one hand to impose a heavy tax on
the initiation of the enterprise, and with the other hand to sub-
scribe to its funds because it did not show a prospect of ordinary
commercial success. That the House fees should be either
abolished or very largely reduced in the case of these light lines
goes, therefore, without saying. Again, we have had a good
deal of experience recently of Bills referred to a joint Committee
of the two Houses, and needing, therefore, one inquiry instead of
two. Light Railway Bills might unquestionably with great ad-
vantage be referred to such a joint Committee. If this Com-
mittee were fortunate enough to have a practically permanent
chairman, and in great degree a permanent panel of members,
there would undoubtedly be a great curtailment both in the length
of the inquiries and in the expenses consequent thereon.
A further point may be taken. A “ model ” Light Railway
Bill might well be put forward with Board of Trade authority, and
only the special circumstances of each individual case considered
separately. It would even be possible to treat the preamble
660
Light Railways.
of the Bill as proved — that is, to translate into non-technical
language, to admit the desirability in the public interest of passing
it — not by the evidence of hosts of witnesses brought up from
distant parts of the country for the purpose, but on the faith of
duly certified resolutions of the local authorities concerned. If
some such procedure as is here sketched out were adopted, and
if, further, the joint Committee of the two Houses could sit with
the reasonable regularity of an ordinary law court, from eleven to
four, four or even five days a week, it would be quite possible to
bring the cost of Light Railway Acts within a very moderate
compass.
There is another head under which the cost of our English rail-
ways has been equally large, that, namely, of the purchase of
land. On this subject one thing may be said at the outset,
that unless the average cost can be very largely reduced, any
rapid extension of light railways is out of the question. There
are evidently two ways in which this can be done. The one —
the most satisfactory from all points of view — that everyone
who has land to sell, or interests in land to be affected, should
be moderate and reasonable in his demands. If this ideal state
of things were to come to pass there would be no need for
further discussion of the question. As that, however, is im-
probable in this workaday world, the question will have to be
faced whether any, and if so what, modification of the code
which has grown up under the Lands Clauses Act can reason-
ably be introduced. The subject is, of course, an exceedingly
difficult one, and it may be that the Legislature will not be able
to do much. Two things, perhaps, it might fairly do. It
might specially provide, as has been done in the case of the
Housing of the Working Classes Acts, that no extra allowance
should be made for compulsory purchase ; and, secondly, it
might enact that a company taking land — or, at any rate,
agricultural land — for a light railway should be allowed to set
off against the value of the land and the injury to the adjoining
land, by severance and so forth, the estimated benefit that the
construction of the railway would be to the estate. If public
opinion were prepared to go further and authorise a Government
surveyor to decide right out the value of the land to be acquired,
an even greater economy might be effected. But when all is
said and done we may lay our account with this — that, unless
public opinion in the locality is strongly in favour of the line,
there will certainly be found enough opponents who will
threaten litigation, and the consequent expenditure of money
which the railway has not got to spare. From such a district
promoters, if they are wise, will simply turn away to direct
Light Railways.
G61
their energies and capital to other districts where their pro-
posals meet with better acceptance.
Closely connected with the demands of the owners and oc-
cupiers of land are the demands made by public authorities of all
kinds, both local and national. Mention was made in an earlier
part of this paper of the remarkable development of light railways
in Hungary, and in that country the main encouragement that
has been given to light lines has consisted in a systematic relaxa-
tion in their favour of all the burdens laid on ordinary railways.
A Light Railway Bill providing for still larger concessions in the
same direction is at the present moment before the Reichsrath
in Austria. Instead of enumerating what the public authorities
in Hungary and Austria have been and are doing, it will,
perhaps, be more convenient to translate their concessions into
their English equivalent. First and foremost, then, these lines
would be exempted entirely from passenger duty. Secondly,
the Post Office, instead of driving a hard bargain for the con-
veyance of the mails, wrould cheerfully pay to the railway
company the whole sum that the mails would have cost had
they continued to go across country by cart.1 Thirdly, the
companies’ earnings would be exempted from income-tax, the
dividend warrants would not need receipt stamps, and transfers
of stocks and shares would not be subject to the present heavy
duty of 10s. per cent. The local authorities from County down
to Parish Council would either exempt the railway company
from rates altogether, or at worst would rate them merely on the
agricultural value of the land that they occupied, and not, like
ordinary railways, on the entire net profits of their undertaking.
Even without the example of Austria and Hungary before us,
these exemptions from taxation are obviously justifiable as a
question of principle, for it is most illogical that the State and
1 Let me instance how our Post Office at present helps these small under-
takings. The Clogher Valley is a small line in Ireland built under the pro-
visions of the Tramways Act, 1883. Though it has done a good deal to
develop its district it only just pays its working expenses. The Post Office,
however, found its trains from the outset very convenient for the conveyance
of parcel traffic. Accordingly it called upon the company to carry them
under the provisions of the Postal Acts. The company of course complied, and
in due time applied for payment for so doing. “ No,” said the Post Office,
“ you must not come to us, you must go to the Eailway Clearing House, which
apportions between the companies the receipts for railway-borne parcels.”
To the Clearing House accordingly the Clogher Valley Company went, only to
be met by the statement that its line was a tramway, not a railway, and that
there was nothing for it there. Back to the Post Office the company accord-
ingly went, and was there met with the reply that the company was compelled
to carry the traffic, and whether it got payment or not for it was a matter
that concerned not her Majesty’s Post Office. I tell this tale as I heard it
on the spot in Ireland in 1890. Whether the Government has relented since
then I cannot say.
662
Light Railways.
the municipalities should with the one hand levy taxation on
these undertakings, and with the other pay over to them money
contributions because they are not able to exist unaided.
This, however, is not the only way in which these under-
takings must be dependent for success on the goodwill of the
local authorities ; for, as has been said, when they have to cross
roads and streets they must always do so on the level. In
many cases they will need to be laid either on the road or on
the waste at the side of it. When they come into a town they
can only possibly enter it down the middle of the street, and,
practically speaking, this will not come to pass if the local
authority sets its face against it. Some managers of lines of
this class on the Continent have recently, in reply to the
question whether it is better to lay the rails along the public
road or on separate land bought for the purpose, answered that
it ought in the abstract to be more convenient and more
economical to lay them along the road, but that the local
authorities have made such exaggerated demands in reference
to the repair of the road and other matters that it has been
found in the end cheaper to purchase an independent right of
way. This, however, is not all. Local populations will have to
accept the fact that they cannot get in station buildings, or indeed
in any other respect, the same accommodation as that to which
we have grown accustomed on the existing lines. To put it in
the plain, straightforward language recently used to the people
of New South Wales by one of their own Government engineers,
“ the people of a district to be served must be content with
slower speed, irregular running to time, less accommodation at
stations and goods sheds, and, notwithstanding getting less,
they must be prepared to pay more than those using the main
lines to cover the extra cost of working.”
Assuming that we have not now reached the point at which
readers will say, “ On these terms it is not worth having light
lines at all, and, therefore, we need not further discuss the
question,” it remains to be considered by whom and on what
terms these lines are to be constructed and worked. For con-
struction by a public authority there is something, at least in
the abstract, to be said. There is a considerable l’isk that small
lines of this kind should be built, as it is commonly called, “for
paper,” and so heavily handicapped at the outset with an inflated
capital account. Such a result would be most disastrous.
Anyone who knows how seriously Wales has suffered, for a
whole generation, because its railways in the years of inflation
that preceded the collapse of 1866 were mainly built on a basis
which made their nominal capital something like three times
Light Railways.
663
their actual cost, will appreciate the necessity for avoiding the
recurrence of a similar state of affairs. The difficulty is as to
what public authority should do the work. The State can hardly
do it direct all over the country ; on the other hand, the local
authorities have no experience in work of the kind, have no
trained staff for the purpose, and would be constantly in diffi-
culties at the point where one jurisdiction ended and another
began.
Assuming, then, that the disadvantages of construction by
public authorities outweigh the advantages, the question arises,
how best the work can be left in the hands of private enterprise,
and yet the risk of what may be called “ financing ” avoided.
In this matter, probably, we should do well to take a leaf out of
the book of our neighbours in Belgium. In that country, as
has already been stated, the power to construct a light line is
almost invariably given to a single company, the Societe
Nationale des Chemins-de-fer Vicinaux. In this company the
Government and the local authorities of different parts of the
kingdom are practically almost the only shareholders. There
is no need that private persons should be excluded from a
similar society in England. The point is, that if the thing is
to be properly done it must be done by a large and responsible
organisation, which, on the one hand, will possess the public
confidence, and on the other hand will be able to command the
services of first-class men, and to treat on terms of equality,
both of position and knowledge, with great landowners and
their solicitors, with the existing railway companies, and with
the great firms of contractors. Of course there would be no
need to exclude existing railway companies as promoters and
constructors of light lines. At the same time they would,
probably, as a rule prefer to stand aside and leave others to do
the work, and it would, perhaps, be easier for the Board of
Trade, in the case of light lines which were distinct enterprises
from ordinary railways, to permit them the ample relaxations
which we have shown to be necessary if they are to be made at all,
than if they were in the hands of companies possessing an
existing system of normal type.
Turning from construction to working, the arguments
against the task being undertaken by the State or the local
authorities apply with tenfold greater strength in the latter
case than in the former. Even in Prussia and Austria and
Belgium, where the propriety of the State working the ordinary
railways is almost an axiom, these light lines are regarded as
fit only to be worked by private enterprise. But by what form
of private enterprise is a difficult question. The Belgian National
664
Light Railivays.
Society does not as a rule work its own lines, but leases the
working under carefully drawn contracts to private individuals
or subordinate companies. In France, on the other hand, the
light lines are mainly worked by two large companies, each of
which has railways or groups of railways scattered all over the
face of the country. A [third way, of course, is to entrust the
working to the great railway company with whose lines the
light railway connects. There is a great deal to be said for all
three methods, and also, it must be confessed, a great deal to
be said against each of them. The subject is, however, too
technical for discussion here.
Two or three main desiderata must, however, be just alluded to.
In the first place, by some means or other, the services of first-
class experts, whether as lawyers, as engineers, or as traffic man-
agers, must be secured to each new line, however small, and, at
the same time, at a cost which to the individual small undertaking
shall not be prohibitory. This can, it seems evident, only be
done by means of some central organisation. Then, further, the
company or individual working the local lines must have an inter-
est in the development of the traffic ; and this in the main depends
on the form in which the contract between owners and workers —
supposing them to be different — is drawn up. In the case of
many of the Irish light lines, it is not too much to say that those
responsible for the working have no interest whatever in
developing the traffic of the district. In France one may go
further, and say, without fear of contradiction, that in many
cases the interest of the working company is to reduce the
traffic to the smallest possible dimensions. Now this state of
things must be avoided here at all hazards. It might be
thought, perhaps, that the persons on the whole most interested
in the development of the traffic would be the main-line
companies, to whose railways the new light lines should
naturally act as feeders. And this would be so, undoubtedly, if
it were not that in the past a policy of starving a small branch
to death, and then buying the carcass at knacker’s prices, has
in some cases been practised with considerable success. Against
this risk, too, security will need to be taken.
One point, and a most important one, which has been
suggested, rather than positively raised in the preceding pages,
must be dealt with in conclusion. A hard-headed man of
business having read this article carefully might very naturally
speak somewhat as follows : “ You tell us that these new lines
must be in all respects inferior to the railways to which we
have hitherto been accustomed. Their accommodation and their
speed will be inferior — even safety will be less absolutely
Light Railways.
C65
secured. On the other hand, by blocking our streets and
frightening our horses, they will cause us inconvenience of a
kind to which we have hitherto in this country been strangers.
Even so you say that it will only just be possible, under the
most favourable circumstances, to make them return some 4 per
cent, on the capital involved in them. And to do this they
will need to charge rates and fares certainly not lower — very
possibly higher — than those on the existing railways, which we
regard as too high already. If this is all your light railways
can do for us, is it clear that we should not be better without
them altogether? After all, under no circumstances can you
run a railway into every farmyard. The farmer, therefore, will
still need to cart his produce to the station, and, if he has got
to cart it at all, does it matter much whether he carts one mile
or five ? Assuming that the five miles of cartage costs 4s. a ton,
and admitting that the five miles by train will only cost Is., to
that we must add another shilling for taking the stuff to the
station. There is, therefore, at the outside an economy of only
2s. per ton, and this is not, as it might be thought to be,
a saving of 50 per cent., for when the produce reaches the
junction between the light line and the existing railway it
requires, as before, to be sent on by train to the great market
centre. Suppose the railway rate for this service to be 10s. ; the
comparison is then really between an old charge of 14s. and a
new charge of 12s., a reduction, not of 50, but only of about
14 per cent. Is it reasonable to suppose that such a change as
this can produce any serious effect on agricultural depression in
this country ? ”
The objection is a serious and a perfectly fair one. Unfor-
tunately the answer to it, though it really exists, written large
by experience all over the face of Continental countries, can
hardly be precisely set down in figures and percentages. Briefly
the answer is, that the effect of these new lines is quite as much,
if not more, moral than material ; that man — and especially
agricultural man — is rather an imitative and emotional than
a reasoning animal. It is quite possible that it would have
paid the farmer in a country village five miles from a train to
collect his eggs every morning, and sell them as fresh at 2s.
a dozen in London next day. But it never occurred to him to
do so, and, in fact, he has gone on collecting them once a week,
and selling them for 10 d. or Is. The opening of a new station
half a mile off, with a printed time-table, showing plainly that
the eggs which leave his station in the afternoon will be
delivered in London that evening, comes as a fresh breeze into
the stagnant air of village life, and braces his energy to face
666
Light Railways.
the new departure. The same thing is, of course, true of all
other perishable produce, and agricultural authorities are, I
believe, agreed in thinking that it is in the production of articles
which deteriorate rapidly when carried, rather than in corn-
growing, that the best hope for the future of English farming lies.
One may turn the matter the other way round, and point
out that there must evidently in the near future be a consider-
able growth iu what may be called home manufactures. The
demand for home-spun linens, and woollens, and silks, for hand-
printed rather than machine-printed calicoes and papers, for
beaten brass and hammered iron, for originality and variety,
rather than cheapness and million-multiplied monotony, the
rapid development of electricity as a motive power — all these
are on the side of village industries as against wholesale town
factories. Now, for a village industry on any but the very
smallest scale to establish itself in a place five miles from rail-
way communication is practically out of the question. The pro-
ducers must, in such case, be hopelessly out of touch with the
consumers. The buyers from the great towns will not come
down, while the master-workmen in their turn will hardly
get up.
There is another point of view from which the advantages
of light railways may be regarded — a point of view even less
material. It is a commonplace that the best workmen, the men
most capable of using both hands and heads, refuse to stay in
the villages where they were born, and gravitate ever more and
more to the great towns. It is not so much (so we are told by
the best authorities) the higher wages of London that attract
them as the want of opportunity, the narrowness of interest, the
isolation of the life in a country village, that repel them.
Against this sentiment of isolation even the lightest of light
railways, provided it possesses a printed time-table showing
through connexions to London, or other great centres, and
issues cheap excursion tickets at Christmas time, should furnish
a powerful antidote.
But, after all, these are questions that can mainly be left to
settle themselves. The position at present is an exceedingly
simple one. In every other country in the world it is possible
to build cheap railways, and in every other country cheap
railways are regarded as such valuable agencies of national life
that the Governments are ready to spend public funds largely to
secure their construction. Here it is impossible, owing to
restrictions laid down by Parliament and its executive organ, the
Board of Trade, to build cheap railways at all, though in
consequence of the wealth of the population it is very probable
Light Railwaijs.
667
that in many parts of the country cheap railways could be built
so as to be a moderate financial success. The business at
present before us is to induce Parliament and the Board of
Trade so to modify the Acts and Orders affecting the subject
that cheap railways shall, for the first time, become a possibility.
When that is done the localities which think the experiment
worth trying for themselves will try it, and we shall be able
to see the results. It may be, of course, that the future of
English agriculture is hopeless, and that the agricultural inter-
est here will derive no benefit from that which undeniably has
benefited it greatly in every country on the Continent. But, at
least, those who hold a contrary belief are making no excessive
and unreasonable demand when they ask that, at any rate, they
shall be put in a position in which they can test the point.
47 St. George’s Square, S.W. "W . M. ACWORTH.
ANOMALIES OF THE GRAZING SEASON
OF 1894.
The anomalies of a grazing season can seldom have been so
pronounced as were those of the season of 1894. In striking
contrast to the state of affairs in the dry season of 1893, there
was an abundance of grass, which was of good quality and
of weight-producing nature, and yet to the grazier it proved
a disappointing year. Second-class land has shown a decided
advantage over land of higher feeding capacity, and dairying
and store land has been productive to even a greater extent still.
The period of the growth appears to be dependent on the
altitude of the land ; and I think it is undoubtedly a fact
that the greater proportion of grass in the Midland counties
this year has been grown upon land lying at an elevation of
from 300 to 600 feet (Ordnance level), and the least amount on
what is usually the most forward land, that is, on land lying at
an elevation of from 150 to 300 feet.
There are, of course, considerations other than elevation
which regulate the forwardness or backwardness of certain
fields. Such are aspect, the nature of the subsoil, and the
treatment the land receives ; but, apparently on account of the
fact that the weather was more propitious for growth at the
period when the later land was growing than it was when what
is termed the more forward land usually puts forth its greatest
energies, the occupiers of land at an elevation of from 300 to
GG3
Anomalies of the Grazing Season of 1894.
GOO feet have this season had a decided advantage in the quan-
tity of grass produced.
This, an anomaly in itself, partly accounts, then, for the
further anomaly that the lower-priced cattle are accredited — as
undoubtedly is the case — with having paid more per head, and
considerably more, reckoning the percentage on outlay of
capital, than the high-priced beasts.
But the grievance of the occupier of the land which can
produce the very best article does not stop here. It has been
a maxim of the Free-trader that quality can compete with
quantity, and that the best can always hold its own; but the level-
ling taint of these latter days spareth not even the finest breeds
of cattle, and the Hereford and the Devon are becoming rapidly
reduced from their high estate of comparative value.
To produce the best-quality fat it is necessary to obtain the
best-quality store, and year by year this has been more difficult
to acquire in the spring, until the culminating point has been
reached in the course of the present year, when 42s. per cwt.
cannot have been an exceptional price for a store Hereford,
Devon, or Runt.
Here, then, is the secret of the difficulty : —
£ ». d.
Buy an 80-stone (10-cwt.) bullock in the spring, say at
40s. per cwt 20 0 0
The 80 stone originally bought, sold at 35s. (equals loss
of 5s. per cwt. on 10 cwt.) 2 10 0
17 10 0
Add 3 cwt., the increase of weight in grazing, at 3os. . 5 5 0
Amount realised . . 22 15 0
In presenting these figures, moreover, I venture to think
that the majority of graziers of this class of cattle will bear me out
when I say that I am setting forth too favourable an example
for consideration.
Let us compare the case given with that of more ordinary
cattle, such as could be bought at from 30s. to 35s. per cwt. in the
spring.
£
S.
d.
A bullock weighing 72 stone (9 cwt.), at 32s. per cwt.
= 14
8
0
was probably worth when fat 30s. per cwt., or loss
of 2s. per cwt. on original w’eight ....
=
18
0
13
10
0
Add 3 cwrt , increase of weight in grazing, at 30s.
4
10
0
Amount realised
18
0
0
The difference may not seem large in a, perhaps, too mode*
Anomalies of the Grazing Season of 1894.
669
rately stated case such as the foregoing, but the comparative
rental value which is capable of feeding the two different classes
of animal, and the consequent larger amount of rates, with the
extra interest on the further outlay of capital, tell largely in
favour of the land which, in addition, has this year grown so
much more grass.
My assumption that the beast originally weighing 9 cwt.,
as well as the one of 10 cwt., should have both put on an in-
crease of 3 cwt., may be open to criticism, yet in this, again, I
have acted adversely to my own argument. I have before me
the following weights which have come within my own experi-
ence during the season : —
Number of cattle
Original average
weight in spring
Average increase of
weight during summer
5
53
stones
36 8 stones
4
53
29 „
3
54
»
27-5 „
8
08-5
26
14
80
27-5 „
Here it will be seen those originally weighing least have
put on most weight. Undoubtedly, the period of grazing
affects the increase ; but the land can only carry so many head
of stock, and it matters little if the grass is there — as was the
case this year, on land which would graze an animal of from
50 to 70 stones — whether the animal was grazing for four months
or five. I have a further reason for omitting to compare the
average weights per day, and that is, that the beast which is
grazed for the shorter period puts on a much greater average
weight per day than the beast grazed for a longer period.
1 have made a comparison, which it may be convenient at
this point to mention, of the average daily gain of from 40 to 60
head of stock for different periods of the grazing season, the
beasts selected having been grazed on similar class of land, and
kept under similar treatment : —
Increase per head
per day
April 20 <o May 30 — 40 days . . 3-492 lb. \ ~
May 30 to June 28—29 days . . 3782 „ / ~ r£t*
June 28 to August 1 — 34 days . 1894 „ \ „OQ n.
August 1 to September 4 — 34 days . 1-745 „ J ~ ‘J b’
It will be seen that for the 69 days previous to June 28
these beasts put on almost exactly twice as much per head on
the average as they did for the 68 days following — 7’274
lb. against 3-639 lb.
1 think it may be accepted as correct that feeding
beasts bought in the spring in good store condition have
vol. v. t. S. — 20 y y
670
Anomalies of the Grazing Season of 1894.
increased their weight by an average of between 27 and 28
stones, live weight, daring the season ; and it is all the
more disappointing, therefore, that, owing to the drop in price
on the original weight bought, the profit on the increased
weight should be so diminished.
It would be natural to infer that the increase of impor-
tations was accountable for this ; but although greater than last
year, the importations for the ten months January to October,
as shown below, fall short of those of 1892, which were smaller
than any for the like periods of ten months of the three preced-
ing years : — •
1892 1893 1894
Cattle, number . 441,235 295,309 419,650
Beef (fresh), cwt. 1,639,309 1,512,000 1,771,34 7
Whereas in the case of sheep the imports for the same periods
are : —
1892 1893 1894
Sheep, number . 78,083 55,261 386,415
Mutton, cwt. . 1,427,615 1,679,024 1,907,959
And notwithstanding this enormous increase, the price of English
mutton has been maintained at a level satisfactory to the breeder
and grazier.
It would seem, then, that the consumer is losing his dis-
criminating taste in beef, but not in mutton, and that it matters
no longer to the housewife — if she can be assured that what hangs
outside is English — whether the bullock her joint is cut from is
Deptford-killed, or even imported dead meat.
If we are to learn a lesson from the recent season, it must
be this : — Take care that what is bought when in store condition
is weight for money. Study the question how the weight can
be best increased, and see that the method of increasing it is
the most economical. •
The following experience during the late summer will serve
to show how misdirected one’s efforts may be in attempting to
attain the best results.
At the end of May in this year, after having weighed all
my cattle, I picked out those from the different lots which I
thought least improving and most suitable for an early market,
and proceeded to cake them. There were seven Runts and four
Shorthorns — the latter weighed from a lot of twelve — which
From April 21 to May 30 had been treated alike;
from May 30 to June 1.4 had 3 lb. cotton-cake and 1 lb. linseed-cake ; aid
from June 14 to Juno 28 had 3 lb. linseed-cake and 2 lb. cotton-cake.
Of the twelve Shorthorns, four were not caked after May 30,
Anomalies of the Grazing Season of 1 894.
671
but remained on my own land, and with the exception of not
having cake were treated similarly to those that were caked.
The four least beasts I sent away to a field of keeping, but had
them back on June 28 to be weighed. The following table
shows the comparison of the weight they put on at the different
stages : —
Twelve Shorthorns.
—
April 21 to
May 30 :
All treated
alike
st.
Four afterwards caked . .
Four not caked remaining
[> 32*
on own land ....
,
Four not caked sent to
keeping
1
• 28*
May 30 to June 28
May 30 to June 15 to 28 :
June 14 : 3 lb. J 3 lb. linseed-
cotton-cake, | cake, 2 lb.
1 lb. linseed- cake cotton-cake
Total
from
May 30
to June 28
st.
st.
st.
]G
9
25
—
—
26
—
—
25
The foregoing table shows how the four beasts did in com-
parison with their fellow-beasts. The next table shows how all
my beasts were doing on cake from May 30 to June 28 : —
May 30 to June 14, having
3 lb. cotton-cake and
1 lb. linseed-cake
at. 6t.
Seven Runts put on 29'5 = 4‘214 each
Four Shorthorns put on 16'0 = 4000 each
June 14 to June 28, having
3 lb. linseed-cake and
2 lb. cotton-cake
14:5 = 2-071 each
9 0 = 2'250 each
The cakes were analysed, and found to be of fair average
quality, and not in any way injurious.
There appears from the foregoing figures to be sufficient con-
firmation of the suggestion that there must be something to
account for these extraordinary results, and that they were not
merely a matter of chance. During the period of caking the
white clover was enormously predominant over other pasture
plants, and the question arises whether, in such circumstances,
and in these alone, it is that an expenditure upon cake is more
than thrown away.
I am indebted to Dr. Yoelcker for a visit he paid during the
summer. To him I told my experience in this matter, and ha
was inclined to believe that, from the fact that white clover
contains a larger proportion of nitrogen than any of the pasture
grasses, and from the fact that the beasts did worse on linseed-
cake — that is, on the cake containing most nitrogen — than when
the larger proportion was cotton cake, the excess of nitrogen
may have been the cause of the failure of the cake to produce
beneficial results.
Y Y 2
672
Anomalies of the Grazing Season of 1894.
As a confirmation of the effect in live weight, I may mention
an instance showing the influence on the percentage yielded of
dead to live weight. I had the opportunity of weighing a bullcck, ,
which had received no cake out on grass, in the middle of July.
It yielded 60 per cent, of its live weight, weighed direct out of
the field and not fasted. I also sold two of a similar class, but
which had been caked, from which 5 per cent, had to be deducted
for fasting before dressing- out 57 per cent.
It has been my desire since to test the theory as to the clover
and nitrogen. Accordingly, on September 26, I commenced to
cake five beasts which, for the previous twenty-one days, from
September 4 to September 25, had not collectively increased their
average weight, two having put on four stones amongst them, and
three having lost four stones amongst them. From September 26
to October 16, with 3 lb. linseed-cake and 3 lb. cotton-cake, their
average weight increased 4-69 lb. each per day — a greater weight
per day than had been put on at any period during the season
by these or any other beasts.
This proves, at any rate, that at a period when the white
clover was certainly not predominant the cake provided some-
thing which was essential, and which was absent in the food
derived from the grass alone, but which was present in the cake,
and effectually met the want.
I am convinced that there is a great deal yet to be learnt of
immense value to the grazier. The weighing of cattle has
opened up a wide field for the experimenter, and with the
assistance of the chemist and botanist the art of grazing may,
in the future, become reduced to a business of manufacturing
meat rather than a process of natural increase.
It is only a matter of time to find out with greater certainly
the average yield of dead weight to live weight under varying
circumstances, the loss of weight in transit, and the capability of
one class of land to put on weight as compared with that of another.
In these matters we owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Westley
Richards, Mr. McJanet, and other pioneers of weighing, and
may we not look to the Board of Agriculture for further assist-
ance ?
Such work is practical, but we also claim the aid of science
in this direction. The energies of the Royal Agricultural Society
may undoubtedly be devoted to work of inestimable value to
future generations of graziers.
C. B. Fisher.
Market Harborough.
673
AGRICULTURAL DEPRESSION AT
HOME AND ABROAD.
Three years ago, when I contributed to this Journal 1 an article
on “ The Future of Agricultural Competition,” there were strong
reasons for hoping that we had seen the worst of agricultural
depression, especially in relation to the production of grain. It
was shown that the wheat area of the world had not nearly kept
pace with the population since 1880, the increase in the former
having been extremely small between that year and 1890; or,
in other words, that the ratio of wheat acres to bread-eaters was
very much smaller in 1890 than it was in 1880. That ratio,
however, had been excessive in 1880, owing to the enormous
extension of the world’s wheat area during the decade ending
with that year, so that three or four years had been required to
enable the population to overtake the supply. When that ad-
justment was apparently about to take place, however, calcula-
tions were upset by a series of abundant seasons, which kept
the supply from a diminished acreage j ust about equal to the con-
sumptive demand. Still, at the end of the cereal, year 1890-91
the stocks of wheat in the world were low almost beyond record,
while there was a famine in Russia, and France had an ex-
tremely small crop of wheat. Consequently the weekly average
price of wheat in England rose from 32s. 7 d. a quarter at the
beginning of January to 41s. 8 d. in the first week of September,
and the average for the whole of 1891 was 37s., or higher than it
had been since 1883. But the crop in the United States turned
out a phenomenal one, by far the greatest ever produced, and
much in excess of the estimate of the Department of Agriculture.
An almost continuous fall in prices, therefore, took place in
1892, when there was another great crop in the United States,
and in the world as a whole. In that year, too, the Argentine
Republic, under the stimulus of a high gold premium, first be-
came a considerable contributor to the wheat supplies of Europe,
shipping over two million quarters. The year’s average price
in England was only 32s. a quarter. In 1893 there was a still
greater production of wheat in the world (though the United
States had only a moderate crop), and Argentina came out with
an export surplus of about 4,600,000 quarters. Prices, there-
fore, fell to a lower point than they had ever before touched since
the value of money was anywhere near its modeni exchange
value, the year’s average in this country being 26s. 4 d. The
last harvest, so far as can be at present determined, has been
1 Third Series, Vol. II. Part IV. 1891, p. 742.
674 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
the greatest of all, taking the whole world into account, and
Argentina’s export surplus from the crop of 1893-94 is expected
to reach 7,000,000 quarters. Thus it has happened that, in
spite of the deficiency of the world’s wheat area to meet the con-
sumptive requirements under what might have been regarded as
average productiveness, there has been a superabundance of wheat
in the world since the beginning of the cereal year 1891-92, in
consequence of the extraordinary bounty of Nature.
A few figures in support of this explanation of results which
no one could have anticipated are desirable ; and as the United
Stat es have contributed most materially to these results, the wheat
statistics for that country may well be given first, especially as
they will show clearly that the excessive production has not
been due to an increased area of wheat. Until 1891 the esti-
mates of the United States Department of Agriculture, as tested
by exports, reserve stocks, and estimated home consumption,
appeared to be approximately accurate ; but it is certain that
the estimates of that year and the two succeeding years were
greatly under the mark, and this year’s crop is believed to be
much greater than the figures of the Department, which has
not yet given an actual total, appear to indicate. In the follow-
ing table, then, the official figures for the four years ending with
1890 are given as approximately correct, and the best tested of
commercial estimates of yield in the four following seasons, with
official figures as to area, are presented in comparison : —
Wheat Crops in the United States.
Year
Acres
Bushels
Tear Acres
Bushels
1887
37,641,783
456,329,000
1891 39,916,897
675,000,000
1888
37,336,138
415,868,000
1892 38,554,430
550,000,000
1889
38,123,859
490,560,000
1893 34,629,418
450,000,000
1890
36,087,154
399,262,000
1894 1 33,775,000
475,000,000
Four years’ U9 188 934
total.
1,762,019,000
r,°„"iy'rs' >«•
2,150,000,000
Four years’ 37 297 233
average.
440,504,750
Four y’rs’ 36 718 936
average. ’ ’
537,500,000
Indicated by official estimate of percentage reduction since 1893.
In round figures the excess in production during the last
four years, comparing it with the total for the preceding four, is
no less than 388,000,000 bushels, or 97,000,000 bushels per
annum, in spite of a reduction in the mean acreage. It is
obvious that so tremendous an addition to the wheat supply, in
the absence of a corresponding deficiency elsewhere, was quite
sufficient to depress the markets of the whole world ; and there
was not such a deficiency in any one of the four years in other
countries taken together, although Europe had a short crop in
1891. In support of this statement the following estimates of
675
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
the wheat crops of the world, derived mainly from official figures,
are taken from
Beerbolim’s List : —
Wheat Crops of the World.
Year
Bushels
Year
Bushels
1887
2,804,000,000
1891
2,367,280,000
1888
2,208,000,000
1892
2,391,120,000
1889
2,129,970,000
1893
2,420,480,000
1890
2,238,600,000
1 1894
2,427,200,000
Four years’ total
. 8,880,576,000
Four years’ total
. 9,606,080,000
Four years’ average 2,220,144,000
1 “ Beerbobm ” has recently added 25,000,000 bushels to the estimate of
this year’s American crop, making the total greater by that quantity ; but this
addition seems to me hardly warranted at present.
According to these estimates we have had a mean increase
of 181,376,000 bushels per annum in the world during the last
four years over the mean annual production of the previous four
years. What the extra requirements of the increased population
were it is impossible to state with any pretence to accuracy.
The consumption is a greatly varying quantity, dependent as it
is upon the production of rye and other food grains inferior to
wheat, and, to a less extent, upon the production of potatoes.
But no one would put the extra annual requirements of the last
four years at more than about half the extra production shown
above, as compared with that of the previous four years. At any
rate, as stocks of wheat in the world have accumulated, it is
certain that the production since 1890 has been in excess of the
requirements, although the excess has been kept from becoming
enormous by deficient crops of rye in some years. The acreage
of rye in the world has certainly diminished in recent years ; and
this fact, in connexion with the almost stationary acreage of
wheat, helps to show that the fall in the price of wheat since
1891 has been occasioned by extraordinary circumstances. The
weekly average has been as low as 17s. 6d. a quarter; a price
absolutely ruinous to growers who depend mainly upon wheat
for a living, unless they possess some such enormous currency
advantage as the farmers of the Argentine Republic, and they
alone, now enjoy. I am as firmly convinced as ever that the
supply of wheat will not be kept up to the requirements at less
than double that price in this country ; for, although Argentine
growers may keep on extending their wheat area if they get
only 20s. a quarter here, so long as their gold premium enables
them to take at least three times as much in their paper money,
which possesses nearly as much purchasing power per dollar for
all that they require as ever it had, the acreage in other countries
would be much more rapidly reduced at such a price.
The over-prcduction of wheat during the last four years has
676 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
thrown obscurity upon other causes of the fall in value. That
other causes have helped materially to bring about so disastrous
a decline, however, I have not the slightest doubt. Apart
from the general fall in prices, references to Argentina and
India explain why wheat has been affected more seriously by
currency complications than anything else. Similarly wheat, in
common with cotton, has been a commodity specially subjected
to the depressing influence of the system of market gambling
described in the Journal in 1893. 1 During the last four years
of abundance the “ bears ” have had nothing to check their
success in forcing prices lower and lower. At ordinary times
they have an advantage over the “ bulls,” as explained in the
article just alluded to; but when there is any doubt as to the
available supplies of wheat being sufficient for the demands of
the present or the near future, they are liable to be taught a
lesson in caution occasionally if they presume too confidently
upon their ability to “ hammer down ’’the price; whereas, for
some time past, they have pursued their mischievous course
without check and in perfect safety. If there had been no
gambling system to make prices in America and Liverpool, in
all probability the price of wheat would not have fallen nearly as
much as it has sunk.
From harvest, 1883, to the end of 1890, taking the period as
a whole, there was no over-production of wheat in the world,
and yet prices fell from 41s. a quarter in 1883 to 31s. lid. in
1890. Nor was there any considerable change during that
period, either in the expenses of production or in cost of transport,
to account for the fall in price ; which, therefore, I attribute to
the general appreciation of gold, the particular currency advan-
tages of exporters from certain countries, and the market gambling
system. In 1891, when very favourable anticipations as to the
prospects of wheat growers were published, the effect of the gold
premium in the Argentine Eepublic was only just beginning to
tell materially upon the growth of wheat in that country, as it
was not until that year that the premium rose above 200 per
cent. The average for the year rose from 40 per cent, in 1888
to 88 per cent, in 1889, to 161 per cent, in 1890, and to 277 per
cent, in 1891 ; but time was needed for an increase in the area
of the wheat crop, and it was not until 1891 that the exports
exceeded 1,500,000 quarters. At that time, moreover, I had
not become convinced of the inevitably depressing effect of the
market gambling system. Three influences, then, combined to
1 “ Gambling in Farm Produce,” Journal, 3rd Series, Yol. IV. Part II. 1893,
p. 286.
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad. 677
falsify my hope of an improvement in the price of wheat : (1)
the exceptional fruitfulness of the succeeding harvests in the
world as a whole ; (2) the enormous gold premium in the
Argentine Republic, together with the steady fall in silver ; and
(3) the extension of operations under the “ option ” or “ future ”
system.
The prices of other kinds of grain have fallen mainly from
“ sympathy” with wheat, though partly from one or more of the
causes named above acting directly. The recent advance in the
price of maize is due to a general deficiency in the production
this year.
With respect to the other principal agricultural commodities,
no general intensification of depression has taken place since
1891. There have been fluctuations in prices, due to exceptional
circumstances in certain countries, such as drought in England,
and there is some danger of an excessive production of butter
for a time, while producers of meat in certain countries are
injured by increasing supplies of beef and mutton. The prob-
ability of such developments of enterprise, however, was anti-
cipated in 1891, not excepting the attempt of our Australian
friends to send us meat in a chilled instead of a frozen condition.
In relation to meat, it is to be borne in mind that the gold pre-
mium in Argentina tells in favour of exporters, just as it does in
the case of wheat ; and it may hereafter, if it lasts, develop an
export trade in dairy products. But just now the circumstances
of our own country are not specially under consideration. So
far as the prices of meat and dairy produce throughout the world
can be tested by those of this country, no sucli collapse as has
taken place with respect to grain has to be recorded. Live
stock and meat have lately sold better than in 1891, frozen meat
excepted ; and the average prices jof imported butter and cheese
were slightly higher in 1893 than in 1891. This year
exporters of frozen meat and butter have felt the effect of their
own over-production ; but this has not prevented an advance in
live stock and fresh meat, while the recent cheapness of milk
and butter has been more due to a favourable season for dairy
cows in this country than to any other cause. Still, in spite of
what may prove to be only a temporary recovery in the prices of
certain commodities, agriculturists in all parts of the world are
suffering more or less seriously from depression, and most of them
more severely than ever.
A good deal of evidence upon our subject has lately been
presented. For England and Scotland we have some of the
reports of the Assistant Commissioners to the Royal Commission
on Agriculture, as well as the evidence of a good many witnesses
078 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
examined by the Commission ; while for Wales there is separate
information of a similar character; and for our colonies and foreign
countries evidence of various kinds has appeared in print, includ-
ing some relating to European countries, collected by Mr. Drage
for the Royal Commission on Labour. Some of the principal
points in a great collection of evidence can be most conveniently
noticed under the heads of the countries to which they severally
relate ; but it should be understood that extreme condensation
is necessary in order to compress the information within the
space at my disposal.
Great Britain.
The time has not yet come for a complete review of the infor-
mation collected by the Royal Commission on Agriculture, only
a small proportion of it being published up to the date of writing.
Two or three of the reports of Assistant Commissioners which
first appeared relate to parts of the country in which the de-
pression is least severe ; but even in these reports the descrip-
tion of the condition of agriculture is a lamentable one, while
those of Dr. Fream and Mr. Hunter Pringle, which came out
later, are distressing in the extreme. If any districts in Eng-
land might be supposed to have escaped agricultural depression,
the Garstang and Fylde districts of Lancashire, visited by Mr.
Wilson Fox, and the Cheddar-cheese district, of which Frome is
the centre, upon which Mr. Jabez Turner has reported, would
certainly be placed among them. The former, consisting for
the most part of land much above the average in fertility, are
surrounded by populous towns, so that the small farmers, who
hold nearly all the land, have the best of markets for their
milk, cheese, butter, vegetables, fruit, poultry, and eggs, which
are their principal productions. Yet many of the larger farmers
informed Mr. Fox that they had lost capital in recent years,
while a great number of the small occupiers declared that
their financial position was worse than that of their labourers.
When Mr. Fox wrote, at the end of 1893, reductions of rent had
generally ranged from 5 to 16 per cent., and in some cases up
to 30 per cent. No doubt the partial drought of 1892 and the
complete one of 1893 were in great measure accountable for
this state of affairs, which may be taken as representing very
nearly the minimum of agricultural depression in England. In
the Glendale district of Northumberland, which Mr. Fox next
visited, we have as favourable an example of a large-farm tract
of country as the Garstang union is of a small-farm district, as
the land is very fertile, and its occupiers are, or have been,
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad. 679
men of considerable capital, and are skilful farmers as a rule.
There, however, depression has been felt since 1879, and it has
been only by means of great and timely concessions on the part
of landlords that the farmers have been able to hold on. Reduc-
tions of 20 to 30 per cent, in rents have been common, and on
one estate the decline has been 50 per cent.
Mr. Turner found depression severe in the arable portions of
the Frome district, and less marked in relation to the cheese-
farms, although holders of the latter suffered in 1892 and 1893.
Rents he found had been generally reduced by 25 to 40 per cent.
In the district of Stratford-on-Avon the same Assistant Commis-
sioner found the state of agriculture much worse than in his first
district, rents having fallen 25 to 60 per cent., while changes of
tenancy had been exceedingly numerous, and many farms were
in the hands of their owners. If Mr. Turner had collected as
many details as some of his fellow Assistant Commissioners have
given, the i-eport on this district would probably have been a
very distressing one.
A bad picture of the state of affairs in the sheep-breeding
and corn-growing district of Andover, in Hampshire, presented
by Dr. Fream, is all the more remarkable on account of the fact
that sheep had not long ceased to be remunerative at the time
of his visit. This is a significant point, because it indicates that
it is not enough, in an arable district, for live-stock to pay fairly,
as a rule, taking a long series of years, if there is a loss on corn-
growing. Sheep had paid fairly up to 1891, and yet, in 1893,
depression in the Andover district was as general as it was intense.
Reductions of rent up to 60 per cent., with temporary remissions
besides in some years, have been allowed, and in some cases land
was let at only a trifle over the tithe which the landlord had to
pay. Yet large tracts of land had fallen into the owners’ hands,
and a good deal had gone out of cultivation, being used as sheep-
runs. No farm on which rent had not been reduced came under
the notice of the Assistant Commissioner ; but he heard of many
cases in which the rents, though reduced greatly, had not been
paid for years. In the Maidstone district of Kent, apart from the
hop and fruit farms, Dr. Fream found the state of affairs about
as bad as it was in Hampshire.
In the Isle of Axholm, once the paradise of peasant pro-
prietors, Mr. Hunter Pringle declares that in 90 per cent, of the
cases in which the small holdings were mortgaged from fifteen
to twenty years ago the owners have been either ruined and sold
up, or are struggling on in a hopeless condition at the mercy of
the mortgagors. The owners of holdings, as a class, he further
declares, are much worse off than the tenants, and this shows
680 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
that those persons who suppose that agriculture can be saved by
making labourers owners of small farms would do well to
reconsider their conclusions. As to Mr. Pringle’s harrowing
description of the ruinous state of agriculture in the Ongar,
Chelmsford, Maldon, and Braintree districts of Essex, it has
been made so familiar to all readers of newspapers that de-
tailed reference to it is hardly necessary. It includes state-
ments to the effect that rents have been reduced by 25 to 80
per cent, generally, while some have been entirely extinguished,
many farms having been offered rent-free to any tenants who
will pay tithes and rates. Great tracts of land have been
thrown on the landlords’ hands, and to a large extent have
gone out of cultivation. The number of farmers who have given
up their holdings, most of them after having been ruined, is
said to be very great.
Although Scotland has suffered less severely than England
from the fall in the prices of corn, Mr. James Hope found that
“ depression of a very acute kind ” had prevailed in the counties
of Perth, Fife, Forfar, and Aberdeen during the ten years end-
ing with 1893. In a number of farm balance-sheets examined
by him the balance in almost all cases was on the wrong side,
except for two years out of the ten, although rents had been
reduced by 10 to 50 per cent., or by about 30 per cent, on the
average.
Mr. Hope’s reports conclude the first batch ; but reports from
many other counties in England and Scotland will probably be
in the hands of the public before this article is published.
In addition to the reports of the Assistant Commissioners a
bulky volume of evidence, taken by the Commissioners them-
selves, has been issued, containing striking accounts of depression
on the estates of the Crown, the Duchies of Lancaster and Corn-
wall, the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, and Guy’s Hospital in
several counties, and by other witnesses from the counties of
Nottingham, Leicester, Stafford, Lincoln, York, Devon, Corn-
wall, Bucks, Dorset, Oxford, Essex, Suffolk, Kent, Sussex,
Cambs, Berks, Hunts, Northampton, Derby, Gloucester, Hants,
Wilts, Somerset, Lancaster, Chester, Cumberland, and North-
umberland. In the space available to me it is impossible to give
even the most condensed analysis of this voluminous evidence ;
but it may be interesting to readers to see a tabulated account
of the reductions of rent which were mentioned by witnesses as
having taken place in the several counties or parts of them, as
a rule, since 1879 or some subsequent year. It will be under-
stood that most of these percentages are only the estimates of
individual men, and that some of them relate to limited dis-
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad. G81
tricts ; but a few are the generalisations of Assistant Com-
missioners : —
Reductions or Rent.
County
Reduction per cent.
County
Reduction per cent.
Northumberland
20 to 25 (average)
Hereford . .
. 20 to 30
Cumberland
30 to 40
Somerset . .
. 20 to 40
York ....
10 to 50
Oxford . . .
. 25 to 50
Lancaster . .
5 to 30
Berks . . .
. 90 (one estate)
Stafford . . .
10 to 25
Suffolk . . .
. Up to 70
Leicester . .
40 (average)
Essex ....
. 25 to 100
Nottingham
14 to 50
Kent ....
. 15 to 100
Warwick . .
25 to 60
Sussex . . .
. 42| (one estate)
Northampton .
50 (one estate)
Hants . . .
. 25 to 100
Huntingdon .
40 to 50 (average)
Wilts ....
. 10 to 75
Derby . . .
14 to 25
Devon . . .
. 10 to 25
Gloucester . .
60 (one estate)
Cornwall . .
. 10 to 100
The cases in which a reduction of 100 per cent, is given
are those in which there is more or less land let rent free, the
tenants paying the amount of the tithe to the landlords, as well
as the rates to the collectors. In addition to the permanent
reductions named above there have been temporary remissions
in certain years pretty generally.
Since the preceding remarks were written some fresh
reports from Assistant Commissioners have become available.
Mr. R. H. Rew, writing of the Salisbury Plain district of Wilt-
shire, mentions reductions of rent as having been made on a
number of estates ranging from 10 to 75 per cent., with tem-
porary remissions extra in some cases. He found that a good
deal of land had gone out of cultivation, and that changes of
tenancy had been numerous, while the losses of farmers who
have not been obliged to quit their holdings have been heavy
as a rule. With any further fall in price, or a series of bad
seasons, he says he cannot see how it is possible for the greater
part of the land in the Salisbury Plain district to be farmed
even in the most economical fashion. There are thousands of
acres just on the margin of cultivation, he adds, and a very
slight further pressure would lead to their being turned into
sheep-runs of “ prairie value,” as m.uch of the hill land has been
turned already.
In his general remarks on the condition of agriculture in
the counties of Ayr, Wigtown, Kirkcudbright, and Dumfries
Mr. John Speir, who visited those counties as Assistant Commis-
sioner, found depression to a greater or less extent, landlords
and tenants alike having felt the pinch of hard times. The
value of land has fallen in each county, but there are no
farms in the landlords’ hands. The majority of the farmers are
barely making ends meet, and many are living on past savings
682 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
or tlieir capital. Reductions of rent ranging from 4 to 27 per
cent, are mentioned.
Scattered through the voluminous minutes of evidence taken
by the Welsh Land Commission are many statements indicative
of more or less severe agricultural depression ; but the absence
of marginal notes renders it extremely laborious to find them
amongst the mass of details relating to land tenure, ancient
history, and all kinds of other subjects, many entirely irrelevant
to the real objects of the inquiry.
France.
In the course of a speech delivered in October the French
Minister of Agriculture dwelt upon the severity of the agricul-
tural crisis in France, although, as he put it, the rigour of the
struggle to make farming pay had been alleviated to some
extent by the increased duties imposed on imports. He pointed
out the necessity, however, of further changes of a fiscal or ad-
ministrative character to enable the cultivators of the soil to
meet the serious difficulties of the times. According to Dr.
Menadier, President of the General Syndicate of Agricultural
Societies in the Charente-Inferieure, wheat-growing does not pay,
even with a duty of 12s. 3d. a quarter, as American wheat was
selling in October at about 31s. 3d. a quarter, including the
duty. Several of the French agricultural societies have recently
complained that meat, as well as corn, has become too cheap to
pay fairly for its production.
In his report to the Labour Commission on France Mr.
Geoffrey Drage gives statistics showing the alarming extent of
migration from the rural districts to the towns, the decrease of
the rural population in some departments, for the latest period
of five years given, ranging up to 27 per cent., with equally
high or higher reductions for two earlier periods of five years each.
In only twelve out of eighty-seven departments was there an in-
crease in the latest period. In the year 1891 the total population
(including that of the towns) decreased in fifty-three depart-
ments, and the Chronique Agricole, when publishing the figures
early in 1893, stated that the agricultural crisis was undoubtedly
one cause of the decrease. It is said that in the eight years
ending with 1887 nearly half the arable land belonging to
individual proprietors changed hands. The burdens on land
and market dues are bitterly complained of by the farmers and
small cultivators.
I have seen statements in various quarters to the effect that
the value of land in France has fallen enormously in recent
years 5 but the latest complete agricultural statistics of France,
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad. 683
which are published only decennially, afford precise information
upon this point for no later year than 1882, the statistics for
1892 being not yet available. Consular reports at various
times have referred in general terms to the depression existing
among the agriculturists of different parts of France, reductions
of rent, and difficulty of obtaining payment of rent. Accounts
of the state of agriculture in the French colony of Algeria, again,
are far from satisfactory.
Spain and Portugal.
Almost every Consular report from Spain for years past has
described depression in the agricultural districts of that country
as very severe. Mr. Drage, in his report on Spain to the Labour
Commission, refers to the gradual depopulation of many villages a3
evidence of general depression, and says that in Andalusia “the
condition of the agricultural classes is specially wretched, ’’owingto
the exactions of local officials and money-lenders. The new tariff,
framed in 1892, imposed extremely high duties on agricultural
products ; but the fall in grain has exceeded the highest tariff
in the world. Although farming is much better done in Portugal
than in Spain, and the farmers in some parts of the country are
comparatively prosperous, as times go, there was an agricultural
crisis in the country some years back, which led the Government
to pass a new law in 1889 requiring millers to use twice as
much native as imported wheat. The duty on wheat is a very
high one, and other farm products are protected; yet depression
is refei’red to as a familiar fact in reports to the Foreign Office.
Italy and Switzerland.
Probably no country in the world has suffered more from
agricultural depression than Italy, where the taxation which
falls upon the land is crushing. An immense amount of evidence
upon this subject is available, but cannot be even summarised
in this article. Much of it is given in Mr. Drage’s report on
Italy to the Labour Commission, one statement being that
while the net agricultural income of the country is about
1,000,000,000 lire, the Government land tax and the provincial
and commercial surtaxes on land amount to 239,000,000 lire,
and in addition thero are the income, cattle, and indirect taxes.
In February last the duty on wheat was raised to 12s. 2 d. a
quarter, and yet the price of the best wheat in March was only
34s. 8 d., and by June it had fallen to 31s. 9 d., or less than it
had been shortly before the advance of 40 per cent, in the duty.
At a great agrarian congress held in Rome in April a resolution
684 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
was passed declaring that wheat was grown at a dead loss when
it sold at less than 25 lire per quintal, or 43s. hd. a quarter.
A further increase of 3s. 6d. per quarter in the duty was
demanded. The fall in prices has swamped the high duties on
agricultural imports generally ; and, although much has been
done for the improvement of agriculture by education, improved
means of transport, co-operation, agricultural credit banks, and
the improvement of live stock, the condition of the rural popula-
tion is still miserably low, and emigration goes on extensively.
Perhaps Switzerland has suffered least from agricultural
depression among the countries of Southern or Western Europe ;
but it has not escaped entirely. For some years before 1881
the condition of the agricultural class had attracted much atten-
tion, and excited uneasiness, emigration from the rural districts
having rapidly increased, while the indebtedness of the peasant
proprietors became serious. But a great deal has been done
by the Cantonal Governments. Col. de Wattenwyl, and others
in promoting the improvement of cattle-breeding and the dairy
industry, while the extension of co-operation and the establish-
ment of loan banks have greatly helped the small farmers.
Depending largely upon her dairy industry, which is admirably
managed by co-operating farmers, and helped by a good sale for
milk, butter, cheese, and all the minor products of the land, for
which there is an extensive demand for the numerous foreigners
who visit the country, Switzerland is bearing the trial of the
bad times with comparative impunity.
. Germany.
The agrarian movement in Germany is familiar to all readers
of newspapers, and it is evidence of wide discontent with the
condition of agriculture in that country. High as the duties on
grain are, prices have fallen to a serious extent, and a great deal
of land has been laid down in grass, partly for that reason and
partly from the difficulty of getting labour. For many years
past migration from the rural districts to the towns and, still
more, emigration have been on an extensive scale. In the ten
years ending with 1890 over 1,342,000 people emigrated from
Germany, and the exodus has been going on briskly since. Tho
emigration is largely that of the agricultural population, wdio
leave the country partly because they are dissatisfied with their
wages as labourers, or cannot make their small holdings pajq
and partly in order to escape military service. Thus, between
the emigration and migration on the one hand, and the demands
of the army on the other, farmers in many parts of Germany
are sadly at a loss for workmen, and as they cannot afford to
68b
Agricultural Depression at Home. and Abroad.
pay wages High enough to induce their fellow countrymen to
stay with them, they depend more and more upon the services
of Russians, Poles, and Austrians, who migrate to the eastern
portions of the empire especially. Mr. Drage in his report on
Germany says that “ of late a large number of small German
proprietors have found themselves forced by the continual de-
pression of prices to give up their holdings and to emigrate.”
In some parts of the empire the plots of land on which families
used to subsist are now too small to support them. In these
congested districts migration and emigration are necessary as a
relief to a population too large to be supported upon the meagre
returns obtained from the land. Great benefit has resulted from
the multiplication of agricultural credit banks, which have saved
thousands of the peasant-farmers from the ruinous clutches of
usurers ; but still large and small cultivators alike are suffering
severely from the fall in prices.
Holland, Belgium, and Scandinavia.
A Consular report written as long ago as 1888 stated that
the profits derived from agriculture in the Netherlands during
the preceding five years had been small, and that rents had been
reduced by 30 per cent., if not more, while the value of land
had fallen very considerably, and many farmers and small land-
owners had been obliged to abandon the struggle to make farm-
ing pay, and to emigrate. In a Foreign Office report written
by Sir Horace Rumbold in October 1892, the recommendations
of a Special Commission appointed to consider questions of land
tenure and taxation were summarised. This Commission was
the outcome of a General Agricultural Commission appointed in
1886, owing to the prevalence of depression. The Special Com-
mission reported in 1892 in favour of the reduction or abolition
of dues payable on transfers of land ; the extension of the
BeMemrecht , or renewable lease at a fixed rent, common in
Groningen, to the country generally; increased facilities to
farmers for obtaining credit, a State mortgage bank being sug-
gested for one thing ; and a few slight changes in the land-
tenancy system.
In Belgium a Labour Commission was appointed in 1886 in
consequence of the crisis in agricultural and other industries.
According to Mr. Drage, the evidence showed that the crisis
pressed more severely upon the farmers than upon their work-
men. Still a large number of men could not obtain work in the
rural districts, and were obliged to migrate to the towns. The
principal causes of agricultural depression mentioned were the
VOL. V. T. S. — 20 Z z
686 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
“ bad times” affecting all industries, and free imports of live-
stock, corn, and other products, while Belgian exports were
taxed heavily. Recent Consular reports do not give information
upon the subject ; but the imports of grain have greatly in-
creased, and the state of agriculture must be worse than it was
in 1886 in consequence of the fall in prices that has taken place
since that year.
Apart from those engaged in co-operative dairying, Mr.
Drage reports, agriculturists of every class in Denmark are
feeling the results of long-continued depression. Even this
exception is a doubtful one at the present time, as the Danish
butter-makers are now feeling seriously the rapidly extending
competition of Australia and New Zealand in British markets.
Some months ago a sum of money was voted by the Danish
Government for opening up a butter trade in Paris, on account
of the unsatisfactory prices current in England and the prob-
ability of further reduction. But the co-operative system of the
Danish dairy-farmers, extended as it is to disposal of their pro-
duce in this country, enables them to reap a profit where makers
who operate chiefly to the advantage of middlemen would fail.
They are also helped greatly by the remarkably successful
operation of their Margarine Act, passed in 1891, which is the
best in the world ; and in everything that can conduce to the
advantage of agriculture the Danish Government has long shown
an enlightened interest.
Sweden has probably suffered less from agricultural depres-
sion than most countries. About half of her four million acres of
corn consists of oats, which, until this year, had fallen less in
value than other cereals, while the area under wheat is only
about 170,000 acres. The great advance in her dairy export
trade, too, of which so much has been written, has helped to
counteract the fall in the prices of grain. Like Denmark, how-
ever, Sweden felt the fall in the price of butter during last
winter, occasioned by the great imports of that article from
Australasia.
In Norway, according to Mr. Drage’ s report on that country,
the present condition of the peasant proprietors gives rise to the
gravest apprehensions. In a debate in the Storthing last year
it was stated that the cultivators of the soil were falling more
and more deeply into debt, their mortgage indebtedness having
risen from nine or ten million pounds sterling in 1865 to nearly
twenty-eight millions in 1893, while their total indebtedness
was estimated in the latter year at thirty-six to thirty-nine mil-
lions— an enormous sum in so poor a country as Norway. In
reality, it was said, the real owners of the soil were the Bank of
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
087
Norway, the Land Mortgage Bank, the savings banks, and the
traders in towns, although nearly all the small farmers are
nominally proprietors of their holdings.
Austria-Hungary.
There is no doubt that agricultural depression has been felt
severely in Austria-Hungary. The decay of peasant-proprietor-
ship in Austria and the generally depressed condition of the
agricultural population have exercised the minds of statesmen
and economists for years past, and many changes in the law
have been advocated. “ One hears everywhere of the distress
of the small farmer,” writes Dr. Hainisch, a high authority ;
“ seldom of his prosperity.” Deriving his information largely
from this authority, Mr. Drage in his report on Austria-Hun-
gary says : “ Where the small independent farmer is not actually
driven from the land by the pressure of competition and the
burden of land taxation, which is said to fall comparatively
more heavily on the small than on the large landed proprietors,
he is often obliged to sink into the position of a tenant, or to
see his estate broken up into small holdings.” An Austrian
paper, quoted by Mr. Drage, states that “ the very conditions of
existence of the smaller land proprietors seem to be threatened.”
The condition of the farm labourers, tco, is unsatisfactory, their
wages being low and their diet poor. A very full and inter-
esting account of the conditions of land tenure and the causes
of depx-ession is given in Mr. Drage’s report.
In Hungary the state of affairs is no better, the condition of
the peasant proprietors being especially distressing. “ The
different views,” says Dr. Hirsch, alluding to that condition,
“ lead to but one conclusion, that it is as bad as possible ; that
the peasant holdings are loaded with debt, and are growing into
an ever closer dependence on capitalists. The sinking of the
peasant proprietors into the position of an agricultural proleta-
riat, and the growing emigration as a necessary consequence of
this situation grow clearer day by day.”
Russia.
Volumes have been written upon the miserable condition of
the agricultural population in Russia, and the only difficulty in
presenting evidence upon the subject lies in the vastness of the
records from which it has to be selected. In 1889 Colonel
Waghorn, then of Taganrog, forwarded a report to the Foreign
Office, which consisted mainly of a condensed translation of a
688 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
series of remarkable articles which had appeared in a Russian
agricultural paper. These articles consisted of comments upon
the appointment of a Special Commission to inquire into the
causes of the agricultural crisis, with suggestions as to the
remedies. The general lowering of grain prices was given as
the first cause of the distress, and others were the want of an
organised means of transport of grain, the high rail rates
charged, exorbitant interest on Government and private loans,
loss of capital among agriculturists and their hopeless indebted-
ness, heavy taxation, and bad harvests. The terrible famine of
1891 completed the impoverishment of millions of the occupiers
of land. Writing in 1892, and referring mainly to the most
fertile districts of Russia, the black soil region which formerly
produced about GO per cent, of the grain grown in the Empire,
Mr. Howard, British representative at St. Petersburg, referred
to the widespread distress, the steady deterioration of the soil,
the exhaustion of the peasants’ resources, and the crushing
burden of taxation. Cattle rearing, he said, was being given
up, and grass land was ploughed on the chance of a quick
gain of money from a prolific harvest. This interesting report
is full of information as to the sad state of the great bulk of
the population and the impoverished condition of the large
proprietors.
Later reports, written in the autumn of 1893 by acting
Consul-General Woodhouse and Vice-Consuls Murray and
Smith, from Odessa, Sebastopol, and Kief, refer to difficulties
arising from the fall in prices, in spite of the great harvest of
that year, and the last of the writers named gives an account
showing a heavy loss on wheat growing on a large farm situated
in a district where the harvest was not a good one. Again,
Consul Talbot, of Taganrog, writing in April last, states that the
harvest of 1893, though over the average, was not a lucrative
one ; and Vice-Consularr eports from different parts of his district
state that the agriculturists were heavily in debt and behind-
hand with their taxes, and refer to the continued depression
which had induced the Government to grant advances on grain
to enable farmers to hold it. Similarly in Poland, according to
Consul-General Grant, the great harvest of 1893 yielded no
profit to the growers, the price of wheat being below the cost of
production. “ Were it not for the beetroot and potato crops,”
this writer says, “ remunerative because they feed the sugar and
spirit industries, the landed interest would be completely ruined.”
The new Czar has recognised the deplorable condition of
agriculturists of all classes by granting measures of relief fi’om
taxation and reduced interest on State loans.
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
689
The United States.
On previous occasions I have given a great quantity of evi-
dence from American sources, official and otherwise, to show the
severity of agricultural depression which has existed for many
years in the United States. Some of it was summarised in the
article which appeared in the Journal three years ago, mentioned
already. In that article I pointed out that, even if no other evi-
dence of the unremunerativeness of wheat-growing were available,
the fact that in the ten years ending with 1890 the wheat area of
the country had diminished, while the population had increased
by 12^ millions, was sufficient proof. In the first part of the
present article I have shown that there has been a further
decrease in the wheat area since 1890 of more than 2,750,000
acres, in spite of a further increase of between five and six
millions in the population. We think a great deal of the increase
of grass land in this country as a proof of agricultural depres-
sion, and it certainly is so. But if the pasture of the United
Kingdom has increased by about 2,500,000 acres since 1880,
the hay crop alone in the United States has expanded to the
extent of about 24,000,000 acres during the same period. In
1880 there were 25,863,955 acres devoted to the hay crop, and
in 1893 the area had grown to 49,613,469 acres, while it is
doubtless greater in 1894.
Although the last four wheat crops have been good ones, the
crop of 1891 alone realised a price high enough to give a remu-
nerative return per acre. Taking the commercial estimates of
produce as bigger than the official reckonings, the yield per
acre comes out at barely 17 bushels an acre for 1891, and 143,
13, and 14 bushels per acre for the three succeeding crops in
the order given. At the official December farm price, returned
annually by the Department of Agriculture, these yields come
out at about fourteen, nine, seven, and probably a little over six
dollars per acre. The price was comparatively high in 1891, and
the yield quite extraordinary, so that it afforded a profit ; but
$ 9 , or 37s. 6d., for 1892 is not enough to pay the average
American farmer, and of course 29s. 2d. for 1893 and about
25s. for 1894 are ruinous returns, or would be if long continued.
It is not enough to show, even if it can be proved, that wheat
can be grown at very low prices in certain limited tracts of
country, or even in one whole State. Supposing that to be a
fact, it would not disprove the existence of severe depression in
the rest of the country, nor would it show that the American
wheat supply could be kept up at the price. Early in the
present year the U.S. Department of Agriculture obtained esti-
690 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
mates of the cost of wheat-growing from 25,000 farmers, and the
general average for the whole country was $11 .69 an acre, or
48s. 8 d. According to this reckoning there was a mean gain of
nearly 10s. an acre in 1891, and mean losses of 11s. 2d., 19s. 6d.,
and about 2 -3s. 8 d. per acre occurred in the three following
years. Where straw was sold there may have been little if any
loss ; but throughout all but a very small proportion of the
acreage the straw is not sold, and on probably more than half
the land it is not even made into manure, but is burnt,
except the very long stubble left in some parts of the country,
which is ploughed in. Unless sold, used as chaff, or made
into manure charged to the next crop, the straw cannot be
counted as bringing any return. The smallest estimate per
acre for any State is $7.48 for North Dakota, or 31s. 2d.,
the opposite extreme being $28.81 for Massachusetts.
Apart from the question of the mere cost of wheat-growing,
moreover, it is to be borne in mind that the American farmer,
who is usually a small holder, must be considered depressed
unless he gets a profit of 11. an acre on his wheat crop, and as
severely depressed if he gets less than 10s. profit. According to
the Census, the average size of a farm in the United States, not
including holdings under three acres, is only 136^- acres, and
that of the improved portion (ploughed at least once) is no more
than 7S^- acres. Seeing that it is only the improved land which
yields any appreciable return, it is obvious that a profit of 10s.
an acre would be less than a labourer’s earnings. Such returns
as have been obtained since 1891 are ruinous, and must bring
the American farmer to ruin if they are long repeated, supposing
that he persists in growing wheat. But, with such returns, his
wheat area will become “ small by degrees and beautifully less.”
It will not need to become much less, however, before its con-
traction will inevitably raise the price.
Depression in the American cattle industry has long been
notorious, and needs no demonstration. As for sheep, they
never have been generally profitable, partly because they have
been badly managed as a rule. Of late, too, there has been
much complaint as to the prices obtained for horses. Pigs, on
the other hand, have paid well during the last two or three
years, on account of their scarcity and the extreme cheapness of
grain.
Whenever the price of meat has been lower than usual in
this country, accounts of heavy losses incurred by shippers of
cattle and beef from the United States have appeared in American
papers, in spite of the fact that cattle have sold in the country
so badly in recent years that breeders and feeders have com-
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad. 691
plained of their business being unremunerative. With respect
to sheep, a statement published last August by a well-informed
correspondent of the Albany Country Gentleman is to the effect
that producers were getting only 2 cents a pound (live weight,
no doubt) for mutton and 12 cents for unwashed wool, prices
regarded as ruinous, and leading many flockmasters, it is said,
to reduce the number of sheep, or to give up keeping them
entirely. As in this country, the dairy industry in the United
States is least depressed of all branches of farming ; but in
recent years that country has been falling behind in her exports
of cheese, in consequence of the competition of Canada and other
British colonies.
Any number of individual complaints of agricultural depres-
sion in the United States might be quoted ; but it is necessary
to conclude this division of my subject with a few statements
derived from the Report of the Senate Committee on Agricul-
tural Depression, appointed in April, 1892, the report having
been issued last February. In the first place, some statistics of
land values, as assessed for taxation, may be noticed. They are
irregular in form for different States, and are for different series
of years, while in some cases the values' of improved and unim-
proved land are separately given, and in others the two classes
are lumped together. In Illinois, it is stated, the average value
of improved land fell from #20.81 per acre in 1874 to #11.18
in 1892 ; in Minnesota, from #8.08 in 1878 to #7.88 in 1892 ;
in Nebraska, from #4.60 in 1885 to #3.72 in 1892 ; in Kansas
a fall of about 15 per cent, since 1884 is recorded ; in Penn-
sylvania, 25 to 30 per cent, depreciation in the last twenty years ;
in New York, over 33 per cent, within a few years ; in New Eng-
land, 30 per cent, since 1875. In Missouri alone among the
States noticed has there been a rise since 1884. A complete
account for all States could not be given when the Committee
reported, the details of the Census not being available. The
farm value of cattle, excepting milch cows, in the United States
as a whole, is shown to have fallen from #23.52 each in 1884 to
#15.24 in 1892 ; that of milch cows, from #31.37 to #21.75 ; and
that of horses, from #74.64 to #61.22 ; while that of sheep ad-
vanced from #2.37 to #2.66, and that of pigs from #5.57 to #6.41 .
Figures for groups of years show declines in oxen, cows, horses,
and pigs alike between 1868-72 and 1888-92, and no appre-
ciable change in the value of sheep.
It is not necessary to quote from tables showing the great
decline in the value of wheat, further than to state that, while
the farm value of the crop per acre ranged from #10.86 to #15.27
during the ten years ending with 1880, it has only twice been as
692 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
high as #10 since 1883, but has been only a little over or a good
deal under #8 in seven of the ten years ending with 1893. By
means of a table comparing the prices of groups of articles for
a number of years, the Committee show that, whereas the fall
in prices generally since 1 883 had been about 10 per cent, up
to 1893, the average fall in farm produce by itself was three
times as great. Estimates of the cost of wheat-growing in
several States quoted in the report are greatly in excess of re-
turns in recent years. Among the causes of depression the
Committee mention the competition of foreign countries and of
“bonanza” farms in certain American States, the effect of the
option system in lowering prices, the disproportionate taxation
of land, the action of “ rings ” and “ combines ” of traders who
deal in agricultural produce, the heavy indebtedness of Ame-
rican farmers and the high interest they have to pay, and ex-
cessive transport charges.
The Argentine Republic.
Although a high gold premium has enabled producers of
wheat and meat in Argentina to increase their exports greatly, it
must not be supposed that they have escaped depression alto-
gether. There is but little evidence as to the condition of the
great stockbreeders ; but that they must have felt the very low
prices of wool and frozen mutton in recent years needs no proof.
In all probability, however, they have paid their way at the
worst of times, and since the gold premium became enormous, it
may have covered the fall in prices. They are liable, however,
to terrible losses among their flocks and herds, and they have
suffered severely in some recent years.
With respect to wheat production, the best Argentine autho-
rities state that growers who are not too far from the seaboard
or a railway can grow wheat with profit to sell in England at
20s. a quarter. Apparently they get the equivalent of
13s. to 14s. a quarter at the nearest station when the English
price is 20s. ; and, when the gold premium is over 200 percent.,
that equivalent in paper money is more than three times 13s. to
14s. Seeing that their paper dollars go as far as ever in the
purchase or rent of land, and nearly as far as ever in the payment
of labour, they might be supposed to do well. But one authority
states that it is only farmers who own the land they cultivate
who can make a profit on wheat sold at 20s. a quarter in England,
while the Buenos Ayres Standard of September 20 says it is
only farmers in Santa Fe and parts of other provinces within a
moderate distance of a port who can do it. There are, however,
693
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
vast tracts of land within the limits thus prescribed. Besides,
it was not until the autumn of the present year that any such
low price as 20s. a quarter in England had to be accepted. Pre-
vious to the present year the great and rapid expansion of the
wheat area proved that wheat-growing, with the help of the gold
premium, paid satisfactorily. Therefore such agricultural de-
pression as exists in Argentina may be regarded as of recent
origin, and probably not destined to last long, provided that
currency advantages continue. The worst that can be said of
the comparative prosperity of farmers in that country is that it
rests upon an insecure foundation.
BniTisn Colonies and India.
As the space at my disposal is nearly exhausted, only a few
lines can be devoted to the Colonies. That severe depression
has existed in Canada for many years is attested by complaints
of it which have constantly appeared in Canadian papers — by the
fall in the value of farm land and in the prices of its produce,
and recently by the decrease in the wheat area. In 1891 there
were 2,277,254 acres under wheat in Ontario and Manitoba, and
in 1894 only 2,039,194 acres. The area has been declining in
Ontario for many years, and it is only the settlement of new
land in Manitoba and the North-West that has kept up the
acreage for the Dominion as a whole. But this year the area in
Manitoba was only 6,546 acres more than in 1893, and that of
Ontario was much less ; so that, together, the two provinces
grew only 2,039,194 acres, against 2,274,315 acres in 1893. A
report from Winnipeg in January last stated that great distress
prevailed among the farmers of Manitoba, and that appeals were
being made in many quarters for assistance. The President of
the Patrons of Industry in his annual address said : “ Never in
our history have we experienced such a critical time. Men’s
hearts fail them, and many are in want.”
In Australia and New Zealand alike it is admitted that wheat-
growing at recent prices has not paid. The acreage of 1892-93
for all Australasia, including Tasmania, was 3,822,950 acres, as
compared with 3,870,346 acres for 1889-90. In South Australia,
the recent Census shows that the agricultural population had
decreased in the ten years ending with 1891, the number of
males employed in agricultural pursuits having fallen off by
1,140 — an unanswerable proof of depression. The value of
agricultural land has fallen in Australia generally, and in New
Zealand also. A manifesto issued by the Landowners’ Defence
League of New South Wales in April last stated that throughout
the colony “ the last five years have been years of disaster to all
694 Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad.
public companies, private farms, ancl private individuals who
were interested in land ” ; that “ in both town and country-
many men who five years ago were accounted wealthy because
of the land they owned are to-day absolutely penniless ” ; that
“ many land companies in which the savings of multitudes were
invested have been swept out of existence”; while “ from the
north, the west, and the south of the colony has come one
simultaneous cry of distress from the great pastoral industry.”
Yet New South Wales has a higher wheat yield than any other
colony in Australia, and used to be regarded as more prosperous
than any other. Depression is worse in South Australia, and
probably at least as bad in Victoria. The latter colony has
made a great spurt in butter exportation, aided by a bounty on
every pound sold in Europe, rising in proportion to price ; but
now that the bounty has been withdrawn, farmers are being
called upon to accept 2f d. a gallon for their milk, and at
such terms the dairy export business cannot be of much advan-
tage to them. When it started the price was 4 d. to 5 d. a
gallon, and the reduction to 2 \d. in some cases and 2 f d. in others
(in one case at least a factory pays 2 §d.) is quite enough depres-
sion for the dairy interest. In New Zealand, too, the price
paid is now commonly 2f d. a gallon, as the butter-factory
companies have lost money in recent years. The failure of the
wheat-growing industry has driven farmers in Australia and
New Zealand alike into increased efforts to export dairy produce
and meat ; but the refrigerating meat companies have lost
heavily of late. In Victoria a proposal has been made to put a
tax of 2s. a hundred on all sheep, in order to produce an endow-
ment fund for the export meat trade, the argument for it being
that, at present, flockmasters who do not export mutton benefit by
the improvement in the colonial markets caused by the exports,
while the men who ship the meat sometimes lose by their enter-
prise. Thus, without bounties, it appears that neither butter
nor meat pays to export from Victoria.
South African prosperity depends on gold and diamonds
rather than upon agriculture, which has never made much
progress there, and is of so little importance that it is rarely
mentioned in news from that quarter of the world. The quantities
of corn grown even in Cape Colony, after a long period of settle-
ment, are insignificant. Only 3,100,000 bushels of wheat were
produced in 1893-94, and much less barley and oats; while
cattle, sheep, and goats were all fewer than they were in the
preceding year. This looks like evidence of depression.
Of the condition of the cultivators of the soil of India there
is no recent evidence. It has always been too low to be de-
Agricultural Depression at Home and Abroad. 695
pressed much. The decline in wheat exports in recent years,
in spite of the growth of good crops, however, proves that the
price in Europe has been too low to enable shippers to satisfy
the growers. Presumably the latter have eaten the wheat, after
storing it in pits in the vain hope of a better price. It is
believed that they have a great deal stored up at present. The
currency advantage of India mainly created the export wheat
trade, and kept it up for many years ; but of late the price in
Europe has fallen too much to be covered by the virtual bounty
on exports, which fell from 30,303,425 cwt. in 1891-92 to
14,973,453 cwt. in 1892-93, and were much smaller, judging
from receipts in this country, in 1893-94.
“ Chapter and verse ” could be given for all these general
statements relating to the Colonies and India, and it is only
the lack of space which prevents the presentation of confirmatory
evidence.
Conclusion.
The foregoing statements show that agricultural depression,
varying in degree of intensity, has been felt recently in all the
principal countries of the world, and in most of them for a
number of years. Such general misfortune may be expected to
create its own remedy sooner or later, but only, it is to be feared,
by means of the ruin of millions engaged in the agricultural
industry. It is for statesmen to devise, if possible, remedies
which will involve less suffering than will be inevitable from the
unaided operation of the barbarous law of the survival of the
fittest as the outcome of a desperate struggle for existence.
They have plenty of suggestions before them, but are too deeply
occupied with party struggles to pay much heed to them, espe-
cially in our own country ; for it is only fair to say that much
has been done to alleviate agricultural distress in some of the
Continental countries of Europe and in some of our colonies.
Nothing effectual, however, has been done anywhere to arrest
the fall in prices, which is the primary cause of depression in all
branches of productive industry. On the contrary, much has
been done to create and perpetuate the decline. While I have
no doubt as to the principal remedies for the deplorable and
world-wide catastrophe described with unavoidable inadequacy
in this article, it is impossible to set them forth on the present
occasion with the arguments essential to their recommendation;
and as a bare programme would carry no conviction with it,
this dismal article comes to an end without one.
William E. Bear.
Thorpe, Streatham, London, S.W.
696
THE TRIALS OF OIL ENGINES AT
CAMBRIDGE.
It is now six years since there was first exhibited at a Country
Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society an oil engine which
presented sufficient merit, especially as regards its adaptability
to agricultural purposes, to warrant the award of one of the
Silver Medals offered for new implements. A notice of this
engine appeared in the Report on the Miscellaneous Implements
exhibited at the Nottingham Meeting (Journal, Second Series,
Vol. XXV., 1889, p. 94).
In the following year (1889) an engine, similar in principle,
but of the portable type, was exhibited at the Windsor Show,
and, upon trial, the improvements in the working of this engine,
together with the modifications adapting it to the portable form,
were judged sufficient to again merit the award of a Silver Medal.
In connexion with the Plymouth Meeting of 1890, it was
arranged to offer special prizes for small motors not exceeding
five brake horse-power, such as are used — more generally as
fixed engines — for working dairies, or for chaff-cutting and
similar operations. It was recognised that, for such purposes,
the result already obtained by the petroleum engine had even
then placed it in the position of a competitor with the steam
engine, especially where the work to be done was of an inter-
mittent nature.
It was consequently decided to divide the competition into
two classes, the first for steam and hot-air engines, both of
which would use coal or coke as fuel, and the second for engines
using fuel other than coal : the latter class being instituted with
the special view of providing a competitive trial, not only of
the petroleum engine, but of such engines as manufactured
their own gas, and worked as the ordinary gas engine of that
date.
The entries justified the hope that a comparative trial might
be made between the three types of engines referred to. When,
however, the time arrived for trial, the solitary gas engine which
had been entered for competition was withdrawn, and only two
oil engines appeared. The relative performances of the latter
are duly reported in the Journal (Third Series, Vol. I., 1890, p.
580), where it will be seen, from the results recorded by the
winning engine, that there had been a very marked improvement
in the efficiency obtainable as compared with the previous re-
corded performances — an improvement which fully merited the
award offered.
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge. 697
Since 1890, at each Show of the Society, the petroleum
engine has been forcing itself more prominently into notice,
thereby proving that it had in effect passed the experimental
stage, and was becoming an engine of commerce, for which
there was a steadily increasing demand. In view of the large
accession to the ranks of petroleum-engine makers, with varying
types of engines which were being placed before the public, it
was evident that the time had arrived when, in the interests of
agriculturists, a competitive trial should be made of such engines.
It was decided, therefore, to offer prizes to be awarded on the
result of competitive trials at the Cambridge Meeting. Two
classes were accordingly announced, one for fixed engines such
as might be used for driving the machinery in a dairy, for
chaff-cutting, for light grinding and for allied purposes, and
one for portable engines capable of undertaking ordinary estate
sawing and threshing.
As many as seventeen engines were entered in the fixed
class and nine in the portable class, and of these only five had
been withdrawn from competition up to within a few days of the
trials. Consequently, preparations were made for the trials of
no fewer than 21 engines, and it is to be regretted that retiring
competitors did not send in their withdrawals earlier, and thus
save the Society unnecessary expense.
The conditions of the competitions were drawn up specially
with the view of avoiding what might be called a racing trial,
the endeavour being to ascertain what engine would give the
most economic results, not only in respect of oil consumption,
but also as regards maintenance and facility of working, points
which are fully dealt with in the following report. It may
therefore be noted that the crucial full -power test was made after
three days’ previous working of the engine, without any inter-
mediate cleaning out or adjustment. This condition was con-
sidered desirable, since it had been found, from previous trials,
that freedom from fouling after prolonged running was not a
virtue universally possessed by such engines. It is of great in-
terest to note that none of the engines which went through
their “ full-load ” trials revealed on subsequent examination the
slightest trace of fouling, thus showing a most marked improve-
ment in their more perfect combustion as compared with some
of the earlier engines.
In order to facilitate comparison of the oil consumption of
the engines in competition, it was decided that all should be
tried with the same oil, and to carry the comparison further it
was deemed advisable to use one of the oils which had been em-
ployed in already published trials. Of these, Russolene was
698 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
selected, the right being conceded to the competitors to subse-
quently use a cheaper or heavier oil.
For the trial of the engines a large shed was erected in the
only available space on the Show ground. The land was not,
perhaps, such as might have been selected by choice, as, if there
had been much rain, it Avould soon have become quite soft. In
the case of all the fixed engines, the concrete foundations were
made unusually large, and it fortunately happened that no in-
convenience was suffered from rain.
Each engine was placed in a compartment or stall by itself,
so that the attendant might not be interrupted or interfered
with by anybody except the Judges.
Along the middle avenue of the trial-shed was laid a three-
inch water main, from which branches were led into each com-
partment, where a water meter was fixed which recorded the
amount of water consumed by each engine. The meters were
lent by Messrs. Kent & Co., of Holborn, their readings were
checked against a measured vessel, and their use very materially
facilitated the record of the necessary observations. For the
supply of oil, and in order to ensure uniformity of quality, two
large tanks were provided in the shed, which were filled from
one tank truck, and from these tanks the oil was weighed out to
the exhibitors, Messrs. Avery and Messrs. Pooley having pro-
vided the necessary weighing machines for weighing both the
oil fuel and the lubricating and lamp oils.
The Judges appointed by the Council for the trials of the
engines were : —
Professor D. S. Capper, M.A., King’s College, London.
Professor Ewing, M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge.
Mr. 11. Neville Grenville, Butleigb, Glastonbury.
At the last moment Mr. Grenville was, through illness, un-
able to attend the trials, but at his suggestion Mr. J. B.
Denison, of Balure, Bembridge, I.W., who for several years was
identified with the building of high-speed launch engines, was
appointed to take his place.
The descriptions of the several engines and the details of
the trials are given at length in Professor Capper’s report.
In concluding these preliminary observations, attention may,
however, be directed to the fact that though the conditions of
the trials were not formulated with the object of attaining the
lowest possible consumption of oil for any one engine, yet the
results show that very satisfactory progress has been made in
this direction as compared with the trials at Plymouth, where
the winning engine had everything its own way. Not only
699
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
has the oil consumption then recorded been lowered, but there
were several engines which, throughout the Cambridge trials,
kept very close to those which in the end gained the awards.
F. S. Courtney.
3 Whitehall Place, S.W.
Professor Capper s Report.
The first and second classes of Implements for which prizes
were offered at the Cambridge Meeting were the following : —
Class I. — Fixed Oil Engines, of 4 to 8 brake horse-power.
First Prize, 50L Second Prize, 25Z.
Class II. — Portable Oil Engines, of 9 to 16 brake horse-
power. First Prize, 50L Second Prize, 25 1.
The conditions of trial were laid down thus : —
All the engines will be worked with the same sample of oil, which
shall be one of the well-known brands — eg., Russolene oil — and, if considered
desirable by the Judges, a further trial of the selected engines will be made
with a cheaper oil selected by the exhibitor.
The adaptability cf each engine for general purposes on a farm will be
considered, especially as regards simplicity of design, strength, durability,
stability, and freedom from fouling.
The engines will have to run for three days — running at least ten hours
per day on their declared brake-load — the petroleum and lubricating oil being
weighed out. Each competitor will be allowed one attendant only in charge
while the engine is running, such attendant to be under the direction of the
Judges. At the end of the above run each engine will go — just as it stands
— on to a full-load trial, during which indicator diagrams will be taken,
brake-load recorded, and oil used weighed. This will be followed by a
light and half-load trial under similar conditions.
The attention of the Judges and Engineers will be particularly directed
to the following points : —
1. Simplicity, workmanship, and durability, combined with facilities for
repairs.
2. Economy in getting to work and attendance.
3. Consumption of oil and circulating water.
4. Governing power and uniformity of speed.
5. Efficiency.
6. Cost; — and, in Class II. (portable engines) only, the following
additional points:
7. Weight.
8. Facility of transport and stability.
9. Arrangement and capacity for carrying oil and circulating water.
In the first class thirteen and in the second class seven
engines were entered ; but only the fifteen engines enumerated
in the accompanying table actually competed.
700 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
Class I. — Fixed Oil Engines, of 4 to 8 Bralie Horse-Power.
No. In
Catalogue
Name and Address of Exhibitor
Description
of Engine
Price as
quoted in
Catalogue
5729
Weyman & Hitchcock, Ltd.,
Guildford.
“ Trusty ”
| Knight Sc 1
£125.
5730
» »
1 Wey man’s !•
( Patent J
£140.
5759
Samuelson & Co., Ltd.,
j Griffin’s t
£167.
Banbury.
t Patent 1
5763
Campbell Gas Engine Co., Ltd.,
Halifax.
“ Campbell ”
£110.
5780
Britannia Co.,
Colchester.
“ Britannia”
£120.
5796
Tolch & Co.,
146 Clerkenwell Boad, E C.
“ Capitaine ”
£118.
5800
Fielding & Platt,
Gloucester.
—
£150.
6827
Crossley Bros., Ltd.,
Openshaw, Manchester.
—
£110.
5845
Wells Bros.,
Sandiacre, Nottingham.
“ Premier ”
£112.
6868
Clarke, Chapman &; Co., Ltd.,
Gateshead-on-Tyne.
—
£150.
5972
K. Hornsby & Sons, Ltd.,
Grantham.
“ Hornsby-
Akroyd”
£160.
Class II. — Portable Oil Engines, of 9 to 16 Bralie Horse- Power.
5764
Campbell Gas Engine Co., Ltd.,
Halifax.
“ Campbell ”
£180.
6828
Crossley Bros., Ltd.,
Openshaw, Manchester.
—
£200.
5869
Clarke, Chapman & Co., Ltd.,
Gateshead-on-Tyne.
—
£255.
5973
B. Hornsby & Sons, Ltd ,
Grantham.
“ Hornsby -
Akroyd ”
£235.
Class I. — Fixed ExVgines.
The primary object of the trials was to determine how far
oil engines could now be relied on as safe, efficient, and
economical motors for farm purposes, where skilled mechanics
are not available, and where liability to breakdown and the
need for constant attendance are considerations of prohibitive
importance.
It may be said at once that, although the Judges had no
difficulty in deciding the order of merit from this standpoint, a
much larger number of the competing engines satisfied these
conditions than could have been expected.
Only one engine, that of Messrs. Samuelson, employs an
air blast and separate sprayer for breaking up the oil. Messrs.
701
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
Hornsby's engine injects the oil into an unjacketed portion of
the cylinder itself, where it is vaporised and ignited by the heat
engendered by the previous explosion. All the other engines
employ a separate vaporising chamber of some sort, into which
the oil is pumped or flows by gravity, and from which, at the
suction stroke, it passes as vapour into the cylinder, meeting
there the additional supply of air required for its complete
combustion.
It is somewhat remarkable that, with such varied methods
of vaporisation, not one of the engines was found to be clogged
or unduly fouled after the severe tests to which they were put.
No tarry or sooty deposit was accumulated in any instance,
THEhORNSBY-AKRoVD" PATENT SAFETY OIL ENGINE
•niiinniiiiiiii
Fig. 1. — Hornsby’s Fixed Oil Engine (First Prize).
and it may be fairly concluded that difficulties from this source
are no longer to be feared in a well-designed oil engine. All
the engines worked on the “ Otto ” or “ Beau de Rochas” cycle.
General Description of the Engines.
Messrs. R. Hornsby & Sons, Ltd., Grantham. — In fig. 1 is
given an external view, and in fig. 2 is shown a section through
the cylinder and valve-box, of Messrs. Hornsby’s engine (First
Brize, 50/.). It is an 8 brake horse-power engine, costing
170/. complete. The vaporiser forms a prolongation of the
cylinder of Q shape, and is enclosed in a movable iron casing.
The oil is injected into this chamber, with a little air, at the com-
vol. v. T. s. — 20 3 A
702
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
mencement of the suction stroke by an ordinary plunger pump
having suction and delivery valves in duplicate for security
against sticking. Neither ignition-tube nor lamp is required,
as the explosion of the last stroke and heat of exhaust gases keep
the vaporiser at the requisite temperature. At starting it is
heated by an external duplicate cast-iron lamp, with hand blast,
for about nine minutes. The governor acts upon the oil supply,
intercepting some of it through a by-pass, when the speed is
too high, and returning it to the tank. The oil-tank is in the
bed-plate of the engine, but was replaced for the purposes of the
trial by a temporary tank in which a measuring point gauge
was inserted. The air and exhaust valves are driven by
Fig. 2. — Section through cylinder and valves of the “Hornsby-Akroyd” Oil Engine.
cams on a lay shaft, and a water-jacketed back-pressure valve is
provided between the valve-chamber and the vaporiser to prevent
the possibility of pre-ignition at explosion. The amount of
compression can be altered for oils of different specific gravity by
inserting packing pieces in the connecting-rod end. The mean
pressure and initial pressure of this engine are comparatively
low, from which the makers claim the advantage that it re-
duces the leakage past the piston and diminishes the strain
upon working parts. The size of engine for a given power
is, however, proportionately large. For simplicity, neatness
of design, workmanship, and general appearance this engine is
admirable.
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
703
Messrs. Grossley Bros., Ltd., Openskaw, Manchester. — Messrs.
Crossley’s engine (Second Prize, 2ol.) is very similar (fig. 3) to
their “ Otto ” gas engine in general appearance and arrange-
ment, and shows the same excellent workmanship. It is a
7£ brake horse-power engine costing 113L A pump for in-
jecting the oil into the vaporiser, a vaporiser, and vapour valve
have been added ; and the main air inlet, which is automatic,
is placed above the exhaust valve.
There is an ignition tube heated by an external lamp which
also heats the vaporiser. The oil for this lamp is supplied from
a small reservoir by air pressure which requires recharging with
air once or twice a day by a hand-pump provided for the pur-
pose.
The governor is of the hit-and-miss rotary type, and,
when the speed
is too great, in-
tercepts the link
which opens the
vapour valve and
prevents its ac-
tion. The vapour
valve admits a
new charge of oil
to the vaporiser
at the same time
that it admits
the vapour to the
cylinder. There
is thus always
one charge in hand. The air valve opens by the suction of the
piston, and the stream of air meets that of the vapour at right
angles as it is drawn into the cylinder, and thus thoroughly
mingles with it.
Messrs. Wells Bros., Sandiacre, Nottingham. — Fig. 4 shows
the valve and lever arrangement of Messrs. Wells Brothers’
“ Premier.” There are original and ingenious points about this
engine, and its extreme simplicity is admirable. It is a 4
nominal horse-power engine costing 117 1.
There is but one rocking lever to actuate all the valves.
It is driven by a cam on the lay shaft, in opposition to a
powerful spiral spring. When running at normal speed the
spring draws the lever home, closing the exhaust valve, and
opening the vapour valve at the required moment. When
running too fast, the horizontal catch, which has been lowered
by the outward movement of the valve lever, has not time to
3 a 2
Fig. 3— Crossley’s Fixed Oil Engine (Second Prize).
704
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
rise clear under the weight of its inner end before the return
of the vertical lever, which, therefore, is arrested, and no move-’
ment of the valves takes place. The exhaust valve is then kept
open, and the vapour valve being closed an idle stroke occurs,
A. Vapour valve,
o. Horizontal catch,
l). Vaporiser door.
)•;. Exhaust valve.
K. Trip.
L. Rocking lever.
M. Oil-supply cock.
x. „ chamber.
o. „ pipe.
p. „ to lamp.
Q. Automatic explosion
counter.
n. Link-working oil valve,
v. Vaporiser.
the oil valve at the same time emitting a charge from the
vaporiser. The oil valve is a rotating taper plug driven by a
link off the rocking lever. A cavity in this plug measures out
a charge of oil at each vibration and drops it upon a heated
705
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
diagonal plate, down which it runs and is vaporised. An adjust-
ment is provided by which the quantity of oil at each charge can
be regulated, and the valve-box is filled by gravity from a raised
tank. This arrangement is secure against injury from dirt, as
anything which is small enough to pass into the oil-plug would
simply fall to the bottom of the vaporising chamber and there
be retained. The lamp which heats the vaporiser is com-
pletely enclosed in a cast-iron combustion chamber, the blast
being supplied by an air-pump.
This engine is substantially, even clumsily, constructed, of
good material and workmanship, but would lose nothing by
more refinement and outward finish of details.
Fig. 5.— Section through cylinder and vaporiser of Weyman & Hitchcock’s “Trusty ” Oil Engine
A. Cylinder. E. Pump.
B. Combustion chamber. F. Main air supply.
c. Oil inlet. I. Lubricator.
D. Sight feed tube.
The makers claim that little, if any, “ gasification ” takes
place, as the vaporiser is water-jacketed, and so not overheated.
This view is to some extent upheld by the fact that the cylinder
works without lubrication, beyond that of the condensed oil
vapour.
Messrs. Weyman & Hitchcock, Ltd., Guildford. — Messrs.
Weyman & Hitchcock’s engine, the “ Trusty ” (5 brake horse-
power, 133/.), has a vaporiser which is heated by the explosion
and exhaust products alone. But, unlike that of the Hornsby’
engine, it is a separate chamber within the combustion space.
It is illustrated, in section, in fig. 5. At starting it requires to
be heated by a temporary lamp, but the heat of explosion and
exhaust subsequently maintains it at the required temperature,
706 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
Oil is pumped through a “ sight feed tube ” to the top of the
vaporiser. It was originally fed by gravity, but this arrange-
ment was discontinued from fear of accidental fire. The
oil, with a small proportion of air, passes round the annular
passage, is gradually vaporised as it falls to the bottom,
rises through a series of holes into the central chamber, and
passes down through the vapour valve into the cylinder, where it
meets the additional air-
supply required. The
pumps and valves are all
driven from a lay shaft,
shown in fig. 6. A side
lever, with a trip gear
between it and the lay
shaft, works the vapour
valve, and an inertia
governor upon the trip
prevents contact when
the speed is too great.
There are adjustments
upon the oil, vapour, and
air valves for adapting to
different oils ; and the
compression can be varied,
as in the Hornsby engine,
by packing pieces in the
connecting - rod. The
ignition tube is heated
by an external lamp,
across the flame of which
a powerful blast of air
is driven by an air-pump.
The workmanship is good,
but the design involves a
considerable number of
working parts, and the
methods of adjustment are not quite as substantial as one would
like for an engine which is to be placed in the hands of a farm-
labourer. A pump to circulate the jacket water is provided, but
was disconnected upon the trial, being replaced by gravity tanks.
The second engine exhibited by this firm is of larger size
(6 brake horse-power), and costs 149k It is of precisely similar
design, but has a Defries lamp in place of the air blast. It was
withdrawn from trial after the three days’ run.
Britannia Co., Colchester. — The Britannia Co.’s engine is of
Fig. G.— Arrangement of valves, levers, &c., in Weyman
& Hitchcock's “Trusty ” Oil Engine.
«. Side lever.
c. Governor.
d. 1 Rocking levers tvork-
e. I ing oil and air valves.
<j. Air inlet pipe.
q. Oil reservoir for lamp,
it. Oil supply pipe to lamp.
s. Air blast pipe.
T. Air-pump.
u. Lamp reservoir,
tv. Oil pump.
x. „ discharge.
Y. Oil supply pipe.
v. . Pet cock.’
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
707
Fia. 7.— Section through tire vaporiser of the “ Britannia ” Oil Engine. The arrows
show the direction of flow of the air.
F. Spindle,
it. Spiral heater.
y. Vaporiser.
J„ Air inlet.
A v. Air valve.
708
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
7 brake liorse-power, and costs 120 1. It embodies an application
of Root’s patent oil feed. A section of this is shown in fig. 7.
A grooved spindle reciprocates in and out of an oil bath, past a
port in the main air passage. The air, entering through a spiral
heater, sucks the oil off the exposed grooves, and passing down
through a prolongation of this heater, which forms the vaporiser,
is admitted by the main air valve into the ignition passage.
The governor, of the ordinary ball type, raises or lowers the end
of a connecting-link, which drives the spindle upon a stepped
distance piece, and so lengthens or shortens its stroke. This is
shown in fig. 8. In this way the number of grooves which
enter the oil bath and are filled is varied, and the richness of the
vapour charge correspondingly modified. The vaporiser is heated
by a central lamp, which also heats the ignition tube, and the
lamp blast is supplied by a pump driven by the lay shaft. An
oil-pump is also worked in the same manner for filling the oil
bath from the main tank in the engine bed.
Three cams on the lay shaft Are] arranged to give no com-
pression, half compression, and full compression, and a pin fitting
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge. 709
into a worm on the shaft is made to automatically introduce
the three cams in succession. The exhaust valve cannot there-
fore be left open after the first revolution has been made.
The workmanship and general arrangement of this engine
are of a good and substantial character.
Campbell Gas Engine Co., Ltd., Halifax. — In the “Camp-
bell ” engine, which is of 6 nominal horse-power and costs 145Z.
complete, there are no oil-pumps, the feed being by gravity
to both engine and lamp. In this respect it resembles the
“ Premier.” The air inlet is automatic, and there are only
two valves — the inlet and exhaust. The governor acts upon
the latter, keeping it open when the speed is too great, and so
$
Fig. 9.— Section through vaporiser and valves of Fielding & Platt’s Oil Engine.
a. Ignition-tube. b. Vaporiser tube. e. Air heating tube.
preventing the suction of the piston from opening the air valve.
The air and oil meet each other at right angles, and are thus
sprayed into the vaporiser, which is heated together with the
ignition tube by an external lamp. There are few working
parts, and little to get out of order. The workmanship is good,
though the oil-tank arrangements of the trial engine were
primitive and would form a source of danger.
Messrs. Fielding & Platt, Gloucester. — The engine of 8 brake
horse-power exhibited by Messrs. Fielding & Platt costs 150L
complete. It has a tubular vaporiser connected with the igni-
tion tube by a small valve.
Air is drawn through the heating tube c (fig. 9), and
710
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cwmbndge.
mingles with the oil jet in the chamber u'. It then passes on
through the vaporising tube 13 and ignition tube A, and thence
into the combustion chamber, where it meets the main air
supply. On the compression stroke the valve between A and B
is closed, and firing takes place in the usual manner. The
ignition tube is kept free from all chance of fouling by the
current passing through it, and the arrangement ensures very
complete vaporisation of the oil. A lamp enclosed in an iron
casing maintains the vaporiser and ignition tube at the proper
temperature. The oil is injected by a small suction pump, and
the lamp is supplied from a separate reservoir kept under air
Fig. 10. — Elevation showing arrangement of valve levers and trip gear of
Fielding & Platt’s Oil Engine.
pressure by a hand-pump. There is an arrangement by which
this pressure is maintained during working through a by-pass
and valve, which open communication with the cylinder at
the end of the exhaust stroke. The valves — -air, vapour, and
exhaust — are all driven (fig. 10) from one cam, and the governor,
of the hit-and-miss type, cuts out explosions when the engine
runs too fast, holding the exhaust valve open and the air and
vapour valves closed.
The whole engine, with the exception perhaps of the main
oil reservoir, which is flimsy and might prove dangerous, is very
compact and simple, and of handsome appearance. The work-
manship is also good.
711
The Trial* of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
On the trials the lamp burned very badly, and it was
impossible to keep the vaporiser hot enough. The diagrams
obtained were, consequently, late in ignition, and the oil con-
sumption was considerably higher than that of the other engines.
There is little doubt that this defect could be easily cured and
that the engine is a good one, but it was withdrawn from trial
after the half-power run. It ran very steadily during the three
days’ trial, and required little attention, starting readily with
one attendant only after about twenty-two minutes’ warming up.
Messrs. Tolch rf- Co., 146 Clerkenwell Hoad, London, E.C. —
Fifi. 11. — Glycerin pump of Tolch & Co.'s “Capitaine” Engine.
a. Slide valve. B. Pump plunger.
Messrs. Tolch & Co. entered a vertical engine on the “ Capi-
taine” principle. It is of 5 brake horse-power and costs 118/.
It does not use water-circulating tanks.
The distinguishing features are a small conical vaporiser
encased in non-conducting material and placed within the ex-
plosion chamber, and a very ingenious oil distribution by a slide
valve and glycerin pump (fig. 11).
At each alternate stroke of an ordinary plunger pump the
slide valve opens communication to suction or discharge. The
pump chamber is partially filled with glycerin, upon which the
oil floats so that the supply is uniform and very easily regulated.
712 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
The vaporiser is shown at C in fig. 12. Oil is supplied from
the pump through the pipe A to the centre of the large air valve
B. A portion of the air enters with the oil into the centre of
the vaporiser, while the greater portion passes outside a non-
conducting casing D and through the combustion chamber,
cooling the latter so as to prevent pre-ignition, and mingles with
the mixed air and vapour as it enters the cylinder. On the
return compression stroke the vapour ignites against the hot
vaporiser. At the commencement of exhaust a small valve opens
and discharges the hottest portion of the exhaust through the
vaporiser, thus heating it afresh. This then closes, and a second,
larger valve discharges
the remainder through
thecombustion chamber.
The air valve is
opened automatically on
the suction stroke. The
inertia governor acts
upon the exhaust valve,
keeping it open, where-
by the air valve fails to
act and a charge is
missed.
The engine is ex-
tremely compact and
neat, and runs at 286
to 300 revolutions per
minute, developing 4i
brake horse-power.
At starting, the
vapoi’iser is heated by
a hand spirit-lamp for
five to ten minutes, and
starts away very easily.
The circulation through the -water jacket is produced by
a pump driven off the crank shaft. The oil ordinarily used in
this engine is Tea Rose oil, and the adjustments not being
suitable for Russolene oil, difficulty was experienced in keeping
the vaporiser hot enough. The engine was therefore withdrawn
at the end of the second day’s run. Experience writh the use
of Russolene oil may be expected to overcome these difficulties,
and the engine certainly deserves praise for its particularly quiet
running and for the ingenuity as well as simplicity of its work-
ing parts. This is obtained partly at the expense of accessi-
bility, and one would perhaps hesitate before placing it in the
Fig. 12.— Section through vaporiser and combustion
chamber of Tolch & Co.’s “ Capitaine ” Engine.
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge. 713
hands of a farm-labourer. But where a mechanic is available
no difficulty is likely to be encountered on this account.
Messrs. Clarke, Chapman & Co., Ltd., Gateshead-on-Tyne. —
Messrs. Clarke, Chapman & Co.’s engine (6 horse-power, 150Z.)
was the only competing engine in which electric ignition is used.
The arrangements are illustrated in fig. 13, p. 714.
The air supply is, as in the last case, by an automatic inlet
valve opened by the suction of the piston. A charge of petro-
leum mixed with a small volume of air enters at the back of this
valve under a constant head, and passes on into the vaporiser
through a throttle valve controlled by the governor. The vaporiser
is heated by the exhaust, and discharges its contents through a
rotating 4-chamber valve which acts both as vapour and exhaust
valve. This is driven at a quarter of the speed of the engine
by a lay shaft. The governor is of the flywheel type, and opens
or closes the throttle valve so as to admit a larger or smaller
charge of unvarying richness. The charge is exploded at the
end of the compression stroke by an electric spark, from an in-
duction coil excited by a bichromate battery. The battery is
charged about every second day with lb. of acid mixture in
the form of a damp red paste. This costs 4 d. a pound.
At starting, a small quantity of benzoline is used, which
explodes at atmospheric temperature, and so starts the engine
without the aid of an external lamp, and with exceptional quick-
ness and ease.
The single valve can be removed and cleaned in a very few
minutes, and the simplicity and compactness of the engine are
remarkable. The use of benzoline and the electric ignition are
objectionable for farm purposes, where the storage of supplies
for a long period is often necessary, and would in this case be
attended with a certain amount of risk.
The quantity of benzoline required is, however," so exceed-
ingly small, and the ease with which it starts the engine so great,
that its use is a distinct advantage under other circumstances.
The engine only ran for two days satisfactoi’ily. On the
third day, after a considerable amount of trouble had been ex-
perienced and the engine had stopped a number of times, it was
finally withdrawn. On opening up, a leak was found in the
vaporiser casting, which was sufficient to account for the
stoppage.
There seems no reason to doubt that this engine can be
made a successful and fairly economical one. Its consumption
for the period for which it ran was high, and there were distinct
signs of unburnt oil vapour issuing from the exhaust pipe. The
speed was about 200 per minute, but varied a good deal. In
714
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
fewness of working parts, siient running, ami workmanship, the
engine leaves little to be desired.
Fio. 13.— Section showing arrangements of parts of Clarke, Chapman & Co.’s Oil Eugine.
715
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
Messrs. Samuelson & Co , Ltd., Banbury. — Messrs. Samuel-
son’s engine (8 brake horse-power, 167£.) embodies the Griffin
patents. This was the only competing engine using a sprayer,
which is illustrated in fig. 14. A central plunger is driven
down by air pressure from a tank under the bed of the engine
and opens the oil valve. Oil is then sucked up the diagonal
tube by induction from the horizontal air-jet, and is driven in
the form of a fine spray into the vaporiser.
The air pressure is maintained at 12 to 15 lb. above the
atmosphere, by a pump driven by an eccentric on the lay shaft.
The vaporiser (fig. 15) is a long chamber of corrugated
section placed at right angles to the cylinder in the bed-plate.
It is heated by the exhaust gases which pass round it as they
escape. The supplementary air-supply is admitted through an
inlet valve, and, after being likewise heated by the exhaust
gases, enters the vaporiser at the sprayer end and mixes with
the spray.
The governor is of the ordinary ball pattern, and when the
716 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
speed becomes too high cuts off the air-supply and prevents the
opening of the admission and exhaust valves by an ingenious
arrangement of vibrating knife-edges and plungers. The
77/ e Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
717
3 15
VOL. V. T. s. — 20
Fig. 16. — Patent Ignition Lamp of Samuelson’e Oil Engine.
718 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
exhaust valve closes after the last exploded charge has escaped.
At the same time a spiral spring shuts the oil valve in the sprayer,
and no oil is therefore injected.
The ignition tube is heated by an oil flame produced in a
very simple manner. A small jet of oil is made to strike upon
a bent wire, which dips into an oil bath kept at constant level.
A thin film of oil is thus drawn up and carried forward with
the blast, and, being lighted, strikes against the ignition tube as
an intense blue flame. The arrangement of this lamp is shown
in fig. 16.
Oil is supplied to the reservoir by a small pump from the
main oil-tank which is formed in the engine-bed.
At starting, the air-pump is worked by hand until the
required pressure is obtained. The air is then turned on to the
sprayer and the spray lighted. By this means the vaporiser
is heated for about 10 minutes, the smoke being discharged
through a special valve into the exhaust. When the vaporiser
is hot enough the valve is closed and the oil-supply turned off1.
The engine should then start without difficulty. At the trials
great trouble was found in starting, several attempts being
generally necessary. On the first day the sprayer was opened,
and a piece of waste found in it. As difficulty was again
experienced on the second and third days, and on the 2 hours’
full-power trial, the engine was withdrawn, and a longer ignition
tube tried. This made a marked improvement, and indicator
diagrams subsequently taken showed sharp and good ignition.
This was decidedly the most complicated engine competing,
the parts and attachments being more numerous than in any
other — a consequence, probably, of the method of vaporising
adopted. Each part is in itself simple and ingenious, and the
whole is constructed in a substantial and workmanlike manner.
Its oil consumption exceeded the average, a result to which the
frequent stoppages must have in no small measure contributed.
Three Days’ Run at Full Load.
According to the conditions each engine was first subjected
to a three days’ run, during which no opening up or cleaning
was permitted, so as to test the endurance, liability to fouling,
consumption, steadiness of running, and attendance required,
over a continuous period. It was found impossible to restrict
the number of attendants to one only in all cases. One or two
of the engines could not have started at all if this regulation had
been rigorously enforced. It was thought better, therefore, to
note the number of attendants required, and take this into con-
sideration in making the awards.
The Trial* of Oil Engines at Cambruhje.
719
The flywheels had all been turned flat in accordance with
the instructions of the Society’s engineers, and the brake horse-
power was measured by a double rope brake completely encir-
cling the wheel and loaded with a dead weight at one end and
a spring balance at the other. The weight was kept constant
throughout the trials, and the spring balance was read every hour.
The oil wTas weighed into the engine tanks at the commence-
ment, and the surplus weighed back at the end of the run.
Where the tanks could not be drained dry, a point gauge was
inserted, and the oil adjusted to the same level at the beginning
and end of the run. An error of less than a quarter of a pound
could in all cases be clearly detected.
The engines having been started, and the brake-load adjusted
to give as nearly as possible the power which the exhibitor
thought best, the time was noted, and the trial commenced.
The general dimensions and declared speed of the fixed engines
were as stated in the table on p. 720.
The oil used was a Russian oil, known as “ Russolene,”
the price of which, delivered at Cambridge, was at the rate of
3 \d. per gallon. It was analysed by Mr. Charles J. Wilson,
F.C.S., who had made the analysis of the oil used on the
Plymouth trials of 1890. He reports as follows : —
“ I have made an examination of the sample of Russolene oil received
from Mr. F. S. Courtney on July 2, 1894, with the following- results : —
“ Specific gravity at 60° F. = 0-8239.
“ Flash point (Abel test) = 86° F.
“ Calorific value. — To determine this the oil was completely burned in a
closed bomb with compressed oxygen (a modification of Berthelot’s appara-
tus), and the heat produced carefully measured. Calculated to calories per
gramme of oil, the mean of two concordant experiments is 11-055. This
figure includes all heat obtained by condensation of produced water, and
cooling this and the gaseous products to 28°C. In order to obtain a
correction for the water produced by combustion, the percentage of hydrogen
in the oil was determined and found to be 14-05 per cent. ; the produced
water will, therefore, be 1-2645 times the weight of the oil. Taking the
latent heat of water at 28°C. as 587 gives 0 742 calories per gramme, and
deducting this from 1T055 gives 10-313 calories as the heat of combustion of
one gramme of the oil ; products of combustion in the gaseous state at28°C.
“ This Russolene oil seems very constant in composition, for a sample
which I examined more than a year ago gave 14-07 per cent, of hydrogen
and a calorific value of 10-3 calories — practically identical figures with those
yielded by the present sample. “ Chakles J. Wilson.”
The heat value is therefore nearly 18,600 B. thermal units
per lb. Comparing this with Welsh steam coal with a calorific
value of 14,500 thermal units per lb., 1 lb. of oil will, in
heating value, be equivalent to 1-28 lb. of coal, ancl with
London gas, having a calorific value of 19,200 B. thermal units
per lb., it would be equivalent to 0-97 lb. of gas.
3 n 2
General Dimensions and Declared Speed of the Fixed Engines.
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
721
Behaviour of the Engines during the Three Days’ Run.
Messrs. Homslnfs engine ran without hitch of any kind from
start to finish. Its action was faultless. One attendant only
was employed all through the trials, and started the engine
easily and with certainty after working the hand blast to the
lamp for 8 minutes. The longest time taken to start was
9 minutes, and the shortest 7. When the engine stopped each
day the bearings were cool, and the piston was moist and
well lubricated. The revolutions were very constant, and the
power developed did not vary one quarter of a brake horse-
power from day to day. The oil consumption, reckoned on the
average of the three days’ run, was 0-919 lb. per brake horse-
power per hour. This is equivalent to a consumption of
T18 lb. of coal, and would, at the above price of oil, mean an
expenditure of 0'42d per brake or effective horse-power per
hour. This includes the oil used for the starting lamps.
Messrs. Crossley’s engine had one stoppage for about a minute
on the second day, due to carelessness in letting the oil-
supply run too low. It started away again without difficulty
when this had been renewed. Otherwise, the engine ran
admirably, and required very little attention. The average
time taken to start was 16 minutes, the maximum being 19,
and the minimum 13 ; one attendant only was required. The
oil consumption was rather less than Messrs. Hornsby’s —
namely, 0-90 lb. of oil per brake horse-power per hour. The
speed and power developed were uniform and the governing
was good.
Messrs. Wells Brothers’ engine was started, worked, and
attended by one man alone throughout the trials. The large
and heavy flywheel made this a somewhat awkward job, but
except for one day, when the attempt was made before the
vaporiser was warm enough, the engine started and ran in
a very satisfactory manner. The average time taken to start was
21 minutes. It had as little attention as any on the ground,
the attendant frequently leaving it entirely for considerable
intervals and generally finding plenty of time for sleep and
recreation. The mean revolutions for the three days do not
differ by more than 1 per minute, and the power developed was
very constant. The consumption was somewhat higher than the
Hornsby engine — namely, 1*06 lb. per brake horse-power per
hour.
Messrs. Weyman & Hitchcock’s engine, the “ Trusty,” also ran
well. The tube was removed and cleaned before the last day’s
run, but the engine finished in good condition. One tnan only wras
722 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
required at starting, the average time taken being 13 minutes,
and little attention was required. The oil consumption was
decidedly higher than that of the engines just named — namely,
1T57 lb. per brake horse-power per hour — the speed varying
between 253 and 256 revolutions per minute, the power
remaining very constant.
The other engine exhibited by this firm also ran well, but
back explosions were noticed at intervals and necessitated an
adjustment of the pump. The ignition tube was cleaned in this
engine also, and at the end of the third day, on stopping the
engine, the piston was dry and unlubricated. This engine ran
with a rather smaller consumption of oil — namely, 1*13 lb. per
brake horse -power per hour — probably on account of its larger
size. The speed was constant, as was the power developed, and,
apart from the difficulties mentioned, the engine ran with little
attention. It was subsequently withdrawn, Messrs. Weyman
and Hitchcock electing to rely upon the “ Trusty.”
Messrs. Campbell's engine gave considerable trouble at start-
ing on the third day. On the first and second days it took
13 and 19 minutes respectively, but on the third two attempts
with one man, seven with two men, and one with three were
recorded before the engine finally got away, 33 minutes in all
being occupied. The governing of the engine was not entirely
satisfactory, a good deal of thumping and irregularity of speed
being noticeable at times. When the vaporiser is hot enough
the engine can be worked without the lamp, and ran so on the
trials for short periods. The consumption was T15 lb. of oil
per brake horse-power per hour.
The Britannia Go's engine stopped once or twice on the first
day from various causes, chiefly accidental. On the second and
third days it settled down to its work and gave little or no
trouble. The average revolutions per minute on the three days
did not vary greatly, but there was a good deal of racing, the
speed being by no means so steady as one would expect from
the method of governing. The oil consumption was compara-
tively high — namely, T49 lb. per brake horse-power per hour.
The table opposite gives the mean results for the seven engines
just enumerated.
Consumption and Efficiency Trials.
Subsequent trials were carried out with the engines just as
they were when the three days’ run was completed, no cleaning
or opening up of any kind being permitted.
The arrangements were precisely the same as on the three
days’ test, but, in addition, indicator diagrams were taken, and
Results of Three Days’ Trials.
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge. 723
Britannia Co.
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Engine
Duration of trial,
hrs I
Time taken to start,
mins.: 1 8 i.li
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20th
Brake horse-power
Circumference of
wheel (effective),
ft
Wheel constant per
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brake in pounds
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19 th
20th
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19th
20th
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days
Oil consumption , lb. :
Lamp .
Engine
Total .
Oil per B.H.P. per hr.
724
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
the quantity of water passed through the jackets, with its inlet
and outlet temperatures, was noted.
■I S -3*5618 9 IO /■/
Fig. 17. — Hornsby & Sons' Fixed Engine— Mean Card two hours’ full power trial.
Cylinder Volume in cubic feet.
•/ 3 3 *■ 5
Fig. 18. Crossley Brothers’ Fixed Engine — Mean Card two hours’ full power trial.
Cj Under Volume in cubic feet.
72 o
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambidge.
A two hours’ full-power trial was followed by a two hours’
half-power trial and a four hours’ consumption trial running
light.
Lb.p’vsti rn
affsohUf
Fig. 19. — Wells Brothers’ Fixed Engine— Mean Card two hours’ full power trial.
Cylinder Volume in cubic feet.
/ 5 7 *
Fig. 20. — Weyman & Hitchcock’s “ Trusty” Engine — Mean Card two hours’ full power trial.
Cylinder Volume in cubic feet.
Indicator diagrams. — These were taken as nearly as possible
every fifteen minutes on Crosby indicators. In * three cases,
where Crosby’s were unsuitable, a Wayne indicator was tried.
This gave very good and reliable cards and was found subse-
726 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
quently to be remarkably free from backlash errors. The indi-
cators were well and frequently lubricated with Russian tallow,
which was found to work veiy satisfactorily. They were all
afterwards tested under steam on a mercury column in the
engineering laboratory at King’s College, London, and correc-
tion curves plotted. The errors were not beyond average indi-
cator errors, but were in no case to be disregarded, and the true
spring scales have in all cases been employed.
In the half-power and light trials, half-minute cards in most
cases showed such constant and wide changes in mean pressure
from explosion to explosion that no reliable determination of
the indicated power could be made without an integrating
indicator. The only half-power diagrams which could be worked
out with accuracy were those of Messrs. Crossley, which were
very constant.
On the full-power trial, the diagrams obtained from the
Britannia Co.’s engine showed considerable fluctuations, due to
the method of governing. But a comparison of half-minute
diagrams with a number of double cards taken at successive
intervals shows mean results within 1 per cent, of one another.
The indicated power given in the table may therefore be relied
upon as correct within those limits.
The water was measured as it was discharged from the
jackets into standard thirty-gallon tanks, which had been
previously calibrated. The mean rate of filling these was
ascertained and the discharge per minute calculated. Readings
for temperature were taken every quarter of an hour.
In the tables on pp. 728-729 will be found the mean
quantities for all three trials of the six engines which completed
them.
Oil consumption. — Five engines used less than a pound of
oil per indicated horse-power per hour, and two, Messrs.
Crossley’s and Messrs. Hornsby’s engines, developed a brake
horse-power on 082 lb. and 0-977 lb. per hour respectively.
In the short two hours’ trial Messrs. Hornsby’s engine
necessarily appears less economical than over a longer run, be-
cause the starting lamp consumes an appreciable fraction of the
whole supply. Where much stopping and starting again are
required this larger consumption would, however, show itself.
The record of consumption of Messrs. Crossley’s engine is
remarkable : 0-82 lb. of oil represents a cost for fuel of 0 37 d.
per brake horse-power per hour, or the equivalent of 3 lb. of
Welsh coal. Few condensing steam-engines of equal size work
on a less amount.
Reckoned on the three days’ run, the cost per brake horse-
Lb.versot/1'.
atxsnlnJr
12 3 f
Flo. 22. — Britannia Co.'s Fixed Engine— Mean Card two hours’ full power trial.
Cylinder Volume in cubic feet.
5
Full-Power Trial of Fixed Engines. June 21, 1894.
728 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
Britannia
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Brake horse- power
Indicated power
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Mean effective pressure, lb. per sq. in.
Explosions per minute, mean ....
Indicated horse-power
Mechanical efficiency
Oil used
Lamp oil used, total, lb
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The Trials of Oil Eni/ines at Cambridge.
729
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Oil used per hour
730 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
power per hour would be for Messrs. Hornsby’s engine 0'42d.
and for Messrs. Crossley’s O' 4 Id. There is therefore little dif-
ference between them on a continuous run.
Indicator diagrams for the six engines are given in figs. 17
to 22 (pp. 724, 725, 727). They are copies of the indicator
cards which approach nearest to the mean during the full-power
run, and have all been plotted to the same vertical scale. They
all closely resemble the diagram from an “ Otto ” gas engine,
and the most marked difference between them is in the initial
and mean pressures. Messrs. Crossley’s diagram (fig. 18) has
an initial pressure of 240 lb. per square inch and a mean of
72 lb., while Messrs. Hornsby’s (fig. 17) has an initial pressure
of 125 lb., and a mean of 29 lb. On the Britannia Co.’s card
(fig. 22) only three diagrams have been shown, for the sake of
clearness. A half-minute card has the whole space between
maximum aud minimum filled with a succession of diagrams
varying in sharpness of ignition.
On the half-power trials the engine which showed itself the
most economical was the “Campbell,” using T3 lb. of oil per
brake horse-power hour, to Messrs. Crossley’s T33 lb. and
Messrs. Hornsby’s T49 lb. In steadiness, however, the
“Campbell” left much to be desired, and on the light trial
raced badly.
Messrs. Weyman’s engine was run twice on the half-load
trial, the lamp and engine oil having been accidentally mixed
on the first run. The results were very closely concordant, and
those given are for the second run. For steadiness at half-
power and running light this engine is to be commended, its
action being very regular and uniform.
The engines of Messrs. Hornsby, Messrs. Crossley, and
Messrs. Wells, behaved also admirably in this respect.
The Britannia Co.’s engine showed a considerable tendency
to race, though to a less extent than the “ Campbell.” On the
light trial it used less oil per hour than any other engine, but
in comparing the relative economies due account must be taken
of the sizes of the different engines.
Not one of these engines can be pronounced a bad engine.
With one exception they all proved more economical on their
full-power efficiency trial than the oil engines tried at Plymouth
in 1890. But the two which in all-round excellence for farm
purposes showed themselves throughout these trials superior to
all the others were undoubtedly those of Messrs. Hornsby and
Messrs. Crossley.
For simplicity, reliability, steadiness, minimum of attendance,
and ease of starting, Messrs. Hornsby’s engine leaves little to
731
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
be desired. In economy over short periods and at light loads it
is scarcely equal to some others, but at lull load over longer
periods it is by very little surpassed by any.
Fig. 23.— Crossley Brothers’ Fixed Engine. Trial with Broxbourne Oil.
Volume swept through by Piston. Vertical Scale f 1 j .
Fig. 24. — Hornsby’s Fixed Engine. Trial with Broxbourne Oil.
Volume swept through by Piston. Vertical Scale |5.
Messrs. Crossley’s engine has surpassed all others in economy
at full power. It has also a very low consumption for longer
periods and lighter loads. In regularity and steadiness of run-
732
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
ning it did not show itself quite equal to the Hornsby, and it
required greater and more skilled attention.
These two engines were put upon a further trial for three
hours with Broxbourne oil. The calorific value of this oil was
certified by Mr. Charles J. Wilson as follows : —
“ Specific gravity at 60° F. = '8118.
“ Flash point (Abel test) = 155° F.
“ Calorific value of Broxbourne oil. — The mean of two concordant ex-
periments in the compressed oxygen calorimeter gives 1F019 calories per
gramme, all produced water being condensed. The correction calculated
from the hydrogen percentage is 742 calories, giving as the heat value 10277
calories, all products of combustion in the gaseous state at 24° C.
“ Chaeles J. Wilson."
This corresponds to a thermal value of 18,500 B.T.U. per lb.
Broxbourne Oil Trials.
Engines
Hornsby
& Sons, Ltd.
Crossley
i Brothers, Ltd.
Duration, minutes
180
180
Brake power
Wheel constant per revolution per lb.
000453a
•0004775
Dead load, lb., mean ....
78
85
Spring balance reading, mean
61
5
Nett load on brake, lb
719
80
Devolutions, total during trial
42,921
35,972
„ mean per min. .
238-5
199 84
Brake horse-power
8-27
763
Indicated, power
Cylinder constant per explosion per lb. .
002975
001458
Mean effective pressure, lbs. per sq. in. .
30-2
636
Explosions per min., mean
110
903
Indicated horse-power ....
9-9
8-4
Mechanical efficiency ....
•84
■91
Oil used
Lamp oil used, lb. .
—
175 x 1 '5 = 2 625
Engine oil used, lb
28-5
15-375
Total (lamp and engine), lb. .
285
18
Oil per I.H.P. per hr., lb. ...
•96
■72
„ B.H.P. „ „
115
•785
Jacket water
Jacket water per min., lb.
18 6
8
Temperature, initial mean, Fahr. .
63-3°
64°
„ final „
1110
111-7°
Rise in degrees Fahr
477
47-7
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge. 733
The cost of this oil was 8 \d. per gallon, delivered at
Cambridge, from which has to be deducted the value of the cask,
which would reduce the price to about 7 d. a gallon, or nearly
twice the price of the Russolene. Indicator cards taken upon
this run are copied in figs. 23 and 24 (p. 731), and show that in
the Crossley engine a much sharper and straighter explosion line
is obtained with this oil, while the mean pressure is much lower —
namely, 63’6 lb. per square inch. In the Hornsby engine there
is little difference, but the initial pressure is lower than with
Russolene.
The engines had been previously cleaned, which would ac-
count for their rather higher mechanical efficiency upon this trial.
The results are given in the table on p. 732. The economy
of the Crossley engine was still greater with this oil than with
Russolene.
The trial was made with a flying stai-t, and the lamp oil could
not, therefore, be measured in the case of the Crossley engine.
It has been allowed for at the same rate as on the full-power
Russolene trial. This is no doubt more, rather than less, than it
would actually use, as in that quantity will be included the
oil burnt during the ten minutes required to start.
An approximate heat balance would stand as follows for the
two full-power trials for the two engines in question : —
Full-Power Trials.
Expenditure of Heat, B.T.U.’s per min.
Russolene
Broxbourne
—
Hornsby
Per-
centage
Crossley
Per-
centage
Hornsby
Per-
centage
Crossley
Per-
centage
Thermal value of oil \
used per min. . J
B.T.U.
2,580
1000
B.T.U.
1,770
1000
B.T.U.
2,930
1000
B.T.U.
1,850
1000
Heat expended in use- 1
ful work= B.H.P. J
363
14
297
16-7
351
120
324
17-6
Heat lost by friction .
74
29
39
22
67
23
31
1-7
Heat shewn on indica- ;
tor diagram (I. H.P.)
437
16*9
336
189
418
143
355
19-2
Heat rejected in jackets
763
29'5
424
24
887
303
382
207
Heat rejected in ex- i
liaust and other j,
losses . . . j
1,380
53-6
1,010
57-1
1,626
55'4
1,118
601
VOL. V. T. s. — 20 3 c
734
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
Class II. — Portable Engines.
General Description of the Engines.
Messrs. Hornsby’s engine (First Prize, 50/.) is illustrated in
fig. 25. It is in all respects an admirable portable engine. The
general arrangement of working parts is precisely the same as
that of the fixed engine and will need no further description.
It is mounted on a light and stable carriage running on four
wheels. The oil- tank is beneath the framework and the box-
platform contains about 20 gallons of water. A circulating
pump passes the jacket water from this tank through the jackets
and over vertical boards in a casing very closely resembling
in appearance a small vertical boiler. The exhaust passes up
through the centre of this cooler and draws a current of air
between the boards in the contrary direction to the flow of
water. This forms a simple and compact arrangement, and
answered admirably on the trials. Over the three days’ run,
only 80 gallons of cooling water were required, a very small
quantity compared with that needed by a steam-engine of similar
power. A very efficient steam-engine, using, say, 20 lb. of
water per indicated horse-power per hour would in the same
time have consumed upwards of 670 gallons.
At one projecting end of the crank shaft is mounted a fly-
wheel, at the other a 3 ft. 10^ in. belt pulley. Upon both of
these brakes were run during the trial to prevent the excessive
heating of the flywheel.
The arrangements for driving are good, there being clear-
ance both ahead and astern, though in the latter direction only
when the lower side of the belt is led at a considerable angle
above the horizontal. A horizontal belt would not clear the
following axle.
The weight of the engine, which is of 1 2^ brake horse-power,
is 81 cwts. empty. The width over axles is 5 ft. 8 ins. and the
length 13 ft. 6 ins. The starting and running of this engine
were faultless, and the oil consumption was low, though neces-
sarily greater, reckoned on the brake horse-power, than that of
the fixed engine, on account of the pump duty. It was 1‘09 lb.
per brake horse-power hour on the three days’ run and T08 lb.
on the 2 hours’ full-power trial. Per indicated horse-power,
however, it compares very favourably with the fixed engine,
consuming only 0'75 lb. per indicated horse-power hour on the
full-power run. The mechanical efficiency was lower from the
same cause — namely, 69 per cent., as compared with 83 per cent,
in the fixed engine.
The main consideration about a portable engine is not neceS'
735
The Trials of Gil Engines at Cambridc/e.
sarily its consumption. Provided that is reasonably good, con-
venience of transit, lightness, steadiness of running, quantity of
water required, and reliability without undue attention, are of
relatively greater importance. In the “ Hornsby ” engine all
si
I
these qualities are found to a high degree of perfection, and a
very economical rate of consumption as well.
As far as the engine goes, Messrs. Crossleg’s 1 2 brake horse-
power portable is satisfactory in design. Its general arrange-
3 c 2
—Hornsby's Portable Oil Engine (First Prize).
736 The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
ment is precisely like that of the fixed engine, and it is mounted
on a three-wheeled platform of neat appearance. The clearance
space beneath, however, is too small, and the single front wheel
must render the engine unstable in turning a sharp corner.
There are two flywheels, one at either end of the crank
shaft, and the clearance in front is all that can be desired.
Astern, however, there is little possibility of getting a lead
clear of the wheel axles and gearing.
Details of Portable Engines. Class II.
Engine . . . j
Hornsby &
Sons, Ltd.
Crossley
Bros., Ltd.
The Campbell
Gas Engine
Co., Ltd.
Clarke,
Chapman &
Co., Ltd.
Catalogue No. .
5,973
5,828
5,764
5,869
Declared B.H.P.
12|
12
10*
12
Weight in cwts. t
(empty) . . /
81
62
—
—
Capacity of water- )
tank . . ./
20 gallons j
67 gallons, j
working [
supply 30 [
gallons J
165 gallons
—
Price complete
£285
£200
£190
£275
Over-all dimensions j
13 ft. G in. x
5 ft. 8 in.
12 ft. 9 in. x
6 ft. 3 in.
12 ft. 6 in. x
6 ft. 3 in.
11 ft. X
6 ft. 1 in.
Diameter of cylin- "1
der, inches ./
12
h|«
00
10£
Stroke, inches .
16
18
16
16
Diameter of flywheel
5 ft.
2 of 5 ft.
4 ft. 6 in.
2 of 5 ft.
Width of flywheel, y
inches . . J
G
5
«*
G
Revolutions per j
min. declared . j
200
210
180
230
The oil- and water-tanks are arranged below the platform, the
water-tank being capable of holding about 60 gallons. A draught
of air is maintained through the water so as to cool it, and does
this so efficiently that during the trials the maximum tempera-
ture of the jacket water was below 1 20° Fakr. The total weight
of the engine is 62 cwts. empty, its breadth over all being 6 ft.
i
o
£
ft
g
s!
Light
Clarke
Chap-
man
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge. 737
« N 6 c>»
| 1 1 1 1 gl 1 III IJ5-S2I Ig 1 1
Camp-
bell
I I I 1 l SI 1 INI 1 ill 1 § II
sir
o
1 I 1 l 1 1 1 i i i | 1 S§5 1 13 II
Hornsby
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 ggf i l| 11
j Clarke
Chap-
man
| 2 hrs.
1
85
j. 8-3
76-7
186-5
6-86
18-75
1-36
9-37
Half power
Camp-
bell
S i c « s If i i i ii 1 1 S i sf ii
Cross-
ley
| 1 S s IS! H'|| |g II
Hornsby
| i & s 1 si i i 1 1 1 s|g i g| ii
Full power
Clarke
Chap-
man
J i * » , .
g 1 S £ S « 1 1 I 1 s 5 ” ^ 2 ►-
fN •a
Camp-
bell
• jo ,o r "
w CO • —4 CO T#* o Cl _
1 1 i S I S3 1 H 1 IS2?S 1 |
Cross- 1
•ley
,A tp
Jh | C5 T* *— < O Oi | O r-i • • w5 «_ gj- *7-1 OC © ■ ,
2 | O CC O ©£> 1-**© wS*PPc5 1 1
Hornsby
If.
rjj CO *7^ ■— * *P ^ < tO tO -y-
Jj ' ao®Mcooc« , £ SaS P *7* P 2 © 2 II
Three days full form
Clarke |
Chap-
man
? ! § » a |2 1 1 1 1 l 15£ss is* l^lf
O © rH ^ M ^ co S'05
Camp-
bell
2 2 60 to
~ c-'i in P t1 a 2 ?i . iii , i P | ^ c-s »o
CO ^ H ^ h S7 Cl X 05 <? ±, is
© r— t— i C5 1 — © 1 III 1 1 UJ 1 • N ^ 33
* g <? -
Cross-
ley
21-66hrs.
•000477
103-2
41
991
205- 5
9-69
•002579
18-75
188
206- 75
•98
9-5
120
15-5
Hornsby
21-48 hrs.
R.0004795
L. 000369
R. 84
L. 66
R. 5
L. 6-75
R. 79
L. 49-25
196-6
11-1
•00457
7
240-75
247-75
I- 09
II- 53
80
9
Nature of Trial . • • 1
Engine
Duration of Trial .
Brake Pout.
Wheel constant per lb.per rev. j
Dead load, lb., mean . j
Spring balance reading, mean j
Nett load on brake, lb. . j
Revolutions per min., mean .
Brake horse-power, mean
Indicated power.
Cylinder constant per lb. per
explosion ....
Explosions per min., mean
Mean effective pressure, lb. per
sq. in
Indicated horse-power .
Mechanical efficiency
Oil used.
Lamp oil u^ed, lb. .
Engine oil used, lb. .
Total lamp and engine, lb. .
Oil per I. H.P. per hr., lb.
Oil per B H P. per hr., lb.
Oil total per hr., lb. .
Jacket water.
Total during trial by meter, lb
Time taken to start, mins.
738
The Trials of Oil Engines at Cambridge.
3 ins., and its extreme length 12 ft. 9 ins. The running of the
engine was not altogether satisfactory. The explosions were
irregular and at times extremely violent, especially on the half-
power consumption trial. This was probably owing to prevent-
able causes, and was greatly relieved by a temporary slow down.
The consumption was less than that of the “ Hornsby ”
engine — namely, 098 lb. per brake horse-power hour on the
three days’ run, and 090 lb. on the 2 hours’ full-power trial.
There was no explosion-counter fitted, but no missed explo-
sions were observed, and they have been taken, as equal to half
the number of revolutions. The consumption on the 2 hours’
full-power trial was 0 62 lb. per indicated horse-power hour.
The mechanical efficiency was 69 per cent. In its present con-
dition the Judges felt that the engine did not merit the distinc-
tion which would be given to it by the award of the second
prize.
The “ Campbell,” 10^- brake horse-power engine, can scarcely
be called a portable engine. It is an excellent fixed engine upon
a platform, but the only fact which could recommend its mount-
ing is its clearance below, which is certainly a good point. The
platform itself is a roughly-constructed tank filled with 165
gallons of water, with no provision for cooling except conduction
and radiation through the sides, and on the trial the water
rapidly got hot and had to be renewed. On the three days’
trial, 1188 gallons of water were required for the 22\ hours’
run, which contrasts unfavourably with the 80 gallons of the
“ Hornsby ” and 120 gallons of the “ Crossley ” engine on the
same trial. The engine itself ran well except on the third day,
when there was a large number of exhaust explosions. Its con-
sumption was the lowest of any of the portables on the three
days’ run, namely, 094 lb. per brake horse-power hour, and on
the full-power trial it was second with 0’99 lb. per brake horse-
power hour. The belt lead was not good and could only prove
satisfactory over a very limited range.
The Clarke-Chapman portable engine of 12 brake horse-power
as exhibited was crude and unwieldy in design, though mani-
festly capable of improvement. It was scarcely in running trim
till close upon the finish of the trials, and was evidently in no
condition to do itself or its makers justice.
The leading particulars of these engines and a brief summai’y
of the results of the trials are given in the tables on the two
preceding pages.
King’s College, London, W.C.
D. S. Capper.
739
Official IRepcvts.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
TO THE
HALF-YEARLY GENERAL MEETING OF GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS
Held at the Society’s House,
13 Hanover Square, W.,
ON THURSDAY, DEOEMBER 13, 1894,
Sir John H. Thorold, Bart. (President), in the Chair.
The Council have to report that the List of Governors and Members
has undergone the following changes during the half-year which has
elapsed since the Anniversary General Meeting on May 22 last : —
7 new Governors and 235 Members have joined the Society, 5 have
been re-instated as Members under Bye-Law 12, and 6 Members
have qualified as Governors ; whilst the deaths of 5 Governors,
16 Life-Members, and 79 Annual Members have been reported. A
total of 12 Members have been struck off the books under Bye-
Law 10, owing to absence of addresses ; 23 under Bye-Law 11, for
arrears of subscriptions ; and 64 have resigned.
2. The death of Mr. James Rawlence, at the great age of eighty-
four, has deprived the Council of an active and valued colleague. Mr.
Rawlence became a Member of the Society so long ago as 1844,
and was elected to a seat on the Council in 1871.
3. The Council have elected as an Honorary Member of the
Society Professor Wilhelm Fleischmann, Director of the Agricultural
Institute of the Royal University of Konigsberg, in recognition
of his distinguished services to European Agriculture, and especially
to the industry of dairying ; and they have appointed Professor
G. T. Brown, C.B., as Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the Society,
in conjunction with Professor Simonds.
4. Amongst other Governors and Members whose loss by death
the Society has had to deplore since the Anniversary Meeting in
May last are Earl Grey, lv.G., one of the original founders of the
Society, and its oldest member since the death of Sir Harry
Verney ; the Marquess of Headfort, Earl Sondes, Viscount Hardinge
740
Report to the General Meeting ,
the Rev. Lord Forester, Lord Charles J. F. Russell (a Foundation
Life Governor, elected in 1838), Lord Swansea (a Member of the
Council from 1884 to 1886), the Hon. Elton Gifford, the Hon. Edward
Kenyon, Sir John D. Astley, Bart., Sir W. R. C. Cooke, Bart., Sir
John Cowell, Bart., Sir J. Errington, Bart., Sir Gilbert Greenall,
Bart, (a Member since 1841), Sir C. H. Tempest, Bart., Gen. Sir
George Maude, Col. the Rt. Hon. J. S. North (a Foundation Life
Governor, elected in 1839), Mr. J. S. Bankes (a Member since
1847), Mr. Manfred Biddell, Col. Ireland Blackburne, Mr.
R. Bamford Hesketh, Mr. R. Archer- Houblon (a Foundation
Life Governor, elected in 1840), Mr. F. D. Johnson, of Aykley-
heads, Durham (a Member since 1844), Mr. John Morton, of
West Rudham, Mr. John Prout, of Sawbridgeworth, Mr. N. P.
Stilgoe, of Adderbury, Banbury, Mr. John Walter, of Bearwood,
Mr. James Weatherby, and Gen. E. L. Wynne, of Coed Coch,
Abergele.
5. These and other changes bring the total number of Governors
and Members now on the Register to 11,247, divided as follows : —
17 Foundation Life Governors (Members elected before the
granting of the Charter on March 26, 1840) ;
77 Governors paying an annual subscription of 5 1. ;
96 Life Governors ;
7250 Members paying an annual subscription of 11. )
3682 Life Members ;
102 Life Members by Examination ;
23 Honorary Members ;
11,247 Total number of Governors and Members ;
or a net increase of 28 Members since the same period last year.
6. It is with great pleasure that the Council congratulate the
Governors and Members upon the first General Meeting in the
Society’s new house, and upon the satisfactory completion of an
enterprise which has engaged the constant attention of the House
Committee for the past two years. It is only fitting that acknow-
ledgment should here be made, as in previous reports, of the Society’s
deep indebtedness to the Duke of Westminster and Sir Walter
Gilbey, without whose timely and generous help it would have been
impossible for the Society to become possessed of a permanent home
so commodious and so centrally situated. The large room on the
ground floor has been fitted up as a reading and writing room for
the convenience of Members, and it is now open and ready for use.
7. By the acquisition of these new premises the Council will be
able through their Committees and Executive Staff to carry on the
multifarious operations of the Society under greatly improved con-
ditions ; and there is every reason to hope that the work of the
Society may continue to develop in many useful directions. At the
same time it must be borne in mind that the maintenance and
extension of the Society’s operations depend upon a continued How
of new subscribers. At least 500 new Members need to be elected
Thursday, December 13, 1894.
741
every year to take tlie place of those who die or retire. The Council
desire, therefore, particularly to invite each Member to interest him-
self in obtaining new subscribers to the Society, and to suggest the
names of any farmers, or others interested in agriculture in his
district or of his acquaintance, who would be likely to become
Members. The Secretary will, upon receipt of instructions, either
write direct to the gentleman named, or will forward a supply of
application forms to the nominating Member. A form of nomination
is printed in each number of the Journal.
8. The Society’s Fifty-fifth annual Country Meeting was held
last June at Cambridge. Many circumstances combined to render it
memorable. The rare event of the Society’s Meeting taking place
at a university town, coupled with the fact that the previous Cam-
bridge Meeting of 1840 took place in the year of the Society’s incor-
poration by Royal Charter, gave exceptional interest to the occasion.
Nothing could have surpassed the cordiality with which the Society
was welcomed by both the municipal and the university authorities.
Owing to the comparatively small and scattered population of East
Anglia, it was. feared that the attendance would fall below the
average. Fortunately this was not the case. Favoured by superb
weather throughout the Show week, the number of paying visitors
reached a total of 111,658, and the financial result was a profit of
the satisfactory amount of 1,096/. Is. Id. To this gratifying result
the active exertions of the Local Committee very materially contri-
buted. Besides dispensing its traditional hospitalities during the
Meeting, the University of Cambridge paid a graceful compliment
to the Society by conferring Honorary Degrees upon selected repre-
sentatives of Agriculture, including H.R.H. the Duke of York, a
Governor of the Society, and Members of the Council and
Executive. The ceremony, at which the Chancellor of the Univer-
sity conferred these degrees in person, took place in the Senate
House on the Wednesday of the Meeting.
9. The Council have decided that the Darlington Meeting shall
open on Monday, June 24, 1895, and close on the following Friday
evening. The Implement Yard and the Dairy will be open to
Members of the Society and the public on the previous Saturday,
J une 22. The last day for making entries in the Implement Depart-
ment will be Monday, April 1 j but post-entries of agricultural
implements only will be received up to Monday, April 8. For Stock,
Poultry, and Produce the entries will close on Wednesday, May 1,
with post-entries at extra fees up to Saturday, May 1 1 ; but pro-
vision will be made for enabling exhibitors who have entered
animals in due time to substitute for them entries of other animals
in the same class up to Friday, May 31.
10. The Council have already reported their decision to offer in
connection with the Darlington Meeting prizes amounting to
60/. for Hay- and Clover-making Machines. The detailed regula-
tions for the trials have now been issued. The entries will close on
Monday, April 1, 1895. Each competitor will be required to deposit
742
Report to the General Meeting,
51. at the time of making his entry for each implement entered,
which will be forfeited in the event of the implement being sub-
sequently withdrawn, or not duly submitted to competition. The
trials will take place, shortly after the Darlington Meeting, on land
in the neighbourhood selected by the Society.
11. The Prize-sheet for Stock, Poultry, and Produce has now
been definitely settled, and will be issued immediately. The prizes
offered in all departments (exclusive of Champion Prizes and Medals
offered by various Breed Societies) amount in all to 6035/., of which
948/. are provided by the Darlington Local Committee.
12. The Special Prizes offered by the Darlington Local Committee
for Live Stock include seven classes for Hunters, three for Cleve-
land Bays, three for Coach Horses, four for Hackneys, one for
Ponies, two for Shetland Ponies, two for Pit Ponies, two for Har-
ness Horses, two for Agricultural Geldings, and one for Rulley
Horses ; one class for Aberdeen Angus Cattle, one for Galloways,
and two classes for Dairy Cows ; one class for Wensleydale and
one for Border Leicester Ewes and Lambs. The Local Committee
also offer three prizes in each of five classes for Stilton, Cother-
stone, Wensleydale and Swaledale, and Cleveland Cheeses made
in 1894, with a champion prize of £20 for the best exhibit in these
classes ; and they provide prizes amounting to 16/. for a competition
of local dairymaids and others.
13. The classes for Horses offered by the Society itself will
include Hunters, Cleveland Bays, Coach Horses, Hackneys, Ponies,
Shires, Clydesdales, and Suffolks. In the Cattle Classes prizes will
be offered by the Society for the Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, Sussex,
Welsh, Red Polled, Aberdeen Angus, Galloway, Highland, Ayrshire,
Jersey, Guernsey, Kerry, and Dexter Kerry breeds, as well as two
Classes for Dairy Cows yielding the largest quantity of milk, and
the greatest weight of butter fat. The classes for Sheep will include
Leicesters, Cotswolds, Lincolns, Oxford Downs, Shropshires, South -
downs, Hampshire Downs, Suffolks, Wensleydales, Border Leicesters,
Somerset and Dorset Horned, Kentish. or Romney Marsh, Cheviots,
Black-faced Mountain, Lonks, Ilerdwicks, and Welsh Mountain.
Those for Pigs will include the Large White, Middle White, Small
White, Berkshire, Black, and Tam worth breeds ; but it will, of course,
depend upon the regulations of the Board of Agriculture in force
at the time whether any exhibition of Pigs can take place at the
Darlington Meeting. Prizes will also be given for useful descrip-
tions of Poultry, including Table Fowls and Ducks ; for Butter ; for
Cheeses of 1895 make ; for Cider and Pei’ry ; and for Whole Fruit
Jams and Bottled Fruits made iu 1894. The British Beekeepers’
Association will continue their Prizes for Hives, Honey, and Bee
Appliances.
14. Butter-making Competitions will be continued at Darlington
in four classes, including the class offered by the Local Committee,
Thursday , December 13, 1894.
743
with a Champion class for the Society’s Silver Medal and a prize of
51. There will also be a competition of Shoeing Smiths practising
in the district of the Show, comprising the counties of Northumber-
land, Cumberland, Durham, and Westmorland. The competition
will be in two classes, viz. for Cart Horses and Hunters, and Prizes
amounting to 16?. will be offered in each class. The Worshipful
Company of Farriers have offered to present the Freedom of their
Guild, free of cost, to the winner of the First Prize in each Class,
provided the Judges consider that sufficient ability has been dis-
played. The Registration Committee of the Farriers’ Company will
also admit the First Prize winners in these Competitions to the
Official Register of Farriers or Shoeing Smiths free of charge, and
(on payment of the usual fees) all other competitors who shall duly
satisfy the J udges of their efficiency.
15. The Council have decided to publish the list of the Veteri-
nary Inspectors of Stallions and Brood Mares, with the names of the
Judges, in the March number of the Journal, and to furnish owners
of rejected animals, upon their application in due form, with a copy
of the Veterinary Inspector’s certificate.
16. Memorials having been received from the authorities of
Leicester and Northampton, inviting the Society to hold its Country
Meeting of 1896 in their respective localities, the question as to
which of the two boroughs should be selected came up for final decision
on November 7 last, when influential deputations attended from
both places. After duly considering the arguments advanced on
behalf of each town, as well as the report presented by the Com-
mittee of Inspection appointed to visit and examine the sites and other
accommodation offered, the Council decided in favour of Leicester,
where the Country Meeting of 1896 will accordingly be held.
Leicester’s central position renders it easily accessible from all parts
of the kingdom, as well as from those Midland counties in the
immediate district of the Show ; and the Council anticipate, there-
fore, a successful Country Meeting for the year 1896.
17. The Special Committee appointed by the Council to inquire
into the nature and causes of abortion in cattle have presented their
report. This report, which is printed in Part II. of the J ournal for
1894, recommends that, for practical purposes and with a view
to the adoption of the necessary precautions, the disease should be
deemed to be contagious, and states that the evidence laid before
the Committee justifies the adoption of the antiseptic treatment
described in the leaflet issued by the Society, to which reference was
made by the Council in their last report. Scientific investigations
into the causes of abortion in cattle are now proceeding at the
Royal Veterinary College, under a special grant of 200?. made by the
Council for this purpose.
18. In view of the spreading of Anthrax, caused by the neglect
of pi’ecautions in the disposal of Anthrax carcases, and of the
744
Report to the General Meeting ,
danger to those handling them unskilfully, the Council issued in
August last a leaflet summarising important facts from the article
by Professors Brown and McFadyean in Part II. of the Journal for
1894, and giving simple directions for the effective disposal of the
carcases of animals which have died from this disease.
19. In the last report allusion was made to the success which
had attended the efforts of the Board of Agriculture to stamp out
Pleuro-pneumonia, only eight outbreaks having occurred in the
course of the year (1893) as compared with thirty-five in 1892 and
192 in 1891. The record of this year is still more satisfactory, as
only two outbreaks were reported — one in May, in Kent, near
Margate, and a second at Hendon in July. In each case the
slaughter of the infected herd arrested the further progress of the
disease. Swine Fever has continued to prevail in various parts of
the kingdom, in spite of the measures which have been applied for
its repression. Recently, however, there has been a considerable
decrease in the number of outbreaks in Great Britain. An outbreak
of Foot-and-Mouth Disease was reported in the last week of October
in a small herd of cattle on a marsh at Rainham, Essex. All the
animals were immediately slaughtered and buried, and other pre-
cautions were adopted. Since then twro outbreaks have occurred — -
one in Cambridgeshire and one near Sittingbourne, Kent. In both
cases the precautions adopted were successful in arresting the spread
of the disease. The restrictions on the movement and sale of animals
have been removed, except in small areas round the infected places.
The Council regret to observe that a considerable number of cases
of Rabies have been reported in Lancashire and Yorkshire (West
Riding).
20. In the Department of Comparative Pathology and Bacterio-
logy, established at the Royal Y eterinary College by the aid of a grant
from the Society, the work in the Research Laboratory has taken
a wide range, including investigations on Tuberculosis, Diphtheria,
Anthrax, Swine Fever, and allied diseases of swine, Ring-worm in
calves, diseases of the joints of foals, and the use of Mallein and
Tuberculin for the detection of Glanders and Tubercle in the earliest
stage. The further experiments which have been made have
materially strengthened the evidence in favour of both agents as
aids to diagnosis in doubtful cases of disease. On all these subjects
articles have appeared in, or are being prepared for, the Society’s
J ournal.
21. The number of samples sent to the Consulting Chemist by
Members of the Society during the past seven months has been 506,
making a total for the twelve months, December 1, 1893, to No-
vember 30, 1894, of 1,148. Although the Fertilisers and Feeding
Stuffs Act has now been in force for nearly a year, the Chemical
Committee have reason to believe that but few samples have
been sent for analysis under it, and that the advantages which
this Society offers to its Members, together with the simpler pro-
Thursday , December 13, 1894.
745
cedure involved in sending samples to the Consulting Chemist, will
be found much more generally useful to the farming community.
22. An especially abundant harvest has been this year experi-
enced at the Woburn Experimental Farm. A continuation of
previous experiments on the prevention of Potato Disease by the
application of “ Bouillie Bordelaise ” (sulphate of copper, lime, and
water) has again resulted in showing the benefit to be derived from
this treatment of the potato crop. A change in the resident man-
agership of the Experimental Farm was necessitated in October
by the resignation of Mr. A. E. Elliott. Mr. Elliott had been man-
ager at the farm for over five years, and during his tenure of the
office both the farm and the experiments have been maintained in
a very efficient state. The vacancy has been filled up by the
appointment of Mr. C. H. B. Cane, late of Dunchurch, Rugby.
During the forthcoming winter season feeding experiments will be
conducted at the farm, both with bullocks and with sheep. The main
object of the experiments will be to ascertain the value of home-
grown wheat and barley for feeding purposes, and especially their
possible effect in reducing the cost of the cake bill on the farm.
23. During the past year more than 270 applications have been
made to the Consulting Botanist. The majority of these have been
samples of grass for examination. The grass-seeds were on the
whole pure and free from weeds, though Yorkshire fog still con-
tinues in a large proportion of the samples of ryegrass, from which
it can be easily separated. Dodder was present in a very few of the
clovers. The seeds of sorrel often occur in considerable quantity in
white clover, otherwise the clovers were very free from impurity.
Inquiries as to the names and properties of weeds and seeds were
more numerous than before, and many cases of plants supposed to
be injurious or poisonous to stock were reported upon. Mixtures
for permanent pasture are still purchased, and some that were
reported upon were most unsatisfactory. Many inquiries as to
diseases of cereals, fruit trees, root crops, and garden plants were
received and investigated.
24. The disease of Anbury, or Finger-and-Toe, in Turnips con-
tinues to engage the attention of the Botanical and Zoological
Committee, and a report by Dr. Yoelcker on the results of the
inquiry, so far as it has proceeded, appeared in the June number of
the Journal.
25. Among the insect pests which have been reported to the
Zoologist during the last six months, the grub of the cockchafer holds
a prominent place, and has been one of the principal subjects of in-
vestigation. Inquiries have been received with regard to many
well-known injurious insects, such as the oak tortrix, root-flies, slug-
worms, surface caterpillars, and grain-weevils ; but in most cases the
attacks have not assumed any great proportions, and the year as a
whole seems to have been more than usually free from important
746
Report to the General Meeting ,
insect depredations. One application had reference to Hessian fly,
but the attack was so slight as to escape notice until the barley had
been cut.
26. As the result of the Examination for the Society’s Senior Prizes
and Certificates, which took place on May 8-12 last, fifteen of the
twenty-eight competitors satisfied the Examiners ; and the following
competitors, placed in order of merit, gained First Class Certificates,
the first six receiving additional rewards as stated below : —
1. John Dronsfield Whittaker, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
First Prize of 25 1. and Life Membership of the Society.
2. Alexander Clark Welch, 5 West Newington Place, Edinburgh.
Second Prize of 15 1. and Life Membership of the Society.
3. Charles J. R. Tipper, The Agricultural College, Aspatria. Third
Prize of 1 0/. and Life Membership of the Society.
4. Herbert Simpson Daine, Woolfall Hall Farm, Huyton, Liverpool.
Fourth Prize of 51. and Life Membership of the Society.
5. John Waugh Paterson, 14 Brunstane Road, Portobello, N.B. Life
Membership of the Society.
6. Grosvenor Berry, Fairseat, Wrotham, Kent. Life Membership of the
Society.
7. Joseph Terrence de La Mothe, The Agricultural College, Aspatria.
8. Albert A. Dixon, The Agricultural College, Aspatria.
0. Alfred George Scorer, Abercorn Lodge, Upper Hamilton Terrace, N.W.
10. George Lloyd Pain, Woodhay, Silverdale, Carnforth.
The following candidates, having passed in Agriculture and in
three of the four other compulsory subjects, received Second Class
Certificates : —
11. Frederick Victor Dutton, University College of North Wales,
Bangor. .
12. Richard Henry Evans, Llecheiddior Mill, Garn, R.S.O., Carnarvon.
13. Alexander George Gibson, University College of Wales, Aberyst-
wyth.
14. William George Rumbold, 22 Great George Street, Westminster, S.W.
15. Thomas Whiting, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.
27. Having further considered the question of the rewards to be
offered to successful candidates at the Society’s Senior Examination,
the Council have resolved to place annually at the disposal of the
Education Committee five Life Memberships of the Society, to be
awarded to the five candidates who stand highest on the list of
winners of first-class certificates, and who obtain not less than two-
thirds of the maximum number of marks. In lieu of the money
prizes heretofore offered, the Council propose to bestow the Gold
Medal of the Society upon the candidate who stands highest on the
list of winners of Life Memberships, provided that he has
obtained not less than three-fourths of the maximum number of
mai'ks, and Silver Medals upon the other winners of Life Member-
ships (including the candidate at the head of the list, if he does not
reach the standard required for a Gold Medal).
Thursday , December 13, 1894. 747
The next Senior Examination will he held from May 7 to 11,
1895.
28. The Annual Examination for the Society’s ten Junior
Scholarships of 20/. each took place on November 13 and 14, when
thirty-two candidates competed. Of these, twenty passed in all four
subjects (Agriculture, Chemistry, Mechanics, and Land Surveying),
apd obtained the number of marks necessary to qualify them for the
Society’s Scholarships and Certificates, in the event of their comply-
ing, during the forthcoming year, with the conditions of the Examina-
tion. Two other boys passed in each of the four subjects, but, not
having obtained the minimum aggregate of marks, are ineligible for
Certificates. Of the ten other unsuccessful candidates, four failed
in one subject, four in two subjects, and two in three subjects. There
were two failures in Agriculture, eight in Chemistry, six in Me-
chanics, and two in Land Surveying. Of the twenty successful
candidates, the first ten in the following list will receive Scholarships
upon complying with the Society’s regulations, and the remainder
will receive Certificates : —
1. Charles Elmhirst Duckering, Sedgebrook School, near Grantham.
2. Charles Edgar Nathaniel Reed, Ashburton Grammar School,
3. Frederick Hawkins, Ashburton Grammar School.
4. John Satterly, Ashburton Grammar School.
5. Edward Sawdye, Ashburton Grammar School.
6. John WAV. Armstrong, North-Eastern County School, Barnard Castle.
7. Ernest French, Ashburton Grammar School.
8. Sydney George Bell, Aspatria Agricultural College.
9. Joseph Henry Thomas, Sexey’s Trade School, Bruton, Som.
10. William Stradling, Devon County School.
11. Arthur Pedlar Endacott, Ashburton Grammar School.
12. Percy Stutville Isaacson, Ashburton Grammar School.
13. Geoefry Sowerby, North-Eastern County School, Barnard Castle.
14. Harry Russell, Aspatria Agricultural College.
15. Ernest John Price, Sexey’s Trade School, Bruton, Som.
16. Charles Jones Lockyer, Sexey’s Trade School, Bruton, Som.
17. James Barron, Aspatria Agricultural College.
18. Thomas Bertrand Abell, Devon County School.
19. John Luker, Aspatria Agricultural College.
20. Frederick Soul, Pine House School, Wincanton, Som.
By Order of the Council,
ERNEST CLARKE,
13 Hanover Square, London, W.
December 12, 1894.
Secretary.
748
QUARTERLY REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL
COMMITTEE, DECEMBER 1894.
“Roasted Nitrate of Soda.”
Tiie Committee think it desirable to call special attention to the
fact that under the names of “ Damaged Nitrate of Soda,” or
“ Roasted Nitrate of Soda,” a practically worthless material is in
some parts being sold to farmers as a fertiliser. This material is in
reality the residue obtained from the nitre pots used in oil of vitriol
manufacture, and has been almost entirely deprived of the nitrate it
contained, so that it has hardly any manurial value at all.
It is believed that farmers are induced to purchase this refuse
under the idea that they are getting a cheap manure containing an
appreciable quantity of nitrate of soda. A case exemplifying this
was set out in the Report of the Committee for July, 1894 (Journal
R.A.S.E., Third Series, Vol. V., Part III., No. 19, p. 546), and the
following forms another instance in point : —
1. Mr. W. H. Glossop, of Forest House, Babworth, near Retford,
sent on September 11, 1894, for analysis, a sample of what, he said,
purported to be “ damaged nitrate of soda.”
Dr. Yoelcker’s analysis and report were : —
September 19, 1894
25 \
•25\
•29
•05 V
Water ....
Common salt .
Nitrate of soda ....... ’05 )■ lOO'OO
Free sulphuric acid ....... 14-05
Sulphate of soda, &c 85'36
This is not nitrate of soda at all, but probably the refuse from nitre pots
used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. It has no manurial value.
One ton 5 cwt. of the material had been purchased from Mr.
William Hammond, sand and manure merchant, of 63 Weedon
Street, Carbrook, Sheffield, at 30s. per ton ; but Mr. Glossop stated
that though at the time of purchase the manure was represented to
him to be damaged nitrate of soda, yet when the invoice came the
description it bore was merely “ tillage.” The invoice, further, con-
tained no statement (such as is required by the Fertilisers and
Feeding Stuffs Act) of the fertilising ingredients guaranteed to be
present in the manure.
Nitrate of Soda Adulterated with Salt.
2. Mr. William J. Graham, of Crepping Hall, Stutton, Suffolk,
sent for analysis on July 20 a sample of nitrate of soda.
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , December, 1894. 749
The report on this sample was : —
July 25, 1894.
Moisture ......... 0-60 \
Chloride of sodium (common salt) .... 3078 I inn nn
Other impurities 109 j
Pure nitrate of soda 6T53J
An adulterated sample, containing over 30 per cent, of common salt.
Mr. Graham stated that he had purchased 5 tons of the
manure, at 10/. per ton, and that on the invoice was gummed a
label as follows : —
Analysis of Nit. Soda ; sample taken from bulk in Works,
Nit. soda
. 95-28
Sulphate soda .
•17
Chloride sodium
. 215
Insoluble matter
•20
Moisture .
. 2 20
Refraction
. 435
N.B. — Minimum percentage guaranteed under the Act of 1893 is 15 per
cent, nitrogen.
The amount of nitrogen shown in Dr. Voelcker’s analysis was
only 10’1 per cent.
Ultimately Mr. Graham said that he received an allowance of
10/. on the quantity purchased ; but he declined to give the name of
the vendors, as he said that the samples were not taken in a proper
manner. He added, however, that the merchants, when they made
him the full allowance he claimed, stated that they would get it
allowed them by the importers of whom they purchased.
Impure Sulphate of Ammonia.
3. Mr. H. J. Overy, of Mascall’s Court, Paddock Wood, Kent,
sent on July 19 a sample of 1 ton of sulphate of ammonia which
he had purchased on July 12, at 15/. 5s. per ton delivered (payment
in October). The order given was for 1 ton sulphate of ammonia
guaranteed to contain 24 per cent, of ammonia. The invoice,
however, bore in a footnote the following : —
Fertilisers sold by us contain (except where stated to the contraiy)
at least
Nitrogen ... 1 per cent.
Dr. Yoelcker’s analysis of the sample showed : —
July 23, 1894.
Moisture 475)
1 Sulphate of ammonia 86 84 h 100 00
Ash and other impurities ..... 9-01 J
1 containing nitrogen ...... 1872
equal to ammonia ...... 22 37
This is not a pure sample. Genuine sulphate of ammonia should have
at least 24 per cent, of ammonia. This is adulterated with mineral matter
(ash).
The vendors have agreed to deduct 25s. per ton for the deficiency
of quality.
VOL. V. T. S.— 20 3 D
750 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December, 1894.
Horn Waste.
4. Mr. Geo. Brown, of Gaysham Hall, Barkingside, Ilford,
Essex, brought for analysis on September 13 two samples of horn
waste. The one was a sample stated to have been given to Mr.
Brown at the time he ordered about 3 tons of horn waste, the
delivery to be as per sample. The other was a sample which Mr.
Brown said he took after delivery of the bulk had been made. The
price was 5 1. 15s. per ton, delivered to wagon in Covent Garden
Market, and the vendors were Messrs. F. A. Reeves & Co., 56
Hinton Road, Camberwell, S.E. The analyses of the two lots came
out as follows : —
Percentage of Sample Bulk delivered
Nitrogen ...... 10-07 5 22
equal to ammonia .... 12-23 6 34
In a letter from the vendors to Mr. Brown, pressing him for
prompt payment, they said : “ It [the manure] was delivered to your
wagon in a dry condition, and the bulk exactly the same as sample
shown you.”
Ultimately Mr. Brown took the delivery, paying 10/. instead of
the original charge of 16/. 10s. 3 d. in full discharge.
v 10000
Linseed Cake.
5. Mr. E. H. Loyd, of Langleybuvy, King’s Langley, Herts,
forwarded for analysis on August 13 a sample of 1 ton of
linseed cake sold to him, at 6/. 15s. per ton, by Messrs. F. G. King
& Co., Mill Granary, High Street, Watford.
Ur. Voelcker’s analysis showed : — August 25, 1894.
Moisture 11-45,
Oil 7-23
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 29 06
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . . . 35-57
Woody fibre (cellulose) 8-89
2 Mineral matter (ash) 7-80
1 containing nitrogen . . . . . . 4 '65
2 including sand ....... 2 80
A grossly impure cake, of low quality, containing much rape, polygonum,
platykop , and other weed seeds, besides nearly 3 per cent, of sand.
The cake was invoiced to Mr. Loyd as “ * * * L Cake,”
but, in the course of the inquiries subsequently made, it was
elicited that the makers had only invoiced it to Messrs. King & Co.
as “ * * * Oilcake.”
6. Mr. H. Tallent, of West Acre, Swaffham, sent on August 2 a
sample of linseed cake for analysis, on which the following report
was given by Dr. Voelcker : — August 9, 1894.
Moisture
Oil
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters)
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre
Woody fibre (cellulose)
Mineral matter (ash)
1 containing nitrogen .
A cake largely adulterated with foreign seeds.
11-35
8-86
28-S7
40-86
4- 81
5- 25
4-62
100-00
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee , December , 1894. 751
In reply to inquiries, Mr. Tallent said that the cake was one of
foreign make, and 60 tons had been sold to him for forward
delivery by friends of his, though under a guarantee of purity.
The contract was, in consequence, cancelled.
Poisoning by Castor-oil Bean.
The following case shows the great risk run in buying sweepings
of mills, floors, &c., and using them as food for stock.
7. Mr. S. Skinner, of Leeds, Maidstone, sent for analysis on
August 13 a sample of what he described as “mixed cake,” adding
that he had lost several sheep after feeding with it. The sample in
question was taken direct from the feeding-troughs.
Dr. Yoelcker’s report was : —
August 22, 1894.
Dear Sir, — I beg to report to you that I have examined the sample of
mixed cake sent by you, and that 1 find present in it castor-oil bean husks.
These, I need hardly point out, are of poisonous nature. It is a most risky
proceeding to purchase sweepings of wharves, warehouses, mills, See., and to
use these as food for cattle.
I take it you purchased without any guarantee as to the fitness of the
material as food. — Yours faithfully, J. Augustus Voelcker.
S. Skinner, Esq.
It appeared that out of a flock of ninety-six sheep, twenty-five
died, and all the rest were more or less affected. The veterinary
examination quite coincided with Dr. Yoelcker’s analysis. About 10
tons of the cake were bought, at 51. 15s. per ton. It was supposed
to be a mixture of linseed cake, common cotton cake, and decorti-
cated cotton cake, and was collected from wharves, warehouses, and
landing-stages. The cake having been purchased from a friend, more
particulars could not be obtained, except that full compensation was
made for the losses sustained.
Emlyn,
13 Hanover Square, London, W. Chairman.
December 11, 1894.
REPORT OF THE EDUCATION COMMITTEE
ON THE SOCIETY’S SENIOR EXAMINATION.
In view of the discussions which have of late taken place in
the Council as to the continuance of the Life Memberships which
have heretofore been granted to winners of First Class Certificates
at the Society’s Senior Examination, the Education Committee
think there may be advantage in placing upon record, for the in-
formation of the Council and the general body of Members, the
facts as to the origin and growth of the system of what is now
known as the Society’s Senior Examination.
1. This examination was first held in 1868, a previous system,1 * 3
1 For particulars of this system, see Mr. S. B. L. Druce’s paper in Vol. II.
2nd series (1866), page 209.
3 d 2
752
Report of the Education Committee
commenced in 1865, of prizes and scholarships offered at the Oxford
and Cambridge Local Examinations not having proved satisfactory.
A proposal made in April 1867 by the Earl of Powis, on behalf of
the Education Committee of that time, for the allocation of the
Education Grant of 1867 in scholarships and prizes at the Uni-
versity Local Examinations, led to an animated debate, in which Mr.
Dent, M.P., the President (Mr. Thompson), Lord Walsingham, Mr.
Holland, M.P., Major-General the Hon. A. N. Hood, Mr. Randell,
and Mr. Jabez Turner took part, and the motion was eventually
negatived by 16 votes to 6.
2. The Council held a special meeting on May 2, 1867, to
decide what should be done in the matter ; and as the result it was
resolved to have an examination of the Society’s own, to include
“ the science and practice of Agriculture, Book-keeping, and one
or more of the following subjects : Mechanics and their adaptation
to Agriculture, Chemistry, Botany, Geology, Veterinary Science,
Field Engineering, and Surveying.”
3. At a meeting of the Council held on June 5, 1867, a com-
mittee, consisting of the Earl of Powis, Major-General the Hon.
A. N. Hood, Mr. Acland, M.P., Mr. Dent, M.P., Mr. Holland, M.P.,
Colonel Kingscote, M.P., Mr. Wren Hoskyns, Dr. Voelcker, Mr.
Wells, Professor Wilson, and Mr. Frere, was appointed to carry out
this scheme ; and in July 1867 Mr. Holland brought up a report
containing the following recommendations, which are replanted as
showing the original regulations of the Senior Examination : —
1. That the first examination shall take place at the Society’s House in
Hanover Square during the week commencing April 20, 18GS.
2. That forms of entry be prepared, which are to be duly filled up and
returned to the Secretary [together with a certificate of general education],1
on or before February 20, 1868.
3. That the examinations shall be conducted by means of written papers,
and by a viva voce examination [at which any member of the Society may
be present].
4. That every candidate be required to satisfy the examiners in the
science and practice of Agriculture and in Bjok-kecping, and also in one of
the two following subjects : Land Surveying, and Mechanics as applied to
Agriculture.
5. That the successful candidates he placed in two classes, and he ar-
ranged in order of merit.
6. That candidates, in order to he placed in the first class, must satisfy
the examiners in both the above-named subjects — Land Surveying, and Me-
chanics applied to Agriculture, and also in Chemistry.
7. That any candidate may oiler himself for examination in one or more
of the following subjects : Botany, Geology, and Veterinary Science. Any
knowledge which he may show of these subjects will be counted to his credit
in the general classification, provided that he has fulfilled the foregoingcon-
ditions, and provided that the knowledge of these subjects does not fall below
the standard fixed as a minimum in each of these optional subjects.
8. Each successful candidate obtaining a first-class certificate shall thereby
become a life member of the Society.
1 The words in brackets do not appear in the more recent regulations.
753
on the Society’s Senior Examination.
9. That the following prizes be awarded to successful candidates placed
in the first class for aggregate merit : First prize 30/., second prize 201.,
third prize 10/.
10. That the following additional prizes he awarded to the candidate
who shall show the highest merit in each subject respectively : —
Science and Practice of Agriculture . Money or books to value of 10/.
Mechanics
Chemistry .
Botany
Geology
Veterinary Science
Land Surveying.
Book-keeping
10/.
10/.
10/.
5/.
10/.
5/.
51.
11. That certificates, to be termed first and second class certificates, be
granted to candidates placed in the first and second classes, such certificates
to specify the subjects in which the candidate shall have satisfied the
examiners.
4. With certain changes in detail, this scheme has remained in
force ever since ; and the modifications in it that have from time
to time been made may perhaps be most conveniently grouped
under the following headings : —
Limit of Age. — The original resolution of the Special Council
held on May 2, 1867, contemplated a limitation of the age of
candidates to from 18 to 25 years of age ; but the examinations of
1868 and 1869 were held without any such limitation. An ex-
periment tried in 1870 of limiting the age of all candidates to 21
years resulted in only two candidates (neither of whom passed)
presenting themselves that year. In 1871 and 1872 only candi-
dates under 21 years of age were eligible for prizes ; but the
certificates were granted irrespective of age. All restrictions as
to age were, however, abolished in December 1872, and none have
since been imposed.
Compulsory Subjects for First-Class Certificate. — These subjects
have always remained the same, except that Agricultural Engi-
neering was substituted for “ Mechanics ” in June 1888.
Compulsory Subjects for Second-Class Certificate. — Originally
a candidate had to satisfy the examiners in the science (Chemistry)
and the practice of Agriculture and in Book-keeping, and in either
Land Surveying or Mechanics. In June 1888 this was modified
so as to make Agriculture the only obligatory subject ; but a
candidate was required to bond fide attempt all the four others
(Book-keeping, Chemistry, Land Surveying, and Agricultural
Engineering), and to pass in three of them.
Rewards to Winners of First-Class Certificates. — The Life
Membership of the Society has been offered throughout to
winners of the first-class certificates — except that in 1894 the
number of such life memberships was limited to five. The money
prizes from 1868 to 1870 were 30/., 20/., and 10/. for the three
best candidates placed in the first class in order of merit. In 1871
the prizes offered were 25/., 10/., and 5/., and the first prize has
754
Report of the Education Committee
remained at 25 1. ever since. In 1873, 251., 10?., and 51. were
awarded to the three candidates who won first-class certificates ; in
1874, 25 1. ; in 1875, 1876, and 1877, 25?. and 15?. ; in 1878, 25?. ;
in 1879, 25?., 15?., and 10?. ; and in 1880, when, for the first
time, there were four winners of first-class certificates eligible for
prizes, 25?., 15?., 10?., and 51. — which amounts have since been
annually offered.
Prizes for Proficiency in Particular Subjects. — From 1868 to
1872 separate prizes of 10?. or 51. (amounting in all to 65?.) were
offered for the candidates who obtained the highest marks in
particular subjects ; but these were discontinued after 1872, the
Education Committee reporting on December 10, 1872, that they
saw “no necessity for supplementary rewards to candidates
already successful.”
Subjects of Examination and Marks allotted. — The marks
allotted for Agriculture, originally (like the other compulsory
subjects) 200, were increased to 300 in November 1887. Agri-
cultural Engineering was substituted for the vaguer title of
Mechanics in June 1888, when also the marks for Land Surveying
were increased from 100 to 200. Agricultural Entomology was
added as an optional subject in November 1889.
5. The Table appended to this Report [see page 757] gives in
columns 2, 3, 4, and 5 the number of candidates actually examined
in each year from 1868 to 1894, the number of life memberships
granted, the number of first-class certificates, and the number of
second-class certificates.
From this Table it appears that during the twenty-seven years
that the Senior Examinations have been held a total of 338
candidates have been examined. Of these, 108 have gained first-
class certificates and 106 (viz. all the winners of first-class certificates
but the last four of the ten successful candidates in 1894, and two
candidates who were granted special certificates in 1888) have been
granted life memberships of the Society.
6. With four exceptions (viz. one candidate elected in 1880 and
one in 1881, who are dead ; and two elected in 1888, ruled out
owing to absence of addresses), all these 106 Education Life
Members remain on the Society’s registers. Their average age on
admission to the life membership was as nearly as possible twenty-five
years : forty of them were under age (the youngest fifteen years
old), sixty-two were over age (the eldest sixty-five years old), and
the ages of the remaining four are unknown.
7. For the first twenty years the number of life memberships
granted annually was very small; but in 1889, 10 were granted;
in 1890, 6 : in 1891 and 1892, 8 each year ; and in 1893, the large
number of 14. It was this last result which caused the Education
Committee to consider the question of some limitations being placed
on the number of life memberships, and which has given rise to the
discussions in the Council on the general question of the rewards
offered at the Society’s Senior Examination.
on the Society's Senior Examination.
755
8. It is abundantly clear, from the communications which have
reached the Society since this matter has been under consideration,
that the candidates who enter for the Senior Examination attach
far greater value to the education life membership of the Society
than to the money prizes ; and the Committee themselves would
prefer that the rewards given to the successful candidates should
be of a nature to connect them with agricultural matters in their
after-life. The association with the Society of a body of men who
have proved, by examination, their skill in the science and practice
of Agriculture is alike creditable to the Society and honourable to
the students. Those who have won life memberships through their
own efforts are proud of the Society and of their connexion with
it ; and this esprit de corps is eminently deserving of encourage-
ment. Obviously, however, the honour will be all the greater if it
be bestowed, not merely as the result of a comparative trial of
strength, but as the reward of a cei'tain positive as well as com-
parative degree of merit.
9. Under the original regulations, any candidate who (by gaining
half the marks) passed in all the compulsory subjects received,
not only a first-class certificate, but also the life membership of
the Society. Now that the number of candidates has increased,
and the general standard of success has been raised, the Committee
recognise that the unlimited granting of life memberships may not
only impose a serious burden upon the Society’s finances without
commensurate advantage, but may tend to diminish the distinction
of the reward itself. Accordingly, they propose that the life member-
ship of the Society shall in future only be conferred upon the five
candidates who are placed at the head of the list of the winners of
first-class certificates, and who win not less than two-thirds of the
maximum number of marks.
10. The Committee have fixed upon this standard after con-
sideration of the results of the examinations during the twenty-
seven years that have elapsed since it was first started. It
appears from the Table that the 106 life memberships actually
granted would have been reduced to forty-three if they had been
limited to candidates who obtained two-thirds of the total number
of mark3, and to twelve if to those who gained three-fourths
of the marks. The Table shows a distinct improvement in the
quality of candidates during the last few years; and fcr this the
facilities for the higher agricultural education now obtainable, and
the demand for lectures under the Technical Education Commit-
tees of County Councils are doubtless, to a considerable extent,
responsible. Whether the standard of candidates will continue to
improve is, of course, a question which cannot be answered now ; but
the point as to the variations in the marking of papers by different
examiners in different years must not be omitted from consideration.
11. If three-fourths of the maximum marks were required as
a condition of giving a first-class certificate, it is to be feared
that it would — taking the question of examiners’ markings into
756
Report of the Education Committee
account— be the exception for a candidate to reach such a stan-
dard ; although it is true that this year (1894) four out of the ten
winners of first-class certificates would have done so. Previous
years show, however, less favourable results ; in nineteen years out of
the twenty-seven there would have been no life memberships at all ;
in six, only one ; in one year (1889), two ; and in only one year
(1894), so many as four (see column 7 of Table).
12. Intermediate between the high maximum of three-fourths
marks and the general giving of life memberships to winners of first-
class certificates ( i.e . candidates who satisfy the examiners in the
compulsory subjects) is the giving of memberships to those who,
obtaining a first-class certificate, obtain two-thirds of the total
number of marks. If this plan had been adopted since the com-
mencement, there would have been twelve years with no member-
ships, six years with one membership, four with two, two with four
(1890 and 1892), one with six (1894), one with seven (1889), and
one with eight (1893) (see column 6 of Table). Under such a
system as this, the average of the last ten years would have been a
little over three and a half memberships per annum, as against the
average of seven life memberships under the old system ; or, in other
words, the life memberships would have been reduced by one-half.
It is only since 1889 that the number of life memberships granted
annually has attained noticeable proportions. The 52 memberships
granted in these six years would have been reduced to 31 if the two-
thirds limit, and to 9 if the three -fourths limit, had been in operation.
13. It is of course impossible to say how many candidates will
come up for the Society’s examinations in the future. It might
happen that there was a large influx of good candidates, and the
Society might be called upon to give away an indefinitely large num-
ber of life memberships to those who obtained high marks. This
difficulty the Committee propose to meet, as mentioned in para-
graph 9, by asking the Council to place at their disposal a maximum
of five life memberships per annum, to be awarded to those candi-
dates who stand highest on the list, and obtain not less than two-
thirds of the maximum number of marks. The largest annual
expense to the Society under this arrangement would be 75 1. (i.e.
five life memberships at 15/. each) ; and, as it happens, 15/. is just
about the sum which represents the net cost to the Society of pro-
viding a member aged twenty-five with his privileges during his life.
14. The five life memberships may be regarded as taking the
place, to a large extent, of the money prizes heretofore offered to the
four candidates highest on the list, as it is doubtless the desire of the
Council to discourage candidates from coming up for examination for
the mere purpose of obtaining monetary rewards. The prizes hereto-
fore offered have been 25/., 15/., 10/., and 5/., or 55/. in all ; and the
Committee are of opinion that it would be preferable to substitute
for these, as incentives to the students to strive for the highest
place in the Examination, the Medal of the Society, to be awarded in
gold to the candidate placed first of those gaining the five life
on the Society’s Senior Examination.
757
memberships,1 and in silver to each of the remaining four, provided,
of course, they reach the standard prescribed for life membership.
The cost of these five medals would be about 221. per annum ;
hence the total rewards for the Senior Examination would not in
future years cost more than 100L per annum, against 55 1. in prizes
and an indefinite sum for life memberships under the old system.
(Signed) Moreton,
13 Hanover Square, London, W. Chairman.
December 11, 1894.
TABLE SHOWING RESULTS OF THE SOCIETY’S SENIOR
EXAMINATIONS FROM 1868 TO 1894.
Year
(1)
Number of
candidates
actually
examined
(2)
Number
of life
member-
ships
granted
(3)
Number
gaining
first-class
certificates
(D
Number
gaining
second-class
certificates
(5)
Number of candidates
who gained of the
maximum marks
Two-thirds
and over
(6)
Three-fourths
and over
(7)
1868
12
No award
No award
_
1869
18
2
2
8
No record
No record
1870
2
—
No award
No award
—
—
1871
4
2
2
1
No record
No record
1872
8
5
5
—
No record
No record
1873
9
3
3
—
1874
10
1
1
—
—
—
1875
6
2
2
—
1
1876
4
2
2
2
1
—
1877
2
2
1
—
1878
6
1
1
—
—
1879
12
3
3
—
—
—
1880
9
4
4
1
2
—
1881
10
3
3
1
2
1
1882
9
1
1
—
—
1883
19
6
6
—
1
—
1881
7
2
2
1
—
—
1885
12
3
3
1
1
1
1886
22
4
4
1
1
—
1887
7
3
3
l
2
1
1888
13
5
3
5
1
—
1889
24
10
10
G
7
2
1890
16
G
G
5
4
1
1891
13
8
8
1
2
1892
20
8
8
2
4
1
1893
30
14
11
8
8
1
1894
28
G
10
5
G
4
Sum-
mary
338
candidates
106 life
member-
ships
108 first-
class
certificates
50 second-
class
certificates
43 who
gained
two- thirds
total
marks
12 who
gained
three-
fourths
total
marks
1 As will be seen from the discussion in Council on this report (see Appendix,
page clxxix.), the award of a Gold Medal to the candidate placed highest on the
list has been made conditional on his earning at least three-fourths of the
maximum number of marks.
758
Regulations of the Senior Examination.
REGULATIONS AS TO THE SOCIETY'S SENIOR
EXAMINATION.
(As approved, by the Council ni December 12, 1894.)
1. An Examination of Candidates for the Society’s Senior
Certificates is held annually, in the month of May, at the
Society’s House, 13 Hanover Square, London, W. The next Ex-
amination will take place from Tuesday, May 7, to Saturday, May
11, 1895.
2. Forms of entry may be obtained of the Secretary, and must be
returned to him duly filled up on or before March 31 preceding the
Examination.
3. A Deposit of 11. must be paid by each candidate at the time of
making his entry. This Deposit will be returned to all candidates
attending for examination at the proper time, but will in other cases
be forfeited, unless an explanation satisfactory to the Council be
received before the first day of the Examination.
4. The Examinations will be conducted by means of written
papers, and by a vivd voce examination.
5. The successful candidates will be placed in order of merit
in two classes — First Class and Second Class.
6. Certificates, to be termed first- and second-class certificates,
will be granted to candidates placed in the first and second classes :
such certificates will specify the subjects in which the candidates
shall have satisfied the Examiners.
7. In order to obtain a first-class certificate a candidate must
satisfy the Examiners in the Practice of Agriculture, Book-keeping,
Chemistry, Land Surveying, and Agricultural Engineering.
8. In order to obtain a second-class certificate a candidate must
satisfy the Examiners in the Practice of Agriculture, and also
in three of the four following subjects, all of which must be bond
fide attempted : — Book-keeping, Chemistry, Land Surveying, and
Agricultural Engineering.
9. A candidate may offer himself for examination in one or
more of the following subjects, viz. : — Geology, Botany, Veterinary
Science, and Agricultural Entomology. Any knowledge which he
may show of these subjects will be counted to his credit in the
general classification, provided that he shall have fulfilled the fore-
going conditions, and provided that the knowledge of these optional
subjects does not fall below the standard fixed as a minimum in
each of such subjects.
10. A candidate who does not obtain half the maximum number
of marks in any of the subjects in which he is examined will be
considered as failing in that subject. The maximum number of marks
obtainable in each subject is as follows : —
Agriculture 300 i Optional Subjects.
Book-keeping 200 Geology 100
Chemistry 200 i Botany 100
Land Surveying .... 200 i Veterinary Science. . . 100
Agricultural Engineering 200 I Agricultural Entomology 100
759
Regulations of the Senior Examination.
11. The Society offers the following rewards to candidates who
are placed in the first class, and obtain not less than two-thirds of
the maximum number of marks in the examination (1,500) : —
To the candidate placed First in order of merit —
The Life Membership of the Society, and (if he obtains not less
than three-fourths of the maximum number of marks) the
Society’s Gold Medal : otherwise the Society’s Silver
Medal.
To each of) the candidates placed Second, Third , Fourth, and Fifth
in order of merit — -
The Life Membership of the Society, and the Society’s Silver
Medal.
12. The winner of a Gold Medal will be permitted to style himself
“ Gold Medallist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ” ;
and the winner of a Silver Medal, “ Silver Medallist of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England.”
13. A candidate who gains a first-class certificate, but is not
amongst the first five successful candidates in order of merit, may
compete again in either of the two following years for the life
membership and medal of the Society.
By Order of the Council,
Ernest Clarke,
Secretary.
13 Hanover Square, London, W.
December 12, 1894.
REPORT OF THE EDUCATION COMMITTEE
On the Results of the Junior Examination of November, 1894.
The Committee have to report that the Examination for the Society’s
ten Junior Scholarships of 201. each, for boys between the ages of 14
and 18, took place on November 13 and 14, 1894. Of thirty-five
candidates who originally entered, thirty-two actually competed from
the following eight schools : —
The Ashburton Grammar School ; the Aspatria Agricultural
College ; the Devon County School ; the Sedgebrook School, Grant-
ham ; the North-Eastern County School, Barnard Castle ; Sexey’s
Trade School, Bruton, Somerset; Wellingore Hall, Lincoln; and
the Pine House School, Wincanton.
2. Of the thirty-two competitors, twenty have passed in all four
subjects (Agriculture, Chemistry, Mechanics, and Land Surveying),
and have obtained the number of marks necessary to qualify them for
the Society’s Scholarships and Certificates. These will, in accordance
with the regulations, be retained until the winners of the Scholar-
ships shall have spent the ensuing year at school or college, or with
760
Report of the Education Committee
a practical agriculturist upon a farm. Two candidates passed in all
four subjects, but failed to obtain the minimum total marks neces-
sary to qualify for Certificates. Of the ten other unsuccessful
competitors, four failed in one subject, four in two subjects, and two
in three subjects. There were two failures in Agriculture, eight in
Chemistry, six in Mechanics, and two in Land Surveying.
3. The names of the successful candidates, with the number of
marks gained by each, are given in the following Table : —
f 3
■2--S
.0 S
Candidate
Age
o o
i
Duckering, C. E. .
10
2
Reed. C. E. N.
17
3
Hawkins, F. .
15
4
Satterly, J. .
14
5
Sawdye, E.
16
6
Armstrong, J.W.W.
1G
7
French, E.
1G
8
Bell, S. G.
17
9
Thomas, J. H.
15
10
StradUng, W.
15
11
Endacott, A. P.
15
12
Isaacson, P. S.
16
13
Sowerby, G. .
14
14
Russell, H.
17
15
Price, E. J. .
15
10
Lockyer, C. J.
1G
17
Barron, J.
17
18
Abell, T. B. .
14
19
Luker, J.
1G
20
Soul, F. .
1G
School or College
Sedgebrook, Grantham .
Ashburton Grammar School .
Ashburton Grammar School .
Ashburton Grammar School .
Ashburton Grammar School .
North-Eastern County School
Ashburton Grammar School .
Aspatria Agricultural College
Sexey’s Trade School, Bruton
Devon County School .
Ashburton Grammar School .
Ashburton Grammar School.
North-Eastern County School
Aspatria Agricultural College
Sexey's Trade School, Bruton
Sexey’s Trade School, Bruton
Aspatria Agricultural College
Devon County School .
Aspatria Agricultural College
Pine House, Wiucanton
i Agriculture, 400 ;
| Pass, 150
Chemistry, 200 ;
Pass, 75
Mechanics, 200 ;
Pass, 75
Land Surveying,
| 100; Pass, 40
Total, 900 ;
Pass, 450
300
124
175
75
674
320
132
95
100
G47
295
144
105
100
G44
250
143
160
82
G35
300
141
100
90
G31
350
100
105
73
G28
265
137
140
80
G22
220
127
1G5
85
597
260
12G
150
GO
596
185
150
145
90
570
195
151
130
70
546
285
84
120
47
536
250
75
120
87
532
270
97
90
50
507
195
104
125
72
496
200
106
105
75
486
210
108
95
70
483
150
143
105
75
473
195
113
115
47
470
170
89
125
75
459
4. The Examiner in Agriculture (Mr. Primrose McConnell, B.Sc.)
reports that “ whilst the number examined is the same as last year,
the average results are rather better, as there is the lowest propor-
tion of failures I have hitherto had. The questions were all well
answered, with the exception of No. 6, that relating to warble-flies ;
and this is rather surprising, considering how much is common know-
ledge regarding this pest, and that a somewhat similar question was
asked in a recent year.”
5. The Examiner in Chemistry (Dr. J. Augustus Yoelcker,
M.A., B.Sc.) remarks that “ the chief point brought out is that the
candidates run much in groups, evidently as the teaching in a school
is good or indifferent. As the marks show, no one has exhibited
any special excellence, and, taking it all round, the result is only
moderate. The question in which least concise knowledge was shown
was that relating to wood charcoal and animal charcoal.”
6. The Examiner in Mechanics and Natural Philosophy (the
Rev. Professor Twisden, M.A.) reports that “a good deal of the
work was very fairly well done, and a few of the boys sent up very
good papers. Want of exactness, which one always expects to find
on the Junior Examination of November, 1894.
761
prevalent in answers to questions on this subject, was shown, except
in some of the best papers. Question 2 and the latter part of Ques-
tion 7 were seldom well answered. The answers to Question 10 were
never quite satisfactory, and in nearly all cases showed that the
* parallel motion ’ is not understood.” The same examiner also
reports that “ the questions in Mensuration and Surveying were well
answered,” and adds that, “ looking back to the work that was sent
up a few years ago, I cannot help thinking that there is a very dis-
tinct improvement. Speaking generally, the boys have now a better
understanding of how to draw to scale, and how to treat such ques-
tions as Question 5, than was then common.”
7. Taken as a whole, the results of the Examination are emi-
nently satisfactory, and compare favourably with previous years.
The attention paid to Practical Agriculture is gratifying, there being
only two failures in this subject. In one of the schools, however,
where the whole of the six candidates passed creditably in Agriculture,
as many as four failed in Chemistry ; which apparently indicates a
lack of uniformity in the study devoted to each subject. The success
of the Ashburton Grammar School is remarkable. All the seven
candidates from this school passed, and five succeeded in gaining
scholarships, i.e. half of the number offered.
Moreton,
Chairman.
13 Hanover Square, London, W.
December 11, 1894.
EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURE.
Maximum Number of Marks, 400. Pass Number, 150.
Tuesday, November 13, 1894.
( Three hours allowed.')
1. On which geological formations in this country would you expect to
find the best soils, and od which do inferior soils occur ? Give any explanation
you can of the reasons for these differences.
2. Taking six different grades of soil, varying from stiff clay up to coarse
gravel, construct a table giving approximately the depth of the drains, and
the width apart suitable to each in draining the land.
3. Explain some of the differences in quality between oats grown in
different localities, and state what are the conditions of soil and climate
necessary to grow a good sample of both grain and straw.
4. Describe the work of raising potatoes by hand, or by the potato-digger,
specifying the number of men, boys, and horses required, with all details.
5. Describe the making of meadow hay as practised in your district, and
point out the precautions to be observed. • .
6. State how you would deal with cattle to prevent attacks of the warble
fly, and also how you would treat them^after they were affected with this
pest,
7. What effect have good and inferior foods respectively on the growth of
wool, and what benefits accrue from dipping sheep ?
8. Enumerate all the British breeds of sheep you know, and classify into
mountain and low-country breeds.
9. State some of the ways in which milk may be productive of disease
in human beings, and the precautions to be observed to keep it pure and
wholesome,
762
Junior Examination Papers, 1894.
10. Given that the temperature of the atmosphere varies from 55° to 65°
Fah., give approximately the corresponding temperatures at intermediate
degrees suitable for churning ripe cream. Would you make any difference in
the case of sweet cream and of whole milk ?
EXAMINATION IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY.
Maximum Number of Marks, 200. Pass Number, 75.
Tuesday, November 13, 1894.
( Three hours allowed.')
1. What is, speaking generally, the chemical composition of the atmosphere,
and which are the constituents found in it that take part in the processes of
vegetation ?
2. Mention the principal uses to which oil of vitriol is put in agriculture.
3. Which are the chief gases composing coal gas ? Name their leading
properties. Which are the common impurities of coal gas ?
4. What is alumina ? Mention its use in the Arts.
5. Describe the properties and uses of wood charcoal and animal charcoal.
How would you distinguish them from one another?
6. In what form is lead chiefly found in nature ? How is the metal prepared
from its ore ?
7. How many different sets of compounds does copper form ? How could
the presence of a copper salt in a solution be detected ?
EXAMINATION IN MECHANICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
Maximum Number of Marks, 200. Pass Number, 75.
Wednesday, November 14, 1894.
( Three hours allowed.)
1. What is the centre of gravity of a body? Mention one property of the
centre of gravity. If a body were hung up by a piece of string fastened to
point of it, in what position would it come to rest ?
2. Draw a triangle ABC, with C vertically over A, and make AC two and a
half inches long ; take o the middle point of bc. Let ab represent a uniform
rod, weighing 20 lb., which can turn freely round a hinge at A, and is supported
by a string fastened to b and to a fixed point at c ; show that Aoc is a triangle
for the forces that keep ab at rest ; and find from it the tension of the string,
and the pressure on the hinge.
3. Define a lever and its fulcrum. Give an example of a lever.
What relation holds good between the power and weight in a lever ?
There is a lever 10 ft. long with a fulcrum at one end ; if it be required to
support a weight of one ton by a force equal to 70 lb. weight acting at the
other end of the lever, at what point of the lever must the weight of one ton
be applied ?
4. A body whose weight is 50 lb. is just drawn along a horizontal plane by
a force acting horizontally and equal to 7 5 lb. weight ; what is the coefficient
of friction between the body and the plane ?
Define the coefficient of friction and state the laws of friction.
5. Define a foot pound of work.
If the ton weight in question 3 were raised a quarter of an inch, how many
foot pounds of work must be done by the force of 70 lb., and through what
distance must the point of application of that force bc moved ?
6. Write down a formula for finding the distance through which a body
would fall freely in a given time, and state in words the meaning of the for-
mula.
If a body fell freely from rest through 90 ft. in a certain time, through
what distance would it fall from rest in a third part of that time ?
7. State how to find the specific gravity of a body by the balance.
Junior Examination Papers , 1894. 763
A body weighs 12 lb. in vacuo and 8 lb. 12 oz. in water; what is its spe-
cific gravity ?
A body, whose specific gravity is 6, weighs 10 lb. ; it is tied to a piece of
wood, whose specific gravity is 0'84, and just sinks it ; what is the weight of
the piece of wood ?
8. Describe a barometer.
What does a barometer measure 1
What effect would be produced if a hole were made in the longer branch
of a barometer-tube ? And what, if the hole were made in the shorter branch ?
9. Explain what is meant by air being saturated with vapour.
If saturated air is inclosed in (say) a glass vessel at a temperature of 60°,
what will be the effect of taking the vessel into a room where the tempera-
ture is (say) 40° 1 And what of taking it into a room where the temperature
is (say) 80° ?
If there are no fires in a house, why do the walls commonly get damp when
a thaw comes ?
10. Describe the contrivance called a “parallel motion,” and explain how
it is applied in the ordinary stationary steam engine, and in what way it is
useful.
EXAMINATION IN MENSURATION AND LAND SURVEYING.
Maximum Number op Marks, 100. Pass Number, 40.
Wednesday, November 14, 1894.
( Two hours allowed.')
1. A side of a triangle is 920 ft. long ; the angle opposite to the side is
48°, and the angle at one end of the side is 57° ; draw the triangle to the
scale of 1 inch equal to 180 ft., note the lengths of the other two sides, and
find the area of the triangle.
2. Of two rectangular areas one is 500 ft. long by 60 ft. wide, the other
is 1,200 ft. long by 700 ft. wide; find (a) the ratio of the larger area to the
smaller, ( b ) the larger area in acres, with the odd roods and poles.
3. There is a long pond or canal ; 500,000 cubic feet of water flow into it
daily, over a cascade at one end ; and in like manner the same number of
cubic feet flow out daily at the other end ; the cross section of the water in
the canal, near the middle, is triangular, the width of the water being 80 ft.
and the greatest depth 5 ft. ; with what velocity— say, in feet per minute —
does the water flow through this section 7
4. A circle is 150 ft. in diameter; find its area to the nearest tenth o‘f a
square foot by taking 31 4159 as the value of ir.
If were taken as the value of tt, what would be the error in the area to
the nearest square foot ?
5. A plan or map is drawn to the scale of 16 in. equal to one mile, what
area in acres is represented by a square inch on the plan ?
Draw a square which would represent on the plan an area of 20 acres,
C. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, are points in succession along a road ; their
distances from A are successively 0, 270, 510, 810, 1060, 1300, 1620 ft. ; a
levelling staff is placed successively at the points A, B, Ac., and the readings
of the level are as follows: between A and B, backsight 11-3, foresight, 2 5;
between B and C, backsight 10 8, foresight 4 8 ; between C and D, backsight
12-1, foresight 41 ; between D and E, backsight 6 5, foresight 2-7 ; between
E and F, backsight 31, foresight 7-9 ; between F and G, backsight 4-7, fore-
sight 7-8. Arrange these data in the form of entries in a field-book, and
draw a section of the road, taking the point A to be 70 ft. above the datum
line, and using a vertical scale of 2 in. equal to 100 ft., and a horizontal
scale of 1 in. equal to 300 ft.
764
ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1894 OF THE
CONSULTING CHEMIST.
In the past year 1,148 samples have been sent to me by members of
the Society for analysis. A classified list of these is given at the
end of the present report. The Society’s Chemical Department has
been further employed in carrying out analyses in connexion with
the Woburn Experiments and other agricultural investigations, as
also with work arising out of the Country Meeting held at Cambridge.
In all, 1,259 samples have this year passed through my hands.
As regards the samples sent for analysis by members of the
Society, it may be remarked that about the same number and
kinds of oilcakes have been sent as in 1893, though in the matter
of compound cakes, feeding meals, &c., there has been a not unwel-
come reduction. I say “ not unwelcome,” because in these times
of agricultural depression and of extremely low prices for home-
grown corn, farmers cannot afford to pay the “ fancy ” prices which
are not unfrequently asked for meals, <kc., made up from mate-
rials which they could quite well purchase for themselves far more
moderately, or, at all events, substitute others with quite as
good results. I do not by any means say that there are not to
be had mixed feeding meals made up of perfectly sound and good
materials and charged at reasonable prices. But, at the same time,
there are a great many that are the reverse of this ; and the farmer,
it is feared, is too often led to believe that there is in them some par-
ticular “ virtue ” which does not attach to the simpler and cheaper
mixture which experience and market considerations would lead him
to use on his farm. A little fenugreek or other spice, a little locust-
bean meal or other sweetening material, may be made to go a long
way in producing a “ tasty ” article which cattle will readily eat ; but
it does not follow from this that the feed is an economical one. Not
unfrequently, too, does it happen that the “ flavouring ” is made to
cover the defects of ingredients originally not of the best or soundest
description ; and it is no exaggeration to say that compound cakes
and feeding materials are often the media for using up screenings,
mill-sweepings, and impurities which have to be removed from the oil
seeds employed in the manufacture of linseed and other cakes sold
under a designation implying that they are “pure.”
The point brought out that although home-grown wheat and
barley were very cheap, yet linseed and other cakes seem to have
been used to about an equal extent as previously, may be due to
the fact of the dry season and short crops of 1893. But in view of
the abundant harvest of 1894, there can be little doubt that both
wheat and barley will be more extensively used as feeding materials
this present winter ; and, already, the low prices for them are
having a marked influence in keeping down the prices of linseed,
cotton, and other oilcakes. The question of the extent to which
home-grown produce can be profitably used to replace cake acquires,
Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist. 765
consequently, greater significance, and with this view it has been
decided to carry out at the Society’s Experimental Farm at Woburn
further feeding experiments, both with bullocks and with sheep, on
the use of wheat and barley, with the view of throwing more
light on this subject.
There has been a diminution in the number of manures of
different kinds submitted for analysis ; markedly so in the case of
bone meals. Basic slag, however, continues (chiefly, I think, on ac-
count of its cheapness) to be fairly extensively used, and its quality
has been found throughout satisfactory.
Nor has there been the large number (228) of tvuters that were
submitted in 1893. This, however, is fully accounted for by the
difference of the two seasons, the prolonged drought of 1893 calling
for the utilisation of many a fresh source of supply, often of
questionable character. Neverthelesss, the considerable number of
169 samples has this year been forwarded.
Perhaps the most important event to chronicle in connexion
with the chemical work of the Society has been the coming into
force of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act of 1893. It was
thought by some possible that the machinery set up by the new Act
would practically take the place of the existing organisations of
agricultural societies and similar bodies, and provide all over the
country ready means for the farmer to ensure, at small cost to
himself, the quality of whatever he purchased in the way of food
stuffs for his cattle or of manure for his land, and that there
would be no longer need for him to subscribe to such associations
for the purpose of obtaining analyses and advice regarding his
purchases ; while, so far as the trade was concerned, the insertion
in the Act of certain penal clauses would make adulteration and
misrepresentation impossible, and encourage the honest trader to the
exclusion of the dishonest one. The first year’s experience, how-
ever, has very far from shown any such result ; and, though
undoubtedly, good has been done by the passing of the Act, the
Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee of this Society have
pointed only too clearly to there being as much need as ever for
the continued vigilance and action of the Chemical Department
in securing to the members the purity and good quality of what
they purchase, and for the exercise, by the members, of the privileges
of chemical analysis which are afforded to them.
Perhaps the chief advantage to the consumer from the Act of
1893 is that now, for the first time, there has been a definite pro-
nouncement as to certain terms such as “ linseed cake,” “ cotton
cake,” “ rape cake,” &c., being applicable only to cakes made from
the seeds denoted by those terms, and being thus “ pure ” cakes.
A second great gain has been in the obligation enforced on a vendor
to give an invoice, and one that has to set out, in the case of a feed-
ing stuff, whether it is a pure or a mixed one, and, in the case of a
fertiliser, what its essential ingredients are. Further advantages
exist in the obligation imposed on manufacturers to omit all
deleterious, and to declare all worthless, ingredients in mixed
VOL. V. T. S. — 20 3 E
766 Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist.
feeding cakes. Of course vendors have found numerous ways of
practically evading the Act, and, by using such qualifying phrases
as “made from linseed with natural impurity ” or by guaranteeing
manures to contain “ at least one per cent.” of the valuable ingre-
dients, they have secured themselves from the severer penalties of
the Act ; but, on the whole, the tendency of legislation has been to
improve the prospects of the better class of dealers.
A review of the Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee
issued during the year will call attention to the most prominent
adulterations that have come under notice. Among these and other
points may be mentioned the finding, in several instances, of castor-
oil bean in linseed and other cakes ; the presence of the vetchling
Lathyrus sativus in compound cakes ; the “ woolly ” character of
cotton cake ; and the sale, under the name of “ damaged ” or
“ roasted ” nitrate of soda, of a refuse material from oil of vitriol
manufacture, which has next to no nitrate of soda at all left in it.
These will be severally noticed in their places. Other features of
interest are an improvement in “ pure ” linseed cakes, and the general
good quality of the standard manures sold by manufacturers, in-
cluding the more recently introduced basic slag.
Linseed Cakes.
Although several cases have been published in the Quarterly
Reports of the Chemical Committee wherein cakes have not been in
accordance with the descriptions given of them on the invoices, it is
only fair to say that, taken as a whole, the result of my examinations
has been to show that where care has been taken to stipulate for
“ linseed cake, i.e. “ pure ” linseed cake (the Act laying down that
the description “ linseed cake ” must only apply to linseed cakes that
are “pure ”), this is generally supplied. Nor can I say that there
has been any real difficulty experienced as to what is meant by
“pure” linseed cake, the definition laid down in the Journal, vol.
xxiv. (1888), pp. 300, 301, having, as I mentioned last year, proved
a satisfactory solution of any question on this point. If farmers
would but insist on having cakes invoiced to them simply as “ lin-
seed cake,” without any further description or subsequent qualifica-
tion, they would find, in this alone, a great protection against being
imposed on.
The following analyses may be of interest as showing that high
price and high quality do not always go together : —
A li c
Moisture ....
9-67
1261
10-75
Oil
632
11-67
1201
Albuminous compounds
Mucilage, sugar, and digesti-
ble fibre ....
37-G2
33-44
27 95
32-96
30-40
34-38
AYoody fibre
8-25
6-20
8-90
Mineral matter (ash)
5-18
5-68
601
100-00
10000
100 00
1 containing nitrogen .
6 02
5-35
4-17
Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist. 767
A was a very hard-pressed American cake, extremely low in oil.
Despite this, it cost, in April 1894, 81. 12s. (hi. per ton delivered,
near Worcester.
B cost, in October 1894, V. 5s. per ton delivered, the carriage
alone costing 11s. 8d. per ton.
C cost, in October 1894, 51. 15s. per ton, ex ship, or 6 1. 2s. 6 d.
per ton delivered.
All three cakes, it may be added, were pure ones.
Castor-oil Bean in Linseed Cakes.
The occurrence of castor-oil bean in linseed cake is, in my ex-
perience, almost confined to the case of foreign-made cakes, and
especially those that come from Marseilles. At the latter port a
good deal of castor bean is crushed, and care is not always taken to
thoroughly clean the mills of it before putting them on to linseed or
other seed crushing. This constitutes one of the chief risks run by
farmers who purchase cheap foreign-made cakes. In one instance
that came under my notice a delivery of cake, sold as “ Round
Italian Linseed Cake,” was found to contain castor- oil bean, and
over thirty lambs died from eating it. In another case a farmer
had been unwise enough to purchase the sweepings of wharves,
floors, &c., and into these some castor-oil bean had found its way.
On giving it to a flock of 96 sheep 25 of them died, and all the
others were more or less affected. It need hardly be said how great is
the risk run in using as food for stock such materials as the sweep-
ings of mills, floors, &c.
In reference to the occurrence of castor-oil bean in linseed and
other cakes, it is well to point out that a difficulty may exist in sub-
sequently tracing the actual presence of the poisonous seed, for, inas-
much as it is seldom or never put in purposely, but finds its way in
by some means such as that described in the crushing of linseed
immediately after castor seed has been used in the same mill, it is
quite possible that only the first lot of cakes of a delivery may con-
tain the castor seed, while others may be free from it. An examina-
tion of a single cake may thus, presumably, lead to the conclusion
that no castor is present. In all such cases several cakes from
different parts of the delivery should be separately examined for the
presence of the poisonous seed.
Cotton Cakes.
Perhaps in no recent year has cotton seed come over to this
country more “ woolly ” and dirty than during the past season. Nor
has there often been less trouble taken generally in cleaning it.
Sand, as noticed in my last Annual Report, has again been prominent
by its quantity, and, taking it all round, the common or undecorti-
cated cotton cake has been singularly poor in quality this year.
In one case in which I had reported that a sample of cotton
cake was “ very woolly in character, the seed not having been pro-
perly cleaned from wool,” it was ascertained that three bullocks that
3 e 2
768 Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist.
had been feeding on the cake had to be slaughtered. The vendors of
the cake admitted its bad condition, and the liability incurred.
In a second case, the cake again being full of wool, animals to
which it was given refused to eat it.
In a third instance, though the cake was sold as “ Pure Egyptian
cotton cake,” it was found not only to contain a great deal of wool,
but also actual pieces of rope crushed along with the cake.
The presence of an excessive quantity of wool, owing to imperfect
cleaning of the seed, constitutes, in my opinion, ample ground
for considering such a cake “ impure,” and I shall, in future,
report accordingly.
Decorticated Cotton Cake.
Decorticated cotton cake has been very free from adulteration,
and though generally not nearly as soft as one would like to have it,
the demand for any that comes over to this country is very great,
and the deliveries are rapidly snapped up. At this I am not at all
surprised, after the experience gained in the Woburn Feeding Experi-
ments on the economical value of this kind of cake. One sample of
cake analysed by me I found to contain no less than 8-42 per cent, of
nitrogen. The high manurial value of such a cake, as compared
with ocher foods used on the farm, must be very apparent. The
unfortunately often corresponding hardness can be met by exposing
the cake to the air for some time before using, and then breaking it
up finely.
Compound Cakes, Feeding Meals, &c.
I have already commented on several points regarding the rela-
tively high prices at which these mixed foods are frequently sold, and
on certain disadvantages that may attend their use.
In one recent instance I found castor-oil bean present in a com-
pound feeding cake, and after careful investigation this was proved
to have come in by the use, as one of the ingredients, of foreign cake,
good in itself, but which had been crushed in a mill in which castor
seed had previously been ground. Several valuable bullocks died
from eating the cake in question.
Lathyrus sativus as an Ingredient of Mixed Feeding Cakes.
I have on several previous occasions referred to cases in which I
have traced injury caused to stock to the occurrence in some of the
food given to them of seeds of the vetchling Lathyrus sativus, a seed
known in India to frequently produce harmful effects, and giving rise
to a particular condition called “ lathyrismus.” When I was in
India in 1889-90 I inquired carefully into this matter, and during
the past year have come across several fresh cases of poisoning
through the use of this particular seed. In the spring of this year
I collected the information on the subject in the form of a paper
which I read before the Society of Public Analysts, and which is
published in the Analyst for May 1894. In one instance two milk
Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist. 769
cows died and four others exhibited signs of paralysis after eating a
feeding meal in which this bean figured largely ; in another case an
entire flock of pure Shropshire sheep was affected, many of them
dying after eating a compound cake in which I subsequently found
Lathyrus sativus present. Lastly, matters were brought to a decided
conclusion by an important legal case which was tried at Bristol in
the autumn, and in which it was clearly established that the use of
Lathyrus sativus, under the name of “ Indian Peas,” had caused the
death of a number of horses.
Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs.
The following analyses, made by me, of materials used for feeding
purposes may be found useful : — •
A
B
0
D
E
F
—
Bullock
fattener
Oat
shellings
Sunflower
seed
Malted
acorns
r-O
II
Bean cake
from
Newchong,
China
Moisture .
10-71
10-25
10-97
18-45
11-17
19-52
Oil .
•63
•56
24-50
3 98
•60
8-22
1 Albuminous
compounds .
1-31
2-94
15-37
5-25
4-00
39-25
Starch, digest-
ible fibre, &c.
53-27
49-78
16 99
00-96
56-91
23-32
Woody fibre .
30-50
32-34
28-63
9-02
20-33
4-75
2 Mineral matter
(ash) .
3-£8
4-13
3-54
2-34
1 09
4 94
10000
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
10000
1 containing
nitrogen
■21
•47
2-46
■84
•64
6-28
2 including silica
308
3 24
•24
•54
—
•19
A and B were very similar materials both in appearance and
analysis, though the former was sold as a “fattening food for
bullocks,” and the latter under its right name, and costing 32s. 6c?.
per ton. It is hardly worth the name of “ food,” while the value
of E (coffee husks) is very little more. As a contrast, the bean
cake from Newchong, China, is a decidedly good quality food, and
not dear at 6?. per ton delivered. The sunflower seed (analysis C)
was home-grown, and the malted acorns (analysis D) were treated
in this way in order to prevent, if possible, any risk of acorn-
poisoning.
Manures.
About these there is not much that need be said. Mineral
superphosphate has been generally of good quality and up to the
stated guarantees. Dissolved bones have at times been procurable
at very low prices, of which the following is an example : —
770 Annual Report fur 1894 of the Consulting Chemist.
Dissolved Bones.
Moisture
. 11-68
1 Organic matter and water of combination
. 30-57
Monobasic phosphate of lime .
. 15-89
equal to tribasic phosphate of lime
rendered
soluble by acid ....
. (24-89)
Insoluble phosphates ....
. 11-04
Sulphate of lime, &c
. 30-31
Insoluble siliceous matter
•51
1 containing nitrogen
100-00
309
equal to ammonia
3 75
This manure (a perfectly genuine one) cost only 51. per ton, and
was sold in the neighbourhood of Lincoln.
Basic Slag.
Though, as has been remarked, basic slag has generally been of
good quality, it is still necessary to warn farmers against purchasing
what is merely known as “ slag,” under the impression that they
are buying “ basic slag.” Such a material is the following, which
a member of the Society told me he was sending as a sample of
“ basic slag ” : —
Lime. 19-71
Insoluble siliceous matter 56-05
Oxide of iron, alkalies, &c 24'24
100-00
This sample contained no phosphoric acid whatever, and was not
basic slag at all. In reply to inquiries I heard that it was offered
in the neighbourhood of Worcester as a new manufacture.
Shoddy.
In several samples of shoddy and wool waste which I have
examined I have found a quantity of weed-seeds, still of full
germinating power. The presence of these seeds in such a manure
must be a decided objection, on account of their liability to foul the
land to which the manure is applied. The vitality of all such seeds
should be destroyed before the material is dug in the ground.
Damaged Nitrate of Soda.
Warnings have been given this year in the Quarterly Reports
against the sale, under the name of “damaged” or “roasted”
nitrate of soda, of a material which is nothing more than the
residue left in the nitre pots after the manufacture of oil of vitriol.
Not only is there hardly any nitrate of soda left in the material,
but a large proportion of the latter consists of the acid sulphate of
soda, a substance which can have no beneficial action on vegetation,
Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist. 771
and may even be harmful. The following is an analysis of such a
sample : —
Moisture 389
Nitrate of soda "39
Potash . . . . . . . . . 203
Insoluble siliceous matter 3-79
Sulphate of soda, &c. 89 90
10000
Another sample examined gave the following results : —
Moisture ’25
Common salt -29
Nitrate of soda -05
Free sulphuric acid 14'05
Sulphate of soda, &c 85-36
100-00
Milk.
Two cases were brought to my notice in which there had been
great complaints as to the milk becoming tainted by some means
which could not be discovered. In all such cases the best plan is
to draw some milk from each cow separately into glass vessels, and
set the milk aside. In this way it can be ascertained if the evil
attaches to one cow alone or to all equally. It can also be found
out whether the fault may not lie with the pails or other vessels
employed. In the first case under notice it was, at my suggestion,
ultimately ascertained that the tin lining was worn off the pipes
inside the refrigerator through which the milk passed, thus exposing
the copper and tainting the milk.
In the second case the “ mystery ” of the bad taste imparted to
the milk was not solved until I had one of the pails used sent up to
me, when I found that, though it had been thoroughly scalded before
use, yet, being an ordinary tinned-iron one, the tinning had in time
worn away at the bottom of the pail, and not merely milk but even
water, after standing in it for only a few minutes, acquired a decidedly
ferruginous taste, iron being quickly dissolved out and tainting the
liquid. Water became, after a short time, quite reddish-coloured
(owing to iron), and the bottom of the pail rapidly rusted.
Action op a Lime Soil on Lead Pipes.
A member of the Society complained to me that a mile length
of lead waterpipes, which he had laid down six years previously,
constantly leaked, and that the lead seemed to be perishing. On
sending me a part of the piping I found it to be spotted in places
and being gradually eaten into. There were on it white scales,
which examination proved to consist of carbonate of lead, and on
analysing the soil in which the pipes lay I found it to contain lime
equal to more than 10 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and to be
alkaline. To this was due the action upon the lead pipes.
7/2 Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist.
Scientific Investigations.
In the last Annual Report mention was made of a series of ex-
periments, which, with the assistance of the Society, is being made
by Mr. J ames Mason of Eynsham, in reference to the question of
the enrichment of the soil by the growth of leguminous crops.
During the year these experiments have been continued, and they
promise to lead to important and interesting results. Among other
points, Mr. Mason is endeavouring to ascertain, to a depth of as
much as 26 feet below the sui’face, the amount of nitrogen con-
tained in the different layers of the soil on which he is experiment-
ing. It may be here mentioned, in reference to the analysis of soils,
that considerable importance is likely to attach to Dr. Bernard Dyer’s
recent investigations upon the “ availability ” of the mineral plant
food in soils. It has long been felt that the determination of the
“ total ” amount of mineral food in a soil was not always a guide
to the soil’s “ active fertility ” in these respects, and that something
more was needed, or some further process required, to enable one to
say what amount of that food could be reckoned upon to take its part
in the processes of ci-op production. Dr. Dyer, by using as a solvent
of the soil a 1 per cent, solution of citric acid, has been able to
obtain results which, so far as regards potash and phosphoric acid,
have, in the case of the well-known Rothamsted wheat soils, given
results which bring very fairly together the analytical results and
those obtained in the actual crop returns. The solvent employed, it
may be said, was decided upon after numerous determinations of the
amount of acidity contained in the root sap of various plants belong-
ing to the natural orders represented by our common field crops,
and the action of the solvent (1 per cent, solution of citric acid) was
intended to represent, as it were, the action of the acid sap of the
rootlets on the particles of soil with which these came in contact.
Arrangements have been recently concluded by which it is hoped
that greater opportunities will be given than in the past for the
carrying out by the Society’s chemical staff of investigations on agri-
cultural problems in which the aid of chemical science can be use-
fully employed.
The following is the list of analyses made in the Society’s labo-
ratory during the past year : —
List of Analyses made for Members of the Society from December 1,
1893, to November 30, 1894.
Linseed cakes
. 184
Undecorticated cotton cakes .
. 79
Decorticated cotton cakes
. 42
Compound feeding cakes and meals
. 52
Rice meals
. 11
Cereals
. 15
Dried grains
8
Silage and hay
. 16
Roots .......
. 18
Butter, milk, and cream
. 14
Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Chemist. 773
List of Analyses — continued.
Waters ....
, 1G9
Superphosphates .
. 107
Dissolved bones and compound artificial manures .
. 102
Bones and bone-meals .
. 04
Peruvian guano
8
Fish guano ....
. 29
Shoddy
. 23
Soot
0
Basic slag ....
. 51
Sulphate of ammonia
1
Nitrate of soda
. 30
Potash salts .
15
Lime
6
Refuse materials .
. 25
Soils ....
. 49
Creosote
5
Miscellaneous
. 13
1,148
Analyses in connection with the Annual Country 'l 09
Meeting J
Analyses in connection with the Woburn experiments 1 89
and other agricultural investigations . . . /
Total 1,259
J. Augustus Voelcker.
13 Hanover Square, London, W.
ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1894 OF THE
CONSULTING BOTANIST.
The Grass seeds examined and tested showed a high degree of
purity and a satisfactory germination. Cocksfoot was generally
free from weeds : only 6 per cent, had any other seeds present, which
were small quantities of Yorkshire Fog. The average germination
was 88 per cent. Meadow Fescue was quite pure, and had an ave-
rage germination of 94 per cent. Meadow Foxtail was also practi-
cally free from weeds ; the Tussock Grass, formerly so frequently
present, was not found in any of this year’s samples : the average
germination was 81 per cent. Timothy was, as is generally the
case, free from weeds ; excluding a single sample which contained
50 per cent, of old seeds that had lost their vitality, the average
germination reached 97 per cent. Meadow Grass was free from
weeds, and had an average germination of 84 per cent. The Rye-
grasses are the least free from impurities of all the grasses. Over
two-thirds of the samples examined contained more or less York-
shire Fog — in several cases 8 per cent., and in one case 10 per cent.,
of this weed being present : the average germination amounted to
91 per cent. ....
774 Annual Report for 1894 of the Consulting Botanist.
There is a remarkable change in the kinds of grasses used by the
members of the Society in laying down pastures. Some inferior and
second-rate grasses are apparently disappearing from use, such as
Vernal Grass, Dogstail, Sheep’s Fescue, and Hard Fescue. On the
other hand, it seems strange that the Meadow Grasses are not so
lai’gely used as their feeding value, persistence, and price would lead
one to expect.
White Clover often contained seeds of Sorrel. In one sample
these amounted to 14 per cent. The average germination was
91 per cent. Alsike also had a considerable amount of Sorrel in
some samples, and 15 per cent, contained seeds of Dodder. The
average germination was 94 per cent. The samples of Red Clover
were all free from Dodder, the only impurity that was present in
any quantity being Rib Grass : the germination had an average of
over 91 per cent.
Yarrow is being more largely used in laying down pastures.
The samples have been singularly free from weeds, and have ger-
minated 80 per cent.
The mixtures of pasture seeds which were analysed testified to
the importance of the farmer buying his seeds separately and mixing
them for himself. Too great a variety of seeds is often employed,
many of them being grasses of an inferior quality. Thus a mixture
was composed of no less than sixteen different species of grass and
some weeds. Some mixtures were so bad that it would have paid
the farmer better to have destroyed them than to have sown them.
For instance, the last mixture examined had more than half its
bulk made up of chaff, and the seeds consisted of 35 per cent. Rye-
grass, 27 per cent. Yorkshire Fog, 15 per cent. Meadow Grass, 9 per
cent. Hard Fescue, and 1 per cent, each of Buttercup, Rib Grass,
and Wood Rush.
Fungal diseases, attacking Turnips, French Beans, Potatoes,
Tomatoes, leaves of Vine, Sycamore, Hop, Maythorn, and Shepherd’s
Purse, the roots of Asparagus and Oats, and the stem of the Peach,
have been investigated and reported upon.
Thirty-four different weeds were identified and their properties,
were reported on.
William Carruthers.
44 Central Hill, Norwood, S.E.
ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1894 OF THE
ZOOLOGIST.
Introduction.
The applications received by the Zoologist during 1894 have, as in
the preceding year, had reference to about thirty different pests.
Most inquiries have related to insects, though in some cases informa-
tion has been sought with regard to parasitic worms.
As a whole, the year appears to have been more than usually free
Annual Report for 1894 of the Zoologist.
775
from important insect attacks. Hessian fly was reported in one
instance from Baldock, but the attack was not severe enough to
attract attention till the barley came to be cut.
The cockchafer grub is becoming increasingly troublesome in some
localities, and has received special consideration in the present
Report.
The oak tortrix flourished exceedingly last summer, and stripped
the oaks in Windsor Forest, and in many districts in the South of
England.
Various members of the weevil tribe have been the subjects of
complaint, and one species ( Phyllobius calcaratus ), usually too rare
to be greatly injurious, did considerable harm to black currants near
Bewdley.
Mortality among Ducklings.
On several occasions serious mortality among ducklings has been
complained of, and specimens have been sent with inquiries as to
the cause of death.
In no case was any organic disease discoverable, and in most
instances the disaster was referable, with very little doubt, to a
species of cramp induced by too great exposure to inclement weather.
The symptoms were very similar in all the cases. The' ducklings
became unsteady on their legs, twisted their heads back over their
backs, and very soon died, having been, to all appearance, perfectly
well a few hours previously.
From duck -breeders on the large scale it was ascertained that
such experiences are by no means uncommon, unless extreme care is
taken with the young birds. Before they have attained their full
plumage they are quite insufficiently protected from the wet, and if
allowed to swim, or wander in wet grass too freely, they are never
properly dry, and cramp frequently ensues.
If anything of the kind is observed, the ducklings should be kept
from water entirely for a time, and not allowed to roam at large for
more than about four hours each day.
It is, further, important to add to their regular food a quantity
of chopped cooked meat, or gravy.
“ Tulip-root ” in Oats.
Tylenchus devastatrix.
Specimens of tulip-rooted oat plants were forwarded in J uly from
a crop near Watford, Herts. The roots contained great numbers of
the characteristic eelworm, Tylenchus devastatrix, which is also
believed to be the cause of clover sickness.
When this pest appears it is clearly advisable to avoid the sowing
of any crop liable to attack on the infested ground. In the present
case, unfortunately, the common practice of putting in clover with the
oats had been adopted, so that the Tylenchus was provided with a
supply of food exactly to its taste after the removal of the oats.
776
Annual Report for 1894 of the Zoologist.
Under such circumstances, the best plan is probably to sacrifice
the clover, which is almost sure to go “ sick ” during the winter. It
should be completely fed off during the autumn, and then treated
as stubble. After thorough scarifying, a crop of rape might be put
in as a makeshift.
The application found most effective in the case of crops affected by
eelworm is a top-dressing of nitrate of soda, or sulphate of ammonia.
The Cockchafer.
Melolontha vulgaris.
There are indications that the damage wrought by this pest in
Great Britain is on the increase. It is reported from various locali-
ties in South Wales, while the
neighbourhood of Godaiming,
in Surrey, and parts of Ross-
shire, N.B., have suffered from
its ravages. In one case turnips
were the crop affected, but most
complaints have reference to
grass land ; and as in such cases
the cause of injury is by no
means so obvious, it is extremely
likely that much damage to
grass put down to the score of
the wireworm is in reality at-
tributable to this pest. In any
case, the injury actually traced
to the grub of the cockchafer is
sufficiently considerable to make
it worth while to inquire into
the measures adopted to combat
it by agriculturists on the Continent, where it has long been known
as an extremely formidable foe. Some idea of the magnitude of
the operations undertaken against it may be gathered from the state-
ment that in the year 1868, under the directions of Stadelmann, one
hundred and twenty thousand pounds weight of cockchafers were
collected in the province of Saxony, and converted into manure by
the admixture of lime.
Life-history. — The beetles make their appearance in May, and
in infested districts are to be found in great numbers during three
to six weeks. The males, distinguishable by their antennae being
7- instead of 6-leaved, preponderate, especially during the first part
of the swarming period. They fiy chiefly in the evening, and remain
concealed during daylight, but in wooded land their presence is
indicated by the litter of leaves they knock or bite off, and by their
excrement, with which the ground is covered. In this stage of their
life they feed upon the leaves of foliage trees. Their favourite is
the oak, but they also attack the horse-chestnut maple, birch,
1. Melolonllia vulgaris, female. 2. Larva, half-
grown. 3. Rhizotrogus solstitialis, female.
From life.
Annual Report fur 1894 of the Zoologist.
777
willow, mountain ash, beech, and hornbeam. After pairing, the
female seeks suitable ground for laying her eggs, and for this
purpose comes out into the open. The ground preferred is untilled,
tolerably loose, and dry, and the eggs are laid at a depth of about
10 inches. In all, each insect lays sixty or seventy egg's, about
fifteen at a time.
In four to six weeks the larvie hatch out, but during the first
summer they do little harm, feeding for the most part upon decaying
vegetable matter in the soil. During the following year they begin
to attack the tender rootlets of various crops, and enter definitely
upon their career of destruction. In winter they avoid the severe
frosts and get beyond the reach of the agriculturist by burrowing
very deeply in the ground. They are whitish, fleshy, wrinkled,
grubs with yellow heads, and of the shape figured above.
The duration of larval life is probably three years. Pupation
then takes place in J uly or August, and in the following May the
mature beetle appears.
On the Continent the life-cycle is found to occupy three or four
years, according to the climate. The period is four years in North
Germany, three years in South Germariy and in Switzerland. These
periods are emphasised by the appearance every third or fourth year,
as the case may be, of swarms of cockchafers, very much more
numerous than those observed in the intervening years, and such
“ swarming-years ” (Flugjahre) are, of course, known in advance,
and special means taken to destroy the beetles. In Dresden, for
example, the swarming years correspond with the leap-years, while
in other districts they may fall on the years preceding or the years
following leap-years.
It is very important that information of this nature should be
obtained with regard to infested districts in the British Islands.
From the size of the larvae sent me this year from Godaiming
and from Glamorganshire, I should judge that the present year
is a “swarm-year” for those districts; but I have no information
as to the numbers in which the cockchafer occurred there last
May. The grubs received from Ross-shire in September appeared
to be of two years’ growth, and would indicate 1893 as a “swarm-
year.”
The slight damage done by the grubs in their first year often
induces the farmer to think that he has got rid of the pest.
Quantities of the young grubs were found this year in Surrey and
in Glamorganshire at the roots of flourishing grass- crops.
Treatment. — When it is considered that in this country grass-
crops principally suffer from the cockchafer, it is clear that the
usual methods of grub destruction during tillage operations are
not available. It is in the beetle stage that the pest is most subject
to attack, and hence the importance of accurate observations in the
directions indicated above.
In infested districts farmers should act in concert in attempting
to destroy the beetles wholesale during May. The insects never
travel far to lay their eggs, so that a district is benefited by the
778 Annual Report for 1894 of the Zoologist.
local destruction of the cockchafers. The following points should be
noted : —
1. The best time for collecting the beetles is early in the morning,
on a dry day, not in very hot weather.
2. They are best sought on isolated trees and shrubs, as they
only go into the woods in bad weather.
3. The trees should not be shaken too vigorously, or the beetles
fly away instead of simply falling down.
A convenient plan is for the workers to proceed in gangs of one
man and five or six boys. The man can shake the smaller trees by
kicking the trunks, and he carries a pole with which to strike the
lower branches of the bigger trees. The boys are engaged in
gathering up or destroying the beetles as they fall, and in climbing
the trees when it is wished to shake the higher branches.
The cockchafers may be shaken down upon tarred boards or
cloths, or collected into any convenient vessels. A very satisfactory
receptacle for the beetles is made thus : — A hole is made in the
bottom of a sack, and the neck of a bottle tied into it. The
mouth of the sack is tied up, and the beetles, as they are
gathered, are inserted by way of the bottle-neck. This contrivance
is easily carried over the shoulder, and is emptied, when desired, by
simply untying the sack mouth.
Cogho recommends the lighting of fires in the evening during
the swarming-time, as numbers of the cockchafers are attracted by
the light, and perish in the flames.
Attempts have been made, with considerable success, to entice
the beetle to lay its eggs in specially prepared trap-holes or trenches.
These are made, at the beginning of May, in districts where attack
is anticipated. They are about a foot deep, partly filled with damp
moss, which is covered with the loose, dry soil which the cockchafers
prefer for egg-laying purposes. In the summer they are cleared out
and the larvae destroyed.
It is difficult to find any satisfactory method of destroying the
grub when the crop is of such a nature as to prevent any thorough
disturbance of the ground. On the small scale a solution of ammonia
is found to be very efficacious as a dressing, and on a larger scale the
ammoniacal liquor from the gasworks is deserving of a trial. It
should be used in the spring, when the grub comes up into the sur-
face soil. In the winter the pest is too deeply buried for any
insecticide to be employed with effect.
With regard to gas-lime, Mr. It. W. Llewellyn, of Briton Ferry
reports : “ In one field I gave a heavy top-dressing of gas lime in
August 1893. The result was, it quite destroyed both the grub and
the grass, but this year the grass has grown tremendously, almost
too strong. In a field of a neighbour that was well limed the grub
is not nearly as bad ; and I can say the same of a field to which I
gave about 5 cwt. of basic slag per acre. No other steps were taken
against the grub, except rolling, which did no good.”
Special instruments have been devised for clearing the ground,
under certain circumstances, from this troublesome grub. That of
Annual Report for 1894 of the Zoologist.
779
Witte is both simple and cheap, the cost being 1 5*. Its nature
can be gathered from the accompanying figure. It is stamped
into the ground by the foot,
spade-fashion, and the four rows
of about twenty needles with
which the soil is pierced are fitted
with a spring arrangement, which
allows them to give way if too
great a resistance is met with.
Such implements can, of course,
only be used in certain cases, and
where the soil is free from stones.
Where the grubs are at work,
crows and other birds should be
encouraged to the utmost, though
they appear to do damage by
plucking up the grass.1
A beetle somewhat like a
small cockchafer, and known
scientifically as Rhizotroyus sol-
s titialis, is so extremely common
in certain localities that it is by
no means unlikely that its grubs
are often mistaken for half -grown
specimens of Melolontha larvie
which they very closely re-
semble.
If this surmise be correct,
the life-history of this beetle,
about which little seems to be
known at present, becomes of
importance from an economic poi
of view.
Tiik Mustard Beetle.
Phcedon betake.
The literature on the subject of the mustard beetle has by this
time assumed quite formidable proportions. In 1886, an inquiry
into the pest was instituted by the Royal Agricultural Society, and a
full and interesting report was published by the Consulting Entomo-
logist in the Journal for 1887. 2
Since compiling that report Miss Ormerod has written frequently
on the subject, and lately Messrs. J. & J. Colman, of Norwich, have
published a leaflet containing an excellent resume' of the practical
1 For many of the above suggestions the writer is indebted to the works of
Judeich, and Nitsche, and Taschenberg.
* Vol. xxiii. Part i., S.S., pp. 273 et scq.
780
Annual Report for 1894 of the Zoologist.
suggestions which have from time to time been brought forward. As
this leaflet is probably in the hands of all those interested in the
growth of mustard, it is unnecessary to repeat here the substance of
numerous previous reports, and I shall confine my observations to
certain modifications of treatment which many visits to infested dis-
tricts and much conversation with mustard growers have suggested
to me.
It is very doubtful whether the plan, sometimes advocated, of
burning damp .straw, or filling trenches with tar, to arrest the march
of the beetle, is of any real utility, as the beetles readily travel over
very much greater obstacles. Nor does the method of using dress-
ings, other than forcing manures, seem to be justified by results.
It would be well to tar the fences in the early spring, for the
double purpose of preserving the timber and of destroying the
beetles, which are hibernating in the chinks and crannies of the wood.
A suggestion which seems to be worthy of more attention than
it has hitherto received is the deliberate stocking of the mustard
field with chickens or ducklings.
The fowls selected should be of the most active breed procurable,
and free from feathers on the legs. It will probably be necessary to
purchase in the ordinary market ; but if such active fowls as Leg-
horns, or the cross between Plymouth Rock and Dorking, can be
obtained, so much the better. The birds should be quite young,
about the size of starlings, and should be stocked at the rate of
about twelve to the acre, as soon as the mustard plant appears.
They must be furnished with waterproof houses with raised
wooden floors, each house to shelter about twenty -five chickens.
At first they must be fed twice a day ; but when insects become
more numerous the morning feed must be discontinued, but a full
meal given in the evening.
Common chickens suitable for the purpose will probably cost
about sevenpence, and will fetch two shillings in the autumn,
having in the meantime freed the crop from various insect pests.
Young ducklings are, perhaps, even more satisfactory, as they are
better able to pick the larvae off the under side of the leaves.
The ingenious beetle-catching machine devised by Mr. Cole
Ambrose, of which I have examined a model, seems well cal-
culated to destroy great numbers of the various mustard beetles in
case of a bad attack. Its cost may prevent the smaller growers
from availing themselves of its services, uidess they overcome the
customary reluctance to combine in purchasing one. It seems
worth while considering whether some less costly adaptation of the
same principle could not be devised for fixing to the framework of
some implement, such as a horse-hoe, already possessed by the
farmers, though in this case the somewhat low axle would prevent
its use, except in the earlier stages of the crop.
I am greatly indebted to Messrs. James and Samuel Egar, of
Thorney, near Peterborough, for advice with regard to this pest.
Annual Report for 189 A of the Zoologist.
781
The Grain Weevil.
Calandra granaria.
This insect continues to do great damage to stored grain,
especially to foreign barley imported for malting purposes.
Some of the beetles survive the winter and hibernate in chinks
and crannies in the walls of the granary, and in the spring the
female seeks the heaps of corn, in the grains of which she deposits
her eggs, after piercing a hole with her rostrum. The grubs feed in
the interior of the grain, where they also pupate, and the mature
beetle emerges.
Infested grain has no characteristic appearance, but is lighter
than ordinary grain, and will float when thrown into water.
Treatment. — When the storehouse is comparatively empty, the
opportunity should be taken of washing the walls with whitewash
to which some carbolic acid is added, and of filling up all crevices
with cowhair and quicklime, or cement.
The methods of destruction usually advocated depend on the
sensitiveness of the weevil to extremes of temperature. It cannot
stand severe cold, and is kept in check by the simple expedient of
leaving the windows of the granary open on frosty nights. Frequent
turning over of the heaps of grain, so as to admit air freely, is also
said to be beneficial, though, on the other hand, some affirm that they
can keep the pest more in check when the grain is stored in sacks.
If infested grain is exposed, by means of hot air or some form of
roasting mill, to a temperature of 1 30° Fahr. the weevils are said to be
killed without injury to the germinating power or malting properties
of the barley.
From experiments recently made by Mr. H. E. Weed in
Mississippi, U.S. A., it appears that bisulphide of carbon, long, ago
recommended (1879) by Professor Riley, is a most satisfactory cure
for this pest. Maltsters hesitate to use it in this country, on account
of its inflammatory properties, but if due caution be observed there
is no danger, and it is an excellent insecticide.
It was at first placed in shallow trays on the surface of grain in
a closed bin. The vapour is heavy, and soon permeates the corn
beneath.
It has been found, however, that actual contact with the grain
has no ill effects, so that it can be applied by fixing a mass of tow
or cotton waste to the end of a stick, saturating it with carbon
bisulphide, and thrusting it into the middle of the barley ; or it may
be simply poured on the top of the grain.
No light must be brought near until the odour has entirely
passed off.
The granary may be thoroughly dosed with carbon bisulphide
on Saturday afternoon, and work resumed as usual on Monday
morning, a watchman being employed to prevent the possibility of
any light being introduced. The treatment should commence at the
bottom of the building, as otherwise the descending fumes are too
powerful while the lower rooms are being treated. The fluid is
VOL. V. T. S. — 20 3 K
782
Annual Report for 1894 of the Zoologist.
sprinkled wherever the weevil is known to be, and particularly
on waste heaps, and the building is closed as tightly as possible.
It is also recommended that a “ quarantine ” bin be erected for
the treatment of grain as soon as it arrives, after which it can be
transferred to other cribs.
One pound of the bi-sulphide is found to be sufficient for 100
bushels of grain. The best results were obtained with “ Fuma ” bi-
sulphide, manufactured by E. R. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio, the cost of
which was 5 d. a pound.
A New Black -Currant Weevil.
Phyllobius calcaratus, Fabr. ; glaucus, Scop.
On May 1 2 specimens were sent of a weevil which was said to be
doing serious damage to black-currant
bushes near Bewdley. On exami-
nation they proved to be Phyllo-
bius calcaratus, Fabr. ( glaucus , Scop.),
a species closely allied to the handsome
green weevils with a metallic sheen
which are so commonly to be seen
upon nettles.
In 1889 Miss Ormerod reported
another species of Phyllobius (P.
maculicornis), as injurious to fruit-
trees near Sittingbourne.
The present beetle can in general
be distinguished from the common
nettle weevil (P. alneti) by its reddish
legs and antennse. F or a more accurate
account of the differences we may quote Walton, Annals, and Maga-
zine of Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. : —
P. calcaratus differs from P. alneti in the scales being setaceous-lanceo-
late; the antenme and their articulations longer and more slender, the
scape reaching beyond the base of the head ; the third and fourth joints of
the funiculus distinctly longer ; the thorax less impressed, and constricted
anteriorly; the scutellum of the form of an isosceles triangle, having the
apex deeply truncated and rounded, the legs and antennae rufous, rufo-
ferruginous, or rufo-castaneous.
No observations are on record with regard to the life-history of
this particular species, but in all probability it lives in the larval
and pupal condition at the roots of the bushes, which the mature
beetle attacks. If this is the case, the chance of the pest recurring
would be greatly lessened by removing the surface earth during
the winter, and either burying it deeply, or destroying the contained
pupae by mixing it with lime ; or lime might be simply dug in under
the infested bushes.
There is no better remedy when the beetle is at work than the
one usually adopted in similar cases, namely, the shaking of the
bushes over cloths or boards smeared with tar. This operation is
most successful early in the morning, and upon dull days.
Phyllobius calcaratus, enlarged and
natural size. From life.
Annual Report for 1894 of the Zoologist.
783
It is quite possible that no great importance is to be attached to
the occasional occurrence of this insect in considerable numbers. On
the other hand, it is at present by no means so rare as the older
entomologists appear to have found it, and measures should be taken
to combat it as soon as it appears.
The Elm-bark Beetle.
Scolytus destructor.
An avenue of elms near Droitwich was reported, in July last, to
be suffering from beetle attack, and though the material sent for
identification was very meagre, there could be little doubt that
Scolytus destructor was the insect at work.
The female burrows under the elm -bark in June, and having
formed a tunnel some three or four inches long, lays her eggs along
its sides. The main injury results from the borings of the larvae,
which hatch out from the eggs towards the end of June. They
burrow under the bark in all directions, often causing large portions
to flake off, and, in cases of bad attack, killing the tree.
When such an attack is noticed, it is of the greatest importance
to at once cut down the trees which are plainly killed, and to
rip off and burn the bark, with the contained grubs. Otherwise the
dead tree acts as a nursery for the beetles, and is a standing menace
to the sound trees near it.
On the large scale, the treatment proposed by M. Robert, and
described by Miss Ormerod in her Manual , has been tried in
France, with very satisfactory results. This consists in shaving off
all the rough outer bark of the elm-trees with an implement of the
nature of a spokeshave, going especially deep in portions of the tree
where the attack is most severe. Many grubs are actually destroyed
by the operation, and, moreover, a copious flow of sap is induced in
the soft inner bark, which appears to be fatal to the insects.
In cases where a tree is but slightly attacked, or where its value
makes the extra labour involved a matter of little importance, it
may be saved by the following treatment. The worker is furnished
with a ladder, a bradawl, a syringe with narrow, pointed nozzle, and
some suitable insecticide fluid, such as Gishurst Compound. The
beetle-holes are sought upon the trunk, and cleared with the
bradawl, and some of the fluid forcibly injected. It travels along
the burrows of the larvse and kills them. The best time for this
operation is July or August, but it may be performed later. It is
a good plan to leave the bark from felled elm-trees for a time as
decoys for the beetle, but in this case it must be destroyed without
fail early in May, before the insects emerge.
Ground Beetles.
Once more complaints have been received of injury being done
by beetles which are usually thought to be carnivorous, and
therefore useful. A strawberry crop was alleged to have been
destroyed near Nottingham by beetles which proved on examination
3 f 2
731
Annual Report for 1891 of the Zoologist.
to be Pterostichus madidus, TIar pains ruficornis, and Calathus
cisteloides. Unfortunately, when the case was reported the attack
was already over, and it was too late to make any inquiry into the
facts.
There are many possible sources of error in the observations.
The beetles in question are very common, and would be much more
conspicuous than the strawberry weevil, for example ( Otiorhynchus
sulcatus), which may possibly have been the true culprit. Again,
the ground beetles may have attacked the strawberries, but only
such as contained minute larvae, which were the real objects of their
search.
If these beetles are really injurious, it is hard to understand how
any strawberry crop can escape a pest which is always present in
such large numbers.
Tiie Oak Tortrix.
Tortrix viridana.
This pest occurred in vast numbers last June in the South of
England, and its caterpillars entirely stripped the oak-trees in
Windsor Forest. It is very erratic in its occurrence, often being
scarcely discoverable where it abounded the previous year. This
sudden disappearance is, no doubt, due to the immense increase,
during the year of its abundance, of the insects which prey upon it.
Unfortunately, on account of the impossibility of predicting a
serious attack, and of the very large area generally involved, it seems
impossible to suggest any practical method of combating it. It does
not, luckily, do much permanent harm.
The oak has great powers of recuperation, and will generally put
forth a second leafage, and I am not aware that it ever actually
succumbs to this pest, though it may undergo some amount of dis-
figurement. Many birds prey upon the caterpillars, including the
common house-sparrow. Lord Vernon has suggested that this fact
might be utilised, and considerable numbers of sparrows introduced
into an infested district. The experiment is worth a trial when the
caterpillar begins to be troublesome, though it is exceedingly doubt-
ful whether the birds would remain in the woods.
Miscellaneous.
Amon» other pests about which inquiry has been received, but
which do not call for any special report, are clover weevil, strawberry
weevil, turnip-gall weevil, red spider, snowy fly, goat moth, red
maggot, root maggots, celery fly, -various aphides, pear sawfly, and
several species of caterpillars.
In March a correspondent recommended formic aldehyde as an
insecticide especially suitable for greenhouse use, but careful experi-
ments made with this substance on various infested hothouse plants
do not appear to justify the adoption of the treatment.
Cecil Warburton.
Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge.
785
IFlotes, Communications, anb
IRexuews.
NOTES ON FRENCH AGRICULTURE.
The Bulletin de la Societe des Agriculteurs de, France of Septem-
ber 15, 1894, contains so many subjects of importance to English
agriculturists that a sketch of its contents may be of interest. Its
obituary notices include an article from the pen of M. R. Lavolde
on the loss the society has suffered from the death of the Comte de
Paris, who had been a member since 1873, and was himself a practical
agriculturist. A report of the Permanent Commission on Agri-
cultural Industries highly commends a simple machine for spraying
flour mills with an insecticide. In an address by M. Le Tresor de
la Rocque to the National Congress of Agricultural Syndicates the
author maintains that cheap labour or cheap land has more to do
with the fall in the price of cereals than the decline in the value of
silver, and shows that if a bimetallic agreement were arrived at
among the principal States of the world it would have no permanent
effect on the price of silver unless the production of silver were
restricted by all silver- mining countries. He gives an interesting
table intended to show that the labouring man would be the
principal sufferer if foreign corn and foreign wine caused all land
to be laid down to grass or turned to woodland, for whilst per
hectare ( = 2a. lr. 35p.) wine-growing occupied a man 57 days,
Sugar beet . occupied 42 days | Hay meadows . occupied G days
Corn .... „ 22 „ | Grazing land . . . „ 2 „
He quotes figures to show how serious the emigration from rural
districts to towns in France has become. The mortality in the
towns is 27 or 28 per 1,000, as against 20 per 1,000 in the country,
and this with the emigration to foreign lands is a serious cause of
depopulation. Out of 30,000 town-born conscripts 20,000 are re-
jected for the army, though the standard is only five feet ; more-
over, few of those who have served in the army return to country
life. He complains that the education given in the schools is
unsuited to country children, and suggests that instead of being
taught from classical writers they should learn by heart from a cate-
chism of rural life and of farming practice (a favourite idea of our
colleague the late M. Faunce de Laune). He points out the effect
of the new Socialistic programme, emanating from the Congress at
786
Notes on French Agriculture.
Dijon, in which it is proposed that the State should at once resume
possession of all landed property, both above and under the ground,
and thinks that if it is brought to the notice of peasant proprietors
it will be enough, as they are by no means desirous of sharing
their goods with outsiders. He laments the want of the spirit of
association amongst farmers which enables the middleman to thrive
upon them, and finally asks for freedom from internal and external
enemies (anarchy and foreign produce).
The next article I notice is upon the harvest of 1894, many of
the details of which have appeared in our newspapers. The result,
so far as the farmers of France are concerned, appears to be that they
have had the best crop of wheat they have ever grown excepting that
of 1874, and that they will have a surplus of over two million hecto-
litres (or about 700,000 qrs.) to sell, or to carry over to next season.
Hence, they are not likely to compete with us for foreign wheat.
The resolutions of the Conseils Generaux on agricultural questions
are interesting. They relate to adulteration and frauds in produce,
and to taxation, protection, and migration from country to town. A
homestead law is proposed that would ensure 240/. to 480/. per
farming family, with freedom from seizure. There are also reso-
lutions against drunkenness, several against tramps, and one in
favour of co-operative dairies, and it is proposed that the law against
tuberculous animals should not be enforced until money for
compensation is voted. There is a quotation from a speech of M.
Leygues, referring to the universal complaint of the depopulation
of the country districts and the increased competition with the
workmen in the towns, which the reviewer suggests is caused
by the want of agricultural teaching.
Notice is taken of a special branch of the Pasteur Institute,
which is to investigate the destruction of hurtful animals and
parasites. Under the heading of Importation of Cattle into France
it is stated that from January 1 to July 31 of this year 63,784
foreign beasts have entered, against 3,442 of the corresponding
period in 1893, and 12,353 in 1892. These principally came from
Algeria, 41,878, against 2,337 and 9,867, and from the United States
6,725, against 1 and 170, showing that the States have found a new
market for their cattle. The problem of reaping by steam-power
appears to be coming again to the front, and is said to have been
successfully solved by Mr. Miller, of Dawson, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
who, by attaching three binders to a traction engine, was able to
cut twenty hectares (about 50 acres) a day at a cost of 3 francs 45
centimes per hectare (or Is. 2d. per acre) ; as, however, he appears
to have paid the men working his binders 3 francs per diem, he
must have been fortunate in finding very cheap harvest-men.
In a later issue of the Bulletin (October 15) M. A. de More has
written to the National Agricultural Society of France upon feeding
horses with bread. He was in the habit of giving 72 litres of oats
to six horses per diem (i.e. about 2l> gallons per horse), of the value
of 21 francs for 2 hectolitres, the "total cost being 7 francs 35 cen-
times, or 1-23 francs (or about Is.) per horse per day. For the last
Notes on French Agriculture.
787
four months M. de More has given his horses 5 litres (5 lb.) of
bread, instead of 12 litres of oats, with a substantial saving in cost.
He has a sack of wheat worth 32 francs (\l. 66*. 8 d.) ground by his
miller, who returns 37'5 kilos (82 lb.) of bran, and 106 kilos (233 lb.)
of flour ; with the latter he bakes 127 kilos (280 lb.) of bread, the
baking costing 2 francs (Is. 8 d.). Reckoning the bran to be worth
6 francs, the 127 kilos of bread cost 28 francs (\l. 3s. 4c?.). Giving
2*5 kilos (5)t lb.) of bread instead of 12 litres of oats, his expenditure
is 85 centimes (8|c?.) instead of 1 franc 25 centimes (about Is.) per
horse, or a saving of 40 centimes (nearly 4 d.) a day per head, and he
finds the horses to thrive equally as well.
M. le Marquis de Dampierre has fed fifteen horses upon a
bread made from wheat-flour and bran. He substitutes 1 kilo
(2-2 lb.) of bread for 3 kilos (6 -6 lb.) of hay and 2 litres (3£ pints)
of oats, with satisfactory results.
M. Lavaland does not think it possible to work horses that have
been fed upon bread alone. He has tried it with the horses belonging
to the Omnibus Company of the City of Paris, and at the end of
nine months had to give it up. He thinks that bread for horses
should not contain more water than oats, or about 10 to 14 percent.,
and that bread can only be given in addition to the ordinary food.
In answer to this, it is said that there was no question of giving
bread to other than farm horses.
M. Pluchet substituted 5 kilos (11 lb.) of bread for 4 kilos
(8-8 lb.) of oats, showing a saving of 33 centimes (3d.) per head per
day. This bread was made from rye and barley costing 1 1 centimes
the kilo (\d. per lb.). The same experiment has also been tried
upon cattle, substituting 5 kilos (11 lb.) of bread for 4 kilos (8'8 lb.) of
cake, with a saving of 17 centimes (l^e?.) per head per day.
M. Schribaux, the Director of the Seed Trial Station of the
Institut National Agronomique, states that for several years the
stations have received wheat from England, and that from the first
he has been much struck with the exceptional behaviour of these
samples when germinating. Whilst those harvested in France
germinated completely in three to five days, and those from Algeria
in less, the English samples took three to four weeks to germinate
completely. These are the figures for 1892, per 100 : —
Number of Days— 2 3 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21 24
French Wheat . . 3 86 100 — — — — — — — —
English Wheat . . — — 1 16 33 50 67 72 84 95 —
The English wheats take up water and swell as quickly as the
French wheats, but the breaking-up of the store of the kernel by
the diastase is slow, due to the want, or rather insufficiency, of
nourishment which in the case of English wheat delays the develop-
ment of the germ, its physiological ripeness being still incomplete.
English wheats, like all wheats grown in climates affected by
the sea, are more or less damp, and it is the excess of moisture that
hinders the formation of diastase and delays germination. The
following experiment proves this : —
788
Notes on French Agriculture.
English wheats of the harvest of 1892 were germinated in
October of that year. The subjoined table shows the result.
Number of grains germinated per 100 after —
Number of Days— 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21 24
Wheat No. 1 (17-85 per cent, of water) 1 16 33 50 67 72 84 95 99
Wheat No. 2 (17-23 „ „ ) 25 81 96 96 99 —
Part of this same wheat was left for eight days in an oven at
a temperature of 30° Cent. (86° Fahr.). The speed of germination
was quite altered, as is shown by the following table : —
Number of Days — 3 5 7 9
Wheat No. 1 (13 76 per cent, of water) . . 4 64 88 99
Wheat No. 2 (13-45 „ „ ) . . 72 99 — —
The duration of germination is reduced from twenty-four days to
nine days for Wheat No. 1, and from fourteen days to five days for
Wheat No. 2. By drying grain and depriving it of part of its water
germination is much accelerated. M. Schribaux strongly recom-
mends this practice, not only for wheat, but for all seeds.
The remaining pai-ts of the reviews are taken up with market
fluctuations and quotations, to which are added the average prices
of all articles used or produced by farmers. Being published
fortnightly, these quotations are of much value.
J. H. Thorold.
Sj'ston Park, Grantham.
THE ASSESSMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LAND.
There is perhaps no subject so uninteresting to the ordinary
individual as the assessment of property for rating and taxation.
All of us have to pay rates and taxes, but few of us take the
trouble to find out how or on what principle our property is assessed
for them. For the most part we pay and grumble ; we look upon
the delivery of those wretched scraps of blue or white paper, called
“demand notes,” as necessary evils; we know that the tax
gatheper or rate collector will inevitably call upon us ; that he will
knock at our doors, whether we live in the humble farmhouse or the
landlord’s mansion. Occasionally, however, some, or a certain class
of us, feel the payment to be such a serious matter — so heavy a
burden — that we are driven to consider the matter closely in order
to find out, if we can, whether the payments demanded from us are
no more than what they ought to be, or it may be to find out some
mode by which we can escape them altogether. And this has
now happened to the occupiers of agricultural land in many parts
of England, whose gross takings from the land they occupy are so
small that the relief from payments which in more prosperous times
The Assessment of Agricultural Land.
789
were considered to be but trifles is of great moment. With wheat
under one pound a quarter, and with many of the other crops that
he grows at similarly low prices, the farmer of arable land in England
has been driven to see how he can reduce his expenditure ; and in
looking around him with that intent many such a farmer finds that he
is unfairly assessed for rating purposes, and, as he contends, on an
altogether wrong principle. Putting aside on the present occasion the
wider question, whether land, houses, and other real property ought
to bear the entire burden of rates for what are called local purposes
to the exoneration of other classes of property, let us endeavour to
ascertain what is the principle upon which agricultural and other
land is assessed for rating purposes, and whether such principle is
fair and right. The principle, I need hardly say, is laid down by
Parliament. The Parochial Assessment Act of 1836 (6 & 7 Wm. IV.
c. 96) enacts in its first section that no rate for the relief of the poor shall
be of any force which shall not be made “ upon an estimate of the
net annual value of the hereditaments rated thereunto ; that is to say,
of the rent at which the same might reasonably be expected to let
from year to year, free of all usual tenant’s rates and taxes, and tithe
commutation rent charge (if any), and deducting therefrom the
probable average annual cost of the repairs, insurance, and other
expenses (if any) necessary to maintain them in a state to command
such rent.” And the principle is affirmed in the Union Assessment Act
1862, which constituted Union Assessment Committees, and which,
after directing that the overseers of each parish in the union should
make a list of all ratable hereditaments within such parish with
the annual value thereof in a particular form scheduled to the Act,
to be called “ The Valuation List,” enacted that the gross estimated
rental for the purposes of the list should be “the rent at which
the hereditament might reasonably be expected to let from year
to year free of all usual tenant’s rates and taxes, and tithe
commutation rent charge (if any),” and expressly provided that “ the
provisions of the earlier Act defining the net annual value of the
hereditaments to be rated should not be repealed or interfered with.”
Now there would seem to be two modes by which, without
contravening the principle laid down by Parliament, the annual
value may be determined. The one, by taking the actual rent paid ;
for how can land reasonably be expected to be let for more than it
actually does let ? And the other, by what has been called “ com-
parative value,” that is to say, taking a certain farm as worth so
much per acre and estimating other farms at more or less per
acre according as in the opinion of the committee they are better
or worse farms than the, so to say, standard farm. It is the latter
course that is adopted by almost all assessment committees. To quote
from Mr. Pringle’s recent report on parts of the county of Essex to
the present Royal Commission on Agriculture : —
In arriving at their valuation, the members of the assessment committees,
although they take the actual value of land as determined by rent and tithe
as a guide, do not by any means accept it as a basis for assessment.
790 The Assessment of Agricultural Land.
They endeavour to obtain, so far as possible, an equality of rating,
not between individuals, but between the several parishes of which
the union is made up. This mode is no doubt legal according to
the principle laid down in the Acts of Parliament I have cited ;
for the Acts say that the annual value is to be, not the rent at
which the land is actually let, but at what “ it may reasonably be
expected to let from year to year ” — in other words, not at the rent
which the actual tenant pays, but at that which a hypothetical
tenant from year to year would pay.
The arguments usually adduced in support of this principle are
that as land is sometimes let below and sometimes above its proper
or legitimate annual value, you would, if you took the actual rent
paid as a basis, ease the burden of the rates from the shoulders of
him who is lightly rented, and add an additional weight on the
shoulders of him who is already overweighted with a high rent ;
and that, as Mr. Pringle reports was adduced in Essex, the fact
that a farm being held for one shilling an acre does not prevent the
farmer from keeping horses which are constantly using the roads,
nor from employing ploughmen and other labourers whose children
must be educated and poor relieved ; and also that there were certain
parts of Essex where, if assessments were based upon actual annual
rent, the rates would be so increased upon occupiers of land still
in fair condition that the burden would be almost ruinous to them.
But against these arguments it is contended that this principle
of “ comparative value ” operates far more unjustly than the
principle of taking the actual rent as a basis would, as well on the
individual ratepayer as on the land rated, because the ratepayer has
to pay on a higher rent than that which he actually pays, and
because coo large a share of the burden is placed upon agricultural
land as distinguished from house property, shops, manufactories,
tithes, and other ratable property in the same parish or union. The
latter properties, which, as a rule, can more easily bear the burden, are
exonerated from their fair share of it at the cost of agricultural
land which is less able to bear it ; and thus a double injustice, so to
say, is perpetrated.
This subject has recently been brought very prominently before the
public in some letters that appeared in The Times last October and
since in reference to the incidence of rates on many farms in those
parts of Essex reported on by Mr. Pringle, which have suffered
from the depression so extremely acutely. And indeed in several
instances in that county the principle of “ comparative value ” has
been reduced to almost an absurdity, for when farms have been
offered to intending tenants at a rent equivalent to the annual
value at which they are assessed for rating purposes the intending
tenants have simply laughed at the offers, so very much higher are the
assessments than the rents which intending tenants could possibly
give. This appears very clearly from the table on p. 792, which I ex-
tract from the appendix to Mr. Pringle’s report, and of which
the following is a summary
The Assessment of Agricultural Land.
791
Summary.
s. d.
Rent, paid and estimated per acre . . .711
Assessment per acre 12 3J££§
Excess of assessment overrent paid and estimated
per acre 4 4
Excess of assessment overrent paid and estimated
per cent. — 547
Tithe per acre, present value . . . .4 0^
Proportion of tithe to rent paid and estimated
per cent. ....... — 50'5
Rates per acre. (Note. — On some of these
farms there is no school board rate) . .2 1^
Rates in the £ of rent paid and estimated . . 6 4|
Rates in the £ of assessment . . . . 3 5|
Take farm No. 1, for instance : the actual rent paid is 15/. 7s. 2d.,
whereas the farm is assessed at 67 1. 18s., or 521. 10s. 1 07. more
than the actual rent paid. And so farm No. 12 : the rent offered was
551., while the assessment was 1417., or 86/. more than the rent
offered.
The fifteen farms mentioned in the table are not special or excep-
tional cases, but comprise every farm of which the firm of estate
agents, a partner in which prepared the table, has the manage-
ment in the three unions named, except one which is let on an old
lease, and so not applicable to the present situation. Every farm
was taken, whether it hindered or helped the view that the present
method is seriously injuring the occupiers and owners of the land.
The total rents of the fifteen farms amount to 1,882/., and the total
assessment to 2,913/., which, as noted above, makes the assessment
over 50 per cent, beyond the rent.
The first of the letters which recently appeared in The Times on
the subject was from the Rt. Hon. G. Shaw-Lefevre, M.P., to
the Hon. E. G. Strutt, and as the writer now occupies the highly
influential position of President of the Local Government Board the
readers of the Journal will probably like to have it before them in
full. It runs thus : —
Local Government Board, Whitehall, S.W.
October 22, 1894.
Dear Mr. Strutt, — During my recent visit to Essex my attention was
frequently directed by owners and occupiers of land to the very serious
burthen of rates, tithe, and land tax, which are all greatly in excess of what
they are in most other parts of the country.
With respect to rates it was the general subject of complaint that
occupiers of farms are assessed at much higher values than the actual
rents or the real annual value of the land, and that the assessment
committees have refused to lower the assessments in proportion to the fall
of rent.
On one farm which I visited, held under a lease for seven years, at a rent of
70/., the assessment was maintained at 150/.
On another, where the rent was 150/. for 320 acres, the tithe being paid
Statement showing Excess of Assessment for Rating Purposes over the Present
of Fifteen Farms in Essex.
792
The Assessment of Agricultural Land.
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793
The Assessment of Agricultural Land.
by the owner, and amounting to 70/. per acre, the assessment on which the
tenant paid rates was 150 /, and no deduction was allowed in respect of the
tithe, for which the owner was separately assessed.
In many cases of the worst land in Essex the rent now paid is only a
few pounds in excess of the tithe, but the assessments are maintained at a
rate higher than the rent without any deduction for the tithe.
I wa9 informed by a gentleman, in whose statement I have confidence, of
these farms, where the rates actually paid amounted to 36 shillings, 60
shillings, and even 120 shillings in the pound on the rent minus the tithe. It
was stated that the assessment committees have been very unwilling to
reduce the assessments to the low rates at which farms are in many cases
let, lest they should have to raise the rates in the pound to a point which
would cause discontent among other ratepayers.
I promised to look into the matter, and although I have no authority to
give directions or advice to assessment committees, and the appeal from
them is not to the Local Government Board, but to the Quarter Sessions, it
may he of some value that I should express an opinion on the subject.
As a general rule land ought to be assessed at the amount for which it
will let from year to year, deducting the tithe where it is paid by the
landlord. For this purpose the rent agreed upon between the owner and
the tenant is primd facie a measure for the assessment. The rent,
however, is not inclusive, for it may be that the land is worth more than
it is let for, as in the case of a beneficial lease ; or, on the other hand, it
may be that the general value of land in the neighbourhood has gone down,
and the tenant under an existing lease has still to pay the agreed rent. In
such cases the assessments should be above or below the agreed rent, as the
case may be.
With this reservation the rent should, as a general rule, be the basis of
the assessment, and I cannot think that the assessment committees are
justified if, as alleged, they keep up the assessments on land in order to
avoid raising the general rate in the pound.
The effect would be to relieve the tithe owner and the owners of other
property from the burthen which should fall upon them in consequence of
the depressed condition of agriculture, where land has fallen into such a
deplorable condition, as is the case in many of the farms I saw, and it
will only let for a nominal rent after deducting the tithe. I think the
occupier is entitled to have his assessment reduced in the same proportion.
The low assessment and the consequent smaller payment of rates would
bean inducement to many persons to take such farms, while the reverse acts
as a deterrent.
The effect of this would undoubtedly be to throw some greater burthen
on other property in the union.
Let me illustrate by the Unions of Maldon, Chelmsford, Billericay, and
Braintree. From a recent return it appears that the aggregate valuation of
land in these unions is 222,000/., of houses 210,000/., and of railways and
other property 82,000/. I lune no means of ascertaining wliat the tithe is,
but I will assume that it is about 55,000/. a year. The deduction of the
tithe would reduce the assessment on the occupiers of land to 167,000/. The
rates, which average about 8s. in the pound, would produce about 77,000 /.
If the assessment of land were reduced by one-half, the aggregate valua-
tion would be only 431, (.00/. ; and in order to r,dse 77,000/. it would be
necessary to raise the rates in the pound by 8 <7. The result would be that
land would pay 15,300/. in lieu of 25/100/., the tithe owners 10,000/. in lieu
of 8,200/., the owners of houses 38,000/. in lieu of 31,000/., and railway and
other property 15,000/. in lieu of 12,000/.
The relief, therefore, to land would be considerable in proportion to the
794
The Assessment of Agricultural Land.
increased burthen on other property. These figures, however, must be taken
merely as illustrations and not as ascertained facts. It is probable that the
average reductions of assessments of land would not be so great as one-half,
though in individual cases it might be more.
With regard to tithe I would only observe that I heard from all quarters
that the Tithe Act of 1891, which proposed to give relief in cases where the
tithe has almost swallowed up the whole value of the land, has proved to
be a dead letter, and in no case has any relief been obtained.
With respect to the land tax, which is exceptionally high iu Essex, I
need not point out that a reduction of the assessment to the poor rate, on
which the tax is computed, will cause relief to the individual payer.
I am, yours very truly,
(Signed) G. Shaw-Lefeyre.
The Hon. E.G. Strutt, Whitelands, Witham.
I do not think I can usefully add anything to Mr. Shaw-
Lefevre’s letter, for it brings very clearly to view the injustice
from which agricultural land suffers from the method of assess-
ment usually adopted, and points out equally as clearly how that
class of land would be relieved if the method of assessing the value on
the actual or rack rent paid were adopted ; and how in such case houses,
railways, tithes, and other ratable property would bear their pro-
portionate share of the burden. He also points out a fact that is
undoubtedly true, namely, that the low assessment, and the conse-
quent smaller payment of rates, would be an inducement to many
persons to take farms, even such farms as those in Essex of which he
was writing, while the reverse acts as a deterrent.
It may be said, however, that the injustice and unfairness to
which I am endeavouring to draw attention is only found in Essex.
But this is not the case ; it is more or less common throughout all
England ; as witness the following letters which appeared in The
Times on October 27, the first being from a well-known member of the
Council of the Royal Agricultural Society, who has spent the greater
part of a long life in studying the subject of local taxation and in
improving the practical administration of poor relief in this
country ; and the other from the Honorary Examiner in the subject
of parochial assessment to the Surveyors’ Institution, a gentleman of
very great experience in all matters relating to rating : —
To the Editor of “ The Times.1’
Sir, — The letter of the President of the Local Government Board to Mr.
Edward Strutt in The Tones of to-day indicates the necessity of a reform in
the law regulating the preparation of parochial valuation lists. I am well
acquainted with some of the cases to which Mr. Shaw-Lefevre refers, having,
as a governor of Guy’s Hospital, cause of complaint for the over-assessment
of hospital farms in Essex, in the management of which I take a personal
interest. Some of these assessments have been, at much cost, appealed
against in Quarter Sessions without success, and as matters now stand there
is absolutely no escape from a very iniquitous imposition. I am in the same
dilemma myself in the Isle of Ely, where an assessment committee places an
arbitrary value, 100 per cent, above its real letting value, on farm land in
my own occupation. Of course by this overcharge other descriptions of
hereditaments (such as houses, railways, canals, tithes) are relieved.
The Assessment of Agricultural Land.
795
In the union in which I reside, in Northamptonshire (the notorious Brix-
worth Union), I have acted for many years as chairman of the assessment
committee, making rent the absolute criterion of annual value. Of course,
in the instances of land occupied by owners or their relations, and of long
leaseholds, further considerations have to be taken into account in adjusting
the valuation ; but these are exceptional.
For many years this rule of assessing was resisted, but, after much con-
tention, was at last adopted as easy and just. The result is that the pro-
perty tax assessment and the valuation lists in this union essentially coincide,
as they ought to do.
The reform in the law needed is one that was under the consideration of
Parliament some years back, providing for the surveyor of taxes co-operating
with the overseers of the poor in the preparation of the parochial valuation lists.
Such is the law at present for the metropolis. It is to be hoped that Mr.
Shaw-Lefevre may see his way to introduce a Bill on these lines next Ses-
sion. He has the arguments for it now at his fingers’ ends.
I am your obedient servant,
Hazelbeach, October 25. (Signed) Albert Pell.
Sir, — I have perused with interest the letter of Mr. G. Shaw-Lefevre in
your issue of the 25th, and can very fully confirm the statement therein in-
sisted upon — viz. that land in many places is paying more than its fair share
of the parochial rates.
I have valued, for rating purposes, during the last four years parishes
comprising about 140,000 acres, with the general result that the land has
been relieved from rates to a very great extent, much of the burden having
been transferred to the railways and other commercial property.
Your obedient servant,
(Signed) The Honorary Examiner in the
Subject of Parochial Assessment
to the Surveyors’ Institution.
As these pages are passing through the press a very remarkable
report by the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture on the present con-
dition of agriculture in that county has been published, which shows
that the same injustice is being perpetrated there ; and similarly
also a report from Suffolk ; while other instances of the same kind
have been brought to my knowledge in various other parts of
England ; and there is no doubt whatever that at the present time
agricultural land is rated at far too high an amount, and that agri-
cultural ratepayers are bearing far more of the burden of local taxes
than in fairness or justice they ought to bear.
Although there are several other points connected with this
subject, which perhaps ought not to be passed over, yet I will touch
only upon two, viz. the deduction of tithe, and appeals. It is
asserted that the tithe is frequently not deducted from the rent
before the ratable value is determined ; and it would seem from
Dr. Fream’s report to the Royal Commission on Agriculture on the
Andover district of Hampshire (see sec. 52), as well as from a letter
in The Times of October 29, from the chairman of the Watford
Union Assessment Committee, and from what I have myself heard,
that some difficulty in this respect has arisen in consequence of the
Tithe Act of 1891 having thrown the liability to pay the tithe, or to
be more accurate the tithe rent-charge, on the owner, notwithstanding
79G
The Assessment of Agricultural Land.
any contract made after the passing of the Act for the payment
of the tithe rent-charge by the occupier. But this Act has made
no legal difference in the position as regards the deduction, for the
tithe rent-charge was ordered to be deducted by the Assessment
Acts which I have before cited, not because it was a tenant’s
payment, as rates are, but because the tithe itself was a ratable
property under the Act of Elizabeth, and being rated separately,
it should not, of course, pay a. second time, which it does if it is
not deducted. This is not always considered, but the gross estimated
rental is arrived at without deducting the tithe' first, as ought to
be the case ; whereby an especial hardship is inflicted on farms where
the tithe is higher than the actual rent. Thus a farm is worth 50 1.
per annum without tithe, and the tithe on it is 60£. per annum (the
proportions are often higher), and the owner, therefore, inasmuch as
he himself pays the tithe, charges the tenant 110Z. per annum for
the farm, and the tenant pays that sum to the owner as rent. But
it is not fair that that sum should be taken as the gross estimated
rental of that farm. The 60 1. payable for tithe, which is separately
assessed, and therefore pays its due proportion of rates, ought to be
deducted first, and the farm should be charged on the balance, after
allowing for the other legal deductions.
Courts of Quarter Sessions do not appear to be the most fitting
tribunals to which appeals from assessment committees should be
brought, because to a great extent they are made up of persons of
the same turn of mind as the persons who constitute the assessment
committees. There should be an appeal in so serious a matter as
this is to some other Court, more judicial, and not local in its
character. Or, as it has been suggested, the appeal might be to the
Local Government Board, which should have power to appoint a
professional valuer to fix the value, whose finding should be final.
This wouid, no doubt, be satisfactory, except in those cases in which
a point of law might arise, and in them it would be necessary to
have recoui’se to some legal tribunal. In any case, the expenses of
appeals should be lightened, for at present they are so heavy as to
prevent a private individual from undertaking them.
In conclusion let me repeat a few words which I wrote some
thirteen years ago. “ It seems to me that ratepayers would feel
more satisfied if the assessments for all rates were the same, and
if there was one general rating authority for the whole country.”
To these I would add that the same authority that assesses real
estate for rating purposes should assess it for taxation purposes,
and that the overseers of the poor should co-operate with the
surveyor of taxes in country districts, as they do now in the metro-
polis under the Valuation (Metropolis) Act 1869. The result would
be that the property tax assessments and the valuation lists would
practically, if not actually, coincide, and we should have one local
authority the less.
S. B. L. Druce.
9 Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
797
HOW TO ESTIMATE SEED MIXTURES FOR
PASTURES AND HAY.
The value of a mixture for laying down pasture depends not on its
quantity or its weight, but on the number and quality of the living
plants that are produced from it. As one often hears of sowing so
many bushels in the field, or so many pounds to the acre, it is very
important to emphasize this as the correct view of a mixture.
First, the bulk of a seed mixture is no help in forming an esti-
mate of its value. This will be apparent from the following table
showing the weight, number of germinating seeds, and price of a
bushel of eight of the best pasture grasses, and three clovers. In
estimating these seeds the current prices of 1894 for the best quality
of the seeds have been taken. This carries with it a corresponding
high germinating power in the seeds. The foxtail is estimated at 85
per cent., tall fescue at 90 per cent., cocksfoot and Italian rye grass
at 95 per cent., rough stalked meadow grass at 96 per cent., meadow
fescue, perennial rye grass, catstail, and the three clovers at 98 per
cent. This high quality of the seed necessarily carries with it a
heavier weight per bushel.
Table I. — Weight, Number of Seeds, and Price per Bushel
of some Grasses and Clovers.
One bushel of —
Weight in lb.
Number of seeds
Price
Foxtail
14
5,830,000
£ s. d.
17 6
Cocksfoot
21
8,500,000
15 9
Italian rye-grass ....
24
6,150,000
11 0
Tall fescue
25
5.530,000
1 17 6
Meadow fescue ....
28
6,500,000
1 4 6
Perennial rye-grass
28
6,120,000
9 4
Rough -stalked meadow-grass
28
60,000,000
2 6 8
Timothy
50
65,000,000
1 5 0
Red clover
G5
15,000,000
3 15 10
Alsike ......
Gf>
47,300,000
3 10 10
White clover .....
66
46,500,000
4 2 6
The grass experiments at Woburn have shown that a heavy yield
may be obtained by the use of 10,000,000 seeds per acre. Accepting
this as a basis of estimate, it will be seen from this table that a mix-
ture consisting of a bushel of each of the first five grasses would sow
3J- acres, while the same quantity of each of the last five would give
10,000,000 plants to 23£ acres. It follows, then, that the value of a
bushel of seeds for producing a crop depends entirely on the kind of
seeds contained, and their relative proportions.
If we next consider the weight of seed that should be used to
produce a satisfactory crop, we have to face the same uncertainties as
in dealing with bulk. This is obvious from the following table of
VOL. V. T. S.— 20 3 G
798 How to Estimate Seed Mixtures for Pastures and Hay.
the number of germinating seeds in a pound of the best quality of
the same grasses.
Table II. — Number of Seeds in one 'pound of the same
Grasses and Clovers.
One pound of —
Number of seeds
Price
Foxtail
416,000
s. d.
1 4
Cocksfoot
405,000
10|
Tall fescue
221,000
1 6
Meadow fescue ....
231,000
1 0
Italian rye -grass ....
256,000
5*
Perennial rye-grass
218,000
4
Rough-stalked meadow-grass
Timothy ......
2,145,000
1 8
1,294,000
6
Red clover
227,000
1 3
Alsike ......
704,000
1 1
White clover
717,000
1 0
A glance at this table shows that a mixture of a pound each of
meadow grass and timothy produces more living plants (3,439,000)
for 2s. 2 d. than a mixture consisting of a pound of each of the re-
maining six grasses and three clovers (3,395,000) in the table at a
cost of 8s. lOd.
The only reliable guide to the quantity of a mixture which should
be used for laying down a field is to discover how many germinating
seeds a definite amount, say a pound or a peck of each element, con-
tains. Taking again 10,000,000 seeds per acre as the minimum
amount to be sown, we have the following facts in regard to the
same grasses and clovers.
Table III. — Price, Bulk, and Weight of Ten Million Seeds
of the same Grasses and Clovers.
Ten million seeds of—
Price
Weight
Bulk
£
S.
d.
lb.
oz.
Bush.
Pecks
Timothy .....
3
4
7
11
3
S
Rough-stalked meadow-grass
7
6
7
10i
1
Perennial rye-grass .
13
4
45
12
1
Italian rye-grass
15
10
39
0
1
2-
Cocksfoot
1
0
0
24
15
1
Of
Foxtail
1
11
8
24
0
1
3
Meadow fescue ....
2
3
4
43
3^
1
2*
Tall fescue
3
4
2
45
2*
1
H
Alsike
15
0
14
31
4
5
White clover ....
17
6
13
15
4
2|
Red clover
2
3
4
43
15*
The value of this table for determining what quantity of each
seed should be used must be apparent at a glance. Some seedsmen,
seeing the importance of ascertaining the growing plants in a mixture,
How to Estimate Seed Mixtures for Pastures and Hay. 799
give in their catalogues the number of germinating plants in a pound
of the seeds they supply. In making the selection, the kinds of
seeds that it is proposed to introduce into the field must be first
determined by the farmer. Then the quantities can be easily taken
out.
One remarkable fact in this table is that an acre of land can
have 10,000,000 plants of timothy placed on it at a cost of 3s. 4c?.
Timothy is one of the grasses most highly valued in America, and is
generally used there with clover for hay as we use rye-grass. The
feeding quality of the hay is high. Large importations of this hay
were brought from Canada a year ago to make up for the great
deficiency of our crop of 1893 ; in the face of some prejudice it
satisfactorily supplied our need. Timothy is a truly perennial grass,
with a considerable amount of foliage. Making timothy, then, the
basis, and adding clovers and grasses in smaller quantities, it is clear
that a mixture of the best quality of seeds, and the most valuable
varieties, can be obtained at comparatively small prices. In the
tables appended three such mixtures are given, not as specimens of
what, without regard to price, one would like to use, but as cheap
mixtures composed of the best quality of good grasses. In contrast
with the first mixture it may be pointed out that if rye-grass were
substituted for timothy the cost of the 10,000,000 seeds of rye-grass
and clovers would be 14s. 3 d.
Table IV. — Specimen
Mixtures
with Timothy as the Basis.
N umber of seeds
s. d.
A.
Timothy .
. o.:oo,coo
2 3
Alsike
. 1,650,000
2 6
White clover .
.
. 1,650,000
2 11
10,000,000
7 8
B.
Timothy .
. 5,000,000
1 8
Meadow-grass
. 1,000,000
9
Cocksfoot
700,000
1 5
Alsike
. 1,660,000
2 6
White clover .
. 1,650,000
2 11
10,000,000
9 3
C.
Timothy .
. 4,000,000
1 4
Meadow-grass
. 1,200,000
1 0
Cocksfoot
. 1,000,000
2 0
Foxtail .
600,000
1 7
Alsike
. 1,650,0(0
2 6
White clover .
. 1,650,000
2 11
10,000,000
11 4
William Carrutiiers.
44 Central Hill, Norwood, S.E.
3 g 2
800
Vaccination against Anthrax.
VACCINATION AGAINST ANTHRAX.
I.v his researches regarding the cause of fowl cholera, M. Pasteur dis-
covered that when the organism of that disease is cultivated in
liquid media freely exposed to the air it gradually loses its virulence,
and he showed that by taking advantage of this fact one could use
a culture of the organism to vaccinate fowls, and protect them against
a natural attack of the disease. Following the line of inquiry thus
suggested, M. Pasteur ascertained that when the bacilli of anthrax
are cultivated in meat-extract at a temperature between 42° and 435
Centigrade, they also gradually lose their vitality and their virulence,
and at the end of about six weeks perish altogether. The loss of
vitality, he discovered, was progressive, and proportionate to the
time during which the culture had been maintained at the tempera-
ture mentioned. This was proved by testing the effect of the cultures
at different periods when inoculated into animals. At the outset
the culture had all the virulence of fresh anthrax blood, but by the
twelfth day its virulence was so diminished that when inoculated
into sheep only half of the animals were killed ; and by the twenty-
fourth day the culture could be inoculated into sheep without en-
tailing the death of any, although it set up a mild febrile disturbance.
When animals were vaccinated with the culture of the twenty-
fourth day, and subsequently inoculated with virulent anthrax
bacilli from the blood of an animal dead of anthrax, all, or a great
proportion of them, died, but if the animals had been vaccinated a
second time, with a culture of the twelfth day, they were so protected
that they could withstand subsequent inoculation with virulent
anthrax bacilli. As a result of this discovery M. Pasteur felt him-
self warranted in announcing to the French Academy of Science in
March, 1881, that he had at his command a means of protecting
animals against anthrax, and in the following year the method which
he proposed received its first experimental test.
The experiment was carried out on a farm near Melun, and fifty-
eight sheep, two goats, and ten cattle were subjected to it. Needless
to say, it excited much interest in France, and it was executed in
the presence of a large number of eminent agriculturists, veterinary
surgeons, and medical men. On May 5 twenty-four sheep, one goat,
and six cows were inoculated for the first time with a weak protective
vaccin, and twelve days afterwards the same animals were inoculated
a second time with a stronger vaccin. On May 31 these vaccinated
animals, and the remainder that had not been vaccinated, namely
twenty-four sheep, one goat, and four cattle, were inoculated with a
virulent anthrax cultivation. On June 2 all the animals that had
undergone protective inoculation were found in apparent health ;
while of the others, twenty-one sheep and the goat were dead, two
other sheep were dying, and the only remaining one was attacked
before the day was out. The non-vaccinated cows were not dead,
but they presented the most formidable swelling at the point of
Vaccination against Anthrax.
801
inoculation. On J une 3 one of the vaccinated sheep died, but the
veterinary surgeon who made the post-mortem ascribed its death to
another cause than anthrax.
Conclusive as these results may appear, they were not at the
time sufficient to convince all the witnesses, for it was objected by
some that the test would have been more crucial had the virulent
material used been anthrax blood, instead of a cultivation contain-
ing spores of the anthrax bacillus. A new experiment was therefore
carried out, and on July 16 following the final inoculation was per-
formed, the virulent material used in this case being half a syringe-
ful of blood and spleen pulp from a sheep four hours dead of anthrax.
The results were no less decisive than in the first case. By the third
day, fifteen out of the sixteen non- vaccinated animals had suc-
cumbed, while the vaccinated, nineteen in number, were in apparent
health.
As a result of these test experiments, protective inoculation with
vaccin furnished by M. Pasteur was speedily adopted on a most
extensive scale, and in the following year (1882), in the Department
of the Eure et Loir, nearly 80,000 sheep, between 4,000 and
5,000 cattle, and 500 horses were vaccinated. The loss from anthrax
in the vaccinated flocks during the following twelve months was 0'45
per cent. In some flocks a certain proportion of the sheep had been
left unvaccinated, in order to afford the best possible means of
comparison, since the vaccinated and non -vaccinated were alike
subject to the same conditions of food, climate, &c. In these mixed
flocks the death-rate among the non-vaccinated was 3‘9 per cent.,
while among the vaccinated it was only 04 per cent. In the cattle,
the death-rate among the vaccinated was 0-24 per cent., as compared
with an average mortality of 7’03 in previous years. As bearing
upon the safety of the operation, M. Pasteur stated that 13,000 sheep,
3,500 cattle, and twenty horses had been vaccinated without a single
accident. Twelve of these had subsequently been tested with a
virulent virus, and all had resisted the test.
In occasional instances here and there in France the results of
the inoculations were not quite so successful as those just summa-
rised, for on some farms a number of the vaccinated animals perished
from anthrax within a few days after the operation ; and in some
instances a not inconsiderable proportion of the vaccinated animals
were afterwards unable to stand the test with virulent anthrax
blood or culture. Moreover, in some cases, animals that had been
twice vaccinated died within the course of the following few months
from natural anthrax.
The publication of some of these unfortunate accidents and
partial failures of the method appears to have caused some alarm
among French agriculturists, for during the year 1883 the number
of animals vaccinated was rather fewer than during the preceding
year. During the following year, however (1884), the number of
vaccinations again increased, and since then the vaccinations in
France have each year been carried out on a most extensive scale.
From 1882 to 1893, both inclusive, the number of sheep vaccinated
802
Vaccination against Anthrax.
in France was 3,296,815, and the number of cattle during the same
period, 438,824. Among these vaccinated animals, the total loss
from anthrax during the following twelve months is stated to have
been 094 per cent, among the sheep, and 0-34 per cent, among the
cattle ; and this in districts where the mortality from anthrax before
the introduction of M. Pasteur’s method of vaccination was 10 per
cent, per annum among sheep, and 5 per cent, per annum among
cattle.
But it is not only in France that the vaccinations have been
carried out on a large scale. The Italian Government is so convinced
of the value of the method that it supplies tl\e vaccin gratuitously
to stockowners, on the condition that the vaccinations shall be
carried out by qualified veterinary surgeons. Special laboratories
for the preparation of the vaccin have also been founded in Austria,
Spain, South America, Russia, and Australia.
These facts have for years past been known in a general way to
members of the veterinary profession in this country, and probably
to many stockowners also ; but, nevertheless, Pasteur’s method of
vaccination has not yet been brought into serious use in Great
Britain as a means of combating anthrax. Probably this is due in
part to distrust of the foreign statistics, and in part to the fact that
with us anthrax is seldom the formidable plague that it is in many
other countries. It is, fortunately, true that there are very few
farms in this country in which there is a steady annual loss of any-
thing like 5 or 10 per cent, from anthrax, among either the cattle or
the sheep. Nevertheless, there are farms on which the occasional
losses from anthrax are so serious as to render the farmer very
anxious to take advantage of Pasteur’s discovery, if he were assured
that the method is both safe and efficacious.
During the first half of the present year I had the opportunity
to follow the results of the Pasteurian method of vaccinating against
anthrax on several farms, and the main purpose of this article is to
record the experience thus obtained, for the information of those who
are so unfortunate as to have anthrax among their stock.1
Farm I. — On this farm 3 horses and 7 cattle had died from
anthrax during the twelve months preceding the vaccinations. On
February 24 last 11 horses and 19 cattle were subjected to the first
vaccination. In all the animals a slight swelling formed at the point
where the vaccinal fluid was injected, and on March 1 one of the
cattle died. Its spleen was forwarded to me, and the microscopic
examination proved that it had died from anthrax.
On March 9 the surviving animals (11 horses and 18 cattle) were
injected with the second vaccin. No accidents followed the second
vaccination, and no case of anthrax has since occurred among the
vaccinated animals.
1 In this connexion valuable assistance was rendered to me by Professor
Edgar, F.R.C.V.S., Dartford ; Mr. C. Taylor, M.R.C.V.S., Nottingham ; Mr. P.
Irving, M.R.C.V.S., Chipping Norton; and Mr. R. G. Verney, M.R.C.V.S.,
Stow-on-the-Wold,
Vaccination against Anthrax.
803
Farm II. — On this farm 4 sheep and 7 cattle had died from
anthrax during the previous twelve months. In consequence of this
serious loss among the cattle, the tenant had given up keeping that
class of stock, and at the time of the vaccinations there was only 1
cow on the farm. The other stock comprised about 100 yearling
ewes, 250 ewes with lambs, 5 rams, and 11 horses. On March 2 the
first vaccination was performed on 85 yearling ewes, while 5 of the
same lot were left unvaccinated, to serve subsequently as control
animals. No accident followed the first vaccination, and the sheep
did not appear in any way affected by it.
On March 16 the above 85 yearling ewes were subjected to the
second vaccination, and at the same time 225 ewes with lambs, 11
yearling ewes, 5 rams, 1 cow, and 10 horses were subjected to the
first vaccination. A number of adult ewes were left unvaccinated,
as it was intended to send them soon to the butcher. No accident
followed these vaccinations, but 1 of the 85 vaccinated yearling ewes
died from anthrax on April 4.
On March 30, 225 ewes, 1 cow, 3 rams, and 10 horses were
subjected to the second vaccination. Daring the course of the
following eleven days, 16 of the vaccinated ewes died from anthrax,
namely, as follows : — April 2, 3 ewes ; April 3, 2 ewes ; April 4,
1 ewe; April 5, 3 ewes; April 6, 2 ewes; April 9, 4 ewes; and
April 10, 1 ewe.
I have said that all of these animals died from anthrax ; but it
is right to state that only 7 of them were submitted to a post-mortem
examination. In all of these the post-mortem appearances were
indicative of anthrax, and in 2 the spleen pulp was found to be
swarming with anthrax bacilli. In these 2 the post-mortem was
made four hours after death, but in the others a considerably longer
interval had elapsed, and putrefaction had advanced so far as to
make it impossible to discover anthrax bacilli.
Between the date of the vaccinations and April 11, 4 lambs
belonging to vaccinated ewes also died ; only 1 of these was veri-
fied as a case of anthrax. This lamb was forwarded to me for ex-
amination, the result showing that its blood was swarming with
anthrax bacilli. Presumably the cause of death was the same in
the other 3. These lambs, which were from three to four weeks old,
had not been vaccinated, but in all probability they had become
infected by means of the bacilli contained in the milk of their
mothers. Since April 11 no case of anthrax has occurred on this
farm.
Farm III. — Precise information regarding the number of
animals that have died from anthrax on this farm during the pre-
ceding twelve months was not obtainable, but there was a history of
the disease extending back for a good many years. On a previous
occasion the cattle had been vaccinated against anthrax by the
Pasteurian method, and the tenant was very much against a re-
petition of the operation, on the alleged ground that it had caused
tuberculosis in a considerable number of the animals operated on.
On May 1 last, 47 cattle on this farm were submitted to the first
804
Vaccination against Anthrax.
vaccination. In several of them a considerable swelling formed
around the point of inoculation, whilst most of the milking cows
for a few days lost their milk. On this account the owner refused
to allow the animals to be submitted to the second vaccination.
As far as can be ascertained, none of the vaccinated animals have
died from anthrax since the vaccination.
Farm IV-. — On this farm during the twelve months preceding
the vaccinations 2 horses and several cattle had died from anthrax.
In the month of June last 65 cattle and 16 horses were submitted
to the first and second vaccinations. None of the animals were
sensibly disturbed by the operation, and no cases of anthrax have
since occurred among the vaccinated animals.
It must be admitted that the result of these trials of the Pasteur -
ian method of vaccinating against anthrax is very unsatisfactory.
It may be, and no doubt is, true that when thousands of animals are
vaccinated the percentage of loss from the operation itself is a mere
fraction per cent. ; but here we have a case in which, in one lot of
sheep, 7 per cent, of the animals succumbed to the operation in-
tended to protect them. If this had been the first recorded instance
of the kind, one might have supposed that the unfortunate results
were accidents in the strict sense of the woi'd — that is, ascribable to
some imperfection or mismanagement in the method of carrying out
the operation. But, unfortunately, it appears that accidents of pre-
cisely the same kind occur every now and again in France, and that
no human foresight can prevent them. Thus, in a note to the most
recently published statistics regarding the anthrax vaccinations in
France, M. Chamberland admits that accidents of this kind occur
here and there every year after the vaccinations. He says that while
ten, fifteen, or twenty veterinary surgeons receive on the same day
the same vaccin, and carry out the vaccinations without accident, it
sometimes happens that one of them reports that a few days after the
vaccinations 5 or even 10 per cent, of the animals have succumbed
to anthrax. These accidents are all included in the statistics, but
they are so rare that they hardly influence the final result. They
are deplored, because they raise a serious prejudice against the system
of vaccination when they become known, and it is admitted that
they have always been a great puzzle to those who are responsible
for the manufacture of the vaccins. Now, however, M. Chamber-
land thinks that he has discovered an explanation of them, which he
gives in the following words 1 : —
“ In the first place, almost all these accidents take place after
the first vaccination, and that leads us to think that very often the
animals succumb, not to the inoculation, but to the spontaneous dis-
ease, which already existed in the animals, and which was just on
the point of manifesting itself. Sometimes, it is true, animals die
after the second vaccination, or even after the first, with symptoms
which seem to indicate that the disease had its starting-point at the
1 Annates dc L'lnstifut Pasteur , March 1894.
Vaccination against Anthrax.
805
seat of vaccination. The vaccin itself cannot be incriminated,
since the same sample is sent on the same day to other veterinary
surgeons, in whose hands it has not produced any ill effect. It
is probable that the breed of the animals or the mode of feeding
them may play a certain role ; but that cannot be important, since
the accidents occur everywhere, in every corner of France.
“We think, rather, that they ought to be attributed to some acci-
dental impurities which have been introduced under the skin at the
same time as the vaccin. In fact, we know to-day, beyond any doubt,
that two microbes which, when inoculated separately under the skin
of an animal, do not produce any injurious effect, may when they are
associated entail a fatal result. But when one reflects on the con-
ditions in which the inoculations are ordinarily performed — in build-
ings, on animals having the skin soiled with dirt, with syringes the
needles of which are bound to be contaminated, one is bound to
admit that impurities must be frequently inoculated at the same
time as the vaccin. Hence those purulent oedemas which have been
reported to us. We think that the presence of foreign microbes
is the principal cause of the accidents in question. It does not appear
to us to be possible to avoid them altogether, for in the practice of
the opei’ation on a large scale one cannot employ the precautions
which are customary in laboratories. But they may be avoided in
part by remembering that every impurity introduced under the skin
at the same time as the vaccin may entail fatal consequences.”
I have quoted at length M. Chamberland’s explanation of the
accidents which follow immediately after vaccination, but I can-
not admit that it is satisfying with regard to the losses which
followed the operation on Farm II. Fortunately, in that case
the second vaccinations were performed by myself, and I am thus
able to speak with confidence regarding the circumstances. In
order to apply M. Chamberland’s explanation to this particular
case, one would have to suppose that at some time during the
course of the vaccinations the needle of the hypodermic syringe
became soiled with an impurity — that is to say, with a microbe
having pathogenic properties — and that the disease which this acci-
dental microbe set up at the seat of inoculation gave the anthrax
bacilli present in the vaccin a better chance of multiplying. Now,
I had myself the opportunity of examining several of the carcasses of
the seventeen animals that succumbed after the second vaccination,
and I can most positively assert that the seat of inoculation did not
afford any evidence in support of the view that the animals had
died from a mixed infection, and beyond any doubt no purulent
oedema was present.
But in this case there is stiff another objection to the explana-
tion which M. Chamberland has offered. If the accidents had been
due to a soiling of the syringe or of the hands of the operator with
some accidental microbe, one would not have expected a smaller
proportion of fatalities among the animals which were last vacci-
nated on that day. But the eleven horses on the farm were vacci-
nated after the sheep, and with the same syringe, though with a
806
Vaccination against Anthrax.
different vaccin ; and in none of these did any accident occur, nor
was there any notable swelling at the seat of inoculation. Besides
that, on the evening of the same day the same syringe and a small
quantity of the vaccin left over from vaccinating the sheep were used
to vaccinate at the Royal Veterinary College three young calves
and two yearling heifers, and no accident followed the operation in
these cases. In face of these facts I feel bound to reject the explana-
tion offered by M. Chamberland, and think that the accidents must
be attributed either to the first vaccin having been too weak, or to
the second vaccin having been too strong, for the animals operated
upon. It may be well to add that the ewes among which these
accidents occurred had been vaccinated for the first time by Professor
Edgar and myself, and I can therefore vouch for the fact that every
one of the animals received neither more nor less than the exact dose
of the vaccin, as measured by the syringe supplied by the company.
The explanation here given may not be the correct one, but it cer-
tainly appears to be more plausible than the one suggested by
M. Chamberland.
Before stockowners in this country can be expected to submit
their animals to Pasteurian vaccination, one must be able to lay
before them information bearing upon — (1) the safety of the opera-
tion, and (2) the efficacy of it. The preceding part of this article will
be of some assistance in guiding to a conclusion regarding the first
of these points, while the following experiments furnish some infor-
mation regarding the second : —
Experiment I. — On May 25 last, at 5 p.m., a vaccinated sheep,
an un vaccinated sheep, and a vaccinated heifer were each inoculated
with a virulent culture of anthrax. The sheep had been submitted
to the first vaccination on March 2, and to the second vaccination
on March 17. The heifer had been vaccinated for the first time on
March 17, and for the second time on March 30. The result was
as follows : — The unvaccinated sheep died the following day, at
5.30 p.m., that is, 24^ hours after inoculation. The vaccinated
sheep was found dead on the morning of the 27th, at 6.30 a.m., or
37|- hours after inoculation. The vaccinated heifer began to show
symptoms of illness on the afternoon of the 27th inst. : respiration was
hurried, and a swelling as large as the hand had formed at the seat
of inoculation. On the following days this swelling increased con-
siderably in extent, while the other symptoms of illness at the same
time became more aggravated. The animal died on June 1, at 6.30
p.m., or 6 days 1^ hour after inoculation.
In all these animals a post-mortem examination proved that
death was due to uncomplicated anthrax.
Experiment II. — For this experiment five sheep were used,
namely : — (1) a vaccinated yearling ewe from Farm II. ; (2) an
unvaccinated yearling ewe from the same flock ; (3 and 4) vaccin-
ated ewes from Farm II. ; (5) an unvaccinated ewe from the same
flock. On July 16, at noon, the first three of these animals had
poured down their throats a quantity of water in which a culture
Vaccination against Anthrax.
807
of virulent anthrax bacilli and spores was suspended. Ewes 4 and
5 were inoculated on the inside of the thigh with a few drops of the
same water.
The result was as follows : — Ewe 4 (a vaccinated ewe) was
found dead at 10.30 p.m. on the 17th. Ewe 5 (an unvaccinated
ewe) died on the 18th, at 4 a.m. No. 1 (a vaccinated yearling ewe)
died on the 18th, at 7.30 p.m., and No. 2 (an unvaccinated yearling
ewe) three hours later, viz. at 10.30 p.m. No. 3 (a vaccinated ewe)
survived longest, but it also died, namely, on the 21st, at 12.40 p.m.
In these cases also the post-mortem examination proved that
the animals had died from uncomplicated anthrax.
Experiment III. — The subject of this experiment was a pony
which had been vaccinated with the first vaccin on March 17, and
with the second on the 30th of the same month. On May 22, at
4 p.m., this pony was inoculated with a few drops of water holding
in suspension virulent anthrax bacilli and spores. On the following
day the temperature rose 2°, and a swelling about the size of a
pigeon’s egg formed at the seat of inoculation, in front of the
shoulder. The general health of the pony was not seriously dis-
turbed, and the local swelling disappeared entirely in the course of
a few days. On two subsequent occasions in the month of June
this pony was inoculated with enormous quantities of anthrax
bacilli. On neither occasion did the inoculation give rise to any-
thing more serious than a slight swelling at the seat of inoculation,
and an elevation of temperature amounting to 2° or 3°.
The results of these experiments cannot be characterised other-
wise than as very disappointing. With the exception of the pony,
not one of the vaccinated animals offered any unusual resistance to
infection, although the quantity of material used to infect them
was not excessive. The result is doubly disappointing in the case
of the vaccinated ewes of Experiment II., for these animals had
been inoculated with a second vaccin that was fatal to 7 per cent,
of the flock, and it was confidently expected that all the surviving
animals would, when tested, give evidence of a marked degree of
immunity. But, as has been seen, one of them actually died before
its unvaccinated companion.
J. McFadykan.
Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W.
808
AN INFECTION EXPERIMENT WITH FINGER
AND TOE.
The disease of finger and toe, which is met with wherever the turnip
crop is cultivated, is probably nowhere more destructive than in the
north of England. On certain classes of soil it is only by liming
heavily every eight or ten years that turnips can be cultivated at
all, and the expense involved in this treatment is felt to be almost a
greater burden than agriculture, in its present condition, can bear.
The desirability of devising some cheap means of mitigating or
eradicating the disease, and so of rendering a heavy periodic dressing
of lime unnecessary, is felt to be almost of national importance, and
it was with the object of assisting in the solution of the problem that,
in 1893, some experiments were started in the garden attached to
this college. Most of the investigations are still incomplete, but
the past season has furnished certain results which it is felt are
Illustration (prepared from a photograpil) of the results of the Experiment.
The six heaps of turnips in the upper row correspond with the six heaps in the lower row
each plot having been treated in duplicate. The numbers count from right to left, No. I being
below No. 1a, No. 2 below No. 2±, and so on.
sufficiently conclusive and important to warrant their being brought
to the notice of English farmers.
In the spring of 1894 Mr. Pringle of Brantcn, at my request,
supplied the college with two bags of soil taken from a field which
had a bad reputation for finger and toe. Until it was required we
were careful to keep this soil in the condition of what may be called
natural moistness, for in the previous year we had found that soil
became useless for purposes of infection if it was allowed to become
over-dry. On May 22 a piece of suitable land having been made
ready for the reception of the turnip seed, it was laid off in shallow
drills 27 inches apart and 28 feet long. The fungicide or antiseptic
employed to counteract the effects of the infected soil on certain of
the plots was quicklime (CaO), that is to say freshly burned lime,
but ground in a phosphate mill to such a degree of fineness that
809
An Infection Experiment ivith Finger and Toe.
90 per cent, passed through a No. 100 sieve. When in this unusu
ally fine state of subdivision quicklime rapidly absorbs moisture
from the air, and in a fortnight or so becomes largely converted
into the slaked or hydrated form. If it is to be used in the quick
form, therefore, it must be applied within a few days after being
ground, but whether it is less effective as a cure of finger and toe
when slaked remains for the present undetermined.
The experiment was carried out in duplicate as follows : Each plot
consisted of a single drill comprising acre, and the first plot of
each series received neither diseased soil nor lime. Plots 2 to 6 each
received 20 lb. of soil, plot 2 getting nothing else, but plots 3 to
6 receiving along with the soil 1, and 5 per cent, of the
quicklime dust. Where both were applied, the diseased soil was
first thoroughly mixed with the quicklime, and then the whole was
distributed equally along the line of drill. The turnip seed (White
Bullock) was afterwards sown without anything further being done.
The roots were lifted, counted, and weighed on October 15, and the
accompanying illustration gives a general view of the results. From
plots 2 and 2a to plots 6 and 6a a gradual improvement will be ob-
served, both in the illustration and in the table below, along the two
sets of duplicate plots, the improvement, in fact, keeping pace steadily
with the increase in the quantity of quicklime. The single plot,
No. 7, without a duplicate, was hardly part of the experiment, the
soil that remained over (50 lb.) after the other plots had been
supplied being spread on a drill alongside plot 6a.
Soil -inoculation Experiment on Finger and Toe, conducted in 1 894
at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Plots
Quantity
of
infected'
soil
Quantity
of lime
Percent-
age of
lime to in-
fected soil
Average
number of
roots 1
Number
of
diseased
roots
Number
of souud
roots
Average
yield
per plot
Equivalent
yield
per acre
1 & lA
lb.
0
oz.
0
0
42
0
42
lb.
30
OZ.
(,)
tons
9
cwt.
10
2 & 2a
20
0
0
31
30
1
26
10
8
8?
3 & 3a
20
2
1
38
35
3
36
2
11
5f
4 & 4a
20
4
1
33
28
5
32
2
10
Of
5 & 5 A
20
31
1
36
26
10
40
10
12
14
G & 6a
20
1G
5
40
4
36
54
2
16
18
7
50
0
0
13
13
0
12
10
3
1 Avoiding fractions.
As will be seen from the illustration on the opposite page, ex-
tremely little variation was found in the duplicate plots, so that in
the table I have thought it sufficient merely to state the average
results obtained from the two sets of plots.
The soil on which this experiment was conducted is a heavy loam,
well drained, resting on boulder-clay. The accompanying analysis
made by my colleague, Mr. Greig Smith, B.Sc., shows that the soil
810 An Infection Experiment with Finger and Toe.
contains 1*41 per cent, of lime, and cannot therefore be said to be
deficient in this substance
1 Organic matter and water of combination . . . 19 81
Oxides of iron and alumina 6-14
Lime .......... 1'41
Alkalies, &c 1 01
Insoluble matter and sand . ..... 7163
10000
1 containing nitrogen 0.36
The results as tabulated show that w lie re no infected soil
was applied every turnip was sound. Plots 2 and 2a, getting
diseased soil but no antiseptic, produced only a single sound root
each. Three sound roots per plot were found when § ounce of
quicklime were added, and the number steadily rises till we come to
plots 6 and 6a, where only four roots were found to be diseased on
each plot. This is not a perfect cure, but still it is a great advance
on plots 2 and 2a, and the few roots which were touched by the
disease were by no means badly affected.
The column showing the weights indicates that from plot 2
onwards the yield rises almost in proportion as the disease decreases.
The only slight variation is in plots 3 and 4 with their duplicates,
where the weight is greater on plot 3 with thirty-five diseased roots
than on plot 4 with only twenty-eight. The reason for this is that
the total number of roots (thirty-eight) on plot 3 is greater than on
plot 4, which contained an average of only thirty-three, and, as a
comparison of plots 1 and 2 will show, diseased roots, which are little
else than a water-logged mass of putrid vegetable matter, weigh
almost as much as sound ones.
Plot 1, getting nothing, carried the maximum number of roots,
namely forty-two ; a certain number of plants having been killed off
on all the other plots, though fewest succumbed on that getting
most lime. Plot 7, which was dressed with an extra large dose of
soil, yielded only thirteen roots, and every one was diseased.
Although in this experiment the disease was nearly cured by a
comparatively small dressing of quicklime (less than 700 lb. per
acre) it is not likely that this quantity will prove so effective in the
ordinary field cultivation of the turnip crop. In these trials only
a comparatively small proportion (about 6 tons per acre) of the
total soil was diseased, and as the lime was thoroughly mixed with
this diseased soil, the two became incorporated in a manner which
could scarcely be secured in practical agriculture. But of one
thing there can be no doubt — namely, that when lime is ground
down to an impalpable powder, its spreading and mixing power is
vastly increased ; and farmers who saw 5 cwt. per acre applied in
the case of some of our field experiments, maintained that the
visible effects, so far as whitening the land was concerned, were as
811
An Infection Experiment with Finger and Toe.
great as when five tons are applied in the usual way. The cost of
grinding is not a very serious item, but the result of future experi-
ments must decide whether it is profitable or not.
The experiment which has been described emphasizes the follow-
ing practical points : —
1. That finger and toe (locally known in the North as “grub ”)
is an extremely infectious disease, and may be easily induced by
inoculating a soil perfectly free from the disease — and holding
much more than an average quantity of lime — with soil from a
diseased field.
2. That such diseased soil may be easily disinfected by lime,
which points to the pathological phenomena being due to an organ-
ism— presumably Plasmodiophora Brassicai.
3. That farmers cannot be too careful to prevent soil or diseased
roots being conveyed from a field that is diseased to another that is
sound, or from a diseased part of a field to a portion originally
unaffected. In this connexion the main points to be observed
are : —
(a) That no diseased roots be consumed by stock at the home-
stead, for they are thus certain to get into the farmyard manure in
greater or less quantity, and in it will be conveyed to fields which
will probably be used for the cultivation of turnips. Such roots
should be consumed either where they grow or on a permanent grass
field.
( b ) That carts or horses should on no account traverse a diseased
field and afterwards go directly on to a sound one, for the soil thus
conveyed on the wheels of the carts, or on the feet of the horses,
will certainly contain disease germs, and will be the means of
spreading the disease.
(c) That the headlands should be carefully watched, so that
disease may be stamped out by liming wherever it appears. As is
well known, the headlands are generally more subject to the attack
than any other part of the field, and in working the land the horses
and agricultural implements carry away a certain amount of soil at
every turning, and thus spread the disease all over the field.
( d ) That unless conveyed mechanically the disease is not apt to
spread far. In the above experiment plots 1 and 1a, which did not
contain a single diseased root, were situated within 27 inches of
plots 2 and 2a respectively, which contained only two sound roots
between them, and yet this narrow interval was sufficient to prevent
the passage of the disease germs. Similarly in the case of plots 6a
and 7, the roots on the former were almost free from attack, while
those on the latter were nearly annihilated.
William Somerville.
The Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
812
THE AUTUMN OF 1894.
The weather of last autumn came to us in three distinct spells, each
possessing features of a very strongly marked character.
During the first period, which lasted from the beginning of
September until the middle of October, the type of weather was
mainly anticyclonic, the highest barometrical pressures being found,
as a rule, over our western and northern districts. With these
conditions the prevailing winds were from the northward or east-
ward, and the weather fair and dry. Over the eastern, central,
and southern parts of the country, however, the anticyclone was
accompanied by an unusually large amount of cloud and mist ; and
in consequence of this the day temperatures were decidedly low, the
nights being, on the other hand, fairly mild for the time of year.
Heavy falls of rain were experienced at times in isolated portions of
our southern counties, but in the west and north of England the
country was under the partial influence of a drought which prevailed
with unusual severity in the west of Scotland and the north of
Ireland.
The second period of weather, which lasted during the four weeks
commencing with October 18 or 19, was of a widely different
character. The influence of the anticyclone was now replaced by
that of the cyclone, the low-pressure systems travelling in most cases
in a north-easterly direction over or outside our western and northern
coasts. The prevailing winds were therefore from points lying
between south and west, and the weather was extremely mild and
changeable, with repeated heavy falls of rain over our southern and
south-western counties. The bad weather appears to have reached
its culminating point between November 11 and 14, when a tremen-
dous downpour of rain occurred over the entire southern half of
England. Deluged by previous heavy falls the soil was incapable of
absorbing this very serious addition, the result being that the river
valleys and low-lying grounds generally were speedily visited by
floods of an unusually widespread and destructive character. In
some districts the water is said to have reached a higher level than
at any time since the year 1852, while in isolated places the floods
were described as the worst on record. An interesting feature in
the history of this period is that, while the rainfall was so much in
excess of the average, the amount of bright sunshine was also
unusually large. The seeming paradox is explained by the fact that
in the intervals between the departure of one cyclonic system and
the arrival of the next, the sky often remained clear for many hours
together, the days being in many places alternately very fine and
very wet. Thunder and lightning were reported frequently in the
south and southwest; and on November 12, when a serious
barometrical depression advanced eastwards along the Channel,
The Autumn of 1894.
813
thunderstorms, with heavy hail, were experienced in the south-east
of England. The only mention of snow during the season was on
October 19, when a slight fall occurred in many parts of our northern
and western counties.
After the middle of November the country was again brought
under the influence of a large anticyclonic system which spread over
us from the Continent. The weather therefore became fair and dry ;
and, although temperature remained somewhat high in the daytime,
the nights were cold, with repeated frosts in the northern and
inland districts. Cloud and fog were very prevalent in places, and
over the country generally the amount of bright sunshine was far
smaller than it had been during the rainy weather which prevailed
earlier in the month.
The leading features in the weather of the entire season are
shown in a statistical form on p. 815, the following remarks giving
some details of interest in the history of each particular element.
Temperature. — During the earlier half of the quarter the mean
temperature was below the average in five weeks out of seven, the
deficit being greatest at the very commencement of the period. The
last six weeks were distinguished by an excess of warmth in nearly
all districts, the departure from the normal being greatest at the
end of October and the beginning of November. Taking the season
as a whole, we see from the table that the day temperatures were a
little below the average in the eastern, midland, and southern
counties, but a trifle above it in the western and north-eastern
districts, and decidedly above it in the Channel Islands. The night
temperatures showed an excess in all but the north-eastern counties,
and especially in the south. Over the south-west of England the
nights were unusually cool during the early part of the season, and
the deficiency of nocturnal heat for the entire quarter was therefore
rather large. The highest autumn temperatures were observed at
varying times during the first three weeks in September, but in all
the eastern, southern, and south-western districts the thermometer
failed to reach 70°, the maximum readings being decidedly low for
the time of year. At the beginning of November, however, the
weather was exceptionally mild, the maximum temperature of 65°
registered in London on the 1st being the highest November reading
observed since the year 1847. The lowest readings were recorded
mostly about October 22, when sharp frost occurred over the entire
country. Over our southern and south-western counties and the
Channel Islands, however, the lowest temperatures were observed
quite at the close of the season.
Rainfall.— At the beginning of September the rainfall was in
excess of the average, but in the succeeding six weeks there was
a considerable deficiency in nearly all parts of the kingdom. In
some parts of our midland and north-western counties an entire
absence of rain was reported for about a fortnight in September ;
VOL. V. T. S. — 20 3 H
814
The Autumn of 1894.
while at Falmouth the weather remained absolutely dry for a period
of twenty-three days ending with the middle of October. In the
west of Scotland and the north of Ireland the drought was far
more severe, the longest period without rain being reported at
Edgeworthstown (Co. Longford), where an absolute drought lasted
from September 5 to October 8, an unbroken run of thirty-four
days. In many parts of these districts September was the driest
month experienced for at least thirty years past. Soon after the
middle of October, however, a great change in the weather took
place, and during the ensuing four weeks an enormous excess
of rain was reported over all the more southern parts of the
country. In the midlands the total quantity for this period
was more than twice as much as the average, in the Channel
Islands nearly two-and-a-half times as much, and in our south-
ern and south-western counties more than two-and a-half times
as much as the normal. At several places in the south-western
parts of England the rainfall for the four weeks amounted to an
average of more than 3 inches per week, the largest individual
falls being 16*3 inches at Hazel bury and 14*7 inches at Godman-
stone (both in Dorsetshire), 14*3 inches at Arlington (North Devon),
13*5 inches at Cattistock (Dorsetshire), and 12*7 inches at Llan-
dovery (Glamorganshire). The heaviest rains in a short period
occurred between November 11 and 14, when an aggregate of
between 3 and 4 inches was recorded over a considerable portion of
the southern half of England, the largest amounts at present reported
being 6*6 inches at Hazelbury, 5*7 inches at Godmanstone, 5*5 inches
at Scilly, 4*8 inches at St. Agnes (Cornwall), and 4*7 inches at
Osborne (Isle of Wight). In many places the amount for these four
days was in excess of the average quantity for the whole of
November. It is not a little singular that a season which commenced
with a partial drought should have been marked later on by so
unusually heavy a rainfall, and it is still more remarkable that the
two successive years 1893 and 1894 should have been distinguished
respectively by one of the longest droughts and one of the heaviest
floods of the present century. During the latter part of November
the weather again became very dry, the last week being marked by
an entire absence of rain in nearly all parts of England. Taking
the quarter as a whole, we see from the table that there was a slight
excess of rainfall in the Channel Islands, and a large excess over
our southern and south-western counties. In the eastern district
the autumnal rainfall agreed very closely with the normal, but in
the north-eastern, the midland, and the north-western counties it was
deficient, the amount in the last-mentioned district being only about
three-fourths of the average. As a proof of the plumping nature of
the rainfall, it will be seen that in the south-west, where the total
amount was so large, the number of days with rain was considerably
less than the average. A large deficiency in this respect was shown
also in the Channel Islands, and, naturally enough, in the north-
western counties ; but in the east and south of England the number
of rainy days was slightly in excess of the normal.
The Autumn of 1894,
815
Temperature, Rainfall, and Bright Sunshine experienced over
England and Wales during the thirteen weeks ended December 1,
1894.
( The Autumn Season.)
Temperature
Districts
High-
est
Low-
est
Day
temperatures
Night
temperatures
Day and night
temperatures
combined
ob-
serv-
ed
ob-
serv-
ed
Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
Mean
Differ-
ence
from
average
o
o
O
o
O
o
o
o
North-eastern counties .
69
24
53-6
+ 0-1
430
-02
48-3
-01
Eastern counties
72
28
553
-0-5
433
+ 0-7
49-3
+ 01
Midland „ . .
69
22
550
-01
42'2
+ 05
48-6
+ 0-2
Southern „
.
71
26
56-8
-03
45-8
+ 11
51-3
+ 04
North-western counties,
eluding North Wales .
65
25
54 8
+ 01
44 7
+ 0-3
49-8
+ 02
South-western counties,
eluding South Wales .
in-\
/
71
22
565
+ 0-1
45-3
-r 1*1
50-9
— 0*5
Channel Islands
•
69
35
1
58-4
+ 0-7
50-6
+ 0-7
54 5
+ 0-7
Raixfai.l
Bright Sunshine
Districts
Days with rain
Total fall
j Duration
Percentage
of possible
amount
Num-
ber
Differ-
ence
from
average
Am-
ount
Differ-
ence
from
average
Hours
re-
cord-
ed
1 Differ-
ence
from
average
Per-
cent-
age
Differ-
ence
from
average
per-
centage
North-eastern counties
49
- 3
ins
6*7
ins.
— 1*4
217
-18
23
-2
Eastern counties
53
+ 1
7'9
o-o
254
-36
27
-4
Midland „
45
- 4
7-7
-0-8
225
-36
24
-3
Southern „ . . .
49
+ 1
11-0
+ 2-3
285
-40
30
-4
North-western counties, 1
including North Wales j
43
-10
8-6
-2-9
222
+ 30
24
+ 4
South-western counties, ~|
including South Wales /
43
-14
148
•
+ 2-1
324
+ 12
34
+ 1
Channel Islands .
50
-13
11-9
+ 0*4 |
1
352
+ 17
36
+ 1
Note. — The above Table is compiled from information given in the Weekly Weather Report of
the Meteorological Office. The averages employed are For Temperature, the records made durin g
the twenty years, 1871-90; for Rainy Days, the values for the thirteen years, 1878-90 ; for Total
Rainfall, those for the twenty-five years, 1866-90 ; and for Bright Sunshine, those for the ten years,
1881—90.
3 h 2
816
The Autumn of 1894.
Bright Sunshine. — During the earlier half of the autumn the
amount of bright sunshine was mostly in excess of the average in the
western districts, but very deficient over our eastern, midland, and
southern counties. Later on a more general deficiency was reported,
but in November the amount was more than the average, the excess
being greatest during the very unsettled weather which pre-
vailed early in the month. Taking the season as a whole, the figures
in the table show a considerable excess in the north-west, and a slight
excess over our south-western counties and the Channel Islands. In
all other parts of the country, however, the amount of sunshine was
unusually small. At the Greenwich Observatory, where a sunshine
recorder has been in operation since the close of 1876, the state of
affairs existing last autumn was very striking. During the months
both of September and October the amount of sunshine was by far
the smallest, while in November it was the largest ever recorded
in those' particular months. The excess in November was, however,
not sufficient to compensate for the previous deficiency, and the
amount for the entire autumn was, as a matter of fact, the smallest
on record, the total number of hours being only 1 60, as against an
average of 235. In place of an average daily allowance of sun-
shine amounting to about two hours and a half, the mean dura-
tion at Greenwich last autumn was very little more than an hour
and three-quarters.
RECENT AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
The subjects of Applications for Patents from Sept, xo
to Dec. 13, 1894.
N.B. — Where the Invention is a communication from abroad, the name of
he Inventor is shown in italics, between parentheses, after the name of the
applicant.
Agricultural Machinery and Implements, &c.
No. of
Application.
Year 1894.
Name of Applicant.
17209 Bam ford, J.
17470 Sarin e, T. .
18320 Holt, J.
18586 Sleet, W. H.
18660 Cocker, J. N.
18690 Burrell & Hibbeud .
10086 Ransome, J. E. .
Title of Invention.
Cultivators.
Chaff-cutters.
Potato-digger.
Ploughs.
Potato-harvesters.
Sackhoist for threshing machines.
Cultivating land.
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
817
No. of
Application. Name of Applicant.
Year 1894.
19160 Thompson, W. P. (Stew-
art, U.S.A .)
19662 Haslam Sc Mawdsley.
20005 Hobnsby 4 others
20024 Richmond, J. G. .
20091 Blackstone k others .
20173 Sleep, W. H. k R
20225 Rosbotham
20269 Rottenbury
20270 SCHNETZER .
20440 Slade, E.
20468 Hornsby k Innocent .
20469 Hornsby & Smith
20527 Howard, J. H., k othrs
20679 Tiffen, G. W.
20955 Pentall, E. E. .
20995 Scales, E. .
21049 Gheorghescu, C.
21149 McLaren, J. k H.
21260 Hornsby, J., k others .
21988 Hope k Paxton .
22727 Marshall, J.
22747 Hornsby k Innocent .
23175 Johnson, W.
23287 Bowen, W. R , k anr. .
23461 Marshall, J.
23871 Cochran J. S.
23930 Corbani, V. .
24188 Shanks, A. & J. .
24204 Sibley, W. G.
24283 Pearson, R. .
Title of Invention.
Harvesters.
Potato-digging, 4c., machine.
Knotting mechanism for sheaf-binders.
Chaff-cutters.
Root-pulpers.
Ploughs.
Potato-diggers.
Protectors for hay-ricks.
Machine for sorting, & o., grain.
Harrows.
Ploughs.
Knotting mechanism for sheaf-binders.
Straw-trussing machines.
Plough.
Mowing machines.
Chaff-cutters.
Seed-sowing machine.
Steam diggers.
Ploughs.
Potato-raising machine.
Threshing machines.
Mowing and reaping machines.
Reaping machines.
Sowing seeds.
Sack-holders for threshing machines.
Cleaning grain and seeds.
Threshing machines.
Reaping and mowing machines.
Mowing machines.
Steam ploughs.
Stable Utensils and Fittings — Horse-sboes, &c.
17248 Defoy, L. Device for training horses.
17371 Wakfer, W. H. . . Horse-shoes.
17519 Maddock 4 Perkins . „
17583 Waldock, J. R. . . Hames for equalising draught.
17677 Williams, W. . . Collars.
818
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
Application. Name of APPlioant‘
Year 1894.
17684 Martin, G. .
17686 Taaffe, P. .
17900 Wilson, J. J.
17913 Watkins & Healy
17940 Luke, W. .
17991 Willard & Leporcq .
18004 Bell ....
18095 Crudgington, W.
18168 Ottaway, J. P. .
18287 Cope, J., & Taylor, H.
18342 Taaffe, P. .
18343 „ ...
18344 Kelsey, E. E.
18438 Schenk, W. E. .
18474 Wright, R. .
18566 Lindsay, N. C., & anr.
18584 Blick, J. W. H. .
18915 Boult, A. J. {Van
Damme $ anr., Bel-
gium)
19020 Turner, D. S.
19031 Emmett, J. & H.
19093 Wood & others
19250 Chapman, W.
19309 Chard, T. T.
19353 Dancer, Sir T.
19808 Cloke & Standbrook
20007 Stuart, I. .
20082 The Mail Horse-shoe
Synd., Lim.
20146 Trewin, A. .
20216 Aspinall, R.
20235 Nowak, A. .
20254 Thompson, J.
20267 Pierpoint, T.
20492 Day, W. T. .
20493 Felstead .
20558 Medhurst, M.
20635 Welch, G. .
Title of Invention.
Rubber pad to insert in stirrups.
Horse clothing.
Knee-caps.
Frost nail for horses.
Harness.
Horse-shoes for ice, &c.
Horse-shoes.
Tug-stops.
Checking runaway horses.
Safety stirrup.
Saddles.
Bridles.
Collars.
Stirrups.
Nosebags.
Pneumatic horse-collar.
Saddle.
Horse-collars.
Horse-collars and saddles
Cart bridles.
Fastening device for harness
Horse-shoe.
Phosphate food for horses.
Safety stirrups.
Hoof-pad.
Horse-shoe.
Horse-shoes.
Cushion horse-shoe.
Horn horse-shoe.
Apparatus for quieting restless horses.
Harness.
Bits.
Pneumatic harness-pad.
Horse-shoe.
Preventing horses kicking, &c.
Horse-shoes.
Recent Agricultural Inventions ,
819
No. of
Application. Name of Applicant.
Year 1894.
20658 Albeby, W.
20669 Barnett, J. H. .
20722 Johnson, T.
20758 Gillman .
20778 Price & Brewer
20903 Pickles, H. .
21277 Oxborrow, F. S. .
21306 Cargill, A. .
21823 Duncombe, T. H.
21891 Clegg, T. . .
22091 Denton, H. R. .
22162 Donnerstag, W., & anr
22196 Biebuyck, G.
22235 Mayos, T. .
22429 The Mail Horse-shoe
Synd., Lim., & others
22482 Robert , C. E., & othrs
22656 Kidman, J. .
22708 Wood, F. H.
22732 Ludlow, E. H. .
23058 Bradshaw, J. L. .
23125 Sotiropoulo, N. .
23256 Sleeman, M.
23305 Duncan, A. .
23332 Lee, J.
23475 Behrens, N.
23512 Staines, T„ & others .
23624 Zipperling, F. .
23776 Frost, H. .
23864 Meyers, J. C.
23896 Gumbley & Renouf .
24210 Sewell, H. .
Title of Invention.
Harness buckles.
Pneumatic horse-collar.
Anti-slipping goloshes.
Pneumatic collar and saddle-pads.
„ tyre horse-shoe.
Horse-shoes.
Turret for saddles and hames.
Nosebag.
Safety bolt-stirrup.
Top boot and shoe for horses.
Feeding horses.
Tips or calkins for shoes.
Safety saddle-bars.
Horse-shoes.
Roughing horse-shoes.
Protectors for horse-shoes.
Reversible cut-back ladies' saddles.
Boots for horses.
Horse-collars.
Harness.
Releasing runaway horses from vehicles
Stirrups.
Suspenders for nosebags.
Horse food-rest.
Automatic rein-holder.
Air-collar.
Detaching horses from vehicles.
Safety stirrups.
Feed-bag.
Saddles.
Balling instrument for horses, See.
Carts and Carriages.
19660 Golby, F. W. . . Carriages.
20210 Cooper, S. . . . Carriages, carts, &c.
20498 Warburton, F. & W. . Lorries or wagons.
20717 Thompson, G. S. . . Brakes for vehicles.
20897 Smith, J. & C. . . Tip wagons and tip carts.
820
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
No. of
Application. Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
Year 1894.
21018 Dobing, H. . . . Flexible shafts.
21089 Jones, W. . . . Supporting shafts of four-wheeled wagons
horizontally.
23236 Luke, H. Unbreakable shafts, with supports, to prevent
horses falling.
23445 Nobbington, B. . . Tip carts.
Dairy Utensils, &c.
17210 McKeeveb & Gbav
17629 Bbadfoed, T.
17676 Benit, J. C. .
18285 Gaebtneb, G.
18322 Geaey, J. V.
18428 Coopee, W. .
18521 Bbadfoed, T.
18567 Boyd, J. P. .
19092 Bbadfoed, T.
20137 Goodchild, E. A.
21092 Wilkinson, R. H.
21602 Ludlow, H. W. .
21540 De Laval, C. G. P. .
21830 Abel (Deosse & Lud-
LOFF)
21710 Hope, C. F. .
21984 Cheeld, S. .
21994 Boggild
22209 Bbadfoed, T.
22210
22318 WlTHEES, P. ( Helzel ,
Italy)
22642 Beoekhuijsen & anr. .
22864 Badgeb, R. .
23005 Stubges, L. .
23288 Bingham, A. M. .
23788 Weight, S. H. .
Packing-case for cheese.
Butter-working apparatus.
Preserving milk and cream.
Reducing proportion of casein in milk, and
regulating simultaneously proportion of fat.
Separating cream from milk.
Churns for conveying milk.
Churns.
Boxes for preserving butter in transport.
Chums.
Churns.
Rapidly estimating water in butter.
Milk cans or churns.
Mechanical milking apparatus.
Milk-separators.
Cheese.
Centrifugal churns.
Refrigerators.
Butter-drying apparatus.
Churning ,,
Cream-separators, &c.
Securing milk cans.
Sieve for milk.
Chums.
Combined churn and butter-worker.
Churning apparatus.
Poultry and Game, &c., Appliances
17197 Aenold, M. . . . Jess for pigeons.
18136 Robb, J. M. C. . . Penning poultry, &c.
Recent Agricultural Inventions.
821
No. of
Application. Name of Applicant.
Year 1894.
Title of Invention.
19906 Hooper, J. A.
. Incubators.
21035 Christianson, T. R. C. Storing eggs.
22213 Heeley, G. .
. Grit and egg-making food for poultry.
22515 Rose, H. J. F.
. Detachable nest-boxes.
23053 Sivitek, C. W. .
. Wheel heating flue and portable chamber for
foster-mothers, &c.
23449 Bird, C.
. Gauge for measuring eggs.
23465 Vaughan-Sherrix,
J. Incubators.
Miscellaneous,
20003 Phillipson, B. R.
. Food for cattle.
20350 Farn, W. D., and
Supplying food automatically to cattle and
Clarke, U.
horses.
20710 Bruce, W. T., and
Still, A. .
. Dog kennels.
21224 Schwartz, W.
. Cattle food.
21875 Pitman, C. W.
. Sheep-shearing machine.
22097 Browne, A. .
. Supplying fodder automatically.
numbers of Specifications relating to the above subjects published
since March 10, 1894. 1
(Price 8 d. each copy.)
Specifications of 1893.
16818, 17726, 17968, 18063, 18708, 18825, 18901, 19577, 19793, 19823, 19841,
19877, 20027, 20171, 20217, 20271, 20453, 20725, 21109, 21243, 21428,
21584, 21669, 21726, 21970, 22330, 22441, 23187, 23207, 23266, 23333,
23348, 23467, 23491, 23588, 23871, 24011, 24027, 24408, 24703, 24830,
25078.
Specifications of 1894.
127, 241, 579, 612, 621, 1049, 2210, 2767, 4340,5185,8711, 10433, 11400, 12298,
12792-3-4, 13496, 14485, 14640, 14703, 14845, 15340, 15407-8, 15566,
15638, 15786, 16142,17197,17768, 17801; 18143, 18176, 18287, 18413,
18567, 19309, 19335.
1 Copies may be obtained at the Patent Office (Sale and Store Branch),
38 Cursitor Street, London, E.C.
822 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
Table I. — Acreage under each kind of Crop, Bare Fallow, and Grass
as returned upon June 4, 1894, and June 5, 1893, in Great
Britain , with Totals for the United Kingdom.
•
GREAT BRITAIN
UNITED KINGDOM,
including Isle of Man
and Channel Islands
1894
1893
1894
1893
Total Area of Land and Water (a)
acres
56,771,728
acres
56,771,728
acres
77,671,319
acres
77,671,319
Total Acreage under all Kinds of )
Crops, Bare Fallow, and Grass (6) . }
32,629,855
32,643,709
47,919,830
47,979,698
Corn
Crops. -
Green
Crops. -
Wheat ....
Barley or Bere .
Oats
Rye
Beans
Peas
1,927,962
2,095,771
3,253,401
90,617
244,180
243,043
| 1,897,524
1 2,075,097
3,171,756
55,929
244,954
210,479
1,980,228
2,268,193
4,524,167
102,676
247,062
243,551
1,955,213
2,251,293
4,435,944
* 69,526
248,304
210,900
Total ....
7,854,974
7,655,739
9,365,877
9,171,180
Potatoes ....
Turnips and Swedes .
Mangel
Cabbage, Kohl Rabi, & Rape
Vetches or Tares
Other Green Crops
504,454
1,956,573
353,598
177,394
187,117
121,633
527,821
1,975,235
347,009
156,202
175,492
105,147
1,232,055
2,276,284
406,164
228,230
192,113
151,246
1,262,674
2,286,473
394,543
203,270
181,152
134.643
Total ....
3,300,769
3.286,906
4,486,092
4,462,755
Clover, Sainfoin, and
Grasses under
For Hay
Not for Hay
2,121,904
2,381,728
2,047,008
2,522,622
2,776,226
3,086,528
2,701.846
3,214,503
Rotation.
i Total
4,503,632
4,569,630
5,862,754
5,916,349
Permanent Pasture,
or Grass not broken •
up in Rotation, (c)
For Hay
Not for Hay
4,852,442
11,612,627
4,270,480
12,222,087
6,408,260
21,170,140
5,803,011
21,897,370
Total
16,465,069
16,492,567
27,578,400
27,700,381
Flax
Hops
Small Fruit
Bare Fallow or Uncropped Arable Land
1,760
59,535
68,415
375,701
1,258
57,564
65,487
514,558
102,622
59,535
68,868
395,682
68,715
57,565
(<f) 65,845
536,908
(a) Not including tidal water.
' (b) Not including nursery grounds, woods, and plantations, or mountain and heath land.
(c) Exclusive of mountain and heath land.
(d) Not separately returned in Ireland.
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 823
Table II. — Number of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs returned
upon June 4, 1894, and June 5, 1893, with Totals for the
United Kingdom.
GREAT BRITAIN
UNITED KINGDOM,
including Isle of Man
and Channel Islands
1894
1893
1894
1893
Horses.
/Used solely for Agriculture
Unbroken Horses
Mares kept solely for breed- )
ing . . . . . 1
No.
1,004,291
454,095
71,075
No.
1,012,867
441,894
69,766
No.
(*)-
(a) —
(a) —
No.
(a) —
(a) —
(a)-
Total ....
1,529,461
1.524,527
2,092,290
2,079,587
Cows and Heifers in Milk 1
or in Calf . . . . )
, { 2 Years and above
nltfh j 1 Year & under 2
Cattle- 1 Under 1 Year .
2,460,086
1,516,672
1,217.145
1,153,210
2,554,624
1,580,242
1,354,523
1,211,287
3,925,486
2,592,604
2.140,592
2,122,114
4,014,055
2,683,415
2,334,049
2,176,035
Total ....
6,347,113
6,700,676
10,780.796
11,207,554
Sheep. -
Ewes kept for breeding
Other ( 1 Year and above .
Sheep ( Under 1 Year
9,668,002
6,342,730
9,850,768
10,128,676 1
6,911,063 f
10,240,595
18,541,761
11,496,057
19,760,056
12,014,768
Total ....
25,861,500
27,280,334
30,037,818
31,774,824
Pigs.
Sows kept for breeding
Other Pigs ....
351,119
2,038,907
308,722
1,804,808
(«)-
(«)-
(<0 —
(a) —
Total ....
2,390,026
2,113,530
3,794,043
3,278,030
(a) Not separately returned in Ireland.
Table showing the Estimated Total Production of Hops in the Years
1894 and 1893, with the Acreage and Estimated Average Yield per
Statute Acre, in each County in England in which Hops were grown.
Counties
Estimated total
produce
Acreage
Estimated average
yield per acre
1894
1893
1894
1893
1894
1893
cwt.
cwt.
acres
acres
cwt.
cwt.
Berks
93
82
n
ii
8-45
_7-45
Gloucester
214
198
39
33
5-49
600
Hants .
24,581
21,077
2,911
2,795
8-44
7-54
Hereford
37,749
65,939
7,525
7,079
502
9-31
Kent
424,779
230,891
35,520
34,815
11-96
6-63
Salop
545
1,318
140
123
3-89
10-72
Suffolk .
112
-
17
21
6-59
—
Surrey .
17,595
12,293
1,935
1,845
909
666
Sussex .
106,205
50,445
7,589
7,326
13-99
6-89
Worcester
24,973
32,686
3,848
3,516
6-49
9-30
Total .
636,846
414,929
59,535
57,564
10-70
7-21
Note. — As the above Preliminary Estimate is issued at the earliest possible
moment after receipt of the particulars, it is necessarily subject to correction
n the Annual Produce Statistics.
824 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
Table III. — Summary of Agricultural Produce Statistics (Wheat,
Barley, and Oats) for England, Wales, Scotland, and Great
Britain in 1894.
WHEAT
Estimated Total
Produce
Acreage
Estimated Average
Yield per Acre
1894
1893
1894
1893
1834
1893
England
Bushels
56,087,603
Bushels
46,429,407
Acres
1,826,626
Acres
1,798,869
Bushels
30-71
Bushels
25-81
Wales ....
1,420,082
1,205,006
56,470
54,562
25T5
22-09
Scotland
1,665,116
1,612,884
44,866
44,093
37-11
36-58
Great Britain
59,172,801
49,247,297
1,927,962
1,897,524
30-69
25-95
BARLEY
Estimated Total
Produce
Acreage
Estimated Average
Yield per Acre
1894
1893
1894
1893
1894
1893
England
Bushels
61,194,073
Bushels
49,032,708
Acres
1,766,142
Acres
1,751,602
Bushels
34-65
Bushels
27-99
Wales ....
3.347,992
2,802,971
111,572
111,851
30-01
25-06
Scotland
7,753,001
7,699,698
218,057
211,644
35-55
36-38
Great Britain
72,295,066
59,535,377
2,095,771
2,075,097
34-50
28-69
OATS
Estimated Total
Produce
Acreage
Estimated Average
Yield per Acre
1894
1893
1894
1893
1894
1893
England
Bushels
88.289,392
Bushels
67,184,434
Acres
1,978,312
Acres
1,914,373
Bushels
44-63
Bushels
3508
Wales ....
9,012,652
7.452,468
250,866
240,865
35-93
30-94
Scotland
38,160.887
38,270,477
1,024,223
1,016,518
37-26
37-65
Great Britain
135,462,931
112,887,379
3,253,401
3,171,756
41-64
35-59
Jjkrpl ^grioiltmal Jtodcfg uf (Stnghmft.
( Established May 9, 1838, as the English Agricultural Society, and
Incorporated by Royal Charter on March 2(3, 1840.)
patron.
( Letter from Secretary of State, dated March 6, 1840.)
HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN.
Year when
elected on
Council
1879
1838-40}
1865 >
1858
18G1
18G1
1871
1863
1848
1854-59 »
1862 ;
1867
1852-57}
1866 J
1869
1889
1874
1872-74 ,
1884 ;
1882
1876
1881
1872
1865
1880
1874
1881
1870
VOL.
for 1893—1894.
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G.
Crutftfcd.
H.R.H. The Prince op Wales, K.G., Marlborough House, Pall Mall.
Acland, Rt. Hon. Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., Killerton, Exeter, Devon-
shire.
Bridport, Gen. Viscount, G.C.B., Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somerset.
Cathcart, Earl, Thornton-le- Street, Thirsh, Yorkshire.
Dent, John Dent, Ribston Hall, Welherby, Yorkshire.
Egerton op Tatton, Lord, Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire.
Kingscote, Col. Sir Nigel, K.C.B., Kingscote, Wotton-under-Edge, Glou-
cestershire.
Lawes, Sir John Bennet, Bart., Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.
Macdonald, Sir Archibald K., Bart., Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants.
Ravensworth, Earl of, Ravensrvorth Castle, Gateshead, Durham.
Richmond and Gordon, Duke of, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex.
Ridley, Rt. Hon. Sir M. W., Bart., M.P., Blag don, Cramlington,
No rthum berla nd.
H.R.H. Prince Christian, K.G., Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire.
Chandos-Pole-Gell, H., Hopton Hall, Wirksrvorth, Derbyshire.
Chaplin, Rt. Hon. Henry, M.P., Blankney Hall, Lincoln.
Emlyn, Viscount, Golden Grove, Carmarthen, S. Wales.
Feversham, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire.
Gilbey, Sir Walter, Bart., Elsenham Hall, Essex.
Lathom, Earl of, G.C.B., Lathom Hall, Ormskirk , Lancashir
Lopes, Rt. Hon. Sir Massey, Bart., Maristmv, Roborovgh, Devon,
MoreTon, Lord, Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, Oxon,
Spencer, Earl, K.G., Althorp, Northampton.
Thorold, Sir John H., Bart., Syston Park, Grantham, Lincolnshire.
Whitehead, Charles, Barming House, Maidstone , Kent.
V. T. S. — 17
a
u
List of Council of the Society.
T-«ar when
elected on
Council
1S62-6G1 j
1877 > j
1880 |
1890
1871
1890
1885
1883
1893
1885
1887
1S01
1888
1893
1891
1879
1875
1879
1879
1889
1888
1876
1883^-90)
1891 / I
1886
1874
1884
1886
1881
1886
1889
1888
1886
1871
1889
1874
1886
1886
1889
1889
1891
1875
1882
1883
1S89
1890
1889
1882
1892
1889
1889
1865
CStljrr iHcmfccrtf of domutl.
♦Arkwright, J. Hungerford, Hampton Court, Leominster, Hereford-
shire.
Ashworth, Alfred, Talley Grange, Knutsford, Cheshire.
* Beach, Joseph, The Hattons, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire.
Bowen-Jonhs, J., Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, Saloj>.
♦Brougham and Yaux, Lord, Brougham Hall (Penrith), Westmoreland.
Caird, James A., Northbrooh, Micheldever, Hants.
♦Clay, Charles, Walton Grange, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
Cornwallis, F. S. IV., M.P., Linton Park, Maidstone, Kent.
Coventry, Earl of, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, Worcestershire.
Crutchley, Percy E., Sunninghill Lodge, Ascot, Berkshire.
♦Curtis- Hayward, Lieut.-Col. J. F., Quedgeley, Gloucester.
Darby, Alfred, Little Hess, Shrewsbury, Salop.
♦Devonshire, Duke of, K.G., Chatsworth, Derbyshire.
Dugdale, J. Marshall, Llwyn, Llanfyllin (via, Oswestry), Mont.
♦Foster, S. P., Killhoro, Carlisle, Cumberland.
♦Frankish, William, Limber, near Brocklesby, Lincolnshire.
Gorringe, Hugh, Kingston- by -Sea, Brighton, Sussex.
♦Grenville, It. Neville, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury , Somerset.
IIamond, Anthony, West acre, Smaffham, Norfolk.
♦Hornsby', James, Staplcford Park, Mdton Mowbray, Leicestershire.
Howard, Charles, Biddenham, Bedfordshire.
Jersey, Earl of, Middleton Park, Bicester, Oxon.
Mainwaring, C. S., Galltfaenan, Trefnant, R.S.O., North Wales.
Martin, Joseph, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Ely, Cambs.
Miller, T. Horrocks, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire.
♦Muntz, Philip Albert, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire.
Parker, Hon. Cecil T., Eccleston, Chester.
Pell, Albert, Hazelbeach Hill, Northampton.
♦Pidgeon, Daniel, The Long House, Leatlierhead, Surrey.
♦Portland, Duke of, Welbcck Abbey, Worksop, Notts.
♦Ransome, J. E., Holme Wood, Ipswich, Suffolk.
♦Rawlence, James, Bulbridgc, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts.
Rowlandson, Samuel, Newton Morrell, Darlington (Yorkshire).
♦Sanday, George H., Langdale Lodge, Clapliam Park, Surrey.
Scarth, W. T., Staindrop House, Darlington, Durham.
Smith, Alfred J., Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk.
♦Smith, Henry, The Grove, Cropwcll Butler, near Nottingham.
♦Spearman, Sir J. L. E., Bart., The Hall, Wem, Salop.
Stanyforth, E. Wilfrid, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York.
♦Stratton, Richard, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire.
♦Sutherland, Duke of, Stafford House, St. James’s, S. 11'.
♦Sutton, Martin J., Kidmore Grange, Caversham, Oxon.
Taylor, Garrett, Trowse House, Norwich.
Terry, Joseph P., Berry Field, Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire.
♦Tremayne, John, Heligan, St. Austell, Cornwall.
♦Warren, Reginald Augustus, Preston Place, Worthing, Sussex.
♦Westminster, Duke of, K.G., Eaton Hall, Chester.
♦Wheeler, E. Vincent V., Newnham Court, Tenbury, Worcestershire.
Wilson, C. W., Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
Wilson, Sir Jacob, Chillingham Barns, Belford, Northumberland.
# Members of Council who retire by rotation, but who may be re-elected.
( iii )
STANDING COMMITTEES.
*## The President is a Member ex officio of all Committees, and the
Trustees and Vice-Presidents are Members ex officiis of all Standing
Committees except the Committee of Selection.
finance Committer,
Kingscote, Col. Sir Nigel (Chairman). Ashworth, A.
Ridley, Sir M. W., Bart., M.P. Frankish, W.
Thorold, Sir J. H., Bart. Sanday, G. H.
5?aurfe Committee.
Chairman of Finance Committee. Parker, Hon. C. T.
The President. Gilbey, Sir Walter, Bart.
Westminster, Duke of. Ridley, Sir M. W., Bart, M.P.
Bridfort, General Viscount. Wilson, Sir Jacob.
Sournal Committee.
Cathcart, Earl (Chairman). Caird, J. A.
Emlyn, Viscount. Dent, J. D.
Thorold, Sir J. H., Bart. Frankish, W.
Ashworth, A. Pell, A.
Cljrmtcal Committee.
*Emlyn, Viscount (Chairman). * Arkwright, J. H.
Pidgeon, D.
Sutton, Martin J.
Whitehead, Chas.
Parker, Hon. C. T.
Acland, Sir T. D., Bt.
♦Lawes, Sir J. B., Bt.
* Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt.
Spearman, Sir J. L. E., Bt.
♦Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt.
♦Bowen-Jones, J.
♦Caird, J. A.
♦Dent, J. D.
Grenville, R. N.
♦Howard, C.
♦Pell, A.
* These constitute the Woburn Sub-Committee.
Rowlandson, S.
Stanyforth, E. W
♦Sutton, Martin J.
♦Terry, J. P.
Voelcker, Dr.
♦Warren, R. A.
♦Whitehead, Chas.
botanical anti ^oologiral Committee.
Whitehead, Chas. Ashworth, A. Frankish, W.
Bowen-Jones, J. Hornsby, J.
Caird, J. A. Mainwaring, C. S.
Carruthers, W. Wheeler, E. V. V.
Cornwallis, F. S. W., M.P.
(Chairman).
Parker, Hon. C. T.
Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt
Arkwright, J. If.
Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt,
(Chairman)
©eterinarg Committee.
Clay, C.
Cope, A. C.
Bridport, General Viscount. Crookshank, Prof.
MORETON, Lord. CURTIS-HAYWARD,Lt.-Col.
Parker, Hon. C. T. Darby, Alfred.
Kingscote, Col. Sir Nigel. Dent, J. D.
Wilson, Sir Jacob. Fleming, Dr. George.
Ashworth, A. Foster, S. P.
Axe, Professor. Hamond, A.
Brown, Professor. McFadyean, Prof.
Chandos-Pole-Gell, H.
£>tocfuprijftf Committee.
Sanday, G. H. (Chairman). Crutchley, P. E.
Coventry, Earl of. Darby, Alfred.
Broughamand VAUx.Lord. Dugdale, J. Marshall.
Moreton, Lord. Foster, S. P.
Parker, Hon. C. T. Frankish, W.
Gilbey, Sir Walteb, Bt. Howard, C.
Spearman, Sir J. L. E., Bt. Mainwaring, C. S,
Wilson, Sir Jacob. Martin, Joseph.
Arkwright, J. H. Miller, T. H.
Beach, J. Muntz, P. A., M.P.
Bowen-Jones, J. Rowlandson, S.
Chandos-Pole-Gell, H.
Master of Farriers
Company.
Miller, T. H.
President of Royal
Coll, of Vety.
Surgeons.
Simonds, Prof.
Smith, A. J.
Stanyforth, E. W,
Wheeler, E. V. V.
Wilson, C. W.
Simonds, Professor.
Smith, A. J.
Smith, Henry.
Stanyforth, E. W.
Taylor, Garrett.
Terry, J. p,
Tremayne, J.
Wheeler, E. V. V.
Wilson, C. W.
The Stewards of Live
Stock.
a 2
IV
Standing Committees,
implement Committee.
Frankish, W. (Chairman). Clay, C.
Moreton, Lord
Parker, Hon. C. T
Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt.
Wilson, Sir Jacob.
Anderson, W.
Beach, Joseph.
Bowen-Jones, J.
Caird, J. A.
Ransome, J. E.
Crutchley, P. E. Rowlandson, S.
Ccrtis-Hayward, Lt.-Col. Sanday, G. H.
Grenville, R. Neville. Smith, A. J.
Hornsby, J. Smith, Henry.
Howard, C. Stanyforth, E. W.
Martin, Joseph. The Stewards of lm-
Pidgeon, D. plements.
General Camhritrsc Committre.
The Whole Council, with the following representatives of the Local
Committee : —
Bidwell, Charles.
Cambridge University,
Vice-Chancellor of.
Cambridge, Mayor of.
Cambridge, Town Clerk of. Morgan, Rev. E. H.
Cunnington, Alderman. Peters, R.
Foster, C. F. Cunliffe. Vinter, J. 0.
Jonas, George.
Wilson, Sir Jacob
(Chairman).
Parker, Hon. C. T.
Ashworth, A.
gdjoto'fMrtr BHorltd Committee.
Clay, Charles. Martin, J.
Frvnkish, W. Sanday, G. H.
Hornsby, J. Stanyforth, E. W.
Howard, C.
Committee of ^election.
Cathcart, Earl (Chairman). Gilbey, Sir Walter, Bart. Darby, Alfred.
Coventry, Earl of. Wilson, Sir Jacob. Rowlandson, S.
Parker, Hon. C. T.
And the Chairmen of the Finance, Journal, Chemical, Stock-Prizes,
and Implement Committees.
education Committee.
Moreton, Lord (Chairman). Dugdale, J. M.
Kingscote, Col. Sir Nigel. Foster, S. P.
Arkwright, J. H. Mainwaring, C. S.
Bowen-Jones, J. Pell, A.
Dent, J. D. Pidgeon, D.
Ransome, J. E.
Sutton, M. J.
Tremayne, J.
VOELCKER, Dr.
Wheeler, E. V. V.
Parker, Hon. C. T.
(Chairman).
Bridport, Gen. Viscount.
Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt.
Arkwright, J. H.
dairy Committee.
Ashworth, A. Grenville, R. N.
Cuutis-Hayward, Lt.-Col. Stanyforth, E. W.
Darby, Alfred. Taylor, Garrett.
Dugdale, J. M. Voelcker, Dr.
Mainwaring, C. S.
Secretary.
Ernest Clarke, 12 Hanover Square, W.
Editor of the Journal — William Fream, B.Sc., LL.D., JDon-nton, Salisbury.
Consulting Chemist — Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, 12 Hanover Square, It'.
Consulting Botanist — W. Carbuthers, F.R.S., F.L.S., 44 Central Hill, Nor-
wood, S.E.
Consulting Veterinary Surgeon — Professor James Beart Simonds, St. John's
Villa, Ryde, Isle of Wight.
Zoologist — Cecil Warburton, M.A., Zoological Laboratory , Cambridge.
Veterinary Inspectors— The Officers of the Royal Veterinary College.
Consulting Engineer — F. S. Courtney, C.E., 3 Whitehall Place, S. W.
Surveyor and Superintendent of Worhs — Wilson Bennison, 66 Ashley Road,
Crouch Hill, N.
Consulting Surveyor — George Hunt, Evesham, Worcestershire.
Publisher — John Murray, 60a Albemarle Street, W.
Bankers —The London and Westminster Bank, St. James's Square Branch.
Distribution of Members of the Society,
v
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL
AND OF GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.
Districts
Counties
Number op
Governors
AND
Members
Number
of
Members
OF
Council
Names of Members of Council
Bedfordshire . .
143
1
C, Howard.
Buckinghamshire
157
1
Jos. P. Terry.
Cambridgeshire .
216
1
Joseph Martin.
Essex
237
1
Sir Walter Gilbey, V.F.
Hertfordshire .
188
1
Sir J. B. Lawes, T.
A. <
Huntingdonshire
74
—
London ....
Middlesex . . .
549
90
i‘
G. H. Sanday.
Norfolk ....
311
3
II.R.H. the Prince of Wales,
K.G., T.; Anthony Hamond ;
Garrett Taylor.
1
Oxfordshire . .
163
3
1 Earl of Jersey ; Lord Moreton,
1 v.p. ; M. J. Sutton.
Suffolk ....
251
2
J. E. Ransome ; A. J. Smith.
2,379
— 14
Cumberland . .
154
1
S. P. Foster.
Durham ....
190
2
i Earl of Ravensworth, T. ; W.
* T. Scarth.
Northumberland
278
2
• Sir M. White Ridley, T. ; Sir
1 Jacob Wilson.
1
Westmoreland .
82
704
2
— 7
I Lord Brougham and Yaux ;
t C. W. Wilson.
Derbyshire . . .
212
2
( Duke of Devonshire, p. ; H.
1 Chandos-Pole-Gell, v.p.
Leicestershire .
150
i
J. Hornsby.
*
Lincolnshire . .
321
3
(Sir J. H. Thorold, V.r. ; Rt.
J Hon. H. Chaplin, V.P.; W.
( Frankish.
Northamptonshire
181
2
Earl Spencer, K.G., V.P.; A.Pell .
Nottinghamshire
270
2
Duke of Portland ; H. Smith,
Rutland ....
33
—
1,167
— 10
VI
Distribution of Members of the Society,
DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY — continued.
Number op
Number
Districts
Counties
Governors
and
Members
Names op Members op Council
Members
Council
Berkshire . . .
221
2
| H.R.H. Prince Christian,
1 K.G., v. p.; P. E. Crutchley.
Cornwall . . .
139
1
John Tremayne.
Devonshire . . .
ISO
2
I Sir T. D. Acland, T. ; Sir M.
1 Lopes, V.p.
Dorsetshire . .
85
—
Hampshire . . .
250
2
(Sir A. K. Macdonald, T. ;
l J. A. Caird.
Kent
407
2
( C. Whitehead, v.p. ; F. S. W.
1 Cornwallis.
Somersetshire . .
138
2
f Yisct. Bridport, T. ; It. Neville
t Grenville.
Surrey
253
1
D. Pidgeon.
[Duke of Richmond and Gor-
Sussex
329
3
| don, K.G., T. ; H.Gorringe ;
( R. A. Warren.
Wiltshire . . .
150
1
J. Rawlence.
2 152
— 16
/ Earl of Feversham, v.p. ; Earl
f
1 Catlicart, T. ; J. D. Dent, T. ;
E J
l
Yorkshire . . .
.
889
G
] C. Clay ; S. Rowlandson ;
[ E. W. Stanyforth.
1
Gloucestershire .
291
2
l Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, T. ;
t Lt.-Col. J. F. Curtis-Hayward.
Herefordshire .
102
i
J. H. Arkwright.
1
Monmouthshire .
47
i
R. Stratton.
I
F> \
Shropshire . . .
Staffordshire. .
393
306
2
J. Bowen- Jones; A. Darby.
( Duke of Sutherland ; Jos.
2
1 Beach.
'
Warwickshire . .
314
1
P. A. Muntz.
Worcestershire .
247
2
(Earl of Coventry; E. Y. V.
1 Wheeler.
South Wales . .
212 ’
1,972
2
— 13
(Viscount Emlyn, v.p.; Sir
t J. L. E. Spearman.
r Duke of Westminster ; Lord
Cheshire ....
494
4
j Egerton of Tatton, T. ; Hon.
Cecil T. Parker; A. Ashworth.
a.
Lancashire . . .
4GG
2
f Earl of Lathom, V.P. ; T. H.
North Wales . .
279
2
* Miller.
ij. M. Dugdale; C. S. Main-
1 waring.
| 1
— 8
Scotland
! 230 "
Ireland
1G9
Channel Islands
13
Isle of Man
16
Foreign
Countries ....
175
Honorary Members ....
22
625
Grand Totals ....
111, 127
1 — 74
List of Governors of the Society.
vii
GOVERNORS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of election Date of election
as Member as Governor
H.R.H.The Peince of Wales, K.G.... Marlboro ugh House,
Pall Mall, S.W., and Sandringham — Feb. 3, 1864
■(■H.R.H.The Duke of Saxe-Cobueg and|Gotha(Duke of
Edinburgh), K.G... .Clarence House, St. James’s, S.W. — Aug. 6, 1884
tH.R.H. The Duke of York, K.G... .York House, St.
James’s Palace, S.W. — April 6, 1892
fH.R.H. The Duke of Cambridge, K.G.... Gloucester
House, Piccadilly, W — Aug. 6, 1S62
H.R.H. Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein,
K.G.... Cumberland Lodge, Windsor .... — Aug. 4, 1875
* Acland, Rt. Hon. Sir T. Dyke, Bart...Killerton, Exeter .
(Allcroft, Herbert John...Stokesay Court, Onibury, Salop
(Amherst of Hackney, Lord...Didlington Hall, Brandon .
Ancaster, Earl of...Normanton Park, Stamford
Archer-Houblon, George B....Welford Park, Newbury, Berk
♦Archer-Houblon, R....Bartlow, Cambridge . . .
(Arkwright, J. Hungerford... Hampton Court, Leominster
Ashburton, Lord. ..The Grange, Alresford, Hants , ,
■(Ashworth, Charles E....The Heath, Iinutsford .
May 29, 1838 Mar. 3, 1875
— Dee. is, 1888
Feb. 2, 1859 May 7, 1890
Mar. 3, 1869 May 5, 1875
— Mar. 6, 1889
Jan. 10, 1840 Mar. 5, 189c
— June s, 1861
— May 7, 1890
July S, 1865 July 29, 1891
♦Baillie, W. Hunter. ..43 Norfolk Square, Hyde Park, W.
Barnard, Lord...Raby Castle, Darlington ....
(■Bath, The Marquis of...Longleat, Warminster .
♦Batten, John. ..Yeovil, Somersetshire ....
Bedford, Duke of.. .Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire
fBENN, Thomas G....Reigny House, Newton Reigny, Penrith
(Blyth, Jame8...Woodhouse, Stansted, Essex
Bobthwick, Sir Algernon, Bart., M.P.... Heath House, Hamp
stead Heath, N.W
Bradford, Earl of.. .Weston Park, Shifnal .
Bbassey, Henry Leonard C.... Preston Hall, Aylesford
Bredport, Gen. Viscount, G.C.B.... Cricket St. Thomas, Chard
■(Brooks, Sir William Cunliffe, Bart.. ..Barlow Hall, Chorlton
cum-Hardy, Manchester
■(Browne, Alexander H....Callaby Castle, Whittingham R.S.O.
Northumberland ,
Burton, Lord...Rangemore, Burton-ou- Trent , , ,
July i3, 1838 Mar. 5, 1890
— July 37, 1892
— July 6, 1853
July 16, 1839 Mar. 5, 1890
— May 3, 1893
Mar. 13, 1878 Aug. 2, 1882
Nov. 3, 1875 July 27, 1892
— Dec. 12, 1888
Mar. 7, i860 Mar. 3, 1873
— Feb. 3, 1892
Jan. 19, 1842 April 2, 1862
— Aug. 7, 1872
— Mar. 6, 1872
Nov. 7, 1888 June 25, 1890
Cadogan, Earl, K.G...Culford Hall, Bury St. Edmunds ,
(Cathcart, Earl...Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk ,
(Cavendish, Victor C.W., M.P.... Devonshire House, Piccadilly, T
Cawdor, Earl of...Staekpole Court, Pembrokeshire .
(Chaxdos-Pole-Gell, H....Kopton Hall,Wirksworth, Derbyshir
Chaplin, Rt. Hon. Henry, M.P....BIankney Hall, Linsoln
(Clifden, Viscount... Holdenby House, Northampton .
(Clinton, Lord...Heanton Satchville, Beaford, N. Devon .
Feb. 6. 1856
Nov. 17, 1841
Nov. 6, 1861
April 3, 1867
Dec. 11, 1889
April 3, 1867
Mar. 2, 1892
Mar. 3, 1875
June 23, 1891
Nov. 2, 1870
July 3, 1889
April 2, 1890
* Elected a Foundation Life Governor March 5, 1890.
( Life Governor.
via
List of Governors of the
Clitherow, Colonel Edward J. S....Hotham Hall, Brough,
Yorkshire
#Clutton, John...Buckland Court, Betchworth, Surrey
fCoLMAN, J. J., M.P....Carrow House, Norwich ....
■f Corbett, John...Impney, Droitwich
Cornwallis, Fiennes S. W., Linton Park, Maidstone
Cotes, Charles Cecil. ..Woodcote, Newport, Salop
■fCowPER, Earl, K.G....Panshanger, Hertford ....
Craven, Thomas... Woodlieyes Park, Ashton-on-Mersey
Crookshank, Prof. E. M... .Saint Hill, East Grinstead
Darnley, Earl of...Cohliam Hall, Gravesend ....
Dartmouth, Earl of...Patshull Hall, Wolverhampton
D’Aumale, H.B.H. The Duke. ..Wood Norton, Evesham .
fDENT, John Dent...Ribston Hall, Wetherby ....
Derwent, Lord. ..Hackness Hall, Scarborough ....
+De Trafford, Sir H. F., Bart....Trafford Park, Manchester
^Devonshire, Duke of, K.G....Chatsworth, Chesterfield, Derby-
shire
fDicKSON-PoYNDER, Sir J., Bart., M.P....HarthamPark, Corsham,
Wilts
fDuNMORE, Earl of.. .Carlton Club, S.W
f Durham, Earl of...Lambton Castle, Durham ....
Egerton or Tatton, Lord... Tatton Park, Knutsford
IEllesmere, Earl of...Worsley Hall, Manchester
•fEMLYN, Viscount. ..Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire .
Essex, Earl of...Cassiobury Park, Watford ....
Evans, John Carbery... Hatley Park, Gamlingay, Cambs. .
Feversham, Earl of...Duncombe Park, Helmsley
Fife, Duke of, K.T....15 Portman Square, W
Fitzwilliam, Earl, K.G.... Wentworth Woodhouse, Rotherham
# Fletcher, John Philip. ..Darby Lodge, Sunbury-on-Thames .
+ Fortescue, Earl. ..Castle Hill, South Molton ....
Freake, Sir Thomas G., Bart....Warfleet, Dartmouth
tFiiEEMAN-MiTFORD, A.B., C.B., M.P....Batsford Park, Moreton-
in-the-Marsh, Gloucester
tFi'TCHE, J. Lewis. ..The Terrace, Freshwater, Isle of Wight
Gardner, Rt. Hon. Herbert, M.P....48 Charles Street, Berkeley
Square, W
Gilbey, Sir Walter, Bart...Elsenham Hall, Essex
■f Gill, Reginald B.E....Bickham, Roborough, S. Pevon
Gilstrap, Sir W., Bart....Fornham Park, Bury St. Edmunds .
Gooch, Sir Alfred S., Bart...Benacre Hall, Wangford, Suffolk .
Gordon, H. Panmure, Loudwater House, Rickpianswortli . .
Grafton, Duke of, K.G.... Wakefield Lodge, Stony Stratford .
tGRANT, Sir G. Macpherson, Bt...,Balljndalloch Castle, N.B.
♦ IGrey, Earl, K.G....Howick, Lesbury, Northumberland .
Griffiths, John James.. .Highbury Grange, Highbury, N.
Gwynne, John. ..Kenton Grange, The Hyde, N.W.
Hare wood, Earl of... Goldsboro’ Hall, Knaresborough
Henry, Mitchell. ..Kylemore Castle, Co. Galway.
Date of election
as Member
Dec. 15, 1838
June 1, 1870
July 2, 1873
May 6, 1891
July 2, 1851
Aug. 1, 1883
Nov. 2, 1887
Mar. 6, 1872
March 3, 1863
Nov. 7, 1888
Mar. 5, 1862
Feb. 19, 1840
April s, 1854
Nov. 2, 1870
July 2, 1884
May 7, 1862
April 1, 1863
June 6, 1883
Nov. 7, 1877
Date of election
as Governor
Feb. 6, 1889
Mar. s, 1890
Feb. 6, 1889
Feb. 4, 1891
July 2, 1884
Dec. 6, 1876
April 7, 1875
Dec. 6, 1893
Nov. 6, 1889
May S, 1852
Dec. 9, 1891
April 7, 1875
Feb. 3, 187s
April 7, 1869
June 1, 1892
June 2, 1880
April 2, 1890
Feb. 3, 1869
July 14, 1880
Nov. 7, 1883
July 7, 1869
Mar. 2, 1892
Nov. 2, 1892
Feb. 4, 1891
Mar. 3, 1875
Nov. 7, 1888
June 5, 1872
Mar. s, 1890
Nov. 6, 1861
July 30, 1890
Nov. 3, 1886
June 4, 1879
Dec. 7, 1892
June s, 1889
Dec. 12, 1888
April 2, 1890
July 13, 1882
Mar. 1, 1893
June 3, 1884
April 2, 1890
May 12, 1838
May 1, 1889
Mar. s, 1879
Nov. 2, 1892
Deo. 10, 1890
• Elected a Foundation Life Governor March 5, 1890.
f Ijife Governor.
Royal Agricultural Society of England,
IX
Hertford, Marquis of... Ragley Park, Alcester .
Hesketh, R. Bamford...Gwrych Castle, Abergele, Denbighshire
fHEYWOOD, Sir T. Percival, Bt...Doveleys, Uttoxeter .
fHoLFORD, Capt. George L., C.I.E....Westonbirt, Tetbury, Glos.
fHoTHFiELD, Lord...Hothfield Place, Ashford, Kent .
Houghton, Lord. ..Crewe Hall, Crewe
♦tHui.SE, Col. Sir Edward, Bt...Breamore Ho., Fordingbridge .
Joicey, E....Blenkinsopp Hall, Haltwhistle, Northumberland .
♦Kemble, Thomas. ..Runwell Hall, Wickford, Essex .
fKiNGSCOTE, Col. Sir Nigel, K.C.B....Kingscote, Wotton-under-
Edge, Gloucestershire
IKnight, Sir F. Winn., K.C.B...Wolverley House, Kidderminster
Kohlapur, H.H. The Maharajah of...Kohlapur, India
fKYNNERSLEY, Thomas F.... Leighton Hall, Ironbridge, Salop
fLATHOM, Earl of, G.C.B....Lathom House, Ormskirk . .
t L awe s, Sir J. B., Bart...Rothamsted, St. Albans
fLECONFiELD, Lord...Petworth House, Sussex ....
fLEiCESTER, Earl of, K.G...Holkham Hall, Norfolk
t Leigh, Lord...Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth
ILondesborough, Earl of...Londesborough Pk., Market Weigliton
fLoNDONDERRY, Marquis of, K.G....Seaham Hall, Seaham Harbour,
co. Durham
t Lonsdale, Earl of... Lowther Castle, Penrith .
fLoPES, Rt. Hon. Sir Massey, Bart...Maristow, Roborougli, Devon
Lucas, Sir Thomas, Bart... 12a Kensington Palace Gardens, W.
McCalmont, Harry. ..Cheveley Park, Newmarket
♦Macclesfield, Earl of...Sherburn Castle, Tetswortli
fMACDONALD, Sir A. K., Bart...Woolmer Lodge, Liphook .
IManvers, Earl...Thoresby Park, Ollerton, Newark .
fMAPLE, John... Bedford Lodge, Haverstock Hill, N.W.
Middleton, Lord...Birdsall House, York
♦Monck, J. Bligh... Coley Park, Reading
tMooRsow-MiTCHiNSON-MAUDE, C.R....Harewood, Leeds .
fMoRETON, Lord...Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, Oxon.
fMoREWOOD, C. R. Palmer. ..Alfreton Park, Derbyshire
fMoRRisoN, Alfred... Fonthill House, Hindon, Wilts . . .
fMouNT-EDGCUMBE, Earl of...Mount-Edgcumbe, Plymouth
Muncaster, Lord...Muncaster Castle, Ravenglass, Cumberland
t Muntz, George F...Umberslade Park, Birmingham .
Neeld, Sir Algernon W., Bart...Grittleton, Chippenham .
Newton, Lord.. .Lyme Park, Disley, Stockport ....
Norfolk, Duke of, K.G.... Arundel Castle, Sussex .
Normanton, Earl of...Somerley, Ringwood, Hants. .
♦ North, Rt. Hon. Col. J. Sidney. ..Wroxton Abbey, Banbury .
t Northbrook, Earl of... Stratton, Micheldever Station, Hants .
Paget, Lord Alexander... The Oaklands, Tarporley, Cheshire .
IPeel, Edmund. . .Brynypys, Ruabon
♦Pinney, Col. William. ..30 Berkeley Square, W
f Portland, Duke of. ..3 Grosvenor Square, W
Date of elcotion Date of election
as Member as Governor
Aug.
2, 1882
May
7, 1884
Dec.
7, 1892
May
I4> 1845
April
6, 1892
May
7. 1879
Feb. (
3, 1884
Mar.
7, 1894
June
13. 1838
Dec.
12, 1888
July ]
10, 1839
Mar.
5. 1890
April
6, 1854
July
1, 1874
June
15, 1842
Feb.
6, 1889
Nov.
7. 1883
Nov.
4, 1891
April
7, 1869
Nov.
6, 1872
April
29, 1846
Dec.
11, 1878
June
5. *872
Nov.
15. i843
Dec.
1, 1858
Nov.
S, 1862
April
2, 1890
June
3, 1885
July
4. 1883
Mar. :
15, 1848
May
7, 1884
Dec.
12, 1888
Feb.
7) 1894
Aug.
8, 1838
Mar.
Si 1890
July ,
3L 1849
Nov.
I, 1871
July
2, 1873
Nov.
2, 1864
Mar.
5, 1890
Mar.
3- 1875
May
23. l839
Mar.
5, 1890
Dec.
2. 1857
July
26, 1893
Mar.
3, 1875
April
7, 187s
Feb.
7, 1894
July
3, 1861
Nov.
6, 1861
Mar.
S, 1890
June
23, 1891
Doc.
4, 1867
June
3°. 1875
Nov.
7, 1888
Dec.
9, 1891
Aug.
4, 1858
July
29, 1891
Mar.
3. 1875
May
8, 1839
Mar.
5, 1890
June
2, 1880
July
6, 1881
July
3. *889
Feb.
3. l858
Mar.
Si 1890
Mar.
13. 1839
Mar.
5, 1890
June
2, 1880
* Elected a Foundation Life Governor March 5, 1830.
t Life Governor.
X
List of Governors of the Society.
fPoBTMAN, Viscount. ..Durweston, Blandford . .
Portsmouth, Earl of...Hurstbourne Park, Whitchurch, Hants
fPowis, Earl of...Powis Castle, Welshpool ....
Date of election
as Member
Aug. 6, 1862
April 6, 1887
Ravensworth, Earl of...Ravensworth Castle, Gateshead .
Richmond & Goedon, Duke of, K.G.., Goodwood, Chichester .
f Ridley, Rt. Hon. Sir Matthew W., Bart., M.P....Blagdon,
Cramlington, Northumberland ..... .
Ripon, Marquis of, K.G....Studley Royal, Ripon
Rothschild, Leopold de...Ascott, Wing, Leighton Buzzard
Rothschild, Lord. ..148 Piccadilly, W
Russell, Lord C. J. F....Drakelow Lodge, Woburn . .
Rutland, Duke of, K.G....Belvoir Castle, Leicestershire .
Feb. 5, 1868
June 20, 1838
Apr. 7, 1869
Nov. 7, 1888
May 26, 1838
Dec. 12, 1888
fSALiSBUBY, Marquis of, K.G. ..Hatfield House, Herts . .
# Saunders, T. B....The Priory, Bradford-on-Avon . .
Savile, Lord, G.C.B...Rufford Abbey, Ollerton, Notts
fScHBODEB, Baron J. H. W....The Dell, Egham, Surrey
fSEFTON, Earl of, K.G....Croxteth, Liverpool
#§Simonds, Prof. Janies Beart...St. John’s Villa, Ryde, I.W.
#Simonds, W. Barrow. ..Abbotts Barton, Winchester .
fSinTH, Hon. W. F. D., M.P...3 Grosvenor Place, S.W.
f Smyth, Sir J. H. Greville, Bart. ..Ashton Court, Bristol
Soubebblelle, Edouard. ..78 Cromwell Road, S.W.
#Spabks, William. ..Crewkerne
Spencer, Earl, K.G...Altliorp Park, Northampton
f Stapylton, Major H. M....Myton Hall, Helperby, Yoiks. .
Stbaffoed, Earl of...Wrotham Park, Barnet
*Stratton, J. Locke. ..Turweston House, Brackley
Suffield, Lord, K.C.B....Gunton Park, Norwich
Sutherland, Duke of...Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent
tSuTTON, John Manners. ..Kelham, Newark ....
fSuTTON, Martin J...Kidmore Grange, Caversham, Oxon. .
f Swinburne, Sir John, Bart....Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne
June 13, 1838
Nov. 3, 1869
July 25, 1838
June 19, 1839
June 6, 1838
Dec. 5, i860
Julj' 11, 1865
Dec. 8, 1875
May 13, 1839
July 1, 1868
Mar. I, 1882
May I, 1878
May 1, 1867
(•Tanqueray, John S... Balmain, 5 Albany Road, St. Leonards
tTnoEOLD, Sir John H., Bart....Syston Park, Grantham
Tredegar, Lord. ..Tredegar Park, Newport, Mon.
Turbervill, Col. J. P....Laleston House, Bridgend .
fTwEEDMOUTH, Lord...Ninewells, Chirnside, N.B.
Feb. 16, 1848
Aug. 5, 1868
Mar. 5, 1884
f Wantage, Lord, V.C...Lockinge, Wantage ....
Westminster, Duke of, K.G. ..Eaton Hall, Chester . .
+Whitehead, Charles.. .Banning House, Maidstone .
Willoughby de Broke, Lord...Kineton House, Warwick
fWiLSON, Sir j Jacob... Chillingliam Barns, Belford, Nortliumbd.
fWiNDSOR, Lord... Hewel Grange, Bromsgrove . .
*Wood, James. ..Ockley Manor, Keymer, Sussex .
June 3, 1863
July 3, i860
Apr. i, 1857
Dec. 5, i860
Aug. 8, 1838
f Yerbuiigh, Robert A., M.P.. Billinge, Scarr, Blackburn .
Date of election
as Governor
Mar. 5, 1890
Dec. 9, 1891
June 23, 1891
July 1, 1885
Dec. 2, 1868
May 5, 1886
July 3, 1861
Mar. 1, 1893
June 4, 1890
Mar. 5, 1890
Dec. 9, 1891
Feb. 6, 1889
Mar. 5, 1890
Mar. 27, 1889
April 2, 1890
Dec. 8, 1869
Mar. 5, 1890
Mar. 5, 1890
Dec. 9, 1891
July 3, 1878
Mar. 4, 1891
Mar. 5, 1890
Mar. 3, 1875
May 7, 1890
Mar. 7, 1894
Mar. 5, 1890
Nov. 3, 1875
Dec. 7, 1892
May 8, 1844
Feb. 1, 1882
May 7, 1890
May 8, 1849
May 1, 1889
May 3, 1876
July 27, 1892
July 31, 1889
May 1, 1872
June 5, 1872
Feb. 6, 1889
Dec. 10, 1890
Dec. 7, 1892
Nov. 6, 1878
Mar. 5, 1890
Nov. 7, 188a
• Elected a Foundation Life Governor March 5, 1890.
j Life Governor.
5 Honorary Member.
List of Honorary Members of the Society.
xi
HONORARY MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.
(“ British Subjects or Foreigners mho have rendered exceptional services to Agriculture or
Allied Sciences,” and mho have been elected under Bye-lam 8 as Honorary Members,
mithout payment of subscription.)
Date of election Date of election
as Ordinary as Honorary
Member Member
Anderson, Wm., D.C.L., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S....Lesney Ho., Erith Aug. 2,1871 Nov. 6,1889
Brown, Professor George T., C.B... .Royal Veterinary College,
Camden Town, N.W Dec. 3, 1862 May 1, 1878
Chauveau, Prof. Auguste, M.D., LL.D....10 Avenue Jules
Janin, A Passy, Paris — Dec. 6, 1893
Dannfelt, Carl Juhl in... Consul-General of Sweden and Norway.
24 Great Winchester St., E.C — Feb. 1, 1871
Fleming, George, LL.D., C.B... .Higher Leigh, Combe Martin
North Devon
Gilbert, Sir J. Henry., F.B.S....Harpenden, St. Albans
Hellriegel, Prof. Hermann... Bernburg, Anhalt, Germany
Hohenbruck, Baron Arthur von...I Niebelungengasse 8, Vienna
Liveing, Prof. G. D., M.A., F.R.S... .Cambridge .
Maercker, Prof. Dr. M....Versuchs-Station, Halle, Germany
Passy, Louis.. .45 Bue do Clichy, Paris
Pasteur, Louis. ..Membre de l’lnstitut, 45 Bue d’ Ulm, Paris
Playfair, Bt. Hon. Lord, K.C.B....68 Onslow Gardens, S.W.
Proskowetz, Emanuel Ritter von, Senr....Kwassitz, Moravia
Riley, Prof. C. V., M.A., Pli.D.... Department of Agriculture
Washington, U.S.A — Dec.
Sanderson, Dr. J. Burdon, F.R.S... . Oxford — May
Schlieffen, Count... ScliliefTcnburg, bei Lalendorf, Mecklenburg,
Germany — Dec. 12, 1883
Sickesz van de Cloese, Dr. C. J....Heerengraclit 17, The Hague,
Holland — Dec. 9, 1891
Simonds, Prof. J. Beart...St. John’s Villa, Ryde, Isle of Wight . July 23, 1838 April 3, 1849
Thiel, Dr. H.... Privy Councillor, and Director of the Depart
meDt of Agriculture, 17 Lutherstrasse, Berlin ... — Aug. 1, 1883
Tisberand, Eugene...Directeur de l’Agriculture, Ministers de
l’Agriculture, 17 Rue du Cirque, Paris — Aug. 1, 1883
Vilmorin, Henry L. de...l7 Rue de Bellechasse, Paris . . Aug. 2, 1879 June 4, 1890
Mar. 13, 1878
July 4, 1883
9, 1891
5. i89°
7, 1894
2, 1892
Dec.
Nov.
Mar.
Nov.
June 23, 1891
Aug.
July
Nov.
1, 1883
6, 1842
S, 1890
7, 1887
1, 1878
SUMMARY OF MEMBERS ON THE REGISTER,
March 31, 1894.
21 Foundation Life Governors (Members elected before the granting of the Charter
on March 26, 1840).
70 Governors paying an annual subscription of 5 Z.
80 Life Governors who have compounded for their annual subscriptions.
7,134 Members paying an annual subscription of 11.
3,707 Life Members who have compounded for their annual subscriptions.
93 Life Members by Examination.
22 Honorary Members.
11,127 Total number of Governors and Members at March 31, 1894.
EOYAL AGRICULTURAL
Balance Sheet,
xii
Dr.
Oorrespon cl-
ing figures
for 1892
£
28,488
S04I
139 J
I>265
To RESERVE FUND at December 31, 1892
Interest on 30,000/. Consols for one year
Life Compositions received during 1893
£ «. d.
27,961 14 4
802 13 4
1,170 0 0
3°, 697
29,937 7 8
£ *. <f.
2,732
1
27,965
Less: Contribution to Revenue (14s.) from
3,923 Life Members, being total number
of Life Members on Register .... 2,746 2 0
6,447
r
1
To CAPITAL as per last account, represented
by Books, Furniture, Country Meeting
Plant, Machinery, Cash, &c
8,894
3 11
Less : DEPRECIATION written off :
27,191 5 8
250 (
219 I
128 |
~59S
5,849
990
r
1
2,055 [
S,S94
36,859
Books and Furniture (10 per
cent, off 2,273/. 13s. 3<Z.) . £227 7 3
Country Meeting Plant (16 per
cent, off 1,408/. Is. 9 d.) . 211 4 3
Machinery (10 per cent, off
1,156/. 6s. 6 d.) .... 115 12 8
554 4 2
8,339 19 9
Add : Balance at Credit of Ordinary Income
and Expenditure Account, as per
Siatement (A) 344 19 2
Balance at Credit of Chester Show
Account, as per Statement ( B ) . . . 2,403 10
11,088 8 11
£38,279 14 7
ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.
WELTON, JONES & Co., Accountantt,
SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
December 31, 1893.
xm
Cr.
Correspond-
ing figures
for 1892
£
29,033 {
2,254 {
1,239 {
1,156
4,649
229
1,407
352
>,759
>,997
37,667
754
54-
808
36,859
£ >. d.
By 30,000/. NEW CONSOLS (2f per cent.) at
cost
Value on 31st December, 1893, at 98|=29,512f. 10*.
[Of this 30,0001. Stock, 1051. is held against Special
Prizes.]
By BOOKS and FURNITURE (including 19/.8s.
purchased in 1893) 2,046 6 0
By COUNTRY MEETING PLANT (including
169/. 58. 9d. purchased in 1893) .... 1,196 17 6
By MACHINERY 1,040 13 10
By Sundry DEBTORS
By CASH IN HAND, December 31, 1893 :
Bankers 335 10 8
Secretary and Surveyor 364 1 1
By CASH ON DEPOSIT, and interest thereon
By EXPENDITURE in 1893, but belonging to
1894, and carried forward
jLess: Sundry CREDITORS 1,047 18 8
Less : Subscriptions received in 1893, but
belonging to 1894, and carried forward 74 0 0
Less : Net Receipts in connection with the
Cambridge Meeting, 1894 30L 5 11
Memorandum : — The above Assets are exclu-
sive of the value of the stock of Journals,
Pamphlets and Diagrams ; and also of 298/. ,
the amount recoverable in respect of arrears
of Subscriptions to the 31st December,
1893.
i. d-
29,033 9 4
4,233 17 4
174 12 6
699 11 9
5,031 3 6
477 4 9
39,702 19 2
1,423 4 7
£38,279 14 7
Examined, audited, and found correct this 12th day of March, 1894
A. H. JOHNSON \ . ... , . ’
S. B. L. DRUCE / on behalf of the Society.
XIV
{A) STATEMENT OF ORDINARY INCOME
gncome.
£ ». d. £ i. d.
Annual Subscriptions:—
Governors : Subscriptions for 1893 356 0 0
Sfemiers : Received in 1892, but belonging to 1893 51 1 0
Subscriptions for 1893 G,933 14 0
Subscriptions for previous ypars 83 0 0
7,425 15 0
Life Compositions:-
Contribution to Revenue (See Balance Sheet)— 3,923 Members 1 9 - 9 n
at 14j ) ’
Receipts from Publications
Ordinary Sales of Journal (less Publisher's Charges) ..... 160 6 8
Advertisements in Journal 4 18 88
Sales in Office of Back Numbers of Journal 434
Sales of Pamphlets 39 14 8
Sales of Insect, Wheat and Potato Diagrams 31 2 11
Receipts from Sales of Text Book on Agriculture (3rd Edition,) 4Ro n
£34 11s. Id., 4th Edition, £454 4s. lid.) )
1,172 12 3
Laboratory Fees 7G2 l 3
Deposits of Competitors in Senior Examination], boo
Forfeited • •>
Rents from Sub-letting • 210 0 o
Interest on Bank Balances 85 g 8
Correspond
ing figures
for 1892
£Sl
346 1
69
6,847
jgg
7,466
2 732
138
425
78
68
72
696 ■
7,416
656
40
12,528
£12,40C 17 2
. ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.
WELTON, JONES & CO., Accountants.
l^ULQ
1892
2.282
19 o
70
747
67
385
4 45
32
89
4>°°7
1,367
183
i8l
652
37
29
2,852
88]
300)
1,084
48
52
1,184
80S
105
4
917
200
500
3
5
40
748
J75
56
200
16
12
24
483
958
11,538
990
12,528
STENDITURE
FOR THE YEAR 1893.
XV
gtepenMfure.
General Administration
Salaries of Secretarial Staff (including Temporary Assistance) .
Pensions to Officials . . . .’
1'rofessional Charges (Solicitors, Auditors, &c. )
House Bent, Taxes, House Expenses, and Repairs
Binding and Purchase of Books
Printing and Stationery
Postage and Telegrams"
Carriage of Parcels, and Cabs
Advertising and Miscellaneous Office Expenses
Journal of Society
Printers' Bills for the four number; of 1893
Wood Engravings and Illustrations . . .
Editor and Literary Contributions . . . .
Postage, Packing, and Delivery
Miscellaneous Journal Printing
Miscellaneous Journal Expenses
Minting L
ist of Members (Net Cost)
Laboratory.—
Salaries aiid Wages ....
Chemicals
Printing, and Sundry Expenses
Law Charges
Text-Book on Agriculture —
Primers' Bill for 4th Edition ....
Proportion of Cost of New Illustrations
Proportion of Author's Fee ....
Miscellaneous Expenses ......
Other Scientific Departments
Consulting Botanist's Salary
Consulting Zoologist's Salary
Grant to Royal Veterinary College ....
Medals for Proficiency in battle Pathology .
Advertising Appointment
Printing Expenses— Finger and Toe Inquiry
Miscellaneous Expenses
Education Prizes and Scholarships:—
Senior Examination : Money Prizes, 551. ; Fourteen Life Mem- 1
berships at 15/. =210/. )
Fees to Examiners . . ,
Junior Examinations : 10 Scholarships at 20/
Fees to Examiners
Advertising Examinations
Hire of Room for Senior Examination
Printing, &c
HaREWOOD House (Preliminary Expenses for acquisition of) : —
Surveyors’ Fees and Expenses
Law Charges, £257 Gs. 6 d. ; Stamp Duties, £250 6s. 6 <1
Printing, £54 3s. 8d. ; Account Books, &o., £28 19s. Of/
Interest on Purchase Money and Debenture Stock
Insurance, Gas, Water, &c
Bank Charges, 17s. 8 </.; Miscellaneous, £31 8s. 4c/
RANTS AND SPECIAL EXPENSES
Grant to Mansion House Association on Railway ana Canal Traffic
Subscription to Rothamsted Jubilee Fund
Illuminated Addresses to Sir John Lawes and Dr. Gilbert . . .
£
s.
d.
2.573
14
0
190
0
0
46
4
0
722
0
1
40
1
0
3*1 15
1
178
0
■ 2
14
14
2
108
15
10
1,442
17
8
143
7
11
835
3
4
663
7
6
33
18
3
30
16
0
8
0
21
18
5
73
12
7
51
18
4
305 14
9
80 14
6
52 10
0
1 18
6
200
0
0
1C6
13
4
500
0
0
2
14
0
12
8
6
4
6
6
1
9
2
265
0
0
74
11
0
200
0
0
15
15
0
14
15
8
15
0
0
21
11
10
200 11
6
507
13
0
83
2
8
571
9
4
34
0
0
32
6
0
10 10
0
2
2
0
15
0
0
Total Expenditure
Balance carried to Balance Sheet . .
£ s. d.
4,215 13 4
3,149 10 8
128 19 5
1,175 17 4
440 17 9
887 11 6
606 13 6
1,429 2 6
27 12 0
12,061 18 0
344 19 2
£12,406 17 2
Examined, Audited, and found correct this 12th day of March, 1894.
S.' a £°DRUCB } Au<li,ors M,r,V °f ,he Society.
,ooo
,186
193
,379
421
23
196
14
054
3.8
9
25
6
138
8
2
179
27
8
21
IB
78
8
258
34?
4>
646
39
4
730
57
672
119
6
125
53
(B) STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPEN
Subscription:— £, t. d. £ ». d.
From Chester Local Committee , 2,000 0 0
Fees for Entry of Implements:-
Implement Exhibitors’ Payments for Shed.ling 4,398 9 9
Non-members’ Fees for Entry of Implements 198 0 0
4,594 9 9
Fees for Entry of Live Stock:—
By Members 1,690 Entries @ 5j 422 10 0
141 Post Entries @ 104 70 10 0
By Non-members 208 Entries @12 206 0 0
20 Post Entries @21 40 0 0
739 0 0
Fees for Horse Boxes and Stalls 360 10 0
Fees for Shedding for Vehicles in Harness Classes 13 10 0
Fees for Entry of Poultry:-
By Members:— 187 Entries @ 2s. Bd 23 7 6
14 Post Entries @ 5s. . . 3 10 0
By Non-members 565 Entries @ 5s 14150
6 Post Entries @ 10s. ........ 300
Entries of Table Poultry 2190
174 1 6
Other Entry Fees:-
Non-members’ Fees for Entry of Produce 133 15 0
Fees for Entry in Horse-shoeing Competition 7 5 0
New Implement Fees forfeited 14 0 0
Deposit in Butter-making Competition forfeited 0 10 0
155 10 0 1
Catalogue :—
Extra Lines for particulars of Implement Exhibits 83 4 0
Woodcuts for New Implements 9139
Advertisements in Combined Catalogue 249 3 6
342 1 3
Sales of Implement Section of Catalogue (including bound
copies) 4213G
Sales of Combined Catalogue @ Is. 748 5 8
„ „ „ (bound) @ 2s. C.f 27 19 8
Programmes and Awards 13 12 7
Catalogues sold after Show, Ac 634
838 14 5
Less Commission on Sales In Showyard G4 11 0
774 3 5
Miscellaneous Receipts:—
Fines for non-exhibition of Live Stock, Ac.
Fines outstanding from previous Shows .
Premiums for Supply of Refreshments . .
Premium for Cloak Rooms and Lavatories
157 18 6
15 7 6
173 6 0
685 13 11
36 15 0
Carried forward .... £10,049 0 10
DITURE AT THE CHESTER MEETING, 1893. xvii
Correspond-
ing figures for
£5,004
136
61
61
1,437
552
61
36
2,061
626
Cost of Erection of Showyard
Timber
Ironmongery
Paints, Oil, Glass, Lead, <Src
Bricks, Lime, Cement, Coal, &c
Laying Drains to Dairy
Canvas, Roofing Cloth, Felt, Baize, <Stc
Railway Charges, 3831. 10s. 2d. ; Horse Hire, 1612. 12s. 2d. . .
Stationery, Postage, and Telegrams
Calico for Dairy
Repairs to Stacks, 161. 9s. id. : Police Supervision, 71. 6s. 9 d. .
Insurance, 321. 2s. ; Hire of Furniture, 41. Os. 6d
Wages
Superintendent of Works : Salary and Expenses
£ s. d.
5,546 9 9
231 17 6
47 15 7
68 10 8
10 6 6
1,646 5 5
545 2 4
57 3 7
8 1 8
23 16 1
36 2 6
2,324 0 4
619 0 0
£
d.
io»o34
2,880
1,822
4,702
5.332
54
13
139
24
11,164 11 11
Less
Sale of Materials £3,633 11 G
Work for Exhibitors and Purveyors 1,914 16 8
5,548 8 2
Expenses of Secretary’s Department :-
Expenses of Inspection Committee 35 £ 7
Secretary’s Journeys to Chester and Expenses 1118 10
Expenses for Extra Clerkage 223 1 6
Preparation of Catalogues 5492
231
4 10
6
37
11
631
87
38
75
Printing:—
Printing of Prize Sheets, Certificates, Admission Orders, Parch-
ment Numbers, Circulars to Exhibitors, Prize Cards, Mem-
bers’ Tickets, and Miscellaneous
Secretary’s Local Printing
Programmes for Members
Plans of Showyard
Printing of Stock and Implement Catalogues
Binding of Catalogues
Carriage of Catalogues to Showyard
Printing Awards
406 12 0
10 10 6
46 4 5
13 18 6
718 16 7
71 12 4
15 18 0
43 1 5
1,294
72
5°3
TI5
Advertising, Bill Posting, and Placarding :-
Advertising Closing of Entries, <tc., in Newspapers .
Advertising Show by Posters and in Newspapers . .
Printing of Posters
690
Postage, Carriage, &c. :-
1 General Postage, 73 2. 13s. 6 d, ; Postage of Tiokets to Members,
86 i 412. Is. id
67 13 0
600 0 0
217 17 3
5,616 3 9
324 18 1
1,326 13 9
8S5 10 3
114 14 11
3.966
Amount of Prizes Awarded (for details see page xviii) . .
4,714 6 0
520 1
Cost of orage for Live Stock
Hay, 2622. 13s. Id. ; Straw, 4152. 5s. 8d. ; Green Food, 2082. 8s. 6d.; )
Insurance, 22. ; Bank Charges, 12. 0s. 7<2 [
Less : Interest allowed by Bank
889 8 4
2 2 3
887 6 1
615-
22
x9
Judges’ Fees and Expenses:-
Judges of Sheep Shearing, 242. 10s.; Judges of Miscellaneous \
Implements, 472. ; Ditto for Lodgings, 282. ; Judges of Sheaf- -
binders, 482 )
Judges of Horses, 1322. 14s. 9r/. ; Cattle, 1782. 17s.; Sheep,!
2802. 8s. 8 <2.; Pigs, 452. 10s. 9d. ; Poultry, 302. 14s. id. ;|
Cheese, 552. 6s. lid.; Butter and Butter-making, 372.-, Ditto :-
for Lodgings, 202. ; Cider and Perry, 172. 7s. ; Jams and
Preserved Fruits, 82. 19s. 3d. : Horse-shoeing, 342. 10s. . . .)
Badges for Judges and other Officials
Rosettes
12,899
Carried forward . . . .
147 10 0
841 8 8
24 9 3
30 14 4
1,044 2 3
£14,913 15 1
b
VOL. V. T. S. — 17
xvm
( B ) Statement of Receipts and
Correspond-
ing figures lor
1892.
^9, Vi
Brought forward
23
2,071
1,892
1,817
1,183
Admissions to Showyard:—
Saturday, June 17, @ 2s. 6 d. .
Monday, June 10, @ 5s. . . .
Tuesday, June 20, @ 2s. 6<7.
Wednesday, June 21, @ 2s. 6 d.
Thursday, June 22, @ Is. . .
Friday, June 23, @ U. . . .
7,377
29 Day Tickets .
1S0 Season Tickets
£ s. d. £ s. d.
10,040 0 10
32 IS 3
500 2 0
2,618 16 7
2,378 13 3
2,833 16 4
660 12 5
9.132 18 10
100 5 0
270 7 0
So
208
143
78
S3
561
40
71
111
NTRANCES TO HORSE RING
Monday, June 19 ....
Tuesday, June 20 ....
Wednesday, June 21 . . .
Thursday, June 22 ... .
Friday, Juue 23
AIRY
Receipts at Stand at Dairy 45 7 6
Sale of Produce at Dairy 93 0 11
138 8 5
48 18 0
275 6 0
181 18 0
138 7 0
9 13 0
Prizes Awarded : —
Horses, 1,4557. ; Cattle, 1,0827. 10s
Sheep, 1,0757. ; Pigs, 3967. ........
Poultry -
Cheese, 6427. ; Butter, 927
Cider and Perry, 407. ; Jams and Fruits, 157. .
Butter-making, 697. ; Horse-shoeing, 327. . . .
Trials of Sheaf-binders, 1007. ; Sheep-shearing
Machines, 207
Silver Medals for New Implements and Butter-
maker
Contribution to Bee Department
Less : —
£ s. d.
3,437 10 0
1,471 0 0
254 10 0
734 0 0
55 0 0
101 0 0
120 0 0
10 16 0
40 0 0
6,223 16 0
Prizes offered by Local Committee £1,392 0
„ „ Various Societies 105 10
„ „ Farriers’ Company . . 12 0
1509 10 0
£4,714 6 0
£20,433 2 1
ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.
W ELTON, JONES & CO., Accountants,
Expenditure at the Chester Meeting, 1893 ( cont .).
xix
Correspond- 1
Ing figures for
1892. I
£12,899 ! Brought forward
[Expenses of Administration :—
Stewards : — House, 751. ; Housekeeping Expenses, 1397. 6s. 8(7. ; ]
Personal and Railway Expenses, 5 4 7. 4s. 10 d j
Assistant Stewards: — Honoraria, G87. ; Railway Expenses, I
137. Or. lid. ; Lodgings, 477. 10.< J
Secretary and Official Staff' Houses, 527. 16s. ; Secretary’s ]
Expenses, 127. (Is. 2d. ; Maintenance of Clerks, 477. 3s. ; Tra-
Telling Expenses, 187. 14s. Id J
Finance Office Superintendent of Turnstiles, 177. 2s. ; Money j
Changer, 67. 5s.; Money Takers, 447. 2s.; Bankers’ Clerks,
1C7. Os. Gd J
A wards Office Superintendent, 157. ; Clerks, 327. 3s. 11(7. ; Award |
Boys, 57. 19s. Gd j
245 { j
149
5°
l
659
75
369
34
63O
xiS-!
229
'1
54° ]
888
192 |
7
199
General Management : —
Foreman and Assistant Foreman
Yardmen, Grooms, and Foddermen . . . . .
Door and Gate Keepers
Carriage Hire, 597. 17s. ; Horse Hire, 637. 8s. 8d.
Inspector of Lavatories
Veterinary Department ’ Veterinary Inspectors, 927. 11s. ; Ditto 1
for Lodgings, 207. ; Veterinary Assistants, 157. 4s. 8d. ; Yard- t
men, 27. )
Engineering Department: —Consulting Engineers and Assist- \
auts, 1677. 16s. 3d. ; Ditto for Lodgings, 147. ; Carriage, I
137. Os. 7 d. ; Repairs and Maintenance of Maehiuery, I
297. 7s. ; Insurance, 71. 17 s. 6d. ; Wages to Workmen, f
197. 2s. 3d. ; Hot Water Fittings to Dairy, 227. 5s. 9 d. ; Hire
of Boiler, 15s I
Police, <tc. Metropolitan Police, 5397. 1 Os. 9d. ; Commie- )
siouaires, 227. 15s. Id )
Dairy:— Milk, 1077. 12s. ; Ice, 207. 12s. 6 d ; Dairy Staff, 807. 16s. 4d. ;
Salt, 17. 16s.; Utensils, 387. 10s. 7d. ; Carriage, 17. 0s. lCd.
Stationery', 17. 16s. lid
Expenses of Analysing Milk of Dairy Cows . . . .
id.;)
26
421
44 1
65
13
■51
21 1
34
28;
'270
Poultry:- Penning, Attendant and Food, 147. 2s. 4d. ; Prize!
Cards, 77. 0s. 7 d. ; Killing Poultry, 37. 4s. 8d. ; Purchase of 1
Dead Poultry, 47. 4s. ; Carriage of Poultry to and from Show- f
yard, 137. 8s. 8d )
Horse-shoeing Gratuities
General Showyard Expenses:
Hire of Furniture, 117. 11s. Gd. ; Hire of Chairs, 297. 4s. 3d.;)
’• • -J
Tan, 27. 6s. ; Telegraph, 167. 10s. 3d. ; Newspapers, 16s. 9 d,
Band of Cheshire Regiment . .
St. John Ambulance Association
Ironmongery
Mowing
Royal and Official Luncheons
Gratuities to Bath Chairmen
Miscellaneous Payments : — Secretary, 47. 18s. lOd.
387. 19s. 6d "
Surveyor, )
Expenses of Trials
Cost of providing Sheep for Trials of Sheep-shearing Machines.
Trials of Sheaf Finders : —
Hotel Expenses, Ac. Sheaf-binding Trials
Carriage Hire, 1G7. 2s. 6d. ; Horse Hire, 47. 13s
Hire of Chairs, 17. 3s. 8d. ; Hive of Tent, 127
Cost of providing Fields for Trials
Wages, 217. 3s. 3d. ; Petty Payments, 37. 4s. lid.
Engineers aud Assistants
Repairs to Machinery, 327. 11s. 6 d. ; Carriage, 127. 18s. Cd. . .
Balance carried to Talauce Sluct
18,082
£ s. d. & s. d.
11,913 15 1
268 11 G
128 10 11
130 13 3
83 9 6
53 3 5
113 18 8
306 12 8
So 3 0
123 5 8
2 10 0
129 15 8
274 4 4
252 5 2
4 16 9
42 0 4
1 15 0
GO 8 9
80 13
12 12
10 3 3
II
27
8 0 0
43 18 4
68 17 1
20 15 6
13 3 8
82 8 8
24 8 2
75 9 9
45 13 0
661 8 7
*81 10 0
5C2 5 10
966 5 10
257 1 11
43 15 4
— 263 3 4
8 16 2
330 15 10
18,029 12 1
2,403 10 0
£20,433 2 1
Examined, audited, and found correct this 12th day of March, 1884.
• g ’ b1 L '^DRUCe” } el uditors on behalf of t. he Society.
■■ ■b 2
( xx )
Table showing the Number op GOVERNORS and MEMBERS
in each Year from the Establishment op the Society.
Governors
Members
Total
Life
Annua
Life
Annual Honorary
|
j
|
1
1.100
86
189
146
2,434
5
2,860
91
219
231
4,047
7
4,595
101
211
328
5,194
15
5,849
94
209
429
6,155
15
6,902
95
214
442
6,161
15
6,927
94
198
627
5,899
15
6,733
92
201
554
6,105
19
6,971
91
195
607
5,478
20
6.391
93
186
648
5,387
21
6,335
89
178
582
4,643
20
5,512
! 90
169
627
4,S56
19
5,261
91
162
674
4,175
19
5,121
93
156
711
4,002
19
4,981
90
147
739
3,928
19
4,923
88
146
771
4,152
20
5,177
89
141
795
3,838
19
4,882
85
139
839
3,896
20
4,979
83
137
896
3,933
19
5,068
81
133
904
4.010
18
5,146
78
130
927
4,008
18
5,161
72
119
927
4,047
18
5,183
84
90
1,113
3,328
18
4,633
83
97
1,151
3,475
17
4,823
80
88
1,263
3,735
17
5,183
78
45
1,343
4,013
17
5,496
79
81
1,386
4,190
16
5,752
79
84
1,395
4,049
15
5,622
77
82
1,388
3,903
15
5,465
75
74
1,409
3,888
15
5,461
75
7'6
1,417
3,864
17
5,44o
74
74
1,511
3,764
15
5,438
72
74
1,589
3,896
17
5,648
71
73
1,655
3.953
14
5,766
74
62
1,832
3,936
12
5,916
76
58
1,944
3,756
12
5,846
79
79
2,058
3,918
11
6,145
83
78
2,164
4,013
11
6,349
81
76
2,239
4,073
17
6,486
81
72
2,328
4,130
26
6,637
81
72
2,453
4,700
26
7,332
83
70
2,673
5,083
20
7,929
85
69
2,765
5,041
19
7,979
82
71
2,849
5,059
19
8,080
78
71
2,979
4,952
19
8,099
72
72
3,203
5.408
21
8,776
71
69
3,356
5,619
20
9,135
70
61
3,414
5,569 j
20
9,134
71
64
3,440
5,387
20
8,982
66
56
3,521
5,225 |
16
8,884
73
58
3,567
7,153
15
10,866
122
58
3,846
6,941
17
10,984
117
60
3,811
6,921
19
10,928
111
69
3,784
7,066
20
11,050
107
74 1
3,786 J
7,138
21
11,126
101
70
3,800
7,134
22
11,127
Year
ending
with
Show of
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
Mar.
President of the Year
3rd Earl Spencer . .
5th Duke of Richmond
Mr. Philip Pusey . .
Mr. Henry Handley .
4 th Earl of Hardwicke
3rd Earl Spencer .. .
5th Duke of Richmond
1st Viscount Portman
6th Earl of Egmont
2nd Earl of Yarborough
3rd Earl of Chichester .
4th Marquis of Downsliire
5th Duke of Richmond
2nd Earl of Ducie . .
2nd Lord Ashburton .
Mr. Philip Pusey . .
Mr. William Miles, M.P
1st. Viscount Portman
Viscount Ossington.
6th Lord Berners .
7th Duke of Marlborougl
5th Lord Walsingham
4th Earl of Powis . .
( H.R.H. Prince Consort
J 1st Viscount Portman
Viscount Eversley . .
2nd Lord Feversham .
Sir E. C. Kerrison, Bt., M.P
1st Lord Tredegar . .
Mr. H. S. Thompson .
6th Duke of Richmond
H.R.H. Prince of Wales
7th Duke of Devonshire
6th Lord Vernon . .
Sir W. W. Wynn, Bt., M
3rd Earl Cathcart .
Mr. Edward Holland
Viscount Bridport .
2nd Lord Chesham .
Lord Skelmersdale .
Col. Kingscote, C.B., M.P
H.R.H. Prince of Wales
9th Duke of Bedford .
Mr. William Wells
Mr. John Dent Dent .
6th Duke of Richmond&Gordou
Sir Bran die th Gibbs .
Sir M. Lopes, Bt., M.P.
H.R.H. Prince of Wales
2nd Lord Eeerton of Tatton
Sir M. W. Ridley, Bt.. M.P
Her Majesty The Queen
Lord Moreton . .
Earl of Ravensworth
Earl of Feversham .
Duke of Westminster
Duke of Devonshire
1 The figures for 1843 are taken from the December report, after the removal of the names of
members who had discontinued their subscriptions ; but it was reported in the previous May that
1,436 had been elected during the preceding twelve months, bringing the then nominal total to
7,285. In all other cases, from 1840 to 1893, the figures are from the reports of the Council to the
undiver6ary meeting in May. It should, however, be observed that the totals were occasionally
affected by the uecessary revision of the ljst.
( *xi )
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
IProceefcmGS of tbc Council,
WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 7, 1894.
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR,
Present :
Trustees. — Gen. Viscount Bridport,
G.C.B., Earl Cathcart, Mr. John
Dent Dent, Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote,
K.C.B., Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart.,
the Duke of Richmond and Gordon,
K.G., Right Hon. Sir M. W. Ridley,
Bart., M.P.
Vice-Presidents. — H.U.H. Prince
Christian, K.G., Mr. Chandos-Pole-
Gell, Lord Moreton.
Other Members of Council. — Mr. J.
Bowen-Jones, Mr. Charles Clay, Earl
of Coventry, Mr. Percy E. Crutchley,
Lieut.-Col. J. F. Curtis-Hayward, Mr.
Alfred Darby, Mr. J. Marshall
Dugdale, Mr. S. P. Foster, Mr. W.
Frankish, Mr. Hugh Gorringe, Mr.
Anthony Hamond, Mr. James
Hornsby, Mr. Joseph Martin, Mr.
T. H. Miller, Mr. P. A. Muntz, M.P.,
Mr. R. Neville- Grenville, Hon. Cecil
T. Parker, Mr. J. E. Ransome, Mr.
J. Rawlence, Mr. S. Rowlandson,
Mr. G. H. Sanday, Mr. W. T. Scartli,
Mr. A. J. Smith, Mr. Henry Smith,
Sir J. L. E. Spearman, Bart., Mr. R.
Stratton, Mr. J. P. Terry, Mr. John
Tremayne, the Duke of Westminster,
K. G., Mr. C. W. Wilson.
Professor Brown, C.B. ; Mr. F. W.
Wragg, President of the Royal College
of Veterinary Surgeons.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the
Journal ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
Consulting Chemist; Mr. Wilson
Bennison, Surveyor.
The following members of the
Cambridge Local Committee were
also present The Mayor (Mr. E. H.
Parker), Mr. Charles Bid well, Mr.
G. Jonas, Rev. E. H. Morgan, the
Town Clerk (Mr. J. E. L. Whitehead),
and Mr. R. Peters (Secretary of the
Local Committee).
Apologies for non-attendance were
received from Sir John Thorold, Bart.,
Sir Jacob Wilson, Mr. J. H. Arkwright,
Mr. Alfred Ashworth, Mr. Joseph
Beach, Mr. J. A. Caird, Mr. Charles
Howard, Mr. Albert Pell, Mr. Martin J.
Sutton, Mr. R. A. Warren, Mr. E. V. V.
Wheeler, and Mr. Charles Whitehead.
Death of a Member of Council.
The minutes of the last monthly
Council, held on December Gth, 1893,
having been approved,
The Duke of Westminster (who
had temporarily taken the chair
pending the arrival of the President)
made a feeling allusion to the los3
which the Council had sustained
since their last meeting through the
lamented death, under circumstances
of peculiar painfulness, of their col-
league, Mr. George Mander Allend er.
Mr. Allender had been associated
with the Society as a member for the
long period of thirty-five years ; but
it was only in comparatively recent
times that the Council had had the
advantage of his practical mind and
business acumen in the deliberations
at their meetings. Those who were
associated with the memorable show
of 1879 at Kilburn would remember
his activity as Steward of Forage, and
in the general organisation of that
Meeting. He was elected a member
xyu
Monthly Counoil , February 7, 1894.
of the Council in May 1881, and had
rendered valuable services on their
House, Stock Prizes, Implement,
Showyard Works, Dairy, and other
Committees. Ha (the Duke) had
worked with Mr. Allender on the
House Committee in connection with
the acquisition of the Society’s new
premises, and had learnt to appre-
ciate his great business qualities.
The sad circumstances of his un-
timely death would accentuate the
regret that all his colleagues must
feel at the loss of one so full of
energy and resourcefulness. (Hear,
hear.)
New Governors and Members.
The election of the following two
Governors and eighty-one members
was then proceeded with : —
Governors.
McCalmoxt, H. ..Cheveley Park, Newmarket.
Morewood, G. It. Palmer .. Alfrctou Park,
Derbyshire.
Members.
Amherst, Hou. Florence M. . .Didliugtou Hall,
Brandon.
Amherst, Hou. Sybil M.. .Didlington Hall,
Brandon .
AsriN'ALU T. . .Pilswurth, Birch, Lancs.
Asplen, \V. J. W. . . Thriplow Place, Roy stou.
Bagxaia, 0. R.. .Broad Campden, Glos.
Bircii, Rev. J. A. G.. .Kirk Hammerton Viear-
age, York.
Birkett, Tom. .72 Wordsworth St., Penrith.
Bowman, Thos. . . Harlaxton Lodge, Grantham.
Bowser, J. . .Thornton House, Frithvillo, Bos-
ton.
Campbell, H. B.. .Merton, Thetford.
Cane, C. H. B.. .Dunchurch, Rugby.
Carnegie, Hou. D. G. . . Longwood, Winchester.
Carter, H. P. . . Hum Farm, Holbeaeli.
Chadwick, S. T. . . Haulfre, Beaumaris.
Cordrey, W. . . 36 Southwark Street, S.E.
Coulson, J. A.. .Low Caythorpe, Bridlington.
Coy, J.. .Bridge Hall Farm, Burgess Hill.
Dawnay, Capt. the Hon. L. P. . .Beniugbrough
Hall, Yorks.
Ellis, W.G. P...4 St. Edward’s Passage, Cam-
bridge.
Knock, F. . . 11 Parolles Rd., TI pper Holloway, X.
Foster, C. F. Cunliiie . . 3 Sidney Street,
Cambridge.
Gardner, T.. .Portland Lodge, Newmarket.
Gibson, J. E. . . East Farm, Fourstones, Nortlid.
Gordon, F. . . Bentley Priory, Stanmore.
Gray, C.. .Whitchurch, Aylesbury.
Gribblk, G. J...Henlow Grange, Biggleswade.
Harrison, H...Hooton Mount, Eastham,
Cheshire.
Howard, S. G.. .Kirtling, Newmarket.
Hunter, W. S.. .Aldwark Manor, Easingwold.
Jillings, W. II.. .The Nunnery, Thetford.
Jones, J. A. ..1 Imeson Terrace, Linthorpe,
Yorks.
Lambert, L. F.. .Greenliill, Redditch.
Langdale, C. H.. .Mill House, Morpeth.
Lassitter, F.. .Sydney, New South Wales.
Lawber, J. 0.. .10 West Villas, Upton Park.
Laybournb, R...Malpas, Newport, Mon.
Leplae, E. . .Ardoye, West Flanders, Belgium .
Lord, A. H. . .Jackson Fold, Pilsworth, White-
field, Manchester.
I.yster, G. F. . .Plas Isaf, Ruthin.
Mars hall, G. T. V...Audley House, Great
Gransdeu, Sandy.
Marshall, R . .Enholmes, Partington, Hull.
Meares, 0. A. . .15 St. James' Terrace, N.W.
Measures, B.. .Tilbrook Grange, Kimbolton.
Meggeson, T. A. ..11 Nelson Ter., Stockton-
on-Tees.
Meggitt, H. W.. .203 High Street, Hull.
Morris, T.. .Whittle Fold Farm, Birch, Lancs.
Mouldin', J. . .Beancroft, Marston, Ampthill.
Mutton, D. . .Triangle, Plumpton, Lewes.
Newton, W. L.. .Braybrooke, Market Har-
borough.
Norman, H. E. H.. .Grove House, Southall.
O’Rorke, Ashley . . Dunchurch, Rugby.
Parry, H. E.. .Manor Farm, Wrexham.
Pepper, Major C. . . Ballygarth Castle, Julians-
town, Drogheda.
Perkins, John, LL.D,. .East Hatley, Sandy.
Prentice, Manning.. Woodfield, Stowmai'ket.
ritiCE, T. M. . . Tremains, Bridgend.
Rands, Frederick E. . . Ipswich.
Roberts, W. I. . .Lidlington, Amptliill.
Robinson, Roland I.. .Gisburne, Yorks.
Savage, R. T. . . Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
Scurr, C. N. . .Merrington, Ferry Hill.
Sharp, A. H. ..Dumbleton Hall, Evesham.
Singleton, Th M...G Florence Ter., Ealing. W.
Slater, J... Cordell Hall, Stansfield, Suffolk.
Slater, S. W.. .Clievelcy Hall, Newmarket.
Smith, H.. .Sutton Farm Lodge, Cookham.
Taylor, J. L...Penmaen Cliffe, Dolgelly.
Tew, J. S., M.D. . .Nottingham.
Thorley, J. . .Ringdale House, Faringdon.
Tinsley, Geo. . .Flint House, Holbeaeli Marsh.
Tinsley, W. H.. .Poplar Ho., Holbeaeli Marsh.
ToMALlN, L. R. S.. .95 Milton Street, E.C.
Trimble, W. T...Dalston, Carlisle.
Watson, A.. .East Ardwick, Pontefract.
Waudby, J. . . Frizinghall, Bradford.
Weed mann, H.. .Tarnliouse, Beetley, Dereham.
Wilkinson, C. E. O. . . Moor Farm, Baschurch.
Williamson, F. C.. .Whitburn Hall, Sunder-
land.
Wood, C. H. G. . . Carleton Lodge, Pontefract.
Wright, Carden. .Whaplodo, Spalding.
Wright, Wm...Organsdale Farm, Kelsall.
Country Meeting of 1835.
The Secretary laid upon the table
the formal invitation from the Mayor
and Corporation of Darlington for the
holding of the Society’s Country
Meeting of 1895 at that place, to-
gether with a number of memorials
received in support thereof from the
following local authorities and insti-
tutions : —
Corporations : — Darlington, Newcastle - on -
Tyne, Hartlepool, Middlesbrough, Richmoud,
Scarborough, Stockton-on-Tees, Tliornaby-
on-Tees, and West Hartlepool.
Local Boards: — Barnard Castle, Benfieldsidc,
Benwell nnd Fenham, Felling. Leadgate,
Northallerton, Redcar, Southwick, Tow Law,
and Willington.
Unions : — Auckland, Bedale, Darlington, Dur-
ham, Easington, Leybnrn, Middlesbrough,
Northallerton, Reeth. Richmond, Sedgefield,
Stokesley, and Teesdale.
Country Meeting of 1895. xxm
Highway Boards:— Auckland, Barnard Castle,
Castle Edeu and Sealiam, Darlington Dis-
trict, Durham and Chester-le-Street, Greta
Bridge, Northallerton, Richmond District,
Stockton, and Hartlepool.
Chambers of Agriculture : — Cleveland, Darling-
ton, Durham and N.R., and Stockton-ou-
Tees.
Agricultural Societies, Ac.: — Newcastle Farm-
ers’ Club, Barnard Castle, Beamish, Pontop
and Consett, Bishop Auckland, Northumber-
land, Sedgefield and District, Stokesley,
Wensleydale, and Whitby Agricultural Socie-
ties ; the Durham and N.E.R. Agricultural
Horse Society ; the Gainford Horse and
Foal Show Society ; the S. Durham and
N. Yorkshire Horse and Dog Show Society.
The Secretary also read the
report of the Committee of Inspection
(the Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Sir
Joseph Spearman, Bart., and Mr.
James Hornsby), recommending the
acceptance of the invitation from
Darlington, and advising the selection
of the site known as the Hummers-
knott site.
Deputation from Darlington.
After some general discussion on
the report,
Mr. W. T. Scarth introduced a
deputation from the town and dis-
trict of Darlington, including Lord
Barnard (Chairman of the Local
Committee), the Marquis of London-
derry, K.G., Sir Henry Havelock
Allan, Bart., the Mayor of Darlington
(Mr. G. W. Bartlett), the ex-Mayor
(Mr. Edward Manners), Alderman
T. T. Sedgewick, Councillor G. W.
Marshall, the Town Clerk, the
Borough Surveyor, Mr. A. W. F.
Eade, Mr. Christopher Middleton,
Mr. Richard Ord (President of the
Darlington and North Riding Cham-
ber of Agriculture), Mr. Richard C.
Pearce (Secretary of the Chamber),
Mr. F. Raymond Steavenson (Assis-
tant Secretary of the Local Com-
mittee), &c.
Mr. John Dent Dent and Mr. S.
Rowlandson, members of the
Council, also accompanied the depu-
tation.
Lord Barnard said he appeared
in his capacity as Chairman of the
Committee which had been formed in
the neighbourhood of Darlington for
the purpose of inviting the “ Royal ”
Society to hold its annual Country
Meeting of 1895 in that town. The
county of Durham itself was justly
celebrated in more than one way, and
the North Riding of York, which was
a purely agricultural district on the
other side of the Tees, was within
two or three miles of the borough
of Darlington. Cotherstone cheeses,
Wensleydale cheeses, the famous
breed of Clydesdale horses, and
latterly the Wensleydale sheep, were
amongst the agricultural specialties
of the district. The ground which
they had had the privilege of showing
to their friends on the Inspection
Committee was, perhaps, not an ideal
one, but he remembered perfectly
well what Sir Jacob Wilson said in
the showyard last year, that an abso-
lutely ideal ground was impossible.
In point of beauty, and other advan-
tages, it might be favourably com-
pared with ground to be found in
almost any other locality. The town
of Darlington itself was one of the
most important industrial centres of
England. He said that not out of
hostility to other towns, but simply
because they thought that the town
of Darlington and the neighbourhood
around it merited their attention. It
had this advantage over other towns,
that it was, perhaps, the most central
place in the district in point of rail-
way accommodation and in point of
ease of access to other parts, of
England, and particularly by the
North-Eastern line to the counties of
Northumberland, Cumberland, and
Westmoreland. Referring again to
the ground, the only difficulty was
that a footpath ran across it ; but
they had every reason to believe that
steps could be taken for diverting
that footpath temporarily during the
show, as was the case at the Cam-
bridge Meeting of the present year.
They had the support not only of the
large landowners and of the farmers,
who were an important class both in
numbers and position in the locality,
but they also had the most hearty
support and assistance from the
authorities and inhabitants of the
borough itself. The Mayor would
put before the meeting the claims
and advantages which the borough
afforded. The President of the Dar-
lington Chamber of Agriculture (one
of the most useful bodies in the
neighbourhood) would say a few
Xxiv
Monthly Council, February 7, 1894.
words on behalf of the agriculture
of the district, and the Marquis of
Londonderry would represent the
general claims of the district to their
favourable attention.
The Mayor of Darlinoton (Mr.
G. W. Bartlett) said that the inhabi-
tants of the borough had entered
very cordially into the proposal, and
that a sum of upwards of 6,000Z. had
been definitely subscribed to defray
the expenses. The various agricul-
tural societies throughout the county
of Durham, Chambers of Agriculture,
and other public bodies had by reso-
lution offered their hearty co-opera-
tion to assist in securing that complete
success in the town of Darlington and
the county of Durham which they
all desired. Representing the Town
Council as well as the town of Dar-
lington, he tendered to them a very cor-
dial invitation to hold their Country
Meeting of 1895 at Darlington. It
would perhaps save time and be more
agreeable if he allowed the memorial
to speak for itself, merely adding one
or two remarks as to essential points.
As they were well aware, the centres
they visited should be sufficiently
populous. So far as the county of
Durham was concerned, within the
limits of the county, and within a
distance of thirty miles from Darling-
ton; there was a population of
1.000. 000, not including the large
industrial populations of Middles-
brough, Cleveland, and the mining
districts. Then he might say that the
county of Durham was really the
most densely populated in England,
with the exception of Middlesex and
Lancashire. Within fifteen miles of
Darlington there was a population of
260.000. The county contained many
thickly populated towns, such as the
following: Stockton and Thornaby,
60,000 ; Hartlepool and West
Hartlepool, 70,000 ; Sunderland,
120,000 ; Gateshead, 100,000 ; South
Shields and Tyne Dock, 100,000 ; and
Middlesbrough, 100,000 ; so that
within easy reach of Darlington there
was ample population to justify the
holding of the show in that particular
district. With respect to the position,
he thought that if they came to the
county of Durham at all, it would be
natural that they should come to the
town of Darlington, as the largest and
most important agricultural centre.
Its railway accommodation was quite
exceptional. There were two stations,
and Bank Top Station was one of the
largest stations out of London. At
Darlington there converged the
various lines throughout the North
of England from the agricultural
centres, as well as from the
commercial centres. There was
ample accommodation at both sta-
tions, which were not more than two
miles from the suggested site of the
show. There were most excellent
roads leading to the show-ground.
As to accommodation, the North
country was noted for its hospitality,
and they did not intend to forfeit
their reputation in that respect if
the Society should favour them with
a visit. Within the borough nearly
3,000 persons could be accommo-
dated, and outside there were many
pleasant summer resorts, such as
Saltburn, Redcar, Barnard Castle, and
Richmond, so that they could ac-
commodate very easily at least 10,000
people, and more if necessary. As
concerning the site, the report of the
Inspection Committee would be of
more service than any words that he
could add. The Hummersknott site
consisted of 1 00 acres of well-drained
land, near to the town, and within
almost a stone’s-throw of the villa
residences stretching out in that
direction. It was less than two
miles from the railway station ; and
an excellent turnpike road, which
ran the whole distance alongside the
site, would be another advantage.
He would like to add that they would
feel it as an honour conferred upon
the town if the Society accepted their
invitation. Their leading idea was
clearly set forth in the concluding
paragraph of their memorial: —
That your memorialists, feeling that the
primary aim of your Society is the advance-
ment of agriculture in every part of Eng-
land, and that by breaking new ground the
Society arouses enthusiasm amongst all
classes, encouraging agriculturists to dis-
card old methods and adopt modern im-
provements, and having in the foregoing
shown the vastness of the agricultural and
commercial industries of the district, its
unsurpassed facilities of transit, and the
capability and willingness to fittingly ac-
commodate visitors to your show, trust yon
will find it consistent with the great inter-
ests confided to your charge to accede to the
prayer of this memorial.
Country Meeting of 1895.
xxv
Mr. Richard ORd (President of
the Darlington Chamber of Agri-
culture) said that in the first place
he had received a letter from the
Marquis of Zetland, who regretted
his inability to be present as a re-
presentative of that Chamber. He
appeared himself as President and a
representative of the Darlington,
South Durham, and North Yorkshire
Chamber of Agriculture, which was a
fairly influential and flourishing
Chamber, consisting of some 400 or
500 members, a large number of
whom took part in their monthly
deliberations, and who were interested
in all the leading agricultural topics
of the day. Everyone would hail with
the liveliest satisfaction the advent
to the town of Darlington of the
Royal Agricultural Society. He
remembered that upon at least three
occasions names had been appended
to the subscription list, in the event
of the Society paying them a visit,
but they had never had to sign any
cheques. At the present time every-
one was ready to put his hand in his
pocket, and to part with his money
like a man, in the hope of welcoming
the Royal Agricultural Society. It
was, of course, absolutely impossible
to prognosticate the success of a show,
because so much depended upon the
weather ; but this he could say, that,
be the weather fair or foul, they
would receive at the hands of the
people of Darlington and neighbour-
hood a reception equal to any that
had been accorded to any Meeting of
the Society in any other town of
England. He ventured to hope that
should, the Society accede to their
request, and bring the Royal Show to
Darlington in 1895, in future the
county of Durham would be known
and celebrated for the success of its
Royal Show, for the extraordinary
excellence of its exhibits, and above
all for the manly warmth and open-
heartedness with which it welcomed
the President, the Council, and the
members of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England. (Hear, hear.)
The Marquis of Londonderry
cordially supported the invitation.
He reminded them that the county
of Durham and the town of Darling-
ton had invited the Society upon
previous occasions, and one of the
chief reasons why they had not then
been successful was that their hotel
accommodation had not been con-
sidered sufficient. That was now
altered. They had at least two
excellent hotels, and he believed that
ample arrangements could be made
for the housing of both people and
animals which would give every
satisfaction. He could assure them
that the North-Eastern Railway
would carry out the arrangements in
the same perfect manner as at
Newcastle. That company, as they
knew, had the monopoly of the North
of England, and he rejoiced in the
fact. If all other companies served
their districts in the same way as
the North-Eastern served him, they
would be very fortunate people. He
simply mentioned this to show that
the Society would be served at
Darlington by one of the best
companies in the world in a manner
which they had every right to expect.
If they saw their way to visit the
town of Darlington in 1895 they
would never regret the decision at
which they arrived.
Mr. Dent said it was not often
that the gigantic company of the
North-Eastern Railway received such
a compliment as that which had
fallen from Lord Londonderry. He
merely rose to say that when the
Society’s show was held at Newcastle
in 1887, and at York in 1883, the
arrangements made were, he believed,
quite satisfactory both to that
Council and to the exhibitors. Dar-
lington was the cradle of the North-
Eastern Company, and it would be
their special endeavour — as far as
the Company could do so — to make
the show there a success. The
Council might rely upon it that the
North-Eastern would do the best
they could to make everything go off
pleasantly and satisfactorily.
The President then said that, on
behalf of the Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society, he had to
tender to the deputation their best
thanks for the invitation which they
had given to the Society to visit
Darlington next year. Under ordi-
nary circumstances, it would have
been his duty to ask the depu-
tation to retire, in order that the
Council might deliberate on the
XXVI
Monthly Council, February 7, 1894.
invitation ; but on that occasion he
was authorised by the Council to
state that the report of the Com-
mittee of Inspection was so satisfac-
tory, and the requirements of the
Society were so completely met, that
they were prepared at once to accept
the invitation which they had been
good enough to offer. The Council
desired him to express their sincere
thanks to the local representatives
who had attended there that day for
the information which they had
given to the Council, and for the
arrangements which they were pre-
pared to make for the reception of
the Society next year. The formal
resolution of the Council accepting
the invitation had still to be passed,
and would be communicated to the
Local Committee in due course, to-
gether with the draft of the formal
agreement between the Corporation
of Darlington and the Society. He
had only once more to thank them
for the invitation which they had
given, and to express the pleasure
which the Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society felt in being
able to accept that invitation.
Lord Barnakd said that before
they left the room he must ask his
Grace and the Council to accept
their sincere thanks for the courtesy
with which they had been received,
and for the gratifying announcement
which had been made. The news,
as soon as it reached Darlington,
would be received with acclamation,
and it would stir up the people of
the locality to spare no effort to
make the show a perfect success.
The Mayor of Darlington said
that they appreciated very highly
the honour which the Society would
confer upon them, and he was sure
that they would endeavour, both in
the town and in the district, to show
their appreciation by heartily co-
operating in the endeavour to make
the show a success.
The deputation having retired,
Sir Matthew Ridley, M.P.,
said he had great pleasure in moving
the following resolution : “ That the
Country Meeting of 1895 be held at
Darlington, upon the Hummersknott
site, subject to the usual agreement be-
ing entered into with the Society by the
Mayor and Corporation of Darlington.”
He had all the more pleasure
in moving that resolution because
he had himself taken part on
former occasions when competitive
towns were desirous of the honour of
receiving the Royal Society. He
remembered that upon the former
occasion there was not much accom-
modation in Darlington for the
reception of visitors. Now that had
been remedied, and the hotel accom-
modation was improved. Not only
in Darlington, but also in the Nor-
thern counties of the district, the
Society’s visit would give the greatest
satisfaction.
Mr. Scabth, in seconding the
motion, said that the intelligence
would be received at Darlington by
all classes with the very greatest
satisfaction. It was a large agri-
cultural district with a variety of
occupations, and the Society's visit
had been looked forward to for many
years as likely to prove of great
benefit and give great pleasure to the
locality.
The President then put the
motion, which was unanimously
adopted.
The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted, as below : —
Finance.
Sir Nigel Kingscote reported his
election as Chairman of the year.
The accounts for the month ended
December 30, 1893, as certified by
the Society’s Accountants, showed
total receipts amounting to 1,5377.
14s. Id., and expenditure amounting
to 3,211?. 13s. Id. The actual balance
at the bankers’ on December 30, 1893,
allowing for cheques outstanding, was
335?. 10,?. 8 d. The accounts for the
month ended January 31, 1894, which
were also presented, showed total
receipts amounting to 6,712?. 16*. 9 d.,
and expenditure amounting to 638?.
15.?. Id. The balance at the bankers
on January 31, 1894, allowing for
cheques outstanding, was 6,4097.
11.?. 8d. Accounts amounting in all
to 5 707. 0*. 6d. had been passed, and
were recommended for payment. The
quarterly statement of subscrip-
tions, arrears, and property as at
December 30, 1893, and a tabular
XXVll
Reports of Committees.
statement of subscriptions received
month by month during the last ten
years, were laid upon the table.
House.
Sir Nigel Kingscote also reported
his election as Chairman of the House
Committee for the year. The Com-
mittee had discussed and settled
various matters connected with
the Society’s present premises and
their new quarters at Harewood
House, the interior decoration of
which was about to be commenced.
The Committee had the pleasure
to announce that, in addition to the
sums already reported to the General
Meeting held last December, a dona-
tion of 2 ol. had been generously
made by Mr. T. J. Mann, of Saw-
bridgeworth, towards the fund for
the acquisition of Harewood House
by the Society. The sincere thanks
of the Council were due to Mr. Mann
for this acceptable gift, and he (Sir
Nigel) trusted that others who were
in a position to do so would follow so
excellent an example. (Hear, hear.)
Journal.
Earl Cathcabt reported his elec-
tion as Chairman for the ensuing
year. The Committee had the plea-
sure to report the following donations
to the Society’s library, and to re-
commend that the best thanks of the
Council be given to the donors : —
Reyuolde Scot’s “ Perfite Platforme of a
Hoppe Garden,” 1576, and Hawes’ “ Obser-
rations on Agriculture,” 1783.— Presented by
Mr. Charles Whitehead.
Thomas Tusser’s “Five Hundred Points
of Good Husbandry,” London, 1614. — Pre-
sented by Mr. E. IV. Stanyforth .
Olivier de Serres’ “Theatre d' Agriculture
et Mesnage des Champs,” two vols., Paris
1804-5. — Presented by the Sociiti Rationale
<l' Agriculture de France.
Transactions of the English Arboricultural
Society, Tols. I. and II. — Presented by the
Society.
The courtesy of the French Society
had been reciprocated by the gift of
a number of volumes of the Journal
which were wanting to complete the
set in that Society’s library. Instruc-
tions had been given to the Editor
as to the contents of the1 March
Journal, and various suggestions for
articles and notes had been con-
sidered. The next number of the
Journal would contain a biography
of Robert Bakewell ; and the thanks
of the Council were due to a member
of the family, Mr. J. S. Bakewell, for
his courtesy in placing at the disposal
of the Society, for the purpose of
illustrating this article, a painting-
representing Robert Bakewell on
horseback, now in his possession.
Donations to the Library.
Earl Cathcabt said that, as the
Council would have heard from the
minutes, the Journal Committee had
received during the recess several
valuable gifts of old agricultural
books. There were, however, a great
many gaps in the Society’s collection
of historical works on Agriculture
which the Committee would like to
see filled, and as there would be
plenty of shelf space in their new
house, he trusted that members of the
Council, and of the Society generally,
would be so good as to send to the
Secretary any surplus agricultural
books which they might possess, in
order that the library might be made
worthy of the Society.
Chemical.
Mr. Dent reported the election of
Viscount Emlyn as Chairman of the
year. The report of the Woburn
Sub-Committee had been received
and adopted. The revised Guide as
to the Purchase of Fertilisers and
Feeding Stuffs, and Instructions for
Selecting and Sending Samples for
Analysis, prepared in view of the Act
of last year, had been printed in the
current number of the Journal, and
had been extensively circulated
amongst members in a separate form.
Dr. V oelcker had reported that, so far
as the experience of the single month
of January went, the new Act had not
yet made any material difference to
the chemical work of the Society. In
several cases members, when sending
samples to the Society’s laboratory, had
enclosed the invoices given to them,
and had asked whether the deliveries
were in accordance with the state-
ments given on the invoice, or
whether the invoices were in the
proper form laid down by the Act.
In two cases deficiencies, or breach
of warranty, had been noted, but
xxviii
Monthly Council , February 7, 1894.
nothing had yet been heard as to
further steps being taken. It would
appear, from the information given,
that the Act had had a good effect,
so far as the purchaser was concerned,
of insuring that he was provided with
an invoice. The terms of the invoices
had not always been in accordance
with the standard adopted by the
Society, but had practically been
invoices satisfying the Act. It was
abundantly clear, however, that the
order forms issued by the Society
were used to a considerable extent,
and would be still more extensively
adopted, many requests having been
made through the office for copies of
them, and of the revised guide.
The Committee recommended that
separate mention of basic slag (with
a fee for analysis of 10*.) be made
in the schedule of fees, and that on
the back of the order form the fol-
lowing be added
Basic slag to be guaranteed to contain a
certain percentage of phosphoric acid [a
good quality contains 15 to 17 percent, of
phosphoric acid], and to be sufficiently
finely ground that 70 to 90 per cent, passes
through a sieve having 10,000 meshes to the
square inch.
Seed and Plant Diseases.
Mr. Bowen- Jones reported that
Mr. Whitehead had been elected
Chairman of the year. The Commit-
tee had discussed at some length a
variety of interesting points in con-
nection with the inquiry into “ Fin-
ger and Toe ” in turnips, which was
still proceeding. They were indebted
to the Duke of Richmond and Gordon
for valuable information received
from his Grace’s tenants in Scotland,
in the form of answers to the Society’s
Schedule of Questions, and to Mr.
Wrn. Dawson, of the Duke’s Home
Farm, Gordon Castle, for an exhaus-
tive report and observations thereon.
The information thus obtained would
be incorporated in the general report
to be hereafter written for the Jour-
nal.
A New Forage Plant.
Mr. Bowen- Jones said that Lord
Moreton had asked him to state with
regard to a new forage plant called
Polygonum Sakhnlinense, which had
been brought to the notice of the
Committee, that he had already
grown some in his grounds as an
ornamental plant, and that he was
willing to extend its cultivation with
a view to see whether stock would
eat it. Lord Moreton thought that it
would be well if other members of the
Council who had the plant in their
grounds would do the same. There
were two other kinds of the plant
which were not of Such large growth.
This was the giant variety ; the
others were smaller. The plant was
of the same family as buckwheat, and
it was thought desirable to see if it
were of any value as a forage plant.
Veterinary.
Mr. Dent reported the election of
Sir John Thorold as Chairman of the
year, and the addition of Professor
Axe to the Committee. A letter had
been read from the Board of Agri-
culture stating that as the demands
of the Public Departments for the
year 1894-5 were exceptionally
heavy, the Lords of the Treasury
regretted that they were unable to
sanction the necessary financial pro-
vision for the inquiry into the subject
of abortion in cattle suggested by the
Council of the Royal Agricultural
Society. In these circumstances, the
Committee were of opinion that it
was desirable that an inquiry into
this disorder should be undertaken
by the Society itself, and they
accordingly recommended that a
Committee of Inquiry be appointed
for this purpose, such Committee to
be empowered to collect evidence
from stock-breeders and from
veterinary surgeons, both by the
issue of circulars of inquiry and by
the calling of witnesses, and to be
instructed to report as to the
advisability of experiments with
breeding animals being undertaken
by the Society. In the event of these
proposals being adopted by the
Council, the Committee recom-
mended that the Special Committee
be constituted as follows : — Sir John
Thorold, Hon. C. T. Parker, Sir
Nigel Kingscote, Colonel Curtis-Hay-
ward, Mr. Garrett Taylor, Professor
Brown, Professor Axe, Professor
McFadyean, and Dr. Sims Woodhead,
with power to add to their number.
XXIX
Abortion in Cattle.
Professor Brown had presented the
following report : —
Pleuropneumonia. — Xo case of this dis-
ease has been discovered in this country
since the early part of November. During
the past year there were 9 fresh out-
breaks in 5 counties; 30 diseased cattle
and 1,157 healthy ones which had .been ex-
posed to the risk of infection were slaugh-
tered by order of the Board of Agriculture,
in addition to 86 suspected cattle, which, on
post-mortem examination were found free
from the disease.
Swine Fever. — From November 1 up to
January 27, 1,645 pigs died from this disease
in Great Britain ; 9,607 were slaughtered
by order of the Board of Agriculture as
diseased, or having been exposed to infec-
tion, and 152 suspected were slaughtered,
but found, on post mortem examination, to
be free from the disease.
Anthrax.— Returns of this disease were
received from 68 counties in Great Britain
last year, as compared with 60 in 1892, 50 in
1891, and 48 in 1890. The increase in the
number of outbreaks of anthrax, which
began early last year and continued through-
out the year, is still going on. In the four
weeks ended January 27 there were 56
fresh outbreaks reported and 115 animals
attacked, as compared with 35 outbreaks
and 92 animals attacked in the correspond-
ing four weeks of 1893.
Rabies. — This disease has now for some
time been on the increase. During the past
year there were 93 cases, as compared with
40 in 1892. In the first four weeks of the
present year there have been 13 cases, as
compared with 9 in the corresponding
period of last year.
Outbreak on Loud Middleton's Es-
tate.— On December 23 last a request to
investigate an outbreak of disease on a farm
belonging to Lord Middleton was addressed
to the College. The Secretary of the College
replied that Professor McFadyean doubted
whether it would be possible to determine
the nature of the disease before another
animal was attacked, but that he would
visit the farm before that if it was thought
desirable. Since that date Professor McFad-
yean has been in correspondence with Mr.
Wright, Lord Middleton’s agent, and it has
been arranged that he (Professor McFad-
yean) shall visit the farm on Thursday
next. No fresh cases have occurred in the
interval.
Investigations. — Since the last meeting
of the Veterinary Committee investigations
for the members of the Royal Agricultural
Society have been made regarding the follow-
ing diseases Mineral poisoning in cattle,
parasitic enteritis in cattle, braxy in sheep,
anthrax in horses and cattle, and diarrhoea
in calves, which will be referred to in detail
in the Annual Report of the Royal Veterinary
College.
Abortion in Cattle.
Mr. Bent said that as the Treasury
were unwilliDg to provide funds for
an investigation by the Government
into the causes of abortion in cows,
the Veterinary Committtee, beiDg
unanimously of the opinion that such
an inquiry was urgently necessary in
the general interests of stock-owners,
had resolved to ask authority from
the Council for the Society itself
undertaking an investigation on its
own account. Following the prece-
dent of 1876, when the Chemical
Committee collected some very valu-
able information on the subject of
the manurial value of cakes and
other feeding-stuffs, by means of
evidence given verbally before it by
experts, it was proposed that the
Special Committee to be appointed
should take evidence from veterina-
rians and stock-owners, and en-
deavour in this way to ascertain the
lines for further inquiry. What they
now proposed would involve but
little expense, and if the Special
Committee should find it necessary
later on to ask for a grant of money
for exact scientific investigations
into the matter, he hoped the Council
might see its way to vote a sum for
the purpose. At present, however,
they only asked for authority to the
Committee to take evidence, and to
issue, as a preliminary, circular
letters of inquiry to those who were
likely to be able to afford useful
information. The Committee would
be much obliged to any member of
the Society who would kindly give
information himself, and suggest the
names of other stock-owners to
whom the circular might usefully be
sent. The questions to which an-
swers were desired were as follows :
Questions.
1. During what years have you had experi-
ence of abortion among your cows ?
2. What was the total number of cows
kept and the number that aborted in each
year ?
3. At what mouth of gestation did most
cases occur ?
4. Did abortion occur among cows at grass
as well as among those housed ?
5. What was the nature of the diet of the
cows during the winter mouths ?
6. Was it observed that the cows that
aborted stood near each other in the byre ?
7. What was generally done with the cows
that aborted— were they sold or again put to
the bull ?
8. Have you observed repeated abortion in
the same cow ?
9. Have you formed any opinion regard-
ing the following as possible causes of the
abortion in your stock ; —
Fright or accidental injury, '
Ergot in grass or hay,
Errors in feeding,
Contagion ?
XXX
Monthly Council, February 7, 1891.
10. Have you observed that cows served by
a particular bull were specially liable to
abortion ?
11. Have you had any experience of abor-
tion in mares or ewes ?
12. Have you tried the preventive mea-
sures recommended in the Society’s Journal
(Vol. II., 1891, page 739), or any other
method of treatment ? and, if so, with what
result ?
13. Would you be willing to allow any ex-
perimental treatment to be adopted in your
herd ?
14. Any general observations likely to
prove useful for the purposes of the inquiry.
The Veterinary Department of the
Board of Agriculture.
Mr. Dent said he desired to say a
few words with reference to the
reports as to the contagious diseases
of animals which they had been
accustomed to receive regularly
fromthe Board of Agriculture, through
Professor Brown. The Veterinary
Committee of the Council were in-
debted to Professor Brown for the
great care which he had always
exhibited in connection with these
reports ; and the kindly relations
which had always existed between
the Committee and the Veterinary
Department were a source of great
satisfaction. There were rumours
that an alteration was about to be
made in that Department, and it was
uncertain at the present moment
whether Professor Brown was still at
the head of that Department, or what
was his exact position. It was not,
however, their business to express
opinions, or to make statements to
the Departments of the Government
as to whom they should appoint, or
how they should fill up vacancies in
their offices. He had only to say on
the part of the Veterinary Committee,
and he was sure on the part of the
Council, that they sincerely trusted
that a gentleman of equal profes-
sional eminence, and with the same
kindly and judicious manner as had
characterised Professor Brown, would
be appointed to the vacancy. He
hoped and trusted that they might
find that to be the case, and that the
relations of the Veterinary Committee
with the Board of Agriculture might
be as cordial in the future as they
had been in the past.
The Duke of Richmond and Gor-
don said that, beiDg deeply concerned
in the welfare of agriculture, he took
the very greatest interest in the
Veterinary Department of the Board
of Agriculture, partly, perhaps, because
he had had the satisfaction of placing
that Department upon its present foot-
ing when he was Lord President of the
Privy Council about the year 1878.
And having appointed Professor
Brown, Mr. Cope, and Mr. Duguid to
their present offices, he should like to
take that public opportunity of ex-
pressing his thanks tj those three
gentlemen for the very admirable
manner in which, since that time and
up to now, they had carried out the
duties of the Department. The agri-
culturists of the country were deeply
indebted to them. Those duties bad
been carried out in a remarkably able
and zealous manner, and he should
be very sorry if, in any change which
took place, the administration of the
Department should be varied from
that which had existed so loDg.
Mainly owing to the exertions of that
Department and of those who had
been at the head of it, cattle plague
had been stamped out, pleuro-pneu-
monia (as they had just heard in the
report of the Veterinary Committee)
no longer existed in this country, and
foot-and-mouth disease had been
entirely eradicated. (Cheers.) It
seemed to him that it was absolutely
essential that the Veterinary Depart-
ment should continue to be officered
in the same manner as in the past.
Mr. Dent had stated that it was no
business of theirs to dictate to the
Board of Agriculture what they should
do ; but, at the same time, he (the
Duke) thought that, as practical agri-
culturists, they might express their
opinion upon this very important
subject, and in a manner which, he
hoped, might reach the ears of the
President of the Board of Agriculture.
Professor Brown's impending retire-
ment, under the rules of the public
service, had been known to that
Department since the beginning of
last year, but they had not yet heard
of any person being appointed as his
successor. Up to the present time
there had been three professional
officers at the head of the Veterinary
Department, organising the work, and
having their time fully occupied with
their public duties. Professor Brgwn
having ceased his connection with
Report of Stock Prizes Committee.
XXXI
the Board of Agriculture, the Veteri-
nary Department was left with only
two gentlemen, most eminent in their
profession, Mr. Cope and Mr. Duguid,
who were now doing, or attempting
to do — he felt sure most conscien-
tiously— the work which had formerly
been done by three. The cattle
plague in 1877 was stamped out with
an expenditure of 7,0007. after the
Veterinary Department had been
established on its present footing.
In the previous epidemic, when the
Department was less highly organised,
the “ stamping out ” process had cost
some millions of money. It was not,
therefore, a very exaggerated state-
ment to make that, as a consequence
of the Veterinary Department being
equal to the task of dealing with these
terrible diseases, the country had
been a great gainer from a monetary
point of view. He asked whether
that was the time when the Veterinary
Department ought to be weakened.
On the contrary, he thought it ought
to be strengthened. They knew at that
moment, from the public piints, and
from the report of the Veterinary Com-
mittee, that there was a considerable
amount of swine fever in this country,
and that a praiseworthy attempt was
being made by the Board of Agri-
culture to get rid of that disease. It
was also well known that, in order to
arrive at a conclusion as to the best
means of eradicating swine fever, an
enormous quantity of post-mortem
examinations were necessary. He
therefore ventured to suggest that
this was not the time when the
Veterinary Department should be
weakened. Supposing that there
were only two professional gentlemen
left to do the work of the Department,
and that there were a sudden out-
break of disease, a breakdown of the
machinery might occur, with serious
consequences to the community at
large. He thought that it would
not be at all satisfactory to the
agriculturists of this country unless
to succeed Professor Brown an ap-
pointment was made without delay
of a gentleman, as eminent in the vete-
rinary profession as could be found,
to occupy the position that had been
filled by Professor Brown with so
much credit to himself and such ad-
vantage to the country. (Hear, hear.)
Professor Brown said he should be
glad to be permitted to express his
personal satisfaction at the very kind
remarks which his Grace the Duke
of Richmond and Gordon and Mr.
Dent had made as to the Veteri-
nary officers and the Veterinary
Department. In 1878 the Duke of
Richmond had reorganised the De-
partment which then existed, and
appointed himself and his colleagues,
who had worked with him long
before that time, and since. His
colleagues would be very greatly
gratified when he reported to them
what he had heard that day in their
favour. So far as the question of his
retirement and the future arrange-
ments of the Veterinary Department
were concerned, it could not be desir-
able that he should say anything
more than this, which he was autho-
rised to say, viz., that the whole
question of his retirement and of his
future connection -with the Board of
Agriculture was under consideration.
His chief object in rising now was to
thank the Council very heartily on
behalf of his colleagues and himself
for the very cordial way in which
they had expressed their appreciation
of their services.
Stock Prizes.
Mr. Sanday reported his election
as Chairman of the year. The first-
prize animal in Class 51 at the Ches-
ter Meeting (Mr. Robert Thompson’s
Shorthorn heifer “ Margaretta Milli-
cent ”) and the second-prize animal
in Class 80 (Mr. Ellis’s Welsh heifer
“ Tiny ”) having failed to comply
with the Society’s regulations as to
calving, the Committee recommended
that these two animals be disquali-
fied, and the three prizes in Class 54
and the second and third prizes
in Class 80 be awarded as follows : —
Class 54.
No. 577, First Prize of 157. to Edward
Ecroyd for “ Armathwaite Rose ” (Second
Prize).
No. 573, Second Prize of 107. to C. W. Brierley
for “Rosedale Georgie” (Third Prize).
No. 576, Third Prize to David Cooper for
“ Lady Agnes ” (Reserve Number).
Class 80.
No. 795, Second Prize of 107. to W. E.
Oakley for “Eog Myrtle” (Third Prize).
No. 797, Third Prize of 57. to Hon. F. G.
Wynn for “ Glyn Agnes ” (Reserve Number).
XXX11
Monthly Council, February 7, 1894
The following offers of champion
prizes at the Cambridge Meeting had
been received since the last meeting,
and were recommended for accept-
ance : —
1. Four silver cups for the best boar or
sow of the following breeds : Large White,
Middle White, Small White, and Tamworth,
from the National Pig-breeders’ Association.
2. A prize of £10 for the best boar or sow
in the Berkshire pig classes, from the British
Berkshire Society.
It had also been resolved that the
following new regulation be inserted
in the prize-sheet with regard to mares
shown in Classes 32 and 48,“ not with
foal at foot, but stinted in 1894 ” : —
49 a. In the case of a mare entered in Class 32
or Class 48 as having been “ foaled previous
to 1891, not with foal at foot, but stinted in
1894,” a certificate from the owner of the
stallion which has served such mare, stating
that the mare has been served in 1894 before
June 10, must be sent either with the form
of entry or, if it cannot be sent with the
entry, before the first day of the Meeting. If
such certificate be not received by the Secre-
tary before the day appointed for the judg-
ing, the mare will be disqualified from com-
petition.
Various letters and suggestions as
to the composition of the prize-sheet
had been read, and their considera-
tion postponed until the prize-sheet
for 1895 was under discussion.
Judges Selection.
Mr. San DAY (Chairman) reported
that the Committee had selected a
list of judges to be invited to act on
the usual terms at the Cambridge
Meeting in June next for the various
classes of stock, poultry, produce, and
implements (see p. xlii.).
Implement.
Mr. Frankish reported his election
as Chairman of the year. The Com-
mittee recommended that trials of
haymakers, tedders, and kickers — by
horse-power— be held in connection
with the Society’s Meeting of 1895.
A letter had been read from an
intending competitor inquiring the
definition of an oil-engine, and
whether the evaporating apparatus
must be an integral part of the en-
gine, or whether it might be separate
and at a distance from the engine.
The Committee recommended that
the inquirer be referred to Regula-
tion 5 of the Implement Prize Sheet,
and that he be informed that the use
of Russoline oil implies a direct
explosive engine ; but that if an
apparatus can be designed with sepa-
rate evaporator which would compete
with others having direct explosion,
and using Russoline oil, it would not
be excluded from competition.
General Cambridge.
Sir Nigel Kingscote presented
the recommendation of the Committee
that the prices of admission to the
showyard on the several days of the
Meeting should be as follows : —
Saturday, June 23rd, 2s. 6d. ;
Monday, June 25th, 5s. ;
Tuesday and Wednesday, 2s. 6d.
each day ;
Thursday and Friday, Is. each day.
The Local Committee bad submitted
a list of typical farms for inspection
by the Society’s Commissioner, and
the Committee recommended that a
selection of the particular farms to
be visited be left to the Local Com-
mittee in concert with the Secre-
tary.
Showyard Works.
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker re-
ported the election of Sir Jacob Wil-
son as Chairman of the year. The
Surveyor had reported that since the
last meeting of the Committee he
had paid several visits to Cambridge
in connection with the preparation
of the showyard. A large portion of
the site had had to be drained and
levelled, and a number of trees re-
moved. These works were now nearly
completed, and were being carried
out by the Local Committee in a
satisfactory manner. The Surveyor
had submitted plans showing the dis-
tribution of the several refreshment
pavilions in the Cambridge Show-
yard, and also plans of the various
erections, which had been considered
and approved. The Committee had
considered and approved the form of
tender forthesupply of refreshments at
the Cambridge Meeting. As there were
some important changes in the ar-
rangements of the sheds this year,
the Committee recommended that a
lithographed plan of the sheds be
issued with the tender form, and
that the tenders be made returnable
Xxxiii
Reports of Committees.
on Monday, April 2nd. Letters had
been read from Messrs. W. & T. Avery,
offering to lend a cattle weigh-
bridge for use in the stock-yard, and
from Messrs. Pooley & Son, offering
a weighing machine for the fodder-
yard at Cambridge, and the Commit-
tee recommended the acceptance of
these offers. Various letters from
intending exhibitors at Cambridge
had been read, and instructions given
thereon.
Selection.
Earl Cathcart reported his elec-
tion as Chairman of the year. Pro-
fessor Chauveau having expressed
his gratification at being elected an
Honorary Member of the Society, the
Society’s Seal was, on the motion of
Earl Cathcart, seconded by Sir
Nigel Kingscote, ordered to be
affixed to his Diploma.
Education.
Mr. Dugdale reported Lord More-
ton’s election as Chairman for the
year. The examiners in the several
subjects at the Senior Examination,
to be held from the 8th to the 1 2th
May next, had been appointed. An
application for a free grant of a set
of the Society’s Insect Diagrams had
been declined.
Dairy.
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker re-
ported his election as Chairman of
the year. Nineteen entries had been
received in Class 284, for preserved
butter, and the butter was now
stored in a cool cellar at Cambridge
to await the opening of the show. A
suggestion had been offered of de-
monstrations of fattening and dress-
ing poultry at the Cambridge Meet-
ing. The Committee did not see
their way to advise that anything
should be done in that direction
during the present year, but a note
had been made of the matter for
consideration in connection with the
Country Meeting of 1895. Various
details in connection with the dairy
at Cambridge had been discussed
and settled.
Suggestion at General Meetihg.
The Council then proceeded to
consider the following suggestion
made by Surgeon Lieut.-Col. Ince,
M.D., and Mr. G. D. Yeoman at the
General Meeting held on December
7th, 1893 : —
That the Report of the Council to the
General Meeting should be placed in the
hands of members before the day fixed for
the meeting —
and agreed upon the following
reply : —
This is a question which has been fully
considered by the Council upon two previous
occasions, viz., on March 7, 1888, and June 5,
1889. The two General Meetings of the
Society to which printed reports are pre-
sented by the Council are held respectively
on May 22 (the Anniversary General Meet-
ing) and the Thursday of the Smitlifield
week. The Report of the Council to the
May Meeting is usually prepared on the first
Wednesday in May, but cannot be immedi-
ately issued, owing to the necessity for
including in it details of the entries of stock,
poultry, produce, Ac., which have been
made for the ensuing Country Meeting, and
the entries for which do not close until May
12. Of recent years, however, an endeavour
has been made to communicate the Report
as soon as it is complete to the agricultural
papers in time for publication prior to the
meeting, so that members may hare the
opportunity of ascertaining its contents
beforehand. The Report has been so pub-
lished upon several occasions, and this
course will in future be adopted in regard to
the Anniversary Meeting whenever it is
possible.
The December General Meeting is in a
different category altogether, and any alter-
ation of the existing system would dislocate
the whole of the Society’s procedure. The
Report to this meeting is only prepared by
the Council on the day preceding the meet-
ing, when also the final settlement is made
of the prizes for the Country Meeting of the
next year, in accordance with the Standing
Orders of the Society. The various an-
nouncements as to these prizes constitute a
large portion of the Report, and if the
General Meeting were held at a date after
the Smithfield week, the members who are
chiefly interested in this Report would in all
probability be absent.
Copies of each Half-yearly Report are,
however, always available by 11 o’clock upon
the day of the meeting for the use of those
members who are desirous of perusing it iu
anticipation of the meeting at uoon.
Date of Next Meeting.
Various letters and other docu-
ments having been laid upon the
table, and other business transacted,
the Council adjourned until Wednes-
day, March 7th, at noon.
VOL. V. T. S. — 17
C
( xxxiv )
WEDNESDAY, MARCH 7, 1894.
THE DUKE OF RICHMOND AND GORDON, K.G. (TRUSTEE),
IN THE CHAIR.
Present: —
Trustees. — Gen. Viscount Bridport,
G. C.B., Earl Cathcart, Mr. John Dent
Dent, Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote,
K.C.B., Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart.,
Earl of Ravensworth, the Duke of
Richmond and Gordon, K.G., the
Rt. Hon. Sir M. W. Ridley, Bart., M.P.
Vice-Presidents. — Mr. Chandos-
Pole-Gell, Viscount Emlyn, Earl of
Lathom, G.C.B., Sir J. H. Thorold,
Bart.
Other Members of Council. — Mr.
Alfred Ashworth, Mr. J. Bowen-
Jones, Mr. Charles Clay, Mr. F. S. W.
Cornwallis, M.P., Earl of Coventry,
Mr. Percy E. Crutchley, Lieut.-Col.
J. F. Curtis-Hayward, Mr. J. Marshall
Dugdale, Mr. W. Frankish, Mr. Hugh
Gorringe, Mr. Anthony Hamond, Mr.
James Hornsby, Mr. Charles Howard,
Mr. C. S. Mainwaring, Mr. Joseph
Martin, Mr. T. H. Miller, Hon. Cecil
T. Parker, Mr. Albert Pell, Mr. J. E.
Ransome, Mr. G. H. Sanday, Mr.
Henry Smith, Mr. E. W. Stanyforth,
Mr. J. P. Terry, the Duke of West-
minster, K.G., Mr. E. V. V. Wheeler,
Mr. C. W. Wilson.
Professor Brown, C.B.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the
Journal ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
Consulting Chemist; Mr. Wilson
Bennison, Surveyor.
The following members of the
Cambridge Local Committee were also
present: — The Mayor (Mr. E. H.
Parker), Mr. C. F. Cunliife Foster,
Mr. G. Jonas, Rev. E. H. Morgan,
Mr. J. Odell Vinter, the Town Clerk
(Mr. J. E. L. Whitehead), and Mr.
R. Peters (Secretary of the Local
Committee).
Apologies for non-attendance were
received from H.R.H. Prince Chris-
tian, K.G., Sir Jacob Wilson, Mr. J.
H. Arkwright, Mr. Joseph Beach, Mr.
J. A. Caird, Mr. Alfred Darby, Mr. R.
A. Warren, and Mr. Charles White*
head.
In the unavoidable absence of the
President, the Duke of Richmond and
Gordon (Trustee) was, in accord-
ance with Bye-law 28, called to the
chair.
The minutes of the last meeting,
held on February 7, having been ap-
proved,
Death of the “ Father ” of the Society,
the Chairman said it was his pain-
ful duty to announce officially to
the Council the death of the “ Father ”
of the Royal Agricultural Society, Sir
Harry Verney, who died on February
12 last, at the patriarchal age of
ninety-two. Sir Harry had had a
very remarkable career. Born in
1801, he entered the Army in 1819,
and retired so long ago as 1830, having
first served in the 7th Fusiliers, and
afterwards in the Grenadier Guards.
It was a noteworthy fact that, not-
withstanding his great age, he at-
tended the annual regimental dinner
of the Grenadier Guards up to the
time of his death. It was not, how-
ever, his career as a soldier that they
regarded, but his associations with
agriculture as a member and as the
“ Father ” of their Society, and as
one of the most respected specimens-
of an English country gentleman that
this country had produced. Sir Harry
Verney was the last survivor of those
who met together at the Freemasons’'
Tavern on May 9, 1838, to found the
English Agricultural Society. The
presence at that meeting of men so
vai ied in their views as Earl Spencer
(the first President of the Society),
his (the Duke’s) father, who suc-
ceeded Lord Spencer in the Presi-
dency, Lord Portman, Sir Robert
Peel, Sir James Graham, Mr. Shaw-
Lefevre (afterwards Viscount Evers-
ley), Sir Harry Verney, Mr. Handley,
M.P., Mr. Philip Pusey, and others.
Election of New Governors and Memberrs,
xxxv
sufficiently indicated the broad and
comprehensive basis upon which the
new Society was established. Sir
Harry Verney was a member of the
original Committee, and in a sketch
of Earl Spencer, which appeared in
their Journal in March, 1890, Sir
Harry mentioned that “ as the
‘ Father ’ of the Society now that
both Lord E versley and Lord Portman
are dead, I am one of the few links
between the first half-century of its
existence and the inauguration of
what we may venture to hope will be
a second period of still greater use-
fulness, now that the necessity of the
adaptation of science to the workaday
uses of the present is seen to be of
vital importance to our position as a
nation of the world.” He (the Chair-
man) thought that the Council would
unanimously approve of the instruc-
tions given by the President for the
Council to be officially represented at
the funeral by the Secretary of the
Society. He (the Duke) did not think
he need say anything more to com-
mend to them the memory of Sir
Harry Verney, because they were all
well aware of the active part which
Sir Harry had taken in his own
county in all matters connected with
agriculture. (Hear, hear.)
New Governors and Members.
The election of the following two
Governors and sixty-eight members
was then proceeded with : —
Governors.
Houghton, Lord. .Crewe Hall, Crewe.
Strafford, Earl of..Wrotham Park, Barnet.
Members.
AlDEBSON, J. R. . .Low Hills, Castle Eden.
Allen, F. B.. .Ifleld, Crawley.
Ambrose, C. C.. .Swaffham Prior, Cambridge.
Ashford, A.. .Burderop Park, Swindon.
Atkinson, W. H.. .Cangort, Sliinrone, King’s
Co.
Beddoes, T.. .Stottesdon, Cleobury Mortimer.
Bellamy, W. . .Copalder, Doddington, Cambs.
Billing, A. F. . .Bretby, Burton-on-Trent.
Birch, W...Sefton, Seaforth, Liverpool.
Bird, J. B. . . Station Road, Cambridge.
Bishop, A. W.. .Market Place, Cambridge.
Blencowe, A. H.. .R. A. College, Cirencester.
Bouser, J.. .Fotheringay, Oundle.
Brown, R. . .Walton Bank, Stone.
Burgess, W. J.. .Magdalen, Lynn.
Carrick, G.. .Leverington Hall, Wisbecli.
Creasy, A... Great Bentley, Essex.
Crick, C.. .Priestgate, Peterborough.
Crowe, W. . . Hart, Castle Eden.
Dawson, W. M...Sevington, Alresford.
Dickies, T.. .Bushey Grove Farm, Watford.
English, A. W.. .Walsoken, Wisbech.
Francis, Alex... Chatteris, Cambs.
Grain, A. T... Great Slielford, Cambridge.
Grieve, W. A. M...11 Queen’s Gate Ter-
race, S.W.
Griggs, Joseph . . Loughborough.
Hardy, W.. .The Warren Farm, Hartlepool.
Henderson, J. ..Castle Eden Village, co.
Durham.
Heugh, John.. High Coniscliffe, Darlington.
Hull, T. R.. .Jericho, Ingatestone.
Hurrell, II. W... Newton, Cambridge.
Kneen, T...Glencrutchery, Isle of Man.
Lambton, Capt. the Hon. Charles.. Holwell
Stud Farm, Essendon, Herts.
Lane, Thomas W...Holbeach.
MacIlwaine, A. W.. .Stoneferry, Hull.
Maxstead, R. A. . . J ustices, Findingfield, Essex.
Meyer, H. L. . . Bretby, Burton-on-Trent.
Morton, Wm.. .Stow Bardolpli, Downham.
Moulton, C. J. . . Chatteris, Cambs.
Murray, T...Pesspool Hall, Haswell, co.
Durham.
Parker, E. H. . .Benet Street, Cambridge.
Parsons, 0. . . Horseheath, Cambridge.
Parsons, T. W.. .Horseheath, Cambridge.
Peacock, J. W...Hockwold, Brandon.
Peckover, Alex.. .Bank House, Wisbech.
Portsmouth, R.. .Weybrook Farm, Sherborne
St. John, Basingstoke.
Prater, T. H.. .Aberford, Leeds.
Prodiiam, Henry. .Slierburn, Yorks.
Reed, Colonel L. . .Elm, Wisbech.
Richards, T. . . Wimblington, March.
Rorertson, R. D. . . Ro wsham, Aylesbury.
Rowell, Alfred. . Bury, Hunts.
Simpson, J. B. . . Hunmaubv, Yorks.
Snowdon, R. W... Wingate, co. Durham.1
Taylor, A. H...3 Grosvenor Place, Chelten-
ham.
Taylor, E. S.. .Eye Hill House, Soham.
Todd, A. R.. .Denton, Harlestou.
Towxley, Rev. C. F...Fulbourn Manor, Cam-
bridge.
Tyringham, R. W. G. . . Tyringliam, Newport
Pagnell.
Waite, G. H. ..Neap House, Doncaster.
Walker, E. H. H. . .Beamish Park, Chester -le-
Street.
Wallis, Thomas. . Witchford, Ely
Watson, J.. .Stanley, Chester-le-Street.
Wert, Hy...Marmont Priory, Upwell,
Wisbech.
Wiiittome, A.. .Burnt House, Whittlesea.
Wilkerson, E.. .Barley, Royston.
Wilkinson, T.. .Shirebrook, Mansfield.
Wootton, J.. .Denver, Downham.
The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below : —
Finance.
Sir Nigel Kingsoote (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
month ended February 28, 1894, as
certified by the Society’s Account-
ants, showed total receipts amount-
ing to 665?. 3s., and expenditure to
570 1. 2s. 8 d. The balance at the
bankers’ on February 28 last, allow-
ing for cheques outstanding, was
6,504?. 12s. Accounts amounting in
all to 2,811?. 7s. id. had been passed,
c 2
Monthly Council, March 7, 1894.
and were recommended for payment.
The Secretary had submitted to the
Committee the balance-sheet for
1893, which had been ordered to be
laid before the Auditors (see pp. xii.
and xiii.). The Secretary had also sub-
mitted a statement of the amounts
paid out of the Society’s funds in con-
nexion with the preliminary expenses
for the acquisition of Harewood House,
and the Committee recommended that
the total amount — 1,429Z. 2s. Gtl. — be
debited to the ordinary Income and
Expenditure Account of the Society
for 1890.
House.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported various recommendations
from this Committee as to the re-
decoration and furnishing of Hare-
wood House. A letter had been re-
ceived from the Shire Horse Society
accepting the Society's offer to make
over to them the lease of No. 12
Hanover Square, and the Committee
recommended that the details of the
transfer be left in the hands of a
Sub-Committee, to consist of Sir
Nigel ’Kingscote, Sir Matthew Rid-
ley, and the Secretary, with authority
to confer with the Sub-Committee
appointed by the Shire Horse Society.
Journal.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman) re-
ported the acceptance by Mr. Robert
Bruce, of Darlington, of the appoint-
ment as the Society’s Commissioner
to visit and report upon the selected
farms in the district of the Country
Meeting of 1895. A letter had been
received from the Cambridge and
Counties Agricultural Education
Committee, stating that the back
numbers of the Society’s Journal had
been purchased and bound, and ask-
ing if the Council would place the
Committee upon the Society’s free
list for future numbers of the Jour-
nal as issued. The Committee re-
commended that this application be
complied with. A letter had been
read from the Society Nationale
d’Agriculture de France, thanking
the Society for the gift of the back
numbers of its Journal, which had
been forwarded to complete the set
in the French Society’s Library.
The Committee had the pleasure to
report the following donations to the
Society’s Library, and recommended
that the best thanks of the Council
be given to the donors : —
Dr. Dickson’s “ Farmer's Companion ”
(2 vols.), Loudon, 1813; “Farmer's Calen-
dar” (5th edition), London, 1809 ; and
George Johnson’s “ History of English Gar-
dening,” London, 1829. — Presented by Mr.
Charles Whitehead.
Heinrich von Thiinen’s “Systems of Cul-
ture. French translation by Jules Laver-
ri'.Te. Paris, 1851. — Presented by Monsieur
Jules Laver r iire. Librarian of the .Socle! i
Nationale d' Agriculture de France.
A complete set of the Memoirs of the
Rothamsted Experiments (9 vols.).— Pre-
sented by the Board of Agriculture.
The Committee recommended that
in future the address of the author be
printed in small type at the foot of
each article, in addition to the
author’s signature. The Committee
had discussed the final draft of the
contents proposed for the next number
of the Journal, and had given direc-
tions to the Editor thereon. Proofs
of the portrait of Robert Bakewell and
of the illustration of Bakewell’s house
had been submitted and approved. It
was proposed that the next number
should contain a short biographical
notice by the Secretary of the late
Sir Harry Yerney, the “ Father ” of
the Society, accompanied by a wood-
cut representing Sir Harry on horse-
back (see p. 178).
Earl Cathcart said that the
Council were much indebted to the
Board of Agriculture for a beautifully
bound set of the complete Memoirs of
the Rothamsted Experiments. It was
a very graceful return for any services
which the Society might have been
able to render to the Board.
Chemical.
Viscount Emlyn (Chairman) re-
ported, with regard to the experiments
which had been undertaken at the
Society’s Experimental Farm at
Woburn as to the value of linseed oil
as a food for cattle, that it had been
found that the oil supplied in the
form of cake provided a far better food
for cattle than the oil used by itself
Dr. Voelcker had reported that the
number of samples sent to the Labor-
atory during the last quarter had been
3G8, as against 379 for a correspond-
ing period in 1892-93. The experience
of the last month in regard to the
w J
Reports of Committees.
xxxvii
working of the Fertilisers and
Feeding Stuffs Act had been very-
similar to that reported last month.
Two samples had been sent which
were known to have come out below
the guarantee given, but no further
steps appeared to have been taken in
either case. In one case an order had
been given for linseed cake, but when
a sample was submitted the word
“linseed” had been struck out of the
delivery note, and the name “ Dyeff-
kin ” substituted, a label having been
pasted on the note, which had printed
on it, “ We sell this cake as being of
the usual merchantable quality of the
brand named ; exact composition un-
known.” This, of course, supplied no
guarantee whatever.
On the motion of Viscount Emlyn,
the Quarterly Report of the Committee
was adopted, and ordered to be
printed in the next number of the
Society’s Journal (see p. 127).
Seeds and Plant Diseases.
Mr. Ashworth reported that the
Consulting Botanist had dealt with
an inquiry as to the best means of
extirpating ColcMcum, or autumn
crocus, a plant which was poisonous
to cattle. Lord Moreton had men-
tioned that be had succeeded in con-
siderably reducing the growth of
this plant by stabbing it in the
ground whilst in leaf. This plan had
t he effect of starving the roots and so
destroying the plant. An inquiry had
been received as to the presence of
ergot amongst oats to be sown as
seed. The Consulting Botanist had
examined the seed, and had found
that it contained an admixture of rye,
which probably accounted for the
presence of the ergot. Although
ergot had not hitherto been known to
attack oats, there was no reason why
it should not do so, as all gramineous
plants were liable to ergot, and under
the circumstances it would be wiser
not to sow the seed. The Committee
recommended that in future it be
known as the “ Botanical and Zoo-
logical Committee,” instead of the
“ Seeds and Plant. Diseases Com-
mittee,” as it was considered that the
latter title did not adequately indicate
the nature of the subjects with which
it dealt
Veterinary.
Sir John Thorold (Chairman)
reported that the Special Committee
on Abortion in Cattle had met on the
afternoon of Monday, March 5, and
had examined three witnesses. A
considerable number of replies bad
been received to the Society’s circular
letters of inquiry upon the subject,
and these were in the hands of Pro-
fessor Brown for examination and
analysis. The Special Committee
would again meet on Monday, April
2 next, when further witnesses would
be examined. A communication had
been received from the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland, for-
warding copies of a resolution passed
by the Board of Directors on the sub-
ject of the fraudulent sale of foreign
meat, and suggesting that the Society
should take similar action. After some
discussion, it had been resolved to
recommend that the following resolu-
tion of the Highland Society be adop-
ted by the Council and forwarded to
the Board of Agriculture :
That the Council desire to urge upon the
Board of Agricidture the extreme import-
ance of taking immediate steps to prevent
the sale of foreign meat in name and form
of British meat, and, if necessary, of calling
upon the Government to introduce such a
measure as would enable the authorities to
effectually put an end to this fraudulent
practice.
The Examiners in Cattle Pathology
for the Diploma of the Royal College
of Veterinary Surgeons in 1893 had
reported that the following gentlemen,
placed in order of merit, were
entitled to the medals offered by the
Society : —
(1) Mr. H. T. Sawyer, Veterinary-
Lieutenant, A.V.D., care of
Veterinary-ColonelLambert.C.B.,
5, King Street, Westminster, S.W.
(2) Mr. E. T. Thorburn, Morton
House, Frome, Somerset.
The Committee recommended,
therefore, that the Society’s large
medal be given in silver to Mr.
Sawyer, and in bronze to Mr. Thor-
burn.
Professor Brown had presented the
following report
Plecro-pneumoxja. — No ease of this
disease has been discoveied in Great Britain
since the end of last year, but several sus-
pected cases were reported, and 9 of the
suspected cattle were slaughtered, aud found
xxxviii
Monthly Council, March 7, 1894.
m post-mortem examination free from the
disease.
Swine Feteh. — During the first eight
weeks of the present year no less than 954
pigs died from this disease in Griat Britain,
as compared with 738 in the corresponding
period of last year. The number of swine
slaughtered by order of the Board of Agri-
culture as diseased or having been exposed
to the risk of infection since the beginning
of the year has been 7,407, and, in addition
to these, 124 suspected swine were slaught-
ered, but found free from swine fever on
post-mortem examination. These cases of
swine fever were distributed over forty-eight
counties, viz. forty-two in England, five in
Wales, and one in Scotland.
Anthrax. — This disease still continues to
increase. There have been 117 fresh out-
breaks reported in the first eight weeks of
the present year, and 228 animals attacked,
as compared with 71 outbreaks and 200
animals attacked in the corresponding
period of last year. These fresh outbreaks
were distributed over twenty-nine counties
in England, three in Wales and ten in
Scotland.
Glanders and Farcy.— The recently
published returns relating to this disease
show some decrease. There have been 185
fresh outbreaks and 241 horses attacked, as
compared with 247 outbreaks and 442 horses
attacked in the corresponding period of last
year.
Radiks.— There have been 25 cases of
this disease reported in Great Britain in
the eight weeks, as compared with 11 in the
corresponding period of last year. These
cases of the disease occurred in five counties
in England and three in Scotland.
Swine Fever.
In reference to swine fever, two very im-
portant Orders have recently been issued
by the Board of Agriculture, but they have
only been in operation since February 18 : —
(1) No. 5,15G— The Swine Fever (Infected
Areas) Order of 1894, which is in force in
those districts named in Order 5,159. The
effect of this Order is to close all markets
and sales of swine, except for slaughter, and
then only with a licence of the local au-
thority, and to prevent the movement of
swine out of those districts named, without
a licence of the receiving authority, and
then only for immediate slaughter, or for
some special purpose. (2) Order 5,1G1 —
Markets and Fairs (Swine Fever) Order-
closes the markets for swine, except for
slaughter, in those other parts of England
and Wales which are not named in the
Infected Areas Order (5,159), the only dis-
tricts which are not under restrictions
being those named in the schedule to that
Order. The Markets and Fairs (Swine
Fever) Order (5,161) does not apply to
Scotland, as the disease appears to be
mainly confined to the neighbourhood of
Glasgow, around which an infected area has
been declared.
A formal resolution as to the frau-
dulent sale of foreign meat in the
terms proposed by the A'eterinary
Committee was moved by Sir John
Thorold, seconded by Sir Nigel
KiNGSCOTE, and carried unanimously.
Stock Prizes.
Mr. Sanday (Chairman) reported
that a letter had been received from
Mr. Leonard Pilkington, in which he
stated his inability to forward by
March 1st the certificate of calving
of his Ayrshire cow “ Betty,” to which
the second prize in Class 98 at the
Chester Meeting had been awarded,
and the Committee therefore recom-
mended the disqualification of the
cow in question under Kegulation 54,
and the award of the prize to the
reserve number animal, as follows : —
Class 98.
No. 922, Second Prize of £5 to Leonard
Pilkington for “Brown Duchess ” (Reserve
Number).
Judges Selection.
Mr. Sanday also reported that,
with very few exceptions, the gentle-
men nominated to act as judges of
stock, &c., at Cambridge had
accepted the Society’s invitation, and
arrangements had been made for
filling up the vacancies. Letters had
been read from several gentlemen
who had been nominated as judges,
and instructions had been given for
replies thereto. The Committee
recommended that the list of judges
of the several classes of stock,
produce, implements, &c., be pub-
lished in the forthcoming number of
the Journal (see p. xlii).
Implement.
Mr. Frankish (Chairman) re-
ported that the firm of Easton &
Anderson, Ltd., who were appointed
Consulting Engineers to the Society
in November, 1889, having been
amalgamated with a firm of electrical
engineers, under the title of Easton,
Anderson, & Goolden, Limited, the
Committee were of opinion that it
would be more satisfactory if a
definite appointment were made of
one individual as the Society’s Con-
sulting Engineer, to whom all matters
connected with the Society’s engineer-
ing business couhlbe referred, and who
would be personally responsible for the
arrangements at tlicCountry Meetings.
They accordingly recommended that
Mr. F. S. Courtney, C.E., who has for
a number of years had charge of the
Engineer's Department at the
Country Meetings, be appointed Con-
Reports of Committees.
xxxix
suiting Engineer to the Society on the
same terms as Messrs. Easton &
Anderson.
Suggestions for regulations for the
trial of haymakers and tedders in
connection with the Darlington
Meeting of 1895, drawn up by Mr.
Courtney, had been preliminarily con-
sidered, and instructions given for
them to be printed and circulated to
each member of the Committee in
anticipation of the next meeting.
On the motion of Mr. Frankish,
seconded by Mr. Sanday, it was for-
mally resolved that Mr. F. S.
Courtney, C.E., be appointed Consult-
ing Engineer of the Society on the
same terms as Messrs. Easton &
Anderson, Limited, and that he hold
such office during the pleasure of the
Council.
General Cambridge.
Mr. Dent reported that the Cor-
poration of Cambridge had arranged
for the following cab fares to be
charged between the Showyard and
all the railway stations at Cam-
bridge:— Cabs, &c., fare for one per-
son, Is. ; for each additional person,
6d. : Omnibuses, hraltes, &c., 6 d. per
person. The Local Committee had
nominated as agents for the sale of
dairy produce Messrs. Hallack &
Bond, of Market Street, Cambridge.
A request made by the Chairman of
the Chesterton Local Board, on behalf
of the residents of that place (popu-
lation 8,000), for a separate entrance
to the Show by way of the Victoria
Bridge, which, it was represented,
would be a great boon to visitors
coming into Cambridge from the north
side of the county, had been con-
sidered, and, under the special cir-
cumstances, the Committee recom-
mended that this request beacceded to.
Questions arising out of the closing
of some of the paths running through
the Showyard, which the present state
of the works rendered necessary, had
been discussed, and, after hearing the
views of the local representatives, it
had been decided to leave the matter
in the hands of the Honorary Director
for settlement with the Local Com-
mittee. Arrangements had been made
for the holding of a service in the
Showyard on Sunday, June 24, and
the Bishop of Ely had kindly con-
sented to preach the sermon. A letter
had been received from the Master of
Jesus College, offering to place at the
disposal of the Society as many sets
of rooms in the College as might be
required for the stewards and chief
officials during the time of the Show,
and the Committee recommended that
this kind offer be gratefully accepted,
with the best thanks of the Society.
Footpaths across Cambridge
Showyard.
The Hon. C. T. Parker (Honorary
Director) observed that whilst the
Council would naturally be anxious
to consult local convenience as far as
possible with regard to the closirg of
the numerous footpaths that inter-
sected the Showyard, yet he could not
ignore the fact that it was indispens-
able that some at least of the paths
should be closed almost immediately,
and the remainder as soon as the pre-
parations for the Show made it ne-
cessary. He must remind the Council
that the question of the closing of the
footpaths from March 1, 1894, was
made the subject of special inquiry
from the Chair when the deputation
from Cambridge came before the
Council in February, 1893, and definite
assurances were given that there
would be no difficulty in the matter,
and that the Town Council were ready
to take the responsibility of closing
the paths at the time named. A
clause to this effect was accordingly
inserted in the rormal agreement
executed by the Corporation and the
Society as to the holding of the
meeting at Cambridge this year. With
every desire to minimise any local
inconvenience that might arise, he was
bound, as responsible for the orderly
managementand punctual preparation
of the Showyard, to say that it would
not be possible to get the buildings
and shedding erected in time unless
some very considerable limitations
were at once imposed upon the use by
the public of the footpaths across the
common.
It was agreed that the matter should
be left in the hands of the Honorary
Director, to arrange with the Local
Committee in the way best calculated
to meet the convenience of all parties.
xl
Monthly Council, March 7, 1894.
Showyard Works.
The Hon. C. T. Parker said that,
owing to the regrettable and enforced
absence of Sir Jacob Wilson, he had
been voted to the chair at the meet-
ing held on Tuesday. Mr. Bennison
had enclosed the Showyard at Cam-
bridge witli a high fence, and com-
pleted the erection of the offices and
timber-yard. The Local Committee
were laying in the water mains, and
had nearly completed the levelling of
the yard. Promises had been received
from various railway companies of the
loan of sleepers to the Society free of
cost for the purpose of constructing
roads in the yard. The Committee
recommended that the offer of Messrs.
H. J. and C. Major to roof the dairy,
and of the Patent Victoria Stone
Company to pave the dairy, be ac-
cepted on the same conditions as at
the Chester Meeting.
Selection.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman) re-
ported the recommendations of the
Committee (1) that the Earl of Jer-
sey, of Middleton Park, Bicester, be
elected a member of Council in the
room of the late Mr. Allender; (2)
that Mr. S. Rowlandson be elected
Steward of Forage for the Darling-
ton Meeting of 1895 ; (3) that the
Honorary Membership of the Society
be conferred on Prof. G. D. Liveing,
M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistiy
in the University of Cambridge, in
recognition of his distinguished ser-
vices to agriculture.
Earl Cathcart, in formally moving
the election of the Earl of Jersey as a
member of the Council, said it would
be remembered that when he was de-
puted by the Council to communicate
with Lord Jersey as to his retirement
from the Council upon his proceeding
to New South Wales as Governor of
that Colony, he (Lord Cathcart) was
authorised at the same time to say
that they would be very happy to see
him there again on his return to Eng-
land. A vacancy having occurred
through the lamented death of Mr.
Allender, they were now in a position
to ask Lord Jersey to resume his seat
on the Council.
Mr. Dent seconded the motion,
which was unanimously agreed to.
Election of an Honorary Member.
Earl Cathcart, in moving that
Professor Liveing, of Cambridge, be
elected an Honorary Member of the
Society, said that Professor Liveing
was a very eminent man and a very
distinguished chemist, whom the
Society would desire in any case to
honour. As the Society was going to
Cambridge this year, there might
perhaps be appropriateness in his
election taking place now.
Viscount Emlyn, Chairman of the
Chemical Committee, seconded the
motion, which was adopted unani-
mously, and the Society’s Seal was
authorised to be affixed to Prof.
Liveing’s diploma.
Dairy.
The Hon. C. T. Parker (Chair-
man) reported that a letter, dated
February 20, 1894, had been received
from the Great Eastern Railway
Company, stating that at a meeting
of the superintendents of the various
companies, held at the Railway
Clearing House on January 24,
1894, it had been agreed “ that the
companies in whose district the Show
is held will be willing to undertake
the cartage to and from the Showyard
of the annual Meeting of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England of
packages of poultry, and of produce —
butter, &c. — not weighing more than
7 lb., at the rate of 3d. per package
each way, on the understanding that
the charge is paid by the Society.”
It is understood that if at any time
the Showyard should be at an excep-
tional distance from the railway sta-
tion, the amount to be charged will
have to be reconsidered. Various
other matters connected with the
Dairy Department at the Cambridge
Meeting had also been arranged.
Education Life Memberships.
Mr. Pell, in moving, pursuant to
notice, “That the Education Life
Memberships conferred upon the
winners of first-class certificates at
the Society’s Senior Examination be
discontinued after the present year,”
said that he brought forward his
motion some time ago, haviDg regard
to the finances of the Society, and
especially to the fact that the continu-
Reports oj Committees.
xli
ance of the present system would, as
time went on, fill the Society with a
number of Life Members, of whom no
doubt a great many would not be
connected with agriculture, but who
would become a heavy charge upon
the funds of the Society. The
Council were aware that a resolution
had been passed by the Education
Committee, which had the effect of
reducing these Life Memberships to
five per annum. This was a step in
the right direction, seeing that in 1893
no less than fourteen of these Life
Memberships were conferred upon
young men who were successful in the
Senior Examination. They must
recollect that the value to the Society
of the composition money received
from a young man of twenty-five to
thirty years of age was considerably
less than the amount received from
a man of forty to fifty years of age.
All these new Life Members would be
men at the very opening of their
career, and likely, therefore, to claim
the advantages of membership for a
very long time. There was another
point to which he would like to draw
the attention of the Council. The
report made in 1888 by Sir John
Thorold’s Committee showed that a
very large proportion of young men
who attained these distinctions in
agricultural examinations abandoned
agriculture as a profession. It might
therefore be fairly argued that these
Life Members would, to a considerable
degree, have nothing to do in after-
life with the business and science of
agriculture.
Sir Nigel Kingscote said he
seconded the resolution because he
really thought that the prizes offered
were quite sufficient to bring about
the emulation required, and if any
candidate who won a prize seriously
meant to carry out agriculture as his
profestio 1, he could not do better
than spend his prize in paying for a
Life Membership. He really did not
see why the Society should go to this
cost, which had become a very heavy
one. He thought the sum of 551.,
which was at present given annually
in prizes, was quite sufficient, and he
therefore hoped that the Council
would adopt Mr. Pell’s motion.
The resolution was then put and
carried nem. dis.
Rothamsted Jubilee Fund.
The Duke of Westminster said
that it would be within the recollec-
tion of the Council that a Committee
was appointed some time ago to draw
up a scheme for the celebration of the
Jubilee of the Rothamsted Experi-
ments. That scheme was inaugu-
rated by the Prince of Wales in a
speech he made at a meeting which
was convened by him (the Duke) at
the time of his Presidency of that
Society. The large sum of 700 1. had
been collected, and those present at
the commemoration meeting on July
29 last would doubtless agree that
the arrangements made proved satis-
factory to Sir John Lawes and Sir
Henry Gilbert, and to the subscribers
at large. The Committee desired
him as their Chairman to express
thanks to the Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society for their kind-
ness in placing the Council Chamber
and office facilities at the disposal of
the Committee. He wished also to
take the opportunity of saying how
much the Committee were indebted
to the very valuable — as usual —
services of Mr. Clarke as Honorary
Secretary to the fund, and to his staff,
who gave their services most readily
and efficiently. He desired to ask
the permission of the Council for the
records of the fund to be placed in the
custody of the Society, in order that
they might be available for the
inspection of any subscriber to the
fund.
The necessary permission was for-
mally granted.
Country Meeting of 1895.
The Secretary submitted for
approval the agreement proposed to
be entered into between the Corpora-
tion of Darlington and the Society
for the holding of the Country Meet-
ing of 1895 at that place, and the
Society’s Seal was authorised to be
affixed thereto.
Date of Next Meeting.
Various letters and other docu-
ments having been laid upon the
table, the Council adjourned till
Wednesday, April 4th, 1894, at
noon.
( xlii )
LIST OF JUDGES
APPOINTED TO ACT FOR THE
CAMBRIDGE MEETING, JUNE 23 to 29, 1894,
IMPLEMENTS,
Oil Engines. — Classes 1 Sf 2.
Pkofessok D. S. Capper, M.A.,
King’s College, London.
Professor Ewing, M.A., Cambridge.
R. Neville Grenville, Butleigh
Court, Glastonbury.
Spraying Machines. — Classes 3 4' 4.
Charles Whitehead, F.L.S., Harm-
ing House, Maidstone.
Sheep Dipping Apparatus. — Class 5.
J. B. Ellis, West Barsham, Walsing-
liam, Norfolk.
Alfred J. Smith, Rendlesliam,
Woodbridge, Suffolk.
Churns.— Classes 6 <5- 7.
Percy E. Crutchley, Sunninghill
Lodge, Ascot, Berks.
Douglas A. Gilchrist, University
Extension College, Reading.
Miscellaneous Implements
Entered for Silver Medals.
Caleb Barker, Estate Office. Shad-
well, Thetford.
C. Gay Roberts, Celle ids, Hasle-
mere, Surrey.
HORSES,
Hunters. — Classes 1-7.
John Blencowe Cookson, Meldon
Park, Morpeth.
Sir Richard D. Green Price,
Bart., The Poplars, Kingsland,
Shrewsbury.
Cleveland Bays and Coach Horses,
Ponies and Harness Horses and
Ponies.
Classes 8 9 ; 23-26.
George Robson, Shires House,
Easingwold, Yorks.
Romer Williams, 68 Great Cumber-
land Place, W.
Hackneys. — Classes 10-22.
William Case, Tuttington, Aylsham,
Norfolk.
Frank Usher, Middlethorpe, Market
Weighton, Yorks.
Shires and Agricultural.
Classes 27-37 ; 54.
H. G. Bubkitt, Grange Hill, Bishop
Auckland
John Morton, West Rudham Hall,
Swaffham, Noifolk.
Clydesdales. — Classes 38-42.
Robert Craig, Crondon Park, In-
gatestone, Essex.
W. R. Trotter, South Acomb,
Stocksfield-on-Tyne.
Suffolks and Agricultural.
Classes 43-53 ; 55.
D. A. Green, East Donyland, Col-
chester, Essex.
John A. Hempson, Erwarton Hall,
Ipswich.
CATTLE.
Shorthorn. — Classes 56-64.
Charles Howard, Biddenham,
Bedford.
T. H. Hutchinson, The Manor
House, Catterick, Yorks.
Hereford. — Classes 65-71.
R. S. Olver, Trescowe, Washaway,
R.S.O., Cornwall.
Joseph P. Terri, Berry Field,
Aylesbury.
'Devon.— Classes 72-77.
John Jackman, Glanviile Road,
Tavistock, Devon.
Henry Simmons, Bearwood Farm,
Wokingham, Berks.
Sussex. — Classes 78-83.
Pennington Gorringe, Westham,
Hastings.
Alfred Heasman, Court Wick,
Littlehampton.
List of Judges at the Cambridge Meeting.
xliii
Welsh. — Classes 84-88.
H. Ellis, Tairmeibion, Bangor,
North Wales.
J. W. Griffiths, Penally Court,
Penally, South Wales.
Red Polled. — Classes 89-95.
Clare Sewell Read, Honingham
Thorpe, Norwich.
Robert Walker, Altyre, Forres,
N.B.
Aberdeen Angus and Galloway.
Classes 96-103.
James Cranston, Nunwood, Dum-
fries, N.B.
William Robertson, Linkwood,
Elgin, N.B.
Ayrshires, Kerries and Dexters.
Classes 104 % 105; 117-122.
Andrew Allan, North Kirkland,
Dairy, N.B.
Robert McClure, Glenliazel, Ken-
mare, co. Kerry.
Jersey. — Classes 106-111.
William Arkwright, Sutton Scars-
dale, Chesterfield.
James Blyth, Wood House, Stan-
sted, Essex.
Guernsey. — Classes 112-116.
W. A. Glynn, Seagrove, Seaview, Isle
of Wight.
J. W. Moss, Feering, Kelvedon, Essex.
SHEEP.
Leicester. — Classes 125-128.
Benjamin Painter, Burley-on-the-
H ill, Oakham.
Henry Smith, The Grove, Cropwell
Butler, near Nottingham.
Cotswold. — Classes 129-132.
Thomas Brown, Marham Hall,
Downham Market, Norfolk.
T. S. Taylor, Compton Abdale,
R.S.O., Gloucestershire.
Lincoln. —Classes 133-137.
Robert Fisher, Leconfield, Beverley,
Yorks.
J. T. Needham, Great Carlton House,
Louth.
Oxford Down. — Classes 138-142.
J. B. Ellis, West Barsham, Walsing-
ham, Norfolk.
James T. Hobbs, Maisey Hampton,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Shropshire. (Rams.)
Classes 143-145.
T. A. Buttar, Corston, Coupar
Angus, N.B.
J. E. Farmer, Felton, Ludlow,
Salop.
Shropshire. (Ewes.)
Classes 146 147.
Charles Coxon, Elford Park, Tam-
worth.
T. S. Minton, Montford, Shrewsbury.
Southdown. — Classes 148-152.
George Hampton, Findon, Worth-
ing, Sussex.
Hugh Penfold, Selsey, Chichester.
Hampshire Down. — Classes 153-157.
F. P. Brown, Compton, Newbury.
William Newton, Crowmarsh
Battle, Wallingford.
Suffolk. — Classes 158-162.
J. W. Eagle, The Hall, Walton-on-
Naze, Colchester.
G. M. Sexton, Stone Lodge, Ipswich.
Wensleydale. — Classes 163-165.
W. Carr, Langden Holme, White-
well, Clitheroe.
T. Firbanic King, Edgley, Leyburn,
R.S.O., Yorks.
Border Leicester and Kentish or
Romney Marsh
Classes 166-168 ; 172 $ 173.
Thomas Bain, Legars, Kelso, N.B.
J. J. Bowman, Netherby, Carlisle.
Somerset and Dorset Horned.
Classes 169-171.
John Chick, Compton Valence,
Maiden Newton, Dorset.
John Farthing, Yarford, Kingston,
Taunton.
Cheviot, Black-faced Mountain, Lonk,
Herdwick and Welsh Mountain.
Clascs 174-183.
John Ingleby, Austwick, Lan-
caster.
Edward Nelson, Gatesgarth , Cocker-
mouth.
xliv List of Judges at the Cambridge Meeting.
PIGS.
White. — Classes 184-195.
D. R. Baybell, Bottesford, Notting-
ham.
Majoe F. A. Walker-Jones, Queen’s
Park, Chester.
Berkshire and Black.
Classes 196-203.
Heber Humfrey, Shippon, Abing-
don, Berks.
J. A. Smith, Rise Hall, Akenham,
Ipswich.
Tamworth. — Classes 204-207.
E. Burbidge, South Wraxall, Brad-
ford-on-Avon.
C. W. Tindall, Brocklesby Park,
Lincolnshire.
POULTRY.
Classes 208-283.
W. Forrester Addie, Estate Office,
Powis Castle, Welshpool.
O. E. Cresswell, Morney Cross,
Hereford.
J. W. Ludlow, Vauxhall Road,
Birmingham.
; PRODUCE.
Butter and Soft Cheese.
Classes 284-286 ; 292-294.
Professor T. Carroll, Albert
Farm, Glasnevin, Dublin.
Charles Prideaux, Motcombe,
Shaftesbury, Dorset.
Cheese.— Classes 287-291.
George Aldridge, Station Road,
Gloucester.
George Lewis, Ercall Park, Wel-
lington, Salop.
Cider and Perry.— Classes 295-298.
Thomas Maye, Totnes, Devon.
Jams and Fruits.— Classes 299-301.
Charles Whitehead, F.L.S.,
Barming House, Maidstone.
Hives and Honey. — Classes 302-319.
W. B. Carr, Orpington, Kent.
F. J. Cribb, Morton, Gainsborough.
J. M. Hooker, 9, Beaufort Gardens,
London, S.E.
COMPETITIONS.
Butter-making.
Professor T. Carroll, Albert Farm,
Glasnevin, Dublin.
Charles Prideaux, Motcombe,
Shaftesbury, Dorset.
Horse-shoeing.
Henry G. Lepper, M.R.C.V.S.,
Aylesbury.
Clement Stephenson, F.R.C.Y.S.,
Sandyford Villa, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
OFFICIAL REPORTER.
W. Frfam, B.Sc., LL.D., 12 Hanover Square, London, W.
CAMBRIDGE MEETING, 1894: CLOSING OF ENTRIES.
Exhibitors are reminded that the last day for entries of Stock, Poultry,
and Produce at the Cambridge Meeting is Tuesday, May 1st, 1894. Post
Entries may be tendered up to Saturday, May 12th, 1894, on payment of
extra fees ; but the acceptance of such Post Entries is dependent upon space
being available for them.
In applying for the necessary printed forms of Certificate, intending
exhibitors are requested to state the number of the Class, and how many
entries they wish to make in such Class, as each entry (except of Poultry)
requires a separate Certificate.
The Society's Registered Telegraphic address is “PRACTICE, LONDON.”
Replies by telegraph cannot be sent unless paid for in advance, and cannct
be guaranteed in any case.
( xlv )
PRINCIPAL ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY
DURING THE YEAR 1893.
[The name of the Donor, or the mode of acquisition , appears in Italics
after the title of each ivork.']
Airman, C. M., Farmyard Manure : its Nature, Composition, and Treatment.
8vo. Edinburgh and London, 1892 Author
Boswell, Peter, The. Poultry-Yard. New edition. 12mo. London, 1845.
Purchased
Cheal, J., Practical Fruit- Farming. 8vo. London, 1893 Publishers
Clark, B., Tracts on the Horse. 4to. London, 1S29-31 Purchased
Coleman, J. Bernard, and Frank T. Addyman, Practical Agricultural Chemistry
for Elementary Students. 8vo. London, 1893 Publishers
Cornevin, Ch., Des Residus Industriels dans l’Alimentation du Retail. 8vo.
Paris, 1892 Purchased
Cunningham, W., The Growth of English Industry and Commerce. 2 vols.
8vo. Cambridge, 1890-92 Purchased
Deheeain, P. P., Annales Agronomiques. Tome XIX. 8vo. Paris, 1893.
Govt, of France
Fawcett, W., A Provisional List of the Indigenous and Naturalised Flowering
Plants of Jamaica. 8vo. Kingston, 1893 Author
An Index to Economic Products of the Vegetable Kingdom in Jamaica.
8vo. Kingston, 1891 Author
Fitzherbert. The Boke of Surueyinge. 12mo. London, 154G Purchastd
Flock-Books : —
Hampshire Down Flock-Book. Vol. IV. 8vo. Salisbury, 1893 ...Society
Lincoln Long-Wool Sheep Breeders’ Flock-Book. Vol. I. 8vo. Lincoln,
1892 Society
Oxford Down Flock-Book. Vol. V. 8vo. London, 1893 Society
Suffolk Sheep Flock-Book. Vol. VII. 8vo. Bury St. Edmunds, 1893.
Society
Wensleydale Blue-Faced Sheep Flock-Book. Vol. IV. 8vo. Hawes, 1893.
Society
Wensleydale Long-Wool Sheep Flock-Book. Vol. IV. 8vo. Bedale, 1893.
Society
Frank, Dr. A. B,, und Dr. P. Sorauer. Pflanzenschutz. Anleitung fur den
praktischen Landwirl zur Erkennung und Bekiimpfung der Beschadi-
gungen der KulturpHanzen. 8vo. Berlin, 1892 Purchased
Fresenius, Dr. C., Zeitschrift fur analytische Chemie. Jahrgang 32. 8vo.
Wiesbaden, 1893 Purchased
Gabnier, li. M., History of the English Landed Interest : its Customs, Laws,
and Agriculture. (Modern Period.) 8vo. London, 1893 Author
Gasquet, F. A., The Great Pestilence (A.D. 1348-49), now commonly known
as the Black Death. 8vo. London, 1893 Publisher
Gibson, H., The History and Present State of the Sheep-Breeding Industry in
the Argentine Republic. 8vo. Buenos Aires, 1893 Author
xlvi Principal Additions to the Library during the Year 1893.
Grandeau, L., Etudes Agronomiques. Tome VI. 8vo. Paris, 1892.
Purchased
L’ Alimentation de l'Homme et des Animaux domestiques. 8vo. Paris,
1893 Purchased
Griffiths, May, A Primer on the Science and Art of Butter-Making, See. 8vo.
London, 1892 Author
IIarleston Farmers’ Club, 1838-49, Reports of the. 8vo. London, 1850.
. Purchased
Harley, Wm., The Harleian Dairy System. 8vo. London, 1879 ...Purchased
Hawes on Agriculture. 8vo. London, 1783 Mr. Charles Whitehead
Herd-Books : —
British Berkshire Herd-Book. Vol. IX. Svo. Salisbury, 1893 Society
Coates’s Herd-Book. New Series. Vol. XXXIX. Svo. London, 1893.
Society
Davy’s Devon Herd-Book. Vol. XVI. 8vo. Exeter, 1893 Society
Galloway Herd-Book. Vol. XIII. 8vo. Dumfries, 1893 Society
Herd-Book of Hereford Cattle. Vol. XXIV. 8vo. Hereford, 1893... Society
Kerry and Dexter Herd-Book. Vols. I III. Part 1. 8vo. Dublin, 1890-92.
Royal Ihillin Society
National Pig Breeders’ Association Herd-Book. Vols. I.-VIII. Svo. St.
Ives and London, 1885-92 Association
North Wales Black Cattle Herd-Book. Vol. V. 8vo. Bangor, 1893... Society
Polled Herd-Book (Aberdeen- Angus). Vol. XVII. 8vo. Banff, 1893... Society
Red Polled Herd-Book. Vol. IX. Svo. Norwich, 1892 Society
South Devon Herd-Book. Vol. III. 8vo. Exeter, 1893 Society
Sussex Herd-Book. Vol. VIII. 8vo. London, 1893 Society
Institut Pasteur, Annaies (set of). 8vo. Paris, 1887-1891 Purchased
Johnston’s Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. By Sir Chas. A. Cameron
and C. M. Aikman. 7th edition. 8vo. London, 1894 Publishers
Koch. A., Encyklopadie der gesammten Thierheilkunde und Thierzucht, &c.
Band l.-XI. Svo. Wien und Leipzig, 1885-94 Purchased
Lavalard, E., Le Cheval dans ses rapports avec l’Economie Rurale et les
Industries de transport. Tome II. 8vo. Paris, 1894 Purchased
Lawes, Sir John B.,and Gilbert, Sir J. Henry, Memoranda of Origin, Plan, and
Results of Field and other Experiments at Rothamsted, Herts. Royal
8vo. London, 1893 Authors
Lefevre, Rt. Hon. G. Shaw, M.P., Agrarian Tenures. 8vo. London, 1893.
Publishers
Long, Jas., The Dairy Farm. 2nd edition. 8vo. London, 1889...P«?'eAas«f
Mayet, P., Agricultural Insurance in Organic Connection with Savings Banks,
Land Credit, and the Commutation of Debts. Translated from the
German by the Rev. Arthur Lloyd. Svo. London, 1893 Publishers
Mechi, Alderman, How to Farm Profitably. 8vo. London, 1859.
Mr. W. W. Whitaher
Norfolk Farmer, The Practical. 8vo. Norwich, 1813 Purchased
Ormerod, Miss E. A., Sixteenth Annual Report of Observations of Injurious
Insects. 8vo. London, 1893 Authot
Parliamentary Papers: —
Agricultural Produce Statistics of Great Brilain for 1892, 8vo. London,
1893 Board qf Agriculture
Principal Additions to the Library during the Year 1893. xlvii
Agricultural Returns. Statistical Tables showing Acreage under Crops and
Grass, and the Number of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs in the
United Kingdom, with Particulars for each County of Great Britain,
1893. 8vo. London, 1893 Board of Agric.
Agricultural Statistics of Ireland for 1892. Fol. Dublin, 1893.
Registrar- General for Ireland
Army Veterinary Department, Annual Statistical and General Reports of the,
for 1893. Fol. London, 1893 Dept.
Board of Trade Journal. Yols. XIV., XV. 8vo. London, 1893.
Board of Trade
Cattle affected with Pleuro-Pneumonia, Papers and Correspondence relating
to the. 8vo. London, 1893 Board of Agric.
Census of England and Wales (1891). Complete Purchased
Corn Sales, Report from the Select Committee on. Fol. London, 1893.
Purchased.
Field Voles (Scotland). Report of Departmental Committee. Fol.
London, 1893 Purchased .
Foreign Meat, Marking of, Report of House of Lords Committee. Fol.
London, 1893 Purchased
Insects and Fungi Injurious to Crops, Report on. 1892. 8vo. London,
1893 Board of Agric.
Irish Agricultural Production for 1887-93, Returns of. Fol. Dublin, 1893.
Registrar- General for Ireland
National Education in Ireland for the Year 1891. Appendix to the Fifty-
eighth Report of the Commissioners of. Fol. London, 1892.
Coni.
Potato Disease, Report on further Experiments in Checking, in the United
Kingdom and Abroad. 1893. 8vo. London, 1893... Board of Agric.
Royal Commission on Labour (The Agricultural Labourer). Fol. London,
1893 Purchased
Statistical Abstract for the Principal and other Foreign Countries in each
Year from 1881 to 1890-91. 8vo. London, 1893 Board of Trade
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each Year from 1878-92. 8vo. London, 1893.
Board of Trade
Trade and Navigation, Accounts for 1893. 8vo. London, 1893.
Board of Trade
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Posses-
sions for 1892, Annual Statement of. Fol. London, 1893.
Board of Trade
Pennetier, Dr. G., Ilistoire Nalurelle Agricole du Gros et Petit Retail. 8vo.
Paris, 1893 Author
Riley, C. V., Insect Life. Vol. V. 8vo. Washington, 1893... U.S. Sec. Agiic.
Scot, Reynolde. A Perfite platforme of a Hoppe Garden, &c. 4to. London,
1576 Mr. Charles Whitehead
Seebohm, F., The English Village Community, An Essay in Economic History.
8vo. London, 1883 Purchased
Semler, H., Die tropische Agrikultur. Band IV. 2te Halfte. 8vo. Wismar,
1 893 Purchased
Serres, Olivier de, Le Theatre d’Agriculture. 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1804-1805
i Soc. Rat. d’Agr. de France
Sheldon, Prof. J. P., Practical Dairy Farming. _8vo. London, 1893. Publishers
Sidney, S., The Book of the Horse. 4to. London, N.D Purchased
Sillett, John, A New Practical System of Fork and Spade Husbandry. 8vo.
London, 1850 Mr. W. W. Whitaker
Steele, Jas., An Essay on Manufacturing Milk into Butter and Cheese : and
on Calf-Feeding, &c. 2nd Edition. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1802. Purchased
xlviii Principal Additions to the Library during the Year 1893.
Stephens, Henry, The Yester Deep Land-Culture. 8vo. Edinburgh and
London, 1865 Purchased
Stud-Books : —
Cleveland Bay Stud-Book. Vol. IX. 8vo. York, 1893 Society
Clydesdale Stud-Book. Vol. XV. 8vo. Glasgow, 1893 Society
Hackney Stud-Book. Stallions and Mares. Vol. X. 8vo. London, 1893.
Society
Hunters’ Improvement Society. Vol. V. Record of Mares and Sires. 8vo.
London, 1894 Society
Shire Horse Stud-Book. Vol. XIV. 8vo. London, 1893 Society
Suffolk Stud-Book. Vol. VIII. 8vo. Diss, 1893 Society
Yorkshire Coach-Horse Stud-Book of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. V.
8vo. York, 1893 .". .Society
Symons, G. J., On the Distribution of Rain over the British Isles during
the Year 1891. 8vo. London, 1891 Author
Thornton’s Circular. Vol. XIII. No. 102. 8vo. London, 1892.
Mr. John Thornton
Tresca, Alf., Le Materiel Agricole Moderne. Tome I. 8vo. Paris, 1893.
Purchased
Tusser, Thomas, Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry. 4to. London,
1614 Mr. E. IP. Stanyforth
Ullmann, Dr. M., Kalk und Mergel. 8vo. Berlin, 1893 Purchased
Veterinarian. Vol. LXVI. 8vo. London, 1893 .....Editor
Veterinary Journal. Vols. XXXVI., XXXVII. 8vo. London, 1893 ...Ed it or
Veterinary Record for 1893. 4to. London, 1893 Editor
Voelcker, Dr. J. A., Report on the Improvement of Indian Agriculture. 8vo.
London, 1893 Author
Wallace, R., Farm Live Stock of Great Britain. 3rd Ed. 8vo. London. 1893.
, Publishers
Watt, G., A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Vol. VI. Parts
1-4. 8vo. London and Calcutta, 1892-93 India Office
Wilson, John, British Farming. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1862 Purchased
Youatt, W., The Complete Grazier. 13th Ed. Rewritten and Enlarged by
Dr. W. Fream. 8vo. London, 1893 Author
The Society is indebted to numerous Government Departments, both at
home and abroad, to Boards of Agriculture, Agricultural Societies, and
kindred institutions, for copies of their Annual Reports, Journals, Proceed-
ings, Transactions, Bulletins, and other documents received regularly for the
Library, in exchange for copies of the Journal: also to the Editors of
many agricultural and general papers for the current numbers of their pub-
lications, which have been placed in the Reading Room for reference.
( xlix )
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND,
jproceeMnas of tbe Council.
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 4, 1894.
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
Present : —
Trustees. — Earl Cathcart, Lord
Egerton of Tatton, Col. Sir Nigel
Kingscote, K.C.B., Sir A. K. Mac-
donald, Bart., Earl of Ravensworth.
Vice-Presidents. — Viscount Emlyn,
Earl of Feversham, Sir Walter Gilbey,
Bart , Earl of Lathom, G.C.B.
Other Members of Council. — Mr. J.
H. Arkwright, Mr. Joseph Beach, Mr.
J. Bowen-Jones, Mr. J. A. Caird, Mr.
Charles Clay, Mr. F. S. W. Cornwallis,
M.P., Mr. Percy E. Crutchley, Lieut.-
Col. J. F. Curtis-Hayward, Mr. Alfred
E. W. Darby, Mr. J. Marshall Dugdale,
Mr. W. Frankish, Mr. B. Neville
Grenville, Mr. Anthony Hamond, Mr.
Charles Howard, Earl of Jersey,
Mr. Joseph Martin, Mr. T. H. Miller,
Mr. P. A. Muntz, M.P., Hon. Cecil T.
Parker, Mr. Albert Pell, Mr. J. E.
Ransome, Mr. S. Rowlandson, Mr.
G. H. Sanday, Mr. W. T. Scartli, Mr.
Henry Smith, Sir J. L. E. Spearman,
Bart., Mr. E. W. Stanyforth, Mr. R.
A. Warren.
Professor Brown, C.B.
Officers.— Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the
Journal ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
Consulting Chemist ; Professor J. B.
Simonds, Consulting Veterinary Sur-
geon ; Mr. Cecil Warburton, Zoologist ;
Mr. Wilson Bennison, Surveyor.
The following members of the
Cambridge Local Committee were
also present : — The Mayor (Mr. E. H.
Parker), Mr. C. F. Cunliffe Foster,
Mr. G. Jonas, Rev. E. H. Morgan, Mr.
VOL. V. T. S.— 18
J. Odell Vinter, and Mr. R. Peters
(Secretary of the Local Committee).
Apologies for non-attendance were
received from the Earl of Coventry,
General Viscount Bridport, G.C.B. ,
Sir J. H. Thorold, Bart., Sir Jacob
Wilson, Mr. Alfred Ashworth, Mr.
Dent, Mr. Hornsby, Mr. Rawlence, Mr.
Martin J. Sutton, Mr. J. P. Terry, and
Mr. Charles Whitehead,
New Governors and Members.
The minutes of the last monthly
meeting of the Council, held on
March 7, having been approved, the
election of the following three Gover-
nors and forty-six members was
then proceeded with : —
Governors.
Bute, Marquis of . .Mount Stewart, Rothesay.
Coventry, Earl of..Croome Court, Severn
Stoke, Worcestershire.
Jersey, Earl of, G.C.M.G... Middleton Park,
Bicester.
Members.
B.vmxsoN, C. . . 2, Copthall Buildings, E.C.
Bellyse, E. R.. .Stapeley, Nantwich.
Blake, C. P. S. . . Shankliu Towers, I.W.
Brougham,, Wm... Oldington, Bridgnorth.
Cock, I...Westwick Hall, Cambridge.
Collis, A. H...Gt. Brington, Northampton.
Daniel, Lieut.-Col. W. H.. .Whytings, Nut-
hurst, Horsham.
Darling, R. . . Hart, Castle Eden.
Davies, A.. .Clun Mills, Salop.
Dimock, E... Denney Abbey, Waterbeacli,
Cambridge.
Evans, E. W. D...Camnantissa, Llandyssil,
Cardigan.
Few, E.. .Willingham, Cambridgeshire.
F yson, S. . . Stoneleigh House, W arboys, Hunts.
Gibbs, G. H...Ablington Manor, Fairford.
Glenday, A.. .Sutton Coldfield, War-wick.
Gradwell, R. A.. .Dowth Hall, Drogheda.
Heahlam, Rev. A. W. . .St. Oswald’s Vicarage,
Durham.
d
1
Monthly Council, April 4, 1894.
Herbert, E. A. F. W.. .Upper Helmsley Hall,
York.
King, H.. .Gt. Chesterford, Saffron Walden.
Kitson, E. P. . . Kingston, Jamaica.
Lalor, A. D.. .High worth, Wilts.
Lambert, F. D. . .Moor Hall, Cookham, Berks.
McGregor, G. D...Winstanley, Wigan.
Marchant, E. C. . . 18, Westfield Park, Eedland,
Bristol.
Milbourne, J. S...Radoot Ho., Faringdon.
Moorsom, E. E. H...Thwaite Hall, Erping-
ham, Norfolk.
Nock, B. B. . . Horsehills, Wolverhampton.
Paget, L. C...Ammerdown, Radstock, Bath.
Peacock, T...Littleport, Ely.
Pkto, H.. .Eversholt, Woburn.
Pierson, Eev. K. T. . . Little Fransliam Rec-
tory, Norfolk.
Power, M. K. M... Aston Court, Ross, Here-
fordshire.
Radcliffe, W. P. . .Hurdlestown, Kells, co.
Meath.
Readwin, W. H...Foxley, East Dereliam.
Sackville, S. G. Stopford .. Dray ton House,
Thrapston.
Savill, J. H.. .Boleyns, Booking, Braintree.
Smith, Wm.. .Potton, Beds.
Turner, D.. .Gt. Brington, Northampton.
Vereker, Captain J. M. .. Sutton Park, Sandy.
Walpole, W. T...Bevtou, Bury St. Edmunds.
Welby, W. E. . . Fotlieringhay, bundle.
Whitehead, .T. E. L. .. Cambridge.
Wooddisse, Wm.. .Ashbourne, Derby
Wright, Chas., jun...Elford Farm, Stretham
Ferry, Cambs.
Wykes, J. W... Little Brington, Northampton.
Yarrow, J...Teversham Hall, Cambridge.
Sir Nigel Kingscote, in announc-
ing the names of two gentlemen
who had been duly nominated for
election as Governors at the next
meeting of the Council, said it was
very desirable that the number of
Governors of the Society should be
increased, and he hoped that
Members of Council would kindly
use their influence in their respective
districts to induce other noblemen
and gentlemen to become Governors.
The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below : —
Finance.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
month ended March 31, 1894, as
certified by the Society’s accountants,
showed total receipts amounting to
3,023 1. 12*. id., and expenditure to
2.814Z. 2*. 9 d. The balance at the
bankers’ on March 31, 1894, allowing
for cheques outstanding, was 6,7147.
1*. 3d. Accounts amounting in all to
3,528 1. 4s. lOd. had been passed, and
were recommended for payment. The
quarterly statement of subscriptions.
arrears, and property to March 31,
1894, had been laid upon the table.
The Committee recommended that
implement exhibitors be placed on
the same footing as stock exhibitors
as to the privilege of exhibiting as
members at the Cambridge Meeting,
viz. that they must have paid at
least two annual subscriptions as
members of the Society, including the
subscription for 1894 ; or (if new
members) must have paid the sub-
scription for the current year and for
a year in advance.
House.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported various recommendations as
to suggested alterations and improve-
ments in Harewood House. The
Committee had considered the
question of the seating accommodation
in the new Council Chamber, and had
given directions for the necessary
tables and settees to be put in hand
forthwith.
Journal.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman) laid
upon the table copies of Part 1 of
Vol. Y. of the Journal, which was in
course of issue to members. Various
accounts in connection with the
number had been passed, and were
recommended for payment. An
application from Mr. C. F. Archibald
for 150 extra copies of his article
on Wild Birds had been granted on
the usual conditions. An application
from the Ontario Department of
Agriculture for an exchange of publi-
cations had been acceded to, but
another application had been declined.
The Committee had the pleasure to
report the following donations to the
Society’s library, and they recom-
mended that the thanks of the
Council be given to the donors : —
Stephen Switzer’s “Practical Fruit Gar-
dener,” London, 1763 ; and William Ellis’s
“ Practical Farmer, or the Hertfordshire
Husbandman,” London, 1759. — Presented by
Mr. Charles Whitehead.
“ Eloge of M. Drouyn de Lhuys, First Pre-
sident of the Socicte des Agriculteurs de
France.” — Presented by Monsieur Paul
Blanchemain .
Sheldon’s “British Dairying” and the
“ Future of British Agriculture.” — Presented
by Prof. Sheldon.
They also reported the purchase for
Report of Chemical Committee. li
the library of a French edition of
Columella’s works, published in 1556,
and of a brochure by the late Mr.
Wren Hoskyns on the History and
Characteristics of Land Tenure in
England. The arrangements proposed
for the next number of the Journal
had been discussed, together with a
variety of suggestions for Articles
and Notes, and instructions thereon
had been given to the Editor.
Earl Cathcart said that he was
happy to notice present the Earl of
Jersey, who had now resumed his seat
upon the Council, which he vacated on
his appointment to the Governorship
of New South Wales. He hoped that
Lord Jersey would also resume his
membership of the Journal Committee,
and he therefore formally proposed
that Lord Jersey should be added to
the Committee.
Chemical.
Viscount Emlyn (Chairman) said
that the Committee had carefully
considered the arrangements for the
future conduct of business in the
Chemical Department, and had agreed
upon the following report : —
Report of the Chemical Committee as to the
Chemical Department.
At tbeir first meeting held after the pass-
ing of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act
of last year, the Chemical Committee reported
“ That they considered it very desirable that
the work of the Chemical Committee and
Dr. Yoelcker’s position as Consulting Chem-
ist of the Society should be reconsidered ”
(Journal, Yol. IV., 1893, page clxxx) ; and
they have since given the matter careful
attention.
2. In view of the fact that in a consider-
able number of counties the county councils
have decided to charge upon the local rates
a substantial part of the fees payable to dis-
trict agricultural analysts for analyses per-
formed under the Act (thus reducing the
fees payable by the purchaser to a lower rate
than those chargeable to members of the
Royal Agricultural Society for analyses per-
formed by the Society’s Chemist), the Com-
mittee cannot avoid the conclusion that the
number of samples sent to the Society for
analysis may tend in the future to diminish,
though this result has not, it is true, yet
occurred, perhaps on account of the short
length of time the Act has been in operation.
3. Whether this should prove so or not,
however, the original object of the Society
in securing the establishment of a ready
and convenient means by which farmers
may check the quality of the goods supplied
to them has now been realised ; and it must
remain with members of the Society to
decide for themselves the precise method of
obtaining the analyses of fertilisers and
feeding-stuffs which they may require.
4. The Committee are of opinion that the
fees charged to members for analyses made
by the Society’s Consulting Chemist are not
susceptible of further reduction, without
making an increased demand upon the
Society’s general funds, which they do not
consider justified by the circumstances ; and
it is obvious that the Society could not enter
upon a competition with county councils
(who have the local rates at their command)
by reducing the fees to the lowest point
which a county council may consider should
be charged to the purchaser.
5. At the same time, the Committee think
that the superior advantages of case and
facility in members obtaining analyses under
the Society’s regulations may, in a great
many cases, counteract the comparative
cheapness of the analyses performed by dis-
trict agricultural analysts under the neces-
sary restrictions and formalities of the Act
of i893 ; and they do not therefore propose
any limitations or alterations whatever in
the chemical privileges now enjoyed by
members.
6. The particular machinery employed in
carrying out these analyses seems, however,
to the Committee to be disproportionately
expensive in view of the altered circum-
stances, and it does not appear to them to
be now necessary that a separate laboratory
with a separate staff should be maintained
on the Society’s own premises.
7. If the head of the Society’s Chemical
Department were engaged solely in scientific
investigations and abstruse researches, there
might be undoubted advantages in his
laboratory being under the Society’s own
roof ; but it is of the essence of his duties
that he should be in touch with the trade in
fertilisers and feeding-stuffs, as he must be
competent to advise members as to values
and guarantees and details of every kind re-
specting purchases and sales. Dr. Yoelcker’s
time can be claimed by the Society only
four hours a day for five days in the week.
His absence at other times makes necessary
an assistant in charge ; and there is waste
of power in other directions, because the
Society’s work falls chiefly in the spring, and
a trained staff has to be kept comparatively
unemployed during certain months of the
year in order to be ready to cope with the
work when it gets heavy.
8. It happens that Dr. Yoelcker has
recently moved into new premises for his
business laboratory at 22, Tudor Street,
Blackfriars, E.C. He has one floor now quite
unoccupied, which would give fully as much
accommodation as the Society’s Laboratory,
and attached to this is a private room that
Dr. Yoelcker could set apart for Society
purposes.
9. The convenience to him of not having
to go to two offices every day would be so
great that he is willing to devote this floor
to the Society’s work, free of any charge for
rent and gas, if the Society will let him have
the fittings now in the Hanover Square
Laboratory (useless for any other purpose)
to fit it up with. His personal attendance
in one place throughout the day will obviate
the necessity for a person of the rank and
pay of senior assistant, who could be replaced
by an ordinary assistant ; and, by greater
economy in administration, Dr. Yoelcker
sees his way to save the Society another
£100 in salaries and wages.
d 2
lii
Monthly Council , April 4, 1894.
10. It can hardly be contended that there
is any advantage in the actual details of
analysis being performed at Hanover Square,
partly under Dr. Voelcker’s personal super-
vision and partly under that of an assistant,
over their being performed always under Dr.
Voelcker’s eye at a laboratory elsewhere.
Nor does there appear any more reason why
Dr. Voelcker should give daily attendance
at the Society’s own offices than that the
other Consulting Officers should do so. Dr.
Voelcker’s official correspondence might be
dated from the Society’s offices ; he would
attend there whenever required, by appoint-
ment, and at all the meetings of the Chemical
Committee.
11. Should any very large decrease take
place in the number of samples sent to the
Society, the general question of the Chemical
Department must of course be reconsidered,
but it appears to the Committee to be desir-
able that a considerable portion of the time
of a skilled analyst should be always at the
disposal of the Society, and, if his time be
not occupied with individual analyses for
members, it should be devoted to research.
The experiments which the Society is con-
ducting at Woburn deserve more attention
from a chemical-research point of view than
Dr. Voelcker has, with the many calls upon
his time, and with a limited staff, been here-
tofore able to devote to them ; and the
Committee think that the money which it
has been hitherto necessary to expend in
maintaining a separate establishment, with
its attendant charges, and which will be
saved under the proposed new arrangement,
might with greater advantage to the general
interests of the Society be employed by the
engagement of a skilled assistant (at a re-
muneration of some£150 per annum) whose
time should be wholly devoted to special
work and researches, and who should not be
employed in routine work at all.
12. If these proposals be accepted by the
Council, the Committee suggest that, as
from June 30 next, the allowance of £550 a
year contemplated by Sir John Thorold’s
Committee of 1888 as the amount chargeable
for assistance in the Chemical Department
should be paid direct to Dr. Voelcker, in
addition to his salary, on the understanding
that for this amount he will defray all ex-
penses for assistants, chemicals, and the
like, necessary for the analyses required by
members of the Society, and that he will,
out of this sum, set apart £150 per annum
for the remuneration of a skilled assistant to
be engaged solely in research and special
work for the Society.
13. Adding £50 for printing and incidental
expenses, to be defrayed by the Society, the
gross cost of the Chemical Department
would amount to £1,300 annually, against
which would rank all the fees received by
the Society for the analyses (average £700
per annum), leaving the net charge of the
Chemical Department in all its branches at
£600 a year, the figure reported to Sir John
Thorold’s Committee in 1888.
(Signed) Emlyn, Chairman.
April 3, 1894.
This report was adopted, and the
details as to the transference of the
Laboratory were left in the hands of
the Chairman for settlement.
Woburn Sheep-feeding Experiments.
Viscount Emlyn also reported that
the Chemical Committee had received
from the Woburn Sub-Committee a
report by Dr. Voelcker as to the
results of the sheep-feeding experi-
ments conducted during the past
winter. The detailed account of the
experiments would be published in
the Journal, but the following sum-
mary of them would be of interest : —
In consequence of short crops of roots and
hay in 1893, it was considered desirable to
institute experiments to ascertain how
economy in the use of these foods could be
pursued, and, chiefly, whether by feeding
sheep on roots, with larger supplies of cake
and corn, they could be profitably got fit for
the butcher earlier with economy of roots,
and also whether hay chaff asadditional food
could bo well dispensed with.
Three pens, each containing twenty sheep,
were put on roots on November 30, 1893.
The original cost per head of the sheep
was 37 s.
Pen I. was fed with linseed cake and barley
in equal proportions, up to 2 lb. per head
daily of the mixture ; Pen II. with the same
food but up to 1 lb. only per head daily of
the mixture; while Pen III. had the same
quantity as Pen II., but with J lb. of hay
chaff in addition.
Pen I. was fit for the butcher in eighty
days ; the cost of the feeding, including roots,
was 8s. 11 d. per head, and the price realised
was 48s. each, showing a net profit of 2s. Id.
per head.
Pens II. and III. were ready for killing
after 108 days, or twenty-eight days later
than Pen I.
In Pen II. the cost of food was 9s. 7<f. per
head, the price realised 50s. 4d. each, and the
net gain 3s. 9d. per head. In Pen III. the
cost of food was 10s. lid. per head, the price
realised 52s. 6 d. each, and the net gain per
head 4s. 7 d.
These results show —
1. That no economy results from feeding
with a large quantity of cake and meal for a
shorter period, as compared with steady
ordinary feeding for a longer period.
2. That the addition to the diet of a small
quantity of hay chaff is attended with profit.
Botanical and Zoological.
Mr. Arkwright reported that a
note had been read from Dr. Voelcker
as to certain analyses of soils which
he had made in connexion with the
inquiry into finger-and-toe in turnips.
The Committee recommended that
Dr. Voelcker be requested to prepare
a report for an early number of the
Journal, giving a digest of the infor-
mation contained in the replies to the
Society’s circular letter of questions,
and the results of the analyses of soils
which he had made (see page 318).
liii
Report of Veterinary Committee.
Mr. Carruthers reported that his experi-
ments on the botanical side of the in-
quiry were still proceeding ; and it was
hoped that the results would be ready
in time for publication with the report
to be prepared by Dr. Voelcker (see
page lxx).
Finger-and-toe in Turnips.
Mr. Arkwright added that Dr.
Voelcker had ascertained, from the
analyses that he had made and the re-
plies received, that where finger-and-
toe occurred it was co-existent with
a deficiency of lime in the soil ; but
that soils containing an abundance
of lime did not appear to be affected
by the disease. Dr. Voelcker sug-
gested that any future experiments
should be in the direction of trying to
see whether any direct application of
manures or chemicals would prevent
the fungus appearing, or destroy it
after it had appeared, and in the
direction of ascertaining whether it
was possible or impossible to infect
with the disease soils which were
not deficient in lime, and in which
finger-and-toe was never known to
exist.
Veterinary.
Mr. Stanyforth reported that a
letter had been read from Mr. Cope
tendering his resignation as a member
of the Veterinary Committee. It had
been resolved that Mr. Cope’s resig-
nation be accepted, with regret, to-
gether with an expression of apprecia-
tion for his past services as a member
of the Committee. A letter, dated
March 16, 1894, had been read from
the Central Chamber of Agriculture
inviting the Society to send repre-
sentatives upon a deputation to the
President of the Board of Agriculture
to ask that live animals should only
be allowed to be imported, subject,
except under very special conditions,
to the invariable rule of slaughter at
the port of landing. The date of the
deputation having been fixed for
Tuesday, April 3, it had not been pos-
sible for a decision to be arrived at
by the Council as to whether the
Society should be officially represented
upon the occasion referred to ; but
the Council had already taken action
in the direction desired by their reso-
lution of February 1, 1893,' which had
been duly communicated to the Board
of Agriculture.
A second meeting of the Special
Committee on Abortion in Cows had
been held on the previous afternoon,
when evidence had been taken from
three further witnesses. The Special
Committee had suggested that a leaf-
let should be circulated forthwith
amongst stockowners recommending
the preventive treatment against epi-
zootic abortion, which had been suc-
cessfully practised by Professor No-
card, of Alfort, France, and requesting
particulars of the results of the treat-
ment from those who adopted it. It
was proposed that, when the owner
so desired, arrangements should be
made for a veterinary surgeon to visit
the farm at the cost of the Society,
and to advise as to the preparation
and application of the solution. The
Committee recommended that the
suggestion of the Special Committee
should be adopted, and that a copy of
the proposed leaflet should be sent
with each member’s copy of the new
Journal, now in process of distribution.
The resignation had been received of
Mr. Lewis ltees as the Society’s Pro-
vincial Veterinary Surgeon for Car-
marthenshire, in consequence of his
proceeding to Brecon, Mr. Bees at the
same time applying for the vacant
post of Provincial Veterinary Surgeon
for Breconshire. The Committee re-
commended that Mr. Lewis Bees be
appointed to fhis post, to hold office
during the pleasure of the Council.
An application was also received from
Mr. Charles Morgan, M.B.C.V.S., ap-
plying for the post of Provincial
Veterinary Surgeon for the county of
Carmarthen, in succession to Mr. Bees,
resigned, and the Committee recom-
mended that he be appointed on the
usual conditions.
The Committee recommended the
appointment of Mr. Clement Stephen-
son, F.B.C.V.S., as Lecturer on Horse
Shoeing at the Cambridge Meeting,
on the same terms as last year.
The following report had been pre-
sented by Professor Brown : —
Plecuo-pneumonia. — During the four
weeks ended March 24, according to the
returns published in the London Gazette , no
case of this disease was discovered in Great
‘ Journal. Yol. IV., Part I., 1893, p. xxxi.
liv
Monthly Council, April 4, 1894.
Britain, but four suspected animals were
slaughtered and found on post-mortem ex-
amination to be free from the disease.
Swixe Fever. — Up to the present time
there appears to be no decrease in the num-
berof pigs dying of swine fever or slaughtered
as being diseased or having been exposed to
the risk of infection. According to the
Gazelle returns, 758 pigs died of swine fever
in the four weeks, 5,549 were slaughtered
either as diseased or in-contact animals, and
58 suspected swine were slaughtered, but
found on post-mortem to be free from swine
fever.
Anthrax. — From the recently published
returns, anthrax still maintains its higher
rate of prevalence this year as compared with
previous years. There were 57 fresh out-
breaks in four weeks, and 99 animals attacked,
as compared with 34 outbreaks and 02
animals attacked in 1893, and 19 outbreaks
and 28 animals attacked in 1892.
Glanders (including Farcy). — The
returns relating to these still continue below
the average of the past two or three years.
There have been 79 fresh outbreaks this year
in the four weeks, and 104 horses attacked,
as compared with 107 outbreaks aud 177
horses attacked in the corresponding period
of last year.
Rabies. — There have been nine eases of
this disease reported in four weeks in the
counties of Cornwall, Lancaster, York
(W.R.), and Lanark.
Abortion in Cattle.
Colonel Curtis-Hayward said he
was unfortunately unable to be
present at the meeting of the Special
Committee on Abortion in Cattle last
Monday, but he suggested that before
the leaflet was issued the Society
should make an addition to it. They
would be recognising, by the issue of
that leaflet, that there was a presump-
tion in favour of the disease being
infectious, while apparently it sug-
gested no precautions to be taken in
regard to the aborted fcetus. In his
part of the country it was the practice
to put the fruits of the abortion upon
the nearest dung-heap. He had a
letter from a gentleman in Somerset-
shire to say that in his county it was
the custom to simply leave the foetus
in the field to rot and to pollute the air.
If an infectious disease was the source
of abortion, he would like to suggest
an addition to the effect that special
precautions should be taken with the
foetus, and, if possible, to say that it
should be burned.
Professor Brown said the precau-
tion Colonel Curtis - Hayward sug-
gested was so perfectly obvious that
it had not occurred to any member of
the Committee to advise it. There
was, of course, no objection to the
proposed addition, if it was thought
desirable. If it was true that the
practice still continued of allowing
the foetus to lie rotting in the field,
then it certainly would be advisable
add some suggestion as to the
immediate and proper disposal of the
aborted fcetus and the disinfection
of the premises.
The Hon. C. T. PARKER considered
it would be most desirable to
to have the addition made to the
leaflet, because he knew that the
practice of a great many farmers that
he had seen was to throw the foetus
of cows that had aborted on to the
dung-heap, where it was allowed to
lie in all stages of putrefaction.
Mr. Pell thought it was universally
known that every precaution should
be taken in regard to animals that
had slipped their young, and as to the
premises in which the accident
happened. He therefore hoped that
if any suggestions were made to
farmers and agriculturists generally,
it would be explained that they were
made in consequence of local ignor-
ance or misconception on the subject ;
otherwise it might be taken as an
extraordinary piece of advice coming
from that Society.
Sir Nigel Kingscote said that
the evidence already taken before the
Special Committee had been most
strongly to the effect that the disease
was very infectious, and he could not
help thinking, therefore, that the
suggested addition was most desir-
able.
After further discussion, it was
arranged that an addition to the
circular, drawn up by Professor
Brown, should be made in accordance
with Col. Curtis - Hayward's sug-
gestion, and the issue of the leaflet
was accordingly authorised in the
following form : —
PREVENTION OP EriZOOTIC ABORTION IN COWS.
From the evidence which has recently been
brought to the notice of the Society, it is
considered desirable to recommend to the
special attention of stockowners, in whose
herds abortion has appeared, the system of
preventive treatment, which is described in
the following quotation from the article on
Abortion in the Society’s Journal, Yol. II.,
Part IY., 1891, page 738.
The plan which Professor Nocard re-
commends to be used in cow-sheds and
premises in which epizootic abortion
occurs year by year is the following
Reports of Committees.
lv
1. Every week the places in which
cows are kept must be well cleansed, and
especially the part behind the cows, and
then disinfected by a strong solution of
sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), or a
solution of carbolic acid, one to fifty of
water.
2. The under part of the tail, the anus,
vulva, and parts below of all the cows
must be sponged daily with the following
lotion, which is a strong poison : —
Bain water or distilled water . 2 galls.
Corrosive sublimate . . . 2J drs.
Hydrochloric acid . . . 2J ozs.
During the first season of this treat-
ment only a moderate amount of im-
provement is to be expected, but after
the next season abortion will cease
entirely.
It would very much assist the Society in
their inquiry if members of the Society
whose herds have been affected by abortion
would inform the Secretary at once if they
propose to adopt this system of treatment in
their herds ; and, afterwards, if they would
send to him particulars of the results of the
treatment. When the owner desires it,
arrangements will be made for a veterinary
surgeon to visit the farm at the cost of the
Society, and to advise as to the preparation
and application of the solution.
It appears that in some districts no pre-
cautions are taken to destroy the foetus after
abortion. This should be done without delay
in every case, by burning or burial in quick-
lime. The latter should also be freely scat-
tered over the ground contaminated with
the discharge.
Ernest Clarice, Secretary.
12, Hanover Square, London, W.
April, 1894.
Stock Prizes.
Mr. Sanday (Chairman) reported
the recommendation of the Committee
that a grant be made of 5,000Z. for
prizes for live stock, poultry, and pro-
duce at the Darlington Meeting of
1895, and he accordingly gave notice
of a formal resolution to that effect.
Judges’ Selection.
Mr. SANbAY also reported that the
list of Judges in all departments of
the forthcoming Cambridge Meeting
had been finally completed, and had
been published in the March number
of the Journal (see page xlii).
Implement.
Mr. FbANKish (Chairman) reported
that a letter had been received from
Mr. F. S. Courtney, accepting the
office of Consulting Engineer to the
Society, on the terms proposed by the
Council. In view of the large num-
ber of entries for oil-engines, it had
been decided that the trials of such
engines should commence at 9 a.m.
on Monday, June 18— a week before
the Show — and that exhibitors be re-
quired to deliver their engines at
the trial ground not later than Mon-
day, June 11, in accordance with
regulation 3. As the number of
feet of shedding applied for by ex-
hibitors in the implement depart-
ment was considerably in excess of
the space which was available for
the purpose, arrangements had
been made by the Surveyor for
the taking in of an increased area
of ground. Even this would not be
sufficient for the purpose, and the
Committee recommended, therefore,
that the question as to any necessary
reduction to be made in the amount
of space applied for by exhibitors be
remitted to the Allotment Committee
for their decision. The Committee
recommended that at the Darlington
Meeting of 1895 prizes be offered in
two classes for (1) the best hay-
making machine and (2) the best
clover-making machine, prizes of 20 1.
and 10Z. being offered in each class.
The Committee had settled the regula-
tions for such prizes, which they now
submitted for the approval of the
Council as follows : —
Darlington Meeting, 1895.
PRIZES FOR EXPLOSIVE OIL ENGINES.
In connexion with the Darlington Meeting
of 1895, the following prizes are offered by
the Boyal Agricultural Society of England
for hay- and clover-making machines : —
First Second
Prize Prize
Class I. Hay-making ma- £ £
chines 20 10
Class II. Clover-making
machines 20 10
Darlington Meeting, 1895.
GENERAL REGULATIONS OP TRIALS.
1. The trials will take place during the
hay harvest of 1895, on land selected by the
Society in the neighbourhood of Darlington.
2. The necessary arrangements for the
grass and clover crops required for the
trials will be made by the Society.
3. Notice of the place and date of the
trials will be posted to every competitor as
soon as they are fixed.
4. Every competitor must himself provide
for the delivery of his machines on the trial
ground, and for the removal of the same
after the trials.
5. Horses will be provided by the Society
to work the machines during the trials, but
competitors who desire it may provide their
own horses.
6. ^ Every machine must be delivered at the
depot on the trial fields, in proper working
order, not less than two days previous to the
commencement of the trials.
lvi
Monthly Council , April 4, 1894.
7. The competitor will find one attendant
to drive and work each machine. Any
assistance given by the competitor himself
or other workman will be noted by the
Judges.
8. The order in which the several machines
will be tested will be determined by the
Stewards, who will decide by lot.
9. Machines are not to be worked under
conditions as to weather and crop when such
machines would not be used in the actual
work of a farm.
10. Tlie attention of the Judges and Engi-
neer will be particularly directed to the fol-
lowing matters : —
1. Price.
2. Weight.
3. Simplicity, strength, and construc-
tion.
4. Efficient protection of the gearing,
and freedom of the machine from
choking.
5. Excellence of work in turning and
lightening up of the crop without
damaging it.
6. Draught in work.
11. Should the Judges find any of the
machines to be of practically equal merit,
they are empowered to bracket them as
equal, and so divide the prize-money.
12. Entries for the prizes in any of these
classes must be made on or before Monday,
April 1, 1895, and must be accompanied by
a deposit of £1 for each entry. Such deposit
will be forfeited if the implement is not sub-
mitted for competition at the time appointed
for the trials.
By order of the Council,
Ernest Clarke, Secretary.
12, Hanover Square, London, W.
April 4, 1894.
General Cambridge.
The Earl of Feversham reported
the recommendations of the Com-
mittee that the Band of the King’s
Dragoon Guards be engaged to play
on four days of the Show ; that the
usual application be made to the
Home Secretary for the services of a
detachment of the A Division of the
Metropolitan Police ; and that 16,000
copies of the combined Stock and
Implement Catalogue be printed as
usual. Copies had been laid upon
the table of the Official Register of
Houses and Apartments to be let in
Cambridge during the time of the
Show. Various other details had
been discussed and settled, including
the arrangements to be made for the
sale of timber after the Show.
Showyard Works.
The Hon. C. T. Parker reported
that the Showyard at Cambridge was
enclosed with a high fence, and that
about 6,000 feet of implement and
machinery-in-motion shedding had
been built. The stables were also in
a very forward state, and the refresh-
ment pavilions were well in hand.
The Local Committee had completed
the levelling of the yard, and were
now laying the water mains, and the
whole of the works were in a very
forward state. The Committee had
approved a revised plan of the Show-
yard, showing the proposed re-
arrangements made necessary by the
unusually large amount of space
applied for this year by the ex-
hibitors in the implement depart-
ment. The following tenders for the
supply of refreshments at Cambridge
were recommended for acceptance : —
Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 9, W. E. Wood
(Cambridge Syndicate) ; No. 2, George
E. Barton, York ; No. 5, H. S. Bailey,
Birmingham ; No. 6, Bourne and Co.,
Dudley ; No. 8, Bodega ; No. 10, T. E.
Cuthbert, York. The Secretary had
submitted specimens of prize cards,
slightly smaller than those at present
in use, which were approved by the
Committee. The Local Committee
had recommended the appointment of
Mr. Arthur Tress Grain as the auc-
tioneer for the sale of the timber
after the close of the Cambridge
Meeting, and the Committee recom-
mended the appointment of Mr.
Grain, subject to his acceptance of
the conditions of appointment laid
down by the Society.
Selection.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman) said
that, as the Council would be aware,
a list of the twenty-five members of
Council who retired by rotation, with
their attendances at Committee and
Council meetings, had to be prepared
at that meeting, in anticipation of
the General Meeting on May 22.
Under Bye-law 23 (i), Members who
had not attended meetings of the
Council at least twice in each year
were not eligible for re-election ; and
as the Duke of Portland had been un-
able to give the necessary number of
attendances during the last two years,
his name could not be submitted to
the Council for re-election at the
General Meeting to be held in May.
There would therefore be a vacancy
to be filled up on that occasion. The
other retiring members of Council
Reports of Committees.
lvii
had all complied with the Bye-law,
and their attendances were recorded
in the following list, which he now
laid upon the table for publication in
the usual manner : —
bo2
Committees
Attendances at
.2 u
ag
CO
-i tD
<u
Meetings of Council
anil Committees from
o
April, 1892, to March,
fl
cd
1894, inclusive
G ed
G
Seh
3
<
Arkwright, J. H. . .
9
101
53
Beach, J
8
33
12
Brougham and Vaux, )
9
23
7
Lord j
Cray, C
14
51
35
Curtis-Hayward, Lt.- 1
Col f
16
43
33
Devonshire, Duke of )
11
(elected May 2, 1893) j
Foster, S. P
5
53
16
Frankish, W
14
125
99
Grenville. R. Neville
9
48
14
Hornsby, J
12
51
19
Muntz, P. A., M.P. . .
9
23
6
PlDGEON, D
7
48
13
Ransome, J. E. . . .
15
31
15
Rawlence, J
8
—
—
Sanday, G. H. ...
1G
92
77
Smith, H
17
40
29
Spearman, Sir J., Bart.
11
50
17
Stratton, R
7
19
3
Sutherland, Duke of .
4
—
Sutton, Martin J. . .
13
63
47
Tremayne, J
8
49
24
Warren, R. A. . . .
15
32
28
Westminster, Duke of
8
27
11
Wheeler, E. Y. V. . .
13
69
51
Mr. Bowen-Jones handed in a
formal nomination, in writing, signed
by himself and Mr. Charles Howard,
of Mr. H. P. Ryland, of Moxhull Hall,
Erdington, Birmingham, to fill the
vacancy on the Council caused by the
retirement of the Duke of Portland.
Earl Cathcart observed that he
understood Mr. Ryland was a practical
agriculturist, and likely to prove of
great advantage to the Society as a
member of Council. He thought that
at this time it was right and proper
that a practical agriculturist should
be placed on the Council, in order to
keep up that balance which they all
desired should be maintained.
Dairy.
The Hon. C. T. Parker (Chairman)
reported the settlement of a variety
of details in connexion with the
Cambridge Meeting, including the
size of the dairy, the supply of milk,
the provision of motive power, and
the penning and feeding of poultry,
&c.
Miscellaneous.
On the motion of Viscount EmlyN,
seconded by Mr. Martin, it was re-
solved that Sir John Thorold and Mr.
Charles Whitehead be re-elected as
the Society’s representatives upon the
Lawes Agricultural Trust for a term
of five years.
The Secretary reported that
thirty-two entries had been received
for the Society’s forthcoming Senior
Examination, to be held from the 8th
to the 12th May next. This compared
with thirty-seven entries last year
(the highest total reached) and
twenty-eight entries in 1892.
Letters were read (1) from Professor
Liveing, of Cambridge, thanking the
Council for his election as an Hon-
orary Member of the Society ; (2)
from the Charity Commissioners,
asking if the Council would be pre-
pared to nominate a Governor upon
the Sandbach School and Almshouses
Foundation, when completed, which
was ordered to be answered affirma-
tively; and (3) from the Poard of
Agriculture, announcing that an In-
ternational Exhibition of Fruit Culture
would be held at St. Petersburg
from September 22 to November T2
next, and that particulars of the
regulations as to the taking of space
could be obtained on application to
the Administration de la Socifitfi de
Culture Fruitiere, Musee Imperial
d'Agriculture, Fontanka 10, St.
Petersburg.
Date of Next Meeting.
Various letters and other docu-
ments having been laid upon the
table, the Council adjourned until
Wednesday, May 2 next, at noon.
( lviii )
WEDNESDAY, MAY 2, 1894,
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
Present: —
Trustees — Earl Cathcart, Lord
Egerton of Tatton, Col. Sir Nigel
Kingscote, K.C.B., Sir A. K. Mac-
donald, Bart., the Duke of Richmond
and Gordon, K.G.
Vice-Presidents. — Lord Moreton,
Sir J. H. Thorold, Bart., Mr. Charles
Whitehead.
Other Members of Council. — Mr.
Alfred Ashworth, Mr. J. Bowen-
Jones, Lord Brougham and Vaux,
Mr. Charles Clay, Mr. F. S. W. Corn-
wallis, M.P., the Earl of Coventry,
Mr. Percy E. Crutchley, Mr. Alfred
E. W. Darby, Mr. J. Marshall
Dugdale, Mr. S. P. Foster, Mr.
W. Frankish, Mr. Hugh Gorringe,
Mr. R. Neville Grenville, Mr. Anthony
Hamond, Mr. James Hornsby, Mr.
Charles Howard, Earl of Jersey, Mr.
Joseph Martin, Mr. T. H. Miller, Hon.
Cecil T. Parker, Mr. Albert Pell, Mr.
J. E. Ransome, Mr. James Rawlence,
Mr. G. H. Sanday, Mr. A. J. Smith,
Mr. Henry Smith, Mr. E. W. Stany-
forth, Mr. Garrett Taylor, Mr. J. P.
Terry, Mr. E. V. V. Wheeler, Mr. C.
W. Wilson.
Professor Brown, C.B.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the
Journal ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
Consulting Chemist.
The following members of the
Cambridge Local Committee were also
present : — Mr. Alderman Cunning-
ton, Mr. C. F. Cunliffe Foster, Mr.
G. Jonas, Mr. J. Odell Vinter, the
Town Clerk (Mr. J. E. L. White-
head), and Mr. R. Peters (Secretary
of the Local Committee).
Apologies for non-attendance were
received from H.R.H. Prince Chris-
tian, K.G., General Viscount Brid-
port, G.C.B., Sir Jacob Wilson, Mr. J.
H. Arkwright, Mr. Joseph Beach, Mr.
J. A. Caird, Mr. C. S. Mainwaring,
and Professor Simonds.
New Governors and Members.
The minutes of the last monthly
meeting of the Council, held on
April 4, having been approved, the
election of the following eleven
Governors and eighty-eight members
was then proceeded with : —
Governors.
Calthorpe, Lord, Elvetham, Winchfield.
Christie-Millhr, Wakefield, Britwell, Maid-
enhead.
Clarendon, Earl of, The Grove, Watford.
Derry, Earl of, G.C.B., Knowsley, Prescot.
Dewhurst, G. Littleton, Becclnvood, Lymui.
Greexall, Gilbert, Walton Hall, Warring-
ton.
Jones, Walter J. H., Blakemere, Hartford,
Cheshire.
Llangattock, Lord, The Hendre. Monmouth.
Mason, James, Eynsham Hall, Witney, Oxon.
Reiss, James E., Jortrell Hall, HolmesChapel.
Zetland, Marquis of, Aske Hall, Richmond,
Yorks.
Members.
Anderson, H., Carr Mill Cottage. St. Helen's.
Bakf.well, J. S., The Old Hall, Balderton.
Newark.
Beetiiam, G., 11, Gledliow Gardens, S.W.
Blyth, C. S., Rayne, Braintree.
Boldero, L. J., Hargrave, Bury St. Edmunds,
Booth, B.B., Plash wood Park, Haughley.
Bridge, A., 30, Gray’s Inn Road, W.C.
Brown, F.. Baydales Farm, Darlington.
Carless, W., M.R.C.V.S., Stafford.
1 Cartwright, T„ Rothwell, Kettering.
Clarke, J., Park Hill Farm, Tring.
Clarke, S. R., Borde Hill, Cuckfield.
Clay, H. H., Oak Grove, Chepstow.
Cooper, T., King’s Lynn.
Coyerdale, F. ,T., Ingatestone Hall, Ingate-
stone.
Cranfield, H., Buekden, Hunts.
Crouch, F., Miswell, Tring.
DANrELL, A., Blunham, Sandy.
Darwin, Capt. S. C., R.N., Buxton.
Deheer, A. W.. Rishangles Lodge. Eye.
Dew hurst, W. A., Oughtrington House,
Lymm.
Doyne, D. H., Ripley, Yorks.
Duberly, Hon. Mrs., Gaynes Hall, St. Neots.
Ellis, W., Morven Park, Potters Bar.
Evans, John, Coity, Bridgend.
Frohock, J., Lolworth Grange, St. Ives.
Fyfk, D. A., Wharf Road, Stratford, E.
Gardner, G. W., Gressingham, Hornby.
Gilchrist, P. C., F.R.S., Frognal Bank, Finch-
ley Road, N.W.
Gisborne, W., Allestree Hall, Derby.
Green, W. P., Chestnut Ho., Radciiffe-on-Tr.
Grove, Capt. S., The Grove, Taynton, Glos.
1 Reinstated under Dye-lato 12.
Reports of Committees,
lix
Hall, G. H., Beeehwooil, Ranby, Retford.
Hamond, Col. R. T., Pampisford Hall, Cam-
bridge.
Han-key, G. L., Yen Hall, West Wickham.
Harris, Stanley, The Holt, Aspley Guise.
HART, H. W., Land of Green Ginger, Hull.
Holdsworth, Wm. A., County Asylum, Barn-
wood, Glos.
Isham, Verb, Bury St. Edmunds.
Jillin-gs, C., Great Abingdon, Cambs.
Johnston, J. C., Station Road, Cambridge.
1 Kirk, Th., Owstwick Hall, Holderness.
Knight, C. A. B., Downton Castle, Ludlow.
Lister, Major E. L., Cefn Ila, Usk.
Lloyd, H., Pitsford Hall, Northampton.
Long, G., The Priory, Swavesey, St. Ives.
Luxmoore, Rev. C. C., Broughton Rectory,
Newport Pagnel.
Lyddon, C. T., Brooklea, Lisvane, Cardiff.
McCay, T. C., 3, Rumford Street, Liverpool.
Kackie, James B., Reading.
Macqueex, Miss M. M., Hutton, Preston.
Maddison, W.H. F., The Lindens, Darlington.
Martin, Heber G., Littleport, Ely.
Milne, Rev. E. A., Skenley Rectory, Bletcldey.
Milnes. E. S., Culland Ho., Brailsford, Derby.
Morris, C. K., Oakham, Rutland,
Morris, W. C., Oakham, Rutland.
Moss, J. S., Wintersliill Ho., Bishop’s Waltham.
Mullins, Alfred E„ Chepstow.
Newland, A., Maindee, Newport, Mon.
Oakley, Henry, Ifton, Chepstow.
Ord, J. B., Wear View, Bishop Auckland.
Overman, Henry, Weasenham, Swaffham.
Parry, J. M„ Lawton Hall, Leominster.
Perry, B., Pill House, Chepstow.
PlGG, E., Chipping, Buntingford.
Filter, R., 24, Rue Alibert, Paris.
Proctor, Edwin, 22, High Street, Hull.
Purvis, G., 5, Bow Church Yard, E.C.
Rout, F. R., Banham, Attleborough.
Saltmarshe, Col. A., Army and Navy Club,
S.W.
Siiand, L. H. B„ Clayton Rectory, Hassocks.
Shirley, L. J., Brickkiln Farm, Wolverton.
Solly, R. H., Pen with, Cambridge.
Stace, Joseph, Strood Hill, Rochester.
Stanley, C. W., 81, Albert Hall Mansions, S.W.
Staxsfikld, A. W., Skipton-in-Craven, Yorks.
Stones, G., Manor Farm, Stourport.
Swann, R., Hirst Head, Bedlington, Northum-
berland.
Tufnf.ll, W. N., Monken Hadley, Braintree.
Warde, F., Aldon, Addington, W. Mailing.
W ATKINSON, F. W. D., Muston Hall, Hnmman-
by, Yorks.
Webb, C. E., Wildwood Lodge, Hampstead.
West, S., Croft House, Upwell, Wisbech.
Wood, G. W., Gatcford Villa, Worksop.
Wood, J., 37, Chapel St., Islington, N.
Woodhams, Arthur, Rochester.
Wright, Joseph H., Witcliford, Ely.
On the motion of Sir Nigel
Kingscote, it was unanimously
resolved. : —
That the Secretary be authorised to receive
nominations of new members, and to admit
them to the privileges of membership for
the Cambridge Meeting, on condition that
they sign the usual contract and pay their
subscription for the current year.
1 Reinstated under Bye-law 12.
The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below : —
Finance.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
period ended April 28, 1894, as certi-
fied by the Society’s Accountants,
showed total receipts amounting to
3,509/. 10s. 7d., and expenditure to
3,543/. 9s. 10 d. The actual balance
at the bankers’ on April 28, 1894,
allowing for cheques outstanding,
was 6,680/. 2s. Accounts amounting
in all to 2,199/. 14s. 4 d. had been
passed and were recommended for
payment. The Committee recom-
mended that Mr. Sanday and Mr.
Ashworth be elected Stewards of
Finance for the Cambridge Meeting.
The Chester Agricultural College.
Sir Nigel Kingscote said he
might perhaps be allowed to call the
attention of the Council to the
announcement that they might not
all have remarked, but which had
appeared in The Times and other
newspapers a short time since, to the
effect that the Royal Agricultural
Society of England had promised
1,000/. towards the fund that was
being raised to start an Agricultural
College for Cheshire. The immediate
result of that announcement was
perhaps what was to be expected,
viz. inquiries addressed to him as the
custodian of the Society’s finances as
to whether the Council would be
likely to be equally generous towards
other Colleges of the same kind. It
was hardly necessary for him to tell
them that the Society had not
(indeed, could not) make grants of
this description ; but, as he had not
observed any contradiction of the
statement in the daily press, he
thought it might be desirable that
the actual facts of the case should be
placed before the public. The 1,000/.
in question was not, of course, given
by the Society, but represented the
balance of the amount collected by
the Chester Committee towards
defraying the local expenses incident
to the holding of the Society’s annual
show at that city last June. The
Local Committee’s accounts, when
lx
Monthly Council, May 2, 1894.
finally made up, showed the un-
expectedly large balance of 1,282 1. at
disposal ; and at a final meeting of
the Committee, held on January 21
last, it was decided by that Com-
mittee that, after the presentation of
various honoraria to members of the
Local Executive, 1,000£. should be
set aside to assist “ in the formation,
establishment, or working ” of the
Agricultural College projected by the
Cheshire County Council. The Royal
Agricultural Society itself had, of
course, no control over the funds
collected and administered by the
Local Committee ; and, as they would
be aware, the Society had no funds
of its own from which it could give
the munificent donation to the
Cheshire Agricultural College which
had been erroneously ascribed to it.
Indeed, its Charter would probably
be found to exclude the possibility of
financial assistance by the Society to
any individual institution of the kind.
As they were doing their best to
obtain as many new Governors and
Members as possible, he thought the
report above referred to might, unless
contradicted, injuriously afiect the
Society by creating the erroneous
impression that it was rich enough
to make these large donations, and
that it did not require further
support.
House.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the Committee had
given instructions as to certain details
connected with the fittings and in-
ternal decoration of Harewood House.
The Committee had had a conference
with the representatives of the Shire
Horse Society, and had agreed as to
the terms of the under-lease which
it was proposed to grant to that
Society, and which would take effect
as from August 11 next. It was
recommended that the Anniversary
General Meeting on May 22 should
be held in the Great Hall of the
Royal Medical and Chirurgical
Society, 20 Hanover Square, W.
Journal.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman) re-
ported that various accounts for
printing, binding, &c., had been
passed for payment. The arrange-
ments for the next number of the
Journal had been considered, and
directions thereon had been given to
the Editor.
Chemical.
Mr. Pell presented a report from
the Committee dealing with details of
the Chemical Department, and also a
report from the Woburn Sub-Com-
mittee as to the future conduct of the
Pasture Experiments at Woburn.
Botanical and Zoological.
Mr. Whitehead (Chairman) re-
ported that further consideration had
been given to the question as to the
lines upon which the inquiry into
finger-and-toe in turnips should be
continued for the future, and it had
been resolved to recommend —
(1) That the Consulting Botanist be re-
quested to continue his experiments in the
direction of ascertaining whether any direct
application of manures will prevent the
finger-and-toe appearing, or destroy it after
it has appeared.
(2) That Dr. Voelcker be requested to
institute a series of experiments at Woburn,
with the object of ascertaining whether it is
possible or impossible to infect with the
disease certain soils which are not lime-
deficient, and on which finger-and-toe is
never known to exist.
Subject to the approval of the Journal
Committee, Dr. Voelcker had under-
taken to prepare a report for the next
number of the Journal, giving the
results of the analyses of soils which
he had made in connexion with the
inquiry, and a digest of the informa-
tion contained in the replies to the
Society’s circular letter of questions,
(see page 318).
Earl Cathcart said that the
Journal Committee were very anxious
to push this matter in regard to
finger-and-toe in turnips, and they
were exceedingly desirous that Dr.
Voelcker’s report should be published
at the earliest possible opportunity.
Veterinary.
Sir John Thorold (Chairman)
presented the following report from
Professor Brown : —
Pleuro-pneumonia — Another outbreak
of this disease was discovered a few days
lxi
Report of Veterinary Committee.
ago on a farm at Minster, near Margate, in
Kent. There seems little doubt that this
outbreak is connected with those of last
autumn in Middlesex— some cows purchased
in tlie Metropolitan Cattle Market last
August from a dealer on whose premises ill
Middlesex pleuro-pneumonia was reported in
September. Arrangements are being made
for the slaughter of all the cattle which have
been exposed to the risk of infection.
Swiss Fever.— According to the returns
published in the London Gazette , this disease
continues quite as prevalent as ever. During
the four weeks ended April 21 there were 689
pigs died of swine fever, 5,463 were slaugh-
tered as diseased or as having been exposed
to the risk of infection, and ninety-six were
slaughtered as suspected but found free from
the disease on post-mortem examination.
Anthrax. — There seems to have been a
slight decrease in the number of outbreaks
in the four weeks ended April 21 as com-
raredwith the preceding four weeks. There
have been thirty-six outbreaks and ninety
animals attacked, as compared with fifty-
seven outbreaks and ninety-nine animals
attacked.
Glanders. — During the four weeks above
referred to there have been seventy-eight
outbreaks of this disease in Great Britain
ami 115 horses attacked.
Rabies. — There have been fourteen cases
of this disease in four weeks : they occurred
in the counties of Lancaster, Surrey, York
(W. R.), Ayr, and Lanark.
Investigations. — Since the last meeting
of the Committee investigations have been
made for members of the Society regarding
the following diseases : —
1. Parasitic pneumonia in sheep (caused
by the S. ruflscens).
2. Pyaemia (blood-poisoning) in calves.
3. Abortion in cows (four outbreaks).
Tuberculin has been supplied for use in
one herd, and anthrax vaccine has been
issued for the inoculation of fifty-five cattle
and six horses.
At the Royal Veterinary College experi-
ments have been made to test the protective
effect of Pasteurian vaccination against
anthrax in cattle, horses, and sheep. In
reference to protective inoculation for an-
thrax it is necessary to inform owners of
stock that, according to the published sta-
tistics for several years, the losses from
inoculation do not usually much exceed 1 per
cent. In some cases, however, the losses
amount to 5 or even 10 per cent.
The correspondence which had passed
between the Secretary and the Board
of Agriculture on the subject of the
restrictions at present existing on the
movement of swine from infected
areas under the Swine Fever Orders
Nos. 6156 and 6169, as affecting the
entry of pigs at the Cambridge
Meeting, had been laid upon the
table, together with the Secretary’s
circular letter of April 18 on the
same subject. Having regard to the
fact stated in Professor Brown’s report
that swine fever continues as preva-
lent as ever, and considering the very
serious inconvenience which would
result if a case of the disease should
occur in the Showyard, and necessitate
the slaughter and burial of all the
pigs sent for exhibition, the Com-
mittee recommended that no entries
of pigs be accepted for the Cambridge
Meeting.
Letters had been read from the
Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland, requesting the co-operation
of the Royal Agricultural Society in
organising a deputation from the
leading agricultural societies to the
Presidents of the Board of Agriculture
and the Board of Trade, asking that
fresh legislation may be immediately
undertaken by the Government for
repressing fraudulent practices in the
sale of foreign meat as British meat.
The Committee recommended that a
reply be sent to the Highland Society
to the effect that, whilst the Council
fully realise the great importance of
the subject, it would in their opinion
be better, before taking action in the
direction suggested, to await the
introduction of the Bill dealing with
cases of fraudulent misrepresentation
in regard to the sale of meat which
the President of the Board of Agri-
culture had stated was now under
consideration, and which he hoped
to submit to Parliament at an early
date.
About 17,000 copies had been
printed and circulated of the leaflet
on Abortion in Cattle, as drawn up
by the Special Committee, and
amended by the Council at their last
meeting. The Special Committee on
Abortion had held its third meeting
on April 30, when evidence had been
taken from four further witnesses.
Letters had been received from Mr.
Lewis P. Rees and Mr. Charles
Morgan, accepting the post of
Provincial Veterinary Surgeon for the
counties of Brecon and Carmarthen
respectively, upon the terms laid
down by the Council.
Exclusion of Pigs from Cambridge
Meeting.
Sir John Thorold said that as
the question of swine fever and the
exclusion of pigs from the Cambridge
Showyard had had important develop-
ments since the last Council Meeting,
lxii
Monthly Council , May 2, 1894.
he desired to explain the reasons of
the recommendation made by the
Veterinary Committee that no entries
of pigs should be accepted for
Cambridge. The Council would have
observed, from the correspondence
between the Secretary of the Society
and the Board of Agriculture, which
had been circulated and published,
that, in the view of the Board, it was
necessary to maintain the existing
restrictions as to the movement of pigs
now in the counties scheduled as
“ Swine Fever Infected Areas.”
That being so, the Society would
have been precluded in any case from
accepting any entries from the
scheduled counties ; and, in view of
the extent to which swine fever was
still prevailing, the Veterinary Com-
mittee had been compelled to
consider whether any exhibition of
pigs at all in the Cambridge Show-
yard should be permitted. Having
carefully considered the whole
circumstances, the Veterinary Com-
mittee were unanimous in their
opinion that it would be best to
decline all entries of pigs. There
was, of course, the consideration that
the entries of pigs would be very
partial, some counties not being able
to exhibit, and others being free
from the disease. It was a matter of
common knowledge that many people
were taking measures to send their
pigs out of infected districts into non-
infected districts for the purpose of
sending them to the Show, and the
consequences of an outbreak in the
Showyard would be very serious.
Under these circumstances, the
Council would probably be of opinion
that it would be very much better,
both in the interests of the Society
and in the interests of owners of
stock, that they should decline to
accept any entries of pigs at Cam-
bridge. He begged, therefore, for-
mally to move —
That, having regard to the fact stated in
Professor Brown’s report to the Veterinary
Committee that swine fever continues as
prevalent as ever, and looking to the very
serious inconvenience which would result if
a case of the disease should occur iu the
Showyard, and necessitate the slaughter and
burial of all the pigs sent for exhibition, no
entries of pigs be accepted for the Cambridge
Meeting.
The Hon. C. T. PARKER having
seconded the motion,
Mr. Terry said he would like to
ask a few questions with regard to
this matter, which he considered was
very serious for the breeders of pigs
who might be intending to exhibit,
and who had been getting their pigs
ready for a long time for the Cam-
bridge Meeting. From the report
that Professor Brown had made, he
gathered that swine fever was still as
prevalent as ever, but that it was
not more prevalent than it was three
months ago. Pie did not know, and
he could not think, of any case of
swine fever whatever that had
emanated from any of their show-
yards, although the disease had been
raging throughout the country for a
very considerable period. If the pigs
did not go to the Royal Show, they
would be going to county shows. He
considered that there was less danger
in contracting disease from the
exhibition of pigs than in the exhibi-
tion of any other animals, because
pigs were put into the crates, out of
which they were not taken until they
got into the showyard. He quite
agreed that they ought to do all they
could to stamp out swine fever, but,
at the same time, it was rather late
to be taking such a serious view of it
as they were now doing.
Mr. Stanyforth said that as he
was responsible for bringing this
matter forward inthe Veterinary Com-
mittee, he might perhaps be allowed
to say a few words upon this very im-
portant subject. He would like first
of all to read out the list of districts
at present scheduled as infected.
There were large areas, comprising
the counties of Bedford, Chester,
Derby, Lancaster, Norfolk. Somerset,
Stafford, Warwick, the West Riding
of Yorkshire, and other districts.
They would see that these areas
comprised a very large proportion of
England. Professor Brown’s report
said that swine fever was as prevalent
as ever, and that there was cer-
tainly no decrease. Very likely
before their Show there might be
other portions of England which
would be scheduled as infected areas,
so that their show of pigs could not
be called a representative one. In ad-
dition to those who were prevented by
law from coming from infected areas,
they had received letters from
Reports of Committees. lxiii
breeders of pigs who were not in in-
fected areas, but who would be reluc-
tant to send their pigs on account of
this prevalence of swine fever. The
latter portion of the letter received
from the Board of Agriculture, in
reply to that written by their Secre-
tary asking whether any relaxation
of the rules was likely to be made in
regard to the exhibition of pigs at
agricultural shows, was worthy of
their consideration
The Board regret that they do not see
their way to give special facilities for the
exhibition of swine brought from infected
areas, and the Board would express the hope
that the Royal Agricultural Society of
England will, as far as possible, discourage
such exhibition as being opposed to the
spirit and intention of the Orders in ques-
tion, and as involving a distinct risk of the
further spreading of disease.
From this correspondence they might
safely conclude that if they could aid
the Board of Agriculture in stamping
out this disease by preventing pigs
from coming to Cambridge at all,
they would certainly be performing a
great public duty. It was the opinion
of Professor Brown that on this occa-
sion it would be very much safer and
wiser for them not to accept any
entries of pigs for the Cambridge
Meeting, and in this view he thought
the Council would concur. He was
perfectly aware that this action would
be criticised, and no doubt to some
exhibitors of pigs it would be a very
great disappointment ; but he hoped
that breeders would prove their un-
selfishness in this matter by acknow-
ledging, at any rate, that the Society
had acted for the future safety of
pig-breeding, and that generally it
ought to do all it could to stamp
out swine fever from the country.
Professor Brown said that, though
he was not prepared to say there was
more swine fever in the country than
there was three months ago, he
did most distinctly say that new
centres entirely unsuspected, and in
different parts of the country which
had previously been considered per-
fectly free, had been discovered with-
in the last few months. Under pre-
sent circumstances, the exhibition of
pigs would be held under considerable
difficulties. One risk to which the
Society would be exposed was this.
A number of pigs were being moved
from infected areas into healthy ones,
and the number of healthy districts
was daily decreasing. If an inspector
discovered an outbreak in any part of
the country, and found that any pigs
belonging to the owner had been sent
to the show, he would be bound to
follow them, and at least to kill the
pigs in that sty and bury them on the
spot.
Sir John Thorold wished to point
out, in reply to Mr. Terry, that they
were not in a position to take action
sooner, because the question in its
present aspect had only recently
arisen.
Mr. Terry said that he was per-
fectly satisfied, as they had now a
great deal more information on the
subject than they had before.
The motion was then put from the
Chair, and carried unanimously.
Stock Prizes.
Mr. Sanday (Chairman) said that
the essential business before the Com-
mittee at their meeting held yester-
day was the large entries of live stock
that had already been received for the
Cambridge Meeting. It would be in
the recollection of the Council that
so long ago as July 26 last the Society
had given notice that it might become
necessary, in view of the fact that the
area of the Cambridge Showyard could
not be extended, that some limitation
in the entries of live stock should be
made ; and exhibitors had therefore
been informed, both in the prize
sheets and on every form of certificate
of entry issued, that post entries, if
tendered, could only be accepted pro-
visionally, subject to there being
space available for them. The
returns prepared by the Secretary
showed that the entries of horses,
cattle, and sheep received up to the
date of closing the lists at ordinary
rates would monopolise practically all
the space available for the exhibition
of live stock ; and that being so,
the Committee had no alternative but
to recommend that the list be now
closed, and that no post entries of
live stock be accepted. He might
mention that there was a considerable
increase in the horse entries over
even the final entries at Chester, that
there were more than the average of
lxiv
Monthly Council, May 2, 1894.
cattle, and practically as many sheep.
As the Council would be aware, their
great difficulty was al ways the building
of the sheds in time for the opening of
the Show. As boxes were necessary
for the stallions and brood mares, and
stalls for the other horse classes, and
as all the animals of the same breed
were shown together, and as, moreover,
different widths of shedding were re-
quired for bulls and cows, it was im-
possible for the Surveyor, until the
entries were closed, and had been
sorted in the Secretary’s office, to
arrange his buildings. Hence it was
always necessary for a considerable
interval to elapse between the closing
of the entries and the opening of the
Show ; and exhibitors did not appear
always to give due consideration to
this fact when they represented the
difficulty felt by them in selecting by
May 1 the animals from their studs
and herds which were likely to be in
the best show condition nearly two
months later. The Committee thought
it would be quite possible, so long as
there was no disarrangement of the
sheds, to give such exhibitors the op-
portunity of substituting for an animal
which had been entered in ordinary
course, and which the exhibitor subse-
quently thought better not to send to
the Show, the entry of another animal
of the same class which he considered
might represent him better. This
would, the Committee hoped, have
the additional advantage of prevent-
ing so many empty stalls and pens in
the Showyard. It would, of course,
be necessary that there should be a
formal entry of such substituted
animal, and that such entry should be
made in time for the proper parti-
culars to be given in the forms issued
to exhibitors and in the catalogue.
The Committee proposed, therefore,
to permit a substituted entry to be
made, upon payment of a fee, up to,
but not later than, May 31.
Carrying out these suggestions, he
formally moved the following resolu-
tions : —
1. That, iu view of all the space in the
Showyard available for the purpose being
required for the exhibition of the horses,
cattle, and sheep which have already been
duly entered in competition for the prizes,
the Secretary be instructed, iu accordance
with Regulation 4 of the Prize Sheet, to
decline all entries of horses, cattle, and sheep
of which complete particulars are not now
in the possession of the Society.
2. That an exhibitor who has already made
an entry of horses, cattle, or sheep in a
particular class be permitted, between this
date and Thursday, the '.list instaDt, to
withdraw the entry of such animal and to
substitute for it the entry of another animal
in the same class, on payment of the differ-
ence between the amount of the entry fee
originally paid for the animal withdrawn,
and the post entry fee : but that, with this
exception, no post entries of horses, cattle,
or sheep be accepted.
Limitation of Entries of Stock.
The Earl of Coventry said he was
sorry that the Committee had found
it necessary to limit the number of
entries in a class which members had
been accustomed to make. This was
an especial hardship in the case of
yearlings. Some animals in these
classes improved and others went back
in condition very much at this time of
the year, so that it did not follow
that the animal which was the best on
May 1, when the entries closed, would
be the best at the time of the Show.
He concluded that there had been
very strong reasons for limiting the
number of entries. At the same time
he recognised the proposal as to the
acceptance of substituted entries up
to May 31 as partially meeting the
difficulties felt by exhibitors in the
matter of selecting their best animals
for exhibition at the Society’s Shows.
The Duke of Richmond and
Gordon said that Lord Coventry had
spoken in the interests of breeders of
cattle and horses. He (the Duke)
wished to speak in the interests of
the breeders of sheep. It was rather
a hard case that they should be
restricted to exhibiting only two
rams, whereas formerly they could
exhibit more. He hoped this question
would be considered in connexion
with the arrangements for the
Darlington Meeting next year.
Mr. Martin said he was sorry that
it should be necessary for Mr. Sanday
to propose the resolution as to post
entries, and he asked whether the
calculation in regard to the accom-
modation available had been made
prior to the resolution as to the exclu-
sion of pigs.
Mr. Sanday replied that the calcu-
lation had been made upon the
assumption that the pigs would be
Reports of Committees.
lxv
excluded. By using to the utmost
the available space in the Showyard,
there would only be just room to
accommodate the number of entries
already made. The size of the Show
had been increasing for a considerable
number of years past, and some
means had to be adopted to reduce
the amount of space required. It
was on that account more particularly
that the number of entries was limi-
ted as alluded to by the Duke of
Richmond.
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker said
that a glance at the plan of the Show-
yard would show that it was abso-
lutely impossible to get in more entries
than had been arranged for.
The proposed resolutions were then
put and carried unanimously.
Implement.
Mr. Frankish (Chairman) re-
ported that upwards of 13,400 feet of
space had been applied for in the
Implement Department of the Cam-
bridge Meeting, and that 442 stands
had been allotted by the Allotment
Committee. The Committee had
given detailed consideration to the
arrangements for the trials of oil-
engines, spraying machines, and
sheep-dipping apparatus. The Con-
sulting Engineer had reported his
proposed arrangements for the trials
of oil-engines, which were approved.
It was arranged that one large tank
of Russoline oil should be provided,
in order that a trial of all the engines
might be conducted with oil from
the same reservoir. The Committee
recommended that competitors be
informed that their machines must
be delivered on Monday, June 11,
1894, and that the trials begin on
Monday June 18, 1894. The Com-
mittee also recommended that the
trials of sheep-dipping apparatus
commence on Friday, June 22, 1894,
at 2 p.m , and that they be held at
the farm of Mr. J. B. Ellis, Redlands,
Lolworth, situated five and a-half
miles from Cambridge, on the high
road to St. Ives.
General Cambridge.
Sir Nigel Kingscote reported
that preliminary consideration had
been given to the draft programme of
VOL. V. T. S. — 18
the Meeting, and that it would be
finally settled at the next meeting of
the Committee, to be held at 4.15 p.m.
on Tuesday, June 5 next. Applica-
tions from various societies for
permission to hold meetings in the
Showyard had been granted on the
usual conditions, the times of such
meetings to be settled at the next
meeting of the Committee. Various
other details relating to the trials of
spraying machines, the supply of gas,
floral decorations, &c., had been
discussed, and the Local Commit-
tee had undertaken to make
the necessary inquiries in regard
thereto.
Judges’ Selection.
Mr. Sanday also reported that the
classes for poultry had been distri-
buted amongst the three Judges as
follows : —
To be judged by Mr. J. II'. Ludlow : Wynn-
dottes, Plymouth Rocks, Minorcas, Ducks,
Geese, ami Turkeys. To be judged by Mr.
O. K. Cresswell : Dorkings, French, Brahma,
Cochin, and Langshans. To be judged by
Mr. W. Forrester Addie : Game, Leghorns,
Andalusians, Hamburgs, and “ any other
variety.” The table poultry to be judged by
all three J udges.
The Committee recommended that
Mr Thomas Stirton be appointed a
Judge of Miscellaneous Implements
at Cambridge in place of Mr. C. Gay
Roberts, unable to act. The Umpires,
to act in case of necessity for the
several classes of live stock, had also
been selected.
Showyard Works.
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker
reported that the implement shedding
at Cambridge was complete, and that
about 3,500 feet of horse boxes had
been built. The grand stand, band
stand, dairy and offices, and all of
the pavilions were in a very forward
state, as well as the water-mains and
the sleeper-roads to the entrances,
which were being laid by the Local
Committee. Instructions had been
given with respect to a large number
of other details, including the ar-
rangements for refreshments, the
supply of gas, insurance, &c.
Selection.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman) re-
ported the recommendation of the
e
lxvi
Monthly Council , May 2, 1894.
Committee that Sir John Thorold be
suggested to the General Meeting as
President of the Society for the ensu-
ing year. The Secretary had reported
that he had received the following
nomination under Bye-law 23 for the
vacancy on the Council caused by the
retirement of the Duke of Portland : —
Mr. H. P. Ryland, of Moxhull Hall,
Erdington, Birmingham. Nominated
by Mr. Bowen-Jones and Mr. Charles
Howard.
Nomination of President for
1894-95.
Earl Cathcart said he had now to
approach a delicate subject — viz., the
consideration of their nomination to
the General Meeting of the President
of the Society for the ensuing year.
He could not go further without
saying how delighted they all had
been to serve under the distinguished
command of their President for this
year (the Duke of Devonshire), and
how grateful they all were for the
interest he had taken in their pro-
ceedings. It had been the duty of
the Committee of Selection to give
their best consideration to the
question of the Presidency in succes-
sion to his Grace, and they had
happily come to the conclusion,
without the least hesitation, to
propose the name of his friend Sir
John Thorold as President for the
next year. (Loud cheers.) Sir John
Thorold was known outside to the
whole agricultural world as a
thoroughly practical man. Probably
no man in his position — no great
landowner in England — had met
agricultural stress and disaster with
more courage than Sir John Thorold.
As regards the proceedings of their
own Society, he had only to mention
to them what Sir John Thorold had
done to commend this nomination to
the members of the Society. It
might be totally unnecessary to do so,
but it was only right and fair that
conspicuous services should be ac-
knowledged. On December 7, 1881,
he (Lord Cathcart) had the pleasure
of proposing the formal resolution
electing Sir John Thorold as a
member of the Council, and that
resolution had been seconded by Sir
Nigel Kingscote. Sir John was now
one of the twelve Vice-Presidents of
the Society, having been elected to
that position on June 5, 1889. He
was a member of their Finance,
Journal, Chemical, Botanical, Veteri-
nary, Implement, and Dairy Com-
mittees. He had acted as Steward of
Implements from 1884 to 1886, as
Steward of Dairying from 1886 to
1888, as Supplementary Steward at
Windsor in 1889, and as Steward of
Finance at Chester last year. Thus
it would be seen that Sir John had
done service for the Society in almost
every capacity during the twelve and
a-half years that he had sat upon
the Council. He had been an active
member of the Dairy Committee
practically since its foundation, and,
indeed, was one of the first to direct
the special attention of the Society
to subjects connected with dairying.
He had been Chairman of the Veteri-
nary Committee for the last eight
years, and had also rendered valuable
services to the Journal, Chemical,
Botanical, and Implement Commit-
tees, and last, but not least, to the
Finance Committee. The Committee
appointed at his instance in 1887,
and known to all of them as Sir
John Thorold’s Committee, went tho-
roughly into the whole question of the
Society’s administration, and, as the
result of its labours, most important
and beneficial reforms were carried
into effect. Indeed, he (Lord Cathcart)
regarded Sir John as the Joseph Hume
of their Society. Sir John had always
been most diligent in attending their
monthly meetings, and had been
invariably helpful in their delibera-
tions on all the details of the
Society’s work ; and he had therefore
the greatest pleasure in proposing
his nomination to the General
Meeting for the Presidency next year.
(Cheers.)
Sir Nigel Kingscote had great
gratification in seconding the resolu-
tion. He heartily re-echoed every
word Lord Cathcart had said.
The resolution having been put
from the Chair, and carried unani-
mously, Sir John Thorold said he
had to thank Lord Cathcart for the
much too flattering account of his
services which he had been kind
enough to give. He could only say
Reports of Committees.
lxvii
that his relations with the Society-
had been to him a very great source
of pleasure, and he hoped that in
undertaking the duties of President
he might be able to carry them out
to the satisfaction of the Council.
Education.
Lord Moreton announced that
the Society’s Senior Examination
would take place in the following week
at the Examination Hall of the Royal
College of Physicians and the Royal
College of Surgeons, situated on the
Victoria Embankment.
On the motion of Lord Moreton,
seconded by Mr. Wheeler, it was
resolved that Mr. J. Bowen-Jones be
re-elected as the Society’s Represent-
ative Governor upon the Governing
Body of Childe’s School Foundation,
Cleobury Mortimer.
Dairy.
The Hon. C. T. Parker (Chairman)
reported that the Committee had
settled the following regulations for
the Trials of Churns at the Cambridge
Meeting, and recommended that they
be issued forthwith.
1. All the churns for competition must be
despatched, carriage paid, so as to reach the
dairy in the Cambridge Showyard not later
than 2 KM. on Monday, June 18, 1894. The
official labels issued by the Secretary should
be firmly attached to the churns before they
are despatched.
2. The trials will commence with Class
VI. (churns capable of dealing with ten
quarts and upwards of cream, not to exceed
one-man power) on Wednesday, June 20,
1894, at 9 A.M., and will proceed daily until
completed.
3. The order in which the several churns
shall be tried will be decided by lot.
4. Each competitor in Class VI. is required
to state the maximum amount of cream with
which his churn is capable of dealing ; and
his churn will be tried with this amount,
provided that it does not exceed one-man
power.
5. Subject to the preceding regulation, each
competitor will first churn, by himself or by
his servant, in the way that he thinks best
adapted to bring out the capabilities of his
churn. The person churning will be required
to make up the butter after it has been
treated by the Dclaiteuse and weighed by the
Judges.
6. In order to test the power used, another
churning of selected churns will afterwards
be made by the Society’s own staff.
7. Each competitor in Class VII. will be
required to state the maximum amount of
cream he will use in each churning during
the trial.
8. The necessary cream for the trials will
be provided by the Society.
9. Butter workers and tables, and the
Delaiteuse, will be furnished by the Society ;
but all other utensils for making up the
butter must be provided by the competitors
themselves.
10. Competitors arc required, before send-
ing their churns to Cambridge, to affix a
grooved pulley of a size to take a 3-in. dia-
meter leather rope, and of such diameter as
to give the required number of revolutions
with a belt speed of 300 ft. per minute. They
must also make provision for the fixing of
their churns, for which purpose they should
send small angle-irons, for fixing the churns
to the wooden baulks in the floor.
ERNEST CLARKE,
Secretary.
A letter from an exhibitor asking
whether Regulation 87 of the Prize
Sheet, as to ironing and boring, as
applied to Stilton cheese, would also
apply to Double Cottenham cheese,
which in make and shape was similar
to Stilton, was ordered to be answered
in the affirmative.
Country Meeting of 1896.
On the motion of the Hon. Cecil
T. Parker, seconded by Sir John
Thorold, it was resolved that, in
accordance with the Scheme of
Rotation revised in 1892, the Country
Meeting of 1896 be held in District C,
consisting of the counties of Derby,
Leicester, Lincoln, Northampton,
Nottingham, and Rutland.
Miscellaneous.
A letter from the Principal of the
Aspatria Agricultural College on the
subject of the Society’s Senior
Examinations was ordered to be re-
ferred to the Education Committee.
Various other letters and docu-
ments having been laid upon the
table, and the Report from the Coun-
cil to the General Meeting, to be held
on the 22nd instant at No. 20 Hanover
Square, having been prepared, the
Council adjourned until Wednesday,
June 6 next, at 10.30 a.m.
( Ixviii )
WEDNESDAY, JUNE 6, 1894.
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
Present:—
Trustees. — Gen. Viscount Bridport,
G. C.B., Earl Cathcart, Lord Egerton
of Tatton, Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote,
K.C.B., Earl of Ravensworth, the Duke
of Richmond and Gordon, K.G., Right
Hon. Sir M. W. Ridley, Bart., M.P.
Vice - Presidents. — H.R.H. Prince
Christian, K.G., the Earl of Feversham,
Rt. Hon. Sir Massey Lopes, Bart.,
Lord Moreton, Sir John H. Thorold,
Bart.
Other Members of Council. — Mr. J.
H. Arkwright, Mr. Alfred Ashworth,
Lord Brougham and Vaux, Mr Charles
Clay, Mr. F. S. W. Cornwallis, M.P.,
Earl of Coventry, Mr. Percy E.
Crutchley, Lieut.-Col. J. F. Curtis-
Hayward, Mr. Alfred Darby, Mr. J.
Marshall Dugdale, Mr. S. P. Foster,
Mr. W. Frankish, Mr. Hugh Gorringe,
Mr. James Hornsby, Earl of Jersey,
Mr. Joseph Martin, Mr. T. H. Miller,
Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Mr. Albert Pell,
Mr. J. E. Ransome, Mr. S. Rowlandson,
Mr. G. H. Sanday, Mr. A. J. Smith,
Mr. Martin J. Sutton, Sir J. L. E.
Spearman, Bart., Mr. E. W. Stany-
forth,-Mr. John Tremayne, Mr. E. V.
V. Wheeler, Sir Jacob Wilson.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the Jour-
nal ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, Con-
sulting Chemist; Professor J. B.
Simonds, Professor Brown, C.B., Con-
sulting Veterinary Surgeons.
Apologies for non-attendance were
received from Mr. Anthony Hamond,
Mr. Charles Howard, Mr. C. S. Main-
waring, Mr. James Rawlence, Mr.
Henry Smith, Mr. R. A. Warren, and
Mr. Charles Whitehead.
New Governors and Members.
The minutes of the last monthly
meeting of the Council, held on May 2,
having been approved, the election of
the following six Governors and eighty
members was then proceeded with : —
Governors.
Beever, W. F. Holt, Yewden Lodge, Henley-
on-Thames.
Cawston, George, 50, Upper Brook St., W.
Iveagh, Lord, 5, Grosvenor Place, S.W.
Bosebery, Earl of, K.G., 38, Berkeley Sq., W.
Starkie, Col. Le Gexdre N., Huntroyde,
Burnley.
Warren, R. A., Preston Place, Worthing.
Members.
Abut, Sir W. N., Bt., Manifold, Wick, Kelvedon.
Aldridge, A. W. B., Rushhrooke, Bury St. Eds.
Amphlett, T. E., Acton Hall, Stourport.
Astley, R. B., Melton Constable.
Bacon, J. C., Seafleld, Santon, Isle of Man.
Bennett, R. E., 12, Market Hill, Buckingham.
Benson, W. A. 0., Silverdale, Staffs.
* Berry, G., Fairseat, Wrotham.
Bidlake, G. Brooklands, Wellington, Salop.
Brankston, T., Brendon, W. Chislehurst Purk.
Brocklebank, T., Heswall, Chester.
Brooke, C. E., 45, Finsbury Square, E.C.
Burkitt, W., Grange Hill, Bishop Auckland.
Clark, J. B., Braughing, Ware.
Coleman, F., Fairfield, Mt. Barker, S. Aust.
Coleman, T„ Beauchamps, Buntingford.
Collen, A., West Wickham, Cambs.
Cookson, N. C., Oakwood, Wylam, R.S.O.
1 Daine, H. S., Woolfall Hill Farm, Huyton,
Liverpool.
Dixie, A. E., Pilton, Oundle.
Douglas, Capt. G. S., White Barns, Bunting-
ford.
Duke, Sir .T., Bart., Laughton, Sussex.
Dundas, M. G., Litcham, Swaffham.
Earle, R., Ellertou, Scorton, Darlington.
Edmonds, ,T., Gillingham, Chatham.
Fawcett, W., Strudgates Farm, W. Honthley.
Godding, W. H., Brimslade, Marlborough.
Godson, J. S., West Wretham, Thetford.
Grandage, A. Bramhope, Leeds.
Griffin, F. W., Borough Fen, Peterborough.
Grounds, Frederick, March.
Hall, A. C., Six Mile Bottom, Newmarket.
Hall, G. F., The Lodge, Elston, Bedford.
Harrison, H., Wyther, Kirkstall, Leeds.
Hughes, R. H., Basingstoke.
Jefferson, T. E., Ballaholt, Ballasalla, I. of M.
Jefferys, F. W., Dawsmerc, Gedney, Holbeach.
Johns, A., Kimbolton, St. Neots.
Jones, M. T., The Grange, Wrexham.
Jones, R. T., Crescent Road, Crouch End, N.
Kelley, F. A., Oak Lea, Broomhall Park,
Sheffield.
King, T., Great Chesterford.
Lomas, A., Langford Hall, Maldon.
Lomas, Wm, Stannington, Sheffield.
Lubienski-Bodeniiam, Count Louis, Rother-
was, Hereford.
Mann, W. H., Elland Road, Leeds.
Mather, R., Steeple Claydon, Winslow.
Megginson, Baker, Atherstone.
Meux, Sir H. B., Bt., Dauntsey, Chippenham.
1 Life member by examination.
Reports of Committees.
lxix
Morris, S., Wretham Hall, Thetford.
Nicholas, John H., Braintree.
Nichols, J., Stannington Wood Farm, Sheffield.
Owen, T. G., Pennmynydd, Valley, Anglesey.
' Paterson, J. W., 14 Brunstane Road, Porto-
bello, N.B.
Peel, Sidney C., The Lodge, Sandy.
Peel, T.. Potterton Hall, Leeds
Penbkrthy, Prof. Jno., R.V.C., Camden Town.
Phillips, J. E. J„ Royston.
Prichard, B. R. S., Brislington, Bristol.
Ridlington, A., Gt. Whyte, Ramsey, Hunts.
Robinson, D., Clitheroe Castle, Lanes.
Savile, F. H. M., Castle Ashby, Northampton.
Scott, W. J., Middridge, Heighington, Dar-
lington.
Smith, F. N., Wingfield Pk., Pentrieh, Derby.
Smith,' V. B., Little Shelford, Cambs.
Spdrgin, Dr. H. B., Northampton.
Stitt, W. S., Hadleigh Hall, Essex.
Stone, F. W., Holms Hill Ho., Ridge, Barnet.
Sdgden, S. E., 22 Green Head Rd., Hudders-
field.
1 Tipper, C. J. R., The Agr. Coll., Aspatria.
Tooth, Stanley, 25 Paul’s Wharf, F,.C.
Toynbee, T., Croxley Hall Farm, Rickmans-
worth.
Ward, E. G., Weston Manor, Freshwater.
1 Welch, A.C., 5 W. NewiDgton PI., Edinburgh.
Westmacott, H. A., Benwell Hill, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.
Wiiiteman, S. E., Coppingford, Huntingdon.
1 Whittaker, J. D., R. A. C., Cirencester.
Wilson, M.A., Eshton House, Gargrave-in-
Craven.
Winter, T., Univ. Coll. N. Wales, Bangor.
Wood, John, Wentworth, Rotherham.
The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted, as below : —
Finance.
Sir Nigel Ktngscote (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
period ended May 31, 1894, as certified
by the Society’s Accountants, showed
total receipts amounting to 2,715Z.
Os. 9<Z.,and expenditure 2,339Z. 18s. 3d.
The actual balance at the bankers’ on
May 31 last, allowing for cheques out-
standing, was 7,055Z. 4s. 6 d. Accounts
amounting in all to 6,092Z. 19s. Grf.had
been passed, and were recommended
for payment.
House.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
laid upon the table the deed of under-
lease of the premises at 12 Hanover
Square to the Shire Horse Society,
and the Committee recommended
that this deed be approved, and the
Seal of the Society affixed thereto.
As the commencement of the tenancy
of 12 Hanover Square by the Shire
Horse Society is fixed by the under-
1 Life member by examination.
lease for August 11 next, the Com-
mittee recommended that the final
meeting of the Council, before the
autumn recess, be fixed for July 25
next (instead of August l,as originally
proposed), in order to facilitate the
removal of the Society’s offices before
August 11. The Committee had in-
spected the new premises, and had
given various directions as to the
works in progress.
On the motion of Sir Nigel Kings-
cote, seconded by Sir Jacob Wilson,
the Seal of the Society was authorised
to be affixed to the underlease of No.
12 Hanover Square to the Shire Horse
Society. The affixing of the Seal in
accordance with the bye-laws was
attested by the signatures of the Duke
of Devonshire as President, Sir Nigel
Kingscote as Trustee, and Mr. Ernest
Clarke as Secretary.
Journal.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman) re-
ported that applications for permission
to reprint (1) Mr. Clement Stephen-
son’s article on Aberdeen - Angus
Cattle and (2) Dr. Voelcker’s Report
on the Churn Tests at Chester had
been granted on the usual conditions.
The Society was indebted to Mr.
Charles Whitehead for presentations
to the library of Ellis’s “ Husbandry ”
(1777) and Ellis’s “ Chilternand Vale
Farming” (1732), and the Committee
recommended that the best thanks of
the Council be given to Mr. Whitehead
for these donations. A letter was
read from the Meteorological Office
asking if the Society had any changes
to suggest in the list of recipients of
the forthcoming Hay Harvest Fore-
casts, and the Secretary was directed
to reply in the negative. The arrange-
ments for the next number of the
Journal had been considered, and
directions thereon given to the Editor.
The Committee bad considered the
suggestion made by Mr. J. Kersley
Fowler at the General Meeting on
May 22, that the Society should give
attention to the subject of beetroot
cultivation for the manufacture of
sugar, and they recommended the
following reply for the adoption of
the Council : —
Numerous articles upon the subject of
beetroot cultivation have appeared from time
to time in the Society’s Journal. Pur jpg
lxx
Monthly Council, June G, 1894.
recent years an editorial note on the Cultiva-
tion of Sugar Beet appeared in Part II. of the
Journal for 1890 (page 441), and a special
article on “ Sugar Beet Cultivation in Aus-
tria-Hungary,” by the Secretary, appeared in
Part II. of the Journal for 1891 (page 325).
Many attempts have been made in this
country to grow beetroot for sugar, but none
of them have met with success. Although
in an unusually dry and sunny summer, such
as that of last year, beetroot with sufficient
saccharine may be grown, yet it is doubtful
whether with the average English summer
the cultivation of beetroot for sugar in this
country would prove remunerative.
Earl Cathcabt said that the
Council were exceedingly obliged to
Mr. Whitehead, who had given them
some very valuable books for the
library. As the Society had now
such good book-shelf accommodation
in their new house, the Journal Com-
mittee would be very much obliged
for any further presentations.
Chemical.
Mr. Stanyforth presented the
quarterly report of this Committee
upon cases of adulteration in manures
and feeding-stuffs, and a report from
the Woburn Sub-Committee as to
details connected with the Society’s
Experimental Farm. Arrangements
had been made for visits to the farm
of students connected with the Cam-
bridge and Counties Agricultural
Education Scheme, and of members
of the Leicestershire Surveyors’ Insti-
tute.
On the motion of Mr. Stanyforth,
the quarterly report of the Chemical
Committee was adopted, and ordered
to be published in the Journal (see
page 322).
At the suggestion of Sir John
Thorold, the date of the Com-
mittee’s annual visit to the Experi-
mental Farm at Woburn was fixed
for Thursday, July 26, 1894, instead
of Wednesday, June 13, as arranged
last month.
Botanical and Zoological.
Lord Moreton reported that the
Consulting Botanist had carefully
distributed the spores of the fungus
which causes the “ finger-and-toe ” in
turnips in eleven plots, and that in ten
of them he had added the following
substances to observe their action on
the fungus : — Three strengths of lime,
gypsum, soot, kainit, copper sulphate,
iron sulphate, bleaching powder, and
corrosive sublimate, one plot having
nothing added to it. In all the plots
the seedling turnips were attacked
and destroyed by the little parasitic
fungus Pythiwni de Baryanum, except
in that dressed with corrosive subli-
mate. This poison not only com-
pletely destroyed the Plasmodiophora,
but the Pythium also, though it did
not affect the seedling turnips. Some
indications of the attack were
observed, but the rapid injury caused
by the Pythium overpowered the
plants, and prevented the “ finger-
and-toe ” developing.
Veterinary.
Sir John Thorold (Chairman) re-
ported the unanimous recommend-
ation of the Committee that Professor
Brown be asked to accept the office
of Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to
the Society in conjunction with Pro-
fessor Simonds, and that Mr.
Ashworth be asked to act as Chair-
man of the Committee during Sir
John Thorold’s tenure of office as
President of the Society.
The following report had been re-
ceived from Professor Brown : —
PLEURO-rNEUMONiA. — In connexion with
the outbreak of this disease discovered in
Kent towards the end of April, seven cattle
affected with pleuro-pneumonia were
slaughtered, and 150 others which had been
iu contact were aiso slaughtered by order of
the Board of Agriculture.
Swine Fever. — 620 swine died from swine
fever in the four weeks in which G,619 were
slaughtered by order of the Board of Agri-
culture as diseased or in-contact animals,
while 131 suspected pigs were slaughtered,
but found on post-mortem to be free from the
disease.
Anthrax. — There were thirty-seven fresh
outbreaks of this disease in four weeks.
Seventy-nine animals were attacked, of
which sixty-seven died, four recovered, and
eight remained alive diseased when the last
published return was made up.
Sir John Thorold, in moving
the adoption of this report, said it
was his pleasant duty to ask the
Council to appoint Professor Brown
as Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to
the Society. In view of the altered
circumstances of Professor Brown’s
connexion with the Board of Agri-
culture, the Council would wish to
attach him to the Society, and he did
not think that any better plan could
be adopted than by appointing him
Report on Abortion in Cattle.
lxxi
as Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to
the Society, in association with Pro-
fessor Simonds — to whom, he might
say, the appointment was most agree-
able. He begged, therefore, to move
that Professor Brown be appointed
Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the
Society, in conjunction with Professor
Simonds.
Earl Cathcart, in seconding the
proposition, said they would never
forget the great obligations they were
under to their old friend Professor
Simonds. Professsor Simonds, how-
ever, did not live near London, whilst
Professor Brown was in immediate
touch with all that was going on. It
was also essential that Professor
Brown should have some locus standi,
and he hoped that he would accept
the appointment as an expression of
their great respect for him.
The Duke of Richmond and
Gordon said that he had very
pleasant recollections of his associa-
tion during six years with Professor
Brown at the Privy Council Office,
and he could only say that if the
Council availed themselves of Pro-
fessor Brown’s services and great
professional skill, the Society would
be a great gainer. He hoped, there-
fore, that Professor Brown would be
appointed.
The motion having been put and
carried unanimously,
Professor Brown said that, in
accepting the appointment which the
Council had conferred upon him, he
counted it, of course, as a very great
compliment. He should be, as he
had always been, most happy to help
the Society in every possible way.
As he had said to the Committee
yesterday, he did not feel that he
could possibly enjoy more confidence
than he had always experienced from
the Council. It was an additional
satisfaction to him to know that this
present appointment was to be in
association with Professor Simonds,
with whom, with very slight inter-
missions, he had been associated as a
colleague for more than a quarter of
a century.
Special Committee on Abortion in
Cattle.
Sir John Thorold, in presenting
the report of this Committee (see
page 312), said that the Council might
probably not be altogether satisfied
with the result of the inquiry. The
Committee trusted, however, that
something of benefit to farmers would
ensue, although they did not feel
justified in asking the Council to
undertake the very large expenditure
which it was thought would be
necessary to determine the question
at issue. They had been assured by
the Board of Agriculture that, when
the favourable moment arrived, the
Board would be prepared to take up
the matter ; but apparently the
favourable moment was deferred,
and, during the interval, the Com-
mittee suggested that the Council
should place at the disposal of the
Veterinary Committee the sum of
200/., which would be used by them
exclusively for carrying on such ex-
periments as might help to throw
some light on the subject. There
was a further sum of money at the
disposal of the Royal Veterinary
College, and, with these two amounts,
it was hoped that some satisfactory
result might be obtained. The Com-
mittee were very much indebted to
Professor Brown for his assistance
during their labours, and for condens-
ing the results of the inquiry into the
report. He begged to give notice
that at the next meeting of the
Council he would move that a grant
of 200/. be placed at the disposal of
the Veterinary Committee for carry-
ing out a further investigation into
this subject.
Stock Prizes.
Mr. Sanday (Chairman) reported
a variety of correspondence with ex-
hibitors and others, as to which direc-
tions had been given to the Secretary.
The preliminary consideration of the
prize-sheet for the Darlington Meeting
of 1895 was proceeded with, and the
Committee recommended that copies
of the prize-sheet, as arranged, be
printed and circulated to each member
of the Committee for further con-
sideration at their next meeting.
Mr. Sanday then moved, pursuant
to notice, Mr. Ashworth seconded,
and it was unanimously resolved, that
the sum of 5,000/. be placed at the
disposal of the Committee for pro-
viding prizes for live stock, poultry,
lxxii
Monthly Council, June 6, 1894.
and produce at the Darlington Meet-
ing of 189S.
Judges’ Selection.
Mr. Sanday also reported that, in
consequence of the death of Mr. G.
M. Sexton, who had been appointed
one of the Judges of Suffolk sheep for
the Cambridge Meeting, Mr. Cordy
S. Wolton, of Ixworth, had been in-
vited to act, and had consented to do
so.
Implement.
Mr. Frankish (Chairman) reported
that various letters had been read from
competitors in the several competi-
tions at the Cambridge Meeting, and
instructions thereon given to the
Secretary. The question as to the
advisability of admitting the public
to view the trials of oil-engines at
Cambridge had been considered, and
the Committee recommended that no
one be admitted to the trials of oil-
engines except those who were directly
interested in the engines competing,
and the Judges and officials of the
Society.
General Cambridge.
The Earl of Feversham reported
that the draft programme of the
Cambridge Meeting had been dis-
cussed and finally settled. The Com-
mittee recommended that Mr. Harry
Johnson, of 28 Petty Cury ; Mr. C.
Bedin, of Trinity Street ; and Mr.
W. P. Spalding, of 43 Sidney Street,
Cambridge, be appointed agents for
the sale of season tickets for the
Cambridge Meeting. The question of
the issue of tickets on the shilling
days in large quantities at reduced
rates had been considered, and the
Committee recommended that bona
fide employers of labour be allowed
tickets at the rate of 1 1. for twenty-
five, not less than 100 to be taken.
Applications from various societies for
permission to hold meetings in the
large tent at Cambridge had been
acceded to, and the following time-
table for them had been arranged : —
Monday, June 25, 1894.
Kerry and Dexter Cattle Society . 2.30 p.m.
Tuesday, June 26, 1894.
Shropshire Sheep Breeders’ Asso-
ciation 10.30 a.m.
Polo Pony Stud-Book Sooiety , 11 a.m.
Royal Agricultural Society of
England 12.30 p.m.
Shire Horse Society . . .2 p.m.
Shorthorn Society .... 2.30 p.m.
Southdown Sheep Club . . . 2.30 p.m.
Cotswold Sheep Society . . 3 p.m.
National Pig Breeders’ Associa-
tion 3.30 p.m.
British Berkshire Society (Coun-
cil) 4 p.m.
Wednesday, June 27, 1894.
National Sheep Breeders’ Associa-
tion 10 a.m.
Hackney Horse Society (Council) 11 a.m.
Suffolk Sheep Society . . .12 noon
Hunters’ Improvement Society . 2 p.m.
British Bee-keepers’ Association .3 p.m.
Agricultural Exhibitors’ Associa-
tion 3.30 p.m.
National Traction Engine Owners’
and Users’ Association . . 4 p.m.
Showyard Works.
The Hon. C. T. Parker said that
he had been asked by Sir Jacob
Wilson, Chairman of the Committee,
whom they were all glad to see amongst
them once more, to read the report
of the Committee. The implement
yard at Cambridge was quite com-
plete, and exhibits were now arriving.
The pavilions were completed, and
the dairy, trial shed, and stockyard
were in a forward state. Various
accounts, including the Surveyor’s
estimates for wages and materials,
had been passed and referred to the
Finance Committee for payment.
Offers (1) from Mr. George Villers, of
Cambridge, for the gratuitous supply
of the floral decorations in the Show-
yard ; and (2) from Messrs. J. and J.
Brown for the furnishing of the Boyal
Pavilion, had been accepted.
Education.
Lord Moreton (Chairman) report-
ed that thirty-two candidates entered
and twenty-eight actually competed
at the Society’s Senior Examinations,
which tookplace fromMay8 to May 12
last, and that of these twenty- eight-
competitors fifteen had satisfied the
examiners. They recommended that,
in addition to the five Life Member-
ships offered for competition at this
examination, a Life Membership be
also conferred upon the candidate
placed sixth in order of merit, as the
marks gained by him were practi-
cally equal to those of the fifth
candidate. They had agreed upon a
detailed report (see 'page 331) em-
Ixxiii
Education Life Memberships.
bodying the results of the examina-
tion and the various points dealt with
by the Examiners.
Education Life Memberships.
In answer to questions by Mr.
Fosteb and Earl Cathcabt,
Lord Mobeton said the Council
would remember that at the General
Meeting on May 22 attention was
drawn to the proposed alteration in
the regulations of their Senior Ex-
amination, by which, after the present
year, the Life Memberships awarded
in connexion with the Senior Ex-
amination would be discontinued.
The Committee had discussed the
matter for a considerable time on the
previous afternoon, and they had
come to the conclusion that it was
impossible for them to do anything in
the matter as a Committee, because
the Council had resolved only a short
time ago to discontinue the award of
these Education Life Memberships.
In some years the standard of excel-
lence was higher than others, and the
man who in one year might have been
placed first might be placed much
lower down in another year were he
again to compete. He might say
that there was a third alternative,
which personally he thought might
be the right course to adopt. The
Secretary had suggested that, instead
of a hard-and-fast rule, as at present,
Life Memberships should be given to
those candidates who gained, say,
two-thirds of the total marks. That
seemed to him, and to several other
members of the Committee, a very
useful suggestion.
Mr. Bansome said that, as a
member of the Education Committee,
he might say that there was some
little difference in the Committee as
to what would be the best course to
take. They felt that they had no
power to do anything in the matter
unless it was referred back to them
by the Council. He wished, therefore,
to give notice of the following
motion : —
That the resolution of March 7, 1894, by
which the granting of Life Memberships to
successful students was abolished, be re-
scinded, and that it be referred to the Educa-
tion Committee to consider whether Life
Memberships of the Society may not in future
be conferred upon those candidates who gain
a high percentage of the total number of
marks.
Mr. Fosteb said that, having had
a great deal to do with an agricultural
college in the North of England, he
thought this suggestion was preferable
to the decision arrived at by the
Council on March 7.
Mr. Pell thought that the matter
had better be referred back without
any suggestion attached to it, which
might only prove an embarrassment.
After further discussion, Mr.
Bansome withdrew the second part
of his proposed motion, and gave
notice that at the meeting of Council
to be held in London on July 25 he
would move —
That the resolution of March 7, 1894, by
which the granting of Life Memberships to
successful students was abolished, be re-
scinded.
Miscellaneous.
The two suggestions made by
members at the General Meeting
having been considered in connexion
with the reports of the Journal and
Education Committees respectively,
and various letters and other docu-
ments having been laid upon the table,
the Council adjourned until Wednes-
day, June 27, 1894, at 3 p.m., in the
Showyard at Cambridge. It was also
arranged that the final meeting of
the Council before the autumn recess
should be held on W ednesday, July 25,
1894, instead of August 1, as oii-
ginally proposed.
( lxxiv )
IProcectunos at 55tb anniversary fIDcetmo of
Governors anfc fiDembers.
HELD IN THE HALL OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL AND CHIRURGICAL SOCIETY,
20 HANOVER SQUARE.
TUESDAY, MAY 22, 1894,
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G, (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
The fifty-fifth anniversary general
meeting of Governors and members
was held in the Hall of the Royal
Medical and Chirurgical Society, at
20 Hanover Square, on Tuesday,
Mav 22, 1894, his Grace the Duke
of Devonshire, K.G., President, in the
chair.
Present: —
Trustees. — Earl Cathcart, Col. Sir
Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B., the Earl of
Ravensworth.
Vice - President. — Sir John H.
Thorold, Bart.
Other Members of Council. — Mr. J.
Hungerford Arkwright, Mr. Percy E.
Crutchley, Mr. William Frankish, Mr.
.Tames Hornsby, the Earl of Jersey,
Mr. P. Albert Muntz, M.P., the Hon.
C. T. Parker, Mr. J. E. Ransome, and
Mr. Martin 1. Sutton.
Governors. — The Earl of Powis, Mr.
C. C. Cotes, Mr. W. Barrow Simonds.
Members. — Viscount Cross, G.C.B.,
G. C.S.I., Lord Harlech, the Hon. Alex.
Parker, Sir N. A. Staples, Bart., Sir
Henry Simpson, Messrs. R. C. Assheton,
Wm. Barford, W. Worby Beaumont,
E. C. Blackstone, Arthur Carey, J. A.
Chope, Horace F. Cox, Thomas A. M.
Dickin, T. A. Dickson, John Wm.
Dixon, T. C. Garfit, W. W. Glenny,
H. J. Greenwood, Granville Leve-
son Gower, R. F. Gubbin, E. B.
Hadley, J. Howard, George Jonas,
Frederick King, G. H. H. Oliphant-
Ferguson, Major Charles Pepper,
Messrs. Hugh Rogers, Edward Trimen,
Professor Robert Wallace.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, Con-
sulting Chemist.
The Secretary having read the
Bye-La wsgoverning the transaction of
business at the anniversary meetings.
President for 1894-5.
Lord Harlech moved: “ That Sir
John Thorold, Bart., be elected Presi-
dent of the Society for the year ensuing
the Cambridge Meeting,” and said he
was sure that this motion would
require no recommendation from him,
for Sir John Thorold’s work in con-
nexion with the Society was so very
well known, and he had shown so
much zeal and ability, that the motion
might be submitted without further
preface.
Mr. Wm. Barford seconded the
motion, observing that Sir John
Thorold had every qualification for
filling the Chair with honour and
usefulness to the Society. He (Mr.
Barford) had attended thirty-five
“ Royal ” Shows without missing one,
so that he felt that he might speak
with some little experience on the
subject. He had watched Sir John
Thorold’s abilities both in connexion
with the Society and elsewhere, and
he felt sure that he would do honour
to the Chair.
The motion having been carried
unanimously,
Sir John Thorold said he had to
thank the meeting very much for their
kindness in electing him President for
the ensuing year, and the gentlemen
who had spoken for their kind words
lxxv
Tuesday , May 22, J 894.
on his behalf. He could only say
that since he had been a member of
the Council, and, in fact, since he had
been a member of the Society, he had
taken the greatest interest in its work
and should always continue to so.
Knowing how ably he would be
assisted by the Society’s staff, he had
no doubt that he would be able, as
other Presidents before him, to bring
the important business of the Society
to a satisfactory conclusion.
Ke-election of Council.
The Trustees and Vice-Presidents
having been re-elected by show of
hands, the election of twenty-five
members of Council was proceeded
with, and the President appointed the
Hon. Alex. Parker, Mr. Arthur Carey,
and Mr. H. J. Greenwood to act as
scrutineers of the voting papers.
These having been duly collected,
and the report of the scrutineers
thereon received, it was announced
that the twenty-four members of
Council who retired by rotation had
been re-elected, together with Mr.
Howard P. Evland, of Moxhull Hall,
Erdington, Birmingham, who had
been duly nominated to fill the
vacancy caused by the retirement of
a member under Bye-Law 23.
Report of Council.
The Secretary then read an
abstract of the Report of the Council
to the meeting (see page 301).
Viscount Cross, in moving the
adoption of the report, said it was to
his mind a highly satisfactory one,
and he was sure that everyone who
had taken the trouble to read it would
be perfectly satisfied with the number
of members and with the state of the
finances. They might congratulate
themselves that they were very soon
to take possession of a house worthy
of their great association. He was
sure that the arrangements for the
Cambridge Meeting, as set out in the
report, would give satisfaction to
everyone. At all events, the Society
was fully alive to the duties it had to
perform, and the Cambridge Meeting
would add another triumph to those
which the Society had achieved in the
past. It was a matter of great
satisfaction to see that the Board of
Agriculture were making a deter-
mined effort to put a stop to swine
fever, which had been so disastrous
from one end of the country to the
other. He did not think that agri-
culturists generally took sufficient
advantage of the results of the experi-
ments made by the Society, or of
their privileges in obtaining analyses,
and he hoped these advantages would
be utilised more frequently by mem-
bers of the Society. Speaking as a
farmer of many years’ standing, he
could not congratulate the Society
upon the state of the agricultural
prospects. Although this year they
were in hopes that, owing to the
commencement of the fine spring
weather, they would have better crops
than for some time, as farmers had
had weather entirely to their mind
for the putting in of seed, yet the
chilling effect of this winter week
in which they were holding their
“spring meeting” would deject the
spirits of those who had been buoyed
up with great hopes of the future.
He had great pleasure in moving the
adoption of the report.
Mr. George Jonas seconded the
motion.
Mr. T. A. Dickson referred to the
decision of the Council to discontinue
after the present year the award of
free life memberships of the Society
in connexion with its annual Senior
Examinations. He said that these
examinations had been going on now
for twenty-seven years. The strain
of the different reports which had
been presented to successive Council
meetings in the past had been disap-
pointment at the small number of
candidates who had presented them-
selves for the examination ; but dur-
ing the last five or six years the
number had increased, and gradually
a greater number had been elected
life members of the Society. As far
as he could gather from the published
reports of the Council meeting held
last March, when the decision to dis-
continue these life memberships was
announced, the idea seemed to be
that very few of those who succeeded
in obtaining this great honour eventu-
ally took up agriculture as a pro-
fession. Looking at the last published
lxxvi
Anniversary Meeting, May 22, 1894.
list of the members — that issued at
the end of December 1892 — he found
that there were eighty-four members
of the Society who had free life mem-
berships owing to their having passed
this examination. He had taken
some little trouble to find out what
was the present occupation of these
members. From fourteen he had as
yet no return whatever, owing to
their residence abroad or in the
Colonies, but of the remaining seventy
only two wrote to say that they were
not, at the present time, intimately
connected with agriculture. Ten
were engaged in farming, twenty-
three were land agents, eighteen were
teachers at different centres, such
as Edinburgh University, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, Reading, Cairo, Poonah,
&c., and seventeen were either
small landowners or were otherwise
intimately connected with the agri-
cultural industry. He believed that
Mr. Pell, who was responsible for the
motion, said that all these young men
were elected at too small a composi-
tion. Let them, then, increase the
amount of the life composition to 20Z.,
or, if they preferred, revert to the
decision come to by the Couucil in
December, which was to award life
memberships every year to the first
five successful candidates in the
Senior Examination. He did not
wish to move any amendment to the
Report, but he should like to have
some explanation of this change of
policy on the part of the Council.
Professor Wallace wished to add
a word or two in support of what had
been said by Mr. Dickson. He could
assure them that it would prove one
of the greatest misfortunes to agri-
cultural teaching if these life mem-
berships were withdrawn, especially
at this moment. They had great dif-
ficulties in getting the County
Councils to do something for agricul-
tural education, and if a great Society '
like that were to take away one of
the most important honours open to
students, he thought it would be a
most unfortunate thing for the in-
terests of agricultural education.
The President said he was not
present at the meeting of the Council
at which this change was unanimously
resolved upon ; but the gentlemen
who brought this subject forward
would probably be satisfied if he in-
formed them that the matter would
be reconsidered by the Council as a
suggestion from the general meeting.
Suggestions.
In response to the usual inquiry
from the Chair as to whether any
Governor or member had any remarks
to make or suggestions to offer that
might be referred to the Council for
consideration,
Mr. J. Kersley Fowler suggested
that some attention should be given
by the Council to the growth of sugar
beetroot in this country. A large
number of stations had recently been
set apart in the Kingdom for
testing the saccharine contained in
the roots grown. In every instance
the amount of the saccharine con-
tained in the roots in almost every
part of England, Scotland, and Ire-
land was equal to that of Belgium,
France, and Germany, showing that
this country really could and ought
to grow the whole of the sugar which
it at present imported from abroad.
Mr. Frederick King reviewed the
progress which had been made by the
Society since it first met at Cavendish
Square, and held its first meeting at
Oxford in 1839. and referred to the
Society's great indebtedness to those
gentlemen who had so generously
helped them to acquire their new
premises at Harewood House.
Vote of Thanks to Chairman.
No other member rising,
Mr. C. C. Cotes said he had great
pleasure in proposing a vote of thanks
to the Duke of Devonshire for pre-
siding.
Mr. W. Barrow Simonds seconded
the motion, which was put by the
Secretary, and carried unanimously.
The President thanked the meet-
ing very much for their kind vote of
thanks. He hoped that most of them
would meet upon the next occasion of
their meeting at Cambridge, and lie
trusted that the Show would be as
successful as any in former years,
and worthy of the great pains which
had been taken by the Council and its
Committees in all the preparations.
The proceedings then terminated.
( lxxvii )
ROYAL AGRIGULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND,
proceedings of tbe Council*
THURSDAY, JUNE 28, 1894.
(IS THE SHOWYARD AT CAMBRIDGE.)
EkRL CATHCART (TRUSTEE) IN TEE CHAIR.
Present :
Members of Council. — Earl Cathcart
(Trustee), Mr. Alfied Ashworth, Mr.
Joseph Beach, Lord Brougham and
Vaux, Mr. Charles Clay, Mr. Percy E.
CrutchlejL Lieut.-Col. J. F. Curtis-
Hayward, Mr. Alfred Darby, Mr. J.
Marshall Dugdale, Mr. W. Frank-
ish, Mr. Joseph Martin, Hon. C. T.
Parker, Mr. Albert Pell, Mr. J. E. Ran-
some, Mr. S. Rowlandson, Mr. G. H.
Sanday, Mr. W. T. Scartli, Mr. A. .T.
Smith, Mr. Henry Smith, Sir J. L. E.
Spearman, Bart., Mr. E. W. Stany-
forth, Mr. E. V. V. Wheeler, Mr. C. W.
Wilson.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the
Journal; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
Consulting Chemist ; Professor Brown,
C.B., Consulting Veterinary Surgeon ;
Mr. R. Peters, Secretary of the Local
Committee.
In the unavoidable absence of the
President, the Chair was taken by Earl
Cathcart, Trustee.
The Minutes of the last monthly
meeting of tbe Council, held on
June 6, 1894, were taken as read and
approved.
The Secretary reported that in
view of the presence in the Showyard
of H.R.H. the Duke of York on the
previous day (Wednesday), for which
the Council meeting had been sum-
moned, the President had, in the
VOL. V. T. S. — 19
absence of a quorum at the appointed
hour, adjourned the Council until
1 P.M on that day (Thursday).
The Birth of a Prince,
The Secretary then read the fol-
lowingtelegram from H.R H. the Duke
of York, received by the President in
reply to the message of congratulation
telegraphed from the General Meet-
ing, held on the previous Tuesday (see
page xc) : —
To the Duke or Devonshire, Showyard,
Cambridge.— We thank the General Meeting
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
very warmly for their most kill'd congi at il-
lations on the birth of our sou.— George.
On the motion of the Chairman,
it was resolved that this telegram be
entered upon the Minutes.
Election of New Members.
The election of the following forty-
three new members was then pro-
ceeded with : —
Allison, H.. .Parkend, Lockerbie.
Appleby, J. ..East Benridge, Morpeth.
Berry, T. . .Walkden, Bolton-le* Moors.
Blackburne, R. I. . .Hale Hall, Liverpool.
Booth, J. G.. -Shady Nook, Kuutsford.
Brown, A. . . Mobberlev, Knutsford.
Bchkitt, \V„ Jnr... Chesterfield.
Ca Junes, F. E...Worsley, Manchester.
Carmichael, G. H. G...Callan«s, Mountain
Cross, N.B.
Clarke, G. T. F.. .Cohvorth, Bedford.
Crocker, T. E ..Draxmont, Wimbledor.
Dacombe. W. H... Little Pan Farm, Newport.
Isle of Wight.
Dunn, B...Kelfield Lodge. York.
Ellis, C. H. B. Keatoa..Eur.tingford.
/
lxxviii
Monthly Council , June 28, 1894.
Elwess, F. H. . . Scawtliorpe, Doncaster.
French, J. S. . .Chesterton Road, Cambridge.
Greenough, T. R. . . Leigh, Lancs.
Grigs, E. F. J. . .Longbeach, Canterbury, N.Z.
Halahan, Col. S. H.. .Haigblands, Forest Hill.
Hare, Sir G. R. L., Bt. . . Gressenhall, Dereliam.
Harrison, T. F.. .King's Walden, Hitehin.
Harvey, C. W.. .76 Rodney St., Liverpool.
Hutchinson, B. . . The Poole, Hereford.
Hutton, F.. .Awldey, Doncaster.
Jenks, A.. .Orton, Wolverhampton.
Jones, W. Pride.. .Downend, Glos.
Kitchener, G.. .Potton, Sandy.
Lodisr, Sir E. G.,Bt.. . Whittlebury, Towcester.
Lyon, A. J.. .Mill Road, Cambridge.
Mansel-Pleydell, Col...Longtliorns, Bland-
ford.
Probeut, W. G. . . Linton, Cambs.
Samuel, H. L.. .3 Kensington Palace Gardens,
London, W.
Sherston, Major.. Evercreech, Bath.
Skipworth, Rev. A, B. . .Hollesley Bay.
Spark, C. G. S.. . Wembdon, Bridgwater.
Speakman, T. F.. .Church Hill, Knutsford.
Tollemache, A. F. C. . . 10 Lennox Gdns., S.W.
Tyson, Hy . . Parrock Hall, Gravesend.
Vizard, Wm. .Glyn, Neath.
Wellingham, H. L. . . Southacre, Swaffham.
Willoughby, Hon. T. L. F. . . Settrington,
York.
Wilton, H. S. ..Braywick, Maidenhead.
Wright, John. .Polesworth, Tamvvorth.
Finance.
On the motion of Mr. SandAY, the
Report of the Finance Committee,
containing recommendations of pay-
ments amounting to 1.904Z. 10s. 'id.,
was received and adopted.
Veterinary.
The following report was presented
by Professor Brown upon the veteri-
nary examination of the horses under
Regulation 44 : —
The total number of horses sent by the
Judges for inspection was 217. Of this
number 36 were certified to be affected with
some form of hereditary disease.
From the hunter and hackney classes (X
to 2X), 71 animals were examined, and only
three were found to be unsound : one was
affected with ringbone, one with spavin, and
one with a malignant form of tumour
(melanosis).
From the Shire horses (Classes 27 to 37),
77 animals were examined, and 15 of them,
or nearly 20 per cent., were certified to be
unsound : one from cataract, two from dis-
eased feet, five from ringbone, three from
sidebone, one from spavin, and three from
roaring.
From the Clydesdales (Classes 38 to 42),
seven horses were examined, and one was
rejected as unsound from ringbone.
From the Suffolks (Classes 43 to 53), 56
horses were examined. Of these 15 were
certified to be unsound : nine from sidebone,
one from ringbone, one from spavin, one
from ophthalmia, and three from roaring,
lu addition to the above, six horses were
sent for examination from Class 54 (Agri-
cultural Geldings), and two of them were
found to be unsound : one from ringbone and
one from sidebone.
(Signed) G. T. Brown,
June 25, 1894.
Votes of Thanks in connection with
the Cambridge Meeting.
On the motion of the Hon. Cecil
T. Parker (Hon. Director), seconded
by Lord Brougham and Vaux
(Steward of Stock), it was unani-
mously resolved : —
That the best thanks of the Society
are due, and are hereby tendered to —
(a) The Master and Fellows of Jesus
College, for their kindness in placing
rooms at the College at the disposal
of the Society for the accommodation
of the Stewards and other officials
during the Cambridge Meeting.
(h) To Messrs. Foster & Co. (the
Local Bankers of the Society), the
Borough Police, and the Cambridge-
shire Constabulary, for the efficient
assistance rendered by them during
the Cambridge Meeting.
(c) To the Great Eastern, Great
Northern, Midland, and London and
North-Western Railway Companies,
for the facilities afforded by them in
connection with the Meeting.
( d ) To the St. John Ambulance
Association, for the ambulance
arrangements in the Showyard.
(a) To the National Telephone
Company (Limited), for their efficient
arrangements in the provision of
telephonic communication in the
Showyard and with the town of
Cambridge.
(f) To Messrs. J. R. & J. Brown,
of 23 Harrington Street, Hampstead
Road, N.W., for furnishing and deco-
rating the Royal Pavilion.
(y) To Mr. George Villers, of
Trumpington Road, Cambridge, for
providing the floral decorations in and
around the pavilions in the Showyard.
A letter was ordered to be addressed
to the Home Secretary, after the
conclusion of the Meeting, conveying
the appreciation of the Council of the
very efficient services rendered by the
A Division of the Metropolitan Police
at the Cambridge Meeting.
Darlington Meeting of 1895. lxxix
Suggestions of Stewards.
A number of suggestions made by
Stewards and other members of Coun-
cil, relating to details in connection
with the Cambridge Meeting, were
ordered to be referred to the several
Committees concerned.
Darlington Meeting of 1895.
On the motion of Mr. Crutch ley,
seconded by Mr. PELL.it was resolved
that the General Darlington Committee
be composed of the whole Council, with
six representatives of the Local Com-
mittee to be nominated by the Mayor
of Darlington, the Committee to sit
for the first time at 11 a.m. on
Wednesday, July 25, 1891.
It was arranged that a deputation
from the National Pig Breeders’
Association should be received by the
Stock Prizes Committee at 10 o’clock
on Tuesday, July 24, 1894, “ to suggest
that the conditions of age for boars
be the same as for sows, instead of as
at present, under eighteen months old.”
The Hon. C. T. Parker (Hon.
Director) submitted a preliminary
plan of the Showyard at Darlington,
which was approved, with a view to
the necessary works at Darlington
being proceeded with as early as pos-
sible.
Country Meeting of 1896.
Communications were received from
the authorities of Leicester and
Northampton, inviting the Society to
hold its Country Meeting of 1896 in
their respective towns. The Secre-
tary was directed to acknowledge the
receipt of these invitations with the
cordial thanks of the Council, and t:>
say that they would be duly con-
sidered at the next meeting, to be held
in Hanover Square on Wednesday,
July 25, 1894.
The Hon. C. T. Parker gave notice
that at the next meeting of the Coun-
cil he would move for the appoint-
ment of a Committee of Inspection
to visit and examine the various sites
and other accommodation offered by
different towns for the purposes of
the Country Meeting of 1896, and to
report thereon to the Council at their
meeting to be held on Wednesday,
November 7, 1894.
Suggestions at General Meeting.
The following suggestions made by
members at the General Meeting
were referred to the Stock Prizes and
Dairy Committees for consideration
and report : —
(1) The Hon. and Rev. A Baillie-
Hamilton : —
That the breed of Guernsey cattle
should be restored to its former
position in the prize-sheet as re-
gards the number and value of the
prizes offered.
(2) Mr. C. F. Hope
That the rules relating to the
exhibition of cheese should be
altered to admit of the entry of
cheesemakers who are accustomed
to hire cows from farmers, for the
purpose of turning the milk of such
cows into cheese.
Date of next Meeting.
Various letters and other docu-
ments having been laid upon the
table, the Council adjourned until
Wednesday, July 25, 1894, at 12
Hanover Square, at noon.
( \x±x )
WEDNESDAY, JULY 2S, 1894.
SIB JOHN H. THOKOLD, BART. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
Present :
Trustees. — Earl Cat heart, Mr. John
Bent Dent, Lord Egerton of Tatton,
Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B.,
Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart.
Vice-Presidents. — ltight Hon.
Henry ChapliD, M.P., Viscount
Kmlyn, Lord Moreton, Mr. Charles
Whitehead.
Other Members of Council. — Mr.
Alfred Ashworth, Mr. J. Bowen-
Jones, Lord Brougham and Vaux,
Mr. J. A. Caird, Earl of Coventry,
Mr. Percy E. Crutchley, Lieut.- Col.
J. F. Curtis- Playward, Mr. J. Marshall
Dugdale, Mr. C. S. Mainwaring,
Mr. Joseph Martin, Mr. T. H. Miller,
Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Mr. Dan. Pid-
geon, Mr. J. E. Kansome, Mr. James
Rawlence, Mr. S. Rowlandson, Mr.
Howard P. Ryland, Mr. G. H. Sanday,
Mr. W. T. Scarth, Mr. A. J. Smith,
Mr. Henry Smith, Mr. E. W. Stany-
forth, Mr. Martin J. SuttoD, Mr J.
P. Terry, Mr. John Tremayne, Mr.
R. A. Warren, Mr. E. V. V. Wheeler,
Sir Jacob Wilson.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the
Journal ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
.Consulting Chemist ; Professor Brown,
C.B., Consulting Veterinary Surgeon.
The following members of the
Darlington Local Committee were also
present : — Captain Gerald Walker,
the Borough Surveyor (Mr. Thomas
Smith), and Mr. F. Raymond Steaven-
son (Secretary of the Local Com-
mittee).
Apologies for non-attendance were
received from the Duke of Westmin-
ster, K.G., Viscount Bridport, G.C P>.,
Sir J. L. E. Spearman, Bart., Mr.
F. S. W. Cornwallis, M.P., Mr. W.
Frankish, Mr. James Hornsby, Mr.
Charles Howard, Mr. P. A. Muntz,
M.P., Mr. Albert Pell, Mr. C. W. Wil-
son, and Professor J. B. Simonds.
Confirmation of Minutes,
The Minutes of the last Ordinary
Meeting of the Council held in the
Showy ard at Cambridge on June 28,
1894, were taken as read and
approved. The Minutes of the two
Special Council Meetings, held in the
Showyard at Cambridge on Monday,
June 25, and Friday, June 29, 1891,
were read and confirmed. The Min-
utes of the Special Council on June
25 related to the enforcement of one
of the Society’s regulations and to
the Trials of Oil Engines. Those of
June 29 included a report from Pro-
fessor Brown and Mr. Duguid, certi-
fying that none of the animals ex-
hibited at Cambridge showed any in-
dications of contagions or infectious
disease, and that no outbreak of such
disease had occurred during the
Show; and votes of thanks to the
Rev. E. H. Morgan and Professor
Liveing for services kindly rendered
by them in connection with the Cam-
bridge Meeting.
Election of New Governors and
Members.
The election of the following three
Governors and forty- three Members
was then proceeded with : —
Governors.
Pig by, Lord. .Cerne Abbas, Dorchester.
Duleer Sixgh, Piince Frederick.. White’s
Club, S.W.
Mobrei.i., Lieut. -Col. G. H.. .Headington Hiil
Hall, Oxou.
Members.
Amos, G. W. . .Lillington, Leamington.
B.allam, E. J. C.. .The Ashes, Stowmnrket.
Karxf.tt, W. . .Court Street, Faversham.
Bei.l, H... Bridge House, Grantham.
Birch, F. ,T. L...Delamere Ho., Wylye, Bath.
Bmcn, Mrs. May. .Kirk Hammerton, York.
Bi.akf, A. Mi. . Danesburv, Welwyn.
Blyth, Audley..Wooi House. Stansted.
Briggs, Robert E...Lennel Hill, Coldstream,
N.B.
Bbockrebaxk, J.. .Carlton-le-Moorland, New-
ark.
Cami-relr, Hugh. .Kingston, Halifax.
Bicentenary of the University of Halle.
lxxxi
Cant, Walter.. Mylani), Colchester.
Capper, Prof. D. S.. . King’s College, W.C.
Cavendish, R. F. . . 6 Carlos Place, W.
Champion, W. N. L. . .Riddlesworth Hall,
Thetford.
Cleeve, tT. A. . .Hartford, Cheshire.
Coode, Harold. .61 Dyer’s St., Cirencester.
Coupland, S. J. . .Long Sutton, Wisbech.
Darling, F.. .Eldon, Bishop Auckland.
Denison, J. B.. .Balure, Bembridge, I. of W.
Eastwood, J. R.. .Littleover Grange, Derby.
Gilbertson, A. H.. .Glanrhyd, Swansea Yale.
Goodlu’P, Richard. .Huntingdon.
Gregory, T. S. P...Harlaxton, Grantham.
Grodzki, S. ..33 Senatorska, Warsaw.
H ackett, W.C... Adelaide, S. Australia.
Hamilton, C. E.. .44 Stratford Road, W.
Heneage, J. W.. .Bovill's Hall, Gazeley.
Lee, E...Fowley, Lipliook.
Mackey, Wm. J.. .New Brompton.
Malcolm, I. Z.. .Poltalloch, N.B.
Mannsell, F. ..21 Portland St., Southampton.
Mills, W. R.. .Castle Meadow, Norwich.
Paiimkter, P. J.. .Harwood Ansty, Salisbury.
Phillips, Maj.-Geu.. .Ashenhurst Hall, Staffs.
Sherston, T. P. D...R. A. College, Cirencester.
Stilwell, H...Steepleton Manor, Dorchester.
Thornrorrow, J.. .Penrith.
Watt, W. H.. .R.A. College, Cirencester.
Welch, J. K.. .Sopley Park, Ringwood.
WENN, T. H...Dowuham Market.
Whipple, A. H.. .Riverside, Grantham.
Whitaker, W. I.. .Pylewell Park,Lymington.
New Member of Council,
Earl Cathcart, Chairman of the
Committee of Selection, formally in-
troduced Mr. Howard P. Ryland, who
attended as a member of Council for
the first time.
Bicentenary of the University
of Halle.
The President said that before
commencing the ordinary business of
the reception of the reports of Com-
mittees, there was a matter of some
importance to bring under the notice
of the Council. The University of
Halle, which was perhaps the most
famous in the world for its teaching
of agriculture, and at which agricul-
ture was one of the faculties, would
celebrate its bicentenary next week.
The Senate had issued invitations to
foreign universities and other lead-
ing educational institutions to send
delegates to the official celebration
of the bicentenary; and Cambridge,
Dublin, London, Oxford, and others of
their own universities had recognised
the importance of the occasion by
sending representatives and addresses
of congratulation. Their Society had
had the high compliment paid it of
being included in the list of educa-
tional institutions invited ; but the
original invitation having been un-
fortunately lost in the post, it had
not been possible to take the opinion
of the Council at an earlier date. He
was serry that his own personal
engagements forbade the hope that
he could attend himself as President,
as had been suggested ; and he
regretted to learn that his noble
friend, the Chairman of the Educa-
tion Committee — who would be the
most appropriate person to represent
the Society — would also be unable to
go. At the same time, the Council
would doubtless agree that, in view
of the specially agricultural character
of the University of Halle, it was not
desirable that the bicentenary about
to be celebrated should be allowed to
pass without notice by the Society.
Earl Cathcart said that this was
a matter which had been considered
on the previous day by the Committee
of Selection. He was excessively
sorry that the President would be
unable to go himself, but, as that
could not be, perhaps some other
members of Council would attend as
representing the Society. Halle was
an important educational establish-
ment, and it was a compliment to the
Society to be asked to send there a
delegation upon such a very interest-
ing occasion. Germany had a Royal
Agricultural Society of its own,
founded upon the model of that
Society, imitation being the sincerest
form of flattery. The feeling of the
Committee, who had considered the
whole matter, was that the Society
should be represented by the Secre-
tary, and, perhaps, two or three
members of the Council might consent
to go also. He (Lord Cathcart) was
decidedly of opinion that the Secre-
tary ought to be delegated to attend
the bicentenary of the Halle
University on behalf of the Society,
and he moved a formal resolution to
that effect.
The Earl of Coventry seconded
the motion, which was carried
unanimously.
The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below
Ixxxii
Monthly Council , July 25, 1894.
Finance.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
period ended June 30, 1894, as cer-
tified by the Society’s Accountants,
showed receipts amounting to 1,6397.
lfs. 9 d., and expenditure to 6,0937. 3.s.
6 d. The balance at the bankers’ on
June 30, allowing for cheques out-'
standing, was 2,701 7. 12s. 9(7. The
accounts for the period ended July
21,1894, showed receipts amounting
to 10,4277. 14s. Id., and expenditure to
1,9047. 10s. 3 d., with a balance at the
bank, allowing for cheques outstand-
ing, of 11,2247. 16s. 7(7. Accounts
relating to the Cambridge Meeting,
amounting in all to 11,0227. 8s., and
relating to the ordinary business of
the Society, amounting to 3,7587. 8s.
10(7., had been passed, and were re-
commended for payment. The
quarterly statement of subscriptions
and arrears, and of the Society’s
property, as at June 30, 1894, had
been laid upon the table.
On the motion of Sir Nigel
Kingscote, seconded by the Hon.
Cecil T. Parker, it was resolved : —
That, ill view of the desirableness of wind-
ing up as early as possible the accounts for
the Cambridge Meeting, and also the ac-
counts connected with the transference of
the Society’s offices to Harewood House,
authority he given to the President, the
Chairman of the Finance Committee, and
the Secretary to issue during the recess
orders upon the Society’s bankers for the
payment of accounts connected with the
Show and the new offices.
House.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the Committee had
given instructions as to the fittings,
floor-coverings, electric lighting, and
other matters connected with Hare-
wood House, and as to the transfer-
ence of the Society’s offices to the
new premises.
Journal.
Earl Cathcaet (Chairman) re-
ported the publication on June 30 of
Vol. V., Part 2, of the Journal, the
copies of which had been duly distri-
buted to the members. Various ac-
counts in respect of literary contri-
butions and printing had been passed
and referred to the Finance Committee
for payment. Applications for per-
mission to reprint Professor Yeo’s
paper on the “ Pathology of Pleuro-
pneumonia,” in Vol. XIV. of the
Journal, and the article on anthrax in
the current number of the Journal,
had been granted on the usual con-
ditions. Directions had been given to
the Editor as to the contents of the
next number of the Journal, and as to
a variety of suggestions for articles
and notes.
Chemical.
Viscount Emlyn (Chairman) re-
ported the receipt of a letter from
the Permanent Nitrate Committee,
complaining of a paragraph in the
quarterly report of the Chemical
Committee, published in the last
number of the Journal, on the subject
of the alleged deterioration of the
quality of nitrate of soda: as to which
the Committee had to remark that
the statement in question was based
upon the results of analyses made for
members of the Society during 1893
and the first five months of 1894.
During 1893 the percentage of ana-
lyses which showed less than 95 per
cent, of nitrate was 1 7‘6, and during
1894 the percentage of analyses
showing this deficiency was 53'3.
The Committee presented their
usual quarterly report, and the re-
port of the Woburn Sub-Committee.
On the motion of Viscount Emlyn,
the quarterly report of the Chemical
Committee was adopted, and ordered
to be published in the next number
of the Journal (see page 511).
Botanical.
Mr. Whitehead (Chairman) re-
ported that the question of the con-
tinuance of the offer of prizes for
jams and preserved fruits had been
discussed. After careful considera-
tion, the Committee had unanimously
agreed to recommend the continuance
of these prizes at the Darlington
Meeting, and they proposed, if this
recommendation were approved by the
Council, to reconsider the detailed
regulations after the autumn recess,
subject to a schedule being submitted
to the Stock Prizes Committee. The
Reports of Botanical and Veterinary Committees. lxxxiii
Committee recommended that prizes
for cider and perry be offered at
Darlington as at Cambridge.
Mr. Whitehead said that he was
unavoidably absent from the meeting
of the Committee on the previous
day, and it was quite unwittingly
that he appeared to be in opposition
to his colleagues on the Committee in
regard to the proposed continuance of
prizes for jams and preserved fruits.
He had been led to think that the
prizes for jams and preserved fruits
should be discontinued, because in his
capacity as judge at Cambridge he
had been much struck with the few
and inferior entries that were then
exhibited. A great deal of the jam
was of such indifferent quality that
he felt at the time that some altera-
tion ought to be made, or that the
prizes should be discontinued alto-
gether. He might say that in a local
show at Maidstone they had a very
much larger entry of jams and pre-
serves than they had ever had at the
Royal Agricultural Society’s Meetings,
and the reason, perhaps, might be
that the large jam manufacturers
did not care about competing, and
that the private manufacturers did
not like to run the chance of compet-
ing against the large manufacturers
at the “ Royal.” Probably if the regu-
lations were reconsidered, and the
large manufacturers eliminated alto-
gether, or if different classes were
made for them and for the private
manufacturers, they might have a
larger competition. He would be very
sorry to appear to throw cold water
upon any efforts to encourage indus-
tries affecting agriculture, especially
at this crisis, but it was evident that
some alterations would have to be
made with regard to the prizes for
jams.
Mr. Sanday said that he expressed
no opinion on the subject now, but
would point out that the Stock Prizes
Committee would have to be consulted
before these prizes could be inserted
in the prize-sheet.
Finger-and-Toe in Turnips.
Earl Cathcakt, referring to the
question of finger-and-toe in turnips,
said that Mr. Rawlence had very
kindly taken a great deal of pains in
supplying Mr. Carrathers with inter-
esting specimens of infected roots,
and had also invited Mr. Carruthers
to pay him a visit for the purpose of
investigating the disease upon the
spot. He should be glad to know
when Mr. Carruthers was likely to
present a report on this disease.
Mr. Whitehead said that Mr.
Carruthers was at present away on
holiday, but that he (Mr. Whitehead)
would write to him with a view to a
report upon the subject being pre-
sented at as early a date as possible.
Veterinary.
Mr. Ashworth (Chairman) re-
ported that a desire had been ex-
pressed by the Chairman of the
Gloucestershire County Council that
a separate reprint should be made of
the articles on anthrax by Professors
Brown and McFadyean in the current
number of the Journal. The Com-
mittee had referred the matter to the
Journal Committee, with the expres-
sion of their opinion that such a
reprint would be desirable, but that
the authors should be asked to revise
their articles so as to adapt them for
publication in pamphlet form. The
Committee had discussed the ques-
tion of the advisability of in future
publishing the reasons for the vete-
rinary rejection of stallions and brood
mares under Regulation 44 of the
prize-sheet ; and eventually it had
been agreed to recommend that at
future Country Meetings the owner
of an animal rejected under this regula-
tion, upon his application, be furnished
with a copy of the veterinary certi-
ficate. The Committee also recom-
mended that in future the Dames of
the veterinary surgeons who were to
be engaged in the examination of the
horses to be exhibited at the Society’s
Country Meeting should be previously
submitted to the Veterinary Commit-
tee for approval, and then published
in the Journal, together with the
names of the judges. Letters had
been read from the Farriers’ Com-
pany, communicating the following
resolutions of the Registration Com-
mittee under the scheme for the
National Registration of Farriers or
lxxxiv
Monthly Council, July 25, 1894,
Shoeing Smiths, which had been
adopted by the Court of the Company,
and asking for the Council’s approval
thereof, in order that the scheme
might be revised accordingly : — -
1. That provision be made for registering
“ doormen ” in a special list as registered
doormen, at a reduced fee.
2. That the Registration Committee con-
sist of ten members of the Farriers’ Com-
pany, six registered men, six members
appointed by the Council of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, and six mem-
bers appointed by the Royal College of
Veterinary Surgeons.
The Committee recommended that
the Secretary be instructed to reply
that the Council would not raise any
objection to the alterations proposed.
Under Clause 4 of the scheme, half of
the Society’s six representatives now
retired from the Registration Com-
mittee, but they were eligible for
re-appointment, and the Committee
accordingly recommended the re-ap-
pointment of Sir Nigel Kingscote, Sir
Jacob Wilson, and Mr. Ernest Clarke.
Professor Brown had presented the
following report : —
Pleuro-fxefmonia. — In connection with
the outbreak of this disease discovered near
Margate in April last, 311 cattle were
slaughtered, of which eight were found
affected with the disease. A few days ago
another outbreak of pleuro-pneumonia was
discovered in Middlesex, in the Hendon
district, close to premises where the disease
existed last year. Tbe history of this case
has not yet been made out.
Swine Fever.—' This disease is still very
prevalent in many parts of England, in
some parts of Wales, and lias recently been
reported in several counties of Scotland.
During the seven weeks ended July 14,
3,112 pigs died from swine fever, while
12,765 pigs were slaughtered as diseased or
having been exposed to the i*isk of infection.
In addition to the above, 222 were slaugh-
tered as suspected, but on post-mortem were
found free from the disease.
Anthrax. — During the seven weeks above
referred to, 53 outbreaks of this disease were
reported in Great Britain, and 122 animals
were attacked, of which 113 died and eight
recovered.
Rabies. — Of this disease 32 cases were re-
ported in Great Britain in seven weeks ;
27 of these were in England and five in
Scotland.
Abortion. — It is proposed to commence
the scientific investigation at once by placing
under observation at the College some cows
from an infected herd, and others from a
herd in which epizootic abortion has not
appeared.
Investigations. — Since the Committee
last met, investigations have been made re-
garding serious losses among cattle from
parasitic gastritis and enteritis. Anthrax
vaccine has been supplied for the inoculation
of all the animals (horses and cattle) in one
farm, and the operations were carried out
without any fatality. Experiments have
been made with a view to ascertaining the
protective value of the Pasteurian inocu-
lation, and further experiments and obser-
vations are being made regarding the effect
of putrefaction in the virulence of anthrax
carcasses.
National Registration of Shoeing
Smiths.
Sir Jacob Wilson asked to be re-
lieved from the duty of acting as one
of the Society’s representatives upon
tbe Registration Committee of the
Farriers’ Company, and moved that
Mr. Stanyforth be elected in his place.
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker secon-
ded the motion, which was adopted.
Disposal of Anthiax Carcasses.
Sir Nigel Kingscote, in reference
to the proposal of the Committee that
a reprint should be made of the article
on anthrax in the current number of
the Journal, said it was desirable that
if such a reprint were made at ail, it
should be undertaken by the Society
rather than by any other body.
Earl Cathcart thought the article
was hardly adapted for publication as
a pamphlet in its present form.
Professor Brown explained that
Professor McFadyean and himself, as
the writers of the short notes on an-
thrax, had contemplated revising the
whole article and putting it into proper
form for the purpose of being pub-
lished at once, so that the local au-
thorities and everybody concerned
might be made aware that they need
not cut open the bodies of animals
suspected to be dead of anthrax, which
was a dangerous and deadly thing to
do ; but that if they cut off an ear or
a foot and sent it to the Royal Veteri-
nary College Laboratory it was easy
to find out whether the animal had
died of anthrax or not. Most of the
proposed devices for the disposal of
anthrax carcasses involved cutting
them up, but the safest thing to do
was to bury the carcass absolutely un-
touched, with the exception of the
amputated ear or foot, which might be
sent to the College for examination.
Within a short time, certainly within
three weeks, all risk of danger of in-
fection from the buried carcass would
Veterinary Inspection of Horses at Country Meetings, lxxxv
have disappeared. Those were the two
points to which it was desired that as
much publicity t s possible should be
given.
Earl Cathcakt said that there
would not be theleast objection on the
part of the Journal Committee to the
publication of this information in the
form of a leaflet.
It was accordingly decided that Pro-
fessor Brown should be asked to pre-
pare a leaflet giving the desired infor-
mation, for immediate distribution by
the Society amongst those interested
in the subject.1
Veterinary Inspection of Horses.
Professor Brown, in reference to the
proposed submission of the names of
the veterinary inspectors to the Veteri-
nary Committee, said it was perfectly
agreeable to him that such a course
should be adopted. He had always
endeavoured to obtain the best pro-
fessional skill at the Society’s Meetings.
At the Cambridge Meeting he had
engaged the services of Professor Axe,
who had had more than a score of
years’ experience in the examination
of horses ; Professor Penbertliy and
Professor Macqueen, who were also
constantly engaged in the same way
at the Itoyal Veterinary College ; the
President of the Royal College of
Veterinary Surgeons (Mr. Wragg),
who was a London practitioner of
large experience ; Mr. Lepper, whose
name was historical in connection
with horses ; and Mr. Duguid, who
had long been associated in work for
their Society. In the majority of
the cases he (Professor Brown) him-
self had also bad the opportunity of
seeing and noting the unsoundness
certified by the veterinary surgeons.
Mr. Ashworth said that the Veteri-
nary Committee not only had not the
slightest objection to publish the
names of the veterinary surgeons in
advance, but were desirous of sharing
with Professor Brown the responsi-
bility for their selection.
Mr. Dekt said that he had moved
in Committee that the names should
be published. I hey had recently taken
upon themselves to publish the names
1 Copies of this leaflet, which has now been
published, may be obtained on application
to the Secretary at 13 Hanover Square,
Loudon, W.
of the judges, and it was desirable
that the names of the veterinary in-
spectors should also be published. It
was important to have all possible
publicity in these matters, in order
that people might not go about the
Showjard saying that the horses were
examined by nobody knew whom, and
were rejected for nobody knew what.
Stock Prizes.
Mr. SANDAY (Chairman) reported
that the Committee had received a de-
putation, consisting of Captain Hea-
ton, Mr. John Barron, and Mr. Norman,
from the National Pig Breeders’ Asso-
ciation, to suggest “ that the age for
boars be the same as for sows, instead
of as at present, under eighteen months
old.” Captain Heaton, on behalf of
the deputation, had explained that the
present conditions limiting the exhibi-
tion of boars to those farrowed in the
year previous to the Show compelled
exhibitors to force their animals from
the day of their birth, and thus prac-
tically keep the animals for exhibition
only, and had pointed out that under
present conditions it was impossible
for the public to see a mature boar in
the Society’s Showyards. The Com-
mittee, having considered the matter,
recommended that the classes for
boars (if offered in connection with
the Darlington Meeting next year)
should be for boars farrowed in 1893
and 1894. Letters had been read
from the Secretaries of the National
Sheep Breeders’ Association and the
Shropshire Sheep Breeders’ Association
as to double fees for second entries
of stock, but the Committee recom-
mended that the scale of entry fees as
settled last year be adhered to for the
Darlington Meeting. Various letters
respecting classes and prizes for the
Darlington prize-sheet had been con-
sidered, and the Committee recom-
mended that the date of lambing of
Dorset Horned sheep be altered from
December 1 to November 1. Vari-
ous suggestions by Stewards and
Judges at the Cambridge Meeting had
also been considered by the Commit-
tee. The following suggestion made
by Stewards and other members of
Council, “ that in future no member
of Council shall act as judge at the
Society ’s Meetings,” had been carefully
Ixxxvi
Monthly Council , July 25, 1894.
considered ; and the Committee had
decided to recommend that it be an
instruction from the Council to the
Committee for the selection of judges,
when appointed, that no member of
Council be selected as a judge.
Selection of Judges.
Mr. Terry said that unfortunately
he was not present at the Stock Prizes
Committee on the previous day, and
he therefore wished to know whether
the Stewards were unanimous in their
suggestion that in future no member
of Council should act as judge at the
Society’s Country Meetings.
Mr. Sanday explained that he had
put this suggestion in the Stewards’
Suggestion Book, but he had not in his
mind anything that had taken place at
the Cambridge Meeting. The sugges-
tion had been inserted by him in the
Stewards’ Book, and other Stewards
and members of Council who had seen
it had also added their names.
Mr. Terry said that his only object
was information. He thought that if
they were going to change the prac-
tice which had existed for a consider-
able number of years, some reason
ought to be given why the step should
be taken.
Sir Jacob Wilson said that, in his
capacity as a former Chairman of the
Stock Prizes Committee, and as Hono-
rary Director for some years, he had
persistently protested against members
of Council being elected as judges at
their Shows, and he had done so on
various grounds. In this view he had
been supported by the Highland and
many other societies, who did not per-
mit it. He was perfectly aware that
by passing such a resolution they would
be depriving themselves of the ser-
vices of many eminent judges who
were members of the Council, but their
services might be utilised in other and,
perhaps, more useful ways. Since
their Showyard had assumed such
large proportions it became a very
hard task for the Honorary Director
to get that assistance which he really
required in order to have the judging
carried out upon the first day of the
Show. Thus, members of Council who
were now occupied as judges would
be of more use to the Society as sup-
plementary Stewards on the first
morning of the Show ; and it was not
right that the Honorary Director
should be compelled to go outside
when he could utilise the services of
the gentlemen who were members of
the Council. He hoped , however, that
no member of Council who had acted
as judge at Cambridge would enter-
tain the idea that there had been any
reflection upon anyone who had been
judging there. He should certainly
support the recommendation of the
Stock Prizes Committee, because he
had been a consistent advocate of such
a policy for the last twenty years.
Mr. Pidgeon asked whether the
rule was intended to apply to the
judges of implements, and was
answered in the affirmative.
The report of the Committee was
then adopted.
Implement.
Mr. Rowlandson presented
various accounts in connection with
the trials at the Cambridge Meeting,
which had been passed for payment.
In view of the fact that eight of the
twenty-five oil-engines entered for
competition for the Society’s prizes
at Cambridge were absent from the
trials, thus causing the Society great
and unnecessary expense in prepara-
tions, the Committee thought that a
deposit considerably larger in amount
than at present (1Z.) should be required
in connection with future trials ; and
they recommended that the amount
of deposit payable in respect of the
haymaking machines and clover-
making machines to be entered in
connection with the Darlington Meet-
ing be fixed at 51. The Committee
also recommended that, havingregard
to the great number of exhibits
entered as “ New Implements,” a non-
returnable entry fee be charged for
every exhibit entered as a “ New
Implement,” and that, in the event of
any such implement being considered
by the Stewards and judges not to come
within the meaning of the regulations
governing the entry of new imple-
ments, a fine of 1 1. be imposed upon
the exhibitor. Resolutions had been
considered from the Agricultural
Exhibitors’ Association, and from a
meeting of exhibitors and their repre-
sentatives, held on the Showground
at Cambridge on June 29, respecting
Ixxxvii
Education Life Memberships.
No. 41 of the Implement Regulations,
governing the issue of handbills by
exhibitors, and the Committee had
decided that, in view of the great
annoyance caused to visitors in the
Showyard, and the consequent trouble
entailed upon the Stewards, the regu-
lation in question be retained, and
that any exhibitor wilfully contraven-
ing the rule be debarred from ex-
hibiting at future Meetings of the
Society. Letters from a number of
exhibitors expressing regret for in-
fringing this regulation at Cambridge
had been laid upon the table.
General Darlington.
Mr. Dent reported that at the
meeting of Council held in the Show-
yard on June 28, the General Darling-
ton Committee had been constituted
of the whole Council, together with
six representatives of the Local
Committee. The Mayor having
nominated the following gentlemen,
they had been duly elected members
of the Committee : — Lord Barnard,
the Mayor of Darlington for the time
being, Captain Gerald Walker, Mr.
Robert Bruce, the Borough Surveyor,
and Mr. F. Raymond Steavenson as
Local Secretary. After discussion it
had been agreed to recommend that the
date of the Darlington Meeting be
fixed for Monday, June 24, to Friday,
June 28, 1895, the implement yard
only being opened on the previous
Saturday, June 22. A memorial from
the High Gosforth Park Company,
asking that the date of the Darlington
Meeting might not be fixed during
the race meeting held in that week,
had been carefully considered, but it
had been found impracticable to
change the dates on which the
Society’s Meeting was usually held.
The dates for the closing of the entries
for implements and stock had been
fixed as usual— April 1 (implements)
and May 1 (stock), with post entries
for stock up to Saturday, May 11.
After discussion, it was resolved,
on the motion of the Hon. Cecil T.
Pakkek, seconded by Mr. Rowland-
son, that the Darlington Meeting be
held in the week commencing Mon-
day, June 24, 1895.
Showyard Works.
Sir Jacob Wilson (Chairman) re-
ported that the greater portion of the
shedding at Cambridge had been
taken down, and the permanent
plant had been removed to Darlington
and stored away. He also reported
that two sales of materials had been
held, which realised fair prices. The
concluding sales would take place on
August 7 and 8, by which time all the
permanent plant would have been
removed to Darlington. The arrange-
ments for prevention of fire at the
Darlington Meeting had been dis-
cussed, and instructions given thereon.
The Committee had received an inti-
mation that Messrs. Kent & Bry-
don, seedsmen, of Darlington, would
be willing to provide the floral deco-
rations for the pavilions in the Dar-
lington Showyard free of charge, and
they recommended that this offer be
accepted with thanks.
Education Life Memberships.
Mr. Ransome then moved the fol-
lowing resolution, of which he had
given notice : — “ That the resolution
of the Council of March 7, 1894, by
which the granting of Life Member-
ships to successful candidates at the
Society’s Senior Examination was
abolished, be rescinded.” He said
that this matter was brought pro-
minently forward at their Annual
Meeting, held on May 22 last, by
Mr. T. A. Dickson (himself an Educa-
tion Life Member), who was strongly
supported by Professor Wallace, and
the President promised that the mat-
ter should be reconsidered by the
Council. This resolution to discon-
tinue the granting of Life Member-
ships to successful candidates was
brought forward independently by
Mr. Pell, and was not based upon the
recommendation of the Education
Committee. It was carried at the
latter end of the Council Meeting,
when, comparatively, there was only
a small number of members present,
and he ventured to say that the sub-
ject did not have that full and
thorough consideration which its
importance deserved. He felt that
if the Council had had the facts
before them at that time they would
not have accepted Mr. Pell’s motion,
or they would have referred the
whole question back to the Education
lxxxviii
Monthly Council, July 25, 1894.
Committee for consideration. One
of the reasons urged by Mr. Pell,
perhaps the strongest, was that those
members of the Society who had
become members by examination did
not devote their lives to agriculture
to any large extent. That was the
impression at the time. Since then
Mr. Dickson had put into his hands
answers which he had received from
the various examinees who were Life
Members. He (Mr. Ransome) found,
on the whole, that less than 5 per cent,
were not directly connected with
agriculture or were not closely con-
nected with agricultural education.
He thought this was a very strong
argument. Mr. Dickson said at the
General Meeting that “ he had taken
some little trouble to find out what
was the present occupation of these
members. From fourteen he had as
yet no return whatever, owing to
their residence abroad or in the
coloLiei, but of the remaining
seventy, only two wrote to say that
they were not at the present time in-
timately connected with agriculture.
Ten were engaged in farming, twenty-
three were land agents, eighteen
were teachers at different centres, such
as Edinburgh University, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, Reading, Cairo, Poonah,
&c., and seventeen were either small
landowners or were otherwise inti-
mately con nected with the agricultural
industry.” It appeared, therefore,
that a very small percentage were not
directly connected with agriculture.
When they remembered that one of
the objects of their Society was “to
take measures for the improve-
ment of the education of those who
depend upon the cultivation of the soil
for their support,” and when they con-
sidered the value placed upon scien-
tific education in the present day, and
the great necessity there was that
agriculture should have the benefit of
scientific education as well as other
industries in this country, they would
feel that a great Society like the
“ Royal” ought not to do anything at
any time — and more especially at this
time — to detract from the value of
the examinations, which he believed
certainly stood at the very top of the
tree. Although the money prizes
were valuable, and he would not advo-
cate their being discontinued, yet he
thought that there was no question
whatever that these Education Life
Memberships were very much more
highly esteemed than anything in the
shape of money. The fact that suc-
cessful candidates had their names in
the list of members of the Society
with a special mark, indicating that
they had received their Life Member-
ships after having passed a very severe
and stringent examination, gave a
much greater value to them than any
money prizes could possibly have.
He hoped the Council would under-
stand that he was merely moving that
the former resolution should be re-
scinded. The Council would re-
member that the Education Com-
mittee had proposed that the number
of Life Memberships should be re-
duced from an unlimited number to
five per annum, and that this was
the first year in which that resolution
had come into force. Perhaps he
might be allowed to say that the
Education Committee had considered
this matter yesterday, and they were
prepared with some suggestions in
their report, provided that his reso-
lution was carried. He would not
say more, but move the resolution
that stood in his name.
Mr. Mainwaring seconded the
resolution.
Sir Nigel Kingscote said he held
in his hand a letter from Mr. Pell,
saying how much he regretted to be
unable to be present to support him
in his contention that this resolution
ought not to be rescinded. With all
deference to Mr. Ransome, he would
say that when Mr. Pell’s motion was
brought forward there were more
people in the room than there were
now. It was true there was no dis-
cussion, but there was every oppor-
tunity for discussion. He did not
wish to repeat what he had said
when Mr. Pell brought forward his
motion, but he strongly objected to
giving these Life Memberships to
scholars who came up for their exami-
nations. There were prizes of 25 1.,
15Z., 10Z.,and 5Z. given, which he con-
sidered quite sufficient for the purpose
of fostering emulation. He did not
see why the Society should hamper
itself with these Life Members, nor
Education Life Memberships.
Ixxxix
did he consider that they were called
upon to give away Life Memberships
at all. He trusted that the Council
would not rescind the resolution, and
he should certainly vote against
Mr. Ransome’s motion.
Sir Jacob Wilson said that since
the resolution was passed there ap-
peared to have arisen a very strong
feeling, both inside and outside that
building, that the question had not
been completely discussed ; therefore,
if there should be any doubt about
the matter, the present gave an op-
portunity for having it thoroughly
threshed out de novo, and it was only
fair and just that it should be recon-
sidered. Let them not make a mis-
take for want of time in the discussion
of this matter.
Colonel Curtis-Hayward, speak-
ing as one with an open mind upon
this question, asked what was the
opinion of the Education Committee
upon the subject.
Lord Moreton said that to simplify
matters he might say that, in case Mr.
Ransome’s motion for the rescinding
of the resolution were carried out, the
Committee intended to propose that
in future there should be five Life
Memberships given annually, but that
those who received them would have
to gain at least two-thirds of the
maximum number of marks.
Earl Cathcart said that they
should not lose sight of what was done
by the Surveyors’ Institution. Young
men intending to become land agents
especially desired to pass the examina-
tion of that Institution, because it was
very strict, and because of the import-
ance attached to it in courts of law.
After some further discuss’on, in
which Lord Egerton of Tatton, the
President, Sir Jacob Wilson, Mr.
Crutchley, Viscount Emlyn, Mr.
Dugdale, Lord Moreton, and Mr.
Sutton took part, Mr. Ransome’s
motion was put, and declared carried
by fourteen votes to thirteen. It was
then decided that the whole matter
should be postponed for consideration
after the autumn reces®, and that
meanwhile facts and statistics on the
subject should be printed and circu-
lated amongst the members of the
Council.
Dairy.
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker (Chair-
man) reported that the Committee
had considered the following sugges-
tion made by Mr. Hope at the General
Meeting in the Showyard at Cambridge
on Tuesday, June 26, 1891 : — “ That
the rules relating to the exhibition of
cheese should be altered to admit of
the entry of cheesemakers who are
accustomed to hire cows from farmers
for the purpose of turning the milk of
such cows into cheese,” and, seeing no
objection to this alteration, recom-
mended that therule be altered accord-
ingly. The Steward of Dairying had
been requested to give effect at future
Country Meetings to a suggestion
made by the judges of butter at Cam-
bridge, that the butter at future shows
should be left exposed as cut by the
judges, in order that the public might
be in a position to appreciate the differ-
ences between the respective exhibits.
Country Meeting of 1893.
Invitations from the authorities of
Leicester and Northampton for the
holding of the Society’s Country
Meeting of 1896 were laid before the
Council, and, on the motion of the
Hon. Cecil T. Parker, seconded by
Sir Jacob Wilson, it was resolved : —
“ That a Committee of Inspection be
appointed to visit and examine the
various sites and other accommodation
offered by different towns for the pur-
poses of the Country Meeting of 1896,
and to report thereon to the Council
at their meeting to be held on Novem-
ber 7, 1894.”
Upon the recommendation of the
Committee of Selection, and on the
motion of Earl Cathcart, the Com-
mittee of Inspection was constituted
of the President, the Earl of Coventry,
the Hon. C. T. Parker, Mr. E. V. V
Wheeler, Mr. S. Rowlandson, Mr. J. P.
Terry, and the Secretary.
Miscellaneous.
Various letters and other documents
having been laid upon the table, and
the date of the General Meeting in
December having been fixed for
Thursday, December 13, 1894, the
Council adjourned over the autumn
recess until Wednesday, November 7,
next, at noon.
( xc )
fl>t*oceebmo$ at (Seneral flfoeetma of Governors
anb HD embers,
HELD IN THE LARGE TENT IN THE
SI-IOWYARD AT CAMBRIDGE.
TUESDAY, JUNE 26, 1894.
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
Present on the Platform :
H.R.II. the Prince of Wales, K.G.,
H.R.H. Prince Christian, K.G., the
Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K.G.,
the Duke of Westminster, K.G., Earl
Cathcart, Earl Cadogan, K.G., the Earl
of Feversham, the Earl of Lathom,
G. C.B., the Earl of Ravensworth, the
Earl of Sefton, Lord Brougham and
Vaux, Lord Moreton, the Hon. Cecil
T. Parker, Right Hon. Sir Massey
Lopes, Bart., Sir W. Gilstrap, Bart.,
Sir J. L. E. Spearman, Bart., Sir J.
H. Thorold, Bart., Colonel Sir Nigel
Kingscote, K.C.B., Sir Jacob Wilson,
Messrs. J. H. Arkwright, Alfred Ash-
worth, J. Bowen- Jones, Charles Clay,
H. Chandos-Pole-Gell, Lieut.-Col. J.
F. Curtis-Hayward, Messrs. John
Dent Dent, A. B. Freeman-Mitford,
C.B., M.P., J. J. Colman, M.P., W.
Frankish, A. Hamond, James Hornsby,
Charles Howard, J. Martin, P. Albert
Muntz, M.P., J. E. Ransome, S. Row-
landson, A. J. Smith, Henry Smith,
E. W. Stanyforth, Martin J. Sutton,
Garrett Taylor, John Tremayne, E. V.
V. Wheeler, C. Whitehead, &c.
There were also present, as repre-
sentatives of the Local Committee,
the Mayor of Cambridge (Mr. E. H.
Parker, J.P.), Mr. George Foster
(Chairman of the Local Committee),
and Mr. R. Peters (Local Secretary).
The officers of the Society present
included Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary; Dr. Fream, Editor of the Jour-
nal ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, Con-
sulting Chemist ; Professor Brown,
C.B., Consulting Veterinary Surgeon ;
and Mr. Cecil Warburton, Zoologist.
A large number of the general body
of members were also present in the
tent.
The Birth of a Prince.
The President, at the commence-
ment of the proceedings, said that
before he called upon H.R.H. the
Prince of Wales to move the first
resolution, he wished to submit a pro-
posal, which he was sure was quite
unnecessary should be either moved
or seconded, but which would be
carried by acclamation. Considering
the interest which had been taken in
the Society by the Royal Family, he
was sure that the meeting would
agree with him that they could not
more appropriately commence their
proceedings that day than by passing
the following resolution : —
The Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land, ill General Meeting assembled, desires
with every feeling of loyal attachment to
the Royal Family to tender its hearty con-
gratulations to His Royal Highness the
Duke of York upon the happy and auspi-
cious national event which has just taken
place.
General Meeting > Tuesday , June 2G, 1894.
xcx
The resolution, having been carried
by acclamation, was duly telegraphed
by the President to H.R.H. the Duke
of York.1
Vote of Thanks to Mayor and Cor-
poration of Cambridge.
H.R.H. the Prince of Wales then
said : — 1 have been asked to move the
following resolution : “ That the best
thanks of the Society are due, and
are hereby tendered, to the Mayor
and Corporation of Cambridge for
their cordial reception of the Society.”
I feel sure that all of you will agree
with me that this is a resolution
which ought to come before all others,
and we shall all most unanimously
tender our thanks to the Mayor and
Corporation for what they have done
in their reception of the Society at
Cambridge. It may be interesting to
remark that the last Meeting of the
Royal Agricultural Society at Cam-
bridge was held fifty-four years ago —
a year before I was born. The amount
of the prizes then offered was 900 1. ;
at this Show it is 5,433/. I can only
say that it has given me great pleasure
to attend here again at Cambridge
— a place which is full of agreeable
associations for me, as I lived here
for a year at Trinity College. I hope
that the fine weather may last, and
that the Show may continue to be a
great success throughout the whole of
the week. I have great pleasure in
moving this resolution. (Cheers.)
Mr. E. V. V. Wheeler (Senior
Steward of Stock) seconded the reso-
lution. He said that without the
assistance of the Mayors and Corpora-
tions of the different towns visited by
the Society, there would be consider-
able difficulty in carrying out that
great Show. The success of the present
Meeting was in large measure due to
the Mayor and Corporation of that
town. The Mayor of Cambridge had
in no way been behind the Mayors of
other towns in the hospitality which
hediad extended to the Society, and
he (Mr. Wheeler) had great pleasure
in seconding the resolution.
The vote of thanks having been
put and carried unanimously,
1 For the terms of the reply received iu
answer to this telegram see page' lxxvii.
The Mayor of Cambridge (Mr.
Edmund H. Parker), in replying, said,
in the first place, he should like to
add the congratulations of the town
to His Royal Highness on the birth of
another representative of his Royal
line. They all heard the good news
on Sunday in that very tent, and
“ God save the Queen ” was immedi-
ately sung. On behalf of the Cor-
poration of Cambridge, he cordially
thanked His Royal Highness for
proposing this resolution, and the
meeting for the unanimous way in
which they had adopted it. He need
scarcely tell them that Corporations
had their difficulties, and they had
had theirs. They would not be sur-
prised to hear that the chief one was
of a financial character ; but, thanks
to the liberality of their townsmen,
helped nobly by the University, the
county, and others from far and near,
he trusted that their exchequer would
be found quite equal to the require-
ments. Hewouldliketo make mention
of one or two gentlemen in this con-
nection. Messrs. Foster & Co., the well-
known bankers at Cambridge, headed
their subscription list with a most libe-
ral donation, and Mr. George Newnes,
M.P. for East Cambridgeshire, came
forward and guaranteed any deficit
there might be. This enabled them
to work with a light heart. He had
had put into his hands a copy of the
Cambridge Advertiser of 1840, which
gave an account of the Society’s Show
held in that year. He had set him-
self to see if he could find anything
unchanged at the present day. At
first sight everything seemed altered,
but he did find two things which were
the same in 1840. The Royal Agri-
cultural Society appeared to have
been more given to dinners than they
were now, for he read of a large
dinner in the Quadrangle of Downing
College, when 3,000 people sat
down in a pavilion erected at the
costof 1,300/. After dinner, the Duke
of Richmond, who was then President
of the Society, called upon the
assembly to rise and drink to the
Queen, whereupon the whole vast
assembly rose, and with enthusiastic
cheering drank the toast. He would
like to point out that there was the
same spirit of loyalty in this country
General Meeting of Governors and Members ,
xdv
dent undergraduate, would feel real
pleasure in responding to a vote like
that, because the University of Cam-
bridge always extended the most
brotherly welcome to any great
enterprise which was taken in hand
by the civic authorities, and no man
knew better than their present Mayor
— himself a distinguished member
of King’s College — what his brother
King’s man the Vice-Chancellor felt
on this occasion. Each one of them
deeply felt not only what they owed
to the Cambridge Corporation, but
also what they owed to the great
science of agriculture itself. He
would not attempt to measure their
comparative antiquities ; he would
not attempt to foresee which of them
would outlive the other ; but he
might say that the University of
Cambridge had only within the last
few years given special proof of its
interest in agriculture, and of its deep
sense of the paramount importance of
that great art or science— call it what
they would — by incorporating it as
one of the branches of the University
curriculum. He begged to return
them, on behalf of the University
and on behalf of the Vice-Chancellor,
their most sincere and hearty thanks
for the kindness with which their vote
had been passed.
Suggestions of Members.
In response to the usual inquiry as
to whether any Governor or member
had any remarks to make or sugges-
tions to offer for the consideration of
the Council,
The Hon. and Rev. A. Baillie-
Hamiltox drew attention to the
diminution in the number and value
of the prizes allotted by the Society
to the breed of Guernsey cattle, and
hoped that the Council would take
the matter into consideration in pre-
paring the prize-sheet for the next
year’s Meeting.
Mr. Christopher Stephenson
supported these views.
Mr. C. F. Hope advocated a slight
revision of the regulations for the ex-
hibition of cheese.
Vote of Thanks to retiring President.
On the motion of Earl Cadogan,
seconded by Mr. A. B, Freesian-Mit-
ford, C.B., M.P., a vote of thanks
was unanimously accorded to His
Grace the Duke of Devonshire, K.G.,
for his services as President during
the past year.
The President, in reply, said : — I
rise for the purpose of returning, in
the fewest possible words, my very
sincere and grateful thanks to my
friends Lord Cadogan and Mr. Mit-
ford for the kind way in which they
have proposed this vote of thanks,
and to you, gentlemen, for the man-
ner in which you have been pleased to
receive it. As to the services of
which the resolution speaks, they
have been of a very light and almost
nominal character ; but it has given
me great pleasure and satisfaction to
have obtained some insight into and
knowledge of the manner in which
the work of this great Society is con-
ducted. That work is carried on almost
entirely by the Council through the
agency of numerous Committees, and
I believe that few even of the mem-
bers of this Society are fully aware of
the great amount of conscientious
work which is voluntarily undertaken
by the members of the Council in
their Committees. The work of
organising these great annual
Country Meetings, of making all the
arrangements for their success, and
for the proper distribution of the
funds at your disposal — that work of
organisation is in itself of no light
character. But, in addition to the
large amount of labour which devolves
upon the Committees and the Council
in organising and making the pre-
parations for these Meetings, a very
large amount of useful work is also
done by the Veterinary, the Chemical,
the Education, the Journal, and other
numerous Committees, which are
occupied through a very large portion
of the year in obtaining, arranging,
collecting, and publishing informa-
tion of all kinds of a most useful and
practical character for the agricultural
community. The duties of the Presi-
dent, as I have said, are little more
than nominal. They are simply to
preside at the monthly meetings of
Tuesday , June 26, 1894.
xcv
the Council, where the work which
has been done by the Committees
is brought together and recorded for
the use of the members of the
Society. But although the share
of these labours which have devolved
upon me has been of a very slight
and insignificant character, I can
assure you that it has given
me the greatest satisfaction to be
able personally to see how well
the business of this Society is trans-
acted by the members of the Council,
and by its admirable permanent
officials. Of course much of the
present success of our Meetings is due
to the increased facilities of locomo-
tion which have been given by the
railways, and to other causes ; but I
do not think that a Society which has
made such great and striking pro-
gress during the last half-century
can be said to be representative of so
backward and unenergetic a race of
men as the farmers of England are
sometimes represented to be. I wish,
gentlemen, that I could congratulate
you upon the progress and prosperity
of agriculture having been commen-
surate with the progress and prosper-
ity of this Society. I am afraid that
at few periods have you been suffering
more acutely than you are at present
from a period of chronic depression ;
but I think we may safely say that,
gloomy in some respects as are the
existing prospects of agriculture, they
would have been far worse but for the
assistance and the efforts of this
Society and its members, which have
been the means of placing the best
knowledge and the best ability at the
disposal of the agricultural commu-
nity. I can have no doubt that the
Society has been of the utmost value
to the farmers and to all who are con-
nected with agriculture in this coun-
try ; and, in leaving the chair which I
have had the honour to occupy during
the present year, I can only express
my best wishes for its continued
success and prosperity, and my satis-
faction that I am able to announce
to you the fact that I leave the chair
of this Society when the number of
its members is greater than at any
former period of its history. I beg to
thank you most cordially for the vote
of thanks you have been pleased to
pass to me, and at the same time the
Council and its permanent officials for
the unwearying assistance they have
given me through the year.
President for 1894-95.
The Earl of Derby, in moving
“ That Sir John Thorold, Bart., do
take the Chair after the conclusion
of the present Meeting,” said that
most of them knew how hard Sir
John had worked in the interests of
the Society, and the excellent and
practical acquaintance he had with
agriculture, and how he had been
ready for the last fifteen years to
work in all departments and upon all
the Committees of which their noble
President had spoken, and how on
all occasions he had worked with
advantage to the Society, and with
the cordial goodwill of all his col-
leagues.
Mr. J. J. Colman, M.P., said he
had great satisfaction in seconding
the resolution. Lord Derby had
said in appropriate language what
they all felt with regard to Sir John
Thorold. He had borne the burden
aDd heat of the day in a less conspicu-
ous way than as President, and had
shown how fitted he was for the
honour now proposed to be bestowed
upon him.
The motion having been carried by
acclamation,
Sir John Thorold, in reply,
thanked the meeting very much for
the cordial way in which they had
accepted his nomination to this re-
sponsible office. What work he had
been able to do for the Society had
been to him a labour of love. He had
met with the greatest kindness and
assistance from all his colleagues. He
would not detain them longer than to
say that the same sentiment which
animated him animated them : they
could not do too much or work too
hard to ensure the success of that
great Society.
The proceedings then terminated.
92
( xcvi )
CAMBRIDGE MEETING.
JUNE 23 TO 29, 1894.
PRESIDENT :
THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G.,
Chatsworth, Derbyshire.
OFFICIALS :
Honorary Director.
Tlio Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Eccleston, Chester.
Stewards of Live Stock.
E. V. V. Wheeler, Newnham Court, Tenbury, Worcestershire.
C. W. Wilson, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
Lord Brougham and Yaux, Brougham Hall, Penrith.
Mr. Garrett Taylor, Trowse House, Norwich.
Stewards of Implements.
S. Rowlandson, Newton Morrell, Darlington.
Sir J. L. E. Spearman, Bart., The Hall, Wem, Salop.
E. W. Stanyforth, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York.
Steward of Dairying, Poultry, and Produce.
Alfred Darby,- Little Ness, Shrewsbury.
Steward of Forage.
Joseph Martin, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Ely.
Stewards of Finance.
G. H. Sanday, Langdale Lodge, Clapham Park, Surrey.
Alfred Ashworth, Tabley Grange, Knutsford, Cheshire.
Secretary.
Ernest Clarke, 13 Hanover Square, London, W.
JUDGES OF IMPLEMENTS.
Oil Engines.— Classes I. II.
Professor D. S. Capper, M.A.,
King’s College, London.
Professor Ewing, M.A., Cambridge.
J. B. Denison, Balure, Bembridge,
Isle of Wight.
Spraying Machines'. — Classes II I. I Y.
Charles Whitehead, F.L.S , Bann-
ing House, Maidstone.
Sheep Dipping Apparatus. — Class V.
J. B. Ellis, W. Barsham, Walsingham.
Alfred J. Smith, Rendlesham,
Woodbridge.
Churns.— Classes VI. $ VII.
Percy E. Crutch ley, Sunningliill
Lodge, Ascot.
Douglas A. Gilchrist, University
Extension College, Reading.
Miscellaneous Implements.
Caleb Barker, Sbadwell, Thetford.
T. Stirton, West Stratton, Hants.
List of Judges at the Cambridge Meeting.
xcvi
JUDGES OF STOCK, &c.
(As finally corrected .)
HORSES.
Hunters. — Classes 1-7.
J. B. COOKSON, Meldon Park, Mor- J
peth.
Sir R. D. Green Price, Bart., Kings-
land, Shrewsbury.
Cleveland Bays and Coach Horses,
Ponies and Harness Horses and
Ponies.
Classes 8 ' 9 ; 23-26.
G. Robson, Easingwold.
Romer Williams, 58 Gt. Cumber-
land Place, W.
Hackneys. — Classes 10-22.
Wm. Case, Tuttington, Aylsham.
Frank Usher, Middlethorpe, Market
Weighton.
Shire and Agricultural.
Classes 27-37 ; 64.
H. G. Burkitt, Grange Hill, Bishop
Auckland.
John Morton, West Ridham Hall,
Swaffham.
Clydesdales.— Classes 38-42.
R. Craig, Crondon Park, Ingatestone.
W. R. Trotter, S. Acomb, Stocksfield-
on-Tyne.
Suffolks.
Classes 43-53.
D. A. Green, East Donvland, Col-
chester.
J. A. Hejipson, Erwarton Hall,
Ipswich.
CATTLE.
Shorthorn. — Classes 56-64.
C. Howard, Biddenham, Bedford.
T. H. Hutchinson, Catterick, Yorks.
Hereford. — Classes 65-71.
R. S. Olver, Trescowe, Wasliaway,
Cornwall.
J. P. Terry, Berry Field, Aylesbury.
Devon. — Classes 72-77.
J. Jackman, Glanville Road, Tavis-
tock.
H. Simmons, Bearwood Farm, Wo-
kingham.
Sussex. — Classes 78-83.
P. Gorringe, Westham, Hastings.
A. Heasman, Court Wick, Little-
hampton.
Welsh. — Classes 84-88.
H. Ellis, Tairmeibion, Bangor, N.
Wales.
J. W. Griffiths, Penally Court, S.
Wales.
Red Polled. — Classes 89-95.
C. S. Read, Honingham Thorpe,
Norwich.
R. Walker, Altyre, Forres, N.B.
Aberdeen Angus and Galloway.
Classes 96-99 J 100-103.
J. Cranston, Nunwood, Dumfries.
W. Robertson, Linkwood, Elgin.
Ayrshire, Kerry, and Dexter Kerry.
Classes 104 % 105; 117-122.
A. Allan, North Kirkland, Dairy, N.B.
R. McClure, Glenhazel, Kenmare,
CO. Kerry.
Jersey .—Classes 106-111.
Wm. Arkwright, Sutton Scarsdale,
Chesterfield.
James Blyth, Wood House, Stan-
sted, Essex.
Guernsey.— Classes 112-1 16.
W. A. Glynn, Seagrove, Seaview, I.W.
J. W. Moss, Feering, Kelvedon, Essex.
SHEEP.
Leicester.— Classes 125-128.
B. Painter, Burley-on-the*Hill,
Oakham.
H. Smith, Cropwell Butler, Notting-
ham.
Cotswold. — Qlasses 129-132.
T. Brown, Marham Hall, Downham
Market.
T. S. Taylor, Compton Abdale, Glos
Lincoln. —Classes 133-137.
R. Fisher, Leconfield, Beverley.
J. T. Needham, Gt. Carlton House,
Louth.
Oxford Down. — Classes 138-142.
J. B. Ellis, W. Barsham, Walsingham.
J. T. Hobbs, Maisey Hampton, Fair-
ford.
xcviii
List of Judges at the
Shropshire. (Rams.)
Classes 143-145.
T. A. Buttar, Corston, Coupar
Angus, N.B.
J. E. Farmer, Felton, Ludlow,
Salop.
Shropshire. (Ewes.)
Classes 146 147.
C. Coxon, Elford Park, Tamworth.
T. S. Minton, Montford, Salop.
Southdown.— Classes 148-152.
G. Hampton, Findon, Worthing.
H. Penfold, Selsey, Chichester.
Hampshire Down. — Classes 153-157.
F. P. Brown, Compton, Newbury.
Wm. Newton, Crowmarsh Battle,
Wallingford.
Suffolk.— Classes 158-162.
J. W. Eagle, The Hall, Walton-on-
Naze.
C. S. WOLTON, Ixworth, Suffolk.
Wensleydale. — Classes 163-165.
W. Carr, Langden Holme, Clitheroe.
T. F. King, Edgley, Leyburn, Yorks.
Border Leicester and Kentish or
Romney Marsh.
Classes 166-168 ; 172 $ 173.
T. Bain, Legars, Kelso, N.B.
J. J. Bowman, Netherby, Carlisle.
Somerset and Dorset Horned.
Classes 169-171.
J. Chick, Compton Valence, Dorset.
J. Farthing, Yarford, Kingston,
Taunton.
Cheviot, Black-faced Mountain, Lonk,
Herdwick, and Welsh Mountain.
Classes 174-183.
John Ingleby, Austwick, Lan-
caster.
Edward Nelson, Gatesgarth,
Cockermouth.
Cambridge Meeting.
POULTRY.
Classes 208-283.
W. F. Addie, Powis Castlo Estate
Office, Welshpool.
O. E. Cresswell, Morney Cross,
Hereford.
J. W. Ludlow, Vauxhall Road,
Birmingham.
PRODUCE.
Butter and Soft Cheese.
Classes 284-286 ; 292-294.
Prof. T. Carroll, Glasnevin, Dublin.
C. Prideaux, Motcombe, Shaftesbury.
Cheese. — Classes 287-291.
G. Aldridge, Station Road, Glou-
cester.
G. Lewis, Ercall Park, Wellington,
Salop.
Cider and Perry. — Classes 295-298.
Thomas Mate, Mount Elwell,Totnes.
Jams and Fruits. — Classes 299-301.
Charles Whitehead, F.L.S.,
Banning House, Maidstone.
Hives and Honey. — Classes 302-319.
W. B. Carr, Orpington, Kent.
F. .T. Cribb, Morton, Gainsborough.
J. M. Hooker, 9, Beaufort Gardens,
S.E.
COMPETITIONS.
Butter-making.
Prof. T. Carroll, Glasnevin, Dublin.
C. Prideaux, Motcombe, Shaftes-
bury.
Horse-shoeing.
H. G. Lepfer, M.R.C.V.S., Aylesbury.
C. Stephenson, F.R.C.V.S., Sandy-
ford Villa, Newcastleon-Tyne.
OFFICIAL REPORTER.
W. FreAM, B.Sc., LL.D., 13 Hanover Square, London, W.
( xcix )
AWARDS OF PRIZES AT CAMBRIDGE.
ABBREVIATIONS.
I,, First Prize. II., Second Prize. III., Third Prize. R. N., Reserve
Number. H. C., Highly Commended. Com., Commended.
N.B. — The responsibility for the accuracy of the description, pedigree, or
eligibility to compete of the animals mentioned below rests solely with
the Exhibitors.
Unless otherwise stated, each Prize Animal in the Classes for Horses, Cattle,
and Sheep was “ bred by Exhibitor.”
HOESES.
Thoroughbred Stallions.
Winners of the Three Queen’s Premiums of £150 offered by the Royal
Commission on Horse Breeding , and the Gold Medals, value £10
each, offeredbythe Cambridge Local Committee, at the SpringShow,
held at The Royal Agricultural Hall, London, March 6
to 8, 1894.
A. His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, K.G., Sandringham, for
Serpa Pinto, bay, foaled 1890 ; s. Galliard, d. Pinbasket by Hampton, g. cl.
Berceaunette by Blair Athol.
B. Donald Fraser, TickfordPark, Newport Pagnell, for Mount Gifford, brown,
foaled 1886 ; s. Lord Hastings, d. Blue Ruin by Blue Peter, g. d. Lena
Rivers by Brockley ; bred by J. Byrne, Mount Gifford, co. Cork.
C. The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham
Market, for Persistive, chestnut, foaled 1889 ; s. Fitz-James, d. Per-
sistence by Orest, g. d. Perseverance by General Peel ; bred by Thomas
Acres.
.Hunters.
Class 1. — Hunter Mares and Foals, capable of carrying
15 stone and upwards. [6 entries, 1 absent.]
3 I. (£20.) — Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Scarlet 873, chestnut, foaled 1886 [foal by Ruddigore], bred by Col.
Grimston, Beverley ; s. Lambton.
1 II. (£10.) — Wm. Carter, Ailesworth, Peterborough, for Lady Betsy 559,
brown, foaled 1877 [foal by Havoc], bred by H. Stokes, Nassington,
Northants ; s. Outfit, d. by Rivet,
No. in
Cata-
logue.
c
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 2.-— Hunter Mares and Foals, capable of carrying weights
between 12 and 15 stone. [12 entries, 2 absent.]
9 I. (£20.) — Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Dorothy 319, chestnut, foaled 1888 [foal ly Ruddigore], bred by late Jas.
Martin, Wainfleet ; s. Fabius, d. Yorkshire Lassie 141 by The Mallard.
17 II. (£10.) — F. B. Wilkinson, Blyth Spital, Rotherham, for Happy Girl,
bay, foaled 1879 [foal ly Johnny Morgan], bred by E. C. Godfrey; s.
Rotherhill, d. Tranquility by Orest.
15 III. (£5.) — C. I. Taylor & Co., Newbound, Tleasley, Mansfield, for
Jessie 60, bay, foaled 1877 [foal by Sir Kenneth], breeder unknown;
s. Boliver, d. by Poynton.
10 R. N. & H. C. — Alfred Harris, Thetford, for Brunette.
16 Com. - Alexander Webb, Teversham, Cambridge, for Clear the Way.
Class 3. — Hunter Mares or Geldings, up to 15 stone, foaled
in 1890. 1 [4 entries, 1 absent.]
21 I. (£20.)— J. S. Darrell, West Ayton, York, for Bruno, brown gelding,
bred by Mrs. Thomas, Pinchinthorpe, Yorks ; s. Bourbaki, d. Fanny by
Favourite.
19 II. (£10.) — J. T. Clifford, Geddington, Nortliants. for Stormer, chestnut
gelding, bred by John Singlehurst, Weldon, Northants ; s. Iceland, d.
Lady Teazle.
22 R. N. — G. W. Gibson, Conington, St. Ives, Hunts, for Limerick.
Class 4. — Hunter Mares or Geldings, up to 12 stone, foaled in 1890. 1
[9 entries, 2 absent.]
25 I. (£20.) — S. & H. Gale, Scalford, Melton Mowbray, for Monarch, brown
gelding, bred by A. Humphries, Melton Mowbray; s. Pax, d. by Lord
Hastings.
23 II. (£10.) — Basil J. Chaplin, Fulbourn, Cambridge, for Cherry Bounce,
brown mare, breeder and pedigree unknown.
24 III. (£5.)— James Christy, Writtle, Chelmsford, for Crusader, chestnut
gelding ; s. Baldur, d. Daffodil 37 by Mainstone.
31 R. N. & H. C. — Joseph Paisley, Waresley, Sandy, for Dorothy.
Class 5. — Hunter Fillies, foaled in 1891. [6 entries, none absent.]
33 I. (£15.) — TnoMAS Bradley, Uflington, Stamford, for Stella 892, brown ; s.
Havoc, d. Sail}'.
32 II. (£10.) — F. J. Coleridge Boles, Baraset, Stratford-on-Avon, forZesti
bay ; s. Zeal, d. Huntress 355.
34 III. (£5.5 — Frank A. Jeeves, Fenstanton, St. Ives, Hunts, for Princess
857, brown ; s. Second Attempt, d. Lady 374.
35 R. N. & H. C. — James Joicey, Poulton Priory, Fairford, Glos, for Pepsatia.
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
Cleveland Bays and Coach Horses.
Cl
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor."]
Class 6. — Hunter Fillies, foaled in 1892. [12 entries, 1 absent.]
45 I. (£15.) — James Joicey, Poulton Priory, Fairford, Glos, for Piperita, bay;
s. Peppermint, d. Amicia by Hollywood.
49 II. (£10.) — F.B. Wilkinson, Blyth Spital, Rotherham, for lady Kilmarth,
brown, bred by A. Over, Rugby ; s. Kilmarth, d. My Lady by Nuneham.
39 III. (£5.) — James Flower, Chilmark, Salisbury, for Marigold, chestnut ;
s. Marioni, d. Lottery.
42 R. N. & H. C.— Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., for Philo.
40 Com. — Wolverley A. Fordham, for Humming Bird.
Class 7. — Hunter Fillies, foaled in 1893. [7 entries, 1 absent.]
63 I. (£15.) — Richard Hoddinott, Springfield, Gillingham, for Lady
Marion, bay; s. Marioni, d. Ladybird 560 by Master Ned.
52 II. (£10.) — The ITon. T. W. Fitzwilliam, The Ferry, Peterborough, for
Olivette, bay ; s. Oliver Twist, d. Hit or Miss by Lord Gough.
50 III. (£5.) — F. J. Coleridge Boles, Baraset, Stratford-on-Avon, for
Fable, bay; s. Fabius, d. Huntress 355.
Cleveland Bays and Coach Horses.
Class 8. — Cleveland Bays or Coaching Stallions, foaled in
1891 or 1892. [8 entries, 1 absent.]
60 I. (£15.) — John Lett, Rillington, York, for First Favourite, bay, foaled
1891, bred by M. Rudsdale, Danby, Grosmont, Yorks ; s. Prince George
367 Y.C.S.B., d. by Favourite 581.
58 II. (£10.) — Thomas Darrell, Spiker’s Hill, West Ayton, Yorks, for Lord
Raincliffe 1290 C.B.S.B., bay, foaled 1891 ; s. Prince George 235, d. Chloris
609 by Roseberry 265.
64 III. (£5.) — J. White, Appleton Roebuck, Bolton Percy, for Onyx 2107
Y.C.S.B., bay, foaled 1891 ; s. Golden King 1336, d. Star 153 by Emperor 145.
61 R. N. & H. C. — John Lett, for Stamina. 57 Com. — F. P. Baker, for
Courtier.
Class 9. — Cleveland Bays or Coaching Mares and Foals.
[6 entries, none absent.]
68 I. (£15.)— Henry C. Stephens, M.P., Cholderton, Salisbury, for Beauty
5 C.B.S.B., bay, foaled 1879 [foal by Shylock 1121], bred by G. Barker,
Bedale; s. Prince Frederick 234, d. Trimmer by Wellington 353.
70 II. (£10.) — John White, Appleton Roebuck, Bolton Percy, for Ainsty
Queen 367 Y.C.S.B., bay, foaled 1889 [foal by Appleton Turk 1667], bred
by Thomas Nicholson, Danby Howe, Castleton, Yorks; s. Favourite 581,
d. by General Gordon 182.
69 III. (£5.)— Henry C. Stephens, M.P.,for Countess of Salton 315 C.B.S.B.,
bay, foaled 1887 [foal by Luck’s All 189], bred by Christopher Wood,
Sparrow Hall, Kirbymoorside ; s. Fidius Dius 107, d. Bonny 16 by Sports-
man 297.
66 R. N. & H. C. — Alfred Lomas, for Nellie Farren.
67 Com. — Thomas Radclipfe, for Wath Belle.
cii
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Hackneys.
Class 10. — Hackney Stallions, foaled in 1891, above 15 hands.
[13 entries, 2 absent.]
74 I. (£15, & Champion.1)— Sie Walter Gilbey, Bt., Elsenham Hall,
Essex, for Hedon Squire 4306,' bay, bred by Arthur Fewson, Hedon, Hull ;
s. Rufus 1343, d. Polly 494 ly Fireaway 249.
71 II. (£10.) — John N. Anthony, Sedgeford, King’s Lynn, for Sir Hugo
2nd 4507, bay ; s. Assurance 2nd 2350, d. Sheila 982 by Broad Arrow
1436.
72 III. (£5.) — W. J. Bailey, Morley, Wymondham, for All Fours 3rd 4111,
bay; s. Vigorous 1215, d. Bess 911 by Confidence 158.
77 R. N, & H, C. — John Rowell, Bury, Huntingdon, for Bury Stanley.
Class 11. — Ilackney Stallions, foaled in 1891, above 14 hands
and not exceeding 15 hands. [9 entries, 1 absent.]
91 I. (£15.) — John L. Rutter, 78a Fitzroy Street, Cambridge, for Recherche
4466, roan ; s. Reality 665, d. Zazel 3391 by Hue and Cry Shales 379.
86 II. (£10.) — William Boon, Jun., Holme, Downham Market, for Holme
Cadet 4313, chestnut ; s. Cadet 1251, d. Nelly 5924 by Hero 2nd 2106.
92 III. (£5.) — John Sindall, Mile End, Prickwillow, Ely, for Mile End
4903, black ; s. Reality, 665, d. Nellie 1741 by Royal George 683.
90 R. N. & H. C. — R. G. Heaton, Chatteris, for Resolution 2nd.
Class 12. — Hackney Stallions, foaled in 1892. [23 entries, 5 absent.]
109 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.1) — Henry Moore, Burn Butts, Cranswick,
Yorks, for Countryman 4716, chestnut ; s. Copernicus 2912, d. Snowdrop
324 by Denmark 177.
104 II. (£10.) — Thomas Hall, Langton, Malton, for Langton Duke 4843,
chestnut ; s. Garton Duke of Connaught 3009, d. Queen of the Hills
4618 by Eddlethorpe Fireaway 1768.
103 III. (£5.) — C. E. Galbraith, Ayton Castle, N.B , for Danebury 4724,
chestnut, bred by H. Livesey, Rotherfield ; s. Evolution 2058, d. Lily 219
by Lord Derby 2nd 417.
107 R. N. & H. C. — Alfred Lewis, Heacham, Lynn, for Master Lovely Shot.
114 H. C. — Henry Whittick, for Lord Grimston.
Com.— H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, for No. 93, Golden Promise ; Wm.
Flanders, for No. 99, Witcham Fireaway ; J. W. Peacock, for No,
112, Alan.
Class 13. — Hackney Stallions, foaled in 1893. [10 entries, 4 absent.]
121 I. (£15.) — Geo. Jackson, King’s Heath, Birmingham, for Manfred, chest,
nut; s. Connaught 1453, d. Minnie 2308 by Cadet 1251.
118 II. (£10.) — C. E. Cooke, Litcham, Swaflham, for Caliban, bay; s. Cadet
1251, d. Belle 5th 406 by Confidence 158.
1 GoM Medal Kiven by the Hackney Horse Society, and prize of Twenty Guineas given by the
Cambridge Local Committee, for the best Hackney Stallion,
Hackneys.
cm
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
117 III. (£5.)— Robert Balding, Snettisham, King’s Lynn, for Snettisham
Swell, bay, bred by Wm. Brown, Snettisham ; s. Heacham Swell 3664, d.
Lady Dagmar 2889 by Great Shot 329.
125 R. N. & H, C. — J. W. Temple, Leyswood, Groombridge, for Lord Marton.
Class 14. — Hackney Mares <i- Foals, above 15 hands. [20 entries,
2 absent.]
141 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.1)— J. W. Temple, Leyswood, Groombridge,
for Lady Dereham 2891, chestnut, foaled 1889 [foal by Doncaster 2949],
bred by H. Livesey, Rotherfield ; s. Ritualist 1542, d. Dorothy 2016 by
Lord Derby 2nd 417. {Foal entered in Class 20, No. 223.)
137 II. (£10.) — Henry Moore, Cranswick, Yorks, for Countess 424, brown,
foaled 1882 [foal by Agility 2799] ; s. Denmark 177, d. Empress 95 by
Fireaway 249. {Foal entered in Class 20, No. 220.)
134 III. (£5.) — C. E. Galbraith, Ayton Castle, N.B., for Lola 4248, chestnut,
foaled 1890 [foal by Evolution 2058], bred by C. E. Cooke, Litcham ; s.
Cadet 1251, d. Cordelia 618 by Canvasser 114. {Foal entered in Class 20,
No. 216.)
144 R. N. & H. C.— Walter Waterhouse, Edenbridge, Kent, for Kathleen.
Com. — C. E. Cooke, for No. 129, Florence ; J. A. Coulson, for No. 130,
Twilight. '
Class 15. — Hackney Mares and Foals, above 14 hands, and
not exceeding 15 hands. [15 entries, 1 absent.]
158 I. (£15.) — Henry Moore, Cranswick, Yorks, for Levity 2247, chestnut,
foaled 1888 [foal by Chocolate Junior 4185] ; s. Lord Derby 2nd 417, d.
Primrose 827 by Denmark 177.
160 II. (£10.)— Walter Waterhouse, Edenbridge, Kent, for Lady Alice
1604, black, foaled 1885 [foal by Saxon 2674], bred by Exors. of late
W. Leonard, Out Newton, Yorks ; s. Lord Derby 2nd 417, d. Lady Newton
1656 by Prince of Wales 1117. {Foal entered in Class 20, No. 225.)
150 III. (£5.)— C. Edward E. Cooke, Hinxton Grange, Saffron Walden, for
Mandolin 5747, bay, foaled 1890 [foal by Danegelt 174], bred by Jas.
Rivett, Wellingham, Litcham ; s. Cadet 1251, d. Aunt Sally 2633 by Con-
fidence 939. {Foal entered in Class 19, No. 200.)
153 R. N. & H. C. — C. E. Galbraith, Ayton Castle, N.B., for Lady Alice.
Com. — E. C. Chapman, for No. 147, Miss Colchester ; Sir Walter Gilbey,
Bt., for No. 154, County Lily; J. W. Temple, for No. 159, Lady Gordon.
Class 16. — Hackney Fillies, foaled in 1891.2 [7 entries, 1 absent.]
165 I. (£15, & Champion.1)— Sir Gilbert Greenall, P.t., Walton Hall, War-
rington, for Orange Blossom 5957, chestnut, bred by Wm. Baxter, Burton
Pidsea, Hull ; s. Connaught 1453, d. by General Gordon 2084.
162 II. (£10.)— George Burton, Thorpe Willoughby, Selby, for Royal Lady
6117, chestnut ; $. Connaught 1453, d. Lofty 2nd No. 83 Inspected F.S.
161 III. (£5.)— George Burton, for Lady Rufus 5640, chestnut; s. Rufus
1343, d. Lofty 1st No. 81 Inspected F.S.
163 R. N. & H. C.— Lord Egerton of Tatton, Quidenham Hall, Thetford,
for Bird’s Eye View.
1 Gold Medal given by the Hackney Horse Society, and Prize of Twenty Guineas given by the
Cambridge Local Committee, for the best Hackney Mare or Filly.
a Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
eiv
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 17. — Hackney Fillies, foaled in 1892. [15 entries, 4 absent.]
172 I. (£15.) — E C. CHArMAN, Alethorpe, Fakenham, for Alethorpe Maud
6352, black ; s. Ruby 1342, d. Fanny 1532 by Rifleman 670.
179 II. (£10.) — Thomas Kirk, Owstwick Hall, Burst wick, Hull, for Dark
Polyanthus 6564, chestnut; s. Danegelt 174, d. Lady Norali 1657 by Lord
Derby 2nd 417.
182 III. (£5.) — Henry Whittick, The Newlands, Hull, for Fairy Queen
6643, bay, bred by Exors. of late W. Buttle, Thirkleby, Yorks ; s. Curfew
1755, d. Miss Fireaway 4391 by Fireaway 249.
171 R. N. & H. C. — Austin C. Carr, The Firs, Rainhill, Lancs, for Odd Spats.
Com. — J. G. Browne, for No. 170, Titania ; A. & A. Collen, for No. 173,
Duchess Fireaway.
Class 18. — Hackney Fillies, foaled in 1893. [13 entries, 4 absent.]
184 I. (£15.)— H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., Sandringham, for Bellona,
bay ; s. Field Marshal 2986, d. Mia Bella 3071 by Great Shot 329.
191 II. (£10.) — Henry Moore, Burn Butts, Cranswick, Yorks, for Venetia,
brown ; s. Lord Derby Junior 3472, d. Affable 1869 by Confidence 163.
190 III. (£5.) — A. B. How, Broughton, Hunts, for Pousette, brown; s. Reality
665, d. Fanny 2nd 2740 by Baronet.
195 R. N. & H. C. — Walter Waterhouse, Edenbridge, Kent, for Applause.
Class 19. — Hackney Colt Foals, foaled in 1894, the 'produce of Mares
exhibited in Class 14 or 15. 1 [14 entries, 2 absent.]
199 I. (£15.) — John Conchar, Wylde Green, Birmingham, for chestnut ; s.
Agility 2799, d. Sweet Briar 3304 by Model 1054. ( Exhibited with No. 149.)
200 II. (£10.) — C. E. E. Cooke, Hinxton Grange, Saffron Walden, for Valen-
tine, bay; s. Danegelt 174, d. Mandolin 5747 by Cadet 1251. (Exhibited
with No. 150.)
206 III. (£5.)— A. B. How, Broughton, Hunts, chestnut ; s. Agility 2799, d.
Fanny 3rd 3779 by Lord of the Manor of Broughton 2165. ( Exhibited uith
No. 135.)
197 R. N. & H. C. — E. C. Chapman, Alethorpe, Fakenham.
207 Com. — H. V. Sheringham, South Creake, Fakenham.
Class 20. — Hackney Filly Foals, foaled in 1894, the produce of Mares
exhibited in Class 14 or 15. 1 [16 entries, none absent.]
220 I. (£15.) — Henry Moore, Burn Butts, Cranswick, Yorks, chestnut ; s.
Agility 2799, d. Countess 424 by Denmark 177. {Exhibited with No. 137.)
210 II. (£10.) — H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., Sandringham, for Dag-
mar, bay ; s. Field Marshal 2986, d. Star of Denmark 3286 by Donowitz
1272. {Exhibited with No. 126 )
225 III. (£5.)— Walter Waterhouse, Edenbridge, Kent, brown ; Saxon
2674, el. Lady Alice 1604 by Lord Derby 2nd 417. {Exhibited with No. 160.)
218 R. N. & H. C. — Sir Walter Gilbey, Bt., Elsenham Hall, Essex.
Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
Ponies.
cv
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor."]
Class 21. — Hackney Mares or Geldings, above 14 hands, up to
15 stone, foaled in 1888, 1889, or 1890.' [5 entries, 2 absent.]
226 I. (£15.) — Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Amazement, roan gelding, foaled 1889, bred by J. Scott, Pocklingtcn ;
s. Wildfire 1224, d. by Superior 1410.
227 II. (£10.) — Tom Jay, Holmwood, Putney Hill, for Graceful 6741, chestnut
mare, foaled 1890, bred by Anelay Hart, Howden ; s. Golden Star 989,
d. Skelton Rose 6153 by 3rd Sir Charles 1562.
229 III. (£5.) — T. Roberts, 41 Ranelagh St., Liverpool, for Belle cf the Ball,
roan mare, foaled 1888, bred by Mr. Sands, Stody; s. Roan Confidence
1133, d. by Lord Derby 2nd 417.
Class 22. — Hackney Mares or Geldings, above 14 hands, up to
12 stone, foaled in 1888, 1889, or 1890.1 [7 entries, 2 absent.]
231 I. (£15.)— William Flanders, Witcham House, Ely, for Folly 3825,
brown mare, foaled 1889, bred by Joseph Pearson, Mepal ; s. Reality 665,
d. Mepal Polly No. 675 Inspected F.S.
232 II. (£10.)— Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Lady Alice II., bay mare, foaled 1888, bred by R. G. Ingham, Hullen
Edge, Elland ; s. Lord Derby II. 417, d. Lady Alice by Star of the West.
233 III. (£5.) — Tom Jay, Holmwood, Putney Hill, for Lincoln Swell, roan
gelding, foaled 1889, bred by Thomas Bentley, Driffield ; s. Stanley.
236 R. N. & H. C. — Alfred Rowell, Bury, Huntingdon, for Florrie 6695.
Ponies.
Class 23. — Pony Stallions, not exceeding 14 hands.
[10 entries, none absent.]
210 I. (£15.) — Wm. Hollins, Pleasley Vale, Mansfield, for Portwood Con-
fidence 3201, brown, foaled 1888, bred by A. W. Clarke, Portwood Farm,
Gt. Ellingham, Norfolk; s. Confidence 158, d. Kitty by Prickwillow 623.
246 II. (£10.) — A. J. Scott, Rotherfield Park, Alton, for Sir Horace, bay,
foaled 1891, bred by C. W. Wilson, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale ;
s. Little Wonder 2nd 1610, d. Dorothy Derby 1081 by Lord Derby 2nd 417.
241 III. (£5.) — Alfred Lewis, Heacbam, King’s Lynn, for Heacham Surprise
4305, bay, foaled 1890, bred by Henry Hudson, Langham, Blakeney ;
s. Monarch 463, d. Peggy Sure 4526 by Model 1054.
214 R. N. & H. C. — John Page, Dilham, Smallburgh, for Eilham Prime
Minister.
245 H. C. — D. W. E. Rowlands & George Fred Bowden, for Eeauty Boy.
Class 24. — Pony Marcs and Feeds, not exceeding 14 hands.
[5 entries, none absent.]
250 I. (£15.) — Sir Humphrey F. de Trafford, BT.,Long Stratton, Norfolk,
for Snorer 2nd 4703, brown, foaled 1887 [foal by Cassius 2397], bred by
C. W. Wilson, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale; s. Sir George 778, d.
Snorer 2456 by Sir George 778.
1 Frizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
cvi
Award of Live-Stock, Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
251 II. (£10.) — Wm. Pope, Cannon House, Downham Market, for Pritna
Donna 6019, chestnut, foaled 1891 [foal by Doctor Syntax 877], bred by
C. E. Cooke, Litcham ; s. Cassius 2397, d. Lady of Fashion 2951 by Im-
prover 1498.
249 III. (£5.) — Sir Humphrey F. de Trafford, Bt., for Dorothy Derby
2nd, bay, foaled 1890 [foal by Cassius 2397], bred by C. W. Wilson,
Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale ; s. Little Wonder 2nd 1610, d. Dorothy
Derby 1081 by Lord Derby 2nd 417.
252 R. N. & H. C. — George Strattox, Wheler Lodge, Husbands Bosworth,
Rugby, for Fan.
Harness Horses and Ponies.
Glass 25. — Harness Mares or Geldings , of any age , above
14 hands.1 [17 entries, 7 absent.]
256 L (£15.) — Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Lady Lofty 5594, bay mare, foaled 1888, bred by James Coker, Beetley
Hall, E. Dereham; s. White Stockings 1415, d. Beauty 16 by All.
262 II. (£10.) — Wm. Miles, Woodbridge, for Gipsy Queen, black mare,
foaled 1886, breeder unknown.
260 HI. (£5.) — Fred Kelley, Broomhall Park, Sheffield, for Lady Gonville
-5564, bay mare, foaled 1890, bred by G. Bowhill, Suton, Wymondham ; s.
Wymondham Gentleman 2781, d. Lady Grace 1191 by Confidence 158.
258 R. N. & H C. — Thomas Harper, Northgate Road, Bury St. Edmunds,
for Guinea Gold.
269 H. C. — Richard Wright, 74 Regent Street, Salford, for His Lordship.
Class 26 . — Harness Mares or Geldings, of any age , not exceeding
14 hands} [8 entries, 1 absent.]
276 I. (£15.) — Wm. Pope, Cannon House, Downham Market, for Magpie 228,
black and white mare, foaled 1878, bred by Mr. Cooke, Litcham ; s. Con-
fidence 1743, d. Spot 237 by Premier.
272 II. (£10.) — Sir Humphrey F. de Trafford, Bt., Long Stratton, for
Dorothy Derby 1081, bay mare, foaled 1887, bred by W. J. Taaffe, Cheadle ;
s. Lord Derby 2nd 417, d. Burton Agnes 608 by Danegelt 174.
273 III. (£5.)— Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Valentine, dun mare, foaled 1888, breeder unknown.
270 R. N. & H. C. — J. D. Charrington, Gifford House, Roehampton, for Lady
Auckland.
Shires.
Class 27. — Shire Stallions, foaled in 1888, 1889, or 1890.'
[5 entries, 1 absent.]
279 I. (£20, & R. N. for Champion.2) — A. Grandage, Bramhope, via Leeds,
for Bar None Conqueror 14467, bay, foaled 1890, bred by C. T. Part, St.
Albans ; s. Ilitchin Duke 9586, d. Hitcliin Fashion 10151 by Hitchin
Conqueror 4458.
* Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
’ Gold Medal given by the Shire Horse Society, and prize of Twenty Guineas given by the
Cambridge Local Committee, for the best Shire Stallion.
Shire Horses.
evil
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
280 II. (£10.)- — Wm. Hollins, Pleasley Yale, Mansfield, for Calwich Marksman
12873, bay, foaled 1890, bred by Henry Salt, Snelstone, Ashbourne; s.
Harold 3703, d. by Conway 3015.
281 III. (£5.)— John P. Kidston & Arthur Ransom, Nyn Park, Potter’s
Bar, for Coeur-de-Lion IV. 11233, brown, foaled 1888, bred by B. Chambers,
Draycott, Moreton-in-Marsh ; s. Hitchin Conqueror 4458, d. Bonny
by A1 1.
278 E. N.— A. B. Freeman-Mitford, C.B., M.P., Batsford Park, Moreton-in-
Marsh, for Monroy.
Class 28. — Shire Stallions, foaled in 1891. [18 entries, 4 absent.]
297 I. (£20.) — W. Cecil Salt, Willington, Burton-on-Trent, for Willington
Sir Edwin 14438, bay, bred by Edwin Riley, Barton, Burton-on-Trent ; s.
Albert Edward 5467, d. Flower by Marshman 1485.
299 II. (£10.)— R. N. Sutton-Nelthorpe, Scawby Hall, Lines., for Double
X. William 13994, black, bred by Lord Wantage ; s. Prince William
3956, d. Barmaid 3787 by Stonton 2065.
295 III. (£5.)— John Rowell, Bury, Huntingdon, for Royal Salute of Bury
14255, chestnut; s. Bury King William 6871, d. Black Diamond 2076 by
Royal Active 3289.
290 R. N. & H. C. — The Stewards of the Jockey Club, Newmarket, for
Oak Post II.
Com. — Fred Crisp, for No. 286, Southgate Royal Albert ; Edward Few,
for No. 287, Laughing Stock III.
Class 29. — Shire Stallions, foaled in 1892. [12 entries, 1 absent.]
303 I. (£20, & Champion.') — Lord Belper, Kingston Hall, Derby, for Rokeby
Harold, brown, bred by A. C. Rogers, Buckingham ; s. Harold 3703, d.
Poppy 5266 by Morning Star 1589.
301 II. (£10.) — J. A. Barrs, Hinckley, for Nailstone Royal Ensign 14765,
bay, bred by the late Sir W. H. Salt, Bt. ; s. Honest Tom 5123, d. Maple-
well Shamrock 5332 by Northern King 2635.
307 III. (£5.)— The Earl of Ellesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester, for
Duke of Worsley II. 14602, bay; s. Lancashire Lad II. 6031, d. Bellona
4561 by Garnet 2787.
311 R. N. & H. C.— Major Frank Siiuttlewortii, Biggleswade, for Nail-
stone Conquering Hero 14752.
306 H. C.— Capt. W. H. O. Duncombe, Waresley Pk., Sandy, for Moonraker.
Class 30. — Shire Stallions, foaled in 1893. [19 entries, 5 absent.]
329 I. (£20.)— Major Frank Shuttleworth, Biggleswade, for Sowerby
Boy, bay, bred by Fred Crisp, New Southgate, N. ; s. Hazlewood 11578, d.
Sowerby Lass 10942 by Garnet 2787.
322 II. (£10.)— Edward Green, The Moors, Welshpool, for Moors Thumper,
brown, s. Potentate 12086, d. Weston Blossom 7271 by Mepal Wonder 3227!
317 III. (£5.)— Lord Egerton of Tatton, Tatton Park, Cheshire, for
Tartar, black; s. Royal William II. 12207, d. Tartan 13627 by Royal
Sandy 3993.
’ Gold Medal given by the Shire Horse Society, and Prize of Twenty Guineas given by the
Cambridge Local Committee, for the best Shire Stallion.
CV1U
Aivard of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was ‘‘bred by exhibitor.**]
319 R. N. & H. C. — Sir Walter Gilbey, Bt., Elsenham Hall, Essex, for
Saxon Harold.
324 H. C. — John P. Kidston, Nyn Park, Potter's Bar, for Nyn Conqueror
William.
Com.— Thomas Hardy, for No. 323, Mere Duke ; P. Albert Muntz, M.P.,
for No. 326, Dunsmore Earl.
Class 31. — Shire Mares and Foals. [29 entries, 9 absent.]
352 I. (£20, & Champion.1) — John Parnell, Rugby, for Rokeby Fuchsia
15507, grey, foaled 1887 [foal by Rokeby Rajah 13520], bred by W.
H. & J. Spalton, Denby, Derby ; s. Lincolnshire Boy 3188, d. Lady Grey
15068 by Noble Devonshire 10064. ( Foal entered in Class 36, No. 462.)
347 II. (£10.) — J. P. Kidston, Nyn Park, Potters Bar, for Nyn Calwich Queen
11843, bay, foaled 1890 [foal by Nyn Pride of Thicket 14783J, bred by
A. C. Duncombe, Calwich Abbey, Ashbourne ; s. Harold 3703, d. Elorrie
2362 by Premier 2646. {Foal entered in Class 36, No. 459.)
332 III. (£5.) — H R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G , Sandringham, for
Ethel 9950, bay, foaled 1889 [foal by Joceline 14116], bred by A. H. Clark,
Moulton Eaugate, Spalding ; s. Salisbury 5324, d. Moulton Beauty by
Thumper 2136. {Foal entered in Class 36, No. 450.)
342 R. N. & H. C. — The Earl of Ellesmere, for Golden Drop.
337 H. C. — John Conchar, for Flower of May.
336 Com. — Hon. Mrs. Colyile, for Lullington Queen.
Class 32. — Shire Mares, foaled before 1891, not with foals at foot,
but stinted in 189 1.2 3 [14 entries, 2 absent.]
371 I. (£20)— P. Albert Muntz, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, for Daisy 14490,
black, foaled 1890, bred by Jos. Robinson, Westfield, Selby; s. Albert
Victor III. 13815, d. Jet 14992 by Lincolnshire Tom 1367.
361 II. (£10.) — William Bouch, Ashorne, Warwick, for Cornflower 9716,
black, foaled 1889 ; s. Prince William 3956, d. Wildflower 3743 by
Reality 2882.
367 III. (£5.)— A. B. Freeman-Mitford, C.B., M.P., Batsford Park, Moreton-
in-Marsh, for Minnehaha 12989, bay, foaled 1889; s. Laughing Stock
4516, d. Horbling Beauty 2462 by Honest Tom 3731.
366 R. N. & H. C. — A. B. Freeman-Mitford, C.B., M.P., for Melody.
H. C. — Fred Crisp for No. 362, Scarsdale Sparkle ; John Parnell for
No. 372, Rokeby Dame.
Class 33. — Shire Fillies, foaled in 1891. [12 entries, 2 absent.]
383 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.’) — Lord Llangattock, The Hcndre,
Monmouth, for Dunsmore Cui Bono 14653, brown, bred by J. Salt, Upper
Whittle, Longnor, Buxton; s. Regent II. 6316, d. Berry by Lincolnshire
Lad 1364.
382 II. (£10.) — Lord Llangattock, for Alvaston Rose 13917, brown, bred
by R. B. Bonsall, Narrowdale, Alstonfield, Ashbourne ; s. Regent II. 6316,
d. Flower by Honest Tom N IX. 11646.
1 Gold Medal (riven by the Shire Horse Society, and prize of Twenty Guineas given by the
Cambridge Local Committee, for the best Shire Mare or Filly.
3 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
Shire Horses.
cix
[Unless otherwise stated, eaoh prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
378 III. (£5.) — James Forshaw, Carlton-on- Trent, for Queen of the Roses
15475, bay, bred by Robert Armstrong, Burnt Leys, Whitwell, Chesterfield ;
s. Bar None 2388, d. by Don Carlos 2416.
381 R. N. & H. C. — John P. Kidston, Nyn Park, Potter’s Bar, for Nyn Pink.
H. C. — Lord Egerton of Tatton, for No. 376, Aurea; T. H. Miller,
for No. 384, Misalliance.
379. Com.— Sir Walter Gilbey, Bt., for Agnes.
Class Zl.— Shire Fillies, foaled in 1892. [30 entries, 13 absent.]
411 I. (£15.) — Lord Rothschild, Tring Park, for Vulcan’s Flower, chestnut ;
s. Vulcan 4145, d. Stibbington Flower 8939 by Prince Imperial 4619.
398 II. (£10.)— Capt. W. H. 0. Duncombe, Waresley Park, Sandy, for
Waresley Dona, brown; s. Bury Victor Chief 11105, d. Alice 7372 by
Premier 2646.
407 HI. (£5.) — John Parnell, Rugby, for Rokeby Hannah, brown ; s. Harold
3703, d. Bittesby 7492 by Gay Lad 3665.
400 R. N. & H. C.— Lord Egerton of TattoX, Tatton Park, Cheshire, for
Tatton Poplin.
H. C. — Lord Egerton of Tatton, for No. 399, Tatton Baroness ; Lord
Hothfield, for No. 405, Satin of Hothfield ; John Rowell, for No.
412, Bnry Abbess.
Com. — Henry Bultitaft, for No. 394, Bedwell Pride ; Cannock Agri-
cultural Company', LiMd., for No. 395, Queen of Cresswell; Fred
Crtsp, for No. 396, Scarsdale Marabou ; C. T. Part, for No. 408,
Aldenham Princess.
Class 35. — Shire Fillies, foaled in 1893. [33 entries, 9 absent.]
449 I. (£15.) — A. H. E. Wood, Newbold Revel, Rugby, for Revel Bride, black,
bred by Wm. Baker, Moor Barns, Atherstone ; s. Albert Edward 5467, d.
Smiler by Welborn Sweep 2315.
422 II. (£10.) — J. P. Cross, Catthorpe Towers, Rugby, for Catthorpe Clemency,
black, bred by John Cooper, E. Haddon, Northants ; s. Moulton Briton
7829, d. Bonny by Spark 2497.
440 III. (£5.) — Lord Rothschild, Tring Park, Herts, for Golden Grain, chest-
nut ; s. Carbonite 11173, d. Fairy Tale 4892 by Aladdin 2969.
434 R. N. & H. C.— P. Albert MunTz, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, for Duns-
more Elegance.
H. C.— Sir Walter Gilbey, Bt., for No. 427, Ercall Dora; Lord
Hothfield, for No. 432, Topsy of Hothfield ; G. D. & W. J. Thody,
for No. 446, Baldock Rose ; Hamer Towgood, for No. 448, Shelford
Satin.
Com. — A. Grandage, for No. 429, Lady Clare ; Lord Hothfield, for
No. 431, Tambourine of Hothfield ; Major Frank Shuttleworth, for
No. 442, Old Warden Fashion.
VOL. V. T. S. — 19
h
cx
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 36. — Shire Colt Foals, foaled in 1894, the produce of Mares
exhibited in Class 31. 1 [16 entries, 5 absent.]
457 I. (£15.) — The Earl of Ellesmere, Worsley, Manchester, for black ;
s. Vulcan 4145, d. Princess Louisa 6884 by Royal Albert 1885. ( Exhibited
mith Ho. 343.)
456 II. (£10.)— The Earl of Ellesmere, for bay ; s. Vulcan of Worsley
IX. 13736, d. Golden Drop 4115 by Bar None 2388. ( Exhibited mith No.
342.)
455 III. (£5.) — Captain W. H. 0. Duncombe, Waresley Park, Sandy, for
bay ; s. Duke of Worsley 13002, d. Alice 7372 by Premier 2646. {Ex-
hibited mith No. 341.)
454 It. N. & H. C. — Fred Crisp, New Southgate, N., for brown ; s. Marmion II.
H. C. — James Blytii, for No. 451 ; Hon. Mrs. Colvile, for No. 452 ;
John Parnell, for No. 462.
Com.— Sir Walter Gilbey, Bt., for No. 458 ; John P. Kidston, for
No. 459 ; C. T. Part, for No. 463, Aldenham Harold.
Class 37. — Shire Filly Foals, foaled in 1894, the produce of Mares
exhibited in Class 31. 1 [10 entries, 1 absent.]
470 I. (£15.) — P. Albert Muntz, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, for bay; s. Duns-
more Willington Boy 13021, d. D unsmore Bracelet 12197 by The Boy 3358.
( Exhibited mith No. 351.)
469 II. (£10.) — F. W. Griffin, Boro’ Fen, Peterborough, for bay ; s. Premier
Tom II. 13451, d. Boro’ Gipsy 5862 by King John 4602. ( Exhibited mith
No. 346.)
468 III. (£5.) — Thomas Gee, Jun., Gothic House, Thorney, Cambs, for
brown; s. Marmion II. 9885, d. Gipsy 8114 by Master of Arts III. 3220.
{Exhibited with No. 344.)
467 R. N. & H. C.— J. P. Cross, Catthorpe Towers, Rugby, for Lusitania.
473 H. C. — George Symondson, for TJpshire Magna.
Com.— John Conchae, for No. 466 ; S. Wayman, for No. 474.
Clydesdales.
Class 38. — Clydesdale Stallions, foaled in 1891.
[5 entries, 1 absent.]
477 I. (£20, & Champion, £20.2)— The Marquis of Londonderry, K.G.,
Seaham Hall, forHolyrood 9546, bay ; -s. Gallant Prince, d. Jeanie Darnley
8668 by Darnley 222.
479 II. (£10.) — T. Smith, Blacon Point, Chester, for Montrave Kenneth
9622, brown, bred by John Gilmour, Montrave, Leven, Fife ; s. Prince of
Albion 6178, d. Keepsake 10624 by Macgregor 1487.
480 III. (£5,)— Miss Emily C. Talbot, Margam, Port Talbot, for Montrave
Major 9623, brown, bred by John Gilmour, Montrave, Leven, Fife ; s.
Prince of Albion 6178, d. Maggie V. 10627 by Macgregor 1487.
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
2 Given by the Clydesdale Horse Society for the best Clydesdale Stallion.
Clydesdale and Suffolk Horses.
cxi
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 39. — Clydesdale Stallions, foaled in 1892. [4 entries, 2 absent.]
482 I. (£20, & R. N. for Champion.1) — A. J. Marshall, Bridgebank, Stran-
raer, for Vanguard, brown, bred by J. F. Murdoch, East Hallside, Newton
Lanark ; s. Flash wood 3604, d. Anita 7359 by Darnley 222.
Class 40. — Clydesdale Mares and Foals. [5 entries, 1 absent.]
487 I. (£20.)— The Marquis of Londonderry, K.G., Seaham Hall, for Susie
8669, brown, foaled 1885 [foal by Gallant Prince], bred by W. Agnew,
Balwherrie ; s. Darnley 222, d. Nannie of Balwherrie 4362 by Glenlee 363.
485 II. (£10.) — Lords A. and L. Cecil, Orchardmans, Tonbridge, for Pride
of Auchentoshan, brown, foaled 1890 [foal by Claymore 3522], bred by A.
McLachlan, Cuilt, N.B. ; s. Lord Ailsa 5974, d. Jess of Cuilt 8792 by His
Royal Highness 2165.
488 III. (£5.) — Thomas Smith, Blacon Point, Chester, for Daisy, brown, foaled
1890 [foal by Prince of Scotland 8926], bred by W. Montgomery, Banks,
Kirkcudbright ; s. Darnley’s Hero 6697, d. Phyllis 10038 by Tom 877.
Class 41. — Clydesdale Fillies, foaled in 1891. [5 entries, none absent.]
490 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.2) — Wm. Graham, Eden Grove, Penrith, for
Royal Rose, bay, bred by A. Montgomery, Nether Hall, Castle Douglas,
N.B. ; s. Macgregor 1487, d. Black Sally 7652 by Top Gallant 1850.
493 II. (£10.) — Thomas Smith, Blacon Point, Chester, for Belle of Fashion,
bay, bred by Sir James Duke, Bart., Laughton, Hawkhurst ; s. Prince of
Fashion, d. La Belle, 8325 by Loudoun Laird 5182.
491 III. (£5.) — John Kerr, Red Hall, Wigton, for Lady Kate, bay; s. Queens-
ferry 7175, d. Kate Macgregor 6325 by Macgregor 1487.
492 R. N. & H. C. — L. Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries, N.B. , for Rival Belle.
494 H. C.— Thomas Smith, for Francesca.
Class 42. — Clydesdale Fillies, foaled in 1892. [10 entries, 3 absent.]
499 I. (£15, & Champion, £20.2) — Wm. Graham, Eden Grove, Penrith, for bay,
bred by R. & J. Shennan, Balig, N.B. ; s. Patrician 8095, d. Bet Macgregor
9071 by Macgregor 1487.
501 II. (£10.) — The Marquis of Londonderry, K.G., Seaham Hall, for
Lady Helen, brown ; s. Castlereagh, d. Lady Susan 11442 by Callendar.
600 III. (£5.) — John Kerr, Red Hall, Wigton, for Sonsie Girl, bay ; s. Royal
George 8205, d. Sonsie Lass 11401 by Stonehenge 4039.
603 R. N. & H. C.— T. Smith, for Leezie Lindsay ; & H. C. for No. 504, Red Rose
Suffolks.
Class 43. — Suffolk Stallions, foaled in 1888, 1889, or 1890.3
[10 entries, 1 absent.
605 I. (£20, & Champion, £21. 4) — C. H. Berners, Woolverstone Park, Ipswich,
for Windsor Chieftain 2025, chestnut, foaled 1889, bred by Robt. Wrinch,
Harkstead, Ipswich; s. Chieftain 1354, d. Juno 1600 by Cupbearer 3rd 566.
1 Given by the Clydesdale Horse Society for the best Clydesdale Stallion.
a Given by the Clydesdale Horse Society for the best Clydesdale Mare or Filly.
3 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
4 Given by the Cambridge Local Committee for the best Suffolk Stallion.
h 2
cxii A ward of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
511 II. (£10, & R.N. for Champion.1) — I. Pratt & Son, Melton, Woodbridge, for
Eclipse 2010, chestnut, foaled 1889, bred by Edwin Capon, Aldeby Hall,
Suffolk ; s. Cupbearer 3rd 566, d. Grace 335 by Viceroy 570.
512 III. (£5.)— A. J. Smith, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, for Democrat 2044,
chestnut, foaled 1889, bred by Wm. Davy, Athelington, Suffolk; s. Pros-
perity 1843, d. Diamond by Wantisden Duke 534.
506 R. N. & H. C. — Manfred Biddell, Playford, Ipswich, for Baron Playford.
Com. — I. Pratt & Son, for No. 510, Earl; Horace Wolton for No. 514,
Chieftain's Champion.
Class 44. — Suffolk Stallions, foaled in 1891. [5 entries, none absent.]
515 I. (£20.) — Manfred Biddell, Playford, Ipswich, forBramfield Lad 2272,
chestnut, bred by J. G. Kersey, Bramfield, Suffolk; s. Bar None 1514, d.
by Dunwich 1055.
516 II. (£10.) — George Pettit, Friston, Saxmundham, for Fearless 2399,
chestnut, bred by Arthur Rope, Leiston, Suffolk; s. Oriental 1337, d. Jewel
1804 by Verger 1550.
Class 45. — Suffolk Stallions, foaled in 1892. [8 entries, 1 absent.]
523 I. (£20.) — Robert Edgar, Knight’s Hill, Cockfield, Suffolk, for Tittle
Tattle 2367, chestnut ; s. Rattle 1776, d. Prattle 2213 by Cupbearer 3rd 566.
621 II. (£10.) — Manfred Biddell, Playford, Ipswich, for Valiant 2359,
chestnut ; s. Venture 1883, d. Meg 2603 by Condor 1483.
526 III. (£5.) — The Earl of Stradbroke, Henham Hall, Wangford, Suffolk,
for Henham Duke II. 2449, chestnut ; s. Farmer 2145, d. Smart by Cham-
pion 1262.
522 R. N. & Com. — Nathaniel CATcnroLE, Bramford, Ipswich, for Voyager.
Class 46. — Suffolk Stallions, J oaled in 1893. [11 entries, 1 absent.]
533 I. (£15.) — W. H. Hewitt, West Hill, Copdock, Ipswich, for Mars 2434,
chestnut ; s. Wedgewood 1749, d. Juno 1500 by Cupbearer 3rd 566.
537 II. (£10.) — W. E. S. & P. H. Wilson, Hadleigb, Suffolk, for Ruler 2453,
chestnut ; x. Prince Arthur 2268, d. Scott 2221.
538 III. (£5.) — Horace Wolton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, for Newbourn
Hero 2462, chestnut ; s. Stanley 2173, d. Violet 1971 by Diadem 1553.
534 R. N. & H. C. — Edward Packard, Jun., Bramford, Ipswich, for Jupiter.
532 Com. — The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., for Lord de Grey.
Class 47, — Suffolk Mares and Foals. [15 entries, 1 absent.]
544 I. (£20, & Champion, £21. 2) — Robert Edgar, Knight’s Hill, Cockfield,
Suffolk, for Prattle 2213, chestnut, foaled 1887 [foal by Hardware 2249],
bred by Caleb Kersey, Framsden, Suffolk ; s. Cupbearer 3rd 566, d. Brag
1895 by Statesman 657. {Foal entered in Class 53, No. 601.)
546 II. (£10, & R.N. for Champion.2)— The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon,
K.T., Easton Park, Wickham Market, for Morelia 2375, chestnut, foaled
1888 [foal by Wedgewood 2nd 2045], bred by C. A. Kersey, Monewden,
Wickham Market; s. Cupbearer 3rd 566, d. Lucy 1175 by Bismarck 729.
( Foal entered in Class 53, No. 603.)
1 Given by the Cambridge Local Committee for the best Suffolk Stallion.
“ Given by the Cambridge Local Committee for the best Suffolk Mare or Filly.
Suffolk Horses.
cxiii
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
549 III. (£5.) — H. Showell, Playford, Ipswich, for Dainty Dolly 3009, chest-
nut, foaled 1890 [foal by Eclipse 2010], bred by A. J. Smith, Rendlesham,
Woodbridge; s. Wedgewood 1749, d. Dorcas 2021 by Foxhall 1423. {Foal
entered in Class 53, J\ro. 604.)
553 R. N. &H. C. — Horace WOLTON,Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, for Patience.
651 Com.— Wm. Wilson, Baylham Hall, Ipswich, for Victoria.
Class 48. — Suffolk Mares, foaled before 1891, not with foal at foot,
but stinted in 1894.1 [4 entries, none absent.]
555 I. (£20.) — The Duke of Hamilton and Bbandon, K.T., Easton Park,
Wickham Market, for Queen of Trumps 2702, chestnut, foaled 1889, bred by
C. Austin, Brandeston Hall, Wickham Market ; s. Cupbearer 3rd 566, d.
Queen of Diamonds 1859 by Vanguard 1327.
556 II. (£10.) — The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., for Valiant
2051, chestnut, foaled 1886, bred by James Toller, Blaxhall, Wickham
Market ; s. Verger 1550, d. Venus 923 by Hercules 1167a.
•
Class 49. — Suffolk Fillies, foaled in 1891. [12 entries, none absent.]
564 I. (£15.)— The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., Easton Park,
Wickham Market, for Violet 3172, chestnut, bred by Sir A. S. Gooch, Ben-
acre Hall, Suffolk ; s. Wedgewood 1749, d. Valiant 2051 by Verger 1650.
563 II. (£10.)— The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., for Memory 3108,
chestnut, bred by Wra. Wilson, Baylham Hall, Ipswich; s. Old Times 1902,
d. Victoria 2251 by Punch 898.
567 HI. (£5.) — A. J. Smith, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, for Guinea Gold 3234,
chestnut, bred by the Exors. of S. Walton, Butley Abbey, Suffolk ; s.
Wedgewood 1749, d. Smart 1763 by Chieftain 1354.
565 R. N. & H. C. — W. R. Hustler, Earls Hall, Cockfield, Suffolk, for Pearl.
H. C. — Wm. Biddell, forNo. 560, Lassie ; Wm. Byford, for No. 561, Rosa ;
Wm. Toller, for No. 569, Gossip.
Class 50. — Suffolk Fillies, foaled in 1892. [14 entries, 3 absent.]
683 I. (£15.) — Horace Wolton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, for The Lady
3297, chestnut ; s. Warrior 1938, d. Diadem’s Empress 1977 by Diadem 1553.
579 II. (£10.) — W. Cuthbert Quilter, M.P., Bawdsey Manor, Woodbridge,
for Bawdsey Dolly 3611, chestnut ; s. The Czar 1754, d. Sprite by Check-
mate 1566.
580 III. (£5.)— W. Cuthbert Quilter, M.P., for Bawdsey Queen 3610, chest-
nut; s. The Czar 1754, d. Brag by Checkmate 1566.
576 R. N. & H. C— The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., for Trump
Card.
H. C. — Wm. Byford, for No. 572, Foxey; Robert Edgar, for No. 574,
Cockfield Belle.
Class 51. — Suffolk Fillies, foaled in 1893. [9 entries, 4 absent.]
589 I. (£15.) — The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., Easton Park,
Wickham Market, for Actress 3579, chestnut; s. Wedgewood 1749, d.
Easton Belle 2497 by Wanderer 1463.
' Prizes given by the Cambridge Loeal Committee.
CX1V
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
590 II. (£10.) — B. A. Posford, Falkenham Hall, Ipswich, for Falkenham
Martha 3490, chestnut ; s. Wedgewood 1749, d. Blossom 1248 by Royalty
1339.
686 III. (£5.) — Colonial College and Training Farms, Limited,
Hollesley Bay, for Winnipeg 3494, chestnut ; s. The Czar 1754, d. Match-
less 2401 by Volunteer 1241.
591 R. N. & Com.— A. J. Smith, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, for Princess Wedge.
585 Com. — E. Le Heup Cocksedge, for Glitter.
Class 52. — Suffolk Colt Foals, foaled in 1894, the produce of Mares
exhibited in Class 47. [5 entries, none absent.]
595 I. (£15.) — W. H. Hewitt, West Hill, Copdock, Ipswich, for Wrangler,
chestnut ; s. Wedgewood 1749, d. Juno 1500 by Cupbearer 3rd 566. {Ex-
hibited with No. 547.)
597 II. (£10.)— W. E. S. & P. H. Wilson, Hadleigh, Suffolk, for chestnut;
s. Eclipse 2010, d. Darling 2699 by Chieftain 1354. ( Exhibited with No.
552.)
596 R. N. — Edward Packard, Jun., Bramford, Ipswich, for chestnut.
Class 53. — Sic folk Filly Foals, foaled in 1894, the produce of Mares
exhibited in Class 47. 1 [10 entries, none absent.]
604 I. (£15.) — H. Showell, Playford, Ipswich, for chestnut ; *. Eclipse 2010, d.
Dainty Dolly 3009 by Wedgewood 1749. ( Exhibited with No. 519.)
603 II. (£10.) — The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., Easton Park,
Wickham Market, for chestnut ; s. Wedgewood 2nd 2045, d. Morelia 2375
by Cupbearer 3rd 566. ( Exhibited with No. 546.)
598 III. (£5.) — Sir W. N. Abdy, Bt., Manifold Wick, Kelvedon, for
chestnut ; s. Champagne 2300, d. Smart 3300 by Banker 1444. ( Exhibi'cd
ivith No. 539 )
600 R. N. & H. C. — Nathaniel Catchpole, Bramford, Ipswich.
H. C. — Robert Edgar, for No. 601, Gossip ; Horace Wolton, for No.
607. Com. — 606, Wm. Wilson.
Agricultural Horses.1
Class 54. — Agricultural Geldings, foaled in 1890 or 1891.
[10 entries, 1 absent.]
608 I. (£10.)— S. B. Chadwick, Crofton Lodge, Runcorn, for Leo, bay,
foaled in 1891, bred by Wm. Whinnerah, Warton Hall, Camforth ; s.
Norman IV. 10075, d. Peggie 6838 by Cardinal 2407.
610 II. (£5.) — Charles Coxon, Elford Park, Tamwortb, for Elford Victor,
roan, foaled 1891 ; s. Hatherton 4443, d. Elford Blossom by Plougliboy.
611 III. (£3.) — George Gifford, Flempton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, for
Boxer, bay, foaled 1890 ; s. Vulcan II., d. Depper by Matchless 1531.
613 R. N. & H. C. — Lord Middleton, Birdsall House, York, for Calendar.
Class 55. — Agricultural Geldings, foaled in 1890 or 1891, got by a
Registered Suffolk Stallion. [No entries.]
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
Shorthorn Cattle.
cxv
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.’’]
CATTLE.
Shorthorns.
Class 56. — Shorthorn Bulls, calved in 1889, 1890, or 1891.
[14 entries, 1 absent.]
623 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.1) — Wm. Geaham, Eden Grove, Kirkby-
thore, Penrith, for Fairy King G2570, roan, born Mar. 1, 1891, bred by
the Duke of Northumberland ; s. Royal Arthur 59806, d. Fairy Rosebud
by King Hal 49808.
631 II. (£10.) — J. Deane Willis, Bapton Manor, Codford, for Count
Lavender 60545, roan, born Mar. 3, 1889, bred by W. Duthie, Tarves, N.B. ;
s. Norseman 56233, d. Sweet Lavender by Earl of March 33807.
618 III. (£5.) — Hee Majesty tue Queen, The Prince Consort’s Shaw Farm,
Windsor, for Fairfax 60792, roan, born Jan. 5, 1890 ; s. Field Marshal 47870,
d. Friiulein by Admiral 39353.
629 R. N. & H. C. — Robebt Thompson, Inglewood, Penrith, for British
Cheer.
H. C. — Wm. Atkinson, for No. 619, Asterisk ; Hkney Williams, for
No. 630, Major.
Com. — George Hakbison, for No. 624, Royal Ury ; G. F. King, for
No. 625, Blair Athol.
Class 57. — Shorthorn Bulls, calved in 1892. [14 entries, 1 absent.]
645 I. (£15, & Champion, £20.') — J. Deane Willis, Bapton Manor, Codford,
for Czarowitz 63850, red & white, born Jan. 13 ; s. Count Lavender 60545,
d. Crown Princess by Golden Crown 54370.
632 II. (£10.) — C. W. Beiekley, The Lydiates, Brimfield, Herefordshire, for
Joe Ingram (vol. xxxix. p. 408), roan, born Apr. 4, bred by the late J.
Harrison, Much Hoole, Preston ; s. Harry Ingram 54417, d. Derwent
Princess by British General 50916.
638 III. (£5.) — G. Haerison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont, for Lord
Conyers 64304, red & little white, born Aug. 30, bred by D. Cooper,
Bainesse, Catterick ; s. Cincinnatus 58652, d. Lady Conyers by Lord
Godolphin 36065.
642 R. N. & H. C.— J. J. Shabp, Broughton, Kettering, for Lambert.
H. C. — John Handley, for No. 637, Vice Admiral; The Eael of Rose-
beey, K.G., for No. 641, Sittyton Seal.
Com. — Lobd Beougham and Vaux, for No. 634, Maximus.
Class 58. — Shorthorn Bulls, calved in 1893. [30 entries, 7 absent.]
675 I. (£15.) — J. Deane Willis, Bapton Manor, Codford, for Vain Robin,
roan, born Jan. 17 ; s. Roan Robin 57992, d. Vain Girl (vol. xxxvii. p. 724)
by Golden Crown 54370.
657 II. (£10.) — G. Haerison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont, for Champion
Cup, roan, born Jan. 16, bred by J. Deane Willis ; s. Challenge Cup 57029,
d. Cineraria (vol. xxxviii. p. 675) by Commodore 54118.
646 III. (£5.) — Wm. Atkinson, Overthwaite, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland, for
Major Munro (vol. xl.), white, born Jan. 21 ; s. Asterisk 62094, d. Emblem
by Ruling Star 58098.
1 Given by the Shorthorn Society for the beat Male Shorthorn exhibited in Classes 56-59.
cxvi
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
672 It. N. & H. C.— Richaed Stbatton, The Duffryn, Newport, Mon., for
Excelsior.
H. C. — John Handley, for No. 655, Duke of York ; Evan Jones, for No.
660, Golden Bulb; G. F. King, for No. 662, Vain Knight; Thomas
Stokes, for No. 671, Prince of Roses.
Com. — Thomas Stokes, for No. 670, Earl of Torwood 10th ; Jonas Webb,
No. 674, for Earl of Clarence 6th.
Class 59. — Shorthorn Bulls, calved in 1894.1 [14 entries, 2 absent.]
689 I. (£10.) — J. Deane Willis, Bapton Manor, Codford, for Count Victor,
roan, born Jan. 20 ; s. Count Lavender 60545, d. Victoria 84th (vol. xxxix.
p. 641) by Gondolier 52956.
688 II. (£5.) — Richakd Stkatton, The Duffryn, Newport, Mon, for First
Fiddle, roan, born Jan. 21 ; s. Medallion 56175, d. Timbrel 8th (vol. xxxv.
p. 592) by Acropolis 47316.
678 R. N. & H. C. — William Atkinson, Overthwaite, Milnthorpe, Westmore-
land, for British Chief.
H. C. — H.R.IT. the Peince of Wales, K.G., for No. 676, Honey Duke ;
Evan Jones, for No. 684; Philo L. Mills, for No. 685, Scottish
Charmer.
Class 60. — Shorthorn Cows ( in-milk or in-calf), calved before 1891.
[12 entries, 3 absent.]
691 I. (£15.) — C. W. Beiebley, The Lydiates, Brimfield, Herefordshire, for
Softlaw Rose (vol. xxxix. p. 268), red & white, born May 10, 1886, in-milk,
calved July 17, 1893, & in-calf, bred by James Scott, Softlaw East Mains,
Kelso, N.B. ; s. Prince Charming 50197, d. Fairnington Rose by Mountain
Prince 61343.
698 II. (£10.) — Loed Polwakth, Mertoun House, St. Boswells, N.B., for
Wave of Loch Leven (vol. xxxix. p. 530), red & white, born Feb. 14, 1886
[calved Aug. 23, 1894] ; s. King David 43417, d. Wave of Pacific by
Rapid Rhone 35205.
695 III. (£5.) — E. Eceoyd, Lowhouse, Armathwaite, Carlisle, for Arma-
thwaiteRose (vol. xxxix. p. 348), roan, born Sept. 18, 1890, in-milk, calved
Apr. 8, 1893, & in-calf ; s. Duke of Chatsworth 3rd 57185, d. Well Heads
Rose 13th by Duke of Holker 38153.
690 R. N. & H. C. — T. Atkinson, Redvales Farm, Bury, for Lady Faithful.
H. C. — J. J. Shakp, for No. 699, Oxford Rosette 5th ; F. C. Le G. Stabkie,
for No. 700, Carol.
Class 61. — Shorthorn Heifers ( in-milk or in-calf), calved
in 1891. [11 entries, 1 absent.]
702 I. (£15, & Champion, £20.2)— Hee Majesty the Queen, The Prince
Consort’s Shaw Farm, Windsor, for Bouquet (vol. xxxviii. p. 201), roan, bom
Apr. 12, in-milk, calved Feb. 26, 1894; s. New Year’s Gift 57796, d.
Bracelet by Royal Norseman 45540.
708 II. (£10.) — G. Haeeison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont, for Warfare
(vol. xxxviii. p. 419), roan, born Jan. 20, in-milk, calved Apr. 18, 1894,
bred by S. Campbell, Kinellar, Aberdeen ; First Consul 57314, d. Roan
Rosebud 2nd by Gravesend 46461 .
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
Glvm by the Shorthorn Society for the best Female Shorthorn exhibited in Classes 60-64.
Shorthorn Cattle.
cxvn
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
706 III. (£5.) — Edward Ecrotd, Lowhouse, Armathwaite, Carlisle, for
Armathwaite Butterfly 10th (vol. xxxix. p. 346), red & little white, bom
Nov. 6, in-calf; s. Duke of Chatswortli 3rd 57185, d. Belle of Butterflies
5th by Duke of Oxford 72nd 51143.
712 R. N. & H. C. — R. Stratton, The Duffryn, Newport, Mon., for Jubilant.
710 H. C. — Lord Polwarth, for Wave Mist.
Com.— F. W. Bond, for No. 703, Gertrude 2nd ; R. Bygott, for No. 704,
Baroness Creake 7th.
Class 62. — Shorthorn Heifers, calved in 1892. [14 entries, 3 absent.]
719 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.1)— Lord Polwarth, Mertoun House, St.
Boswells, N.B., for Bridal Robe (vol. xxxix. p. 530), red & white, born
Jan. 20; s. Crested Knight 54137, d. Wedding Gift by Sir Arthur Irwin
44016.
726 II. (£10.) — J. Deane Willis, Bapton Manor, Codford, for Miranda (vol.
xxxix. p. 639), red & white, born Aug. 24 ; s. Count Lavender 60545, d.
Missie 125th by William of Orange 50694.
716 III. (£5.) — C. W. Brierley, The Lydiates, Brimfield, Herefordshire, for
Welsh Maid, roan, born Apr. 1, bred by the Marquis of Bute, Cardiff
Castle ; s. Unionist 60093, d. Royal Butterfly’s Duchess 7th (vol. xxxv.
p. 423) by Baron Oxford 3rd 42737.
725 R. N. & H. C. — Robert Thompson, Inglewood, Penrith, for Sweet Shape.
H. C. — Her Majesty the Queen, for No. 7 13, Vera ; Sir H. F. de Traf-
ford, Bt , for No. 717, Minstrel Girl.
Com.— Lord Polwarth, for No. 720, Windsor’s Queen.
Class 63. — Shorthorn Heifers, calved in 1893. [27 entries, 6 absent.]
732 I. (£10.) — C. W. Brierley, The Lydiates, Brimfield, Herefordshire, for
Belle of the Season, roan, born Feb. 2 ; s. Martinet 59455, d. Amy Robsart
by Handel 46477.
752 II. (£7.)— J. Deane Willis, Bapton Manor, Codford, for Red Quadroon,
red, born Jan. 1 ; s. Roan Robin 57990, d. Quadroon 3rd (vol. xxxvii.
p. 722) by Young Briton 49201.
761 III. (£5.) — J. Deane Willis, for Edna Ailesbury, roan, born Feb. 19 ;
s. Roan Robin 57992, d. Emily Ailesbury (vol. xxxix. p. 637) by Gracchus.
727 R. N. & H. C.— Her Majesty the Queen, for Frederica.
H. C.— G. Harrison, for No. 740, Blanche, & No. 741, Gratia; W. J.
Hosken, for No. 742, Rose of Oxford 14th.
Com. — H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, K.G., for No. 728, York Rose ;
G. F. King, for No. 743, Countess 21st, & No. 744, Hilda Daisy 5th ;
Philo L. Mills, for No. 746, Barrington Kirklevington Craggs ; Robert
Thompson, for No. 750, Belgravia Butterfly.
Class 64. — Shorthorn Heifers, calved in 1894.2 [5 entries, 3 absent.]
756 I. (£10.) — G. Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont, for Princess
Mary, roan, born Jan. 8 ; s. Royal Ury 63302, d. Princess Annie (vol. xxxviii.
p. 419) by Prince Waterloo 3rd 45422.
757 II. (£5.) — Thomas Stokes, Warmington, Oundle, for Sunbeam, red, born
Jan. 25 ; s. Rosedale Carlo 64700, d. Sunshine 2nd by Gladys Hero 52940.
1 Given by the Shorthorn Society for the best Female Shorthorn exhibited in Classes 60-64.
“ Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
cxviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, eaoh prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Herefords.
Class 65, — Hereford Bulls, calved in 1889, 1890, or 1891.
[3 entries, 1 absent.]
760 I. (£15.) — A. E. Hughes, Wintercott, Leominster, for Albion 15027, torn
Jan. 5, 1890, bred by N. F. Moore, Sutton, Hereford ; s. Bruce 13646, d.
Milenda by Recorder 7205.
759 II. (£10.) — J. H. Arkwright, Hampton Court, Leominster, for Happy
Hampton 16097, born Jan. 22, 1891 ; s. Hilarity 8734, d. Pearl 9th by Good
Boy 7668.
Class 66. — Hereford Bulls, calved in 1892. [6 entries, 1 absent.]
767 I. (£15.) — Edward Yeld, Endale, Leominster, for Lead-on 16800, born
March 31, bred by A. E. Hughes, Wintercott, Leominster; s. Seabreeze
14153, d. Lofty by Rudolph 6660.
766 II. (£10.) — William Tudge, Leinthall, Ludlow, for Silurian 16993, born
Feb. 16; s. Excelsior 13778, d. Togus by Auctioneer 5194.
763 III. (£5.) — The Earl of Coventry, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, for
Courtier 16656, born June 18 ; s. Royal Ruler 13406, d. Counterfeit by
Adelbert 8185.
765 E. N. & Com. — Ralph Palmer, Nazeing, Waltham Cross, for Prospero.
Class 67. — Hereford Bulls, calved in 1893. [14 entries, 3 absent.]
774 I. (£15.) — A. E. Hughes, Wintercott, Leominster, for Liberty (vol. xxv.),
born March 7 ; s. Albion 15027, d. Lofty by Rudolph 6660.
779 II. (£10.) — William Tudge, Leinthall, Ludlow, for Bold Briton (vol.
xxv.), born Jan. 3 ; s. Ancient Briton 15034, d. Jubilee by Viscount Wilton
11824.
768 III. (£5.) — Wm. Barneby, Saltmarshe Castle, Bromyard, for Depositor,
bom Jan. 7 ; s. Banker 14316, d. Rebecca (vol. xx. p. 196) by Prince
Arthur 11554.
777 R. N. & H. C. — John Price, Pembridge, for Luke of York.
Com. — The Earl of Coventry, for No. 772, Tiptop; Thomas Fenn, for
No. 773, Downton Symmetry ; B. Yeld, for No. 781, Prince Hope.
Class 68. — Hereford Cows (in-milk or in-calf), calved before 1891.
[3 entries, none absent.]
783 I. (£15.) — The Earl of Coventry, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, for
Eanee, born Jan. 21, 1889, in-milk, calved Mar. 3, 1894; s. Rare Sover-
eign 10499, d. Rarity 13th by Archduke 4312.
782 II. (£10.) — W. H. Cooke, Shelsley Kings, Worcester, for Miss Severn
22nd (vol. xxiii. p. 259), born Jan. 25, 1888, in-milk, calved Feb. 14,
1894, bred by W. E. de Winton, Hillhampton Farm, Stourport; s. Grove
Wilton 3rd 11295, d. Miss Severn 18th by Robin Adair 9137.
784 R. N. & Com. — The Earl of Lisburne, Crosswood, Aberystwith, for
Wild Cherry.
Hereford and Devon Cattle.
cxix
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 69. — Hereford Heifers ( in-milk or in-calf), calved in 1891.
[3 entries, none absent.]
786 I. (£15.) — Richard Green, The Whittern, Kington, for Rachel (vol. xxiii.
p. 251), born Feb. 9, in-milk, calved Dec. 31, 1893, bred by George Child,
Pembridge ; s. Cleveland 1369C, d. Lydia by Warrior True 10801.
787 II. (£10.) — Ralph Palmer, Nazeing, Waltham Cross, for Whiskey (vol.
xxv.), bom Mar. 5, in-milk, calved Mar. 19, 1894 ; s. Crown Prince 8464,
d. Wellingtonia 4th by Landlord 7073.
785 R. N. & Com. — Col. Bridgford, Kinnersley, Hereford, for Princess 2nd.
Class 70. — Hereford Heifers, calved in 1892. [9 entries, 1 absent.]
796 I. (£15.) — A. P. Turner, The Leen, Pembridge, for Gwendoline (vol.xxiv.
p. 677), born Jan. 8 ; s. Merlin 7851, d. Olive by Sir Edward 10631.
793 II. (£10.) — W. E. Learner, Dilham Hall, Norwich, for May Queen (vol.
xxiv. p. 653), born Feb. 15, bred by John Price, Pembridge ; s. Pioneer
14025, d. Grace Darling by Monarch 7858.
790 III. (£5.) — The Earl op Coventry, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, for Rose,
born Feb. 8; s. Rare Sovereign 10499, d. Rosemary by Grove 3rd, 5051.
795 R. N. & H, C. — H. W. Taylor, Showle Court, Ledbury, for Tweenie.
788 H. C. — Her Majesty the Queen, for Patricia.
Com. — TnE Earl op Coventry, for No. 789, Geneva; T. Fenn, for
No. 791, Downton Heiress ; R. O. Rees, for No. 794, Marion.
Class 71. — Hereford Heifers, calved in 1893. [15 entries, 5 absent.]
800 I. (£10.) — Richard Green, The Whittern, Kington, for Sister Perilla (vol.
xxv.), born Jan. 10 ; s. Whittern Grove 10843, d. Miss Perfection by Lord
Wilton 4740.
799 II. (£7.) — Richard Green, for Mildmay (vol. xxv.), born Jan. 17 ; s.
Pioneer 16269, d. Maggie 2nd by Alexander 8193.
801 III. (£5.) — A. Hughes, Wintercott, Leominster, for Barbara 3rd (vol.
xxv.), born Jan. 10; s. Albion 15027, d. Baroness 2nd by Cheerful 6351.
798 R. N. & H. C. — W. H. Cooke, Slielsley Kings, Worcester, for Hyoscyamus.
807 Com. — H. W. Taylor, for Damietta.
Devons.
Class 72. — Devon Bulls, calved in 1889, 1890, or 1891.
[7 entries, 2 absent.]
818 I. (£15.) — Sir Wm. Williams, Bt., Heanton, Barnstaple, for Pretty Mid-
dling 2859, born Oct. 18, 1889, bred by Viscount Falmouth, Tregothnan,
Truro ; s. Lord Wolseley 2063, d. Quadrille 5800 by Sirloin 1443.
817 II. (£10.) — J. C. Williams, M.P., Werrington Park, Launceston, for
Marmion 2642, born Dec. 3, 1889 ; s. Mario 2279, d. Mouse 8791 by Druid
1317.
815 III. (£5.)— A. C. Skinner, Bishop’s Lydeard, Som., for Compensator
2942, born May 31, 1891 ; s. Baron Golsoncott 4th 2193, d. Crape 4th 9830
by Lord Currypool, 1589.
813 R. N. & H. C, — H. B. Blackburn, Tounleigh, Lew Down, Devon, for Star.
cxx
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 73. — Devon Bulls , calved in 1892. [4 entries, none absent.]
821 I. (£15.) — Sir Wm. Williams, Bt., Heanton, Barnstaple, for Pretty
Middling 2nd 3172, born June 10 ; s. Pretty Middling 2859, d. Rosebud
4th by Foreman 2nd 1969.
820 II. (£10.) — A. C. Skinner, Bishop’s Lydeard, Som., for Lord Punchard
3148, bom Jan. 14, bred by Exors. of W. H. Punchard, Bourton Hall,
Totnes; s. Lord Wolseley 2063, d. Lady Jane 10373 by Champion 1696.
822 R. N. & H. C.— Sir Wm. Williams, Bt., for Pretty Middling 3rd.
819 H. C. — Her Majesty the Queen, Flemish Farm, Windsor, for Dragoon.
Class 74. — Devon Bulls, calved in 1893. [4 entries, 1 absent.]
823 I. (£10.) — A. C. Skinner, Bishop's Lydeard, Som., for Royalist of Pound
3350, born Feb. 5 ; s. Masterpiece 2837, d. Rosalie 10175 by Rob Roy
1831.
824 II. (£5.)— E. J. Stanley, M P., Quantock Lodge, Bridgwater, Som., for
Duke of Bridgwater 3258, born Jan. 16; s. Baronet 1897, d. Lady Curry-
pool 6th 12120 by Duke of Wellington 1955.
825 R. N. & H. C. — P. H. Tamlyn, Boode House, Braunton, Devon, for Duke
of Cambridge.
Class 75.— Devon Cows or Heifers (in-milk or in-calf), calved before
or in 1891. [4 entries, none absent.]
827 I. (£15.) — A. C. Skinner, Bishop’s Lydeard, Som., for Duchess 29th
11727, born Aug. 27, 1890, in-milk, calved Aug. 21, 1893, & in-calf; s.
Baron Golsoncott 4th 2193, d. Duchess 17th 8988 by Lord Currypool 1589.
830 II. (£10.) — Sir Wm. Williams, Bt., Heanton, Barnstaple, for Flame 4th
11891, bom May 26, 1890, in-milk, calved May 3, 1894 ; s. Captain 2204,
d. Flame by Duke of Flitton 17th 1544.
828 III. (£5.)— A. C. Skinner, for Fancy 17th, 12430, bom Jan. 25, 1891,
in-milk, calved Apr. 20, 1894; s. General Gordon 1974, d. Fancy 7th
8991 by Lord Currypool 1589.
829 R. N. & H. C. — E. J. Stanley, M.P., Quantock Lodge, Bridgwater, for
Moss Rose 15th.
Class 76. — Devon Heifers, calved in 1892. [4 entries, none absent.]
833 I. (£15 ) — Sir Wm. Williams, Bt., Heanton, Barnstaple, for Fiction 5th
13191, born Jan. 13 ; s. Pretty Middling 2859, d. Fiction 2nd by Foreman
2nd 1969.
831 II. (£10.)— A. C. Skinner, Bishop’s Lydeard, Som., for Myrtle 38th 13081,
bom Jan. 13 ; s. Lord Passmore 2nd 2628, d. Myrtle 25th 9834_ by Lord
Currypool 1589.
832 R. N. & H. C. — E. J. Stanley, M.P., Quantock Lodge, Bridgwater, for
Moss Rose 18th.
834 H. C.— John Wortley, Frettenham, Norwioh.
Devon and Sussex Cattle .
cxxi
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 77. — Devon Heifers , calved in 1893. [4 entries, none absent.]
836 I. (£10.)— A. C. Skinner, Bishop’s Lydeard, Som.,for Fancy 19th of Pound
13602, born May 13 ; s. Compensator 2942, d. Fancy 14th 11729 by General
Gordon 1974.
835 II. (£7.) — Her Majesty the Queen, Flemish Farm, Windsor, for Fairy
13196, born Feb. 4 ; s. Roger Golsoncott 2485, d. Fancy 5th 5293 by Lily’s
Robin 1582.
838 It. N. & H. C. — Sir Wm. Williams, Bt., Heanton, Barnstaple, for May.
837 H. C. — J. C. Williams, M.P., Werrington Pk., Launceston, for Victress 3rd.
Sussex.
Class 78. — Sussex Bulls, calved in 1889, 1890, or 1891.
[6 entries, 2 absent.]
843 I. (£15.)- — F. Warde, Aldon, Addington, West Mailing, for Headley 1201 ,
born Jan. 22, 1891, bred by J. S. Hodgson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere ;
s. Dog Daisy 1112, d. Young Emily 1st by Prince Alfred 555.
841 II. (£10.) — Joseph Godman, Park Hatch, Godaiming, for Goldlink 1099,
born Mar. 1, 1890; s. Gold 815, d. Noble Lady 2911 by Napoleon 3rd 396.
840 III. (£5.) — W. S. Forster, Gore Court, Maidstone, for Gondolier 1001, born
Apr. 19, 1889; *. Careful 741, d. Tidy by Barton.
844 R. N. & H. C. — Earl Winterton, Shillinglee Pk., Sussex, for Stanhope.
Class 79. — Sussex Bulls, calved in 1892. [7 entries, none absent.]
847 I. (£15.)- — Joseph Godman, Park Hatch, Godaiming, for Prince John
1261, born Mar. 6, bred by C. T. Lucas, Warnham Court, Horsham ; s.
Lord John 934, d. Reeve 3818 by Drungewick 456.
849 II. (£10.) — Louis Huth, Possingworth Manor, Waldron, for Lord Beckley
19th 1270, born Feb. 9 ; s. Lord Beckley 6th 700, d. Virgin 15th 3856 by
Sir William 2nd 520.
846 III. (£5.) — The Earl of Derby, Birtley, Witley, Godaiming, for Proud
Prince 1249, born Jan. 19, bred by the late Earl of Derby ; s. Dog Daisy
1112, d. Pride of the Family 2nd 2469 by Young Hartley 444.
845 B. N. & H. C. — The Earl of Derby, for Beacon.
860 Com. — Sir F. A. Montefiore, Bt., for Cherry Duke.
Class 80. — Sussex Bulls, calved in 1893. [7 entries, 2 absent.]
856 I. (£10.) — Jos. Godman, Park Hatch, Godaiming, for Nobleman 7th 1315,
born Jan. 25 ; s. Nobility 838, d. Noble Lady 5tli 4419 by Nobleman 707.
857 II. (£5.) — Earl Winterton, Shillinglee Park, Petworth, for Shylock,
born Mar. 18, bred by J. Stewart Hodgson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere ; s. Dog
Daisy 1112, d. Laura 7th 3268 by Lord Oxford 461.
858 R. N. & H. C. — William Wood, Jun., Hassocks, Sussex, for King William.
853 H. C. — T. Bannister, for Limehurst Duke 2nd.
Com. — Wm. Beldam, for No. 854, Snowstorm ; The Earl of Derby, for
No. 855, Lord 0. Napier.
cxxii
A ward of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 81. — Sussex Cows or Heifers ( in-milk or in-calf), calved before
or in 1891. [7 entries, none absent.]
862 I. (£15.) — W. S. Forster, Gore Court, Maidstone, for Crown Princess
6483, born Feb. 27, 1891, in-milk, calved Jan. 17, 1894 ; s. Mikado 705, d.
Princess 2nd 3325 by Pacific 514.
861 II. (£10.) — W. S. Forster, forBlackeyes 4388. born Aug. 5, 1888, in-calf ;
s. Goldsmith 391, d. Surprise 3116 by Archduke 381.
864 III. (£5.) — Louis Huth, Possingworth Manor, Waldron, for Virgin 20th
4451, born June 7, 1887, in-milk, calved Feb. 11, 1894 ;s. Lord Beckley 6th
700, d. Virgin 17th 3866 by Fitzgerald 498.
859 R. N. & H. C. — Major Best, Boxley, Maidstone, for Dahlia 3rd.
H. C.— The Earl of Derby, for No. 860, Lady Napier 2nd ; J. E. A.
Gwynne, for No. 863, Dahlia 5th.
Class 82. — Sussex Heifers, calved in 1892. [10 entries, 2 absent.]
870 I. (£15.) — W. S. Forster, Gore Court, Maidstone, for Flo 5879, born
Jan. 1 ; s. Gondolier 1001, d. Wadhurst Marigold 5050 by Lord Charles.
872 II. (£10.) — C. T. Lucas, Warnham Court, Horsham, for Jubilee 2nd, born
Feb. 8 ; s. Lord John 934, d. Jubilee 4826 by Beresford 489.
866 III. (£5.)— Major Best, Boxley, Maidstone, for Grandissimo 5771, born
Feb. 1 ; s. Oxford Duke 1st 840, d. Grandiflora 4627 by Frankfort 1st 811.
875 R. N. & H. C. — Frederick Warde, Aldon, Addington, West Mailing, for
Aldon Prebble C.
H. C. — Joseph Godman, for No. 871, Dahlia 8th ; F. Warde, for No. 874,
Aldon Cherry 1st.
869 Com.— The Earl of Derby, for Dulcimer.
Class 83. — Sussex Heifers, calved in 1893. [15 entries, 4 absent.]
889 I. (£10.) — F. Warde, Aldon, Addington, West Mailing, for Aldon Emily
6362, born Jan. 15, bred by J. 8. Hodgson, Lythe Hill, Surrey ; s. Headley
1201, d. Young Emily 5tli by Silversmith.
882 II. (£7.) — Joseph Godman, Park Hatch, Godalming, for Christmas Dark
4th 6215, born Jan. 13 ; s. Nobility 838, d. Christmas Dark 2nd 4729 by
Oxford Duke 1st 840.
890 III. (£5.) — William Wood, Jun., Hassocks, Sussex, for Berry 13th, bom
Feb. 11 ; s. Tosser 1007, d. Berry 12th 4835 by Sir John 851.
880 R. N. & H. C.— The Earl of Derby, Birtley, Witley, Godaiming, for
Turtle Dove.
879 H. C. — F. Campbell, Brantridge Park, Sussex, for Brantridge Vera.
Com. — W. S. Forster, for No. 881, Biscuit; P. Saillard, for No. 887,
Wind 2nd, and No. 888, Woodmancote Mayflower 2nd.
Welsh.
Class 84. — Welsh Bulls, calved in 1889, 1890, or 1891.
[3 entries, none absent.]
893 I. (£10.) — Wm. E.Oakeley, The Plas, Tan-y-Bwlch, for Ardudwy (vol. iv.),
born Jan. 1, 1891 ; s. Latimer 188, d. Netty 306.
Welsh and Red Polled Cattle.
cxxiii
[Uuless otherwise stated, each prize animal named be ow was “bred by exhibitor.”]
892 II. (£5.) — R. M. Greaves, Wern, Tremadoc, for Brenhin Morfa 233, bom
Jan. 3, 1891 ; s. Ulundi 238, d. Morwyn Morfa 686 by Einion 92.
891 R. N. & H. C. — D. Evans-Hughes, Cae Mawr, Dwyran, Anglesea, for
Caswallon.
Class 85. — Welsh Bulls, calved in 1892 or 1893.
[3 entries, none absent.]
896 I. (£10.)— Major S. Sandbach, Hafodunos, Abergele, for Lord Salisbury
(vol. v.), born July 21, 1892 ; s. Sir Mona, d. Pride of Merioneth 443 by
Duke of Chester 20.
894 II. (£5.) — R. M. Greaves, Wern, Tremadoc, for Welsh Fusilier (vol. v.),
born Feb. 7, 1892, bred by W. E. Oakeley, The Plas, Tan-y-Bwlch ; s.
Baron of Tan-y-Bwlch 256, d. Famous 300 by Duke of Chester 20.
895 R. N. & Com. — Major S. Sandbach, for Ben Battle.
Class 86. — Welsh Cows ( in-milk or in-calf), calved before or in 1891.
[2 entries, 1 absent.]
898 I. (£10.) — Wm. E. Oakeley, The Phis, Tan-y-Bwlch, for Gem 738, bom
Jan. 18, 1888, in-milk, calved Sept. 23, 1893, and in-calf ; s. Harlech 96,
d. Jewel 549.
Class 87. — Welsh Heifers, calved in 1892. [2 entries, none absent.]
899 I. (£10.) — R. M. Greaves, Wern, Tremadoc, for Seren Ddu (vol. v.),
bom Jan. 8, bred by H. Ellis, Tairmeibion, Bangor ; s. Fron 230, d. Enid
674 by Cadwaladr 151.
900 II. (£5.) — Wm. E. Oakeley, The Phis, Tan-y-Bwlch, for Tiara (vol v.),
born Jan. 6+ s. Latimer 188, d. Gem 738 by Harlech 96.
Class 88. — Welsh Heifers, calved in 1893. [2 entries, none absent.]
901 I. (£10.) — R. M. Greaves, Wern, Tremadoc, for May Queen (vol v.), bom
May 1 ; s. Sir Roger (vol. v.), d. Towyn 7th 687 by Sir Watkin 2nd 126.
902 II. (£5.) — Wm. E. Oakeley, The Phis, Tan-y-Bwlch, for Mair 5th (vol. v.),
born Feb. 27 ; s. Rhaiadr DO 257, d. Mair 3rd 740 by Harlech 96.
Red Polled.
Class 89. — Bed Polled Bulls, calved in 1889, 1890, or 1891.
[8 entries, none absent.]
906 I. (£15, & Champion, £15.') — J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich,
for Red Prince 2902, bom Feb. 11, 1891 ; s. Laureate 1563, d. Prize 5077
by Cromwell 647.
904 II. (£10, & R. N. for Champion.1)— Lord Amherst of Hackney, Did-
lington Hall, Brandon, for Didlington Davyson 5th 2263, born May 16,
1890 ; s. Monk 1573, d. Didlington Davy 2148 by Davyson 7th 476.
905 III. (£5.) — F. E. Colman, Nork Park, Epsom, for Ruby King 2925, bom
Feb. 26, 1891, bred by J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich ; s.
Iago 1025, d. Doris 4532 by FalstafE 303.
907 R. N. & H. C. — Lord Hastings, Melton Constable, Norfolk, for Broadbent.
1 Given by the Red Polled Society for the best Red Polled Male animal exhibited.
CXX1V
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.’']
Class 90. — Red Rolled Bulls, calved in 1892. [6 entries, none absent.]
913 I. (£15.) — The Hon. A. E. Fellowes, M.P., Honingham Hall, Norwich,
for Young Alfred 3354, born Oct. 11 ; s. Starston Jew 2084, d. Nancy 3598
by Tit 1088.
915 II. (£10.) — Henry Spurling, 14 Lower Brook Street, Ipswich, for Boss
3009, born Sept. 23 ; s. Randolph 1603, d. Shotley Daisy 4353 by Over Hall,
1252.
916 III. (£5.) — C. H. Wright, Cromwell House, TrumpingtoD, Cambridge,
for Trumpington Hero, born Sept. 25, bred by R. E. Lofft, Troston Hall,
Suffolk ; s. Dandy 1768, d. doss 11th 6395 by Straight Star 945.
911 R. N. & H. C. — H.R.H. The Duke of York, K.G., Sandringham, for
Melton 2nd 3213.
Class 91. — Red Polled Bulls, calved in 1893.
[9 entries, none absent.]
920 I. (£15.) — Thomas Brown & Son, Marham Hall, Downham Market, for
Uncas, born Mar. 5 ; s. Didlington Davyson 2nd 657, d. Poppinette
2455 by Davyson 3rd 48.
922 II. (£10.)— Mrs. E. Perkins, Saham Hall, Watton, for Fat Boy, born
Feb. 1 ; s. Mr. Pickwick 1353, d. Ivy 3rd 5563 by Davyson 15th 652.
923 III. (£5.)— Mrs. E. Perkins, for Sir Toney, born Mar. 3 ; s. Mr. Pickwick,
1963, d. Ivy 2nd 3520 by Davyson 15th 652.
919 R. N. & Com. — T. Brown & Son, Marham Hall, Downham Market, for
Fugleman.
921 Com. — G. E. Hawkins, for Sir John.
Class 92. — Red Polled Cows (in-milk or in-calj), calved before 1891.
[11 entries, 1 absent.]
930 I. (£15, & Champion, £15.') — J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich,
for Dorena 6308, born Feb. 26, 1890, in-milk, calved Feb. 7, 1894 ; s.
Iago 1025, d. Doris 4532 by Falstaff 303.
929 II. (£10.) — Lord Amherst of Hackney, Didlington Hall, Brandon, for
Saltarella 3rd 6730, born Oct. 25, 1890, in-milk, calved Jan. 14, 1894, &
in-calf ; s. Monk 1573, d. Satanella 3732 by Cortes 645.
928 III. (£5.)— Lord Amherst of Hackney, for Poppety 2nd 4289, born
Feb. 22, 1887, in-milk, calved Feb. 2, 1894, & in-calf; s. Didlington
Davyson 2nd 657, d. Poppinette 2455 by Davyson 3rd 48.
936 R. N. & H C. — Garrett Taylor, Trowse House, Norwich, for Topsy.
934 Com. — Mrs. Perkins, for Marchioness.
Class 93. — Red Polled Ileifers (in-milk or in-calf), calved in 1891.
[5 entries, 1 absent.]
938 I. (£15, & R. V. for Champion.1) — J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House,
Norwich, for Rose Alba 7468, born Jan. 19, in-milk, calved Jan. 2, 1894;
s. Laureate 1563, d. Midsummer Rose 2976 by Othello 713.
1 Given by the Red Polled Society for the best Red Polled Female animal exhibited.
Red Polled and Aberdeen Angus Cattle.
cxxv
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
941 II. (£10.) — G. E. Hawkins, Holt House, Leziate, King’s Lynn, for Neck-
lace Grand 6594, born Sept. 6, in-milk, calved Mar. 9, 1894, bred by A. J.
Smith, Rendlesham ; Grand Duke 1388, d. Necklace 4234 by Davyson
7th 476.
937 R. N. — H.R.H. The Duke of York, K.G., Sandringham, for Midnight.
Class 94. — Red Polled Heifers , calved in 1892. [10 entries, 2 absent.]
943 I. (£15.)— J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, for Jewel 2nd,
born Apr. 21 ; s. Negro 1956, d. Jewel 5575 by Iago 1025.
945 II. (£10.)— The Hon. A. E. Fellowes, M.P., Iloningham Hall, Norwich,
for Honeymoon 7923, born Jan. 8, bred by H. P. Green, Caister ; *. Star-
light 2531, d. Bride Elect 6215 by Combination 1150.
942 III. (£5.)— H.R.H. The Duke of York, K.G., Sandringham, for Ashlyns
Phyllis 7647, born Jan. 4, bred by Lieut. -Col. A. G. Lucas, Ashlyns Hall,
Herts ; ». Priney 1602, d. Annie 1985 by Bounty 460.
950 R. N. & H. C.— The Hon. W. F. D. Smith, M.P., Great Thurlow, Suffolk,
for Jura.
944 Com.— J. J. Colman, M.P., for Telba.
Class 95. — Red Polled Heifers, calved in 1893. [11 entries, 1 absent.]
955 I. (£10.)— J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, for Barbelle,
born Mar. 19 ; s. Game Boy 2315, d. Barmaid 3860 by Falstaff 303.
953 II. (£7.)— Lord Amherst of Hackney, Didlington Hall, Brandon, for
Gold Dust, born July 8 ; s. Marcus, d. Goldmine 7150 by Red Shirt 2014.
956 III. (£5.)— J. J. Colman, M.P., for Brinhilda, born Feb. 12; s. Jupiter
2380, d. Brindy 3896 by Falstaff 303.
954 R. N. & H. C. — Lord Amherst of Hackney, for Popsey 2nd.
958 Com. — Lieut. -Col. Lucas, for Marguerite 3rd.
Aberdeen Angus.
Class 96. — Aberdeen Angus Bulls, calved in 1889, 1890, or 1891.
[8 entries, 3 absent.]
964 I. (£10, & Champion.') — Fred Crisp, New Southgate, for Gilderoy 9208,
born Mar. 2, 1891, bred by Sir G. Macpherson Grant, Bt , Ballindalloch
Castle; s. Iliad 2843, d. Georgina 2nd of Aberlour by Whig 1867.
963 II. (£5, & R.N.for Champion.1) — Rev. C. Bolden, Preston Bissett, Buck-
ingham, for Esmond of Ballindalloch 8304, born Mar. 1, 1890, bred by Sir
G. Macpherson Grant, Bt., Ballindalloch Castle ; s. Iliad 2843, d. Edelweiss
5605 by Young Viscount 736.
967 R. N. & H. C. — The Earl of Rosebery, K.G., Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh,
for Marquis of Moray.
Class 97. — Aberdeen Angus Bulls, calved in 1892 or 1893.
[6 entries, 1 absent.]
973 I. (£10.) — G. S. Grant, Auchorachan, Glenlivet, Ballindalloch, for Boaz
of Ballindalloch 10672, born Dec. 15, 1892, bred by Sir G. Macpherson
Grant, Bt., Ballindalloch Castle ; s. Zenophon 8028, d. Bouncing Maid
13700 by Iliad 2843.
1 Gold Medal given by the Polled Cattle Society for the best Aberdeen Angus animal exhibited.
VOL. V. T. S. — 19 i
CXXV1
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor."]
974 II. (£5.) — The MabquIS op Huntly, Aboyne Castle, N.B., for Birsemore
9805, born Feb. 26, 1892; s. Paris 1473, d. Pride of Birse 11329 by
Monarch 1182.
972 R. N. & H, C, — T. Dixon, Jun., Leadhill, Stocksfield, for Angus Mac
donald.
Class 98. — Aberdeen Angus Cows or Heifers ( in-milk or in-calf),
calved before or in 1891. [8 entries, none absent.]
977 I. (£10.)— Her Majesty the Queen, Abergeldie Mains, Ballater, N.B.,
for Eurya 13708, born May 21, 1888, in-milk, calved Jan. 21, 1894, bred by
Sir G. Maopherson Grant, Bt., Ballindalloch Castle ; s. Provost 1259, d.
Eugenie of Ballindalloch 4170 by Judge 1150.
981 II. (£5.) — G. S. Grant, Auchorachan, Glenlivet, Ballindalloch, Banffshire,
for Legend 16518, born Jan. 20, 1890, in-milk, calved Apr. 16, 1894 ; s. Rover
6tli 7161, d. Latonia 9942 by Prince of Livet 2303.
984 R. N. & H. C. — C. P. Sykes, West Ella, Hull, for Witch of Endor 19th.
Com. — T. Dixon, Jun., for No. 980, Julia of Leadhill ; W. B. Greenfield,
for No. 983, Queen of Haynes 2nd.
Class 99. — Aberdeen Angus Heifers , calved in 1892 or 1893.
[11 entries, 1 absent.]
991 I. (£10.) — Tiie Earl of Rosebery, K.G., Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh, for
Grace of Dalmeny 19733, born Jan. 25, 1892 ; s. Esquire 5346, d. Lady Grace
5th by Paris 1473.
992 II. (£5.) — The Earl of Rosebery, K.G., for Princess of Dalmeny 19740,
born Mar. 15, 1892 ; s. Esquire 5346, d. Paris Princess by Paris 1473.
988 R. N. & H. C. — The Marquis of Htjntly, Aboyne Castle, N.B., for
Lady Elena.
Com. — The Rev. C. Bolden, for No. 986, Pride of Preston 4th ; T. Dixon,
Jun., for No. 987, Jubilee May; C. W. Schroeter, for No. 993, Tedfold
Favourite 2nd.
Galloways.
Class 100.— Galloway Bulls, calved in 1889, 1890, or 1891. [1 entry.]
996 I. (£10.) — Leonard Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries, for Cedric 2nd of
Tarbreoch 5483, bom Jan. 20, 1891, bred by J. Cunningham, Tarbreoch,
Dalbeattie ; s. Lucky Times 3058, d. Tarbreoch Lizzie 3rd by Harden 1151.
Class 101. — Galloway Bulls, calved in 1892 or 1893.
[2 entries, none absent.]
998 I. (£10.) — Wm. Parkin-Moore, Whitehall, Mealsgate, Cumberland, for
Macdougall 3rd of Tarbreoch 5840, born Jan. 15, 1892, bred by James
Cunningham, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie ; .«. Royal Liberty 4140, d. Maggie of
Tarbreoch 8613 by Scottish Borderer 669.
997 II. (£5.) — James Cunningham, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, for Scottish
Knight of Durhamhill 5924, born Jan. 10, 1893, bred by John Cunningham,
Durhamhill, N.B. ; s. Campfollower 5052, d. Madonna of Tarbreoch 10427
by Harden 1151.
Galloway and Ayrshire Cattle.
cxxvn
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 102. — Galloway Cows or Heifers ( in-milk or in-calf), calved
before or in 1891. [4 entries, none absent.]
1002 I. (£10.) — Leonard Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries, for Tidy 5th of
Drumlanrig, born Apr. 11, 18S0, in-calf, bred by the Duke of Buccleuch;
s. Bosphorus 4693, d. Tidy of Drumlanrig 9615 by Mackintosh 3rd 2646.
1000 II. (£5.) — James Cunningham, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, for Madonna
2nd of Tarbreoch 11056, born Feb. 23, 1888 [calved Sept. 6, 1894];
s. Statesman 3rd of Drumlanrig 2624, d. Madonna 2nd 8696 by Stanley
2nd of Drumlanrig 1675.
1001 R. N. & H. C. — James Cunningham, for Scottish Queen.
999 Com. — The Countess of Carlisle, for Lady Queen 3rd of Tarbreoch.
Class 103. — Galloway Heifers , calved in 1892 or 1893.
[4 entries, none absent.]
1005 I. (£10.) — Leonard Pilicington, Cavens, Dumfries, for Mabel of Castle-
milk 12950, born Jan. 17, 1892, bred by Sir Robert Jardine, Bt., Castlemilk
Lockerbie ; s. Black Douglas of Castlemilk 5002, d. Maggie 4th of
Garliestown 10053 by Ivanhoe 3080.
1003 II. (£5.) — The Countess of Carlisle, Naworth Castle, Brampton,
for Primrose 2nd of Drumlanrig 12928, born Jan. 16, 1892, bred by the
Duke of Buccleuch; s. Yich Ian Vhor 4121, d. Peeress 6th 10953 by
Squire 3737.
1006 R. N. & H. C.— Lord Polwarth, Mertoun House, St. Boswells, for
Tidy Betty.
1004 Com. — The Countess of Carlisle, for Vaudeville 4th of Naworth.
Ayrshires.
Class 104. — Ayrshire Bulls, calved in 1891, 1892, or 1893.
[4 entries, 1 absent.]
1010 I. (£10.)— Sir Mark J. Stewart, Bt., M.P., Southwick, Dum-
fries, for Hovers Heir of Southwark 2690, white & brown spots, born
Mar. 20, 1891 ; s. Hover-a- Blink 892, d. Betty 2nd of Orchard ton by
Black Prince.
1009 II. (£5.) — Leonard Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries, for Field Marshal,
white & brown, born Mar. 9, 1892, bred by Thomas Scott, Netlierhall,
Sandilands, N.B. ; s. Adjutant 1819, d. Susy by Jumbo.
1008 R. N. & H. C.— Andrew Mitchell, Barcheskie, Kirkcudbright, for
Lord Stair.
Class 105. — Ayrshire Cows or Heifers (in-milk or in-calf ).
[3 entries, none absent.]
1013 I. (£10.)— Sir Mark J. Stewart, Bt., M.P., Southwick, Dumfries, for
Trim 4th of Castlehill 6940, yellow-brown k white, born June, 1888, in-
milk, calved May 25, 1894, bred by A. Kerr, Castlehill ; s. Peter of White-
hill 1397, d. Trim of Castlehill 6219.
1011 II. (£5.)— Leonard Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries, for Braw Lass,
white k brown, born 1892, in-calf, bred by A. Frater, Westhawksland,
N.B. ; s. Adjutant 1819, d. Nellie of Westhawksland by Craigs of
Kyle 1793.
1012 R. N. & H, C.— Leonard Pilkington, for Brown Duchess.
i 2
cxxvin
A ward of Live-Stock, Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Jerseys.
N. /?. — In the Jersey Classes, the number inserted within brackets after the
name of an animal indicates the number of such animal in the Island
Herd Book. A number without brackets indicates that the animal is
registered in the English Jersey Herd Book.
Class 106. — Jersey Bulls, calved in 1890, 1891, or 1892.
[19 entries, 1 absent.]
1032 I. (£15.) — Mbs. C. H. Wilson, Warter Priory, Pocklington, for Sultan,
whole colour, born Apr. 4, 1892, bred by Lord Londesborough, Londes-
borough Park, Yorks ; s. Grouville’s Dairyman 4183, d. Sultana (vol. v. p.
692) by Rainbow 1943.
1028 II. (£10.) — R. J. Pope, Beresford Manor, Plumpton, Lewes, for Devo-
tion’s Lad, whole colour, born Mar. 1, 1892, bred by J. E. Grandin, St.
Owen’s, Jersey ; s. Distinction’s Pride (I486), d. Devotion 6th (3261).
1019 III. (£5.) — Sir R. Graham, Bt., Norton Conyers, Ripon, for Tiger
Lily, black, born June 7, 1892 ; s. Grouville Dairyman 4153, d. Diana
2nd (vol. v. p. 300) by Nero du Coin 1849.
1023 R. N. & H. C. — G. C. Knight, Baldborns Pk., Horsham, for William Tell.
H. C. — F. Bradshaw, for No. 1014, Grouville’s Clyde; Earl Cadogan,
K.G., for No. 1016, Golden Fluke ; Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., for No.
1020, Rosa’s Fortescue 2nd; R. H. Lord, for No. 1024, Grouville’s
Phil ; A. E. McMullen, for No. 1026, Marquis ; Lord Rothschild,
for No. 1029, Flora's Lad.
1017 Com Sir H. F. de Trafford, Bt., for Rosy Jock.
Class 107. — Jersey Bulls, calved in 1893. [34 entries, 3 absent.]
1037 I. (£10.) — Earl Cadogan, K.G., Culford Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, for
Nevada, fawn, born May 24 ; s. Columbus 3184, d. Neroline (vol. iv. p.
449) by Victor 2131.
1052 II. (£5.) — Mrs. C. McIntosh, Havering Park, Romford, for Morning
Star, dark grey, born Apr. 12, bred by W. Alexander, St. Mary’s, Jersey ;
s. Lowland King (1673), d. Jubilee Star (4607) by Rosy’s Wonder (835).
1062 R. N. & H. C. — Mrs. E. E. Starkie, Mitchells, Saffron Walden, for
Groufille’s Lad.
H. C. — J. R. Corbett, for No. 1038, Little Goldie ; Sir Gilbert Green-
all, Bt., for No. 1045, Gay Lord ; The Hon. Mrs. Cecil Howard, for
No. 1049, Hucklebury ; G. C. Knight, for No. 1050, Guardian ; A. E.
McMullen, for No. 1053, Egyptian Nigger ; E. Mathews, for No.
1055, Noirmont’s Boy ; Mrs. C. H. Wilson, for No. 1066, Warter
Grouville.
Com. — Capt. the Hon. T. S. Brand, for No. 1036, Correze; J. W.
Crookes, for No. 1039, Blackwood ; F. Freeman-Thomas, for No.
1041, Wigton’s Boy; C. Glyn, for No. 1042, Goree ; Sir R. Graham,
Bt., for No. 1044, Viscount Grouville ; The Countess of Lons-
dale, for No. 1051, Busy Boy.
Jersey Cattle.
cxxix
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 108. — Jersey Cows (in-milk), calved before or in 1890.
[20 entries, 4 absent.]
1081 I. (£15.) — Lord Rothschild, Tring Park, Herts, for Oxford Dahlia,
fawn, born Feb. 8, 1887, in-milk, calved Apr. 6, 1894, bred by J. P.
Marett, St. Saviour’s, Jersey; s. Sultan’s Cicero (398), d. Oxford Daisy
(6616).
1074 II. (£10.) — Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Mona 7th, fawn <fc white, born Apr. 13, 1889, in-milk, calved Apr. 25,
1894, bred by F. P. Hacquoil, St. Owen’s, Jersey; s. Leonidas (881), d.
Mona 3rd (1447) ly Wolseley (401).
1083 III. (£5.) — Mrs. E. E. Starkie, Mitchells, Saffron Walden, for Flora’s
Pearl (3688), fawn & white, born Mar. 2, 1889, in-milk, calved Apr. 15,
1894, bred by C. De Gruchy, Trinity, Jersey ; s. Standard (1056), d. Flora’s
Pride (954).
1082 R. N. & H. C. — Lord Rothschild, TringPurk, Herts, for Spot.
H. C. — Earl Cadogan, K.G., for No. 1071, Fancy’s Beauty; J. W.
Crookes, for No. 1072, Black Bess 2nd ; Mrs. McIntosh, for No.
1078, Jubilee Star.
1085 Com. — W. G. M. Townley, for May Queen 2nd.
Class 109. — Jersey Cows (in-milk), calved in 1891.
[20 entries, 2 absent.]
1099 I. (£15.)— Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Silver Bell (7999) F.S., grey, born Apr., in-milk, calved Apr. 23, 1894,
bred by J. N. Falle, Grouville, Jersey.
1100 II. (£10.) — Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., for Surprise, fawn, born Apr. 2,
in-milk, calved May 6, 1894, bred by J. E. Grandin, St. Owen’s, Jersey;
s. Golden Lad (1242), d. Devotion 0th (3261).
1093 III. (£5.)— Earl Cadogan, K.G., Culford Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, for
J. G. Bess, fawn, born July 1, in- milk, calved May 20, 1894; bred by
P. L. S. Mourant, St. Saviour’s, Jersey; s. Golden Lad (1242), d. Brook-
hill Bess (7245).
1092 R. N. & H. C. — Joseph Brutton, Yeovil, for Golden Lass 5th.
H. C. — Joseph Flinn, for No. 1095, Tit’s Promise ; Mrs. E. E.
Starkie, for No. 1105, Grand-daughter.
Com.— Joseph Brutton, for No. 1091, Brown Fern 6th ; Mrs. Mc-
Intosh, for No. 1101, Primrose Wonder.
Class 110. — Jersey Heifers (in-milk or in-calf), calved in 1892.
[25 entries, 5 absent.]
1119 I. (£15.)— Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, WarriDgton, for
Science 2nd, brown, born Feb. 24, in-milk, calved Apr. 30, 1894, bred by
F. Le Lievre, St. Clement’s, Jersey ; s. Golden Lad (1242), d. Science
(3793).
1108 II. (£10.) — Lord Bbaybrooke, AudleyEnd, Saffron Walden, for Lemon
Queen 2nd, fawn, born Apr. 15, in-milk, calved Apr. 23,1894; s. Old
Port 3600, d. Lemon Queen by Loyal Baron 2638.
1127 HI. (£5.)— Lord Rothschild, Tring Park, Herts, for Farewell,
fawn, born Jan. 10, in-milk, calved May 20, 1894, bred by A. Gautier, St.
Saviour’s, Jersey ; 5. Golden Lad (1242), d. Wigton (7198) F.S.C. ly
Sir Robert (2061).
I
cxxx
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.’’]
1113 R. N. & H. C. — Joseph Flinn, Tednambury, Bishop’s Stortford, for
Grouville’s Ode.
H.C. — Lord Braybrooke for No. 1109, Speck 5th ; J. R. Corbett, for
No. 1111, Bessie 7th; Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., for No. 1118,
Butterfly ; Mrs. E. E. Starkie, for No. 1130, Goldflnch.
Com. — P. H. Fowler, for No. 1115, Pretty Lady Superior 4th ; Fowler
& De la Perrelle, for No. 1 L 17, Maitland Buttercup 2nd; Lord
Rothschild, for No. 1128, Jessamine.
Class 111. — Jersey Heifers , calved in 1893. [33 entries, 5 absent.]
1150 I. (£10.) — Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., Walton Hall, Warrington, for
Daisy’s Pride, fawn, born Apr. 12; s. Zulu’s Pride (4459), d. Daisy of the
Valley by Count Wolseley (928).
1143 II. (£7.) — F. Freeman-Thomas, Little Ratton, Eastbourne, for Hyacinth,
fawn, born May 4 ; s. Butterfly 4006, d. Harebell B. (vol. v. p. 392) by
Martin’s Duke 3523.
1159 III. (£5.) — Lord Rothschild, Tring Park, Herts, for Tulip 3rd, fawn,
born Apr. 26 ; s. Spots Lad 4389, d. Marigold by Columbus 3184.
1149 R. N. & H. C. — Sir Gilbert Greenall, Bt., for Belvira’s Lassie.
H. C. — J. R. Corbett, for No. 1140, Ellen; J. W. Crookes, for No. 1141,
Footlight; A. T. Grain, for No. 1147, Lady Margaret; R. H. Lord,
for No.;il53, Juno 2nd; A. E. McMullen, for No. 1156, Trust 4th; Mrs.
E. E. Starkie, for No. 1161, Grand daughter’s Pearl ; Mrs. C. H.
Wilson, for No. 1163, Sultana 2nd.
Com. — Capt. the Hon. T. S. Brand, R.N., for No. 1135, Romp ; J.
Brutton, for No. 1139, Cloud 2nd; R. H. LORD, for No. 1154, Mabel ;
Lord Rothschild, for No. 1158, Fern.
Guernseys.
Class 112. — Guernsey Bulls, calved in 1890, 1891, err 1892.
[5 entries, 2 absent.]
X. II. — Unless otherwise stated, the numbers refer to the English Ouernsey Herd Booh.
1165 I. (£10.) — Lord Montagu, Beaulieu, Southampton, for Beaulieu King,
red & white, born Sept. 30, 1892; s. Red Prince 430, <1. Maysie 1387.
1168 II. (£5.) — The Hon. Mrs. Latimer Neville, Magdalene Lodge,
Cambridge, for Hopeful 4th 550, orange, fawn & white, born Sept. 7, 1892,
bred by W. Glynn, Sea Grove, Ryde ; s. The General 444, d. Flora 117.
1167 R. N. — Sir F. A. Montefiore, Bt., Worth Park, Crawley, for Sir Fran-
cis 2nd.
Class 113. — Guernsey Bulls, calved in 1893.
[9 entries, 1 absent.]
1172 I. (£10.) — The Express Dairy Co., Ltd., Finchley, for Benefactor
864 P.S., R.G.A.S., orange, fawn & white, born Jan. 8, bred by John
Bourgaise, St. Saviour’s, Guernsey; s. Willing Lad 764 P.S., d. Bene-
factress 4th 381 P.S.
1171 II. (£5.) — The Express Dairy Co., Ltd., for Ambassador 857 P.S.,
R.G.A.S., orange, fawn & white, bom Jan. 3, bred by J. W. Martel, Castel,
Guernsey ; s. Meridian 735 P.S., d. Hilda 2nd 2035 P.S.
Guernsey and Kerry Cattle.
CXXXl
Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
1 1 73 R. N. & H. C. — P. H. Fowler, Watford, Herts, for Robinson 2nd.
1177 H. C. — Julian Stephens, for Mountaineer.
1176 Com. — Sir F. A. Montefiore, Bt., for Lord Worth 3rd.
Class 114. — Guernsey Cows or Heifers [in-milk), calved before
or in 1891. [9 entries, none absent.]
1183 I. (£10.) — Sir F. A. Montefiore, Bt., Worth Park, Crawley, for
Fortuna 768, fawn & white, born Apr. 18, 1886, in-milk, calved Mar. 1
1894, bred by A. Rintoul, London; s. Hopeful 25, <1. Blossom 21.
1187 II. (£5.) — Julian Stephens, Finchley, for Muriel 1132, orange,
fawn & white, born Sept. 12, 1886, in-milk, calved Aug. 21, 1893,
bred by Henry Abrahams, Bronet, Guernsey; s. Climax 14, d. Whitey
1603 G.H.B.
1185 R. N. & H. C. — The Hon. Mrs. Latimer Neville, Magdalene Lodge,
Cambridge, for Matilda.
1186 H. C. — Julian Stephens, for Mountain Maid 2nd.
1181 Com.— J. F. Hicks, for Kate 7th.
Class 115.. — Guernsey Heifers , calved in 1892.
[8 entries, none absent.]
1189 I. (£10.)— The Express Dairy Co., Ltd., Finchley, for College
Daisy 4526 G.H.B. , orange, fawn & white, born June 10, bred by J.
Simon, St. Andrew’s, Guernsey ; s. Goldfern, d. Daisy.
1188 II. (£5.) — The Hon. Mrs. A. Baillie-Hamilton, Combs, Stowmarket,
for Rosemary 2nd 2304, fawn & white, born Apr. 12 ; s. Serapis 364, d.
Rosemary 273 by Loyal 37.
1190 R. N. & H. C. — The Express Dairy Co., Ltd., for Polly 7th.
Class 116. — Guernsey Heifers , calved in 1893.
[9 entries, none absent.]
1196 I. (£10.) — The Hon. Mrs. A. Baillie-Hamilton, Combs, Stow-
market, for Sweet Marjoram, fawn & little white, born Feb. 15 ; s. Jesse
328, d. Sweet Silage 1458 by Mercury 197.
1204 II. (£5.)— Julian Stephens, Finchley, for Muriel 5th 2524, light red
& white, born Aug. 21 ; s. May Boy 346, d. Muriel 1132.
1198 R. N. & H. C. — The Express Dairy Co., Ltd, Finchley, for Nora 8th
H. C. — The Express Dairy Co., Ltd., for No. 1197, East Lynne 5th ;
H. C. Stephens, M.P., for No. 1202, Citron Blossom 8th ; and No. 1203
Citron Blossom 9th.
Kerries,
Class 117. — Kerry Bulls, calved in 1891, 1892, or 1893.
[9 entries, none absent.]
1208 I. (£10, & R. N. for Champion.1)— Viscount de Vesci, Abbeyleix
House, for King Conn, born Apr. 12, 1893 ; s. Gort Admiral 140, d. Lady
Castletown 2nd by Feale 8.
1211 II. (£5.) — The Marquis of Lansdowne, Bowood, Caine, for OTugan
214, born Feb. 4, 1892, bred by Viscount de Vesci, Abbeyleix; s. Gort
Admiral 140, d. Lady Georgina 523 by Feale 8.
1 Given by the Kerry anil Dexter Cattle Society for the best animal exhibited in Classes 117-119
CXXX11
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor."]
1212 R. N. & H. C. — The Maequis of Lansdowne, for Pat O’Hara.
Com.— C. Adeane, for No. 1205, Babraham Beau ; J, Robertson, for No.
1213, Canterbury.
Class 118. — Kerry Cows (in-milk or in-calf), calved before or
in 1891. [8 entries, 2 absent.]
1221 I. (£10, & Champion, £10 10.?.')— James Robertson, Hatton, Warwick,
for Beryl, born 1889, in-milk, calved May 12, 1894; breeder unknown.
1216 II. (£5.) — The Express Dairy Co., Ltd., Finchley, for Nair 667, born
1888, in-milk, calved Feb. 17, 1894 ; breeder unknown.
1218 R. N. & H. C. — Sir Maurice Fitz-Gerald, Bt., Severals House,
Newmarket, for Valencia Dorothy.
H. C. — C. Adeane, for No. 1214, Blackberry 2nd, and No. 1215, Lesbia ;
Sir Maurice Fitz-Gerald, Bt., for No. 1217, Nesta 3rd ; The Rev.
H. F. Knightley, for No. 1219, Drought.
Class 119. — Kerry Heifers , calved in 1892 or 1893.1 2
[5 entries, none absent.]
1223 I. (£10.) — C. Adeane, Babraham Hall, Cambridge, for Bride 1511, born
Apr. 4, 1892; s. Mentmore 90, d. Blackberry 2nd 161.
1224 II. (£5.) — The Marquis of Lansdowne, Bowood, Caine, for Belle of
Kenmare, born Oct. 14, 1892 ; s. Dan O’Connell 68, d. Belle of the Lake
956.
1222 III. (£3.) — C. Adeane, for Blenheim 1505, born July 17, 1893 ; s. Black-
amoor 246, d. Denham Dinah 302.
1225 R. N. & H. C. — The Marquis of Lansdowne, for Enda 4th.
Com. — J. Robertson, for No. 1226, The Bebe.
Dexter Kerries.
Class 120. — Dexter Kerry Bulls, calved in 1891, 1892, or 1893.
[5 entries, none absent.]
1227 I. (£10, & R. N. for Champion.3)— H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G.,
Sandringham, for Pat, red, born Nov. 30, 1892 ; s. Kidmcre Paradox 2nd
59, d. Kidmore Lady Lisburn 2nd 278 by Busaco 3rd.
1231 II. (£5.) — T. R. Robinson, Kenswortli, Dunstable, for Kensworth Model,
born Oct. 24, 1893 ; s. Blackcap 31, d. Dorcas 411 by Buffalo Bill.
1230 R. N. & H. C. — James Robertson, Hatton, Warwick, for The Parson.
1228 H. C. — Lord Ashburton, The Grange, Alresford, Hants, for The Grange
Hero.
Class 121. — Dexter Kerry Cows (in-milk or in-calf), calved before
or in 1891. [12 entries, none absent.]
1235 I. (£10.) — N. C. Cookson, Oakwood, Wylam, Northumberland, for First
Love (vol. iv.), born 1890, in-milk, calved Apr. 25, 1894, breeder unknown.
1232 II. (£5.) — Lord Ashburton, Alresford, Hants, for Mavourneen 132, bom
1886 [calved July 8, 1894], breeder unknown.
1 Given by the Kerry and Dexter Cattle Society for the best animal exhibited in Classes 117-119.
“ Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
* Given by the Kerry and Dexter Cattle Society for the best animal exhibited in Classes 120-122.
CXXXU1
Dexter Kerry and Dairy Cattle.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
1239 R. N. & H. C. — James Robertson, for Abutilon.
H. C. — James Robertson, for No. 1240, Crypomtria; R. Tait Robertson,
for No. 1241, Jessie ; G. F. Roumieu, for No. 1242, Balsam.
Com. — N. C. Cookson, for No. 1236, Nemophila ; Herbert Lloyd, for
No. 1237, Sorrel.
Class 122. — Dexter Kerry Heifers, calved in 1892 or 1893.1
[9 entries, none absent.]
1244 I. (£10, & Champion, £10 10s.2)— H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G.,
Sandringham, for Baba 2371, born about 1892 ; breeder unknown.
1247 II. (£5.) — James Robertson, Hatton, Warwick, for Little Mascotte,
born May 13, 1893 ; d. First Love.
1250 III. (£3.)— G. F. Roumieu, Famham, for Picotee (vol. iii.), born May
8, 1892 ; s. Fascination 6, d. Royal Windsor 311 by Limelight 12.
1251 R. N. & H. C. — Harold Swithinbank, for Denham Milkmaid 2nd.
DAIRY CATTLE.
Class 123. — Dairy Cows, in-milk, of any weight, breed, or cross, (jiving
the largest quantity of milk, provided the milk be, on the average
of two milkings, up to the standard adopted by the Society of Public
Analysts. [10 entries, 1 absent.]
1254 I. (£15.) — Salisbury Baxendale, Bonningtons, Ware, for Marsh Mari-
gold (Shorthorn), red & white, born about 1889, in-milk, calved May G,
1894 ; breeder unknown.
1259 II. (£10.)— Sanders Spencer, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts, for
Miss Strawberry (Shorthorn), red & white, born 1887, in-milk, calved
June 2, 1894 ; $. Bright Andrew 49186, d. Strawberry.
1253 III. (£5.) — Salisbury Baxendale, for Bess (Shorthorn), red & white,
born about 1886, in-milk, calved Mar. 15, 1894 ; breeder unknown.
1261 R. N. — Thomas Stokes, Warmington, Oundle, for Milky.
Class 124. — Dairy Cows, in-milk, of any weight, breed, or cross, giving
the greatest weight of Butter-fat, as ascertained by Chemical Analy-
sis, provided the yield of milk obtained in two milkings be not less
than 25 lb. [13 entries, 3 absent.]
1266 I. (£15.) — Mrs. E. Rose Blackwell, Cowden Hall, Heatlifield, for Greek
Maid 7th (Jersey), yellow fawn, born May 18, 1891, in-milk, calved May
11, 1894 ; s. Jessie’s Boy 3403, d. Greek Maid 4th by St. John’s Baron 3769.
1275 II. (£10.) — Dr. Herbert Watney, Buckhold, Pangbourne, for Vesta
2nd (vol. v. p. 736) (Jersey), whole fawn, born June 21, 1885, in-milk,
calved Apr. 16, 1894, bred by W. H. Campion, Little Danny, Sussex; s.
Goldfield 2480, d. Vesta by Lord Somers 507.
1268 III. (£5.) — Lord Braybrooke, Audley End, Saffron Walden, for Mistral
(vol. v. p. 546) (Jersey), light fawn, bom Dec. 10, 1887, in-milk, calved
Dec. 4, 1893 ; s. Loyal Baron 2638, d. Gass by Sir Garnet 1239.
1271 R. N. — J. R. Corbett, Moor Place, Betchworth, for Stargazer C.
' Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
* Given by the Kerry and Dexter Cattle Society for the best animal exhibited in Classes
120-122.
CXXX1V
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
SHEEP.
Leicesters.
Class 125. — Leicester Two-Shear Rams. [5 entries, none absent.]
1280 I. (£10.) — T. H. Hutchinson, Catterick, born Mar. 1892.
1277 II. (£5.) — G. Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Yorks, born Mar. 1892.
1281 It. N. — E. F. Jordan, Eastburn, Driffield, bom Mar. 1892.
Class 126. — Leicester Shearling Rams. [7 entries, 1 absent.]
1286 I. (£15.) — E. F. Jordan, Eastburn, Driffield, born Mar. 1893.
1282 II. (£10.) — G. Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Yorks, born Mar. 1893.
1284 III. (£5.) — T. H. Hutchinson, Catterick, born Mar. 1893.
1283 R. N.— G. Harrison, born Mar. 1893.
Class 127 . — Pens of Three Leicester Ram Lambs.
[4 entries, 1 absent.]
1290 I. (£10.) — E. F. Jordan, Eastburn, Driffield, born Mar. 1894.
1289 II. (£5.) — G. Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Yorks, born Mar. 1894.
1292 R. N. — Mbs. Perry-Herrick, Beau Manor Park, Loughborough, born
about Mar. 16, 1894.
Class 128. — Pens of Three Leicester Shearling Ewes , of the same
Flock. [7 entries, 1 absent.]
1293 I. (£15.) — G. Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Yorks, born Mar. 1893.
1295 II. (£10) & 1296 III. (£5.) — E. F. Jordan, Eastburn, Driffield, born
Mar. 1893.
1298 R. N. & H. C. — Mrs. Perry-Herrick ; & H. C. for No. 1299.
1294 Com. — George Harrison.
Cotswolds.
Class 129. — Cotswold Two-Shear Rams. [4 entries, none absent.]
1301 I. (£10.) & 1300 II. (£5.) — R. Garne, Aldsworth, Northleach, bom
Feb. 1892.
1302 R. N. & H. C. — T. Thornton, Cavenham Ho., Wereham, Stoke Ferry.
Class 130. — Cotswold Shearling Rams. [10 entries, none absent.]
1306 I. (£15.) — R. Garne, Aldsworth, Northleach, born Feb. 1893.
1310 II. (£10) & 1311 III. (£5.) — Russell Swanwick, R. A. C. Farm, Ciren-
cester, bom Feb. 18, 1893.
1307 R. N. & H. C.— R. Garne, Aldsworth, born Feb. 1893.
1308 Com. — T. R. Hulbert.
Class 131. — Pens of Three Cotswold Ram Lambs.
[5 entries, none absent.]
1315 I. (£10) & 1314 II. (£5.)— R. Garne, Aldsworth, born Jan. 1894.
1318 R. N. & H. C. — R. Swanwick, Cirencester, born Jan 10, 1894.
Cotswold and Lincoln Sheep.
cxxxv
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 132. — Pens of Three Cotswold Shearling Ewes of the same
Flock. [5 entries, none absent.]
1321 I. (£15) & 1322 II. (£10.) — T. R. Hulbert, North Cerney, Cirencester,
bom Mar. 5, 1893.
1323 III. (£5.)— Kussell Swanwick, E. A. C. Farm, Cirencester, born
Feb. 10, 1893.
1319 R. N. & H. C. — G. Bagnale & Son, West well Manor, Burford, born
Feb. 1893.
Lincolns.
Class 133. — Lincoln Two-Shear Pams. [5 entries, none absent.]
1326 I. (£10.) — John Pears, Mere, Lincoln, for Riby Sovereign 1208, born
Feb. 1892, bred by H. Dudding, Eiby Grove, Stallingborough ; Young
Scopwick 506.
1328 II. (£5.) — Eobert Wright, Nocton Heath, Lincoln, for The Rejected
1250, born Feb. or Mar. 1892 ; s. Melton 254.
1327 R. N. & H. C. — Robert Wright, for Nocton Choice.
Class 134. — Lincoln Shearling Rams. [17 entries, none absent.]
1344 I. (£15) & 1345 II. (£10.) — Eobt. Weight, Nocton Heath, Lincoln,
born Feb. or Mar. 1893.
1330 III. (£5.) — Tom Casswell, Pointon, Folkingham, for Hero, born
Feb. 1893.
1333 R N. & H. C. — H. Dudding, Riby Grove, Stallingborough.
H. C. — Wm. Hesseltine, for No. 1335; Henry Smith, Jun., for Nos
1341 & 1342.
Class 135. — Pens of Three Lincoln Ram Lambs.
[5 entries, none absent.]
1349 I. (£10.) — John Westrope, Movden Hall, Royston, born Jan. 1894 ; s.
Coat of Arms 610, ds. by Windsor Boy 885.
1348 II. (£5.) — G. T. Melbourn, Nocton Heath, Lincoln, born Feb. 1894 ;
s. Cropwell King 1006, d. by Nocton King.
1347 R. N. & H. C. — H. Dudding, born about Feb. 20, 1894.
Class 136. — Pens of Three Lincoln Shearling Ewes, of the same
Flock. [6 entries, 2 absent.]
1351 I. (£15.) — H. Dudding, Eiby Grove, Stallingborough, born about Feb.
20, 1893.
1354 II. (£10.) — John Pears, Mere, Lincoln, born Feb. 1893.
1352 III. (£5.) — H. Dudding, born about Feb. 20, 1893.
1353 R. N. & H. C. — G. T. Melbourn, Nocton Heath, Lincoln, bom Feb. 1893.
Class 137. — Pens of Three Lincoln Ewe Lambs.1
[4 entries, none absent.]
1358 I. (£15.) — H. Dudding, Riby Grove, Stallingborough, bom about
Feb. 20, 1894.
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
cxxxvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at CambricLje.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
1359 II. (£10.) — John Peaks, Mere, Lincoln, born Feb. 1894.
1360 III. (£5.) — John Westkope, Morden Hall, Royston, bom Jan. 1894
s. Coat of Arms 610, ds. by Windsor Boy 885.
1357 R. N. — H. Dudding, born about Feb. 20, 1894.
Oxford Downs.
Class 138. — Oxford Down Two-Shear Rams.
[2 entries, none absent.]
1361 I. (£10.) — J. C. Ead-y, Irchester Grange, Wellingborough, born Feb. 10,
1892; s. Young Cultivator 540, d. by Lord Irchester Oxford 394.
1362 II. (£5.) — E. Guy Fenwick, Alconbury, Huntingdon, for Alconbury
Duke, born Feb. 1892, bred by Charles Howard, Biddenham, Bedford; s.
Biddenham 201.
Class 139. — Oxford Down Shearling Rams.
[16 entries, none absent.]
1363 I. (£15.)— George Adams, Pidnell, Faringdon, for Monarch, born Jan. 7,
1893 ; s. Keepsake 881.
1372 II. (£10.) — J. T. Gkeen, King’s Langley, for Langleybury, born Jan. 29,
1893 ; s. Langley 2nd 1167.
1371 III. (£5.) — J. T. Green, King’s Langley, for Cassiobury, born Feb. 2,
1893; s. Langley 2nd 1167.
1364 R. N.&H. C. — George Adams, for Oriel, born Jan 4, 1893 ; s. Keepsake 881.
1374 H. C. — Charles Howard.
Com.— The Countess of Camperdown, for No. 1366 ; Charles
Howard, for No. 1373 ; H. W. Stilgoe, for No. 1376.
Class 140. — Pens of Three Oxford Down Ram Lambs.
[4 entries, 1 absent.]
1379 I. (£10.) — George Adams, Pidnell, Faringdon, bom Jan. 11, 1894
s. Oxford Hero 912.
1380 II. (£5.) — George Adams, bom Jan. 13, 1894 ; s. Oxford Hero 912.
1381 R. N. — Thomas Chalk, Linton, Cambs, born about Feb. 12, 1894 ; s
Linton No. 15.
Class 141. — Pens of Three Oxford Down Shearling Ewes, of the same
Flock. [12 entries, 1 absent.]
1389 I. (£15.) — J. C. Eady, Irchester Grange, Wellingborough, born Feb. 14,
1893 ; s. Treadwell’s No. 8 of 1891 1306, d. by Young Cultivator 540.
1391 II. (£10.) — J. T. Green, King’s Langley, born Feb. 1893; ss. Langley
2nd 1167 & Langley Hero 1491.
1393 III. (£5.) — Charles Howard, Biddenham, Bedford, born Jan. 1893;
ss. Brassey’s No. 20 1402 & Treadwell’s No. 20 1562.
1384 R. N. & H. C. — George Adams, born Jan. 5, 1893 ; s. Keepsake 881.
H. C. — The Countess of Camperdown, for No. 1385 ; J. C. Eady,
for No. 1388.
Com, -E. Guy Fenwick, for No. 1390.
cxxxvii
Oxford Down and Shropshire Sheep.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 142. — Pens of Three Oxford Down Ewe Lambs}
[4 entries, 1 absent.]
1395 I. (£15) & 1396 II. (£10.) — George Adams, Pidnell, Faringdon, Berks,
born Jan. 10, 1894 ; s. Oxford Hero 912.
1397 III. (£5.)— Thomas Chalk, Linton, Cambs, born about Feb. 12, 1894;
s. Linton No. 15.
Shropshires.
Class 143. — Shropshire Two-Shear Rams. [20 entries, 2 absent.]
1406 I. (£10, & R. N. for Champion.2) — Thomas Fenn, Stonebrook House,
Ludlow, born about Mar. 15, 1892.
1411 II. (£5.) — W. F. Inge, Thorpe Hall, Tamworth, born Feb. 1892.
1402 R. N. & H. C. — A. S. Berry, Great Barr, Birmingham, born Mar.
H. C. — Joseph Beach, for No. 1399 ; J. Bowen-Jones, for No. 1403 ;
R. P. Cooper, for No. 1405; John Harding, for No. 1410; P. L.
Mills, for No. 1414.
Com. — Joseph Beach, for No. 1400 ; A. S. Berry, for No. 1401 ; T.
Fenn, for No. 1407 ; H. Townshend, for No. 1416.
Class 144. — Shropshire Shearling Rams. [47 entries, 7 absent.]
1450 I. (£15, & Champion.2) — A. B. Mansell, Shifnal, born Feb. 1893.
1422 II. (£10.) — Joseph Beach, The Hattons, Wolverhampton, born Feb.
25, 1893.
1449 III. (£5.) — A. E. Mansell, Harrington Hall, Shifnal, born Feb. 1893.
1444 R. N. & H. C. — W. F. Inge, Thorpe Hall, Tamworth, born Feb. 1893.
H. C. — Mrs. Barrs, for No. 1420 ; A. S. Berry, for Nos. 1423 & 1424 ;
J. Bowen-Jones, for No. 1426 ; T. Fenn, for Nos. 1438 & 1439 ;
John Harding, for Nos. 1440 & 1441 ; W. F. Inge, for No. 1445 ;
P. A. Muntz, M.P., for Nos. 1453 & 1454 ; J. L. Naper, for No. 1455 ;
M. Williams, for No. 1465.
Com. — T. F. Cheatle, for No. 1430 ; R. P. Cooper, for No. 1434 ; W.
Kirkham, for No. 1447 ; P. L. Mills, for No. 1451 ; J. L. Naper,
for No. 1456 ; H. Townshend, for No. 1462 ; M. Williams, for No.
1464.
Class 145. — Pens of Three Shropshire Ram Lambs.
[17 entries, 5 absent.]
1470 I. (£10.)— T. & S. Bradburne, Wheeley Moor Hall, Coleshill, born
Feb. 28, 1894 ; ss. Precentor and Lord Kington.
1476 II. (£5.) — A. E. Mansell, Harrington Hall, Shifnal, born Feb. 1894.
1478 R. N. & H. C. — Philo L. Mills, Ruddington Hall, Notts, born Mar.
H. C. — T. & S. Bradburne, for No. 1469 ; R. P. Cooper, for No. 1472 ;
W. F. Inge, for No. 1473 ; A. E, Mansell, for No. 1477 ; H. C. G.
Parker, for No. 1479 ; A. Tanner, for No. 1482.
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
3 Gold Medal given by the Shropshire Sheep Breeders’ Association for the best Shropshire Ram
in Classes 1 43 and 144.
cxxxviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 146. — Pens of Three Shropshire Shearling Ewes, of the same
Flock. [23 entries, 6 absent.]
1483 I. (£15.) — Mrs. M. Barrs, Odstone Hall, Atherstone, born Mar. 1893.
1496 II. (£10.) — Philo L. Mills, Rnddington Hall, Notts, born Mar.
1486 III. (£5.) — J. Bowen-Jones, Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, born
Feb. 1893.
1503 R. N. & H. C. — Alfred Tanner, Shrawardine, Shrewsbury, born about
Mar. 15, 1893.
H. C — Jos. Beach, for No. 1484 ; T. & S. Bradburne, for No. 1487 ;
W. F. Inge, for Nos. 1493 & 1494 ; P. A. Muntz, M.P., for No.
1497 ; J. L. Naper, for No. 1499 ; M. Williams, for No. 1505.
Com. — R. P. Cooper, for No. 1488 ; G. H. Davison, for No. 1490 ; W.
Kirkham, for No. 1495 ; H. P. Ryland, for No. 1502 ; H. Towns-
hend, for No. 1504.
Class 147. — Pens of Three Shropshire Ewe Lambs.1
[13 entries, 4 absent.]
1514 I. (£15.) — A. E. Mansell, Harrington Hall, Shifnal, born Mar. 1894.
1515 II. (£10.) — Philo L. Mills, Ruddingtou Hall, Notts, born Mar. 1894.
1508 III. (£5.) — T. & S. Bradburne, Wheeley Moor Hall, Coleshill, born Feb.
28, 1894 ; s. Precentor.
1512 R. N. & H. C. — W. F. Inge, Thorpe Hall, Tamworth, born Feb. 1894.
H. C. — R. Brown, for No. 1510 ; R. P. Cooper, for No. 1511.
Com. — T. & S. Bradburne, for No. 1509 ; PI. C. G. Parker, for No.
1516 ; A. Tanner, for No. 1518.
Southdowns.
Class 148. — Southdoion Two-Shear Rams. [14 entries, 2 absent.] j
1532 I. (£10.)— William Toop, Aldingbourne, Chichester, born Mar. 1, 1892.
1523 II. (£5.) — J. J. ColmAN, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, born Feb. 1892.
1531 R. N. & H. C. — The Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K.G., Good-
wood, born F'eb. 1892.
1521 H. C. — J. Blyth, Wood House, Stansted.
Com. — E. Ellis, for No. 1525 ; The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon,
K.T., for No. 1527 ; The Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K.G., for
No. 1630.
Class 149. — Southdown Shearling Rams. [33 entries, 5 absent.]
1540 I. (£15.) — James Blyth, Wood House, Stansted, born about Feb. 15,
1893.
1560 II. (£10.) — Pagham Harbour Co., Selsey, Chichester, born about Feb.
15, 1893.
1534 III. (£5.) — H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., Sandringham, born
Mar. 1893.
1539 R. N. & H. C.— James Blyth, Wood House, Stansted, born about
Feb. 15, 1893.
1562 H. C— The Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K.G.
Com. — J. J. Colman, M.P., for No. 1544 ; E. Ellis, for Nos. 1546 & 1547 ;
Pagham Harbour Co., for No. 1559.
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
Southdown and Hampshire Down Sheep.
CXXX1X
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 150. — Pens of Three Southdown Ram Lambs.
[19 entries, 5 absent.]
1575 I. (£10.1 — Edwin Ellis, Summersbury, Guildford, bom about Feb. 7,
1894.
1583 II. (£15.) — Pagham Harbour Co., Selsey, Chichester, born about Feb. 9,
1894.
1572 R. N. & H. C. — J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, born Feb.
1894.
1584 H. C. — William Toop, Aldingbourne, Chichester, born Feb. 7, 1894.
Com. — H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., for No. 1566 ; J. J. Colman,
M.P., for No. 1573.
Class 151. — Pens of Three Southdown Shearling Ewes, of the same
Flock. [23 entries, 5 absent.]
1590 I. (£15.) — James Blyth, Wood House, Stansted, born about Feb. 16, 1893.
1605 II. (£10.)— The Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K.G., Goodwood,
Chichester, born Feb. 1893.
1594 III. (£5.) — Edwin Ellis, Summersbury, Guildford, born about Feb. 14,
1893.
1692 R. N. & H. C. — J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, born Feb.
1893.
1607 H. C. — Wm. Toop, Aldingbourne, Chichester.
Com. — The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., for No. 1698 ;
Sir F. A. Montefiore, Bt., for No. 1603 ; Sir Wm. Throckmorton,
Bt., for No. 1606.
Class 152. — Pens of Three Southdown Ewe Lambs.1
[20 entries, 3 absent.]
1617 I. (£15.) — Edwin Ellis, Summersbury, Guildford, born about Feb. 7,
1894.
1623 II. (£10.) — C. T. Lucas, Warnham Court, Horsham, born Feb. 15, 1894.
1627 III. (£5.) — W. Toop, Aldingbourne, Chichester, born Feb. 7, 1894.
1614 R. N & H. C. — J. J. Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, born Feb.
1894.
1608 H. C. — H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G.
Com.— C. Adeane, for No. 1610; Sir H. F. de Trafford, Bt., for No.
1615.
Hampshire Downs.
Class 153. — Hampshire Down Two-Shear Rams. [6 entries, 1 absent.]
1629 I. (£10.) — T. Fowell Buxton, Ware, Herts, born about Jan. 30, 1892.
1633 II. (£5.) — Henry Lambert, Babraham, Cambridge, born Jan. 1892.
1628 R. N. — T. Fowell Buxton, Ware, Herts.
Class 154. — Hampshire Down Shearling Rams.
[9 entries, 2 absent.]
1635 I. (£15.) — T. Fowell Buxton, Ware, born Jan. 25, 1893.
1642 II. (£10.) — W. T. Twidell, Mays Farm, Crowmarsh, Wallingford, for
Twidell’s No. 5, born Feb. 1, 1893.
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
cxl
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
1634 III. (£5.) — John Barton, Hackwood Farm, Basingstoke, born Jan. 1893.
1639 It. N. & H. C. — Henry Lambert, Babrabam, Cambridge, born Jan. 1893.
1636 Com. — T. Fowell Buxton, born Jan. 24, 1893.
Class 155. — Pens of Three Hampshire Down Ram Lambs.
[15 entries, 4 absent.]
1643 I. (£10.) — John Barton, Hackwood Farm, Basingstoke, bora Jan. 1894.
1662 II. (£5.) — J. A. & T. Palmer, Berry Court, Wallop, Stockbridge, born
Jan. 1894.
1648 It. N. & H. C. — Joshua East, Longstock House, Stockbridge, born Jan.
1894.
H. C. — H. Lambert, for No. 1651 ; W. T. Twidell, for No. 1656.
Com. — T. Fowell Buxton, for No. 1645 ; J. Flower, for No. 1649 ;
It. Portsmouth, for No. 1653.
Class 156. — Pens of Three Hampshire Down Shearling Ewes, of the
same Flock. [7 entries, none absent.]
1660 I. (£15.) — James Flower, Chilmark, Salisbury, bora Jan. 1893.
1658 II. (£10.) — T. Fowell Buxton, Ware, Herts, born Jan. 1893.
1664 III. (£5.) — Lord Rothschild, Tring Park, Herts, born about Jan. 20,
1893.
1661 It. N. & H. C. — Jas. Flower, Chilmark, Salisbury, born Jan. 1893.
1659 Com. — T. Fowell Buxton, born Jan. 1893.
Class 157. — Pen of Three Hampshire Down Ewe Lambs.1
[15 entries, 4 absent.]
1665 I. (£15.) — John Barton, Hackwood Farm, Basingstoke, born Jan. 1894.
1673 II. (£10.) — Henry Lambert, Babrabam, Cambridge, born Jan. 1894.
1678 III. (£5.) — W. T. Twidell, Mays Farm, Crowmarsh, Wallingford, born
Jan. 21, 1894.
1674 It. N. & H. C. — J. A. & T. Palmer, Berry Court, Wallop, Stockbridge,
born Jan. 1894.
H. C.— James Flower, for No. 1672; R. Portsmouth, for No. 1675.
Com. — Ll. H. Baxendale, for No. 1666 ; X. Fowell Buxton, for No.
1667 ; H. N. Carlisle, for No. 1669 ; James Flower, for No. 1671.
Suffolks.
Class 158. — Suffolk Two-Shear Rams. [10 entries, 1 absent.]
1689 I. (£10, & R. N. for Champion.2)— Joseph Smith, Walton, Suffolk, bora
Feb. 1892.
1683 II. (£5.) — The Marquis of Bristol, Ickworth Park, Bury St. Edmunds,
for Vandellia 4th 2726, born Jan. 29, 1892 ; s. Vandellia 1635.
1686 R. N. & H. C. — H, Lingwood, The Chestnuts, Needham Market, for
Wait-a-bit.
1685 H. C.— Lord de Saumarez. 1687 Com.— John Paley.
Class 159. — Suffolk Shearling Rams. [16 entries, 1 absent.]
1704 I. (£15, & Champion, £20-') & 1703 II. (£10.) — Joseph Smith, Walton,
Suffolk, born Feb. 1893.
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
3 Given by the Suffolk Sheep Society for the best Suffolk Ram in Classes 158 and 169.
Suffolk and Wensleydale Sheep.
cxli
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
1696 III. (£5.) — The Earl op Ellesmere, Stetchworth Park, Newmarket,
born Feb. 1893.
1702 R. N. & H. C. — Major James Scott, Ardeley Bury, Stevenage, born
Jan. 22, 1893.
H. C. — The Earl op Ellesmere, for No. 1695 ; H. Lingwood, for No
1697, Just-in-time.
1694 Com.— Robert Burrell, for The Laird.
Class 160. — Pens of Three Suffolk Ram Lambs,
[10 entries, 2 absent.]
1713 I. (£10.) — Joseph Smith, Walton, Suffolk, born Feb. 1894.
1709 II. (£5.) — The Earl of Ellesmere, Stetchworth Park, Newmarket,
born Feb. 1894.
1710 R. N. & H. C. — H. Lingwood, Needham Market, born Feb. 1894.
1707 H. C. — The Marquis op Bristol. 1708 Com. — Robert Burrell.
Class 161. — Pens of Three Suffolk Shearling Ewes, of the same Flock.
[16 entries, 1 absent.]
1723 I. (£15.) — The Earl op Ellesmere, Stetchworth Park, Newmarket, born
Feb. 1893.
1724 II. (£10.)— The Earl of Ellesmere, born Feb.1893.
1730 III. (£5) & 1729 R. N. & H. C. — Joseph Smith, Walton, Suffolk, born
Feb. 1893.
1721 H. C. — Robert Burrell. Com. — Sir R. Affleck, Bt., for Nos. 1716 &
1717 ; The Marquis of Bristol, for No. 1719 ; H. Lingwood, for No.
1725; W. V. Paley, for No. 1727; VV. Whitlock, for No. 1731.
Class 162. — Pens of Three Suffolk Ewe Lambs} [19 entries, 2 absent.]
1738 I. (£16.)— The Earl of Ellesmere, Stetchworth Park, Newmarket,
bom Feb. 1894.
1746 II. (£10.) & 1747 III. (£5.)— Joseph Smith, Walton, Suffolk, born
Feb. 1894.
1739 R. N. & H. C. — H. Lingwood, Needham Market, born Feb. 1894.
H. C. — John Paley, for No. 1741; Major James Scott, for No. 1745.
Com. — The Marquis of Bristol, for No. 1735; Robert Burrell,' for
No. 1736.
Wensleydales.
Class 163. — Wensleydale Two-Shear or Shearling Rams.
[12 entries, none absent.]
1758 I. (£10.) — William Rhodes, Lundholme, Westhouse, Kirkby Lonsdale,
for True Blue 233, born Mar. 25, 1892, bred by A. Ewan, Gooda, Kirkby
Lonsdale; s. Sir Thomas 178, d. by Feudalist 26.
1757 II. (£5.) — James Rhodes, Stockeld, Wetherby, born Mar. 2, 1893 ; s.
Mudd Fields 351, d. by Young Reuben.
1754 R. N. & H. C.— John Heugh, Mudd Fields, Bedale, bom Mar. 1, 1893.
H. C. — W. Cleasby, for No. 1752; Jas. Rhodes, for No. 1756, Dewsbury
Lad.
Com. — W. Cleasby, for No. 1751.
1 Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
VOL. v, T. s. — 19
k
cxlii
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 164. — Pens of Three Wensleydale Pam Lambs.
[6 entries, 1 absent.]
1767 I. (£10.) — T. Thompson, Host Bank, Lancaster, bom Mar. 1894 ; ss.
Viking and Blue Prince.
1764 I. (£5.) — John HEUGn, Mudd Fields, Bedale, born Mar. 2 & 5, 1894 ; ss.
Eton 326 and Dewsbury Lad 397, d. by Royal Windsor 75.
1763 R. N. & H. C. — F. E. C. Dobson, Dromonby House, Carlton-in- Cleveland.
Class 165. — Pens of Three Wensleydale Shearling Ewes, of the same
Flock. [6 entries, none absent.]
1772 I. (£10.) — William Rhodes, Lundholme, Westhouse, Kirkby Lonsdale,
bom Mar. 29, 1893, bred by Exhibitor & J. Dargue, Beaumont Grange,
Lancaster ; ss. Wellington 236 and Bolivar 146.
1771 II. (£5.) — John Heugii, Mudd Fields, Bedale, born Mar. 5, 1893; s.
Eton 326, d. by Royal Windsor 75.
1774 It. N. & H. C. — John 0. Trotter, Holtby Grange, Bedale.
1770 H. C. — F. E. C. Dobson, Carlton-in-Cleveland.
Border Leicesters.
Class 166. — Border Leicester Two-Shear Rams. [2 entries.]
1775 I. (£10.) & 1776 II. (£5.) — The Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P.,
Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, born Mar. 1892.
Class 167 . — Border Leicester Shearling Rams.
[10 entries, none absent.]
1784 I. (£10.) — John Twenttman, Wigton, born Mar. 16, 1893.
1777 II. (£5.) — The Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., Whittinghame, Preston-
kirk, Haddingtonshire, bom Mar. 1893.
1783 R.N. & H. C. — John Twentyman, Wigton.
1778 H. C.— The Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour. M.P.
Com.— David Cooper, for No. 1779; T. Winter, for No. 1785.
Class 168. — Pens of Three Border Leicester Shearling Ewes , of the
same Flock. [5 entries, none absent.]
1790 I. (£10.) — John Twentyman, Wigton, born Mar. 1893.
1787 II. (£5.) & 1788 R. N & H. C. — The Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P.,
Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, born Mar. 1893.
Com. — D. Cooper, for No. 1789 ; T. Winter, for No. 1791.
Somerset and Dorset Horned.
Class 169. — Somerset and Dorset Horned Shearling Rams.
[7 entries, 2 absent.]
1794 I. (£10.) — H. Farthing, Thurloxton, Taunton, born about Jan. 1, 1893;
s. Blagroves 331.
1797 II. (£5.) — Samuel Kidner, Bickley Farm, Milverton, for Bickley Cam-
bridge No. 1, born Dec. 1892 ; s. Preston Boy 396.
1792 R. N. & H. C. — W. J. Culverwell, Durleigh Farm, Bridgwater.
1793 Com. S, Kidni b, for Eickley Cambridge No. 3.
Somerset , Kentish, and Cheviot Sheep.
cxliii
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 170. — Pens of Three Somerset and Dorset Horned Ram Lambs,
dropped after Dec. 1, 1893. [4 entries, none absent.]
1801 I. (£10.) & 1802 II. (£5.)— W. C. Groves, Whitcombe Farm, Dorchester,
born Dec. 1893 ; s. Whitcombe 12th 350, d. by Whitcombe Major 93.
1799 R. N. & H. C. — W. J. Culverwell, Durleigh Farm, Bridgwater.
1800 Com. — Herbert Farthing, Tlmrloxton, Taunton.
Class 171. — Pens of Three Somerset and Dorset Horned Shearling
Ewes, of the same Flock. [6 entries, none absent.]
1804 I. (£10.) — Herbert Farthing, Thurloxton, Taunton, born about Jan.
1, 1893.
1803 II. (£5.) — W. J. Culverwell, Durleigh Farm, Bridgwater, born Dec.
20, 1892, bred by Culverwell Bros., Durleigh Farm, Bridgwater.
1806 R. N. & H. C. — Samuel Kidner, Bickley Farm, Milverton, Som., born
Dec. 1892.
1808 H. C. — Edward G. Legg. 1805 Com. — Wm. C. Groves.
Kentish or Romney Marsh.
Class 172. — Kentish or Romney Marsh Shearling Rams.
[6 entries, 2 absent.]
1809 I. (£10.) & 1810 II. (£5.) — G. W. Finn, Westwood Ct., Faversham, born
about Mar. 1893.
1813 R. N. & K. C. & 1814 Com.— Henry Rigden.
Class 173. — Pens of Three Kentish or Romney Marsh Shearling Ewes,
of the same Flock. [9 entries, 6 absent.]
1816 I. (£10.) & 1815 II. (£5.) — G. W. Finn, Westwood Ct., Faversham, born
about Mar. 12, 1893.
1820 R. N. & H. C. — Henry Rigden, Lyminge, Hythe, born Apr. 1893.
Cheviots.
Class 174. — Cheviot Two-Shear or Shearling Rams.
[6 entries, none absent.]
1829 I. (£10.)— John Robson, Newton, Bellingham, born Apr. 1893.
1826 II. (£5.) — Jacob Robson, Byrness, Otterburn, for Hopey, born Apr
1892 ; s. The Danish King 263.
1824 R. N. & H. C. — John T. Dodd, Riccarton, Newcastleton, N.B.
1827 H. C. — Jacob Robson, born Apr. 1893.
Class 175. — Pens of Three Cheviot Shearling Ewes, of the same
Flock. [3 entries, none absent.]
1832 I. (£10.) — John Robson, Newton, Bellingham, born Apr. 1893.
1831 II. (£5.) & 1830 R. N, & Com, — Jacob Robson, Byrness, Otterburn, born
Apr. 1893,
cxliv
Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Cambridge.
[Uuless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Black-Faced Mountain.
Class 176. — j Black-Faced Mountain Two-Shear or Shearling Rams.
[5 entries, 1 absent.]
1833 I. (£10.) — T. Dargue, Burneside Hall, Kendal, for Lingcropper, born
Apr. 15, 1892.
1834 II. (£5.) — Wm. Graham, Eden Grove, Kirkbythore, bom Mar. 1893.
1836 R. N. & H. C. — R. Rawlinson, Docker Hall, Kendal, for Macbeth.
Class 177. — Pens of Three Black-Faced Mountain Shearling Ewes, of
the same Flock. [3 entries, none absent.]
1839 I. (£10.) — Robert Rawlinson, Docker Hall, Kendal, for Queen of
Kendal, Katherine Parr, and Northern Queen, born Apr. 1893 ; ss. Bar
None and Cornie, ds. by Peter Earnscleugb and Oversbiels.
1838 II. (£5.) — Wm. Graham, Eden Grove, Kirkbythore, born Mar. 1893.
1840 R. N. & H. C. — John Robson, Newton, Bellingham, born Apr. 1893.
Lonks.
Class 178. — Lonk Two-Shear or Shearling Rams. [2 entries.]
1841 I. (£10.) — John Blackburn, Slack Booth, Trawden, Lancs, for Young
Flock Master, bom Apr. 4, 1892, bred by J. Blackburn, Hollin Hall,
Trawden ; s. Flock Master.
1842 II. (£5.) — Josiah Parker, Back Cawm, Whitworth, Lancs, for Whit-
worth Wonder, born Mar. 18, 1893, bred by J. Blackburn, Hollin Hall,
Trawden.
Class 179. — Pens of Three Lonk Shearling Ewes, of the same Flock.
[3 entries.]
1843 I. (£10.) — John Blackburn, Slack Booth, Trawden, Lancs, born Mar.
& Apr. 1893, bred by Joseph Blackburn, Hollin Hall, Trawden.
1844 II. (£5.) — Benjamin Dobson, Carr House, Askwith, Otley, born about
Mar. 15, 1893.
1845 R. N. & H. C. — James Parker, Cawm, Whitworth, Lancs, bom Mar.
27, 1893.
Herdwicks.
Class 180. — Herdvnck Two-Shear or Shearling Rams.
[6 entries, none absent.]
1848 I. (£10.) — Lord Muncaster, Muncaster Castle, Ravenglass, Carnforth,
for Fell Guide, bom Apr. 21 , 1893.
1846 II. (£5.) — William Abbott, Hart Head, Rydal, Ambleside, for
Bouncing Boy, bom Apr. 3, 1893.
1851 R. N. & H. C.— John Robson, Brennand, Clitheroe, born Apr. 1893.
Com. — Wm. Abbott, for No. 1847 ; Tom Newby, for No. 1849.
Class 181. — Pens of Three Herdvnck Shearling Ewes, of the same
Flock. [4 entries, none absent.]
1852 I. (£10.) — William Abbott, Hart Head, Rydal, Ambleside, bom Apr.
1893.
Poultry.
cxlv
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
1853 II. (£5.) & 1854 R. N. & Com. — Lord Muncaster, Muncaster Castle,
Camforth, born Apr. 1893.
Welsh Mountain.
Class 182. — Welsh Mountain Shearling Rams.
[4 entries, none absent.]
1858 I. (£10.) — Godfrey Parry, Carrog, Corwen, Merioneth, born Mar. 12,
1893.
1859 II. (£5.) — Col. Henry Platt, Gorddinog, Llanfairfechau, for Madryn
Hero, born Mar. 1893, bred by John Jones, Llandudno; s. Brehnin-
y-Defaid.
1857 R. N. & Com. — J. Marshall Dugdale, Llwyn, Llanfyllin, for Pendalog
Hero, born Mar. 19, 1893.
Class 183. — Pens of Three Welsh Mountain Shearling Ewes, of the
same Flock. [5 entries, none absent.]
1863 I/(£10.)& 1864 II. (£5.) — Col. HenryPlatt, Gorddinog, Llanfairfcclian,
born Mar. 1893, bred by John Jones, Llandudno.
1861 R. N. & Com. — Godfrey Parry, Carrog, Corwen, Merioneth.
PIGS.
[Owing to the prevalence of Swine Fever, the entries of Pigs (Classes
184-207) were cancelled.]
POULTRY.
By “ Cock,” “ Hen,” “ Drake,” “ Duck,” “ Gander,” and “ Goose ” are meant
birds hatched previous to January 1st, 1894 ; and by “ Cockerel,” “ Pullet,”
“Young Drake,” and “ Duckling ’’are meant birds hatched in 1894, previous
to June 1st.
FOWLS.
Dorkings.
Class 208. — Coloured Dorking Cocks. [13 entries, none absent.]
9 I. (30s.) — II. Padwick, Thorney, Emsworth, Hants. 1893.
8 II. (15s.) — G. E. B. Muzeen, Douthwaite Lodge, Kirby Moorside.
3 III. (10s.) — Andrew Crichton, Glamis, N.B. 1893.
6 R. N. & H. C. — Capt. G. S. P. Hornby, Sandley Ho., Gillingham, Dorset.
H. C. — Leonard Pilkington, for No. 10; Leonard Rawnsley, for No. 11.
Class 209. — Coloured Dorking Hens. [18 entries, 2 absent.]
26 I. (30s.) — Leonard Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries, N.B. 1893.
24 II. (15s.) — G. E. B. Muzeen, Douthwaite Lodge, Kirby Moorside.
25 III. (10s.)— Herbert Padwick, Thorney, Emsworth, Hants. 1892.
19 R. N. & H. C. — Captain G. S. P. Hornby, Sandley House, Gillingham,
Dorset.
H. C. — James Cranston, for No. 15 ; Herbert Reeves, for No. 28 ; Mrs
Rowland Wood, for No. 30.
cxlvi
Award of Poultry Prizes at Cambridge.
Class 210. — Coloured Dorking Cockerels. [11 entries, 1 absent.]
33 I. (30s.) — James Cranston, Nunwood, Dumfries, N.B. Feb. 3.
41 II. (15s.) — Leonard Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries, N.B. Jan. 6.
36 III. (10s.) — W. O. Hayward, 30 Hertford Street, Cambridge.
37 R. N. & H. C. — Cart. G. S. P. Hornby, Sandley Ho., Gillingham, Dorset.
35 H, C. — Andrew Crichton, Glamis, N.B. Feb. 7.
Class 211. — Coloured Dorking Pullets. [15 entries, none absent.]
52 I. (30s.) — Herbert Padwick, Thorney, Emsworth, Hants. Jan. 25.
43 II. (15s.) — Henry Britten, Skirwith, Culgaith, Cumberland. Jan.
57 III. (10s.) — T. & J. Woodward, Clotton, Tarporley. Jan. 25.
46 It. N. & H. C. — James Cranston, Nunwood, Dumfries, N.B. Jan. 15.
H. C. — Andrew Crichton, for No. 48 ; E. Wilson Parker, for No. 53.
Class 212. — Silver Grey Dorking Cocks. [3 entries, none absent.]
59 I. (30s.) — Capt. G. S. P. Hornby, Sandley Ho., Gillingham, Dorset.
68 II. (15s.) — James Cranston, Nunwood, Dumfries, N.B. June 1893.
60 R. N. & H. C.— Herbert Reeves, Emsworth, Hants. Mar. 1893.
Class 213. — Silver Grey Dorking Hens. [6 entries, none absent.]
62 I. (30s.) & 63 II. (15s.) — James Clunas, Elgin, N.B. 2 years old.
65 R. N. — Capt. G. S. P. Hornby, Sandley Ho., Gillingham, Dorset.
Class 214. — White Dorking Cocks. [3 entries, 1 absent.]
68 I. (30s.) — Herbert Reeves, Emsworth, Hants. Mar. 1892.
69 III. (10s.) — J. J. G. Woodcock, Briston, Melton Constable.
Class 215. — White Dorking Hens. [3 entries, 1 absent.]
72 I. (30s.) — J. J. G. Woodcock, Briston, Melton Constable.
71 III. (10s.) — Thomas Turner, Halifax Road, Cambridge. 2 years old.
Class 216. — Silver Grey or White Dorking Cockerels. [11 entries,
1 absent.]
80 I. (30s.) — Capt. G. S. P. Hornby', Sandley House, Gillingham, Dorset.
Silver grey.
79 II. (15s.) — James Cranston, Nunwood, Dumfries, N.B. Silver grey. Feb. 3.
78 III. (10s.) — James Clunas, Elgin, N.B. Silver grey. 4 months old.
73 R. N. & H. C. — Hon. Florence Amherst, Didlington Hall, Brandon.
Silver grey.
Class 217. — Silver Grey or White Dorking Pullets.
[10 entries, none absent.]
85 I. (30s.) — Hon. Florence Amherst, Didlington Hall, Brandon. Silver
grey.
90 II. (15s.) — Captain G. S. P. Hornby, Sandley House, Gillingham, Dorset.
Silver grey.
84 III. (10s.) — Hon. Florence Amherst. Silver grey.
87 R. N. & H. C. — James Clunas, Elgin, N.B. Silver grey. 4 months old.
Game.
Class 218. — Old English Game Cocks. [15 entries, 1 absent.]
102 I. (30s.) — William Nixon, Boustead Hill, Burgh-by- Sands.
96 II. (15s.) — John Brough, 22 London Road, Carlisle. Apr. 1, 1893.
99 III. (10s.)— John P. Law, Eden Mount, Stanwix, Carlisle. Apr. 1891.
Foivls.
cxlvii
94 R. N. & H. C. — Charles H. Allan, Skinburnoss, Silloth, Cumberland. Apr.
1892.
95 H. C.— E. Barnes. 100 Com. — R. Little.
Class 219. — Old English Game Hens. [12 entries, none absent.]
113 I. (30s.) — John P. Law, Eden Mount, Stanwix, Carlisle. Apr. 1891.
Ill II. (15s.) — John Brough, Carlisle. Mar. 20, 1893.
115 III. (10s.) — James Nixon, Front St., Brampton, Cumberland.
114 R. N. & H. C. — R. Little, Dickstree, Longtown, Carlisle.
H. C. — Wm. Nixon, for No. 1 1G ; T. Roper, for No. 119.
Class 220. — Old English Game Cockerels. [9 entries, 1 absent.]
127 I. (30s.)— J. W. Simpson, Sun Inn, Bootle, via Carnforth. Jan. 3.
128 II. (15s.) — J. W. Simpson, Bootle. Jan. 7.
122 III. (10s.)— John Brough, Carlisle. Jan. 26.
124 R. N. & H. C. — Little & Barnes, Abbey Town, Silloth, Cumberland,
Jan. 2.
Class 221. — Old English Game Pullets. [9 entries, 1 absent.]
131 I. (30s.) — John Brough, 22 London Road, Carlisle. Jan. 26.
133 II. (15s.) — Little Sc Barnes, Abbey Town, Silloth, Cumberland. Jan. 2.
136 III. (10s.) — J. W. Simpson, Sun Inn, Bootle, via Carnforth. Jan. 3.
134 R. N. & H. C. — John T. Organ, Kimsbury Farm, Gloucester. Jan. 20.
Class 222. — Indian Game Cocks. [8 entries, none absent.]
143 I. (30s.) — H. Paynter, Lezant, Callington.
139 II. (15s.) — Wm. Brent, Clampit Farm, Callington.
142 III. (10s.) — James Frayne, Pipers Pool, Launceston.
140 R. N. & H. C. — John Edwards, Well Street, Callington.
145 H. C. — R. Walter, South Street, Ponders End. Mar. 1893.
Class 223. — Indian Game Hens. [6 entries, none absent.]
150 I. (30s.)— H. Paynter, Lezant, Callington.
147 II. (15s.) — William Brent, Clampit Farm, Callington.
148 III. (10s.) — William Bygott, Rye Hill House, Ulceby, Lines. Apr. 1893.
151 R. N. & H. C.- — R. Walter, South Street, Ponders End. Mar. 1893.
149 Com. — James Frayne, Pipers Pool, Launceston.
Class 224. — Indian Game Cockerels. [6 entries, none absent.]
158 I. (30s.) — C. Radford, Barnstaple Street, Winkleigh, Devon.
153 II. (15s.) — Wm. Brent, Clampit Farm, Callington.
154 III. (10s.) — T. Brook, Vine Street, Winkleigh, Devon. Jan. 5.
157 R. N. & H. C. — James Frayne, Pipers Pool, Launceston. Jan. C.
Class 225. — Indian Game Pullets. [5 entries, 1 absent.]
160 I. (30s.) — John Edwards, Well Street, Callington. Jan. 6.
159 II. (15s.)— Wm. Brent, Clampit Farm, Callington.
163 III. (10s.)— C. Radford, Barnstaple Street, Winkleigh, Devon.,
161 R. N. & H. C. — John Frayn, St. Stephens, Launceston.
French (Any Variety).
Class 226. — French Cocks. [7 entries, none absent.]
167 I. (30s.)— J. P. W. Marx, Old Basford, Nottingham. (Houdan.) 1892.
165 II. (15s.) — P. F. Fordiiam, Bank House, Royston. (Creve Coour.'1 1892
cxlviii
Award of Poultry Prizes at Cambridge.
170 HI. (10s.)— Francis Valpy, St. Heliers, Jersey. (LaFleche.) Apr. 1893.
168 R. N. & H. C. — S. W. Thomas, Glasfryn, Forest Fach, Swansea. (Creve
Cceur.)
Class 227. — French Hem. [6 entries, 1 absent.]
174 I. (30s.) — S. W. Thomas, Glasfryn, Forest Facli, Swansea. (Creve Cceur.)
176 II. (15s.) — Francis Valpy, St. Heliers, Jersey. (La Fleche.) Apr. 1893.
175 III. (10s.) — S. W. Thomas, Swansea. (Houdan.)
171 R. N. & H. C. — Geokge F. Boddy, Edenbridge, Kent. (Houdan.)
Class 228. — French Cockerels. [5 entries, none absent.]
177 I. (30.?.) — J. Hill, Bridgend Mills, Lostwithiel. (Houdan.)
178 II. (15s.) — James Holt, 347 Manchester Road, Clifton, Manchester.
(Houdan.) Feb. 12.
180 R. N. & H. C. — Fkancis Valpy, St. Heliers, Jersey. (LaFleche.) Mar. 22.
Class 229. — French Pullets. [5 entries, none absent.]
182 I. (30s.) — J. Hill, Bridgend Mills, Lostwithiel, Cornwall. (Houdan.)
186 II. (15s.) & 185 R. N. & H. C.— Francis Valpy, St. Heliers, Jersey. (La
Fleche.) Mar. 22.
Brahmas and Cochins.
Class 230. — Brahma Cocks. [7 entries, none absent.]
188 I. (30s.) — G. \V. Henshall, Urmston, Manchester. 1893.
192 II. (15s.) & 193 III. (10s.) — A. E. Ward, Ivy Lea, Sale, Cheshire. 2 yrs. old
191 R. N. & H. C.— S. W. Thomas, Glasfryn, Forest Fach, Swansea.
Class 231. — Brahma Hens. [8 entries, none absent.]
201 I. (30s.) — Joseph Wood, Withnell Hall, Chorley.
197 II. (15s.) — Mrs. R. Holland, Brahma Lodge, Buckingham. 1893.
196 III. (10s.) — A. T. Grain, Oakfield, Great Shelford, Cambridge. 1892.
199 R. N. & H. C. — J. Tomlinson, Great Eccleston, Garstang.
H. C. — Dr. P. L. Benson, for No. 194 ; A. E. Ward, for No. 200.
Class 232. — Cochin Cocks. [11 entries, 1 absent.]
202 I. (30s.) — Mrs. S. R. Harris, Meneage Street, Helston.
212 II. (15s.) — Joseph Wood, Withnell Hall, Chorley.
206 III. (10s.) — Edward Linnell, Redstone Wood, Redhill.
207 R. N. & H. C. — Geo. H. Procter, Flass House, Durham.
H. C. — Mrs. R. Holland, for No. 204 ; I. F. Thoday, for No. 209.
Class 233. — Cochin Hens. [10 entries, none absent.]
218 I. (30s.) — Geo. H. Procter, Flass House, Durham.
214 II. (15s.) — Mrs. S. R. Harris, Meneage Street, Helston.
216 III. (10s.) — Edward Linnell, Redstone Wood, Redhill.
213 R. N. & H. C. — Mrs. S. R. Harris, Meneage Street, Helston.
H. C. — Mrs. R. Holland, for No. 215; J. Partington, for No. 217;
Joseph Wood, for No. 222.
Class 234. — Brahma or Cochin Cockerels. [14 entries, 1 absent.]
224 I. (30s.) — Marshall Ewbank, Cawton, Gilling East, Yorks. (Brahma.)
Jan. 3.
230 II. (15s.) Wm. Mitchell, Park Hill, Idle, Bradford. (Cochin.) Jan. 7.
234 III. (10s.) — J. A. Slatter, Hill House, Somerton, Banbury, Gxon.
(Cochin )
Fowls.
cxlix
226 R. N. & H. C. — Mrs. R. Holland, Brahma Lodge, Buckingham. (Cochin.)
Jan. 3.
H. C.— E. Linnell, for No. 228; Tom Longbottom, for No. 229; J. H.
Nicholls, for No. 232.
Class 235. — Brahma or Cochin Pullets. [16 entries, 2 absent.]
239 I. (30s.) — Mrs. S. R. Harris, Meneage Street, Helston. (Cochin.) Feb. 1
237 II. (15s.) — Mrs. A. Campbell, Rose Villa, Uley, Dursley. (Brahma.) Jan.
242 III. (10s.) — Edward Linnell, Redstone Wood, Redhill. (Cochin.) Jan. 1.
238 R. N. & H. C. — Marshall Ewbank, Cawton, Gilling East. (Brahma.)
Jan. 3.
H. C. — Mrs. R. Holland, for No. 240 ; Wm. Mitchell, for No. 244.
Langshans.
Class 236. — Langshan Cocks. [12 entries, none absent.]
255 I. (30s.) — P. Marsh, 4 Fairfield Place, Bedminster, Bristol. 13 mos.
253 II. (15s.) — Fred. Hart, St. Andrew’s, Leighton Buzzard. Mar. 1893.
261 III. (10s.) — J. \V. Walker, Upton Lodge, Henley-on-Thames. 1893.
258 R. N. & H. C. — Abel Neild, Longfield Lane, Poulton-le-Fylde. 1893.
H. C.— Miss F. Lucas, for No. 254 ; W. Williams, for No. 263 ; R. Wright
Wyles, for No. 264.
Class 237. — Langshan Hens. [10 entries, 1 absent.]
267 I. (30s.) — Miss Florence Lucas, Broadlow Ash, Ashbourne. 1893.
270 II. (15s.) — Abel Neild, Longfield Lane, Poulton-le-Fylde. 1893.
265 III. (10s.) — S. Brown, Hursley Hill, Whitchurch, Bristol.
266 R. N. & H. C. — George Fielder, 28 Hill Road, Wimbledon.
271 H. C. — E. Procter, Cantsfield, Kirkby Lonsdale. 1893.
Class 238. — Langshan Cockerels. [5 entries, none absent.]
276 I. (30s.) — R. Mathews, Elm House, Dumfries, N.B. Jan. 1.
277 II. (15s.) — E. Procter, Cantsfield, Kirkby Lonsdale. Jan.
276 R. N. & H. C. — Abbot Bros , Thuxton, Hingliam, Norfolk. Jan.
Class 239. — Langshan Pullets. [6 entries, none absent.]
281 I. (30s.) — R. Mathews, Elm House, Dumfries, N.B. Jan. 1.
282 II. (15s.) — E. Procter, Cantsfield, Kirkby Lonsdale. Jan.
284 III. (10s.) — J. W. Walker, Upton Lodge, Henley-on-Thames.
280 R. N. & H. C. — Abbot Bros., Thuxton, llingham, Norfolk. Jan.
Wyandottes.
Class 240 — Wyandotte Cocks. [11 entries, none absent.]
296 I. (30s.) — W. A. Spencer, Chelmscote, Shipston-on- Stour.
290 II. (15s.) -W. W. & C. D. Low, Clifton Road, Shefiord, Beds. 1893.
287 III. (10s.) & 286 R. N. & H. C. — Abbot Bros., Thuxton, Hingham, Norfolk.
1893.
288 H. C. — Mis3 S. Graham. 294 Com W. II. Readwin.
Class 241. — Wyandotte Hens. [10 entries, 1 absent.]
298 I. (30s.) — Abbot Bros., Thuxton, Hingham. 1893.
301 II. (15s.) — W. Everington, Weasenham, Swaffham. 1893.
297 III. (10s.) — Abbot Bros., Thuxton, Hingham, 1893.
305 R. N. — W. H. Readwin, Guiltcross, Foxley, East Dereham. 189?.
cl
Award of Poultry Prizes at Cambridge.
Class 242. — Wyandotte Cockerels. [13 entries, none absent.]
317 I. (30s.) — R. Solly, Penvvith, Hills Road, Cambridge. Jan.
309 II. (15s.) — P. A. Farrer, Eccles, Attleborough. Feb.
319 III. (10s.) — A. & W. Wood, Brinscall Hall, Chorley, Lancs. .Tan. 28.
318 R. N. & H. C. — -W. A. Spencer, Chelmscote, Shipston-on-Stour. Jan. 30.
H. C.— Mrs. Franklin, for No. 311 ; G. A. Mace, for No. 314.
312 Com.— Mrs. E. Grtmwade.
Class 243. — Wyandotte Pidlets. [22 entries, 1 absent.]
341 I. (30s.) — A. & W. Wood, Brinscall Hall, Chorley. Feb. 6.
326 II. (15s.) — P. A. Farrer, Eccles, Attleborough. Feb.
324 III. (10s.) — W. Everington, Weasenham, Swaffham. Feb. 21.
321 R. N, & H. C. — George Aldridge, 1 Queen Street, Walsall. Feb. 14.
H. C. — Mrs. Franklin, Syston Old Hall, Grantham, for Nos. 327 & 328.
Com. — F. W. Gentle, for No. 329 ; G. A. Mace, for No. 333.
Plymouth. Rocks.
Class 244. — Plymouth Rock Cocks. [15 entries, 2 absent.]
353 I. (30s.) & 354 II. (15s.) — A. Vizetelly, Heatherlands, Farnham.
356 III. (10s.) — E. Walter, Ponders End. April 1893.
348 R. N. & H. C. — Luke Hitchin, 14 Graham Road, Lower Edmonton.
April. 1892.
H. C. — Leonard Pilkington, for No. 350; R. Walter, for No. 355.
Com. — Dr. Hampton Brewer, for No. 342.
Class 245. — Plymouth Rock Hens. [11 entries, none absent.]
367 I. (30s.) — R. Walter, South Street, Ponders End. Mar. 1892.
364 II. (15s.) — W. Slater, Bigland House, Silverdale, Carnfortli. April 20,
1893.
363 III. (10s.) — Leonard Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries, N.B.
361 R. N. & H. C. — W. Everington, Weasenham, Swaffham.
360 H. C. — A. & S. Donkin. 358 Com. — The Countess op Aberdeen.
Class 246. — Plymouth Rock Cockerels. [12 entries, 3 absent.]
378 I. (30s.) — W. Slater, Bigland House, Silverdale, Carnforth. Jan. 12.
375 II. (15s.) — P. A. Farrer, Eccles, Attleborough. Feb.
373 III. (10s.) — A. & S. Donkin, Four Oaks, Sutton Coldfield. Jan. 8.
368 R. N. & H. C. — Abbot Bros.
369 H. C. — J. W. Adlington. 376 Com. — R. Garlick.
Class 247. — Plymouth Rock Pullets. [9 entries, none absent.]
381 I. (30s.) — J. W. Adlington, Kirk Langley, Derby. Jan. 28.
385 II. (15s.) — Benjamin Hydes, Egginton, Burton-on -Trent. Jan. 11.
387 III. (10s.) — Edward Sicurr, Railway Station, Kirkby Lonsdale. Jan. 4.
382 R. N. — A. & S. Donkin, Four Oaks, Sutton Coalfield, Warwick. Jan. 8.
Minorcas.
Class 248. — Minorca Cocks. [7 entries, none absent.]
392 I. (30s.) & 39l II. (15s.) — A. G. Pitts, The Firs, Higlibridge, Som. Apr.
1893.
394 III. (10s.)— W. P. Ryland, Anstey House, Erdington, Birmingham.
1893.
395 R. N. & H. C.— William Snell. 390 H. C.-S. Brown.
Fowls.
cli
Class 249. — Minorca liens. [11 entries, none absent.]
400 I. (30s.) — A. G. Pitts, The Firs, Highbridge, Som. Apr. 1891.
399 II. (15s.) — Fursland Bros., Connaught Villa, Bridgwater.
397 III. (10s.) — Wm. Chambers, 27 Armitage Road, Rugeley. 1893.
403 R. N. & H. C. — Walter P. Ryland, Anstey House, Erdington, Birming-
ham. 1893.
405 H. C. — W. Wilson, Kimberley, Notts. May 10, 1893.
Class 250. — Minorca Cockerels. [6 entries, none absent.]
407 I. (30s.) — Abbot Bros., Thuxton, Hingham, Norfolk.
412 II. (15s.) — William Snell, 129 High Street, Crediton, Devon. Jan. 4.
409 III. (10s.) L. & T. Fawkes, Hammond’s Farm, Stroud. Jan. 15.
410 R. N. & H. C. — George Master, Morley Hall, Wymondham. Jan. 2.
408 H. C. — J. W. Crossman, Galphay, Ripon. Jan.
Class 251. — Minorca Pullets. [8 entries, none absent.]
413 I. (30s.) — Abbot Bros., Thuxton, Hingham, Norfolk.
416 II. (15s.) — L. & T. Fawkes, Hammond’s Farm, Stroud. Jan. 15.
414 III. (10s.)— J. W. Crossman, Galphay, Ripon. Jan.
419 R. N. — Suddick Midgley, 15 Queen Street, Windhill, Shipley. Jan. 10.
Leghorns.
Class 252. — Leghorn Cocks. [10 entries, none absent.]
429 I. (30s.) — Wade Bros., Silsden, via Keighley, Yorks.
428 II. (15s.) — L. C. Verrey, Oak Lawn, Leatherhead.
424 III. (10s.)— Mrs. Lister-Kay, Burley Manor, Ringwood, Hants. 1893.
426 R. N. & H. C. — H. & A. P. Simpson, 266 Nottingham Road, Ilkeston,
Derby. 1893.
H. C. — Cook & Fletcher, for No. 421 ; Charles Heath, for No. 422.
Com.— Mrs. Lister-Kay, for No. 425.
Class 253. — Leghorn Hens. [10 entries, 1 absent.]
437 I. (30s.) — Mrs. Lister-Kay, Burley Manor, Ringwood, Hants. 1893.
440 II. (15s.) — Wade Bros., Silsden, via Keighley, Yorks.
431 III. (10s.) — Cook & Fletcher, Market Street, Chapel-en-le-Frith. 1893.
438 R. N. & H. C. — Mrs. Lister-Kay.
H. C. — James England, for No. 432 ; C. W. Kellock, Jun., for No. 436 ;
L. C. Verrey, for No. 439.
Class 254. — Leghorn Cockerels. [13 entries, none absent.]
451 I. (30s.) — Mrs. Sinkins, Aldermoor House, Southampton. Jan.
453 II. (15s.) — Wade Bros., Silsden, via Keighley, Yorks. Jan. 14.
446 III. (10s.) & 447 R. N. & H. C. — Mrs. Lister-Kay, Burley Manor,
Ringwood, Hants. Jan.
450 H. C. — John Sheppard, Soundwell, Bristol. Jan. 19.
Class 255. — Leghorn Pullets. [13 entries, none absent.]
464 I. (30 ,v.) — R. Solly, Penwith, Hills Road, Cambridge. Jan.
466 II. (15s.) — Wade Bros., Silsden, via Keighley, Yorks. Jan. 14.
463 III. (10s.) — Mrs. Sinkins, Aldermoor House, Southampton. Jan.
461 R. N. & H. C. — Mrs. Lister-Kay, Burley Manor, Ringwood, Hants.
H. C.— Cook & Fletcher, for No. 454 ; W. Hinson, for No. 459 ; Mrs.
Lister-Kay, for No. 462.
clii
Award of Poultry Prizes at Cambridge.
Andalusians.
Class 256. — Andalusian Cocks. [7 entries, 1 absent.]
471 I. (30s.) — Robert Keen, Rothbury, Northumberland. Apr. 14, 1892.
472 II. (15s.) — I. W. Morriss, Chiefs Street, Ely, Cambs. June 12, 1893.
473 III. (10s.) — Rev. J. H. B. Wollocombe, Lamerton Vicarage, Tavistock.
May 1893.
467 R. N. & H. C. — Rev. E. R. 0. Bridgeman.
470 H. C.— W. W. Greenwood.
Class 257. — Andalusian Hens. [10 entries, 1 absent.]
480 I. (30s.)— Joseph McMillan, Hamp, Bridgwater. Apr. 1892.
482 II, (las.) — T. Saunders, Durrington Manor, Worthing. 2 yrs. old.
475 III. (10s.) — Abbot Bros., Thuxton, Hingham, Norfolk. 1893.
476 R. N. & H. C. — Rev. E. R. O. Bridgeman, Blymhill Rectory, Shifnal.
H. C.— Abbot Bros., for No. 474 ; I. W. Morriss, for No. 481 ; Rev. J. H.
B. Wollocombe, for No. 483.
Hamburghs.
Class 258. — Hamburgh Cocks , any variety. [5 entries, none absent.]
487 I. (30s.) — H. Pickles, Kayfield House, Earby, Leeds. (Silver Spangled.)
May 6, 1893.
486 II. (15s.) — J. & A. Lincoln, Hertford Street, Cambridge. (Black.) 1 yr.
2 wks. old.
484 III. (10s.) — Rev. S. Ashwell, Finmere Rectory, Buckingham. (Silver
Spangled.) Mar. 1893.
485 R. N. & H. C.— Charles Holt. 488 H. C.— J. VV. E. Smith.
Class 259. — Hamburgh Hens, any variety. [4 entries, none absent.]
491 I. (30s.) — H. Pickles, Earby, Leeds. (Black.) May 6, 1893.
489 II. (15s.) — Walter Glossop, Ambergate, near Derby. (Gold Pencilled.)
1893.
490 III. (10s.) — Charles Holt, Kettering, Northamptonshire.
492 R. N. & H. C. — J. W. E. Smith, Marsh Lane, Bootle, Liverpool.
Any Other Recognized Breed.
(Bantams excepted !.)
Class 260. — Cocks. [17 entries, 3 absent.]
504 I. (30s.) — H. R. Plattin, Fakenliam, Norfolk. (Black-red Game.)
605 II. (15s.) — John Powell, Myrtle Royd, Bingley. (Spanish.) Mar. 1893.
498 III. (10s.) — S. II. Hade, Kempton Park, Sunbury-on-Thames. (Spanish.)
1893.
508 R. N. & H. C. — Thomas Turner, Halifax Road, Cambridge. (Polish.)
2 yrs. old.
H. C. — W. W. & C. D. Low, for No. 501 ; J. Partington, for No. 502;
Mrs. Ricketts, for No. 506 ; Lady Dora Yeoman, for No. 509.
Class 261. — Hens. [13 entries, none absent.]
516 I. (30s.) — S. H. Hyde, Kempton Park, Sunbury-on-Thames. (Spanish.)
1893.
519 II. (15s.) — John Powell, Myrtle Royd, Bingley. (Spanish.) Mar. 1893.
613 III. (10s.) — Hon. Mrs. E. A. Fitzroy, Fox Hill, West Haddon, Rugby.
(Scotch Grey.) 1893.
611 R. N. & H. C. — Wm, R. Bull, Ouse Bank, Newport Pagnell. (Spanish.)
Mar. 25, 1893.
Bucks.
cliii
H. C. — Hon. Mrs. E. A. Fitzroy, for No. 512 ; Mrs. 'Franklin, for No.
514; J. Partington, for No. 518; J. C. Shanks, for No. 520; T.
Turner, for No. 521.
Class 262. — Cockerels. [7 entries, none absent.]
526 I. (30*.) — S. H. Hyde, Kempton Park, Sunbury-on- Thames. (Spanish.)
Jan.
528 II. (15*.) — H. M. Pollett, Fern side, Bickley, Kent. (Orpington.) Jan.
524 III. (10*.) — J. W. Brown, Brookland Terrace, Oakham. (Brown-red
Game.) Jan. 21.
525 R. N. & H. C. — T. Hammett, Swimbridge,Newland, Barnstaple. (Malay.)
Feb. 1.
H. C. — Arbot Bros., for No. 523 ; J. W. Simtson, for No. 529.
Class 263. — Pullets. [9 entries, none absent.]
534 I. (30*.) — S. H. Hyde, Kempton Park, Sunbury-on-Thames. (Spanish.)
Jan.
531 II. (15*.) — J. W. Brown, Brookland Terrace, Oakham. (Brown-red
Game.) Jan. 21.
537 III. (10s.) — H. M. Pollett, Fernside, Bickley, Kent. (Orpington.) Jan.
538 E. N. & H. C. — T. Saunders, Durrington Manor, Worthing. (Anda-
lusian.) Jan. 25.
H. C.— T. Hammett, for No. 533 ; M. Jackson, for Nos. 535 & 536.
DUCKS.
Aylesbury.
Class 264. — Aylesbury Drakes. [2 entries.]
539 I. (30*.) — S. Brown, Hursly Hill, Whitchurch, Bristol.
540 II. (15*.)— Leonard Rawnsley, King’s Head Hotel, Bingley, Yorks.
3 yrs. old.
Class 265. — Aylesbury Ducks. [4 entries, none absent.]
541 I. (30*.) — S. Brown, Hursly Hill, Whitchurch, Bristol.
544 11.(15*.) — William Weston, 31 Mount Street, Aylesbury.
543 III. (10*.)— Leonard Rawnsley, King’s Head Hotel, Bingley, Yorks.
5 yrs. old.
Class 266. — Aylesbury Young Drakes. [8 entries, none absent.]
646 I. (30*.) — S. Brown, Hursly Hill, Whitchurch, Bristol. April 7.
550 II. (15*.) & 549 III. (10s.) — J. D. Goy, Swallowbeck, Lincoln. Mar.
548 R. N. & H. C. — David Garton, Layland House, Golborne, Lancs.
Class 267. — Aylesbury Ducklings. [8 entries, 1 absent.]
556 I. (30s.) — David Garton, Layland House, Golborne, Lancs.
558 II. (15*.) — J. D. Goy, Swallowbeck, Lincoln. Mar.
554 III. (10*.)— Edward Barnes, Fern Bank, Godaiming. Mar. 8.
555 R. N. — S. Brown, Hursly Hill, Whitchurch, Bristol.
Rouen.
Class 268. — Rouen Drakes. [8 entries, none absent.]
667 I. (30*.)— J. Partington, Malkins Wood, Boothstown, Manchester.
1 yr. old.
cliv
Award of Poultry Prizes at Cambridge.
563 II. (15,v.) — Wm. Bygott, Bye Hill House, Ulceby, Lines. 1893.
562 III. (10s.) — Daniel Beagg, Southwaite Hall, Carlisle. 1893.
566 R. N. — J. Partington, Malkins Wood, Boothstown, Manchester. 1 yr.
Class 269. — Rouen Ducks. [9 entries, none absent.]
576 I. (30s.) & 575 II. (15s.) — J. Paetington, Malkins Wood, Boothstown,
Manchester. 1 yr. old.
571 III. (lO.s.) — William Bygott, Rye Hill House, Ulceby, Lines. 1892.
570 R. N. — Daniel Beagg, Southwaite Hall, Carlisle. 1892.
Any Other Useful Breed.
Class 270. — Drakes. [10 entries, none absent.]
583 I. (30«.) — P. F. Fobdham, Bank House, Royston. (Pekin.) 1893.
578 II. (15s.) — Thomas Allen, Crookwood Farm, Devizes. (Pekin.) 1893.
587 III. (10s.) — Lady Wilson, Chillingham Bams, Belford. (Cayuga.)
1892.
582 R. N. & H. C.-S. Beown. (Pekin.) 580 H. C.— Hon. Sybil Amheest.
(Cayuga.)
Class 271. — Ducks. [7 entries, none absent.]
591 I. (30.9.) — S. Beown, Hursly Hill, Whitchurch, Bristol. (Pekin.)
592 II. (15s.) — P. F. Foedham, Bank House, Royston. (Pekin.) 1893.
590 III. (10s.) — S. Beown. (Pekin.)
689 R. N. & H. C. — Hon. Sybil Amheest. (Cayuga.)
594 H. C. — Lady Wilson. (Cayuga.)
Class 272. — Young Drakes. [4 entries, none absent.]
595 I. (30.9.) — Hon. Sybil Amheest, Didlington Hall, Brandon. (Pekin.)
596 II. (15.9.)— Hon. Sybil Amherst. (Cayuga.)
597 III. (10.9.) — William Bygott, Rye Hill House, Ulceby, Lines. (Rouen.)
Feb. 10.
598 R. N. & H. C. — Manoe Poultey Faem, Highgate, London, N. (Pekin.)
About Apr. 2.
Class 273. — Ducklings. [5 entries, 1 absent.]
599 I. (30s.) — PIon. Sybil Amheest, Didlington Hall, Brandon, Norfolk.
(Pekin.)
601 II. (15«.) — William Bygott, Rye Hill House, Ulceby, Lines. (Rouen.)
Feb. 10.
600 III. (IO9.)— Hon. Sybil Amheest, Didlington. (Cayuga.)
602 R. N. & H. C. — Thomas F. Hoesley', South Grove, Highgate, N. (Pekin.)
Apr. 3.
Geese.
Class 274. — Ganders. [10 entries, none absent.]
605 I. (£2.) — Hon. Sybil Amheest, Didlington Hall, Brandon, Norfolk.
(Embden.)
608 II. (£1.) — Wm. E. Dainton, Rudge Farm, Frome, Som. (Toulouse.) 1892.
606 III (10.9.) — Hon. Sybil Amheest. (Embden.) 1893.
612 R. N. & H. C. — John Keer, Red Hall, Wigton. (Toulouse.)
H. C. — Abbot Bros., for No. 604 ; P. T. Gardner, for No. 610.
Class 275. — Geese. [8 entries, none absent.]
620 I. (£2.) — John Kerr, Red Hall, Wigton. (Toulouse.)
618 II. (£1.)— Wm, E, Dainton, Rurlge Farm, Frome, (Toulouse.) 1892,
Geese , Turkeys , and Table Poultry.
civ
616 III. (10s.) & 616 R. N. & H. C.— Hon. Sybil Amhekst, Didlington,
Brandon, Norfolk. (Embden.) 1893.
621 H. C. — Edward Shaw, Plus Wilmot, Oswestry. (Toulouse.)
Turkeys.
Class 276. — Turkey Cocks. [19 entries, 3 absent.]
634 I. (£2.) — Edward Kendrick, Weeford House, Lichfield. (Bronze.)
639 II. (£1.) — Lady Wilson, Chillingham Barns, Belford. (American
Bronze.) 1892.
635 111.(104-.) — J. W. L ill, Martin Dales, Lincoln. (American Bronze.)
June 1892.
626 K. N. & H. C. — D. T. Armes, E. Tuddenham, E. Dereham. (American
Mammoth Bronze.)
H. C. — T. Saunders, for No. 636 ; R. Solly, for No. 638.
Class 277. — Turkey Ileus. [9 entries, 1 absent.]
642 I. (£2.) & 641 II. (£1.) — Abbot Bros., Thuxton, Hingham. (American
Bronze.) 1893.
648 III. (106-.)— Edward Kendrick, Weeford House, Lichfield. (Bronze.)
Over 1 year.
649 R. N. & H. C. — Lady Wilson, Chillingham Barns, Belford. (Ameiican
Bronze.) 1892.
H. C.— Hon. Sybil Amherst, for No. 643 ; D. T. Armes, for No. 645.
Table Poultry.
Class 278.— Pair of Cockerels o/’1894, of any Pure Breed.
[7 entries, 1 absent.]
652 I. (30s.) — Wm. Brent, Clampit Farm, Callington. (Indian Game.)
655 II. (15s.) — R. Solly, Penwith, Hills Road, Cambridge. (Wyandotte.) Jan.
653 III. (10s.) — Miss M. Dolben, Ipsley Rectory, Redditch. (Old English
Game.) Jan. 8.
656 E. N. & H. C. — Mrs. Stanyfortii, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York.
(Silver Grey Dorking.) Jan.
Class 279. — Pair of Pullets of 1894, of any Pure Breed.
[10 entries, 3 absent.]
661 I. (30s.) — John Edwards, Well Street, Callington. (Indian Game.) Jan. 6.
660 II. (15s.) — Henry Britten, Skirwith, Culgaith, Cumberland. (Coloured
Dorking.) Jan.
664 III. (10s.)— Wm. Hambly, Cutlinwith, St. Germans. (Dark Dorking.)
Feb. 7.
665 E. N. &H. C.— R. Solly. (Wyandotte.)
659 H. C.— Wm, Brent. (Indian Game.)
Class 280. — Pair of Cockerels of 1894, of a First Cross from any Pure
Breeds. [14 entries, 1 absent.]
679 I. (30s.)— Lady Wilson, Chillingham Barns, Belford. (Indian Game &
Dorking.) Jan. 17.
670 II. (15s.)— Ralph Arthur, Torbryan Rectory, Newton Abbot. (Indian
Game & Langshan.) Feb. 24.
674 III. (10s.)— Miss M. Dolben, Ipsley Rectory, Redditch. (Indian Game
& Plymouth Rock.) Jan. 8.
680 E. N. & H. C. — Lady Wilson. (Indian Game & Dorking.)
H, C.— J. W. Adijnoton, for No. 667 ; Rev, J. A- G, Birch, for No, 672,
clvi
Award oj Poultry Prizes at Cambridge.
Class 281. — Pair of Pullets of 1894, of a First Cross from any Pure
Breeds. [9 entries, 2 absent.]
689 I. (30s.) — Lady Wilson, Chillingham Barns, Belford. (Indian Game &
Dorking.) Feb. 21.
685 II. (15s.)— Mrs. E. Bose Blackwell, Cowden Hall, Heatlifield, Sussex.
(Indian Game & Dorking.) Jan.
682 III. (10s.) & 683 B. N. & H. C. — Hon. Florence Amherst, Didlington
Hall, Brandon, Norfolk. (Indian Game & Dorking.)
Table Ducklings.
Class 282. — Pair of Ducklings of 1894, of any Pure Breed.
[10 entries, none absent.]
699 I. (30s.) — H. G. Weston, Mount Street, Aylesbury. (Aylesbury.)
696 II. (15s.) — Harry Rodwell, 22 California, Aylesbury. (Aylesbury.)
Apr. 30.
693 III. (10s.) — J. L. Luddington, Audley House, Littleport, Cambs. (Pekin.)
Mar. 14.
690 R. N. &H. C. — IIon. Sybil Amiierst, Didlington Hall, Brandon, Norfolk.
(Cayuga.)
H. C.— IIon. Sybil Amherst, for No. 691. (Pekin.) Mrs. W. H. Mitchell,
for No. 694. (Aylesbury.)
Class 283. — Pair of Ducklings of 1894, of a First Cross from any
Pure Breeds. [6 entries, 2 absent.]
705 I. (30s.) — H. G. Weston, Mount Street, Aylesbury. (Aylesbury & Pekin.)
702 II. (15s.) — H. T. Goodenough, 1 Belgrave Villas, Slough. (Aylesbury &
Pekin.) Apr. 18.
703 III. (10s.) — Harry Rodwell, 22 California, Aylesbury. (Aylesbury &
Pekin.) Apr. 30.
701 R. N. & H. C. — Mrs. Stanyforth, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York. (Ayles-
bury & Pekin.) Mar.
FARM AND DAIRY PRODUCE OF THE UNITED
KINGDOM.
Butter.
Class 284. — One Keg or other Package of Butter, not less than 14 lb.
and under 40 lb. in weight, delivered to the Society on February 1,
1894. [21 entries, 1 absent.]
[No Award.]
Class 285. — Two pounds Fresh Butter, slightly Salted.
[72 entries, none absent.]
26 (£5.) — S. F. Berry, Old Wellbury, Hitchin.
67 (£5.) — Mrs. C. McIntosh, Havering Park, Romford,
85 (£5.) — Charles C. Tudway, Walcombe Dairy, Wells, Somerset.
92 (£5.) — William Wood, The Knoll, Hurstpierpoint.
32 (£3.) — Lord Braybrooke, Audley End, Saffron Walden.
46 (£3.) — Mrs. Arthur Deane, Minster House, Winchester.
59 (£3.)— Hon. A. H. Polland-Hibbert, Munden, Watford.
91 (£3.) — Miss Wood, Singleton Vicarage, Foulton-le-Fylde.
23 (£1.) — Salisbury Baxendale, Bonningtons, Ware.
Cheddar and Cheshire Cheese.
clvii
42 (£1.) — Mbs. Mary Custance, Woodlands, Southwater, Horsham.
49 (£1.) — F. J. Douglas, Catherington, Horndean, Hants.
51 (£1.)— Mbs. Elizabeth France, Spurstow, Tarporley.
70 R. N. & H. C. — Lord Moreton, Sarsden House, Chipping Norton.
H. C. — Cathedral Dairy Co., for No. 36 ; Mrs. E. Childs, for No. 38 ;
Mrs. C. Davies, for No. 44 ; T. & H. George, for No. 52 ; R. W. Hanbury,
M.P., for No. 65 ; J. Hanson, for No. 66 ; C. W. H. Cozens-Hardy, for No.
57 ; Miss M. Jefferson, for No. 61 ; J. Lancaster, for No. 63 ; Rev. O.
Thompson, for No. 81 ; W. G. M. Townley, for No. 82.
Com. — W. Body, for No. 30; T. Gooch, for No. 53; Dr. H. Watney, for
No. 87.
Class 286. — Two pounds Fresh Butter , slightly Salted, made from
Milk drttwn from Cows other than Channel Islands , or Cows
crossed with the Channel Islands Breeds. [69 entries, 4 absent.]
99 (£5.) — S. F. Berry, Old Wellbury, Hitchin.
125 (£5.) — Hon. A. H. Holland-Hibbert, Munden, Watford.
145 (£5.) — Henry Shepherd, Hailstone Farm, Wrington, Somerset.
154 (£5.) — Arthur M. Tree, Ashorne Hill, Leamington.
97 (£3.) — Geo. Baynes, Broxted Hall, Dunmow.
130 (£3.)— David Longwill, Kendieshill, Linlithgow, N.B.
136 (£3.) — Mrs. T. H. Miller, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde,
143 (£3.) — Earl of Rosebery, K.G., Mentmore, Leighton Buzzard.
119 (£1.) — R. W. Hanbury, M.P., Ilam Hall, Ashbourne.
120 (£1.) — Joseph Hanson, Botham Hall Farm, Huddersfield.
127 (£1.) — John Roberts Jones, Bodfeirig, Ty Croes, Anglesea.
133 (£1.) — John Martin, Papworth Everard, St. Ives, Hunts.
153 R. N. & H. C.— Henry Townshend, Caldecote Hall, Nuneaton.
H. C.— S. Baxendale, for No. 96 ; Mrs. E. Beechener, for No. 98 ; Miss
E. Griffiths, for No. 118 ; Miss A. Hedley, for No. 123 ; G. Wallace,
for No. 158.
Com.— The Countess of Crawford, for No. 107 ; T. & H. George, for.
No. 116 ; Miss E. Glenn, for No. 117 ; C. W. H. Cozens-Hardy, for No.
121 ; Mrs. Jones, for No. 126 ; H. Lloyd, for No. 129 ; J. W. Lord, for
No. 131; Mrs. John Mastin, for No. 135; Lord Moreton, for No.
137 ; A. W. Outram, for No. 140 ; W. Whitlock, for No. 159.
Cheese.
Class 287. — Three Cheddar Cheeses, of not less than 5076. each,
made in 1894. [16 entries, none absent.]
163 I. (£10.) — H. G. Ashman, Beacon Farm, Shepton Mallet.
175 II. (£5.)— Nathaniel J. Sims, Manor Dairy, Mere, Wilts.
170 III. (£3.) — John Hillard, Church Farm, Wincanton, Som.
167 R. N. & H. C. — H. Ker Colville, Bellaport Hall, Market Drayton.
Com. — T. C. Candy, for No. 165; H. Rabbetts, for No. 173.
Class 288. — Three Cheshire Cheeses, of not less than 4076. each,
made in 1894. [10 entries, none absent.]
188 I. (£10.) — Richard Mullock, Guy Lane Farm, Waverton, Chester.
182 II. (£5.)— Thomas Dutton, Ash House, Brindley, Nantwich.
186 III. (£3.) — George Mosford, Tattenhall, Cheshire.
181 R. N. & H. C. — Benjamin Dutton. 183 H. C.-Wm. Dutton.
VOL. V. T. S. — 19
l
clviii
Award of Prizes at Cambridge.
Class 289, — Three Stilton Cheeses, made in 1894.
[11 entries, none absent.]
199 I. (£5.) — J. H. Wale, Burton Bandalls, Loughborough.
193 II. (£3.) — A. W. Hurst, Hungarton, Leicester.
198 III. (42.) — John Smith, Gaddesby, Leicester.
195 R. N. & H, C. — Henry Morris, Saxelby, Melton Mowbray.
H. C. — Albert Hull, for No. 192; E. T. Moore, for No. 191; John
Preston, for No. 196.
Com. — Mrs. C. Fairbrother, for No. 191.
Class 290. — Three Cheeses of any other British make , made in 1894.
[14 entries, none absent.]
212 I. (£5.) — C. W. Prout, Elm Court Farm, Coaley, Dursley. (Single
Gloucester.)
213 II. (43.) — Mrs. W. T. S. Tilley, North Wootton, Shepton Mallet. (Sage
Truckles.)
209 III. (42.) — John Hillard, Wincanton, Som. (Small Cheddar.)
202 R. N. & H. C. — T. C. Candy, Woolcombe Farm, Cattistock, Dorset.
(Somerset.)
Com. — W. Gilman, for No. 206 (Derby); S. J. Martin, for No. 211.
(Cheddar Loaf.)
Class 291. — Three Double Cottenham Cheeses .' [1 entry.]
[No Award.]
Class 292. — Three Cream Cheeses (Victoria), under 2 lb. weight each}
[14 entries, none absent.]
220 I. (£3.) — Henry Goodall, Overseal, Ashby-de-la-Zouch.
218 II. (42.) — Elias Flanders, 84 Regent Street, Derby.
216 III. (41.)— Mrs. Catherine Davies, Pontfaen Farm, Rhuddlan, Flint.
225 R. N. & H. C. — Alfred Rowntree. 228 Com. — C. C. Tudway.
Class 293. — Three Curd and Cream Cheeses ( Double York), under
2 lb. iveight each} [2 entries.]
230 I. (43.) — C. C. Tudway, Walcombe Dairy, Wells, Som.
229 II. (42.) — Arthur Hepher, Haddenham, Cambs.
Class 294. — Three Curd Cheeses (Single York), under 2 lb. weight each}
[4 entries, none absent.]
234 I. (43.)— C. C. Tudway, Walcombe Dairy, Wells, Som.
232 II. (42.) — Arthur Hepher, Haddenham, Cambs.
233 III. (41. )— Noble Robinson, Lordship Terrace, Willingham, Cambs.
CIDER AND PERRY.
Class 295. — Cask of not less than 18, and not more than 30, gallons
of Cider, made in the Autumn o/’1893. [19 entries, 1 absent.]
240 I. (45.) — William Evans & Co., Widemarsh, Hereford.
246 II. (43.) — Joseph M. Parry, Lawton Hall, Leominster.
252 III. (42.) — John Watkins, Pomona Farm, Withington, Hereford.
248 R. N. — R. Rout & Son, Banham, Attleborough.
1 Prizes offered by the Cambridge Local Committee.
Hives, Honey, and Bee Appliances.
clix
Class 298. — One Dozen Bottles of Cider, made in the Autumn of 1893.
[30 entries, none absent.]
281 I. (£5.) — E. Vincent V. Wheeler, Newnham Court, Tenbury.
266 II. (£3.) — R. Neville Grenville, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury.
274 III. (£2.)— R. Rout & Son, Banham, Attleborough.
280 R. N.& H. C.— James Watts. 267 Com. — Bosley & Co.
Class 297 —One Dozen Bottles of Cider, made in any year before
1893. [12 entries, none absent.]
287 I. (£5) & 286 III. (£2.) — H. P. Bulmer & Co., Ryelands, Hereford.
292 II. (£3.) — R. Rout & Son, Banham, Attleborough.
293 R. N. — Henry Thomson, Southends, Newent.
Class 298. — One Dozen Bottles of Perry. [13 entries, none absent.]
304 I. (£5.) — Henry Thomson, Southends, Newent.
305 II. (£3.) — Thomas Tudge, Lyde Court, Hereford.
308 III. (£2.)— John H. Wootton, Byford, Hereford.
297 R. N. & H, C. — H. P. Bulmer & Co. ; and Com. for No. 298.
JAMS AND PRESERVED FRUITS.
Class 299. — Collection of Whole Fruit Jams. [5 entries, none absent.]
313 I. (£3.) — T. G. Tickler, 47 Hainton Street, Grimsby.
312 II. (£2.) — Granger’s Fruit Preserving Co., Ltd., Ely.
309 III. (£1.)— Britannia Fruit Preserving Co., Ltd., Tiptree Heath,
Kelvedon.
Class 300. — Collection of Bottled Fruits. [4 entries, none absent.]
317 I. (£3.)— John Weaver, Little Heath, Christleton, Chester.
315 II. (£2.) — Owen Roberts, Rowton Grange, Chester.
316 III. (£1.) — T. G. Tickler, 47 Hainton Street, Grimsby.
314 R. N. & H. C.— Britannia Fruit Preserving Co., Ltd., Tiptree Heath,
Kelvedon.
Class 201. — Collection qf Preserved Fruits for Dessert Purposes.
[1 entry.]
318 I. (£3.)— Britannia Fruit Preserving Co., Ltd., Tiptree Heath, Kel-
vedon.
HIVES, HONEY, AND BEE APPLIANCES.1
Class 302. — Collection of Hives and Appliances. [2 entries.]
319 I. (£5.) — W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester.
320 II. (£2 10s.)— C. Redshaw, South Wigston, Leicester.
Class 303. — Observatory Hive, stocked with Bees and Queen.
[5 entries, none absent.]
325 I. (£1 10s.) — T. B. Blow, Welwyn, Herts. Price £5 5s.
322 II. (£1.) — W. Dixon, Belmont House, Beckett Street, Leeds. Price £4.
321 H. C. — C. Redshaw, South Wigston, Leicester. Price £3 3s.
I 2
Prizes given by the British Bee-Keepers’ Association.
clx Aiva/rd of Prizes at Cambridge.
Class 304. — Frame-hive for General Use , unpainted.
[9 entries, none absent.]
328 I. (£1.) — W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester. Price £1 Is.
331 II. (15s.) & 332 III. (10s.) — C. Redshaw, South Wigston, Leicester.
Prices £l 4s. and 18s. §d.
Class 305. —Frame-hive for Cottager's Use, unpainted.
[4 entries, none absent.]
335 I. (£1.) — W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester. Price 8s. 6 d.
338 II. (15s.) & 337 III. (10s.) — C. Redshaw, South Wigston, Leicester.
Price 10s. 6d.
Class 306. — Honey Extractors. [5 entries, none absent.]
341 I. (15s.), 340 II. (10s.), & 339 H. C. — W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester.
Prices £2 10s., £2, and £1 7s. 6 d.
Class 307. — Pair of Section Racks, completely fitted for use and
interchangeable. [4 entries, none absent.]
347 I. (15s.)— C. Redshaw, South Wigston, Leicester. Price 8s. 6 d.
346 II. (10s.) — W. Dixon, Belmont House, Beckett Street, Leeds. Price 9s. 6 d.
345 III. (5s.) — W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester. With hanging sections.
Price 8s.
Class 308. — Rapid Feeders. [3 entries, none absent.]
348 I. (10s.) — W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester. Price 3s.
350 II. (5s.) — C. Redshaw, South Wigston, Leicester. Price 2s.
Class 309. — Bingham Smoker of British Manufacture
[4 entries, none absent.]
352 I. (15s.) — W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester. Price 3s. 6 d.
353 11.(1 0s.)— W. Dixon, Belmont House, Beckett Street, Leeds. Price 4s.
Class 310. — Twelve Sections of Comb Honey, gathered in 1894.
[30 entries, 26 absent.]
377 I. (£-.) — W. H. Woods, Hemingford Grey, St. Ives.
378 II. (10s.) — W. Woodley, Beedon, Newbury, Berks. Price Is. 2d. each.
373 III. (5s.)— J. Blyth Clarke, Braughing, Herts.
Class 311. — Six Sections of Comb Honey, gathered in 1894.
[23 entries, 19 absent.]
400 I. (£!.)— W. Woodley, Beedon, Newbury, Berks. Price Is. 2d. each.
389 II. (10s.) — Miss M. L. Gayton, Much Hadham, Herts. Price 7s. 6 d.
399 III. (5s.) — W. H. Woods, Hemingford Grey, St. Ives.
Class 312. — Rv/n or Extracted Honey, gathered in 1894.
[39 entries, 21 absent.]
441 I. (£1.) — E. B. Cooper, St. Nicholas Square, Leicester. Price Is. G d. each.
4 16 II. (10*.) — Rev. R. S. Routh, Longstock Vicarage, Stockbridge. Price 12s.
444 III. (5s.) — B. G. Brocklehurst, Brocklehurst House, Ludlow. Price 16s.
H. C. — E. C. R. White, for No. 413 ; W. Woodley, for No. 438.
1 Prizes given by Mr. T. W. Cowan.
Hives , Honey , and Bee Appliances.
clxi
Cla ss 313. — Twelve Sections of Comb Honey, gathered before or in
1893. [12 entries, none absent.]
454 I. (£1.) — W. Woodley, Beedon, Newbury, Berks. Price Is. 1 d. each.
449 II. (10s.) — E. C. R. White, Woodford Mills, Salisbury. Price 12s.
451 III. (5s.) — W. Dixon, Belmont House, Beckett Street, Leeds.
H. C. — Rev. G. W. Bancks, for No. 448 ; T. H. Jackson, for No. 456.
Class 314. — Three Shallow Frames of Comb Honey, for Extracting,
gathered in 1894. [17 entries, 14 absent.]
475 I. (£1.) — George Wells, Aylesford, near Maidstone. Price 12s. 6 d.
464 II. (10s.) — G. E. Fancourt, 6 St. Paul’s Street, Stamford.
461 III. (5s.) — C. R. Pigott, Landbeach, Cambridge. Price 12s.
Class 315. — Run or extracted Honey , gathered before or in 1898.
[17 entries, none absent.]
482 I. (£1.) — T. B. Widdowson, 22 Lincoln St., Leicester. Price Is. 6 d. per lb.
484 II. (10s.)— W. Dixon, Belmont House, Beckett Street, Leeds.
491 III. (5s.) — W. Woodley, Beedon, Newbury, Berks. Price Is. each.
H. C. — Capt. W. S. Ord, for No. 476 ; Lieut. H. C. Hawker, R.N., for
No. 480; H. Wood, for No. 486.
Class 316. — Granulated Honey. [18 entries, 3 absent.]
507 I. (£1.) — S. J. Cooper, St. Nicholas Square, Leicester. Price Is. 6 d. each.
497 II. (10s.)— Lieut. H. C. Hawker, R.N., House Croft, Longparish. Price
Is. each.
504 III. (5s.) — E. Oakes, Lower Church Street, Broseley, Salop.
Class 317. — Best and most Attractive Display of Honey in any Form
and of any Yecvr. [11 entries, 5 absent.]
521 I. (£2 10s.) — W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester.
516 II. (£1 10s.) — W. H. AVoods, Hemingford Grey, St. Ives.
514 III. (10s.) — G. E. Fancourt, 6 St. Paul’s Street, Stamford.
Class 318. — For any Practically Useftcl Invention connected with
Bee-keeping introduced since 1892. [10 entries, none absent.]
Bronze Medal of British Bee-Keepers’ Association.
524 W. P. Meadows, Syston, Leicester. Reversible Super Clearer, with
adapting slide. Price 2s.
527 H. C. — J. AV Alton, AVeston, Leamington. Slow Bottom Feeder.
Class 319 . — Most Interesting and Instructive Exhibit of any kind
connected with Bee-culture not mentioned in the foregoing Classes,
and to which Prizes have not been previously awarded. [9 entries,
none absent.]
Bronze Medal of British Bee-Keepers’ Association.
538 H. W. Brice, 9 Heathfield Villas, Thornton Heath. Specimens showing
modifications of American methods of queen rearing in artificially pre-
pared cups, to meet the exigencies of the English climate.
Certificates.
532 C. N. White, Somersham; 539 T. B. Blow, Welwyn. Collection of honey
vessels in glass and pottery.
Com. — W. Dixon, for No. 535 (swarming arrangement); H. Seamark,
for No. 636 (Cottager’s Combination Hive).
clxii
A ward of Prizes at Cambridge.
IMPLEMENTS.
Oil Engines.
Class I. — -Fixed Oil Engines of 4-8 Brake II. P. [16 entries, 5 absent.]
No. iu Implement
Catalogue.
5972 I. (£50.)— Richard Hornsby & Sons, Ltd., Grantham. (Hornsby-
Akroyd, 8 H P.)
5827 II. (£25.) — Crossley Bros., Ltd., Openshaw, Manchester. (6| H.P.)
Class II, — Portable Oil Engines of 9-16 Brake II.P. [9 entries,
3 absent.]
5973 I. (£50.)— Richard Hornsby & Sons, Ltd., Grantham. (Hornsby-
Akroyd, 12| H.P.)
Spraying Machines.
Class III. — Horse Power Machine for Distributing Bouillie Bordelaise
or other Mixture on Potatoes. [4 entries, 1 absent.]
4654 (£10.)— Strawsons, Ltd., 77 Queen Victoria Street, E.C.
Class 17. — Machines for Distributing Insecticides and Fungicides
upon Fruit Trees and Bushes. [13 entries, none absent.]
4982 (£10.) — Boulton k Paul, Rose Lane Works, Norwich. (No. 14.)
4669 H. C. — Stott Fertiliser & Insecticide Distributor Co., Ltd.,
Barton House, Deansgate, Manchester. (Sop and Plant Washer.)
Sheep Dipping Apparatus.
Class V. — Sheep Dipping Apparatus. [6 entries, none absent.]
1037 (£5.) — Fletcher Bros. & Co., Grimsby. (Portable.)
4481 R N.— Hill & Smith, Brierley Hill.
4435 H. C. — Rainforth & Hayward, Lincoln. (Fixed.)
4436 H. C. — Rainforth k Hayward, Lincoln. (Portable.)
Churns.
Class VI. — Churns capable of dealing with 10 quarts and upwards
of cream , not exceeding one man power. [13 entries, 2 absent.]
3395 I. (£10.)— Thomas Bradford k Co., Crescent Ironworks, Salford, Man-
chester. (Diaphragm End over End Barrel Chum, No. 12a.)
4877 II. (£6.)— G. Llewellin k Son, Haverfordwest. (Eccentric End over
Chum, No. 3.)
4876 III. (£4.) — G. Llewellin & Son, Haverfordwest. (Royal Triangular
Churn, No. 3.)
Class VII. — Churns capable of dealing with from 5 to 10 quarts of
cream, not exceeding one man power. [11 entries, 3 absent.]
3396 I. (£5). — Thomas Bradford k Co., Crescent Ironworks, Salford, Man-
chester. (Diaphragm End oyer End Barrel Churn, No. 11a.)
903 I (£2 10s.) — Dairy Supply Co., Ltd., Museum Street, Blooms-
ThiTdPdzcs ! bulT- W.C. (Victoria Chum.)
4878) equally [(£2 10s.) — G. Llewellin & Son, Haverfordwest. (Royal
divided. J Triangular Chum, No. 1.)
Butter-Making Competitions. clxiii
Silver Medals.
Awarded for Articles entered as “ New Implements for Agricultural or Estate
No. in Implement Purposes.”
Catalogue.
1641 Ben Reid & Co., Bon Accord Works, Aberdeen : for Spreader for Farm-
yard Manure.
2266 Joiin Fowler & Co., Ltd., Leeds : for “ Turn wrest ” Plough, 8- Furrows.
BUTTER-MAKING COMPETITIONS.
Class 1. — Open to the United Kingdom. [10 entries, none absent.]
4 I. (£6.) — Miss Edith Glenn, Little Barford, St. Neots.
3 II. (£4.) — Miss Frances M. Cole, The Dairy Home Farm, Tring.
7 III. (£3.) — Miss Florence M. Knight, 76 Castle Street, Farnham.
6 IV. (£2.)— George Haslem, GraDge Farm, Singleton, Poulton-le-Fylde,
9 V. (£1.) — Mrs. H. Shepherd, Hailstone Farm, Wrington, Somerset.
10 R. N. — Miss Winifred M. Trimmer, The Pavement, Alton, Hants.
1 H. C. — Mrs. M. A. Cambridge, High Hall, Blymhill, Sliifnal.
2 H. C. — William A. Chappell, Greet’s Green, West Bromwich.
6 H. C. — Miss C. Griffiths, Penally Court, Tenby.
8 H. C. — Miss Mabel C. Martin, The Hollies, Muxton, Newport, Salop.
Class 2. — Female Members of a Farmer’s Family not in Service
or Working for Wages. [18 entries, 1 absent.]
24 I. (£6.)— Miss Agnes A. Walker, Ockington Farm, Dymock, Gloucester.
11 II. (£4.) — Miss Hetty Baynes, Broxted Hall, Dunmow.
27 III. (£3.) — Miss Edith S. Wright, Appleby, Doncaster.
22 IV. (£2.)— Miss Rose Powell, Westry House, March, Cambs.
14 V. (£1.)— Miss Gertrude Connell, South Croxton, Leicester.
26 R. N. & H. C. — Miss Mary Wilson, Stone Broom Lane, Alfreton, Derby.
12 H. C. — Miss Mary Beechener, The Green Farm, Barton, Ampthill.
13 H. C.— Mrs. E. Rose Blackwell, Cowden Hall, Heathfield, Sussex.
16 H. C. — Miss Mary L. Farrin, Coleshill.
18 H. C. — Miss Nora Jones, Bodfeirig, Ty Croes, Anglesea.
20 H. C.— Miss Hettie Pedly, Great Barford, St. Neots.
21 H. C — Miss Sarah Poetway, Thorndon Hill, Eye.
23 H. C— Miss Kathleen Sharman, Lyddington, Uppingham.
28 H. C. — Miss Winifred Wright, Thrapston, Northamptonshire.
17 Com. — Miss Rosa George, Sharpenhoe Bury, Ampthill.
19 Com. — Miss Maria Milner, Stretton, Alfreton.
25 Com. — Miss E. A. Wesley, Grove House, Stretham, Isle of Ely.
Class 3. — Dairymaids and others resident in the Society’s District
A., consisting of the Counties of Bedford, Buckingham , Cam-
bridge, Essex, Hertford, Huntingdon, London, Middlesex,
Norfolk, Oxford, and Suffolk. ( Open only to those who have not
been Prize Winners at previous Country Meetings of the Royal
Agricultural Society.) [4 entries.]
30 I. (£6.) — Miss Elsie G. Cook, Clock House Farm, Ashford, Staines.
32 II. (£4.)— Miss Agnes Mary Watts, Fairgreen, Chipping Norton, Oxen.
31 R. N. & H. C. — Miss H. Stoten, Old Wellbury, Hitchin, Herts,
29 H. C. — Alfred Baynes, Broxted Hall. Dunmow.
clxiv
Award of Prizes at Cambridge.
Class 4. — Dairymaids and others resident in the Isle of Ely or
Counties of Cambridge , Suffolk, Norfolk or Huntingdon.
[Open only to those who have not been Prize Winners at previous
Country Meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society})
[12 entries, none absent.]
36 I. (£6.) — Miss Hannah Ellingham, Littleport, Ely.
41 II. (£4.) — Miss Kate E. Newton, Buckworth, Huntingdon.
43 III. (£3.) — Miss Ada Shemilt, Culford Home Farm, Bury St. Edmunds.
38 IV. (£2.) — Mrs. Florence M. Green, The Hoo, Buckden, Huntingdon.
37 V. (£1) — Miss May Freeman, The Grove Farm, Framlingham.
36 R. N. & H. C. — Miss Alys E. Brown, Witnesham Rectory, Ipswich.
33 H. C. — Miss Kathleen Anness, Brockford Hall, Stonham, Suffolk.
39 H. C. — Miss Ellen Hewes, 81 Prince of Wales Road, Norwich.
40 H. C. — Miss Alice E. Margetts, Cowper House, Huntingdon.
44 H. C.— Mrs. Eliza Taylor, Quanea Farm, Ely.
Champion Class. — Limited to Prize Winners in Classes 1-4.
30 (£5, & Society’s Silver Medal.) — Miss Elsie G. Cook, Clock House Farm,
Ashford, Staines.
11 R. N. & H. C.— Miss Hetty Baynes, Bioxted Hall, Dunmow.
HORSESHOEING COMPETITIONS.
Class 1. — Roadsters. [13 entries, none absent.]
12 I. (£6.2) — Arthur Rayner, 3 Highbury Terrace, Head Street, Halstead.
13 II. (£4.)— Richard Stacey, Old Warden, Biggleswade.
10 III. (£3.)— John Thomas Lewington, 6 Short Street, Cambridge.
9 IV. (£2.) — Harry Greenbank, The Forge, Whitton, Hounslow.
3 V. (£1.)— George Dean, Earith, St. Ives.
8 R. N. & H. C. — William Goodson, 12 Hockliffe Street, Leighton Buzzard.
Class 2. — Agricultural Horses. [13 entries, none absent.]
26 I. (£6.:) — Thomas Woods, Elstow, Bedford.
25 II. (£4.) — Edward Sinfield, Old Warden, Biggleswade.
18 III. (£3.) — Frederick Greenbank, The Forge, Harlington, Middlesex.
16 IV. (£2.)— Albert John Edwards, Denham, Bury St. Edmunds.
21 V. (£1.)— Walter Liddamore, Westley, Bury St. Edmunds.
14 R. N. & H. C. — John Armstrong, Elstow, Bedford.
15 H. C. — Thomas Denny, Stechwortk, near Newmarket.
’ Prizes given by the Cambridge Local Committee.
! Given by the Worshipful Company of Farriers, in addition to the Freedom op their Guild.
( clxv )
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND,
proceedings of tbe Council.
WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 7, 1894.
SIR JOHN H. THOROLD, BART. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
Present :
Trustees. — Earl Cathcart, Mr. John
Dent Dent, Lord Egerton of Tatton,
Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B.,
Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart., Kt. Hon.
Sir W. M. Ridley, Bart., M.P.
Vice-Presidents. — Sir Walter
Gilbey, Bart., Lord Moreton, Earl
Spencer, K.G., Mr. Charles White-
head.
Other Members of Council. — Mr.
J. H. Arkwright, Mr. Alfred Ash-
worth, Mr. J. Bowen-Jones, Lord
Brougham and Vaux, Mr. J. A.
Caird, Mr. Charles Clay, Mr. F. S. W.
Cornwallis, M.P., Lieut.-Col. J. F.
Curtis-Hay ward, Mr. Alfred Darby,
Mr. J. Marshall Dugdale, Mr. S. P.
Foster, Mr. W. Frankish, Mr. Hugh
Gorringe, Mr. Anthony Hamond,
Mr. James Hornsby, the Earl of
Jersey, Mr. C. S. Mainwaring, Mr.
Joseph Martin, Mr. T. H. Miller, Hon.
Cecil T. Parker, Mr. Albert Pell, Mr.
Dan. Pidgeon, Mr. J. E. Ransome,
Mr. S. Rowlandson, Mr. Howard P.
Ryland, Mr. G. H. Sanday, Mr. A. J.
Smith, Mr. Henry Smith, Mr. E. W.
Stanyforth, Mr. Richard Stratton,
Mr. Martin J. Sutton, Mr. J. P. Terry,
Mr. John Tremayne, Mr. R. A. Warren,
the Duke of Westminster, K.G., Mr.
E. V. V. Wheeler, Sir Jacob Wilson.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the
Journal ; Dr. J. Augustus Yoelcker,
Consulting Chemist ; Professor Si-
monds and Professor Brown, C.B.,
Consulting Veterinary Surgeons.
VOL. V. T. S. — 20
The following members of the
Darlington Local Committee were also
present Captain Gerald Walker,
the Borough Surveyor (Mr. Thomas
Smith), and Mr. F. Raymond Steaven-
son (Secretary of the Local Com-
mittee).
Apologies for non-attendance were
received from the Earl of Coventry,
Viscount Bridport, G.C B., Right Hon.
Sir Massey Lopes, Bart., Mr. Joseph
Beach, Mr. Ckandos-Pole-Gell, Sir J.
L. E. Spearman, Bart., and Mr. Charles
Howard.
The Society’s New House.
The President, in opening the
proceedings, expressed his pleasure at
being in the chair on this the first
meeting of the Council in that beauti-
ful house. He was also very glad at
being supported by those who had
enabled the Society to obtain it. As
they were aware, on the occasion of
the complimentary dinner given by
Members of Council to the Duke of
Westminster and Sir Walter Gilbey,
on Monday evening, the following
telegram had been despatched by
him to his Royal Highness the Prince
of Wales at Livadia : — “ The Council
of the Royal Agricultural Society
deeply deplore the sad cause of your
Royal Highness’s absence from their
gathering to-day, and they desire to
express their respectful sympathy with
the Princess, your Royal Highness,
and the Imperial Family.” He (the
President) had yesterday received
the following telegraphic reply from
his Royal Highness: — “We thank
m
clxvi
Monthly Council, November 7, 1894.
the Royal Agricultural Society for
their kind sympathy. I deeply regret
my absence from your gathering
yesterday. — Albert Edward.”
Death of a Member of Council.
The minutes of the last meeting of
the Council, held at 12, Hanover
Square, on July 25, having been ap-
proved,
The President said it was with
deep regret that he had to officially
announce to the Council the death of
their colleague Mr. James Rawlence,
who died on September 15 last, at the
great age of eighty-four. Mr. Raw-
lence had been a member of the
Council since 1871. He had been a
regular attendant at their meetings,
and had rendered active assistance in
many ways. He would be greatly
missed by his colleagues on the
Council.
Election of New Governors and
Members.
The election of the following two
Governors and thirty- eight Members
was then proceeded with : —
Governors.
lioLI-K, Hon. Mark. .Bioton. Devon.
Thompson’, H. Yates, ,26a Bryanston Sq., W.
Members.
Bathurst, Charles, jun. . .Lydney Park, Glos.
Bazley, G. S. . .Hatherop Castle, Fnirford.
Bn ADDON, S. V. . .Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
Bkun, Hofjoagermester O...Soeddingegaard,
Denmark.
Calvert, J. H...Masham, Y'orks.
Cariuck, W. L. . . Stokesley, Yorks.
Cockburn, C. E.S. . .Sutton Rock, Chesterfield.
Grafton, R. C...Bulkeley Station, Ramleh,
Alexandria, Egvpt.
Crcssley, Gerald B. .. Radford Hall, Leaming-
ton.
Cubitt.E. G... Honing Hall, Smallburgh, Nor-
wich.
Cui'RY T. . .Morton Carr. Nunthorpe, Yorks.
(JU'J lack, W. . . Littleport, Ely.
Davison, Col. T.. .Lea Park, Godaiming.
Dickin, Lt.-Col. J. Lloyd.. .Junior U.S. Club,
K.W.
Foster, W. R. The Grove, Horley, Surrey.
Hoffman, Dr. J. W.. .Tuskegee Institute, Ala.,
U.S. A.
Hors field, H. . . Arun Bank, Rudgwick, Sussex.
Hutchinson, Thos.. .Bambro’ Hall, Belford.
James, W. D. . . West Dean Park, Chichester.
Lancaster, P. J. ..Sec. Agr. & Hort. Soc. of
Ind , Calcutta.
Lane, F.. .28 Great St. Helens, E.C.
Leetk, T. A.. .Bradley Gate, Northenden.
Lynf, R. N... Welliugore Hall, Lincoln.
Moorrouse, S. H...Thc Woodlands, Stock-
port.
Moran, .T. A.. .22 Furnival Street, E.C.
Payne, A. L.. .Mobberley, Knutsford.
Phillips, C. J.. .Staunton Hall, Newark.
Phipps, Thomas, 169 Bridge Street, Northamp-
ton.
Powney, Cecil, Fyfield House, Andover.
Pym, Guy, Caesar's Camp, Sandy.
Richards, J...41 England's Lane, N.W.
Ridley, W. C...Hollington, Newbury.
Robinson, J...Wouldham Court, Rochester.
Rogers, Geo. . . Loughton, Essex.
Sowerby, J. P. . .Stokesley, Yorks.
Yuigner, Louis A. R.. .46 Rue de Lille, Paris.
Whitebread, G.. .Higham, Rochester.
Willis, Mrs. .Carperby, Yorks.
Country Meeting of 1896.
The Hod. Cecil T. Parker read
the report of the Committee of In-
spection appointed by the Council at
their last meeting to examine and
report upon the sites and o*her ac-
commodation offered by the towns of
Leicester and Northampton for the
Society’s Country Meeting of 1896.
The Committee, after describing the
various sites examined by them, re-
ported that they did not see their way
to present a definite recommendation
in favour of either of the towns from
which the invitations had been re-
ceived ; but they pointed out, with
regard to Leicester, that the Society
last visited it in 1868 ; that it was in
the centre of a thickly populated
district, and had itself a population
of 1 87,000 inhabitants. Northampton,
which had not been visited since 1817,
had, on the other hand, a more eligible
site, but was a town of 65,000 inhabit-
ants only, with no large centres of
industry near it, though it was in the
midst of an important agricultural
district.
Invitation front Leicester.
Mr. James Hornsby then intro-
duced a deputation from Leicester,
consisting of the Marquis of Granby,
M.P., the Mayor of Leicester (Mr.
Alderman Hart), Mr. Alderman Green
(Mayor-elect of Leicester), Mr. Walter
Ilazell, M.P., Mr W. H. Heygate, Mr.
J. W. Logan, M P , Mr J. H. Marshall,
Mr. Thomas Nuttall, Mr. Samuel Patey
(Chairman of the Parks Committee),
Mr. J. F. L. Rolleston, Mr. G. W.
Ward (Vice-Chairman of the Leices-
tershire Agricultural Society), Mr.
Alderman Wood, Alderman Sir
Thomas Wright, Mr. R. A. Yerburgh,
M.P., the Town Clerk of Leicester
(Mr. James Bell), the Borough Sur-
Country Meeting of 1896.
clxvii
veyor (Mr. E. G. Mawby), and Mr. J. T.
Ardron (Secretary of the Leicester-
shire Agricultural Society).
The Marquis of Granby said they
had come that day for the purpose of
bringing before the Council the
claims of the town and county of
Leicester for their favourable con-
sideration, as the place for the hold-
ing of the Society’s Country Meeting
of 1896. There was no doubt what-
ever in the county as to their strong
feeling of hope that they might be able
to induce the Council to visit the town
of Leicester in 1896. He would point
out that it would be some thirty years
since Leicester was last visited by
the Royal Agricultural Society. Since
1868 an enormous increase had taken
place in the borough itself, which
had now a population of 187,000. He
believed he was justified in saying
that, perhaps with the exception of
Cardiff, there was no town in Great
Britain that had increased in popula-
tion so rapidly as Leicester. They
therefore felt that, in the borough of
Leicester itself, there was an enor-
mous population upon which they
could rely. In the county the greatest
possible interest was excited in the
Show, and they would be prepared to
offer every hospitality to the Society.
The town of Leicester was extremely
well off in the way of railway accom-
modation. They were in a far better
position than they were five years
ago, because, in addition to the rail-
ways which then came into the town,
they now had an extra branch of the
Great Northern Railway. The station
accommodation had been enormously
increased, and was in a very satisfac-
tory condition. They were on the
main line at Leicester to practically
nearly all the large towns in the
southern portion of Yorkshire, Not-
tinghamshire, Derbyshire, &c , as well
as to the South, and communication
was easy and rapid, by means of the
Midland Railway, with towns of the
size of Birmingham, Derby, Leeds,
and Sheffield, as well as with the
Lincolnshire side of Leicestershire,
which was, as they knew, very easily
accessible to the borough. No other
towns in that part of the centre of
England could, he thought, compete
with Leicester as it stood now for
ease of access by railway. He had
spoken on behalf of the borough, but
they would hear from those more
directly representing the municipal
body. He would merely say that they
were anxious to do everything they
possibly could from a county point of
view for the interests of the Royal
Agricultural Society. They claimed to
be one of the largest agricultural
districts in England, and he hoped they
would be able to see the Royal Agri-
cultural Society’s Show of 1896 held
at Leicester.
The Mayor op Leicester (Mr.
Alderman Hart) said that if the So-
ciety decided to hold its Show of 1896
at Leicester, the inhabitants would
give a most hearty and genial welcome.
The Show was held on the last occa-
sion at Leicester in 1868, and he be-
lieved that it was then a success. As
they were aware, the town had dou-
bled its population since that period,
and now presented many more attrac-
tions that it did at that time. There
were greater facilities by the railway
lines to Leicester, which would, no
doubt, attract a very large number of
persons to visit their Royal Show, and
he presumed that their aim was to
interest as large a number of persons
as they could in the district. There
were about 200,000 inhabitants in the
borough, and another 200,000 inhabit-
ants in the county — making alto-
gether a population of about 400,000.
Situated as they were in the heart and
centre of the country, they were within
two and a-half hours of something
like a population of ten millions. He
thought that fact was worthy of con-
sideration. The Council would be best
able to judge of the fitness of the sites
offered by the Corporation ; and he
would say that they were prepared to
do all that was necessary to render the
sites suitable for the purposes of the
Show. They were willing to do all
that was required with regard to the
water supply, although, as they were
aware, they had their difficulties. One
of the sites, however, would not re-
quire very much water, because there
was the river close to it. He was quite
sure that the inhabitants generally
would lend ready help to welcome
the Society’s Show, if they decided to
come to Leicester. He understood
m 2
clxviii
Monthly Council, November 7, 1894.
that Northampton was competing in
the desire to have the Royal Agricul-
tural Society’s Show in 1896, and he
might, perhaps, mention that the
Society held its show at Cambridge
last year, which was very near to
Northampton. He could only repeat
that they would do everything in their
power to welcome the Society, and he
predicted that, as Leicester had become
of such import ance, they would realise
all they could hope for from the Show
being held there.
Mr. J. F. L. Rolleston, as a mem-
ber of the Committee representing the
country districts of Leicestershire,
stated that the motive of the Com-
mittee of the Corporation for cordially
extending an invitation to the Society
to hold its Show at Leicester in 1896
was not, as at first might be thought,
a purely selfish one. There might or
there might not be certain advantages
conferred upon the town by bringing
to Leicester such a magnificent ex-
hibition as that which the Royal Agri-
cultural Society yearly spread before
the world. Whoever might or might
not be benefited as heads of commer-
cial interests, the visit would be of
importance to the great sister industry
of agriculture ; and they were anxious
to welcome its chief organisation and
to extend hospitality to its leaders. It
would undoubtedly be a great cost to
the public, and a great cost and labour
to individuals. That view, however,
was quite dismissed from their minds ;
and if the Council accepted the invita-
tion given, they would receive, in
point of dignity and in point of en-
thusiasm, as cordial a welcome as had
ever been extended by any town in
the United Kingdom. That might be
regarded as the sentimental side of
the question. In regard to the prac-
tical side, there were 187,000 people
in Leicester. So large and central a
population, with such excellent rail-
way facilities, would mean a consider-
able “ gate ’’—probably the largest
“ gate ” since Windsor. Leicester was
in the heart of England, and in the
centre of a district which had not been
for some years past favoured by a
visit from the Society. He would
respectfully submit that at no part of
the United Kingdom could a greater
number of people from all parts of the
country be afforded an opportunity of
witnessing their exhibition than at
Leicester.
Mr. J. W. Logan, M.P., as repre-
senting the Harborough Division of
Leicestershire, had very much pleasure
in cordially supporting the invitation
extended to them. He had nothing
to add to what had been said, but
would content himself by cordially
endorsing the invitation.
Alderman Sir Thomas Weight
said that if there were any doubts
as to the spirit in which the Royal
Agricultural Society would be received
at Leicester, he hoped that the deputa-
tion that morniDg would have re-
moved them. In 1896 Leicester would
have an additional supply of water,
which would cost them 300,000?., and
would remove the possibility of any
doubt on this point. The chart on
the wall would give an idea of the
position which Leicester occupied in
relation to other towns in the county,
from which they might expect to
draw a large number of people, and
large supplies of stock. The popula-
tion of Leicester was large, but the
chief point was that Leicester was
half-way between London and Man-
chester, and occupied about as central
a position as aDy town in England.
The railway accommodation in the
town was increasing from day to day.
The Midland Railway Company were
now making large alterations, which
would be finished by 1896, and ^to-
gether there were advantages not
possessed by other towns. There would
be unusual facilities for reaching
either the Victoria or Aylestone Road
site, and it was hoped to set down
both passengers and stock at the
Aylestone Road siding. He had no
site in his own mind at Northampton
which could give the same railway
facilities as were possessed by Leices-
ter.
The President asked whether the
allotments next to the Aylestone
Road site could be utilised, and, if
so, whether the ground could be
turfed down this winter.
The Mayor of Leicester replied
in the affirmative, and gave a definite
undertaking on the part of the Cor-
poration accordingly.
Country Meeting o/1896.
clxix
Invitation from Northampton.
The deputation from Leicester hav-
ing withdrawn, Earl Spencer intro-
duced a deputation from Northampton,
consisting of the Mayor of Northamp-
ton (Mr. H. E. Randall), the Town Clerk
of Northampton (Mr. W. Shoosmith),
Mr. S. G. Stopford Sackville (Chair-
man of the Northamptonshire County
Council), Mr. Pickering Phipps (Vice-
Chairman of the Northamptonshire
Agricultural Society), Mr. Alfred
Cockerill, Mr. T. A. Dickson, and Mr.
ffm. George. He said they could
not claim so large a population as
Leicester, but he claimed that they
had a large agricultural interest
which was second to none in the
United Kingdom. They had a grow-
ing population in the county, and
though the town itself was not so
great, a very large number of people
would come to the Society’s Show
from the immediate neighbourhood.
They came hoping to be considered
favourably, as they had not had a
visit from the Royal Agricultural
Society since 1847. He dared say
that he was the only one there who
could remember attending that Show.
He was not very old at the time, but
he could remember well his youthful
enthusiasm when he heard that his
father had gained a first prize for
pigs. Other towns near them had
since had a visit from the Royal
Agricultural Society. By the time
this Meeting would come round it
would be very nearly fifty years siDce
the Society had come to their large
agricultural centre. With regard to
railway accommodation, they claimed
that they were nearly, if not equally,
as important as Leicester itself. They
were on the main line of the London
and North-Western Railway, within
an hour of Birmingham, within an
hour of Leicester itself, and within
an hour and a-half of London.
Between London and Northampton,
he need hardly say, there was a very
important agricultural interest in the
various counties. They were within
forty minutes of Bedford, and one
and three-quarter hours of Oxford.
The train service was excellent, as
to which they claimed to compare
favourably with other towns. With
regard to the interest created by the
Society’s visit, he could speak for
himself and for the town, and say
that the greatest possible interest
was felt in the prospect of securing
the Society’s presence at Northampton
in 1896. They had secured already
the funds which the Royal Society
very properly demanded. They had
a site which they believed was a very
convenient one, with facilities for
water and gas close at hand. In
conclusion, he sincerely trusted that
their neighbourhood, which looked
forward so much to the prospect of
the Society’s visit in these days of
depressed agriculture, would receive
the advantages which their annual
Meeting gave. He hoped that the
Council would give favourable con-
sideration to their prayer that North-
ampton should be the place for the
Royal Agricultural Society’s Meeting
in the year 1896.
The Mayor said he had the greatest
pleasure to be there that morning to
represent the town cf Northampton,
and to ask the Society to pay them a
visit in 1896. Northampton, although,
in fact, a manufacturing town, was
situated in one of the largest agri-
cultural districts in the United King-
dom. There was a strong feeling in
the town that this visit should take
place, and the greatest enthusiasm
would be aroused if they were able
to say that the Society had come to a
favourable decision. The idea of the
Society’s visit had been received with
enthusiasm, and a large, competent,
and energetic committee had been
engaged for some months in getting
together the necessary funds and in
makiDg the proper arrangements for
the reception of the Society. As had
been said by Lord Spencer, they had
an excellent site, which possessed a
great many natural advantages. He
thought a better site could not be
found. As to water and gas, they
could not be better for the purposes
of the Show ; and as to the wish of
the Northampton people for the Show,
he could say that they were extremely
anxious for the decision of the Society,
which he trusted would be a favour-
able one.
Mr. S. G. Stopford Sackville
(Chairman of the Northamptonshire
clxx
Monthly Council , November 7, 1894.
County Council) said he had the
honour to be there that day to urge
the claims of the district, which were
almost purely agricultural. There
was a great deal of the shoemaking
industry, and iron-stone quarrying
was carried on, but with these two
exceptions their district was purely
agricultural. Considering the way in
which agriculture in their county had
suffered since 1879, he thought he
could say that they deserved the
encouragement of a visit from the
Society. He did not wish to detract
from the merits of the claims of their
neighbours from Leicester, but there
were five points in favour of North-
ampton as against their neighbours
at Leicester : First, they compared
favourably with the county of Leices-
ter in respect of Governors and Mem-
bers of the Society. Although he
believed their population was not so
large as that of Leicestershire, they had
181 Governors and Members, as against
150 in Leicestershire. Secondly, the
Society had met at Leicester in 1808
— only twenty-eight years before 1896
— whereas Northampton had not been
favoured since 1847. Thirdly, they
were nearer London, with a train
service certainly not inferior to any
in the world, being on the main line
to London by the London and North-
Western Railway — a journey of one
and a-half hours, as compared with
two hours to Leicester. Fourthly,
there were remarks that the water
supply of Leicester failed, or was
not adequate ; and he would point
out that with the large number of
animals that came to their enormous
Show they would need a water supply
sufficient and constant. Lastly, their
introducer that day bore one of the
names which was much honoured in
their Society. The third Lord Spen-
cer was one of the founders of the
Royal Agricultural Society, and if
they admitted the celebrity which
the Knightley blood represented
throughout the world, he felt sure
they would admit that Northampton,
on that account alone, bore a claim
to their consideration.
The deputation then retired.
Selection of Leicester.
Mr. Hornsby, in moving “ That
Leicester be selected as the place of
the Country Meeting for the year
1 896,” said he did not wish to say a
single word against Northampton.
At the same time, being the only
Member of the Council for Leicester-
shire, he felt it a pleasurable duty to
ask the Council to hold the Society’s
Country Meeting at Leicester in the
year 1896. But when he asked them
to do that he only felt that he was
doing his duty as a member of the
Council, as he thought that Leicester
would be financially a better place
for the Society to visit than North-
ampton. The Leicestershire people,
as well as the borough, were most
anxious that their Society should
come to Leicester, and he had great
pleasure in proposing that the Show
of 1896 should be held there.
Mr. Henry Smith having seconded
the motion,
Mr. Albert Pell moved an
amendment in favour of the selec-
tion of Northampton. He would
point out to the Council that the
arguments, so far as he had caught
them, upon which Leicester depended
were those of population and gate
money. As long as he (Mr. Pell) had
had the honour of being on that
Council, he had always resisted that
view of the case, as one not worthy of
the Society. They had done very
well in going to purely rural towns,
so far as money went, and they had
done rather badly when they had
approached some of the great towns
from which they had expected to
derive large revenue. He did not
want to make opprobrious remarks
with regard to Leicester — he had
had a long and honourable connec-
tion with that county ; but he could
not forget some of the defects of that
site, from which they had already
suffered in connection with the water
supply at the Leicester Meeting of
1868. They knew that, after a suc-
cession of dry seasons Leicester was
in difficulties with regard to water.
He would like to mention one or two
reasons in favour of the Society going
to such a town as Northampton. It
was most handsomely provided with
Country Meeting of \ 896.
clxxi
railway accommodation, and had a
station capable of dealing with a
population of 200,000 people. Refer-
ence had been made to the distance
Leicester was from London. He
thought it was two and a-half hours.
Northampton was one and a-half
hours. He (Mr. Pell) did not, how-
ever, set much store by London ; but
what he did set store by were the old
traditions, habits, and character of
the country which surrounded it.
They might say that improvement
in agriculture found its birthplace
and origin not very far from North-
ampton, at Woburn, and that it
met with the greatest encouragement
and support from Althorp. The
Duke of Bedford and Lord Spencer
were two famous men who took the
lead in agriculture, and who were
the founders of that Society. The
character of the country since those
days had altered very much less than
the country around Leicester. North-
amptonshire was purely and simply
agricultural, and did not contain
populous towns, though Kettering
and Wellingborough were growing
very fast. He did not believe, so
far as admissions to the Showyard
went, that Northampton would fail
any more than Cambridge or Chester.
He thought their first attention
should be given to the improvement
of the agriculture of the district, in
preference to the mere attraction of
numbers of people within the boarded
surroundings of the Showyard. For
this reason, amongst others, he moved
that Northampton should be selected
for the visit of the Society in 1896.
Mr. Sanday seconded the motion.
Mr. Stratton asked if any large
number of allotment holders would
be disturbed if the Aylestone site
were chosen at Leicester.
The President replied that, as a
matter of fact, there were twelve
acres of allotments which would be
taken sooner or later for building
purposes, but it was understood that
the allottees could be given more
suitable land in exchange. They
would have to be disturbed either
now or within a very little time.
Sir Jacob Wilson said he was
one of those who, as a rule, were
largely influenced by the report of
the Inspection Committee. They
were more likely to know than any-
one else, and were better able to act
as guides to the Council, but in the
present instance it was not so. They
had been told that each of the sites
was equally eligible, and, therefore,
they must look to other sources for
information and guidance. He found
that the Showyard at Leicester was a
mile nearer the town than at North-
ampton. Northampton was a good
showyard ; but he would remind them
that Northampton was much nearer
to Cambridge than Leicester. He
fell back upon the inevitable because,
in spite of what Mr. Pell might say,
it was always desirable in the agri-
cultural interests of the country that
they should look to finance ; and, in
face of the expense which the Society
had had recently to undergo, they
would see how necessary it was to
look at the financial aspect of the
matter. Therefore, as far as he was
personally concerned, he should vote
for Leicester.
The Duke of Westminster said
that 1868 was an extremely dry year.
He understood that the soil of the site
at Leicester was clay, and they knew
what that meant at Kilburn. It was
a light soil at Northampton. He
thought this a most important point.
Earl Spencer hoped the Council
would bear in mind that the Show at
Northampton was held fifty years ago.
Since that time Northampton had
increased, and was increasing still,
together with the other towns in the
county, such as KetteriDg and Welling-
borough.
The President then put the
qaestion, when there appeared twenty -
seven votes in favour of Leicester, and
seventeen in favour of Northampton.
It was thereupon formally re-
solved : “ That the Country Meeting
of 1896 be held upon the Aylestone
Road site at Leicester, subject to the
usual agreement being entered into
with the Society by the Mayor and
Corporation, such agreement to
embody the undertaking given
verbally by the Mayor on the subject
of the Allotment Gardens.”
The deputation from Leicester hav-
ing been recalled and informed of
the Council’s decision, the Mayor, in
c'xxii
Monthly Council , November 7, 1894.
the absence of Lord Granby, who had
been obliged to leave, expresed the
great pleasure of the deputation at
the decision arrived at, and the cer-
tainty of their being able to make
the Country Meeting of 1896 a very
great success.
The Reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below : —
Finance.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
period ended October 31, 1894, as cer-
tified by the Society’s Accountants,
showed total receipts for that period
amounting to 6,2 13?. 9s. 8 d., and ex-
penditure to 16,408Z. 17s. 8 d. The
balance at the bankers’ on October 31,
allowing for cheques outstanding, was
1,029Z. 8s. Id. Accounts amounting
in all to 2,046Z. 18s. Id. had been
passed, and were recommended for
payment. The quarterly statement of
subscriptions, arrears, and property to
September 30 had been laid upon the
table. The Committee recommended
that Messrs. J. Backhouse & Co. be
appointed local bankers for the
Darlington Meeting.
Financial Result of the Cambridge
Meeting.
Sir Nigel Kingscote added that
the Council would be glad to hear
that the draft balance-sheet of the
Cambridge Meeting of this year,
which had been laid before the
Committee, and ordered to be sub-
mitted to the Auditors, showed an
excess of receipts over expenditure
of about 1,050Z. (See page clxxxi.)
House.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the Committee had
held six meetings since the last
meeting of the Council for the purpose
of settling various details as to the
Society’s new premises. The furnish-
ing and decorating of the house were
now complete, with the exception of
the members’ reading-room, and the
Committee proposed that this room
should be opened at the beginning of
the Smithfield week. A large number
of interesting objects having been
kindly lent by various societies and
gentlemen for exhibition at the
conversazione on the 5th inst., the
Committee recommended that the
cordial thanks of the Society be given
to each lender by a letter signed by
the President.
Earl Cathcabt said that, as an
outsider, he might perhaps be allowed
to say how greatly they were indebted
to the House Committee for all the
trouble they had taken and for all
their exertions. These had been
crowned with the greatest success,
and the Committee would doubtless
feel that this was their best reward.
On the motion of Sir Nigel
Kingscote, seconded by Earl
Cathcart, the Seal of the Society
was authorised to be affixed to a
legal form of acknowledgment to the
Shire Horse Society, in connection
with the recent transfer of premises.
Journal.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman)
reported that Part III. of Vol. V. of
the Journal had been published on
September 29, and copies issued to
Members of the Society. Several
accounts for literary contributions,
printing, ire , were recommended for
payment. Various presentations to
the library had been reported, and
the thanks of the Counci were
ordered to be sent to the donors.
Chemical.
Mr. Warren, in presenting the
recommendations of the Committee,
reported the resignation during the
recess of Mr. A. E. Elliott as Resident
Manager of the Society’s Experi-
mental Farm at Woburn. The
Committee recommended the appoint-
ment of Mr. C. H. B. Cane, of Dun-
church, Rugby, as his successor. The
Consulting Chemist had been in-
structed to prepare a revised edition
of the “ Objects, Plan, and Results
of the Woburn Experiments.”
Reports from the Woburn Sub-
Committee had been received and
adopted.
Botanical.
Mr. Whitehead (Chairman) re-
ported that the experiments of the
Consulting Botanist had been ren-
dered abortive this season by the ap-
pearance of a parasitic f ungus (Pyt Mvm
Reports of Committees.
clxxiii
de Banja/nuni), which had over-
powered the plants and prevented
the spores of the finger-and-toe disease
from developing. Any further ex-
periments, therefore, must necessarily
be postponed until next season. The
Committee proposed that Mr.
Carruthers should be requested to
repeat his experiments next year,
when it was hoped that more satis-
factory results would be obtained.
The Committee recommended that
the following prizes be offered at the
Darlmgton Meeting for whole fruit
jams and bottled fruits in two classes,
instead of three, as at Cambridge : —
1st 2nd 3rd
£ £ £
(A) Collection of Whole
Fruit Jams . . .321
(B) Collection of Bottled
Fruits . . . .321
They had revised the regulations
under which these prizes should be
offered, and recommended their adop-
tion as follows : —
The exhibits must-have been pre-
pared exclusively from fruit grown in
the United Kingdom in the year 181)4.
Not less than four nor more than
six kinds of fruit must be shown in
each exhibit. Each receptacle must
contain not less than 1 lb.
The exhibits must be contained in
glass jars, bottles, or other trans-
parent receptacles, which must, be
labelled with the name of the fruit
which they contain. No trade mark
or trade label will be permitted on
the receptacle.
No exhibitor shall make more than
one entry in the same class.
The exhibitor is to certify that the
jams or bottled fruits exhibited are
a fair sample of his own make of the
season of 1894.
A letter had been read from the Royal
Meteorological Society, recalling the
fact that twenty years ago Mr. White-
head and Mr. Carruthers were ap-
pointed by the Council, as representa-
tives of the Royal Agricul tural Society,
upon a Committee for the organisa-
tion of observations of natural phe-
nomena. The results of these observa-
tions had appeared from time to time
in the Journal of the Meteorological
Society, and it was now suggested
that the whole subject should be re-
viewed by a fresh conference, and
that a decision should be come to
as to the continuance or cessation of
the work, and as to the part which
other societies could and should take
in it. The Committee recommended
that the Secretary be instructed to
reply that in the view of the Council
it was desirable that the information
which had been collected on this sub-
ject during the last twenty years
should be systematised and made
available for general information, and
that they would be willing to co-
operate in any new conference that
might be convened with this purpose.
The Committee recommended that
their Chairman, Mr. Whitehead, and
the Society’s Zoologist, Mr. Warburton,
be nominated as the Society’s repre-
sentatives upon such conference.
The Consulting Botanist had referred
to the practice of farmers in buying
grass seeds by bulk or weight, and
showed to the Committee samples of
different seeds, demonstrating the
relative quantity of such seeds neces-
sary to produce a certain number of
plants, and their relative cost. The
Committee suggested that a short
article with appropriate illustrations
on the value of seeds in relation to
the plants produced, as opposed to
their weight and bulk, would make a
very useful note in the Society's
Journal (see page 797).
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker moved,
and Mr. Sanday seconded, an amend-
ment to omit the recommendation as
to the Prizes for Jams and Bottled
Fruits, which gave rise to a discus-
sion, in which Mr. Whitehead, Earl
Cathcart, Mr. Wheeler, Mr.
Bowen-Jones, Lord Moreton, Mr.
Dent, and Sir Jacob Wilson took
part. Eventually the amendment
was withdrawn, and the report of the
Committee was adopted, on the under-
standing that the question of the con-
tinuance of these prizes should be
reconsidered in connection with the
Meeting of 1896.
Veterinary.
Mr. Ashworth (Chairman) re-
ported that the leaflet on Anthrax
which had been prepared and issued
immediately after the last meeting of
clxxiv
Monthly Council , November 7, 1894.
the Council, in accordance with the
directions then given, had been ex-
tensively circulated amongst owners of
stock, veterinary surgeons, and others
interested in the subject. The Com-
mittee drew the attention of the
Council to the special scientific in-
vestigations into the causes of abor-
tion in cattle which were now in pro-
gress at the Royal Veterinary College,
under the auspices of the Society;
and they would feel greatly obliged
to any members whose herds might be
suffering from this disorder, if they
would kindly communicate with the
College authorities, with a view to
their sending an aborted animal to
the College for the purposes of ex-
periment and observation. A letter
had been read from the Royal Lanca-
shire Agricultural Society on the
subject of the prevalence of tubercu-
losis in cattle, and asking the Society’s
co-operation with a view to combined
action on the part of the principal
agricultural societies in urging the
Board of Agriculture to adopt mea-
sures for dealing with this disease.
The Committee did not advise that
action should be taken by the Society
in the direction indicated until the
Royal Commission on Tuberculosis,
now sitting, had presented their
report.
Professor Brown had presented the
following report : —
Pleuro-Pneumonia. — Since the last meet-
ing of the Committee several outbreaks of
pleuro-pneumonia have been reported. The
suspected were in each case slaughtered, but
proved, on post-mortem examination, to have
been affected with other diseases.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease.— On the after-
noon of the 27th ult. the local veterinary
inspector was called in to examine some
cattle on a marsh at Rainham in Essex, and
found them to be affected with a disease
which he considered to be foot-and-mouth
disease, and he accordingly instructed the
police to prevent all movement of cattle from
the marshes. On the following day the in-
spector again attended, and was satisfied as
to the nature of the disease, and at once re-
ported to the Board of Agriculture. One of
the veterinary officers of the Board pro-
ceeded to Rainham and confirmed the opinion
of the inspector. Of the seven cattle which
were in one marsh six were badly affected
with the disease on mouths and feet. The
seven cattle were slaughtered and buried on
the spot, and an Order was at once passed to
prevent movement of animals fiom the dis-
trict, and also to prevent persons from pass-
ing through the marshes, and the whole
district round has been kept under strict
observation. Bp to the present time no fur-
ther cases have been reported, and no clue
has yet been obtained as to the origin of the
outbreak.
Swine Fetor. — The number of cases,
which for some time past has reached an
average of over 500 per mouth, has recently
fallen to little more than half that number.
But it may be observed that a decrease in the
number of attacks has always been noticed
at this season of the year.
Anthrax.— There have not been any
serious outbreaks of anthrax recently, and
nearly all the cases reported have been con-
fined to cattle.
Rabies. — This disease has been very pre-
valent lately, especially in Lancashire and the
West Riding of Yorkshire. Only one case
has been reported in Loudon.
The Committee gave notice that at
their next meeting they would move
— (1) For the renewal of their annual
grant of £600, of which £600 would
be allocated to the Royal Veterinary
College and £100 reserved for general
purposes; and (2) for the payment to
the CoUege, during 1895, of the
special grant of £200 for the purpose
of further investigations into abortion
in cattle.
Stock Prizes.
Mr. Sanday (Chairman) reported
that the Committee had further con-
sidered the prize-sheet for the Dar-
lington Meeting, and recommended
that copies, including the proposals
of the Local Committee (which were
not yet complete), be printed and
forwarded to each Member of Council
before the meeting in December,
when the prize-sheet would come
before the Committee for final
approval. The Committee further
recommended that the following
offers of champion prizes for the Dar-
lington Meeting be accepted, with
thanks : —
From the Polled Cattle Society : Two
gold medals for the best male and the best
female in the Aberdeen-Angus classes.
From the Suffolk Sheep Society : A
gold medal for the best two-shear or shearling
ram in the Suffolk sheep classes.
From the National Pig Breeders’ Asso-
ciation : Four champion prizes, value 6
guineas each, for the best animals in the
following breeds : — Large White, Middle
White, Small White, and Tamworth.
Letters had been received from the
National Sheep Breeders’ Association
and the Suffolk Sheep Society as to
the continuance of classes and prizes
for ewe lambs, as at the Cambridge
Reports of Committees.
clxxv
Meeting, but the Committee were un-
able to recommend the adoption of
the suggestion. A suggestion from
the Suffolk Horse Society, that the
names of the Society’s veterinary
inspectors at the Show, and the classes
to which they were allotted, should
be published at an early date, was
considered ; and the Committee re-
commended that the names of the
veterinary inspectors should be pub-
lished, with the names of the judges,
in the March number of the Journal.
To indicate the particular classes
allotted to each veterinary inspector
for inspection would, in the opinion
of the Committee, be impracticable.
The Committee had also considered
a further suggestion from the same
society, that the veterinary examina-
tion should be extended to fillies as
well as to s'allions and brood mares ;
but they did not recommend any
alteration in the present arrange-
ments.
Mr. Bowen- Jones said that a good
deal of disappointment had been
caused among sheep-breeders because
the classes for ewe lambs had not
been retained amongst the prizes
offered by the Society. At the Cam-
bridge Meeting prizes for these
classes had been offered by the Local
Committee, and they had proved a
great success. They were regarded
by sheep-breeders generally as having
proved very satisfactory, and he
believed the entries were greatly
admired by the public. He had
attended the meeting yesterday, when
he had proposed that the ewe lamb
classes should be recognised by the
Society, and the same prizes offered
for them next year at Darlington by
the Society as were offered for them
this year through the Local Commit-
tee. The Stock Prizes Committee
had, however, decided not to include
these classes at Darlington, and he
therefore felt it his duty, as being a
member of the National Sheep
Breeders’ Association, which had
passed a resolution in favour of these
classes, to ask the Council to give the
same prizes for these classes as were
given by the Local Committee this
year. Accordingly he moved the
inclusion of these prizes as an amend-
ment to the report of the Committee.
Mr. A. J. Smith having seconded
the amendment,
Mr. Sanday explained that the
Committee, whilst in agreement with
Mr. Bowen-Jones and the National
Sheep Breeders’ Association as to the
value of these classes, felt that at this
stage it would be impossible to agree
with the suggestion, because it would
necessitate the recasting of the whole
of the prize-sheet for the present
year. It was a subject that might
very well be considered for another
year, but there was certainly a con-
sensus of opinion upon the Committee
that it could not be dealt with at the
present moment.
Mr. Bo wen- Jones’s motion was
then negatived, and the letter from
the National Sheep Breeders’ Associa-
tion on the subject was ordered to be
referred to the Stock Prizes Committee
for consideration next year.
A further amendment by Colonel
Curtis-Haywakd, to the effect that
third prizes should be given by the
Society in the class for Jersey yearling
bulls, not being seconded, fell to the
ground, and the report of the Com-
mittee was then adopted.
On the motion of Mr. Sanday, an
offer, received since the meeting of
the Committee, of two champion
gold medals from the Hackney Horse
Society, for the best stallion and the
best mare or filly exhibited in the
Hackney classes at Darlington, was
accepted, with thanks.
Implement.
Mr. Frankish (Chairman) reported
that the Committee had considered
and approved the following regula-
tions drafted by the Society’s Consult-
ing Engineer in connection with the
exhibition of oil-engiDes : —
(a) Petroleum oils with high flashing
point, to which the Petroleum Acts do not
apply, must be stored in the original (40-
gallon ) casks, the maximum number of casks
not to exceed three in number ; these to be
placed in the space at the back of the stand
in such a manner as the Stewards may
direct.
(b) In the case of fixed oil-engines in
motion, the exhaust must be led up, outside
the shed, vertically to the height of the
ridge of the roof, and must be kept well clear
of the canvas.
The prize-sheet and regulations for
the exhibition of implements at the
clxxvi
Monthly Council , November 7, 1894.
Darlington Meeting had been con-
sidered, revised, and finally approved,
and the Committee recommended
that a copy, as amended, be sent to
each Member of Council, with a view
to their formal adoption at the
December meeting. The Committee
had considered the recommendation
of the Dairy Committee, that in future
no exhibitor should be allowed to
hold at his stand any demonstration
of the churning of butter or the sepa-
ration of cream, and recommended the
insertion of a regulation to this effect
in the prize-sheet.
The Committee approved the recom-
mendations of the Judges of miscel-
laneous implements at the Cambridge
Meeting, that two machines, entered
as new implements at that Meeting,
viz., the potato-picking machine ex-
hibited by Mr. William J. Burgess, of
Magdalen, Lynn, and the stone-pick-
ing machine exhibited by Messrs. J.
Woods and Co ,of Stowmarket, should
be allowed to go forward as “ new
implements ” at the Darlington Meet-
ing, provided the entries were received
in the regular course.
General Darlington.
Mr. Dent 1 reported that the Com-
mittee had considered the list of
prizes proposed to be offered by the
Local Committee, with the suggestions
of the Stock Prizes Committee, and
had referred back the list for further
consideration.
Showyard Works.
Sir Jacob Wilson (Chairman) re-
ported that since the last meeting
1 This was, unhappily, tlie last appearance
of Mr. Dent at tlie Society's Council Meetings,
at which he had been a regular attendant
during the long period of over thirty-three
years. Elected to the Council in 1861, when
he was less than thirty-five, he speedily took a
leading and influential share in the Society’s
deliberations, both in Committee and Council.
He was an active Member of the Journal
Committee (of which he was Chairman from
1874 until his election to the Presidency in
1881), of the Chemical and Veterinary Com-
mittees, and of the Education Committee (of
which he was Chairman on two occasions),
besides being a member of almost all the
special committees appointed from time to
time to consider the administration of the
Society. He died on December 22, 1894, aged
sixty-eight, leaving behind him an imperish-
able record of conscientious work for the
Society’s welfare. — E. C.
the Surveyor had cleared away the
whole of the Society’s plant from Cam-
bridge, and had erected the entrances
and stored away the plant at Darling-
ton Mr. Bennison had presented a
detailed statement of the cost of the
various works in the Showyard at
Cambridge, from which it appeared
that, after deducting the amount
realised by sales of materials and
received from exhibitors and purveyors
(4,972/. 9s.), the total cost was 5,761/.
5s. 8d. The Committee recommended
the acceptance of the tenders (1)
of Messrs. Richard Wade & Sons,
of Hull, for the supply of timber at
Darlington ; (2) of Messrs. Walter
Hill & Co for the advertising of the
Darlington Meeting. They also recom-
mended that in future there be two
reserved stands on either side of
the Royal Stand at the horse-ring, one
to be for complimentary tickets to be
issued by the executive of the Show,
and the other to have numbered
seats, to be charged for at the rate
of 5s. each for the first three days of
the Show, and 2s. 6 d. for the other
two days.
Selection.
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker re-
ported the Committee’s recommend-
ation that Lieut.-Col. Curtis-Hay ward
be appointed a Steward of Stock, that
Mr. Frankish be appointed a Steward
of Implements, and that Mr. Rowland-
son be appointed to supervise the
trials of haymakers and other ma-
chinery' after the Darlington Meet-
ing.
A formal motion to this effect was
moved by the Hon. Cecil T. Parker,
seconded by Sir Jacob Wilson, and
adopted.
Education.
On the motion for the further con-
sideration of the recommendations of
the Committee with regard to the
future granting of Education Life
Memberships,
Sir Nigel Kingscote said that as
this was a matter of great importance,
on which considerable difference of
opinion existed, and as many members
of Council, greatly interested in the
matter, had been compelled to leave
Reports of Committees.
clxxvii
owing to the protracted nature of
their proceedings thatday, he thought
it would be preferable to reserve a
decision as to the recommendation of
the Education Committee until the
next meeting. He claimed, there-
fore, under Bye-Law 2G, that the
sense of the meeting should be taken
as to whether the question should
be postponed until the December
Council.
After a discussion in which Mr.
Foster, LordMoRETON, Mr. Martin,
and others took part, it was decided
on a division, by 12 votes to 4, to ad-
journ the debate until December ;
and it was agreed that the Education
Committee’s report on the subject
should then, as postponed business,
take precedence of the reports of other
Committees (see page clxxix).
Lord Moreton (Chairman of the
Education Committee) said that as
the recommendations of the Commit-
tee on this subject would be circulated
amongst the Council before the De-
cember meeting, he would confine
himself to dealing with the other
parts of the Committee’s report. A
total of thirty-five candidates from
nine schools had been entered for the
Society’s Junior Examination to take
place next week. The ten pupils who
won the Junior Scholarships last year
having now complied with the So-
ciety’s regulations, the Committee
recommended the payment of the
Scholarships and the despatch of the
certificates. The Committee recom-
mended that the next Senior Ex-
amination be held from May 7 to
11, 1895. A communication had
been received from the Charity Com-
missioners, asking whether the So-
ciety would be prepared to appoint a
representative Governor on the foun-
dation at Egham known as Henry
Strode’s Charity, and the Committee
recommended that the Secretary be
authorised to reply in the affirmative.
The Committee gave notice that at
their next meeting they would move
for the renewal of their annual grant
of 500 1.
Dairy.
The Hon. Cecil T. Parker (Chair-
man) reported that the Committee
had agreed upon a preliminary sche-
dule of prizes for dairy cattle, poultry,
and dairy produce in connection with
the Darlington Meeting of 1895,
which it was proposed to include in
the draft prize-sheet to be settled next
month. The Committee recommended
the acceptance of prizes offered by
the Local Committee in the butter-
making competitions, and tor dairy
cattle, cheese, and butter, subject to
arrangement of details. A resolution
from the Eastern Counties Dairy Far-
mers’ Society, as to the sale of sepa-
rated milk as whole milk, had been
read, but the Committee did not re-
commend any present action in regard
to it.
The Committee gave notice that at
their next meeting they would move
for a renewal of their annual grant of
1007.
Miscellaneous.
An invitation to the Society to hold
its Country Meeting of 1897 at Cardiff
was read, and the thanks of the So-
ciety ordered to be sent therefor, the
invitation to be further considered
when the district for the 1897 Show
was formally resolved upon next year.
Various letters and other documents
having been laid upon the table, the
Council adjourned until Wednesday,
December 12, 1894, at noon.
( clxxviii )
WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 12, 1894.
SIR JOHN H. THOROLD, BART. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
Present : —
Trustees. — Earl Cat heart, Col. Sir
Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B., Rt. Hon. Sir
M. W. Ridley, Bart., M.P.
Vice-Presidents. — H.R.H. Prince
Christian, K.G., Mr. H. Chandos-Pole-
Gell, Viscount Emlyn, Rt. Hon. Sir
Massey Lopes, Bart., Lord Moreton,
Mr. Charles Whitehead.
Other Members of Council. — Mr. J.
H. Arkwright, Mr Alfred Ashworth,
Mr. Joseph Beach, Mr. J. Bowen-Jones,
Lord Brougham and Yaux, Mr.
Charles Clay, Mr. F. S. W. Cornwallis,
M.P., Earl of Coventry, Mr. Percy
Crutchley, Lieut.-Col. J. F. Curtis-
Ha.yward, Mr. Alfred Darby, Mr. J.
Marshall Dugdale, Mr. W. Fraukish,
Mr. Anthony Hamond, Mr. James
Hornsby, Mr. C. S. Mainwaring, Mr.
T. H. Miller, Mr. J. E. Ransome, Mr.
S. Rowlandson, Mr. Howard P. Ryland,
Mr. G. H. Sanday, Mr. W. T. Scarth,
Mr. A. J. Smith, Mr. Henry Smith,
Sir J. L. E. Spearman, Bart., Mr. E.
W. Stanyforth, Mr. Richard Stratton,
Mr. Martin J. Sutton, Mr. R. A.
Warren, Mr. C. W. Wilson, Sir Jacob
Wilson.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. Fream, Editor of the
Journal ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
Consulting Chemist ; Mr. Wilson
Bennison, Surveyor ; Professor
Brown, C.B.
The following members of the Dar-
lington Local Committee were also
present : — Captain Gerald Walker, the
Borough Surveyor (Mr. Thomas
Smith), and Mr. F. Raymond Steaven-
son (Secretary of the Local Com-
mittee).
Apologies for non-attendance were
received from the Duke of West-
minster, K.G., the Earl of Feversham,
the Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Sir A. K.
Macdonald, Bart., Mr. J. A. Caird, Mr.
John Dent Dent, Mr. S. P. Foster, Mr.
Charles Howard, Mr. Albert Pell,
Mr. J. P. Terry, and Professor
Simonds.
The minutes of the last monthly
meeting of Council, held on November
7, having been taken as read and
approved, the election of two Gover-
nors and thirty-one Members was
proceeded with as follows : —
Governors.
Stubs, P. . .Blaisdon Hall, Newnliam, Glos.
W right, W. . . Wollatou, Nottingham.
Members.
Angus, W. G. . . Bear], Stocksfield-on-Tyne.
Austen , R. A. G. . . Nore, Hascomb, Godaiming.
Banner, T. . .Bast Cowton, Northallerton.
Benton, C. H. . .Chelford Road, Knutsford.
Brown, T. . . Littleton Farm, Reigate.
Bruce, R. Knight . . Ledburn Manor House,
Leighton Buzzard.
Buckham, J. . . Alderdene House, Lanchester,
Durham.
Dawson, G-. . .Haughton, Darlington.
Ellerington, R.. .Ashiugton Colliery Farm,
Morpeth.
Elliott, A. E. . . Estate Office, Elveden, Thetford.
Gregson, W.. F.G.S., F.S.l. . . Bahlersby, Yorks.
Gurney, R. H. J. . .Northrepps Hall, Norwich.
Hinde, H.. .14 East View, South Shields.
Littledale, J. B.. .Sandiway Bank, Hartford,
Cheshire.
Marlborough, Duke or.. Blenheim Palace,
Woodstock.
Maudsley, G. . . The Arcade, Lancaster.
Mitchell, G. S. . .Upper Adhurst, Petersfield.
Morn, J.. .Brereton Hall, Sandbacli.
Mulholland, A. J.. .Woodrising Hall, Hing-
ham, Norfolk.
Pietermaritzburg Agricultural Society . .
Pietermaritzburg, Natal, South Africa.
Pryse, Capt. E. J.W.. .Parry, Noyadd-Trefawr,
Boncatli, Cardigan.
Richards, J. C. A.. .Blaby Hall, Leicester.
Richardson, W. J. . . Kirklevington Hall,
Yarm, Yorks.
Skirven, J. ..Grange Farm, Wingate, Ferry
Hill.
Trafford, H. R.. .The Court, Michaelchurcb,
Hereford.
Education Life Memberships.
clxxix
Treble, A. . .Halsdon Barton, Cookbury, Bran-
dis Corner, Devon.
Turnbull, J.. .15 Hudson Street, Tyne Dock,
South Shields.
Westgarth, John. .Brougham Home Farm,
Earnout Bridge, Penrith.
Wetherell, James. .Tempsford, Sandy.
Yorke, J. C...Trecwu, Letterston, Pembroke.
Young, E. Burney. .35, Walbrook, E.C.
Education Life Memberships.
Lord Mobeton (Chairman of the
Education Committee) said that the
Council would be aware that at the
November meeting the consideration
of the proposals of the Education
Committee with reference to the
granting in future of Life Member-
ships of the Society, as rewards at the
Senior Examination, had been post-
poned owing to the large amount of
other business to be transacted on
that occasion. The Education Com-
mittee had again carefully considered
the question, with a view of meeting
as far as possible the opinions which
had been expressed by members of the
Council, and they had agreed upon a
report, which he now laid upon the
table (see page 751). Following up
the recommendations of that report,
he begged formally to move on be-
half of the Committee —
1. That in future five Life Memberships
be placed annually at the disposal of the
Education Committee, to be awarded to
those candidates at the Society’s Senior
Examination who stand highest on the list
of winners of first-class certificates, and
who obtain not less than two-thirds of the
maximum number of marks.
2. That no money prizes be offered for the
future at the Senior Examination, but that
instead thereof the Society’s gold medal be
awarded to the candidate who stands highest
on the list, and the Society’s silver medal to
each of the next four candidates on the list,
provided that in each case the candidate has
obtained the number of marks qualifying for
a Life Membership.
3. That the winner of a gold medal be
permitted to style himself “ Gold Medallist
of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land ” ; and the winner of a silver medal,
“ Silver Medallist of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England.”
4. That these proposals be embodied in the
regulations for the next Examination, to be
held in May 1895, now submitted in draft.
5. That the Report of the Education
Committee on this subject be received and
adopted, and be printed in the Journal for
general information.
Mr. Chandos-Pole-Gell having
seconded the motion,
Mr. Sutton said that he was very
reluctant, after the great trouble
which his Lordship and the individual
members of the Committee had
taken in the matter, to propose any
amendment ; but he hoped that the
Council and Lord Moreton himself
would agree to the proposal that the
award of the Society’s gold medal to
the candidate placed first in the Exam-
ination should be conditional upon his
having obtained three-fourths of the
maximum number of marks. It
appeared to him to be highly unde-
sirable that the Society’s gold medal
should be given to anyone who was
not facile princcpg, or who was not
really a first-rate man. He took it as
being quite clear that they did not
wish the gold medal to be given
one year to a man who was decidedly
inferior to the candidate receiving it
another year. He would propose
that, where there was no such
specially good man who had earned
three-fourths of the total marks,
no gold medal should be given, but
that five silver medals should be given
instead of one gold and four silver
medals. He considered that this was
a question of great moment, and that
it would be very unfortunate if it were
not now finally settled. He did not
wish to throw the matter into the
crucible again, but hoped that Lord
Moreton would see his way to accept-
ing his (Mr. Sutton’s) small amend-
ment.
Mr. Sanday seconded the motion,
and expressed himself as thoroughly
in accord with all that Mr. Sutton had
said.
Lord Moreton was not altogether
sorry that this question had beeD
raised, and no one was better quali-
fied to raise it than Mr. Sutton, who
had taken so much interest in the
matter. The Committee sat yesterday
longer than he ever remembered it to
sit before — from 3.30 p.m. to 5.30p.m.,
and a considerable portion of that
time was devoted to the question as
to whether there should be a two-
thirds or a three-fourths standard.
Although the difference between the
two did not appear very considerable
at first sight, the statistics which had
been compiled as to the percentage of
marks gained by the successful candi-
dates showed that three-fourths of the
marks were gained by only a small
proportion of the candidates. As,
however, he understood Mr. Sutton’s
clxxx
Monthly Council , December 12, 1894.
present proposition, the three-fourths
standard was only proposed to be
required for the gold medal. He
thought it undesirable to complicate
their standards too much, and on the
whole he preferred the proposal made
by the Education Committee after
very full discussion yesterday. It was
a great thing to have simplicity in
rules, and he thought that the matter
would be unnecessarily complicated
if the gold medal should be for those
wl.o passed one standard of three-
fourths, and the silver medal for
those who passed with two-thirds. If
the proposal originally put was
adopted, the gold medallist would be
the best of the five candidates. What
he objected to was the loading of the
rules with intricate distinctions.
Earl Cathcap.t said he could not
appreciate that argument. He felt
there must be a distinction. He
thought it was upoD this ground that
the Surveyors’ Institute had so in-
creased the stringency of their exami-
nation, and the Council ought also to
be stringent in respect to the exami-
nations of the Society, in order to
keep pace with what was going on
outside. For this reason he felt
obliged to vote for the amendment of
Mr. Sutton.
Viscount Emlyn said he thought
there was one point which had not as
yet. been touched upon. The object
was to raise the gold medallist dis-
tinctly above the silver medallists.
There was to be only one gold as
against four silver medals ; but what
would be the result of giving these
medals as proposed by Mr. Sutton ?
They would have gold medallists
gaining three-fourths of the marks,
and silver medallists coming next
with the same proportion; one get-
ting the gold, and the other the silver
medal. There might be very little
margin, but a candidate with the
marks that obtained the gold medal
of the year before might only obtain
the silver medal in his own year.
Mr. Sutton’s amendment was then
put, and declared carried by 18 votes
to 11.
Sir Nigel Kingscote said that it
was a matter of very great regret
that their friend Mr. Pell was not
there that day owing to ill health,
because he would have supported very
strongly, both in Committee and
before the Council, his ("Sir Nigel’s)
view on the question of these Life
Memberships. They were going now
to adopt a proposal to give annually
five Life Memberships. Certainly the
proposal was safeguarded to some
extent by the proviso that the recipi-
ents must pass with two-thirds of the
maximum number of marks ; but if
they referred to the statistics, they
would find that a great many of those
who came up for examination passed
with two-thirds of the marks. This
year there were six, in 1893 there
were eight, in 1889 there were seven,
so that it would be practically an
absolute certainty that the five Life
Memberships would have to be given
away each year. He felt very strongly
— not from the pecuniary point of
view — and he believed that he was
confirmed by the opinions of many
outside, that the great object of can-
didates in coming up for this exami-
nation was to obtain Life Member-
ships. He thought the Council ought
to make them more valuable, and that
five per annum were too many. Since
they began giving Life Memberships
in 1868, they had granted in all 106.
He thought it would make the Life
Membership much more valuable if
the number were limited to four every
year, and he therefore moved as an
amendment that four Life Member-
ships be granted, with a corresponding
numter of medals, instead of five, as
proposed by the Committee.
Mr. Frankish having seconded
the amendment,
Sir Jacob Wilson said that, whilst
they all regretted very much the
absence of Mr. Fell, he also regretted
the absence of Mr. Foster, who repre-
sented the other side of the question.
Mr. Foster had requested him (Sir
Jacob) to express regret t hat, although
he attended on purpose for this matter
in November, he was unable to come
up again in December. The matter
had received, no doubt, a great deal
of anxious consideration at the hands
of the Education Committee, and he
was bound to say that, so far as he
could see, they had arrived at a very
satisfactory compromise. Seeing the
Society had recognised as part of its
duty the encouragement of agricul-
tural education, the Council had, in
Education Life Memberships.
clxxxi
their wisdom, offered certain prizes to
be obtained as the result of examina-
tions. These examinations had been
eminently successful, and they now
desired to take away the rewards
because of that success. Surely that
must be an inconsistent condition of
things. Let them fancy the applica-
tion of this principle in the case of
the breeding of stock, such, for
example, as Shropshire sheep, which
were well represented in that room.
He could remember the day when
this breed did not occupy the import-
ant position in the prize-sheet that it
did now. Breeders were very much
encouraged by the prizes given, and
the result was that the entries for this
breed of sheep were now something
enormous. What would the exhibitors
of the breed say if, because they had
succeeded so well in consequence of
the prizes offered, the Council now
said that they must take away these
prizes or cut them down 1 His simile
as to a Shropshire sheep was not alto-
gether out of place, since they offered
15 1. for a Shropshire ram and 15Z.
for an agricultural student. (Laugh-
ter.) A certain number of their
friends wanted now to take away the
money altogether. If ever this were
a question of importance at all, it
was now, when young men were being
looked for to fill appointments in con-
nection with the County Councils and
otherwise. Yet they were trying to
take away from them a great many of
the privileges which were formerly
offered. There was no doubt that
if Life Memberships were given as an
alternative to money prizes, candi-
dates would attach much greater
weight to the Life Membership. He
would remind them, however, that a
great many of these men had risen
from a humble social position, and
that they could not afford to come
up to London and risk such large ex-
pense unless they had some slight
monetary advantage as well. He
hoped that the Council would sup-
port the Committee in their recom-
mendation, and not be niggardly in
offering rewards which cost them so
little.
The President then put Sir Nigel
Kingscote’s amendment, which was
lost by 6 votes to 22.
VOL, V. T. S. — 20
Lord Moreton then moved the
adoption of the recommendations of
the Education Committee, subject
to the alteration proposed by Mr.
Sutton, viz., that the gold medallist
should be required to obtain three-
fourths of the maximum number of
marks.
Mr. Whitehead seconded, and the
motion was carried ncm. dis.
The ordinary reports of the various
Standing Committees were then re-
ceived and adopted as below : —
Finance.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
month ended November 30, 1894, as
certified by the Society’s accountants,
showed that the total receipts for
that period were 2,71 3Z. 1 s. Od , and
the expenditure was 2,047 1. 9s. 10 d.
The balance at the bankers’ on No-
vember 30, allowing for cheques out-
standing, was 1,635?. 0s. 3d. Accounts
amounting in all to4,035Z. 16s. 6 d. had
been passed, and were recommended
for payment. The balance-sheet for
the Cambridge Meeting, showing a
net profit of 1,096Z. Is. 7 d., had been
laid upon the table. The Committee
had met ten times, and made ten
reports during the year.
House.
Sir Nigel Kingscote (Chairman)
reported that the furnishing and
fittings of the new premises were
now practically complete. A new
valuation of the Society’s belongings
was about to be made, and the
revised figure would appear amongst
the Society’s assets in the balance-
sheet for 1894. The Committee had
met seventeen times, and made eight
reports during the year.
Sir Nigel Kingscote gave notice
of a formal motion for the amend-
ment of Bye-law 19, to bring it into
strict conformity with the wording of
Section 1 of the Act 6 and 7 Viet.,
cap. 36.
Journal.
Earl Cathcart (Chairman) re-
ported that in connection with the
Committee which had been formed
by the Board of Trade to consider
the question of Light Railways, on
n
clxxxii
Monthly Council, December 12, 1894.
which Committee the Society was
represented by himself, the Journal
Committee recommended that a
circular letter be sent with the parcel
containing the next number of the
Journal, asking for any suggestions
from members as to the agricul-
tural requirements of their dis-
tricts with regard to light railways
(see page clxxxvi.).
A reprint had been authorised of
Professor Brown’s pamphlet on “ Ani-
mals of the Farm in Health and
Disease.” Instructions had been
given to the Editor as to the contents
of the forthcoming number of the
Journal, and as to various suggested
articles and notes. The Committee
had met eight times, and made eight
reports.
Chemical.
Viscount Emlyn (Chairman) re-
ported the settlement of a variety of
details connected with the Society’s
Chemical Department. The annual
report for 1894 of the Consulting
Chemist had been submitted, and ap-
proved for publication in the forth-
coming number of the Journal (see
page 764). As the Woburn Sub-
Committee was now nearly as large
as the Chemical Committee itself, it
did not appear to the Committee
necessary that a special Sub-Com-
mittee should, in future, he appointed
to deal with matters relating to the
Experimental Farm. They accord-
ingly recommended that the Com-
mittee be described in future as the
“ Chemical and Woburn Committee,”
and that such Committee report
direct to the Council on all matters
connected with the Experimental
Farm. The Committee had met eight
times, and made eight reports during
the year.
On the motion of Viscount Emlyn,
the Quarterly Report of the Chemical
Committee was adopted, and ordered
to be published in the next number of
the Journal (see page 748).
Lord Emlyn said the Chemical
Committee had received with much
regret an intimation from Sir Thomas
Acland that, owing to advancing
years, he desired his name to be with-
drawn from the Committee. The
Committee had felt bound to comply
with this request, but, at the same
time, they hoped they might have the
advantage of Sir Thomas’s presence
as an ex-officio member if he should
be able to attend any of their meetings.
Botanical and Zoological.
Mr. Whitehead (Chairman) re-
ported that the Society’s Botanist and
Zoologist had submitted their annual
reports for 1894, which the Com-
mittee recommended should be pub-
lished in the next number of the
Journal (see pp. 773 and 774). A
letter had been received from the
Colonial Office inclosing copies of
despatches from the Governor of
Malta, reporting that the importation
into that colony of potatoes from the
United Kingdom had been prohibited
in consequence of potato disease,
partly on information furnished by
the “ British Agricultural Society,”
and (on the presumption that the
Royal Agricultural Society was the
Society referred to by the Governor)
asking to be furnished with any
information which might have been
sent to Malta by the Society as to the
existence of potato disease in Ireland.
The Committee recommended that
publicity be given to the fact that no
information on the subject had been
directly furnished by the Royal
Agricultural Society of England to
authorities or correspondents in Malta.
The Committee had met eight
times, and made eight reports.
Veterinary.
Mr. Ashwohth (Chairman) re-
ported the Committee’s recommenda-
tion that a horse-shoeing competition
be held in connection with the Dar-
lington Meeting, and that prizes be
offered in two classes : (1) for the
shoeing of cart horses, and (2) for the
shoeing of hunters. They recom-
mended that a total amount of 16Z.
be offered in each class, and that its
distribution be left to the discretion
of the Judges, provided that no prize
of a less amount than \l. be given,
and that not more than six prizes be
given in each class. This change was
proposed in view of the difficulty
experienced by the judges when they
had before them a number of candi-
dates whose merits were practically
Reports of Committees.
clxxxiii
equal. A letter had been received
from the Worshipful Company of
Farriers, stating that the Company
would present the freedom of their
Guild to the winners of the first
prizes, free of cost, provided the
judges considered sufficient ability
had been displayed, and that the
Registration Committee of the Com-
pany would admit the first-prize
winners to the official register free of
charge, and (on payment of the usual
fees) all other competitors who shall
duly satisfy the judges of their
efficiency. The Committee recom-
mended that the offer of the Farriers’
Company be accepted with thanks.
The Committee moved for the
renewal of their grant of 600 1. for
the year 1895, and that of this sum
500 1. be allocated to the Royal
Veterinary College. They also re-
commended the payment to the
College during 1895 of the special
grant of 200J. which had been made
by the Council for the purpose of
further investigations into abortion
in cattle. The Committee had met
eight times, and had made eight
reports during the year.
The following report had been pre-
sented by Professor Brown
Pi.euro-Pn'Eomonta. — No case of this dis-
ease lias been found among home-bred cattle
in Great Britain since the last meeting of
the Committee in November, but three cases
of the disease have been discovered in cattle
brought from the United States.
Foot-And-Mouth Disease.— In addition
to the outbreak which occurred at Bainham,
in Essex, at the end of October, two more
have occurred since, one at Linton, in Cam-
bridgeshire, and the other at Rodmersham,
near Sittingbourne, in Kent. In both these
cases sheep were affected. Restrictions on
sales and movement of animals were at once
im|iosed over a large district, including the
counties of Cambridge, Essex, Herts, Kent,
London, Middlesex, and part of Suffolk. In
the Kent outbreak the diseased sheep and
those in contact were slaughtered. In the
Cambridgeshire outbreak, where the disease
appeared among a flock of some 200 in-lamb
ewes, it was decided to adopt a system of
strict isolation instead of slaughter. There
was no extension of the disease in either case.
The foot-and-mouth-disease rest rictions have
now been withdrawn, except as regards two
small area3 round the infected places.
Swine Fever. — During the five weeks
ended December 1, according to the Gazette
returns, 402 pigs died from swine fever in
Great Britain, 3,072 were slaughtered as dis-
eased or having been exposed to infection, and
109 were slaughtered as suspected, but were
found free from swine fever on post-mortem
examination. This is a slight increase on
the number of deaths and pigs slaughtered as
diseased or in contact as compared with the
figures for the preceding five weeks, but there
is a small decrease in the number of pigs
slaughtered as suspected. A point worthy of
notice with regard to these swine fever
Gazette returns is that, in the last published
one, there is no Scotch county mentioned ;
a circumstance which has not occurred since
the week ended April 7.
Anthrax. — -This disease still maintains
a high rate of prevalence. During the
five weeks ended December 1 there were 40
fresh outbreaks, G9 animals attacked, 6 dis-
eased animals were killed, 48 died, and 13
recovered. The returns for 48 weeks show 450
outbreaks and 945 animals attacked, as com-
pared with 515 outbreaks and 1,207 animals
attacked in tlie corresponding period of 1893,
and 256 outbreaks aud 550 animals attacked
in 1892.
Rabies. — This disease still continues on
the increase. During the past five weeks
there have been 43 cases, or nearly 9 per week,
whereas in the first quarter of the year the
cases did not average 3 per week. There have
been 200 cases of rabies in 48 weeks this
year, as compared with 89 in the correspond-
ing period of last year, and 34 in 1892. The
disease hasoocurred in thecountiesof Chester,
Derby, Lancaster, and York (West Riding).
Abortion Experiment's. — Two pregnant
cows from healthy stock were obtained early
in November, and since that time two
recently aborted cows were purchased from a
stock in which twenty-six cases of abortion
have occurred during the present year.
Stock Prizes.
Mr. Sanday (Chairman) reported
that the second-prize animal in Class
81 at the Cambridge Meeting (Mr.
W. S. Forster’s cow, “ Blackeyes ”) had
become disqualified for the prize, and
they recommended that the second
and third prizes in this class be
awarded as follows: —
No. 861, Second Prize of 10L to
Mr. Louis Huth, for “Virgin
20th ” (Third Prize).
No. 859, Third Prize of 51. to
Major Best, for “Dahlia 3rd”
(Reserve Number).
The offer from the Hackney Horse
Society of two champion gold medals
for the best Hackney Stallion and the
best Hackney Mare or Filly exhibited
at the Darlington Meeting had been
accepted with thanks.
Letters had been received from the
Secretaries of the Durham County
and Northumberland Agricultural
Societies on the subject of the shear-
ing of Cheviot and Blackfaced Moun-
tain sheep, and suggesting an altera-
tion of the Sociely's regulation with
regard to shearing, so as to include
these two breeds amongst those sheep
clxxxiv
Monthly Council , December 12, 1894.
which must be shorn before being
exhibited ; and the Committee re-
commended that the regulation re-
respecting the shearing of sheep be
amended to meet these views.
The Committee had finally revised
the prizes and regulations for the
Darlington Meeting, including the
prizes proposed to be offered by the
Darlington Local Committee, and
they recommended that the Prize
Sheet be issued forthwith (see p. cxci.).
They also recommended that the
Chairman be empowered to accept
any champion prizes from breed
societies which might be offered be-
fore the Prize Sheet was printed,
and which complied with the regula-
tions. The Committee had met eight
times during the year, and made eight
reports.
• On the motion of Mr. Sanday, the
following further offers of champion
prizes were accepted with thanks : —
(1) From the Shire Horse Society :
two champion gold medals for the best
Shire stallion and the best Shire mare
or filly ; (2) from the Kerry and
Dexter Cattle Society : two champion
prizes of 10 guineas each for the best
Kerry and the best Dexter Kerry
animals exhibited at the Darlington
Meeting.
Implement.
Mr. Frankish (Chairman) reported
that the Committee had considered
and approved the arrangements
which had been made by Mr.
Rowlandson, as Steward of Forage,
for securing land and crops for the
trials of haymaking machines in con-
nection with the Darlington Meeting.
As in all probability the trials of hay-
making machines would take place in
the first week in July, the Committee
recommended that the Society should
take charge of the competing ma-
chines exhibited in the Showyard
during the interval between the
closing of the Show and the time of
the trials. The Committee had met
eight times, and made eight rrports
during the year.
General Darlington.
Sir Matthew Ridley reported
that the list of prizes for stock pro-
posed to be offered by the Local
Committee, as amended by the Stock
Prizes Committee, had been con-
sidered and approved, and an addi-
tional class for Stilton cheese made in
1891, offered by the Local Committee,
had been accepted. The Local Com-
mittee had nominated the following
agents : — For lodgings : Mr. H. G.
Steavenson, Houndgate, Darlington ;
for dairy produce : Mr. R. Wilkin
Drury, Blackwellgate, Darlington ;
for season tickets : Messrs. Ba'ley
and Co., Horse Market, Darlington.
Showyard Works.
Sir Jacob Wilson (Chairman)
reported that instructions had been
given to the Survey or for a revalua-
tion of the Society’s permanent
plant. The Committee recommended
the acceptance of the following
offers : — (1) Messrs. Shand, Mason,
and Co., for the supply of fire ap-
pliances at Darlington ; (2) Messrs.
J. A. Haward and Son, of Darlington,
for the furnishing and decoration of
the Royal Pavilion ; (3) Messrs.
Thomas Walker and Sons, of York,
for the sale of timber, Ac., after the
Darlington Meeting.
Committee of Selection.
Earl Catiicart (Chairman) repor-
ted that the Committee recommended
Professor Wilhelm Fleischmann,
Director of the Agricultural Institute
of the Royal University of Konigs-
berg, for election as an Honorary
Member of the Society, in recognition
of his distinguished services to Euro-
pean agriculture, and especially to
the industry of dairying. The Com-
mittee were of opinion that, as the
first Wednesday in June, 1895,
fell in Whit-week, it would be more
generally convenient to hold the last 4
Council meeting before the Darlington
Show on the previous Wednesday,
May 29. The ordinary May meet-
ing of the Council would be held on
May 1, and the Council meeting
in the show week on June 26. The
appointment, therefore, of May 29
as the date of the intervening Council
meeting would have the additional
advantage that it would be four
weeks after the previous Council
meeting of May 1, and four weeks
before the next Council meeting ip
Reports of Committees.
clxxxv
the Showyard on June 26.' The
Committee had met seven times, and
made seven reports during the year.
Earl Cathcart formally moved
the election as an Honorary Member
of the Society of Professor Fleisch-
mann, whose great reputation made
it very desirable that he should be
associated with the Society’- in this
manner.
Mr. Whitehead seconded the
motion, which was unanimously
adopted.
Education.
Mr. Mainwaring reported that,
of the thirty-five candidates from the
nine schools who had entered for
the Society’s Junior Examination on
the 13th and 14th ultimo, thirty-two
from eight schools had actually com-
peted. Of these, twenty had obtained
the number of marks necessary to
qualify them for scholarships and
certificates in the event of their
complying in the forthcoming year
with the conditions of the examina-
tion. Of the twenty successful
candidates, the first ten would re-
ceive scholarships upon complying
with the Society’s regulations, and
the remainder would receive certifi-
cates (see p. 759).
The Committee moved for the
renewal of their annual grant of 500/.
for the ensuing year. They had met
five times, and made five reports
during the year 1894.
Dairy.
Mr. Darby reported that the Com-
mittee had finally approved of the
Schedule of Prizes for Dairy Cattle,
Poultry, and Dairy Produce, which
they had referred to the Stock Prizes
Committee for incorporation in the
Prize Sheet of the Darlington Meeting.
They had also arranged the details
for the Competition of Butter-makers
at this meeting. They moved for the
renewal of their annual grant of 100/.
for the year 1895. The Committee
had met seven times, and made seven
reports during the year 1894.
1 The dates of the Council meetings in
1895 will, therefore, be as follows: February
G, March G, April 3, May 1, May 29, Jane 2G
(at Darlington), July' 31, November G,
December II.
On the motion of Mr. Stratton,
seconded by Sir Jacob Wilson, and
with the approval of Mr. Rowlandson
as representing the Local Committee,
an alteration was made in the prizes
proposed to be offered by the Local
Committee for dairy cows to be
judged by their physical appearances
at the time of judging. These will
now read as follows : — For dairy cows
over 1,000 lb. live weight, 15/., 10/.,
5/. ; for dairy cows not exceeding
1,000 lb. live weight, 16/., 10/., and
5/.
Standing Committees for 1895.
The following Standing Committees
were appointed for 1895: — Finance,
House, Journal, Chemical and
Woburn, Botanical and Zoological,
Veterinary, Stock Prizes, Implement,
General Darlington, Showyard Works,
Selection, Education, Dairy.
The present members of the various
Standing Committees were (with
some exceptions) reappointed to
those Committees. Mr. Ryland was
added to the Stock Prizes and Imple-
ment Committees, Mr. Martin to the
Showyard Works Committee, and
Mr. Crutchley to the Dairy Com-
mittee. To replace the Earl of
Coventry, Sir Walter Gilbey, and Mr.
Rowlandson, who retired by rotation
from the Committee of Selection, Mr.
Arkwright, Mr. Beach, and Mr.
Wheeler were elected.
Committee for Selection of Judges.
On the motion of Sir Jacob
Wilson, seconded by Mr. White-
head, a Committee was appointed to
recommend Judges of stock, poultry,
and produce at the Darlington Meet-
ing ; such Committee to consist cf the
members of the Stock Prizes Com-
mittee and the Stewards of the
several departments, and to sit for
the first time in February next.
New Standing Order.
On the motion of Earl Cathcart,
seconded by Mr. Sanday, it was re-
solved as a Standing Order — “ T1 at,
as soon after appointment as may be,
it is desirable that the Chairmen of
the Standing Committees should con-
clxxxvi
Monthly Council, December 12, 1894.
fer in private, with a view to avoid
all possible friction or overlapping in
the conduct of the general business
confided to the several Committees.”
Conference on Light Railways.
The Secretary read a letter from
the Board of Trade, received since
the last Council meeting, inviting the
Society to send three representatives
to the Conference on Light Railways
which had been convened for De-
cember 6.
The President said that as it
appeared desirable that the Society
should be represented at this Confer-
ence, and as it was necessary for
action to be taken without waiting
for the meeting of the Council, he
bad nominated as the Society’s dele-
gates to the Conference Earl Cath-
cart, Mr. Frankish, and the Secretary,
and he trusted that these nomina-
tions had the Council’s approval.
Earl Cathcart said he might per-
haps mention that he had been elected
a member of the Committee appointed
at the Conference to go into the
matter, and to bring up a report for
consideration at a further meeting
of the Conference to be held before
the reassembling of Parliament. The
functions of the Committee were to
consider: — (1) How far the usual
requirements of the Board of Trade
as to constructing and working
New Railways may fairly be re-
laxed, especially in the case of lines
built through sparsely populated and
agricultural districts. (2) Whether
additional legal facilities for obtain-
ing powers to construct Tramroads
and Light Railways are necessary or
desirable. It was understood that the
Government did not, as at present
advised, propose to afford any pecu-
niary aid by way of loan or otherwise.
The assistance of the State would only
be in the direction of cheapening
initial procedure and in lessening de-
partmental requirements and restric-
tions. It ought to be borne in mind
that any Light Railway intended to
benefit agriculture should probably —
without burdening Local Rates — be
made ultimately to pay its own way.
A “ Light Railway ’’ had been defined
as any Railway of any gauge of
inferior construction to existing re-
quirements, and worked in an un-
wonted manner with the view to pro-
mote the utmost economy.
It being desirable that the agri-
cultural aspects of the question should
be fully considered, the Journal Com-
mittee thought it would be well to
invite suggestions from Members of
the Society as to the agricultural
Light-Railway requirements of any
particular district in which they might
be interested. It would facilitate a
general statement if such suggestions
were given in the form of answers to
the following schedule of questions :
(a). District to be agriculturally
developed, naming terminal towns,
places, or stations ; (b) Description of
Light Railway considered most suit-
able ; (c) The main line of Railway',
if any, with which a suggested Light
Railway should have connexions ;
(el) How funds for construction and
equipment might possibly be provided
— by local subscription, by rates, or
advances on the security of rates, or
by a combination of these sources, or
otherwise ; (e) Any other observations
likely to prove useful for the purposes
of the inquiry. To be of use, it was
essential that any replies to the
circular which the Journal Committee
suggested should be enclosed with the
new Journal should be forwarded to
the Secretary as early as possible in
the month of January.
Date of next Meeting.
Authority having been given for
the Society’s seal to be affixed to a
new certificate to transferees of the
Harewood House Debenture Stock,
and the Report to the General Meet-
ing of members having been prepared,
the Council adjourned over the Christ-
mas recess until Wednesday, February
6, 1895.
( clxxxvii )
proceefcut^s at 1balf*$earl£ (Beueral fiDeettno
of (Sovernors ant> flDembera,
HELD AT THE SOCIETY’S HOUSE, 13 HANOVER SQUARE.
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 13, 1894,
SIR JOHN H. THOROLD, BART. (PRESIDENT), IN THE CHAIR.
Present: —
Members nf the Council. — Earl
Cathcart, Viscount Emlyn, Lord
Brougham and Vaux, the Right Hon.
Sir Matthew White Ridley, Bart, M.P.,
Sir Jacob Wilson, Messrs. J. Hunger-
ford Arkwright, Alfred Ashworth,
H. Chandos-Pole-Gell, Charles Clay,
Lieut. -Col. J. F. Curtis-Hayward,
Messrs. J. Marshall Dugdale, Wm.
Frankish, Anthony Hamond, C. S.
Mainwaring, P. Albert Muntz, M.P.,
G. H. Sanday, Martin J. Sutton, and
Charles Whitehead.
Governors. — Lord Tredegar, Mr.
W. F. Holt Beever, Lieut.- Col. G.
Herbert Morrell, and Mr. W. Barrow
Simonds.
Members. — The Hon. H. W. Fitz-
william, Sir Richard H. Paget, Bart.,
M.P., Sir Henry Simpson, Messrs.
R. C. Asshefon, Thomas C'arrick,
Horace Cox, H. Denis de Vitr6, T. A.
Dickson, William Fortune, George
Gibbons, Douglas A. Gilchrist, Charles
Hamilton, Wm. H. Harrison, M.
Ifulton-Harrop, Surg.-Lieut.-Col. Ince,
M.D., Messrs. C. D. Kemp-Welsh,
Frederick King, William Langford,
W. G. McLaughlin, Robert Milnes,
jun., F. E. Muntz, Ralph Palmer,
Edmond Riley, H. Le Roy-Lewis, S.
Sandbach, Dr. Wm. Somerville,
Messrs. J. P. Sowerby, Thomas Stirton,
John Thornton, Jonas M. Webb, G. D.
Yeoman, &c.
Officers. — Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary ; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, Con-
sulting Chemist ; Mr. Wilson Benni-
son, Surveyor ; Professor Brown, C.B.
The President, in opening the
proceedings, said that he had great
pleasure in congratulating them upon
their first general meeting held in that
beautiful house. He was sure that
those members of the Society who had
not before seen it would agree with
the Council that they could not have
a more suitable place in which to
hold their meetings in the future, and
he knew they would agree with him
in cordially thanking those who had
enabled them to obtain Hare wood
House. They all knew that it was
the efforts of the Duke of Westminster
and Sir Walter Gilbey which were
mainly instrumental in enabling them
to acquire the house. He only hoped
that those present would use their
best endeavours to increase the
number of members of the Society,
because they could not conceal from
themselves that their expenses in the
future would be very much increased.
Report of the Council.
The Report of the Council for the
past half-year was taken as read, the
Secretary giving a brief synopsis of
its contents (see page 739).
Lord Tredegar, in moving the
adoption of the report, said that the
possession of those excellent rooms
should greatly facilitate the various
discussions carried on by the Council,
and would therefore assist the great
cause of agriculture in which they
were all so anxiously interested. He
referred with satisfaction to the com-
prehensive list of prizes, including
those offered by the Local Committee
clxxxviii General Meeting of Governors and Members,
provided for the Darlington Meeting.
He looked upon the butter-making
competitions as of great importance.
On this subject he could speak from
his own experience, as they had
proved most satisfactory in his part .
of the country, and the butter and
cheese schools in South Wales had
done an immense amount of good.
He thought they must congratulate
the Board of Agriculture on their
successes in stamping out pleuro-
pneumonia and foot - and - mouth
disease. He doubted, however, the
advantage of attempting to stamp
out swine fever in the same way, as
in his district the most stringent regu-
lations had failed to produce bene-
ficial results.
Mr. George Gibbons, in seconding
the mot ion, referred to the importance
of increasing the number of members.
Their membership might be increased
to 20,000 if each existing member
were to introduce a new member
during the coming year. With regard
to contagious diseases, he considered
that tuberculosis deserved more
attention than it at present received.
No disease was more fatal to cattle,
and medical experience testified that
no disease was more fatal to the
human being.
The motion for the adoption of the
Report was then put, and was unani-
mously adopted.
Vote of Thanks to Auditors.
Mr. T. A. Dickson said he had great
pleasure in proposing a vote of thanks
to the Auditors (Messrs. A. H. John-
son, C. Gay Roberts, and S. B. L.
Druee) for their services during the
past year, and he moved that they be
re-elected for the ensuing year. They
had done their work well in the past,
and that was the best guarantee that
they would do it well in the future.
He desired to take that opportunity
of thanking the Council for recon-
sidering the question of the Educa-
tion Life Memberships, and he hoped
that the decision arrived at on the day
before would never be regretted by
the Council. He hoped that those
who were elected Life Members of
the Society by examination would
do all they could to further the
interests of that great body, and
that they would always be a credit
to it.
Mr. G. D. Yeoman had great plea-
sure in seconding the vote of thanks
to the Auditors. He would like to
see the members increase year by
year, and agreed that one should do
all one could to get others to join,
seeing that the Society was the back-
bone of English farming.
Suggestions by Members.
In response to the usual enquiry
from thfe Chair, as to whether any
member had remarks to make or sug-
gestions to offer for the consideration
of the Council,
Sir Henry Simpson drew attention
to the action of the Registration
Committee of the Farriers’ Company
in granting registration to “ Door-
men,” who were only able to take off
and put on a horse’s shoe, and who
were not capable of making the shoe.
He instanced the benefit which had
been derived from the Society’s shoe-
ing competitions, and from the regis-
tration of all-round farriers, which
had resulted in their being able to
obtain in country districts the services
of men who not only knew how to
shoe a horse well, but who also knew
something about the structure of the
horse’s foot. He hoped that the
consent of the Council would not be
given to any alteration in the scheme
of registration which involved the
granting of any other certificate than
that which certified that the shoeing -
smith could fulfil all the duties of his
trade, and that he knew something of
the structure of the foot of the horse.
Mr. Henry de Yitre referred to
the inadequate accommodation pro-
vided by the Great Western Railway
for cattle, which they were now-
obliged to send in horse-boxes. He
understood they were to have pro-
perly fitted cattle-trucks to travel on
passenger trains, and, in fact, the
London and North-Western Railway
gave every possible facility in this
way, but the Great Western Railway
had done nothing in this direction.
Sir R. H. Paget suggested whether
experiments wiih reference to the
improvement of grass land might not
be undertaken by the Society. It was
quite clear, now that arable cultiva-
clxxxix
Thursday , December 13, 1894.
tion was so rapidly decreasing, that
pastures were readily capable o£
being improved under suitable con-
ditions. There were lands and soils
which, by treatment with special
manures adapted for them, could
effect a perfect revolution in the
nature of their herbage. Even by
a simple dressing of ordinary manure
they could get rid of weeds, and pro-
duce results that were perfec'ly
startling. He considered that, in
this time of serious agricultural de-
pression, their Society might do real
service if it could see its way, either
at Woburn or on a larger scale else-
where, to undertake a series of careful
experiments for the improvement of
grass lands under different conditions
of soil and climate.
Surg.- Lieut. -Col. Ince and Mr. H.
Le Roy-Lewis threw out suggestions
that the Society might let its rooms
for the meetings of other societies of
a scientific or agricultural character.
Mr. G. D. Yeoman referred to the
importance of poultry farming, which
he was sure might, with proper energy
and skill, be made financially success-
ful.
Mr. John Thornton supported
Mr. de Vitr6’s remarks as to the in-
adequacy of the cattle-truck accommo-
dation on the southern lines, and
referred to the excessive charges made
for the carriage of animals exported
to foreign countries.
Mr. William Langford suggested
that the Council should take steps to
prevent the excessive feeding of show
animals. He thought that the exces-
sively fat animals that were exhibited
at their Shows throughout the country
would in a large proportion of cases
cease to be fertile, and an injury was,
therefore, being done to the stock
production of the country, lie sug-
gested that when once a bull or other
animal had obtained the highest prize
it should not be allowed to compete
again.
Mr. William Fortune referred to
the enormous extent of the adultera-
tions in the food of the people, not-
ably in regard to milk and butter, and
suggested that the Society should
lend its powerful aid in a crusade
against these practices.
Mr. Frederick King considered
that the representation of the Society
upon the Council required alteration
— if necessary, by an amendment of
the Charter, or by a new Charter. Both
science and practice were under-
represented, and there was too much
of the tinsel of title.
No other member desiring to offer
observations, the President pro-
mised that each of the suggestions
made should receive the careful at-
tention of the Council.
Vote of Thanks to the Chairman.
Sir Henry Simpson, in moving a
vote of thanks to the Chairman, said
that it was unnecessary for him to
say many, or indeed any, words to
commend that motion to the meeting.
He could not, however, help express-
ing his personal gratification in seeing
Sir John Thorold occupy that digni-
fied position, and felt perfectly certain
that the honour and prestige of the
Society were safe in his hands.
Mr. Ralph Palmer seconded the
vote of thanks, and referring to what
had been said as to the composition
of the Council, observed that as a
member of one of the old City com-
panies, his experience taught him
that the interests of private members
were best preserved by concentrating
ail their power in the Council. He
felt that every individual member of
the Society owed a deep debt of
gratitude to the President for his
labours on behalf of the Society, and
to the Council for the way in which
the Society’s interests were safe-
guarded by them. Perhaps he might
be permitted to refer to a matter
touched upon by Lord Tredegar as to
the connection of science with agri-
culture. A report had been issued
this year by the Gresham University
Commission, in which for the first
time applied science had been recog-
nised. The Commissioners had asked
for the views of the Royal Agricultural
Society as the greatest votary of
applied science in England ; and they
were so struck with the evidence
given by the Society’s representatives
that in their report they recom-
mended that the Society should have
a representative on the Senate of the
new University. They hoped that if
that University should ever be
cxc
General Meeting of Governors and Members.
established, the Society would con-
sent to guide the branches of applied
science relating to agriculture as
mentioned in the report, and he
trusted that the Society would give
its aid in assisting to carry the
recommendations of the Commission
into practical effect.
The vote of thanks having been put
to the meeting by the Secretary,
was adopted unanimously.
The President said he had to
thank Sir Henry Simpson and Mr.
Ealph Palmer for the kind way in
which they had proposed the vote of
thanks, and the meeting for the
manner in which they had received it.
With regard to what had fallen from
Sir Henry Simpson, he might say that
it was really a matter for the Regi-
stration Committee of the Farriers’
Company to settle. TheCouncilof the
Royal Agricultural Society felt that,
in view of the very strong feeling there
was on the Registration Committee
that the “ doormen,” who had a cer-
tain position in the trade of shoeing-
smiths in the great towns, should be
registered, they ought not to offer any
decided opposition to the proposal.
As regards the Society itself, its
prizes would be given as before to
men in all ways competent to do
everything connected with the
shoeing of a horse.
With regard to what fell from Mr.
de Vitre and Mr. Thornton, they were
fortunate in having a member upon
their Council who, he had no doubt,
would take cognisance of what had
been said.
Referring to Sir Richard Paget’s
suggestion, he might say that at Wo-
burn they had had for some years plots
sown down with different descriptions
of mixtures, and the results were
very striking. Any members of the
Society who visited the Woburn
Experimental Farm would derive
useful information on the subject.
For the last few years they had
been trying experiments on that farm
with different manures. With regard
to the larger question of trying
experiments in different districts, the
Society had had experience of this
kind, and, if desired, he had no doubt
that the Council would arrange with
other bodies and carry out experi-
ments with grass land in various
parts of England.
As to their financial position, the
Society was fortunate in being so
well supported, and the Council had
already made a beginning towards
paying off some of the debenture
stock with the proceeds of which that
house had been bought. He was sure
that members would do their best to
increase the number of subscribers,
and if they continued to have such
fine weather as at Cambridge this
year, they would be able to make a
little profit on their Shows, so that the
Society might eventually become the
absolute owners of the property.
With regard to the overfeeding of
show animals, they had found it to be
impracticable to place any very effec-
tive check upon this practice. He had
only seen one animal shown in store
condition, and its owner had acknow-
ledged that he had given it everything
possible to eat, and that he could not
get it fat. (Laughter.) The gentle-
man who had mentioned the adulter-
ation of milk and butter had their
entire sympathy. It was, of course,
very difficult to deal with it. He
would point out that there were
armies of inspectors paid by the rate-
payers, whose duty it was to protect
the ratepayers from this adulteration.
Mr. King had found fault with the
representation of the Society, and
also with the fact that they had
not a sufficient number of practical
men on the Council. He admitted
that they had not as many as they
should like, but it was extremely
difficult for practical men to leave
their farms. Most of them had, un-
fortunately, to be more or less practi-
cal farmers, inasmuch as they had to
undertake the cultivation of their own
land. The interests of the members
of Council were entirely7 the interests
of the agricultural world, and they
devoted what time they had to the
service of the Society, believing that
in so doing they were helping them-
selves. So long as he had the plea-
sure and honour of being on that Coun-
cil, he should consider it his greatest
privilege to help in every possible way
the development of agriculture in this
country. (Hear, hear.)
The proceedings then terminated.
( cxci )
PRIZE LIST
FOR
DARLINGTON MEETING, JUNE 24 to 28, 1895.
Total value of Prizes offered (exclusive of Champion Prizes, Medals, and
Cups offered by Breed Societies), £6,035, of which amount £948 is contributed
by the Darlington Local Committee.
Last Day for Receipt of Entries of Live Stock, Poultry, and Produce,
Wednesday, MAY 1, 1895. (Post Entries at Extra Rates may be tendered up
to Saturday, MAY 11, 1895.)
OHAMPIOU PRIZES.
HORSES.
HACKNEY
SHIRE .
Best Stallion | ^Sodety^ by Hackney Horse
Best Mare or Filly . . { GoWSo^’al by the Hacknoy n°rse
Best Stallion .... Gold Medal by the Shire Horse Society.
Best Mare or Filly . . Gold Medal by the Shire Horse Society.
CATTLE.
SHORTHORN. . . { bS Cow or HkhA .' .'
ABERDEEN ANGUS.jl^^-H^ ; ;
KERRY . . . . . . Best Bull, Cow, or Heifer
DEXTER KERRY. . Best Bull, Cow, or Heifer
Prize of £20 by the Shorthorn Society.
Prize of £20 by the Shorthorn Society.
Gold Medal by the Polled Cattle Society.
Gold Medal by the Polled Cattle Society.
Prize of 10 Guineas by the Kerry and
Dexter Cattle Society.
Prize of 10 Guineas by the Kerry and
Dexter Cattle Society.
SUFFOLK
SHEEP.
Best Ram
Gold Medal by the Suffolk Sheep Society.
LARGE WHITE .
MIDDLE WHITE .
SMALL WHITE .
TAMWORTH . .
PIGS.
Best Boar or Sow
Best Boar or Sow
Best Boar or Sow
Best Boar or Sow
Prize value 5 Guineas by the National
Pig Breeders’ Association.
Prize value 5 Guineas by the National
Pig Breeders’ Association.
Prize value 5 Guineas by the National
Pig Breeders’ Association.
Prize value 5 Guineas by the National
Pig Breeders’ Association.
CHEESE.
Prize of £20 by the Local Committee for the three best Cheeses of 1894 make, exhibited in
the Classes for Stilton, Cotherstone, Wenslkydale, and Swaledale (Stilton shape),
IVensleydale and Swaledale (Flat shape), and Cleveland Cheeses.
cxcii Prize List for Darlington Meeting , 1895.
Class
HUNTERS.
HORSES (£2,012).
Prizes
1 Mare (with foal at foot),
up to 15 st. and upwards .
2 Mare (with foal at foot),
up to between 12 and 15 st.
3 Mare or Gelding, up to
15 st., foaled in ’89 or ’90 1
4 Mare or Gelding, up to
12 st., foaled in ’89 or ’90 1
5 Gelding, foaled in 1891 1 .
0 Mare, foaled in 1891 1
7 Gelding, foaled in 1892 1 .
8 Gelding, foaled in 1893 1 .
9 Colt, foaled in 1894 1
10 Filly, foaled in 1892
11 Filly, foaled in 1393
12 Filly, foaled in 1894
30 15 10
30 15 10
3C 15 10
25 10 5
15 10 5
15 10 5
15 10 5
15 10 5
15 10 5
15 10 5
CLEVELAND BAYS.
13 Stallion, foaled in 1892 . 15 10 5
14 Stallion, foaled in 1893 . 15 10 5
15 Mare (with foal at foot) .15 10 5
16 Filly, foaled in 1892 .15 10 5
17 Gelding, foaled in 1892 1 10 5 3
18 Gelding or Filly, foaled
in 1893 1 . . . 10 5 3
19 Colt or Filly, foaled in
1894 1 . . . . 10 5 3
COACH HORSES.
20 — 26 Same as for Cleveland Bays.
HACKNEYS.
27 Stallion, foaled in 1892,
above 15 hands . . 15 10 5
28 Stallion, foaled in 1892,
above 14 hands and not
over 1 hands. . . 15 10 5
29 Stallion, foaled in 1893 . 15 10 5
30 Stallion, foaled in 1894 .15 10 5
31 Mare (with foal at foot),
above 15 hands . . 15 10 5
32 Mare (with foal at foot),
above 14 and not over 15
hands ....
15
10
5
33
Filly, foaled in 1893
15
10
5
34
Filly, foaled in 1894
15
10
5
35
Mare or Gelding, above
14 hands, up to 15 stones,
foaled in 1889, ’90, or ’91 1
15
10
5
36
Mare or Gelding, 13
hands and not over 14
hands, up to 12 stones,
foaled in 1889, ’90, or '91 1
15
10
5
37
Mare or Gelding, foaled
in 1892 1 . . .
15
10
5
38 Gelding, foaled in 1893 1 .
15
10
5
Class
PONIES.
Prizes
1st 2nd 3rd
£ £ £
39 Stallion, not over 14 hds . 15 10 5
40 Mare (with foal at foot),
not exceeding 14 hands .15 10 5
41 Mare or Gelding, under
13 hands, foaled in 1889,
1890, or 1891 1 . .10 5-
SHETLAND PONIES.
42 Stallion, not over 10J
hands, foaled previously
to or in 1891 1 . ", 10 5 -
43 Mare, not over 10£ hands,
foaled before or in 1891 1 10 5 -
PIT PONIES.
44 Pony, not over 10 hands 1 10 5 -
45 Pony, above 10 hands and
njt over 11 hands 1 .10 5 -
HARNESS HORSES AND PONIES.
46 Mare or Gelding, of any
age, above 14 hands1 .15 10 5
47 Mare or Gelding, of any
age, not over 14 hands 1 . 15 10 5
SHIRE.
48 Stallion, foaled in 1892 . 20 10 5
49 Stallion, foaled in 1893 . 20 10 5
50 Stallion, foaled in 1891 . 15 10 5
51 Mare (with foal at foot) .20 10 5
52 Filly, foaled in 1892 .§15 10 5
53 Filly, foaled in 1893 . 15 10 5
54 Filly, foaled in 1894 . 15 10 5
CLYDESDALE.
55 — 61 Same as for Shires.
SUFFOLK.
62 Stallion, foaled in 1892 . 15 10 5
63 Stallion, foaled in 1893 . 15 10 5
61 Mare (with foal at foot) . 15 10 5
65 Filly, foaled in 1892 . 15 10 5
66 Filly, foaled in 1893 . 15 10 5
AGRICULTURAL.
67 Gelding, foaled in 1891 1 10
68 Gelding, foaled in 1892 1 10
RULLEY HORSES.
69 Gelding, foaled previously
to or in 1890 1
1 Offered by the Darlington Local Committee.
10
Prize List for Darlington Meeting , 1895.
Class
SHORTHORN.
CATTLE (£1,740).
GALLOWAY.
Prizes
1st 2nd 3rd
£
£
£
70
Bull, calved 1890, 1891, or
1892 .
15
10
5
71
Bull, calved in 1893
15
10
5
72
Bull, calved in 1894
15
10
5
73 Cow, in-milk or in-calf,
calved previously to 1892
15
10
5
74 Heifer, iu-milk or in-calf.
calved in 1892
15
10
5
75
Heifer, calved in 1893
15
10
5
76
Heifer, calved in 1894 .
15
10
5
HEREFORD.
77
Bull, calved 1890, 1891, or
1892 . . .
15
10
5
78 Bull, calved in 1893
15
10
5
79 Bull, calved in 1894
80 Cow or Heifer, in-milk
15
10
5
or in-calf, calved pre-
viously to or in 1892 . .
15
10
5
81
Heifer, calved in 1893 .
15
10
5
82
Heifer, calved in 1894 .
15
10
5
DEVON.
83
Bull, calved 1890, 1891, or
1892 . . . .
15
10
5
81
Bull, calved in 1893 or
1894 . . . .
10
5
-
85
Cow or Heifer, in-milk
or in-calf, ealved pre-
viously to or in 1892
15
10
5
86
Heifer, calved in 1893 or
1891 .
15
10
5
SUSSEX.
87-90 Same as for Devons.
WELSH.
91 Bull, calved in 1892, 1893,
or 1894 . . . .10
92 Cow or Heifer, in-milk
or in-calf . . .10
5 -
5 -
CXClll
Prizes
Class
104-110 Same as for Aberdeen
Angus.
HIGHLAND.
111 Bull, of any age . . 10 5
1 12 Cow, of any age . .10 5
AYRSHIRE.
113-116 Sime as for Devons.
JERSEY.
117 Bull, calved in 1891,
1892, or 1893 .
118 Bull, ealved in 1894
119 Cow, in-milk, calved pr
viously to or in 1892
120 Heifer, in-milk or ii
calf, calved in 1893
121 Heifer, calved in 1894
GUERNSEY.
122 Bull, calved in 189
1892, or 1893 .
123 Bull, calved in 1894
124 Cow or Heifer, in-milk
or in-calf, calved pre-
viously to or in 1892 . 15 10 5
125 Heifer, calved in 1893 or
1894 . . . . 15 10 5
KERRY.
12G Bull, calved in 1892, 1893,
or 1894 . . . . 10 5 -
127 Cow, in-milk or in-calf,
calved previouslv to or
in 1892 . . ' . . 10 5 -
DEXTER KERRY.
128, 129 Same as for Kerry.
. 15
10
5
. 10
5
-
’. 15
10
5
L-
. 15
10
5
. 15
10
5
1,
. 15
10
5
. 10
5
-
RED POLLED.
93-96 Same as for Devons.
ABERDEEN ANGUS.
97 Bull, calved 1890, 1891, or
1892 . . . .15
98 Bull, calved in 1893 . 15
99 Bull, calved in 1894 . 10
100 Cow, in-milk ot in-calf,
calved previously to 1892 15
101 Heifer, in-milk or in-
calf, calved in 1892 1 . 15
102 Heifer, calved in 1893 . 15
103 Heifer, calved in 1894 . 15
DAIRY COWS.
130 Cow, in-milk, giving the
largest quantity of milk,
on the average of two
milkings, up to standard
adopted by Society of
Public Analysts . . 15 10
131 Cow, in - milk, giving
greatest weight of butter-
fat, provided yield of
milk obtained in two
milkings be not less than
10 5 251b
132 Cow, in-milk, over 1,000
5 lb. live weight 1 . .15
5 133 Cow, in-milk, not exceed-
5 ing 1,000 lb. live weight1 15
1 Offered by the Darlington Local Committee.
10
10
5
10
10
10
10 5
10 5
10 5
CXC1V
Prize List for Darlington Meeting , 1895.
SHEEP (£1,170).
Class
LEICESTER.
Prizes
134 Two-Shear Ram .
135 Shearling Ram
136 Pen of Three Ram
Lambs, dropped in 1895 10 5 -
137 Pen of Three Shear-
ling Ewes of the same
flock . . . . 15 10 5
COTSWOLD.
138-141 Same as for Leicester.
„ BORDER LEICESTER.
Class
171-175 Same as for Wens-
leydale.
Prizes
1st 2nd 3rd
£ £ £
SOMERSET AND DORSET HORN.
176 Shearling Ram, dropped
after November 1, 1893 .10 5 -
177 Pen of Three Shearling
Ewes of the same flock,
dropped after November
1, 1893 . . . . 10 5 -
LINCOLN.
142-145 Same as for Leicester.
OXFORD DOWN.
146-149 Same as for Leicester.
SHROPSHIRE.
150-153 Same as for Leicester.
SOUTHDOWN.
154-157 Same as for Leicester.
HAMPSHIRE DOWN.
158-161 Same as for Leicester.
SUFFOLK.
162-165 Same as for Leicester.
WENSLEYDALE.
166 Two-Shear Ram . .10 5 -
167 Shearling Ram . . 15 10 5
168 Pen of Three Ram
Lambs, dropped in 1895 10 5 -
169 Pen of Three Shear-
ling Ewes of same flock 15 10 5
170 Pen of Three Ewes,
and their lambs dropped
in 1895 1 . . .10 5 -
KENTISH OR ROMNEY MARSH.
178 Shearling Ram . .10 5 -
179 Pen of Three Shearling
Ewes of the same flock .10 5 -
CHEVIOT.
180 Two-Shear Ram . . 10 5 -
181 Shearling Ram . .10 5 -
182 Pen of Three Shearling
Ewes of the same flock .10 5 -
BLACK FACED MOUNTAIN.
183 & 185 Same as for Cheviot.
LONK.
186 & 187 Same as for Kentish or
Romney Marsh.
HERDWICK.
188 & 189 Same as for Kentish or
Romney Marsh.
WELSH MOUNTAIN.
190 & 191 Same as for Kentish or
Romney Marsh.
Classes
192 — 195 Large White
196—199 Middle White
200 — 203 Small White
204—207 Berkshire .
208 — 211 Any Other Black Breed . m
o
212 — 215 Tamworth . . . ' ^
(£432).
In each of the above breeds the follow-
ing prizes will be given : —
1st 2nd 3rd
£
£
£
Boar, farrowed in 1893 or 1894
10
5
3
Pen of Three Boar Pigs.
farrowed in 1895 .
’ 10
5
3
Breeding Sow, farrowed pre-
viously to or in 1894 .
10
5
3
Pen of Three Sow Pigs, far-
rowed in 1895
10
5
3
PIGS
* \
8
►i
tP
a>
1 Offered by the Darlington Local Committee.
cxcv
Prize List for Darlington Meeting, 1895.
POULTRY (£234).
Prizes are offered for the best Cock.
Hen, Cockerel, and Pullet of the following
Breeds : —
Classes *•
2l(J — 219 Dorking, Coloured . 30 15 10
£20—223 Dorking, Silver Grey 30 15 10
224 & 225 Dorking, White . 30 15 10
226 — 229 Game, Old English . 30 15 10
230 — 233 Game, Indian . . 30 15 10
234—237 French . . . 30 15 10
238 — 241 Brahma . . . 30 15 10
242 — 245 Cochin . . . 30 15 10
246 — 249 Langshan . . . 30 15 10
250 — 253 Wyandotte . . 30 15 10
254 — 257 Plymouth Rock . 30 15 10
258 — 261 Minorca . . . 30 15 10
262 — 265 Leghorn, White . 30 15 10
266 — 269 Leghorn, any other
colour . . . 30 15 10
270 & 271 Andalusian . . 30 15 10
272 & 273 Hamburgh . . 30 15 10
274 — 277 Any other variety
except Bantams . SO 15 10
278 Aylesbury Drake . . 30 15 10
279 Aylesbury Duck . . 30 15 10
280 Aylesbury Young Drake . 30 15 10
281 Aylesbury Duckling . . 30 15 10
282 Rouen Drake . . . 30 15 10
283 Rouen Duck . . . 30 15 10
284 Pekin Drake . . . 30 15 10
285 Pekin Duck . . . 30 15 10
286 Cayuga Drake . . .10 15 10
287 Cayuga Duck . . . 30 15 10
288 Any Breed (except Ayles-
bury) Young Drake 30 15 10
289 Any Breed (except Ayles-
bury) Duckling
30 15 10
£
2
2
£ s.
1 10
1 10
1 10
1 10
290 Gander
29 1 Goose ....
292 Turkey Cock . . .2
293 Turkey Hen . . .2
Table Poultry. s. s. s.
294 Pair of Cockerels of 1895,
of any pure breed . . 30 15 10
295 Pair of Pullets, ditto . . 30 15 10
296 Pair of Cockerels of 1895,
1st cross from pure breeds 30 15 10
297 Pair of Pullets, ditto . . 30 1 5 10
Table Ducklings.
298 Pair of Ducklings of 1895,
of any pure breed . . 30 15 10
299 Pair of Ducklings of 1895,
1st cross from pure breeds 30 15 10
PRODUCE (£286).
BUTTER.
Class
300 21b. Fresh But- i Four of 5/. each
ter, slightly salted, j Four of 31. each
made up in pounds 1 Four of 1/. each
2 lb. Fresh But-
ter, slightly salted,)
made up in pounds, Four of bl. each
from milk drawn
from cows other >- Four of 31. each
than Channel Is- 1
lands or cowacros- 1 Four of It. each
sed with Channel J
Islands breeds.
301
CHEESE.
Prizes
1st 2nd 3rd
£ £ £
302 Three Cheddar, of not
less than 50 lb. each, made
in 1895 . . . . 10 5 3
303 Three Cheshire, of not
less than 40 lb. each, made
in 1895 . . . . 10 5 3
304 Three Stilton, made in
1895 5 3 2
305 Three Stilton, made in
1894 1 . . . .532
306 Three Cotherstone
made in 1894 1 . . 5 3 2
307 Three Wensleydai.e
AND StVALEDALE (Stilton
Shape), made in 1894 1 . 5 3 2
308 Three Wensleydale
and Swale dale (Flat
Shape), made in 1894 1 .5 3 2
309 Three Cleveland, made
iji 1894 1 . . . .532
310 Three Cheeses, of any
other British make, made
in 1895 . . . .532
311 Three Cream Cheeses,
made with use of Rennet .21-
312 Three Cream Cheeses,
made without the use of
Rennet . . . .21-
CIDER AND PERRY.
313 Cask of Cider, made 1894 5 3 2
314 One Doz. Cider, made 1894 5 3 2
315 One Doz. Cider, made be-
fore 1894
316 One Doz. Perry
.532
5 3 2
JAMS AND BOTTLED FRUITS.
317 Whole-Fruit Jams . .321
318 Bottled Fruits . .321
Offered by the Darlington Local Committee.
CXCV1
Prize List for Darlington Meeting , 1895.
PRODUCE — continued.
HIVES, HONEY, AND BEE APPLIANCES.
Offered by British Bee-keepers’ Association.
Prizes
Prizes
1st
2nd
3rd
1st
2nd 3rd
Class
S.
s.
j.
Class
5.
*.
s.
319 Collection of Hives, &c.
100
50
-
327 12 Sections of Comb
320 Observatory Hive .
30
20
-
Honey, ’94 or before
15
10
5
321 Frame Hive
20
15
10
328 3 Shallow Frames of
322 Do. for Cottagers’ use
20
15
10
Comb Honey, 1895
15
10
5
323 Honey Extractor .
15
10
-
329 Run or Extracted
324 12 Sections of Comb
Honey, ’91 or before
15
10
5
Honey (’95), about 12 lb.
15
10
5
330 Granulated Honey
li
10
5
325 6 Sections of Comb
331 Display of Honey
40
20
10
Honey (’95), about 6 lb.
326 Run or Extracted
Hone y (’95), about 121b.
15
15
10
10
6
5
332 Useful Inventions ) Special,l>rizfs
333 Other Exhibits . f acco.lc*lng to
1 merit.
IMPLEMENTS (£60).
(Entries close April 1, 1895.)
1st
£
2nd
£
I. Hay-making Machines
• • • . • •
,
20
10
11. Clover-making Machines
20
10
BUTTER-MAKING COMPETITIONS (£69).
Class 1 {Tuesday, June 25). Open to the United Kingdom.
Class 2 ( Wednesday, June 2G). Female Members of a Farmer’s family not in service
or working for wages.
Class 3 {Thursday, June 27). Dairymaids and others resident in the Society’s
District B. — The Counties of Cumberland, Dutltam, Northumberland and Westmore-
land. (Open only to those who have not been prize-winners at previous Country
Meetings of the Society.)
Class 4 {Thursday, June 27). Dairymaids or Members of a Farmer’s family,
resident in the County of Durham or North Biding of Yorkshire. (Open only to those
who have not been prize-winners at previous Country M< etings of the Society.)
( Offered by the Darlington Local Committee.)
Champion Class {Friday, June 28). (Open only to prize- uiuners in above Classes.)
Frizes: 1st 61., 2nd 4/., 3rd 31., 4th 21., 5th 1/., in Classes 1, 2, 3, and 4,
and in the Champion Class 51. and the Society’s Silver Medal.
HORSE-SHOEING COMPETITIONS (£32).
(Limited to Shoeing-Smiths in the Society’s District B.)
Class 1. Cart Horses {Tuesday, June 25, and, if required, Wednesday, June 26).
Class 2. Hunters { Thursday, June 27, and, if required, Friday, June 28).
Frizes amounting to 16/. will be awarded iu each class.
Copies of the detailed Prize Sheet and Begvlations {both for Stock and
Implements) may be obtained on application to the Secretary of the Society at
13 Hanover Square, London, W.
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